CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

No. 1

~SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

(Paro aVsniD) ae by oN. eon bOlyeMcA... D.SC.,0 8. ES. I.F.S.,

and M.B. Raizada, m.sc. (Wzth 2 coloured and 2 black and

white plates)... ete aesbordstdaicasreseurwecgsccraen@ others sesite

NOTES ON SOME TN BTANG ‘Binns. (Part EXG) iS Dyan eye EL. IN.

Lowther, M.B.0O.U., F.Z.S. ies 10 black and white

plates)... Se oth. Besas tes se ccata cock

A SKETCH OF THE Taemane a AND aaa eoe OF eNoRte

BURMA. Cs II). By F. Kingdon-Ward, B.A., F.R.G.S.,

Woosh, EWSac : ose

Gutnliver ne: THE vier AND OTHER 2 SHORTING es

IN INDIA AND Burma. (Part VII). OTHER SPORTING

FisH AND How TO CATCH THEM. (Continued). By

A. St. J. Macdonald... BE Tae aNSUioie 5 ouirs Bok ote Acti Aeigsks otis s

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE eNitors. “(Par Ly bye MA

Wynter-BLyTH, M.A. (Cantad)... nhc Bi

MATERIALS FOR THE OanirHoroey OF Anita wienie

(Part I1). By Hugh Whistler. (deceased)... sacee

Fish SURVEY OF HYDERABAD State. (Part MD. By

M. Rahimullah, D.sc., F.Z.S.. eee

A New SPECIES OF CORDIA. By K. Checue eee LeAGrs

EMDR S om CHIAULING DIATE) tera vees icicle

OBITUARY :—

Eather Jean Berdinand (Caitis; S:3.cc.c Scccintees etek. Genesee:

Sir ERNEST HOTSON, K.C.S.1., O.B.E, .osses cos coeces

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. A Note on the habits of Pikas or Mouse-Hares.

By S. A. Akhtar.. ee eeroce

2. The Himalayan Tahr WW Pemire nics iy:

lal alae revista By Lt.-Col. F. M. Bailey,

3. Game meen in “@attall (ais ERY Maia By

A. C. Tutein Nolthenituis, F.z,.s.... sag

4, ‘Burial Ground’ of este ieeendnis

belief. By V.M. Vasu... Be eae tee a

5. The Winter foods of Birds. in Ramimie pie

Maj.-Gen. G. de La P. Beresford...........ense0s0

PAGE

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

6:° Birds of ‘Bombay. <. by Vt. wReske Martina. .--..-

7. Some Notes on the Movement of Birds in the

Lovedale neighbourhood—WNilgiris. By M. E.

Wolfe Murray... aes: Sa Ss aeterr n Re

8. Snipe and Dice Shdotintes ig South India

_ 1942-43, 1943-44 Seasons. By Major Aubrey

« -Observations on the Egg-laying habits of the

Lizard. (Calotes ophiomachus). By A. P.

10. Crocodiles bellowing. By Major R. K. M. Battye.

11. The Zonal distribution of the Mole Crab (2merzta

PAGE

astatica) on the Madras Coast. By K. H.

Aulilstenhih ssi s has ce oh Oee RAE RE SERRE NT ERS BW ace ences

No. 2

SomME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.- (Part —

XE). 2 By New BornCal Essie Ay miDICCn rl cy mei r om

and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 2 coloured, 4 black and

WEIR ODS. GaEh SY TEAM BZOWOS) oes 868069 4269980008 100000).00 5p 0000

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN

(Part IIT). By Hugh Whistler (deceased)...

OccCURRENCE OF Biris IN MADURA DISTRICT. att TID.

By Edward G. Nichols.. 6 ee

A SKETCH OF THE pee AND Cues. OF NOE

Burma, (Part oy By F. Kingdon-Ward, B.A., #.R.G.S.,

BsLiSe welCeeenes suchas See

CIRCUMVENTING THE Manenee AND OTHER SPORTING Pr ISH —

IN INDIA AND BurmA. (Part VIII). By A. St. J.

Macdonald (With 2 plates and 2 texl-figures...

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. (Part XU.

By D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.. 5

SomME REMINISCENCES OF Sporn IN B aceaie “(Part D,

Byatt. Galan view Ra RS ATE TERI KSLA at

NEW SPECIES OF Capensetenh AND THE SoNOCun OF THE

INDIAN SPECiES.” By ‘Charles McCann, FiL.S...........-..-.

OBITUARY :-—-E. C. Stuart Baker. wok.

REVIEWS :—

1. Man-eaters of Kumaon. By Jim Corbett..

2. ‘The Cuckoo and other Bird Mysteries. By esiere

— 94

OF,

L106

122

133

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

3. The Avifaunal Survey of Ceylon. By Hugh Whistler.

ANG IOS VeePasStOn FENG UIT Yrs ansos cherie mash. . MEER WAU ES. 6. oceans

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES :—

1Ble

14.

16.

17.

18.

-Occurrence of the Lion in Persia. By R. N.

Champion-Jones...

Wearing of Teeth in beni “iB Cyril Gore...

Where Man-eating Tigers occur. By E. O’Brien.

Wild Dogs attacking a Tiger. By R. W. Burton.

Experiences with Buffalo in Burma and

Rhodesia. By Reginald Spence...............

On the name of the Indian Pangolin (Manis

crassicaudata Geoffr.). By R. F. Stoney......

The Persian Ground Chough. nee? eeaiien

LEA LO a aKGNON ea ood fs

Sunbirds and Flowers. ee A. M. oe, Vhs

Plaintive Cuckoo (?) Parasitising Purple

Sunbird. By M. F. Suter..

‘Alpine Swifts’ on URGE Ry eens By

Humayun Abdulali..

Some Recent anaes 8 one Griffon vines:

(Gyps fulvus fulvescens Hume) in Penin-

sular India—A correction. By Salim Ali and

laleboovekiAbycl we Vorohit HMUeenoaggoneaae cocoa ted oaoceacoctsece

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater (4 s. javanicus

Horsf.). In Salsette—A correction. By Salim

Alitand Humayun Abdulalicc3.\5.-.-2....c: 02

A Peculiar Habit of the Common Peafowl.

(Pavo cristatus Linn.) By S. H. Hazarika...

Peculiar Behaviour of the Bronze-winged

Jacana. ea aaa indicus vk ie |. By

H. Kingsley Kefford.. ie

Note on the occurrence we ihe Pink- footed

Shearwater (Puffinus c. carnetpes Gould) on

the coast of Ceylon. By W. C. Osman

Hill and Yvonne Burn..

Wild Birds and _ their Captive Youngs Bye

Sy IN Silos Soke OS ere

The Birds of eso rel iB aR rey octane a SARE

Additions to the Birds of Bombay and Salsette

and Neighbourhood. By Salim Ali and

Etimaytiny Abd ilalitesceeacemenee eenetecs oes teeleocsn «

PAGE

228

230

Zou

232

233

234

235

236

Zon

237

238

» CSS,

240

241

19.

20.

21.

23.

28.

29.

30.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

Notes on Indian Birds—A _ correction. By

Humayun Abdulali.. i Eecrige As Ag

Acclimatisation of Mier fess in ne eis

By P. J. Chacko... Bate

Note on the Food of ‘hese Sharks Gl

sp.) of the Madras Coast. By K. Chidam-

baram.. 669 00002302005 000 006

Egg- oie ae the ‘Chmimol Onibea suchen:

(Calotes versicolor). By G. L. Underwood......

Indian Python (Python molurus) preying on

Monitor’ Lizard. Mee Oe yas

Mash.. Jats 5s me ze

Notes on a een ane base ae

mouthed Frog [Uperodon globulosum

(Gunther) ]. By Jnamendra Lal Bhaduri......

‘Catopsilia crocale breeding with Catopsilia

pomona= By Jonn ©; Gladinanerecs.-so-seeeee

Sap-drinking Butterflies. By John C. Gladman.

Additions to the list of Simla Butterflies

published in Vol. XLI, No. 4 By M. A.

Wynter-Blyth... The

Description of a new aieorpnic ieeadien wi

Euripus c. consimilis Wa. By M. A. Wynter-

Blyth... ase

Pocemtedt jeftoresconce: of Mya WE. wate

p.c. By M. B. Raizada... rr

Notes on some grasses fon ftdeeadh By

GAS Kapadia irre tes cashes fon cani ana oanee eens

PAGE

244

247

248

249

251

255

256

Con,

258

259

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME 45

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

ABDULALI, HuMAyuN; ‘ Alpine Bor,.N. L., M.A., D.Se., F.L.Ss;

Swifts’ on Rameswaram I.F.S., and RAIzapA, M.B.,

Island ? 235 M.Sc.; Some Beautiful Indian

— —— “Notes o on Climbers and Shrubs. Part

Indian Birds—A uo thdction 244 XVII (With two coloured

AKHTAR, 8S. A.; A note on the and two black and white plates)

habits of Pikas or Mouse- —- ——_————;

Hares 82 Part XIX (With two coloured,

ALIKUNHI, K., H.: The Zonal four black and white plates

distribution of ie Mole Crab and five text-ligures) ;

(Emerita asiatica) on the BurN, YVONNE; See Hill, W.C.

Madras Coast ... 94} OsMAN

Atl, SALIM and ABDULAL Burton, R.. W.; Wild Dogs

HUMAYUN; Some _ recent attacking a Tiger oe

records of the griffon vulture Buxton, MAJOR AUBREY; Snipe

(Gyps fulvus fulvescens and Duck-shcooting in South

Hume) in Peninsular India— India 1942-43, 1943-44 sea-

A correction 236 sons fs ds aor

—— ——_——- —— -; CHACKO, P. I. ; Acclimatisation

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater of Mirror Carp in the Nilgiris.

(MM. s. javanicus Horsf.) in CHAMPION-JONES, R.N.; Occur-

Salsette—A correction ... 237 rence of the Lion in Persia ...

2 . CdIDAMBARAM, K.; Note on

Additions to the Birds of the food or ‘Tiger Sharks

Bombay and Salsette and (Galeocerdo sp.) of the Madras

Neighbourhood 241 coast 506 ae C00

BAILEY, Lt.-Cov. F.M., C.LE,; EpDE, J. A. M.; Sunbirds and

The Himalayan Tahr (Hemi- | Flowers eha was Ss

tragus jemlahicus H. Sim) in | Foster, R.G.; The Birds of

Sikkim ... 600 se 500 82 Mysore 5 tae

BATTYE, Mayor R.K.M,; Cras: GLADMAN, JOHN oe | Gees

diles bellowing wes es 93 crocale breeding with Catop-

BERESFORD, MAJ.-GEN. G. de silia pomona es bog

LA P.; The winter foods of ; Sap-drink-

birds in Kashmir 560 86 ing Butterflies

BHADURI, JNAMENDRA oe GORE, Cyril ; Wearing of teeth

Notes on a Rare and Interes- in Tiger : 00

ting Narrow-mouthed Frog HAZARIKA, S.H.; A Pecauee

Uperodon globulosum (Giint- Habit of the Camanca Peafowl

her) ane 60K sa oo» 251} (Pavo cristatus Linn.)

PAGE

232

244

Vili

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE PAGE

H.G. H. M.; Some Reminis- birds in the Lovedale neigh-

cences of Sport in Assam _ bourhcod-Nilgiris 90

atte lamesns aoe aa 199, NicHoLs, Epwarp G.; cent

Hitt, W. C. OSMAN and Buen rence of Birds in Madura 2

YVONNE; Note on the occur- District. Part III ae eae LOG

rence of the Pink-footed _NoLtTHENIUS, A. C. TUTEIN,

Shearwater (Puffinus c. F.Z.s.; Canine Teeth in Chital

carnetpes Gould) on the coast (Axis axis) Stags 83

of Ceylon an ne = 239 ate

JACOB, K. C., L. Ag,, Bie S.; | a ther ean merainand

“A New Species of Cordia | Crete = 79

CHa Bie) ane te m8 Sir Ernest Hotson, K.C.S.1.,

KapapiA, G. A.; Note on af 80

some grasses from Junagadh. 259 BG Shane ee 212

GSP IKOLTO Js AS ASTESTUEN 5 SSIS, _ O’Brien, E.; Where Man- mane

liar Behaviour of the Bronze- | Mipersiocedr 93]

winged Jacana [Metopidius | RUA. WL, mee: Fish

ALTIUS EEE) 233) Survey of Hyderabad State,

KINGDON-WARD, F., B.A,,; Part Il ia at 73

F.R.G.S., F.L.S., etc.; A sketch | Rarzapa, M.B.; Fasciated inflo-

of the Botanyand Geography | rescence of Cairn secundi-

of North Burma. Part II 16 flora D.C. 258

————; Part IIl peas 133}

LowrHER, E.H.N., M.B.O.U.; | REVIEWS :—

F.z.S.; Notes on some Indian _ Man-eaters of Kumaon, by

Birds, Part 1X ( With ten black | Jim Corbett ... a 22)

and white plates) 5 The Cuckoo and other Bird

Luptow, F.; The Persian | Mysteries, by Bernard Ac-

Ground Chough (Ffodoces | worth Bo P2993

plesket) ses 233, The Avifaunal Survey of

MACDONALD, A. ST. J.; ‘Cincunit | Ceylon, by Hugh Whistler. 228

venting the Mahseer and other © Rosy PASToR ENQUIRY 228

Sporting Fish in India and + Sen, S.N.; Wild Birds and heir

Burma, Part VII (continued)... 30) | captive young .. 240

Part VIII vee 149 | SzvasTopuLo, D.G., F.R.E.S.

MarTIN, Lt. R. K.; Birds of _ The Early Stages of Thain

Bombay w+ ve we 88 Lepidoptera, Part XIII 188

MasH, P.; Indian Python SPENCE, REGINALD; Experi-

(Python molurus) preying on ences with Buffalo in Burma

monitor Lizard (Varanus and Rhodesia 232

monitor) 24g Stonry, R.F.; On the name of

MatueEw, A. P. ; Observations | the {ndian Eaneonn (Manis

on the Egg-laying habits of |. evassicaudata Geoftr.) 233

the Lizard Calotes ssh |SurerR, M. F.; Plaintive

machus es 92 Cuckoo (?) parasitising Purple

McCann, CHARLES, F, on S.. Sunbird 235

New species of Cevopegia ahd UNDERWOOD, G. L.; ; Ege-laying

the synonymy of the Indian of the Common ‘Blood sucker’

species see 06 2. 209 (Calotes versicolor) ... ve 248

MuRRAY, M. E., WOLFE; Some Vasu, V.M.; Burial ground of

notes on the movements of lephantsen legendary belief 84

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

WARD, F. Kingdon—See King-

don-Ward, F.

WHISTLER, HucH (deceased) ;

Materials for the Ornithology

of Afghanistan, Part II

Roa Part II

WOLFE Murray, M. E.—See

MurRRAY, M. E. WOLFE

WYNTER-BLYTH, M.A., M.A,;

(Cantab); The Buiterflies of

the Nilgiris, Part II

PAGE

122

47 |

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A., M.A.

(Cantab); Additions to the

list of Simla Butterflies pub-

lished in Vol. XLI, No. 4

——— --—_— ———-——_; Descrip-

tion of a new dimorphic

female of Huripus c. consimt-

Vasil. <2

PAGE

256

LIST:(OF PLATES

_ VOLUME 45

Nos. 1 and 2

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XVIII. The Rangoon Creeper (Quisqualis indica

Linn) eat dee ve

Plate Do. do. New Pores. Dehra men

Plate The Chinese Wisteria [ Wisteria sinensis (Sims.) D.C. ]

New Forest, Dehra Dun ...

Plate XIX. Chinese Wisteria ; Blue Rain, Blue Aveetin peseentn

sinensis (Sims.) D.C.] ss

Notes on Some Indian Birds. Part IX

Plate I. Fig. 1. The Shikra

Fig. 2. A Shikra’s Nest

Plate Il. Fig. 1. Common Pariah Kite

Fig. 2. Brahminy Kite

Plate Ill. Fig. 1. Laggar Faicon

Fig. 2. Tawny Eagle as 500

Plate IV. Fig. 1. Slender Hawk-Eagle (Bonelli? s Eagle)

Plate V. Fig. 1. Young Spotted Owlets

Fig. 2. Young Rock Horned Owls

Plate VI. Brown Fish Owl

Plate VIl. Dusky Horned Owl

Plate VIII. King Vulture

Plate IX. Northern Long-billed Valence

Plate X Fig. 1. White-backed Vulture

Fig. 2. Lesser Scavenger Vulture

A New Species of Cordia

Plate Cordia diffusa K. C. Jacob, sp.nov. ...

Obituary

Plate Father Jean Ferdinand Caius, s.s.

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XX. Stigmaphyllon ciliatum (Lamk.) A. Juss.

Plate’ Do. New Forest, Dehra Dun. mA

Plate Do. do. wis a8

Plate XXI. Galphimia gracilis Bart. re mad ne

Plate Do Dehra Dun.

Plate Do. do.

Circumventing the Mahseer

Plate I, Part of a catch of Bahmin: heaviest 25% lbs.

Karwar abe

Plate Leak ors Outtecene canoe. Karwar

Fig. 2. Bahmin, Dagol and Surmai, Karwar

Fig. 3. Caranx: 40 lbs. Karwar

Fig, 4. Red, Rock Perch: 11 lbs. ‘Toli’ or Needle

Fish : 72 lbs, o0 a ae

Obituary

Plate E. C. Stuart Baker 1925

PaGE

102

103

104

105

162

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 45

Nos. 1 & 2

PAGE | PAGE

Anguilla bengalensis 40 | Pl. VIII. King Vulture... 13

Bagarius bagarius (Haim.) 31 Pl. IX. Northern Long-

Bahmin billed Vulture 14

Pl. I 162 Pl, X. White-backed

Pl. II 166 Vulture. Lesser Sca-

Baker, E. C. Stuart venger Vulture 15

Photo 211 | Malpighiaceae

Banisteria laevifolia pou LO) Fig. 1, Forms of hairs... 98

Caius, Father Jean Ferdinand... 79} Mastacembelus armatus (Lac.) 4]

Clupisoma garua (Ham.) 36 | Megalops cyprinoides 46

Cordia diffusa oe Roe .. 78{| Mystus seenghala (Sykes) 35

Eutropiichthys murius (Ham.) 36 | Notopterus chitala (Ham.) 37

—— — vacha (Ham.)... 35 — notopterus (Tallas)... 39

Galphimia gracilis Ophiocephal'us striatus Bloch ... 44

Pl. XXI ... 104} Polynemus tetradactylus 151

Pls. 104,105 | Python molurus 249

Glosscgobius giuris (Ham.) 45 | Quisqualis indica Linn

Hiptage madablota 99 Pl. XVIII tes oe 1

Indian Birds, Notes on Some Ph: isi Bs as 2

Pl. I The Shikra and Silonia silondia (Ham.) ... 32

Nest oh ce 6 | Sophora secundiflora 258

Pl. II. Common Pariah | Stigmaphyllon ciliatum

Kite. Brahminy Kite 7 | Pl. XX. 98

Pl. III. Laggar Falcon | Fig. 102

Tawny Eagle 8. Pls. 102 & 103

Pl. 1V. Slender Hawk- | Stigmaphyllon periplocifolium... 104

sEagle (Bonellis Eagle). 9 Wallagonia attu (Bloch) ao OH)

Pl. V. Young Spotted _ Wisteria sinensis

Owlets. Young Rock | Pls. ae ahs 3, 4

Horned Owls . 10, Xenentodon cancila (Ham.) 39

Pl. VI. Brown Fish Owl 11.

Pl]. VII. Dusky Horned

Owl

se ee oe aa

x ©

Va ea

‘a

a 5

— . :

Wy ¥ PT fs

: co so ft ae ; . it “i

b \ es

ae > ry re

) ; B ye x 1S

- " - j

ee eae! -

r - — r +

:= D 3 6 or

ue =. MATH Shr f ee ie

\ : a Fe : A press os

- i ? Q - 4 +1 Ne nan | i st

pam SP >. .oceinl oatek | ny Pe

Pe te Uy Pa Re AGE ee RT Sanit

memes =" CEIONE , ETOCS SE seh ee We

Beet mart.” Ki Abe Gat aeN Te Hie Pode ae

1 xa Mi ie CC mY 1 were ean ten v Syl he mah su

Lat ON oth is bo Saket acca Lag Aiea amie

Rye. fosty.? salsa 6 = PB,

2 Ele Saat ye

, M

ri 5 ~

ae eae ied et ana ae phos:

Fe 0! BY Toes ae ORS csilotieaat wirordinst,

De)

rcs ye BONS ear 38 Piet bag hes Si Res

Shite SE ain teeth) ala iimeraina te a Le | Pstin

Sed ; 3 re ky ca HES ot eS ; a Nere ae oo) ees mies. =

Ate (Ro > ohooh arated am ‘avtegdial ge Ue rae e OG GIs silionrg ie ame

ae eae (2h gd “anv toe hates cee ie. 3 Cae ne Ne Ae ay Gey ner re

Br BER ca: Meg ne fe ee ae

of i oe ey : aa et 1) seat jeiogneestent

Eek ies ae : see Vn, old aha alpiqhe

* Pa. Re ime aaa ato: ceuats ah ear

eae Ste. igen > hee “pli? oat oe ay: aay

“Se Ae : cistrel HO AEIO 2, ib i cas

fee Bae he 8) OM ok pier Soe rae See qninidesd. sat ae!

Bee T= SRB waonasatiee te CO ana ats, oot | iegpad Ria eo

beet eb S04 oe be | ei REA cs SB, eed oh atignast

Ce alaca “yebtal® .VL, oe

2 E heir ipa 2ilfouo fl) ayn He.

i. Seay heer WAL aigtonie atone ok | belo qe grew A Is

eee ee Bia aa ene co. De 2 bo Seblne Biiertoe “plete ah...

BOE 04

} . ee ue

‘ . nd Ne vas

ae Ch ae OBE) atoaRe nobyineiee Ae ‘ik lu a

Ae rs a L fw dal anon AV cs

ino F Lf

ee on ke (

fy ‘ “| : 1 RE honinbb 2 Bee div ia

p>‘ : : a h y :

a ‘ ;

= y q

‘

, ;

7 - : P ; f

“

“ ~ ‘

x \ .

Abies Fargesii

Acanthis cannabina Foneilliee rie

Acanthis flavirostris

Acer flabellatum

—— tetrameruin

—- wardii Rec

Acridotheres ginginianus

tristis tristis

Acrocephalus agricola

dumetorum

Actitis hypoleucos

Adelura coeruleocephala

Aeromachus pygmaeus

Aeschynanthus acuminata

Agathia laetata

lycaenaria

Agrobates galactotes familiatis

Alcedo atthis taprobana

Alseonax ruficaudus

Altha melanopsis

Amaurornis fusca bakeri

Ambassis nama 00

Amblypodia abseus indicus

— amantes amantes

bazuloides

canaraica

See

( omeneeeemnennet

——_——_——- centaurus pirama

Ampittia dioscorides

Anas crecca es S08

poecilorhyncha

—-— strepera

Anastomus oscitans

Andraca bipunctata

Andropogon pumilus

— Schoenanthus

Anguilla bengalensis

Anhinga melanogaster

Anthus richardi

- trivialis

Apharitis lilacinus O00

-—— concinens haringtoni

stentoreus Brunneecena

turdoides zarudnyi

-—— phoenicura phoenicura ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

137

133

133 |

116 |

134 |

sor JU

112

106

127

196

197

106

227

193

125

13]

130

129

198

26]

261

129

242

132

125

73, 74 |

51!

Apluda Varia Hack. var. aristata

Aporosa dioica s

Aquila rapax vindhiana

Ardea cinerea rectirostris

purpurea

Ardeola grayii

Argya malcolmi

Aristida adscensionis

Arnetta vindhiana

Aspidopterys obcordata

Asteropyrum peltatum

Astichopterus jama mercara

Astur badius cenchroides

trivirgatus...

Astychus augias augias

—~—-—— pythias lanka

Axis axis = ane

Aythya fuligula bee

Azanus jesous gamra

ubaidus

- uranus

Baccaurea ramiflora

Badamia exclamationis...

Bagarius bagarius

Banisteria laevifolia

Baoris bevani bevani

canaraica

conjuncta narooa

contigua

guttatus bada

kumara kumara

mathias mathias

philippina belli

sinensis subodracea

zelleri cinnara

Baracus hampsoni

vittatus subditus

Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis

——-—— sophore

Barbus (tor) khudree

—— musullah

Bauhinia Pottingeri

— -—— tenuiflora

Beaumontia grandiflora

». 73, 74

‘PAGE

260

— 244

129

130

241

261

139

243.

132

131

100

cae Ohl

xiv

Belone annulata

Berberis burmanica

——-=-— hypoherina

Betula utilis

Bibasis sena sena

Bindahara phocides moorei

Bischopia javanica

Bombax malabaricum

Botaurus stellaris stellaris

Brachiaria Isachne

—— ramosa

Bubulcus ibis coromandus

Bucanetes githagineus crassirostris ...

-———-—— mongolicus a

Burhinus oedicnemus indicus...

Burmannia disticha .

Butorides striatus tet PA

PAGH

173

140

135

141

130

261.

261

129

115

126

130

Catopsilia

INDEX OF SPECIES

pomona

Celaenorrhinus ambareesa

leucocera leucocera

——_———-———. ruficornis area...

Cephalopyrus flammiceps

Cephonodes hylas hylas

Ceropegia acuminata ...

—— =

—= —

—~e

es oe -

—_— ee eee

angustifolia ...

arnottiana

attenuata

Beddomei

Blatteri

brevicollis

bulbosa

Candelabrum

ciliata wate ae

Cacomantis merulinus ..

Callacanthis burtoni ...

Callicarpa floribunda

Callichrous bimaculatus

Calliope pectoralis pectoralis ...

Calotes ophiomachus .«.

- versicolor

Capella gallinago

- megala

- nemoricola

— stenura

ee indicus ators

Caprona agama pelias ... ae

ransonneitti lanka

—-—— ransonnetti

-—— taylori ...

— <a

Caranx gallus

—_—-——— hippos ...

——_——. Sp. wee fat

Carduelis caniceps paropanisi...

——_-—_—__—__ ——. subulata_....

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus

rubicillus severtzovi

synoica salimalii

thura blythi

Castalius caleta decidia

—— — ethion ethion...

—— —— rosimon rosimon

Castanopsis indica a0

Catachrysops strabo ne

Catapoecilma elegans myositina

Catla catla

Catopsilia crocale

—_———

rhodochlamys grandis ...

132

116

248

128

56°

165

aco UNG)

ceo

114

115

114

vant

255

———»

Decaiseneana

——--— elegans

—-— Evansii

fantastica ... 563

—-— Farrokhii

——-—— hirsuta

Hookeri

intermedia

——-—— Jacquemontiana

- jJuncea

—-— kachinensis ...

- Lawii

- longifolia

——— — lucida

—————- macrantha

————- munroni 606

Se SHIA

- oculata

—_———-— odorata

———-—-- ophiocephala

————- polyantha

- pubescens

—_—————- pusilla

——_——- Thwaitesii ...

————- tuberosa

———-—- vincaefolia

——- Wallichii

Cettia cetti cettioides -

Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus

Chalcophaps indica indica _....

Chaptia aenea aes

Charaxes fabius fabius...

—— polyxena imna

Charitra freja jaffra

jalindra macarita

—-

209,

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

_Chela clupeoides Oo: vee . 73, 74

Chilades laius laius 49

Chilaria othona bal uae 54

Chilasa clytia is 188

Chirocentris dorab 174

‘Chisocheton paniculatus 21

Chlidonias leucopareia 126

Chloris chloris smithze 115

Choaspes benjaminii benjaminii 55

Chorinemus lysan 166

toloo 167

Choriotis nigriceps 126

_ Chrysophrys datnia 177

Chrysopogon montanus 260

Clamator coromandus 243

-Clarias batrachus 74

Clematis Spooneri asi 139

Clercdendron nutans 20

Clupea fimbriata 152

- longiceps ee 152

Clupisoma garua i 36

Coccothraustes doccothransret namie 113

Coix Lachryma-Jobi ”... 260

Coladenia dan dan a 55

_—--—— indrani indra se ws 55

Columba elphinstonii 123, 244

— —— livia 123

Cordia diffusa 78

Cornus suaedica 134

Coturnix coromandelica 124

Crocethia alba - 244

Crocopus phoenicopterus chilorogaster 122

Crotolaria teragona 20

Croton joufra me 06 Ob 20

Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum

erythrorhynchum vet soo eed

Culicicapa ceylonensis subsp. ... ane, |

Cupitha purreea purreea 2 58

Curetis acuta dentata 50

——-~— bulis 50

— thetis 50

Cursorius Sofpmandelicie’ 126

Cyanosylvia svecica abboti 506 66

— - kobdensis 66

——--~-—— -————-- pallidogularis 66

—- -- saturatior 66 |

—--—— - subsp.? 67 |

ee Svecica” 66 |

Cybium Oc 46 |

Cymbopogon Mar tint 261

Cynodon dactylon 261 |

Cyprinus carpio ‘3 iat

——— —— — var. specularis

Cypripedium tibeticum ...

Dafila acuta

Daimio bhagava bhagava

Danaus chrysippus

~ limniace mutina

Deilephila nerii

Dendrocalamus strictus

Dendrocyena javanica

Dendrophassa bicincta

pompadora affinis

Desmostachya bipinnata

Deudoryx epijarbas epijarbas

Diagramma crassispinum

Dicaeum concolor subflavum

Dichanthium annulatum th

Dicrurus leucophaeus longicaudatus ..

macrocercus albirictus

Dillenia indica

Dinelra retroflexa

Dinopium javanense

Dipterocarpus alatus

Doles-vhallia bisaltide malabaries

Duabanga sonneratioides

Ducula badia cuprea

Dupetor flavicollis

Echinocarpus assamica

Keretta alba

— garzetta ...

— intermedia

Elacate nigra

Elaeocarpus obtusus

Eleusine indica

Emberiza bruniceps

——-—— buchanani

—-—— calandra

———--———. cia par Ie

——-~-—— fucata arcuata aoe

——~--—— hortulana ...

-_—-—— leucocephala...

-_—---——- melanocephala

——-—— pyrrhuloides oe

—__-—— schoeniclus pallidior

——-—— stewarti

Emerita asiatica

Eragrostis rupestris

viscosa

Eremopogon foveolatus

Eriboea athamus agrarius

Erionota thrax‘thrax

——

Xvi

Erolia minuta

temminckii

Euchrysops cnejus

-—— contracta contiaer

pandava pandava

Euploea core

Euripus consimilis Sone miig

Euthalia nais ;

Eutropiichthys murius

vacha

Everes parrhasius parrhasius..

Excalfactoria chinensis

-—— c. chinensis

Ficus Benjamina

—-- elastica ie

Francolinus pictus sateen

—— pondicerianus

Franklinia gracilis pectoralis ..

Fringilauda nemoricola altaica

Fringilla montifringilla oss

Fulica atra atra

Galeocerdo articus

—— rayneri

SSP siwises

Galleria mellonella

Gallicrex cinerea

Gallinula chloropus

Galloperdix spadicea stewarti

Gallus sonneratii

Galphimia gracilis

Gangara thyrsis thyrsis

Gaultheria minuta

Gelochelidon nilotica

Gerydus biggsii

Glossogobius giuris

Gmelina arborea

Gnetum Gnemon

Gomalia elma Atipacsiets

Gorsachius melanolophus

er ce

wee

Gymnorhis xanthocollis transfuga

Gyps fulvus fulvescens

——- indicus

Halpe astigmata

basiflava

egena ceylonica

honorei

hyrtacus ... rr

- sitala sitala

Hamelia patens

Hasora alexis alexis

- badra badra

PAGE

ay: 127

128. |

189

Zo”

255

ae 48

Sangeeta:

244

227

124

226

120

117

125

247

198

Port yl)

ei odizo

124 |

124

105

£20

anni bes

Saad

45, 73, 74

Me. De

118

INDEX OF SPECIES

| Hasora taminatus taminatus

-- vittata indica

Hemichelidon sibirica gulmergi

| Hemiprocne coronata

Hemiramphus limbatus

Hemitragus jemlahicus

Hesperia alpina alpina

Heteropogon contortus

' Hippolais caligata caligata

-——--———. rama

———- languida

Hiptage madablotta

Horaga onyx cingalensis

———- viola 000

| Horsfieldia anita dina ...

| Hyarotis adrastus adrastus

| ————— basiflava

Hydrophasianus chirurgus

Hydroprogne caspia

Hypolycaena nilgirica ...

Hypotenidia striata gularis

Ianthia cyanura

Ilex burmanica

| ——dipyrina

—— melanotricha

| —— yunnanensis

| Irania gutturalis Saf

Iraota timoleon arsaces

Ischaemum rugosum

Ismene aedipodea aegina

_—-—— gomata kanara

| ——-— jaina fergussoni

_ Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

| sinensis sinensis

Jamides alecto eurysaces

- bochus bochus

| - celeno celeno

| Kineta microstictum

Lampides boeticus

excubitor aucheri

——-—— pallidirostris

Lanius isabellinus cap x

schach erythronotus

vittatus ...

Larix grifithiana

——-—— pallida eleica as

Iambrix salsala luteipalpus ...;

Iseilema laxum ae ee,

Kydia calycina. wes on

Lanius cristatus Mhosnicnioides

Himantopus himantopus eran ea peee

126

125

. 134

134

260

261

257

132

130

133

PAGE

Larus brunnicephalus ... 126

Larvivora brunnea ae 61

Lates calcarifer 46, 150, 168

Leptocoma minima 242°

Leptodermis wardii 140

Lethe rohria nilgiriensis 255

Leucopolius alexandrinus 126

Lobivanellus indicus 127

Lobipluvia malabarica ... 127

Locustella certhiola centralasize 107

— - —— —. rubescens ... 107

——-——. nzvia staminea 107

eS mongolica 107

— straminea 242

Lonicera myrtillus 139

Loxia curvirostris 114

Loxura atymnus surya 51

Luscinia megarhynchos hafizi... 65

Luscinicia melanopogon mimica 107

Lutianus argentimaculatus ib al7)

——. fulviilamma 172

——— johnii He ae Tee a

—_——_— roseus 46, 150,171, 172, 177

— sillaoco WZ

Lycaenesthes emolus emer ase o4

- lycaenina lycaenina 49

Lyczenopsis akasa mavisa a0 48

-—— albidisca : 48

——— -——_ lavendularis mete 48

—_—_-—— lilacea 48

-—— puspa gisca 48

Lymnocryptes minima ... 128

Macropicus javensis hodgsoni ... 243

Magnolia pterocarpa 21

— rostrata 134

Maniola lupinus cheena 257

Manis crassicaudata non 233

Mastacembelus armatus 40, 73, 74

Matapa aria eee 37

Megalops cyprinoides 46

Megisba maluya thwaitesi 48

Melanitis leda ismene 255.

—~—--—— zitenius zitenius 256

Meriones hurrianae a 82

Merops superciliosus javanicus 237

——- persicus 237

Mesua ferrea Ses .. 20, 21

Metopidius indicus 560) BOE "126, 238

Microscelis psaroides ganeesa 242

Monticola cinclorhyncha | : 68

INDEX OF SPECIES

xVii

PAGE

Monticola saxatilis ees Oo 500 68

— solitaria longirostris 68

Montifringilla nivalis alpicoia 119

= --——. theresez 119

Motacilla cinerea caspica fe 500 91

——.-—— flava subsp. ? 90

Muraena tessellata 177

——_— —- tile 177

—- undulata 177

Muscadivora aenea See : 123

Muscicapa striata neumanni . 500 70

Muscicapula superciliaris Meer ciliate 70

Mussaenda Roxburghii 20

Mycalesis mineus polydecta 255

-——--—- perseus typhilus ... a WL

——— —— typhlus 255

Mycerobas carnipes speculigera 114

—— melanoxanthus 114

Myiophonus coeruleus temmincki 69

Mystus cavasius eee 74

- seenghala 34

- tengara 73

Nacaduba beroe sion. 50

—-—-—- clana clana 50

————-- dulrosa indica 50

——- helicon viola 50

————- hermus nabo 50

a - ——- v. sidoma 30

——-—-~ kurava canaraica Ox 50

————- nora nora a. 50

-——-——noreia hampsoni ... see 50

= —- pactolus continentalis oes 54

Neopithecops zalmora oD os 48

Nettapus coromandelianus eoromana’

lianus 55 130

h etta rufina Bes a aoe 132

Nomocharis pardantniee Paces Sag, dls fe}

~—— Souliei aoe . 442

Notocrypta curvifasciata Bae 505 57

-—— paralysos alysia 57

Notopterus chitala 660 wee ose 37

——-.——— notopterus ... os 5 8 7B WS

Nycticorax nycticorax ... oes se 130

Ochotona rufescens 506 560 aoe 82

Odontoptilum angulata sura ... 56

(Enanthe alboniger es ne Ay 62

——-—— capistrata aD F 63

——-——- deserti atrogularis ... es 64

—-——. --— oreophila 64

——_—_-—— finschii barnesi 63

——_-——isabellina... ae aes 64

Xvili

PAGE

(Enanthe monacha S06 900 62

——- —— cenanthe rostrata... 500 64

———— -— opistholeuca 63

—_——_—~ picata ae 500 62

- pleschanka pleschanka 64

—-xanthoprymna chrysopygia 65

(Enopopelia tranquebarica eS

Ophicephalus amphibus 42

—— —egachua .. 6 43

———_——— marulius ae 42

—_—__—__—-— punctatus 42, 73, 74

—— — stewartii ... 44

IS TIA ones ae ee nee

Ordisia floribunda 20

Oriens concinna aes es 200 58

gola goloides 59

Oriolus oriolus kundoo 13)

Osphronemuts goramy ... 245

Padraona cato cato 59

—- painia painia 506 SY)

— - pseudomesa pseudomeesa 59

—_—— - tropica diana 59

Pandanus furcatus 21

Papilio demoleus LOO

machaon asiatica v. Tadaeenee 256

Parnassius delphius (stemosemus?)... 256

Parnassius simo aes oe 256

Passer domesticus bactrianus 117

—— -— griseigularis 117

——— hispaniolensis eee glad,

—— Oranecaeniene a 118

——— moabiticus yatei 118

——— montanus 000 117

a —- dilutus 118

rutilans cinnamomeus... 119

Pastor roseus noo 500 ole]

Pathysa nomius nomius oo CoS)

Pavocristatus ... eas O06 124, 237

Pedestes masuriensis 256

Perdicula asiatica coe amo

Pericrocotus brevirostris Oreuitectris 71

— roseus roseus 71

Periploca graeca aes ada see, OS

Perissospiza icterioides ... 113

Petronia petronia intermedia 119

Phalacrocorax carbo ... 132

— fuscicollis 128

—_—— fuscicollis 244

— niger 128

Phoenicurus erythrogaster ern e 66

- erythronotus 65

INDEX OF SPECIES

10s

PAGE ©

Phoenicurus frontalis

—-- ochruros phoenicuroides 65

Phylloscopus collybita sindianus 109

—— ——--—-—— tristis 109

————_—-- eriseolus 50 110

————_—_- inornatus humei 110

———_-——- magnirostris alla

—— neglectus neglectus 110

—— nitidus viridanus 91

ma occipitalis occipitalis

ee proregulus simlaensis ... 111

=a pulcher kangrae 111

we schwarzi ... 500 110

ee subviridis ... 110

ee trochiloides nitidus 110

—-———- viridanus .. 110

- tytleri oe aes xo GY)

| Picea brachytyla 133

Pinus excelsa a 136

Plastingia sala kanara ... 60

Plegadis falcinellus 129

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus 127

Podiceps ruficollis capensis 131

Podoces biddulphi 233

-- hendersoni dee aL OS

-- pleskei ae 65 500. 2830)

Polynemus Indicus S04 ack 152

—— tetradactylus 46

—— tetradactylis 500 ALSO)

Polyommatus v. vicrama By GES GY, BS

Polytoca barbata 260

-— cookei 260

Porana racemosa eee 21

Porphyrio poliocephalus 125

Pratapa blanka sulica 52

-- cleobis ... aK 52

== deva deva 54

Primula eucyclia 140

-- Genestieriana ... 142

———-- melanodonta 142

-- muscarioides ... 500 a 142

-- siphonantha 140

Prinia gracilis lepida 111

-- s. sylvatica 242

Prismosticta fenestrata... 198

Prospalta dolorosa 500 196

Prunella atrogularis lucens 69

= collaris rufilatus 69

——-——. fulvescens fulvescens 69

a himalayants ae oe 69

—————- strophiatus sirotensis ase 69

INDEX OF SPECIES

- Prunus brachypoda 000

— cerasoides

- kingdonwardii ...

Pseudogyps bengalensis

Pterocles exustus elliotti

Pteroplatea micrurae

Pterospermum acerifolium

Puffinus c, carneipes

Python molurus

Quercus semiserrata

Querquedula querquedula

Quisqualis indica

Rapala lankana

— melampus

— schistacea

— varuna Jazulina

Rallus eurizonoides

Rasbora daniconius ...

Rathinda amor Taupe Sia

Regulus regulus himalayensis

- tristis

Rhododendron arizelum

——--—_--—— Beanianum

Beesianum

--——. bracteata 506

——--——. ——_ fulgens

—_-——_--—- imperator |

—--———-——- magnificum ...

— ——--——_ myrtilloides

/ ——-- -— ——. niphargum

—_——_---— praestans

-———---——-——- repens

——_-——---——_ sidercum aa

— --——_ —— Simsii... S0¢

——-—-----——— sino-grande ...

PAGE

Rhodopechys sanguinea sanguinea ...

Rhodospiza obsoleta

Rhyacornis fuliginosa D0

Rostratula ben ghalensis aes

Salix tetrasperma

Salmo fario

IT(CeDSEe tse. ae

Sancus pulligo subfasciatus

Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni

Sarcosperma katchinense

Saxicola caprata bicolor

——=—— macrorhyncha

———. torquata indica

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis

Schima nervosum

Sciaena sina oe

...46,

134

237

124

176

239

249

125

111

138

139

133

139

138

141

138

115

132

244

260

7/2

Xix

PAGE

Scolopax rusticola 128, 241

Scomber microlepidotus 177

Scomberomorus commersonti 164

—— guttatus ie 165

Scotocerca inquieta striata soe lGY/

Seicercus xanthischistos albosuper-

ciliaris Ila

Serinus pusil'us O0 6050 117

Serranus commersonii ... 7/7

—— fuscoguttatus 176

———— lanceolatus co ZO

—— undulosus U7

Setaria intermedia 261

Shorea assamica ae 21

Sideridis (Borodia) venalba ... 194

es yu exempta we. 195

Silonia silondia 32

Silurus glanis 30

Siphia parva albicilla 70

parva 70

Sophora secundiflora 258

Sorbus Harroviana 134

Wardii 140

Sorghum halepense 260

Spalgis epius epius 47

Spatula clypeata 131

Sphyraema jello 1/3

Spindasis abnormis 52

= elima elima 52

———— ictis ictis 54

——_—— lohita lazularia 52

———— Schistacea Ae 52

== vulcanus vulcanus .,, oi

Sterculia coccinea 20

Stereospermum chelonoides 20

Stictospiza formosa 242

Stigmaphyllon ciliatum 102

- periplocifolium 103

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis 123°

-——_—-—-—--- decaocto ... Ps data es

——_——-—— senegalensis cambayensis 123

Strix ocellatal *%.. 243

Sturnia malabarica ‘ e210

Sturnus vulgaris humii 113

—--—- ——-— nobilior 113

———- — poltaratzkyi ... 113

DORM hon Otis 113

Suastus gremius gremius 57

—- rama bipunctus 57

Surendra quercetorum biplegiata 51

todara todara

RX INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Sylvia althoea 109 | T'rema orientalis 200

curruca blythi 109 | Trichiurus malabaricus

—_—- ——_—- halimodendri 109 | Tringa glareola

— —- minula... 109 || ——— ochropus

hortensis crassirostris ... 108 | ——-— stagnatilis

mystacea 108 | Tsuga dumosa ... eee

nana nana 108 | ‘Purdus merula intermedia

nisoria 386 108 — rubrocanus

Syntarucus plinius Age ae 48 ~ ruficollis ruficollis

Sypheotides indica 1G ieee a aes eee atrogularis

Syricthus galba 56 | --——- viscivorus bonapartei

Taccocua leschenaulti ... 243 | Turnix maculata be 560

Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa 59. || -——- suscitator oss i

———— obscuros athos 55 | Udaspes folus ae

Taiwania cryptomerioides 133 | Uperodon globulosum ...

Tajuria cippus cippus 52 -— systoma

-- illurgioides 256 | Uroloncha malabarica

———--- jehana 54 | Utetheisa pulchelloides vaga ...

-- melastizma of: 52 | Utricularia orbiculata

Talauma Hodgsoni ... .. 21, 23 ) Varanus monitor

‘Talicada nyseus nyseus 47 | Venessa ladakensis

Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni 56 | Vernonia Alpinii ee Ses

Taractrocera ceramas ceramas 33) —— Watch

lynx 58 | Virachola isocrates isccrates

meevius sagara ... 58) |iaumeme an else hela

Tarucus ananda 4g | Wallagonia attu

— nara 606 ; 48 | Wendlandia scabra

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster 70 5 ilaconr

Telchinia violae 256 | Wisteria sinensis if es

‘Temenuchus pagodarum 112 | Woodfordia floribunda

Terminalia Catalpa as 21 | Xenentodon cancila oe

—— myriocarpa ... 20, 21 | Xenorhynchus asiaticus si

Thaduka multicanudata kanara og 54 | Zeltus etolus

Thalassodes veraria 197 | Zesius chrysomalius

Themeda quadrivalus 261 | Zizeeria gaika

Thosea tripartita ha 193 -lysimon ...

Threskiornis melanocephala ... WAS) |) tale FY CONS)

Thunbergia grandiflora 21 - otis decreta

Tinca vulgaris 245 - trochilus putii

Tockus birostris 243 | Zographetus oxygia oxygia ...

Toxocarpus himalensis 21 | Zosterops p. egregia

PRINTED AT 1NE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS —7-8-4 8 —C1092

PAGE

175

WAG)

127

133, 139

eee

WAS)

125

251

113

191

m Vol. 45, Now1: DECEMBER, 1944. Price Rs. 12 net.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natura Hisvory Socirry

EDITED BY

S. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., ©.M.Z.S., C. MCCANN, F.L.S., AND

SALIM ALI

AS OEY Lt

ore aay

— WOE ET rg er

woORMAN ThE

et A NIA fy Pow 2 sea te

SORAX aD ) —— val M7 i | Lie

AK ¢ ‘, % & f yf a

KY y GON.

‘sy F od a \

ee |

5 Lt

YY Euho ral

ATi Ih ry : aN BPR 2 os

+s I ay i , j § s 3 fe

fj i A 5 4 a. i

‘\ 2

* 5%,

a ee 4:

WS em. - 4a

FAR fa sey AS

=. a 9 fope &% ao oa —

Siem press

ee aa Cth ne oe oleae

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

i114 (G6) Apollo Street, Bombay.

Lowpon AGENTS:

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY),

212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE,

LONDON, W.c. 2.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME-45, NO. 1

= : PAGE.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDE AN CLIMBERS AND Syrups, Part XVII. By N. L. Bor,

M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., LF.S., and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. rae 2 coloured and

2 black and: white plates). : :

NOTES.ON SOME INDIAN Birps. Part IX... By o HL N; Lowther, M.B.O.U.,

F.Z.S. (With 10 black and white plates). a

A SKETCH OF THE BoTaNy AND GEOGRAPHY oF NoRTH faee® Bar II.

By F. Kingdon-Ward, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., etc. : Tee SLO

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER Seeger His IN Thon AND

Burma. Part VII. Other pees fish and how to catch them,

(Continued. ) ee iS 30

THe BUTTERFLIES OF me Nene Parr 1. By M. A. Ww ynter- Biyth M.A.

(Cantab.) sf i 47

MATERIALS FOR THE Oneme cee OF APG NISTAN. Part i. By Hugh Whistler

(Deceased). ar ic 61

FISH SURVEY OF HyDERABAD STATE. - Bar BE ‘By M. Rahimullah D.SC.,

F.Z.S; Ne 73

A NEw SPECIES OF CORDIA. By K. Chen in [aca LAG; ee Wh

a plate). . at. 7.

OpituarRy NOTICES. = ather tenn Perdiiind Cae S:. I. o Ss 79

Sir Ernest Hotson, k.c¢.S.1., 0.B.£., a Ga ESO

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. A note on the habits of Pikas or Mouse-Hares. By S.A. Akhtar (p.° 82).

The Himalayan Tahr (Hemitragus jemlahicus H. Sim) in Sikkim. By Lt.-Col.

E M.- Bailey, ce. (p. 82). 3. Canine teeth in Chital (Awis amwis) Stags. By

A. C. Tutein Nolthenius, r.z.s. (p. 83). 4. ‘Burial Ground’ of Elephants—A

legendary belief. By V. M. Vasu (p. 84). 5. The Winter foods of Birds “in-

Kashmir. By Major General G. de La P. Beresford (p. 86). 6. Birds of Bombay.

By Lt. R. K. Martin (p. 88). 7. Some Notes on the movement of Birds in the

Lovedale neighbourhood—Nilgiris. By M. E. Wolfe Murray (p. 90). 8. Snipe

and Duck Shooting in South India—1942-43, 1943-44 seasons. By Major Aubrey

Buxton (p. 92). 9. Observations on the Egg-laying habits of the Lizard (Calotes

ophiomachus). By A. P. Mathew (p. 92). 10. Crocodiles bellowing. By Major

R. K. M. Battye (p. 93). 311. The Zonal distribution of the Mole Crab (Emerita

asiatica) on the Madras Coast. By K. H. Alikunhi, M.sc. (p. 94).

NOTICE TO MEMBERS

The Nature Calendar for 1945 issued by

the Society is available. Price Rs. 3 (Price to

Members Rs. 2-4-0). Packing and Postage

extra.

114 (6) Apollo Street, J. L. BERNARD,

BOMBAY. Honorary Secretary,

Bombay Natural History Society.

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JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XVIII,

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The Rangoon Creeper.

QUISQUALIS INDICA Linn.

(Nat. Size.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1944. Wis Also No. 1.

~———=

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

ING eb ORM MEADS Ci Pal aSa. Tek Se,

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RAIZADA, M.SC.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XVIII

(Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 4 (1944), p. 505).

(With 2 coloured and 2 black and white plates),

Quisqualis Linn.

A genus of the family Combretaceae. The name Quisqualis

means literally who? what? and was first given to the plant by

Rumphius (George Eberhard Rumpf), the Dutch botanist, and ex-

presses his astonishment at what he calls the curious behaviour of

the species Quisqualis indica Linn.. which we are about to describe.

According to Rumphius the young plant grows up into an erect

shrub with scattered leaves and irregular branches. After six months

it sends out a runner from the root which is much stouter than the

original stem, and this runner then proceeds to climb up the neigh-

bouring trees, not by twining round them but by means of the

petioles which become transformed into stout spines after the fall of

the leaves. The name of this climber remains as an exclamation of

astonishment but the plant as regards its growth is uninterestingly

normal,

Quisqualis indica Linn.

The Rangoon Creeper.

A very large woody creeper which is indigenous in Malaysia,

south-eastern Asia and west tropical Africa. It is considered not to

be indigenous in peninsular India, but it has become so popular as

2 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

a cultivated plant that it is now one of the commonest creepers to

be found in Indian gardens.

Description.—A very large scandent deciduous shrub with a

cylindrical stem, green hon young, covered with soft brown or

golden hairs. Leaves opposite or nearly so, without stipules, oblong

or elliptic in shape, slightly cordate at the base, tapering to a blunt or

notched apex, 3 in. long; margins entire. The upper surface of the

leaf is smooth and glabrous except for the nerves which are hairy: the

under surface is softly hairy on the prominent main nerves and on the

reticulation. The petioles are short, up to 1/3 in., softly hairy, and

are often persistent after the fall of the leaf becoming transformed

into stout curved spines which assist the plant to climb. The flowers

are borne in axillary or terminal pendulous racemes. Each individual,

flower is seated on a short pedicel which emerges from the axil of a

small leaf or bract on the main axis of the raceme. The flower itself

consists of three parts which can be easily made out : a basal 5-angled

ellipsoid portion, + in. long; a tubular green section, 2? in. long, and

five-coloured petals. The basal four- angled portion contains the

ovary. A longitudinal section through the ovary will reveal that it

consists of a ‘Single cell from the apex of which hang 2-4 ovules

attached to long strap-shaped funicles. The inner surfaces of the

funicles are papillose. The filiform style is as long as the calyx tube

and ends in a sticky knob-shaped stigma. The calyx tube or hypan-

thium is slightly constricted above the ovary and is narrowly funnel-

shaped, hairy on the outside, dividing at the top into five tri-

angular teeth. The ten stamens are arranged in two rows. One

row of five 1s attached to the tube just inside the mouth, and_ the

stamens are alternate with the calyx lobes. The other row is seated

about + in. lower down on the tube aed alternates with the stamens

of the upper row. As the filaments are + in. long, one row of stamens

is exserted while the other five only is reach the mouth of the tube.

The petals, which are softly hairy outside, are imbricate in the bud

and are attached to the calyx tube just at the mouth and alternate

to the lobes. The petals are obovate in shape, nearly $ in. long,

rounded ‘at both ends, and are attached to the calyx by a mere point.

The outer surface of the petals is slightly flushed with pink, the inner

surface after the bud has opened is a pure white, which slowly turns

pink and finally a rich red. The flowers are beautifully scented in the

evening. As the inflorescence is racemose, that is, the flowers open

in succession, there are to be found flowers of all ages on the plant,

hence the effect of the numerous blossoms, some white, some pink,

some red, is very striking.. The fruit is narrowly elliptic, five-angled,

about 1 in. long. 3

Economic uses.—The fruits have a great repute for their anthel-

mintic properties. The bitter liquid which results from pulping the

unripe fruit in winter is often used for this purpose. The ripe fruits

although they can be used as a vermifuge, are not so efficacious.

The ripe nuts are pleasant to the taste and are eaten but only in

strict moderation. “In this connection the remarks in Curtis’

Botanical Magazine (sub. tab. 2033) are interesting : ‘It is observed

that, though some persons, and among these are Rumphius him-

self, could eat these kernels with pleasure and impunity, in others

they soon produced nausea, followed by a troublesome hickuping’.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by The Rangoon Creeper. M. B, RAIzADA,.

Quisqualis indica, Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

hato by The Chinese Wisteria. M. N. Baksar.

Wisteria sinensis (Sims) De.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

‘ SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3

Flowers.—Practically all the year round.

Distribution. —Indigenous i in the Malaya Peninsula, the Philippines

and Western tropical Africa. Now commonly planted in al] tropical

and subtropical countries,

Gardening.—A rapid-growing deciduous scandent shrub requiring

a strong trellis for its support. In rich soil its growth is very ram-

pant anid unmanageable. Consequently it is advisable to cut it back

during the dry season. It is constantly in bloom all the year round.

The flowers are white, sweet scented, open at night but turning pink

at day-break. This mixture of pink and white gives the plant an

unique and charming appearance when in flower. Easily raised from

layers, cuttings or divisions of the root. It rarely fruits in Northern

India.

Wisteria Nutt.

(This genus was called after Kaspar Wistar (1761-1818), a famous

Philadelphian anatomist. The name was spelt Wisteria by Nuttatt,

the author of the genus, and this spelling holds good).

This is a genus of the Leguminosae, sweet pea section. The

genus contains woody vines often reaching a great age. The leaves

are alternate, compound, odd-pinnate, with 9-13 leaflets. The

flowers are in long drooping racemes and may be white, lilac, purple

or blue in colour. : The calyx is bell- -shaped, 5- -toothed. Corolla

papilionaceous, Stamens 9+1. Fruit a pod, twisted when mature.

The pods of this climber explode when the seeds are ripe and the

seeds are flung out. Ridley mentions ‘the results of two observers

who experimented with Wisteria in order to see to what distance the

seed would be ejected. Haesteal stated that on dehiscence of the

pod, the seeds flew to feet across a room and struck the window

violently. From this he calculated that the seeds would have travelled

at least 16 feet. Zabriski says that the seeds were thrown with great

force against a window 16 feet away and he judged that this flight

would have been 30 feet. The explosion appears to be effected by

a layer of strongly thickened elongate cells which runs transversely

across the valve and which winds into a spiral when drying.

_ In the Gardener’s Chronicle for 1940 appears this account of a

Wisteria: |

‘The specimen -was planted somewhere about forty years ago; it

covers the face of a building twenty feet high and eighteen feet “wide,

and rambles into a Yew tree. About four years ago, rats were found

to be working at the base, which was about two feet in circumference,

and while trying to evict these rodents, I found the old stem was

completely rotten at eighteen inches from the ground. I looked at

the plant in amazement, as it was still growing and in full vigour.

When casting around to discover what had happened to enable it to

keep on growing, I found that a branch nine feet up had gone round

the corner of the building and joined on to another plant eighteen feet

away at the other corner, twisting itself round a stem and making a

natural graft. This means that the flow of sap must now be reversed,

and flows down to the base of the old stem. (I have never seen-or

heard of anything like this, and therefore thought these notes might

be of interest.’

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Wisteria sinensis (Sims.) DC.

Chinese Wisteria; Blue Rain; Blue Acacia.

(Sinensis seems of Chinese origin and refers to’ the natural home

of this plant).

Descripltion.—A sprawling deciduous vine with a twisted trunk

reaching 6-9 in. in diameter and many long whip-like branches.

Bark brown, often covered with brown felt. Leaves compound,

alternate, odd pinnate, deciduous. Rhachis up to 12 in. long,

swollen at the base, grooved on the upper surface and slightly silky,

terete and striate. Leaflets 7-11, densely silky when young, when

old sparsely covered with silk on the upper surface often very hairy

below, margins ciliate, ovate-acuminate, ovate-lanceolate or elliptic

in shape, 2-3 in. long, somewhat oblique cuneate at the base, acute

acuminate and sometimes even caudate at the tip, ciliate on the

margins; petiolule short, .1 in. long, densely hairy, articulate on the

rhachis; stipellae subulate, .2 in. long,

Flowers arranged in terminal lax racemes up to 13 in, long which

appear with the young leaves, pedicellate; rhachis striate-hairy ;

pedicel .75 in. long, hairy; bracts obsolete. Calyx bell-shaped,

densely covered with short appressed hairs, 5-toothed ; one tooth

almost subulate, the other triangular acute, eee than the lower.

Corolla papilionaceous; standard orbicular-emarginate, or broader

than long, clawed, with 2 appendages at the top of the claw, violet-

blue or blue in colour. Wing petals slightly shorter than the stand-

ard, obovate oblong, violet-blue, tip rounded, base excised with a

cusp, claw slender. Keel-petals shorter than the wings, obovate-

oblong, almost hatchet-shaped, violet blue, base narrow rounded.

Stamens 9+1; the upper stamen from the remaining nine joined by

thin filaments ; anthers small. Ovary elongate, pubescent, style

curved at right angles to the ovary. Fruit a pod, up to 5 in. long,

oblanceolate in shape, flattened, narrowed from the upper third to the

base, top acute or cuspidate; valves thinly woody, clothed externally

with a dense brown velvety pubescence, internally with a thin

puberulous white corky layer, twisted after dehiscence. Seeds .25-.5

in. in diameter, orbicular, flattened, dark brown smooth.

IF lowers.—Hot season. Fruits rainy season.

Distribution.—A native of China now widely cultivated in the hills

and plains of India.

Gardening.—An attractive, large climbing shrub with handsome

foliage and long racemes of large pale-purple or violet flowers. It is

very “suitable for covering porches, arbors and the like. According to

Bailey it is ‘the noblest of the woody vines for temperate regions.’

This vine succeeds well in Northern India but in the climate of

Calcutta it thrives indifferently and at high elevations in the hills it

never flowers profusely. Propagated usually by layers as the seeds,

though grow readily, do not reproduce the horticultural forms,

IVisleria sinensis (Sims.) DC. Var. alba a white flowered variety

has recently been imported but it is not so beautiful.

Medicinal and Economic Uses.—A_ resinous substance and a

glucoside have been isolated from the bark of this plant. .. Both these

substances are said to be poisonous but apparently nothing is known

of their chemical constitution.

Journ. Bompay Nat. HIst. Soc. PLATE XIX.

Chinese Wisteria; Blue Rain; Blue Acacia.

WISTERIA SINENSIS (Sims.) De.

(Nat. Size.)

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NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS

E. H. N. LOWTHER, M.B.O.U., F.Z.S.

IX—EAGLES, OWLS AND VULTURES.

(With ro plates from photographs by the-author),

(Continued from page 373 of Vol. xliv No, 3).

The rough notes for this article, and the photographs iMeetracine

it, recall to my mind a host of memories , many happy, others not so

pleasant : memories of delightful Christmas weeks - spent in camp

with friends who were friends indeed; of buttressed red cotton trees,

huge and leafless, but from the flowers of which numerous birds

obtained sustenance which, judging by the noise they made, was a

dish fit for the gods to consume. I am reminded too of the mumbling

call of the dusky horned owl as my wife and I arrived home from our

evening walks when it was almost too dark to see, and of quite fierce

attacks made on myself by some of the smaller birds of prey as I

approached their nests; nor can I forget vile smells and revolting

sights that nearly turned me inside out, or the magnificent views

obtained from several of the eyries visited. But if there is one

memory that stands out more prominently than all others, that

memory is of pylon-like machans sixty feet and more in height, very

rickety and given to groaning and creaking and bowing to every puff

of wind—or so it seemed to me enclosed in the small hiding tent at

their summit. So much did they sometimes sway that when a gust

more violent than usual shook us, involuntarily I seized the end of

the platform furthest away from the direction in which I felt we

were going to collapse. Now only, as I look back to long sessions in

those frail and attenuated watch-towers, do I realise the folly ef my

conduct in remaining in them.

The word eagle is used here for convenience only to embrace

those diurnal birds of prey with which I have had photographic

acquaintance. And there is not a better one to start with—it

was also the first I photographed—than the sparrow-hawk-like

shikra which is so common about gardens, villages, groves and light

scrub jungle. No etymologist, I am under the impression that

shikra is but another form of shikari, a hunter; and a hunter in the

proper sense of the word is the shikra—not, it is true, of big game

but of lizards, rats, small birds and insects though I have seen it give

chase to and finish off a ring-dove, in size almost equal to itself. Its

method of attack is to disappear into some heavily-foliaged tree and

when its presence has been forgotten, to dart down on to a sparrow

or other small fry feeding on the ground below and carry off the un-

suspecting victim to some other tree before it has had time to realise

what has happened.

The shikra breeds between the second half of April and the middle

of June. The nest is a small twig affair, cup-shaped and about eight

inches in diameter, and is unlined. A departure from the ordinary

Which came under my notice was a nest made entirely of pieces of

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

wire, the kind of nest that the house crow often makes. Three or

four eggs are laid—I once came on a clutch of five. Both sexes help

to build the nest but I have never had the good fortune to see whether

the male and female incubate—it is stated that only the latter does so.

Both birds feed the young though this job devolves more particularly

on the female, the male devoting himself generally to bringing food

to the nest. Both sexes are often, though not invariably, bold in the

defence of their home, whether this contains eggs or newly-hatched

young. On several occasions have the owners of a nest flown at me,

without, however, actually striking.

In a previous article ‘Birds in my garden’ J have said about all’

that there is to be told concerning the common pariah kite. Like the

shikra, this species has attacked me when examining its nest, contact

actually being made. But the kite, like other species, varies in its

behaviour and often I have not been worried by the bird at all.

Reading through my notes, two instances occur which seem to

indicate that the kite sometimes thinks or appears to do so. The

first concerns thé manner in which during two successive seasons, at

the same tree and therefore not improbably the same bird, a member

of this species flew at a leafless twig of a siris tree in my compound,

the approach in each case being made at a level with the twig from

a distance of about ten yards. As the twig was reached the bird

dropped its feet, and without halting, carried away in them the

portion broken off by the force of the impact. The impression I

obtained each year was that the kite knew that the twig was dead

and that an addition to the nest could be obtained in this manner.

The second instance was brought to my notice by my wife. As

already indicated, my old compound at Tundla was patronised for

roosting purposes by large numbers of green parrakeets. One morn-

ing, when the birds were beginning to disperse, my wife observed a

kite swoop down repeatedly to a tree. Each swoop caused a num-

yer of parrakeets to leave the tree. The kite, however, did not

stoop at the parrakeets in the tree; instead it passed to the side of

and beyond the tree and then under the several telephone wires, in

the direction of which the parakeets invariably flew, the bird’s obvious

intention being to seize any tota—disabled by striking the wires

(I have shown that the parrakeets frequently struck these wires).

While we watched we did not see the kite meet with any luck, but

elsewhere I have found a full-grown dead green parrakeet in a Kite’ S

nest containing young, and possibly this was how the meal was

obtained.

The brahminy kite, reddish-brown in colour except for the head,

neck and breast which are white, and with a rounded tail, obtains its

livelihood by quartering paddy fields, canals, jhils and river-ghats for

frogs, small fish, crabs or any other flotsam or jetsam that may come

its way. Like the pariah kite, the brahminy breeds early in the

year, and there are few species more bold in the defence of their lares

et penates than is this species. Of the brahminy kite I think I can

say, that always it has attacked us when we have climbed to its nest,

or busied ourselves building a tower from which to photograph the

bird; and always it has struck home and usually drawn blood.

During an afternoon spent in photographing the brahminy kite I

found that the two young were fed at intervals of roughly one hour,

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Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc.

Prate fi.

Common Pariah Kite.

Brahminy Isite.

E. H. N, LowrnHer,

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS a

the food brought being frogs only. The female tore off small pieces

and gave them to the young which were still small. Both parents

brought food, but only the female did the actual feeding. The young

seemed to be greatly worried by flies which, without doubt, were

attracted to the nest by the remains of many a ‘high’ tea!

The simal tree in which the laggar falcon had its nest was one

of the highest I ever climbed. The nest was a previous year’s effort

of a pair of white-backed vultures, the latter having built a new

nest a few feet higher up. This, at the time of my first visit (8th

February) contained a small young one while in the laggar’s nest

were four beautifully marked eggs, large editions of those of the

kestrel. At the foot of the tree, in a prickly bush, a ring-dove was

sitting on her two eggs, and round about were scattered the feathers

of many birds, chiefly green parrakeets. The falcons took no notice

of the vultures at the nest but chased them unmercifully in the air.

Particularly offensive were they in their behaviour to a king vulture

which happened to soar overhead, the huge bird having to side-slip by

turning completely over on its left and right side alternately in order

to avoid the attacks.

Building the machan to the laggar’s nest, and climbing up and

down it, as well as the time spent in the hiding tent, was, to say the

least, exciting work as hanging from under two branches of the tree

were large swarms of the dangerous black bee. Always we carried

thick blankets in case we were attacked—now I come to think of it, |

am afraid these would have been of no avail—but fortunately the bees

did not regard us, perhaps because of the particularly silent manner

in which we invariably worked here!

When I visited the laggar’s tree on the 3rd of March, the nest

contained three young ones about ten days old, and an addled egg.

While previously the falcons had been somewhat conspicuous by

their absence, although on one occasion both birds alighted high up

in the tree, when the male passed some small bird over to the female,

after which both flew away together, now they were very much in

evidence and flew at us repeatedly, both on the ground and when on

the machan, shrieking at us at the same time. 2

When I had been in the hide about an hour, the female laggar

sidled along a thick branch to the nest. She brought no food but

this did not prevent the young from mobbing her furiously: perhaps

it was because she had come empty-handed that they treated her so.

Be the reason what it may, the treatment was more than the parent

was prepared to put up with, and presently the cld bird ran along

the aforesaid branch to a distance of about four feet from the nest,

from where she was able to survey her young’ in peace.

During this watch the male brought what I took to be a bulbul,

already dressed, to the nest. He did not stay for more than a few

seconds but it was long enough to enable me to take his photograph—

and beautifully posed he was too. After his departure the female

returned to the nest and tore off tiny pieces of the bulkul’s flesh and

gave these to the young. The feeding continued for about 5 minutes

when she suddenly flew away. Thereafter two of the youngsters fed

themselves for a short while but did not seem particularly interested

in what had been provided.

I took two photographs this day and had every reason to hope

g JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

they would be successes, Alas! when I developed them that night I

felt like kicking myself—or worse. One side of the double dark slide

‘was empty and the other had in it a plate on which I had already

taken a group photograph! I suppose accidents such as this will

always happen, and they undoubtedly do good because they make us

more careful for some time. None the less they are very annoying.

As a result of my stupid carelessness I have only the one picture of

the laggar to show for all my hard work—and some will say that I

do not deserve even this.

The tawny eagle, like so many of the larger Raptores, often

brings up its family early in the year. Nidification continues, how-

ever, till May or even June. The nest is large and may be built

twenty or twenty-five feet from the ground, or double that distance

and more. At whatever height it is situated, it is invariably placed on

the extreme top of a tree so that the birds may land and take off

without having to pick their way through branches. Two eggs are

usually laid, greyish-white in colour, with or without a few red or

brown markings.

I have never known a tawny eagle show fight when a human

being approached its eyrie, but Dewar records seeing one seize and

carry off the turban of a man who had removed the eggs from a nest.

Such conduct must, I consider, be very exceptional. Certainly the

tawny looks fierce, but there, to my mind, the eagle tradition ends,

as It is a great feeder on carrion and usually kills small birds and even

lizards and insects in preference to tackling something larger and

more in keeping with its size.

In his Popular Handbook of Indian Birds, Whistler gives

Bonelli’s eagle only an ‘ honourable mention’. He dismisses it with

these remarks: ‘Another very courageous bird of similar size and

appearance (lo the crested hawk-eagle) is Bonelli’s eagle which is

found sparingly throughout India, It has, however, no crest.’

I do not know who Mr. (Signor?) Bonelli was, but the fact

remains that his name gives no idea of the bird itself. The alterna-

tive name suggested in recent years for this species by Mr. Stuart

Baker, the slender hawk-eagle, is far more appropriate as Bonelli’s

eagle is a hawk-eagle, more stream-lined in build than an eagle and

with a longer tail; and hawk-eagles, while every bit as courageous

as eagles, are not given to feeding on carrion as many eagles are.

Though it occurs throughout India, Bonelli’s eagle is not a

common species. In the plains I have met with it only in Hume’s

old haunts, round about the Jumna and Chumbal rivers in the Etawah

district, and in the Topchanchi area in Bihar. Its colouring i is diffi- |

cult to describe as this varies considerably. Perhaps ‘ umber-brown

above; lower plumage buffy-white, with much dark streaking ; long

wings, and long tarsi feathered down to the toes’ describes it as well

as anything’, if we add to the description the fact that the eye is a

golden-yellow.

Bonelli’s eagle builds its enormous stick nest either on a ledge of

a cliff or on some large tree—I have seen the nest in both situations.

Kggs may be founch about the end of December and throughout

January and the first half of February. These are usually two in

number, greyish-white in colour, with some light red or brown

blotching..

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE III.

1, Laggar Falcon.

P iota by 2. Tawny Eagle.

JouRN.

Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE INS

Photo by

I, Slender Hawk-Eagle (Bonelli’s Eagle.)

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 9.

The nest at which my photographs were obtained was built on a

gigantic simal tree at the head of a steep nala in mixed bamboo

jungle. My shikari told me the eagle nested here every year, but

that the nest then in use was a new effort as the old one

had fallen down during the previous monsoon. Even so, the new

home was of colossal size, about four feet in length, three feet wide

and more than a foot deep. The branches forming the base of the

nest were quite two fingers thick, and many of them had been broken

off with foliage attached. Consequently the nest was well lined with

leaves; and during the three watches I had in the hide—on 17th and

25th February and roth March—more branches with leaves adhering

to them were brought by both eagles.

At the time of my first visit the young one—a_ singleton—was

probably between two and three weeks old, and was still a ball of

white down with traces of feathers appearing in the wings. Later

the feathers showed in the tail and about the shoulders. At this early

stage, the young hawk-eagle spent most of its time sleeping, or

sitting still with chin resting on a twig, but looking anxiously to-

wards the skies. Occasionally it toyed with a leaf or pecked at a

small piece of dried flesh which had worked its way in between the

twigs. Sometimes the young eagle moved about on the nest, using

the ‘shoulders’ of its wings to help its progress. Its crop at the

time was full—an indication to the photographer that the parents

were not likely to visit the nest for a Couple of hours or more. At

the end of this period, both eagles came into view, circling round the

tree a number of times. One only had any food—this turned out to

be the male, who presently alighted at the edge of the nest with

apparently a young partridge which had already been ‘dressed’. He

remained only two or three seconds, his place, as soon as he had

gone, being taken by the female who fed tiny pieces of meat to her

offspring. The young eagle was, however, not hungry, and seeing

this, the mother bird left her child to its own devices.

About an hour later the male eagle was seen approaching with a

twig held in his feet. Again he circled round before alighting on the

‘nest. He left in a great hurry, taking the twig with him. After

another hour or so he returned, again with a twig, but this time with

one with foliage still on it. This was deposited on the nest, no

attempt being made to work it into the structure.

After her futile attempts to feed the eaglet, nothing was seen of

the female until I was on my way home, when both eagles were

observed soaring round and round the nala, the male with something

in his talons—a tree-rat I thought. From what was noted now, as

well as subsequently, it appeared that the male was chiefly responsi-

ble for obtaining the food and the female for giving it to the young

bird. A male painted spur-fowl was brought by the female on one

occasion, other victims (of the male) being a glorious cock red jungle-

fowl, and a barn-door chicken.

On the occasion of my second session in the hiding tent, the

young eagle was very hungry and squealed as soon as it saw food

being brought. This it ate with gusto, refusing nothing that was

given, The way in which the mother eagle tore off pieces of flesh

was astounding; joints she dealt with as though they did not count.

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Gristle, bones and entrails she ate herself; the flesh, in small pieces,

was given to the eaglet. |

The last time I visited the eyrie, the young Bonelli’s eagle had

grown considerably and was indulging a great deal in wing exercises,

‘though it probably did not leave the nest for another three weeks.

On this occasion I was accompanied by my wife who had taken out

a sumptuous picnic-lunch which, however, we were fated not to

partake of till tea time, after we had left the eagles in peace, as eggs,

butter, bread, cheese, cutlets, everything was wrapped in the crink-

liest of crinkly paper, to open which made such noise that I insisted

no more could be opened, as no self-respecting eagle would tolerate

such a din near its nesting-tree. Hard indeed is the lot of a bird-

photographer’s wife!

Pallas’s fishing-eagle builds its nest on the banks of rivers and by

large jhils, near the top of some enormous, isolated tree. It is the

commonest of our large eagles—about the size of the golden eagle—

and is more easily identified than any other species on account of the

dark brown colouring of the upper plumage as well as of the wings

and tail, and the sandy-coloured head and neck. The lower plumage

is a lighter shade of brown. In the tail is a distinctive. wide, white

band. Identification is made easier still by the loud call. This can

be heard at a great distance, and may be uttered from the nest, a

perch, or high up in the heavens. The call has very aptly been

likened to the unpleasant, shrieking noise made by a heavy, ungreas-

ed cart wheel. The nest is a colossal affair, and is used for a number

of years if the birds are not molested. Nesting commences rather

earher than with most eagles, and eggs—usually two, sometimes

three—may be looked for about the first week of December.

More has been written regarding the life and nesting habits of

Pallas’s fishing-eagle than of any other Indian Raptor; and there is

little to add which is original. I have photographed the bird at two

different eyries, and watching it carefully from a distance of less than

twenty feet I have thanked my lucky stars I was not in its clutches :

at this range one obtains an impression of terrific strength. In one

nest were five small mud turtles; the shells of many others lay scat-

tered about the foot of the tree. <A fish, which I judged to weigh

between four and five pounds, was also: brought to this nest by the

male. ‘At the other nest, during the two days I spent in the hide,

the young were fed entirely on a fish diet, the male on one occasion

feeding the young for several minutes. Incidentally I missed obtain-

ing a superb picture of the eagle as it was about to alight at this nest

owing, in my excitement, to my turning the focussing screw in the

wrong direction when I saw the ‘great bird swing into the reflex

mirror—every primary in the wings is clearly visible in the negative

as also is the white band in the tail, which is spread like a fan, while

the sandy-coloured head and neck are unmistakable. The wings are

held well above the body, and the feet have been dropped, but alas !

the bird 1s out of focus.

The view from this machan was one of the most wonderful I can

recall—the Jumna with its wide, white sands stretching in graceful

curves away to the east, and ten miles away to the west, that ‘dream

in marble’, the Taj Mahal, showing up faintly. Half a mile down-

stream, a ferry plied, transporting passengers as well as ponies and

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V.

1. Young Spotted Owleis.

Eleotoney 2. Young Rock Horned Owls. IB Melo (Slo) LON REP,

Piva vile

Journ. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Brown Fish Owl.

Photo

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 11

cattle, to and from either bank, and a short distance upstream, late

in the evening, a herd of black buck came down to drink.

Elsewhere (An Indian river-bed) I have told of the damage done

by a Pallas’s fishing-eagle among nesting terns. Once, in the Main-

puri district, I saw a considerable nesting-colony of painted storks

entirely decimated by a pair of these birds: they just carried off a

squab when they wanted one—many of them well grown. Only the

breast seemed to be eaten. I do not think one young stork survived:

and yet I was told by the headman that the same thing happened every

year. .

In spite of the fact that Pallas’s fishing-eagle is given to a carrion

diet—I have seen a human arm brought to a nest, and in another nest

found the skull and complete spinal column of a human being—it 1s

also a great hunter and many a sportsman has had his wounded

goose, duck or snipe carried off by one of these birds. But Pallas’s

eagle does not chase wounded game only. One morning a friend

and I watched a pair of these birds mark down a coot, which they

probably intended to give to their young. Up and down they chased

the particular bird, which dived as the eagle closed on it. As soon

as it came up. the coot was chased again, and would undoubtedly

have fallen a victim to the eagles had not one of my beaters secured

the bird for himself. Not even scratched, the coot was too tired to

elude capture. It was this same day that I saw what few have been

privileged to watch—about half a dozen green pigeons on the ground,

drinking.

One other eagle I have photographed—the small spotted eagle.

Its nest was built in the fork of a tree in thick jungle on the lower

slopes of Parasinath hill, and the time of nesting was the beginning

of July, when the thick jungle and the leafy carpet under foot was a

living mass of mosquitoes, voracious pests which a big game shikari-

_ friend who accompanied me described as being ‘as large as elephants

and as fierce as tigers’. So savage were their attacks, that on subse-

quent occasions a flit-gun and a tin of flit accompanied us; and even

then we were far from free from their attentions.

The few photographs obtained were not particularly successful

and since there is nothing of special interest to record concerning this

eagle’s behaviour at the nest, nothing that cannot be ascribed equally

well to ary of the other eagles already dealt with, I will pass on to

the nocturnal birds of prey, the owls.

Our commonest owl, whose cackling chortles and squawks are to

be heard every evening in our gardens, is the little spotted owlet.

Strange it is that while in Europe the owl is regarded as the emblem

of wisdom, in India its learning is decried; so much so that a fool

is eften referred to as an ooloo ka bachcha—the.-offspring of an owl.

This thought was uppermost in the mind of my dear old shikari,

_ Pokhi—now alas! gone to his fathers—when, after I had failed for

the second time to obtain a single photograph of the spotted owlet at

the nest, he remarked: ‘But the owl is not a fool, sahib—it is a very

clever bird’. .

Although I have failed in my dealings with Athena brama, I have

been more successful with our larger owls, all fine birds, and all

distinctive in habits as well as habitat. The first of these to fall a

victim to the prying eye of my camera was the rock horned owl.

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Not uncommon in suitable country, the rock horned owl is

partial to rocky hills covered with light jungle, and ravines and cliff

banks about rivers. Nowhere have I met with it so often as on the

hills in the neighbourhood of the Topchanchi reservoir in the

Manbhum district—every one of them, Sikda pahar, Mungur Ghar,

Keshmi, Siringi, etc. had its quota. Nesting begins about the

middle of November, or a little later, and eggs may be found till the

end of January. These number up to four, though two or three

usually constitute the full clutch, and are laid on the ground, in a

hollow under a rock. I do not remember visiting a nest that con-

tained young, alongside of which there was not at least one rat—

they are the rock horned owl’s favourite food. In the nest are always

the small bony remains of many rodents: they can be seen clearly in

the photograph. The colour of the young in down is influenced (by

contact) by the nature of the neighbouring soil: in the Manbhum

district the young look reddish, in Kashmir a dark rock-grey, and

amongst the cliffs of the Jumna and Chumbal rivers a light earthy

colour, like kanker dust.

The call of this owl, heard after sundown and throughout the

night, has been variously described as a ‘resounding bu-bo, the

second syllable much prolonged’ (Salim Ali), ‘a loud dur-goon or

to-whoot, solemn and deep in tone’ (Whistler) and ‘a loud hoo—

slightly drawn out, but still a single note and not dissyllabic’ (B.B.

Osmaston). I have noted it as ‘ a loud hoo, somewhat prolonged, but

not unduly so. Sometimes this is followed ky a short cackle’. On

another occasion, listening to one on a very wet night from my bed

on a house-boat, I described it as ‘hoo—short—followed two or three

seconds later by tu-hoo’.

The rock horned owl is not an easy bird to photograph—in the

first place it is ‘clever’ (to use Pokhi’s term), and next the terrain

usually prevents the hiding tent being erected at a convenient level or

distance. If, however, a suitable nest is found and more than usual

caution exercised in erecting and camouflaging the hide, and a couple

of days be allowed to pass before entering it, there is no reason why

successful photographs should not be obtained. And if ‘the man

behind the gun’ does not have high blood pressure when the great

owl alights by her nest he is not likely to suffer from that dread of

present-day life.

When left undisturbed, the rock horned owl breeds in the same

spot every year.

I have said that our larger owls are distinctive in their habitat.

There is no denying the fact, however, that the type of country that

the rock horned and the brown fish owl frequent 1s identical in one

respect—when they live about cliff banks and ravines near a river.

Nevertheless the brown fish owl is more generally found in well-

wooded country, near rivers and canals. At close quarters it can be

readily distinguished from the other ‘horned’ owls by the absence

of feathers on the tarsi, by its general tawny-brown colouring and the

fact that its ‘ears’ are held nearly horizontally, as opposed to the

yertical position assumed in the case of the rock horned and dusky

horned owls.

Sometimes the brown fish owl appropriates the old home of a

. BomBay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATES VII.

Photo by Dusky Horned Owl. E. H. N. LowrHer.

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII.

fe A i, yy

Photo by King Vulture. E. H, N, LowrHeEr,

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS 13

vulture or eagle for nesting purposes; usually, however, it lays its

large, white, round eggs, one or two in number, in a depression of

a tree where two or more large branches radiate from the trunk.

These rest on a layer of dead leaves or other rubbish accumulated by

chance. Always the nest appears to be in the vicinity of water, its

presence necessary for the bird to obtain its main livelihood—fish and

crabs. Most eggs will be found in January but the bird illustrated

laid its first egg on Christmas Day and the second two days later. -

No nest could have been better situated for my purpose than this—

it was in the hollow of a large siris tree in a Canal Department

bungalow compound at which we were spending Burra Din. More

fortnunate still, the hollow could be overlooked, and at certain times

of the day, for short periods, was sun-kissed.

Needless to say, I was quickly at work. The machan was a small

one, about fifteen feet high and thoroughly comfortable. The owl

flew off as I climbed to the hide, and returned to its eggs about forty

minutes later, its return, then as always, being made known to me

by the chattering of seven sisters and the screams of green parrakeets,

which appeared to follow the bird on its way back to the nest.

Always in a hurry to cover her eggs, once at the nest, the owl on

one occasion only sat facing me; and then her head was rather too

low down to make a really good picture. Quiet noises produced

through my lips made the bird look in my direction, and during the

tour periods spent in the hide a good series of photographs was

obtained including one showing the owl’s bare, featherless feet, and

another of her having ‘forty winks’. It was amazing how, with her

back to me, the owl was yet able to turn right round to look at the

lens without moving her body at all.

On one occasion a palm-squirrel ran up on to the far rim of the

nest-hollow. It did something like ‘evens’ to disappear when it

caught a glimpse of the owl’s cat-like features.

Whether it is so or not the dusky horned owl always appears to

me to be the largest of the common ‘horned’ owls—not much larger

but just that little bit that makes all the difference; and it occurs

equally generally as the others. It frequents avenues of large trees

along our main and side roads in the country, as well as groves around

villages, and occurs even in the public gardens of large cities—one or

two pairs live in the grounds of the Taj Mahal at Agra, and in the

Dilkusha Park at Lucknow. It is rather a dark grey in colour, and

where one bird is seen seated towards the top of some tall tree, well

concealed, the pair will be found not far away. Most often, and this

is particularly the case during the autumn and winter months,

although when sleeping out I have occasionally heard it at the

dead of night during May and June, this owl’s presence is first made

known to us by its call, heard towards dusk and repeated at intervals

during most of the night, sometimes for minutes together, with short

pauses in between. Commonly the mate gives answer in similar

tones. To me this call sounds like gru-gur—goor-gru-goo-goo.

Others have likened it to the noise of an engine in the distance haul-

ing a train up a heavy gradient; but perhaps the best rendering of it

is that given in the New Fauna—‘a low, deep rumbling woo-woo-

woo’, just as though an old man were mumbling something.

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

The dusky horned a stick

affair. Normally, oan the bird appropriates the si het of

some eagle or vulture. It was at such a nest, one high up in a pipal

tree in en a white-backed vulture had aniliae ? in the year brought

up its young one, that my photographs were taken. T he nest was a

very dilapidated one and contained two eggs on 7th December. A

month later a platform was built in the tree for the hiding tent, and

ladders lashed to stout branches to facilitate my ascent.

I spent roth January and 9th February in the hide. The female flew

off the nest as I started climbing, and the male, perched in the next .

tree, followed suit a minute later, both settling in some mango trees

in another small grove a little way behind me, as I could tell by the

cawing of crows and chattering of other small birds. In the nest

were two white, downy owlets, one smaller than the other.

For an hour or so nothing happened except that I was kept in a

constant state of fear and trembling lest the younger owlet should fall

over the side of the nest: for what seemed countless ages it just clung -

the edge of the precipice before returning to a safer spot. I was

ena to think I was in for a proionged wait when were borne

to me the tones of children conversing at the foot of my tree.

‘Yes,’ said one, ‘there is nobody up the tree. The sahib has not

come yet and the shikari has gone to the station to meet him. Weil

do I know these facts—have | not. been waiting hard by for over

two hours and seen everything? Chello, gonsla dekinge’! Thus it

came to pass that a couple of minutes later three urchins arrived by

my machan. | had to act quietly and carefully—I must not frighten

them or one or more might be precipitated to the ground below and

be killed. I unclipped the side of the hide, pushed my head out and

invited them to look at the nest and its contents and told them in

future not to believe everything they were told. Never, I think,

have children’s eyes ‘goggled’ as did these infants’; and ‘when last

I saw them they were running as hard as their little legs would take

them even though two big fields divided us.

This interlude, I aneresinadl, would postpone the owl’s return

indefinitely. I was wrong. Fifteen minutes later I felt a bird land

heavily on a branch behind me;.and presently the dusky horned owl

flew on to the nest and brooded her two children. Again and again

the elder one peeped out from under the parent’s body or through her

wing or tail feathers, and the photograph shows one of the most

delightful family scenes it has been my good fortune to witness.

Always I’ was struck by the extraordinary resemblance of the

owl’s head to that of a cat; particular ly was this the case when the

bird looked over the side of the nest towards passers-by below.

This pair of dusky horned owls preyed chiefly on green parrakeets,

as the numerous beaks and feathers below proved. Remains of a

common mynah and of a roller were also found, but none of house

or jungle crows, on which, in some localities, this species largely

subsists. A pair of these owls have lived in this particular spot for

a number of years, and many is the time I have watched one of the

birds fly into a tree in. which countless parrakeets roosted, and carry

off a squawking victim. Long may they flourish here !

If there is a ‘sameness’ in the nesting arrangements of our eagles,

E. H. N. Low THer.

orthern Long-billed Vulture.

Photo by

JouRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATS XS

White-backed Vulture.

Photo 3 2. Lessey Scavenger Vulture.

E. H. N. Lowuer,

NOTES ON SOME INDIAN BIRDS ' 15

in the time of their nidification and in their habits at the nest, the

statement applies with even greater force to the vultures. It is true,

of course, that while the white-backed and northern long-billed

species have eggs in November and December, the king vulture

does not lay till February, and the lesser scavenger vulture ‘delays its

nesting till March and even April. It is also correct to say that,

while all four species make their nests high up in trees, the scavenger

vulture commonly places its ugly and evil-smelling pile of sticks and

vermin-infested rags, etc. on a ledge of a cliff, and even on old

buildings, and their like—a pair bring up their family every year by

the North side rose window of the Allahabad Cathedral; and in the

absence of high trees a king vulture sometimes makes its nest on

the top of some thorny bush. Taking them all round, however, the

vultures vary little in their breeding arrangements, or in their

behaviour at the nest, so that there is not a great deal one can say

concerning them : which, as a friend remarked, is perhaps just as

well. I have not seen the ‘change over’ take place in the case of the

king vulture or the northern long-billed vulture, but both

sexes certainly incubate, where the scavenger vulture and_ the

white-backed vulture are concerned. With all four species both

sexes help to build the nest, and feed the young. And

what a perfectly revolting sight this is! When it is remembered

that vultures feed on carrion, which may have been dead for hours,

or even a day or so, and that before this can be given to the young

it has to be assimilated thoroughly in the parent’s crop, a matter

which also takes some hours, it is easy to understand what a loathe-

some spectacle is a young vulture’s meal when being served. J am

not squeamish, but I must confess the sight has very nearly made me

retch. And the stench !—the less said the better—it has haunted me

all day and night, and my advice to those who would photograph

vultures at the nest feeding their young is to wear a gas mask.

There has been a tendency of late to tell the World that the

king vulture is not the monarch he is supposed to be; that other

vultures at the vile feast do not give place to him; that he is, in fact,

a craven. Let me, therefore, record two experiences in his favour.

The first occurred at the nest at which my photographs were taken.

While I was toiling up the scrub-covered hill side where the nest

was situated, the queen was seen to alight at the nest and. then

disgorge food for the youngster. A common pariah kite then circled

round the tree and thought it too would like to partake of the carrion

meal. It swooped down at the queen again. and again ; and as often

Her Majesty ‘ducked’. But the king, who was quartering the heavenly

vaults, seeing what was happening, bore down on the kite—with

wings half closed and at terrific speed; and there was no further

trouble with the kite that day. :

In By Tank and Jhil 1 mentioned that a young grey heron: which

made no attempt to ‘stroke’ the parent’s bill in order to help it part

with the food it had brought, but instead kept its head well down in

the nest, and as a result was ustially the first to contact the disgorged

meal, met with a tragic end. I, was in the hide at the time, more

dead than alive on account of the appalling heat. The young had

recently been fed and left to themselves, to gasp in the nest, or

wander about just near it. Suddenly there was a great commotion

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48.

and before one could say Jack Robinson a king vulture darted down

and carried off in its feet the unfortunate youngster. I saw the

incident plainly in the mirror of the reflex, and my shikari and a

friend who had accompanied me, witnessed it too. They also saw

the vulture finally drop the young heron which, on being retrieved,

was found to be dead. . | 3 |

Perhaps these incidents will help to restore the king vulture. to

his royal status. :

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY AND GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH

BURMA.

F, KINGDON-WARD, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., ETC.

(Continued from Vol. xliv. No. 4 (1944), p. 574).

Part II

CONTENTS

‘VI. Climax Formations... 566 aa bes «of 216

VII. Tropical Evergreen Rain Forest 606 dod co, fhe)

VII. Subtropical Hill Jungle tiie RS wed BET 22

IX. Subtropical Pine Forest ot ace ae we 25

X. Temperate Rain Forest sete O60 ane sen) 4:20

(a) Warm Temperate oe 506 206 505 AD

(4) Cool Temperate See aoe 6 s00 | AS)

(¢) Temperate Pine Forest ... O60 es Soon CY)

VI. -CLIMAX FORMATIONS,

The following comprise the climax formations of North Burma.

The three primary divisions of the vegetation on the basis of vege-

tative type dominant within their respective limits, are :—

(i) Forest ... - a. 500~12,000 feet

(ii) Scrub ... bc 11,000-13,600 ,,

(iii) Undershrub and Herbaceous... 12,000—15,000 |.

The climax formations in succession are :—

Tropical Evergreen Forest he 500- 2,000 feet \

Subtropical Hill Jungle ro) ESOS SSO Do) |

Subtropical Pine Forest vse | 1G, D00=NI6y 500s

Temperate Rain Forest ... «. 0,000-' 8,000 ;, |

(a) Warm Temperate Rain Forest. 5,000- 7,000 ,, |

(6) Cool Temperate Rain Forest... 6,000- 8,000 ,, /Forest.

Mixed Temperate Forest cee 7,00 0=399%0,00) 05

(a) Moss Forest ae 1? 95000 — 4,

(6) Bamboo Forest... 000 Sere

Silver Fir Forest we .» 9,000-12,000 ,,. |

Sub-Alpine Rhododendron Scrub .,,. 11,000-13,000 ,, Scrub,

and Herb-

aceous. ,

Alpine Turf and Scree ... ..- 12,000-15,000 ,, Undershrub

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 17

The alpine herbaceous flora, restricted as is the area it occupies,

includes a large number of species, and vast numbers of individual

plants, some of which occur in large, others in small colonies, while

many others are scattered.

The altitudes given for each zone are not of course exact

contours. Phey represent approximate limits, where a more or less

distinct change of climate occurs. The overlap of 1,000 or 1,500 feet

allows for local differences, proximity to the plains in the south, or

to the snow mountains in the north, and for the effect of north andl

south slopes.

One of the factors ° affecting the type of vegetation which pre-

vails is the continuity of sunlight, the distribution of which varies of

course with the latitude. The extremes are the equatorial and polar.

regions; and though both receive the same number of hours: sun-

shine (supposing the sun to be gNoe shining) in a year, its distri-

bution is very different. Py

North Burma however covers less than 5° of latitude, hence the

distribution of sunlight scarcely varies from one end to the other.

The difference of altitude of the sun at mid-summer and mid-winter

is however considerable. At midsummer the sun even in the north

is almost vertical, being more than 85° above the horizon, whereas

at mid-winter it is only about 40° above the horizon. In a moun-

tainous country like North Burma this means that north slopes get

very little direct sunshine, particularly in winter.

Other factors affecting the vegetation are soil and temperature,

especially maxima, minima, temperature range, and temperature

gradients.

Most important of all, at least so far as the main types of vege-

tation are concerned, is humidity, which everywhere in North Burma,

and at all seasons, is relatively high. Certain types of forest, e.g.

inCmmiOnesew ollver “Hit, TOrest, cam be recognised-at. az elance.

With broad leafed evergreen forest, this is \less easy. How-

ever, there are a number of good indicators, such as the figs,

Dipterocarps, Terminalias, laurels, oaks, chestnuts and many more,

which once known are easily recognised and help to identify the

zone. Above 6,ooo feet almost any zone can be identified in Spring

and Summer by its characteristic species of Rhododendron, and of

course the changes from broad leafed forest to Conifer forest, from

Conifer forest to scrub and from scrub to alpine herbaceous are

obvious to the least observant.

Within each zone are areas where particular species and associa-

tions predominate and such are worth noticing.

The following diagram shows the stratification of main. vegeta-

tion types in the Burmese alps.

Cultivation

Throughout North Burma, except on the Hkamti plain, shifting

cultivation is practised, and we have the curious spectacle of a

nomadic agricultural population. Few villages appear to last more

than 20 years; quite a number scarcely last ten.

Is there any fundamental difference of climate or soil whion makes

permanent cultivation possible at 6,000 feet, but impossible below that

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

altitude? Or is it simply the tradition of the cultivators? So far

as my experience goes, the only permanent cultivation is done by

Tibetan immigrants who, in the Seinghku and Adung valleys, have

permanent fields at 6,000 feet, just as they would have in Tibet.

Owing to the well marked winter at 6,000 feet, fallow land is not

overgrown with weeds so rapidly as it is at 2,000 feet. But this

Snow Line 16,000 ft.

Alpine 15,000 ft.

Serub ~| 13,000 ft.

12,000 ft.

Silver Fir Forest

fo DANDY) S0,

Mixed Temperate Forest

: 8,000 ft

Temperate Rain Forest

and ‘Temperate Pine

Forest

OUD) SR,

Subtropical Hill

Jungle and Sub-

tropical Pine

Forest

2,000 ft.

Tropical }

Rain Forest / ee OORt:

has nothing to do with the exhaustion of the soil. The washing out

of the humus and soil bacteria on steep slopes as a result of cutting

down and burning the forest obviously impoverishes the soil. . Much

of the permanent cultivated land at 6,000 feet is comparatively level;

but shifting cultivation for maize is practised here also. In spite

of soil erosion, clearings at 2,000 feet, after the harvest, are quickly

covered with weeds. There is nothing to cut and burn. So a new

site must be cleared. After the weeds comes bamboo, and after a

few years the ground can be cleared and burnt a second time.

There is no reason to think that given enough population, permanent

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 19

cultivation would be impossible in North Burma. Both wet rice and

maize are cultivated on permanent terracing cut out of the steepest

slopes in the Naga Hills. Such terracing would be equally possible

in the Nam Tamai valley. The problem of clearing, terracing and

keeping the exuberant vegetation in check, seems to be mainly one

of population. The Tibetan villages are no more populous than the

-Nung villages; but the Tibetans have a tradition of ‘fields’, the

Nungss have none: Conversely, if more and better food was grown,

North Burma could support a larger and more settled population.

Now is the time to make forest reserves. Above 7,000 or 8,000 feet

there is little danger of forests being destroyed. But it is just in

the agricultural belt, between 3,000 and 7,000 feet, that so many inte-

resting trees occur. This zone is rapidly disappearing.

VII. TrRopicaL EVERGREEN RAIN FOREST.

Travelling north to Myitkyina by rail from Mandalay, a change

comes over the vegetation after Shwebo. We are no longer in the

‘dry zone’, a sort of dust bowl in the heart of central Burma, but

in a damper climate of heavier rainfall, and greater humidity as

proved by the evergreen jungle. The railway in fact passes through

one of the densest tropical evergreen rain forest districts in Burma.

It is this type of forest which north of Myitkyina fills the main

valleys, from 500 to 2,000 feet above sea level. Thus the Mali Hka

as far north as the Hkamti plain, the ’Nmai Hka up to about 26°50’,

the Nam Tisang to about 27°30’, and the lower courses of their

principal tributaries, are filled with tropical evergreen rain forest,

which also covers much of the Hkamti plain.

At Myitkyina, a well marked hot weather season encourages a

more deciduous type of monsoon forest. North of Fort Hertz and

all along the China frontier the colder winters produced by abund-

ance of snow on the high mountains have a sobering: effect.

In fact tropical rain forest forms only a wide mesh arterial system

where the deepest valleys drain the North Burma plateau, represent-

ing perhaps 5% or 10% of the whole area.

In composition it is almost pure Indo-Malaysian, most of the

genera represented being unknown in cooler climates outside that

region. Above 3,000 feet Indo-Malaysian species are found grow-

ine side by side with species of East Asiatic affinity, and as we

ascend the proportion of the latter increases. Briefly, the North

Burma tropical forest is composed of trees from 80 to 120 feet tall,

with unbranched straight trunks and umbrella-shaped or rounded-

pyramidal crowns. The strangling figs however, which form an

appreciable fraction of the forest, are more wide-spreading and are

amongst the largest, though not amongst the tallest trees. The

bark is usually smooth, sometimes scaly, and of a pale ashy grey

colour, looking almost white against the dark background of the

forest. It is thin, and cauliflory is not uncommon. ‘The canopy is

closed and billowy, laced with lianas. Few trees (e.g. Dipterocarps)

rise markedly Anove the general level. Some of the biggest trees

are found in the deep valley of the Nam Tisang and its tributaries,

east of the Hkamti plain, w here a higher relative humidity is constant-

20°. : JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

ly maintained, giving an almost tropical luxuriance to forest which

in composition is not specially tropical.

Above 6,000 feet the advantages derived from constant high

humidity are outweighed by the disadvantages inseparable from cold

winters and a shorter growing season, and the forest takes on a more

temperate appearance.

‘The North Burma tropical forest includes a small proportion of

deciduous species, not all of which are bare at the same time, and very

few for more than a month (e. g. Spondias). They are conspicucus

on account of their comparative scarcity. Most of them shed their

leaves in response to cold in December-January, rather than in. res-

ponse to drought in April-May, as in monsoon forest. Remote from

the mountains the Myitkyina plain itself, as already remarked, is less

evergreen. Some trees (€.¢. Dipterocarpus alatus, Ficus spp.) heed

neither cold nor drought, but shed their leaves in the rainy season,

and perhaps at any season.

In the hot weather (March-April) the canopy is of the most varied

hue, and the many shades of green, mingled with the bronze,

yellow, purple and scarlet (e.g. Mesua ferrea) of breaking leaf.buds

(though the leaves unfold far more rapidly than in temperate cli-

mates) make a wonderful display of colour. Shortly before the rains

many trees come into flower, while in winter others. are conspicuous

in fruit (e.g. Terminalia myriocarpa, so abundant in the Mali Hka

valley).

The casual flowering and leaf renewal of some species is Well

illustrated by Stereospermum chelonoides which I have seen in April

both leafless and in full foliage, in flower, and in fruit. Isolated

roadside specimens are usually leafless in the hot weather, but those

inside the forest are usually at least fledged.

The trees grow close together, no two in contact alike. None are

gregarious, though many are extremely abundant. Trees: isolated

from the surrounding forest generally die, like parts cut from a

living organism,

Beneath the billowing canopy there is a lower storey of small trees

and large shrubs, scattered amongst the giants, e.g., Kydia calycina,

Wendlandia tinctoria, W. scabra, Sterculia coccinea, Vernonia

Alpinn, V.Vidalli, Baccaurea ramiflora, Croton Joufra, Sarcosperma

katchinense, Aporosa dioica, Mussaenda Roxburghi, Ordisia flori-

bunda, Callicarpa floribunda, Clerodendron nutans ; with species of

Actinodaphne, Myristica, Mallotus, Glochidion, Saurauja and many

NOIRE; : ae :

In marshy ground by the roadside grow colonies of tall Alpinia,

and other Zingiberaceae, Araceae (Lasia and others), and grasses.

Where the forest has been burnt, bamboos and species of Musa

spring up gregariously ; these take possession of. the roadside, where

repeated cutting and burning to keep the road open takes place.

Naturally herbac eous plants do not bulk large in this zone, but there

are a few characteristic species besides those mentioned above, OX

Crotolaria teragona, whose vivid chrome yellow flowers may often

be seen in winter. on the edge of the jungle, Roadside banks give

herbaceous plants every chance, and here we see species of Didymo-

carpus, Chirita and other. Gesneraceae, several species of Begonia

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BULMA 2t

(more typical of the next zone), small Acanthaceae as Rungia, Rubia-

ceae (Oldenlandia), Orchidaceae, and vascular Cryptogams. The

beautiful violet flowered saprophyte Burmannia disticha is common

in ditches on the Hkamti plain. The following are common trees :—

Chisocheton paniculatus, Duabanga sonneratioides, »Terminalia

Catalpa, Gmelina arborea, Pterospermum acerifolium, Bombax mala-

baricum, Echinocarpus assamica, Shorea assamica, Dillenia indica,

Elaeocarpus obtusus, Castanopsis indica, Talauma Hodgsoni, Quer-

cus semiserrata, Magnolio pterocarpa, Bischofia javanica, Trema

orientalis, Salix tetrasperma (by streams), Gnetum Gnemon.

- The more bizarre looking trees include screw pine (Pandanus

furcatus and others, Caryota urens (one of the very few tall palms

other than climbing species), small palms such as Zalacca, Livistona,

Wallichia in the undergrowth, large strangling figs (Micus Benja-

mina, I. elastica), tall non-epiphytic figs with bunches of fat fruits

dangling from their trunks, and tree ferns. Big climbers and

epiphytes, though not so many and varied as in the Malaysian ~

jungle, are nevertheless important. Amongst the former may be

mentioned a fine pink flowered Chonemorpha, Beaumontia grandi-

fiora, Bauhinia Pottingeri, B. tenuiflora, Thunbergia grandiflora,

Hiptage “Madablotta, Porana racemosa, Aspidopterys obcordata,

Toxocarpus himalensis, also many large climbing palms, Acacias,

vines, Asclepiads, and others, besides root clinging Ficus and

Aroids.

Epiphytes are mostly- herbaceous, a few shrubs (e.g. Mragraea,

Aeschynanthus acuminata), small orchids, ferns (Platycerium, Cyclo-

phorus), Lycopodium. This epiphytic flora grows more varied, in-

cluding many shrubs, as one ascends, whereas lianas decrease in size

and variety, a hint that humidity favours the former, heat the latter.

It is not difficult to recognise the tropical rain forest. Charac-

teristic trees can be picked out at all seasons, by their shape; or they

are Conspicuous in flower, or in young foliage, or in fruit. Good

indicators are Mesua ferrea (scarlet when in young leaf), Terminalia

myriocarpa, very conspicuous when festooned with bunches of red

fruit, the tall Dipterocarps, the strangling figs, the twisted Pandanus,

and other outstanding trees.

There is one sere, associated with the two lower forest zones, of

which mention must be made, and that is the river bank vegetation

between low and high water, exposed during the winter months. It

includes herbs, shrubs, and small trees. The crimson flowered

Rhododendron Simsii grows on rocks in the river beds of both the

Mali Hka and ’Nmai Hka less than 1,000 feet above sea level. With

it. one. sometimes sees a white rose like R. bracteata, and less

commonly Woodfordia floribunda. Three distinct associations occur

according to whether the ground is mainly sand, pees or solid

rock—there are no mud banks on these swift rivers.

Not much will grow in pure sand except along high water mark

where, fringing the jungle, a barrage of vegetation beats back the

river’s roaring tide. These shrubs, whose tangled roots from which

the sand is often washed away, giving almost an appearance of

mangrove, are often partly submerged, but they form a fine defen-

sive belt. to uhe jungle behind. Here grow a number of, interesting

22 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

plants, ‘such as Syzygium (Eugenia) polypetalum, S. aciculinum,

S. Cuttingti, Elaeagnus rivularis, Camellia stenophylla, E. nitida;

several of these endemic. “

In crevices of rock grow several ferns (Dryopteris, Pteris.

Griffithit) and small grasses (Tripogon trifidus, Arundinella setosa,

Apocopis Wightit) and such plants as Justicia procumbens, all these

withstanding long submergence. In stony ground clumps of the

queer Cryptocoryne Cruddasiana, and in sandy places Strobilanthes

arenicolus are other common intertidal plants. A common under-

shrub is Rhabdia lycioides. .

The close relationship between the equatorial rain forest of

Malaysia and the rain forest of North Burma needs no emphasis.

Many species are common to both. On the other hand many

Malayan species and genera are not found in North Burma. There

is no doubt however that the evergreen tropical rain forest forms a

continuous belt from Malaysia to North Burma in spite of the ‘dry

zone’—a local interruption—in central Burma. This belt reaches

from 10° or 15° south of the equator to 28° north of the equator a dis-

tance of 2,500 miles. | :

In Pleistocene times the North Burma plateau was covered with an

ice sheet which reached as far south as 26° (Htawgaw) on the China

frontier and to 27° further west. Glaciers probably crept even

further south and their influence must have been felt beyond Myit-

kyina. In Yunnan there 1s ample evidence that the ice sheet reach-

ed at least to 24°.

So far as North Burma is concerned, this Indo-Malaysian flora

must have travelled northwards up the valleys in the wake of the

retreating ice. It followed hard on its heels, in quite recent times.

Hence the flora of the low country is overwhelmingly Indo-Malaysian.

It. may be argued that there is no such thing as tropical rain forest

in North Burma. We can of course take that view if we prefer it,

lumping together everything up to 5,000 feet and calling it subtropical

forest. I do not think it is a matter of profound importance.

Classification is a convenience, a ready filing system (though it has,

or we hope it has, a significance of its own) framed to help, not to

hinder us. It reflects the state of our knowledge at the time. As know-

ledge accumulates the tendency is to distinguish more exactly. My own

preference is to call the bottom storey of the North Burma forest,

tropical evergreen rain forest, and I have no difficulty in recognising

it when I see it. The classification here put forward may serve a

useful purpose until, with further knowledge, a better one is framed.

Endemics of the tropical rain forest belt are: Bauhinia Pottingeri,

Albissia Vernayana, Camellia stenophylla, Elaeagnus rivularis, Syzy-

gium Cuttingii, S. aciculinum, Agapetes Wardii, Rauwolfia rivularis,

Strobilanthes arenicolus.

VIII. SusrropicaL HILL JUNGLE.

There is no sharp dividing line between this zone and the last.

Tropical Rain Forest passes insensibly into Subtropical Hill Jungle

which above 3,000 feet at any rate is easily recognised by a larger

proportion of oaks, chestnuts, laurels, Meliaceae, also by an increase

in the number of tree ferns, palms (especially climbing palms) and

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 23

Pandanus; and by a marked decrease in the: number of strangling

figs. Many common trees of the tropical zone ascend to 3,000. or

4,000 feet, but as we approach the high mountains and experiénce

sharper winters, e.g. on the Hkamti plain, tropical species decrease.

It is as the zone of Magnoliaceae and laurels that the subtropical

hill jungle is most easily distinguished. In spite of the abundance

of other species, laurels, easily recognisable both in flower and in

fruit, form an appreciable fraction of the forest. Many no doubt

belong exclusively to this zone. What trees are altogether confined

to the hill jungle it is at present impossible to say, but the following

are at any rate characteristic. Aesculus assamicus (absent from or

very rare in the Mali valley, common in the Nmai valley), Carpinus

viminea, Ulmus lanceaefolia, Engelhardtia spicata, Lithocarpus

spicata and L. viridis, Gastanopsis argentea, C. argyrophylla and

C. hystrix, Betula alnoides and B. cylindrostachya, Magnolia ptero-

carpa, Talauwna Hodgsoni, Manglietia Caveana, Michelia punduana

and M. floribunda, Acer pinnatinervium and A. chionophyllum,

Tetrameles nudiflora, Eriobotrya platyphylla, Bauhinia variegata,

Albizzia Vernayana, Illicitwm cambodianum, Lindera caudata (with

drip-tip leaves, which are of frequent occurrence in this zone). L.

megaphylla, L. dictyophylla and L. Neesiana, Litsaea brachypoda.

Mention must also be made of Nephelium (at least one species differ-

ent from that found in the tropical forest), Parinarium, Spondias,

Lagerstroemia, Sterculia, Garcinia, Actinodaphne, Cinnamomum.

One or two Dipterocarps ascend to 3,000 feet. Big trees with hand-

some compound leav es, such as Cedrela, Chisocheton and Melia are

frequent.

The decrease in the number of strangling figs has been mentioned ;

there are also fewer tall figs of the F. pomifera type. In the Tamai

valley (3,000-4,000 ft.) the commonest tree species are Ficus Cunia,

F. obscura, F. hirta, and F. clavata, besides smaller shrubby and

climbing species. Bamboos of several genera occur in variety, mixed

with the trees, and there are many climbing palms, which here attain

their maximum development. In the hill sungle the tree trunks are

more frequently concealed behind a wealth of root climbers—Aroids

such as Raphidiophora, Ficus, ferns, mosses, and foliacious lichens,

besides epiphytes and lianas. Amongst the last mentioned are

Lonicera Hildebrandi, several species of Clematis, Vitis, Bauhinia, ~

Mussaenda, Rubus, Celastrus, Toddalia. Other big llanas are

Kadsura_ heteroclita, Jasminum pericallianthum, J. Duclouxit,

Stachyurus cordatula, Gelsemium. elegans, and Illigera nervosa.

Herbaceous climbers include Gentiana (Crawfurdia) Trailliana and

G. Bulleyana, species of Codonopsis, Dactylicapnos, Porana.

Epiphytes are more abundant here than in the tropical belt. They

include shrubs and herbs—Medinilla, Aeschynanthus and_ other

Gesneraceae, Hedychium, Vaccinium, Schefflera, many orchids and

ferns, and Agapetes. In fact North Burma may well be the present

centre of distribution of this last genus. Above 4,000 feet, especially

in the neighbourhood of high mountains, -the first epiphytic

Rhododendrons, including R. dendricola and R. taronense are found.

Coming to the undergrowth, many shrubs grow on the steep

slopes and on ridges, in second growth and ‘along the rocky

river banks. Mention may be made of the following: Daphne

24 .. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45,

papyracea, Rubus indotibetanus, Viburnum cylindricum, Buddleja

asiatica and B. candida, Rhododendron sino-Nuttallii (often epiphy-

tic), Eurya chinensis and E. nitida, Stryrax serrulatus, Symplocos

araioura, Brassatopsis trilobata, species of Lasianthus, Ficus, Euony-

mus, Syzygium, Pittosporum; there is also scattered herbaceous

undergrowth, ferns and monocoty ledons. Yet except along the beds

of torrents, the hill jungle is fairly open, not particularly difficult

to penetrate, although there are thickets of climbing palm or other

impenetrable vegetation in places.

In spite of its generally smaller trees the hill jungle still bears the

stamp of the tropics which is more exactly the stamp of a warm

moist climate. But there is an obvious difference already in the her-

baceous vegetation, well seen in seres such as occupy the roadside

banks and river beds. There is an increase in the number of species

of Impatiens, Begonia, Chirita, Viola, Strobilanthes, Didymocarpus,

also in the families Commelinaceae, Gesneraceae, Campanulaceae,

Zingiberaceae. Other common plants on the roadside banks are

Campanumoea, Canscora, and Lycopodium. Two notable ground

orchids found in this zone are Paphiopedilum Wardii and Cypripe-

dium villosum, the former endemic, the latter extending southwards.

at least to Moulmein. It is in fact in the upper strata of the hill

jungle that the botanical explorer really begins to enjoy himself.

As to the relationship of the flora it is stil! largely Indo-

Malaysian, but now there is an increasing number of Chinese forms.

Above 5,000 feet as the.winters grow longer and colder, the Eastern

Asiatic element as rapidly increases. Nevertheless within the 5,000

feet limit the climate is not so very different from that of the tropical

belt, with a longer cold weather check on growth. There is the same

high relative humidity.

So far I have made no attempt to define the limits of the hill

jungle except in terms of altitude. The lower limit may be taken

roughly as the winter mist line, that is the altitude above which

winter mists do not normally lie. On the Hkamti plain for example,

the mist, which often persists till 10 A.M., is perhaps a thousand feet

thick. Approaching the plain in December in the early morning one

looks down onto a sea of cloud; and in this mist bath the tropical

forest stands for several hours daily throughout the cold weather.

In the Mali valley, between Myitkyina and Fort Hertz, mountains

more than a thousand feet above the river are generally clear of

mist, which drenches the lower jungle—you can hear it dripping

like rain from the trees on which it condenses. The hill jungle is

clear of this stagnant humidity.

The upper limit corresponds roughly with the lower limit of

Bucklandia populnea, which begins somewhere about 5,000 feet.

Endemics of the Subtropical Evergreen Hill Jungle are :—

Acer pinnatinervium and A. chionophyllum, Saurawa subspinosa,

Brassaiopsis trilobata, Maesa Marianae, Symplocos araioura, Strobi-

lanthes stramineus, Ophiorrhiza lignosa, Vernonia adenophylla, Lac-

tuca gracilipetiolata, Illigera nervosa, Eriobotrya platyphylla, Paphio-

pedilum Wardii, Agapetes adenobotrys, A. pubiflora, Stachyurus

cordatula, Wickstroemia floribunda, Brachytome Wardu, Lastanthus

Wardit.

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 25

IX. SUBTROPICAL PINE FOREST,

. The Ngawchang valley between Htawgaw and Gangfang has

Been cultivated for at least 200 years and by immigrants from China,

the lower slopes are every where terraced with permanent rice fields,

in contrast with the shifting cultivation practised over the greater

part of North Burma. The lower 2,000 or 3,000 feet of the valley

up to a height of 6,000-7,000 feet above sea level is occupied by

Pine-Oak Forest (mainly confined to exposed south facing slopes).

This Pine-Oak Forest, called Subtropical Pine Forest by Champion,

forms open parkland, the trees growing amongst grass and bracken,

and also scattered shrubs. Not less characteristic in this association

is alder. The oaks commonly associated with Pinus insularis are

Quercus incana, Q. serrata and Q. Griffithii; shrubs include Pieris

ovalifolia (which suffers severely from an unsightly blister blight),

Wendlandia speciosa, Vernonia clivorum and V. adenophylla (the

latter semi-scandent), Dipentodon sinicus (sole representative of the

new family Dipentodonaceae Merril), Gaultheria Griffithiana and G.

yunnanensis, Litsaea euosma, L. moupinensts and L. Forrestii.

The question arises, is the Subtropical Pine Forest a climax

formation or is it a fire pre-climax? Periodically in cold weather the

dry hill sides are burnt, and this manifestly favours the growth of

Pine. On the other hand, the sandy soil also favours the growth of

Pine. In shady gullies it is true one finds normal subtropical ever-

green hill jungle sometimes with scattered Pine, as in the Ngaw-

chang valley below Htawgaw. This forest so far as one can judge

has never been burnt, and it seems probable that the whole valley

would be similarly forested, were it not for the effect of fire, which

undoubtedly favours the Pine at the expense of broad-leafed trees. —

To whatever it owes its origin, the Pine-Oak forest exists as a

definite climax and will continue to exist as long as the hill sides are

periodically burnt.

In the less exposed parts, and in ravines, where Pinus insularis

is not conspicuous, many trees occur, the following amongst them :

Altingia excelsa, Rhodoleia Forrestii, Prunus cerasoides, Ulmus

lanceaefolia, Carpinus viminea, Elaeocarpus dubius, Alnus nepalen-

sis, Podocarpus nerifolia, Betula cylindrostachya, Schima argentea,

Acer laevigatum, and more rarely is Wightia Alpini, Gordonia

axillaris, and the Chinese palm Trachycarpus excelsa, probably in-

troduced from China. Several of these are at least as characteristic

of the Subtropical Hill Jungle. Prunus cerasoides is as much at

home with Pinus excelsa as with P. insularis; and the same is true

of Prunus Wallichii. On the other hand Rhodoleia Forresti is only

vecorded from the China frontier.

Shrubs include Berberis bicolor and B. incrassata, Mahonta

lomariifolia, Dendropanax burmanicus, Plagiopetalum Esquirolit,

Sporoxeia sciadophylla, Clethra Delavayi, Aucuba humalaica, Hel-

wingia himalaica Corylopsis manipurensis, Microtropis discolor,

Luculia intermedia. Some of these are endemic and several are

equally common with Pinus excelsa in the Temperate Pine Forest,

e.g. Clethra, Bore anid MSrOU OES, Many small woody clim-

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

bers, species of Clematis.and Smilax, Sabia Ritchiae, Mezoneurum

cucullatum, Prenanthes volubilis, occur in the Pine forest.

Epiphytes are fewer and less conspicuous than in the correspond-

ing moister climax, Subtropical Evergreen Hill Jungle. They are

chiefly ferns and small orchids, but there are also a few Ericaceae

including Rhododendron dendricola (which is equally at home on

boulders in the open) and Agapetes Lobbii, also found on boulders.

Pinus insularis is scarcely found below 3,000 feet in the Nzaw-

chang valley and here it is mixed with broad-leafed forest and with

Podocarpus nerufolia, the undergrowth consisting largely of the big

gregarious fern Dipteris. Not many Pine trees survive above 7,000

feet, where one occasionally meets with Pinus Armandi, as near the

Panwa Pass.. At this altitude the scarlet Rhododendron Delavayi is

a gorgeous sight in spring. The open grassland of the Panwa Pass

with scattered oaks (Quercus Engleriana and other species) is very

like the Pine-Oak forest of the Ngawchang valley, but 2,000-3,cc0

feet higher, as indicated by the presence of Rhododendron Delavayi

which dces not grow below 8,ooo feet. There are no Pines above

Changyinku, a village at about 7,000 feet, below the Pass. When

forest reappears beyond the open gra .ssland of the Panwa Pass, it

is Mixed Temperate Forest, with several small tree Rhododendrons,

such as R. euchaites and R. habrotrichum, even an: occasional silver

fir. Subtropical Pine Forest is in fact a local development; the

normal sequence is Subtropical Hill Jungle—Temperate Rain Forest.

It might almost be regarded as a specialised type of Subtropical Hill

Jungle, just as Temperate Pine Forest is a specialised type of

Temperate Rain Forest.

_ Nevertheless the pine forest has a very characteristic herbaceous

flora, which hardly occurs in any other part of North Burma, chiefly

associated with the bracken clad slopes. Notable are two lilies,

Lilium Bakerianum and L. ochraceum var burmanicum, both

Chinese, Aeginetia indica, Gentiana cephalantha, Primula denticu-

lata, Euphorbia cyanophylla, Gerbera piloselloides, Anemone begoni-

folia, Inula Cappa, Senecio densiflora, Anisodenia pubescens. The

endemic Paphiopedilum Warditi is a Fine forest plant at Htawgaw,

but grows in Subtropical Hill Jungle east of Fort Hertz, which is

the type locality. All the above plants are increasing with the burn-

ing of the grass-bracken hillsides, none faster than the lilies and

Primula denticulata.

As regards climate, it is like that of the Subtropical Hill Jungle,

but since much of the country is open, the winters are colder.

There is winter rain and no complete cessation of growth, though

it reaches a low ebb for two or three months. Slight ground frosts

occur at the upper limit. In March-April several leafless trees flower,

others put forth fresh leaves, so that there is a kind of Spring, herald-

ed by the flowering of the cherry trees at the end of February.

X. TEMPERATE RAIN FOREST.

(a) Warm Temperate Rain Forest.—The next zone may be dis-

tinguished as temperate rain forest and is characterised by a fair pro-

portion of deciduous species, a rich epiphytic flora, and a well-marked

spring and winter, with occasional frosts and a little snow.

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 27

_ Above 5,000 feet there is a marked falling off in the number of

purely tropical species and a corresponding increase in the number

of northern and East Asiatic species. Climbing palms, bamboos,

tree ferns, and similar curious forms are still numerous, may even

reach their optimum in the lower strata of the Warm Temperate Rain

forest; but many tropical trees, including the strangling figs, dis-

appear. Small figs remain including scandent species.

Perhaps the most positive feature of this zone is the large epiphy-

tic shrub flora including half a dozen species of Rhododendron

(Sections ‘Maddeni’ and ‘Vaccinioides’ chiefly), Agapetes, Penta-

pterygium, Aeschynanthus, Ficus and others. Epiphytic ferns,

orchids, Gesneraceae, Zingiberaceae are also abundant. The

epiphytic Begonia hymenophylloides occurs in one locality where it

is not uncommon. There are fewer big lianas, though Kadsura

Roxburghit and Schisandra are found, also species of Dioscorea.

Climbing palms (Calamus and Daemonorops) are locally common

up to 6,000 feet, away from the snows, but most of the woody clim-

bers belong to northern genera like Clematis and Lonicera. Others

are Smilax, .Jasminum, Sabia, Aristolochia and Holboellia

latifolia. Herbaceous climbers include several Composites, as

Senecio scandens, Prenanthes volubilis, Mikania scandens and

Cucubalus bacciferus. Erect palms are comparatively rare and of

small stature; some of the tree Araliaceae bear a superficial resem-

blance to palms. Pandanus ascends to 6,000 feet.

Tree Rhododendrons appear for the first time at about 6,000 feet

and include R. sftenauulum, R. eriogynum and R. Kyawi. A few

species of Ilex occur. Characteristic trees include Quercus lamel-

losa, Alnus nepalensis, Betula cylindrostachya, Bucklandia populnea

and notably the big stem-clasping semi-epiphytic Wightia Alpini.

The vertical range of Bucklandia marks roughly the lower and upper

limits (5,000-7,000 feet) of the Warm Temperate Rain Forest. A good-

ly number of oaks and laurels (mostly small trees) survive into this

zone and several new species appear. The only conifers are pines

(which generally occur in sufficient numbers to give distinction to the

forest as subtropical or temperate pine forest), Podocarpus and Taxus.

In the more open forest, unencumbered with masses of climbing

plants, many shrubs and small trees are found, including species of

Sorbus, Euonymus, Viburnum, Eugenia, Photinia, Daphne, Oxy-

spora, Callicarpa, Ficus, Embelia and the very characteristic

Decaisnea Fargesit, Dichroa febrifuga, Dobinea vugaris, Potingeria

accuminata and also the beautiful Luculia intermedia, so conspicuous

in bloom in the cold weather. There are also numerous species of

Rubus. :

Herbaceous flowering plants are more frequently met with in this

zone than in the more densely forested regions below. They include

not only northern genera like Viola and Anemone, but even northern

species in such genera as Ranunculus, Oxalis. Species of Strobil-

anthes, Begonia, Impatiens, Ariszema are fairly numerous. Other

characteristic species -are the endemic Primula dictyophylla and the

widespread Parochetus communis. Several Compositae and Umbelli-

ferae are also met with, also Paris and Lobelia.

As regards climate, winters are longer and cooler, summers

shorter and cooler than in the subtropical hill forests. There is a

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol. 45%:

distinct and lovely spring marked by the flowering of cherries, Rhodo-

dendrons and many other trees and shrubs. For the first time we

experience occasional frosts at night. Deciduous trees are on the

increase, notably species of Acer; and from 5,000 feet upwards Indo-

Malaysian plants rapidly dwindle, to be replaced by Eastern Asiatic,

Sino-Himalayan and northern forms.

It may be remarked that until we reach the neighbourhood of the

high frontier ranges, there are few signs of temperate forest below

6,000 or even 7,000 feet, and any attempt to distinguish between warm

and cool temperate forest would probably be unsuccessful. But

where the mountains are 15,000 feet or more high the distinction is

useful.

There are, to borrow a term from the geologists, unconformities

of vegetation. But in the Adung valley, and again along the China

frontier, wherever big valleys run far back into the alps, a more

definite stratification of the vegetation is clearly visible. The follow-

ing endemics belong mainly to the Warm Temperate Rain Forest :—

Coelogyne ecarinata, Litsaea brachypoda and L. Cuttingiana, Sorbus

paucinervia, Photinia myriantha, Pygeum cordatum, Peliosanthes

longibracteata, Dactylicapnos grandifoliolata, Camellia Wardii, Syzy-

gium stenurum, Gamblea longipes, Begonia hymenophylloides, Den-

dropanax burmanicus, Rhododendron dendricola, Diplycosia albo-

glauca and D. pauciseta, Primula dictyophylla, Aeschynanthus

Wardu, Ixora Kingdon-Wardu, Leycesteria insignis, Viburnum

Cuttingianum, Prenanthes volubilis, Aster Helenae, Senecio pen-

tanthus.

(hb) Cool Temperate Rain Forest.——The sign of cool temperate

forest is the appearance of many trees and large shrub Rhododen-

drons, which for the first time occupy a position of importance in the

forest. Some are gregarious to a greater or lesser extent, some are

epiphytes. Rhododendron magnificum, R. panikimense and R.

decorum form an impressive group, all of which are found from

6,000 feet up. Between 7,000 and 8,000 feet, RK. bullatum, R. crin-

gerum, R. butyricum and R. nertiflorum appear. The great tide of

Rhododendron! which floods the forest between 6,000 and 12,000 feet

and submerges the alpine region beyond, has set in.

Deciduous trees form a larger proportion of the forest (which is

still mainly broad-leafed) in this zone than at higher levels where

Conifers and Rhododendrons predominate. These include maples,

cherries, birch, ash, laurels, Schima, Sorbus, Gordonia, Tetracen-

trum and others, also a remarkable species of Zanthoxylum,

resembling a Rowan at first sight. Amongst evergreen trees,

species of Ilex begin to increase. An important point about the

deciduous trees is that all of them shed their leaves in winter—there

is no hot weather with its accompanying drought to disturb them.

On the contrary in the warm weather of April and May, the leaf

and flower buds of many trees, e.g. cherry, oak, laurels, Ficus,

maple are bursting. Most of the Rhododendrons begin to flower

rather earlier (February-March) and a vast procession of migratory

birds is passing up the Adung. valley, some of them lingering amongst

the Rhododendrons ‘whose flowers contain both honey and insects.

Many of the characteristics of the warm temperate zone, e.g. the large

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY & GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA 29

epiphytic fiat flora, are emphasized here. The four seasons of

temperate lands are also well established.

The wealth of shrubs associated with the more open type of

forest to which attention was called in the warm temperate zone is

continued into the higher zone. Now the first of many species of

Berberis—B. incrassata, makes its appearance. There are many

species of Sorbus, Euyra, Agapetes, Lindera, some of them endemic.

Other shrubs are Neillia thyrsiflora, Decaisnea Fargesii, Rubus

chaetocalyx, Rhododendron neriiflorum and Gaultheria’ Wardii.

The herbaceous flora includes plants of open places such as. Primula

burmanica as well as forest undergrowth. Iris Milesii grows on

the. cliffs of the Adung gorge. Endemics of the Cool Temperate

Rain Forest are numerous and include: Rhododendron magnificum,

R. Taggianum, R. agapetum, R. insculptum, Berberis incrassata,

Lindera Vernayana and L. Wardii, Sorbus deter-ibilis and S. apiciden,

Eriobotrya Wardu, Rubus chaetocalyx and R. Wardiu. (Merrill non

Evans), Ilex cyrtura and ¥. Wardi,.Euonymus burmanica, Acer

chloranthum, Eurya Wardii and E. urophylla, Sporoxeia sciodophylia,

Agaptes pseudo-Griffithu, and A. Vernayana, Primula burmanica.

The relationship of the flora is mainly with the Himalayas and with

western China and to a lesser degree with the mountainous parts of

the Indo-Malayan region.

found in North Burma, between 3,000 and 6,000 feet, more or less.

“At 4,000-5,000 feet, where it grows best, it forms forest, mixed with

Quercus spicata and Q. Griffithii, on exposed slopes, but the trees

are scattered more as in parkland. Above 6,000 feet it passes; not

directly into Mixed Conifer forest of which it is never apparently

a constituent as Pinus excelsa is, but into Temperate (broad-leafed)

Rain forest, below the main Conifer belt.

Pinus insularis is reported not to occur in the ‘triangle’ except in

one or two isolated parts in the south. But since nobody has crossed

the high Mali-hka-Nmai-hka divide in the north where it would be

most likely to occur, this statement must be accepted with reserve. [t

is also said not to occur on the Kumaon range, but I doubt the truth

of that statement also. We know that a pine, almost certainly P.

excelsa grows on the Chaukan pass; and it is not unlikely that

FP. insularis grows on the Kumaon range south of the pass. At any

rate in the Htawgag and Hpimaw hills Pinus insularis is common

down to 3,500 feet.

Pinus excelsa on the other hand does not occur below 4,000 feet

and is found up to 8,000 feet. Between 5,000 and 7,000 feet it forms

open parkland on exposed slopes, just as P. insularis does, but.asso-

ciated with different species of trees. Unlike P. insularis, however,

it also occurs scattered through broad-leafed forest on sheltered

slopes, and at 8,000 feet one finds it mixed with Hemlock Spruce

(istcalmandiriceay in Mixed Conifer forest. But fire has” never

entered the true Temperate Pine Forest, whére P. excelsa 1s mixed

with broad-leafed trees and thick undergrowth. This however is

nothing more than a special development of Cool Temperate Rain

forest, as already: described. Where Pinus excelsa predominates

on exposed’ slopes, it is due to fire; just as with P. imsularis, the

pine seedlings survive the grass fires which destroy many of ‘the

30 JOURNAL, “BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45:

other trees. Pinus excelsa overtops the broad-leafed trees with

which it is associated.by 30 or 4o feet on the average, hence from -

a little distance the forest appears to be pure Pine forest. It

probably forms 50% of the forest in many places, e.g. in the Seinghku

valley. The broad-leafed trees mixed with it include oaks, Tex,

laurels, Rhododendrons, maples, cherry, together with a thick

undergrowth of Arundinaria. There are fewer epiphytes, but woody

climbers include Clematis Forresiti, Schizophragma nites rifold,

Paederia foetida, Aristolochia Griffithii.

There is no need to say more about the Tempera Pine forest,

which is easily recognised by the presence of one conspicuous tree;

otherwise it conforms closely with the Temperate Rain Forest in all

FESPects:

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING

FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

A. St. J. MAcDONALD.

(Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 4 (1944), Pp. 535).

(With 15 text-figures).

Part VII (Continued).

OTHER SPORTING FISH AND HOW TO CATCH THEM.

Goonch (17), Silund (18), Mulley or Freshwater shark (19), Tengra (20),

Butchwa (21), Eutropiicthys murius (22), Clupisoma garua (23), Seetul (24),

Notopterus notopterus (25), Gar Fish (26), Freshwater Eel (27), Thorny Eel (28), -

Murrals (29), Goby (30), Megalops (31).

Order: Siluroidea. Sheat ° iglhes

These are the scaleless fish, popularly known as Cat-fishes in

virtue of their feelers or long barbels which are arranged around the

mouth. Though essentially a fresh water group, some species are_

also found in salt water, natally keeping, however, near the coast.

Some of the members of this family erow to such a huge size that

they are generally known as ‘Fresh water sharks’. They mostly

prefer muddy to clear water, a fact for which their feelers are well

suited. The Sheat Fishes are easily distinguished, chiefly by the

absence of scales and the presence of barbels or feelers and frequently

a second dorsal fin which is known as the adipose fin. The mouth

is always furnished with teeth, which, however, varies much in form

and « lisposition. They all take a live bait picketed or a spinning dead

bait: sometimes a spoon or phantom. They should all be fished for

with wire and treble hooks. They do not give much play and are

apt to sulk on the bottom.

Sheat-fish is derived from Schaid-fish, the former German name

of Silurus glanis, the Wels of the Danube.

Genus: Bagarius

Gill openings wide, gill membranes” confluent with the skin of

the isthmus. Barbels eight, one pair nasal, one pair maxillary and

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 3]

two pairs mandibular. Palate edentulous, teeth in jaws pointed and

unequal. Thorax destitute of any adhesive apparatus. Dorsal fin

with one spine and six rays, adipose dorsal present. Dorsal, pectoral

and caudal fins produced into long filaments.

17. GOONCH, Bagarius bagarius (Ham.)..

Vernacular name :—Bagh Ari, Dinajpur and Rungpur; Vaghair, Purnah ;

Boonch or Goonch, N.-W. Provinces ; Gorea or Bag Machh, Assam; Rahti Jeyyah,

Telugu ; Sah-lun, Ooriah ; Kheerd, Moolandah and Guwceh, Poona and environs.

IDM Gy OFA 12-15) Pr si) VG 3.C. 17.

Fig. 17.—Bagarius bagarius (Ham.).

Head depressed and naked. Eyes small, situated in the middle of

the posterior half of the head. Mouth ventral, considerably behind

‘the tip of the snout. Teeth sharp and unequal in the jaws. An outer

widely separated row of larger ones is also present in the mandibles.

There are eight barbels, the nasals being smaller than the diameter

of the eye, the maxillary barbels possess broad bases and are gener-

ally shorter than the head. The dorsal spine is smooth, and the fin

has elongated soft termination of varying length. The pectoral

spine is stronger, serrated internally and provided with a soft pro-

longation. The caudal fin is deeply forked and both the lobes are

produced into soft filamentous processes. The caudal peduncle is

narrow and whip-like. The skin on the body is scabrous. This is

multicoloured fish, yellow, black, brown and blue. The colouration,

however, will also depend on the type of water inhabited by a parti-

cular specimen. This fish grows to a size of six feet or more and to

a weight of over 250 pounds.

These monsters are as ugly as they are unpopular, and are taken

in the same water as the mahseer. They have a most remarkable

power of adhesion, and when hooked can hold on to the bottom of the

river whether it be sand or rock, and in the strongest of currents.

They will waste hours of your timc if in any numbers, and owing to

sulki ing take twice as long to kill'as a mahseer. “Coarse eating and

looking, and should be classed as the vermin of the water. . Not found

in tanks.

Genus : Silonia

Body elongated and compressed. Head moderate and rounded

anteriorly. Eyes lateral, behind the angle of mouth and visible both

from above and below, and provided with circular adipose lids.

Mouth anterior, wide and obliquely directed upwards. Lower jaw

somewhat longer and broadly pointed in the middle. Teeth in the:

32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

jaws large and caniniform, projecting outside. A continuous V-

shaped band of villiform teeth across the palate. Post-labial: groove

widely interrupted in the middle. Nostrils wide apart and slit-like.

Two small maxillary barbels in grooves and hence liable to be over-

looked. Dorsal provided with moderately developed bony ‘spine

which is roughened externally and serrated internally. A small

adipose fin present. Pectoral spine also is strong and serrated

internally. Gill membranes deeply notched united with each other

but free from isthmus.

18. SILUND, Silonia sifondia (Ham.).

Vernacular names :—Silun (Bengal for young and half grown). Dhain, Bengal

for larger specimens; Silondia-Vacha, Calcutta: Silon, Dinajpur and Rungpur ;

Baikar, Gorakhpore ; Silond, Punjab; Ji-lung end Silond, Ooriah and Beng. ;

iVanjiou, Telugu,

D170 Es 1/3; WV Gi Ania sGm neon?

Fig. 18.—Silonia silondia (Hamilton).

In its younger stages. this fish 1s herring-shaped, but with age its

belly becomes very bulky with the result that in full-grown specimens

the ventral profile 1s greatly arched.

Colouration.—According to Hamilton “The back is of a dusky

green’. The silund is the fresh water shark, and comes first in this

group from the sporting point of view. They attain a length of 6

feet, and a weight up to 100 pounds. They have two small barbels,

dorsal pectoral fins thorned. Anal fin rays 36-44. Caudal large

and strong. Mouth, armed with rows of sharp formidable teeth, is

large and,square. The general appearance is that of a large

Butchwa. They feed in shoals much the same way as Butchwa, and

can be located by the heavy splash-splash when they are feeding.

They are fished for the same way as the mahseer, only dead bait is

more killing than spoon. They frequent the fast waters in the lower

reaches of the rivers, swirls, behind piers and bridges, or where the

water is broken. They can also be taken in still deep pools by trolling

a dead bait slowly, or with live bait on the bottom. They are found

in all the large rivers of N. India and Burma. Do not let its old

scientific name Gangelica mislead you into believing that they. are

only to be had in this river system. The two fish in the photograph

elsewhere in this book, were caught at Namti in N. Burma.

They go off with a rush the same as Mahseer, and will jump 4 or

5 feet out of the water when hooked. Excellent sport can be had

with these fish at the head of a pool, when a river comes down in

flood, generally at the beginning of the monsoon. A large bait, 6

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER ° 33

inches long’, is the best size and the most attractive. It is aw orthy

substitute for the Mahseer, if one is stationed in the plains away from

the haunts of Babus tor. Use only wire traces when fishing for the

species. It is not a tank fish.

Genus: Wallagonia

Among the Siluridae, Wallagonia is characterized by the posses-

sion of a short dorsal fin of about five rays, by the deeply forked

caudal fin which is free from the anal fin, by the free orbital margins

to the eyes and by the position of the eyes above the level of the

corners of the mouth.

19, MULLEY OR FRESH WATER SHARK. Wallagonia attu) (Bloch. and Sch.).

Vernacular names :—Boyali, Bengal; Boal or Pangash, Ooriya; Wah-lah, Vale

or Vallah, Tamil; Gwali or Mullee. Hind.; Bawgli, Assam; Mul-la and Pi-i-hee

and. Jer-i-hee, Sind; Poikee, Gond. Paren.

D. 5; P. 1/13-16; V. 8-10; A. 4/82-89; C. 17.

Fig. 19.—Wallagonia attu (Bloch).

Thisis the mulley or the so-called fresh water shark. It is devoid

of scales and-is provided with long feelers. It is not eaten by the

higher classes on account of its forbidding aspect and unclean feeding

habits. It is a greatly elongated fish. The huge mouth is armed

with two broad bands of large sharp teeth. The fish is a monster

growing to 6 feet in length. . The head is the most conspicuous part

of the fish. The eyes are small, situated entirely above the mouth

opening. The snout is spatulate and the lower jaw slightly the

longer. The maxillary barbels extend to the anterior part of the

anal fin, while the mandibulars are as long as the snout. Broad

bands of depressible pointed teeth are found on the jaws; those of the

posterior rows increasing in size. The vomerine teeth are similar

and are situated in two oval patches. The lateral line is well mark-

ed. Colour uniform grey.

It is queer in shape, with an enormous head and mouth running

down to a point, and in small tail. The head must weigh more than

half of the total weight. The anal fin runs down almost the whole

length of the body. Is blue in colour. His mouth, like the Silund’s,

is well armed with sharp rows of teeth, takes all forms of bait. Is

not a very good fighter, is highly predacious, and fancied as a table

fish.

Found .in tanks and rivers, and are best taken in the ev ening when

they feed along the edges in shallows, on frogs, and small fish. |

have seen these fish taken in Bihar in a curious way, in the many

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46.

large lakes. The fishermen use a stout cord, about 5 feet long, tied

to a strong bamboo, 7 feet long. A large hook is mounted to the end

of the cord on which as many earthworms as possible are attached. A

boat is then quietly moved along the edge of the lake, and when a

suitable spot is arrived at, the top of the rod is briskly worked back-

wards and forwards in the water, to disturb the surface. It is then

allowed to rest for a while and the performance repeated, with the

usual interval between; if no fish is taken, the boat is moved on and

the same procedure followed. I have seen four and five large fish

taken in this way in a morning. ‘The fish is apparently attracted by

the vibrations set up, and when he arrives finds a hook full of worms

awaiting him. Do not stock them in tanks; or they will devour

everything except themselves. -

Mr. Dunsford gives a very interesting account in ‘The Anglers’

Hand Book’, on how to catch this fish in tanks with fly rod, which

I reproduce here, for those readers who would like to give it a trial.

‘A good deal can be done with a spoon or phantom in a tank fuil of Mallis.

I have had some -really excellent sport in this way. My first attempt was in a

muddy tank under the Fattehabad Bungalow in the Hissar District, where I took

125 fish, al! Mallis in three days, with spoon and phantom.’

‘This was in the month of June some eight years ago. On my next visit in

the following February, I iook about 15 fish in three days, on spoon only, but they

ran much bigger, and the thinning out had evidently allowed them to grow. The

average weight on the first occasion was about 2 Ibs. and the biggest fish 6 Ibs,

while on the second occasion the average weight was 3 lbs and the biggest ro Ibs.

I have no doubt that if I had remained in the Hissar district, till the hot

weather, I should have made a good bag of decent sized fish in this tank.’

‘I have off and on done a good deal in this way, but the cream of this sport

as far as my own personal experience goes, was obtained on the 31st May and

ist June 1888, just a fortnight before writing these notes, when I tried a couple

of tanks at Kharkhoda, in the Rotak district.’

‘On the 3rd May I killed 32 ‘‘Mulleys’’ weighing 115 lbs, of which 11 weighing

40 lbs were taken on live bait, and 21 weighing 75 lbs, on a 14 inch spoon

(silver). The biggest fish on this day weighed 12 Ibs.’

‘After this they got to know something about the spoon, and more so as, owing

to blunt hooks, several fish were severely pricked and got off. On the rst June

I killed 10 fish, weighing 37 lbs, and on 2nd June 11 fish, weighing 333 lbs. Total

bag for three days 53 ‘‘Mulleys’’ weighing 185} lbs, average weight exactly

3% Ibs.’

There are, besides, many other ways of catching this fish. Frog

on the surface or on the bottom, dead or live bait, meat or even atta,

if it is highly flavoured.

Any tank that takes in flood water, during the tnonsoon, or pools

in the beds of rivers, ete., will almost certainly hold these fish in large

numbers.

Genus: Mystus

20. TENGRA. Mystus seenghala (Sykes).

Vernacular name :—Teng-ga-ra, Puntj.

D.1/7; P.1/9; V.6; A. 11-12(-5.)' C.19°2n.:

The fish attains a big size. The greatest width of its head equals

4 to 4/9 of its length. The upper surface of the head is granulated in

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 35

ridges and its median longitudinal groove reaches the base of the

occipital process. The snout is spatulate and the upper jaw is the

longer. There are four pairs of barbels. The maxillary extends

to the middle or just beyond the hind margin of the dorsal fin, the

Fig. 20.—Mystus seenghala (Sykes)

nasal to opposite the middle of the orbit, the external mandibular te

the base of the pectoral fin and the internal is one-third shorter.

Teeth are present on the palate in an uninterrupted crescentic band.

The spine of the dorsal fin is weak and indistinctly serrated posterior-

ly. It is as long as the head excluding the snout. The spine of the

pectoral fin is stronger, roughened externally, denticulated internally

and is half as long as the head. Ventral fin arises behind the vertical]

from the last dorsal ray. The caudal fin is deeply forked, upper lobe

being the longer. There is a large, pear-shaped air-bladder which is

not enclosed in bone. Colouration.—The fish is brownish along the

back and silvery on the sides and beneath with a round black spot at

the posterior end of the base of the adipose dorsal fin. It is quite a

game fish and taken chiefly on baits of the ranker nature; entrails,

bad meat, dead fish, and near burning ghats, though he may occa-

sionally be had on spinning baits. It is fancied as a table fish. Day

gives—‘The Indus, salt-ranges of the Punjab, Jumna and Ganges

certainly as low as Delhi, also the Deccan, Kistna river to its termi-

nation, and Assam.’

Genus $ Eutropiichthys

21, BUTCHWA. Eutropiichthys vacha (Ham.)

Vernacular names :—Butchwa, Hind.; Vacha, Beng.; Butchwa and Nandi

butchwa, Ooriya; Bikree, Oudh, Punj.; nee-much, N.-W.F.P.; Chel-lee, Sind ;

Nakhellettee, Tamil; Nga-myen-kouham and Katha-baung, Burmese.

D.1/7/0; P.1/13-16; V.6; A. 3-4/42-47; C. 17.

Fig. 21 —Eutropiichthys vacha (Hamilton),

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

The true Butchwa EF. vacha, that is the game little fellow that

takes a fly, fly spoon or any spinning bait and that hunts in shoals,

has been confused by Thomas, Lacy and Skene Dhu in past works,

with Clupisoma garua. In order to elucidate this, a short description

and figures of the three common fish (all called Butchwa) will be of

assistance. EF. vacha (Ham.) (fig. 21) is the true form and the best

known to anglers, taking fly and fly spoon readily, and if well on

the feed disturb the surface of the water with the familiar splash-

splash while taking toll of the small fish. They are usually found

feeding near bridges, in runs, and in the swirls near masonry struc-

ture and at junctions. '

It is easily distinguishable, with 4 pairs of barbels, and a well:

defined mouth extending back as far as the eye, with the dorsal and

pelvic fins practically opposite, and the small adipose dorsal fin

which is always present. The body is deeper and more stream lined

than either Clupisoma garua (fig. 23) or E. murius (fig. 22). It is

found both in the plains and far up the large rivers well into the

hills. I have caught them up to 54 pounds in weight:

22. Eutropiichthys murius (Ham.).

D.1/7/0; P. 1/11 (1/10 Day); V. 6; A. 3/35-40; C. 17,

Fig. 22.—EKulropichthys murius (Hamilton),

E. murius (Ham.) is in form much the same as C. garua. The

main differences being, the head is smaller with the 4 pairs of barbels

only extending as far as the head. The lips are fleshy as compared

to the other two forms. Feeds on the bottom chiefly, and is taken

at the mouth of sewage drains or under Ficus trees if the fruit is ripe

and falling into the river. Wall accept any rank bait.

23. Clupisoma garua (Ham.).

The back is not so arched as in Ey vacha, the mouth is smaller

with one of the 4 pairs of barbels (maxillar) extending to the pelvic

fin. The dorsal is well in advance of the pelvic fin and there is no

lig. 23.--Clupisoma garua (Ham.).

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 37

adipose dorsal fin. This fish is seldom taken on fly or fly spoon, but

while fishing well below the surface with worm and other rank bait.

E. murius and C. garua do not grow to more than 2 pounds, and

are mostly found in the rivers in the plains, they do not appear to

move high up the rivers as is the case with E. vacha. The fish vendor

will sell them all as Butchwa, and though good table fish, because

of their filthy feeding habits C. garua is to be avoided. |

These fish are taken with light tackle used on the small mahseer

and B. bola. They feed in shoals, and the water literally boils over

when they are really on the feed, and small fish suffer complete dele-

tion. Big bags can be made at times. They take best in the rains,

and a good bait is the mole-cricket. I have taken 17 of these fish,

in less than an hour, at the confluence of the Mali and N’Mai Khas,

north Myitkyina, where they run large. Here again I see Skene

Dhu put the limit as 5 Ibs, my best as I have said before was 5}

pounds, and a dozen fish worked out at an average of 3 pounds so

that he seems to run larger in Burma. They are found in all stages

in the course of the river, from the sluggish water of the plains to the

rocks and rapids of the hills. They live in tanks but are destructive.

Family: NOTOPTERIDAE.

Genus : Notopterus

24, SEETUL, Notopterus chitala (Ham).

Vernacular names :—Chitala, Beng.; Chitu, Oriya; Sital, Assam; -Gandan,

Sind; Mohie, Bihari; Nesh or Mohi, Punj.; Bunnih, Tirhut.

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Fig. 24.—Notophterus chitala (Hamilton).

The fish is laterally compressed and in shape. is more or less

similar to N. notopterus but the back is more strongly humped in

front and the ventral profile is almost straight. The upper profile

of the head is deeply concave. The snout is rather prominent and

the maxilla extends beyond the hind margin of the orbit. The pre-

orbital is entire. Villiform teeth are present in both jaws, with an

external enlarged row, most developed in the centre of the jaw.

There are villiform teeth on the vomer and palate. The ventral fins

are very minute and the anal and caudal are confluent. The scales

are cycloid, extending over the body, opercles and some of the fins:

those on the head are not much larger than those on the body.

There are about 51 serrations along the abdominal edge between the

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

throat and the insertion of the ventral fin. Colour, silver dark along

the back, with about 15 transverse silvery bars on each side of the

dorsal ridge, some meeting the corresponding marks on the other

side of the ridge. There are about 7 or 8 black spots near the end

of the tail. Dorsal fin is yellowish grey white, the other fins are

almost white, washed with silver on the basal half. This fish grows

to about 4 feet in length. |

The Seetul. Thomas in ‘The Rod in India’ writes :—

‘Previously knowing them only by book and report, I first saw them for

myself at the Narora anicut. The water was alive with them, rolling over on the

surface, displaying their bright silvery sides; they are very flat-sided as well as

silvery, and ‘‘giving one the impression that they were surface feeders. On that

hypothesis therefore I fished for them, and fished in vain. But there were some

seven other rods there beside your humble servant, rods tc whom the Seetul was

no stranger, and one of them catching one I asked to see it. The formation of

the mouth made me mistrust the surface antics as play, not feeding, and conclude

that feeding would ordinarily be at the bottom. The size also of the mouth told

its own tale. The mouth was remarkably. small for so large a fish, indicating

that the natural food must be small. And the dentition was not formidable, the

teeth being viliform or file-like. I took-a look also at the tackle with which my

brother angler had caught the fish. But instead of exactly copying it, I had an

idea I could manufacture something more to the fancy of my new customer.’

Although Thomas had-success while the small fish were running,

this by no means is the normal condition under which this fish is

found. In most large tanks, one sees them turning lazily over at

intervals of a few minutes, and in very local areas; so much does he

appear to rise in one place, that the Indian fishermen tribes firmly

believe that they live on mud, and dig holes in the tank over which

they constantly rise. They will take bait on the bottom, and near

the surface. I have caught them by both methods, and on both red

worms, dead shrimps, and prawns; but they will also take a small

live bait. :

I will give here an interesting incident I witnessed in a railway

water tank, which was about 30 yds. wide and 100 yds. long, and

full of Seetul, or Mohie as it was locally called. A grey haired

Muhammedan gentleman was catching these fish in a novel way. He

baited his hook with dead shrimps, and had his float fixed about two

feet above the bait. Just below the float was attached some cotton

thread, which was wrapped on a kite flying-bamboo reel, known in

the vernacular as ‘Latai’. His little boy was then sent across the

other side of the tank, paying out thread from the ‘Latai’, and with

this thread the child manipulated the bait over where a fish was seen

to be rising. I saw the old gentleman take four fish in this way, and

lose two. One fought like a tiger and weighed 18 Ibs.

As soon as the fish was struck, the cotton thread was pulled away

by a sharp tug, which released the knot on the line. This old gentle-

man taught me what I know of circumventing this fish; and it was

he who told me that he had caught them on red worm and small fish,

but his choice was for prawns and shrimps.

I have taken them with worm lowered down to the bottom when

seen rising close to the bank, and by the method described above, but

if must not be imagined that you have. only to follow out these

methods to catch them. Often will a fish rise 6 or 7 times right up

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 3Y

against your float and not look at the bait; if this happens then move

on to the next rise and try another fish, and so on.

The mouth of the fish is large enough to take a large bait, and

some persevering anglers may take them spinning, though I must

confess I have never given the time to further study this fish. I

have taken 7 fish in an afternoon, by the thread line method. They

fight hard for a bit. They are useless for the table, being very bony

and tasteless.

25. Notopterus notepterus (Pallas).

Vernacular names :—Moh, But and Purri, Punj.; Moh, N.-W.P.; Phole, Beng. ;

Ambutan-Wallah or Babersknife and Chotta Wahla, Tam.; Wallah-tattah, Mysore ;

Pulli or ‘a slice’, Ooriah ; Kan-doo-lee, Assam; Nga-hpeh and Nga-phe, Burmese.

RN \ \

ANS AAS

Fig. 25.—Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Family; SCOMBRESOCIADAE.

Genus: Xenentodon

26. GARFISH. Xenentcdon cancila (Ham.).

Vernacular names :—Hindi, Unt; Punj., Kanga; Mahratti, Katra; Ooriya,

Gongiturni ; Burmese Nga-Phon-yo; Tamil Pissu-Kolah; Assam Kokola.

2-3 2-3

me (73-13 14-16

); P. 11 ; V. 6; "A. 16-18 ( 3 CLG

Fig. 26.—Xenentodon cancila (Ham.).

This fish inhabits fresh water of Sind, India, Ceylon and also

Burma, and it attains at least 12 inches in length.

There is a deep longitudinal groove along the upper surface of the

head and the lower jaw is the longer. There is a row of large,

sharp, widely separated teeth in both jaws with an external row of

numerous fine ones, there being none on the vomer. The dorsal fin

commences opposite the anal fin. . It is about twice as far from the

anterior extremity of the orbit as it is from the posterior extremity

of the tail.. The ventral fins are inserted rather nearer the base of

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

the caudal than the hind edge of the eye. The caudal fin is slightly

emarginate. The scales are small and are arranged in irregular

rows on the body. Colour.—It is greenish-grey above, becoming

white along the abdomen. There is a silver streak with a dark

margin extending along the body from opposite the orbit to the

base of the caudal fin. The upper two-thirds of the body is closely

marked with fine black spots while there are from 4 to 5 layer

blotches along the sides between the pectoral and anal fins though

there may not be present in the juvenile ones. The dorsal and caudal

fins are posteriorly tipped darker. The anal is whitish with a greyish

margin. The eyes are golden.

Family: MURAENIDAE. | 3

27. EEL. Anguilla bengalensis Gray. “

Vernacular names :—Hindi Kalan; Mahratti Ahir; Tamil Velangu; Beng.

Bammachh; Telegu Dondupaum; Chittagong - Balais; Arracan Ngami-toung ;

Burmese Nga-shin ; Andaman Jitada.

Fig. 27.—Anguilla bengalensis Gray.

A true eel attaining very great length, it is distributed in the

islands in the Indian Ocean, Continent “of India and Burma, being’

quite common at the Andamans. It 1s a snake-like fish and an

irritable creature, swelling its head whenever angered, The head is

broader than the body with a prominent lower jaw. The length of

the cleft of mouth equals about 1/3 of that of the head and it extends

behind the posterior margin of the orbit. The lips are well deve-

loped. The mandibular teeth are divided by a longitudinal groove

while the vomerine band does not extend posteriorly so far as the

maxillary one. The dorsal fin arises at a point, slightly more than

the head length from the gill opening. The distance between the

origin of the dorsal and aa fins is equal to the length of the head.

Colour.—The fish is brownish above, becoming yellowish on the

sides and beneath. Sometimes, the upper surface of the body is

covered with black spots and blotches some of which may be con-

tinued on to the dorsal fin. The anal fin has a dark marginal band

and a light outer edge.

Order: Acanthopter gii

Family: RYNCOBDELLIDAE, Thorny Eels.

Genus : Mastacembelus

28. THORNY EEL. Mastacembelus armatus (Lacépéde).

Vernacular names :—Bahm, Vahm, and Gro age, Punj. and Sind; Kul-aral

and Sha-ta-rah, ‘Tam. ; Mudi-bom-mi-day or ‘Old Rhyncho-bdella’, Tel.; Bahm,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 4|

Bummmi and Gonti, Ooriah and Beng. ; Nga-naway-doh-nga Burm.; ‘Thorny-

backed Eel’.

D. 32-39/74-90; P, 23; A. 3/75-88.

’

A LU od Moe

PP ELSI LICL

Fig. 28.—Mastacembelus armatus (Lacépéde).

This is the spiny eel and is considered as nice eating. It is dis-

tributed throughout the fresh and brackish waters of the plains and

hills of India, Ceylon and Burma to China. It attains two feet or

more in length. The width of the body is 2/3 of its height in the

young while in the adult it equals the height. The snout is trilobed

at its anterior extremity. The maxilla reaches to below the front

margin of the orbit. There is a preorbital spine and the angle of

the preopercle possesses two or three strong denticulations. The

dorsal spines commence over the middle of the pectoral fin. The

vertical fins are confluent. There are about thirty rows of scales

between the lateral line and the base of the first dorsal ray.

Colour.—The fish is rich brown above, becoming lighter on- the

abdomen. A blackish band is sometimes met with through the eyé

and continued back in an undulating course along the upper haif of

the side. Above the band, a row of black spots are sometimes seen

along the base of the soft dorsal fin. The pectoral fins are usually

spotted while the dorsal and anal fins have bands or spots.

Family: OPpHicEPHALIDAE.

Genus : Ophicephalus

The group of Murrals (Ophicephalus) are popularly known as

Snake-headed fishes. In virtue of their accessory respiratory organ

they can live in any kind of foul water. The body is subcylindrical,

tapering from the flattened snake-like head to the rounded caudal

fin. Large and irregularly shaped scales are present on the head.

Lower jaw is longer: the maxilla reaching below the hind edge of

the eye or sometimes even behind it. The teeth of the inner row

of the lower jaw are conical while those of the palates are cordi-

form. The dorsal fin is continuous, arising above the pectoral which

does not quite reach the anal. The head and body are covered

with scales. There are about 18 to 20 rows of scales between the

snout and the origin of the dorsal fin: nine rows between the

eye and the angle of the preopercle. The number of rows between

the lateral line and the dorsal fin is subject to variation. The

fish is dark greyish above becoming dirty white beneath, cheeks

and lower surface of the mouth streaked and spotted with grey;

bands of grey or black are seen from the sides to the abdomen.

‘It is able to survive out of water for a considerable time. Excellent

table fish, and one of the favourites with the natives. It might

be claimed that in any tank or stream where weeds prevail, this

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

fish will be found; even though the tank dries up they still survive,

aestivating through this period. They can be seen at the surdtace

of the water basking in the sun in the middle of the day,. when

they can be shot, though this is not sporting.

Parental care.—The Murral exhibits a keen parental aifection

towards the young, and can be seen working along the edge with a

cloud of black youngsters over it. It furiously attacks any fish

which comes near, and can be taken by a bait with ease though it

is a shame to do so.

Beware of stocking tanks with this fish, where there are other

varieties. They have no principles, and will even eat their young

after they have attained a reasonable size.

Tackle. —Light tackle or stout gut, or fine wire for preference, as

the teeth soon fray the gut; fished for in the manner for Pike, though

he can be taken by etter means if the opportunity comes your way.

In the C.P. and Berar, I- have taken the fish in the two following

ways :—

These fish’ abound in great numbers in the large tanks or lakes

built as rain water reservoirs. There is generally a fringe of weeds

running along the edge of the tank to about 8 to 10 feet. These fish

can be seen.on occasions, in the evening, feeding in shoals along the

outside fringe of weeds. They move in one direction, and are locat-

ed by a continual bob, bob, of black snake-like heads on the surface.

A light rod and cast, with a fair sized hook run through a mole

cricket, and cast into the shoal gives excellent sport, and 5 and 6 fish

can be taken in this way out of a shoal, by following them up.

It is great fun and IJ have seen 11 fish taken in one evening. The

- fish run to 7 and 9 pounds each. I was indebted to an Uncle for this

tip. The other method also tried out in the C.P. is baiting in the

clearing of the weeds on the edge of the tank, where Chilwa collect.

A live bait is fixed lightly through the back and lowered to a depth

of three feet below the surface. The Chilwa are collected, and the

Murral is signalled by a thousand small fish jumping out all round

the float, like a fire-work display. The next moment the float goes

and you have your fish.

- Ophicephalus amphibius. McClell.

Ophicephalus amphibius, McClelland, Cal. Jour. Nat. His., V, p. 275. Plates

1 and#6.. =

Note.—McClelland’s O. amphibius is united with O. barca by Day under the

latter name. “The species here described does not agree with Day’s description of

O. barca but seems to agree, ‘except in colour, with the scanty notes of

McClelland’s O. amphibius given in Day’s ‘Fishes of India’. Dr. Hora is inclin-

ed to agree with Day in uniting the two species but, seeing that our specimens are

all from the type locality of McClelland’s O. amphibius and local names and

habits agree, while the colours agree better with O. amphibius than with O. barca

as described by Day, we have ventured to use McClelland’s name.

Vernacular names :—Bora Cheng, Mechi; Borna, Rabha.

D. 51; P.17; V.1/5; A. 34; C. 14; L. 1..78. Barbels 2-retrac-

tile.

In shape almost identical with O. marulius. A pair of short,

retractile, rostral barbels which are absent in the latter species.

Colour.—A gorgeously coloured fish. The ground-colour is blue

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 43

when viewed obliquely and iridéscent green when viewed at right

angles to the surface. On the body this colour is sprinkled’ with

dark spots, uniform in size but irregular in shape. These spots are

absent from the belly, sparse below the lateral line and increasingly

plentiful towards the back where they coalesce. On the head the

spots are larger and rounded, rich brown below the level of the eye

and becoming darker and more plentiful towards the top of the head

where they coalesce. The brightest blue (green) and richest brown

are in the region of the upper lip. Along the body 13-16 more or less

irregular vertical bands about equal in width to the interspaces

between them and extending from the dorsal to below to lateral line.

These are bright orange bordered with brown and merging into

brown on the back and are free from dark spots. The dorsal has the

basal half brown or orange, the outer half blue (green), darkening

outwards but having a narrow pale blue or white edge. Pectoral

deep orange. Pelvics blue. Anal iridescent blue (green) with a

narrow dark border. Caudal brown at the base, then iridescent blue

(green) with dark rays, then blackish with a narrow white or bluish-

white border. Sige.—Our longest was 18.4 inches. Habitat.—Rus-

sell obtained his specimens in the vicinity of the Chel River about

1845 and gave them to McClelland. Our specimens all come from

this vicinity but Dent, who obtained these specimens, has subsequent-

ly received reports from Rabhas living immediately east of the Torsa

which indicate that the species is found there also. Habits.—The

young.are found, during the rains, in flooded paddy-fields enclosed by

forest. The villagers catch them and put them in their wells to

erow. Large fish are found in water-pockets in the beds of dried-up

streams in the forest. Russell records that they are found in holes as

much as two miles from the river.

Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.).

Vernacular names :—Cheng, Bengali; Hill, Nepalese; Naserainiselo, Mechi;

Na-ram, Rabha; Chaingo, Hindi (Bihar), ;

D. 32-37; P. 15; A. 21-23; C. 12; L. I. 40-45.

Shape similar to that of O. marulius, but head scales larger.

Colour.—Brown with a series of about eight darker brown bands

sloping slightly forward from the vertical between the dorsal ridge

and lateral line, sometimes produced below the latter. Pectoral fin

with three lighter zones alternating with darker. Day gives—‘In

the young there is often a large ocellus with a light edge on the last

five dorsal rays’. We have never found this present. Size.—We

have had them up to about 8 inches. Day gives—‘grows to at least

13 inches’. Habitat.—Muddy or clear streams and ponds from 2,000

feet downwards. Day gives—‘Fresh waters throughout India,

Ceylon, Burma and the Andamans, also near Gwadar on the Mekran

Coast.’

Ophicephalus punctatus Bloch.

Vernacular names :—Taki, Bengali (local); Lata (Lower Bengali); Na-taki,

Rabha.

Deeg -So bla A. 21-23) ©1245 el. 37-40)

Shape very similar to that of O. marulius. Coloury.—Brown on

the back fading to lighter beneath. A series of about eight vertical

4:4. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL @HISdi= SOCIETY, Volk 45.

darker bands above the lateral line alternating with a similar series

below it. The last band before the caudal is continuous above and

below the lateral line. Pectorals not spotted or striated. Size.—We

have had them up to 7 inches long. Day gives—‘up to a foot’.

Habitat.—Streams in the hills up to 2,000 feet, muddy streams and

tanks in the Terai and Duars. Day gives—‘Fresh waters generally

in the plains of India, stagnant preferred to running.’ Habits.—Day,

quoting Gunther in Ceylon, records that a female was taken in

February containing 4,700 larger, besides some smaller, ova.

Ophicephalus stewartii Flayfair.

Vernacular names :—Dudu-cheng, or Te-cheng, Bengali; Na-ram, Rabha.

1D, SOO) 1D, WHEW. Be Ay Ds Cie 1, he ASO,

Shape similar to O. marulius, but the scales on the head are much

larger. Colour.—Dark brown on the back fading to lighter on sides

and belly. A series of about eight indistinct darker bands sloping

forwards are generally visible above the lateral line and for a short

distance below it. Some scales have a well-defined, circular, black

spot. These spots are more plentiful above the lateral line where

they roughly follow the darker bands. Below the lateral line they are

fewer and more regularly arranged. The dorsal has a deep blue

iridescence along its base, during life, and is white or white and

orange along its outer edge. The chin is marbled and the pectorals

spotted in zones. Size.—We have found them up to 18 inches. Day

gives—‘growing to about ro inches. Habitat.—Clear streams in the

forests of the Duars. Day gives—‘Cachar and Assam, in both

running and standing water’.

29. MURRAL. Ophicephalus striatus Bloch.

Vernacular names :—Hindi Moral, Sowl; Punj. Sowl; Beng. Sol; Ooriah.

Sola; Mahrati Sohr; Canarese. Marl; Tamil Viral; Tel. Sowarva; Malabar,

Wrahl; Assam. Hal; Chittagong. Holi; Coorg. Owlu minu; Singalese Lalla ;

Burmese Nga-yan; Mugh. Nga-ain.

1D)s Bii235).8 leh” Wolbie yvaceaoes (Co Up 10p LesWesth

29.—Ophiocephalus striatus Bloch.

In shape this fish resembles O. marulius. Colour.—Very dark

brown above the lateral line, this colour continuing below this line in

irregularly-shaped streaks, roughly parallel and a little off the vertical

(the upper end in advance of the lower). The rest of the lower half

yellow or orange. The pectoral not spotted or striated, The young

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 45

are orange-red, when 2 or 3 inches long. Size.—QOur longest just

over 2 feet. Day gives—‘three feet or more’. Habitat.—Muddy

rivers and tanks in the Terai and Duars. Day gives— ‘Fresh waters

throughout the plains of India, Ceylon, Burma, China and the Philip-

pines, especially delighting in swamps and grassy tanks’. Habits.—

Dent says—‘The young, 2 or 3 inches long, are orange-red in colour.

On a flooded paddy-field, where the water is 2-3 feet deep, I have seen

a mass of probably one or two hundred swimming all herded together

like tadpoles. Although I have not actually seen the parent fish

myself, all the local busti-wallahs assure me that the mother is

always close by and will protect the young from danger.’ Day says—

‘These fishes take a bait very readily, especially a frog, and are said

to rise to a salmon-fly’.

Family : GOBIIDAE.

Genus: Glossogobius

30. GOBY. Glossogobius giuris. (Haim.).

Vernacular names :—Wartee-poolah, Boan and Jsurudan, Mal.; Nullatan,

Oolloway, Tam. ; Tsikideondoa and Issakee doondoo, Tel.; Gulah, Ooriah; Nga-

sha-boh, Burmese; Poo-dah, Andam. Ab-bro-ny, Canarese; Goo-loo-wak and

Boul-la, Punj.; Gooloo, Sind and N.-W.P.

1 1

e 9 . aj Y

D. & 753 P20; V.1/5; A.

gigi C- 175 L. 130-34.

hen

BOO!) Meee

Co . ae

ie,

SSS

Fig. 30.—Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

This is a widely distributed fish and is found along the east coast

of Africa, throughout the plains of India, Ceylon and Burma and

Malay Archipelago and beyond. It attains a foot and a half in

length. The head is longer than it is broad with a longer lower jaw,

its maxilla extending below the anterior margin of the orbit. In the

upper jaw the teeth are arranged in villiform rows with an outer

enlarged row anteriorly which laterally becomes two rows of which

the inner one is sometimes the larger. In the lower jaw also there

is an anterior-row which becomes double laterally. There are two

dorsal fins, the first with a few spiny rays and the rest are all soft

rays. The caudal fin is long and may be either pointed or rounded.

Colour.—The colour of the fish varies with the environment, but

broadly it is of a fawn-colour with irregular bands, spots or blotches

on the back and sides of the body. The vertical fins are spotted.

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

SPORTING FISHES FOUND IN BRACKISH SALT WATER.

31. Megalops cyprinoides (Brouss).

Vernacular names :—Punnikown and Naharn, Ooriah; Moran cundai, Tamil;

N ga-tan-yonet, Burmese.

D. 19-21 ee

C.19; L. 1:37-42.

); P.15-16; v.10; A. 2427 (-.)

Kig. 31.—Megalops cyprinoides (Brouss).

This fish attains a very big size and is found along the east coast

of Africa, in fresh waters and estuaries of India, Ceylon, Malay Archi-

pelago, China and Polynesia. The eyes are big and provided with

narrow adipose lids. The lower jaw is prominent and the maxilla

reaches to opposite the hind edge of the eye. There are villiform

teeth in both jaws, on the vomer, palatines and pterygoids. The

dorsal fin arises opposite the ventral and about mid-way between the

snout and base of the caudal fin. The caudal fin is deeply lobed.

Colour.—The summit of the head is dark olive while the back is

bluish green. The abdomen is silvery with bluish reflections. The

sides of the head, the lateral line and the margins of scales are of a

brilliant silver. The dorsal and caudal fins are greyish with minute

black dots. The margins as well as the last elongated dorsal ray are

also black. Pectoral, ventral and anal are diaphanous with some

black dots and the last anal ray is dark. The eyes are silvery with a

dark tint along the orbital margins.

Cock Up. _-Lates_ calcarifer.

Red Perch. Lutianus roseus.

Bahmin. Polynemus tetradactylus.

Seer. Cybium. i

These will be discussed in

the chapter on Sea

Fishing.

English Trout

Family : SALMONIDAE.

Salmo fatio, Brown Trout.

Salmo iridens, Rainbow Trout.

— Trout Fishing.—This needs but brief mention here, as the few

places where the trout has been introduced are either protected by

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 47

clubs or by Government, and full and detailed information can be had

by application to the Secretary of such clubs, or through the Game

Warden, or such other official in charge.

Kulu.—Has excellent trout fishing, and some good fishermen

have retired there who could be approached for information and help.

The Fishing Club would put one in touch with one of these gentle-

men or furnish full details of the water, hotels, etc. One angler

wrote me and suggested taking a tent.

Kashmir.—Is too well known to make detailed notes here, and all

the information required can be obtained from the Game Warden of

the State, or from the many residents, some of whom are excellently

informed of the best places and lures.

Ootacamund.—Vhere is a useful little book written by Red

Palmer, dealing with the fishing near and around Ooty, and the

Nilgiris. It is titled “With Fly, Spoon, and Minnow and Rifle’

and acquaints the stranger with the best places, bait etc.

Kkumaon.—The Trout hatcheries at Bhowali have been turned

into a bathing pool, but the Guna Lake in Garhwal, high up and

right off the beaten track, abounds with Trout; stocked years ago

from this hatchery they have multiplied to such an extent that one

angler on a recent visit there got tired of catching them, they how-

ever, run small.

Ceylon.—Further afield is Ceylon, with excellent trout streams.

This concludes my knowledge of the Trout fishing obtained in this

country.

Brown Trout has in recent years been introduced in Bhutan,

where they are doing well. They have also been stocked in certain

parts of the Darjeeling Himalayas.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS.

M. A. WynTer-BLyTH, M.A. (Cantab.).

(Continued from Vol, xliv, No. 4 (1944), p. 549).

Part II

LycZNIDA.

148. (H8:/) Spalgis epius epius, Wd.

Found at low elevations but is not common. Three specimens from Kallar,

2B) le Si 12\and 7/5.

Hampson notes that it is more common on the southern slopes than on the

northern; 2,000’ to 4,000’.

149. (H10°.¢) Talicada nyseus nyseus, Gtier.

A very local butterfly that is abundant at a number of places between 3,500.

and 8,000’ froin February to May, in August and September, and’in December.

150. (H1l:ie) Castalius rosimon fosimon, F.

Always abundant up to about 4,000’.

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIBLY, Vol, 43.

151. (H11:28) Castalius caleta decidia, Hew.

Found up to 8,000’, but is never abundant. It can be caught on the plateaux

in April and May and at low elevations in April, July and August and December.

152. (H11:3N) Castalius ethion ethion, Db.

Common at times at Kallar but it does not extend far up the ghat. I fave

caught it during most months of the year.

All Castalius settle. freely on damp sand and mud.

153. (H12'1) Tarucus ananda, De N.

‘5,000°; northern slopes, September,’ Hampson. I have not caught this

insect.

154. (H12:~) Tarucus nara, Koll.

Found at low elevations only. Rare at Kallar but common at the foot of the

northern slopes. WKallar : 20-6-’41 and 28-3-’42. Abundant at the foot of the Sigur

Ghat in December.

155. (H13:) Syntarucus plinius, F.

Common throughout the Nilgiris. Recorded from Ketti in February and from

June to August; from Dodabetta in December and from Kallar from January to

August.

156. (H14'1) Azanus ubaldus, Cr.

‘Rather rare, 1,000’ to 7,000’,” Hampson. However I have found it fréquently

in April and May from 1,350’ to 8,000’ in the Southern Nilgiris.

157. (H14:3) Azanus jesous gamra, Led.

‘t,000° to 3,000’; rare,’ Hampson. ‘ee

Abundant at Kallar in November, ’41, settling on damp sand at the ford. I

have not seen it on any other occasion.

158. (H17:) Neopithecops zalmora, But.

Quite common at low elevations throughout the year.

159. (H18°-4Y) Everes parrhasius parrhasius, F.

‘Foot of the hills to the summit,’ Yates (Coorg). Here I have not observed

it above 3,500... Keeps to open grassy places and may be caught during most

months of the year.

160. (H20:~) Megisba malaya thwaitesi, M.

’

‘2,000’ to’ 4,000’,”. Hampson. I have one specimen from the Nadgani Ghat,

2,000, 8-2-'43. This was caught settling on cowdung.

161. (H21:28) Lycenopsis puspa gisca, Fruh.

162. (H21°3) Lycenopsis lilacea, Hamp.

163. (H21:10) Lycanopsis albidisca, M.

164. (H21:14) Lycenopsis akasa mavisa, Fruh.

165. (H21:198) Lycanopsis lavendularis limbala, M.

Puspa gisca, as in Northern India, extends well up into the hills but is com-

moner at low elevations. I have seen it in small numbers on wet sand at the

ford at Kallar in November, December and March. I have also caught it at Ketti .

in Mareh and it is not uncommon on the Nadgani Ghat in Decémber and Tebru-

ary. Lilacea isa low elevation species and is distinctly uncommon. I have caught

a number of males settling on damp sand at the ford at Kallar but have not

yet seen the female. Season: June and August.

Lavendularis, albidisca,and akasa are only taken, in the Southern Nilgiris,

above 4,500. On the western slopes akasa descends to 2,000’ where it is very

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 49

common in December, January and February. Lavendularis is quite abundant

- on the upper Mettupalaiyam Ghat where the other two are scarce.. All are common

on the plateaux and the hills, especially at the edges of sholas where eney can

be found during most of the year in suitable weather.

166. (H23'<) Chilades laius laius, Cr.

Abundant all the year round at low elevations.

167. (H24:1/) Zizeeria trochilus putii, Koll.

168. (H24:3./) Zizeeria maha ossa, Swin.

169. (H244) Zizeeria lysimon, Hub.

170. (H24°5) Zizeeria gaika, Trimen.

171. (H24°6.) Zizeeria otis decreta But.

Maha is always abundant on the plateaux but uncommon at low elevations.

The underside of the W.S.F, differs but little from that of the W.S.F., a striking

contrast to the Northern Indian form.

Gaika is always common at low elevations but scarce on the lower plateau.

Lysimon, trochilus, and otis are all found to quite 7,000’, but are only abundant

locally.

Lysimon I have seen from August to January and in March: trochilus in

January, October and November: otis from January to April and in November.

Given suitable localities all will probably be found throughout the year.

172. (H25:1) Euchrysops cnejus, F.

Less common here than in most parts of India. It may be caught up to

6,500 throughout the year.

173. (H25:28) Euchrysops contracta contracta, But.

Low elevations only as far as I know. I have seen it in small numbers at

Kallar from March to May : common there in July.

174. (H25°38) Euchrysops pandava pandava, Hors.

Abundant at Kallar in May aid July and also appears in August and Senteminer

but is much less common then.

175. (3126:2./) Lycaenesthes lycaenina lycaenina, Hew.

Not rare at Kallar but uncommon on the lower plateau. Abundant on the

Nadgani Ghat in December. In the Southern Nilgiris it appears from March

to July and in November: on the plateaux in September and October.

I have a wet season female caught at Ketti, 6,500’, in which the area between

the discal bands and the marginal markings on the hindwings is filled in with

white.

“Rare’ (!) Evans.

176. (H27:1) Catachrysops strabo, F.

This usually common insect is uncommon in the Southern Nilgiris. I have

caught it in small numbers at Kallar in February, March and April. I have not

seen it elsewhere.

177, (H28:) Lampides boeticus, L.

Ubiquitous. The foodstuff at Ketti seems to be Atylosia candollei, W..and A,

178. (H29:1~) Jamides bochus bochus, Cr.

Not rare up to 7,000. It is caught on the lower plateau in May and during

most of the year at low elevations. It is particularly abundant in the Runneymede

neighbourhood just before the S.W. monsoon breaks.

179. (H29°48) Jamides celeno celeno, Cr.

4 -

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

180. (H29:98) Jamides alecto eurysaces, Fruh.

Celeno is abundant throughout the year up to about 7,500’: alecto is found

with it but is much less common.

181. (32:2) Nacaduba hermus nabo, Fruh.

Not rare below Coonoor in. June and from August to October. It can nearly

always be caught settling on damp patches on the road early in the morning at

mile 14/8 on the Mettupalaiyam road at these seasons. The female is rare. I

have also caught the male on the Nadgani Ghat in February,

182. v. Sidoma, Fruh.

I have a specimen in my collection marked ‘Dodabetta, October’. This

was from the collection of the late O. ‘C. Ollenbach. ye

183. (H32°7) Nacaduba helicon viola, M.

Very rare. I have caught one male which was settling on damp mud at ‘the

ford at Kallar, 31-7-’41. Hampson notes, ‘3,000° to 4,000; April . . . May.’

184. (H32°88) Nacaduba kurava ‘canaraica, Tox. -

Not rare in the evergreen region. I have observed it in the Southern Nilgiris

in June, August and October; on the western slopes in October, December and

February, and on ihe lower plateau in April.

185. (H32:98) Nacaduba beroe gythion, Fruh.

Not rare. Specimens from Kallar in January, February and July, and from tie

Runneyimede neighbourhood in June, August and October.

186. (H32:15/) Nacaduyba nora nora, Fd.

Very common at most times of the year below 5,000’. Rare above that

altitude.

187. (H32:16X) Nacaduba dubiosa indica, Evans.

Common at about 3,500’ on the southern slopes.

188. (H32:18B8) Nacaduba noreia hampsoni, De N.

“Male; fairly common: female; unknown,’ Hampson. Very rare in Coorg

(Yates). Was Hampson confusing this species with nora? I have not seen it.

189. (H32:19) Nacaduba dana dana, De N.

Not common. I have one specimen from Ketti, 6,500’, taken in April, and

three from Jallar in May and December.

190. (H44:1) Curetis tietis, Drury.

Hampson states that both orange and white’ females appear but I have only

seen the white female. He also notes that the outer margin of the H.W. is much

rounded. He regarded it as very scarce, appearing only on the S, and W. slopes.

The female is not rare at Kallar but the male seems to be very scarce. Kallar :

March, and July to September. December on the western slopes.

191. (H44°4) Curetis bulis, Db. and Hew.

192. (H44°6) Curetis acuta dentata, M.

I have published a note elsewhere on the occurrence of these species. Acula

is rare but I have seen males on 31/1, 28/3, 16/7, 7/12 and in May (all in ’41)

at the ford at Kallar. My only female is a specimen from the collection of the

late O. C, Ollenbach. This is marked ‘Ootacamund.’ I myself have not seen

this species anywhere except at the foot of the ghats and I should be very sur-

prised to come across it at the altitude of Ootacamund.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 51

I have one definite specimen of bulis caught at Kallar.on 6-12-41 and one

probable specimen from the same place taken cn 10-5-42. Evans does not mention

bulis as a Southern Indian species.

All my specimens of bulis and acuta from Kallar are small and rounded .

very different from other specimens in my collection.

It seems to me possible that the Kallar specimens of bulis and acuta are

either distinct races of these species or, a remote possibility, a new species with the

characteristic on the under hindwing a very variable one (i.e. the alignment or

not of the discal band with the bar at the end of the cell). However, sufficient

data are lacking to support this view.

As is usually the case with the Curetis genus the marking on the upperside

are very variable and of little use for purpose of identification.

193, (H45°8) Iraota timoleon arsaces, Fruh.

‘1,000 to 3,000°,, Hampson. I have not seen it.

194. (H46°18) Horsfieldia anita dina, Hors.

‘Southern slopes, fairly common: rare on the northern. 2,000’ to 4,000’,’

Hampson. I have not seen it.

195. (H49°33) Amblypodia canaraica, M.

‘Rare; northern slopes,’ Hampson. I have not seen it.

196. (H49°36) Amblypodia centaurus pirama, M.

Recorded by Hampson from the Nilgiris.

197. (H49°39Y) Amblypodia amantes amantes, M.

This species may be-seen occasionally at Burliyar, 2,500’, and Kallar, 1,350’,

in the Southern Nilgiris. I observed, but failed to catch it, on 28-3-’42 and

20-10-'42 at Kallar, «nd caught a male there on 31-12-’42. I have also seen a

number from Burliyar in a local collection.

This species has a habit of settling for a moment on wet mud and then flying

rapidly off. Consequently it is difficult to catch.

198. (H49-718) Amblypodia abseus indicus, Riley.

At Kallar on 28-3-’41 I spotted a small Amblypodia on a leaf close to me; |

had a good view of the underside and am. convinced that it. was abseus indicus.

Although it was an easy catch I failed to take it. The only previous record of

this Spas from Southern India is one specimen from Coorg.

199, (H50°18) Surendra quercetorum biplegiata, But. ;

Quite common at Kallar but it does not seem to extend up the hills. I have

caught it in the Southern Nilgiris in July, from February to April, and from

September to December. In July the female may be caught settling gregariously

on young bamboo shoots.

200. (H50°4./) Surendra todara todara, M.

Recorded by Hampson as common from 2,000’ to 4,000’, This was probably

with reference to the Western Nilgiris. I have not seen it myself either in the

Southern Nilgiris nor elsewhere in the district.

201. (H53°8) Loxura atymnus surya, Cr,

This species is quite common up to 2,500’ in the Southern Nilgiris. It seems

to appear throughout the year except in the dry months between February and

May.

202. (H57:18) Spindasis yulcanus vulcanus, F.

On the lower plateau it is locally very common except during November and

December. ‘

Rather scarce at low elevations in the Southern Nilgiris.

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

203. (H57:2) Spindasis schistacea, M.

The prevalent Spindasis at Kallar, where, however, it is not common. It

does not seem to ascend any distance into the hills. I have caught it in February,

July, October and November.

204. (H57°4) Spindasis abnormis, M.

‘6,000; one male and one female at Coonoor are the only known examples

of this insect,’ Hampson. It has been recorded since by Hannyngton in Coorg.

Whether there are any more recent records from the Nilgiris than that of 1888

I do not know.

_205. (H57'78) Spindasis elima elima, M.

‘Common; 2,000’ to 4,000’,’ Hampson.

Certainly very rare in the Southern Nilgiris. I have one male caught at

Kallar on 2-9-'42.

206. (H57:13X) Spindasis lohita lazularia, M.

‘Rare; 3,000° to 4,000°",,5 Hampson. Common in Coorg.

This species does not seem to appear in the Southern Nilgiris. I have one

specimen caught on the Nadgani Ghat on 23-10-’42 at 2,000’.

207. (H58) Zesius chrysomalius, Hub.

‘2,000; one female,’ Hampson.

‘One female . . . Coorg,’ Yates.

I found a forewing of a male at the ford at Kallar in May 1941. This

insect is apparently very rare in the hills of Southern India though it is common

round. Bangalore.

208. (H59°4Z) Pratapa blanka sudica, Evans.

I caught a female of this species at Kallar on 22-8-’41. This, I believe, is

the first Nilgiri record. Captain Morrison-Godfrey has a pair caught on 23/11

and g/11 of 1941 which probably belong to this species. I have not yet had an ©

aE of identifying these specimens which seem to be rather obscurely

marked ... they may be P. deva or T. jehana or both.

209. (H59°8) Pratapa cleobis, God.

*3,000° to 4,000’; rare,” Hampson.

Very rare in the Southern Nilgiris: I caught one below Coonoor at 5,400° on

2-10-'42. =:

210. (H60°8) Tajuria melastigma, De N.

Recorded as rare by Hampson; 2,000’ to 3,000’. I have seen one female in

a local collection. This was probably caught on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat.

211. (H60'198) Tajuria cippus cippus, F..

Hampson states that this species is rare in the Nilgiris and appears from

2,000° to 4,000°. I have not yet seen it.

212. (H61:‘1~) Charitra jalindra macarita, Fr

A very rare insect. I have had the good fortune to collect two: one female

from Ketti, 6,500’, in June, and a male from Burliyar, 2,500, in April. Ketti,

in the open lower plateau country, is an extraordinary place in which to have

caught this butterfly which is generally taken in the thickest jungles at the foot

of the hills. It has the habit of settling on the undersides of leaves.

‘Very rare,’ Hampson.

‘Very rare,’ Yates (Coorg).

213. (H70°8) Charitra freja jaffra, But.

‘Western slopes in September,’ Hampson. I have not caught it.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 53

214. (H/76) Rathinda amor, F.

Not rare at Kallar in May and July and from September to December.

Hampson gives it as rare, presumably on the western slopes. Common in the

dry jungles round Bangalore.

215. (H77:1~) Horaga onyx cingalensis, M.

Recorded as rare in the Nilgiris by Hampson. Rare in Coorg.

216. (H77:4) Horaga viola, M.

‘Not rare; 2,000 to 4,000’,’ Hampson (western slopes?). Very rare in Coorg,

Possibly Hampson was confusing this species with onyx.

217. (H78:1~) Catapoecilma elegans myositina, Fruh.

Hampson found it fairly common on the western slopes. I have not come

across it.

218. (H80-:1) Hypolycaena nilgirica, M.

‘Very rare; one male caught on the western slopes is the only Nilgiri record,

Hampson. :

‘A very rare insect in Ceylon,’ Ormiston. Not observed in Coorg.

Although by no means abundant, I have caught or seen at least 15 specimens

in the last 18 months at Kallar, mostly settling on wet mud at the ford. Kallar

would seem to be the headquarters of this species.

I have caught it in May, July, August and October; but July is the best

month,

219. (H81) Zeltus etolus, F.

Hampson gives this species as rare on the western slopes. I have. not come

across it.

220. (H83'1-) Deudoryx epijarbas epijarbas, F.

Rare in the Southern Nilgiris from which I have three records: a male from

Runneymede, 5,000’, ‘6/3, and a male and female from Kallar, 28/3.

Hampson gives it up to 7,000. It is a fairly common insect in most parts

of India. !

221. (H84°1) Virachola isocrates isocrates, F.

Rare. I have one specimen from Kallar, 28/3, and have seen another on the

Nadgani Ghat in December.

222. (H84:2~) Virachola perse ghela, Fruh.

e ‘

‘2,000’ to 4,000,’ Hampson (western slopes?). I have not seen it.

) I

223. (H85°6) Rapala lankana, M.

‘1,000’ to 3,000°; not common,’ Hampson (western slopes?). Very rare in

Coorg. I have not seen it.

224. (H85:11./) Rapala varuna lazulina, M.

‘Common; 2,000’ to 3,000’,’ Hampson (western slopes?). Common also in

Coorg but does not seem-to appear in the Southern Nilgiris. I have had one

male from the Nadgani Ghat at 2,500’ on 6-2-43.

The males of this species are readily distinguished from those of schistacea by

the shining blue on the upper and lower wings. In schistacea these wings are

of a duller and darker shot blue.

225. (H85'12) Rapala schistacea, M.

*2,000’ to 4,000’; common,’ Hampson. This presumably refers to the

western slopes as it is very rare elsewhere in the Nilgiris. I have one male from

Kallar taken in December,

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46.

226. (H85'16) Rapala melampus, Cr.

Given by Hampson as appearing from 2,000’ to 7,000. Rare. I have not .

caught it.

227. (H87:~) Bindahara phocides moorei, Fruh.

Rare. One male caught at Ketti, 6,500’, in March of 1941, is my only record.

This was taken settling on flowers well away from its usual haunts. These are

the evergreen jungles of the western slopes.

Note,

(H5°5) Gerydus biggsii, Dist.

Recorded from Coorg by Yates. Very rare.

(H14°2) Azanus uranus, But.

This species probably appears in the Nilgiris.

(H26:1L) Lycaenesthes emolus emolus, Fd.

Common in many parts of India. Appears in Coorg and should certainly be

found in the Nilgiris.

(H32:28) Nacaduba pactolus continentalis, Fruh.

Yates has recorded this species from Coorg. I gather it has since been found

at Karwar where it is apparently not rare. (This information is based on a list

issued a year or two ago by Messrs. Fernandez and Dolla of Karwar, who, at

that time were selling butterflies from that district).

(H47:) Thaduka multicaudata kanara, Evans.

Appears in Coorg. Will probably be found on the western slopes of the

Nilgiris.

(H49°45) Amblypodia bazuloides, Hew.

Rare in Coorg. Evans states that it appears in Southern India.

(H56°3) Apharitis lilacinus, M.

Found at Bangalore but probably no further south.

(H57°78) Spindasis ictis ictis, Hew.

‘India; common,’ Evans. Not common in Coorg but fairly common round

Bangalore. Should appear in the Nilgiris.

(H59°5.f) Pratapa deva deva, M.

(H60°18) Tajuria jehana, M.

(See P. blanka sudica). Neither species was recorded. by Hampson from ‘the

Nilgiris but Yates had one record of jehana from Coorg. Jehana is not rare

round Bangalore. It is possible that both will be found in the Nilgiris.

(H79-:1) Chilaria othona, Hew.

Rare in Coorg.

HESPERID. |

228. (11:13) Hasora taminatus taminatus, Hub.

£3,000’ to 6,000,” Hampson.

229. (11:16) Hasora alexis alexis, F.

Found throughout the Nilgiris but it is nowhere particularly common. I

have caught it in various localities from Kallar up to Ooty between September

and December and in March,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 58

230. (12°38) Ismene jaina fergussoni, DeN.

I have seen one specimen, probably caught on ‘the Mettupalaiyam Ghat, but

definitely caught in the Nilgiris. The date of capture was not given. This is,

| believe, the first Nilgiri record.

231. (I3'~) Bibasis sena sena, M.

*3,000° to 6,000’; rare,’ Hampson.

232. (14:4) Choaspes benjaminii benjaminii, Guer.

‘Confined to the plateau; two wet season broods only,” Hampson. In the

Southern Nilgiris I can add a dry season brood which appears in March and

April. I have also caught it in October. As in the Himalayas this is a hill

insect here though it is not confined to the plateaux as I have caught it at

5,000 at Runneymede. It usually flies early or late, or in the shade.

233. (15°) Badamia exclamationis, Fab.

Not. uncommon up to 4,500’. During the daytime it usually flies in dense

jungle and settles on the underside of-leaves. This is a common habit with

certain skippers and as these have considerable faith in this type of concealment

they are usually easy to catch.

_Hampson states that it is caught up to 7,000’ and has two wet season broods

only. I have caught it-in October, March and April.

234. (111°3) Celaenorrhinus ambareesa, M.

235. (111°168) Celaenorrhinus leucocera teucocera, Koll.

Both are fairly common and fly early and late in the open, otherwise they

keep to deep shade. Ambareesa is fond of taking shelter on the underside of

boulders and on shady banks etc.. I have also seen it feeding on lantana on

a cloudy day. I have caught this species at Kallar in March, May, July, August,

and October® but I have not yet observed it elsewhere. Hampson, however,

states that it is found up to 6,000’. ~ .

I have caught leucocera up to 5,000’ and I believe I have seen it flying in

Ooty at.7,500’.. Seen in February, March, August, October and December. Quite

common.

236. (111°20/) Celaenorrhinus ruficornis area, Plotz.

Hampson states that it is found from 2,000’ to 4,000’ and is not uncommon.

I have taken one or two specimens on the Nadgani Ghat in October.

237. (114:3) Tagiades obscuros athos, Plotz.

Not rare in thick jungle at low elevations. I have seen it in January,

February, April, May and December. It is well distributed over the district.

Like the previous four species it settles on the underside of leaves.

238. (114108) Tagiades litigiosa litigiosa, M osch.

Has the same habits as the last but is found up to quite 5,000’; it is also

commoner and more widely distributed. Found throughout the year.

239. (116'6a) Daimio bhagava bhagava, M.

A great rarity. I have caught one specimen which was taken settling on

damp mud at the ford at Kallar on 28-3-’42. Recorded by Colonel Winckworth

from the same locality.

240. (120°14) Coladenia dan dan, F.

One of the commonest of our skippers. Abundant from 1,200’ to 5,000’ from

June to December. Rare on the lower plateau where I have once seen it in April.

241. -(120°28) Coladenia indrani indra, Evans.

-£2,000’ to 4,000’,? Hampson.

JT have caught one in the scrub jungle outside Mettupalaiyam, 23/11, and

56 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

two in thick jungle at Kallar, 7/5. Settles on the underside of leaves and

seems to be more of a jungle species than dan.

242. (121°38) Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni, Se

‘Not common; western slopes, 1,000’ to 3,000’, > Hampson. I have, however,

found it quite abundant between 2,000° and 2,500° on the Nadgani Ging in

October.

243. (123°8) Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni, El. and Ed.

Very rare. One specimen settling on damp mud at the ford at Kallar, 16- sli 41,

‘2,000’ to 4,000’,’ Hampson. Fairly common in Coorg.

244, (1295'1) Odontoptilum angulata sura, Fd.

Rare. I have one specimen caught settling on damp mud at Kallar on 16-7-742.

‘2,000° to 4,000’°," Hampson. Fairly common in Coorg.

245, (126°1) Caprona ransonnettl ransonnetti, Fd.

246. (126°18) Caprona ransonnetti lanka, Nov.

247. (126°ly) Caprona ransonnetti taylori, De N.

Lanka, a D.S.F., is listed from the Nilgiris by Evans but I have not had it

nor have I any further information about its appearance here though I have caught

it in Ceylon. Taylori is the second D.S.F. and ransonnetti is the W.S.F. In

the Southern Nilgiris both are common up to 3,500’. They settle freely on damp

sand and on the underside of leaves and fly in the sunshine. Taylort appears

in March, April. and May while ransonnetti can be caught in July, and from

October to January.

248. (126-2) Caprona agama pelias, Fruh

’

. ine e@.

‘One specimen, southern slopes,’ Hampson. No other information.

249. (127:~) Gomalia elma albofasciata, M.

This rare little skipper can be taken in small quantities at Kallar, especially

at the ford, but also in other open spots. I have seen several in July

and August, and single specimens in November and February. In habit it is

very like S. galba. I have only it in the Kallar neighbourhood.

250. (128°2) Syrichthus galba, F.

Well distributed and common throughout the district, flying close to the specie

in open, grassy places. It extends to quite 7,000’.

251. (139 8) Astichopterus jama mercara, Nov.

A. jama olivascens is given by Hampson from the Nilgiris: the correct name

of the local race is ‘nercara. This butterfly is rare in Coorg but quite common

on the upper regions of the Nadgani Ghat in October, November and December.

252. (141°18) Baracus vittatus subditus, M.

253. (141'2) Baracus hampsoni, El. and Ed.

According to Hampson vittatus is common on both the southern and northern

slopes and has four broods. So far I have failed to find it. On the other hand

hampsoni is common on the western slopes in October. Evans states that hampsoni

may be the low elevation form of subditus as the latter is only found on the

plateau. However in appearance they are very dissimilar.

254. (142:1) Ampittia dioscorides, F.

Abundant in May and June at Kallar and up to 2,500’ in the Southern Nilgiris

where I have also caught it in April, August and December. It appears in the

Western Nilgiris as well and settles readily on low growing shrubs and plants

in the sunshine,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 57

255. (143°9) Aeromachus pygmaeus, F.

Common at low elevations on the western and southern slopes. I have seen

it in fair numbers at Kallar in May and July and occasional specimens in January,

June, August, September and November. On the Nadgani Ghat I have observed

it in February, October and December.

256. (145°1) Arnetta vindhiana, M.

‘Common ; 2,000’ to 4,000’,’ Hampson. I have taken it on the Nadgani Ghat at

2,000 in October.

257. (146°:2) Iambrix salsala luteipalpus, Plotz.

Common up to 4,000’ in the Southern Nilgiris from June to March: very

abundant on the western slopes in October.

258. (147°:18) Suastus gremius gremius, F.

Rare. I have caught two specimens at Kallar, 1/5 and 6/12. This species will

only be found in the neighbourhood of palmaceae. ‘1,000’ to 6,000’,’ (!) Hampson.

259, (147:3) Suastus rama bipunctus, Swin.

‘Nilgiris ; rare,’ Evans.

According to Hampson this species is found on the western slopes.

260.. (151°) Sancus pulligo subfasciatus, M.

Hampson gives Astichopterus pulligo. I presume this is the same species as

the above. He records, ‘40 specimens between 500’ and 3,000’ in September,

1888.’ I have no other record, but this species appears in Coorg.

261. (157) Udaspes folus, Cr.

’

‘1,000’ to 7,000’,, Hampson, but I have only known this as a hill species,

both here and in the Himalayas. It is not common in the Southern Nilgiris but

I have found it quite abundant at the top of the Nadgani Ghat in October. I

have records from Ketti in March and October, and from Dodabetta in the latter

month.

262. (158:4.{) Notocrypta paralysos alysia, E.

Found on the northern slopes according to Hampson but is very common on

the middle regions of the Nadgani Ghat in October.

263. (15864) Notocrypta curvifasciata, Fd.

*2,000' to 4,000’,. Hampson. Rare; I have not seen it. Neither this, nor the

last species, seems to appear in the Southern Nilgiris.

264. (159°8) Gangara thyrsis thyrsis, F.

Rare. One male from Kallar, 1-3-’42, is my only record. It is reputed to be

a minor pest of palm trees. at Coimbatore.

*2,000° to 6,000’ (!); rare,’ Hampson.

265. (164:1) Matapa aria, M.

At certain times of the year this insect is quite common at Kallar. It never

leaves thick jungles during the daytime and will not be found outside the bamboo

area. Settles readily on bushes etc.. Appears from March to May and from

July to August.

‘Rare; 2,000’ to 6000’ (!),’ Hampson.

266. (166-1) Hyarotis adrastus adrastus, Cr.

‘2,000’ to 4,000." Not uncommon on the southern slopes : rare on the northern,’

Hampson. I have not yet come across this insect.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45,

267. (166°2) Hyarotis basiflava, De N.

‘Western slopes, 20 specimens, September, 2,000’ to 3,000’,’ Hampson.

Very rare in Coorg. Se

268. (183°:2) Halpe hyrtacus, De N.

Rare. Two specimens from the Nadgani Ghat at about 2,000’, 23/10 and

27/12. Not previously recorded from the Nilgiris.

269. (183:15) Halpe astigmata, Swin.

One specimen from the Nadgani Ghat at 2,000’, 23-10-42.

270. . (18318) Halpe sitala sitala, De N.

‘3,000’ to 5,000’; very rare,’ Hampson.

271. (183°20) Halpe honerei, De N.

Not ‘particularly rare at Kallar where I have taken some 12 specimens in the

last two years. Settles on flowers and on damp mud, especially at the ford.

It apparently appears throughout the year as I have caught it in» January, March,

May, July, August, October and November.

I have also caught it on the Nadgani Ghat, 2,000’, in October.

272. (183°33) Halpe egena ceylonica, M.

Much the most abundant skipper at Kallar, 1,350. At times it swarms on

wet mud and is found throughout the year. It appears on the Gudalur plateau

but is not nearly as common on that side of the Nilgiris.

(Halpe beturia?

Species given by Hampson. I cannot trace it. Is it Halpe moorei moorei,

Watson? This is a Southern Indian species that should be found in the Nilgiris.)

PTfdo. (keyed) Cupitha purreea purreea, M.

Hampson states that it can be found between 2,000’ and 4,000’, presumably

on the western slopes. It is a rarity throughout its.range. Also caught in North

Kanara and Coorg. I have also seen a specimen caught by Capt. P. Morrison-

Godfrey at Kallar. ;

274. (188°28) Taractrocera mevius sagara, M.

Not rare at Kallar, but does not seem to ascend the ghat to any great altitude.

IT have taken it in small numbers from June to October and in December and

January.

Hampson apparently found it very scarce as he notes, ‘3,000’, the northern

slopes, 4 specimens, July, 1888.”

275. (188°3~) Taractrocera ceramas ceramas, Hew.

276. (188'38) Taractrocera ceramas lynx, Mosh,

The former is confined to the plateaux. where it is most abundant in open,

grassy places especially in May and June and between the two rainy seasons.

Lynx is the low elevation form and is abundant on the Nadgani Ghat where

it flies low over grass by the roadside. Common in October.

Evans gives the expanse of ceramas as 26 mm.

Iynx is a larger insect, the expanse averaging about 29 mm. It is a much

deeper and darker brown above and the spots are of a deeper and richer yellow.

The under hindwing is suffused ochreous. Ceramas.is altogether a paler insect

and the under hindwing is suffused brown. _ Lynx would seem to be confined to

the western slopes: Evans gives its distribution as Travancore to N. Kanara

but does not give any satisfactory description. It is also caught round Gudalur.

277. (189'1) Oriens concinna, El. and Ed.

Rather scarce. I have only caught it in the evergreen area of the Mettupalaiyam

Ghat. Two specimens at 4,500’ in April and August. Hampson does not mention

it,

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE NILGIRIS 59

278. (189:3) Oriens gola goloides, M.

1,350 to 6,500°. Common at the edges of the forests overlooking the Mettu-

palaiyam Ghat; very common on the Nadgani Ghat in October. I have also

caught it at Kallar and Ketti.

(aes Padraona cato cato, Evans.

279. ; (190°10) Padraona pseadomesa pseudomesa, M.

(190°148) Padraona tropica diana, Evans.

280. |(190°15X) Padraona palnia palnia, Evans.

Padraonae are always scarce on the Mettupalaiyam Ghat and I have only had

three specimens from there. These seem to belong to two different species though

I must admit that identification of this genus is beyond me. These were caught

at Kallar 19/2; Burliyar, April; Runnneymede, 19/8.

Cato is very abundant on the Nadgani Ghat in October.

Cato and pseudomaesa are now, I believe, recognised as seasonal forms of the

same species.

281. (191:2./) Astychus pythias lanka, Nov.

Common where bamboo grows. Found at the southern foot of the Nilgiris

throughout the year.

282. (197.18) Baoris oceia farri, M.

One male, 11/10, on the. Nadgani Ghat at 2,000’... This is, I believe, the first

Nilgiri record of this species.

283. (197'148) Baoris kumara kumara, M.

Common in September at Ketti, 6,500’, settling on flowers in sunshine. It is

generally distributed and I have caught it at Kallar in October and January, at

Runneymede, Gudalur and the Nadgani Ghat in October and November.

284. (197:20) Baoris contigua, Mab.

One specimen from the Nadgani Ghat, 6-2-43. I think this is the first Nilgiri

record of this species.

285. (197:24~) Baoris coniuncta narooa, M.

Not as common as kumara but has the same habits and is caught with it at

Ketti. I have recorded it from Kallar in November, from Ketti in the same

month, and from Gudalur and Nadgani in October.

286. (197-30) Baoris sinensis subochracea, M.

Rather rare in the Southern Nilgiris. I have only had it at Kallar in

January and August. Generally keeps to the shade or flies in the early morning

and evening. = :

287. (197°318) Baoris mathias mathias, F.

Common to about 7,000’. Flies from November to April in the Southern

Nilgiris. Common at Gudalur and Nadgani in October.

288. (197°328) Baoris guttatus bada, M.

‘1,000’ to 4,000’, Hampson. It is curious that I have’ not come across this

abundant skipper.

289. (197°3368) Baoris zelleri cinnara, Wall.

Up to 4,000’. Very abundant almost everywhere below this altitude.

290. (197°348) Baoris bevani bevani, M.

*2,000' to 4,000,7 Hampson. Not common. I have not yet caught it.

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Notes.

(11:78) Hasora badra badra, M.

Rare in Coorg. ‘Southern India and the Himalayas,’ Evans.

(11:13) Hasora vitta indica, Nov.

‘Noterare. Southern, India and the Himalayas,’ Evans,

(12°17) Ismene gomata kanara, Evans. |

Rare, Coorg. Southern India to N. Kanara.

(160°18) Erionota thrax thrax, L.

Southern India and the Himalayas.

(167-14) Kineta microstictum, WM.

Very rare in Coorg.

. (168°3.{) Zographetus oxygia oxygia, Hew.

Southern India and the Himalayas. =

(171'9.2) Plastingia sala kanara, Evans.

Rare. Southern India and N, Kanara.

(191-1./) Astychus augias augias, L.

This species appears in Coorg and Ceylon and should appear in the Nilgiris.

(197°11) Baoris canaraica, M.

Rare. Appears in.Coorg and N. Kanara.

(197'158) Baoris philippina belli, Nov.

Appears in Coorg and N. Kanara,

APPENDIX.

NOTE ON THE APPEARANCE OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE NILGIRIS.

Total number of species (with varieties and any additional subspecies) recorded

from the Nilgiris: 291.

Total number of species recorded from the Southern Nilgiris: 225.

Total number of species recorded from Kallar (24 visits): 192.

Total number of species recorded from the evergreen region of the Mettu-

palaiyam Ghat (10 visits): 122.

Total number. of species recorded from the plateaux and above (cbservation

from permanent residence on the lower plateau and numerous visits elsewhere) : 105.

Total number of species recorded from the Nadgani Ghat (6 visits only in

October, December and February): 114.

A. Details from the Southern Nilgiris.

(i) Katiar (1,350). Occasional visits, April 1941 to February 1943.

Date AES 30/1..16/2..19/2..3/3..28/3..4/4..28/4..7/5..15/6..4/7

Species observed ... Sey RS AL) A Dh EE Re TO

Date wee 9/7..15/ 7.167 7..51/ 7014/8) .22/8..1/9..2/ 10.5107 10.67 11

Species observed ... 70 75 67 67 Chan adon aly «1179 79 =]

Date ore) 2 3/, Lil O/ ACA Alco elee

Species observed ... 72 he} We 63

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 61

(ii) Kerti (6,500’). Permanent residence, 1941 to 1943. Monthly figures.

Month .. Jan. Feb. Mar. April. May. June* July Aug.

Species observed ... 21 40 64 66 49 29 22 29

Month Wee epty Oct.. Nov. =Dec:

Species observed ... 36 63 28 31

B. Details from the Western Nilgiris.

Napcanr Guat (2,000’ to 3,000’). Occasional visits, October 1942 to Febru-

ary 1943.

Date peo’ (O//2ee-8/2e0. 10/10... 11/102..23/10...27/12

Species observed ... 49 30f 56 57 18.) - = 43

ADDENDUM

291 (F338) Doleschallia bisaltide malabarica, Fruh.

Several recorded from Walayar R.F, near Coimbatore.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN.

HucGH WHISTLER (Deceased). }

Part II

(Continued from Vol. xliv, No. 4 (1944), p. 519).

[Larvivora brunnea Hodgson.

Whitehead found the Indian Blue Chat breeding along the lower slopes of

the Safed Koh between 6,500 ft. and 8,000 ft. so it is quite likely to occur overt

the border in Afghan territory. |

Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes.

Specimens collected—2 odd 17-30 March, 3 @ 2 OG 1-18 April 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe). GQ 12-13 April Tirphul, Hari-Rud, ¢ 13 April Khusan,

Hari-Rud, 2 29 April 1885 Kambas, Badghis (Aitcheson); ¢ 19 March Maruchak,

-~2 6 9-19 April Karawal Khana, 2 13 May Kila Wali Morghab (Yate); ¢

7 August Doshi 2,700 ft., g 21 Sept. 1934 Ashraf, 4,000 ft. (Maconachie); ¢

g April Paghman 8,000 ft., 2 ¢ 1 2 1 May Doshi 2,750 ft., ¢ 6 May Danaghori

2,300 ft., g 18 May Baghlan 2,000 ft., ¢ 20 May 1937 Kunduz 1,400 ft.

(Meinertzhagen). |

The status of the Pied Bush-Chat in Afghanistan is not altogether clear.

In the north on the Morghab, in Badghis and on the Hari-Rud the dates of the

above specimens suggest that it is merely a summer visitor as in Turkestan

and extreme north-west India, and this would agree with Meinertzhagen’s

experience. Except for a single migrant shot on g April at Paghman, he

did not meet with the species until he reached Doshi after which it was fairly

common in suitable country, and breeding. None were seen at Haibak.

Towards Seistan it is apparently scarcer and also perhaps only a summer

Visitor as Cumming only mentions a pair taken with their eggs at Kuhak on

7 May 1905 and a male obtained previously in the same place on 23 April

1905.

About Kandahar, however, it is definitely common (Swinhoe) and found

throughout the year (Hutton) though St. John implies that it is more numerous

—

* In June, after the break of the S. W. monsoon, I have only observed 19

different species.

t+ Under perfect weather conditions.

t This paper, submitted for publication before the author’s death, was held

up for want of space. Proofs have. now been corrected by Mr. N. B,. Kinnear

whose minor alterations and corrections are here embodied.—Eps.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48.

in winter, a few only remaining to breed. “This is at variance with the status

of the bird in the North-West Frontier Province and Baluchistan and there

may be some mistake about it.

Saxicola torquaia indica (Blyth).

Specimens collected.—z © Chughar Serai (Griffith); GQ 21 April 1873

Panjab (Biddulph); ¢ 29 Jan. 1879, g¢ 30 Jan. 1879, ¢ 2.March 1879, 9 [@]

4 March 1879, [¢] 6 March 1879, ¢ 22 Nov. 1879, 2 [9] 3 January 1880

Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 26 April 1879, ¢:.9\Q 28 May Byan Khel, juv. 18 June

1879 Zubberdust Killa (Wardlaw-Ramsay); [¢] 16 Jan. 2 @ 2-21 February

[5] 16 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 4 G 29 5-11 March 1885 Gulran

_ (Aitcheson); 2: sex? 6 March Kara Baba, Maimanah, 2 ‘sex? 18-24 March

Maruchak, sex? 27 March Khwaja Gogerdak Murghab, sex? g April Karawal

Khana Badghis (Yate); @ 30 March 1933, ¢ 28 April 1933 Kabul 5,700 ft.,

36 2 6 May 1934 Chaharasia 5,700 ft.. Q g May 1934 Kabul, ¢ 18 Sept., ¢

20 Sept. 1934 Ashraf 4,o00 ft. (Maconachie); 3 ¢ 3 2 4-7 April Kabul 6,000 ft.,

3 o 15-18 April Ghorband, 2 Q 1-2 May 1937 Doshi 2,750 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The status of the Indian Stone-Chat in Afghanistan is again not very clear.

In the north it appears to be a summer visitor and Meinertzhagen found a few

pairs breeding early May at Doab and Doshi as well as in the Ghorband

Valley at the end of May. He did not see it at Haibak. or Kunduz. The

various specimens enumerated above from Badghis, the Morkhab and the

Wakhan may from their dates have been either on passage or on their breeding

grounds. Griffith notes in his Journals that several arrived at Kooner near

Pashat on 31 March 1840. He also noted it at-Chughur Serai on 6 April. At

Bamian Meinertzhagen found huge numbers passing through between 22 and

24 April.

Whether it breeds actually about Kabul is not clear. Maconachie noted it

as in pairs by 28 April but Meinertzhagen whc found it fairly common there

in early April did not meet with it towards the end of May.

Further to the South-east Wardlaw-Ramsay found it breeding in the Hariab

Valley at 7,000 ft.-8,o00 ft. about Byan Khel where he considered it one of

the most common birds in the open country. Eggs were taken in May.

In the Kandahar area, on the other hand, both Swinhoe and St. John speak

of it as a fairly common winter visitor. ;

I have examined a number of the above enumerated specimens and cannot

separate them in colour and size from Himalayan birds.

Saxicola macrorhyncha (Stoliczlka).

Specimens collected :— 19 April 1881 Kandahar, 2 24 April 1881 Dubrai

(Swinhoe). .

The above specimens provide the only records of Stoliczka’s Whinchat in

Afghanistan. ;

fGnanthe monacha (Temminck). |

The Hooded Chat is said to occur in Afghanistan in the New Fauna (vol.

ii, p. 40) but I am unable to trace the authority for the statement. ]

(Enanthe alboniger (Hume).

Specimens collected.—3 sex? winter 1880 Kandahar (Murray); 3 28 November,

sex? Dec., g 26 December 1880, ¢G 22 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

g 6 November 1884 Zagin (Aitcheson); ¢ n.d. Kaod on Asiaki Canal, @Q

7 December 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Cumming),

Hunie’s Wheatear is presumably a resident in Afghanistan but little is

known about it. Aitcheson obtained a male at Zagin on 6 Nov. 1884. Cumming

noticed a pair in the mission camp at Kuhak, Seistan on 12 March 1905 and

found that they stayed there several days before disappearing again, while

Annandale considered it very common in the Seistan desert in December. At

Kandahar Swinhoe found it common throughout the winter until the middle

of February. St. John considered it to be a resident there but this was, I

think, due probably to confusion with C!. picata.

(Enanthe picata (Blyth).

Specimens collected.—Q Afghanistan (Griffith); [QQ] Ghuznee (Gould) ;

3d 3 February, 3 ¢ 2 March, ¢ 4 March, ¢ 27 April, ¢ 9 May, ¢ ad. and juv.

17 May, ¢ 27 November 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 12 March, 1885 Gulran

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 63

(Aitcheson); Q 24 May 1934 Kabul (Maconachie); 2 ¢ 4-7 April Kabul 6,000 -ft.,

2 Q 27-28 April 1937 Doab 5,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Pied Wheatear is probably both a summer visitor and a passage migrant

(to East Persia) in Afghanistan. At Kandahar, at any rate, St. John states

that it arrives in very early spring and breeds at once, a fact that is substantiated

by the above series though it is curious that Swinhoe apparently never met

with it.

In North Baluchistan this Wheatear is one of the most abundant of the

genus arriving carly in March and having eggs by April 12. It also breeds

on the Samana (Whitehead Ibis, 1909, p. 216). li seems highly probable therefore

that when Meinertzhagen found this species common in Kabul, in the Ghorband

and Bamian Valleys and at Doab it was probably on its breeding ground

though he does not say so specifically.

(Enanthe capistrata (Gould). ;

Specimens collected.—3 ¢ Afghanistan, g Pashat (Griffith); ¢ 2 March,

6 5 March, g 21 March 1897 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 15 April Ghorband

OySOOmit 3) GO, 2 2 27-29 April Doab 5,000 ft., 3 g 1 Q@ 1 juv.” 15-17 “May

1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen). °

I have only included in the above list the specimens which I have seen

myself from Afghanistan and the series enumerated by Meinertzhagen. A

number of other specimens have been recorded under the name of morio but

I have omitted these as they are not at the moment available for examination

and there is some confusion amongst the older. writers as to the birds they

identified as morio. Also some workers have not always been able to identify

these Wheatears correctly. Whitehead for instance recorded (Ibis, 1909, p: 217)

that capistrata breeds in the Kurram Valley but his only specimen in corrobora-

tion of this (no. 302. g juv. Parachinar, 5,700 ft., 7 July) is in’ the British

Museum and is in fact an adult ¢ of Cinanthe pleschanka. One is therefore

left in ignorance as to the identity of the Wheatear which under the name of

morio Wardlaw-Ramsay noted as breeding commonly in the Hariab Valley at

7,000-8,o00 ft. It may well be pleschanka.

Meinertzhagen’s specimens which include a juvenile suggest that it breeds

in the Haibak area. For the rest it is not clear whether his birds were on

passage or on their breeding ground. St. John, however, is quite definite that

in the Kandahar area it is a passage migrant-——he states that it is abundant

on its way to and from its summer quarters, that he shot several specimens

in Kandahar from March 2 onwards, and that Colonel Swinhoe was mistaken

in considering it a summer visitor. |

My own opinion is that picata will be found to be the breeding bird of

Gilgit, Baltistan, the hills of the N.-W. Frontier Province, Baluchistan and

central and southern Afghanistan and that capistvata replaces it as a breeding

bird from the Oxus Valley northwards. eas

(Enanthe opistholeuca (Strickland).

Specimens collected.— 2 March @ 3 March 1879 Kandahar. (St. John) ;

dg 18 March 1885 Gulran (Aitcheson); sex? 20 March Maruchak (Yate); [d]

12 April 1933 Kabul, [¢] 2 10 July 1933 Panjshir 5,500 ft. (Maconachie) ;

9 6 4-7 April Kabul 6,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen). — ;

Strickland’s Chat is another wheatear whose status in Afghanistan is not

very clear. Maconachie obtained it at Kabul in April and again at Panjshir

in July remarking that it was very common on the latter occasion but he may

have confused it with picata. Meinertzhagen found it common in Kabul in

April. Aitcheson and Yate obtained it at Gulran and Maruchak after the middle

of April. At Kandahar Swinhoe did not apparently meet with it though St. John

says that he procured 2 specimens in February and March 1879 but that it was

rare. It is perhaps a passage migrant in Afghanistan.

Enanthe finschii barnesi (Oates).

Specimens collected.—J 12 Sept. 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 3 February

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 14 March Kara Bala, Maimanah,~¢ March

north of Gulran (Yate); g 6 April Kabul 6,000 ft., g ad. 2 juv. 14-17 May 1937

Haibal 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen). °

The above records express all that was known of Barnes’s Chat in Afghanistan

before Meinertzhagen’s expedition. He was of opinion that the single bird

Obtained at Kabul on 6 April was on passage as none were seen about Kabul

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4.

on the return in May. ‘The species was found to be breeding, however, in the

lower reaches of the Dar-e-Shikari (below 7,000 ft.) and at Doab and Doshi,

where parents carrying food were seen on 2 May. Thence to Haibak and

Kunduz the bird was seen wherever the- country was stony, steep and desolate.

At Haibak on 12 May there were many young out of the nest and a female

obtained had an egg in the oviduct.

(Enanthe pleschanka pleschanka (Lepschin).

Specimen collected.—Q 22 April 1937 Bamian (Meinertzhagen).

This is the only authentic record of the Siberian Chat in Afghanistan and

it was no doubt on passage. si

(Enanthe cenanthe rostrata (Ehrenberg).

Specimens: collected.—3 ¢ 4 @Q 14-23 April 1874 Panja (Biddulph); ¢

19 March 1885 Gulran, 2.¢ 2 Q 6-16 April 1885 Tirphul, g juv. 4 May 1885 ~

Shore-Kaltegai, Badghis (Aitcheson); ¢ 10 June 1934 Sar-i-Chasma 10,500 ft.

(Maconachie); 2 ¢ 17 April Ghorbund, ¢ Q 25 May 1937, Shibar Pass 9,000 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

The Common Wheatear evidently is both a summer visitor and a passage

migrant in Afghanistan. In addition to the evidence of the earlier records

cited above Meinertzhagen found a nest with eggs on the Shibar Pass at 9,000 ft.

and secured the pair of birds after some curious behaviour on their part (which

he relates); he again found 2 or 3 pairs breeding in the Unai Pass at 12,500 ft.

on 29 May. Of passage birds he observed a party of 5 at Ghorband 8,200 ft.

on 17 April and about twenty males at Bamian on 23 April.

(Enanthe isabellina (Temm. & Laug.). |

Specimens collected.—one sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢ 29 January 1879

Kandahar (St. John); Q 3 January, ¢ 17 March, ¢ 10 April 1881 Kandahar,

Q 25 April 1881 Dubrai (Swinhoe); 2 sex? 4-17 April Chahar Shamba, 1 sex?

n.d. Khwaja Gogirdak (Yate); Q 31 March 1904, .¢ 3 April 1904 Kuhak

(Cumming); sex? 5 September 1933 Farakhulm 9,300 ft. (Maconachie); 4 ¢

4-7 April Kabul 6,000 ft., 4 gd ad. juv. 9 14 May Haibak 3,000 ft., @ ad.

3 juv. 21 May 1937 Kundaz 1,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Isabelline Wheatear evidently breeds in small numbers generally through-

out Afghanistan. In the north it is probably a summer visitor only and

Meinertzhagen states that his specimens taken at Kabul 4-7 April were on

passage. About Kandahar on the other hand St. John calls it a resident and

specimens were collected by him and Swinhoe in January.

~Koelz collected adults and young in July and August on the Kargasi Pass,

Zebak, Minjan Pass:and Teshkan Pass in N.-E. Afghanistan and also from

Gardez and he separated the former as Cinanthe isabellina kargasi (Proc. Biol.

Soc., Washington, vol. 52 (5 June 1939) p. 66. The characters suggested for it

do not however sound very reliable. ;

(Enanthe deserti atrogularis (Blyth).

Specimens collected.— Afghanistan (Griffith) 9 3 Oct. 1879, ¢ 2 [9] Oct.

1879 Kelat-i-Ghilzai (St. John); @ 13 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢

9 Nov. 1884 between Karez-dasht and Ser-Mandel, ¢ 6 April 1885 Tirphul

Cc 3d 19 March Maruchak (Yate); ¢ 3 April 1903, ¢ January 1905

Shwaja Ahmed (Cumming); sex? 7 December 1918 ¢ 8 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring

(Annandale); [3d] 22 Oct. 1933 Ghazni Road 7,000 ft. (Maconachie).

The status of the Desert Wheatear in Afghanistan is not very clear but it

probably does not breed in the country. Aitcheson and Yate obtained it in.

the north at Maruchak (19 March), Tirphul (6th April) and between Karez-

dasht and Ser Mandal (g Nov.). In the Seistan desert it was very common

in December according to’ Annandale who also reports it in January and April

at Khwaja Ahmed. As _ regards’ Kelat-i-Ghilzai and Kandahar both Swinhoe

and St. John do not commit themselves beyond the statement that it is found

in desert places.

(Enanthe deserti oreophila (Oberholser).

Specimens: collected.—q og 14-16 April 1874 Panja (Biddulph); ¢ 26 April

1881 Gatai (Swinhoe); 3 22 Oct. 1933 Ghazni Road 7,000 ft.; [g] 19 Oct.

1934 Karganathon 10,200 ft. (Maconachie).

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 65

_ The only records of this race of the Desert Wheatear in Afghanistan. The

last specimen is intermediate in character as regards both wing length (99 m.)

and amount of white on the primaries but on the whole it is nearer to this

subspecies.

-Enanthe xanthopryoina chrysopygia (De Filippi).

Specimens collected.—2 sex? 13- eS April 1874 Panja (Biddulph); sex? Oct.

1879 Khelat-i-Ghilzai (St. John); @ 16 Dec. 1879 Kandahar (St. John);

26 Dec. 1880, ¢d.¢d Q 8-22 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 24 Sept. 1933

Paghman 7,500 ft., juv. Q 25 August 1934, Paghman 12,000 ft. (Maconachie) ;

3 6 2 2 4-7 April Kabul 6,000 ft.. 7 ¢ 3 Q 7-12 April 1937 Paghman 8,ooo ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says.—'One of .the commonest birds in the hills surrounding

Kabul from early April on, confining itself to the most barren and stony parts.

They were observed carrying nesting material in the Paghman Valley on g April.

They were also one of the commonest birds in the Ghorband Valley up to at

least 8,600 ft. and here again they were commencing to nest on 16 April. In

the Bamian Valley still common and noted up to 11,800 ft. on 25 April. A

few were seen in the Dar-e-Shikari down to about 5,500 ft. after which none

were seen.’ He goes on to describe the failure to locate actual nests. The

Panja birds obtained by Biddulph may have been a passage.

In Southern Afghanistan St. John states that the Red-tailed Wheatear is a

winter visitor, but not common, all over the province of Kandahar and St. John’s

and Swinhoe’s specimens agree with this statement.

[Pheenicurus frontalis Vigors.

The Blue-fronted Redstart is said to breed in Afghanistan in the New Fauna

(ii, p. 69). I can find no evidence to that. effect. |

Pheenicurus erythronotus (I:versmann).

Specimens collected.— 2 Pashat (Griffith); ¢ April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph) ;

2 © 21 Jan., 6:9 28 Jan., g 30 Jan.,. 9 16 March, @ 10 Nov., .¢ 19 Nov.,

¢ 12 December 1879 Kandahar (St. John); g 24 Jan. 2 g December 1880;

2.6 29 January. g 2 Feb., 1881 one (Swinhoe); sex? 3 March Chahar

Shamba, sex? 20 March Andkhui (Yate); d 1896 Shili Kach (Maynard); [9 |

18 Dec. 1918 Nasratabad (Annandale); g 21 Nov. 1933 Chahiltan 5,800 ft.,

3 6 March 1934 Kabul (Maconachie).

Eversmann’s Redstart may perhaps breed in parts of Nor thern Afghanistan

where Biddulph obtained it in the Wakkan in April, Griffith obtained it at

Pashat, Maconachie obtained it at Chahiltan (21 Nov.) and at Kabul (6 March)

and Yate got it at Chahar Shamba and Andkhui in March. About Kandahar,

however, it is a very numerous winter visitor (Swinhoe and St. John), occurring

at least from December to February. As Annandale obtained it just on. the

western border at Nasratbad in December it may occur in winter throughout

the whole of Southern Afghanistan.

The male collected by Griffith and now in the British Museum is the type

of Ruticilla rufogularis [Cat, Birds Ind. Mus., vol. i, p. 306 (1854)].

Pheenicurus ochruros phoenicuroides (Horsfield & Moore).

- Specimens collected—Q Pushut (Griffith); 4 ¢G 14-23 April 1874 Panjah

(Biddulph); ¢ 24 Jan., ¢ 27 Dec. 1879, ¢ 9 Jan 1880 Kandahar ; juv. 19 June

1881, Forest Kawao (St. John); ¢ 9 Jan. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 8 Nov:

1884 Sang-bar, 2 g 18 March Gulran, Q 12 April 1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson) ;

sex? 8 Oct. Deh Tang, Ghorbund (Yate); @ 1896 Shorawak (Maynard);

g April Chahiltan 5,900 ft., Q 4 September Unai Pass 11,000 ft., ¢ imm, 26 Sept.

1933 ‘Khairkhana 6,500 ft., gd imm. 22 Sept. 1934 Ashraf Valley 4,300 ft.

(Maconachie); 5 ¢ 4-11 April Kabul 6,000 ft., 5 ¢ 8-9 April Paghman 8,oo0 ft.

3 15 April. 1937 Ghorband 6,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Black Redstart breeds at high altitudes in most of the Afghan ranges.

In the north Biddulph found them very common in Wakhan. Meinertzhagen

found them common and in obvious pairs, cocks singing and every sign of

early nesting, in the Ghorband and Bamian Valleys up to over 12,000 ft. At

the end of May he found them breeding in the Paghman Valley near Kabul

and in the Unai Pass at 12,000 5 They did not seem to extend, he adds, north

of Doab or below 10,000 ft. John obtained a juvenile on 19 June in’the

Kawao Forest. This bird also aoe along the Safed Koh. Wardlaw-Ramsay

‘)

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

met with a pair (and found what he believed to be their empty nest) at 12 1500 ft.

and later Whitehead found it breeding there above 10,000 ft. -

For the rest this bird would seem to be a winter visitor to the 1oweE areas,

both north and south of the Hindu Kush, along the northern frontier. and

certainly about Kandahar where Hutton, St. John and Swinhoe found it very

common. Ties

Meinertzhagen found it not uncommon round Kabul from 4 April, becoming

more abundant on g April and still more so by 12 April, the males largely

predominating. These birds were presumably moving up to their breeding alti-

tude.

[Phoenicurus erythrogaster grandis (Gould).

I have no more exact record of Giildenstadt’s Redstart beyond ane fact that

Afghanistan is the type locally of Ruticilla grandis Gould, Proc. Zool. Soc. London,

xvii (1850), p. 112. ]

Chaimarrhornis leucocephalus (Vigors).

Specimens collected.—¢. Afghanistan (Griffith); 13 July 1933 Top of

Khawak Pass 9,500 ft. (Maconachie).

In his Journal Griffith mentions seeing the White-capped Redstart at Bala

Chugur Serai on 7 March 1840 and this was probably the locality for his speci-

men. formerly in the East India Company’s Museum but no ‘longer traceable.

Maconachie’s specimen suggests that this species breeds on the high ranges

but Meinertzhagen failed to meet with it. Whitehead found it abundant in

summer along the torrents of the Safed Koh up to tree-limit.

[Rhyacornis ‘fuliginosa (Vigors).

The Plumbeous Redstart is stated in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 81) to occur

in Afghanistan. I can find no evidence to that effect. |

Luscinia megarhynchos hafizi Severtzow.

Specimen collected.—Q 8 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

- Meinertzhagen -obtained a pair of Nightingales in the village of Dana on

the fringe of the Danaghori Plains. They were in typical Nightingale country,

a spinney with a stream running through it, and were doubtless about to breed

as the male was in full song. He was unfortunately too caimaged for preserva-

tion. A summer visitor of course.

Irania gutturalis (Guérin). —

Specimens collected.—@ 24 May 1934 Kabul 5,900 ft. (Maconachie) ¢ 23 April

1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

‘A pair arrived at Bamian on 23 April and were sheltering in a_ thorn

thicket in company with other small migrants’ (Meinertzhagen). The testes

were much enlarged. The only other record is provided by Sir R. Maconachie’s

bird.

| Cyanosylvia svecica svecica (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—@ 26 April 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay);

16 March 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 25 ype 1885 -Tirphul (Aitcheson).

Cyanosylvia svecica pallidogularis (Zarudny).

Specimens collected.—¢ Afghanistan (Griffith); g 16 March 1879 Kandahar

(St. John); ¢ 23 March 1885 Gulran (Aitcheson); 2 3 September 1933 Paghman,

2 3 3 April Logat; Q 30 April go 25 May 1934 Kabul (Maconachie); 2: ¢

17 April Ghorband, 3 ¢ 20 April Bamian Q 29 April 1937 Doab (Meinertzhagen).

Cyanosylvia esi saturatior (Buturlin).

Specimens collected.—Q 6 April Kabul, 2 ¢ 7 May 1937 Danaghori (Meinert-

zhagen). thal

Cyanosylvia svecica ‘kobdensis Tugarinow.

Specimen collected.—3 15 April Ghorband, ¢G 23 April 1937 Bamian

(Meinertzhagen).

-Cyanosylvia svecica abbofti (Kichmond).

Specimens collected+-¢G 29 March, ¢ go March 1933 Kabul (Maccnaciey

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 67

Cyanosylvia svecica subsp. ? k j

Specimens collected.—@Q Kunar near Pashat (Griffith); sex? 16 April 1874

Panjah, Wakhan (Biddulph); sex? 18 March Maruchak, sex? 24 March, sex?

g April Karawal Khana, sex? 31 May Yedikul, Maimanah (Yate); 9 18 April,

Kandahar ¢ 1 October 1879 Kalat-i-Ghilzai (St. John); @ 19 March 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 ¢G 11 April 1885 (Aitcheson). ;

At present there seems to be no proof that any form of Blue-throat breeds

in Afghanistan and with the exception of St. John’s bird of 1 October 1879

from the Kalat-i-Ghilzai and Maconachie’s bird obtained at Paghman on 3 Sept.

1933 all the birds obtained or recorded may well have been on spring migration.

On this passage they are very numerous. Wardlaw-Ramsay speaks of them

as ‘so common’ in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft.. in April and the com-

mencement of May. Meinertzhagen found them common round Kabul and the

surrounding hills up to 8,000 ft. in early April, common in the Ghorband Valley

in mid-April, abundant at Bamian on 22 April and ‘in incredible numbers’ there

on 23 April. Only odd birds were seen at Doab on 29 April and at Danaghori

on 10 May and a pair at Haibak on 13 May. St. John found them common

at. Kandahar but Swinhoe merely met one male there on 19 March 1881.

The identification of Asiatic Bluethroats racially is a matter of great diffi-

culty and the above identifications must be regarded as merely tentative. They

include Meinertzhagen’s identifications which he made at Leningrad with the

help of Tugarinow’s material.

[Calliope pectoralis pectoralis Gould. aah

1 can find no authority for the statement in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 93)

that the Himalayan Rubythroat is found in Afghanistan. ] :

[lanthia cyanura (Pallas).

Whitehead found some race of the Red-flanked Bush-Robin fairly numerous

in summer on the wooded slopes of the Safed Koh from 8,o00 to 10,000 ft.

It must, therefore, certainly occur in Afghanistan though as yet unrecorded, |

‘Adelura ceruledcephala (Vigors). :

Specimens collected.— jg 9 May, @Q 22 May, 1879 Byan Khel ‘(Wardlaw-

Ramsay). f .

The Blue-fronted Redstart is only known from the extreme. eastern border

of Afghanistan where Wardlaw-Ramsay found it tolerably common in the

Hariab Valley about 7,000-8,o00 ft. near Byan Khel. He found a nest with

4 eggs on 22 May, verified by the above female, and shot a juvenile on the

Peiwar spur on 21 June. Whitehead found it breeding on the Safed Koh from

7,500-12,000 ft.

[Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Latham).

Specimen collected.— dg Afghanistan (Griffith). f

~The occurrence of the Indian Robin in Afghanistan appears to need verificas

tion. ] dt.

Turdus merula intermedia (Richmond). a Hed ikaglen ts abeths.c

Specimens -collected.—¢ Q@ 10. December 1880, 3. SG @ “January 1881,

Q. Q. 5 February 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe);. 2 .22 Nov. 1884 Khusan, ¢ 14

December. 1884 Bala-Murghab (Aitcheson); ¢ 2 February, Q 12 February

Chahar Shamba (Yate).

The above specimens have always been accepted as belonging to the Turkestan

race intermedia which was considered to be a winter visitor in Afghanistan. At

Kandahar it certainly is common in winter according to St. John and. Swinhoe.

Mr. Koelz, however, identified a series of winter: Blackbirds which he obtained

in Kandahar (Oct, 12-23), Balamurghab (Noy.. 15), Maimana (Nov. 16) and

Balkh (Nov. 30-Dec. 3) as the same as a single breéding’*female which he

obtained’ at Farakar on 6 July, 1937. To this he gives the name Turdus

merula brodkorbi (Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, vol. 52 (5 June 1939), p. 67).

Some form of Blackbird, possibly Turdus merula maxima (Seebohm), evidently

breeds. in small numbers along the eastern border of Afghanistan as Whitehead

secured a juvenile at 10,500 ft..on the Safed Koh on ist’ July. The whole

question of Blackbirds in Afghanistan requires re-examination.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISY. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

[Turdus rubrocanus, Gray.

Whitehead met with a family party of the Grey-headed Ouzel on the oth

August on the Safed Koh at 8.000 ft., so this species must doubtless occur

within the Afghan pounsatyel: :

Turdus ruficollis ruticollis Pallas.

Specimen collected.—-Q Pushut (Griffith):

There is no other record of the Red.-throated Thrush.

Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Jarocki.

Specimens collected.—¢g 9 3 November 1884 Kushkrud to Kin, 2. ¢ 39

13-29 January 1885 Bala-Murghab (Aitcheson) ; 5 specimens 25-28 Jan., 22 February

and 4 April Chahar Shamba, Maimanah (Yate); [\¢] 13 Nov. 1933 Kabul

5,700 ft., d 2 epeon 1933 Chahiltan 5,900 ft., 2 30 September 1934 Chahiltan

(Maconathie) ; 11 April 1937 Kabul 5,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Blac ivectal Thrush is a winter visitor to Afghanistan and, as ‘St. John

notes and as is also the case in North-West India, its numbers vary greatly in

different years. It is very common in some years. The above records from

« 30 September to 11 April suggest its extreme dates of arrival and departure.

Turdus viscivorus bonapartei Cabanis.

Specimen collected.—dg 23 July 1933, Foot of Khinjan Pass 10,000 ft.

(Maconachie). ;

In addition to the above specimen we have the certainty that the Missel-

Thrush breeds on the Safed Koh as Wardlaw-Ramsay found a nest with 4 young

on May 22 near Byan Khel. Whitehead says it breeds not uncommonly on the

Peiwar Spur and in the Spin Khwar nullah from 7,000 ft. to 9,000 ft.

Monticola saxatilis (Linnaeus).

Specimens. collected.—2g 12 March 1885 Gulran, Qo 11-12 April. 1885

Tirphul, 4 ¢ 1Q 13-20 April 1885 Khusan, @ 27 April 1885 Tomam-Agha, Hari-

Rud (Aitcheson); Q 7 July 1933 Shibar area, 9,400 ft., G 10 June 1934 Sar-i--

Chashma 10,500 ft. Wace Gn 12) April Paghman 8,000 ft.. g 17 April

Ghorband 8,200 ft., ¢ 25 May Shibar Pass, ¢ 29 May 1937 Unai Pass 12,000 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

The Common Rock-Thrush is evidently a summer visitor to the mountain

areas of Afghanistan though it does not appear to be very abundant. Maconachie

found it in the Shibar area and the Sar-i-Chashma in June and July and Meinertz-

hagen was satisfied that his birds at Paghman, Ghorband, the Shibar Pass and

the Unai Pass were on their breeding ground. St. John says that he got a

. specimen in the Amadun Valley 6,500 ft. in June.

In enumerating his specimens (above) Aitcheson says that this Rock-Thrush

was very common in the Badghis in summer but the dates suggest that he was

really witnessing a ‘rush’ of migrants on their way to the breeding grounds

in Central Asia.

Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors).

The Blue-headed Rock-Thrush is another Himalayan form which is so far

only known to occur on the extreme eastern border of Afghanistan where

Wardlaw-Ramsay found it abundant -in the Hariab Valley 7,000 {t.-8,o00 ft.

It must there be a summer visito: and he states that it arrived about the beginning

of May, and was apparently breeding in June. Whitehead mentions meeting a

few on the Safed Koh.

Monticola solitaria longirostris (Blyth).

Specimens collected.—¢ Siriab, 2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); @ 9 5 May

1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); ¢ juv. 23 June 1879 near Kandahar

(St. John); ¢ 24 December 1880, ¢ 24 January d 1 February § 3 February

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 15 March 1885 Gulran (Aitcheson); sex? 18 May

Darband-i-Kil Relkhta, Murghab, sex? 12 July sex? 1 September Shadian (Yate) ;

@ 7 April 1903 Khwaja Ahmed (Cumming); 2 ¢.1 Q 6-11 April Kabul

5,600-6,000 ft. Q 14 April Ghorbund 6,500 ft., Q 26 April Akrobat 9,000 ft.,

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 69

36 2 30 April Doab 5,000 ft., g 17 May Haibak 3,000 ft., gd Q 27 May 1937

Paghman 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Blue Rock-Thrush is fairly well distributed as a breeding bird in summer

in Northern Afghanistan at heights from 3,000 ft. to 12,000 ft. Meinertzhagen

first noted it in the -Tangi Gharo near Kabul on 11 April and saw birds carrying

nesting material at the end of April and food at the end of May. It also must

breed in small numbers at Kandahar as Swinhoe’s bird of 23 June is in’ juvenile

plumage and was evidently hatched locally. Wardlaw-Ramsay says that a few

pairs remained throughout the summer in the Hariab Valley at 7,000-8,000 ft.

As both Swinhoe and St. John report the bird as a common winter visitor

in Southern . Afghanistan one would presume that the birds which breed in

Northern Afghanistan are summer visitors there. . .

Meinertzhagen considers that Kabul birds are intermediate between longirostris

and pandoo and that the Shibar Pass is the boundary of pure longirostris.

Myiophonus coeruleus temmincki Vigors.

_ Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); Q 20 December 1880

Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢@Q Bala-morghah 14 December 1884, 292 6 December

1884 between Palounda and Karez-darra (Aitcheson); ¢ 15 September 1933 Killa

Tak 9,500 ft. ¢ 11 December 1933 Logar 5,700 ft..(Maconachie); @ 11 April

Kabul 5,000 ft., ¢ 16 April Ghorband 8,200 ft., ¢ 18 April 1937 Ghorband,

8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

As in North-west India the Himalayan Whistling-Thrush doubtless breeds in

the hill! ranges and wanders into the neighbouring foothills and plains in winter.

Griffith records in his Journals that he saw it a Bala Chaquar Serai on 7 March

and at Bharowal on :o-12 April 1840. Maconachie procured it at Killa Tak

(1s September) and Logar (10 December). Meinertzhagen met. it wherever

suitable country existed from the Kabul area to Doab but not further north.

In the extreme north-west Aitcheson found it very common in the pistacio forests

of the Badghis, obtaining the four specimens enumerated. Finally at Kandahar

Hutton procured it in December, St. John in March 1879 and Swinhoe on 20

December 1880 and it was seen on one or two other occasions.

Meinertzhagen identifies his specimens on their wing measurements as M. c.

turcestanicus but I can match his measurements with Himalayan specimens.

[Prunella himalayanus (Blyth).

The Himalayan Accentor is stated in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 192) to occur

in Afghanistan. I can find no authority for the statement].

Prunella collaris rufilatus (Severtz.)

Specimen collected :—sex? 14 December 1884 Bala-Morghab (Aitcheson).

The only record of the Alpine Accentor in Afghanistan, though Whitehead

says that it nests freely on the Safed Koh above 12,000 ft., eggs and young

being found in July.

Prunella atrogularis fucens Portenko.

Specimens collected :—2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); @ 30 October, 18

Kandahar (St. John). ; ae

_ These three specimens provide the only records of the Black-throated Accentor

in Afghanistan. ;

Prunella fufvescens fulyescens (Severtzow).

Specimens collected.—J 9 April Paghman 8,000 ft., 17 April 1937 Ghorband

8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

“Scarce. On g April we saw ‘several which had arrived on a stony hill-

slope where there had been none the day before. In the Ghorband Valley we

saw only the specimen obtained. Probably only on passage.’ (Meinertzhagen).

Prunella strophiatus sirotensis Koelz.

Specimens collected.—¢ 17 June 2 18 June 1937 Sirotai (Koelz).

The above specimens provide the only records of Jerdon’s Accentor within

Afghan boundaries and Mr. Koelz has separated them from the West Himalayan

form under the aboye name (Proc. Biol. Soc., Washington, vol. 52 (5 June 1939).

p. 67). The species must occur also on the western border as Whitehead found

it (subspecies jerdoni) nesting fairly commonly on the Safed Koh between g,o00 ft.

and 12,000 ft,

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Muscicapa-striata neumanni Poche. _

Specimens collected— dg 20 May, Q 3 June 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-

Ramsay); 2 13 September, 9 21 September 1879 Kandahar (St. John); 9

-20 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); @ 17° May 1885 between Chil-Gaz -and

Sim-Koh, Badghis (Aitcheson) '¢ 2 May Doshi 2,700 ft, 2 ¢ 19 9 May

Danaghori 2,300 ft., ¢ 23 May 1937 Dar-e-Shikari 6,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Wardlaw-Ramsay found the Spotted Flycatcher to be a very abundant summer

visitor to the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. near Byan Khel, arriving about the

middle of May and frequenting the valleys among the pine forests and the apricot

orchards that border the streams. A nest with 4 fresh eggs was found at 8,000 ft.

on 3 June. Meinertzhagen first met with the bird at Doshi on 2 May when a

single bird was shot. He found it quite common in the:gardens of Dana where

it was without doubt nesting. Aitcheson’s female, collected in Badghis oa

17 May may also have been on its breeding ground.

At Kandahar, however, according to St. John the bird is a common passage

migrant in the spring and autumn migrations. at

‘Hemichelidon sibirica guimergi Stuart Baker.

Specimen collected.—d 9-5-1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

The Sooty Flycatcher is only recorded from the eastern boundary of Afghan-

istan where Wardlaw-Ramsay found it. at 7,000 ft. in the valleys. of the pine

woods at Byan Khel. It was doubtless breeding as Whitehead says it nests

commonly in the forests of the Safed Koh up to tree-limit.

Siphia parya parva (Bechstein).

Specimens collected—Q 1 April 1881, ¢G 31 March 1881, Q 6 April 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe); 3 ¢ 23 March Gulran, 4 ¢ 12-19 April Tirphul, 9 1. May

1885 Kambas (Aitcheson); @ 29 April Chahar Shamba (Yate); ¢ 10 September

Kabul, g 22 October 1933 Sheikhabad (Maconachie); 2 ¢ 9-12 April Paghman

8,000 ft., ¢ 19 April 1937 Bamian 8,oo0 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

_ The typical race of Red-breasted Flycatcher evidently passes through Afghan

istan on both migrations on its way to and from its winter quarters in India.

The above records speak for themselves and Meinertzhagen says it was incredibly

abundant at Bamian about 20 April—hundreds were seen but males in full

plumage were distinctly uncommon—, their numbers dwindling on the 22nd

and scarcely a single bird seen on the 24th. Two stragglers were seen. in the

Ghorband Valley on 24 May. At Kandahar it is common everywhere in suitable

localities according to St. John.

Siphia parva albicilla (Pallas). ern, Aaa

Specimens. collected.—3 co 1 Q 15-17 April Ghorband 6,500 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen),

These specimens furnish the only records of the ‘eastern race of the Red-

breasted Flycatcher. I have not seen them.

Alseonax ruficaudus (Swainson). 4

Specimens collected.—@ 5 May, 3 9 May, 3 22 May Byan Khel, ¢ 19 June

1879 Sufed-Koh 8,000 ft. (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

The Red-tailed Flycatcher is another Himalayan species which only reaches

the eastern border of Afghanistan in the Hariab Valley about Byan Khel 7,000 ft.

Here, according to Wardlaw-Ramsay it is one of the commonest birds extending

up to nearly 11,000 ft. on the Safed Koh and being about the last bird which

is found in any abundance where the pine-growth ceases. It was nest building

in May. Whitehead also says that it iseabundant in summer on the Peiwar Spur

and in the Spin Khwar Nullah of the Safed Koh from 8,000 ft. to 11,000 ft.

Muscicapuia superciliaris superciliaris Jerdon.

Specimen collected.—@ 19 June 1879 Peiwar Kotal (Wardlaw-Ramsay). ©

The occurrence of this West Himalayan species, the White-browed Blue

Flycatcher, in Afghanistan is only known from Wardlaw-Ramsay’s statement

that he came across a pair, and secured the male, on the Peiwar Kotal at about

8,000 ft. and Whitehead’s corroboration that he too got one near the Peiwar

Kotal and believed that he heard one or two more close by.

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swainson).

| Specimens collected.’ _22 June 1879 Shaluzan’ (Wardlaw-Ramsay); 3

17 April Q 20 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 3 30 April Logar 5,700 ft.,

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 71

S 22 September 1934 Ashraf Valley 4,200 ft. (Maconachie); 2 9 May Danaghori

2,300 ft., Q 24 May 1937 Ghorband 8,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that he.only saw the Paradise Flycatcher at the village

of Dana on 9 May, when two pairs were located, and in the Ghorband Valley

‘when a single pair was nesting near the camp. All three males were in the

red phase. It must of course be a summer visitor to Afghanistan and it probably

only breeds in the north as Swinhoe expressly states that it is a straggler at

Kandahar.

Meinertzhagen identified his specimens as turkestanica but I regard this as a

synonym of leucogaster.

Lanius excubitor pailidirostris Cassin.

Specimens collected.—sex? Kandahar, ¢ 28 September 1879 4o miles N.-E.

of Kandahar (St. John).

This is presumably the shrike, which under the name of Lanius eacubitor,

Hutton called very common round Kandahar and chiefly seen in winter. Both

the above specimens are in the British Museum.

Lanius excubitor aucheri Bonaparte.

Specimen collected.—¢ 3 May 1885 Shore Kaltegai (Aitcheson).

This specimen also is in the British Museum.

Lanius minor (Gmelin).

Specimens collected.— i 14 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ Tirphul

@ Khusan, both 25 April 1885 (Aitcheson); 2 juv. 14 July 1933 Quila Ahinjaram

6,800 ft. (Maconachie); ¢ 5 May Danaghori 2,500 ft., ¢ 18 May Tash Kotal

4,000 ft., 2 g¢ 20 May 1937 Kunduz 1,400 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Lesser Grey Shrike breeds in Northern Afghanistan but does not seem

to be very numerous. Meinertzhagen first met with a pair at Danaghori on

5 May in small trees on the edge of the marshes. He has some interesting

remarks on their larder. He goes on to say:—The ‘Tash Kotal birds were

among Pistachio trees and in their breeding quarters. A few were seen at Haibak

but very wild. Fairly common and breeding at Kunduz at the end of May.

Status uncertain but I am inclined to suggest that it is a summer visitor

and that Swinhoe’s bird from Kandahar on 14 April was on passage.

Lanius yittatus Valenciennes. ‘

Specimens collected.—z2 ¢ 2 Q 6-17 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢

zo April 1885 Tirphul, $ 1 May 1885 Kambas (Aitcheson); Q 10 May 1896

Robat 4,300 ft. (Maynard); ¢ juv. 30 July 1933 Khinjan 3,500 ft. (Maconachie).

Wardlaw-Ramsay met with the Bay-backed Shrike in the Hariab Valley

about Byan Khel 7,000 ft. on one or two occasions. Maconachie obtained a

juvenile at Khinjan on 20 July and Aitcheson obtained specimens at Tirphul

and Kambao in the north in April and May. St. John states that it is rather

rare in Kandahar and Swinhoe’s 4 specimens were all obtained in April. Maynard

finally obtained a specimen in May at Robat 4,300 ft. These records suggest

that this Shrike is merely a summer visitor in small numbers to Afghanistan.

Lanius cristatus pheenicuroides (Schalow). .

Specimens collected.—2 Q 12-14 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 2 ¢ 12 April

1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson); sex? 20 March Maruchak, sex? 27 March Khwaja

Gogirdak, 2 sex? Darband-i-Kil Rekhta,’ one sex? Maruchak both 18 May

(Yate); gd 22 April 1905 Kuhak (Cumming); 5 ¢ 1 Q 27-29 April Doab 5,000 ft.,

¢ 1 May Barfak 3,500 ft. g 6 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The status of this race of the Brown Shrike in Afghanistan is not very clear.

It is no doubt a passage migrant through the country and most of the above

records are consistent with this probability. Cumming’s specimen from Kuhak

was one of several found on 22 April on the banks of the Rud-i-Seistan.

It may, however, be also a summer visitor to Northern Afghanistan and

Meinertzhagen says that everything pointed to birds commencing to nest at Doab

and Danaghori though the fact was not recorded for certain.

Lanius isabellinus Hemprich & Ehrenberg.

Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); 29 12-13 December 1880,

of 18 January 1881, ¢ Q 1-2 April 1881 Kandahar, 9 28 February 1881 Kokeran

(Swinhoe) ; 3d 7-13 March 1885, ¢ 18 March 1885 Panjdeh, §$ 12 April

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson) ; Q 28 March 1903 Kaod on the Asinki Canal (Cumming) ;

2 Q@ 1896, Mehrabnawar (Maynard); ¢$ 6 March 1934 Chardeh-Kabul 5,700 ft.,

G 19 March 1934 Chahiltan 5,900 ft. (Maconachie); @ 6 April 1937 Kabul

6,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

So far as is known the Isabelline Shrike is only a winter visitor to Afghanistan

and the above specimens provide the only available information about it except

for St. John’s statement that it is common all over the Kandahar area.

Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors).

Specimens collected.—¢ Khooner (Griffith): 2 ¢ 1 sex? 1879 Hariab Valley

(Wardlaw-Ramsay); ¢ 2 January 1881, $ 9 6 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

3 25 April 1933 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); 3 ¢ 1 Q@ 22-24 April Bamian

8,500 ft., gd 2 May Doshi 2,750 ft., ¢ 2 7-8 May Danaghori 2,300 ft., g 18 May

Baghlan 2,000 {t., ¢ 20 May 1937 Kunduz 1,400 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Rufous-backed Shrike is a summer visitor to north-east Afghanistan.

According to Wardlaw-Ramsay it is very common in the Hariab Valley about

Byan Khel 7,000 ft., where many nests were found in May and June, the first

eggs being taken on 27 May. Maconachie notes of his Kabul specimen (25 April)

that the bird was common and paired by that date. ,Meinertzhagen first noted

it at Bamian on 22 April; three more arrived on the following day and on the

24th April a fair number were seen. By the 8th May they were abundant and

breeding at Danaghori, keeping to the low-lying orchards and gardens and

avoiding the hillsides. At Jalalabad, on the return journey, nearly fledged young

were found. There is no record from any part of Afghanistan west of Bamian.

At Kandahar Hutton, Swinhoe and St. John found it very common, occurring

in every garden and Swinhoe considered it to. be a resident there.

Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). —

Specimens collected.—Q [April 1840] Otipore 7,000 ft. (Griffith); 9 16 May

1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

Wardlaw-Ramsay found the Short-billed Minivet common in summer in

the Hariab Valley and Whitehead found it nesting freely in the Safed Koh

between 6,000 ft. and 8,000 ft. The Griffith specimen from Otipore (April)

provides the only other record for Afghanistan.

[Pericrocotus reseus roseus (Vieillot).

I can find no authority for thé statement in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 329)

that the Rosy Minivet occurs in Afghanistan].

Dicrurus macrocercus albirictus (Hodgson).

Specimen collected.— 31 May. 1937 Jalalabad (Meinertzhagen).

The King Crow is confined to the eastern fringe of Afghanistan where it is

- probably a summer visitor only. Meinertzhagen saw it at the western entrance

of the Khyber Pass in early April and in late May he found it as far west as

7 miles west of Nimla, that is 40 miles west of Jalalabad. They were certainly

breeding in the Jalalabad gardens in the last week of May.

Griffith in his Journals (1840) mentions King Crows at Kooner 28 March

Pashat 31 March, Chugar Serai 6 April, Bharowal 14-15 April (several) and

Gundamuck (6 June). “

Wardlaw-Ramsay points out the fact that on the eastern side of the Peiwar

Kotal the King Crow is extremely common right up to the base whereas to the

west in the higher valley of the Hariab it is very scarce indeed. He apparently

only saw a single bird at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. In his first paper he recorded

it as albicaudata (sic) but in the second paper corrected this to atra.

Acrocephalus turdoides zarudnyi (Hartert).

Specimen collected.—@4 20 April 1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson).

This specimen, now in the British Museum, provides the only record of the

Great Reed-Warbler in Afghanistan. Woay

(To be continued.)

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE.

Part IlIl.—Fishes of the Medak District,

M, RAHIMULLAH, D.SC., F.Z.S.,

Department of Fisheries, Hyderabad (Deccan).

(Continued from p. 91 of Vol. xliv, No. 1 (1943) Ne

Medak district (comprising of Medak, Kalabgur, Andol, Siddipet

and Yellareddy talugs besides Narasapur and Vikarabad (belonging

to the Paigah) ), lies between 17°25’ and 18°10! N. and 77°48! and

78°31' E., with a total area of 3,198 sq. miles. It is bounded on the

north-east and north by Karimnagar and Nizamabad; on the east and

south by Atrafi-Balda district; and on the west by Bidar district

and Paigah Estates. |

There are numerous low hills; one range extends from Ramaya-

pet in the north to the southern portion of Nizamabad, and then turn-

ing to the south again enters the district. Another range extends

from the north-western corner to the east. The most important river

is Manjra which runs through the district for about 60 miles. The

Haldi or Pushpa and Aleru rivers are its main tributaries.

The rock formation is Archaean gneiss. Total population is

758,220 and that of the fisher-folk about 12,500. Tanks number

about 3,000, and there are about 85 miles of canals; small anicuts or

‘mathris’ are 74 in number, one at Ghanpur about to miles from

Medak town is quite big. From here two canals run from each flank

of the Manjra and irrigate large tracts of land in Andol and

Medak taluqs. Average rainfall is 33.4 inches and temperature

63°-96°.

Only a cursory survey of smaller tanks in Kalabgur, Siddipet and

Andol taluqs was carried out, and important ones are mentioned

below :—

Mahboobsagar is a fairly big tank near the old fort of Sangareddy

town with a waterspread of about 2 sq. miles when full. It is fed by

the Manjra during rains. The bottom is muddy and full of

aquatic weeds which harbour many small shrimps and other crus-

taceans. As it is shallow, fishing is done intensively and very

few fishes escape the nets of the fishermen. ‘Murrals’ are the

principal food-fishes of this tank besides a few others as noted

below :—

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.).

Chela clupeoides (B1.).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

_ Glossogobius. giuris (Ham.).

Ophicephalus punctatus BI.

Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Callichrous bimaculatus (BI.).

Mystus tengara (Ham.),

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Andol tank (waterspread 2} sq. miles), Posanipet tank, Annasagur

(waterspread 3 sq. miles) are within a few miles radius of Andol.

All of them are shallow and dry up during summer. Only a few —

small fishes were obtained :—

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.).

Chela clupeoides (BIl.).

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius),.dorsalis (Jerdon).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore (Ham.).

Glossogobius giuvis (Ham.).

Ophicephalus punctatus BI.

Clarias batrachus Linn.

Medak town is almost surrounded by small and large tanks; near

the town there are fairly big tanks. About 10 miles from the town is

the Ghanpur anicut across the Manjra and from its southern flank

the Mahboob canal starts; it is 27 miles long and irrigates soo acres

of land. It feeds directly or indirectly many tanks of which some

important ones are: Kistapooram, Railamadgu, Mambajpall,

Garwanpalli, Kanasanipalli, Devar Kosanipalli, Mutayapalli,

Jakannapet, Nagaram and Sardana. The canal finally falls into

the Pocharam reservoir.

The other canal starting from the northern flank of the anicut is |

the Fateh Canal which irrigates about 400 acres of land in the Andol

taluq and feeds Chairypalli, Nagasanpalli, Unnawaram, Issipet,

Kothapalli, Yellapuram, Poorstnipalli and Kurtial tanks. The total

length of this canal is about 22 miles.

The following is the list of a few selected fishes collected there :—

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép,).

Chela clupeoides (Bl). :

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

~Catla catla C. & V.

Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Mystus cavasius (Ham.).

Fingerlings of Labeo. fimbriata (BI.), Wallagonia attu (Bl.), Catla

catla C. & V., and many other fishes were collected in fairly large

numbers from many of these tanks—they must have entered the

canals from the river, and then along with the water have reached

these tanks. These shallow tanks can thus easily serve as stocking

centres from where the fingerlings of Catla and other fishes may be

collected and then transported to other parts of the Dominions HOM

stocking purposes.

The most important and the largest reservotr of the Medak dis:

trict is the Pocharam reservoir (waterspread 6.2 sq. miles) formed by

damming the river Aleru. It is situated in a very fine natural setting

being surrounded by low hills which are covered with green vegeta-

tion during the rainy season, and during the winter months the lake

teems with ducks and other aquatic birds which take shelter on small

‘islands’. In short, it is one of the prettiest spots in the Hyderabad

State and easily accessible to all lovers of nature. During the rainy

season the lake overflows and is a magnificent sight to look at. At

that time fishes are caught on the aprons and the overflow channels

in large numbers; one catch of about 4 hours produced a bag of 60

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 75

fishes weighing approximately 350 lbs. ‘At other seasons.also the

lake proper and its different channels were netted. Following is the

list of fishes obtained :— i

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas). Labeo fimbriata (Bl.).

Notopterus osmanit Das & Rahi- Labeo potail (Sykes).

mullah. Pe Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.).

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.). Rohtee belangeri Cuv. & Val.

, Chela clupeoides (B1.). Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Chela phulo (Ham.). Rohtee vigorsti Sykes,

Rasbora buchanani Bl. Laubuca laubuca (Ham.),.

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.). Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.).

Aspidoparia moray (Ham.). Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Barilius bakeri Day. Ambassis nama Day.

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes. Ambassis ranga (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.). Callichrous. bimaculatus (B1.).-

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham. | Callichrous. pabda (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) stolicskanus Day. Mystus aor (Ham.).

Cirrhina reba (Ham.). Mystus armatus (Day).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.). Mystus seenghala (Sykes).

Labeo boggut (Sykes). . Proeutropiichthys taakree (Sykes).

Labeo calbasu (Ham.). Silonopangasius childreniit (Sykes),

The Pocharam Canal starts from here, and after running a course

of 36 miles splits into many distributaries, two of which drain into

the Nizamsagar reservoir and some finally flow into tanks after irri-

gating an area of 13,069 acres of land. During its course it passes

through many tanks and indirectly feeds many others; the important

ones are: Muttumeda, Ramareddy, Nagareddy, Tadur, Jalalpur,

Burgampalli, Yellareddy, ‘Lingareddy and Bhawanipet tanks.

Yellareddy tank, out of these, is the biggest having a water-

spread of about 3 sq. miles, situated near the Yellareddy town. It

is full of ‘tunga’ (Typha elephantina Roxb.) which is found in dense

growth on the margins and in deeper portions, other vegetation 1s

profuse. This tank is noted for its ‘murral’ which grow to a large

size; this is the only place where i found ‘murral nooze’ in operation ;

large number of murral-fry are also caught and then sold for stock-

ing purposes. The breeding season for ‘murral’, so far studied, is

twice a year, viz., March-April and July-September. Fishes col-

lected are as follows :— ¥

Rasbora daniconius (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) amphibius (C.V.).

~ Barbus (Puntius) chola (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

Barbus (Puntius) ticto Ham.

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Rohtee cotio var. cunma Day.

Ophicephalus gachua (Ham.).

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Ophicephalus punctatus Bl.

.Ophicephalus striatus BI.

Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Mystus tengara (Ham.).

Besides the tanks, a survey of the rivers Manjra, Haldi and

Aleru was also carried out and a composite list is given below. The

Manjra, the longest river of this district, enters near Jogipet and

then after a run of about 60. miles falls into the Nizamsagar. The

76 JOURNAL, BOMEBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45.

Haldi joins it at a distance of about 3 miles from the Medak town

and the Aleru about 10 miles up Nizamsagar.

rivers are rocky and only in parts,

The beds of these

sandy. All of them are peren-

nial but in summer they can be forded at places and in the tributaries

a very shallow current of water remains, but during rains the

amount of water is tremendous and the flow very rapid.

of fishes is as follows :—

Notopterus notopterus (Pallas).

Notopterus. osmani Das & Rahi-

mullah. :

Mastacembelus armatus (Lacép.).

Mastacembelus pancalus (Ham.).

Rhynchobdella aculeata (BI.).

Chela bacaila (Ham.).

Chela boopis (Day).

Chela clupeoides (B1.).

Barilius bendelisis Ham.

Rasbora daniconius Ham.

Barbus (Puntius) dorsalis (Jerdon).

Barbus (Puntius) kolus Sykes.

Barbus (Puntius) sarana (Ham.).

Barbus (Puntius) sophore Ham.

Barbus (Puntius) ticto (Jerdon).

Barbus (tor) Khudree Sykes.

Barbus (tor) musullah Sykes.

Cirrhina reba Ham.

Gerra stenorhynchus (Jerdon).

Labeo bata (Ham.).

Labeo boggut Sykes.

Labeo calbasu (Ham.).

Labeo fimbriata (B1.).

Labeo potail (Sykes).

Catla catla C. & V.

Esomus danricus (Ham.).

The list

Amblypharyngodon mola (Ham.).

Glossogobius giuris (Ham.).

Thynnichthys sandkhol (Sykes).

Rohtee belangeri Cuv. & Val.

Rohtee colio var cunma Day.

Rohtee neilli Day.

Rohtee vigorsii Sykes.

Lepidocephalus guntea (Ham.).

. Nemachilus anguilla Annandale.

Nemachilus botia (Ham.).

Nemachilus denisonii Day.

Ophicephalus marulius Ham.

Ophicephalus striatus Bl.

Ambassis nama (Ham.).

Ambassis ranga (Ham.).

Callichrous bimaculatus (BI.).—

Rita hastata Val.

Rita pavimenta (Val.).

Clarias batrachus Linn.

Wallagonia attu (BI.).

Mystus aor (Ham.).

Mystus seenghala (Sykes)

Mystus tengara (Ham.).

Mystus vittatus (Bl.).

Bagarius bagarius (Ham.).

Proeutropiichthys taakree (Sykes).

Silonopangasius childrenii (Sykes).

Some parts of the Manjra are excellent for angling, especially

where water collects in deep pools, and the anicut at Ghanpoor also

provides good sport. Some parts below the Pocharam reservoir are

also very good angling spots where Mystus aor and M. seenghala

take live bait easily. In the reservoir itself some ‘islands’ are also

very good for this purpose.

Barbus (tor) khudree Sykes..

Barbus khudree, Sykes, Trans. Zool, Soc. London, IT, p. 357.

Barbus khudree Sykes, Hora & Misra, J.B.N.H.S., 40, p. 24.

Barbus (tor) khudree Sykes, Hora, Ibid, 44, p, 6.

In fin-formula it corresponds with that given by Hora and Misra

but in colouration it differs a little.

Upper half of the body greyish black; lower half Dineen

Dorsal with greyish rays and margin; pectoral and anal yellowish-

orange; ventral fringed with oranges caudal yellowish with grey

fringe. Eye with yellowish-white margin.

It is locally known as Kalimparka and Mansoor,

FISH SURVEY OF HYDERABAD STATE 77

Barbus (tor) musullah Sykes.

Barbus musullah Sykes, Trans, Zool. Soc., London, 1841, II,

p- 350.

The Baran Mahseer, Thomas, Rod in India, 3rd Edition,

pp. 2

). SQ} c

Barbus (tor) musullah Sykes, Hora, J.B.N.H.S., 44, pp. 5, ©

Colouration: | Enon

go —Upper part of the body light-blue, lower lighter in colour.

Dorsal, ventral and caudal blue; pectoral and anal yellowish-white.

2—Body colour resembled that of. the male but Dorsal fin was

_blackish-blue; pectoral and anal yellowish-white; ventral yellowish-

pink and the caudal was bluish with orange fringe. These specimens

were collected during the breeding season and were quite ripe. The

fish 1s locally known as Irraham.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS.

I am indebted to Professors B. K. Das and M. Sayeeduddin and

the Pro-Vice-Chancellor, Osmania University, for library facilities. To

the P.W.D. and Irrigation Department I am grateful for other facili-

ties, and to the Additional Revenue Secretary (Rural Reconstruction),

H.E.H. the Nizam’s Government, for encouragement and keen

interest in this work. I am also thankful to my assistants and

colleagues of this department for all the laboratory help which they

extended to me always cheerfully and ungrudgingly.

REFERENCES.

Das, B. K.—Proc. Ind. Sc. Cong. (1924).

—Ibid, (1944).

Dewy, F eres Britt. Ind. 1&2

Fraser, A. G. L.—J].B.N.H.S., Ag (1942).

Hora, S. L., & Misra, K. Sa Ibid, 39, (1937).

= —Ibid, 40, (1930).

meloray S: E.-Ibid, 44, (1943).

Rahimullah, M. & Das. B. K.—Journ. Osm. Univ.,- 3, (1935).

- Rahimullah, M.—J.B.N.H.S., 43, (1943).

—Ibid, 44, (1943).

- Suter, M.—Ibid, 43, (1943).

A NEW SPECIES OF CORDIA.

KK. CHERIAN JACOB, L.Ag., F.L,S.,

(Agricultural Research Institute, Coimbatore).

(With a plate).

Cordia diffusa K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Boraginaceae. Bae

Ab aliis’ speciebus differt habitu fruticoso et diffundenti, foliis late ellypticis

utraque superficie asperis setis coopertis.

Fruticosa, diffundens, ramis ex stirpe orientibus; ramis ligneis, diffundentibus,

60-80 cm. longis et 5-7.cm. diametro ; ramulis recentioribus setis asperis coopertis.

lolia simplicia, alternantia, sub- -opposita vel opposita, exstipulata, late ellyptica,

obtusa, mucronata; lamina 4-5.5 cm. longa et 2.5-3. 3 cm. lata, aliquando leviter

major, crebro multo minor, utraque superficie asperis setis cooperta, aliquando

cystolithis Superiore superficie distincta; margine asperis setis obsesso, ad imam.

laminae partem integro, ad summam. partem leviter serrato ; venis prominentibus,

6-8 paribus, 4 vel 5 superioribus venis in mucronibus serrationum: terminantibus ;

petiolo pubescenti, 3-5 cm. longo. Flores terminales, umbellatis cymis, potius

congesti, 8-12 floribus; pedunculo simplici, 1.5-2 cm. longo, setis asperis obsesso ;

pediculo 2-4 mm. longo, ebracteato. Calyx tomentosus, brunneus, tubularis, 4-5

mm. longus, cum 3 dentibus. Corolla flavo-alba, tubularis, 7-8 mm. longa,

4-lobata, lobis prominentibus et reflexis. Stamina 4, exserta, sinibus tubi corol-

laris affixa; filamentis glabris, adnatis, apice liberis, parte libera 2. mm. longa;

antheris 1 mm. longis, exsertis. Gynoecium. 7-8 mm. longum, ovario 2 mm.

longo, viridi, in stilum fastigante, 4-loculari cum unico ovo in unoquoque loculo ;

stilo 3 mm. longo, terminali, infro simplici, tunc 2-partito, partibus iterum

2-partitis et 1.5-2 mm. longis. Drupa ovato-acuta, mucronata, 1.5 cm. longa et

1.2 cm. lata, croceo colore; carne viscida; fulvo pubescenti, irregulariter’ lobato,

persistenti poculoque simili calyci infixa; nucleo 4-loculari, 3 loculis sterilibus uno

Joculo cum unico semine. Semen 8 mm. longum, 6 mm. latum, infra rotundum,

planis lateribus:in apicem fastigans, apice foraminato. Fructus edulis.

Cordia diffusa K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. (Boraginaceae—Cordieae). It differs

from the other species of Cordia in being shrubby and spreading with the leaves

broadly elliptic and beset with rough hairs on both surfaces.

Shrubby, spreading, many branches from the root-stoclk; branches woody,

spreading, 60-80 cm. long. and 5-7 mm. across; young branches beset with rough

hairs. Leaves simple, alternate, sub-opposite or opposite, ex-stipulate, broadly

elliptic, obtuse at the apex, the apex ending in a mucro; lamina 4-5.5 cm. long

and 2.5-3.3 cm. broad, some. are slightly lar ger but many are much smaller, beset

with rough hairs on fon surfaces, sometimes in some older leaves upper surfaces

dotted with cystoliths ; margins beset with rough hairs, entire towards the base but

slightly serrate towards the apex; nerves prominent, 6-8 pairs, 4-5 apical ones

ending in mucros which form the serrations; petiole pubescent, 3-5 mm. long.

I‘lowers terminal, in umbellate cymes, rather congested with 8-12 flowers;

peduncle simple, 1.5-2 cm. long, beset with rough hairs; pedicel 2-4 mm. long,

ebracteate. Calyx tomentose, brown, tubular, 4-5 mm. long, teeth 3. Corolla

yellowish white, tubular, 7-8 mm. long, lobes 4, prominent and reflexed. Stamens

4, fixed at the sinuses of the corolla lobes, exserted. Filaments adnate to the

base and free at the top, the free portion 2 mm. long, the filaments glabrous ;

anthers 1 mm. long, exserted; pistil 7-8 mm. long; ovary 2 mm. long, greenish,

tapers to the style; style 3 mm. long, terminal, simple below, then 2-partite, the

branches again bi-partite, 1.5-2 mm. long; stigma simple; ovary 4-celled ; ovules

solitary in each, cell. Drupe ovate-acute, mucronate, 1.5 cm. jong and 1.2 cm.

broad, orange coloured with viscid pulp, seateds on the cup-shaped, fulvous pubes-

cent, veined, irregularly many lobed, persistent calyx; stone 4-celled, 3 of the cells

barren and 1 one-seeded. Seed 8 mm, long, 6 mm. broad, rounded at the base

with 4 flat sides tapering to apex with a hole at the top. Fruits edible.

20S “ISI, ‘JUN Avquiog ‘usnor

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. elas

feo

father Jean Ferdinand Caius, s.J

OBITUARY 79

Type Locality : South India, Nanjundapuram, Coimbatore ; elevation 1,300 feet.

Type in Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore, Madras Herbarium No. 86237.

Collected by Kk. Cherian Jacob on 2-5-1038.

Local name: Tam. Siru or Nila Naruvili.

My thanks are due to Father A. Rapinat, s.j., Professor of Botany, St. Joseph’s

College, Trichinopoly, for kindly rendering the English description into Latin.

OBITUARY NOTICES

"FATHER JEAN FERDINAND CAIUS, S.J.

Father: J. F. Caius, S.J., died at Bombay on Thursday, July 27th 1944.

Father Caius was one of that. company of distinguished Jesuits, men> of great

learning and science, who devoted their lives to service in India and who, passing,

have left this country richer for their labours and poorer for their loss.. Born on

January the 17th, 1877, in a country village in the district of le Medoc, France,

young Caius had_his early schooling at Toulouse, where his parents had settled.

On completing his secondary education, Caius joined the Society of Jesus, and

in 1895 came out to India as a scholastic. He joined the Madura Mission

and was subsequently attached to St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, where among

other things he started a Natural History Museum. His theological and other

studies were completed partly at the Jesuit Seminary at Kurseong and then at

St. Beunos College, St. Asaph, North Wales. He was ordained at Milltown

Park, Dublin, on July 26th, 1908. Continuing his studies at Heeren Elderen, in

Flanders and at the French house of Philosophy at Geemert in Holland, Fr. Caius

realised the dream of his scientific hopes and training when he started his scientific

researches at the School of Medicine of the University of Paris. In June 1911,

Father Caius returned to India and was till 1922 Professor of Chemistry at

St. Joseph’ s College, Trichinopoly, when he was’ transferred to Bombay to direct

the Chemistry Department of St. Xavier’s College. He had already established his

reputation as a Bio-Chemist, and in 1924, he founded and was appointed by the

Government of Bombay to take charge of the Pharmacological Laboratory of the

Haffkine Institute, where he worked till his retirement at the age of 55, in 1932.

He was a prominent member of the Indian Drug Enquiry Committee and made

a substantial contribution to its findings. He was an active member of the Bombay

Chemical Society, a member of the Faculty of Medicine of the Bombay University,

a member of the Faculty of Arts and for many years an examiner in French at

the B.A. and M.A. The French Government conferred on him the distinction of

Officier d’Académie in 1929, Officier de lV’instruction publique in 1936, and was

for many years President of the Cercle Litteraire in Bombay, a popular member. of

the French Colony in Bombay. During the War he took a lively interest

in the work cf the Free French Committee: being an ardent patriot and

de Gaullist.

It was my. privilege in recent years to be intimately associated with him in some

of his many activities. He was Chairman of the Committee of ‘Trustees of the

Natural History Section -of the Frince of Wales Museum. He was also the

Honorary Secretary of the Bombay Natural History Society and one of the editors

of its Journal. It was good to work with him. He brought to his work the

acumen, the clarity. of thought, the critical mind of the true man of science that

he was. But he also brought to it that human sympathy and understanding

which endeared him to all who worked with him. In the field of Science he was

unable to suffer fools gladly. But in the field of human charity his great heart

got the better of him. For this will he be loved and remembered by us. One of

the things he liked doing best was editing the Journal of the Society. The last

proofs he corrected for us he corrected on his deathbed. He sent them, to me on

the morning before he died. They were done with the same care and precision

as any he had done before. A few hours before his death he wrote a criticism of

a thesis submitted by one of his students for the Bombay University. It was

truly a triumph of mind over bodily affliction. And that I think was his life

for many years. ‘The ceaseless struggle of a brave spirit which would not yield

ta failing health and strength. One is glad to feel and know that his work

with the Natural History Society brought him some measure of happiness during

80 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

his closing years. Whatever the state of his health, he came plodding up the

stairway and sat down to his work. There was always a smile, a joke, some

trenchant humour. He went away cheered. He felt he was doing something.

He was no dilletante of science. He was a man of -action. He wanted to serve,

to use his knowledge. He felt that it was being wasted. It was indeed wasted

by the State who might well have continued to use his great knowledge to

the greater good of this country and its people. His untimely retirement from

his post as Director of the Pharmacological Laboratory of the Hafflkine Institute

was to him a grevious disappointment. It was a premature cutting off from a

field of endeavour in which he had accomplished much and in which he knew he

could accomplish more. As a realist, applied science attracted him more than the

realms of pure research. His chosen field was science applied to the alleviation

of human suffering. In the Haffkine Institute he carried out intensive investi-

gations into the therapeutic value of various remedies employed to combat diseases

caused by hookworms and round worms—diseases so prevalent in India, The

results of his researches were published in the Indian Journal of Medical Research.

His work has been accepted as the most exhaustive and complete treatise on the

subject. It is repeatedly quoted by most text books on pharmacology. Another

contribution by Father Caius was his extensive studies of the poison apparatus

of snakes and of the remedies employed against snake poisons. Quite early

he collaborated with Dr. Marie Phisalix, the distinguished savant and her-

petologist of the Paris Museum. Their combined reseaches into the structure

‘and function of the poison apparatus of snakes, particularly of species generally

believed to be non-poisonous, were published in the Journal of Physiology and

Pathology of Paris. Here in India Caius turned his attention to the investigation

of the value of various remedies supposed to be effective against snake bite. He

searched Ayurvedic and Unani systems of medicine to find out if any effective

cures could be found. It was long and laborious research. He found none that

were effective, but he and his collaborators rendered a great public service by show-

ing that these so-called and widely employed remedies were completely without

action against Cobra or Viper venoms. He also made valuable contributions to

our knowledge of methods of concentration of antivenine, and he was one of the

pioneers in undertaking investigations into the chemo-therapy of plague. He was

one of the leading authorities on the Medicinal and Poisonous Plants of India.

Students of indigenous drugs will ever be indebted to Father Caius for his revision

of Kirtikar and Basu’s work on Indian Medicinal Plants. This book published in

4 volumes is now the standard work on the subject. It classifies the various drugs

used in indigenous systems of medicine and provides a wealth of information of _

their action and uses. As with all his writings, they are marked with an objecti-.

vity, a clarity of thought and conciseness which have earned the admiration of

scientists and laymen. He also contributed a series of articles on the Medicinal

and Poisonous Plants of India to the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society and to the New Review of Calcutta.. Another subject which interested him

was the question of *Earth-eating and Salt-licks’. His analysis of ‘Salt-licks’ sent

from various parts of India were published in the Society’s Journal. This was

the measure of his services to the country as a scientist. But what of Caius

the man? None of us who knew him intimately will forget him. To some he

might have seemed elusive and forbidding; but under that somewhat stern

exterior there beat a great heart, a heart full of charity and kindliness to the

poor and suffering, full of compassion for the lowly. To the least of these he

was a father and friend. He died as he lived, working for his fellowmen. It is

the best epitaph that could be written of a man. May God rest his soul.

Saphino bl,

SIR ERNEST HOTSON, K.C.S.I., O.B.E.

In the death of Sir Ernest Hotson on May 12th 1944, the Society loses one

who has been for many years one of its strongest supporters. John Ernest Buttery

Hotson was born on March 17th 1877. He was educated at Edinburgh Academy

and at Magdalen College, Oxford,

He was in the Indian Civil Service from 1899 but, when the last War. broke

out he joined the Indian Army Reserve of Officers and was on military duty

chiefly in Baluchistan from 1915 to 1918, was Lt.-Colonel in command of the

Mekran Levy Corps and subsequently was appointed Consul at Shiraz, Persia.

OBITUARY 81

Sir Ernest was a keen naturalist and when he was in Baluchistan and also in

Persia, he collected specimens for the Mammal Survey of India which was started

by the Bombay Natural History Society. = eS

In the Journal of the Society, Vol. xxvi, the late Mr. Oldfield Thomas pub-

lished an article on ‘Some new Mammals from Baluchistan and North-West India’

and named two new species after Col. Hotson:—Hotson’s Jerboa (Allactaga

hotsoni) and a new. Vesper Mouse (Calomyscus hotsoni).

‘This was followed by an article in Vol. xxvii. by Major R. E. Cheesman on a

Collection of Mammals made by Col. JE. B. Hotson in Shiraz, Persia, and two

of the Bats were found to be new to science.

Another small collection of mammals was acknowledged from Colonel Hotson

in the same Volume. These were part of a collection which was looted on the

way down from Shiraz and were discovered lying at the bottom of a well, the

remainder, comprising chiefly botanical specimens, were unfortunately destroyed.

Mr. R. I. Pocock of the British Museum (Natural History) has kindly supplied

the following notes in regard to specimens collected by Col. Hotson which have

passed through his hands :— :

1. Adult female and half-grown kitten of Felis lybica nesteron, a race of the

Desert Cat (ornata), new to the British Museum Collection, from Perse-

polis (Mamm. Brit. India, Vol. I, p. 288).

2. An interesting specimen of the typical-race of the Jungle Cat (Felis chaus

chaus from g miles South of Shiraz (op. cit., p. 292).

Specimens of the western race of the Common Mongoose (Herpestes

edwardsii ferrugeus) from Qasrquand on the Perso-Baluchi border and

from Shiraz (Vol. II, p. 17).

4. Specimens of the small race of the Indian Wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) from

Kajdar, S. Baluchistan (Vol. II, p. gr).

Several specimens of the western race of the jackal (Canis aureus aureus)

from Shiraz and several localities in Baluchistan (Vol. II, p. 97).

6. White-footed Fox (Vulpes vulpes pusilla), many specimens from various

localities in southern Baluchistan, from Chanaban in the Persian Gulf

and Shiraz, the specimen from the last locality being a topotype of

Blanford’s persica and helping to show that that name is a synonymy of

pusilla (Vol. II, p. 12).

The ungulates have not yet been reported upon.

Persian Gazelle (Gazella subgutturosa), Shiraz.

Ibex and Ooorial from S. Baluchistan. The Ooorial being a particularly in-

teresting lot showing seasonal changes etc. and throwing a good deal of light

upon the synonymy of this sheep in Western India.

‘All his skins were valuable because they had full particulars, localities, alti-

tudes, dates and measurements. I do not believe that Oorial, for example, have

ever been properly measured before, sportsmen caring for nothing but the horns

and shoulder height.’

These notes by Mr. Pocock demonstrate the exceptional value of Sir Ernest

Hotson’s collections, given to the National Collection, through the Bombay Natural

History Society.

Sir Ernest very generously defrayed half the expenses of the collector, Mr.

Baptista, who joined him in Baluchistan and alse in Shiraz.

A large collection of botanical specimens made by him in Baluchistan, Afghan-

istan and Persia, was presented by Sir Ernest to the late Fr. E. Blatter, s.J.,

-and is now in the Herbarium of St. Xavier’s College, Bombay..

Returning to Bombay after the’ War, he again served at headquarters as

Secretary in the Political Department from 1922, and then as Chief Secretary.

In 1926 he was appointed to the Governor’s Executive Council and when Sir

Frederick Sykes went home on four months’ leave, Sir Ernest acted as Governor

-of Bombay.

Wis. Mi.

“MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1.—A NOTE ON THE HABITS OF PIKAS OR MOUSE-HARES.

The pikas are said to be found in Kabul', but the writer

has had little chance. to find them in the city. They are, how-

ever, found in abundance at Surchashma (a small village about

sixty miles south-west of Kabul) and at the Unai Pass, both places

being situated at the source of the Kabul river. The Unai hills

are about eleven hundred feet high, and one of their valleys,

situated two miles of Surchashma, called Durra-a-bagha, is probably

the central habitation of pikas in this area. ;

The pika of Surchashma belongs to the species Oehotona rufescens

(Gray) and are locally known as Mush-a-lundae (tail-less rats) or

Khalta-mush (sac-like rats). They are gregarious and eagerly eat

the fresh plants of wheat and lucerne and so prove a menace to

cultivation. The weasel is said to capture and devour them and

hence is often kept by the cultivators. They live in crevices of

loose stones in the low bounding walls of cultivated land, formed

in terraces on the lower slopes of the hills. These slow moving

small animals come out early in the morning and evening and chil-

dren capture them from their holes by taking hold of their ears.

Thirty pikas were caught by the writer last year, but only one,

the strongest and healthiest, was able to endure captivity for forty

days. The natural diet is evidently the fresh leaves of wheat and

lucerne, but they. were given wheat grains and mostly carrots. In

the meantime the colour of the fur. faded, i.e., turned into pale

brown, which may, probably, be due to diet or their being kept in

shade.

FacuLty OF MEDICINE, Se Ae PATKGEIaIy Ale

IKABUL,

January 15, 1944

[Desert Gerbilles (Meriones hurrianae) from the Sind Desert

became perceptibly darker after 6-8 months captivity in Bombay. Diet

or light and chmatic change may have been the cause. ibs. |

2-+—-THE HIMALAYAN TAHR (HEMITRAGUS JEMLA-

ERIC US atl eS IME) SIN SKS Kev

Captain Wrenicke’s very interesting note on the Tahr in Sik-

kim draws attention to a little known fact of distribution. The

existence of Tahr in Sikkim has been known for many yeats.

In the Fauna of British India, Mammalia, Blanford states that

this animal occurs ‘throughout the Himalayas from the Pir Panjal

to Sikkim’ and adds ‘(I have skins from the latter, obtained by

Mr. Mandelli).’ A skull and, I think, a skin is preserved in’ the

Natural History Museum at Darjeeling.

1 fours SBOiib.T Ndi tS-a15.0 Cx Oleex Vile) 0876

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 83

_ Just before the war a German named Schaeffer was travel-

ling in Tibet and Sikkim. He obtained specimens of Tahr which

were named schaefferi by a German zoologist. Owing to the war,

the description of this, as a new species (or sub-species?), is not

obtainable in this country.

In the Sikkim shooting licence, the Tahr was deliberately omitted

from the list of game which might be shot, as it was not intended

to allow any to be killed on a normal shooting trip. The licence

did not include a complete list of game animals to be found in

Sikkim. ,

Hitt House, NORTHREPPS, Po Me BAILEY:

CROMER, NORFOLK, ENGLAND, - Lt.-Col.

November 29, 1943.

(AXIS AXIS) STAGS.

On page 169 of the Society’s Journal for December, 1943 (vol.

xliv, No. 2), Pocock states that in Axis deer, generally known as

the chital in India and as the spotted deer in Ceylon, the upper

canine teeth are typically absent—in both sexes.

Pocock quotes Lydekker as saying, on unstated authority, that

the canine teeth are generally absent in Axis, a’contention which

was repeated or copied by Phillips. Pocock found that the canine

teeth were ‘entirely absent’ in all the numerous skul!s he examined

at the British Museum. 3

I have not got my reference—nor Game Book with me, but

I wonder if your readers who have shot the. lovely Axis stag

will agree with these rather general statements.

Many times I have been surprised to find that big game

hunters had never heard of these well-known teeth in stags, the

haken as German and Austrian stalkers call them—much prized

trophies when mounted acorn-fashion in badges and brooches.

I have pointed out these rudimentary teeth in Axis stags

more than once to friends in the field, and somewhere in my

collections there must be a few sets but it is not possiblé to post

them to you at the moment.

No doubt these teeth, as found in Axis, can only be called

rudimentary, they are not solid and fully developed as in the

stags of Europe. As a rule they are just under the skin of the

upper gums and have not broken through. In a few cases they

are visible as small white spots.

They can be lifted out quite easily and rather tesemble the

thin broken shell of a tiny egg. It is not surprising that the

skulls in the British Museum should not show any of these

teeth as they are lost at once when the flesh has rotted or the

skull has been boiled and cleaned. There is no socket. The

skull of the European stag does not show these teeth, _although

the animal grows fully dev eloped and solid ones.

Strange to say many trackers—as a-.rule keen abana

rarely know about this and are interested when shown them.

—

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Is Pocock correct in saying ‘absent in both sexes’? I have never

heard of these ‘haken’ having been taken from a hind.

Pocock’s observations are I think often rather general. It

is no criterion (page 173) ‘to think that the Axis skull in the

Ceylon deer is noticeably smaller than the skull of the Indian

specimens. Pocock had only two ¢ skulls from Ceylon for study,

both said to have been collected near Cheddikulam. It would

be more correct to get a good series from, the south-eastern regions,

where the best type of Axis deer is found, and with which the

North Ceylon spotted deer—of very poor physique due to feed-

ing, continual harassing: and disturbing, poaching, etc.—cannot

bear comparison. It is not possible to arrive at any correct data

from only two skulls picked up anyhow in the Island.

It is by no means clear why there should be the sub-specific

name ceylonensis, merely because the Ceylon spotted deer, as a

rule, is a poorer beast which grows a poorer head than his Indian

brother. The slight differences in colour of coat (for which many

reasons could be given), body pattern, etc., are of too small signi-

ficance to warrant another sub-species being’ added to the already

numerous—and often doubtful so called sub-species which scientists

worry about and burden us_ with.

] agree with Pocock (page 172) where he says that the sub-

specific status of ceylonensis is hardly permissible.

COLOMBO, CEYLON, A. C. TUTEIN NOLTHENIUS, F.z.s.

Box 15,

February 4, 1944.

4.— BURIAL GROUND’ OF ELEPHANTS

A legendary belief.

In the Royal Natural History, edited by Richard Lydekker, I

came across the following passage about the Indian Elephant :

‘A curious circumstance in connection with these animals is,

that the bones of those which have died a natural death are

scarcely ever found in the forests of India, and we believe that

the same is true with regard to Africa. It has accordingly been

suggested that elephants are in the habit of resorting to particu-

Jar spots when about to die, as is known to be the case with

the guanaco in South America. .... , but as no such mortuaries

have ever been discovered in India, this seems scarcely tenable,

and the subject accordingly still remains a complete mystery’.

As the above passage was written as long ago as the year

1894 I think this mystery must have since been solved and I

shall be obliged for information on the subject. I have no other

book for reference on the subject.

As regards the habit of resorting to dying places I shall be

glad to know your opinion on the subject as to the reason of this

interesting habit. Guanacos of the Liama family in South America

have been known to have their dying: places where they go when

wounded or when they feel their end near. Referring to these places

Darwin, as quoted by the same author, says, ‘on the banks of the

Santa Cruz... always near the river the ground was actually white

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 85

with bones. . . . The animals in most cases must have crawled

before dying beneath and amongst the bushes’. Mr. W. H. Hudson

also, as quoted by the same author, has attempted to solve this

mystery of guanacos resorting to dying places before their death.

According to his opinion this habit is due to an inherited instinct,

derived from a time when the animals were accustomed during a

period of exceptional cold to seek refuge beneath the cover of bushes

growing in the sheltered river-valleys. ‘Once we accept this

explanation as probable,’ writes Mr. Hudson, ‘namely, that the

guanaco in withdrawing from the herd to drop down and die in the

ancient dying-ground, is in reality only seeking an_historically-

remembered place of refuge, and not of death—the action of the

animal loses much of its mysterious character; we come on the

firm ground, and find that we are no longer considering an instinct

absolutely unique, with no action or instinct in any other animal

leading up to or suggesting any family likeness to it.’

I am tempted to quote the above passages as I found them

interesting. I am inclined to believe this solution of the mys-

tery of guanacos resorting to dying places and the same solution

must apply to the African elephant. As to the habit of the

Indian elephant I invite information from you. Please also let

me know if the African elephants have really such habit. If we

accept Mr. Hudson’s solution the question arises as to why other

animals lost their inherited instinct of resorting to their ancient

place of refuge when they feel their death is approaching, or

is this mystery a complete myth?

PORBANDER, Wo Mle WAUSIO.

KATHIAWAR,

April 4, 1944.

[ Hudson, in his preliminary remarks to the passage quoted above

observes that this strange habit is only developed among the guanacos

of Southern Patagonia and nowhere else within the wide range of

the’ species. African and Indian elephants are the only other

animals credited’ with the same habit. There is no evidence to

support the belief.

As indicated by Mr. F: W. Champion (Wild Elephants of

the. United Provinces—Journal, .B. N. H. S., Vol. xxx, p..132)

the legend about wild elephants resorting to some common and

secret place in which to die has no foundation in fact. The life

span of an elephant is long and their customary habitats lie in

sparsely populated districts. Occasion and opportunity for dis-

covery of an occasional corpse in immense tracts of forest is in-

frequent. Besides the carcase of even so large an animal may be

practically disposed off within a brief period—eaten by innumerable

animals, habitual scavengers and others, and the remnants covered

over by rank grass and vegetation of the monsoon. Records of

the discovery of carcases of elephants which have died of old

age, though scanty, have been noted—Mr. Champion records one

(Journal, Vol. xxxili, p. 433).—Ebs. |

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

5.—THE WINTER FOODS OF BIRDS IN KASHMIR.

Careful observation from September till March have shown how

certain birds live and how certain birds confine themselves: to

relatively restricted diets.

The following are the commonest foods: rice, plentiful in all

rice fields which are fallow and mostly dry and hard during the

winter until snow comes—especially plentiful when small stacks.

have been made before the sheaves are carried to the villages

for threshing.

Pulse (Moong Dhal), buckwheat and the seeds of various weeds

that grow in maize fields—a little wheat from the June harvest

and a sort of Canary seed.

The seed of a tall grass that grows plentifully on the lower. -

slopes and amongst scrub and where pine trees are not too thick.

This grass is not eaten by animals except the heads, when the

seeds are ripe. Its seeds are about # of an inch long, very sharp

at each end. It is said that in a great famine human beings har-

vested the seeds and made flour of them. Wheat when being sown

during the winter; the seeds of pine trees chiefly Pinus longifolia.

The leaves of a small shrub, and when the snow is thick, green

moss off rocks.

Having regard to the fact that there is rice lying everywhere

in the fields it might be imagined that it would be the first favourite

but this is not so.. Koulan (Demoiselle crane) feed largely on rice

and at the same time dig’ up field mice.

Geese leave the sanctuaries and some years feed in the dry

rice fields with their heads down, in other years you see practically

no geese. doing this. It is noteworthy that it is practically im-

possible to stalk HWoulan in the fields because of their height

combined with their constant vigilance. Geese on the other hand

are so busy eating that it is often possible to get close to them,

especially to small family parties as opposed to big flocks of roo

or more.

Crows in large flocks get their living in any rice fields for

several months. They spend the day in comparatively small

flocks, which, just as it is getting dark, collect in the big Chenar

trees of villages and then go on to big trees at certain points,

when the amalgamation of these units produces enormous flocks:

that set out to their roosting places in willow copses. They

choose young plantations, possibly protected by higher ones from

the prevailing wind. An examination .of the surface under the

crows’ roosting places reveals that the ground is thickly covered

with droppings in which there is a large proportion of undigested

rice grains. Local people will not eat these crows but may eat the

kind with ‘orange beaks and claws’ i.e. Choughs. , It was noted that

in the Gurdaspur jheels of the Punjab in the winter of 1942-43,

fishermen made a business of catching crows that came to roost in the

high reeds using very light fragile nets on light poles. The birds

when disturbed at night fly low along the channels used by boats

through the high cover. It was customary to send at least part of the

catch to towns for sale. The feeding habits of chukor are the same,

and are interesting and vary according to habits of different coveys.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 87.

In September and October some chukor, but only a small proportion,’

come down to the fields as the crops are cut, but soon move up

the hills again. It seems that they rely as far as possible on the

seeds of the tall grass aforementioned, preferring to pick the seeds

off the stalks, especially when knocked down by the passage of herds

of sheep and goats. Besides the seeds, they eat the leaves of a

small wiry shrub, until they fall in the autumn, By far the greater

proportion of chukor rely for their main winter food on the seeds

of Pinus longifolia, and when the snow comes they still stay, because

the seeds are easily visible where they fall from the wet cones on

to the snow.

Chukor. which live on pine seeds will come downhill a matter

of a thousand feet once a day to water, to feed in cultivation, or go

to places where they can have a dust bath. Coveys that do this are

distinct from those, which for some reason live lower down and do

not favour pine seeds. Wheat is undoubtedly the favourite food

of chukors—so long as the ground is dry and soft—they will risk

anything to get to fields up to the time the grain is well germinated.

It has been noted that a great many birds, including ducks and

geese, gorge on freshly germinated seeds: that sprout in the first

winter rains such as the Tre-foil Bur in India—various desert seeds

in Iraq, and Persia. This is presumably a craving for vitamins.

It is highly probable that the hill pheasants, like the. chukor

feed largely on pine seeds for at least part of the year.

One interesting point is that chukors do not seem to be in-

terested in rice as a diet, and do not in consequence come down to

rice fields. They have been seen in ground well below rice fields,

but no rice has so far been found in the crop of a chukor. This is

strange—we know the black partridge is very fond of rice. Is it that

the chukor has not a sufficiently good digestion to cope with rice?

It has been seen that the crow certainly passes a lot of it whole.

Ducks and geese are particularly fond of rice and go long

distances to fields where the crop has been devastated by a flood and

left unharvested.

In some places very large flocks of pigeons come down from

caves in cliff faces and feed in the dry rice fields, often mixed up

with the crows so that there are good grounds for the story of

the person who shot at a pigeon and killed a crow.

The flight of crows to and from their roosting places is interest-

ing in that they seem to work to a timed plan as regards gradually

forming up into enormous flocks, that appear in the failing even-

ing light like a huge piece of chiffon being waved in the sky. A

similar sight is the flight of starlings in Iraq to roosting places

in the reeds in the marshes. In the Kangra valley the crows ascend

in spirals, apparently by gliding at certain fixed points to their

roosting places in copses on the face of the Daula Dar Range.

It is curious that they should start to go te bed relatively early in

the afternoon presumably to make use of radiation in their up-

ward gliding and also to get the sun as long as possible where

they roost. Is it a matter of habit that makes them go from, say,

3,000 feet to 7,000 to roost where snow is on the ground at the

jatter height ? The downward flight of crows to their feeding

ground is a delightful sight, sometimes by single birds droppnig

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

at a steep angle and at other times. by the birds of a big flight

suddenly breaking their formation and losing height by a series of

fantastic dives at a great speed and in all directions accompanied.

by a loud noise from the impact of air in their feathers.

c/o GRINnDLAY & Co., G. DE ta P. BERESFORD,

BOMBAY.

January, 1944.

6.—BIRDS OF BOMBAY.

I read with interest in your issue of December 1642, the

note by the Bishop of Bombay on the birds of his Malabar Hill

garden in Bombay (Vol. xliti, No. 3, p. 525). If space permits, I

should like to add some complementary observations on the birds of

a very different habitat, situated some three miles away on’ the

opposite side of Back Bay. I refer to the area of open common land

and tidal mudflat known as the Colaba Reclamation, now alas owing

to wartime exigencies, becoming an increasingly built-up area.

During the months of August, September and November, 1943,

this small oasis of nature afforded me many an evening’s happy hunt-

ing with a pair of binoculars. My reference bible has been Salim

Ali and H. Abdulali’s ‘Birds of Bombay and Salsette’, an invaluable

working basis, which I shall hereafter refer to as ‘BBS’. These

notes are submitted as a further contribution to the facts and figures

there recorded.

The half-reclaimed basins of tidal mudflat are first and fore-

most a refuge and feeding ground for a large assembly of waders,

most of which arrived and either settled in or. passed through during

the period under review. First species to claim mention is the

Common Sandpiper. Previous observation in nearly every month

of the year confirms that its status is certainly that of resident,

though persumably non-breeding. One or more were to be seen

on every visit, usually away from the motley. throng for the Sand-

piper is an individualist who is not confined to the crowded mudflat.

In the first half of August the only other true waders seen were

a small party, which I doubtfully identified as Grey Plover; they

only appeared once. On August 21, the scene had become trans-

formed from one of damp desolation to one of feverish activity,

‘and on August 25, a rough count yielded 180 Sand Plover, 15

Stint, 8 Redshank, 8 Whimbrei, 7 Dunlin, 6 Turnstone, and 2

Greenshank. It was a pleasant surprise to recognise so many old

friends often watched in the U.K. It will be noted that the arrival

date of Stint is a month ahead of September 25, given as. the

earliest date in BBS. By the beginning of September, the Stint

were as numerous as the Sand Plover and, as far as could be seen,

were all Evolia minuta; no Temminck’s have yet been noted.

Dunlin, though noted in BBS as ‘uncommon’ also became as numer-

ous as the Sand Plover by September 7. The Sand Plover was a

new species to me, and as I failed to detect variations in size or

plumage with any certainty I presume my notes must ‘refer only

to the Pamirs. Lesser Sand Plover. They were first observed

on August 21, as compared with September 13, given as earliest

date in BBS.. Throughout September and November (I was away

Major-General.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 89

during October) the above three species remained the principal

clientele of the mudflats, feeding in mixed flocks of several hundreds.

The Redshank and Greenshank,—the latter easily spotted at long

range by his practice of feeding apart, probing his recurved bill

from side to side with a scythe-like motion—have remained fairly

constant in numbers, the largest total being 15 Redshank and 4

Greenshank recorded on November 22. In view of the scant records

of the occurrence of Turnstone (none since 1875 according

to BBS), it is of particular interest that about a deren were first

observed on August 21, and subsecuently .an average of 6 have

nearly always been present. I have frequently watched them at

close quarters, sometimes scattered i mixed flocks, sometimes

feeding in one compact party. On September 14, I was surprised

by the odd behaviour of one individual who was running about

among the coarse grass and pebbles beside the sea wall busily

turning over the latter and quite oblivious of my presence as I

stood watching only 3 paces away.

Of all waders the wary W himbrel was the most unapproachable,

and his presence was often only betrayed by his piping titterel or a

glimpse of his strong twisting flight as he disappeared into the

dusk. He has remained a constant visitor to the mudflats since

first noted on August 25.

On September 2, I observed a solitary Golden Plover in full

summer plumage. On September 15, 40-50 had arrived, some in

summer, some in winter plumage. They were still present up to

the end of November, but fluctuated considerably in numbers from

as many aS 100 on some days to none at all,on others. They are

- wild and wary creatures, especially when in a large flock, and

at times they seemed to infect the other waders with their nervous-

ness. On November 4, I again suspected the presence of Grey

Plover, but bad light prevented confirmation. On September 4, I

had the pleasure of recognising for the first time a Black-winged

Stilt—BBS gives earliest date as September 29. On September

13 there were two and I found them very easy to approach. By

the 29th they had gone; perhaps the slackening of the monsoon

had ieft the mud no longer deep or soft enough for their liking.

So much for the waders. One other transient visitor worthy

‘of mention was a party of 22 duck which appeared on September 12

and was present in dwindling numbers till the end of the month.

They nervously kept well out in the middle and I could only

doubtfully identify them as Gadwali. The Herons and Egrets

have been constantly represented by the ubiquitous Paddy — Bird

(up to 20 at a time), by Cattle Egrets, Reef Herons, both white

and slaty-grey, one or two solitary Grey Herons, and by possibly

the Purple Heron.

I would like now to mention briefly some of the other more

interesting visitors to the Reclamation, I will not attempt to list

all of the 60 odd species so far noted, as such a list not covering

a whole season would. necessarily be very incomplete. Two or

three Desert Wheatears were first observed on November 14 along

the sea wall (BBS gives November 12 as earliest date). A Rufous-

backed Shrike has taken up his stance on the waste land and

was first noted on September 29; a Wood Shrike has once been

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL 2HIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

seen. Whitethroats which had probably arrived in October were

observed singing their fidgety little song on November 1o. A

party of Brahminy Mynas put in an appearance at the end of

the month. Pairs and smal! parties of White-throated Munias have

been seen periodically and on October 5, they were in company

with several Ked Munia (escapes?). A Yellow-throated Sparrow

was seen on the same date.

The first of the wagtails appeared on September 12, a Mota-

cilla flava (subsp. ?). ae first White Wagtail was seen on Octo-

ber 5, three days after earliest date given in BBS, and_ during

November they. had become the commonest of the wagtails. A

solitary handsome roller seemed to have taken up his winter quar-

ters, and was first seen on October 5; several Hoopoes had done

the same, the first being noted on September 18 which is earlier

than the BBS date October 12. .The first bee-eaters to arrive were

the blue-tailed species (Blue-checked ?—Ebs.). They were first seen on

Sept. 19, and quite a large number were observed up to October 5;

on my return at the beginning of November, all had disappeared and

their place was taken by numerous Common Bee-eaters whose

advance guard had appeared on October 2. The White-fronted

Kingfisher and the common Indian Kingfisher have both been seen

at other times of the year on the Reclamation and deserve mention

if only for their attractive finery.

Concerning hawks and their like, a solitary Kestrel was seen

on November 14 and two days previously I had had a close view of a

White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle, who may have come to stay as he was

seen several times ,up te December 4, when I left Bombay.

Apart from Kites—and the Brahminy has been seldom observed—

the one other constant visitor has been a fine specimen of a

Harrier.. After a number of close views I have identified him

with reasonable certainty as an immature Pale Harrier, the ruff

being more distinct than. in the very similar Montagu’s. Since

his first appearance on September 29, I have watched him many

times harrying up and down his chosen beat with that character-

istic easy grace and poise which is such a pleasure to behold.

R.A. MEss, R. K. MARTIN,

BOMBAY. Lieut.

January 20, 1944.

| The authors of BBS would welcome bird notes from Bombay and

Salsette, especially relating to seasonal annual migratory movements,

nesting (where unrecorded), ecology etc. The notes are not intended

for publication in the Journal but for use in the 2nd revised edition

of BBS now under preparz

7.—SOME NOTES ON THE MOVEMENT OF BIRDS

IN THE LOVEDALE .NEIGHBOURHOOD—NILGIRIS.

This winter (1943-4) migration appears to have been rather

Jater than usual. Perhaps this was due to the particularly bad

weather conditions of late August and cauly part of September,

but not altogether as the Drongos were also late in arriving in

October.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . | 9)

The Grey Wagtail (Motacilla cinerea caspica), arrived towards

the middle of the month; other years I have seen it on September

2nd. ;

Willow-Warblers were first seen on September 209th; but as

I have not noted the date of arrival for other years I cannot

say whether this is usual, or late for them. We certainly have

two varieties of these engaging little birds, the Greenish Willow-

Warbler (Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus), and another rather like it,

but with no eye-stripe. I have been unable to identify it; it is much

Jess numerous. Through all the winter months the garden is never

without several pairs of these birds, and even in May there is an

occasional straggler to be seen. se a |

Indian Grey Drongo (Dicrurus leucophaeus longicaudatus)

arrive in the middle of October. In 1941 October 15th; 10942

October 17th, 1943 October 25th was. the first. time I heard them,

though I think they may have come a day or two before.

As a rule they stay on in good numbers till the middle of

February, when the main party seem to leave, but stray. and single

birds are to be seen and heard on till April. :

This year however, there’ have neither been so many of them,

nor have they stayed so long, in fact during the whole of January

I have only heard them on. three occasions.. And now for ten

days I have not seen or heard any.

_I was interested to note that down in Coonoor there -was -

another variety, not having my binoculars with me I was unabie

to make out very clearly any special distinctions, except that it

was a smaller bird, and had no long streamers to the tail, which

was very swallow-like in shape. (Probably the Bronzed Drongo—

Chaptia aenea.—EDs.).

During September and the early days of October the compound

is full of Ashy Wren-Warblers, also a few Indian Wren-Warblers.

I think both these birds have the trick of making a ‘clapping

sound’, while moving about the undergrowth.

They do not appear to come into the compound after the

middle of October at latest. They move up to the thicker bushes

and sunnier banks above us for the winter months.

This year I have heard Nightjars calling, much earlier in the

year than other years. It has always been into February before |

have heard them, but this year it was on the night of the 5th-6th

January, about 11.45 p.m. and again 7.15 a.m.

I also saw and heard one on the evening of the 6th. I feel

it is almost impossible for me to say which variety it would be

about here, but I think it may be the Indian Jungle Nightjar

(Caprimulgus indicus indicus) the note I hear oftenest is a double

one, the second note coming almost like the echo of the first,

and is I suppose the chucker-chucker-chucker described by Mr.

Osmaston, in Baker and Inglis ‘Birds of Southern India’.

HEATHCOTE, | M. E. WOLFE MURRAY.

LOVEDALE P.O.,

NILeIrRIs.

February 3, 1944.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

8.—SNIPE AND DUCK SHOOTING IN SOUTH INDIA

1942-1943, 1943-1944 SEASONS.

I spent two winters in Southern India, one in the Salem Dis-

trict in the Madras Presidency, the other in the Gundlupet area

of Mysore. I got off for occasional Bee) and I thought your

readers might like to compare the bags of wild fowl.

1942-43 1943 -44

Salem Gun dlupet

Bar-headed Geese oo Sas aoe 2 2

Cotton Teal s wee aa eat 54

Pintal fh ae ees HAE 27 : 19

Gadwall ... Eheed sae An at 1

Wigeon are Ae 500 oA 50 1

Shoveller. ... . gin Sie ae ape 62

Spotbill ay Pe eee 4 32

Common Teal ES ose ae 4 24

Garganey ... Esp 2m se 19 222

Tufted Duck ae ae es 3 aa

Pochard ~...; Ss nae a3 ae 3

Red-crested Pochard ... a3 Eee ii fase

Woodcock ... aoe wes wok 2 Pi

Pintail Snipe es ee atts 22, 17

Fantail Snipe 500 des 1 | ut

Painted Snipe 1 Ae

Totals. 86 438

The gadwall bagged near Nanjangud is apparently interesting,

as Colonel Phythian-Adams tells me. He has only shot one in the

last 18 years. I saw about six wigeon in the same area.

At Salem, shoveller are rare (I only saw four, in March), but

up in Mysore they are abundant. Pintail are the most common

duck down in Madras, but uncommon in Mysore. Common Teal

were uncommon in Madras, but frequent in Mysore, the most I

saw being on the Vadaganhalli tank near Bangalore (curiously

enough, mostly males). Cotton Teal were rare in the plains—I only

saw one—but they are numerous in Mysore.

Here in Burma, it may be interesting to note that snipe and

even sandpipers are still about in considerable numbers.

AUBREY BUXTON,

April 4, 1944. Major.

9-—OBSERVATIONS ON THE EGG-LAYING HABITS

OF THE LIZARD (CALOTES OPHIOMACHUS)

A slender green lizard, Calotes ophiomachus, was noticed for

a few days sitting sluggishly on one of my garden plants. One

day, looking out through the window, I saw it on the ground,

just below, digging a pit with its feeble forelegs—using one leg a

number of times, and then the other. The process was slow, and

the amount of earth removed very small. Often it paused for a

considerable time. Any disturbance or noise would cause it to stop

work. The pit, about two inches in depth and one’ and a-half inches

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 93

in diameter, was at last dug, and in it about half a dozen white

eggs were laid. Then the process of covering up the pit began.

I expected a simple filling up. What happened surprised me.

With one of its fore limbs, the lizard pushed a little earth

into the pit and then began to press down the soil with its snout.

A most laborious process! After a few dabs with the snout the

animal rested a while, and then resumed the task. All round

and in the interspaces between the eggs it pressed in mud. Then

more soil were scratched into the pit and the process of beating

it down repeated. In this way, the pit was completely filled. But

the process did not end there. It was hard laterite soil with a

lot of gravel and pebbles on the surface, where some weeds

(Centella asiatica) had rooted. In beginning the excavation, the

lizard had removed the surface gravel and pebbles and uprooted the

weeds. Now, when the covering up process was completed, the

weeds were replaced, pressed in by the snout and then the gravel

and the pebbles re-spread. When the mother left the spot it was

indistinguishable from the area around. I found it extremely difficult

to locate and had to dig up in several places. Her ‘forethought’ for

her brood consisted thus of :—1. filling in the pit so perfectly that it

was as hard as the soil all around. A few hours after there was a

shower of rain but the recently filled up pit did not suffer. 2. The

lizard re-made the surface just as it was before, arranging the

gravel, pebbles and weeds in position, betraying no signs of any

recent exacavation and subsequent filling up.

Though it is well known that lizards and most reptiles bury

their eggs in the soil for hatching, I have not come across any

account of such care taken by the mother in filling up the pit and

camouflaging its surface, though certain turtles are known to behave

in a similar manner.

A. P. MATHEW.

Department of Zoology,

TRIVANDRUM, The University College,

January 1, 1944. Trivandrum.

10.—CROCODILES BELLOWING.

Until recently I had always imagined the mugger to be a silent

brute. He never speaks to shot like some warm-blooded animals,

nor of course, like the lion; does he go roaring after his prey.

In one of Blackwood’s tales (March 1938), Ostler however men-

tions that in Africa he had heard a crocodile utter a hoarse roar

when shot and that adults are said to bellow at nights; but C.

vulgaris of Africa is on the whole a larger beast than his cousin

C. palustris of the Indian tank and river and may have acquired

this vocal distinction as a result of different conditions of living

and environment.

I was walking up the left bank of the River Indravati, one

afternoon in February on the off chance of getting a shot at

a mugger. My orderly was following some 25 yards behind

carrying my °30 Springfield Mauser.

94- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL \HIST: -SOCGIETY, Vol.-45. .«

- Having sighted a very young’ one some 3 feet in. length -

sitting on a log in the water, I approached quietly to see how

near I could get before he slid in. The log was opposite a shelving

part of the otherwise steep bank where I had some weeks before

seen a mugger sunning itself. er

‘While the shelving part. was still obscured from view~ by.

the grassy top of the bank, I heard what I imagined to be a water

buffalo or bullock lowing, as they very often do, while coming. out

of water after drinking. The lowing bellows were repeated two

or three times in quick succession, and my first reaction was

to discard further caution in approach. and to continue on up

the river. 3

As I started however I caught sight through the grass of

a massive crocodile, his mouth wide open waddling up the bank.

out of the water. Close to him was another 7-footer already lying

in the sun. ! J Give aie

I slipped back to where the orderly. was standing, took. the

rifle and returned a la cobra to the top of the bank. The two

muggers were lying side by side, neither was moving and baby

was watching from the log. I did not wait to see whether the

big one’s bellow was an invitation to waltz or a request to the

smaller one to move on, but put a bullet into his neck immediate-

ly. : |

- The bullet appeared to have broken the neck thus preventing

all motive power from the brain reaching the body. The latter.

was in fact dead though the head was certainly alive. He taped

12 feet 4 inches, girth 5 feet 3 inches, and took twelve men

and boys to lift. His belly contained three pieces of a_ silver

ornament and some broken iron fish hooks. This particular saurian

was reported to have pulled in a full grown buffalo in December

and was not itself seen again for some days afterwards.

— It would be interesting to know the significance of the bellowing

at 3.30 p.m. inthe afternoon and whether a similar instance

has been previously “recorded. i reat

R. K. M. BATTYE,

BASTAR STATE, Major, I. P. Ss.

February 23, 1944.

11._THE ZONAL DISTRIBUTION OF THE. MOLE CRAB

(EMERITA ASTATICA) ON THE MADRAS COAST..

The Anomuran decapod, Emerita asiatica, 1s one of the most

abundantly represented species in the inter-tidal zone of the Madras

Coast.! The species is of common occurrence at various places along

—

1 Emerita asiatica occurs in large numbers along the Malabar Coast,’ parti-

cularly at Cochin and Cranganore ; but here besides the typical specimens a variety

of rather stunted or dwarfish individuals also occurs.. This variety is easily

distinguished from the forma typica by the peculiar ._pigmentation on the. dorsal

aspect of the cephalothorax. While it is of a uniform colour in the typical

specimens, the cephalothorax in variety bears .a distinct pattern—on a brown

background, a longitudinal median ‘white strealk which is less “conspicuous

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES , 95.

the Indjan Coast and at Madras they are found in large numbers,

throughout the year. Larger specimens of this.mole crab are .daily

caught | in hundreds by the fisherfolk who use them. for food.

It is well known that on the sea bottom animals group themselves

into what are called ‘communities’; certain species of animals living

together in a.particular locality, on a particular substratum, to form

a community. On the sandy beach this sort of distribution results

in what is termed ‘zonation of species’, the zone occupied by a parti-

cular species or a group of species being in direct relation to its

distance from the high tide level, and the nature of the substratum.

On the Madras Coast, Emerita asiatica not only illustrates this pheno-:

menon clearly but also shows the preference for particular kinds of

substrata at various stages of its growth.

Emerita asiatica breeds almost throughout the year, with a period

of maximum intensity from January to April. During November and

December, i.c. the north-east monsoon period, the majority of speci-

mens are soft- skinned, having undergone moult, and have the ovaries

fully developed, while some of them are berried, carrying eggs attach-

ed to the pleopods. By the end of December most of the specimens

are berried and from January onwards the larvae begin to appear in’

large numbers in the plankton. By the end of February these larvae

begin to metamorphose and the early post-larval or pre-adolescent

stages settle down on the sandy beach. Some idea of the number of

young ones produced during each season can be obtained from the

fact that a sample of sand, a quarter of a square metre in area, and

about three inches in depth, taken from the particular zone, sometime

in March, often yields young Emerita—of size varying from By tOns

mm. sufficient to fill a one- --pound kilner jar.

The distribution of Emerita in the inter-tidal zone is peculiar.

The smallest specimens, which teem literally in thousands, are found

very near high water level, restricted to a narrow zone, about two

yards in width, along the entire Coast. The substratum here is

formed of fine sand which is somewhat loosened by the numerous

specimens that burrow in it. At low water level the substratum is

coarse grained and the largest specimens measuring about 2 to 24

inches, are found in this region. Between these two zones specimens

ef intermediate sizes are found; larger ones nearer low water levei

and smaller ones nearer high water level. There is thus a distinct

zonation in this species, both with reference to size as well as to

substratum; the smallest specimens being commonest in fine sand

near high water mark, and the largest in coarse sand near low water

mark. The specimens, especially smaller ones, are often dislodged

from the sand and carried away by the incessant waves, to some

extent resulting in the mixing up of individuals of different sizes.

It is, however, remarkable that while some of the smaller specimens

anteriorly where it is connected by~curved white lines to. two white spots on either

side, and then ending in a pale spot. It is interesting to observe that the size at

maturity in these dw arfish individuals is. relatively small, berried females measuring

only about 10 mm, being quite common. In the typical form, however, sexual

“maturity in the female is attained.only when the specimen grows to about an inch

or more’ in length. It is peculiar that the two forms occur side by side in the same

substratum.

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

are carried towards the low water level, larger ones are rarely found

near high water mark.

The distribution of a species on a sandy beach will be influenced

by various factors such as the nature of the substratum, time of

exposure, availability of food, etc. In the case of Emerita the young

specimens prefer a ‘substratum of fine sand, and the larger ones, a

coarse substratum. This preference is probably explained by the

fact that the larger particles of the coarse substratum, constantly

rubbing against each other forcibly by wave action, often prove fatal

to the small individuals, while the larger specimens, capable of with-

standing the churning effect of the coarse particles, can easily

burrow into the loose substratum.

Emerita derives its food from the minute organisms that are

drawn into the current of water set in by the antennules—a pheno-

menon that can be easily observed if a couple of active specimens

are placed in a glass dish containing some sand and sea water.

Along the sandy beach they burrow themselves facing the sea, and

with each incoming wave prop up their heads, the antennules are

held in position and the current is set up. When the wave recedes

they burrow into the sand again, so that the chances for procuring

food directly depend upon the length of time they are submerged

under water. The substratum at low water level being submerged

during most of the time the larger specimens have greater chance of

procuring food, whereas near high water mark the period of

exposure, 1S lone, the area being submerged only for a short time,

during high tides. During the major portion of the day this zone is

exposed to the direct heat of the sun resulting in considerable dessica-

tion due to evaporation. One can imagine the severe struggle for

existence that is going on in this. over-populated area, when during

the very short time they are powered by water, they busily try to

secure their day’s rations !

The above observations were made while I was carrying on an

investigation of the fauna of the sandy beach, Madras, under Prof.

R. Gopala Aiyar, Director, University Zoology Laboratory, Madras,

to whom I am deeply indebted for the valuable help he extended to me.

DEPARTMENT OF NATURAL SCIENCE, _K. H. ALIKUNHI, M.sc.

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE,

ERNAKULAM.

24th April, 1944.

[A note with illustrations of both sexes of E. asiatica appeared in

Volume xxxviil, p. 699 of the Journal.—Ebs. |

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45, No: 2

PAGE

“Somp BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XIX. By

NED OL aC Ieh..) MEAG ED. SC.) EeEeS)) IeP.S,,, and M. B. Raizada,

M.Sc. (With 2 coloured, 4 black and white plates and 5 text-figures)... 97

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. Part III.

By Hugh Whistler (Deceased) ee LOG

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DIsTRICT. Part Ill. By Edward

G.-Nichols.... a ues ite ee he oar 22

A ‘SKETCH OF THE BOTANY AND GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA.

Part III. By F. Kingdon-Ward, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., etc. me. Ls

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA’

AND Burma. Part VIII. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With 2 plates

and 2 text-figures) . On eo ues oon) ale)

HH EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part XIII. By D. G.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.... sist ar wes 505 dlfefs}

SoME REMINISCENCES OF SPORTIN ASSAM. Partl. ByH.G.H.M. ... 199

NEw SPECIES OF Cevopegta AND THE SYNONYMY OF THE INDIAN ©

SPECIES. By CHARLES McCann, F.L.S. 500 Ses coo. ALY)

OBITUARY: E. C. Stuart Baker aes at Sa ie ele

REVIEWS :—

J, Maneeaters of Kumaon, by Jim Corbett ... 0 “opened

2. The Cuckoo and other Bird Mysteries, by Bernard eworth so LA

3. The Avifaunal Survey of Ceylon, by Hugh Whistler sg8) | CES

THE ROSY PASTOR ENQUIRY ._ ... nee Ss one 228

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Occurrence of the Lion in Persia. By R. N. Champion-Jones (p. 230.)

2. Wearing of Teethin Tiger. By Cyril Gore (p. 230). 3. Where Man-eating

Tigers occur. By E. O’Brien (p. 231). 4. Wild Dogs attacking a Tiger. By

R. W. Burton (p. 232). 5. Experiences with Buffalo in Burma and Rhodesia,

By Reginald Spence.(p. 232). 6. On the Name of the Indian Pangolin (Manis

crassicaudata Geoftr.). By R. F. Stoney (p. 233). 7. The Persian Ground

Chough (Podoces pleskei), By F. Ludlow (p. 233). 8. Sunbirds and Flowers.

By J. A. M. Ede (p. 234). 9. Plaintive Cuckoo (?) Parasitising Purple Sunbird.

By M.F. Suter (p. 235). 10. ‘Alpine Swifts’ on Rameswaram Island? By

Humayun Abdulali (p. 235). 11. Some Recent Records of the Griffon Vulture

(Gyps fulvus tulvescens Hume) in Peninsular India—-A Correction. By Salim Ali

and Humayun Abdulali (p. 236). 12. The B)ue-tailed Bee-eater (7. s. javanicus

Horsf.) in Salsette—A Correction. By Salim Ali and Humayun Abdutlali (p. 237).

13. A Peculiar Habit of the Common Peafowl (Pavo cristatus Linn.) By

S. H. Hazarika (p. 237). 14. Peculiar Behaviour of the Bronze-winged Jacana

| Metopidins indicus (Latham)]. By H. Kingsley Kefford (p. 238), 15. Note

auGiT '48

ii CGNTENTS OF VOLUME 45, No. 2

on the occurrence of the Pink-footed shearwater (Puffinus c. carneipes Gould)

on the coast of Ceylon. By W. C. Osman Hill and Yvonne Burn (p. 239).

16. Wild Birds and their captive young. By S. N. Sen (p. 240). 17. The Birdg

of Mysore. By R. G. Foster (p. 241). 18. Additions to the Birds of Bombay

and Salsette and Neighbourhood. By Salim Ali and Humayun Abdulali (p. 241).

19. Notes on Indian Birds—A correction. By Humayun Abdulali (p. 244).

20. Acclimatisation of Mirror Carp in the Nilgiris. By P. 1. Chacko_(p. 244).

21. Note on the Food of Tiger Sharks (Galeocerdo ssp.) of the Madras

coast. By K. Chidambaram (p. 247). 22. Egg-laying of the Common ‘ Blood-

sucker’ (Calotes versicolor). By G. L. Underwood (p. 248). 23. Indian

Python (Python molurus) Preying on Monitor Lizard (Varanus monitor).

By P. Mash (p. 249). 24. Notes ona Rare and Interesting Narrow-mouthed

Frog, Uperodon globulosum (Ginther). By Jnamendra Lal Bhaduri (p. 251).

25. Catopsilia crocale Breeding with Catopsilia pomona. By John C. Gladman

(p. 255). 26. Sap-drinking Butterflies. By John C. Gladman (p. 255).

27. Additions to the list of Simla Butterflies publishéd in Vol. XLI, No. 4. By

M. A. Wynter Blyth (p. 256). 28. Description of a new dimorphic Female of

Euripus consimilis, Wd. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth (p. 257). 29. Fasciated in-

florscence of Sophora secunditlora DC. By M.B. Raizada (p. 258). 30. Note

on some grasses from Junagadh. By G. A. Kapadia (p. 259).

ae Salsas acy a py a 1p

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Journ., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

STIGMAPHYLLON CILIATUM (LAMK.) A. Juss.

(Nat, Size.)

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1945. VOL. 45. No. 2.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS

IN pee ee ORMECHINE PRE NIGAC) DISCayc Fol .S.3 I-heS.

29)

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. Raizapa, M.sc

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XIX

(Continued from Vol: 45, No. 1 (1944), <p. 4).

(With 2 coloured, 4 black and white plates and 5 text-figures).

N.alpjghiaceae

A. family of flowering plants which commemorates the name

of Marcello Malpighi, 1628-93, a distinguished Italian botanist,

who wrote on the anatomy of plants. The family comprises trees,

shrubs and climbers, some of which are grown in Indian gardens.

The leaves are opposite and glands are often present either on the

petiole, on the margins or on the under surface of the leaves.

Stipules are either present or absent, sometimes large and connate.

The flowers are usually hermaphrodite. Sepals five in number,

often with two large glands outside. The petals are also five,

clawed. Stamens usually 10. Ovary sessile on an obscure disk,

usually of three carpels, free or united with 1 ovule in each cell

Stvles usually 3, mostly free. Fruit sometimes winged.

The hairs on the shoots of many species are very peculiar and

if found ~~ 4 leafless twig are quite sufficient to place the plant

in this family. These hairs are one-celled and branched and are

found in three forms (a) the magnet-needle type, (b) the forked

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

type and (c) the morning-star type. The first type has a short

pedicel upon which is attached at right angles the two arms of

the hair; these may be straight or curved. The foot may be very

short in which case the hairs appear to be attached to the under

surface by the centre. This type of hair gives a silvery or metal-

lic sheen to the shoot. The second type of hair, in which the

_ Fig. 1.—Forms of Hairs.

(a) Magnet-needle type, (b) forked type, (c) morning-star type.

foot is long or short, supporting two arms, gives a felty or woolly

appearance to the shoot. The third kind of hair, the morning star

type, consists of a foot upon which is found a globular many-

branched head. Hairs of this kind give a mealy appearance to

the shoot, which recalls the indumentum of many species of Cheno-

podiaceae.

The growth of the stems of certain climbing species resembles.

that of some species of the Bignoniaceae .alreacy mentioned in

Part III of this serial. Localised growth often leads to deformed

stems in which deep clefts are succeeded by protruding woody

portions. | 7 |

Characteristic of the Malpighiaceae are the glands which are

found so often on stem, under surface of the leaves and upon the

outer surface of the sepals. . What -purpose these glands serve

is not known.

The following climbing genera of Malpighiaceae are cultivated

in India: Stigmaphyllon, Hiptage and Banisteria. Galphimia is a

coimmon shrub.

The climbing species may be distinguished from one another

as follows :—

Stylewr ... iptage.

Styles 3.

All the stamens fertile; style tops obtuse. ... Banisteria.

Four of the stamens sterile; style tops leaf like. ... Stigmaphylloi.

Hiptage Gaertn.

(The generic name is derived from the Greek verb hiptamai,

meaning ‘to fly’, and refers to the winged fruits of the genus).

A genus of erect or climbing shrubs. Leaves opposite, entire,

exstipulate, sometimes glandular within the margins. Flowers in

axillary or terminal racemes, rarely in congested leafy panicles;

peduncles bracteate, articulated with the 2-bracteate pedicels. Calyx

s-lobed with one large, oblong or linear’ gland ‘outside and partly

on the pedicel. Petals five; four equal in size, white, the fifth

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS- AND . SHRUBS QO

‘yellow... Stamens 10, declinate, one much larger than the others ;

filaments connate at the base. Ovary 3-lobed; styles 1-2. Fruit

«a coilection of winged seeds,

Hiptage madablota Gacitn, (H. benghalensis (L.) Wurz).

(The Sanskrit name for this plant is madhabilata, hence the

specific epithet. }

Description.—A large evergreen scandent shrub reaching a

neight of 12-15 ft., with a dark coloured stem, rough from nume-

rous lenticels. Leaves opposite, usually without stipules, 4-6 in.

long, up to 3 in. broad, coriaceous, dark green and shining above ;

petiole 2-5 in. long, glabrous or finely hairy below; nervation pro-

minent- below. Flowers showy, fragrant, in large terminal anc

Vig. 2.—Hiptage madablota Gaertn.

smaller axillary panicles; peduncles and pedicles continuous, 5 in.

tong with a pair of bracteoles at the centre, covered with. dense,

appressed, short, silky hairs. Calyx 5-lobed, covered with a dense,

silky pubescence; lobes obtuse. A large linear or oblong gland

will be found outside partly on the calyx and partly on the pedicel.

Petals 5; clawed, with an obovate or sub-orbicular limb, silky out-

side, glabrous within, fimbritae on the margin; four equal in size,

white in colour, the fifth smaller and pale yellow, all reflecic:i

in the open flower. Stamens 10, one much larger than the otheis;

filaments connate at the base; anthers ovate. Ovary pubescent,

-3-locular; style 1-3 in. long, filiform, circinate in the bud. Fruit

of 1-3, 3-winged samaras.

Flowers.—February-April. ruits.—-May-June.

5) JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45°

Distribution.—Native of India and Malaya, cultivated in gardens

m1 the plains throughout the country.

Gurdening.—A large, evergreen, rampant, climbing shrub. it

is attractive when in full bloom with its profuse trusses of white

and yeilow fragrant flowers borne on short spikes and resembling

somewhat those of the Horse-chestnut. It is rather a heavy

climber and needs a great deal of space. It would look well on

a strong trellis or as a screening material, but prefers a protected

aspect. Propagated by seed.

Medicinal uses.—The leaves are considered medicinal and are

useful in chronic rheumatism and skin diseases. It is also said

to possess imsecticidal properties.

Banisteria Linn.

(Jhe genus Banisteria was erected by Linnaeus in honour of

John Baptist-Banister, an English traveller and. botanist).

A genus of erect or climbing shrubs with opposite entire, petio-

late, exstipulate leaves. The inflorescence is usuaily a terminal

panicle with pedicellate flowers; pedicels bracteate and bracteo-

late. Calyx of five sepals, each of which (or only four) bears on

its back two roll-shaped yellow glands. Petals five, usually pink,

somctimes yellow, clawec, Stamens ro, filaments often of diffe-

rent lengths, Ovary of three connate carpels each with a sepa-

rate style, truncate at the apex; ovule~solitary in each loculus.

Iruit winged.

Banisteria laevifolia Juss.

(Laevifolia is Latin for ‘smooth-leaved’).

Description.—This species is an extensive climbing shrub with

rather slender dark brown stems and branches. Branches and

branchlets terete, covered with a whitish matted felty tomentum

when young, but finally glabrous. The terminal branchlets droop.

The leaves are opposite, petiolate (petiole -25 in. long, curved,

covered with similar tomentum to that on the shoot), cordate at

the base, rather variable in shape, being elliptic, eciliptic-obovate,

ovate-lanceolate or lanceolate, thinly coriaceous in texture, acute or

acuminate at the tip, dark olivegreen above and smooth below,

covered when young with a silvery-white silky tomentum which

becomes shaggy and dark coloured with age, 4 in. long by 2-5 in.

broad; margins entire; venation impressed above, prominent below.

On the nerves below one or two sessile globular yellow glands are

to be found.

Inflorescence of trichotomous umbellate panicles te. the flower-

ing shoot divides into three peduncles, each of which is surmounted

by a false umble. Common peduncle of the false umble under

.5 in. long. Flowers +5 in. in diameter, yellow, pedicellate, not all

arising at the same point but arranged racemosely along a very

short axis; pedicels supported by bracts and bracteoles +25 in.

long, covered with a yellowish silky tomentum. Sepals 5, about

-o8 in. long, ovate or obovate in shape, acute at the apex covered

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN. CLIMBERS. AND SHRUBS 101

with a yellowish silky tomentum, each sepal bearing on its back

two yellowish fat sausage-shaped glands, or glands absent from

one sepal- Pttals 5, alternate with the sepals, orbicular or elliptic

IBIS Be

Banisteria laevifolia Juss.

in shape, depressed in the centre, almost bowl-shaped, arising

from a short stout claw, °-3 in. long, margin toothed, fimbriate or

lacerate. Stamens 10; filaments short and squat, those of the

stamens opposite the sepals shorter than the others; anthers 2-celled

finally at right angles to the filament, opening by slits. Ovary

ovoid, covered with a silky tomentum; styles three, truncate at

the stigmatic tip. In the fruit 1-2 carpels develop a wing on

the back which eventually reaches a length of +5 in., reddish in

colour and covered with a silky tomentum. ,

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution,—Indigenous to Brazil, now commonly cultivated

in all tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world.

Gardening —A rather extensive climber with lanceolate, rigid,

dark olive-green leaves. The large sprays of yellow flowers make

it a very handsome object when in bloom. Propagated by layers

or seeds which it produces abundantly.

Stigmaphylion Juss.

(The generic name is derived from two Greek words meaning

stioma and leaf and refers to the leaf-like appendages of the stig-

mas). ae re RL insh,

102 TONGA SIN EMES ToXOM eye ye INCAIINIGURAUL, Jell(Sil, SOXCIUBIDY, Wall, 4%.

A genus of woody twiners with opposite leaves. Two glands

are visible, usually near the top of the petiole. The flowers are

arranged in short, dense, sessile corymbiform racemes. Pedicels-

usually with 2 bracteoles above the middle. Sepals 5, the four

lateral with two glands each. Petals 5; clawed, glabrous, yellow,

unequal, the four lateral concave; margin toothed or fringed.

Stamens 10, 4 opposite the lateral petals more or less sterile; fila-

ments various. Ovary 3-lobed, 8-locular; styles 3, short with the

top dilated into an appendage. Fruit consisting of 3 samaras.

A genus of about 60 species, the great majority of which are

twiners, indigenous in the tropics of America. Niedenzu, who

monographed the family Malpighiaceae, spells the generic name

Stigmatophyllum A. Juss. Actually it. was Spach who spelled the

name thus in 1834 in one of his publications. Jussieu published

the name, Stigmaphyllon, in 1832, and it has priority.

‘KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Leaves. cordate. cee 500 a CHOWN

f.eaves elliptic, oblong or linear. oe .. S. periplocifolium.

Stigmaphyiion ciliatum (Lamk.) A. Juss.

Fig. 4.—Siigmaphyllon ciltatum (Lamk.) A Juss.

M. N. BAKSHI.

phylion ciliatum (Lamk.) A. Juss.

igma

Photo by

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

JourN., PoMBAY Nat. Hist. SOc.

tigmaphylion ciliatum (Lamk.) A. Jus: RU aN TEENS A

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 103

(Ciliatum means hairy on the margins and refers to the fringes

of glands on the margins of the leaf; derived from the Latin cilium,

meaning ‘eyelid’ ‘}

Descri r twiner with cylindrical stem covered

in youth with lense. white, medifixed hairs. Leaves opposite, up

to 3 in. long by 3 in. wide, petioled, ovate, obtuse or round in shape,

deeply cordate and lobed at the base, palmately nerved, the side

nerves being produced beyond the margins and ending in_ short

red glandular processes, covered when young with white, epee

ed, medifixed hairs, glabrescent in age; petioles up to Te2i5 py dite

long furnished with two green elliptic glands at the apex; stipules

minute.

Flowers yellow, up to 1.3 in. in diameter, arrangeci in umbel-

like corymbs which are peduncled and axillary. Peduncles up to

tr in. long, slightly swollen at the apex and sparsely covered with

blackish hairs... Umbel of 3-4 pedicellate flowers with two bracts

at the base. Bracts lanceolate, glandular-laciniate, with 2 large

greenish glands at the base. . Pedicels clavate with 2 bracteoles

at or just above the base. Calyx 5 “partite with 8 glands outside ;

lobes obtuse. Petals 5, four aarrell in size, one much smaller, ali

definitely clawed; limbs orbicular or rounded- oblong, * boncaye.

irregularly fringed, yellow. Stamens 10; filaments of three, thick

and long, the remainder short; anthers ‘oblong blunt, opening by

pores and containing a sticky mass of brown pollen grains. Ovary

sunk in or seated upon an obscure disk, 3-celled; styles 3, expand-

ed at the top into leaf-like appendages, which arch over and cover

the anthers of the three large stamens ; stigmatic areas on the

lower surface. y

Flowers.—Rainy season. IF ruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—A native of tropical America now widely culti-

vated throughout the tropical and subtropical parts of the globe.

Gardening.—A medium-sized ‘vine’ with*dark green, attractive

foliage’ almost ivy-like in form. The large clusters of extremely

attractive golden-yellow flowers which appear during the rains are

ery effective. It is suitable for a small trellis or archway and

te not particular in its soi] requirements. Propagation. by layers

‘and seed.

Stigmaphyilon perip\ccifclium (Desf.) A. Juss.

(The specific name refers to the similarity of the leaves of this

“species to those of Periploca graeca L., a genus of the Asclepia-

daceae).

Description.—A twining shrub. Stems cylindrical, . lenticellate,

dark. red or brown, glabrescent or slightly hairy. Young parts

‘covered with silky meCifixed hairs, becoming glabrous with age.

Leaves opposite or subopposite, elliptic-oblong or linear in shape,

shallow, cordate or entire at the base, emarginate or apiculate

‘at the apex, 1-5 in. long, glabrous or glabrescent on both surfaces,

coriaceous; nerves prominent below; petiole -25-r in. long, with

a pair of stalked glands at the apex. ae

Flowers yellow, up to *75 in. in diameter, arranged either in

more or less elongate racemes or in more or less subumbellate

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. .45.

corymbs; peduncles up to °75.in. long; pedicles 6 in. long; pedun-

cles and pedicels covered with appressed silky hairs. Caiyx 5-

lobed; lobes reflexed at the margins, ovate acute in shape, sup-

ported below by 5 oblong glands. Petals 5 in number, yellow,

clawed, four subequal in size, the fifth smaller; limbs suborbicular,

ig. °5.—Stigmaphyllon periplocifolium (Desf.) A. Juss.

entire or crenulate on the margin. Stamens 10, of which four

opposite the lateral. stamens are more or less sterile, the rtmain-

ing 6, 1.e. those opposite the petals and the remaining sepal are

fertile. Ovary of three combined carpels, very tomentose with

three styles; apex of the styles expanded into a small leaf-like

triangular appendage.

Flowers.—Rainy season. Does not fruit in Dehra.

Distribution.—Native of tropical America, now common in cul-

tivation throughout the country.

Gardening. —A handsome scandent shrub which produces fine

yellow flowers during the rains. Propagated by layers.

Galphimia Cav.

(The generic name is an anaeram of Malpighia, another and

closely allied genus of this’ family.)

Journ., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc, PratE XXI.

GALPHIMIA GRACILIS Bartl,

(Nat. Size.)

Journ., BomBay Nar. Hist, SOG

oon Ly Galphimia gracilis Bartl. BEGAN 1eRNishide

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

JourN., BomBAay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Photo by Galphimia gracilis Bartl. M.\B. RAWZADS

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 105,

The genus consists of shrubs or undershrubs. Leaves opposite,

petioled, with linear stipules often glanduiar on the margins or

on the petiole. lowers terminal, yellow or red; calyx without

glands; petais clawed, stamens 10. Fruit a capsue. A small

genus of about 10 species, all tropical American.

Galpnimia gracilis Bartl.

(Gracilis is Latin for ‘slender’ and refers to the long slender

branches of the piant).

Description.—A handsome shrub reaching 6 ft. in height. Old

branches a shining brown slightly fissured, sparsely covered with

dark-red short hairs, young parts densely. covered with dark-red

tance leaves opposite, up to 2 in. long by 1 in. wide, petioled,

stipulate, ovate or ovate-oblong in shape, unequally cuneate at

the base, obtuse at the apex or sometimes apiculate, covered on

both surfaces with rufo-sericeous pubescence when young, after-

wards glabrescent though it is usual to find hairs on the mid-rth

beneath, with two glands, one on either side, on the margins just

above the base; petio.e channelled above, up to 4 in. long, puberu-

lous; stipules linear, hairy, persistent.

Flowers arranged in more or less dense, erect terminal racemes,

3-4 in. long, 10-30-flowered. Individual flowers seated on stalks

from the main axis; each stalk supported by a bract and bearing

two bracteoles at the centre. Calyx 5-partite without glands;

lobes obovate or oblong-ovate in shape, green, .25 in. long. Petals

5, yellow, clawed, 25-5 -in. long; limb silences in shape or ovate

minutely fimbriate on the margin; claw -1 in. long in four petals,

that of the fifth *2 in. long. Stamens 10; filaments very unequal

-t--2 in. long reddish at th: base; anthers yellow, large, oblong-

obtuse. Ovary ellipsoid, 3-locular, smooth and glabrous. Style

3-4. Fruit a spherical capsule, *2 in. in diameter.

Flowers.—Almost all the year round but profusely during July-

November. Fruits cold season.

Distvibution.—Native of tropical America’ now extensively cul-

tivated throughout the plains of India. .

Gardening.—A hardy, evergreen, handsome shrub about 4-6 ft.

high. It is coverec most of the year with small golden yellow

flowers which against the dark green foliage of the plant are very

effective. The p'ant will stand wind and poor soil but prefers a

protected site and full sun. It has been recommended as a hedge

but shows itself best when planted in a clump. Propagation is by

seed.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN ~

HucH WuHisTLer (Deceased).

Part III

(Continued from Vol. 45, No. 1 (1944), p. 72).

Acrocephzlus stentoreus brunuescens (Jerdon).

Specimens collected.— J 20-4-1879, <¢ 1-6-1880 Kandahar (St. John); 9Q

20-5-1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); 2 sex? 15 May Kila Wali, Murghab

(Yate); 9 28 May 1933 Kabul, 9 6 August 1933 Baqrami, 5,700 ft., ¢ 6 May

1934 Chaharasia 5,700 ft., Q 21 June 1934 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); ¢

23 se Bamian 8,500 ft.. 4 ¢ 1 2 5-9 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertz-

nagen).

In the first week of May Meinertzhagen found the Indian Great Reed-Warbler

‘commencing to breed at Danaghori where the large expanse of reeds is well

suited to its requirements. It was also breeding, he says at Kunduz on 20 May

and at. Jalalabad on 31 May. Maconachie notes that it was plentiful in the

reeds at Baqrami on 6 August.’ It is no doubt a summer visitor to Northern

Afghanistan.

Wardlaw-Ramsay obtained a single bird at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. on 20 May

“which was evidently on passage as were probably St. John’s two specimens

-collected at Kandahar on 20 April and rst June.

Acrocephalas agricola Jerdon.

Specimens collected.—¢ 21 June 1934 Logar (Maconachie) 2 ¢ 15 April

‘Ghorband 6,500 ft., 1 § 2 9 2 May.Doshi 2,750 ft., ¢ 7 May 1937 Danaghori

.2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The status of the Paddy-Field Warbler is not quite clear. Meinertzhagen

says that the Doshi and Danaghori birds should have been breeding by the

state of their organs. They were in long grass and coarse reeds but not over

water. Maconachie’s specimen also had the organs enlarged. Sir Alexander

Burnes is said to have obtained it at Kabul.

Acrocephalus concinens haringtoii Witherby.

Specimens collected.—2 ¢ 5-6 May 1937 Danaghori.

Meinertzhagen says that these specimens of Harington’s Reed-Warbler were

found in the reeds at Danaghori in company with the Great Reed-Warbler.

They were singing lustily and apparently in their breeding quarters. The

examination of fresh material has satisfied me that A.c. hokvrae is not separable

from A.c. haringtoni.

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth.

Specimens collected.—@ 13 May 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay);

21 May Kunduz 1,400 ft., 2 © 24 May 1937 Ghorband 8,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen is of opinion that Blyth’s Reed Warbler was breeding in both

the above localities. At Kunduz it was common on the banks of the Khanabad

River in bushes but not in reeds.

Wardlaw-Ramsay’s specimen collected at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. on 13 May was

one of a couple seen, doubtless on passage.

Agrobates galactotes familiaris (Ménétries).

Specimens collected.—¢ 24 April 1881 (Swinhoe); 3 Gr Q 12-28 April

188s Tirphul, ¢ 1 May 1885 Kambas (Aitcheson); sex? 22 April Kila Wali,

sex? 18 May Darbund-i-Kil Rekhta (Yate); 9 22 April 1905 Kuhalx (Cumming) :

2 4 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY .OF AFGHANISTAN 107

The Grey-backed Warbler is a very common summer visitor to the tamarisk

groves by the sides of streams on the Hari-Rud, where Aitcheson consictered

its song almost equalled that of the Nightingale. Yate also met it on. the

Murghab. Cumming found it equally common on the banks of the Rud-i-

Seistan at Kuhalk where he obtained c/5 eggs on 11 May. St. John considered

it tolerably common in the Kandahar area. Yet curiously enough Meinertzhagen

only met with two individuals—the above female, which was actually singing

on a mud wall surrounding crops when shot, and a second specimen shot between

Baghlan and Khanabad about 1,700 ft. on 19 April.

Lusciniola melanopogon mimica Madarasz.

Specimens collected— QQ 20 April 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 7 May

1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

-Meinertzhagen says that the Moustached Sedge-Warbler was found in the

marshes of Danaghori where a few were seen and the distinctive song was

often heard in the dense reed-brakes. The organs of the bird shot suggested

‘breeding.

St. John’s pair collected at Kandahar on 20 April may have been on passage.

Locusteffa neevia mougclica Sushkin.

Specimen collected.— J 23 April 1937 Bamian (Meinertzhagen).

Locustcila neevia Staminea Seebohm.

Specimens collected.—4 ¢ 20-24 April 1937. Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

‘These birds appeared during the rush~of migrants at Bamian in April but

mever more than one a day. In fact for seven consecutive days we saw a

single bird on each occasion’ (Meinertzhagen). These are the only records of

the Grasshopper Warbler in Afghanistan.

Locustclia certhiola centralasia Sushlxin.

Specimen collected.—¢ 19 April 1937 Bamian (Meinertzhagen).

Locusteila certhiola rubescens Blyth.

Specimens collected.—2 ¢ 24-25 April 1937 Bamian (Meinertzhagen).

All these specimens of the genus Locustella were compared and_ identified

by Meinertzhagen in the Academy of Sciences at Leningrad. They provide

the only records for Afghanistan.

Cettia cetti cettio'des Hume.

Specimens collected.—¢ 13 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 sex?

20-22 Feb. Chahar Shamba (Yate).

These 3 specimens of Cetti’s Bush-Warbler provide the only records for

Afghanistan. Swinhoe’s bird was shot in the ditch full of rank growth just

outside the city wall.

Scetocerca inquieta striata (Brooks).

Specimens. collected.—¢ @ 11-19 April 1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson); ¢ 6 April

Kabul 6,000 ft., G 29 April Doab 6,000 ft., 2 Q 16 May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

The Streaked Scrub-Warbler seems to be rare and local in Afghanistan.

In addition to the localities suggested by the above records St.. John met it at

Kandahar. One of the females collected at Haibak by Meinertzhagen on 16 May

contained a soft egg. A resident species.

Hippolais caligata caligata (Licht).

Specimen collected.—@ 30 August 1933 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

The above specimen was no, doubt on passage, St. John states that the

Booted Tree-Warbler is common in suitable localities in the Kandahar area;

but the only specimen of his which I cam trace in the British Museum, natnely

3S 18-6-1880. Kandahar, is so damaged as to be quite unrecognisable, as between

the two races.

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL .HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. . 45.

Hippolais callgata rama (Sylxes).

Specimens collected.—Q 23 June 1875 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 1 May 1881

Gungazai (Swinhoe) ; 2 sex? 22 April-13 May Kila Wali, sex? 18 May Darband-

i-KKil Rekhta (Yate); ¢ 2 May 1937 Doshi 2,750 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Sykes’ Tree-Warbler is probably a summer visitor to the greater part of

Aighanistan. Meinertzhagen says that it was breeding at Doshi where it was

fairly common in the fruit trees, especially the mulberry. Yates’ spec’mens from

Murghab in April and May were no doubt also on their breeding ground. Swinhoe

obtained his specimen at Gungazai on rst May from a pair which had an

unfinished nest in the riverbed. St. John states that this species is not uncommon

all over the Kandahar area. This may be the bird which Cumming (p. 687)

records under the name of Hippolais obsoleta as frequently seen in the low

bushes of the ‘dasht’ near the Rud-i-Seistan. He shot specimens in’ March

and April near Kubak but I have been unable to trace them.

Hippolais languida (Hemprich & Ehrenberg).

Specimens collected—2 ¢ 2 9 3 May 1885 between Kambao and Shore

Kaltegai (Aitcheson).

These specimens provide the only record of Upcher’s Warbler in Afghanistan.

Hippolais paltida elwica (Lindermayer).

Specimens collected.—2 sex? 2 June Jalaiar, Maimanah (Yate); gd 12 May

1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen, says that the Olivaceous Warbler was clearly breeding at

Haibak, where a few pairs were seen, and this no doubt. was also the case at

Jalaiar. Presumably a summer visitor only.

Sylvia nisoria (Rechst.).

Specimens collected.—9Q 14 May 1885 Kumani-bhest,» Hari-Rud (Aitcheson) ;

7 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Status uncertain.. Aitcheson has left no details of his bird and Meinertzhagen

says that his specimen was the only one observed. It was not sing'ng. but

skulking in a small willow by the banks of a dry water-cut. The organs were

not sufficiently enlarged for breeding.

Sy!via mystacea Meénctries.

Specimens collected.—¢ 23 March 1885 Gulran (Aitcheson); sex? 22 April

Kila Wali, sex? 2 June Jalaiar (Yate); 21 March 1905 Kuhak: (Cumming).

There are no other records of Ménétries’ Warbler in Afghanistan. Cumming

found this species (which he recorded under the name of Sy!via jerdoni) fairly

common in the tamarisk jungles. fringing the Helmund. By the courtesy of

Dr.. Baini Prashad I have been able to examine Cumming’s specimen in the,

Indian Museum and confirm its. real: identity.

Sylvia nana nana (Hemprich and Ehrenberg).

Specimens collected.—2z ¢ 12 March, ¢ 19 March 1885 Gulran, @ 11 April

1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson). .

The only records of. the Desert Warbler in Afghanistan.

Sylvia hortensis crassiroctris Cretzschmar.

Specimens collected.—Q 1 May 1885 Kambao, ¢ 14 May 1885 Nihal-Shani

(Aitcheson); 2 Q 12 April Ghorband 6,500 ft.. @Q 23-24 April 1937 Bamian

8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that his specimens of the Orphean Warbler were on

passage and were all he saw except for a male at Doab on 28 April which was

in some scrub on a steep hillside and may -have been in its breeding quarters.

Aitcheson’s specimens were also probably ‘on their breeding ground.

I have seen none of the above specimens and take the subspecific identification

from: Meinertzhagen.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 109

Sylvia altheea Hume.

Specimens collected.—¢ 2 May 1879; ¢ 26 May 1879, ¢ 27 May 1879 Byan

Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); ¢ 18 June 10933 Chahiltan 5,900 ft. (Maconach.e).

Hume’s Whitethroat was recorded under the name of Sylv.a affinis by Wardlaw-

Ramsay as breeding in large numbers in the Hariab Valley about Byan Khel

7,000 ft. in the latter end of May. It arrived after the beginning of the month.

Maconachie’s specimen from Chahiltan also appears from the date and _ its

enlarged organs to have been on its breeding ground.

Sylvia curruca minula Hume.

6-12 April Tirphul; @ 26 April Khusan, @ 26 April. 1885 Tirphul (Aiteheson

sex? 13 March Maruchalk (Yate); ¢ 21 April 1937 Bamian (Meinertzhagen).

The above specimens furnish the whole of our information about the Lesser

Whitethroat in Afghanistan, .

Specimens collected.—@? 16 April 1881 (Swinhoe) Q 19 March Gulran, 3 ¢

);

Sylvia curruca blythi Ticehurs. & Whistler,

Specimens collected.—2 sex? 28 April—I May Chahar Shamba (Yate); sex?

30 April 1933 Ghorband Valley’ 5,000 ft., ¢ 24 Sept. 1933 Paghman 7,500 ft. ;

2 9 13 May 1934 Chahiltan 5,900 ft., sex? 27 May 1934 Baqrami 5,700 ft.,

sex? 22 Sept. 1936 Ashraf Valley 4,200 ft. (Maconachie); 9 ¢ 20-24 April 1937

Bamian 8,500 it. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that the Lesser Whitethroat was common in the Ghorband

Valley between 7,500 ft. and 8,500 ft. in mid-April and at Bamian on 21 April.

On the 22nd prodigious numbers arrived which had all gone again on 24 April.

A single bird was subsequently cbserved at Doab 5,000 ft. on 29 April. The

other specimens enumerated above were also presumably on_ passage.

St. John states that he obtained a specimen at Kandahar which was _ identi-

fied by Hume but I have been unable to find this skin in the British Museum.

Sylvia curruca halimodendri Sushkin.

Specimens. collected.— J 15 April Ghorband 6,500 ft., 3 ¢ 23 April Bamian

8,500 ft., 2 ¢ 29 April Doab 5,000 (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that the above birds were all on passage.

[Phy floscopus tytleri Brooks.

There seems to be no authority for the statement in the New Fauna (vol. ii,

p. 456) that Tytler’s Willow-wren occurs in Afghanistan].

Phylloscopus collybita tristis Blyth. .

Specimens collected.—Sex? Pashat (Griffith); Q 26 April 1879 Byan Ishel

(Wardlaw-Ramsay) ; @ 28 January, 3 ¢ 30 March, ¢ 31 March, ¢ 27 December

1879 Kandahar, sex? 5 Oct. 1879 Khelat-i-Ghilzai (St. John); ¢ 3 January,

2 2 April 1881, Kandahar (Swirhoe); 9 October 1884, banks of R. Helmund,

6 12 April, Q 26 April 1885 Khusan (Aitcheson); ¢ 17 April Kabul, sex?

5 April Baqrami, S :? 2 December 1933 Chahiltan ‘5,900 ft., sex? 14 March

Chaharasia 5,700 ft., sex? 19 March Chahiltan 5,900 ft., Q 2 May 1934 Kabu

3,700 ft. (Maconachie); ¢ 7 April Kabul 6,000 ft., ¢ 9 April Paghman 8,000 ft.,

sex? 15 April Ghorband 6,500 ft., ¢ 2 May Doshi 2,750 ft., ¢ 7 May 1937

Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

At Kandahar the Siberian Chiffchaff is a common winter visitor according

to St. John and Swinhoe. Meinertzhagen says it was quite common round

Kabul in early April and later on he found it everywhere. and at almost al!

elevations but not at Haibak or Kunduz. These birds were presumably on

passage. :

Phylloscopus collybita sindianus Brooks

Specimen collected.—@ 15 April Ghorband 6,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Ticehurst (Systematic Review of the Genus Phylloscopus, p. 57) considers

that this is probably the breeding form of N. Afghanistan where Meinertzhagen

flushed a Chiffchaff from an empty nest in the Ghorband Valley on 24 May.

Ticehurst also records a winter specimen from Helmund on the border of

S. Afghanistan and Persia.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL? IST? SSOCIET ¥5 = Voln ss:

Phylioscopus griseolus Blyth.

Specimen collected—d¢. 16 May, ¢ 28 June 1879° Byan Khel (Wardlaw-

Ramsay); 4 ¢ 17-18 April Ghorband 8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Wardlaw-Ramsay states that the Olivaceous Willow-Warbler was common

and breeding in May and June in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,coo ft. Whitehead

says that it nests freely on parts of the Safed Koh just over the border.

Meinertzhagen says.—Fairiy common in the Ghorband Valley in mid-April,

almost always found: on rock-faces or walls and shy. Also seen at Bamian at

9,000 ft. on rocks on 20 April and a good many at Doab, always on rocks at

considerable elevations, at 7,000 ft. and above, at the end of April.’

Phylfoscepus schwarzi (Radde).

Specimen collected.—g 6 May 1937 Danaghori (Meinertzhagen). .

Shot in reeds. The only record of Radde’s Bush-Warbler in Afghanistan.

Phylloscopus trochifoides nitidus Blyth.

Specimens collected.— 18 April, G 30 October 1879 Kandahar. (St. John) ;.

<¢ 26 April Akrobart, sex? 2 May 1937 Doshi, 2,750 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

A specimen of the Green Willow-Warbler was procured by Aitcheson some-

where in Northern Afghanistan but unfortunately the data was lost. In addition

to the above specimens obtained Meinertzhagen thought he saw a= pair in

the Doab orchards on 29 April and a few at Haibak on 12 May in the gardens.

These records all doubtless refer to passage birds.

Phylloscopus trochiloides yiridanus Blyth.

Specimens collected.—¢ 30 April 1933 Ghorband Valley 5,000 ft. ¢ 20 Aprif

1934 IXabul (Maconachie). ;

The two specimens of the Greenish Willow-Warbler collected by Maconachie-

provide the only information about this species in Afghanistan.

Ph3lloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks).

Specimens .collected.—Sex? Pashat (Griffith); 2 sex? 14-23 April Panjab,

Wakham (Biddulph). -

These are the only records of Hume’s Willow-Wren for: Afghanistan but

Whitehead says it breeds in large numbers on the Safed Koh from 7,000 ft. to

4,000 ft. Unfortunately he preserved no specimens in verification,

Phylloscopus subviridis (Brooks).

Specimens collected.—2 ¢ 24 April, gd. 5 May, @ 20-May, ¢ 21 May 187¢

Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay). :

Wardlaw-Ramsay found Brook’s Willow-Wren common in the Hariab Valley

7,000-8,o00 ft. and it was evidently breeding there as the males had enlarged’

testes and a female shot on 20 May contained eggs ready for laying. Whitehead

says that it nests freely on the Safed Koh from 7,000-9,000 ft.

Phylloscopus neglectus neglectus Hume.

St. John states that he obtained a specimen of the Plain Brown Willow-Wren:

at Kandahar. I have not traced the skim in the British Museum but the- identi-

fication was confirmed by Hume.

Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth).

Specimens collected.—sex? 28 June 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

This specimen—which had been labelled viridanus and plumbettarsus—shows

that the Large Crowned Willow-Wren breeds.on the Afghan side of the boundary.

of the Safed. Koh where Whitehead says it is the commonest member of the

genus breeding from 6,000-10,000 ft. ~

Koclz has named a new race Phylloscopus occipitalis kail (Proc. Biol. Soc.

Washington col. 52 (5 June 1939) p. 71) from specimens taken by him at Kail.

Daulatshah, Gumandru, Sanglech and Iskarzir in Northern Afghanistan. The-

differences alleged are not however satisfactory. gw; : pin pray pAb

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN LIt

[Phylloscopus pulcher kangre Ticehurst.

I can find no authority for the statement in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 465}

that the Orange-barred Willow-Wren occurs in Afghanistan. |

[Phylloscopus magnirostris Blyth.

Whitehead found the Large-billed WiJlow-Wren breeding on the lower slopes.

of the Safed Koh from 7,000 ft. tc 8,o00 ft. so it should occur just within cur

boundaries. |

[Phylloscopus proreguius simlaensis Ticehurst.

Whitehead found Pallas’ Willow-Warbler in summer on the Safed

8,500 ft. so it should breed wihin the Atghan boundary. |

Koh at

[ Seicercus xanthischistos albosuperciliaris (Jerdon).

Recorded from Afghanistan in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 491) but I have

seen no evidence that it occurs. |

Prinia gracilis lepida ilyth.

Specimens collected.—¢ 2 October 1904 Wuhak

1896 Samuli 4,500 ft. (Maynard).

Cumming found the Streaked Wren-Warbler fairly common in the tamarislx

jungles of Seistan and found a nest with 4 eggs at Kuhak on 29 March tgo4.

Maynard collected a bird at Samuli on the Afghan-Baluch frontier on 10 Maren

1896. A resident species.

(Cumming) ¢@ 10 March

[Regulus regulis himalayeasis Jerdon.

According to Whitehead the Goldcrest is fairly numerous in summer amongst

the firs and deodars of the Safed Koh from 8,ooo ft. to 11,000 ft.

occur on the Afghan side of the border. I presume these birds

Himalayan race. |

so it must

belong to the

Regulus regulus tristis Pleske.

Specimens collected.—sex? 21 November, sex? 2 December 1933 Chahiltan

5,900 ft. (Maconachie).

These specimens provide the only 1ecords of this race of the Golderest in

Afghanistan It is presumably a winter visitor only.

_ [Cephalopyrus flammiceps (Bur ton).

I can find no’ authority for the statement in the New Fauna (vol. ii, p. 545)

that the Fire-cap occurs in Afghanistan. |

Pastor roseus (Linnaeus).

Specimens eae, AG, Otipore, 2 sex? es ubul (Griffith); GQ 24 April,

18 July 1879 Kandahar (St. John); 3 tc 22 13 April 1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson) ;

2 sex? 14 April Karawal Khana (Yate); ¢ 6 aly HORS Tala 3,700 ft. (Maconacnie) ;

4 ¢ 20 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Rosy Pastor appears to be only a passage migrant through Afghanistan

on its. way to and from India. In earlier days observers in India thought—

from the greatly enlarged testes of the males in spring and the early date on

which old and young birds returned to India—that there must be some breeding

place in Afghanistan but there seems no reason now to believe that this is the

case. shes,

On the autumn passage this is one of the earliest migrants to arrive.

Maconachie’s -specimen shot at Tala on 6 July furnishes the earliest date but

we have no other information about this passage except St. John’s statement

that at Kandahar the return swarms begin to make their appearance eariy in

August at latest and have not entirely passed until the beginning of October.

‘In the spring the first returning flocks reach Kandahar towards the end ot

March, according to Swinhoe, but more usually early

in April, according to:

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY..NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

John. There is no other information about S$. Afghanistan and it may well

be that the flocks which pass through Kandahar Siri in a. north-westerly

direction to avord the deserts around the Helmund. The birds arrive in

Afghanistan on a broad front, however, as whilst they are in Kandahar others

pour through the country about Kabul and north of the Hindu Kush.

Meinertzhagen first met with 4 males in full breeding dress at Bamian on

20 April. <Atter this he met further stragglers on 24 April at Bamian, and on

the 27 and 28th April at Doab. .Then at. Doshi -on, rst. and 3rd May some

large flocks were seen travelling. He met the main migration, however, at

Danaghori between the 4th and 1oth of May and estimated that there must

have been close on half a million on the Danaghori Plains during the first week

or May. Many birds roosted in the reed beds. On the 11th May there were

many large fiocks passing north towards Haibak and ‘for the followmg week

many large packs were seen at Haibak and again at Kunduz. On the return

journey Meinertzhagen saw a few at Doshi on 22 May and a few near Kabul

on 20 May. In describing’ this interesting experience he gives the direction in

which the flocks were travelling as north and north-west...

As Aitcheson occz isionally met huge flocks over. the whole of Badghis and

the Hari-Rud Valley one is justified in assuming that the Pastor traverses the

whole of Afghanistan north of the Hindu Kush. Aitcheson collected 5 specimens

at Tirphul on 13 April which is rather earlier than Meinertzhagen’s experiences.

It is perhaps worth emphasising the fact that the Rosy Pastor affords one of

the most remarkable east to west mugrations that is known. It leaves India

on the restricted front between the foot of the Himalayas and Central Baluchistan,

travels over the high ground of Northern Baluchistan, Central and Northern

Afghanistan and Persian Khorasan to the S.-E. corner of the Caspian, a route

which allows it to miss the wide deserts and low-lying plains of S.-E. Afghanist: an

and Central and Southern Persia where such vast numbers of a_ voracious

species would be hard put to it to procure sufficient food.

According to Meinertzhagen the Afghans regard the. Pastor as beneficial

to agriculture and do not molest it in spite of the damage which it does to

the ripe mulberries in spring.

Acridotheres tristis tristis (lLinnaeus).

Specimens collected.—G Pashat sex? Jalalabad’ (Griffith) ;° $~-15 August

1933. Kabul (Maconachie); ¢ 8 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Common Mynah_ occurs sparingly round villages between the Khyber

Pass, Jalalabad and Kabul and is resideat. Near Kabul Meinertzhagen found

them quite at home in snow in early April and some were seen at 8,500 ft.

in the Paghman Valley on 27 May and at Charikar on 26 May. At Danaghori

he met but a single pair in early April (the male of which was secured and

seemed rather pale compared with F un jab birds) but at Haibak and Kunduz they

were more common and breeding in mid-May.

Acridotheres ginginianus (latham).

Specimen. collected.—sex? Kandahar (Griffith).

This Griffith specimen in the British Museum provides the only record of

the Bank Mynah in Afghanistan, but I think the record may be accepted,

as a straggler, for the species occurs in the Peshawar,..Kohat and .Bannu

«listricts.

Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmelin).

Specimens collected.—Juv. IWabul; sex? Baber’s garden, Wabul (Griffith) ;

» 4 June 1933 Kabul (Maconachie).

Meinertzhagen saw a few Brahminy Mynahs in the gardens of Jalalabad

on 31 May. Here and at Kabul it is doubtless a summer visitor, as in Gilgit.

Wardlaw-Ramsay saw a flock in the Hariab Valley at 7,000 ft. in some willow

trees which were doubtless on passage, as he suggests, for he never saw

them again. Koelz has given the name 7. .p. afghanorum (Proc. Biol. Soe.

Washington, vol. 52 (5° June 1939) p: 73) to Afghan birds ‘on the | strength

of specimens be callected at Tagan, Mamakhal and Chandau, but fT could not

separate Maconachie’s bird from an Indian series.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN iig

{Sturnus vulgaris humii Brooks.

Said in the New Fauia (vol. iii, p. 32) to breed in Afghanistan, but I have

seen no evidence to this ettect].

Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus Sharpe.

Specimens collected.—sex? 20, October 1839 Kabul, sex? 1840 Jalalabad

(Gritnth).

Sturaus vulgaris poltaratzskyi Finsch.

Specimens collected.—sex? Kanadahar (Griffith); 2 November 1933 Vagrami

5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

Sturnus vulgaris. nodi liege Hume.

Specimens collected.—sex? Arghundab (Griffith); 2 g 192 12-13 May 1937:

Haibak 3,000 itt. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen records that S. v. nobilion (of which the type locality is

Kandahar) was found breeding at Haibak and Kunduz but not elsewnere

and that it was not common. In Haibak he did not see more than a tew

pairs in a week and they appeared to have young on 11 May. At Kunduz

they had clamouring young on 20 May. At Kunduz the only nests seen. were

high up in piane trees but at Haibak there were nests in semi-ruined houses

as welt.as in holes in mulberry trees. co

Owing to the war I have been unable to examine the specimens of starlings

from Atgnanistan in the Britisn Museum. It is evident, however, trom Hutton;

Swinhoe and St. John, Aitcheson, Cumming and Annandale that the stariing in

various races is an abundant winter visitor and passage migrant throughout

the greater part of Atghanistan. According to Hutton some race breeus at

Kandahar in April and May but Swinhoe and St. John do not confirm this. —

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. X

Specimens collected.—sex? Pashat (Griffith); @ 5 June 1933 Kabul (Macon:

achie); 2. ¢d 2 2 7-g May 1937 Danaghori (Meinertzhagen). § —

The Goiden Oriole is a summer visitor to Afghanistan but it has so far

only been recorded in the eastern half of the country. — .

Meinertzhagen first met with it on the 7th May at Danaghori where the

first pair arrived on the previous night. By 9 May they were fairly common,

a pair being found in most orchards. At Doshi, Haibak and Kunduz they

were also fairly common and were breeding and on the return journey they

were found to be well distributed in the Ghorbund and Paghman valleys, and at

Kabul and Jalalabad, ee

In’ the mardv valley at 7,000-8,000 ft. Wardlaw-Ramsay considered. the

Golden Oriole extremely rare but at Kandahar according to St. John, it is

abundant’ in the orchards and plantations. Here too it arrives about the

beginning of May. No

[Uroloncha malabarica (Linn).

In the New Fauna (vol. iii, p. go) the White-throated Munia is stated to

occur in Afghanistan but I have found no evidence to that effect.]_

Coccothraustes coccothtaustes humii Sharpe.

A specimen of the Hawfinch was evidently obtained by Griffith on 2: April

1839 at the ‘Khossik Pass’, as appears from a MSS. list of birds forwarded to

the British Museum by the ship Worcester, but the specimen can no longer be

traced. Whitehead met with: a party on 5 May at 9,o0o0 ft. on the. Peiwar

Spur and the bird is well known to be a winter visitor to Attock, Rawalpindi

and the Kala Chitta range and the Kohat district. It must therefore occur

fairly commohly somewhere in Afghanistan. but the breeding range has not

so far been discovered.

Perissospiza icterioides (Vigors).

Specimen collected.—¢ 20 June 1879. Peiwar Kotal (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

“Whitehead found the Black. and Yellow Grosbeak breeding commonly of

the slopes of the Safed Koh from 7,000-11,000. ft. and Wardlaw-Ramsay’s

ip)

11g JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45.

specimen suggests that this is doubtless also the case on the Afghan side of

the boundary. : etn

Mycerobas carnipes speculigera Brandt.

Specimens collected.—g Q go April 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay).

Ihese specimens were collected by Wardiaw-Ramsay in the pine iorest

and here again no doubt the Afghan status’ of the species is illuminated by

the fact that Whitehead found it breeding on the Safed Koh from 8,000-12,000 ft.

on the Kurram side.

[Mycerobas melanoxanthus (Hodgson).

a here appears to be no evidence to support the statement in the New Fauna,

(vol. ili, p. 106) that the Spotted-winged Grosbeak occurs in Atghanistan |.

[Loxia curvirostris Linnaeus.

_ Our only information about the Crossbill. is contained in Blyth’s statement —

(apud Hution, p. 779) that he had seen skins as well as a hving specimen

from Atghanistan. Untortunately further details are lacking].

[Carpodacus thura blythi (Biddulph).

The White-browed Rose-Finch must breed in Afghanistan as Whitehead

found it not uncommon on the Safed Koh in summer from 8,000-11,000 ft.

Young were on the wing by the 2g June].

Carpodacus rhodochlamys grandis Blyth.

Specimens colliected.— jg Pashat (Griffith); g 20 June 1879 Peiwar Kotal

(Waruiaw-Ramsay).

Apart trom the specimen collected by Griffith and now in the British Museum,

Wardiaw-RKamsay shot the male of a pair of Red-mantled Rose-tinches in pine

forest at 8,500 it. on the Peiwar range. They were doubtless breeding there

as Whitehead found them on the Sated Koh in july between 10,000 tt. and

11,000 ft.

Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth).

Specimens collected.—g Afghanistan (Griffith); g 24 June Shaluzan, g

28 June 1879 Byan Khel (Waraiaw-Ramsay); 4 ¢G 1 Q 9-14 April Kandahar,

9 3 May 1881 Syed Yarroo (Swinhoe); 4 ¢ 16-26 April Khusan, Q 26 April

‘omam-Agha, @ 18 May, 1885 Simkoh Badghis (Aitcheson); 2 ¢ 17 April

Ghorband 38,200 ft., 3 d 23 April Bamian 8,500 ft.. g¢ 28 April Doab 5,000 ft.,

Q 18 May Baghlan 2,000. ft., 2 13 May Haibak 3,000 ft., 2: g 24 May

Ghorband 8,300 {t., ¢ 25 May 1937 Shibar Pass 9,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Common Rosefinch is a summer visitor to Northern Afghanistan,

Meinertzhagen met with the first arrivals, two males, at Ghorband on 17 April

and after that date he saw them frequently at every camp down to the Oxus

Valley at Haibak and. Kunduz. As Aitcheson found them very common at

Kusan in April (his first specimen was obtained on the 16th) it seems probable

that this speeies breeds throughout the whole of Northern Afghanistan above

the Hindu Kush. As it breeds on the Safed Koh from 6,500 ft. to 8,500 ft.

on the Kurram side of the boundary it is also doubtless a breeding bird on the

same range in Afghan territory but in the Hariab Valley Wardlaw-Ramsay

only seems to have met with it on passage as he saw small parties there

occasionally in May and the early part of June.

At Kandahar St. John says quite definitely that it is a passage migrant

both in spring and autumn and on the spring passage Swinhoe saw the first

flock on g April. - .

Meinertzhagen attributes his series of breeding birds to the race kubanensis

but Ticehurst has given reasons (J.B.N.H.S., xxxii, 345) for not accépting this

intermediate race and with them I am in agreement.

Carpodacus rubicillus severtzovi Sharpe.

Specimens collected.—sex? 13 April 1874, 3 19 April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph).

Colonel Biddulph states that Severtzov’s Rosefinch was common in Wakhan

ist 9,000 ft. on both his journeys through. that tract.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 115

Koelz obtained a pair of these finches to which he gave the name Erythrina

rubicilla, diabolica (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 52 [5 June 1939] p. 75)

at Sanglech on 27 July 1937. He describes it as intermediate between typical

yubicillus and severtzovi.

Carpodacus synoica salimalii Meinerizhagen.

Specimens collected.—d 19 April Shibar Pass 8,000 ft... 7 ¢ 4 Q 22-23 April

Bamian 8,500 ft. 2 g¢ 1 Q 26 April 1937 Akrobat 9,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen). —

This new race of the Sinai Rose-finch was one ot the great discoveries of

Meinertzhagen’s journey ‘to Afghanistan. It was first seen at the western

foot of the Shibar Pass at a spot where the pink sandstone of the Bamian

Valley first shows itself. To quote his graphic words.—‘The rose-red rock

reminded. me of Petra and the Sinai Rose-nch, on which my mind was

dwelling, when Salim Ali drew my attention to a pink bird sitting on a stone

wall. that was our first introduction. At Bamian they were not uncommon

in mixed parties, sometimes with Petronia, in bare rocky valleys and often

sitting on bare earth cliffs, flying out to feed on early crops in the valley.

The blending of the colour of both male and female. with surrounding rocks

was perfect and without movement detection would be most difficult. Birds

were feeding on newly-sown grain.’

‘In the Akrobat Pass birds were associating with Passer domesticus in

similar bare rocky valleys and slopes. They were also observed up to 11,000 ft.

among snow in the hills north of Bamian.’

This species must certainly be resident in this area..

Bucanetes githagineus crassirostris (Blyth).

Specimens collected.— dg Kandahar (Hutton); 2 4.Oct. 1879 Kelat-i-Ghilzai

(St. John); Q 3 February 1881 Kandahar Gane 6d 20 April Kabul, Q

20 June Ghazni road, 2 ¢ adult 2 juvs. 1 July 1934 Chakri Minar 8,200 ft.

(Maconachie); ¢ 2 Q 15 May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

These specimens provide the only records of the Trumpeter Bullfinch in

Afghanistan but the country is eminently suited to its habits and the bird

itself is very easy to overlook so it is probably commoner and more widely

spread than these records suggest. Meinertzhagen found them breeding at

Haibak in desolate gorges using holes in the rock-faces and Maconachie’s

two juveniles from Chakri Minar were doubtless hatched in that neighbourhood.

. Bucanetes mengolicus (Swinhoe).

Specimens collected.—2 @ 20 April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph).

Biddulph states that the Mongolian Desert Finch was very-common in

Wakhan in April.

_ Chloris chloris smiths Koelz.

Specimens collected.—z2 g 2 2 1 December 1937 Kalkh (Koelz.)

The above specimens on which Koelz based his new form smithae (Proc.

Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 52 [5 June 1939] p. 74) provide the only records of

the Greenfinch in Afghanistan.

Rhodospiza obsoleta (Lichtenstein).

Specimen collected.— dg 3 October 1879 Khelat-i-Ghilzai (St. John); ¢ Dec.

1880, S 23 January, ¢G 2 February, g 30 March, g 31: March gd 1 April

1881 (Swinhoe); 2 16 April 1885 Khusan (Aitcheson); 2 sex? 27 March

Khwaja Gogirdak (Yate). |

The above records provide the only information about the status of Lichten-

stein’s Desert Finch beyond the fact that St. John and Swinhoe considered

it a winter visitor to the gardens of Kandahar where it was often in their time

netted and brought in for sale. Swinhoe says it was not observed there later

than 1st April.

_Rhodopechys sanguinea sanguinea (Gould.).

Specimens collected.— dg Pashat (Griffith); 3 ¢ 9 sex? 14-25 April 1954 Panjah

(Biddulph); ¢@ 24 May Ghorband 8,300 ft., 4 6 25 May 1937 Shibar Pasg

g,000-9,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46.

According to Horsfield and Moore (vol. ii, p. 461) Griffith observed the

Crimson-winged Finch at Pashat in smail fiocks. biddulph’s note on his

Specimens is as foliows:—‘We met with this only at Panjah in Wakkan, in

Aprim—and there we only saw one large tiock which used to come every

morning and settle on some bare grouna near our camp, until we had shot

most ol them. Ihe eievation of the piace at which we snot them was 9,000 tt.’

Meinertzhagen oniy met with the bird on the Shibar Pass and in the Ghorband

Valiey. Although they were often in smali parties of five and six, their organs

showed that they were ready to breed.

Carduelis caniceps paropanisi Kollibay.

Specimens collected.—sex? Kabul (Griffith); Gg 21 May 1879 Byan Khel

(Wardiaw-Kamsay); ¢ 24 Nov. 1879 Kandahar (St. John); G 1 January 1881

isandahar. (Swinhoe); sex? March Andkhui, (Yate); g juv. 18 June 1933,

Chaniiian 5,900 it. (Maconachie); 2 ¢ 7 April Ikabul, (Meinertzhagen); 2 ¢

3. % 22 April Bamian, ¢ 24 May 1937 Ghorband (Meinertzhagen),

Vhe Goidfinch is apparently not a common bird in Afghanistan, except

on. the eastern borger wuere Wardiaw-Kamsay iound it not uncommon in ‘the

Hariab Vauley 7,000-8,000 ft. and noted it as associating with Serins; and

at Iktandahar wuere according to Hutton and St. John it is common in winter

and spring but does not breed in the neighbourhood. .

Krom the rest of the country it has onty been recorded from the country

round Kabul where. Griffith obtained it and Meinertzhagen met with a flock

near snow, 10 miles south of the town, on April 7th and at Chahiitan 7 miies

S.-W. of Kabul where Maconachie obtained a young bird on 18 June which

must surely have been bred in the neighbourhood; trom Bamian where Meinertz-

hagen met a large flock on 22 April feeding on bare hill slopes and roosting

in popiars; from the Ghorband Valley where Meuinertzhagen found a tew

pairs breeding in late May; and finaily trom Andkhui in the Uxus Vailey where

Yate obtained a bird in March.

' Some birds doubtless breed on the Safed Koh above the Hariab Valley and

these may perhaps beiong to the typ.cal race. Meinertzhagen attributes 8 of

his specimens to the race paropanist. 1 had previously examined five of the

other specimens listed and attributed them to the same race oh their length

of bill (18.5 m.m.) though I am not quite satisfied that it is worth separation

from caniceps. The Goldfinch is a very favourite cage bird with the Afghan.

Carduelis caniceps subulata (Gloger).

Specimen collected.—d 22 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen attributes to this form one specimen shot from the flock of

the previous race which he met at Bamian. It is slightly larger (wing 85 mm.)

and paler than the other birds.

{Callacanthis burtoni (Gould).

Whitehead found the Red-browed Finch not uncommon in sumter on the

Safed Koh from 3,000-9,000 ft. so it must occur within the boundaries of

Afghanistan. ].

Acanthis flavirostris subsp. ?

Specimens collected— dG 9 4 unsexed 24 April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan (Bid-

dulph); ¢ @ 8 April Paghman 8,o00 ft. 4 d 3 Q 24 April Ghorband 8,300 ft.,

3 ¢ 2 9 25 April Shibar Pass 9,000 ft., 2 29 May 1937 Unai Pass 12,000 ft:

(Meinertzhagen). F |

Biddulph found the Twite particularly common, generally in small dispersed

parties, at Panjah on 24th April 1874 but this series I have not seen.

Meinertzhagen also obtained ‘Twites in Afghanistan but his series is too

worn to be identified with certainty though they agree with korejewi in similar

plumage. He says ‘Occasional flockS among the snowfields in the Paghman

Valley in early April but very shy. Not met with again until we crossed

the Shibar Pass on 23 May when we found them abundant, though not yet

breeding. They were still in small mixed flocks. In the Ghorband Valley

between 8,400 ft. and 10,000 ft. the same remarks apply for the’ last week

in May.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 144

Acanthis cannabina fringillirotris (Bp. and Schleg).

Horsfield and Moore (Cat. Ind. Mus. ii, p. 496) list a male. linnet from

Afghanistan in the Griffith collection and the Worcester MSS. list mentions

a--specimen as collected by Capt. Hay.

Serinus pusi!lus (Pallas).

Specimens collected.—2 ¢ 1 @ Pashat (Griffith): 2 ¢ 1 2 Kandahar

(Hutton); ¢ 25 April 1874 Panjah “(Jordan) ; 32 6 November 1879 Byan Khel

(Wardlaw- -Ramsay); ¢ 10 April 1881 Eaunilne (Swinhoe); -¢ 23 July 1933,

Khinjan Pass 8,800 ft. (Maconachie) ; 12 April Paghman 8,oo00 ft., 1 ¢ 29

28 April 1937 Doab 5,000 ft. (Mei teen

The Gold-fronted Finch certainly breeds along the eastern border of Afghan-

istan as Wardlaw-Ramsay found it plentiful in the Hariab district in flocks,

until the early part of June when it commenced to breed. He found a nest

with one egg on the Peiwar range and later Whitehead found it fairly common

in the same area in summer between 8,000 ft. and 9,000 ft. Maconachie’s

July specimen from the Khinjan Pass suggests that it Be also breed in the

mountains round Kabul.

Out of the breeding season it is doubtless not uncommon in a wider area.

Griffith obtained specimens at Pashat and noted it in his journal. as seen

at Bharowal on'7 March 1840. He says that it was found in flocks in cultivation

feeding on thistles. Meinertzhagen found a few small parties in the Paghman

Valley in early April at about 8,200 ft. and a flock of 10 birds feeding on

seeds of Sisymbrium at Doab on 28 April.

Swinhoe’s Kandahar specimen~ was a caged bird, evidently freshly caught,

and he was informed by the bird-catchers that it occurred in flocks from the

middle of April to the middle of September, but as St, John points out, the

bird can hardly breed about Kandahar and these dates—if based -on anything

but imagination on the part of the bird-catchers—must refer to passage move-

ments. Hutton’s specimens probably also came from the bird-catchers.

Fringilla monti‘ringilla Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—2 C@ Afghanistan, @ Otipore 9 Pashat (Griffith);

¢ 18 April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph); ¢@ 8 January 1880 Kandshar (St. John):

¢o 9 21 November, Q 2 December, Q 9 December 1933 Chahiltan 5,900 ft.

(Maconachie).

In addition to the above specimens, Meinertzhagen records seeing a small

flock of Bramble-Finches at Kabul 5,800 ft. on 6 April and another large

flock migrating north at 11 a.m. on 24 April at Bamian 8,soo ft. | Murray

savs that a Mr. Hutchings had four males and one female from Abdul Rahman

and Mandi Hissar near Kandahar.

Passer domesticus griseigularis Sharpe.

“Specimens collected—¢ Afghanistan 2 @ Pushut, _Q Dadur (Griffith) ;

d 9 May 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay): @ 11 April, @ 27 April 1879

Kandahar (St. John); 2 ¢ 6 April, 2 g & April, S 9 April, 4 % x O16 Anril

1881 (Swinhoe); 4 ¢ 15 April Karawal Khana (Yate); 3 ¢@ 16 April Khusan,

(Maconachie); 8 ¢ 3. 9 23-26 April Bamian 8,soo ft...% 1 May Barfok 2.+00 ft.,

3 .§ May Danaghori 2,300 ft., 2 ¢ 21 May 1937 Kunduz Gee ft. (Meinertz-

hagen).

The House-Sparrow is a very numerous summer visitor to hoth Northern.

and Southern Afghanistan arriving in April and leaving asain. in Aneust. and

September. It is also an abundant passage migsrant.. In Northern Afohanistan

Meinertzhagen found them breeding in colonies mostly in holes in earth. hanks,

sometimes in company with Bee-eaters. and Rollers. On nassage thev nay -

little or no attention to houses and are very much. birds of the onen fields,

bare mountain slopes and buckthorn hedges. In Southern Afghanistan Swinhoe

remarks. that they do not associate with Passer. montanus but hoth he. and

Wardlaw-Ramsay remark that the large flocks on passage contain a good

proportion of Passer hispaniolensis.—

Meinertzhagen calls his birds Passer domesticus bactrianus, and as he points

out, correctly enough, this name (Zarudny and Kudaschew, 1916, type locality

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

Tashkent, Turkestan) antidates my parkini (1920—Vale of Kashmir) but. 1

can see no difference in size or colour between birds from Turkestan and South

Afghanistan. As_ one of Swinhoe’s birds from Kandahar ($9 April 1881

now in British Museum) was the type of Passer griseigularis Sharpe, Cat. B.

Brit. Mus. xii, p. 313 (1888),. this name must stand for the large migratory

House-Sparrow so common in Turkestan, Tibet, Afghanistan, Kashmir and

other neighbouring areas which winters in parts of India.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis transfuga Hartert.

Specimen collected.—jJ 13 May 1879 Kandahar (St. John). =

This is the only record of the Yellow-throated Sparrow in Afghanistan unless

Hutton’s account of the Rock Sparrow as arriving at Kandahar in the latter

end of April and departing in autumn and being far from common really refers

to this species.

Passer hispaniolensis transcaspicus Tschusi.

Specimens collected.— Pashat (Griffith); sex? April 1874 Panjah (Bid- |

dulph); @ dQ May 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); 5 ¢ 5 Q 6-16 April

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 27 October 1884 between De-Kamran and De-Doda,

1 ¢G 2 9 29 November 1884 between Kar-o-bagh and Tut-i-chi (Aitcheson) ;

sex? 10 March Kara Bel, sex? 10 March Yulla Chashma, 2 sex? 27 March

Khwaja Gogirdak, 2 sex? 12 April Karawal Khana (Yate); 5 @ 2 9 4-7 May

1937 Danaghori 2,300. ft. (Meinertzhagen).

In Northern Afghanistan Aitcheson and Yate collected Spanish Sparrows

(as listed above) in March-April and October-November. These birds may well

have been on passage to and from their breeding quarters farther north as in

the rest of Afghanistan (where it occurs) the status of the Spanish Sparrow

appears to be that of a summer visitor. In the Oxus Valley Meinertzhagen

first met with it at Danaghori on 4 May and by 7 May their numbers had

increased. They were equally common about Baghlan on 19 May and though

breeding had not commenced it appeared likely that they were going to. breed

in the swamps of Danaghori. Biddulph met them in Panjah in April.

Wardlaw-Ramsay found the species common in the Hariab Valley 7,000-

8,000 ft. in May and June.

At Kandahar Hutton said it was a resident, breeding both in houses and

trees but this was doubtless inaccurate as St. John and Swinhoe both say that ~

it is a summer visitor, the latter adding that it arrived in large flocks with

Passer. domesticus in the early part of April, though the testes were not then

nearly. so developed as in the latter bird.

Both Meinertzhagen in Afghanistan and Magrath in Kohat remark on the

association of flocks of Spanish Sparrows and Rosy Pastors on migration and

Ticehurst and I found that the typical race in Algeria was similarly consorting

with flocks of Starlings. About buildings the Spanish Sparrow in Afghanistan

assorts with both House and Tree Sparrows.

~ Passer moabiticus yatei Sharpe.

Specimens collected.—¢% 27 October 1884 between De Kamran and De-Doda

(Aitcheson); 9 13 March 1903 Nad-i-ali R. Helmund (Cumming). 5

The above male, the type, of Yate’s Sparrow, is figured by Aitcheson

(Plate vi, fig. 2). The bird was said by the discoverer to be then .occurring

in large flocks. Cumming’s female (identified by Stuart Baker) furnishes

the only other information about this species actually in Afghanistan, hut it is

doubtless. commoner in South-west Afghanistan than this implies as Zarudny

and Harms (J. f. Orn, 1912 p. 592) found it a most abundant breeding bird in

the tamarisk jungles of the Helmund Delta on the Persian. side of the

boundary. They give a long account of the bird and its breeding and one of

Zarudny’s eggs is figured by Dresser”in Ibis 1903, p. 405, pl. x.

Passer montanus dilutus Richmond.

Specimens collected.—@Q May 1839 Kandahar, 2 sex? Bala Chughur: Serai

(Griffith); 2 3 21 January, Q@ 20 April 1879 Kandahar (St. John); @ Q 18 Jan-

uary 1881, 9 2 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 29 Jan. Chahar Shamba |

(Yate):%20 April t905 Kuhak (Cumming); 2 ¢ 4 April Kabul 6,000 ft., 1 @

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 119

4 Q rac April Ghorband 8,200 ft., ¢ 22 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Muerte

agen

"The Tree Sparrow is the common resident house sparrow of Afghanistan

both in the North where Meinertzhagen- found it all the localities he visited

and in the South: where both St. John and Swinhoe found it at Kandahar.

In the South-west Cumming says it was in every building in the Mission

camp at Kuhak in April 1905 but he adds the somewhat surpr ising statement

that it had disappeared in the following menth.

Meinertzhagen first noted signs of breeding at Danaghori on 7 May.

Passer rutilans cinmamomeus (Gould).

Specimens collected.—5 -3 Otipore (Griffith).-

Griffith’s specimens. of the Cinnamon Sparrow in the Berich Museum pro-

vide the only records for Afghanistan.

Petronia petronia intermedia Hartert.

Specimens collected.—sex? December 1880, 9 13 January, Q 22 January,

@ 15 February 1881, (Swinhoe); ¢ 19 April Shibar Pass 9,800 ft., 2 ¢ 1 Q

22 April Bamian 8,500, ¢ 28 April Doab 7,000 ft., 2 G 15-16 May, 2 juv.

ae nae Haibak 3,000 ft., 2 gd 2 9 25 May 1937 Shibar Pass 9,800 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen .

Meinertzhagen who provides the whole of our information about this species

in Northern Afghanistan first met with it singly on the flat tops of the Shibar

Pass at 9,800 ft. on 19 April, when there was still much snow about. They

were not uncommon in the desolate valleys, round Bamian, often associating

with Carpodacus synoica where they were feeding on freshly sown wheat. At

Doab they were met on the high tops, sometimes feeding among rocks,

sometimes travelling about in small flocks. At Haibak they were breeding

in holes and fissures on rock-faces, most of the young being out and about.

At Kunduz they were breeding on 20 May on a rocky scarp some 1o miles west

of the town. When Meinertzhagen recrossed the Shibar Pass on 25 May

young were well on the wing with their parents.

At Kandahar Swinhoe considered the bird a winter visitor, not observed

after the end of February. Hutton’s account of the Rock Sparrow at Kandahar

would seem more likely to refer in reality to the Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Moatifringilla nivalis alpicota (Pallas).

Specimens collected.—Q Afghanistan (Griffith); 9 23 July Kinjan Pass

11,500 ft., juv..9 Sept. 1933° Katakhak 9,750 (Maconachie); 4 ¢ 2 Q 26 May

Shibar Pass 9,800 ft., 2 g¢ 1 @ 29 May 1937 Unai Pass 12,000 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen). ;

Whitehead came upon a small flock of finches which he attributed. to

M. n. adamsi, but which in the light of subsequent information may well have

been M. n. alpicola, on a grassy knoll of the Safed Koh at 10,000 ft. on 2nd

August. They were, however, rather wild and he was unable to secure a

specimen.

With this exception the Snow- Finch is only known to occur in Afghanistan

in the ranges of the Hindu Kush where it breeds and is doubtless resident,

with altitudinal movements.

Meinertzhagen says that a small flock were seen’at the edge of a large

patch of snow in the Paghman Valley 8,600 ft. in early April and again on

24 April a flock was seen near snow at about 11.600 ft. when they were very

shy. But it was not until he recrossed the Shibar Pass on 25 May that he

found the birds on their breeding grounds among boulder-strewn tops and

steep hillsides. The females had conspicuous incubation patches. He met

them again in the Unai Pass at between 12,000-12,500 ft. on 29 May. He

gives a good description of the displav.

Maconachie’s specimen from the Kinjan Pass was collected by Captain

Fletcher who found the birds in flocks of four or five amongst patches of

snow.

Montifringtila theresa Meinertzhagen.

Specimens collected—2 ¢ 19 April Shibar Pass 9.500 ft., ¢ 22 April

Bamian 8,500 ft., 2 g¢ 2 Q 25 May Shibar Pass 9,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45:

Meinertzhagen’s Mountain-Finch, the most interesting of his discoveries

in Afghanistan, was first seen on the flat top of the Shibar Pass at 9,500 ft.

en 1g April, where it was often in company with Evemophila and Petronia.

It was usually singly or in pairs and on more open ground (less. rocky and

steep) than nivalis. At Bamian a small party was found feeding in freshly

sown wheattfields. Meinertzhagen describes the general penavioun and_ display

of the bird. It is certain to prove a resident species.

Fringilauda nemoricola altaica (Eversman):

Specimens collected.—@ Pushut (Griffith); 1 5 4 “sex? 14-24 April 1874

Panjah, Wakhan (Biddulph).

Griffith’s above specimen in the British Museum is _ presumably the same

one’ mentioned in his Journal as having been obtained at Loonguzee in March.

Biddulph notes that Stoliczka’s Mountain-Finch was common in Wakhan in

April. It doubtless also occurs further south along the eastern border of

Afghanistan as it is a common but irregular winter visitor to the Samana,

just over the boundary.

Emberiza pyrrhuloides Pallas. |

Specimens collected.—¢ n.d. Maimanah,. 9 1 Feb. Chahar Shamba (Yate).

These provide the only records of the Thick-billéd Reed Bunting. I have

not been able to examine them to identify the form more particularly.

Emberiza schoenicius pallidior Hartert.

Specimens collected.— © 8 February 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; ad®

20 February-3 March Chahar Shamba, 9 10 March Kara Bel, 2 to March

Gulla Chashma (Yate); 2° 5 Nov. 1933 Bagrani 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

These are the only records of the Reed-Bunting in Afghanistan. Swinhoe

says that it is only a winter visitor at Kandahar. re ag

_ Emberiza fucata arcuata Sharpe.

Specimen collected.—sex? 17 July Shadian (Scully).

In immature plumage. The only record for Afghanistan.

Emberiza feucocephala Gmelin.

Specimens collected.—¢ 2 Pashat g 9 Kabul (Griffith); sex? 16 April:

1874 Panja (Biddulph): ¢ 12 December 9 27 December 1879, ¢ 12 January

1880 Kandahar (St. John); 2 ¢ 2 January, Q@ 29 January 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe); @ 9 December 1884 Ab-i-Kamarra (Aitcheson); ¢ 7 Novempey

Kabul 5,700 ft., Q@ 2 December 1933 Chahiltan 5,900 ft., RG. January, 9 oS)

30 December. 1934 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

The above records provide the only information about the Pine Bunting in

Afghanistan. It is evidently a winter visitor.

Emberiza stewarti Blyth.

Specimens collected.—_ 23. February 1840 Pashat (Griffith) ; 7 skins 22 April-

16 May 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); ¢ 21 July 1933 Khinjan Valley

7,700 ft. (Maconachie); 2 3 8-9 April Paghman 8,000 ft., 2 27 April Dar-

e-Shikari 6,000 ft., 2 6 1 @ 28-29 April 1937 Doab 5,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Wardlaw- Ramsay found the White-capped Bunting excessively abundant

in open country in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o000 ft. about Byan Khel. It

began to breed about the end of April and large numbers of their nests were

found in May. and. June. In Northern Afghanistan Meinertzhagen found it

nowhere common, but widely distributed between 5,000 ft. and Blane ft. They

were in the snow in the Paghman Valley on 9g April and no increase or de-

crease inttheir numbers was noticed so the majority are doubtless resident

though some of the winter visitors to North-west. India may come from. Afghanis-

tan. Not yet recorded from the western. half of Afghanistan though. found in

Persia.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 121

Emberiza cia par Hartert.

Specimens collected.—g Q@ Pashat (Griffith); ¢ 19 April 1874 Panja (Bid-

dulph); gd 19 June Speen-Gurhwar Kotal, 2° Q “19 June-1879 Peiwar -Kotal,

(Wardlaw-Ramsay); 4 ¢d 2 @Q 4-12 April near Kabul 6,000-8,000 ft., 1

4 2 15-17 April 1937 Ghorband 6,500-8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found the Meadow-Bunting not uncommon around Kabul

with deep snow on the ground in early April and in the Ghorband Valley and

Bamian between 7,000 ft. and 8,500 ft. On 16 April there was a distinct

increase in their numbers in Ghorband and when he. passed there again at

the end of May the breeding birds were limited to an odd pair at long inter-

vals. Meinertzhagen did not meet with the species to the north or west of

the Shibar Baccus It is common, however, on the south-east of this area as

Wardlaw-Ramsay found it on all the lower pine-clad slopes of the Safed Koh

as well as of the Peiwar Spur and over the boundary Whitehead says it nests

fairly commonly .on the Safed Koh up to 11,000 ft. Wardlaw-Ramsay found

it breeding on 19 June at 8,ooo ft. at the foot of the Peiwar Kotal.

Meinertzhagen considers the status to be that of a resident and summer

visitor. It would seem likely that many of the great numbers which appear

in the Western Punjab in winter must come from Afghanistan.

Emeriza buchanani Blyth.

Specimens collected.—Sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); 2 6 base of Kossack

Pass (Griffith); 9 April, sex? 27 April 1879 Kandahar (St. John);

8 April Kandahar, 3 28 April 1881 Gatai (Swinhoe); ¢ Q 1 May 1885 Kambao

(Aitcheson) 92 15 May near Kabul 6,200 ft., sex? 10 September 1933 Jangal

Murda 12,000 ft. (Maconachie); 2 @ 24-26 April Bamian 8,500 ft., ¢ 29 April

Doab 5,000 ft., 1 ¢ 2 Q 24 May 1937 Ghorband 8,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

_ Meinertzhagen found the Grey-necked Bunting to be.a fairly common sum-

mer visitor to the hills of Northern Afghanistan between 5,000 ft. and 9,000 ft.,

first encountered at Bamian on 24 April at 8,500 ft. when 2 males in company

were shot. There were more in the Ghorband Valley in mid-April but in late

May they were quite common and breeding. A nest with fresh eggs was

found in the Paghman Valley at 8,500 ft. on 27 May. Maconachie’s specimens

agree with this status but the bird at 12,000 ft. on Jangal Murda was perhaps

a migrant.

Griffith is said to have found the Grey-necked Bunting in flocks near shingly

or stony hills (Horsfield and Moore ii, 485). These were probably on passage

as St. John and Swinhoe found it a passage migrant at Kandahar. Hutton

says it is found there in summer but I do not think he. distinguished very

clearly between summer visitors and passage migrants. Swinhoe says it arrived

in the. first week of. April. Numbers were found resting on the city walls

-on 8 April and great numbers were to be seen feeding on the road all the

way to the Khojak Pass.

Emberiza hortulana Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—7 J 19-25 April 1885 Tirphul (Aitcheson).

Status uncertain. Aitcheson says that the Ortolan was very common in

the vicinity of Tirphul.

‘Emberiza melanocephala Scopoli.

Specimen collected.-— @ 24 April 1881 iMelchareg 4o m.s. of Kandahar

(Swinhoe). 5

Fvidently a-straggler as St. John remarks that the swarms of Black-

headed Buntings that winter in India miss Afghanistan on passage.

Emberiza bruniceps Eversmann.

Specimens collected.—4q ¢ 2 @Q@ Kandahar (Griffith); @ May. @ 4 Tune

Byan Khel, 9 June 1879 Zabberdast Kila (Wardlaw-Ramsay); ¢-9 9 22 April.

Mundi Hissar, 9 23 April 1881 Abdul Rahman (Swinhoe); 5 @ 12-19 April

Tirphul, ¢@ 3 May Shore Kaltegai,. 3 4 May 1885 Gulran-(Aitcheson) ; -¢% ¢°9

28-30 April: Chahar Shamba, Q ad. ¢ juv. 12-13 May Kila Wali (Yate);

3 11 June 1933 Logar Valley, 3 30 April 1934 Kabul 5,7000 ft. (Maconachie) ;

g 25 April Bamian 8,500 ft., 2 3 27-29 April Doab 5,000 ft., 4 4. May

i232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

Barfak 4,000 ft., g 2 May Doshi 2,750 ft., 1 ¢ 3 Q 5-8 May 1937 Danaghori

2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

A summer visitor to Afghanistan. In the north Meinertzhagen first met

it on 25-April at Bamian, when a single cock arrived. After that date they

soon became abundant, especially at Danaghori, Kunduz and Haibak. In

some years it must arrive earlier as Hutton and St. John say that it arrives

in Kandahar at the beginning of April and is common. Swinhoe found numbers,

evidently on passage, at Mundi Hissar and Abdul. Rahman feeding in the

early morning and perching during the day on the mud walls of the roadside

forts. It has not yet been recorded from south-west Afghanistan.

It breeds plentifully in the Hariab Valley at 7;000-8,o00 ft. where Wardlaw-

Ramsay found the first nest on 19 June.

Emberiza calandra Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—4 ¢G 1 9 5-8 May Danaghori 2,300 ft., 9 19 May

1937 Khanabad 1,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Corn Bunting has only been met with by Meinertzhagen in Afghan

Turkestan at Danaghori and in the cultivated country about fifteen, miles

south of Khanabad. In both localities it was breeding. Meinertzhagen refers

his birds to E. c. buturlint but specimens in fresher winter plumage which

Ticehurst and I collected in Jhang district, and which must surely represent

the Afghan population, could not be separated from the typical form.

(To be continued)

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT.

Epwarp G. NICHOLS.

PART Il

(Continued from Voi. xliv, No. 4 can p. 584).

Gracapns phoenicopterus chlorogaster. Southern Green Pigeon. Pachai pura.

Plains near Palni in October 1866 (Fairbank), and up to 4000’ in the Palni

Hills.

Resident. Terry found them nesting in April on the hills toward Palni.

Rare. Fs

Derdrophassa pompadora affinis. Gray-fronted Green Pigeon.

Western hills, from 3000’ at Kumili up to 4000’ in the Lower Palnis. (In

other districts it occurs on the plains also and up to 4500’.)

Prohably resident. I have seen only 10 of this species with 6 of the

Southern on June 18.

Rare; in tall trees.

Dendrophassa bicincta, Orange-breasted Green Pigeon.

The type-locality for bicincta is near Tellicherry.

J. R. Herderson’s list of the birds of the Paini Hills includes this species

without comment. (Elsewhere it has been found only in wet forests at low

elevations in Travancore, Ceylon, etc.) f

Ducula badia cuprea. Brown Imperial Pigeon. Perum bura.

From 4000’ at Kumili, to the top of the western’ hills. (In other distri¢ts

it occurs as low as 500’ - elevation.) .

Resident,

~ OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 124

Uncommon in sholas_ in most places, but coimon on the High Wavy

Mts., where S. H. Prater took a srecinen:

Muscadiyora aenea. Greer, Imperial ‘Pigeon.

A Travancore specimen is assigned to the southern race, pusilla.

I have seen this bird once in July at the: foot of ;the Sirumalai. (In other

districts it occurs up. to about 2000’.)

Probably resident.

Rare; in thick forest.

- Chalcophaps indica indica. Emerald Dove. Pathuhai pura.

From the base of the hills it ranges up to 5500° seers to. Terry. (In

other districts as ee as 7500'.)

Kesident.

commons, usually seen on the ground in thick jungle.

: Columba livia, Rock Pigeon. Mada purd.

Specimens: from the Nilgiris probably belong to the southern race, inter-

media. ; ;

Plains, and up to 6500’ in the Palni Hills. It is not easy to tell whether

those near villages are wild or not.

Resident.

Uncommon; in small flocks.

Columba elphinstonii. Wood Pigeon. Kanal puni.

From aooo’ to the summit of the western hills. (In Travancore it ranges

down to an elevation of 200.)

Resident.

Uncommon; in sholas. Mr. F. Dawson found it common after May.

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis. Spotted Dove. Mani pura.

Plains, and at all elevations on the hills.

Resident in the hills. My plains records are between July 1 and April 28.

Common in the lower hills, among plantations and thin woods; uncommon

on the plains and hill-tops. The coo’s are soft, tremulous, usually 3 or 5 in

a phrase, with the 2nd note higher in pitch than the rest.

Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis. Brown Dove. Thavittu puri.

Plains, and Terry found them in the hills up to about 5000’.

Resident.

Common in scrub jungle and thorny waste places. The call is a rather

pleasant group of notes run together: Kaloo, kaloo, kalookl.

Streptopelia decaocto. Ring Dove. Sambal pura.

Nilgiri specimens belong ta the typical race.

Plains, and Terry found it on the Paini Hills at perhaps 3500’. (In the

Nilgiris it has occurred as high as 7000’.)

Resident.

Fairly common, favouring thickets of euphorbia and thorn trees. The coo’s

are smooth and deep-toned, usually 3 in a phrase, with a pause before the

third.

Oenopopelia tranquebarica. Red Turtle Dove. Kalli pura.

The type locality is Tranquebar.

Plains and base of the hills.

Resident.

Uncommon; seen by me in only 4 localities. They like thorn trees near

large tanks. The call is the lowest in pitch of any of our doves. From a

distence, it sounds like drumming- in the next .village. It may be written -

tury turtle, tub.

12g JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIRTY, Vol. 4g.

Pterocles exustus elliotti, . Common Sand-Grouse.

Plains. There is a local specimen in the American College, Madura. I

think I have seen a few south of Virappandi in the Kambam valley, and one

near Batlagundu. Francis, in 1908, wrote that some were found near Andippatti.

Resident, rare.

Pavo cristatus. Peafowl. Mayil.

From 1000’ to 2000’ near the base of the western hills. (Nearly up to 7000’

in other districts.) ; roeeas etter G2 ke

Resident. :

Rare at the base of the Palni Hills. Reported to be common in the Varusha

Nadu _ valley.

Gallus sonneratii. Grey Jungle Fowl. Kattu holi.

Hills, from base to summit.

Resident.

Uncommon in most places, but reported by Mrs. Cantlay to be common on

the High Wavy Mts. The cock’s crow is of 5 syllables, preceded by a flapping

of wings on his sides. —

Galloperdix spadicea stewarti. Red Spur-Fow!l. Saruhu koli.

From 1100’ up to 7ooo’ on the western hills. (It occurs also below 1000"

in Travancore.)

Resident. Sia

Less common than the Jungle Fowl in most places, but Terry found it

commonly. nesting at Putthir, 6500’; in the Palni Hills. I have’ seen 8 in

a flock. I) have heard a loud cuck-cuck-cuck-cuck, ker-whack.

Excalfactoria chinensis. Blue-breasted Quail. Kadai.

A specimen taken in Chingleput District belongs to the typical race. chinensis.

Plains, where I have one record near Dindigul on September i, and at

1100’ in the Varusha Nadu valley on July 30. (Up to 7ooo’ in. other districts.)

Probably resident. | .

Rare. -

Coturnix coromandelica. Black-breasted. Quail.

Plains. (Up to 7ooo’ in the hills in other districts.)

Winter visitor, from November 3 to February 13.

Uncommon, in grain-fields. Besides a double tweet, a pleasant and mugen!

wheat is repeated about 5 times.

Perdicula asiatica. Jungle Bush-Quail. Sen kadai.

Specimens from Salem and Coimbatore Districts are pecencde to the typ! c2i

asiatica,

Plains, and up to 1500’ on the slopes. (Up to sooo’ in other districts.)

This snecies should be deleted from my Kodaikanal list published in 1937:

Resident,

‘Uncommon; in thick bushes far from habitation. I have heard a rasping,

hnz7ing noise, like a saw going through shingle, continued for a minute~ or

more without a break.

Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum erythrorhynchum., Painted Quail.

3000° to the top of the western hills. (In other districts as low as 2500’.)

Resident. Ray fetta a: ;

Fairly common in bushes and thick. grass.

Francolinus pondicerianus, Gray Partridge. Kavuthari.

The typical form has been taken at. Pondicherry and on Raméswaram. .

Plains, and by Dr. M. L. Freeman up to 7oo0’ at Kodaikanal.

Resident.

Fairly common; in scrub jungle and remote fields,

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT \ 148

Turnix suscitator, Bustard Quail. . Kurun kadai,

Specimens from Coimbatore have been. placed in the subspecies tatjoor,

Piains, and up to 3000 at Kumili.

Resident.

Uncommon, in solitary, bushy places.

Turnix maculata, Larger Button Quail. Mani kadai.

Eastern Ghats specimens are assigned to the _race, tanki.

Capt. Terry took a specimen at Pallangi, 5500, and F. Dawson eauent

one at 7700° in the Palni Hills. (In adjoining districts it also occurs on ‘the

-plains,)

Hypotaenidia striata gularis. Blue-breasted Rail. Samban koli.

Terry obtained a specimen on April 4 at Pallangi, 5500. (It is also found

on the plains in other districts, and is a resident in Ceylon.)

Rallus eurizonoides. Banded Crake.

A specimen from Mysore is assigned to the subspecies amuroptera.

The oniy record was at 5000 on the High Wavy Mts., where a_ bird

was caught for identification by Mr. and Mrs. Cantlay on June. 16 during

heavy south-west winds. (On the west coast it breeds near sea-level, but it

has been taken as a stray in the hills as high as $700’.) er ‘

Amaurornis fusca bakeri. Ruddy Crake.

Salim Ali’s specimen at Kumili appears. to belong to the North Indian

bakeri, but the resident race, fusca, has been taken’ in. the Wynaad and

Ceylon. - ap a oan a MI oc

3000 up to 6850 in the western hills. (In Travancore -and “Ceylon it

occurs also in the low country.)

Only 2 records, March 7 & 30.

Amaurornis phoenicura phoenicura. White-breasted Waterhen. Nir kéli.

Plains, and up to 4700’ on the western hills. (In the Nilgiris up to 7000’)

Probably a resident near irrigated fields. in. the -hills... My plains records

run from November 8 to December 29 and on April 27. Lt eh or RG TO

Uncommon.

Gallinuia chloropus. Indian Waterkens

The type locality of the race indicus is Nellore.

Plains, in a few of the largest reedy tanks only. ee the Nilgiris. it pes

been found as high as 7000’.)-

Recorded from July 4 to April 27. (In Ceylon it is a resident.)

Fairly common; as many as 4o together. The call is cackling laugh lower

in ise than the Grebe’s.

Gallicrex cinerea. Kora or Water-Cocls.

My only record was on April 13 on a tank in the eastern part of the

district,

Porphyrio polioéephalus. Purple Coot :

The typical form occurs in Hyderabad State and en

- Only at three tanks on the. plains.

July 5 to April 4. (A vesident in Ceylon.) :

Rare; in shallow water and on mud flats. One flock of 18.

Filica atra atra. Coot. Ivdma koli.

On 3 of the largest tanks oh the plains. Pay

Winter visitor, from July 4 to February 20. (Resident. at Coimbatore.)

Uncommon, but on September 23 I saw as many as 4o together. |

i290 © JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Metopidius indicus. Bronze-winged Jacana. Thamarai kéli.

1 have seen only a single bird, swimming on Dévathanapatti Tank on

March 23 and one on July 5. _ :

- Hydrophasianus chirurgus. Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

On large tanks only,

From July 4 to April 13. ;

Fairly common ‘on the lily-pads. I have seen up to go together.

Choriotis nigriceps. (sreat Indian Bustard.

Nelson’s Gazetteer, in 1808, said : ‘Bustards are occasionally met with.’

The species is said to be near extinction now. It is a bird of-the plains.

Sypheotides indica. Lesser Florican. Varahu koli.

Plains. (In other districts it is found up. to 3000’.)-

Nelson in 1868 called it ‘not uncommon’. R. F. Stoney shot one at Shola-

vandan March 20, 1904, Francis in [1908 said floricans were occasionally seen.

No recent records,

Burhious oedicnemus indicus. Stone Curlew. Kannadi at: katti.

Plains only. (Up to 3300’ in other districts.)

The American College has a local specimen. My only record is of one

bird on a dry tank-bed at Madura on June 26. (Resident in Ceylon.)

‘Gutsacine coromandelicus. Indian Courser. At katti.

The type locality for the typical race (“Coromandel Coast’’) is probably

near Madras.

In open fields near Reddiyar Chattram, goo’ elevation, FE have seen a small

flock several times.

Larus brunnicephalus. Brown-headed Gull, Kadal kakai, Ponthar.

On tanks near Madura only. .

Winter visitor, from November 17 to April 1. (On Raméswaram Island

‘they arrive in August.) ;

Rare, in flocks of about 8.

Chlidonias leucopareia. Whiskered Tern. -Kadal pul.

A Travancore specimen is placed in the subspecies indica.

Sholavandan Tank only.

{ have seen a flock of 4o on January ay ouiye (Some stay all year in

Ceylon. )

Hydroprogne caspia. Caspian Tern.

The typical form occurs in Travancore.

] have seen only a single bird at Batlagundu Tank on Mar. 29: - (Some

stay all year in Ceylon.)

Cielochelidon nilotica. Gull-billed Tern.

The typical form has been taken in Travancore.

I have seen two birds, which from my description were either of this species

or the European Tern, at Tallakulam, Madura, on October 1o. (Some stay all

year in Ceylon.)

Leucopolius alexandrinus. Kentish Plover. Uppu kotthi.

Winter specimens from Travancore belong to the typical race.

On the plains only.

Nov. 17 to Keb, 8. (Resident in Ceylon.)

Rare; on the shores of tanics.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT ey

Charadrius dubius, Ringed Plover.

The European race, curonicus, has been taken in winter in’ Travancore.

I think I have also seen the smaller resident race, jerdoni.

Plains, and as high as Periyar Lake, 3000’.

August 26 to March 16. (lhe European race occurs from early August to

late April along the coast.)

Fairly common on the edge of tanks. As many as 4o together.

Pluvialis dominicus fulyus, Golden Plover.

R. F. Stoney shot one, probably near Madura, on Oct 24th. (Along the coast

it is a winter visitor from August 25 to May.)

Lobivanellus indicus. Red-wattled Lapwing. At kdtti.

Salem District specimens belong to the typical indicus. -

Plains, and in the hills Terry heard its calls at Putthur, 6500’.

I have seen the species only three times, in September near Madura. (Resi-

dent in Ceylon.)

Rare.

Lobipluvia malabarica. Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Plains. (In other districts it occurs up to 3750’.)

Resident.

Uncommon; in dry waste land or remote fields. As many as 20 in a flock.

Himantopus himantopus himantopus. Stilt. Pavala kotthi, Pavala_ kali.

On the shores of tanks near Dindigul and Shdlavandan.

Winter visitor, my only records being on February 21 and March 26.

(On Raméswaram it has been noted also in July and Novy, and it.is a resident

in Ceylon.)

Rare.

Tringa ochropus. Green Sandpiper. Kal porwki.

- Plains, and up to about 3500’ in the western hills. (Elsewhere as high

as 7000.)

Winter visitor, from August 15 to May 4, the latter date being Terry’s.

Fairly common, usually solitary.

Tringa stagnatiiis. Marsh Sandpiper.

Plains. ‘

Winter visitor, from October 1 to March 26. (On Raméswaram the species

arrives in September. A few stay all year in Ceylon.)

Uncommon.

Actitis hypoleucos. Common Sandpiper.

Plains, and up: to 3000’ at Periyar Lake. (Has occurred at 5000 in

Travancore.)

Winter visitor, from July 31 to April 24. (To late May in other districts.)

Fairly common.

Tringa glareola..§ Wood Sandpiper.

Plains, and up to 6900’ in the Palni Hills. (Up to 7ooo’ in the Nilgiris.)

Winter visitor, July 4 to April 26. (On the west coast a few stay all year.}

Common in wet. fields and along streams and tanks.

_ Erolia minuta,- Little Stint.

' Biddulph took both subspecies, minuta & ruficollis, on Raméswaram. _

I think I saw several near Shédlavandan on Oct. 25. (Sep. to Mar., and a

few all year, on Raméswaram.)

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vole ay.

be Soe oe Blea ae

- th C Pe ane : hes

Eroila temminckii. Reniminck’s or Brown-breasted ‘Stint.

One bird seen near Batlagundu on Dec. 20 agrees with the description of

tms species. (There are Ceylon records.)

Scolopax rusiicola. Woodcock. Thadt mak ullan.

Specamens trom the Nilgiris are called S. 7. indica.

Ou te nilis above 5500. (ihere are a tew records on the plains elsewhere.)

Winter visitor, trom Oct. (R..F. Stoney) to ‘April. (in other districts

from ie end ot Sept. to May 25.) — mol

nare; aiong the swampy edges of sholas..

Capella nemoricola. Wood Snipe. Katiullan. }

At aii elevations.

1 have seen one.among trees at Shalavaadaa Tank on Mar. 28; Various ob=

servers have recorded it on the western: hills. (The arrival date in other dis-

iricis is Oct. 29.) ;

- Rare.

Capella gallinago. Fantail Snipe. Maér ullan.

Probably the typical race is found here.

All eievations. |

Winter visitor, from September 27 (Stoney) to May 4 (Terry). (In other

districis trom August to June.)

Uncommon; in swamps and wet fields. R. F. Stoney shot 7oo Fantails

to 6409 Vintalus in Mauura District.

Capelia stenura. Pintail Snipe. Kiri ullan.

Ail elevations. :

Winter visuor, from September 10 to mid-June, according to Dr. M. L.

Freeman. F. Dawson saw § until late May at Berijam Lake, but said they

did not breed. (Ihe arrival is as early as August 27 in other districts, and

in Ceylon a few may linger all year.)

Fairly common, R. F. Stoney having kept a record of 6409 shot. by him in

this District. >

Capelia megala. Swinhoe’s Snipe.

Plains near Madura.

Mr. R. F. Stoney is the only petsor to record the species in Madura

District. His dates, according to a recent letter to me, are October 3 &

November 2g. (In other districts the extreme dates are September 21 to

March 3.)

Rare.

Limnocryptes minima. Jack Snipe. Siirullan.

All elevations. Fairbank saw a few at Kodaikanal. :

Winter visitor, seen by me only on March g & 26 on the plains. (November

2 is the arrival date in other districts.)

Rare. R. F. Stoney found the species in smaller numbers than the

Fantail.

Phalacrocorax fuscicollis, Shag Cormorant. Nir kdakai.

Large tanks near Madura. :

I. think I have seen this species’ on September 14 & February 14. (It is

resident in Ceylon.)

Phalacrocorax niger, Little Cormorant.

Larger tanks on the Vaihai plains and toward hintaan aaleent (Up to

2000° elsewhere.) e

My records extend from June 33 to April 19g, Probably resident,

fairly common; flocks of hundreds sometimes seen.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 129

Aah nga melanogaster. Snake Bird. Pambu vatthu, Ney kékat,

On larger tanks and lakes, from the plains up to Kodaikanal, 6850'.

My records extend trom Jumy 4 lo Apri 6.

Lucommon, but as many as 30 may be seen together. Common = on

Periyar Lake; occasional at Kodaikanal.

Threskiornis melanocephata. White Ibis. Vellai arivan miukan, Kuruhu.

I saw one near Shoavandan:on Aug, ro. (Resident in ones

Plegadis ialcineilus. Glossy Ibis.. Aaruppu arivan miukan,

I have only 2 records, in Dec. & Jan., at the big tank near Shdlavandan,

both in breeding pumage. (Resident in Ceylon.) -

Xenorhynchus aSiaticus. Blaclx-necked Stork. Periya narai.

The typical race is probably found here. SNe

IT have seen ony one, at tau on yune 25. (Probably resident in Ceylon.)

Anasiomus oscitans. Openbill Stork. Natthai kutthi narai.

.. Near the tanks of the lower Vaihai plains and toward Tirumangalam.

My records extend from June 28 to April 19.

Bairiy common. £ nave seen as many as goo in a day, but for months at

a strech none at all.

“ Ardea purpurea. LFurple Heron, Sen narai.

Probably the race manillensts is found here.

At the iarge tanks on the VWaihai_ plains.

Winter visitor, trom July 4 to Apr. 4. (Resident in Ceylon.)

\rateresteatora ,

Ardea cinerea rectirostris, Gray Heron. Samba narai, Naraiyan.

At the larger t tanks on the plains.

Probably resident, but I have no May records.

Fairly common when there is pienty of water. I have seen as many as §0

in a locality. a i

Egretta alba. Large Egret. Ven narai.

A Travancore specimen belongs to the race modesta.

‘At the larger tanks on the piains.

Winter visitor, from June 28 to April 19. (Resident in Ceylon.)

~ Fairly» common, -as many as 100 together.

Egretta intermedia, Smaller Egret.

Travancore specimens belong to the typical race.

In watery places on the plains. (Up to 2000’ in other districts.)

Winter visitor, July 26 to April 19. (Resident in Ceylon.)

Fairly common, but not met as. often as the preceding.

Egretta garzetta, Little Egret. » Vellai koku.

The typical race has been obtained in N. Kanara.

In the wettest parts of the District, on the plains. (Occasionally found in

the hills in Ceylon.) ee macs

I have no records in May, but presume ier stay. all year if ‘there is a

tank with any water left in it.

Common. I have counted as many as 260 in’a flock on Apr. 19. Plumes

on lower back noted on Nov. 6. The call is a deep, long-drawn kwawr.

Bubulcus ibis coromandus. Cattle Egret. Unni koku.

On the plains, in wet but not necessarily very wet places. (Found also

in the lower hills in Ceylon.)

Winter visitor, Oct. 10 to Apr. 19. (Resident in Tinnevelly Dist.)

Fairly common, often in flocks of about 50.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45.

Ardevla grayii. Pond Heron. Kuruttu koku, Pottai koku.

Plains, and up to Periyar Lake, 3000". (In the Nilgiris the species. wanders

up to 7000’ in winter.) obs tone

I have no May records, but a few probably stay all year. The bright plum-

age of the breeding season is evident from April to July.

Abundant wherever there is water in fields or tanks. The call is a soft

croaking kawk.

Buiorides striatus, Green Heron. Thodshi koku.

Travancore specimens belong to the race javanicus.

Plains. (In other districts it occurs up to about 3000’.)

Winter visitor, July 4-to Apr. 19.

Rare, in trees near water. I have heard it give a shrill, hen-like squawk.-

Nyciicorax nycticorax. Night Heron. Vakda.

Specimens of the typical race have been taken in Mysore. ‘

Plains. (In other districts it occurs up to about 3000’.)

Winter visitor, July 4 to Mar. 28. (Resident in Tinnevelly Dist.)

Uncommon in most places, but I am told that they gather in large numbers

to roost in trees at a village along the Vaihai above Madura.

Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis. Yellow Bittern. Manal koku.

Salim Ali procured a specimen at Periyar Lake, 3000’, on Mar. 7. (It is

also found at sea-level on both coasts.)

Dupetor flavicollis. Black Bittern. Karun koku.,

A Travancore specimen is assigned to the typical race.

Plains, and Fairbank saw one at - about 4500 on the Palni Hills. (Else-

where, it has occurred as high as 7000’.)

My only record was on Dec. 5. (Resident in Ceylon.)

Rare.

Botaurus stellaris stellaris, European Bittern. Koku.

Plains near Madura. ela

Winter visitor; has been shot twice, on Feb. 25 by R. F. Stoney, and in

Feb. or March by Dr. C. B. Harrison.

Rare. :

Nettapus coromandelianus coromandefianus. Cotton Teal. Thamarai chira-

hi, Kulla vatthu.

On the larger tanks on the plains. be

Winter visitor, July 1 to Apr. 13. (Until the end of Apr. in Tuticorin.

Resident in Ce -ylon.)

Fairly common.

Dendrocygna javanica. [Lesser Whistling Teal. Kichu chirahi.

Plains, on the larger tanks. (Up to 2500’ in Mysore.)

Winter visitor, Oct. 29 to Apr. 13.. (Resident in Ceylon.)

Uncommon.

Anas poecilorhyncha,. Spothill Duck. Sen gal vatthu.

The typical race was first described from Ceylon.

On the plains, I have seen only one bird near Batlagundu on Dec. 2.

Several friends report that it breeds at Kodaikanal and Berijam Lakes, 7000’.

Resident, probably.

Rare.

Anas strepera. Gadwall.

I saw a few on Oct. 7 at a tank near Shdlavandan.

OCCURRENCE OF BIRDS IN MADURA DISTRICT 1gi

Anas crecca. Common Teal. Kannadi chirahi.

Probably the typical race occurs here. Taken in Mysore.

Plains.

Winter visitor, from Oct. 8 to Apr. 13. (In Tinnevelly Dist. until May

15.)

Uncommon.

Dafila acuta. Pintail. Duck.

Plains.

Winter visitor, from Oct. 29 to Feb, 20. - (Departs iri Mar. at Tuticorin.)

Fairly common. I have seen as many as 320 in a flock.

Querquedula querquedula. Garganey Teal. Valan jirahi.

Plains.

Winter visitor, from Dec. 21 to Apr. 24. (Sep. 24 to June in other districts.)

Fairly common. I have seen up to 1000 on a tank. -

Spatula clypeata. Shoveller. Andi vatthu.

Plains. (In other districts it occurs up to about 3000’.)

Winter visitor, from Sep. 23 to Feb. 20. (Has nested in Ceylon.)

Uncommon; on fair-sized tanks.

Aythya fuligula. Tufted Duck.

The typical race has been taken near Bombay.

I have seen one bird probably of this species near Shélavandan on Jan. 14.

Also one at Ganguvarpatti Apr. .26 to May 1. (Arrives Nov. 12 in’ Salem

Dist.)

Podiceps ruficollis capensis. Grebe. Mukulippan.

Plains, and Fairbank found a nest at Kodaikanal, 6850’. I do not think

it occurs in the hills now.

I have no record in May, but presume, that a few stay all year if any

water remains in the tanks.

Common. I have seen as many as 180 together. They give a shrill, whist-

ling laugh, and a sharp little crick call.

BIBLIOGRAPHY

Baker, H. R., and Inglis, Chas. M.—The Birds of Southern India. 1930.

(Contains the focal references from ‘Fauna of British India—Birds’.)

Bates, R. S. P.—Bird Life in India. 1931. (p. 71 fi.)

Biddulph, C. H.—‘The Birds of Rameswaram Island’. Journal Bombay

Natural History Society, vol. 40, p. 238.

Bowen, F. O.—Hand-book of Kodaikanal. 1932. (pp. 43, 58.)

Comber, E.—‘Occurrence of the Bittern (Botaurus ‘stellaris) -in) Southern

India’. Journal Bombay Natural History Society, vol. 17, p: 1037.

Fairbank, S. B.—‘A List of birds collected and observed on the Palani

Hills’. Stray Feathers, vol. 5, p. 387. 1877.

Foulkes, R.—‘The Indian Edible-nest Swiftlet in the Pulney Hills’. Journal

Bombay Natural History Society, vol. 15, p. 727.

Francis, W.—Madura Gazetteer. 1908 (p. 22.) _

Jerdon, T. C.—The Birds of India. 1862 (vol. 1, p. 175.

—‘Catalogue of the Birds of the Peninsula os ieee Madras

Journal of Literature and Science, vol. 10, pp. 86, 251, 253; 5 iS [Db BRE

Koel7, Walter.—tNotes on the Birds of the Londa eee ncaiaaa Bombay

Presidency’. Journal Bombay Natural History Society, vol. 43, p. 13 ©.

~Lloyd, E. M. M.—Guide to Kodaikanal and its history. 1909.

(Contains list by Dr. J. R.-Henderson, pp. 74, 101, 121.)

McCann, C.—‘A Note on the Alpine Swift’. Journal Bombay Natural His-

tory Society, vol. 42, p. 189.

‘Nelson, J. H.—The Madura Country. 1868 (p. 95.)

'i32 JOURNAL, BOMBAY “NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Nichols, Edward G.—‘The Kodaikanal birds and how to name them’,

Journal pomvay iwatural Hisvory Society, vol. 39, p. 812.

saiim Alii—The Ornithology of Travancore and Cochin’. Journal. Bom-

bay Nuvurat t11svory Souciery, Voss. 37 tO 59. eit

terry, Horace AA rew. aduutoha: notes on birds on the Palni Hills’.

Stray Leathers, vol. 10, p. 407. 1887.

Whistier, H.— the Vernay Scienufic Survey of the Eastern Ghats (Ornitho-

logicat Section)’. Journal Bombay Natural History. Society, vols. 45. tu 39.

Whisuer, s1.— New birds liom: Asia, cniehy trom India’. Journal Bombay

Natural Htstory Society, vol. 43, p. 35-

ADDENDA.

Since the publication of my list of passerine birds in the April 1944 issue

of the fournai, 1 have deleted two doubitul names trom the lauer hai ot the

list, so the total Madura Wistrict list 1s reduced to 229. Lhe tottowing eight

species have been recenity added to that total, making 337.

Antaus triyialis, European Tree Pipit. Pul kuruvi.

The typical form has been obtained on the Nilgiris.

6200° to 7ooo at kodaikanal. (As low as 25vu0° in Mysore.)

Winter visitor, weil seen on Oct. 30, and from Feb. 22 to Apr. 20, the

last by k. L. Bradby.

Less common inan the Indian Tree Pipit, with which it sometimes asso:

Ciaies. ‘Innere seems to be some doubt whether this species has previousty

becn sound south of the Nilgiris.

Dinupium jayanense, Three-toed Woodpecker. Thachan kuruvi.

The race malabaricum has been taken in Travancore.

S. i§.: Bunker had a good view of two at about 3700° in the Palni Hills.

(Resident from 200 tO 50v0 in wesiern districts.)

Cacomantis merulinus, Plaintive Cuckoo. Kuyil,

Specimens of the subspecies passerinus have been taken in Travancore.

Piams oniy. (AjsoO as nign as 3000 In Other disiricts.) . aos

. Migrant. My only recorus are in Nov. and Marcn. (Resident in — the

Nilguas.) Rare; in dense trees, in open country.

Astur trivicgatus. Crested Goshawk. Valluru

The typical trivirgatus has been taken in Travancore.

‘Jnere are a iew sight records, trom jan. 23 0+ July 6, in sholas near

Kodaikanal. The lowese eievation was 5400 by S. kK. Bunker, the highest

7ooo. (in Ceyion it occurs alsc m the 1sow-country torests.) Frobabiy a rare

residence.

Rostratula benghalensis. Painted Snipe.

Madras specimens belong to the typical benghalensis,

Fiains; probably resident.

Mr. J. weckew tas suut 4 birds, and says. the species is not rare near

Madura. Mr. bh. O. tKKing ‘saw oné on a nest near Madura in August. I

haye a doubttul record at Virappandi in Feb.

~Phaiacrocorax caroe, Large Cormorant. Nir kakai.

The subspecies found in India is sinensis, according to Stuart Baker.

Plains. My only record is at Sholavandan ‘Tank on July 4, one bird (Resi-

dent in Chingieput Dist.)

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus. Chesinut Bittern. Sen koku.

A pair was seen in screw-pines along the Suruli River at Virappandi on

Sep. 6. (Resident in Ceyion. Occurs up to 4ooo’ in the Nilgiris.)

Netta rujina,. Red-crested Pochard.

I have only one record of 3 at Batlagundu Tank? on'"Apr. 10, 1944. . Rare

winter visitor to the plains, ‘pitt

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY AND GEOGRAPHY ‘OF

NORTH BURMA

F, ‘KINGDON-WarbD, B.A., F.R.G.S., F.L.S., ETC.

(Continued from Vol. 45 (1944), p. 30).

PARTY svi

CONTENTS

XI, Mixed Temperate Forest. Bot aes rien 123

(a) Bamboo Forest - Bas m sstiahs OS

(6) Moss Forest ... . ate rp HC eed eee seve

XII. Silver Fir Forest... sii son 187

XIII. Rhododer dron Scrub (Sub- intpine Scrub) > vos OTT Met! > 140

XIV. Alpire Turf and Scree a ae a taut LS

XV. Summary 500 406 ax aoe bei 14d

XJ. MIxep TEMPERATE FOREST.

This is essentially an all-forest transition zone between Broad-

leafed Forest and Silver Fir Forest. It includes a mixture of

broad-leafed trees, evergreen and deciduous, together with several

conifers, but especially Tsuga dumosa. It is par excellence the

zone of oaks, magnolias, tree rhododendrons, epiphytic rhododend-

rons, maples, cherries and ilex. It is also the first zone in which

laurels cease to count, althouch there are still a few left. Neverthe-

less it is not a well-marked type of forest, having many ‘species in

common with the zones above and below it. Its tree rhododendrons

help to distinovish i+ fram the cool Temperate Rain Forest below,

its mixed conifers distinguish it from the Silver Fir Forest ahove;

although the uppermost belt of the Mixed Temperate Forest is

sometimes almost pure hemlock (Tsuga). |

_ Two fairly constant datum lines are furnished by (1) altitude above

which frosts are prevalent in winter and (2) the altitude ahove which,

on the averave, snow lies for an anvreciable time. The former mav

be taken as about 7,000 feet, and it fixes the lower I'mit of the Mixed

Temperate Forest. The latter is about 9,000 feet, and it fixes the

upper limit. Sometimes as in the Hpimaw hills, Subtropical Pine

Forest passes above into Mixed Temperate Forest, sometimes Tem-

perate Pine Forest does the same, as in the Adung valley. In the for-

mer, Mixed Temperate forest bevins below, in the latter above 7.000

feet. The Conifers of the Mixed Temperate Forest, with the excep=

tion of Larix Griffithiana, do not ascend above 10.000 feet. They

include Taiwania cryptomerioides, Tsuga dumosa and Picea hrachy-

tyla. In the Adung valley very fine specimens of Larix. Tsuca

and Picea occur at 8,000 feet mixed with’ smaller, but: stil laree

birch and maple (Acer tetramerum, A. flabellatum) and: groves ‘of

Rhododendron magnificum. A little higher gnarled trees of R.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL“HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

arizelum are met with, often in pure stands. The forest here is

diverse, with small trees and shrubs in great variety, not only rho-

dodendrons, but also species of Euonymus, Berberis, Enkianthus,

Clethra, Lyonia, Acer, Ribes, Sorbus, Photinia, Hydrangea, Sar-

cococca and many more; and although there are no alpines, there

are many early summer flowering woodland herbaceous plants,

including colonies of Iris Wattii, species of Arisaema, Polygo-

natum, Primula (two or three species), several orchids, Ophiopo-

gon, Viola, Souliea vaginata, Androsace Henryi. But it is the

great variety of deciduous trees which is remarkable, they are

more numerous here, just before the broad-leafed forest finally

passes over into pure Coniferous Forest, than anywhere else.

The mixed forest too has a familiar northern appearance and

is astonishingly beautiful in May, when the trees are in young

leaf of many colours,’ the rhododendrons in bloom and the green

carpet. of woodland herbs is spread. Among deciduous trees are

Tetracentron sinense, a large tree common along the rocky banks

of the. Adung river, Fraximus, Zanthoxylum, Prunus brachypoda,

P. Kingdonwardii, and the beautiful carmine cherry, P. cerasoides,

Magnolia rostrata, M. mollicomata, Acer Wardii. Eight or ten

species of oak occur (Lithocarpus and Quercus), some evergreen.

Perhaps the most easily recognised are Lithocarpus pleiocarpa and

Quercus lamellosa, the latter ascending in stunted form along the

crests of the ridges to over 8,o00 feet, mixed with Rhododendron

Martinianum. Another common oak is L. xylocarpa. Most of the

oaks however have a range of 3,000 feet or more and extend well

down into the cool temperate zones or Temperate Pine Forest.

Nevertheless associated with Ilex (of which characteristic species

are I. melanotricha, I. dipyrina, I. yunnanensts, I. burmanica) Mag-

noliaceae, Tsuga dumosa and other trees, they form a type of

forest which is easily recognised. :

Mention must be made of a big tree, Zanthoxylum, which grows

on Imaw Bum above the Ngawchang valley, unnamed because

found flowerless and leafless (future explorers should look out for

this) and of Viburnum Wardi, Berberis hypokerina, Gamblea

ciliata, Acer Wardii and Sorbus Harroviana, all characteristic of

Mixed Temperate Forest, a

But the most interesting and unexpected discovery in the Mixed

Temperate Forest was Cornus suaedica, which I found at about

9,000 feet altitude in July 1937 above the Nam Tamai, the first

purely Arctic plant, other than one or two grasses, recorded from

Sino-Himalaya. Another interesting find in the same place was

Stylophorum—a_ plant hitherto known only from the Eastern

Himalayas. |

The great Rhododendron Belt which is 5,000 feet deep, extending

between 7,000 and 12,000 feet throughout North Burma is already

well developed by the time we enter this zone; it reaches its zenith

in the Silver Fir Forest. One of the most charactéristic species of

the mixed temperate zone is the un-Rhododendron like small tree’ R.

Genestievianum with bunches of tiny plum-purple flowers ‘and

willow-like leaves, snowy white beneath. There are also the epinhy-

tic yellow-flowered shrubs, R. butyricum and R. seinghkuense. The

Sikkim R. triflorum occurs in the Adung valley, and R. megacalyx

A SKETCH. OF.THE BOTANY. ¢» GEOGRAPHY OF N, BURMA 135

has its locus classicus near Hpimaw. Between February and June

this Rhododendron Belt is extraordinary rich in bird life, many of

them directly cross-pollinating the flowers. Every Spring a great

wave of bird life passes up the Adung valley. Many no doubt are

summer residents; but the valley may also well be one of the main

migration routes to the north. It may be remarked that snakes are

peculiarly abundant. between 6,000 and 8,000 feet in the Adung valley

and appear to take heavy toll of eggs, and of young birds, many of

which build their nests close to the ground.

The climate has been sufficiently indicated. Above 7,000 feet

frosts, at least in the open, are usual in winter; above 9,000 feet

snow lies under the trees for some weeks. Spring and Autumn are

well-marked seasons, Summer and Winter hardly less so.

Endemics in the Mixed Temperate Forest are: Berberis hypo-

herina, Prunus Kingdonwardu, Ilex melanotricha, I. burmanica,

Sorbus paucijuga, S. verticillata, Rhododendron butyricum, R.

seinghkuense, R. vesiculiferum, Eurya Wardi, Photinia rufa, Acer

taronense. Although Taiwania eryptomerioides 1s by -no means

endemic, its occurrence along the Burma-Yunnan frontier is one of

the most interesting facts in the geographical distribution of plants,

a clear example of discontinuity across 2,000 miles of apparently suit-

able country between Formosa and Yunnan. We may infeér that it is

a geologically ancient species—a living fossil—and that its ancient

distribution was far wider than it is today. 3

Its existence along this north-west-south-east line also points to

an important line of migration during glacial times.

XI (a). BAmBoo Forest.

Bambeos are an important constituent of the undergrowth of

every type of forest seen in North Burma with the exception oi

- Subtropical Pine Forest. In the lowest hill cultivation (500-2,500 feet)

at least, the place of the destroyed forest is usually taken by bamboo

(e.g. Dendrocalamus Hamiltonti along the ’Nmai Hka valley on the

road to Htawgaw, and on the Putao road). Whether this bamboo

forest is permanent or not it is impossible to say.. Dendrocalamus

Hamiltoni flowers at irregular intervals, but it appears to die after

flowering, and it is possible that the forest would come back if left.

to itself. Again at 7,000-8,000 feet, fire appears to encourage: inva-

sion by bamboo, as in the Chawngmaw valley below Imaw. Bum.

Many species and genera of bamboo are included in the various

zones. Most of them—above 5,000 feet probably all of them, are

gregarious, notably species of Arundinaria. Very little is known

about these. In the valley of the Nam Tamai, at 3,000-4,000 feet,

several large tufted species occur; but the majority grow from

long horizontal rhizomes, and are gregarious. The so-called ‘cane

-brake’ frequently met with in the alpine regions is a dwarf very

hardy bamboo of what genus I do not know, probably Phyllostachys.

Although permanent seres of bamboo jungle are frequent at low

altitudes, and great areas of forest with gregarious bamboo as the

principal undergrowth commonly occur (e.g. on the flanks of Imaw

Bum), I have restricted the term Bamboo Forest to a-special forma-

;fion met with in certain places at 9,000 feet more or less, \ Here a

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4g.

moderate sized bamboo growing in ill defined clumps in close proxi-

mity to one another, interrupted by scattered trees, is the chief

constituent of the forests.

Of its status I know little, but it appears to be confined to the

zone I have called Mixed Temperate Forest (7,000-9,000 ft.) between

the zone of Pinus excelsa (where that occurs) and Abies, and is

associated with another local development of that zone to which

I have applied the name Moss Forest.

Bamboo Forest, as here defined, is probably local, but it is not

uncemmon. I have several times marched through it along a

switch back ridge which maintains the same average altitude for

two or three miles, where the spur seems to mark the floor of the old

glacier valley before the rivers began to cut out their deep V-shaped

notches. This ancient valley floor is found at about 9,000 feet, and is

indicated by the comparatively level spur between two much steeper

pitches, as seen in the figure below. Thus, ascending to the crest

of a main range via a spur, there is first a steep climb out of the new

‘valley into the old valley, then a much more gentle ascent along the

spur, for two or more miles, to the base of the range, and finally a

steep climb up the flank of the range to the crest. This is shown

in the diagram, which represents a section from east to west across

the Nam Tamai valley lat. 27° 30’ (not drawn to scale).

A :

lj 7

AD=old (ice) valley BC= new (water) valley EC. EB. = steep slopes.

The Nam Tamai flows at about 4,000 feet. The climb out of the

valley to the ice shelf or floor of the old valley is 4,000-5,000 feet.

From there to the foot of the range is a gradual rise of 1,000-,2,000

feet finishing with another steep climb of 3,000-4,000 feet to the

summit of the range. How far down the flanks of. the spur this

bamboo forest prevails I am unable to say for certain, but I have

found little change 500 feet below the crest, the breadth of which

does not usually exceed a dozen yards, though it is apt to widen out

unexpectedly in places.

It is remarkably easy to get along these ridges, and there are

plenty of possible camping sites, with here and there a water tole.

The outstanding characteristics of this Bamboo Forest are, firstly,

the occurrence of clump forming types of bamboo, unusual at this

altitude. Secondly the few trees met with, always widely spaced;

thirdly the almost complete absence of any other undererowth except

small frag‘le herbaceous nlants which come up during the rains,

s1ch as Anemone, several orchids, Cruciferae, Carvophyllaceae,

Ranunculus. It is astonishing to see so much good soil unoccupied.

It can hardly be due to shade—vegetation flourishes in just as little

light elsewhere. Many bamboos even in the dry weather contain

A SKETCH: OF THE BOTANY &© GEOGRAPHY OF N. BURMA 137

free water in their joints—quite potable. From November on, it

is not unusual for the haulms to split longitudinally, with a sharp

crack, and I have on occasions seen a pint of water shot out. It

may be that on dry ridges this is an appreciable source of water

for the forest. What species, if any, regularly contain water, is

a matter for investigation.

XI (b). Moss Forest,

What may be called Moss Forest, where all the tree trunks are

heavily padded and swathed with moss, in which grow epiphytic

species of Vaccinium, Rhododendron, Gaultheria, Aeschynanthus,

also a tiny Utricularia is a special development of the Mixed Tempe-

rate Forest. It comprises a number of broad-leafed trees mostly

deciduous, several species of tree rhododendron, and very few

conifers. The undergrowth consists of bamboo with the gregarious

fern, Lomaria and scattered herbaceous plants such as Arisaema,

Elatostema. Many of the trees have large leaves, e.g. Magnolia

vostrata and M. Campbeilit, Rhododendron sino-grande, species of

Acer; on the other hand Ilex intricata with tiny leaves and Betula

are equally characteristic. Shrubs include Eurya. Tremendous

granite cl {ffs largely bare, often outcrop in this zone, shrubs found

growing in cliff crevices are Symplocos, Berberis, Edgeworthia

Gardneri, Viburnum, Cotoneaster and Rhododendron. Alpines

hardly exist, though a dainty white flowered Allium is not rare.

The Moss Forest is open and not difficult to penetrate, if one keeps

out of the gullies, though one’s way is often barred by unexpected

cliffs. The altitude is too-high for Pinus excelsa, not quite high

enough for silver fir, not quite right for hemlock.

XII. Sirtver Fir Forest,

Even before we reach the Silver Fir Forest we are within the

zone which enjoys a hard winter with heavy snowfall, the snow lying

for a month or more, at least in the neighbourhood of high moun-

tains, e.g. the Adung valley at 9,000 feet. For the next 3,000 feet

there is little change in the outward appearance of the forest which

is dominated by Silver Fir (Abies Fargesii). Looking across an

alpine valley at the steep slope opposite, one sees nothing but a solid

phalanx of fir, tier above tier reaching up to the clouds or to the snow,

with here and there a solitary larch. One would scarcely suspect

that there were any broad-leafed trees, so solid does the fir forest

appear,—viewed, that is, from the outside. Seen from within it is

rather. different; and it is probable that there is almost as much

rhododendron as fir—though the rhododendrons are not all of one

species. Occasionally when the mountain side is unusually preci-

pitous and rocky, the rhododendrons come to the surface so to

speak, and in Spring provide an indescribable blaze of colour

where countless thousands of trees and bushes are lit. up

with pink, purvle, scarlet, vellow and white blossom. But more

often the rhododendrons are hidden, or an occasional buSh is visible.

There are deciduous trees, maples and birch, even magnolias also

scattered about, mostly below 10,000 feet; they are generally

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. : 45.

shorter than the firs. No zone is more easily recognised than this

one. Silver Fir either grows by itself forming practically pure fir

forest, or not at all. It brooks no rival, conifer or broad-leafed tree.

Between 8,000 and 9,000 feet, one may find half a dozen big

conifers, vieing with each other; but when Silver Fir appears,

everything else makes way and it has the field to itself—except of

course for rhododendrons, and as already said a few smaller and

more scattered broad-leafed trees.

Rhododendrons include R. sino-grande, R. sidereum and R.

arizelum, all common in the Hpimaw hills. In the Adung valley,

there are also R. niphargum and R. Beesianum. . The highest of all

tree rhododendrons, Rk. praestans—hbelongs rather to the next higher

zone, although it does not occur apart from Abies.

The first sub-alpine rhododendron met with is the small bush-

like, rock-loving R. Beanianum with gorgeous waxy blood red

flowers, which occurs at the lower limit of fir forest in the Seinghku

valley. The Sikkim R. fulgens I found in the Nam Tamai valley

in 1937

eli hose big alpine valleys there is plenty of aaa on which

trees will not srow—boulder beds, cliffs, bogs, and the like. The

higher we climb, the more the fr forest is broken up into isolated

wedges separated by screes and alluvial fans', which owing to the

mechanical effects. of avalanches, are always devoid of trees.

Above 10,000-11,000 feet, these fans, which are more fully described

later, are the abode of a specialised alpine. vegetation.

Fir Forest under the conditions prevailing is open, and many

shrubs as well as alpine flowers and thickets of Avrundinaria grow

amongst the trees.. Here are found species of Cotoneaster,

Berberis, Ribes, Lonicera, Salix, Spiraea, as well as Rhododendron.

Corylus ferox and Sorbus Wardii are characteristic small trees of the

lower zone. Myricaria grows thickly with Arundinaria along the

banks of streams, and in.autumn many. of the shrubs such as

Berberis, Lonicera, Cotoneaster, Sorbus are covered with blue,

scarlet or white berries. making a fine display. Patches of meadow

begin to appear both in the valley where the ground is boggy, or

on ridges and slopes. In the cold Chawngmaw valley on the

north-west flank of Imaw Bum, firs descend below 9,000 feet

and there are extensive patches of open meadow above

the torrent, where alpine herbaceous plants grow, notably Lilium

gigauteum, Meconopsis paniculata, Notholirion campanulatum,

Allium, Lactuca, Solidago, Ligularia and twining Aconitum. Here

the.clash. between meadow and forest is at least in part due to human

interference, for the forest is periodically set fire to (without felling)

in winter by the hunting tribes. Bamboo struggles with meadow for

possession of the vacant ground, especially along the crests of the

spurs, where forest has either been burnt.or will not grow. Nomo-

charis pardanthina js abundant here. . In a patch of bos gy meadow

I. found a colony of Meconopsis growing with Omphalogramma.

———

1 Strictly @Peaking a scree is a cone of fragments split’ off from the cliff above,

building’ itself up without any: other assistance, while an alluvial fan is detritus

washed down from a gully-in the cliffs. In the snow bound alps of North

Burma this distinetion is largely lost, StS 2

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY g GEOGRAPHY OF N. BURMA 139

There are few climbing plants in the Fir Forest, Clematis Spooneri

not ascending above 10,000 feet; and few epiphytes except moss,

one or two small ferns, and a minute Utricularia (U. orbiculata).

A large edible red coloured fungus is common on Abies in the

Adung valley. Apart from Pinus, the only other conifer to form

pure stands in North Burma is hemlock (Tsuga dumosa), which

occurs at the base of the Fir Forest sometimes forming a_ well-

defined belt. Otherwise it forms a link between the mixed conifers

of the Upper Temperate Forest and the Silver Fir Forest.

Above 10,000 feet numerous primulas occur amongst the many

scattered shrubs. One of the first to appear is P. sikkimensis. But

primulas are never so profuse in this damp climate as they are

further east in China or further north in Tibet. The dainty little

P. eucyclia which grows on wet cliffs at 9,000 feet is endemic. With

it is sometimes found Asteropyrum peltatum, a curious little plant

of the family Ranunculaceae. P. Agleniana (the pink flowered var.

thearosa), which is known only from the Seinghku valley, grows

in rocky gullies, and from the same place is recorded the first known

example of P. calthifolia, a rare plant here, but common in the

Mishmi hills of the Assam frontier. Another endemic is Rhododen-

dron myrtilloides, found at one spot in the Chawngmaw valley,

at under 9,000 feet, which is remarkably low down for a dwarf

rhododendron of the Campylogynum type. It probably occurs

higher up. There is also R. imperator, another dwarf from

10,000, feet, found once only in the Seinghku valley.

So we can picture the high rocky alps of North Burma as a dyna-

mic landscape, rent by deep, steep gorges through which torrents

tumble and roar over boulders, under snow beds, while waterfalls

and avalanches crash over the cliffs, and down the glens. The top

forests consists of silver fir and rhododendron, frequently inter-

rupted by steep alluvial fans, chequered with alpine meadow, -sur-

rounded by precipices. In early summer, when all the mountain-

scuppers are foaming with the snow melt, the dark and sombre

forest is illuminated by the flowers of millions of rhododendrons,

many of which are found also in the loftier mountains of western

China or in the Assam Himalayas, or in Tibet. Comparativeiy

few of the Sikkim rhododendrons are found in North Burma,

though several are represented by allied species. The same is true

of primulas; P. sikkimensis and P. Watt, the last rare, are the

only Sikkim species known so far. Alpine shrubs include besides

many species of rhododendron, Lonicera myrtillus and L. cyano-

carpa, Ilex intricata and I. Georgei, Sorbus filipes and S. Reh-

deriana, Prunus mugus and Magnolia globosa, all growing with-

in the limits of Fir Forest below 12,000 feet.

In the meadows, alpine Herbaceous plants—Primulus, Iris,

Nomacharis, Gren nadie Swertia, occur in great numbers

rather than in variety. That is equally true of the. dwarf rhodo-

dendrons in the more strictly alpine region. No one who has. seen

the drifts of sunny yellow Primula melanodanta or purple heath of

“Lapponicum”’ rhododendron can ever forget it. Yet it does not

compare with similar colour displays in eastern Tibet.

“At 12,000 feet, and’ often far below, the valleys are snow. Wester

till May or June, although the cliffs stand out naked, and south facing

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

slopes may be clear of snow. There is no definite Spring ; Spring and

Summer are one. True, some rhododendrons flower in April or May,

in the snow, but it must be remembered that their flower buds were

completed the previous year. They need only water and sunshine to

stretch them. Some gentians likewise flower in October or Novem-

ber, when the berries on the leafless honeysuckles are ripe, and the

leaves of the barberries have turned scarlet, and those of the larch,

champagne yellow. But the bulk of the vegetation is at rest, out-

wardly at least, half the year, Summer temperatures are moderate.

It can be very hot in the sun, for a short time at 10,000 Or even at

12,000 feet in July, but the average summer temperature above 10,000

feet is no more than cool temperate. June is cool or even Gold, by

reason of the great amount of snow melting, and this be it re-

membered, in a lower latitude than Cairo or Florida.

Undoubtedly the most prominent characteristics of this zone are

variety of scene and movement—violent movement, falling rocks,

crashing rivers, rushing avalanches, with wind, and rain and snow—

and occasionally sunshine. is

~ Endemics are: Primula eucyclia, P. siphonantha, Gaultheria

minuta, Sorbus Wardii, Rhododendron imperator, R. Beanianum,

R. pruniflorum, R. myrtilloides, Leptodermis Wardu, Berberis

hurmanica.

XILf. RHOpODENDRON SCRUB (SuUB-ALPINE SCRUB).

This is a transition zone between forest and alp, characterised by

a great variety of rhododendrons, from big trees to dwarf under-

shrubs. Rhododendron scrub and alpine herbaceous might also be

regarded as two aspects of the same climax formation—the one con-

fined to sheltered, the other to exposed slopes. But if we take that

view, which is the climax formation? The tree-rhododendrons and

large bushes together with Acer caudatum and species of Sorbus,

which are conspicuous at 11,000-12,000 feet, can hardly be regarded as

alpines, although a great many herbaceous alpines and undershrubs

like Cassiope also grow here. The only alternatives to recognition

of a scrub climax are to include the 11,000-12,000 feet belt in the for-

est zone, or to extend the alpine helt below 12,000 feet so as to em<

brace it. Neither is satisfactory. Therefore the simplest solution seems

to me to be to recognise the existence of a distinct climax formation

between the two, dominated hy Rhododendron—one which I have

often recognised in the field (Seinghku, Adung and Gamlang

valleys). So far as Rhododendron at least is concerned it is a climax

formation; more species grow here than in any other zone of equal

depth. Both above and below this zone they begin to fall off,

although still plentiful. Within the limits of the Silver Fir Forest,

several tree-rhododendrons make their appearance. R. sino-grande

stops below 10,000 feet, R. arizelum below 11,000 feet, its place

taken by R. Beesanun often mixed with R. nibheroana fhough the

last named occurs lower down also. Then R. praestans appears at

over 12,000 feet in the Adung valley, the highest of all tree species.

But from 11,000 feet to well over 12,000 feet, R. selense, a small

tree or large bushy shrub, growing eregariously, dominates the scene,

A SKETCH OF THE BOFANY & GEOGRAPHY OF N. BURMA tqi

It lines the river banks, forms impenetrable thickets on steep slopes,

invaues ine fir forest. in ruil bioum, with Nowers of many suaaes of

pink and Cream, It Is a gorgeous signt. At about tne same atticude,

where the fir forest 1s becoming disjointed, another bush species, kK.

cerasinum is commonly seen. bur it is tne Gwart raouvuenurons

giuwing in DOZZy ground, or rocky SlOpeS ExXpusea WW tac suil

and warm. Up-vauey wind wich atuact our attention. In North

burma there are at least a dozen species of Gwart rnodoaenarun,

hait ot which are Characteristic of this belt, and neary all ot Wnhicn

are gregarious, growing very like neatner in Scouuand, but with

towers oi many colours. ‘ney belong to ditterent sections of this

large genus, known as ‘Lapponicum’, ‘Anthopogon’, *Saruenense’

aia Otuers, with several species of each section.

Generally speaking, at these altitudes it 1s wind rather than cold,

which is nustue to lice yrowin, ana tacik of water rather than wind

which 1s hostue to scruo growth. kor this reasou torest survives

further up the tlanks of the big alpine valleys than along the bottom.

It faaes out in-narrowing banus divided by beits of scrup. Stull tur-

toe up wie vauey similar belts of scrub alvernate With screes 10 suipe

the sheltered slope, while the more exposed slope is all scree and

barren clitts. ‘Lne normal tree line may be taken as 12,000 teet

tnuough isolated stands of silver fir and an occasional tarca are

founa higher. ‘Thus at 12,000 feet forest, scrub, ana aipine her-

baceous apruptly dovetail into one another. AX very siignt change

ot aspect is enough to alter the vegetation type.

‘kne scrub does not always consist entireiy or even mainly of

rhododendron. Sometimes a pure stand ot Betula utilis, tne

stunted close-growmg trees not more than 10-12 feet tall 1s Lound.

Elsewhere a mixed scrub of Ikhododendron, Juniperus, Berbers,

Spiraea, Rosa sericea with small bushes of Sorbus and Prunus aaus

vaniety to the scene. Lining the bank of the river, such as the

Adung between 11,000 and 12,000 feet, will be Myricaria esculenta

and Arundinaria as well as Rhododendron.

A feature of the scrub above 11,000 feet, when growing on steep

slope, is the way the trunk at first grows out horizontally or even

inclined downwards parailel to the siope before becoming upright.

This is a mechanical effect produced by pressure on the young plant,

which is laid flat each year by the weight of snow, until strong

enough to resist. This is well seen in Betula utilis and in several

species of Rhododendron, not however ‘dwarf’ rhododendrons. The

latter are always either prostrate like Rk. repens, or erect, bushy

under-shrubs. It is almost impossible to get through such scrub

without hacking one’s way foot by foot. Another impenetrable

form of scrub is furnished by a small species of Arundinaria with

solid stems, which ascends above the tree line, occurring in gullies

and on ridges and slopes too austere for Silver Fir.

Between 11,000-12,000 feet, which | have called the Rhododendron

Scrub Relt after its dominant feature, are found not only more than

20 species of Rhododendron, but a large number of herbaceous

alpines also; in fact with few exceptions the entire alpine herbaceous

flora. They grow scattered or in colonies, larger and smaller, in

patches of meadow along the banks. of streams, on sandy river flats,

‘on ‘alluvial fans and screes, in marshes, on cliffs or amongst trees,

tye JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

scrub, and dwarf rhododendron heath; while every large boulder

which has come to rest in the valley, brougnt hither by some jong

vanished giacier, forms a home for them. Primulas abound, some-

times in colonies like P. melanodonta and P. sikkimensis or scat-

tered like bP. Genestieriana and P, muscarioides. Other colony

forming plants are Cypripedium tibeticum, Nomocharis Soute,

Umphalogramma Souler, Caltha palustris. Many species torm

compact clumps, which are really smail close colonies. Jvis kuma-

onensis, Polygonum Griffithu, Sedum, Saxifraga (several species},

Pedicularis (several species). The cushion habit is simpty this

clump forming tendency carried to extremes, so that the clump

springs from one rhizome and forms a single unit. More scattered

are Jvollius, Scabiosa, Morina, Valeriana, Geranium, Thalictrum;

Meconopsis betomcifolia pratensis, M. polygonides and other spe=

cies, Salvia, certain Pedicularis, Potentilla, Habenaria, Lloydia, Iri-

fullaria and most Compositae, Umbelliferae, Gramineae and Papi-

lionaceae. The dwarf rhododendrons are however the most not-

ably gregarious plants in this zone. Above 11,000 feet there is

little competition between species; the formations are mostly open.

But there is competition between formations—a vegetative rather

than a floristic competition. It requires very little additional sne!-

ter to turn an alluvial fan with an herbaceous flora into a belt of

scrub, or to cover a scrub belt with trees. And in a region so

dynamic such changes take place comparatively rapidly.

The most characteristic feature of the scrub belt is the enormous

accumulation of snow in the main valleys, due to avalanching from

the high cliffs on either side. At intervals the cliffs are split by deep

gullies, and it is down these chutes that in the early months of the

year the snow is shot, to pile up in beds from 20 to 50 feet thick in

the valley. These snow beds survive till far into the summer. . Small

wonder. that alpine plants are found so low as 9,000 feet. One curious

result follows. Snow beds continue to melt even at 13,000 feet, tui

September or October in secluded valleys, whose higher slopes have

for months been gay with flowers. As fast as the snow melts, seeds

germinate and plants hitherto held back, start into growth at its

edge, looking like flotsam left by the ebb tide. I have seen Iris

Delavayi, which normally flowers in June, in full bloom in October

at the edge of a snow bed whence it had lately been released. Snow

beds occur as low as 10,000 or even 9,000 feet, but these are nor-

mally melted by June or July. Above 14,000 feet, the snow beds

never completely melt—they are permanent snow-beds, which were

once glaciers, but have since gradually dwindled till the pressure

is no longer sufficient to form ice. These permanent snow beds

help to keep the valleys cold, and the alpine flora in cold storage.

The most striking example of their delaying action I have ever

seen was in the Gamlang valley in October 1937. At an altitude

of about 13,000 feet a big snow bed still filled the valley, which here

ran east and west. The snow had long since disappeared from the

south slope above the bed, which was covered with alpine plants

in ripe seed, including Primula sikkimensis, Iris Delavayi, Nomo-

charis pardanthina, Meconopsis betonicifolia, Trollius, Polygonum

and other plants. Across the valley, less than. 100 yards distant,

where the snow was still slowly melting on the north slope, all

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY o GEOGRAPHY OF N, BURMA 143

these plants were in fine bloom looking as fresh and brilliant as

thougn it were June instead ot mid-October. Such plants which

have been in cold storage -all the summer, ready to burst forth the

moment they are released (thougn often stunted as a result of the

brief growing period) must not be confused with the genuine

autumn Howering species sucb as Gentiana giivostriata which nor-

mally flower in October-November.

Krom what has been said it will be realised that above 11,000 feet

the growing season is short, the winter long. In the north where

the Khododendron Scrub zone is chiefly developed, snow lies for at

least five months, not melting before June or July on sheltered slopes.

On exposed slopes however, it is loosened and slides into the valley,

covering up fresh ground. However plants growing on the exposed

scree gain little by this device, suffering from shortage of waier,

which is constantly supplied on the sheltered slope biyaethe x: sto

melting snow. Thus the average growing season is only about five

and a half mcnths (June-Ncvember).

Some rhododendrons flower as early as May, while still partly

under the snow, but of course their flower buds were ready formed.

The herbaceous alpine plants mostly flower during -the height of

the rainy season (July-August). Many Compositae, Labiatae and

Gentians flower in the autumn (September-October) the last named

though frozen stiff at night, frequently lasting in full bloom into

the bright November weather. Undoubtedly the early summer is

the Rhododendron season, early autumn the Gentian

point which the botanist, who is also a horticulturist will not miss.

The following is a list of Rhododendrons found between 11,000

and 13,000 feet in North Burma :—

RR. Beesianum, anthopogon, campylogynum, —calciphila*

cerasinum calostrotum* chryseum, crebreflorum, hypolepidotum,

eclecteum, keleticum* luridum, niphargum praestans, pumilum,

pruniflorum, repens, saluenense, selense, sanguineum, tephropeplum,

trichocladum, chamaetortum* arizelum, tsarongense. Those marked

with an asterisk are endemic.

Other endemics in this zone are: Meconopsis violacea: Creman-

thodium Wardu and C. Farreri. |

XIV. ‘ALPINE TURF AND SCREE.

There is no really satisfactory definition of an alpine plant.

Alpine plants are usually associated with mountains and glaciers.

But just as glaciers in high latitudes descend to sea level, so also do

alpines. However though alpine plants may defy definition, there is

no doubt about the alpine region and the alpine flora in low latitudes

like North Burma, where the necessary conditions occur only at high

altitudes. In the remote regions of Alpine Turf and Scree along the

rugged tops of the high ranges, no trees grow; even shrubs are

scattered and stunted, but an occasional undershrub may be feund

nestling under a rock, almost as high as vegetation ascends. Plant

formations are open, except occasionally where a sort of thin. turf

exists, or in rarer patches of meadow. Few herbaceous alpines are

gregarious, but some species of primula (e.g. P. melanodonta) occur

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

in. solid drifts, containing hundreds or even thousands of plants,

when in bicoom visible a mile away. I have never seen in North

Burma however the myriads of primulas one sees in the aipine

meaaows of ‘Tibet, or in the Assam Himalayas. (P. alpicoia in tne

former; P. Dickicana and P. AKingu in the latter; none of these

species have been found as yet in North Burma).

individual aipine piants aescend far below the tree line growing

either in screes tormed at the base of crumbling cliffs or colonising

boulders in the torrent bed. In neither case do they have to com-

pete with tees. bur iuere 1s a hmit below wh.ch they never

descend; they have an individuality of their own as alpines. Rarely

one finds an alpine which has strayed down a -high - North

Burma vailey so low as 8,000 feet, far from its accustomed haunts.

(I once found a solitary plant of Nomocharis pardanthina not a very

typical alpine, though it usually grows under alpine conditions, at

8,000 feet in the Adung valley.) At 9,000 feet one notices a few alpine

or sub-alpine rhododendrons of more or less dwarf habit, generally

colonising boulders, where there is only a film of soil. At 10,000 feet

alpines are fairly numerous on screes, cliffs and exposed or soilless

places. generally, and in meadows occupying silted up lake beds or

swamps and on river banks. It is not however till we reach 12,000

feet and forest begins to fail completely, that alpines, whether

herbaceous or woody, dominate the landscape. Above 14,000 feet

woody vegetation virtually ceases, but scattered herbaceous peren-

nials persist for another thousand feet. Between 12,000 and 13,000

feet herbaceous alpine plants are found in every type of habitat in

crevices of cliffs, on screes, on boulders, in the stony beds of streams,

lining the high guilies, as well as in sheitered dips and hoilows.

They are annual, biennial! or more commonly short-lived perennials.

A few cliff dwelling pues with woody rootstock are long-lived

perennials. .

Six specialised vegetative types occur :—

(1) Mat plants.—TVhe creeping much branched stems form a thin

spreading mat moulding itself to the form of the rock or soil, e.g.

Diapensia himalaica, which forms a closed mat. Some of: the pro-

strate Gaultheria from open mats. Gentiana Wardii forms a

kind of mat. Amongst under shrubs, species of Salix and Rhodo-

dendron form definite mats, e.g. R. repens,

(11) Cushion plants.—TVhe short stem branches repeatedly, inter-

nodes are suppressed and the telescoped shoots, closely pressed

together, form a solid hemispherical cushion in which the flowers

appear like pins stuck in a pincushion. Cushion plants, e.g. Are-

navia polytrichoides generally grow amongst loose boulders.

(wi) Rosette plants. —lintenmentes are suppressed, the leaves, lying

flat on the ground, form a green collar surrounding the central mass

of flowers. Mostly aonfined to Compos.tae which have exactly the

right type of inflorescence to profit by the idea, eg. Crepis, Lactuca

Saussurea, a few Umbelliferae, also Geraniun). The Crucifer

Pegaeophyton though semi-aquatic might also be regarded as a

rosette plant.

(iv) Woolly mantle plants.—Stem and leaves are enveloped -in

long cottony or woolly hairs. From a little distance such plants

A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY ¢» GEOGRAPHY OF N, BURMA 145

sometimes look like a pyramid or ball of white fluff. Saussurea

gossypifera and other species and Cnicus sp. belong here and in a

lesser degree, Eriophyton Wallichii.

(v) Bulbous plants.—Only Fritillavria’ Roylei, Lloydia, Nomoc-

charis and one or two Allium produce bulbs. The soil is too

cold and perhaps too wet for this type. Several orchids have

pseudo-bulbs.

(vi) Woody rootstock plants.—These grow in cliff crevices.

There is a thick woody rootstock clothed with the bases of old leaves

and an immensely long tap root. The rootstock gives rise each

year to a. bunch of flowers and leaves, e.g. Paraquilezia grandi-

flora, Potentilla peduncularis. A quarter century seems no unusual

age for such plants.

A fair number of alpines conform to one or other type; on the other

hand, many species of Primula, Pedicularis, Cremanthodium,

Gentiana, Saxifraga, Iris (the last two are inclined to form com-

pact clumps and perhaps clump-forming might be counted as a

seventh vegetative type)—Pinguicula, Corydalis, Polygonum, Pleu-

rogyne, to mention a few make no visible concession to austerity.

One can hardly argue that therefore adaptation is unnecessarv,

for who can say that in another 5,000 or 50,000 years the unadapt-

ed plants will not have completely disappeared, leaving on'v the

well adapted? We may note in passing that biennials like Meco-

nopsis violacea are rosette plants (unflowering) in their first year

and so to speak annuals in their flowerine year. As their seeds

do not germinate till about May, and they are scattering their

ripe seeds by October year, their life is confined within about 17

months.

Shrubs found in the high alpine region are chiefly dwarfed forms

of those which occur in the zone below. Salix, Juniperus, Rosa

servicea, Potentilla fruticosa at lower altitudes, and rhododendrons

of the ‘Lapponicum’, ‘Saluenense’, ‘Cephalanthum’ and ‘Neriiflorum’

tvpe and Cassiope fastigiata at higher altitudes. Several (endemic

and near endemic) species are characteristic of the alpine zone,

e.g. R. calciphila, R. riparium, R. crebreflorum, together with R.

vepens, R. chryseum, R. sanguineum, R. ‘saluenense which are

more widely distributed in Sino-Himalaya. As to R. -chryseum,

in Yunnan and usually also in North Burma, the flowers are, as

one would suspect from the name, yellow, but a form occurs in

the Adung: valley, indistinguishable from typical R. chryseum ex-

cept. that the flowers are a deep plum purple. These two colour

varieties cross freely in nature. giving a whole range of charm-

ine apricots, salmon pinks. and other shades. .

The most. conspicuous herbaceous families represented are:

Compositae, Boraginaceae, Rosaceae, Papilionaceae, Umbelliferae,

Renunculaceae, Orchidaceae, Gramineae, Cruciferae, Cvrassulaceae,

Cyperaceae, Caryophyllaceae, Primulaceae, Liliaceae, Gentianaceae,

Scrophulariaceae, Saxifragaceae, Papaveraceae, Fumariaceae, Poly-

gonaceae : and the most numerous and notable plants met with are

species of Primula, Omphalogramma, Corydalis, Polygonum,

Meconopsis, Anemone, Paraquilegia, Ranunculus, Dvraba, Caltha,

Androsace, Gentiana, Arenaria, Lloydia, Pedicularis, Alchemilla

146. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.-

Leontopodium, LEvigeron, Anaphyllis, Lusula, Pegaeophyton.

Nomocharis, Iris, Cremanthodium, Saussurea, Aster, Saxifraga,

Eriophyton, Cnicus, Gaultheria, Mortensia, Potentilla, Geranium,

Vaccinium, Epilobium, Euphorbia, Viola, Diapensia.

Perhaps the most typical habitat in the alpine zone is the scree,

where at least half the known alpinés’grow. Screes are- the pro-

duct of a dynamic climate, where destruction of rock is greater

than transport, .resulting in accumulation of debris. The scree

flora proper is the best expression of vegetation in the highest

zone and is specially adapted to its mode of life.

A scree is a section of a cone, with a slightly convex pro-

file. . The apex of the cone is directly under the cliffs, the base in the

valley, the whole being fan-shaped. The largest fragments roll

furthest, hence at the base is a boulder bed, while the apex is dust.

Thus the scree flora is stratified and decreases in size and variety

from base to apex. At the base, there is a thick growth of under-

shrubs, which rapidly thin out upwards to be succeeded by a

film of green, which gradually disappears and the upper part of

the scree consists of rock dust only.

Amongst the boulders at the base of the scree grow species of

rhododendron (R. trichocladum and others), Lonicera, Spiraea,

thickets of dwarf bamboo, clumps of Polygonum Griffithtt and other

plants. Higher up comes a fairly thick zone of herbaceous plants,

Fyitillaria, Compositate, Gentiana, and a thin mat of prostrate Gaul-

theria. Primula capitata grows here, with Cremanthodium, Erio-

phyton Saxifraga. Higher still the vegetation wears thin, and

presently peters out. On. sheltered slopes however there are more .

rhododendrons and they persist to higher altitudes.

Thére is one character common to nearly all scree herhaveans

plants, and that is a very long tap root. The need for it is obvious

when we consider the structure of a scree which has an average

slope of about 50°. The plant has to probe deep for water which

rapidly sinks down into the loose material. It has also two anchor

itself firmly in a substratum which is ever sliding. For this reason,

the root often forms a T-brace. Screes occur mostly on the ex-

posed side of the valley, or on both sides where the valley runs —

north and south, though a very slight tilt will serve to protect a

slope from the rapid melting and sliding of the snow in early sum-

mer. which makes all the difference to its vegetation.

After the screes, the commonest habitat is the cliffs. Most of the

rock in North Burma, above 12,000 feet, is granite or similar crys-

talline rock able to support very little vegetation. Great areas of

cliff are utterly bare of plant life; even lichens. Occasionally, as at

the head of the Seinghku valley limestone is met with supporting a

more varied flora. On the whole the high alpine region is more

remarkable for the numbers of plants of certain species than for

variety. In the highest zone, the vegetative season is exceedingly

brief, .and only those plants which are fully adjusted to this funda-

mental fact can survive there. There is no Spring properlv so

called. Growth begins when the snow melts, literally, be it in

May or in October, and ends with the coming of fresh snow in

A SQA El (OM 1 RD, POLS NY ¢> GEOGRAPHY OF N. BURMA 14”

November. Endemics are few. They include Primula fea, P. tri-

loba, P. chamaethauma, Pedicularis nana.

XV. SUMMARY.

North Burma comprises the headwaters of the Irrawaddy and of

its main tributary the Chindwin, included between the parallels of

25° and 28° 30’ and between the meridians of 94° 30! and 98° 4o’.

It js a mountainous region covered with heavy evergreen forest, and

has been very little explored. Originally a plateau (the ‘Irrawaddy

Plateau’), during the Pleistocene glaciation it was covered by an ice

sheet, which drove out the Pliocene flora. Some of this flora pro-

bably. escaped southwards and south-eastwards, down the Burma-

Malay mountain arc. Meanwhile glaciers were ploughing out

great valleys, and the dissection of the plateau was completed

by water.

Following the retreat of De ice several streams of flora entered

Burma from. the south, south-west, south-east; and probably from

the north-west also. An Indo- Malaysian flora spread up the valleys,

a Chinese flora spread from the east and south-east, a Sino-Hima-

jayan alpine flora established itself on the high ground.

Not many alpine endemics have been discovered, the Sino-

Himalayan flora having spread far and wide: over the mountains

between Kashmir and China. But at lower horizons numerous

endemics are found of Chinese and also of Indo-Malaysian affinity,

particularly between about 4,000 and 9,000 feet altitude.

~The flora of North Burma is an astonishingly rich one; it has

undergone great vicissitudes of climate, has travelled far, and the

present flora must have become stabilised in North Burma in com-

paratively recent times.

Eight major climax formations are recognised and three minor

ones are regarded as subdivisions of the Temperate Rain Forest.

Two other minor climax formations, found within the Mixed Tempe-

rate Forest zone may be no more than local associations.

It is believed that the flora is changing continuously as the many

rivers cut deeper and deeper into their valleys and the Indo-Malaysian

fora creeps northwards.

Certain highland areas of North Burma, such as Saramati peak,

Ka-Karpo-Razi, and elsewhere in the ‘Triangle’ have never been

touched by the botanist, and it is felt that valuable additions to our

knowledge might be gained by visits to these places.

The literature of the country is scanty, and since almost all the

principal collections! are to be found at the Natural History Museum

London’, the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, and the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Edinburgh, a keen investigator could quickly get abreast

of what is known, and add much to our knowledge.

nn woe

* The Vernay-Cutting collection of 1938-39 from the Htawgaw area, com-

prising about 500 numbers is in the Herbarium of the New York Botanical

Gardens. It was described by Dr. E. D. Merrill and others in Brittonia, Decem-

ber, 1941.

* My collection of 1937, containing about a thousand numbers, was partially

destroyed when the Botanical Department was hit by incendiary bombs during the

1940 ‘blitz’? on London,

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

XVI. LITERATURE.

Shaw, H. K. A.—Kew Bulletin, 1932, et seq.

Bayley Balfour, Sir I.—Notes, Royal Bot. Gard. Edinb., 1915,

et seq.

Champion, H. G.—A Preliminary Survey of ie Forest Types

of India and Burma’. Indian Forest Records 1937.

Cox, E. H. M.—Farrer’s Last Journey.

Fischer, C. E. C.—‘Contributions to the Flora of Burma’.

Kew Bulletyn, 1928-1940.

Gray, Errol.—Report to Government on his journey from

Assam to the Bor Hkamti country, 1894.

Handel Mazzetti, Dr.—Notes, Royal Bot. Gard. Edinburgh,

1918 et seq. |

Kermode, C. W. D.—A note on the Flora of North East Upper

Burma, Burma Forest Records, 19309.

Kindon-Ward, F.—

(i) In Farthest Burma. Seeley Service, 1920.

(ii) From the Yangtze to the Irrawaddy. Geographical

Journal, July 1923.

(iii) A Note on the De-glaciation of Tibet. Geological

Magazine, June, 1927.

(iv) Burmese Species of Meconopsis. Annals of Botany,

1928.

(v) Plant Hunting on the Edge of the World. Gollancz,

1929. sss

(vi) The Seinghku and Delei Valleys, North East Fron-

tier of India. Geographical Journal, May, 1930.

(vii) Explorations on the Burma-Tibet Frontier. Geogra-

phical Journal, December 1932.

ey The Irrawaddy Plateau. Geographical Journal, Octo-

ber 1938. Me 3

(ix) Vegetation of North Burma, Brittonia, December

1O4Y.

MacGregor, E.—Report on a Journey to the Bor Hkamti

Country. :

Marquand, C.: V. Avery Asiatic Gentians. Kew Bulletin,

1928.

‘ Merrill, E. D.—The Vernay-Cutting Expedition of 1933-30,

Brittonia, December, 1941.—

Potinger, E. and Prain, D.—A Note on the Botany of the

Kachin Hills. Records of the Botanical Survey of India (I).

1808.

Smith, Sir W.-—Notes, Royal Bot. Gardens, Edinburgh, 1924

et seq.

Smith, Sir W. Wright and Kingdon-Ward, F.—Additional

Species of Primula from the Burma-Tibet Frontier, Notes, Royal

Bot. Gardens, Edinburgh XV, 1927.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER

SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA

A, St. J. MAcpona.Lp.

(With 2 plates and 2 text-figures)

Part VIII

(Continued from page 47, of volume 45)

SEA AND ESTUARY FISHING.

Estuary fish (1). Sea fish (2).

‘Angling Around Bombay’ by G. D. Traylen (3).

* Note on Sea and Estuary Fishing at Karwar’ by Dr. M. Suter, p.sc. (4).

From Karachi in the extreme north of the West Coast of India

to Cape Comorin in the south, then again all along the East Coast

of India and down the Burma coast to the Mergui islands, excel-

lent sport can be had, both at-sea and in the tidal. portions of the

rivers, with Game Sea Fish of considerable. size.

It is a subject little dealt with, but one that provides excellent

sport, and is as good as in many parts of the world. ee

Those who seek fuller information are referred to the Rod in

India by H. S. Thomas, and to the following. Journals of the Bom-

bay Natural History Society :— aay

Vols. 12 and 13. Six articles by ‘Commander ' Gadsden, Royal Indian

Marine :—(1) The Bahmin, (2) Mullet and Gar-fish, (3), Aden and adjacent

waters, (4) Andaman Islands, (5) Karachi, (6) Open Deep Sea Fishing.—All

are informative and helpful as to seasons, localities, methods and tackle.

Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 620. Estuary fishing, etc., and habits of Nair fish.

Vol. 17, No. 3, p. 637. Protective Legislation for Indian Fisheries.’

Vols. 24 and 25. Sea fishing in the Persian Gulf by Major Lane.

Vol. 33, No. 2. Iist of 369 species of fresh and salt water fish found in

Travancore and the sea off its coast, with vernacular names.

Vol. 34, No. 4 and Vol. 35, No. 1. A series of most interesting and in-

formative articles by Sir Reginald Spence (Hon. Secretary) and Mr. S. H.

Prater (Curator to the Society) on the Fish Supply of the West Coast of India.

Vol. 36, No. 1. Game Fishes (freshwater) of Bombay, Deccan and in

Bombay Presidency, by. the same authors.

Vol. 42, No. 1. ‘Something about Swordfish’ by Lieut.-Col. R. W. Burton.

No. 3. ‘A Visit to the Laccadive Islands’ by Lieut.-Col. R. W.

Wal, dipig

Burton.

I give below a short description of the best known fish with

their habits and the ways of circumventing them,

iso JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

1. Esruary FIsu.

BEGTI: Lates calcarifer. B. vii.

Dy 7-8 1/1112, B.A, Vieil/57 A538) Cold, ea noueawe

Lr. 0-7 /1s, Caec. Ply. 3.

Dangera, Sind; Nuddeemeen or Nairmeen, Mal.; Puineo-

meen or Koduwa, ° fam.; Pundukopa or Pandu-meenu, 1ei.; Dur-

ruah and Bekkut, Ooriah; Begti, Beng.; Nga-tha- -ayk, Arrae ;

nworal, or if large Baor, Chittagong ; ‘odah, Andam; Cockrup,

Bagti Calcutta. Naw Madras and bombay, and commonly known

by this name.

Lates caicarifer attains a length of 5 feet and a weight ae 200

pounds. Dr. Cretin gives the colouring as ‘Grey, shot with green

apove, silvery below during the monsoons, with a tinge of purple’.

‘he mouth is armed with minute file-liuke teeth. they are sea

fish, but found with the Bahmin trequenting the Estuaries. They

have a humped back, and are caught on spoon or better still tne

small grey mullet, which they relish, and is the most killing pact.

The live prawn also is an excellent bait. It is claimed that owing

to their nocturnal habits and large eyes they are to be taken iu

coloured water, so this should not deter one from fishing for them.

ihey are very game fish, and the heaviest of tackle (same as ior

heavy mahseer) should ‘be used. ‘Lhey are an excellent tabie

fish and provide the chief fish supply for the large towns ot

Calcutta, Madras, and Bombay.

Spin your raul slowly and rather deep, as he takes the bait in

a slow matter of fact way. The best time to fish for the Nair

fish is in the middle of the day and in coloured water; in the case

of clear water, fish from sundown onwards. They are easily loca-

ted by the loud splashing that goes on while they are on the feed;

in fact this is the indication to stop, as after they have ceased

breaking the surtace of the water, you can abandon any further

hopes of catching them.

RED PERCH: Lutianus reseus. B, vii.

10/14; 2 16; V. 1/5, A. 3/8) ©. 17, 4S, ee Ba 577/50,

L; Tr...7 /18. :

A small fish running to 5 pounds. Colour given by Dr. Cretin,

‘dark reddish brown becoming dull cherry red below’.

Also caught by spinning with lighter tackle in smaller water near

the banks, breaks water quietly, and his dark form can be seen

rising near rocks.

BAHMIN ; Polynemus 'tetradactylus. B, vii.

Dir31/12-15, Pe U7 lives Veal tape ee oy lig ol ui @nmelyine meray Sic

L. Tr. 8/14. Coec pyl. many. |

Habitat; Seas of India to the Malay Archipelago and China,

Colour is given by Dr. Cretin ‘white filaments on breast, silvery

green above, yellowish below’. 3

This species may attain weight of 40 pounds. Day’s ‘6 feet

and upwards in length’ is very doubtful. This is the best of the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER igi

Estuary fish from a sporting point of view, besides the gamest

looking. The mouth is set below with the upper portion carry-

ing the nose very prominent, with a bold large eye. The mouth

is armed in a similar way to the Nair fish with very fine file-like

teeth, which are unfortunately a protection against a good hook

hold. It is a very powerful and game fish, as its shape would

Wanye ea

AVY

Mig. 1.—The Bahmin (Polynemus tetradactylus).

indicate. It lies in the back waters and swift runs where the water

is torced through a bottle-neck at either incoming or outgoing

tide, and where they can take the small fish at a disadvantage.

Col. Osborne, who Thomas quotes as an authority on these

fish, mentions that they are to be taken in the eddies and near

piles and piers. of old wooden or iron bridges, where the water is

broken and the swirls and eddies are a certain find. He also states

that it is very important to first detect these fish feeding, which

‘is easy by the splash they make on the surface sending out Spray

in every direction. The ebb, or flow, of the tide seems to be the

indication to start feeding. The young grey mullet is-the dainty

-morsel these fish fancy and provides the ‘best bait for their cap-

ture. Thomds amusingly puts the opinions of “a numberof ang-

lers as the ‘Bhamin Committee;’ this was in: redlity the ‘vote of

majority on the best time to fish, and it appears that, with Col.

Osborne, they agreed that the ebb tide or just after provides the

best sport. .

He has a characteristic rush like the mahseer and must be

given full rights, or a break is inevitable. ‘Killin’ wire traces and

stout mounts and hooks as for heavy mahseer, are imperative if

you want to do well with this fish. But be careful as to ‘killin’,

it rusts very rapidly. Bahmin are occasionally taken on spoon,

though phantoms and spoon are less productive than mullet, which

provides certain sport if the fish are feeding. Here I can do no

better than to quote from the ‘Rod in India’. of how to fish for

Bahmin. ,

‘Having now mentioned rods, tackle and baits, I turn to the actual capture

of the fish. As I have already said, when the tide steadies into a regular ;

_ stream you will, if standing on a bridge soon see the mullet and other

small fish darting in different directions and the Bahmeen (Bhamin) dashing

after them. Commence spinning at one end of the bridge by throwing out

as much line as you can control; let the bait trail and spin in the water

ig2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 48.

and be careful to spin well over those spots where you have seen the fish

rising. Hold your rod with both hands across your chest, with the point

rather elevated, and without making another cast wall at such a pace as

wili Keep ihe bait spinning niceiy to the other end of the bridge. And now

comes tne question, which is the best side of the bridge to fish from? This

is an important point. The best side of the bridge is that towards which

tue sueam is runing, the reason being that muilet always work up against

me Siuream, and the bahmeen (bhamin) always lie in wait for them on that

side oi the bridge, towards which the stream runs, so that as the shoals of

young mullet toil slowly up against the tide and make their way through

tne arches of the bridge they tall an easy prey to the Bahmeen (Bhamin)

wich are lying in wait for them and hiding behind the piers and piles of

the bridge on the other side. When there are a large number of fish about,

hey can be caught on both sides of the bridge; but tne rule I have as regards

wnat 1 may cail the stream side, should be adhered to’.

Thomas (2nd Edition pp. 208-209) mentions another of the

famuy. This is:

Polynemus Indicus,

1 2—3

gaya P15 + v. 1/5, A=, ©. 17, Ld. 70-75,

eylt 7 Poem Cnty So. .Caec. py laamanys

‘This species has five pectoral rays reaching nearly to the anal fin. Air

vessel long and narrow. Vertical fins dark edged. Habitat. Seas of India

to the Malay Archipelago and Australia.’ Day also says, ‘It attains 4 feet

in Jengih, but is rarely above 20 libs. weight.’

This is the fish known as ‘Dara’ around Bombay, and as Tamil, Yahlun-

kaia; Mal. Yeta; Mahr., Bhat.; Aarracan, Lukwah.; Burma, Katha, or Ka-

ku-yan; lavoy, AKwey-yeng.

B. vii, D. 8

2. SEA FISH.

Five species—The best known localities for sea _ fishing

are the Andamans seas, probably because of the small. European

community who find it their lot to do three or more years duty

in these prison isiands, and who turn to fishing as their only

recreation. Having no shooting to fall back on, they turn to what

proves to be as good sport as any, and a variety of fish of all

sizes 1s taken. Not that I would admit for a moment that it is

better than fishing anywhere along the coast from Karachi to

Mergui, but we find that most of our information is gathered

there, and will serve our purpose, as the baits and methods are

the same as for any localities where these fish occur.

The local fishermen will soon put you on the ways of catching

and finding the many varieties.

Punjab wire is probably the best for traces with ordinary Cata-

lina line. Large sea reels and Ringal rods provide the tackle

with strong hooks to stand up to a bite of a powerful fish, armed

with a mouth of file-like teeth.

Sardines (Clupea longiceps and C. fimbriata) which appear in |

large shoals at times, are the best bait for the open sea fishing,

they are thrown out away from the boat, till the fish are noticed

feeding which is registered by swirls; then the liveliest of your

bait is attached to the hook and cast in amongst the feeding’ fish.

The presence of these fish is also an indication of the arrival of

the Khokari, which follow the shoals and take their toll.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER id

The Seer or Surmai, Cybiwm allied to the Mackerel, grows to

6 feet in length. Colour is given by Dr, Cretin as ‘bluisn above,

silvery below, with blotches. Altogether a sea fish. Scaieless,

hniets on back.’ They have a large head, and mouth tull of

tormidable teeth. The larger ones are taken well out and away

trom shore, where 50 and 60 pound fish may be caught, and they

put up a grand fight.

Khokar: (Caranx) (Andamans) many varieties. This is a hand-

some fellow, perch like in appearance, full and deep body sugntty

compressed, scales small and resplendent, head small ana shapely,

high backed with strong tail and fins. The pectoral fins are iong

and scythe shaped, colour goldish. Body is bluish silvery sheen

on the back, to a golden wnite below, they run up to 100 lbs. or

more. They are tound in shoals of 20 to 50 with the fish all

averaging much the same size, are excellent table fish, and take

pride of place as a game fish in the Andaman Seas.

The other sporting fish are all caught in much the same way.

The Barrachuda (Sphyraena), (several varieties) or dog-fish, is a

good fighter and runs to 105 pounds in weight (West Atrican

record): ordinarily the size met with is 15 to 30 Ibs.

Gobra (Serranidae, sea-perch family) a kind of rock cod. It is

shy, ugly and heavy. When hooked it bores down and _ sulks,

and gives endless trouble before it will move.

The Bonito (Thyanuspe-lamya) seldom taken, but a game fish,

boring right down to the bottom the moment he is hooked.

~ Mackerel, Grey Mullet, Gar fish are also taken and the usual

limit in weight is 10 pounds for the last named.

Tunny, Rays, Sharks, Indian conger eels or Wam (Muraenesox),

Ghol (Scicena), and Bahmins are also to be had for the seeking, and

I can here only suggest to anyone interested to obtain all their in-

formation from Vol. xxxiv, No. 4 and Vol. xxxv, No. 1 of the

Bombay Natural History Society’s Journals. The fish of the west

coast are dealt with well, and in detail, therein.

For the Sharks, Rays, and Tunny, Sea fishing books will

direct one as to tackle and lures.

I reproduce notes on Angling Around Bombay by T. D. Traylen,

on fishing around Karwar by Dr. M. Suter and a note sent to me

by ‘Munisheh’, on Sea Fishing in Malabar,’ which throws yet an-

other aspect on the methods to be worked through and tried, while

fishing for Bahmin, Seer, etc.

3. Anocrtinc ARouNnD Bompay.

G. D. TRAYLEN.

Of Votaries of the Rod resident in Bombay, comparatively

few practice or give thought to this form of recreation, although

1 Reprinted from the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society,

Vol. xxvii, No. 3, pp. 535+539:

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIBTY, Vol. 43.

excellent fishing is within easy reach of anyone seeking it. it

may be that it 1s not generally known, what nsh are to pve taken,.

where to look for them, or what gear to use, others again, may

possibly have made an attempt, but owing to their venture naviny

pecn made at the wrong time and place, results were not conau-

cive to turther trial. in as few woras as possible, 1 will endeavour

to write down my experiences regarding: I irstiy, the Kish waicn

may be taken, secondly, Places where they may be tound and

lasuy, Suitable Tackle, and Lures.

tne banmin (folynemus tetradactylis), local vernacular, ‘Raos,’

comes easy first as a really good fighter who gives excellent sport.

He takes the lure with a rush, gives several runs, and is not one’s

msn until actually in the boat, moreover he 1s good tor the table.

Quoting the fate Mr. Atalala, as an authority, ‘the Bahmin is

strouger weignt lor weight than the Salmon, quite as game and

witnout the vice of sulking’. ;

‘Ine begti (Lates cawarifer), local vernacular ‘Dungara’ or

‘Kajura’, Known in Southern India as the ‘Nair’ is another ex-

cellent sporting fish. .

W hen angung Lor Bahmin and Begti one occasionally is taken

by a “Seer; tins seldom happens, as he rarely comes into the

estuaries, but the ‘Gobra’ or Kock Cod, the ‘lamas’ a species ot

bream, tne “Powia’ of the Shad tamily wull take the same ture, a

smal onark sometimes boits the bait, and if too near the bottom,

a repuisive series of Eel will intrude, and give some trouble in

cuttiig away and bending on fresh gear. I timit further remarks

to the Banmin and Begti, these two ish being best worth attention.

the Bahmin may be taken anywhere in ~ Bombay. Harbour and

round the Coast, where a strong current runs over rocks. The

‘Shoal at Sunk ikock. Beacon is a favourite haunt, but he will be

tound off the Prongs Light House and in the openings through

the reef which extends trom Coiaba to Malabar point; at the Kan-

sas Kock.or Gull Island, the Shoal at Middle ground Battery, at

‘hucker Beacon, Hog Island, and as far up as the rocks at the

Customs, Bundar, ‘bhana, and he no doubt feeds at other places

in the harbour where the tide runs strongly over a rocky bottom.

Lhough Bahmin may be present, one never gets a run excepting

at the very end of the flow at slack water and during the whole

of the Ebb tide.

From August to October he will cevaialt be in evidence at

these times of tide; from November to May he is somewhat irre-

gular in attendance, in June and July he may possibly be present

in force, but few would care to venture in the early part of the

monsoon, because of Squalls and the heavy combers which roll

over the Shoals. Sometimes the Bahmin comes up stream in

numbers, and takes voraciously for about an hour or hour and a

half, at other times he takes right down to the last of the ebb,

so that one need not be discouraged should there be nothing doing

for an hour or so after anchoring, for he well repays a_ little

patience, I have already stated that the Begti is occasionally pre-

sent in Bahmin waters, but in the monsoon months he ascends

the creeks and rivers and will be found beyond Kalyan, a good

pool for Begti during August and September is near the Railway

CIRCUMVENTING THE: MAHSEER ©» - eh

Bridge over the Ulhas river at Kalyan going north, t.e., towards

Jitvala, this pool will be seen on the lett hand side of the bridge

and near the right bank of the river. A deep channel through

the rock opens out into a broad reach, in appearance somewhat hike

the neck ot a bottle, and the pool is just where the neck joins the

shoulder. Unless one has a boat it 1s better to approach trom the

lett bank and cast from the rocks. A small silvery fish which the

native fishermen will procure, or a live prawn, floated two to

three feet beneath the surface are the best baits, although a spoon

or silver devon will answer when the stream runs strongiy. Heavy

fish of 20 to 30 pounds are taken here. Begti frequent many

other places on the Bassein Thana Creek, the rocks where the

stream tarrows near the Collector’s bungalow, Goa Bundar, the

rocks in main stream Parsick, the small creek which runs under

the Kailway Bridge at Minar ea and two places further up that

creek, one being the rocks opposite Diwa and the other pool im-

mediately below the stone ‘bund’ rather iess than a mune higner

up (it 1s desirable to have a boat to negotiate this creek). i tic

inain stream from Mumbra to Kalyan there are several rocky

shoals, notably one about a mile below INalyan and another Close

to the new bridge which leads to. Bhiwinai. Undoubtedly the

Begti is in the river from its mouth to the higher reaches, and

many other likeiy spots might be tound by dritting down siream

on the Ebb near low water, taking bearings ot those piaces wnere

rocky obstructions create a rapid stream, tor Begti appear to teed

near the exits of passages through boulders and in the eames

caused by such obstructions. 3

The question of Tackle is productive. of unlimited -controversy,

most Anglers have their own theories and favourite rods, but 1

necessaruy follows that as all men are not physically the same, a ~

rod which the one handies with ease wouid be too heavy and

fatiguing for another less robust. When fishing from a boat in

salt water, rods are subject to rough usage, and unless one is

‘particularly careful, sun, wind and weather -plus occasional colli-

sion with the boat or is fixtures and, last but not least, the pull

of the stream plus that. of the fish will speedily put a perfect weapoa

out of gear. | |

The ordinary shop ‘Sea Rod’ appears to be made especially

‘for the Cod, Plaice, etc., found in home waters, and is no more

suitable for Bahmin and Begti than it would be for Bass. Almost

any rod will serve providing it is sufficiently stiff to comfortably

carry the weight of sinker and lure plus the pull of the Streaim.

Without deflecting more than about 300, it should bend through-

out its entire length, for many rods I have seen in use have had

a good top, but being too stiff in the butt joint the result has been

a break when the Bahmin has made one of his sudden rushes, or

when giving him the butt prior to gafling. For preference, I

would choose a two jointed rod with whole cane butt and green

heart top, in length from 86 to ro feet and sufficiently light to

enable one to make a cast of about twenty yards with one hand.

If the corkgrip is tightly wound over for about twenty inches,

with strong hemp lee it makes a firm hold in all weathers. In

play it should bend in a half circle or more from butt to top, and

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

not merely from middle to top in the form of a hook with a lon»

Shank; the reason for this will be appreciated when one is playing

a.banmin whose steadfast purpose is to run under the boat ana

cut tie line, or bore for the anchor rope to the same end. ‘Ihe

baumin has no teeth, but his mouth has a hard bony ridge ser-

raced uke a file and he is frequently held by one barb of the hook

catcuing under this, it is the spring of the rod which secures the

hook huid and the hook becomes tree as soon as the net or gatt

lakes the weight of the fish. Too suppie a rod is not desirable

10r two reasons. ‘A’ one has to remember that frequently the

fish are on teed for only an hour or two hours, and too supple

a rod means longer time in getting him to net and many chances

are lost. ‘b’ is rather a tax on the good nature of one’s com-

panion, if fishing in company, it being expedient that all other

lines shail be reeled up when a Bahmin is being played. A good

Caicutta Kingai (Bamboo) silk lapped in two or three places in

each segment, the butt packed and lapped with good hemp cord

for about twenty inches, good brass winch fittings and ‘snake’

rings Of copper or brass wire (not iron or steel) will render good

service. ‘Lhe winch or reel should have a large drum for rapid

recovery Of line, Nottingham pattern reels with optional check and

line guard are excellent, size not less than four inches and five

inches tor preference; Reaes lining is desirable as it almost elimi-

nates the chances of a jamb. ‘Lhose Anglers who have reels of

the old pattern with small centre spindle, may get useful work

from them, if a few yards of stout blind cord are first wound on

the spindie betore reeling on the backing line. The importance of

getting line back quickly when the fish rushes towards, instead

ot trom, the boat when struck, is obvious, especially as one does

not know whether or not the hook is fairly home or merely en-

gaged with the hard bony ridge he has in lieu of teeth and gums.

it is desirable to pay particular attention to the business end

of the line. Eschew gut and Gimp, and mount all hooks on fine

steel wirt, for the Bahmin is an adept at gymnastics and his gyra-

tions are fast and furious in his endeavours to bottom and, aided

by the rocks,-rub the annoyance from its jaws; he will also bore

away head down and repeatedly thrash the trace with his power-

ful tail. This matter may be considered as of vital importance,

for unless a good hook hold is secured, all else is of little conse-

quence. Stout ‘Eyed trebles’ are very satisfactory in use and

numbers 3 and 4 the most useful sizes. The hook must be stout

or it will straighten out in playing an average fish of seven pounds

weight. A very useful method of mounting hooks, is to twist

a loop in a short length of steel wire, this loop being sufficiently

large to pass easily over the eye of a treble and down its shank,

the free end of looped wire should be turned twice and secured

through the eye of a second treble, so the looped mount should

measure over all about one and a half inches from top of loop to top

of eye, a pair of round nosed pliers is a useful tool for this pur-

pose and also for bending on wire traces to swivels.

In using hooks so mounted, for Bahmin take an unmounted.

treble we term the Lip hook, pass the loop of mounted treble over

the eye of lip hook, the trace is attached to this lip hook, one barb of

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 157

which is passed through the nose of live bait, and one barb of

mounted hook is inserted in the side of bait between the pectoral

and dorsai fins. The Bahmin invariably attacks the head of live

bait, if spinning live or dead bait the loop of a second mounted

treble may be passed over the first mounted treble and one barb be

inserted in the bait, midway between the Ventral and Caudal fins,

so as to curve and to make it spin. This tail hook should always

be used from August to November, as Begti and Seer are then

occasionally present, and as_ they make a rear attack, the lure

should be so guarded. Without diagrams, this description has

necessarily became somewhat lengthy, but I think the importance

of a good hook hold is paramount and the merits of this parti-

cular method of mounting is, that it is extremely simple and con-

venient, moreover, one can depend upon it.

For traces, I do not think there is any thing better than steel

wire, ‘Killin’ wire is very good, and so is the wire from galvanized

steel rope, this may be obtained in all sizes, and a six-foot length

will provide a number of good traces and hook mounts, besides

giving one’s servant a little amusement in untwisting and separat-

ing it. A useful form of trace is about two feet of stout wire

bent on to a double swivel at one end, a single swivel at the other,

to the single swivel attach about four feet or less of fine wire the

free end being bent on to the eye of the lip hook already described.

The Weight or Sinker must not be forgotten, as so much depends

upon having the bait at the right depth. The Tide Tables given

in the daily papers show the great variations in rise and fall, and

the strength of stream naturally varies with the height of tide. A

convenient type of weight is an oblong of 2x 14 inches with holes

at the two top corners through which a length of line folded te

from a six-inch loop, one end of the weight, and another loop of

about an inch at the other end. The long loop is bent throveh

the double swivel and serves for adding extra weight if required,

the free end of casting line is attached to the shorter loop. This

form of weight also serves the purpose of an ‘anti-kinker’ which

prevent one’s line from twisting. Sinkers may be made of aln-

minium, brass, and lead; several of different weights are necessarv.

from aluminium which is extremely light to lead weighing un to

six ounces, of course, any other form of sinker will answer the

purpose, but the thin metal ‘anti-kinker’ should not be omitted

for in practice the comfort of it will be appreciated. Of lines there

are many, a very useful one is a length of about twentv-five vards

of number 3 or 4 plaited silk dressed line, bent on to ‘too vards

of plaited flax backing. One can cast out twenty vards or so of

silk dressed line with a turn of the wrist, and the ‘anti-kinker’ re-

ferred to above ensures it coming back without twist, everv time.

When using live bait, the boat man will procure such in ad-

vance or will catch them with hand lines when the heat ic

anchored at the place one is angline from; it is alwavs exnedient

to take a few mullet of about four inches, to provide against a

shortage of live bait; they are generally procurable in the bazar

‘and may be spun on the.same mount.. In August and September

4 four-irch Silver Devon or a two-inch spoon is possibly the hest

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

Cay

lure on a strong tide, and live bait or spun mullet if there is a tide

of less than six feet. As gine bottom over most shoals is parti-

cularly rough and. scraggy, it is better not to cast when the tide

is low and weak, but to use a float to keep one’s gear from fouling.

The float should be so arranged that it may be easily released

when one has a run, a fixed float meaning almost certain disaster.

When the Bahmin is present in force and on the feed, he takes

anything going without being particular as to the manner in which

it is offered, at other times he has to be searched for and humoured.

When the stream is running strongly one has only to pay out line

a few yards at a time with a sink and draw motion, the stream

carries out the lure, and the Bahmin will make his rush. By this

method one is ANNs covering the, same stretch of bottom back-

wards and forwards. aE

When there are fewer fish about, one needs to cover more

eround and search for them, rather than to hang out one’s line in

the hope that he will come along presently—here let me digress

with a note of warning; never to lay down a vod, with a baited

line in the water, unless first taking the precaution of securing

the butt, for at any moment a rush may come, and the rod be

snatched from the boat. An effective and killine method of

searching water may be explained by referring to the dial of a

watch and to assume one’s boat is anchored in the centre with

the stream running strongly towards 12 o’clock; swing in the bait

and let out from 20-25 yards of line, then with the left hand draw

in a vard or so of line at a time with a sink and draw motion,

coi 1p line on seat of boat then cast out about 20 vards or so. so

that lure strikes the water at about 7-20. The bait sinks with a

curve and then rises with a curve at about ro and swine. round

to 12. Recover line as before and try the same cast at 5-20. the

bait will sink and rise and continue round to 12 again. Tf not

taleen, reneat these casts and in successive throws reduce the radius

a vard or so at a time, until all the water in 2 of a radius of about

20 vards near the boat has been tried. If no result, leave line

ont af 12 o'clock, secure the rod, and rest a few minutes, for 3t

will he fairly safe to assume that no Bahmin are present, other-

wice in the area of water covered a touch would be almost certain.

Sometimes he takes a devon or spoon immediately if touches water,

but in most instances. his rush is made when the lure is risine on

the wnward curve. One.must be particularly careful to feel the

lure when it is at right angles fo the boat, that is about either

9 or 2 as if the current is not strong and the weight is heavv one

catches the bottom and this means loss of part of line with its

annendaves. If one has the bad Iuck to get so caucht. it is some-

times vosstble to get free, by pulling the line nearly taut and to

put the helm over so that the current will swine the boat over

the entaneled bait, when an upward pull immediately over it, will

often effect: its release. To get in to the proper nosition to ner-

form this operation, it may be necessary for the boatman to un-

hitch and pay out a few more vards of the mooring: rope; and it.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 159

is expedient to be sure this means is provided for when anchoring,

as some boatmen would let out all the cable at the start.

Occasionally one will observe Bahmin rising and swirling all

round the boat and yet not get a run, at these times plenty of

natural food may be in the water, and he has no use for one’s

carefully prepared lure, however a nice prawn or a small spoon

or Silver Devon cast at right angles to the boat, will sometimes

induce him to make a mistake.

Sea water is particularly rough on tackle; on returning home

it is a good plan to drop all hooks, traces and artificial baits into

a basin of water in which a little common washing soda_ has

been dissolved; after a few minutes, remove, drain and hang up

to dry, then oil and put away for further use. Line should be

reeled off into a tub of fresh water, be left to soak for half an hour

and then be drawn through the hand to remove as much water as

possible and afterwards be wound on a line-drier and then be left

in a draught until dry; unless this is done, line quickly rots. Rusty

steel mounts and traces are not safe to use, nothing will empha-

sise this more forcibly than the loss of a fish which has made a

good fight and in the end has gained his freedom through defec«

tive trackle. |

In conclusion, I might say, few boat-men can be trusted to

use the gaff; in spite of coaching they will strike at, instead of

pull into, the fish. They make better use of a landing net. The

average weight of Bahmin taken in the Estuary is seven pounds

and fifteen pounds is the limit, out at sea they run heavier. The

tackle described and methods of use are not claimed as being the

best, they are at least effective in all round practice eand ensure

sport. At Sunk Rock, one may often observe the Light-keepers

haul in fish after fish, ‘by means of a stout pole with a length of

signal line to. which is attached a yard of stout brass wire, and

for lure a six-inch Silver Devon; they are out to catch, and the

fish has no chance, but is simply hauled round to the net if well

hooked. Any one with almost any sort of tackle will catch Bahmin

at times, but there is little satisfaction in going for them with

gear which would hold a whale. The Bahmin is a really good

sporting fish, he stands up to one and fights to the last and there

is satisfaction in knowing that the light strong tackle one is, using

takes fish when coarser gear does not; moreover, after playing

a fish he sometimes gets the best of it and is never ours until he

lays kicking in the bottom of the boat, his big eyes seeming to

express astonishment at finding himself there. A blow on the

head puts him out of his misery, and it is well to remember this,

especially if a ‘Gobra’ comts to the net, as this fish lives for some

hours out of water and one is apt to regret should he be bound

gasping in the basket when arriving on shore. Bahimin, Begti,

Seer and Gobra are quite good for the table, one’s friends appre-

ciate freshly caught fish and when a good catch has been made

there are Hospitals and other Institutions where such gifts are

welcome, thus we may have the satisfaction of knowing that al-

though our sport has entailed the taking of life, the victims have

in the end fulfilled their natural destiny.

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

4. SEA AND ESTUARY FISHING aT KARWAR.

M. SUTER, D.SC.

Experience gained in six seasons’ fishing and study of fishes

at this delightful spot encourages me in jotting down these notes

at the request of Mr. Prater, mainly for the benefit of brother

anglers, who might find them useful.

Of all places on the West Coast, Karwar is probably scenically

the best favoured. The spacious bay on which it lies, with its

long and gleaming sandy beaches, is bordered to the south by

the rocky and jungle-covered Karwar headland, terminatifig in

Badchidar point.

At the northern end of the bay, where white capped breakers

mark the sandy bar off the estuary of the Kalinadi, we find the

large islands of Kurmugad and Sungiri, locally called Madlingad.

Kurmugad is well wooded, and crowded with an old fort pro-

bably built by the Sounda Rajahs, whereas Sungiri, separated

from it by a navigable channel, is rocky and forbidding.

Kurmugad holds a pretty bathing beach and is the venue of a

pilgrimage in honour of an aboriginal deity.

The wide vista of the ocean is dotted with a group of several

islands and rocks situated about 14 miles west north-west of Bad-

chidar point in front of which is Elephant island. These islands

are about 4 miles from the inner harbour of Karwar and must be

described in some detail, as they are the main fishing ground for

Bahmin, etc.

The southernmost is just a jumble of rocks locally known as

Karkalli. <A little to the north-west rises an isolated rock spire,

bevond which lies a flat rock-island separated by a channel from

the hivh and well wooded Little Devgad island, which Pilot Saoks

anpear to call Karkal. It is rocky and foul on all sides, and

separated by a channel from the main island, Devgad, which is

140 ft. high, well wooded and carries the liehthouse and other

hnildinos. It has a landing shed and in ordinary times was a

delichtful picnic place.

To the west of Devgad, and separated from it by a_ fairly

heaad and deep channel, we have a rocky island with several

prominent rock towers, forming favourite perches of beautiful

cea-eaoles and the peregrine falcon. This is locally known as

Mothe. |

A Wittle south of Karkalli there is a submerged rocky plateau

Fram which arises a pvramidal rock, well visible at the halftide,

This tc Jocallv known as Burkia, the drowning place, on account

£ on old chinwreck tradition.

At the hack of the southern end of the bav rise densely forested

‘M4. entlminatine in the rocky top of Gudehallv, whose bold ont-

“aa forms a fittine background to the oeneral loveliness. of the

intriee of the bay, as seen from Devead island.

Revond Karwar, to the south-west, lie the pretty bavs known

as Cemetery and Bingi bays, separated by Baitkal point; and

facing Binge bay we have the large and picturesque island of

Anjedive, a Portuguese possession,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEERK et a

The town of Karwar is a district headquarter with the usual

set of Government officers and garrison of district police. ‘here

is a market and various shops and artisans, a good hospital, a Dak

bungalow and last, but not least, the Grand Hotel, where. Mr.

D’Souza provides welcome sustenance and accommodation.

On the various beaches pleasant bathing with or without surf

may be enjoyed at all times except during the monsoon, when the

surf is too heavy. Sharks keep too far out to bea danger, jelly-

fish are not more than a very occasional nuisance, and stingrays

are evidently quite rare and infrequent visitors of these sands.

From the fishing point of view Karwar suffers by the gencral

disadvantage of this coast. Its very gradual shelving towards

the ocean places even such a moderate depth as 15 fathoms quite

beyond the reach of the local fishing canoe. This limits the list

of available game fish to such predaceous species as come in with

the tide in pursuit of shoals of migrating sardines and small

mackerel, which frequently hug the coast, perhaps for the compa-

rative safety, of shallow waters. :

Thus the angler really depends on visiting fish in quest of food

and on such others as use the tidal estuary of the Kallinadi for

spawning.

meee only true residents of sufficient avoirdupois, worthy of

the angler’s notice are the Serranidae or Gobras, which seem to

be present throughout the year,

Depths of 50 fathoms and over, where one cotild meet the lovely

dolphin, nimble bonito, sturdy yellow- -fin tunny, rushing wahoo

and lordly sailfish and swordfish, can be reached only by high-

powered seagoing motor cruisers, and these fine sporting fish must,

on this coast, remain a fisherman’s dream for a long time to come.

_ The tidal nature of most of the local fishing limits profitable

activity to a few hours a day, and a further limitation is imposed

by adverse conditions of wind and weather. However, these

drawbacks, inherent in all coastal fishing, have to be accepted

with resignation. eage

The main element influencing fishing in these sarts is the pre-

sence or absence of shoals of small fish, such as certain species of

Engraulis, Clupea and that very tasty little mackerel the ‘Bangra’.

During their migration, they may or may not enter the bay and

hug the coast. hese myriads of gregarious fish not only bring

welcome supply of sea food to the inhabitants of the coast, but

also bring the larger predators within the angler’s reach, :

Tht main exceptions are such habitual visitors to tidal estua-

ries as the Bahmin and the Cockup or Begti, the first of which used

to provide the chief piscatorial attraction of the region, spawning

every October in large numbers up the Kalinadi,

Under favourable circumstances Karwar certainly offers not

only an interesting list of hard fighting and beautiful game fish,

but also a chance of making catches which can hardly be bettered

anywhere else on the Indian coast.

THE FISH.

A short description of the main sporting fish of the region

ought to be all the more welcome to the angler, as most of the

5 2

tb2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 43,

literature dealing with the — subject is nowadays, not easily

procurable.

By tar the larger number of sporting sea fhe to be encountered

by the visitor belong to two families:—the Serranidae or Sew-

Perches and the Scombridae or Mackerels. oi

The main exceptions are :—

The Bahmin, belonging to a family of purely tropical fishes,

the Polynemidae.

The Barracooda or Sea Pike (Sphyraenidae).

The Gar fish (Belonidae). — .

The Wolf Herring (Clupeidae, genus Chirocentrus), ;

The species of real interest to the sporting angler are the fol;

lowing, given more or less in the order of their importance : ce

Vhe bahia (Polynemus tetradactylus). Locally Rawas or Ramis.

This game and well shaped fighting fish, running in ‘these parts to

a Maximum weight of 27 Ibs., used to provide, for very many years,

the main attraction to local and visiting sportsmen. It courd_ be

reed upon to appear every year. from july to October in schools

of a dozen to over a hunarea, coming in and going out va the

tide.

Whereas the heavier fish frequented by. preference. ae wvicanity

of the isiands of the lighthouse group, smaller ones could .be. reliea

upon to haunt the channel between US -and -Maqungar

isiands, and the water outside the bar.

When swarms. of ‘sardines’ invade the: Nectiery ‘Baer, often

cross the bar in pursuit of their prey, ascending the- tidal river quite

a long way with the tide. They seem then to remain tor 1-2:hours

just inside the bar at the Jast quarter of the low ‘tide, pS

spiendid: sport to- thee x pent ebalt «Castet ame wey

Even as early as end of August, the Ce Balai cantata

some spawn, which they develop in wee then,. See

in Octoper, they went up-river tor spawning. - “ tee cdew ee Ty

On completion of this business the swarms evidelidy: disbanded

and went out to sea, ‘at all events- after Ae eh “very: rare

suaggiers have been Caught: 9c9"y: ee MWS a ae

Up to a few years ago very fine coHenees of a dozen - and: over

could be made in a day by a single -rod fishing out a: tide.at ‘the

islands: Unfortunately, and for unknown reasons; the influx. of

Bahmin into Karwar bay has steadily diminished during” the- last

4 or 5 years, and there were hardly any at-all last year... Whether

this 1s due to some catastrophic calamity, or perhaps to aclverse

conditions affecting their habitual spawning ground such as silting

up, must at present remain in the domain of pure conjecture.’ We

can only hope that things will mend again, ‘and we that may- look

forward to a revival of the fine sport these fish used ‘to provide.

The Bahmin is a finely shaped, somewhat salmon-like ‘fish,

with a prominent nose. Its mouth, set well underneath, and pro-

vided with large plates of densely packed ~ villiform: teeth, ’ offets

a poor hookhold, except in the corners.

The eyes, very large and placed well forward, are Sonate)

covered by” a_ thick transparent~‘membranes: =. -<~- Wass wees

rere) ~~ New Ses <~

ener

Phoww by M. Suter.

t 253 Ibs. Karwar.

ies

heav

Part of a catch of Bahmin

. ‘ > : ; Aa we oe scp Bagg d Parse eh Mares F m: one : : r

P Skt cD by Gee ea ee ae Ge ats eho s OS 1 GeHRN nt ai Geek alee a

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 163

Lhe somewhat thickset body and very sturdy caudal region ce-

note speed and power, which this fish indeed possesses to a degree,

ihe body 1s tully covered with hard and moderately large scales

of a silvery. grey colour,

The main distinctive feature of the species is 4 free rays set

in tront of the pectoral fins which, have given the fish its name

tetradactylus, i.e. ‘the four-fingered one’. there are two separate

dorsal fins.

the bladder provides some of the best fish glue, and the flesh

is hrm, white and very tasty, whether boiled, tried, baked, broiled

or smoked.,. it 1s one of the best table fish of the region.

Anyone who has ever hooked a 2o0-lb. Bahmin in open water

On -reasonabie tackle. will have nothing but the highest praise

for its nghting quauties. Indeed, the speed and length of its initial

run are then very satisfactory, and the power and obstinacy. of

resistance .quite surprising in a fish of its size.

Smaller specimens frequently adopt leaping tactics and not. in-

frequently succeed in throwing a poorly piaced hook.

Untortunately schools: of teeding Banmin are rarely encoun-

tered in open water, except when there are shoals of traveling

squid about. hey are more often met with close in. to. the

Island>iaces,. preferably in spots where waves break on the. rocks

and create tne. lively turmoil, which they love. .Vhere .they feed

on the ever present rock erab and other small fry. In these places

the depth is shallow and the bottom a jumble of boulders, densely

covered with rock oysters, clams and barnacles. ‘he instinctive

and instant reaction of a hooked Bahmin is to dive for the nearest

rock and to dash around it, when even a moderate tug suffices

to' sever -one’s line on the-razor sharp shells.

-~ Disaster -is therefore swift and certain if the fish. is allowed a

fun “in'such a-spot.. From the moment a strike is felt the fish

must be firmly held and dragged away, while the crew pull the

boat some 30-0r 40 yards into the open, which good men_ will

effect in a few seconds. During this time the line must be allowed

to’ slip out just enough to prevent a break. Once well away

from rocks the fish may be played. The necessity for such tac-

tics explains why comparatively heavy lines have to be used. The

power of the fish, plus the resistance of its body against this rapid

dragging through the water, frequently against a good deal of

current, totals up to quite a considerable strain.

Jit is to be regretted that this dragging process, short as it

may be, necessarily deprives any but the most powerful fish of a

good deal’ of fighting power, and fish so caught never show the

spirited. fight put up by those hooked in the open. They can He

brought quickly to gaff. Even so fishermen will apPicei sich

Balise after landing half a dozen good ones.

,Heeked Bahmin occasionally seem to go completely berserk,

andl, have repeatedly iknown them to beach themselves by run-

ning ashore, or leaping onto flat rocks, where they flounder about

‘helplessly.

_ By far the most glorious Bahmin fishing used to be had by

sthe ‘old-salts’?’ who turned up in the second half of August, when

iog JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIETY, Vol. jg.

the sca shows still a good deal of life, and when a really good

surf beating against the. rocks, creates quite a spectacular turmoil-—-

just what tne Bahmin loves! :

A good crew will not hesitate to shoot their craft into. and

inrougn the tamasha, yelling at the top of their voices. Great

‘whitecaps’ threaten to break over the boat or to fling it on the —

rocks, wnhust, Only too trequently for the peace of mind of the

angier, a yawhiny Diue Chasin Opens between the brittle craft and

lune rock. ‘Lhe only thing to do then is to trust to one’s tuck and

to cing to the rod as grimly as possible, The whole thing is’ a

Matter Of a tew most exhilarating seconds and, in spite of tre-

quent dgousings, the consummate skull of the crew invariably wins

the day, and one emerges irom the ordeal with a fine Kahmin as

O1ten as not straining at the end of one’s line. What, I ask you,

could possibly be more exhilarating. ven if one’s topee has to

be retrieved and the boat to be baitied out now and again, what

inavlers so long as they are biting? :

in deptember and October mucn quieter conditions are the rule.

Notning exciung may be met with, but occasionally the trip to the

isianas May resolve itself into a succession of ascents and descents

ot great, calm and weil spaced ‘roliers’. Then at one moment

the boat seems to be hung up on the top of a ridge, the next

moment it is at the bottom of a trough with a steep wall of water

in tront, another behind, and a bit of watery sky overhead. In fact

Just that pleasant scenic railway feeling !

THE MACKERELS.

This family provides us. with some of the best acrobats and

speed-merchants in the medium weight line, but it is unfortunate

that the star performers like sailfish and the marlin are out of

reach at Karwar, and must be sought for in Ceylon waters or in

tar away Australia or New Zealand. 3

However there are several very representative members of the

clan to be met with at Karwar. These are:

The Surmai (Scomberomorus commersonit), Striped Seer fish,

Spanish Mackerel; in Kanarese, Eswvan.

‘this is a streamlined tiger of the sea, a true speed-merchant

and highflier, which it is an exhilaration to have at the business

end of any moderately powered line.

It is a true mackerel in shape, like a somewhat laterally flat-

tened torpedo, sides and head somewhat compressed, the snout

coming to a sharp point, the jaws garnished with a goodly array

of lancet shaped teeth, the glaring eyes full of the lust of speed

and destruction. Villiform teeth are found on the palate. There

are two dorsal fins, of which the second js the highest, being

falcate and posteriorly concave. The pectorals are sickle shaped

and pointed and lie straight above the very small ventrals.

The caudal region, laterally much flattened and attenuated,

ends in a caudal fin shaped like a double sickle or a quarter

moon. Between the caudal and the dorsal fins, as well as be-

tween the caudal and the anal, rows of about 10 finlets. will be

found. py :

The scales are minute and inconspicuous. In colouration the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 165

fish is in the main silvery, shading to purplish and green tints

along the back and the upper parts of the head. The greenish

black stripes which embellish the sides are not conspicuous in life,

but become so soon after death has set in.

This is a fierce and extremely predaceous fish, travelling in

schools of a dozen to a hundred in pursuit of prey, which they fol-

low with the tide sometimes into fairly shallow water, and not

infrequently quite close inshore.

To watch them smashing up a shoal of travelling bangra is

a real sight. Sometimes a dozen or more of these long white

shapes skyrocket to heights of 12 or 15 feet and coming down

head first with a resounding smack into the middle of their

densely packed prey, smashing and stunning them, gobble them

up at leisure. It is a truly amazing procedure.

The Surmai has none of the snagging propensity of the Bahmin.

Most of its fight is generally near the surface. When at all large

he will, if allowed to, produce a lightning run of up to too yards

or over and frequently end this with a series of quite spectacular

leaps. I have never seen this truly magnificent performance

equalled by any mahseer I ever hooked. Size for size it is only

surpassed by the Wahoo. In his tactics the Surmai resembles the

mahseer, not only in the spectacular first run, but also in the cruis-

ing, which so often follows, and the rest of the performance

scems rather tame after the truly exhilarating start.

Unfortunately the Surmai that approach to within the angler’s

reach seldom weigh much over 30 lbs., whereas in deep waters.

such as those of Queensland, they surpass 6 ft. in length, and

reach a weight of up to 150 lbs. SU

It is a delightful table fish. when not too large, worthy of the

best effort of a good mackerel cook, and ought, by rights, to be

washed down with a elass or two of some racy white wine.

Surmai visit Karwar at any time after the middle of October,

whenever a sufficiency of their favourite food fish is present in

the bay, rather than further outside, and they continue to do so

well into the hot weather.

- . Their presence is soon betrayed by their leaping tactics and

there ought not to be much blind fishing or trolling for them.

The Spotted Surmai (Scomberomorus outtatus).

Much of the description of the Striped. Surmai applies to this

closely related species, except that it is often not quite so slenderlv

huilt as its relative, and is covered on the sides with a number of

darkish spots. In general its dimensions are more modest.

It follows the same tactics as its striped cousin, and is an

- equally esteemed table fish, which may reach 3 ft. in length or

over and weigh 20 Ibs. or more.

They do not: appear. to visit. Karwar as often as their cousins.

Weieht for weight they seem to be as good and nimble fighters

as the preceding species.

The Horse Mackerels (Cavanx sp.), Koker.

This is quite a large tribe comprising some very large species

and-some very small ones. They are all deep-set fish with large

heads ending in. somewhat. blunt: snouts, with the -lower jaw

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

rather pronounced. They are armed with conical and also. villi

form teeth. Their bodies ‘are well covered with very small scales,

even the opercles getting their share of this protection.

There are the usual two dorsal fins of the mackerel tribe, and

‘the pectorals are generally long and sharply falcate. The catidal

region is strongly attenuated, and the posterior third of the lateral

line provided with a series ‘of hard armed plates.

In colour they are mostly silvery, frequently with a light golden

sheen, and in some of the smaller species most of the fins ate a

very bright yellow. The caudal fin is a sharp double sickle. Two

of the larger species at least are regular visitors to Karwar, i.€.

Caranx gallus’ and Caranx hippos and there may be others. |

One of them is known to local Mussulmans as Sieas the

“negro woman’, on account of its thick lips.

They may run well over 60 Ibs. and are then quite formidable

opponents requiring a good deal of skill and judgement in being

brought to gaff. However, those caught locally will’ not’ very

often exceed 4o lbs. Even these give a very hard fight on moder-

ate tackle. : a5 came

Their tactics are not very spectacular, but as indicated by their

shape, they are strong and speedy, certainly very tenacious and

do not give in easily. a ag

The first run of a Caranx is made at an almost’ incredible

speed and invariably directed slantwise for the bottom. ;

It would be perfectly futile and quite fatal to one’s line to try

and interfere with the rush of a large Caranx in its-initial stage.

It far exceeds anything I have ever experienced from mahseer.

It is only in the later stages of the run that. cautious applica-

tron of the brake is permissible, if the fish is at all large. -

It will then try various tactics and contest the efforts of the

fisherman very bitterly and for quite a fons time, ‘keeping game to

the end. -

‘When. gaffed and drawn inboard, many oF them BIER vent

0 a pig- -like grunt, whence their Indian name.

It is to be regretted that really large Caranx are by no. means

‘very frequent visitors to Karwar, whereas they seem to be present

at the Malwan rocks and at the Vengurla lighthouse. island dyeing

every monsoon and sometime after in goodly numbers.

Some .of the smaller species are lively and -gay- little fish, fre-

quently met with as they cruise about in small bands on the surf,

-often doing the porpoise act.

They. are quite fierce predators and even half-pounders ‘some-

times commit suicide by seizing a 3-inch spoon.

Small Caranx are quite excellent eating, specially ihe Yellow-.

finned variety, but the large ones are quite unfit. Epes table.”

‘The Queenfish (Chorinemus lysan); locally: Dagoli.

This is a very fierce and game looking mackerel, swith a, eurved

and projecting lower jaw, a. very widely cleft mouth, large and

fierce eyes and a laterally very compressed body. . The. caudal fin

is large and deeply lobed, and the pectoral and anal are falcate.

In life this fish is a beautiful silvery colour, shading into bluish

towards the back, When dying a beautiful golden hue begins to

Fig. 3.—Caranx

40 lbs.

Karwar.

Pirate II

F.g. 2.—Bahmin, Dagol and Surmai.

Karwar.

Fig. 4.—Red Rock Perch: 11 Ibs.

‘Toli’ or Needle Fish: 7% lbs.

whan = eee ee

he hte :

se tereme Tree

wes BPR 5

Se Ge clean

afer $3 PS Bonae

4 in

. A ae n tie | an Lait)

ae me?

vay OA Aw

‘4 1

i -

ts iis Very

ans

“CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 167

form all over the belly and sides. This. golden colour intensifies

gradually and persists quite a considerable time.

About five large round spots, the size of a crown piece are dis-

cernible. along the lateral line. They are not very conspicuous

during: life but show ups very prominently after death.

'««These spots are responsible for its Indian name.

There do not appear to be any very reliable data as to the

maximum weight attained by this fish. It appears, however, to

réach 50 Ibs. round about Natal. At Karwar, a 35-pounder would

be a very large one.

-. They are exceedingly fierce and predatory, and easily distin-

guished from the Surmai by their way of attacking a shoal of

bangxa, invariably from underneath, never attempting any ‘smash-

ing’’ “tactics.

AC successfully fooled Dagoli gives a glorious run on reason-

able tackle, if not treated brutally, as is quite often the case

with. beginners.’ They are quite strong, and although not as

tenacious as the Caranx, will not easily summit, and quite as OMS

as not, .will give several very decent runs.

ws Ab 35- -pounder, foulhooked in the throat, once took 150 yards

of °36-Ib. line. off- my reel in an almost imerecible run, at the end

‘of which it jumped and thrashed about wildly on the surface.

<I. always considered it a privileged occasion to have a large

Dagoli at the business end of a comparatively light line and a

rather. whippy. little rod. 3

Although. this. fish is quite Rien caught on a spoon, my im-

pression is, that it really gives preference to bait, well and skil-

fully. presented. 1. have also caught them in Ceylon waters from

a motor launch, 1.e. at Barbryn and at the Kalpitiya lagoon with

Japanese. feather squid.

The. Queenfish, sighoueh very fond of the bangva, appears te

relish even more a small, whitebait-like fish called locally Buratty,

about 2 inches: long, which sometimes visits the bay in large

numbers,. densely packed in little shoals. When these visit the

place the Quee nfish is sure to follow.

>A somewhat: smaller cousin of the Queenfish makes an occa-

Sonal appearance and two or three of them took my spoon. This

is. very probably Chorinemus toloo. It does not seem to reach

‘much over 18 inches in. length, and is, therefore of no particular

interest to the angler,. but it is a much better table fish thon its

larger: cousin the Dagoli whose flesh is soft and rather insipid.

_. The specimens of, this smaller fish, I caught, appeared to me to

be distinctly deeper, i.e. not so Slender in a vertical sense, than the

Queenfish. -They were very white with a blue back, and had 6 small

dark spots along the. lateral line.

- Chorinemus tala,..which Day describes: as bright oranse with

orange coloured fins, and which is said to reach 2 ft. in leneth, may

also: occasionally appear as it inhabits the same waters as the two

preceding ones, but IT never came across it.

The Black Kingfish (Flacate nigra); Morwasa.

“An elongate and fusiform mackerel, laterally not so markedly

ONiptescet as its cousins already déccribed The mouth is wide

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4g.

and the head rather broad and flattish, giving a somewhat murrel-

like impression,, quite unlike the head of any other mackerel.

It is armed with rows of villiform teeth and covered with

minute scales. The two dorsal fins are of the typical mackerel

type, the rear one, rather high and pointed, often emerges from

the water when the fish is cruising. The caudal is large and

crescent shaped, the lower lobe being the shorter. The pectorals

are..falcate and rather long.

The Elacate is dark olive in colouration, almost black in the

upper parts and whitish along the belly.

It gives an impression of power and speed, which the large

ones certainly do not belie.

In books of reference this fish is always. figured by the picture

of a very immature specimen, probably taken over from Day’s

book of The Fishes of India. This is quite unlike the adult and

useless for the identification of a fully grown specimen.

The Morwasa or perhaps better Mudhwasa is a very worthy

opponent, having besides, the special attraction of reaching a verv

considerable _ size. Ce eemmens over 7o Ibs. are by no means

really rare. It does not appear to be as fiercely predaceous as

the other mackerels, but puts up a good and stubborn fight

initiated by a fast and long run. Really large ones streak off

like lightning when struck, and give a great deal of trouble,

before giving in.

They show no marked tendency to snagging one’s line, even

when caught in spots where they could easily accomplish thick

These fish seem to appear later in the season than most others

and are one of the principal attractions to anglers operating in

November and December.

Also they appear not to be so purely tidal in habit as other large

mackerels, seeming to remain in the deeper parts of the bays,

markedly so in Bingi bay, during any part of the day. |

They are very often caught on set lines at night.

As a table fish the Morwasa has nothing to recommend _it-

being coarse and not tasty.

When.they make an appearance in numbers in the bay, they

‘do not seem to ever club together, but are met with singly.

The stretch of water from Badchidar point to Karkalli rocks

and the water off the lovely little ‘Ladies beach’ or ‘Reti bunder’

‘are then good localities where a really large one may be trolled

for. They are also occasionally hooked when fishing for Surmat

or Rawas roundabout the islands, and I have come across them

close in to Karkalli rocks; when the tide was very low.

Having thus. exhausted the list of large and sporting members

of the mackerel tribe, we now turn our attention to the other

main family of fish, inhabiting these waters, namely the Ser-

ranidae or Sea Perches. The king of these, from the angler’s

point of view, is without any doubt that doughty warrior, known

as:

The Cockup (ates calcarifer). Begti; Nair Fish, Kajoora.

This is a ‘powerfully built, high backed, perch, with the typical

fin. outfit of the tribe, the first dorsal being provided with thick

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER | 169

and pointed spines, pectorals and ventrals broad and somewhat

blunt, while the great caudal, affixed to its very muscular tail, is

broad and rounded. The posterior dorsal has only soft rays,

whereas there are seven spines in the anterior. The mouth is

very large, with a prominent lower jaw, and is well armed with

villiform teeth on jaws and palate. a

The scales are moderately large and the general colouration

is greyish silvery, shading to dark greenish gray on the back.

This is a typical estuary fish frequenting the tidal waters of

nearly every large river, and the waters outside the estuary.

They ascend tidal rivers right into sweet water quite frequently

and may indeed be used for stocking freshwater Jakes without

apparent inconvenience to them.

This fish is one of the most esteemed table fish and of consi-

derable economic importance in many parts.

It frequents Karwar Bay as well as the Estuary, but does not

seem to be really numerous. For this reason it is caught by

anglers, just occasionally by pure luck. Nobody has as yet taken

the trouble to find out the habitual haunts, if any, it frequents by

preference. A closer investigation of rocky spots in the river

would be well worth undertaking with a view to discovering the

feeding grounds of this fish.

‘Netters occasionally make a good haul of Begti of 30-40 |bs.,

-as I once witnessed near Burkia rock, where I had trolled just

a short while earlier, without having even experienced a touch.

The Begti has no predilection for a spoon, though it has quite

often been caught on one. A dead bait cunningly presented to it,

or better still a live bait such as a very large prawn or a lively

mullet have proved much more killing.

Begti have been caught in the Kalinaddi along the large Casua-

rina plantation on the far side of the river just below Sadashivgad.

On another occasion I observed a very large one chasing small

fish a few yards from shore at the ‘ladies beach’, but had, un-

fortunately, no casting tackle handy.

The Begti, in contradistinction to most sea and estuary fish

of any size, seizes its bait not with a rush, but mouths it gently

and must oe struck, for which there is no necessity with any of

the mackerel.

This fish mav reach great weight, enaen over 100 NLS under

suitable conditions. 7 .

Anyone willing to go deeper into the habits and capture of

this fish at Karwar will deserve the praise and gratitude of the

angling fraternity.

The Gobras or Gropers, also known as Rock Cods are the giants.

of the family. Some of truly fantastic size have been. caught in

various tropical and semitropical seas.

In Queensland, specimens of 600 Ibs. and more are not uncom-

mon and are the nightmare of the trochus divers,- who fear them

far more than Sharks, At Karwar the lighthouse keeper once landed

one measuring more than 7 ft. length Rina 5 ft. in girth. It was

covered with barnacles and a most fearsome cmoncier Its remains

served as manure for the new coconut palms of the island,

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

: During the monsoon netters have occasionally landed similar

giants. “When trolling deep in the channel between Devgad and

Mothe islands: towards evening using a bangra for bait, 1 havé

on ‘two occasions “hooked and played monsters of at LESS man

size; but never succeeded in landing one.

“The best known of these monsters is:

Serranus tanceolatus.

Avery thickset typical | perch, very variable according to age

and. surroundings in colouration and markings. Young ones are

often mottled brown-on a gamboge ground. ‘Thése colours dull

with age. Adults are generally brownish above, shading into

prayiee below, and irregularly blotched over with ‘reddish brown.

Serranus malabaricus’ and Serranus salmoides, which is pro-

bably “ay nonymous with » Serranus diacanthus also ‘occur all along

this coast. i

They are, however, SO simile’ to S. lanceolatius that’ they need

not: be given a ‘special ‘description in an article of this kind.

All these gobras are provided with enormous heads -and huge

gaping mouths, a set of conical teeth in the lower jaw and a large

number: of villiform: teeth on jaws, vomer and palatines.

When gaffed they distend their opercles and inflate themselves:

making their heads look quite leonine and menancing. The’ first

dorsal has short and very stout spines, the second only soft rays.

The pectorals, ventrals and anals are broad and blunt, often _spot-

ted and: the caudal is broad and rounded.

‘The paunchy body is covered with small scales.

-/Fhesé fish ‘seem to be permanent or nearly permanent residents

of these parts and not influenced by tidal conditions. They. are

great “predators, but do not seem to chase their prey in the open

sea like the mackerels. They apparently lurk in rock caverns and

amongst boulders, to pounce on the passer by, whom they en-

gulf in their cavernous jaws. —

Owing to its purposeful skill in snagging one’s line in ’a-short

lightning rush to the nearest rock, the gobra is a most detestable -

fist. to hook. ~ Having effected this first manoeuvre it quietly

‘sits: down’ behind its rock like a goonch, and earnestly applies

itself to the severance of your line, in which it is much assisted

‘by..the _presence of sundry mussels, birnacles and clams, Satin sehiicin

the rocks are well covered.

’. Phe novice, not up to the wiles -of his Boponent and finding his

Jine’ whizzing out with the speed of the boat; not infrequently thinks

he is fast in a’running fish, and wonders. at the endless’ run ‘he is

experiencing. ‘Old hands’ invariably recognize a gobra_ by its

first ‘and.,immediate ‘reaction to the strike. The thing they do ‘is to-

stop the boat and take it as nearly as possible right: over’ the

anchorage. of. the wily fish, circling slowly round, tugging” alf the

while. . This’ generally succeeds in dislodging the fish, which then

tries to reach Tnother near by refuge.

‘By repeating this procedure as often as required even A se large

eé6bras may be circumvented, provided the dine holds, ‘which is, by

no-means invariably the case, cr rer}

. CIRCUMVENTING THE M. HUIS ese i7t

~At all events the usual gobra of 30 “ibs. or need ought. to..be

landed, as fish of this size can be pretty roughly handled without

actual “risk of breakage, provided one’s line is not frayed ‘and

one’s rod tip plays up well. Al

‘Small gobras are quite good eating, and have appeared on

many a Bombay man’s table under the name of ‘ishtone fish, suh.! !

Chinese connoisseurs esteem them greatly.

~A few small members of the gobra family. inhabit’ the ‘locality

and will be mentioned when treating of the activities of the bottom

fisher~ whose main’ catch they usually provide.

On the other: hand several members of the allied: family of” the

~ Lutianidae or Rock Perches, will quite often take’ an interest in

a trolled spoon of bait. a

‘They are sturdily built and often splendid)y coloured ase

and frequently of very reasonable size. - Indeed several of the fra-

ternity’ may reach and exceed 30 lbs. a 3

As indicated by their thickset, highbacked bodies,’ and deter-

mined mien, these fish are powerful and stubborn fighters for their

side, ever ready to shag and cut one’s line. They should, there-

fore, he handled with great firmness and circumspection if dis

aster is to be avoided. :

Their relative strength has frankly astonished me on more

than one occasion. Size for size, our friend the mahseer iS simply

not in it.

These Lutianidae are very much fiercer- in their resistance.

The main members of the family commonly met with at Karwar

are the following :—

~The Red Rock Perch (Lutianus roseus); Tambosia.

This is a truly resplendent fish, clad in fair sized scales of:

auroral or rosy pink hues, with deep scarlet reflexes in the darker

parts. In general shape it is much more elegant than’ a gobré,

although somewhat thickset and humpy. The fins are also more

elongate and of a more pleasing shape. The head is large, as is

the mouth, | which is armed with a few very respeetable conical

teeth.

This fish does not frequently exceed 7-8 lbs. at Karwar, but

much heavier ones have been landed. ie, is astonishingly. strong,

and at. first leads one to believe that something much. larger

has’ been hooked. The sight of its brightly pink body .suddenly

emerging out of the blue depth is quite a surprising apparition...

-Like .its: fellow Rock Perches, the Red- Perch is a great hand.

at snagging. | sii :

*. . These .fish »sometimes. invade the bay in vast numbers,.,and

then stay on for many days, during which they. are met with

wherever there are rocks to suit their fancy.

It is firm fleshed, perhaps a little coarse, but pleasantly full

flavoured and very nice in a ‘mouli’, or as one item of a ‘bouilla-

BESS that most unforgettable enon fish Sete

> The Blue-spotted Rock Perch . Guitiqnus a gentimaculatus) Tinulrtee

This is a very sturdy, powerfully built rock perch, reer

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

well over 30 lbs., according to the literature. The heaviest if Weighs

ed was 27 lbs. |

Although not so gorgeous as L. roseus, it is a very pleasing

sight fresh out of the water, with its greyish, silvery ground

colour, shading to darker hues in the upper parts, and ornamented

as it is with several not too clearly defined vertical blackish bands

and innumerable small, caerulean spots.

This fish is certainly expert at snagging, and applies its

enormous strength very determinedly. Many are the lines that

it has broken in a super-lightning whizz round a well barnacled

rock. L. argentimaculatus seems to be more of a free lance than

LE. roseus, and does not seem-to associate in large bands, and

seems to be happy in little bays where a certain amount of surf

keeps beating on the rock face. From the culinary point of view

it is a most desirable catch.

The kalasis of the lighthouse are great hands at fishing for

them, but loose many more than they land on their handlines.

The Tamboos (Lutianus spp.)

Lutianus johnii also a sturdy fish, but less highbacked than

the preceding ones. It is more sober in hue, being generally olive

brown in the upper parts and yellowish in the lower with purplish

and golden flushes, and a prominent black spot in the rear part

of the lateral line. It frequently ascends tidal rivers and is said

to reach up to 5 ft. length. The heaviest I weighed was just

under 30 lbs., 15 Ibs. is a common weight at Karwar. These are

quite fierce fighters and amazingly pore when of good size.

~ Lutianus sillaoo.

Brownish red in the upper parts and often vinous, but a fine

deep lake below the lateral line. On the throat and chest it may

have scarlet reflexes and orange on the opercles.

This fish is also said to grow very large and is frequently found

a long way from the sea up tidal rivers.

It is excellent eating and greatly esteemed by the population.

I have never had the good fortune to hook’ a large one, but

iudging by the resistance put up by the 3-5 pounders if handled .

I must have missed something worth experiencing.

Lutianus fulviilamma. This member of the family may or may not

be ornamental with a black spot above the lateral line. It is

frequently vinous.red in the upper parts with pink flashes, and the

lower parts have a beautiful golden sheen. This beautiful fish

does not appear to visit the bay very frequently, but I have occa-

sionally caught it at the south-western end of Mothe island, when

it gave a most excellent fight. The largest weighed 17 Ibs. and

was very good eating. They took a spoon quite readily.

The genus Sciaena is represented mainly by :—

The Gol fish (Sciaena sina)

This is a very familiar fish to the inhabitants of Bombav, who -

frecuently see them carried about on the heads of nimble little

Koli women. It is a fine representative of the Percidae, rather

more slender and elongated than those treated previously,

CIRCUMVENTING THE. MAHSEER 173

The body is covered with moderately large scales, brownish in

the upper parts, greyish white below.

These fish reach 50 Ibs. and over and appear sometime in

September in vast congregations in the bay. They are easily spot-

ted by their habit ot lying up closely packed, almost at the surface,

torming a large purplish patch.

Several boats then sally forth with long nets in which they en-

circle the shoal of fish, gradually tightening the circle, until Hae

have them in a bag between two. boats.

The catch, whicn ery amounts to over 600 fish in one

haul, is taken ashore, cleaned, gutted, saited and sun dried on rocks.

The finished product used ito be bought up by Moormen trom

Colombo at amazingly low rates tor aisposal to the plantation

labourers in Ceylon, aS a welcome addition to their diet. ‘hese

merchants were, however, so grasping, that in certain years the

focal fishermen stood firm and refused to fish for gol. |

The gol, a fast and tenacious fighter, 1s caught on rod and

jine only as a piece of very. occasional luck.

It is rather coarse but quite tasty.

Having reviewed the main members of the two great. families

of the Scombridae and Serranidae, and treated that superb game

fish the Bahmin, we now have to say a few words about the local

representatives of a few other less prolific families, with which the

angler may come into contact.

The local representative of the Sphyraenidae iS :—

The Batracooda (Splhyraena jello); Banasia.

This is a true sea pike, bearing a fair resemblance to our fede

water pike, with whom it shares the spare and elongated body and

the very. predatory mouth full of pointed teeth. in many areas

of its extensive range this fish reaches a length of 6 ft. and a

weight of 60 Ibs. and over. It has a bad-reputation for ferocity and

is greatly teared by bathers in some parts.

In Karwar, they are occasional visitors never reaching aaveine

like full size. Amongst the many I| caught, the largest did not

exceed 16 lbs. and was a mere baby compared with some I came

across in Ceylon and Australia.

These small barracooda are after all mere undesirables. They

come in like lambs, are in the habit of vomiting up the contents

of their stomachs in the boat, and as table fish they are detestable.

A large one, no doubt, does put up a much better show, but

size for size cannot compare with surmai or dagoli.

The local member of the Scombresocidae of interest: to. the

angler is

The Garfish (Belone annulata) Toli.

This is an extremely elongated and very slender fish with a

very long and thin snout, like a gavial, full of needle pointed green

teeth. The dorsal and anal fins are situated very far back, in fact

just before the tail. The pectoral and ventral fins are very small

as are also the scales.

The colouration is rather bright, the back being sea green and

ifg JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. gi.

steel blue, the sides pale greenish shading down to white, and. the

lower jaw frequently black.

- ‘Lbe Gar is chieny remarkable on account of its long dupe

— performances. lt will suddenly shoot out of the water, like an

arrow trom a bow, to a height of about 5 ft. and a distance of

2u to 30 tt., and repeat this several times, just barely, pa the

water between leaps.

The ‘1ocal representatives, rarely much over 2 ft. long, will Occa-

sionally take a spoon, but much prefer a death bait. rapidly drawn

over the surface. This is in fact how much larger. specimens

ofthe genus are circumvented in the meyencliesy a where a. flying

fish 1s trolled from a motor boat. |

As a table fish it is not to be despised. —

‘Lhe only member of the great herring tribe of any interest to

he angler at Karwar is

- The Woli Herring (Chirocentrus dorab) Kerk

‘the fish reaches: colossal dimensions in: the Pacific, ree it 1s

credited with a length of 12 ft. It never seems to exceed 4 ft. in

our ‘Waters.

-A very. elongated and laterally very compressed ag, pen an

upgeshune jaw and a mouth full of very pointed. and - sabre

shaped teeth. All-fins, with the exception of the caudal. and the

anai, are very small, and the dorsal is situated. very. far back.

The scales are small. The caudal fin is deeply forked.

the colouration is quite striking, being bright silvery, with a

beautitul ultramarine blue along the back.

-.this..very. predatory fish appears often in numbers of mostly

undersized. ee ee They are then almost ae in nuisance

they “infest. in Ree .

‘However, when the larger ones. come, Nee, may _ ibs ies

swirling. on. the Surface and even leaping as they. feed_on. sardines.

winding: ee ‘and to.cast them a little plug ora cine nounted

dead bait. Quite pretty play, with a few acrobatics thrown in, will

ensue and furnish the delighted angler with a welcome change from

the eternal. trolling.

The. fish is unfortunately full of sharp. little bones, but ihe

wise quite tasty. .

Strips of its tough and white hide make quite good trolling

‘baits,’ the entire fish is one of the most ravouted baits used in

Ceylon by swordfish anglers.

Finally I might yet say that I have ample evidence of the pre-

sence, some 15 to 20 miles further out, of such very desirable

menibers..of the mackerel family as the dolphin, the bonito, the

yellow-fin, tunny, the wonderful sail fish ahd the marlin, which are

‘at. present quite entirely out of reach, _ Perhaps. the day _may

COME. jie yer oy 2

It is now necessary to give a short list of the fish to be pro-

cured, by such methods as avift lining and bottom fishing’. .

The first mentioned method, i.e. drift lining or surf lining |

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER we

from an anchored boat, will quite often procure quite interesting

results. This form of fishing is not otten indulged in by visttors

to Jsarwar, as it is most truitful in channels with a rapid tidal

low towards and after sunset, such as the passages between

Badchidar, Point and Elephant (Mogeragudda) island, the one bet-

ween Devgad and Mothe, and the channel between Kurmugad. ‘and

Badlingad.

Apart from various rock perches, such as Lutianus roseus and

argentimaculatus, caught on medium-powered driftlines baited with

chunks of bangra, with now and then a gobra thrown in, we caught

on light lines floated in the surf of small indentations, the pretty

Diagramma crassispinum, and in the tidal current Hemiramphus

imbatus both of which take a prawn’s tail well enough.

On large chunks of bangra, very large rays and an occasional

dogfish may be caught.

On occasions the fun was interfered with by incursions of the

very. detestable Trichiurus malabaricus, the Scabbard fish, which

drove everything else away, and one had ‘to pack up and leave. the

place.

Of the fish mentioned above,

-Diagramma crassispinum, locally called Amboi, is one of the. most

interesting on account of its qualities as a table fish; It belongs

to a separate genus of the Serranidae or’ Sea Perches: and

isa sturdy and deep set fish in a pigeon grey uniform of small

scales. Its main characteristics are the very stout spines “inthe

first dorsal, and a particularly thick one in the anal, and above all

the very “thick and fleshy lips, w which in Queensland ee ound

if. the name of ‘Sweet lips’. — .

nalts may exceed 20 lbs. but most: ‘of those ‘caught by. rift ining

‘are quite: ‘small. Wiss Pets. |

pe Hemiramphus limbatus is one of. a number of. very eee TOD

aie: - Scombresocidae, ebay acerca by. a much. produced. lower

jaw, forming a kind of beak. The body is slender and sub-cylin-

‘dric--in»section,.. clad. in. scales of moderate size, coloured greenish

‘with blue sheen. above, shading down to white below.

‘In contradistinction to the lower jaw, the upper is very. small.

The dorsal fin is single and stands opposed to the anal inthe

posterior part of the body. iS

These fish do not exceed a foot in length and often. appear in

jarge numbers, when they are eagerly ce after owing to, their

excellent culinary qualities.

When they are on the feed the fan is fast. and. ‘furious, andl

pes ean be. taken in rapid succession, cast after cast.. ;

F “Trichiurus malabaricus and its relation to Trichiurus savala plore to

a separate family, the Trichiuridae or Scabbard fish. “They are

aptly described by their local Marathi name ‘Bale’ the spear. Their

characteristics are a very slender, laterally compressed, elongated

body, with the dorsal fin running nearly the whole length of. it.

There is no caudal fin, but the body ends in a sort’ of thin--rat ‘tail.

The ventrals are practically reduced to nil and the pectorals very

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 43.

small. The rhuizalé is elongate and the mouth very wide and fur-

nished with a goodly array of pointed teeth. ©. 9. cut :

These fish are apt to appear now and again in Gonsideeagie

numbers, when they are a frightful and abominable nuisance, des-

troying and maiming little fish literally in thousands, i.e. far more

than they could-ever devour, evidently in. sheer bloodlust.

At times I have seen the inner harbour of Karwar full-of swarms

of small mackerel (Toki) everyone of which was more or less

gashed or mutilated by these pests, ‘and in an. evident state. of

helpless terror. It was quite a pitiful sight indeed.

Trichiurus is a great nuisance to the troller using a bait fish,

as they slash these up time after time and render them useless,

It is most inadvisable to sally forth after sunset in a canoe,

wearing a white shirt or singlet, numbers of Trichiurus are then

about and they are quite likely to leap at a white arm or shoulder,

inflicting a painful bite. My tindal Genoba experienced this much

to his discomfiture in my presence, when such an attack left him

bleeding profusely and very sorry for himself. Tvrichiurus is eaten

but not greatly esteemed.

The ray most commonly caught by drift lining is the Leena 3

ray probably Pteroplatea micrurae a large ray with a somewhat

rounded disc, white below and covered above with dark and lght

spots and blotches. It has a long whip-like tail furnished at the

base with one or more, flat dagger-like spines, up to 8 inches long,

with a finely serrated edge, with which it inflicts very painful and

dangerous wounds.

They are rather fun to catch, as they make off: rather slowly

but with great power and determination and take quite a bit of

hauling betore they can be brought alongside. It 1s a queer sight

to see these great flat things emerge from the depth into the star-

light, belly up and looking just like a white -blanket.

We caught them up to 7o lbs. and over. They are cut up

and sundried in strips, and are said to make quite a_ palatable

stew. CE RR

Fish caught by bottom fishing.—This is mostly done from an

anchored boat, in spots we!l known to’ the boatmen, who often

practise it. It. is most successful at sunset and after, and is

mostly performed with handlines, baited with prawns or chunks

ot fish.

The main bag: is composed. of anaes Anil or medium sized

gobras may be about. :

At times some of the Lutianidae will appear in numbers, - and

form part of the haul. Diagramma crassispinum, the Amboi, is—

otten caught, as are one or two members of the Sciaena family.

Other, but very unwelcome famuliars are the various murrain

eels, hideous creatures which tie themselves round the line in a

sumy ball and inflict a very painful bite, unless care is taken,

ihey are extremely pugnacious.

A short description of the following will suffice. Amongst the

minor gobras we meet;

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 177

Serranus undulosus with a number of dark longitudinal — lines

along the: sides.

Serranus commersonii, lively little fellow with longitudinal black

line above the lateral line, much fished for by boys along the

quays.

A very much better fish is that very good eating perch known

as The Palu. This is a thickset pearly grey fish, with sturdy spines

in dorsal and anal fin, running to 3-4 lps. It is much esteemed as

a table fish and has the reputation of being the champion _bait-

thief on the West Coast.

It is found in fair numbers also in tidal rivers and in estuaries.

One of the Chrysophrys, a pretty little fish resembling the Palu,

but more whitish and having bright yellow pectorals, perhaps Ch.

«latnia, is also not infrequently caught.

By far the most welcome catches are the Lutianidae, chiefly

Lutianus roseus and L., argentimaculatus, which have already been

described. Amongst the eels the following are common:

Muraena tessellata, a flattish eel with a large head, beautifully

marked with black spots separated by narrow white lines.

Muraena tile, with a yellowish ground colour forming: reticula-

tions between numerous dark blotches.

Muraena undulata. Marked with numberless ‘little brownish

spots and blotches .on a pale ground, and there are probably others.

Fishing

Having described the locality and the fish available it is now

necessary to give a few hints as to the best spots where fish resort

and the best methods to circumvent them. These hints will be

found useful by the novice and may save even the exper some

time and disappointment.

Fishing seasons. It has already been hinted that Shine: at

Karwar depends to a very great extent on the presence of swarms

of migrating fish, such as certain Engraulis, Clupea-and smal!

mackerels, chiefly Scomber microlepidotus, the Bangra. . Shoals of

these migrants travel along the coast from September well into the

hot weather in one direction or the other, and when they hug the

coast closely, as they often do, they not only provide the population

with food, but attract all the larger predatory fishes, which other-

wise keep far outside.

Signs of the presence of these larger fish are then au un-

_ mistakable. The disturbance caused by their attacks on the shoals,

results in spasmodic leaping which sends the spray” flying.

Or great and gleaming white fish will be seen leaping high

into the air. Fishing is then more or less at sight, and may be

possible all over the bay and the adjoining inlets, wherever these

signs are reported from.

During the time preceding the arrival of the shoals of smali

fish, 1.e. in the second half of August and early September, * when

the main run of Bahmin and large Caranx generally takes place,

fishing is almost entirely confined to the waters in close proximity

to the various rocks and islands, and to the channels between

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisSf, SHDEIMBI NS Vol, AB.

them. The fish visit these feeding grounds regularly, comin in

and going out with the tide.

lor this reason, and according to general experience the desi

times for fishing roundabout the islands are:

(1) From the end of the first quarter of the incoming tide

to the beginning of the third quarter.

(2) From the beginning of the second quarter of the out-

going tide to some time. past the half tide.

This rule is of course not absolute, as stragglers often visit

the rocks at the high tide or at the extreme low one.

However, most of the fish, at high:‘tide, scatter inside the

bay, where they are difficult to find, while at low ‘tide they,

as a rule, prefer to retire further out to sea, as is but natural and

logical in such a shallow coastal region.

Sometimes, when the fish have left the islands of the light-

house group at the approaching high: tide, “they-may be met with

again near Kurmugad and Madlingad islands, which le nearer to

the estuary.

I have more than once experienced this. During the Bahmin

season attention should be paid to the sporadic appearance ot

shoals of small cuttlefish, which form one of their favourite foods

and which they pursue in open waters. An angler’s dream !

Swarms of minute, whitebait-like creatures also appear at times.

and are inevitably followed by the very desirable Dagoli, which

is quite inordinately fond of them. Local fishermen call these

small fish ‘Buratti’. |

Methods of fishing. As for the methods of fishing, by far

the most successful is that rather tiresome process-trolling, so:

little relished by the fresh water angler, and which in less lively

times means little more than a_ blind (Rene nm of the area

and utter boredom. Relief may come from the occasional sight

of a family of otters gambolling in a little bay, or by such diver-

sions as the appearance of a school of porpoises or false killers,

or by the swoop of a sea eagle on an unsuspecting sea snake.

There should however, not be too many such days.

Where to fish. During the Bahmin and Caranx season the

search for fish should be narrowed down to ‘the rocks and islands,

commencing with the isolated rock called ‘Burkia’ where Caranx

are. often encountered. | aie

Then proceed to the Karkalli rocks and keep your eyes skinned

for swirls or leaps round about both ends, and also along botly

faces, particularly in the shallow bay on the seaward side, where

there is often a pretty little turmoil of surf. Troll as close in.

to the rocks as you dare or as conditions permit, and you may

be rewarded by a strike.

If this proves barren, then visit the single rocky py ramid a bit

further towards little Devead, the water between this and the flat

stone table island on the far side,

Immediately to the west of the py Sarai is) a (small) arean or

shallows, formed by sunken rock, where usually a good deal of

surf obtains. This is frequently a sure find for Bahmin, but exceed-

ingly snaggy. Proceed then to the channel separating thes rock-

table from little Devgad island, it often holds a fish.

at |

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER I

The water on both main sides of little Devgad is almost never

tenanted by anything else than gobra and may be given a miss.

Proceed then to the south-eastern end of Mothe island, at the

entrance of the channel. It a surt plays at this spot it is tenant-

ed just as often as not. Then proceed up the channel along Mothe

Island. Mark the spots where the surf is liveliest and’ give them

the once or twice over. This-island face: is one of the favourite

feeding grounds of the Bahmin. The northern end holds them

rarely, but has provided some very fine Caranx, and is often visit-

ed by sharks.

The western or south-western face of Mothe holds, just past

the south-eastern end, a rocky shallow bay where I have’ had ai

times great sport stl smailish and very lively Bahmin.

qines face of Devgad island, opposing Mothe, is not a favourite

with Bahmin, but is visited by huge Gobras, and a little indenta-

tion in it with a good deal of surf is a favourite spot for Lutianus

argentimaculatus of good size.

The north-western end of Devgad is formed by a slanting rock-

table in front of a high rock wall. There is generally a strong

surf there washing far up the flat rocks. Here some of. the

really large Bahmin, the 25 Pounders, etc., have been caught. This

spot is followed by a roomy and deeply indented bay torming a

great part of the north-west side of Devgad island. It is rather

shallow, but occasionally tenanted by smaller Bahmin. At the

far end is an outlying single rock, between ~which and _ the

island there is a rather shallow passage where the turmoil

of waves is often so savage, as to render it quite impassable.

This passage is a favourite spot, as are the, rocks beyond: it,

which form the north-east end of the island. However, a_ tre-

mendous surf break so often over these .rocks in August and

September, that often they are hot as approachable as one would

like them to be.

At the eastern face, just past these rocks, we find a bay in

which is situated the island’s well, surrounded by a few coconu!

palms.

This bay is a good find for Gobra, Lutianus argentimaculatus ,.

and the face of the island, from this bay up to the entrance to

the channel separating it from Little Devgad, is very often a good

place for Bahmin.

_ The channel separating Kurmugad from Madlingad and_ the

small rocky islet at the north eastern of Kturmagad are often tenant-

ed by bahmin, but hardly ever big ones, especially later in the

season, i.e. early in October or late«in, September.

Trolling. When trolling in such localities, 1.c:; close to a rock-

face and over fairly shallow water with a bcucery bottcn, a

‘short line of some 20 yards is mostly ample, and» really an ac-

vantage. A fish can more easily be controlled on short Ine than

on a long one. In more open water, 30 yards of line out should

be considered normal. On calm days and very clear water an

additional 5-ro yards may be given in the opén. It is convenient

to mark these lengths on the line with a whipping of coloured

“silk.

4380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45-

It is a good plan with all lines to be used in trolling in snagpy

places to aouble them at the business end over a length of a tew

yards, and to athx an inch of whipping at intervals ot about 2 ft.

Wuite often one part of the doubled line may be trayed by con- |

tact with a rock when fighting a fish, and the situation yet saveu —

by the other. This is permitted by the rules of most sea fishing

clubs and should not be neglected.

With the slow motion ovat spoon generally in use, or with

dead bait, anti-kink device is not rigorously essential.

With hogbacked spoon and some of the so-called self-striking

spoons, which have a rapid motion, it is however, quite essential

to use a good anti-kinker in the interest of an expensive line.

A boat-shaped trolling lead may be used when it is desired to

troll deeper than the usual 3-4 ft. This is a useful plan when

trolling for gobra or rock-perch. Leads of 3-4 oz. will be suffici-

ent. When trolling with an 8 oz. lead and a large chunk of fish

south of Mothe island I once hooked an enormous tiddle ray (Rhyn-

chobatus) and played it for quite a while. Ultimately 1 lost it,

not altogether to my regret as it was far too large to ship in a

canoe. '

The face of Itarwar head up to Badchidar point may be neg-

lected from the trolling point of view until the end of October,

after which the deep part just off the Ladies’ bay often is tenanted

by morwasa, which also seem to like the space between Badchidar

point and Burkia rock. In both these stretches a lead sinker may

be used.

The channel between Badchidar point and Elephant island |

(Dukri) is often a hunting ground of dagoli and surmai and may

be trolled for them. Elephant island often attracts fairly large

gobra, and the rocks off its western or south-western side are

occasionally visited by bahmin, as is the seaward side ot Anje-

div island, especially the south-eastern end, where very often

surmai will waylay a shoal of bangra. Anjediv is, however, far

afield for a canoe based on Karwar, but canoes may be hired at

Bingi village. ¥

Bait-casting tactics with a good surf casting outfit, or even

a stout mahseer outfit, provides very enjoyable and quite

exciting sport whenever bahmin are found to be feeding in the

estuary. Suitable spots are just behind the bar, alongside an ex-

tensive Kasuarina plantation, just below the fort hill of Sadasniv-

gad, on the far side of the Kalinadi.

The fish will be noticed swirling and leaping, often within a

few yards off-shore, and the water is almost entirely free of snags

there, except for a few stumps closer inshore.

These bahmin are frequently quite ravenous and just take

anything cast to them:—spoon, plug or deadbait, with the greatest

alacrity. The first rush of a good one, aided by the tide-rip is

truly magnificent and may be fully allowed in this snagfree

stretch.

Most of these bahmin, although very rarely large, fight won-

derfully well, and frequently in their fury beach themselves by

running on to the sands, where they leap and flounder about un-

til grappled by an attendant. This is highly necessary as_ they

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 18k

often rid themselves of the hook and disappear with a leap into

the briny.

Opportunity for this glorious fun occurs at intervals during

September-October, but it is as a rule confined to the last quarter

of the low tide and so never lasts long.

It is therefore advisable to brief a watcher on the spot, pre-

ferably one possessed of a cycle or furnished with one, to bring:

immediate Rhubber when a shoal of bahmin has entered the

estuary. The fish frequently enter the estuary at night and may

then be fished for at the next low tide. I have never known them

to be on the spot more than 3-4 days in succession after which

they may be absent for a week or so.

True surf casting is the method least tried at Karwar, where

the waves break too far out on most beaches to allow of it.

It might prove successful at the Cemetery bay, at and near full-

tide. Sport with rays and dogfish is quite on the cards there,

and I shall certainly give it a try at my next visit. At nearly

every other spot the slope is so gradual that it would be useless

to try. :

_ A few more purely technical hints about actual fishing may be

helpful and therefore follow.

With most of these sea fish a strike is unmistakable and not

unfrequently produces a jerk, which almost tears the rod out of

one’s hand. Should the strike materialize anywhere in the imme-

diate vicinity or rocks, as it mostly does in Bahmin fishing, and

no immediate ocular demonstration follow, as is produced by such

surface fighters as surmai, dagoli, or morwasa, a very firm hol<

should be kept on the line by means of any braking device pro-

vided on one’s reel. ‘The line should be allowed to slip out by inches

only, while the boat is pulled into open water. The time needed by

a good crew is not more than a few seconds. Nevertheless it

would be fatal to stop the line altogether. The fish are extraordi-.

narily powerful, and the process of dragging a fairly large body

out, often against a strong current, develops a considerable strain,

which might easily cause disaster to rod or line.

When playing a fish, except one of the surface fighters men-

tioned, it is advisable at all at times during the fight to keep a

really tight line without however being brutal.

This is first of allt rendered necessary by the ever present ten--

dency of gobra, bahmin and Caranx to snag one’s line on the

nearest rocks, and secondly because of the poor hookhold offer-

ed by most parts of a bahmin’s mouth. Quite often no real hold

is effected and the fish can only be played by constant tension.

It will drop off the hook as soon as it is gaffed, and the tension

ceases.

Very frequently a surface fighter is hooked near rocks. When

this is unmistakably the case, the fish may be allowed its run from:

the very start, as neither dagol, nor surmai or morwasa are likely

to snag one’s line intentionally. They make straight for the open

water. :

Such fish should never be held hard, but kept running on a

moderately tight line only. A hard hold would deprive the fisher-

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

man of the possible thrill of a iholalaming like rush of roo wievadls

or over. Only then, a tighter hold may be applied, and -the fish

struck.. When dealing with bahmin it is advisable to Strike at

the end of the first run, to increase the chances of a good hookhold.

With surmai and dagoli the necessity is debatable.

Runs of the length stated above are never put up by even

the largest bahmin. They confine themselves to moderate runs

at great speed, invariably in the direction of the nearest rocks.

These rushes are generally followed. by a series of very strong

tugs and sometimes leaps, after which the usual cruising and circl-

ing will follow, until the fish can be drawn in to gaff. Watch

the fish warily at this stage as the possibility of a sudden dive

for a rock is always present, or it may suddenly rush straight at

the boat in an attempt to pass underneath. ‘This must be foiled

by all the available tactics of rod and boat, as it would inevitably

end in a smash up. ;

An experienced angler will immediately recognize a gobra by

its short superspeed dive for the rocks close at hand. It is short,

swift and quite unmistakable. The tactics given earlier under the

description of the fish should then be applied.

A slantwise rush to the bottom at incredible speed wa often

over 60. yards or so, indicates a large Caranx. The strength of

these fish as developed in this first rush is so incredible that it

would be the height of folly to do anything except prevent an

overrun. A gradual increase of resistance is not permissible until

the speed of the run shows some slowing down.

In the pursuit of surmai or dagoli, in the act of smashing up

shoals of food fish, use dead bait, as then they hardly ever consider

a Spoon.

The best tactics are to let out a very long line, and to have one’s

boat rowed round the shoal, without approaching it too closely.

Then, at the opportune moment, draw the bait through. by rapid

reeling in. To approach closely or to take the boat through the

shoal would be quite fatal to one’s purpose.

Casting. If the fisherman, possessing a good stout casting

rod and reel, can rig it up in time, the sight of surmai smashing

up bangra provides the most glorious sport. Cast across the shoal

with a long cast and pull through. Repeat if nothing hag

happened.

A good caster will be able to enjoy incomparable sport with

surmai or dagoli, when they are in action in numbers.

An experienced caster, provided with stout tackle, also may

enjoy very good fun in casting for bahmin towards the rocks from

his boat, but he will lose many fish and some tackle too. The

fish are so swift in effecting a snag.

It is because of these tactics of the bahmin that casting from

rocks is practically useless, unless the fish is yanked out at once

by main force. This no true fisherman would think of doing.

A few word about drift-lining and bottom-fishing follow.

Drift-lining answers best at sunset and after, in places with

‘a good deal of tidal current, such as channels between islands.

According to what one intends catching, light or heavy lines

care used, the quantity of lead weight used depends on the

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 133

force of the current. The baited line is flung out across the direc-

tion of the current. More and more line is paid out and sub-

sequently retrieved, to cover as much water as possible. A trace

is as often as not dispensed with. When there is little current

afloat may be used.

Generally rod and reel are dispensed with and hand-lining re-

sorted to, which is enjoyable for a change. It gives one a ‘feel’

of what is going on, which one never gets with fod and reel.

For bait, prawns’ tails or crab are Sxvallont for small fish, and

chunks of bangra or large strips out of the side of a fish will

do for the larger ones. Small squids are excellent bait.

A variety of this sport, which I would call surf-lining, may

be successfully practised at many points along the Karwar head.

it can be done wherever a small rocky bay or mere indentation in

the rockwall shows a lively bit of turmoil and surf, which does

not allow an unweighted line to sink to the bottom.

The boat is anchored about 10 yards outside and the baited

line flung in. The motion of the water, with its currents and

counter current causes one’s bait to search out the whole place.

Quite often very good fishing results, unless the inopportune

arrival of the abominable Trichiurus puts a stop to the proceed-

ings, or ‘phosphors’ show up one’s line too prominently.

When drift-lining for Hemihamprus a fairly large corkfloat is

used, to which several short lengths of line, provided with hooks

are attached. The device is baited with prawn and flung out,

attached to a thin line, which is paid out as required. When the

Hemirampi are really on the feed, the fun is fast and furious.

as frequently 2-3 fish will be hauled in at one cast.

When hauling in a skate or ray, care should be taken that the

‘spines are chopped off before the fish is taken inboard. They

are highly dangerous. On a starlit night this form of fishing

‘is quite enjovable and provides a nice change.

Bottom-fishing is the method mostly resorted to by _ local

‘sportsmen when they are not netting. It is at times quite inte-

resting and like driftlining it is most productive of results after

dark. Groundbaiting with chopped up fish is a necessary preli-

-minary.

If there is no current, the fish bait may be simply thrown in.

Wherever there is a current it is advisable to confine the bait in

the meshes of an old bit of net and to lower this with the help of

a stone by means of a rope. The depth is then plumbed and one’s

lines lowered to a length, which keeps the baited hook about

2 ft. from the bottom. This precaution avoids a good deal of

‘snagging and loss of tackle.

When baiting with loose chopped fish, or ‘chumming’ as the

Americans call it, a handful of bait should be dropped in every

ten minutes or so. This is quite often also done in drift-lining.

Bottom-fishing may at times result in quite amazing catches.

I shall always remember an occasion’ when my wife hauled up

in some 2 hours, 50 Red Rock Perch. Most of those in process

of being hauled up were shepherded by 2 or 3 ‘unattached’ friends,

and it was a truly amazing sight. She might have caught another

fiftv quite easily as they Seamed inexhaustible.

_—

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

Quite large gobra are frequently caught when bottom-fishing

and the kadori, (Lutianus argentimaculatus) at the end of a hand=-

line, provides quite exciting sport, if of decent size. It is advis-

able to wear gloves when indulging in this pastime to’ save one’s.

hands from being cut by the line. .

The boatmen are quite conversant: from personal experience

with the best spots for bottom-fishing and surf-lining, and are

generally only too pleased to take a hand in the sport, and to

help increasing the bag.

As to the most favourable time of the day for Ashive® in the

bay, this is a question often debated amongst visitors.

Personally, I believe that it has in general little to do with

one’s chances, as these depend on the presence of fish, and that

again, as explained before, is a matter of the state of the tide,

and of the presence of food fish.

I must, however, admit that I have more than once been

lucky with good Caranx at Burkia rock at the crack of dawn,

seemingly irrespective of the state of the tide.

TACKLE.

It is a home truth equally valid for the expert freshwater

fisherman as for the sea angler, that the possession and handling

of really first class tackle is a joy in itself, and that such fine tools.

go a long way to ensure enjoyment and successful fishing.

Such things are however expensive and really not worth in-

vesting in when it is a case of just augmenting a casual holiday.

by the seaside with a little indulgence in sea fishing.

This happens to be very frequently the case with visitors.

to Karwar, who often have no previous fishing experience at

all.

In a few notes placed years ago at the disposal of the Army

and Navy Stores for their catalogue, I recommended for the

use of such casual and inexperienced visitors simple yet seem-

ingly excessively strong tackle. However extreme these recom-

mendations may appear to the expert fisherman, they have fulfilled

their purpose for many a novice, whom they helped in getting a

first experience in seafishing, without the disappointment of losing

nearly every fish hooked.

However, as these present lines are addressed more to the

man with some experience of fishing in fresh or salt water, I

shape my recommendations as follows :—

There is scope in Karwar fishing for medium and for fairly

light sea tackle. This, in the hands of a practised fisherman,

should suffice to deal with anything he will come across, excert

a giant gobra or a shark, if he has the misfortune to be taken on

by any of these. These possibilities, though undoubtedly present,

are sufficiently remote to be left out of consideration.

It will have been seen that much of the local fishing is of 2

very specialized nature, owing to conditions of fairly shallow

water and bouldery bottom, which necessitates holding tactics not

needed elsewhere in the pursuit of the same fish. These circum-

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 185

stances impel the use of stronger tackle than would be require!

if the weight of the fish was the only criterion.

To these considerations full attention has been paid, and they

should be accepted and considered in this light.

As the result of many seasons’ experience I have no hesitation

in recommending the following :— i

Trolling outfit for casual visitors.—A fairly whippy 7 ft. sea

rod after the style of Manton’s ‘Blair’ Sea. Rod. A simple reel,

such as a 5-inch or a 6-inch wooden Nottingham reel brakeable by

gloved hand, or by a lever errange ment, Traces, lines, lures and

gaff as for the expert.

Trolling outfit for the expert.—If cheapness is essential, the

above recommendation may be considered. If this is not essen-

tial then I would recommend one of those very delightful split

cane rods such as Hardy’s Saltwater Rod No. 2, or an equivalent

in greenheart. Such a rod should have a maximum length of 6- =. ft.

and should be relatively whippy.

The above-mentioned style of rod is built after the American

idea of a short butt and a long one-piece tip. The latter item,

ensuring a beautiful whippy action, is very pleasant in use.

The total weight of such a rod is not more than 21 oz.

for the tip, 14 oz. for the butt and it is consequently delightful

to handle. .

These rods are constructed for use either with the old_ style

reel set under the rod, or with the American reel used over the rod.

For a reel to be used under the rod, I unhesitatingly suggest one

after the style of Hardy’s sea silex, i.e. a reel provided with one

or two good checks and brake lever operating by friction pad en

the axle. It should be made of non-corrosive metal.

The Army and Navy Stores used to have a very serviceable

reel made of walnut and brass and furnished with a very good

lever brake.

These reels are easily operated and, so to say, foolproof pro-

vided one refrains from jamming down the lever too hard. Sea

reels used under the rod, without a lever brake, but provided with

the star brake, as in use with big game reels, are also on tiie

market. They are excellent, but demand a little more experience,

as the judicious handling of the star brake during the excitement

of a good fight demands some practice.

The American style of reel, fished over the rod, such as

Pflueger’s Capitol reel, is a delightful tool, once it has been

thoroughly mastered and every manipulation has become quite

mechanical and automatic.

These reels are alike to the well known lever-winding casting

reels, but omit the level winding device. By a simple manipula-

~ tion ‘all tension on the line may be instantly ‘removed and the line

made to run free. Further there is a check and a star brake

and there is scope for braking directly on the line by thumb and

pad.

For fishing in the open I generally set the star brake at just

sufficient. tension to prevent overruns, and in case of a strike

operate it as required, or do everything by thumbing.

186 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol ya

When fishing for bahmin near rocks I set the brake harder

in order to parry snagging tactics, and supplement this by thumb-

ing as the occasion may require.

The Capitol No. 7989 is just the right size for Karwar. It

has the advantage of also being a first class surf and sea casting

Teel :

The expert, intending to circumvent feeding surmai by _bait-

casting methods, must possess a good double handed casting rod

in addition to his trolling outfit.

There is not much really suitable material for this purpose

on the market in this country and such rods have to be either

ordered or homemade.

I own an excellent and very cheap homemade one, composed

of a 28-inch butt and a 6$-feet tip, the latter being ringal cane.

I am quite aware that a split cane or greenheart tip would be

superior, but such things are not to be had in these days.

These long single-piece tips have a most wonderful action and

are a joy to use. 3 =i

The fisherman possessed of a one-handed bait casting outfit

may find occasional use for it with the wolf. herring or small

Caranx, as well as in the rivers of the vicinity, some of which,

as the one running for a distance along the road to Belgaum,

hold mahseer, wallagoo, murrel and olive carp in numbers.

Lines.—Nothing but the very best flax lines will do in serious

sea fishing. Sea water coupled with hot sun is very hard on a’

line anyhow. For trolling I recommend nothing less than 150

to 200 yards, as the end of the line gets inevitably frayed on

rocks and has to be cut back a bit from time to time, i.e. the

line -must be frequently inspected even during a day’s fishing.

An expert will do well with 18 strand cuttyhunk at bahmin

fishing and work near rocks in general.

For work in open water he will probably prefer to use lighter

lines such as 15 strand cuttyhunk or even 12 strand.

These lines are permitted by the rules. of reputable fishing

clubs in most parts of the world, and are- strong enough to deal

with fish such as those met with at Karwar, provided always that

the water is not snaggy. *

Beginners, or casual visitors without much experience, would

be well advised to use stronger lines, to avoid loss of tackle and

loss of most of their good fish. :

The ‘locals’ use nothing below 100 Ibs. B.S. so as to be pre-

pared for ‘all comers’ !

It is advisible to double one’s line at the working end over

‘a length of 2-3 yards.

For drift-lining and bottom-fishing expensive lines are gene-

rally not used, at least not new ones. Those used already for

one season or two will do, or cheap bazar lines. z

Traces.—Sea water corrodes ordinary steel disastrously. It is

therefore recommended to use stainless steel wire of up to 50 Ibs.

B.S. This was on the market in rolls 6f 50 or 100 yards at

quite reasonable price, and could be made into the usual 5-6 ft.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 187

traces quite easily, with a box swivel at’ one end and some kind

of an attachment swivel at the other.

These two swivels are ample.

In putting on swivels care should be taken not to twist the

end of the wire round the length. Both parts of the wire should

be twisted equally, for the first three twists. Then finish in the

ordinary way.

Gut is not to be recommended, except for small fishing. My

experience with gimp traces was also not very encouraging. If

no stainless steel is available even brass wire will do. It will

have to be rather thick and is an eyesore to most fishermen,

but the fish do not seem to mind it at all. .

The use of attachment swivels is often criticized very adversely.

However, they are very convenient for a rapid change of lure,

and quite honestly, I have never yet lost a fish on account of the

‘swivel pulling out. It 1s probably just the difference between

using only first class stuff and looking at the price’ too closely.

Lures. —Traditionally, the most successful all-round lure is an

oval shaped copper and silver or gold and silver 3-inch super

mahseer spoon. It should be armed with a very stout single and

a very large treble as a tail hook. Thus weighted the spoon

will just produce the very display, so attractive to the fish.

The same spoon in the 2eaimen size serves well when fish run

‘smallish.

Many other spoons have been tried, of all colours and shapes

and sizes, but none has ever even remotely equalled the above

in all-round steady success.

It must however be admitted that surmai take a 4-6 inch all-

‘silver wobbler very well.

A flying mount produces more rapid motion in the spoon, but

this is not appreciated by the fish.

I have used a 34-inch spoon of the super mahseer pattern.

It was quite frequently taken, but less so than the 3-inch size.

The pretty Japanese feather-squid so deadly behind a motor

boat, is useless at Karwar, as the canoes are too slow.

Plugs of 34 inch to 6 inch are readily taken. However, these

beautiful but very expensive Jures suffer terribly from the jaws

of these strong fish and are seldom in use.

For dead bait, a very simple device is easily rigged up by

‘means of a brass ring, a single and a treble: hook and some wire.

A spike for impaling the bait may be added. (See figure.)

Beware of too much spin and stitch up the fish’s mouth!

Gaff.—A good gaff with a 3% ft. haft is essential. A pries

“or knife for killing one’s fish should be carried. A good fishing 1g

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

belt is a great convenience. A sandwich box and large thermos

will be appreciated. }

A good topi and spine pad are strongly recommended.

Wash your lines in fresh water after every day out, and dry

in the shade. Clean your swivels and spoons in the same manner

and grease them until in use again.

Be generous to your crew in the disposal of fish. It pays.

If these unpretentious notes should prove useful to visitors to

one of the loveliest spots on the coast, they will have fulfilled

their purpose.

‘THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

Parr XIII.

(Continued from p. 425, Vol. xliv.)

RHOPALOCERA

PAPILIONIDAE

Chilasa clytia L., clytia

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 393. 1938.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xliv, 78. 1942. ~

Ovum—Spherical, the base flattened. Orange, the surface cover-

ed with a waxy secretion. Laid singly on the upper or lower surface

of a leaf of the food-plant.

1st instar—Head black. Body at first blackish with an olive-

brown dorsal patch on the thoracic somites, a whitish dorsal patch

on the middle and on the posterior portion of the body. Towards.

the end of the instar the black changes to an olive fulvous. Under

a lens there is a subdorsal series of warts bearing black bristles, the

2nd, 3rd, 4th and 12th somites with an additional lateral series.

2nd instar—Head black and shining. Body black with a fulvous

dorsal stripe interrupted by a white V-shaped mark on the 5th to 7th

somites and a white blotch on the 11th and 12th somites. 1st somite

with a large fulvous subdorsal tubercle, the other somites witht

tubercles as in previous instar. Osmeterium purple brown.

3rd instar—Similar. Traces of a fulvous lateral band from rst

to 4th somite. Body very shiny as it varnished.

4th (penultimate) instar—Similar. A lateral series of white spots

on the 7th to 9th somites and a sublateral series on the qth to rith.

A small white spot at the base of the subdorsal tubercles. The

fulvous lateral band replaced by a creamy stripe joining the dorsal

stripe on the 6th somite.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta in March

1943.

VHE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 18g

Papilio demoleus L., demoleus,

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 311. 1939.

Immature larva—Head dark brown, the clypeus filled in with

pale buff and with pale buff streaks on the cheeks. Ground colour

of body dark coffee brown, a broad brown-spotted white lateral

stripe on the thoracic somites, a creamy V-shaped mark with the

apex on the dorsum of the 8th somite and the arms extending to the

lateral area of the 5th, and an indistinct creamy lateral stripe on

the roth and 11th somites. Traces of a white sublateral line. 1st

somite with a large chestnut subdorsal spine with a smaller spine

just inside it and with a minute white lateral spine. 2nd and 3rd

somites with a transverse series of six small dark brown spines,

the centre pair the smallest. 4th and 5th somites with a dorsal pair

only. 6th and 7th somites unspined. 8th to 12th each with a dorsal

pair increasing in size from front to rear. Venter and prolegs olive

brown. Legs blackish. Osmeterium brownish purple. |

In the very early instars the whitish lateral markings are absent.

Described from larvae found in Calcutta in March 1943.

DANAIDAE

Euploea core Cr., core.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl. 397. 1938.

Ovum—Upright, fairly stout, the top a blunt point. Colour pale

creamy yellow. Sculpturing consisting of numerous longitudinal

ribs from apex to base crossed by transverse ribs, giving the impres-

sion of minute depressions separated by a network of raised lines.

Laid singly on the upper or under surface of a leaf of the food-plant

Ist instar—Head black. Body pale yellow when first, hatched,

becoming a deeper yellow tinged with green after feeding. The

filaments of the later instars shewing as minute warts but not

differentiated from the rest of the body in colour. Hairless. Legs

black. 2

2nd instar—Head black. Body deep amber, tinged with green

after feeding, and with traces of white transverse lines across the

dorsum under a lens. Legs, prolegs and anal plate black. Fila-

ments very short and black.

3rd instar—Head black with two white-lines as in the adult.

Body deep amber, tinged with green after feeding, and with

indistinct white transverse lines dorsally. Legs, prolegs and anal

plate black. Filaments actually and relatively longer than in the

previous instar.

4th (penultimate) instar—Similar to final.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta in March

1943.

Danaus linuniace Cr., mutina Fruhs.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 396. 1938.

Ovum—Upright type, rather dumpy. White, with numerous

longitudinal ribs from base to just short of the micropyle, connected

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL -HIST. SOCFEEFX, Vol. 45.

by transverse ridges. Laid singly, usually on the underside of a

leat of the food-plant. ;

Young larva—Very pale grey-blue ringed with black. The fila-

ments develop gradually with each instar.

Full grown larva—Among a number of larvae bred from ova, a

fair proportion had the sublateral yellow band entirely obliterated

by the broadening of the usual black line above it, in others the

yellow band persisted as a broken line in the middle of a broad black

stripe. In all cases bred examples were considerably darker than

wild, the transverse lines broader and the ground colour more blue-

erey.

Out of some hundred pupae obtained in the course of an experi-

ment with differently coloured pupating sites, four were a_ dull

amethyst colour at first and gradually changed to a pronounced blue-

green instead ‘of the usual jade- green.

Deseribed from larvae bred in Calcutta in February 1942.

Danaus chrysippus

Sevastopulo, -fourn. Bonvb. Nat. Elist: Soc., xl) 206. = 1948:

Ovum—Upright, ending in a blunt point, with numerous ribs.

running from micropyle to base. Colour creamy white. Laid singly

on the underside of leaves of the food-plant.

rst instar—Head black. Body greenish yellow, the filaments.

indicated by minute yellow warts. Clothed with short black hairs.

only visible under a lens. 1st somite with paired black dorsal spots.

Subsequent instars similar to the final except that the long: fila-

ments are proportionately smaller.

Larvae reared from ova in captivity are usually considerably

darker than wild caught !arvae. The transverse black lines are

broader, those bounding the yellow dorsal spots often coalescing so:

that the spots are enclosed in a black band, and the black miele

of the prolegs and venter are considerably extended.

The first and second instar larvae have the curious habit of eating

a ring in the leaf, usually not quite through, and resting on the

uneaten portion in the centre.

Described from larvae bred in Calcutta in March 1943.

SATYRIDAE

fycalesis perseus F., typhlus Fruhs.

Ovum—Yellow green, spherical with the base flattened.- Un-

sculptured. Laid singly on blades of grass. Laid 28-11-43.

Hatched 31-iii-43. . “

ist instar—Head black, terminating in two small knobs, clothed

sparsely with fairly long hairs, white on the face, black on_ the

knobs. Body white, turning green after feeding, and clothed with

short colourless hairs. Moulted 3-iv-43. .

2nd instar—Head black, clothed with short white bristles and

terminating in two pointed processes. Body green, shagreened,

with white points along the secondary rings. A dark dorsal line.

Anal processes noticeable. Moulted 5-1v-43.

THE EARLY SFAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 19k

3rd instar—Similar. The head marked with green behind and

vin a green patch below the vertex, two lines. of white spines later-

ally below the large processes. Anal processes. pink. Moulted

7-1V-43-

4th intar—Head chestnut, the clypeus filled in with yellow and

with a broad yellow lateral stripe which is continued across the face

in a curve just below the cephalic processes. Processes brown in

front, the apex darker, yellow behind with a chestnut line from

base to the hind margin of the head. Head generally tuberculate

and pubescent. Body similar to previous instar. Moulted 9-iv-43.

inal instar—Similar to preceding. The chestnut portions of

the head a darker brown. Body with a paler green lateral stripe

and a pale Sule) piroules line. Legs ‘and prolegs green. Spiracles.

white ringed with brown. A*number of larvae had the head in the

last two instars dark nigger brown, and a.few had a pinkish latero-

ventral stripe in the last instar. Pupated 14-1v-43.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster from a pad of white silk. Head

straight in front, thorax slightly keeled, wing cases with a distinct

fidee above. Colour blue green, a slightly darker line dorsally on

the abdomen, and a minute black speck half way salong the antenna

sheath. A fair proportion have a series of subdorsal white dots on

the abdomen. <A male emerged 20-1v-43.

Described from mater! all bred from ova deposited by a Caicutta

caught female.

Vpthima hubneri Kirby, hubneri

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 39. 1940.

A batch of larva bred in Calcutta in February 1943 ‘produced:

several pupae of the brown form. The description is, as follows.

Ground colour dull purple brown, strongly tinged with either grey

or Olive. Thorax darker than the abdomen and with a blackish line

along the keel. Abdomen with traces of a white subdorsal line.

Four waved transverse lines edged behind with white, the first

short. and just anterior to the end of the wing cases, the second

extending between the ends of the wing cases, the third again

shorter and just posterior to the wing cases, the fourth still short-

er and still further back. Wang cases grey or olive, streaked and

mottled with darker grey, and with a submarginal series of black

specks. - see Totee |

HETEROCERA

ARCTHDAE

Utetheisa pulchelloides Hamps, vaga Jord.

Ovum—Pale yellow, unsculptured, spherical with the base slightly

flattened. Laid in small and irregular batches. Hatched on fourth

day. ane

Larva—Head orange with an inverted white V. Body cream with

a black subdorsal stripe, the inner portion of which is streaked and

otter with cream. Abdominal somites with a transverse black

dorsal bar. Lateral area streaked and spotted with black, the black

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

marks roughly forming a series of Vs with the apices pointing for-

ward. Each somite with four dorsal black warts, the anterior pair

closer together than the posterior, bearing short single black hairs,

those on the thoracic somites with longer white hairs. A subdorsal

series of black warts ringed with dul! orange bearing white’ hairs,

and a very small lateral and sublateral series also with white hairs.

Venter and prolegs cream, the latter marked externally with black,

and with a black stripe, streaked and spotted with cream, dividing

the ventral and lateral areas. Legs whitish, ringed with black.

Pupa in a very slight cocoon of white silk spun among” litter.

Pale chestnut, the thorax blackish except for a central stripe,

wing-cases veined with black, abdominal somites each with a black

ring. Leg and antenna sheaths striped with black. The amount

of black varies considerably both in width and in depth of colour.

Cremaster with a row of very fine, slightly hooked, longish spines.

Food-plant—Heliotropium indicum. Unlike U. lotrix, newly

hatched larvae refused to feed on Dahlia. rt

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 17-iv-42, pupai-

ed 19-vi-42, and a female emerged 24-1v-42.

LYMANTRIDAE

Lymantnia ngrva Moore.

Sevastopolo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 417. 10944.

Ovum—Greyish purple, almost round, flattened above and helow.

Unsculptured (under a hand lens). Some thirty-six hours after being

Jaid, the micropyle becomes slightly sunken and surrounded by a

«chalky grey ring. Laid in small batches, often heaped on top of

each other, in nature probably in chinks of bark. Laid 24-11-43.

Hatched 6-11-43.

1st instar—Head pale honey brown. Body brownish grey with a

paler dorsal mark on the thoracic somites and another on somites 7

tog. A lateral fringe of pale greyish hair.

2nd instar—Head greyish black. . Body greyish black with a pale

<liamond-shaped blotch on the 7th to’ gth somite. A subdorsal

tubercle on the rst somite. A lateral series of tufts of greyish hair.

3rd instar—Similar.

4th instar—Similar. 4th somite with an oblique subdorsal cream

streak. 2nd and 3rd somites with traces of the dark transverse slit.

5th instar—Similar to final.

6th (penultimate) instar—Similar to final.

The larvae grow at very irregular rates, some spinning whilst

others are only half grown.

Described from larvae bred from ova laid by a Calcutta caught

female.

SPHINGIDAE

Cephonodes hylas L., hylas.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xli, 315. 1939.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xiii, 43. 1940.

A 4th instar larva found with a number of normal green ones, had

the head pink tinged with green, the body pinkish. 1st somite and

THE -EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA Eg?

anal flap with yellow tubercles. A faint whitish subdorsal line with

a white-ringed black dot below it om somites 2 to 10. Traces of a

darker dorsal stripe from head to base of horn. Legs~ brown.

Prolegs: and venter pinkish. Horn black, the under surface brown.

Spiracles_ typical.

Full-grown larva—Head brown. Ground colour of body dull

pinkish purple, the secondary segmental divisions black. 1st somite

black, the first two rows of ‘gitnencles yellow, the rest white. - Very

faint traces of a pale subdorsal lithe, the spots below on somites 2 to

10 black ringed with white. Anal flap. and claspers brown with white

tubercles. Horn black, an orange brown basal spot on each side.

Legs chestnut, the basal segment black. Prolegs buff, the feet

pinkish. Abdominal somites with a broad pinkish ventral stripe.

Spiracles typical.

Described from a larva found i in Calcutta in November 1942.

Deilephila neru L.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 407. 1938.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliti, 412. 1942.

A penultimate instar larva found in Calcutta in December 1942

had the head and body pale cafe-au-lait colour, the area above the

lateral stripe very slightly tinged with olive, that below with pinkish.

Lateral line yellow, edged below indistinctly with mauve. Ocellus

white with a dark blue ring as usual. Horn as usual’ Legs salmon

pink. Venter and prolegs cafe-au-lait. Spiracles black. The head

with the labrum greenish yellow.

This larva unfortunately died before moulting into the final instar.

IRC UONS

Thosea Dr par viol Nagre.

Forsayeth, Trans. Ent. Soc., 376. 1884.

Hamps, Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, i, 378. 1892.

Hering, Seitz Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 713. 1932.

Head green, marked with brown above the mouth parts, retractile.

ast somite green, retractile. Colour yellowish green, the dorsal area

between the subdorsal series of. scoli bright. canary or greenish

yellow. The first form with a double purple-red dorsal line expand-

ing into spots on the 4th, 7th and roth somites, the second form -with

the lines greenish blue but the spets on the 4th, 7th and roth somites

purple-red. A paired dorsal series of glandular looking marks, con-

sisting of a dull bluish speck surrounded by a dull yellow ring, the

whole edged by a dull bluish line, but barely visible without a lens.

A subdorsal series of ten short reddish scoli tufted with green or

orange bristles, and a sublateral series of ten longer, green scoli tufted

with green or pinkish bristles and pointing outwards, the first scolus

of each series very much shorter than the others. <A series of

irregular depressed marks edged by a yellow line between the two

series of scoli. Ventral surface pale green. Turns pink before

pupation.

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HISE: SOCIETY, Vol: 45.

Cocoon of the usual hard Limacodid yee: oval, dark brown In

colour. Empty pupa skin brownish yellow. :

Food-plant—Zizyphus juquba.

Described from a tull-grown larva found in Calcutta 15-X-42, spun

19-x-42 and a female emerged 3- 1V-43.

Hampson and Seitz both give similar descriptions, “the latter

being ‘Larva green, with dorsal and lateral rows of blue spots and

spined appendages. On Ricinus and other plants.’

Altha melanopsis Strand.

Head pale brown, retractile, «st somite pale brane retractile.

Body pale bluish green, somewhat frosted in appearance, with a

dorsal, two subdorsal and two lateral rows of pale yellow specks, the

specks of the inner subaorsal row aiternating with those of the outer:

and the dorsal row. A slightly paler stripe bounded by the subdorsal.

rows of specks. Venter yellowish green. Shape oval and highly

convex. 2

Cocoon of the usual hard Limcodid type, oval in shape and chalky

white in colour, where the cocoon is attached to the support the

colour is dull brown. Spun among leaves and concealed under a

slight web of white ‘frothy’ silk. Empty pupa skin brownish yellow.

-- Food-plant—Tea. pevete. Ceres

Described from full-fed larvae and cocoons received from Tukdah,

Ghoom P.O., in November 1942, and from which:i Hane ne emerged

in Calcutta in January 1943.

NOCTUIDAE

Sideridis (Borolia) venalba Moore:

Ovum—Spherical, the base flattened. Very pale green with

opalescent reflections and very minutely sculptured, this sculpturing

barely visible under a hand lens. The ova turn deep straw yellow

and finally leaden grey immediately before hatching. As seems

usual in the genus, they shrivel considerably. Laid in batches in the

axils of blades of grass and covered with a coating of ey cement.

Laid 16-1-43. Hatched 24-i-43.

Ist instar—Head honey colour. Body dull feeder grey. Clothed

with sparse, short hairs. Becomes green after feeding. Moves

with a slight looping motion.

2nd instar—Head honey colour. Body grey, turning green after

feeding, with a whitish dorsal, subdorsal and lateral line. |

grd instar—Head honey colour. Body greyish green with a broad

double purple-brown dorsal line, a narrow double purple-brown sub-

dorsal line and a broad purple-brown sublateral line, below which is.

a very fine line. The area between the dorsal and subdorsal lines

darker than the rest of the body. Sublateral and ventral areca

whitish. |

4th instar—Head honey colour. Ground colour of body pale

brown, more or less tinged with green. Marked as follows :—a

pale dorsal line edged with purple-brown, a purple-brown. subdorsal

line, a narrow purple-brown spiracular stripe with a paler purple-

brown line above and separated from it by a pale line, and a narrow

pale subspiracular stripe with a greenish line down the middle.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN: LEPIDOPTERA 105

‘Sublateral and ventral areas greenish. Legs honey colour. Prolegs

greenish.

~~ 5th instar—Head honey colour, a faint dark stripe from’ the vertex

along the clypeus. Ground colour of body pale creamy yellow,

sbsameatl to a great extent by the minute specks composing the mark-

ings. <A pale dorsal line, edged by a dark brown line, and followed,

in “able order, by a pale purple- -brown line, a line of the ground colour,

a purple- ronan line, a line of the ground colour, a narrow brow oe

orange stripe edged on each side by a dark purple-brown line, a line

of the ground colour, a narrow blackish-brown Stripe with a central

orange-brown line, and a broad whitish stripe with a central olive-

brown line: Venter pale olive-brown, legs and prolegs very pale

olive-brown. When contracted, the intersegmental folds orange.

Final instar—Similar to preceding: except that the head bears

‘a lateral dark stripe, in continuation of the dark lateral stripe of

the body, and the area between this and the central stripe is retic-

ulated with darker. Spiracles ringed with purple-brown.

Pupa in a small subterranean cocoon of thin white silk cov vered

with earth. Rather long and slender, fairly dark mahogany colour

becoming paler ventrally on the abdomen. The anterior margin of

the 4th, 5th, 6th and 7th abdominal somites with a transverse dentate

dorsal ridge, the teeth rather darker in colour than the- rest of the

dorsum. Cremaster two fairly long, downcurved, stout spines, wut

a shorter spine slightly behind and outside on each side.

~ Food-plant—Grasses.

_ Described from larvae bred from ova laid by a Calcutta caught

female, one of which buried itself 18-11-43 and a male emerged

28.11.43.

Sideridis yu Guen. (exempta Wk.)

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliv, 422. 1944.

Ovum—AIlmost spherical, flattened slightly at base, unsculptured

urider a hand lens. At first very pale green, almost white, turning

a dull purple grey before hatching. Laid in a blade of grass folded

longitudinally by the female and held together by a glassy cement.

As usual in this genus, the ova shrivel considerably. Laid 26-11-43.

Hatched 3-iii-43.

Ist instar—Head honey colour. Body pale aaestislh Anite. almost

transparent, when tirst hatched, turning green after feeding. Hair-

less.

2nd instar—Head honey colour. Body orange-brown, turning

green after feeding, with a whitish dorsal and subdorsal line, a double

purple brown lateral line and a broad white sublateral stripe.

- 3rd instar—Similar. 2 :

4th instar—Very similar. Under a hand lens the head has a

smoky line from the vertex to outside the mandibles, the sides reticu-

lated with smoky. Body with a whitish dorsal line edged with

brownish purple, a purple brown subdorsal line edged with whitish,

a double purple brown line, a whitish line, another double purple

brown line and a broad solic sublateral sap. Venter, legs and

prolegs pale olive brown.

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

5th instar—Very similar to preceding, but much less green: in

general appearance and with the sublateral white stripe somewhat

duller except on the thoracic somites. Towards the end of the instar,

the ground colour is a brownish purple and the longitudinal markings

almost. disappear.

Final. instar—At first a dark olive brown, with traces of a pale

dorsal and subdorsal line in addition to the subspiracular stripe and

white spots mentioned. in the above-quoted ‘description. As the

_instar advances, the ground colour becomes paler and the traces of

the dorsal and subdorsal lines disappear.

Described from larvae bred from ova deposited by a aout

<aught female.

Prospalta dolorosa Wk.

Hamps., Cat. Lep. Phal., vii, 324. 1908.

Warren, Seitz Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, x1, 345. 1937.

Head greenish grey, speckled with white. Body greenish grey,

streaked and mottled. Thoracic somites each with. a_ transverse

series of four dark-ringed white specks, abdominal somites. with two

dorsal pairs, the anterior pair closer together than the posterior. A

diffused pale spiracular stripe. 11th somite humped dorsally, with

a diffused pale line running over the hump from the spiracular stripe.

Lateral area with a series of three dark-ringed white specks arranged

in a triangle on each somite. Spiracles brown, ringed with black.

Under a lens the ground colour appears to be dark olive brown

covered with a net-like pattern of cream lines. Becomes suffused

with purple-pink before pupation.

Pupa subterranean in a slight earthen cocoon. Orange brown,

the thorax, wing cases and intersegmental rings olive. Cremaster

two slightly divergent spines.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 14-1ii-43, buried

15-11-43, and a female emerged 25-111-43.

Both Hampson and Seitz give the same description: EINE

brown. Food-plant Conyza balsamifera’.

GEOMETRIDAE

Agathia laetata F.

‘ Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xl, 690. 19309.

Ovum—Oval, flattened, the upper surface slightly depressed.

Pale green, slightly irridescent. Deposited singly on the edge of

young leaves of the food-plant.

Young larva—At first yellowish, later pale green. In the penul-

timate instar with a whitish ventral stripe on the anterior abdominal

‘somites, and the prolegs mottled externally with brown and whitish.

Adult larva—My above-quoted description is rather lacking in

detail and the following is a fuller one. Head brown, marked with

darker. 1st somite bilobed, the ends of the lobes brown. Ground

colour dark green, varying from an olive to rather a yellow tint, and

suffused along the dorsum and across the intersegmental areas with

purple, the amount of suffusion varying from almost complete oblitera-

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 107

tion of the green ground to a slight suffusion on the posterior

somites. ond and 3rd somites each sont a transverse series of four

minute dark specks. 4th to 12th somites each with an anterior and

posterior pair dorsally. A pair of. pale dorsal specks between the

4th-5th, 5th-6th, 6th-7th, 7th-8th, 8th-9th and gth-roth somites, some

examples with an additional subdorsal speck. The rith and rath

somites-each with an indistinct pale V-shaped dorsal mark, which

may be almost obsolete. Proleg marked externally with a whitish

patch mattled with brown. Legs dark brown. Venter green with a

broad white stripe from the base of the third pair of legs to the 6th

somite, this stripe containing a double purple line. In some

examples the stripe is continued faintly to the 8th somite.

Pupa in a slight web between two leaves, through which numer-

ous small holes are gnawed. Colour pinkish, sparsely speckled with

black, with traces of a dull olive dorsal stripe and transverse stripes

on the intersegmental areas. 5th to 11th somites each with a pair

of small depressed pits on the dorsum anteriorly and the 8th to roth

somites each with a rather larger pit sublaterally, the one on the

gth somite slightly below these on the 8th and toth, the dorsal séries.

only visible under a lens. Thoracic spiracle placed in a sunken spot.

Cremaster spade-shaped and ending in a cluster of hooked spines.

Described from larvae bred from ova found in Calcutta, one of

which pupated 26-xi-42, and a male emerged 7-xii-42.

Agathia lycaenaria Jxoll.

Prout, Seits Indo-Austr. Geometridae, xii, 67. 1932.

J am unable to detect any real difference between the larva of this

species and that of A. laetata (above), although it is possible that the

white ventral stripe is.a little longer in lycaenaria.

Four apparently identical Jarvae turned to four, apparently

sunilar, pupae and eventually produced two imagines of each species.

On closer examination it was noticed that the lateral pits provide

a definite distinction, those of lycaenaria are considerably larger

and darker in colour, being clearly visible to the naked eye whilst

those of laetata are barely discernible without a lens.. The cremaster

of lycaenaria has the sides straighter and longer, that of laetata

being blunter with curved sides.

Food-plant—Oleander (Nerium odorum Soland.)

Described from larvae found in Calcutta, one of oe pupated

2-xli-42, and a female emerged 13-x1i-42.

Seitz gives the following description :—‘Some (nterland larvae

in the Tring Museum (F. P. Dedd) are of moderate thickness, almost

uniformly cylindrical, the head bilobed, the prothorax projecting

slightly over it and bearing on each side a small and not very sharp

triangular prominence anteriorly ; yellow-brown, mottled or streaked

with Zeddish, appearing to the naked eye uniform in colour.’

Thalassodes veraria Guen.

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xliii, 415. 1942.

~This larva also has a green form, the head and body being green

with traces of a dark dorsal line, shewing mainly as a dark purple

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL~ AIST.” SOCKET, 2Viol mens:

clot on the intersegmental areas of the abdomen, and with a sublateral

dark brownish spot on the intersegmental areas. Legs, prolegs and

-yenter green. Spiracles very small, pale buff. In some examples

the points of the head and the dorsum are suffused with reddish

chestnut.

The pupa is also variable, in addition to the buff form there is

one which is olive green speckled with darker olive and blackish and

with a very dark olive dorsal line, the wing cases yellower and un-

speckled but with the costal margin suffused with smoky olive. An-

other form is greenish buff, the thorax smoky, with a blackish dorsal’

stripe on the abdominal somites and with blackish streaks and specks

arranged roughly in transverse lines, the wing cases pale smoky buff,

Food-plant—These green forms were found feeding on Rose.

‘Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 30-xi-42, pupated

4-xli-42, and a male emerged 13-xii-42.

PyYRALIDAE

Galleria mellonella L.

Head dark reddish brown. Body dirty grey, rather paler on the

sublateral and ventral areas. ist somite with a semicircular black-

brown dorsal plate, divided down the centre. Head-and body with

sparse single colourless hairs. Legs pale brown. Prolegs whitish

2Tey.

Pupa in a spindle-shaped cocoon of tough white silk,.spun in one

of the tunnels in which it has lived. Colour very pale chestnut,

becoming darker on the centre of the dorsum, the thorax darkest.

A distinct dorsal ridge on thorax and abdomen. Spiracles chesi-

nut. Cremaster a transverse bar ending in two points. :

feeds on wax, etc. in the combs of bees, making silk-lined tunnels

in which it lives. p ae

Described from a fuli-fed larva found in Calcutta 7-11-43, spun

8-11-43, and a female emerged 25-11-43.

(To be continued)

Corringendum

‘Vol. xli,, p. 76:

The larva described as Andraca bipunctata Wek. belongs to

Prismosticta fenestrata Btlr. This species was first described as a

Bombycid but was subsequently transferred to the Eupterotidae.

The larva shews that the original describér was correct in his

classification. A description of the true larva of 4. bipunctata

will appear in a later part of this paper.

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM

H.G.H.M.

Part |

Shikar and love of the jungle life must be one of the inheritances

in my make-up; and my development in this direction, while no

doubt subjected to the inner push of hereditary forces, was also

much assisted by the environment of my early years. All the

days of my boyhood spared from. the needs of education were

devoted to various forms of sport, and the reading of the travels

cand adventures of renowned hunters of the past century—Gordon

Cumming, Forsyth, Selous, Sanderson, and a number of. others.

The early years of my army. service were passed in the United

Provinces and the Punjab where small game shooting, and the

pursuit of black buck and chinkara with rifles of small calibre

afforded good training for more serious shikar later on. Lo

_ After some eight years of life in the plains I was fortunate

‘in being transferred to Assam where, except for the years of the

Great War, I served for another twenty-five years. During all

these days in Assam, a country which has been said to consist

cof jungles and tea planters, many opportunities of sport were

atlorded to me, and it is on reminiscences culled from an unusually

retentive memory that I will now embark.

Though I had been in Dhubri several times I had not met the

Rajah of Goalpara until I was posted to the Goalpara District

as Civil Surgeon, but shortly after taking over charge I called

‘cn him. Of course I had heard about him as a sportsman and

‘an extraordinary shot, both with rifle and gun, but was surprised

to find him a delicate, nervous man of retiring disposition. At

the time of this meeting I had shot specimens of most of the big

game to be found in Assam, but had never been able to bag a

tiger, though I had sat up very many times, both in machans and

on the ground, without success. . I had always been discovered,

and it appeared to me that I was always detected from the direc-

tion the men had been working on the machan, and this was

usually from the back. I am convinced that a tiger, if at all

suspicious, and they have always been so on the numerous occa-

sions I have waited for them, circles ‘round the ‘kill’. to make

‘sure, before approaching it, and my humble opinion is that they

get the scent of the men who have made the machan, and having

got this scent soon discover the waiting sportsman, for their

hearing is so keen that the very slhghtest noise will be heard and,

suspicions aroused, they very soon know exactly where is the

hidden danger. The tiger may now go right away, or he may

lie concealed in the jungle waiting. developments. If the shikari

leaves his machan or other concealment after dark the tiger will

very frequently partake of his deferred dinner, for he now well

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s.

knows that the danger is over. If he has not returned to the

kill it can be taken as certain that he is away for good and will

kill in some other locality.

One often reads of tigers not returning to their kill, and the

impression is given that they just did not come back. This is

entirely wrong, for a tiger kills to eat, and the reason for the

kill not having been touched is nearly always that the owner of it

has come back and discovered danger. I have many times heard

a tiger late in the evening moving round the machan and gradual-

ly making the circles smaller, and am convinced that tigers can

detect scent of man and animals. Their sense of smell, though

not highly developed as with deer and bison etc., is yet sufficient

to enable them to detect the scent of human beings having

been near their kill, or being concealed near by. I know that

most of the writers on the habits of tigers say they have no sense

of smell yet I feel quite sure that they have. If they have none

at all how is it that they follow deer when they change their feed-

ing ground? If they do not follow by scent how do they manage?

None of the writers give a reason.

A tiger does not hunt altogether by scent; if he did he would

never go hungry and no animal would ever escape. He actually

hunts by sight as everyone knows, aided very much by his phe-

nomenal sense of hearing. His sense of smell informs him that

his food, whatever it may be, is in the particular locality and,

knowing this, he uses his sense of hearing and of sight to pro-

clire it!

The Rajah of G—, who has taught me almost all I know about

tigers and their habits, returning to camp of an evening has said —

to me, ‘of course you know where to find tiger during the day

—all streams, the thicker the cover the more does the tiger ap-

preciate it, for it means concealment, coolness, and shade; but

do you know where to find the tiger in the late afternoon and

evening?’ [I did not know, and said so. ‘Well’, said he, ‘you

will find them often on an open plain behind a bush or tuft of

grass which you would say could not conceal a tiger, and it would

seem impossible that a tiger should be there. This fact has

been demonstrated to me on many occasions. <A_ tiger coming

down through thick jungle growing on both sides of a small

stream gets the scent of cattle; he remains in the cover during

the day; as late afternoon approaches he emerges and comes to

the edge of the plain—to survey abandoned or recent cultivation:

where the cattle are grazing. Hiding behind cover that one would

think would not ‘conceal a hare he waits until a cow or calf comes:

within, distance, or he may cautiously shift his ground to be in

a better position for the attack. On many occasions I have seen

tiger dislodged from bushes you would have said to be impossible

for concealment of such a creat beast. He will allow elephants

to pass him on all sides without moving. To find tiger in these

positions every bush or isolated patch of grass should be searched

by the beating line. In these cases the shot is usually a’ long

one.’ : . : ; . : Bi

On one occasion I was out after bear, and while on my way

to their haunts some villagers ran up to say that a tiger had just

SUME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM ZOL

killed a cow near their habitations. This killing had taken place

‘at 10 a.m., in the plains, at the foot of the Garo Hills and not

far from.the Dalu Inspection bungalow. It seemed that the cow

was not dead when the villagers ran up to it, and in their anxiety

to get it away they tried to make it rise, and in so doing pulled the

body round completely so that the head was facing to the opposite

direction. I went up to the smal! hill on the other side of the road

and having selected a position got the people to cut away some

of the jungle so that I could get a clear shot towards whichever

direction the tiger might approach. I felt certain of a shot, as.

the well from which women had been drawing water when the

kill took place was within 15 paces of the kill. Such is the bold-

ness of the unhunted tiger; and‘I felt sure the animal would return

late in the afternoon, and before dark. At 4 p.m. I heard the

poise of an animal coming -down the opposite hill and thought

it must be a sambur. [It came near the kill and I did not hear it

move away. While the animal was approaching down the _ hill,

and for a considerable time after, a squirrel on a tree behind me

was very noisy. It was not scolding me, but because it had. seen

the animal. I sat perfectly still, and made no movement, so.

could not have been detected by sense of hearing. The animal went,

and the reason I had not heard the departure was that there was

a game path and the two tigers had gone away by this! When I,

the .enemy, was discovered, it is. difficult. to. say; and

how and why they discovered me it is difficult to say. The

matter remains a mystery. I waited until dark and then returned

to the bungalow. It was found next morning that the tigers

had not visited the kill proving, to my mind, that I had

been detected. But how? It must have been by scent, as my

small hillock was on the opposite side of the road from the larger

hill down which the tigers approached. The village was ney.

yards to my right. I was sitting on the ground in midst of <

bush, made no sound, and could not possibly have been seen.

Maybe I was not detected and the tigers sheered off becaus-

the kill was not in the position they had left it, for it had been

turned completely round. But such jungle tigers as these should

not have been put off by this. Very little clearing of twigs etc.,

had been done near the kill, The villagers knew me, and knew

that the reward I would give would be divided among them.

No: there was no badmashi in this instance. Had the kill not

been moved would the tigers have fed on it? Perhaps. The moral

of the story is that nothing can he left to chance: the kill must

not be moved, the sportsman must not move,.and the breeze must

not be from the wrong direction.

It is. within the experience of many sportsmen to be ‘seen oft

the ._premises’ by a tiger. The last time I waited for a _ tiger

was at a shooting and. fishing spot—Nechuguard, at the foot of

the Naga Hills and the commencement of the Nambur Forest.

Late in the afternon I came on a fresh tiger kill and got behind

a bush in the have that.stripes would return during daylight; a-

not unusual occurrence in dense jungle. But I had forgotten the

place was 2 or 4 miles away from the road! With me was a Gurkha

lad. We left at dusk and were two miles from the road when

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Olle 15.

it became dark. All the time I sensed I was in great danger.

I had seen and heard nothing, but yet was in a terrible and wn-

controllable fright. On reaching the road I was in “a bath of

perspiration. Asking the boy if he: felt’ afraid’ he replied that he

had been so frightened that he could not speak. -He knew we

were being foliowea neariy the whole way by. tne tiger, for he

described the spot where he first heard the animal, and after

that he heard it nearly the whole way. I had heard nothing, but

am slightly deaf. The lad had wanted to tell me but could not

speak !

I had another curtous, and fortunate, experience. Arrived at

-Kirappara, the second stage on the way to Dalu, Garo Hills, on

the Mymensingh border, a place fifty miles from the nearest human

habitation, I went for a walk in tne afternoon and saw the pug--

marks of tiger along the road. With the aid of my _ cook,

a Muhammadan with a liking for shikar and a_ very courage-

ous man, these were rubbed out. On the way back we found

fresh marks, so the tiger was in the habit of using this road between -

the hours of four and six in the afternoon. I decided to remain

a day and try for the animal, so the next afternoun took up

position in dense cover and close to the road.

This was in 1919 after return from the, 1914-18 war. Kalia,y

(the cook) cut sticks and made a rest for the rifle, using my

khaki pillow case to wrap round the wood to prevent barrel-jump.

Had the tiger come along I would have had an 2asy shot. Before

going on Seevice I had sold all my weapons and all I now possessed

was a 20 gauge shot gun and a 22 H.V. Savage Magazine Rifle.

At about this time I had read a lot «bout the 22 being ideal for

tiger.- The writer said that he was with the Prince of Wales’

shooting party in Nepal and was using this weapon on that shoot.

He must have arrived at his opinion on the weapon from one

lucky shot, and without further experience, for I. have seen. the

22 H.V. used on, tigér a number of times and can say it iis

certainly not « weapon to be used against any of the big cats;

not fair to the shooter himself, to his companions, or the game.

All this is by-the-way, for the expected tiger did not appear. Next

morning the cook went early to recover the pillow-case, which

had Heen forgotten, and returned to tell me to dress quickly

and see what had happened in the night. This is what we found.

A known rogue elephant of the locality had come along the road,

scented the ‘pillow case, gone straight to the spot, removed the

rest-bar, stripped off the pillow case by putting his foot on the

bar and pulling off the cloth, and then walked back to the road

where he left it in the dust. Fortunate for us that we had

come away before the elephant came along, for the 20 bore gun

and the .22 rifle would have done little damage and caused an

already ay temper to be exceedingly violent !

On my taking leave from the Rajah he laughed in his nervous

way and said to me, ‘You will shoot vour first tiger in April. I

will invite you to my camp, but, the notice will be short, as when

tiger are about arrangements for the hunt have to be made very

quickly.’ Thankine him, I returned to Dhubri which is some

six miles from Gauripur..

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 208

~It was perhaps two weeks later that | received one morning

the expected invitation and request to be at the Ferry that after-

noon at 3° p.m. My wife accompanying me, we met the Rajah

as arranged, and having crossed the wide Brahmapootra river

to Fakirganj drove in a “dog-cart to the camp which was situated

a few miles from South Salmara.

Next day being Good Friday I said I would rather not go

shooting, so the Rajah went to a locality where tiger would not

be disturbed, to shoot some deer for the camp followers who needed

meat. To keep the camp contented in this respect makes. the

people keen and willing.

While he was away I had~ been to the South Salmara Dis-

pensary and on the way back was informed by a small boy that

a tiger had just killed a cow and dragged it into some jungle.

Very excited was the mahout, and also crestfallen when I ex-

plained that the pipe I was smoking would: not be of much avail !

When Gauripur returned to camp in the. evening. we talked the

matter over and it was arranged to start. at 1o the next morning.

Having learned that the Rajah expected great punctuality on

such occasions we were ready ten minutes before the hour. We

were to meet Royalty—The Royal Tiger—so pad elephants had

to be in position ten minutes before the hour; guns and guests

on the pads by ten sharp; howdahs, spare elephants, and beaters

ready at the meeting place when the Rajah and his party arrive.

' By 11 a.m. we were on the ground. The plan shows the

position of the ‘kill’ and the lay-out of the beat. Arrived at ‘A’

the Rajah called up his head shikari and after. hearing what he

had to say went off, as is his habit, to see things for himself. He

followed the ‘drag’ cautiously, and very slowly, until he found

the remains of the cow. Then he returned and came, again to

A and proceeded to B. almost immediately finding the ‘animal

run’, or game track. This he followed on towards the. river, and

being satisfied that other ‘runs’ did not exist in that particular

portion of the jungle returned again to A, where I and my wife

were in the howdah on back of the mighty Jung Bahadur. Now

he said to me, ‘If you will permit me to explain I should like to

tell_you something of the art of driving a tiger in a particular

direction’. I assured him I would be only too glad to learn for

I. knew nothing of the game.. While this was going on the

elephants, were collecting at D—with them one howdah elephant.

“Well’, said he ‘the first thing to note is that if I attempted to

drive the tiger in the direction of the. fields: he would refuse to

go, and would fight. Whenever it is possible. the tiger must be

brought to.the gun without annoying him, and so ensure a quiet

and fatal shot. The next. point to. remember in this particular

drive is to drive very slowly and without any noise; just the slow

forward advance of the elephants is sufficient: this will keep him

from crossing the riyer.. Were he beaten out with a great noise

the | tiger would be scared and would be certain to rush to the

river, jump. in, and swim across. A great aid in preventing the

tiger going fo the river is to keep the line of elephants

diaronal,.the. right end advanced alone the river bank with the

howdah elephant on the Nulla side in the open as far as possible

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volt. 45.

and some distance in advance of the beating line and in line

with the leading elephant. When the tiger hears the elephant

on the river bank he will not hear those farthest away, and as the

howdah elephant is not in the jungle but walking just outside’ he

will not hear him except when he comes out and sees him, and

that will make him go back into the jungle. The beat continuing

in this diagonal manner will edge the tiger away from the river

and quietly swing him on to the nala side, which is your side,

and when the tiger reaches the ‘animal run’ he will follow it

and give you an easy shot. If he attempts to cross the river

[ will take a long shot.’ He then took me to B, and Jung

Bahadur was ordered to push down a-small tree so that it would

fall towards the nala. Then. some grass was pulled away until

the animal run could be seen entering the lighter jungle just as it

cuitted the tall grass and heavy cover. ‘Now’, said Gauripur,

‘your tiger will appear there’, pointing to the exit of the run,

‘T will take post at C. Mark the line of beating elephants coming”

into: position with the aid of your binoculars, and carefully watch

the ‘hullee’, as the shaking of the grass tops is called when the

tiger moves from place to place, for that is your sure indication of

the whereabouts of the tiger.’ Then he signalled to the line to

advance and went off to his selected position at C.

Soon came the signal from the line that the tiger had been

found in the rose-bush cover. ‘See’, called the Rajah, ‘the tiger

is now in the heavy jungle, watch the ‘hullee’. Carefully I watch-

ed the ‘hullee’ which followed zig-zag between the nala and the

river. Suddenly it ceased and I- knew the quarry must be in the

animal run. Now my pulse hammered rapidly and my heart thump-

ed, for the Royal beast was at hand and my excitement ‘intense.

Slowly I brought the rifle to bear on. the expected place. Sure

enough, there, where the Rajah said it would, appeared the head,

and soon the line of the back was plainly visible. I pressed the

trigger and experienced a thrill of delight as I saw the tigress—

for it was the ‘Queen’ and not the ‘King’ on this occasion, fall over

on her side. I had used a .280 double rifle and was still covering

the animal when the Rajah came up. The distance from muzzle to:

animal was not more than 15 yards. Jung Bahadur is a very tall

elephant and the tigress was below me and. slightly to my left.

‘Good shot’ said the Rajah, ‘but it is always wise to put in a

second bullet, for it does not damage the skin as most people

think’. But this-time I had brought the rifle on to the howdah

rail with the muzzle pointing skywards, as is the strict order -of

the Rajah. The beating elephants were crowded around the place

so that I could not with safetv deliver a second shot. I said so

and the head shikari,, who heard my remark, was told by Gauri-

pur to tell the mahouts; and to tell them also that by crowding

round in- that manner they stood a good chance of a bullet if the

person. in the howdah became excited. In the evening I was told

that I had gained the confidence of the mahouts and that,- to a

sportsman, spells success. ‘Now the mahouts. will trust you’ he

told me, ‘ond that is half the battle-in tiger shooting.’

I handed my. rifle to the Raiah and he nut in the second ate

‘to make. sure’? saying to the mahouts that I had wished it. . The

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM | 205

men laughed and said ‘quite right, quite right!’ but does. the

Sahib thiuk we woud be avouna uke tins if Wwe did not know the

tiger to be dead? yet—Quite right, Quite right !’

My mentor looked at the rifle and then at me. ‘Yes, pea-

shooters are ail right at this range but they are not the weapons

to use against tiger. I advised you to always use your .475.°

- The mahout had apsolute conndence in his elephant, for- when the

tiger was close, and in the animal ‘run’, I glanced down and

saw him fast asleep! He knew that Jung Bahadur is absolutely

steady. There. was mutual trust between mahout and elephant.

Never shall I forget the sight of that head and shoulders appear-

ing in the open: my_first view of tiger. She measured 8 ft. 4 in.

It is my experience, though I have read opinions to the con-

trary, that the proportion of tigers to tigresses shot is 1 to 3;

and I think I am right, for I have seen perhaps over roo tigers

killed: besides, the Rajah, who has seen very many hundreds

of tigers slain put the ratio same as I do. Recently, in’ an

article in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society

(Vol. XLI, No. 4), contributed in April 1940 by the curator of

the Society, data are published which reveal a great preponderance

of males over females, both among animals shot in several Pro-

vinces and those enumerated when drinking at water-holes during

the hot weather in Bihar. Figures cover the period 1936-39; and

the note of Mr. G. H. Marshall regarding the Naga _ Hills,

Assam, shows 5g animals killed during the years 1927 to 1937

of which 27 are males and 32 females. The subject is interesting.

The evidence seems to show that males are now definitely more

numerous than females; while in my days in Assam, and in other

parts of India as I am informed, females used to be, only

twenty-five or thirty years ago, markedly more numerous than

males. Tigers are rapid breeders, and such a change is not im-

possible. But the reason for it? That may be difficult to arrive

at. Diminution of natural food supply—deer, pig etc., by reason

of extending cultivation and the slaughter of wild animals to

satisfy the meat hunger of the people: these may be the causes

at work; but it is a poor lookout for the continued survival of

the species in numbers comparable with the past.

The day was yet young so I. urged my host to make it a

more perfect one by himself shooting a tiger. ‘There is a chance,’

he said, ‘for we have news of another beast not far away.’ The

tigress was padded and sent to camp to be skinned. Only

female elephants are used for this as only these will allow a tiger

to be placed on the pad, and not every female either.

Before long we reached the new locality and I, in my inex-

perience, would have said it would not hold a tiger. It consisted

of two oval patches of thick grass jungle in the midst of cultiva-

tion, these being connected by a ‘neck’ of thinner cover. G.

was on an elephant named, Mylo, an untried beast, so decided

to take post in the open, level with the ‘neck’ but 100 yards to

one side of it.

When the beat commenced it was soon realized that the grass,

as is often the case, was deceptively tall, and not only over-

topped the backs of the pad elephants but was also thick, and

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIBTY, Vol. 4s.

a very possible retreat for a, tiger... Towards: the send. of the ‘beat

my mount, Jung Bahadur, whose howdah was occupied by my

wife and I suddenly stopped, as he was almost on the top of

the crouching: tiger, which; growled at him and. started the

adjacent elepnants trumpeting and making the well known metallic

sound, sure indication of a tiger in the. vicinity, by beating the

Bround with curied-up tips ot their trunks. Ail . this indicating

that the tiger was likely to try and break back through the line

of elephants. The Rajah called out for Jung Bahadur to .be at

once taken out of the cover, and just as we emerged into the

open a shot was heard, and immediately -upon that came a shouted

instruction from the Rajah for me to go on with my elephant and

kill the tiger struggling on its back. This I did, with two shots,

as Jung Bahadur was steady as a rock. The Rajah was. pleased

as a boy would be, although this was about his three hundredth —

tiger, for the shot had been a long one, something like a hundred

and thirty yards. The Princes and Rajahs of India are many

of them marveilous shots both with ritie and gun. They have

plenty of practice! In days long gone by, an, Indigo Planter. held

the record with 1000 tigers to tis own gun. There is at the

present: time one Ruler in the centre of India who has shot over

600! This animal was a tigress a littie larger than the one I

had killed earlier in the day. The rifle used by the Rajah was a

.465 by Holland and Holland which had been presented to him

when he was a boy by the oid Manarajah of Kooch Bihar as re-

ward for his already marvellous shooting.. His other two favou-

rite weapons were a .577 and a .450, both black powder rifles.

After the tiger’ had been padded and sent to camp we beat

out the cover again as pig had been seen, and I shot one with

my .280; killing it dead—a ciose shot.

;o Bhat ‘night we had a long talk on shikar and of- course the

day’s sport was discussed in detail. My wife was asked what

she thought of tiger shooting. ‘It is very interesting and very

exciting’, she replied, ‘but that tigress you brought out to my

husband was well trained; was a Viceroy’s tiger, blue ribbon

round its neck sort o: timg . ‘G’ laughea and said, ‘I hope to.

show you, if not on this shoot some other time, that all tigers.

do not wear blue ribbons. If the danger is not too great |

will make a tiger demonstrate for your edification.’ The next

morning it was not long before the. quickly descending vul-

tures had picked clean the bones of both the animals drag-

ged into the open for them to demolish. There was the usual

fighting, screaming, and scrimmaging, with sometimes that tug-

of-war, when two birds have either end of a tasty morsel, which

is so amusing to watch and at the same time a somewhat obscene

spectacle.

On the Monday morning we went to a_ place indicated By

the scouts but it turned out that the kill was a very. old one

and the Rajah was proportionately annoyed. ‘However’, said

he ‘we may as well beat the place. I will place myself just

in front of that path which passes through the jungle. “The

beat was in progress when a villager, walking along behind

my elephant (J.B.) spoke to the mahout.. ‘What ate you look-

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN’ ASSAM 207

ing for?’ said he. -Mahouts do not usually possess a sense

ot humour, but ‘Kats’, he replied. The vinager aid not even

laugn but said, ‘If you are looking for tiger, there is One stana-

Ing penind you!’ And so there was! ihe beat Was stopped

and 1 was piaced in best position tor the shot, but the uger

broke back. Lhree times this occurred. The tiger Was able to piay

this game because we only had out about a dozen beaung cic-

phants on ‘tnis morning, ihe next beat round tue tgeér poiting

across a long Open space in oraer to gain some extensive, Con-

tinuous, jungie out of which it wouta rot have been “possipie

to beat him with the few eephants axailable. _-G: ‘took along

snot and killed the beast, bowling Him oyer like a rappit. «A

marvellous exhibition ot accuracy and judgment, of pace: A fine

male tiger.

Not rar from this place another tiger was put up in a large

patch of grass jungle which was beaten on the chance of rt houu-

ing someiung. there was an opportunity | for the Kajah to show

how to make a tiger demonstrate. ‘lhis he did by driving her—

for it was a tigress—towards some fields. Naturally she opjected,

and went up and down the line of elephants growling and jump-

ing up at almost every one of them. As she jumped the elephant

would roll up its trunk, screech, and back on its hind legs:

-Again the shot was to be mine but I was looking to my right

when the beast passed close to my left. My wite pointed and

called to me but I was too late and the tigress disappeared into

thick cover. ‘Now’ said the Rajah, she will probapbiy charge,

and if she does you must get off two shots, for even if you miss

this will be likely to baulk her spring at the e.ephant. Or course

she may not charge and perhaps give you an easy shot. Good

luck,’ and he turned away. .- When the tigress broke she jumped

out with a grunt and instead of charging galloped in and out

among the beating elephants just emerging trom: the cover. It

was impossible for me to fire and she got away into the open.

‘G’ was behind me and to my right. He waited until the beast

was well clear, and then kiiled her stone dead with a shot in the

the shoulder which turned her head over heels. The distance was

something like two hundred yards. Not many men are there who

can bring off shots like that.

We had only just moved off when there was heard a loud

‘Proot-proot’. All except my wife and I knew what this por-

tended, and were we to again hear it we would at once be galvan-

ized into action. Right and left all the elephants made off to

the cover into which they disappeared like a sounder of immense

pigs. Looking behind I saw that a tusker elephant was coming

for us and the next moment there was a crash as Sibjee, a large

tusker, struck Jung Bahadur in the rump. The impact was

terrific. Fortunately J.B. was such an immense brute that Sibjee

failed to knock him over, but the shaking we got in the howdah

was terribly frightening—words cannot convey what the shock

was like; to understand it it has to be experienced. My wife

lost her hat, umbrella, etc. The mahout urged J.B. to his best

pace and Sibjee accelerated him from the rear by three tremen-

dous pushes. It was all we could do to remain in the howdah.

' \

{

205 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

jt has been suggested to me that I should have fired a shot at

Sibjee, but that was impossible both on: account of the mouon

and the fact that the mahout was still on Sibjee’s neck wielding

his ankus with tremendous digs deep’ into the head and then

pulling hard on the heavy iron implement with all his strength.

fhe chase went on for near a mile, and at last Sibjee’s mahout

got the animal under control by pulling a blanket from under

him and putting it over the maddened. beast’s eyes. ‘The great

danger had been lest J.B. should have attempted to turn to meet

his assailant. In course of doing that he might have been struck

sideways and knocked over, with perhaps fatal results to all three

on his back. That this might occur’ was in the mind of the

mahout for J.B. had once been used to catch wild elephants, being

sent into the stockade to punish recalcitrant tuskers, a duty which

he used to do very thoroughly. That was before he came. into

the possession of his present owner and when he had belonged

to the Rani of Bigni. Had J.B. started on Sibjee he would have

made a thorough job of it; and what would have happened to

us! Our mahout did the right thing by heavily- punishing his

elephant in order to get him clear of tne assailant as soon as

possible. pos oe ae St | ne.

After a while J.B. calmed down and quietly grazed with the

other animals gathered around us. Besides his keddah experience

J.B. had at one time been used as a fighting elephant at displays

of that kind: he would have given Sibjee a great thrashing.

Sibjee had been known as unrehable having killed several mahouts

and grass cutters, but this was the first time he had attacked: an

elephant. Years after ths occurrence he attacked a_ female

elephant, upsetting her and killing her mahout, after which he

was used only as a provision carrier and kept a mile or so behind

all other elephants. The sight of a tiger seemed to upset him.

After we went to Bangalore the Rajah most kindly sent us an

invitation to another shoot saying, “I hope Mrs. M. will come.

Tell her that Sibjee is dead and she need have no fear of such

an occurrence again.’ After that first shoot we went to many

another but my wife had had too nerve-racking an experience and

always remained in camp. -

Next morning the shoot was closed down as the mahouts were

rather agitated over what had happened, and when in ‘that state

of mind would not work well. The elephants swam across the

wide Brahmapootra and we returned to Dhubri well pleased with

our first experience of tiger shooting and grateful to our kindly

host for having afforded us the ever memorable experience.

Many have been the shoots I have been at since then, but that

first one will always stand out as the shoot. — Maer! ae

At time of preparing these reminiscences for the Natural

History Journal I received with much sorrow the sad news of

the death of my friend, the much beloved Rajah of G. He has

gone, as he himself said when nearing the end, ‘to the Happy

Hunting Grounds’. Before he died he read with much pleasure.

and interest the first two parts of this series and I, holding his

memory in affectionate remembrance, am glad that was So.”

Since the shoot above described the Head Shikari referred to

NEW SPECIES OF CEROPEGIA 209

has also gone to the Happy Hunting Grounds and the elephants

Sibjee and Jung Bahadur are also dead. Stories about them, will

pe related in that country for many years to come and the Rajah

will always live in the affectionate memory of his people. -.

; (To be continued)

NEW SPECIES OF CEROPEGIA AND .THE..SYNONYMY OF THE

ae INDIAN SPECIES.

. BY

., CHARLES. Mc@ann,, F.L.S.

For the past few. years I have been studying the Indian species of the

genus Ceropegia. My studies have. been carried out in. the field as far as

possible, and at the same time I. have examined all the herbarium material

available in the country. In this connection 1 must thank the heads of the

various institutions who so kindly sent me the material for examination. The

work is almost complete, but untortunately, owing to the present paper. shortage

it will be a considerable time before I am able to publish the results of my

work’ in full. However; I feel that in spite of all the restrictions at least the

descriptions of the ‘new species should be :published together with the syno-

nymy as adopted in my revision of the genus. The. text and ‘the illustrations

of the revision will be published in full at the proper opportunity.

Ceropegia Evansii' sp. nov.

* C, Evansii accedit ad C,. hirsutam habitu general, sed facile distinguitur

flavis corollae lobis atque exterioris coronae lobis breviter bifidis, dentibus

obtusis; in. C. hirsuta lobi sunt profurde. bicdi,.dentes,acuti- Novae huius

Speciei folia sunt largiora ac margis cordata quam in C.. hirsuta.

_ Description.—Roots-system a tuber, 2-5 x 1-3 cm., subglobose, usually de-

pressed; roots fibrous. Stem twining, 3m. or more in length, simple or branch-

ed, green or tinged with) purple, deep purple, or almost black. Leaves up to

18.5 x 8-10 cm., reducing. upwards, the lower ovate or ‘ovate-lanceolate, lance-

olate above, membranous, hairy above. and) along the nerves beneath, ultimate-

ly glabrous or nearly so, margins shortly ciliate, dark-green above, paler beneath,

base rounded or: subcordate, with’ a few (2-6) glands near the insertion of the

petiole, apex acute or acuminate, petiole up. to 74o mm. or slightly more,

Stoutish,: channelled: above. Flowers small or large (varying much in accor-

dance with the vigor of the individual) arranged in umbellate cymes; peduncle

1-5 cm. long dark purple, hirsute with stiff, bristles; pedicels 1-2. cm.. long,

green; calyx divided to the base, 6 mm. or slightly more, glabrous, segments

linear or subulate; bracts subulate; corolla up to 37 mm., base inflated,

globose, ‘slightly constricted above to form the. funnel-shaped tube beneath

the lobes: the united corolla lobes form a subglobose or oblong head about 1./3

the length of the entire flower; lobes broadly. ovate or ovate-oblong (when

opened flat), softly puberulous within, margins ciliate, the upper 2/3 of. the

lobes lemon yellow passing into white below, the tube greenish white often

with a faint pinkish tinge, internally the lower half of the corolla tube: is

tinged purple;' corona,. outer lobes 2-fid, the denticulations - obtuse, » margins

ciliate with a few hairs, inner: lobes subulate or subclavate, -yellow tinged with

pink. Follicles up to 12.5 cm. at first erect, then divaricate.

Locality.x—Khandala, Western Ghats, 1,800 ft., Bombay Presidency, McCain

4647; (Type Herb. McCann); Santapau & McCann 5059, A.B.C&D.; McCann

4644, A&B. to 4646 & 4648 to 4650; 480r (Co-types Herb. "McCann); Santapau

* Named in honour of the late Mr.. F. V. Evans of. Liverpool who helped

me much for many years in carrying on my research work.

7 My thanks are. due -to Rev. Fr.-H: Santapau, S.J., for the Latin des-

‘criptions. : [ten ay Sart '

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

& McCann 1375 Bis NIE OSE 8 Santapau: gi0A! Use 920B:!, “921 },..992D '". 2261,

2212 (Co-types in ~Blatter Herb. St. Mavier's’ Coliege,.. Bombay).

Note.—this is - undoubtedly the plant referred to by Graham_ ‘in his Cata-

logue, p.-117, but ‘not given a. name. It is one of the commonest Species.

occurring at Khandala. :

Ceropegia Farrokiii’ sp. nov.

C. Farrokhii accedit ad C. kachinensem Prain, generali habitu, sed facile

separatur ab hac specie lobis exterioris coronae integris; in C. kachinensi

exterioris coronae -lobi sunt bifidt. — .

Description.—tXooi-system ot seen. Stem simple or branched, twining,

somewhat slender,» hairy. Leaves 1.5-8 x 0.5-1.75 cm., narrowly Jlanceo-

late, acuminate or acute, base cuneate; petiole 12-15 mm. Flowers 2-6

together on a short hirsute peduncie, peduncie 1.5-2 cm.; pedicels shorter —

than or as long as the peduncle, hirsute; calyx divided to the base, segments

linear-lanceolate with a few hairs on the dorsal surface ; corolla 15-18 mm.,

base inflated; lobes -6 mm.,- hairy along the margins, outer coronal lobes

entire, Bimmost 8 the length. a the inner coronal lobes, ciliate, inner lobes

spathulate, approximate. Follicles not .seen. FO COE

Locality.—Kachin Hills; Burma. Shaik Motu (Dr. Prain’s — collector)

obtained the tuber on 16-10-1897 which flowered at . ‘Calcutta _ in November

1902. Herb. Royal Bot. Gardens, Calcutta,.2. sheets; Type specimen, the sheet

with the branching specimen. Bot

Note.—Specimens of. this species were placed in. the folder containing

C. kachinensis which it closely resembles, . but the corona~ is very different

from that species. The description is based on..pressed. material.

Ceropegia Blatteri®? nov. comb.

C. odorata Nimmo in Graham Cat. Bomb. Pl. (1839), p. 118. ©

C. ororata’ Hooker f. Fl. B. I., v. 4 (1883), p. 75 (non Nimmo).

Description—A_ slender twiner. Leaves. narrowly. lanceolate. or dinear,

6-7 cm. X 0.5-I.5 cCm., acuminate, base narrowed into the petiole, membra-

nous, hispidly pubescent above and along the nerves. beneath, margins ciliate ;

petiole 0.5 cm. (occasionally. there are three leaves at a~- node.) Flowers

3-10 in peduncled umbellate cymes; peduncle 1-1.5. cm. hispid with stiff

hairs, purple (?); pedicels o0.4-0.5 cm., hairy (?); calyx divided to the base,

markedly recurved (in the dry state), 5-7 mm. long, ; linear, acuminate

dorsally hispid with a few hairs; corolla 3 cm., very narrow, scarcely inflated

at the base, lobes 10-12 mm., the segments very narrow, hairy within; outer-

complete, inner corona of five linear-oblong lobes, subacute. Follicles not seen.

The above description I have made from the pressed specimens. Where

I have inserted a query. I am not quite certain of the character as there is

room for doubt owing to preservation.

It is obvious from the above synonymy that a change of name is neces-

sitated as the specific name odorata is preoccupied. The name C. odorata

Nimmo first appeared in Graham’s Catalogue in 1839. The only description

accompanying the name is ‘Flowers yellow, fragrant: so unusual -in_ the

genus’. In the same work there is a reference to another yellow species

from Khandala, mv C. Evansit; in Hocker. f.’s work there is a reference to

a white corolla; Trimen refers to a yellow species from Ceylon. As _ there

is room for doubt, more so, on account. of the very insufficient description

of Nimmo, the name C. odorata must be treated. as a nomen nudunr.

Hooker f. describes a species under. the name C€.. odorata which he says

to be the same as Nimmo’s C. odorata, he’ may have possibly, séen a sheet

in some herbarium with the name in Nimmo’s hand-writing, but even so,

it does not constitute a fully described species and must still be considered

a nomen nudum, Hooker f.’s reference to the colour and scent of the flower

is evidently derived from Nimmo’s remarks, for it is very evident he had not

' In honour of Mr. F. E. Bharucha who takes a keen interest in Botany

and the activities of the Society.

* In honour of the late Rev. E. Blatter who laid the foundation of my

botanical studies and guided me much in my work until his untimely death.

NEW SPECIES OF CEROPEGIA Ut

met with the plant in the field. Hooker f.’s description leaves no doubt

in my mind as to the species intended, but as the name C. odorata is pre-

occupied it must be changed, and I accordingly do so, as indicated above.

SYNONYMY AS CONSIDERED IN MY REVISION OF THE GENUS

1. C. pusilla Wight.

2, C. munroni Wight (as originally spelt); C. spiralis Wight; C. fimbrifera

Bedd.

3.— C. attenuata Hooker; C. angustifolia Dalz.

4, C, Lawii Hook. f£.; C. panchganiensis Blatt. and McC.

5. C. Wallichii Wight.

6. C. bulbosa Roxb.; C. edulis Hort. ex Dere.; C. candelabriformis

St. Lag.

7. €. acuminata Roxb.; C. Lushii Graham ; C. dulbosa Bamber (not Roxb.)

C. dulbosa Roxb. var. Lushii(Grah.) Hk. f.: C. 6ulbosa Roxb. var.

esculenta (Edgw.) Hk. f.; C. esculenta Edgw. C. discreta N. E. Br.

C. Candelabrum Linn.

C tuberosa Roxb.; C. Wightit Graham ; C. mucronata Roth.

10. C intermedia Wight. ,

11 C, juncea Roxb.

12. C. elegans Wall.; C. sphenantha Wight and Arnott; C. mysorensis

Wight; C. sphenanthera Dene.; C. Walkerie Wight; C. Gardneriit

Hooker; C. sphenantha Hk. f. (index); C. Walkere Trimen

(spelling). Lapis Oe

13. C. longifolia Wall.; C. Zanceolata Wight; C. borit Raiz.

14. C. Thwaitesii Hooker. |

15, C. ciliata Wight ; C. ensifolia Bedd.; C. albiflora Hk. f.

16, .C. hirsuta Wight and Arnoti; C. zspzda Blatt. and McC.

17. C. Jacquemontiana Dene. ; C. hirsuta W. and A. var. Jacquemontianc

Hk. f.; C. Stockszi Hk. f.

18, C. viicaefolia Hooker.

19. C. oculaiaa Hooker; C. ophiocephala Dalz.

20. C. angustifolia W ght.

21. C. pubescens Wall.

22. C. Hookeri Clarke.

23, C. lucida Wall. —

24. C. Decaiseneana Wight.

25. C.brevicollis Hooker f. —

26. C. macrantha Wight.

27. C. Arno:tiana Wight.

28. C. Beddomei Hk. f.

29. C. fantastica Sedg.

30. C. polyantha Blatt. and McC.

31. C. kachinensis Prain.

32. C.nana Coll. and Hemsl.

33. C. Evansii Mcc.

34. C. Blatteri McC. ; C. odorata Hk. f.

35. C. Farrokhii McC.

c 9

OBITUARY

“+ EDWARD CHAREES STUART BAKER

The Society has sustained a great loss by the death of Edward -Charles

Stuart Baker at his home in Upper Norwood, London, on the 16th April

1944, in his 80th year. He was the son of E. B. Baker and was educated

at Trinity College, Stratford-on-Avon. Following in his father’s footsteps he

joined the Indian Police in 1883, and his first three years were spent in Bengal,

‘but in August 1886 he was transferred to Gauhati, and thereafter the remainder

of his service was in Assam. In 1888 he met in Calcutta the late Dr. Hartert,

then engaged on a collecting tour’ in the East Indies who described him in his

Aus den Wanderjahren eines Naturforschers as ‘the famous explorer and zoologist

of the Cachar Hills.’ a

He joined the Society in 1898 and his first paper ‘On the: genus Chloropsis

appeared in the sixth volume of the Journal. Many other contributions ap-

peared from his pen, but it will be for his papers on Indian. Ducks and Game

Birds that. Stuart Baker will always be remembered. The first of the series

-dealt with the Ducks, and so popular were they that our Honorary Secretary,

Mr. W. S. Millard, decided to publish them in book form The book ao-

peared under the title of ‘Indian Ducks and their Allies’ and was an im-

mediate success and soon out of print. Apart from the financial success,

the volume was the means of drawing attention to the activities ‘of the

Society, thereby increasing the membership. Realising this, our Honorary Sec-

retary asked Mr. Stuart Baker to write a further series of papers on Game

Birds and a start was made with the Snipe, Bustards and Sandgrouse, later

followed by others on the true game-birds, and finally on Rails and Waders,

of which so many kinds are found in India.

In those days the editors had great difficulty in making the Journal in-

teresting to the wide circle of members. Long contributions on Micro-Lep-

doptera, descriptions of butterfly larvae etc. were of scientific importance but

of little interest to the ordinary reader, so that the value of Mr. Baker’s

papers in popularising the Journal must never be forgotten. Apart from

that they also brought our knowledge of the different birds up to date.

In addition to his interest in Indian birds’ eggs in general, Mr. Baker made

a special study of the eggs and habits of the different Indian cuckoos and

their fosterers. This huge collection cons.sting of some 6,000 eggs of cuckoos

was obtained partly by his own collecting and that of his native collectors, as

well as by his numerous correspondents all over the Indian Empire. He

also acquired by purchase the collections of 25 of the principal collectors of

Indian birds’ eggs. These, however, were not mere collections of eggs for

most of the clutches were accompanied by notes. He wrote many papers on

the habits of cuckoos and their eggs, but it was not until he retired’ from

the Dock Police that he was able to study his collection to the full. In

1942 he published ‘Cuckoo Problems’, the result of his years of careful obser-

vation and collecting.

Besides eggs, Mr. Baker made a considerable collection of skins. Some

he gave to the Society, others he disposed of to Lord Rothschild, but the

majority. he sold to the Royal Museum in Sofia. His collection of cuckoos’

eggs was acquired by the Trustees of the British Museum and came to the

Museum after his death. Some years earlier he had presented his general

-collection which consisted of some 49,360 eggs belonging to 1960 forms.

Mr. Baker was fortunate in spending his service in the. more remote and

less known parts of Assam. He was from 1887 to 1899 in different parts of

Cachar, and in 1900 was transferred to Dibrugarh where he remained for

two years before going to Shillong as personal assistant to the Inspector-

‘General of Police. In 1906 he became Deputy Inspector-General of Police in

charge of C.I.D., which appointment he held until he was promoted in 1908

to Inspector-General of Police for Eastern Bengal, and in 1909 he was trans-.

ferred from Shillong to Dacca. Later in the same year he was placed on

special duty, and in i911 he retired from Assam and returned to “England

E. C. STUART BAKER.

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OBITUARY | 213

where he assumed charge of the Port of London Police. This force he re-

organized and brought up to a high standard of efficiency, and finally retirea

in 1925.

Atter he came to live in London’ Mr. Baker was able to devote much olf

his spare time to ornithology, and in 1913 he ‘was elected Secretary and

Treasurer of the British Ornithologists’ Union, which office he held until

1923. a ee :

In 1913 the late Colonel Harington and Mr. Baker commenced revising

the Indian avitauna. The tormer wrote’ a revis.on of the Indian Timaliidae,

while the latter published reviews on the Silver Pheasants dnd Drongos.

Karly in 1920 the authorities at the British Museum were asked by the editor

of the Fauna of British India to suggest someone to undertake a new edition

of the volumes on Birds, and Mr. Baker. was recommended. ‘The first edition

by Oates and Blanford was published in 4 volumes, but in the new edition

it was found necessary to expand the -work into six, with two additional

volumes on synonymy. Pee Spb

For the next eight or nine years Mr, Baker was busily engaged in writing

this important work, but he first prepared a Handlist of the Birds which

was published in our Journal. At the commencement he was only able to

devote his spare time to writing and research, but by starting early in the

morning and working late he managed to get the first volume out in 1922.

Thereafter a volume appeared yearly, surely a record for a publication of this.

magnitude. .

When he retired from the Dock Police in 1925 Mr. Baker became a can-

didate for the Croyden Municipal Council and was returned by a_ large

majority. For the years 1938-39 he was elected Mayor and continued to sit

on the Council till 1942 when he retired. He was much interested in youth

organizations and was a great supporter of Amateur Boxing both while in

the Police and at Croydon, where he was President of the local Amateur

Club. --

Mr. Baker was a great shikari and’ wrote interesting accounts of his

experiences with big game in our Journal, as well as the Field and Asian.

He was a good rifle shot, and was twice. fossed, by a gaur and trampled on

by a rhinoceros. Many years ago he lost his left arm in an encounter with

a man-eating panther near Silchar. He was following the animal which

had taken refuge in a native hut, when it charged and knocked the rifle out

of his hand. The panther seized him and to save himself he thrust his left

arm down the beast’s throat. Luckily his shikaries came to his assistance:

and despatched the animal. Despite the loss of an’ arm-he continued to shoot

both with rifle and shot-gun.

Mr. Baker was an excellent tennis player, and. in 1937 won the Men’s:

Singles Handicap at Dulwich. He was also a keen rider, and won numerous

pony races in. Assam. With his single hand he was extraordinarily clever-

and it was wonderful to see him place a small egg in a box of sand and

inscribe it. He was. awarded a C.I.E., for his services in India in 1932, and

after the last War was made a Companion of the Order of the British

Empire. In 1897 he married Ethel Mary. Roffey, who survives him together

with four daughters. Mee

N.B.K.

At a- meeting held on the 26th August 1944 the Committee of the’ Peermade

Game Association recorded their sense of regret and Joss at the death of

Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker and Mr. H. Whistler. “ [Eps-]

PUBLICATIONS

Bombay Natural’ History.Society.

The Genus Chloropsis. Vol. VI, p. 509.

The Bulbuls. of North Cackar.. Vol: WI. ,

List of Birds’ Eggs from North Cachar presented by E. C. Stuart Baker.

Vol. VII.

A new Wren from North Cachar, Vol. VII, p. 319.

The Birds of North Cachar. Vol. VIII, p. 162; Vol. IX, pp. 1, 111; Vol. X,

DPRMELON 6BOn e580 aVOlucekls ipp.s222..eqq> Volo ucll, p. 4865 Vols. ‘XAit,

PP. 399, 563. Dukes 7asyheerTe ; :

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Identification of Birds. Vol. X, p. 151.

On Pericrocotus speciosus vel fraterculus. Vol. X, p. eone

Indian Ducks and their Allies. Vols. XI to XIII.

The Blue Rock Thrush. Vol. XI, p. 336.

Probable hybrid between the Scarlet-backed and Fire-breasted Flower |

Pecker. Vol. XI, p. 467.

On the occurrence of Podiceps cristatus in Assam. Vol. XIII, p. 535.

On the occurrence of Macrorhampus semi-palmatus in Assam. Vol. XIII,

P. 795:

The nidifications of Rimator malacoptilus. Vol. XIII, p. 706.

A’ correction. Turdinulus roberti. Suppression of ‘Corythocicla squamata.

Vol. XIV, p. 626.

Occurrence of the Mandarin Duck in India. Vol. XIV, p. 626.

Indian Ducks and their Aikes (the Manuarin Duck). Vol. XIV, p. 660.

The Eggs of the Long-billed Babbler (R. malacoptilus). Vol XIV, p. 814.

Rare Ducks. Vol. XV, p. 141. ae

The Crested Grebe. Vol. XV, p. 142.

The Gaur and the Gayal. Vol. XV, p. 227. r

Note on the Golden-eye (C. glaucion). Vol. XV, p. 348.

Occurrence of the Dwarf Goose (A. erythropus) in Assam. Vol. XV, p. 524.

Occurrence of the Pink-footed Goose (A. brachyrhynchus) and of Anas zono-

rhyncha in Assam. Vol. XV. p. 718.

Occurrence of the Red-breasted Goose (B. ruficollis) in India. Vol. XX,

XVI, 155.

Occurrence of the Masked Fin-foot (He personata) .in Lakhimpur, Vol.

XVI, p. 156. ; ce

The Oology of Indian Parasitic Cuckoos. Vol. XVII, pp. 72, 351, 678.

On the Indian species of Bean Geese. Vol. XVII, p. .

The breeding of the Bengal Florican (S. bengalensis). Vol. XVII, p. 538.

Birds of the Khasia Hills, Vol. XVII, pp. 783, 957.

Additional Cuckoo Notes. Vol. XVII, p. 876.

Additional Cuckoo Notes. Vol. XVIII, p. 275.

Important additions to the Indian avifauna; The Malayan Hawk Cuckoo

(Hierococcyx tugax), Vol. XVIII, p. 915.

The Oology of Parasitic Cuckoos. Vol. XVIII, p. 915.

Second occurrence of the Snipe-billed Godwit in Assam. Vol. XIX, p. 994.

Game Birds of India, Berm: and (evlor_ Vol. XX, pp: 1, 259, 547, 901;

XXI, pp. 20, 302, 721, r109; Vol. XXII, pp. 1, 219, 427, 653; Vol.

XXIII, pp. 1, 183, 385, 593; Vol. XGX1IV, pt. 1) 201, 387,8623);= Vols xexave

Pp» I, 161, 325, 5213: Vol. XXXVI ppiery 319, “O52 So5eiV Ole Onavall:

Pp. 1, 193; Vol. XXVIII, pp. 1, 3055571, 823.5 Vol. XXSXIX, pp. 1, 300;

577, 849; Vol. XXX, pp. 1, 236; Vol. XXXI, pp. 233, 533; Vol. XXXII,

Po 15237, 397, 0175, Vole XOOMIIS pps an, 223%) 47398 Faces Voli Ono

“pp. 1; 613, 850: Vol, SOON V, ipps st, 24t, 4756 7O3)) Vole xoxox Vil sppesne

2033 Vol. XXXWEIS pps 1; 245%) Voll xeon Tipper:

Occurrence of the Great Snipe near Bangalore. Vol. XX. p. 1155.

The occurrence of Cygnus bewicki and other Swans in India. Vol. XXI,

A Hote i the eas of the Spot-billed Duck (Anas poecilorhyncha).

Vol. XXII, p. 805.

A review of Indian Swans. Vol. XXII, p. 454.

A review of the genus (Gennaeus) (3 Plates, 2 Maps). Vol. XXII, p. 658

Sub-species. and the Field Naturalist. Vol. XXVI. p. 518. |

The Power of Scent in Wild Animals. Vol. XXVII, p. 112.

The Rirds of the Indian Empire. Vol. XXVII, pp. 228, 488, 692; Vol.

XXVIII, pp. 85, 312, 876. 830; Vol. XXITX, p. 9.

Notes on the Fauna of British India: Birds, Vols. IV, V, and VI. (New

edition), Vol. XXXV, p. 873.

An Appeal: Wanted information about Cuckoos’ 560 {plo test)

The This.

1892. Descrintion of a new cnecies of Wren from North-east India, to-

gether with an account of its Nest and Eggs. p. 62.

1895-1906. Notes on the Nidification of some Indian Birds not. mentioned in

Hume’s ‘Nests and Eggs’.

1912-13.

§O13-14<

IQ 4-15.

1915-16.

OBITUARY

On Indian Birds’ Eggs and their Variations. p. 411.

The Evolution of Adaptation, in Parasitic Cuckoos’. Eggs. p. 354.

Note on the Genus Ithageties. p. 122.

Notes on the Nidification of some. Indian SFalconidae. pp. ° 224,

350, 51.

A reply to Messrs. Robinson and Kloss : with some, further critical

remarks. p. 593.

Some notes on Oriental Woodueckcerst and. Barbets. Pass

A note on some Oriental Zosteropidae, and descriptions of new °

Subspecies. p. 142.

Letter on the Zosteropidae. p. 358.

Bird-Notes on a Trip to Lapland. (In conjunction with Dr. Ivar

' Hortling.) p. 100.

Letter re ‘Nidification of Indian Birds’. (with. note by Editor.)

Pe A Ba haE

Letter on Native-taken Eggs. p. 475.

Bulletin British Ornithologists’ Club

Exhibition of clutches .of eggs of Falco severus and F. peregrinator.

Vol. XXXI, p. 8.

Remarks on eggs of the Cranes. id. p. 24.

Exhibition of a series of eggs of Asiatic parasitic Cuckoos, and

eggs of their foster parents. id. p. 34.

Description of a new subspecies of Warbler (Acanthopneuste tro-

chiloides harterti) from Khasia Hills. id. p. 36.

Exhibition. and description of a new species of Thrush (Oreocincla

whiteheadi) from the Khaghan Valley, with notes by Capt. C.

H. T. Writehead. id. p. 79.

Remarks on Oreocincla mollissima and O. dixoni. Id. p. 81.

Correction ¢f. his. description of Acanthopneuste trochiloides har-

tertit. id p. 82.

Exhibition of eggs of various Indian birds. Vol. XXXI, p. 82.

Remarks on the differently coloured eggs of the species of Swal-

lows found in India. Vol. XXXIII, p. 42.

Exhibition of nests and eggs of Chaetura sylvatica and C. indica,

with remarks on the nidification of the genus. id. p. 36.

Exhibition of a pair of Blood-Pheasants (Ithagenes cruentus kuseri)

from the Mishmi Hills, with remarks and a description of the

female hitherto unknown to science. _ id. p. 83.

Exhibition and remarks on a male’ example and a chick of the

rare Eared. Pheasant (Crossoptilon harmani). id. p. 121.

Exhibition of three forms of the Scimitar Babbler (Pomatorhinus

erythvogenys) and the description of a new species (Pomatar-

hinus haringtoni). id. p. 123.

Exhibition of eggs of the Blood-Pheasant (Ithagenes cruentus -

kuserit) id. p. 124.

Description of four new Indian Birds—Tvrochalopterum erythro-

laema woodi, Ixulus flavicollis baileyi, Ithagenes tibetanus,

and Tragopan blythi molesworthi. Vol. XXX, p.. 17.

Exhibition of Eggs of Merops -apiaster. id. p. 38.

Exhibition of an adult female, and a nest with eggs,’ of Batracho-

stomus ‘moniliger, from Travancore. id. p. 38.

Exhibition and description of a new: subspecies—Laiscopus collaris

whymberi—from_ Garwhal. id. p. 60.

Discussion of ‘The Coloration of the Eggs of Birds and of the

Mouths of Nestlings’. id. p. 110. |

Discussion of ‘The Fffect of Environment on the Evolution of

Species’, Vol. XXXV, p. 138.

Exhibition and descrintion of a new T.ark—Mirafra cet etns wil-

liamsoni—from Bangkok. Vol. XXXVI. f. ‘o.

Disenssion of ‘The Rearing of Oology on Classification’ id. p. 24.

Exhibition and descrintinon of a new Lark—Mivrafra’ assamica mar-

ionae—from Central Siam. id. p. 24. —

Exhibition of a pair of the rare Cuckoo, Carpococcyx renauldi.

id. p. 8a.

216

1916-17.

1917-18.

1918-10.

191G-20.

{G20-21.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Re-namings of the White-throated Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura al-

bicollis stanleyZ). id. p. 80. a .

Exhibition of, and remarks upon, the eggs of Propasser edwardsi:

and Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus. XXXVII. p. 9.

Exhibition of, and remarks upon, a series of Caprimulgus ePgs.

id. p. 10.

Exhibition of some interesting series of Guckoo’s Tesgs) idea paEeos

Exhibition of lantern-slides illustrating the nests, eggs, and nest-

ing-sites of a number of Indian birds id= pa Oe

Descrivtion of new subspecies of -Indian) and Siamese birds.

XXXVIII. p. 7. .

Description of new subspecies of Bulbuls.. > id: *p. rs.

Description of Prinia inornata herberi, subsp. nov. id. p. 39.

Exhibition of lantern-slides illustrating the nests | and eggs of rare

Indian birds. id. p. 55.

Notes on Garrulax moniliger, XXXVIII. ’p. 64. \

Communication in the species of Graucalus macet. id. p. 66.

Description of new subspecies of Jungle Myna. id. p. 7o.

Exhibition and description of a new subspecies of Flycatcher (Cyor-

nis magnirostris caerulifrons) from Siam. XXXIX. p. 7.

Exhibition and description of mew subspecies of Oriental birds

(Bhringa remifer peracensis, Picus canus gyldenstolpet, Therei-

ceryx lineatus intermedius, Cyanops duvauceli robinsoni, Pitta

caerulea hosei) XXXIX. p. 18. | ars

Exhibition of eggs of Pterocles senegallus, id. p. 28.

Remarks on the subspecies of the Kingfisher (Alcedo meninting)

with descriptions of two new subspecies (A..m. scintillans and

A. m. coltarti) id. p. 38.

Exhibition of a new erospecie: of Cuckoo (Penthoceryx sonnerati

waitt) with remarks on the genus. id. p. 45.

On behalf of Mr. Thomas Wells, description of a new subspecies: ©

of Babbler (Scotocichla fuscicapilla babauilti) from North Ceylon.

id. p. 69.

Description of a new subspecies. of. Cuckoo (Rinortha chlorophara

fuscigularis) from Borneo. Clg Oe Wa

On behalf of Mr. Thomas Wells, communicated the description of

a new subspecies of Starling (Poliopsar leucocephalus annamen-

sis) -frim. Annam... id.: p. 77%.

On behalf of Messrs. H. C. Robinson and. C. .B. Kloss, Exhibition

of types and descriptions of new species of Malayan birds :—-

Garrulax pectoralis meridionalis, Gecinus canus meridionalits,.

Gecinus vittatus connectens, Iyngipicus canicapillus suffusus,

Eurylaimus javanicus brookei, Eurylaimus ochramalus i:alaman-

tan, Sevilophus lunatus stolidus, Rhinocichla mitrata major, Polto-

sitta azurea nigriventer Ophrydornis albogularis moultori. Vol.

SEs je" Wie ;

Descriptions of races of Galloperdix spadicea:—G. s. caurinat,

Blanf., and G. s.° stewarti, subsp.'-n. id. p. 18.

Descriptions of a new subspecies of Little Owl (Carine brama

fryi) from Madras, with remarks on the distribution of the

species. id. p. 60. ‘

On behalf of Messrs. H. C. Robinson and C. B. Kloss, Descrip-

tion of a new race of Short-tailed Babbler (Anuropsis malac-

censis saturata) from Sarawak. id. p. -68.

Address on ‘The Value of Seleeieize (3s to the Field Naturalist.”

id. p. 80.

"Remarks on Privia indica! ine avocetas peregrinus, P. speciosus,

and P. breviréstris, and descriptions. of new subspecies—Pert-

crocotus, P. spectosus [giekicn sts. P. brevivostris styani. — id.

‘Pp. 112.

Exhibition and remarks on eggs of innitiam Clo vidae and Dic-

vuridae. id, p.. 124.

Remarks on Regret plumes. id. rey. ‘

On new names and descriptions of new subspecies of Indian

hirds :—Aegithaliscus concinna iredalei,, nom.. n., Chloropsis

OBITUARY é 247

aurifrons davisoni, nom. n., Hypothymis azurea sykesi. nom.

n., Pellorneum ruflceps jonest, subsp. n., and Turnix javanica

leggei, subsp. n. Vol. XLI. p. °8. eterna

Descriptions of a new genus, - species, and ‘subspecies of birds :—

Nigravis, Nigravis herberti, Picus rubricollaris, Schoeniparus

rufigularis major, and <Arboricola troqueola millardi. id. p. 10,

IO.

On behalf of H. C.. Robinson, Description of a néw subspecies of

Bulbul (Molpastes atricapillus klossi) from Northern Siam. Vol.

MET. p. 12: ;

Exhibition of eggs of Perdix sifanica fromweNe ee sebibets, ide ps sso.

Descriptions of new. subspecies of Sunbirds anc ores pecto-

ralis blanfordi and Aethopyga ignicauda flavescens) - De Gis

Exhibition of eggs of Asiatic Finches and Buntings. ia Pp. 90.

Description of a new subspecies of Bamboo-Partridge (Arboricola

torqueola millardi) from Koteghur. id. p. tor.

Diagnosis of his new genus,’ Nigravis (see antea, p. 10) id. p. ior.

Correction of locality. id. p. tor.

Descriptions of two new subspecies of Flower-peckers (Dicaeum

chrysorrhaecum intensum and Dicaeum trigonostigma rubropy-

gium) id. p. 108. ;

Exhibition of eggs of Oriental Shrikes and Flycatchers. id. p. 144.

Description of a “new race. of ~—Flower-pecker (Ditaeum minullum

subflavum) from Belgaum. Vol. XLII, p. 12.

Proposed the following new names for two Indian — birds :—

Alcedo iredalei,. Upupa epops orientalis. id. p. 26.

Description of a new race of Laughing Thrush (Garrulax albogu-

laris whistleri) id. p. 20.

A paper on ‘Some Theories about Cuckoos and their eggs.’ id.

Pp. 93- } ny

Descriptions of new. subspecies of ; Sylvtidae * and Turdidae :—

Acrocephalus concinens stevensi, A. stentoreus amyae, Hodgso-

nius phoenicuroides ichangensis, Saxicola’ caprata burmanica,

and Kiicurus maculatus robinsoni. Vol. XLIII. p. 16.

Exhibition on behalf of Sir Percy Cox and Capt. Cheesman and

remarks on eggs from Mesopotamia and the Persian Gulf. Vol.

XLITVI. p,. 7o.

Descriptions of two new races of Flycatcher (Hemichelidon — sibi-

vica gulmergt and H. s. rothschildi) id. p. 155.

Exhibitions and descriptions. of new races of Flycatchers and

Shrikes (with remarks on the Indian species of the genus Cyor-

nis): Siphia strophiata fusco-gularis, Culicicapa — ceylonensis

orientalis, C. c. meridionalis, Lalage iigra brunnescens. Vol.

MLIVe) pr. Fe aS laa : '

Remarks on the species Cisticola ewilis, with “description of a new

subspecies (C. e. equicaudata) from Siam. id. p. 38.

Description of a new subspecies (Franklinia rufescens austeni) frony

the Naga Hills. Id. p. 30.

Exhibition on behalf of Mr. H. Whistler, ‘of two clutches of eggs

of the Sand-Plover (Charadrius mongolus afrifrons) from Chan-

dra Lake, Lahul. id. p.. 39. 3)

Descriptions of new races of Warblers :—Acanthopneuste nitidus

saturatus, Abroriis superciliaris salwinensis, Abrornis schisticeps

flavimentalis, and Floreites brunnifrons umbraticus. id. p. 61.

Description of a new race of Suya crinigera from Assam for whiclr

was proposed the name of Suya crinigera assamica. id. p.-8o.

Description of a new form of Psaroglossa (P. spiloptera assamensis)

from: the | Khasia’ .Hills. _ Vol. XIV. op. :14:

Descriptions of three new subspecies of Oriental birds :—Ploceus

manyar peguensis, Munia malacca orientalis, and Uroloncha

striata subsquamicollis id. p. 58.

Description of a new subspecies of Weaver-bird (Erythrura pra-

sina coelica) from Borneo, and “proposed new name (Uroloncha

vufiventris) for bird known as U.. pectoralis Jerdon. Vol. XLV.

p. 84.

218

1925-26.

1926-27.

1 926-27.

1927-28.

3928-209.

1929-30.

1930-31.

1931-32.

1033-34:

1934-35-

1935-36.

1924-26,

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45. .

Descriptions of new subspecies of Finches :—

Procarduelis nipalensis intensicolor, Passer montanus tibetanus.

id. p. 92.

Remarks on the genus Sturnopastor and description of a new

subspecies (Sturnopastor capensis dehrae) id. p. 103.

Correction re. Passer montanus tibetanus—P. m. obscuratus. id.

Pp. ‘104.

Exhibit.on of nests and eggs of Hemiprocne and Batrachostomus.

id.\-p. 104:

Descriptions of new races of Sun-birds:—Aethopyga siparaja mus-

sooriensis, Ae. i. exultans, Ae. g. isolata, and Arachnothera

chrysogenys intevsiflava.. Vol. XLVI. p. 12.

Remarks on Oriental Woodpeckers, with descriptions of new

races :—Picus vittatus dehrae, Picus canus sanguiniceps, Dryo-

bates himalayensis albescens, and D. cabanisi stephensoni. id.

p-. 69.

Remarks on Oriental birds and descriptions of two new _ sub-

species :—Yung:ipicus hardwickii brunneiceps, Sasia ochracea que-

vulivox, Megalaima virens magnifica, Rhopodytes tristis nigri-

striatus, and Coryllis vernalis rubropygialis Vol. XLVII. p. 41.

Remarks on Oriental Owls, with descriptions of four new races :—

Athene noctua I Inudlowi, Glauc dium cuculoides rufescens, G. c.

fulvescens, and Ninox scutulata isolata. id. p. 58.

Description of new subspecies of Oriental birds :—Alcedo menint-

- ing phillipst and Amauyornis fuscus zeylonicus. id. p. 72.

Remarks. on Oriental birds and descriptions of two new sub-

species :—Polihierax insignis cinereiceps and Cerchneis tinnun-

culus objurgatus. Vol. .XLVII. ‘p. 101.

On_ behalf. of Prof. M..Menzb'er. Exhibition of plates of Falco-

nidae. id. p. 91.

Description of a mew subspecies of Fishing-Bagle (Icthyophaga

ichthyaétus plumbeiceps) from Ceylon. id. p. 150.

Description of a new subspecies of Bronze-winged Pigeon (Chal-

cophaps indica robinsoni) from .Ceylon. Vol. XLVIII. p. 58.

Exhibition and remarks on a _ séries ‘of Bustard-Quails (Turniz),

with descriptions of three new ‘subspecies:—Turnix suscitator

interrumpens, T. s. pallescevs, and T..s. isabellinus. id. p. 58.

Note on the races of Sterna albifrons. Vol. XLIX. p. 37. Note

on Ardea cinerea tectirostris Gould. Id. p. 39. Ardea imperia-

lis, nom. nov. for A. insignis. ids p. 40. Squamatornis, gen.

nov., type Rubigula squamata webberi id..40. .

Note on Pericrocotus peregrinus, with description. of a new sub-

species :—Pericrocotus ‘cinnamomeus iredalei from North and

North-West India. id. p. 64.

Exhibition of two series of Cuckoos’ eggs. id. p. 64.

Comments on C. B. Kloss’s communication in the April Bulletin.

La 702770:

Exhibition of eggs of the Greenshank (Tringa nebularia) and the

Jack Snipe (Lymnocrypes minimus). id. p. 45.

Remarks and descriptions of two new subspecies of Caprimulgus

monticolus. id. p. 100.

Lecture on his experience of a visit to Lapland in 1931 and _pre-

vious years, illustrated with Jantern-slides. Vol. LIT. p. 30.

Description of a new subspecies, Krimnochelidon concolor sintaun-

gensis, from the Shan States. -Vol, “LTV. p,. 24.

Exhibition of slides, and remarks on, the. breeding haunts of

several birds. Vol. LV. p. ‘15.

Exhibition of, and remariss on, some slides of Finland and Lap-

Hilands “Wolk = eiViliom6:

Description of a new sapeneticn of. Owl! (Strix indvanee shanensis)

from the Shan. “Statesy, "1d. =p. 36:5 se ;

Bulletin British Oological Association.

Exhibition of Eggs of Oriental Turdidae. Vol. I, poh

Exhibition of Eggs of Oriental Paridae, id. p. 18.

OBITUARY 219

On the Eggs of the smaller Waders. id. p. 55. °

Exhibition of Eggs of Oriental Eagles and Vultures id. p. 91.

Exhibition of Eggs of smaller Indian Accipitres. id. p. go.

On Heredity in Egg Coloration. id. p. 131. e

1927-29. On Oology as an aid to Classification. Vol. II. p. 1.

: Exhibition of Eggs of Sand Grouse. id. p. 13.

Ixhibiuon of 1,55 Of Us emai Lurushes and Chats. id. p. 38.

Exhibition of Eggs of Terns and Blackheaded Gull. id. p. 59.

Exhibition of Eggs of Indian Rails. id. 107.

Exhibition of Eggs of smaller Limicolae. Vol. II. p. 114.

On the death of Mr. R. H. Read. id. p. 127.

Exhibition of Eggs of Limicolae from the Sandman _ Collection.

idea pemekeo:

1430-32. Exhibition. of a large. clutch of eggs of Grasshopper-Warbler.

Vol lil ps 112s

1933-35: Exhibition of eggs collected in Finland. Vol. IV. p. 114.

1936-38. Exhibition of European and Indian Cuckoos’ eggs and remarks.

WO Mo Db" Yc

1941. Exhibition of Cuckoos’ eggs from Europe, and remarks. Vol. VI.

= p27. .

Books

TONGS Indian Pigeons and Doves.

1922-30. Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and Burma. Birds.—

Vols. I-VIII. (Second Edition.) .

4432-35. Nidification of Birds in the Indian Empire. Vols. I-IV.

NOVITATES ZOOLOGICAE

Description ofa new Larvivera. Vol. 93. 1916, p. 298.

Some nctes on Dicruridae. Vol. 25. 1918, pp. 291-304.

Further notes on Dicruridae. Vol. 26, 1919, pp. 41-45.

_ Some notes on the genus Surniculus Vol. 26, 1920, p.*291—204

JCURNAL NATURAL SCIENCE, SIAM

Notes on a collection of bird skins formed byatinG. Elerberte «Voli.3. 1919)

pp. 177-216 ; 409 ; 443. Vol. 4, 1920, pp. 25-43.

Notes on Siamese Pheasants. Vol 4, 1920, p. 47.

RECORDS OF THE INDIA MUSEUM

Notes on the occurrence of Vultur monachus in Calcutta. Vol. 5, 1910, p. 81.

Zoologica! results of the Abor Expedition (1911-12) Birds.. Vol. 8, 1913,

pp. 259-288

On a small collection from the Mishmi Hills. Vol. 9, 1913, pp. 251-254.

An albino Bulbul. Vol. 11. 1915, pp. 351-352.

Two interesting aibinos. Vol. 16, 1919, p 167.

Notes on two collections from Seistan. Vol. 18, 1919, pp. 121-134.

AVICULTURAL MAGAZINE.

The Paradise Flycatcher (Zerpsiphone paradisae affinis). Vol. 3, 1912,

pp. 302-307.

Some notes on the Whitc-legged Fale net (Microhierar melanoleucus).

Vol. 5, 1914, pp. 93-98.

Some notes on tame Serpent Eagles. Vol. 5, 1914, pp. 154-159.

PROCEEDINGS ZOOLCGICAL SOCIETY

Cuckoos’ Eggs and Evolution. ‘1923, pp: 277-294...

OOLOGICAL RECORD

Bird nedtingtin Lapland. Vol. 3, 1913. pp. 66-71.

Bird notes on Lapland trips. Vol. 15, 1935, pp. 25-33.

The criterion of the trinomial. Vol. 3, 1923, pp. 30- 36.

Are characters and colouration of eggs heriditary. Vol. 1, 1927,

pp. 131-139.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

Can ovlogy be an aid to the classification of birds. Vol. 2, 1927, pp. 1-12.

Reisarks on abnormal eggs. Vol. 3, i940, 28-35. ,

SouTH-East’ LONDON NATURALIST’

Some curious aspects of Evolution (Indian pheasants). 1926, pp. 16-23.

‘TRANSACTIONS NORFOLK. AND NorkwicH NAfURAL History Society .

Egg collecting ; its uses and abuses. Vol. 12, 1925, pp. 414-423.

Oology as an aid to Science, Vol.:12, 192), pp. 654-663.

ORN. FENN

Notes on birds of. Hailnats (Karto) 650°, lat.- Finland. Vol. 6, 192}

pp. 61-66.

THE FIELD

kights and Lefts and double hits at small Game. 1944, 15th April, p. 400.

6 eee big = 1944, 8th ,, p. 375.

Heads valued for their symmetry aad beauty. 1942, 26ch Dec., p. 672.

Curious and abnormal Horns. i943, llth Jan., p. 7u. ;

Gaur from many points of view. 1941, 25th Oct., p. 492.

He also contributed to Zhe Asian 1893-1894.

SOME RECOLLECTIONS OF THE LATE COL..A. H.-E. MOSSE, CULE

The obituary of Colonel A. H. E. Mosse, C.1.E., which you reprinted from

The Times in your issue of April 1944, recalls some pleasant recollections of

him which may interest some of your readers. Our mutual friend, Mr: W.

S. Milard, gave me an introduction to him about twenty years ago when IL

was rather indignant at learning that permission had been given to an English

officer to shoot some Indian lions for the American Museum of Natural His-

tory, whereas the sole representative of this interesting animal in the British

Museum was the skin of one of the original specimens shot by Captain Smee.

This had been mounted for exhibition in the gallery and when unstuffed was.

found to contain a tiger’s skull! There was thus no skull in the national col-

lection, although, it is true, there were a couple of skulls of Indian lionesses.

in the Museum of the Royal College of Surgeons which Captain Smee had

presented to Sir Richard. Owen. Incidentally. [| may mention that these two

skulls, together with a large number of additional valuable, irreplaceable Speer

mens, were destroyed by a bomb during the air-raids of 1940-41.-

When I explained the state of affairs to Mr. Millard and _ told him how

eager I was to secure for the British Museum skins and skulls of the Gujerat

lion, it occurred to him that Colonel Mosse. might perhaps be able and. will-

ing to help. Through his kind offices I got in touch with Colonel Mosse, with

the result that he very kindly interested H. H. the Maharaja of Bhavnagar

in the matter and the latter generously presented three skulls from Amreli,.

the first the national collection had ever received.

Subsequently Colonel Mosse came to see.me and during our talk on Indian

hig game the topic of the panthers of Gujerat was raised. On learning. that

the British Museum had no specimens from that district and that I was par-

ticularly interested to ascertain if they belong to the normal Indian race or

to the race found in the Kirthar range he most generously gave me_ skins

from Gir and Bhavnagar in Kathiawar and from Mahi Kantha in North Guje-

rat and these showed what I wished to know, namely, that the panthers of

those areas, like the tigers, reached them from the east and not, like the lions,

from the west.

R. 1... POCGOCK-

Red ener

Britis Museum (Naturar History), ; ais RENEE Anat ae

November 1, 1944. spt toyhid cs pln

REVIEWS

MAN-EATERS OF KUMAON, by Jin Corbett. With an Introduction by Sir

Maurice Hallett, Governor of the United Provinces, and a Preface by Lord

Linlithgow; Viceroy of India, 1936-43, —-xvi, pp. 228, with photograph of

Author and five illustrations from photographs. Published by the Oxford Uni-

versity Press, Bombay, price Rs. 7-8.

This is an unusual book. It is also an unique book; for although a num-

ber of sportsmen have deliberately~ sought out. and killed man-eating tigers

and leopards in the course of their shooting expeditions, there has been

hitherto no record, in the hundred and more books. on jungle life and shooting

in India, of more than quite a few man-eating felines being killed by any

one individual. .

It is the lot of few sportsmen to have their upbringing and_ residence

amidst hills and forests inhabited by wild animals—tigers such as ‘The Bachelor

of Powalgarh’ almost at the garden gate; and it is not every man with such

opportunities of hunting man-eating tigers and leopards who would take advan-

tage of them with the long sustained determination and success of the author.

The success achieved by Jim~ Corbett. during some .32 years in pursuit of

‘the most dangerous and cunning of call .wild beasts was obviously due to his

early grounding in jungle lore; ,his ability to. move. almost.as silently as his

quarry; his. patience, endurance, and unflagging zeal; his mastery of himself

and the weapon in his hand; and his courage: not only: the ordinary courage

of all hunters of dangerous game, but cold courage on. protracted lone occa-

sions combined with the faculty of: quick decision and nerve unshaken by sudden

critical happenings. Added to all this a prime factor towards his success was

his very unusual accomplishment of being able to successfully summon to him

the: male, or the female, tiger by skilful use of his own vocal chords.

In South: India a mechanical contrivance is used to call up tigers, but it is

by no means as efficient.as the human throat trained to the purpose and could

not have been used on the several critical occasions related in this book.

Many*‘of the jungle people-of India can mimic to the life the calls of chital,

barking deer, jackal, monkeys, and some birds; no doubt the author has ability

in regard to these and others, as he hasgeeven when suffering from a_ sore

throat, in respect to the langur.

In the course of the stories brought together in this small book there is

instruction for those’. without. experience who will read with care and imagina-

tion. Among other things there is the need to secure that willing co-opera-

tion and confidence of the. village people without. which little can be achieved ;

_the ability to speak the language fluently; the natural habit of sympathy, kind-

ness, and reasonable generosity in dealings; all this and much more. will those

who aspire to emulate Jim Corbett find inherent in- these seven jungle. tales.

In the ‘Author’s» Note” (x-xvi) ‘there are some statements which call for

remark. It is true that man-eating tigers are those compelled through stress

of circumstances beyond their control—wounds and old age, to kill human

beings for their food: but wounds and old age do not cover all cases as_ the

author contends. Tigers with no wound. and in the prime of life have become

man-eaters. There is, for instance, the unimpeachable record of a tiger in

Assam having taken to man-eating without any excuse. (Journal, B.NeH.S.,

Vol- xxxvii. p. 112.) This beast killed 52 people in eight months. Other

instances of the kind could be sought out. 3)

The author does not know a single instance of a cub, after it had left the

protection of its’ parent, or after that parent had been killed, taking to killing

human _ beings. age : As. 3

In another part of India, the south-eastern portion: of the Central Pro-

vinces, there have been man-eating tigers and panthers for more than a

hundred years, and possibly for a. much longer period than that. All these

cases, in a country well stocked with wild animals, cannot have been due

only to-old age or wounds. It is highly probable that a tiger, having pre-

-viously learnt the vice from a parent or companion, teaches the cubs. by

-example to..kill human beings, and such cubs, when grown up,. teach the vice

sto their’ cubs: and so the practice never. dies out among ial tigers of that

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

district. No other explanation could satisfy the case of the area referred to

above.

The author has known no exception to the general rule he expresses that

tigers are responsible tor all kills taking place in daylight and leopards for all

kilis after dark. Generalities .of this kind are not sate. Many instances of

man-eating leopards killing- human being by daylight. could -be cited from other

parts of india, the above mentioned tract in particular.

Another matter. The author has- not seen a case where a tiger has_ killed

‘without provocation more than. needed to satisfy. its hunger or that~ of. its

cubs. That generality also is contuted .by many instances in. other parts of

India. Your reviewer has himself seen. a number of instances of a_ single

tiger killing at one time two animals out of a herd of cattle; and has a

photograph showing eleven out of thirteen cattle—cows and calves, slain in

one cattle shed-in one night by one male. tiger.

Conditions in the Kumaon -tract are somewhat difterent to. ‘hase in ait

parts of India and this should be taken into consideration when reading Jim

Corbett’s observations. . All will agree with the author in his praise. of. the

tiger and that, as has been -said by the present writer on several occasions,

public opinion should curtail -excessive slaughter of. this fine animal so essen-

tial, with the leopard, in preserving the balance of nature. in the aforesaid

areas of this country. 4 ey See DS 1s

Is the leopard to a certain extent a scavenger? In the peculiar conditions

of Western Kumaon he has apparently sometimes taken to eating human

bodies; and there is record (Journal, B.N.H.S., vol. xv, p. 135) of analogous

circumstances bringing about a similiar state of aftairs; aiso one of the results

of the great famine in Gujerat between 1901-1903 was a marked: increase in

the numbers of man-eating tigers and panthers (Journal, ‘B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvii,

p. 110.) With these exceptions the experience of the writer extending to over

fifty years and many parts of India, including Eastern Kumaon, is. that the

panther is no more of a scavenger than the tiger. Both will feed on carcasses

of animals not killed by themselves, and both will eat the most horribly

putrid flesh. In this respect there is not much to choose between them, indeed

the tiger is perhaps the worse offender of the two.

It is good to read that the author very strongly objects to the leopard

being classed as vermin. Your reviewer has expressed a similar opinion on

several occasions. .

As to leopards and porcupines Corbett. remarks’ that leopards do not get

quills struck into them, as do tigers, being clever enough to seize the

porcupine by the head. The present writer, and many ‘sportsmen, have seen

many instances of panthers injured by porcupine quills. .In the Journal,

‘B.N.H.S. vol. x, p. 154. is record of a panther having died on account of a

number of quills in various places and quite a number in the throat. ‘One

paw was in its mouth, and on removing it and looking down the throat I

noticed quite a number of quills sticking up which apparently were the

cause of the animal’s death.’

The reader with experience will think the author was taking undue risks

by carrying around a .275 rifle. It is true that this light weapon did, on

one occasion, by reason only of its being light in weight, save his life. But

a slightly heavier rifle, say the .375 with a bullet of 270 grains instead of only

172 would have been no more difficult to use under the circumstances related,

and would have been at all times a proper weapon to carry in the _ hiils

both in his own interest and that of the people and his purpose. It is

also for. remark that the author on some occasions handicapped his efforts,

so vital to the people he was aiding, by not having a comfortable and well

concealed seat in a tree, for discomfort means movement and that may be

fatal to success. A canvas seat with rings and ropes attached is easy to

carry even when one is alone, and will afford a quickly adjusted and secure

seat in any tree. Foot rest and leaf screen is arranged all round and below:

that way success is more probable.

All along the author quite rightly emphasizes the need for making sure

the rifle is loaded. That lesson was no doubt rubbed in on some early occa-

sion. That habit, and the necessity of carrying ample cartridges (superstition

—not the author’s—as to going out with five only, or seven, is mere foolish-

ness) these in a cloth pouch, each round separate, the pouch being sewn on

inside coat pocket, or carried on a belt if coat not worn, That way one puts

LRTI IOUT AMS) 503 ie yy 223

on a proper cartridge supply with one’s garments and they do not fall out of

the pocket. or become ‘dented. This, and. the loading _ habit, was_ tragically

burnt into the consciousness of the present writer over fifty years ago,

These are valuable lessons never to be disregarded.

In the delightful tale of the valiant Robin of treasured memory is an inci-

dent teaching three lessons; one ot these is to carry one’s own weapon,

and to use a no.seless sling facilitates this, and is useful at all times especially

’ when alone.

_ In connexion with two narrated happenings it may be remarked that

the weight of a full-grown tigress 1s 270-zyo ibs.; and the green skin of such—

with head and paws attached, is fifty Ibs,

The author aoes well to warn against the head shot. He does not mention

the use of a wire tethering rope, so essential if it is imperative to prevent

the kill being dragged. Very rightly is the stalking of kuiils recommended,

and the reader wiil accompany Jim Corbett in his stalk of the Mohan tiger,

minute by minure, and step by step, with breathless interest.

_-How true it 1s Mat through retigion wud hie can be effectually safe-

guarded! In these days ot tast disappearing wild birds and animais almost

‘all over India it is only through a properly incuicated public opinion and a

feeling that it is against religion to destroy that the situation can be saved.

Most sportsmen have known how deer, and some other animals, become

restless and uneasy when watched from cover with intent to kill. This ‘sixth

sense’ infiuence, which serves as a warning of danger, affects some animals

and not others, some human beings and not others. The present writer has

always found it does not work against carnivora, but Corbett instances a

case when the influence woke a uger from his sleep. Yet, another time,

when the influence should have warned the tiger—not the same animal—ot

the rifle pointed at his sleeping head from a distance of afew feet... he

died unwarned. So, as regards tigers, the case appears ‘not proven’. An

interesting article on the ‘sixth sense’ appeared in Blackwood’s Magazine,

July 1931.

Jim Corbett was truly fortunate to have had the constant protection of

this warning of. the near presence of a man-eater seeking his death; his

being alive to-day is indeed a case of the ‘survival of the fittest’.

Readers desirous of emulating the fine example set by this book would do

well to possess themselves of Wild Aitmals in Central India, by Dunbar

Brander, with special reference to the following up of wounded carnivora.

The chapter ‘The Fish of my Dreams’ serves as a pleasing interlude to

the tiger stories and will be enjoyed by all readers.

The final chapter illustrates the marvellous success of the author in call-

ing up tigers, as many as six having been summoned to the ciné-camera

studio with the results before us.

The author. has spelt Jangur and chital in the usual way, but -departs from

present day usage in respect to some other animals and birds. Sambar, kakar,

~kkalij, chukor, should be as here written. No doubt they will be so spelled

in future editions.

Tribute is paid to the unsung courage of the simple people of the Kumaon

hills; many are the deeds of unthinking heroism performed by the jungle-

dwelling peoples of India: some few only become known and rewarded.

Jim Corbett sdys he has not the ability to paint word pictures. All who

read his book will feel that his style of writing is exactly the medium for

this true and unassuming account of some few of his adventurous deeds:

and will eagerly look for more from his pen. He has earned not only the

gratitude of the villagers of Kumaon.

The author is devoting the whole of the royalties of this edition to St.

Dunstan’s Hostel for Indian Soldiers blinded during the present war. There

will be a wide and ready sale with call for several reprints.

R.W.B.

2. THE CUCKOO AND OTHER BIRD MYSTERIES. By Bernard

~Acworth. Pp. 1-198. London, 1944 (Eyre & Spottiswoode). Price 10/6 nett.

-_ The author, a distinguished retired naval officer, is, as he tells us, not

a scientist but -one who has devoted many years to a close study of the flight

factor in birds. The diversity of his interests is disclosed by the list of other

books he has written, opposite the title page. Most of his assumptions and

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIST. SOCIETY, VOLE. 465

theories- regarding other bird mysteries are based on the writings of ywyell-_

known ornithologists rather than on personal observation or knowledge. He

is a firm -believer in the Duke of Argyll’s dictum, which he quotes again

and again, that it is ‘by thinking, not by observing (the method most exclu-

sively employed by professional scientists and -research workers) that hidden

truths are brought to light’. To which it is perhaps necessary to add that

he-is .a Fundamentalist, who believes in the doctrine of. special creation.

He attacks the tendency of modern scientists to treat the Theory of Evolution

as ‘a Creed, maintaining that it is in direct conflict. with the Christian faith.

He rejects explanations of such bird ‘mysteries’ as migration and cuckoo

problems based on evolutionary grounds. and: suggests alternative explanations

with a pleading for a ‘Personal, Purposeful God who makes. provision for

every -physical need of, the’: meanest ~creature’-that--wallks, swims- or. flies—

creatures which are utterly helpless to. feed, warm -or protect themselves.’

‘In general, the author launches a-‘Jehad’ against men of-science, particularly

ornithologists, who ‘deign to write and ‘talk on subjects’ coanected with flight

without sufficient knowledge or understanding of many of the~ simple laws

of physics.’ The focal point of his attack is Prof. Patten who, in an-article

in Discovery (British Association Number, Sept. 1927). appears: to have- claimed

that the bird is able to overcome the laws governing air currents and is more

or less independent of them. Acworth is no respecter of the tribe of scientists,

no matter how eminent,’ and practically every -current scientific doctrine from

Evolution and Natural Selection: to Vitamins’ and Tropisms comes under: his

lash. He dubs them all ‘merely high sounding’ scientific terms for nothing

in the world but a cloak for muddled thinking and’ ignorance.’ -

The. book may be mainly divided into two sections. The first’ deals with

the laws of wind currents in relation to bird flight, and their bearing not

only upon migration, but also on other aspects of bird life. The second part

of the book is concerned with some cuckoo problems as discussed in the

recently published works of Edgar Chance (The Truth about the Cuckoo)

and Stuart Baker (Cuckoo Problems).

The author brings his own observations, supported by modern researches

in aerodynamics, to explode the common belief,- which has largely dominated

the question of bird flight, that winds exert varying pressures upon flying

‘birds. He shows convincingly that no bird or insect is subject to any

pressure from the movement of the medium in which it is supported and in

which it is flying. Birds indeed do not feel—except only after alighting on

a tree, land or water—from what direction the wind is blowing. They travel,

So to say, in a ‘moving calm.’ The only material difference it makes to

the bird whether it flies with or against a wind current is in relation to a

given distance to be covered between two fixed points on the earth. In the

former case its ‘ground speed’ will be accelerated; in the latter reduced. In

the latter case exhaustion may result, not from any buffeting with the gale but

from the longer time and greater energy expended in flying continuously to

make the goal.

The whole of this section is built around one main assumption—an assump-

tion that does not seem unwarranted—namely that birds possess a_ well-

developed Sense of Direction. This is what guides migrants between their

summer and winter quarters over vast featureless expanses of land and_ sea.

The prompt return of breeding terns, swallows and other birds transported

from their nesting sites in closed baskets by ship, rail and aeroplane to dis-

tant parts and released from different poimts of the compass, as well as other

data provided by such experiments, does in fact suggest’ that it is an innate

sense of direction rather than recognition of landmarks or. some other factor

which is responsible for guiding the bird to its goal. The suggestion is not

a new one, but the way it has now been co-ordinated with the laws of wind

currents strengthens its plausibility. During normal years the direction of

the winds prevailing at the relative seasons is more or. less constant. This

explains why migrating birds travel over roughly the same route, which may

not necessarily be ,the shortest .ground distance: between. the points. Such

questions as territory,’ nest-desertion, reunion ;of: the. sexes in. successive. sea-

sons, monogamy, and many other mysteries of bird life are all sought to be

explained by the combination of the laws’ of. wind currents and the inherited

Sense of Direction, “Some ‘of the .author’s -conclusions, . though . seemingly far-

“RERIEWS Wo" Peo i, Mahe Bak

fetched,. provide: sisonteneets 010 for thought, and his argaments: merit careful

reflection. ee : }

‘he 'second part ‘of “the poke, dealing with cuckoo problénts and contro~

versies, “iS unfortunately far less convincing. Existing tneortes’ on» the’ many

‘mysteries’ ~origm of the ‘parasitic habit, timing ‘of egg-laying, “matching © of

cuckoo ‘egg with the’ fosterer’s, method “ot laying in’ ‘inaccessible’ nests, and

“So on——are examined and disposed of as unsatisractory. On p. 164 reterence

is‘ made to the ‘tailor bird’s nest ‘sewn into’a’ single iteaf which “sways in the

wind, .and with the entrance hole in ‘the -bottom’ (sic).

‘The most astounding section- is certainly the one that its propped up- ake

around the derivation of. the word “cuclotd’ as°it~ has been consistently used

in aneient and modern -languages,; namely- to denote the foster-mother rather

than the wronged husband. From this etymological - ‘clue’ the author: is led

on by devious tights of fancy to the questioi which heads his final chapter :

Is' the Cuckoo-a hybrid? -On the strength of the too literal meaning ot -an-

other word, “Inaceessible’, as used in the. literature for certain types of nests

(not capable of being laid in by the cuckoo in any of -the known: methods),

he argues that since- cuckoo eggs are found. in such nests nevertheless, there-

fore the agent for their introduction must be other than the cuckoo; and: the

only possible agent must be the female fosterer herself! ‘In other . words’,

he continues, ‘may not that~ innocent-looking foster-mother,~ as -the Ancients

inferred, be in- truth -the cuckoo’s -mistress; the little foster-father really the

cuckold,: and the resulting. cuckoo a--natural hybrid?’

This does sound like a leg-pull, and-we must confess tha Wwe have seldom

been confronted with a more tantastic ‘scientific’ theory, apparently put forward

in. all seriousness. The exploiting of etymological ‘clues’ to probe. biological

‘mysteries’ is certainly a novel idea! All. the major mysteries. of .the cuckoo,

except the origin of the cuckolding habit, are claimed to be satisfactorily

solved by this simple device. But the pages. of extraordinary . argumentation

that. follow in bolstering up this ‘Cock and Bull’ hybrid. theory add. to

amusement rather than conviction.

In fairness it. must be said. that the author confesses his theory. i is fantastic,

and is not. unaware of the objections by which it is faced. He has forearmed

himself. by. attempting to mollify them in his own way. His arguments are,

however, so whimsical. and insecurely founded that. one feels they cannot.

really .be meant to be taken seriously, even from. a man who admits his.

ignorance in such matters ‘because his detailed. biological and_ physiological

knowledge is almost non-existent’. We .do not feel. disposed. to quarrel. with

this admission. In a measure it. accounts for some of the highly fanciful

notions he permits himself to entertain. He believes that his analysis of the

‘apparently insuperable’ objections to his theory makes them less insuperable,

Readers will agree to differ. The whole of the ramshackle structure is built

on. the ridiculous assumption that birds so different as the cuckoo and_ the

pipit, for example, can and do cross regularly, and that the female cuckoo

is a purely non-reproductive creature laying only infertile eggs! Cuckoos and

many of their fosterers normally belong to entirely different Natural Orders—

almost as different, in fact, as say a hyaena is from a goat. Any one who

can. believe that such a cross is possible not once, not twice, but repeatedly

and in the ordinary course of nature will believe anything. ‘But it may be

mentioned that we have no evidence that such ~ crossings are. at all possible.

The author’s remarks about male mules sometimes being fertile when crossed

with either mares or she-donkeys in no way improve his case.

_This_is a book that certainly deserves to be read if only to satisfy the

réader that the age of ‘scientific’ Don Quixotes is not past; that even today

are not wanting bold men who, armed “with the archaic. bow and arrow and

fortified by charms hung round their necks, will have the hardihood to pit

themselves. against machine guns and trench mortars on the. field of scientific

controversy.

| S.A,

ae THE AVIF AUNAL SURVEY OF CEYLON conducted | jointly by the

British and Colombo Museums. By Hugh Whistler. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. XXIII,

Re. & and 4 (Aug. 25, 1944) pp. .119-321 (with I map and 8. plates)—Price

For! welt over a decade the name of Huge Whistler has been to the Gee

in Indian ornithology, and deservedly so. For his excellent and painstaking

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 40

taxonomical work in connection with the series of recent bird surveys, spon-

sored by the bombay Natural History Society, he will be remembered with

gratitude by future generations of Indian ornithologists. As one who had

we privilege of working in ciose collaborauon with whistler for many years,

and thereirore tamiliar with the thoroughness with which he conducted his

researches, the reviewer can realise to tne tull the loss which Indian ornitho-

logy has suttered by his untimely death. ‘his review is as much an appre-

ciauon of the man .as it is of his latest contribution to our knowledge of

Ceylon bird life. Vhroughout his reports on the material coilected in penin-

sular India couid be sensed the hanaicap under which he had to work owing

to the lack of trésh material for comparison from Ceylon, 1t was due chietly

to Whistler’s initiative that the Ceylon survey took its inception. It is tor-

nate for our science that the taxonomical work had been’ completed and its

results written up before the author’s death.

This paper will serve the purpose of a handlist of the Birds of Ceylon.

It brings up to date the ornithological position where it had been leit by

tne publication of the 2nd edition of Wait’s Birds of Ceylon in 1931.

ine avitauna of Ceylon is of particular interest, and from many points of

view. Ceylon is almost the southernmost land mass of any size betore the

Antarctic is reached. It receives no summer (breeding) visitors trom the

south, and is the southern terminus of the North-Soutn tide of migration.

It is situated near the Equator, and ‘apart from the South-West Monsoon it

possesses no well-marked seasons. “Such local movements among the birds’ as.

take place, even altitudinal ones, are controlled by humidity, rainfall and

exposure to monsoon rather than by cold. As one would expect from _ its

extensive coastline and geographical position, Ceylon is particularly rich in

sea and shore birds: Petreis, Shearwaters, Gulls, Lerns and Waders (Chara-

driidae). aay Ae Ae tS eee

tt is well known that island populations, by virtue of their geographical

isdlation, tend to produce torms which are markedly difterent trom their

representatives on the mainland or on neighbouring islands. The species-~

formation here is rapid, and largely due to individual variations of a dominant

kind being preserved and accentuated through forced interbreeding of small

closely related populations. Thus it is not surprising to find that in Ceylon there

have developed a large number of specialised forms. 22 species and no less

than 77 subspecies (74 of the latter being Passerine) are peculiar to the island.

Moreover, several ot the species belong to genera that are unrepresented on the

indian mainland. Nine of these endemic species are euryzonal—that is to say they

occur in all the 3 zones into which the island is naturally divided: Low

Country Dry Zone, Low Country Wet Zone and Central Hill Zone. 5 occur

only in the Wet Zone (both hill and plain), and 8 species are entirely restricted

to the Hill Zone. An analysis‘ of the avifauna as a whole does not, according

to the author, bear out the oft-quoted direct connection between Ceylon and

Malaysia. He considers the Ceylon avifauna to be merely a specialised seg-

ment of the Indian. ; :

The races peculiar to Ceylon differ from the neighbouring South Indian

races chiefly in being smaller in size and darker in colouration. A point of

greater interest is that in many of these—to be exact, in 22 out of 77, or a

little over 28%—the bill is appreciably more developed. Elsewhere it has also

been noted that a large percentage of insular races—particularly of Passerine

birds—develop large bills, but the reason for this is not obvious. Another

peculiarity of the endemic Ceylon races is the tendency ‘in forms showing

marked sexual dimorphism elsewhere, for the male and female to look alilxe.

To such belong the Shama, the Pied Shrike and the Magpie Robin to.

mention a few. ,In. the case. of the Ceylon Paradise Flycatcher the. white

plumage of the adult male is completely suppressed, so that he always remains

chestnut, Curiously enough side by side with this, certain seasonal differences

in. continental Wren-Warblers—e.g. of the genera Franklinia and Prinia—which

in the past have been the cause of some confusion and much controversy in

the. taxonomy. of. Indian races, have also been completely suppressed in Ceylon,

Thus, -Franklinia gracilis. pectoralis. (Legge) wears. the summer type. of plum-

age, with ashy pectoral band, throughout the year. The noticeably. long tail

developed by the Indian Prinias in winter is suppressed, and in Ceylon . there

is no different summer and. winter plumage, All this-is presumably-. correlated

with -the. fact :that .there is no, well-marked.breeding season in Ceylon.

REVIEWS 337

The resident races of the Kentish Plover and the Black-winged Stilt are

remarkabie tor their failure to» adopt the distinctive breeding adress ot their

typical torms—the chestnut cap of the former and the black crown and noBe

ol. the. latter.

but against this general levelling up of the sexes there exists the anomaly

that. in the Ceylon race of the Painted. Partridge (Krancuiutius pictus watsont)

the female apparently differs from the. male to a tar greater extent than in

the Indian bird.

Attention is drawn to the fact that a good deal has still to be learnt con-

cerning the moults and breeding periods ot Ceyion birds. One oiten sees it

asserted that such and such a bird is ‘double brooded’. What exactly does

this mean? Is it implied that in the same individuals there is a recrudescence

of the gonads twice, at different seasons during each year? Or is the term

used loosely for the species as a whole meaning that one set of individuals

breeds at one. season and another set at a different period of the year? If -

the former is the implication, have we any real evidence for it in the case of

wild birds? Or is the term ‘double brooded’ simply used in the sense that

two broods are reared in succession—in which case why not mele brooded’

also?

The many points and difficulties requiring special attention and elucidation

have been clearly set out in the text under the relevant forms. One is con-

stantly stumbling upon. them. Therefore, no -resident ornithologist eager to

do further work on Ceylon brids need run away with the illusion that the

Ceylon survey and Hugh Whistler have left nothing further for-him to do!

Several of the points needing clarification are not confined to Ceylon birds,

but are a challenge to Indian ornithologists as well. What for instance -is

the nature and purpose of the naked dark-pigmented spots on each side of

the Tailor Bird’s throat? What is the precise. connecting link between the

Palm Swift and the Palmyra Palm? [The author calls the bird a ‘parasite’

sic) |

a further peculiarity of many Ceylon races, not so easy to- explain away

Was pointed out by Legge long ago ‘in which the North Indian bird is found

to extend to Ceylon over the heads, so to speak, of South Indian and non

bouring species’. This is seen for example in the White-eye, Zisterops |

egregia, which in both colour and size is very close to the North-west tie

occidentis although separated from it by about a thousand miles and two’ other

races in peninsular and South India! Similarly the Barred Owlet. from the

Low Country Dry Zone of Ceylon is identical with the greyer bird ' of ‘Mysore

and North India and differs markedly from the more rufous .malabaricum

which is its next door neighbour, as it were, in the Travancore area.

The complete absence of all vultures from Ceylon is a no less amazing or

inexplicable phenomenon.

Many species have developed a Wet Tone and a Dry Zone race within the

circumscribed limits of the island. These one imagines, would provide excep-

tional opportunities for a thorough-going ecological study. span!

P. 189: The type-locality of Fringilla-amandava Linn. is omitted. It should

of course be India orientalis—restricted to Northern Guzerat.

P. 226: Alcedo atthis taprobana is said to differ from A. a. bengalensis in

having the upper parts more markedly blue in’ colour as opposed to green.

There is no difference in size. The reviewer wishes it was as simple as that.

But-he has often’ been totally unable to place many specimens in collections

with confidence on the character of blueness or greenness alone. Is not the

preponderance of blue or green, partly at least a seasonal character and depend-

ing on wear? The deception is well known in the case of Halcyon smyrnensis

whete- amongst a resident population some individuals appear deep blue while

others cannot be described as anything but green. In the case of this King-

fisher the author himself has admitted elsewhere (JBN. ipso. VOle XXXVil;

p. 761) that ‘the tint of this colour varies individually and is affected by

wear’. I believe exactly the same holds good with Alcedo ‘atthis also.

P. 279: It-is surprising to read that the author knows no record of the

Bar-tailed Godwit from anywhere in India except the Sind Coast and Bihar

(in the neighbourhood of the Ganges). Records of occurrences in the neigh-

_ bourhood of Bombay were published on p. 639, J.B.N.H.S., vol. xl (May 1939).

P. 297: In view of the -assertion that still continues to enjoy currency,

it is good to be told that the tradition of the Flamingo’s breeding in» Ceylori

has not yet been substantiated. Considering what a large and unmistakable

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

bird the Flamingo is, it is indeed amazing how little we de know about its

life history and movements in India. Ihe only definitely known breeding

grounds. within our limits so far are on the Great Rann of Kutch. An appeat

for notes on the movements of this species, published in the Journal a tew

months. ago, has produced poor response.

The map untoriunately is just too badly printed to be of much help as a

map. The. plates, mostly by W. W. A. Philips, are excellent, but _ their

reproduction could have been better.

S.A,

BOOKS ADDED TO THE SOCIETY’s LIBRARY.

¥..° Evolution: The. Modern Synthesis, by Julian Huxley.

2. Bird Flocks and the Breeding Cycle, by Fraser Darling.

3: Seciat Life of Animals, by W. C. ‘Alee.

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S

| | ROSY PASTOR ENQUIRY — ;

The Rosy Pastor or Rose-coloured Starling (Hindustani; Tu-

yer or Wyha) is one of the most prominent of the migratory

birds that spend the winter months in this country. It enters

and leaves India on a restricted front between the foot of the

Himalayas and Central Baluchistan, travels over the high ground

ef North Baluchistan, Central and Northern Afghanistan and

Persian Khorasan to the’ S.-E. corner of the Caspian Sea. Its

breeding grounds lie in Russian Turkestan and westward to

Turkey and beyond in S.-E. Europe, normally as far west. as

Hungary. Beyond Indian limits it provides one of the most re-

markable instances of east to west migration known among birds.

The Pastor is one of the earliest winter visitors to arrive in

India, vanguards often passing through the North-west. Frontier

Province in the second or third week of July. The birds leave

N.-W. India as late as May, so that the species is completely

absent from here for only about two and a half months in the

year. Once within our boundaries it spreads out over more or

less the entire peninsula, east to Western Bengal and south to

Ceylon. It is, however, most abundant in N.-W. India and south

to the Deccan.

Apart.from its interest as a migratory species, the Rosy. Pastor

is a bird of very special economic importance. On the one hand

it is a relentless enemy of the locust whose swarms are notorious

for their depredations to crops and vegetation; on the other hand

the bird itself causes considerable damage directly to mulberries

and grapes and to ripening cereal Crops, particularly to jowari.’

It is also an important agent in the fertilisation of a large

variety of flowers and in the seed dispersal of many plant species

both beneficial and harmful from the economic point of view.

Large numbers of Rosy Pastors have been ringed or ‘banded’

as nestlings in Russian Turkestan and Hungary. Only one of

these (from Hungary) has so far been recovered in India. In

N.-W. India, where the Pastor is largely shot for food, a proper

look-out would perhaps produce further records of recoveries.

ROSY PASTOR ENQUIRY 229

The Bombay Natural History Society is anxious to collect

all available information concerning the life history and seasonal

movements of the Rosy Pastor in India,.and if possible also along

_ its migration route beyond. To help observers in collecting some

of the desired information, a simple questionnaire is appended.

It is requested that this questionnaire, or as much of it as one

is able to fill, should be returned to the Bombay Natural History

Society (114 Apollo Street, Fort, Bombay) by the end of May

each year. The information will here be sorted out, tabulated and

filed until sufficient data has accumulated to justify publication.

For the benefit of those not acquainted with the bird, a des-

cription is given:

Size.—About that of an English Starling, or Common Myna.

Description.—Whole head, long bushy crest, throat, upper

breast, wings and tail glossy black, the feathers lightly tipped

buff; thighs, a patch on each flank and under the tail black tipped

with white; remainder of the plumage ‘rose colour’ (Whistler).

The crest usually lies flat on the crown and projects behind the

head. It is seldom Carried erect.

Sexes more or less alike, but young birds are pale brown with

only the wings and tail slightly darker. Seen in small parties or

large flocks, sometimes numbering several hundreds.

QUESTIONNAIRE.

1, What part of the country do your observations refer to?

(Give a rough indication whether desert, semi-desert, cul-

tivation, urban, etc.) . bebo)

Earliest date seen.

Latest date seen.

Status ?

(Whether seen throughout the winter or part of the time ;

or only temporarily on autumn or spring passage, or

both).

5. Can you correlate their presence in your area with food—

1.e. the ripening of any particular crops or fruit?

6. While in your locality what were the birds peNeIpaLy feed-

ing’ on?

Any other information you can supply will be welcome, e.g.

whether immature birds or adults are the first to arrive, whether

the birds travel in mixed flocks of immature and adult individuals,

and whether the sexes are separated or mixed on first arrival. This

last can only be ascertained by shooting several birds from: a flock

and sexing: ‘them by dissection. Jk 2

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

_“a.—OCCURRENCE OF THE LION IN PERSIA.

I was very interested to read Lt.-Col. G. F. Heaney’ s note

on this subject in your issue for April, as it leaves me in no doubt

that the animal which I myself saw was none other than a lion.

My battalion was at the time in camp on the banks of: the

Kharki River in the gorge it forms between the Zagros Range

and Khulian Khu, a very wild country about 40 miles nonin of

Dizful, the time was Christmas 1941. :

One day, I and another officer were out’ after pavividee and

small game, although we had a couple of orderlies with rifles

with us in case of a’ shot at a mountain sheep or ibex, it was

late in the afternoon when my friend and I went to explore a

deep fissure in the solid limestone range from which a stream

flowed, when looking down, ‘I saw what I took to be a large beast

of prey strolling quite leisurely along the edge of the stream. I

thought at first it was a leopard but no spots or markings were

evident it being a greyish colour all over, I took it to be a large

wild cat or something of the nature of the South American Puma.

At the time it never entered our heads that it might have been a

lion. It had no mane and would I should say be about the size

of a small female lion. Unfortunately we had got ahead of our

orderlies and by the time we could attract their attention without

noise, the beast had turned a corner beyond which we were unable

to proceed,

ReeeINe CHAMPION. JONES,

61 Travancore State Labour Unit. Oe

‘€/or Not. 6) AvBsP1@:

August 4, 1944.

2.—WEARING OF TEETH IN: TIGER.

I enclose 3 photos of a tiger’s skull. It appears to have been.

a very old beast, the teeth being worn flush with the gums except)

for the upper big fangs which were about half an inch out. The

skin was dull’ and tawny though the black marks were still black.

The skin was almost parchment thin and one could see the light

‘through it~ nearly all over the body, the hair was short but inteite

was plenty of it. vt |

I have seen the skin and skull of another very old tiger—a

huge beast, and his skin was also tawny but the stripes had gone

quite brown and his teeth were huge and absolutely perfect. |

The present one was shot by a B.O.R. about 8 miles from

here and he said the cow had no marks on it except some scratches

on one cheek and its neck was broken. The tiger’s claws were

perfectly good.

I have. the skull and would send _ it to you but J am afraid of

its getting lost with traffic as it is at present.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - . etal

The tiger—a male—measured 8 ft. 3 in. between pegs but

seemed to have shrunk and its skin was very loose on it. Its fore-

paws would have suited a much bigger beast. The nerve centres

were exposed in almost all the teeth even the back ones.

LANGHARJAN, CYRIL GORE.

NAHARKATIYA P.O., : ,

ASSAM.

August 28, 1944.

[The photos are, unfortunately unsuitable for reproduction :

They present an interesting case of dental wear. resulting probably

from a lack of calcium or some such product in the individual.

The canines are usually well preserved in old tigers though they

naturally show some signs of wear.—EDs. |

3.—WHERE MAN-EATING TIGERS OCCUR

Mr. Corbett’s Man-eaters of Kumaon has reminded me. of .a

subject I have often discussed with big game shots. I have never

heard of man-eating tigers or panthers in the Bombay Presidency

in which I spent 30 years of my service, though I made frequent

enquiries from British and Indians. I have resided on the Nilgiris

for 17 years and made similar enquiries without. result. A planter

who has shot many tigers and panthers on and around these hills

tells me that in 47 years he has only known of one man-eating

tiger and no man-eating panther. Yet man-eating tigers and

panthers are not uncommon in the Central Provinces and United

Provinces, particularly in the latter. There seems to be no reason

why this should be so and it would be interesting if. you would

send a questionnaire on the subject to members of the Society

all over India, as well as to the Indian States where tigers

and panthers are to be found. I believe that if a line is drawn

due east from Bombay across India it will be found that man-

eaters are hardly ever found south of this line nor in the north

of the Bombay Presidency and Kathiawar. In the. latter province

‘there are only panthers and a few lions.

Can you think of any possible solution of the problem?

There seem to be three principal causes for man-eating of which

the first is the most common..

1. Injury by gunshot wounds, porcupine or nectilan’ which

prevent an animal from killing its ordinary prey.

2. Acquiring when young a taste for human flesh from a man-

eating mother.

3. Acquiring a taste for human flesh by a chance killing of a

man or woman.

All these conditions can be found anywhere in India.

I do not think that scarcity of food» need be taken seriously

into consideration. If the number of sambhur, chital and_ nilgai

has been reduced by poaching there’ are pig, poreupine and village

cattle and for the panther sheep, goats and village dogs: |

232 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

I hope you will agree that the subject is interesting enough

for investigation. : Ope

. : | E. O'BRIEN, |

WOODLANDS, Lt.-Col.

KOTAGIRI, ; 3

October 18, 1944.

[Man-eating tigers are comparatively rare though not unk nowa

in the forests of the Bombay Presidency. In Vol. iv of our Journal

Mr. Reginald Gilbert describes the ravages of man-eating tigers

in the Bansda State, which lies north of Bombay in what is. known

as the Surat Dangs. He also writes of a man-eater killed 35 miles

from Bombay, and there is an old record of a man-eater carrying off —

coolies from a village near Kurla which is a suburb of greater

Bombay. Man-eaters are equally rare in the South Inlian_ hill

ranges, though Kinloch (Journal, Vol. xxxil, p. 209) records one

which killed and ate a coolie in the Nelliampathy Hills. Generally

speaking it might be said that man-eating tigers occur more fre-

quently in the dry deciduous forest zone of India (in which the

Surat Dangs north of Bombay may be included) and that they are

rare and infrequent in the denser wet evergreen forests’ where

there is a sparser human population and less disturbance of normal

food supply.—EDs. |

4.—WILD DOGS ATTACKING A TIGER.

The very interesting eye-witness Recount contributed by Mr. W.

Connell as a Miscellaneous Note to Vol. xliv, No. 3, for April

1944, would be yet more valuable if it could be stated whether

the tiger was a full grown animal.

As. it seems clear that the tiger killed the sambur before the

dogs came on the scene, it would appear that in this instance the

dogs were the aggressors for the purpose of securing the ‘kill’

for themselves: therefore it would be interesting to know if the

increase of wild dogs in that area has-been so great as to seriously

diminish the number of wild animals—sambur, pig, etc., available

to them as food and so cause them to take such an extreme

measure to satisfy their hunger.

One would like to know if the greatly diminished pack devoured

the remains of the tiger; and whether the sambur was eaten by

the dogs? The earcase of a 4oo lb. tiger would have scarcely

been within the capacity of the few survivors of the pack.

R. W. BURTON,

BANGALORE, Lieut.-Colonel,

July 12, 1944. 7 Indian Army (retired).

5.—EXPERIENCES WITH BUFFALO IN BURMA

_ AND RHODESIA. |

‘My nephew J. McKellar Spence in the 3/4th P.W.O. Gurkha

Rifles writes me of an experience he recently had in Burma with

a buffalo, and, as when hunting with a friend in the Sobi River

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 233

Country Rhodesia, a buffalo, which his friend had wounded, charg-

ed when caught up with and forced the hunters to take refuge

in. trees, | wonder how many men have been ‘treed by buffaloes’

in Africa as well as in Asia.

~My nephew writes :—

‘I was in a small clearing, having lunch and stirring some lemo-

nade. when I heard a noise and a buffalo appeared and charged

straight at me. I jumped for a tree and got up about 4 feet and

the buffalo charged past on the opposite side. I could smell his

breath as he went past.. I lost the lemonade and never found

the spoon again.’

PEAR TREE COTTAGE, REGINALD SPENCE.

BLACKBOYS, SUSSEX.

November 2nd, 1944.

6—ON THE NAME OF THE INDIAN PANGOLIN (MANIS

CRASSICAUDATA GEOFFR).

I notice on page 592 of the Journal for August 1944, that

Captain C. R. Stonor gives the pangolin the name Manis crassi-

caudata. Mr. F. W. Champion, in his book The Jungle in Sun-

light and Shadow, page 25, states that the five-toed pangolin

(Manis pentadactyla), is the only species to be found in the plains

and foot-hills of India.

Captain Stonor also states that the pangolin is known in the

hills as ‘Udumbu’. I may say that in the Tamil areas with which

‘IT am acquainted, this name is the one given to the Monitor Lizard

and not to the Pangolin. In a Tamil Dictionary which I have

consulted, the above name is that given to the Monitor, and under

‘Ant-eater’ I find the name ‘Arrunkku’, but I am not familiar

with this name.

‘LANSDOWNE’, Ro P= STONEY.

OOTACAMUND, |

October 26, 1944.

[Geoffrey’s name crassicaudata is the correct name for the

Indian Pangolin. It takes precedence over Linnaeus’s pentadactyla

-which he gave to the Chinese Pangolin to which animal this cog-

nomen is now assigned.—Eps. |

7—THE PERSIAN GROUND CHOUGH

3 (PODOCES PLESKEI).

» It seems very probable that the Persian Ground ‘Chough just

comes within Indian limits in the neighbourhood of Nokkundi on

the Iran-Baluchistan frontier. In 1943, Col. R. C. F. Schomberg

was stationed for some months at this desert outpost, and told

me, in one-of his letters that he had seen birds in the vicinity of

this customs post strikingly like the Ground Choughs (P. hender-

‘som and P. biddulphi) he had so often seen in his travels in Chinese

Turkestan. There can, in my opinion, be. very little doubt that

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

the birds Col..Schomberg saw were Podoces . pleskei, the Persian

Ground. Chough, but definite proof in the shape of.a skin is needed

cay this bird can be added to the Fauna of British India (Stuart

Baker

If this note should catch the eye of any. member of the Society

in Baluchistan who has the opportunity of securing a specimen.

of this rare bird, I hope he will make every effort to obtain a

skin (no matter how imperfect), and forward it to the Bombay

Natural History Society. There is a description and plate of this

bird by Bowdler Sharpe in Vol. xvii of the Society’s Journal, pp.

555-557: But since it is not always easy to. gain access to this

volume, I append the following field identifications :—

In desert areas where there are a few tamarisk bushes, look

out for a cinnamon coloured bird, about the size of a hoopoe,

with a black tail and throat, and black and white wings, which

can run swiftly over sand hills, and perches occasionally on bushes.

C/o PosTMASTER, F, LUDLOW.

SRINAGAR, Kasumi,

December 23, 1944.

8.—SUNBIRDS AND FLOWERS

With reference to the flowers identified by you as Hamelia

patens Jacq. in which I. observed the Purple-Sunbird taking short-

cuts to the nectar, I would like to add the following from my

notes :— : : ,

March 26, 1944. Both male and female came near the nest,

the female feeding on the Tecoma flowers. Neither bird, inciden-

tally, sticks its beak up the centre of the flower, but makes an

incision near the base of the trumpet, without harming the stamens,

as far as the naked eye can see’.

To this, I would add the further points :—

(a) So. far I have only observed the male following the alter-

native method of hovering with rapidly vibrating wings and feed-

ing off both the Tecoma (in March-April) and Hamelia patens

(August-September); I have never seen the female hover.

(b) So far I have only seen the male using the ‘short-cut’

method on Hamelia patens, though there is no reason to suppose

the female would not do so too.

While writing the above paragraph, the male sunbird arrived

on Hamelia patens. Watching feeding operations from 8 yards |

through glasses, it seems clear enough that the method of tackl-

ing the flower depends entirely on how it can best be reached from

the branch the bird is perched on. If the flower is on the same

level, he sticks his beak right up it to the base of the mandibles;

if the flower is on a lower level with the aperture facing away

from him, he uses the ‘short-cut’ method, gauging the. distance

alone the flower up which his beak would reach; if -he cannot

reach a flower from his perch even by the ‘short-cut’ method, he

has to leave his perch and hover vigorously in front of it.

Mayo Corvecr,; AMER. | | J. Alo M. EDE.

September 18th, 1944. ! Hp

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 235

_ [Short-cuts by birds to the nectar of a isfens is well known in

the case of numerous species of flowers and many species of birds.

A note on the subject by N. K. Tiwary is published in Vol. XXXII

of the Journal (p. 378). Further references to the habit will be

found in ‘Flower Birds and Bird Flowers in India’ by Salim Ali

(ibid. Vol. XXXV, pp. 573).—Eps. |

g.-—PLAINTIVE CUCKOO (?) PARASITISING PURPLE SUN-

BIRD.

I have just seen a queer sight, namely, a purple-rumped sun-

bird’s nest tenanted by a young cuckoo, probably the ‘plaintive’.

This monster baby almost overflows from the nest and is fed not

only by the sunbirds but also by tailor birds. "They seem to take

it in turns.

I suppose this case is rather a freak as one would not expect a

bird of this size to select one of the tiniest species as foster parents

for its offspring.

The nest is in the garden of Major Nabi Khan, next door: to

the Turf Club.

Poona, M: Fe SUTTER; pise

August 30th, 1944.

[As far as we are aware, this is the first instance recorded (pre-

suming our contributor’s identification to be correct, as seems

likely) of a Plaintive Cuckoo cuckolding the nest of a sunbird.

The tailor. bird and wren warblers, which also build purse-like

nests are of course well known dupes. The smaller Emerald and

Violet Cuckoos (Chalcites) of the ehaneeyas and - Assam are

regularly parasitic on various sunbirds. ,

The Himalayan Cuckoo (C. c. optatus) and the Asiatic Cuckoo

C. c. telephonus) in the Himalayas (as well as the Khasia Hills

Cuckoo (C. c. bakeri in Assam) frequently lay in the dome: shaped

nests of tiny birds, e.g., the Grey-headed Flycatcher-Warbler

(Seicercus xanthoschistos) out of which the young imposter can only

emerge by bursting the fabric which surrounds it as tightly as a

straight jacket.

The most interesting part of the note, perhaps, is that the baby

cuckoo was being fed while still within the nest by both tailor

bird and sunbird. Young birds outside the nest and begging for

food have frequently been recorded being fed by birds of. different

species.—Eps.).

10.—ALPINE SWIFTS’ ON RAMESWARAM ISLAND?

On page 247 in ].B.N.H.S. Vol. xt, Mr. Biddulph in ‘The Birds

or Rameswaram Island’ says of the Alpine Swift-Micropus melba

bakeri (Hartert) :—

. The numbers increase from December to

March when parties of from twenty to forty

may often be seen seated on the telegraph. wires

alongside the railway line.’

236 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

So far as I am aware this bird is incapable of sitting on a

wire, and there seems an obvious mistake in _ identification.

‘Messrs Faiz & Co., : HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

75, ABDULREHMAN ST., BOMBAY, 3. |

Bompay, August 18th, 1944.

11. SOME RECENT RECORDS OF THE GRIFFON

VULTURE (GYPS FULVUS FULVESCENS HUME) IN

PENINSULAR INDIA—A CorrEcTIOn,

In our paper on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette (J.B.N.H.S.

Vol. XL, p. 370) we offered very little information about the breeding

of the Long- billed Vulture (Gyps indicus. ssp.) in our area. We

have dealt at length with the Griffon Vulture (Gyps fulvus ful-

vescens Hume), but we now find that there has been a mistake in

identification. What we have called Gyps fulvus all along is,

in fact the adult of Gyps indicus and the numerous nesting records

really refer to this species.

The following other records of Gyps fulvus recently published

in the Journal must also be read as indicus. |

Salim Ali in Hyderabad, /.B.N.H.S, Vol, xxx, p. 425.

Salim Ali in-Central India, J/.B.H.N.S. Vol.. xl, p.-475.

McCann at..Mt.. Abu,- /-B.N.H.S. Vol. x ill, p. 210.

Salim Ali in Mysore, J/.B.N.H.S. Vol.. xiiv, p.. 1g.

When dealing with the birds of Travancore and Cochin

(J:B.N.H.S., Vol. xxxix, p. 324), S.A. has referred to sight records

from that area with diffidence. These should now be treated as

relating to indicus.

Mrs. M. D. Wright in her notes on ‘The Birds of Berar’

(J.B.N.H.S., Vol. xlili, p. 440) also refers to Gyps fulvus which

is presumably also in error for indicus.

Koelz in ‘The Birds of Londa Neighbourhood,’ (J.B.N.H.S.

Vol. xLtut, p. 28) refers to Gyps fulvus and though he apparently

shot (and identified?) a bird, his reference to a congregation of

50 individuals makes us doubt this record also. The latter at any

rate 1s obviously erroneous. :

Gyps fulvus is really a North Tian bird. »A bird shot at Kurla

near Bombay by Mr. J. M. Mason. in February 1893 is probably

its most southern authentic record. This specimen. (now in the

/.B.N.H.S. collection) has a wing of 682 mm. anl is very notice-

ably larger. and brighter cinnamon brown than indicus, which has

so long masqueraded under this name. It was evidently a strag-

eler. The bird which we have so far recognised as indicus 1s

apparently a sub-adult phase of Pseudogyps, which has no white

on the back nor the white bands under the wings. The bird

breeds in this plumage.

The juvenile of indicus is similar to the adult which, however,

varies in the intensity of colour. The juvenile Pseudogyps has

no white back but is elsewhere’as dark as the parent,

MISCELLANEOUS .NOTES 23,7

Kirke-Swan in his ‘Monograph of the Birds of Prey’ gives the

tollowing measurements :—

Pseudogyps bengalensis.—Wing 557-608 mm.

Gyps indicus.—Wing 575-679 mm. 3

Gyps fulvus.—Wing 685-747 mm.

33 Patt HILi, Banpra, | ~SALIM ALI.

BomBay, ‘HUMAYUN. ABDULALI.

Oe 18th 1944.

THE BLUE-TAILED BEE- EATER Wi S. JAVANICUS

HORSF.). IN SALSETTE—A CorrEcTIion.

The specimen recorded in J.B.N.H.&., vol. xl, p. 169 is really a

Blue-cheeked Bee-eater (Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas) and

not the Blue-tailed (M. s. javanicus). In J.B.N.H.S., vol. slit,

p. 104, we have already explained how subsequent specimens ob-

tained in our neighbourhood all proved to be persicus. It appears

that this is the only race which passes through our area regularly

between September and November, and that javanicus must be

removed from our list.

At Kihim, a small flock suddenly turned up on May. 20, 1943,

after a night of rain, and the same thing was noted there on May

11, 1944, under similar conditions. Return passage evidently takes

place about that time, most birds passing over without coming

into prominence unless favourable circumstances, as caused by

overcast weather and rain, tempt them to make a temporary halt,

33 Pati Hitt, BAnpbrRa, SALIM ALI.

BomBay, HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

Sept. 18th 1944. |

13.—A PECULIAR HABIT OF THE COMMON PEAFOWL

(PAVO CRISTATUS LINN.).

Last June, at Hilikha in Assam, I had a chance of observing

a peculiar habit of a pair of domestic peafowl. The pair was kept

in a large private garden enclosed on all sides by barbed-wire

fencing interspersed with bushes and undergrowth. The pair was

observed from a distance of about thirty yards outside the fencing.

The male peafowl, with his tail feathers expanded into a gor-

geous fan, moved round and round the female in circles in a manner

which suggested some form of amorous dancing. After about

ten minutes, the male stopped dancing. and squatted on the ground

as if to pass out something from his body. After a couple of

minutes he got up, and the peahen immediately began to eat up

something from the ground where the male sat. This at once

suggested to me that the male did actually give out something

from his body. But from the distance where I was standing it

was not possible for me to observe the nature and colour of the

material, or the particular region of the body of the male from

which it came out.

The above phenomenon cannot with any certainty be explained

in terms, of hedonic or courtship practices, but at the same time

I can see no other explanation. :

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, VOL. 48

There is a widespread popular belief amongst the lay public

that the females have their eggs fertiized: by eaung up a material

given out by the male, and that this.is the norma mode of repro-

auction in peatowl. But this. I] believe to be tantastic. ‘inere

seems no doubt that these birds follow the.normal mode of copula-

tion for the purpose of reproduction, although 1 have not seen it

actually in any peafowl so far. |

{t would be interesting to learn from the readers of these |

pages, who have either heard of or observed or studied the habits of

the common peatow!, it ine apove behaviour of the brrds was in

tact some form of courtship leading ultimately to mating.

ZooLoGy DEPARTMENT, S. H. HAZARIKA.

UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA,’ 3

35 BALLYGUNGE CIRCULAR Roab,

BALLYGUNGE, CALCUTTA. oe

August 21st, 1944.

|The dance of the peacock 1s well known as a ‘seif-exhausting’

perrormance. It does not necessarily result;in coition though it

is the normal prelude to 1t. dhe peacock often. performs his

‘amatory’ dance even when there is no hen about, in tront of some

inanimate object that has roused his emotion, such ‘as his accustom-

ed feeding dish.

The belief widely prevalent in India that insemination in the

peahen takes place in the manner suggested in the note is of course

groundless. So is the belief that the peahen’s eggs are gorgeously

coloured, in keeping with the plumage of the cock. The observa-

tion was made at such long range and presumably without glasses,

that a satisfactory conjecture of what our contributor actually saw

is difficult. But a much more simple and convincing explanation

occurs to us: the peahen picked up some particle of food that got

exposed or merely pecked at the ground idly as gallinaceous birds

frequently do.—Ebs. | ;

14,.—PECULIAR BEHAVIOUR OF THE. BRONZE-WINGED

JACANA [METOPIDIUS INDICUS (LATHAM) |].

On Friday evening, Nov. roth, I saw what appeared to be the

very safe and novel way in which a Bronze-winged Jacana pro-

tected its offspring.

Coming suddenly over the low bank of a tank I saw within

a few yards of me a jagana in some state of fear. Knowing that

she had youngsters about I was quite prepared for her frightened

cries, but not prepared to see her hurrying away across the matted

weeds’ with a young one completely hidden under her left wing,

except for its long legs which were dangling down. After a dis-

tance of some ten yards across the tank the bird opened her wing

and let the nestling fall into an extra thick patch of weed and

grass.

Is this the normal behaviour of the Jacana family ‘with their

young when disturbed? rat ae:

| H. KINGSLEY KEFFORD,

ORISSA, ° | F/Lt., 61082.

CUTTACK,

November 14, 1944.

MISCELLANEQUS NOTES 239

15.-NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE |

PINK-FOOTED SHEARWATER (PUFFINUS C. CARNEIPES

~~ GOULD) ON THE COAST OF CEYLON.

On June 26th this year one of us (Y.B.) picked up a dead Shear-

water on the beach a quarter of a mile north of Mount Lavinia.

It came ashore just at high tide and when found must just have

reached shore, as the crows, large numbers of which frequent this

beach in the monsoon, had not attacked it. It was brought home

and submitted to careful mvestigation and identified as a’ Pink-

footed Shearwater (Puffinus c. carneipes Gouid). It had been dead

at least 24 hours,.probably longer. ‘he plumage, however, though

sodden, was complete but in moult and the coloration of the

naked parts still recognizable. In the circumstances, it was decided

to preserve the specimen complete rather than attempt to prepare

a made-up skin. This was accordingly done in 1o per cent forma-

lin in alcohol, after opening one eyeball to ascertain the colour of

the iris, as this could not be determined on superficial examination.

The Pink-footed Shearwater has only been recorded once _pre-

viously from waters around Ceylon. This was the specimen men-

tioned by Wait (1931) as having been picked up at Panadura,

17 miles south of Colombo in 1879, and which was identified at

the British Museum. Identification of our present record \has been

assisted by consulting Wait and Alexander (1928) and we have

no doubt of its correctness in view of the measurements and other

characteristics detailed below.

Following is a brief account of the specimen:—

., Measurements Sex

; Male in non-breeding

state

Total IPE dcoseoonnecdas CosDHOs00 A GodNde ieee

Wing length... seeelaeeeneenene cs 12%

Tail length... uinkwneen s RUZ

Tip of beak to angle ¢ oe f gape. siverste serrate Cem

Tarsus.. 600 Pero PCa

iN GGUL. rates eee ame ee ieee 274”

(without claw)

Plumage— .

General colour sooty all over, feathers being blackish distally, but white

near their shafts. There is little or no grey tinge ventrally, but there are some

paler feathers on the throat.

Naked parts—-

(a) Bill: Mainly pale flesh-colour, “darker towards the tip. Lower

mandible similar, dark grey at tip and along free edge. There

is a median dark element dorsally and dark borders to upper mandi-

ble as well as dusky edges to nares,

(6) Feet: pink.

(¢) Zvis: Very dark brown, almost black. |

This species appears to reside normally in the seas off Western

Australia, but, like other shearwaters with restricted distribution,

it occasionally gets carried by marine currents or weather beyond

its normal range, and probably is more often carried in the direc-

tion of-Ceylon than the two specimens so far known would indicate:

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, VOL. 45

References— tees a

Alexander, W. B., 1928, Birds of the Ocean.

Wait, W. E., 1931, Birds of Ceylon, 2nd edition.

W..C. OSMAN ‘HILL, m.p., F.z.s.,. ete.

COLOMBO, AND

july 16, 1944. — YVONNE BURN, F.z.s.

16.—WILD BiRDS AND THEIR CAPTIVE YOUNG,

Do parent birds poison their captive chicks? Common folk

in some parts of Bengal believe that they do. A similar belief

seems to prevail in the English countryside as E. D. Cumming sug-

gests in his Idlings in Arcadia. He writes (p..219), ‘I once found

a young blackbird ready io fly—his nestmates had flown—held

fast by a strong thread of grass which by some means had laid

firm hold of his foot; luckily for him it was too short to let him

climb over the edge of the nest, but he must have starved—some

people say been poisoned by the parents—had he not been rescued

in time.’ Douglas Dewar (Birds at the Nest, chap. v) cites many

instances of young birds being left to their fate or evicted from

the nest by their unfeeling parents. A few cases of young. birds

being done to death by one of the parents are also quoted by

hiny as evidence of lack of parental affection. But Dewar’s culprits

all nested in aviaries and their method. of infanticide Jacked the

refinement of practised poisoners. Dewar however illustrates the

attitude of wild parents towards caged offspring in chapter v1

of the book mentioned above. In the third week of May 1go07, -

he placed three young sparrows in a cage. ‘The parents fed all

three, both bringing food until Jue 6th, when the hen ceased

to do so apparently having gone to nest again. The cock sparrow

continued to feed the young until June 26th.’ This is obviously

a case of simple desertion, but not of poisoning.

A case that smacks of Borgian. methods is therefore well worth

recording.

A friend of mine once removed four fledgelings of a ene -headed °

Myna (Sturnia malabarica) from the nest hole. Not knowing’

how to feed them, he decided to leave the task to the parents

and placed the cage at a place where they could not. help noticing

it. For the first two weeks things went satisfactorily, but an’

old peasant who saw the birds feed the captive chicks. shooix

his head doubtfully, They will poison the young ones, he con-

fidently remarked and before long his prophecy came true. After

threes weeks or so the old birds began to bring lizards and other

vermin, which if they were not actually poisonous were doubtless

unwholesome as food and three of the chicks quickly expired. The

fourth and last was then let loose but too late t6>be saved. I

do not know whether it was a case of deliberate poisoning. The

Grey-headed Myna cannot be expected to reason cogently and plan

the death of their‘young ones to escape the labour of feeding them

for an indefinite period. Dewar’s sparrows simply shirked their

duty and left the chicks. Did the Grey-headed Myna grow more

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES 241

«areless about the choice of food as the parental instinct grew

less urgent when the breeding season was nearing its close? In

any case the popular belief is probably not entirely unfoundea,

and even if deliberate poisoning is ruled out as impossible, it is

not unlikely that unwholesome food administered by parent birds

sometimes expedites the end of captive chicks.

IMPERIAL RECORDS DEPT. SNe SIN:

New DELHtl,

September 19, 1944.

[It seems more iikety that the chicks died of under feeding

than through any ‘unwholesomeness’ of the food. Young birds

have enormous appetites and it is reasonable to suppose that the

parents were unable to satiate the caged chicks on account of their

confinement. Eps. |

i7.—THE BIRDS OF MYSORE.

In the 1943 December issue, Scolopanx rusticola, the Woodcock,

is described as a rare winter visitor. As to its being a winter

visitor, yes, but personally, I should not call it rare, but then |

may have been fortunate in my locality.

‘My estate is 3,600 ft. above sea level situated on ye inner

slopes of the Western Ghats, and during the last 20 years it is

seldom that I have been unable to flush a cock between January

and the full moon of April, from the cardamom ravines and small

streams of the estate and the neighbouring jungle. |

My observations go to show that they come in with the full

moon of December and go out with that of April, there are certain

favourite lies where I can invariably flush one, and not infrequently

they are in pairs.

I have shot three in a morning, and I find that the weight is

as a rule 21 oz, a good dog is most necessary as they, sit very

tight and once flushed are great runners.

A bird I have not seen mentioned is the ‘Malay Bittern’ Gor-

sachius melanolophus, the-first one J, saw and: shot: was. in 1904,

and at that time the Society did not possess a specimen, since

then I have seen quite a few mainly in the bamboo jungle of the

Bhadra Valley.

Javatr P.O, . RR: G.*FOSTER.

Mysore STATE,

July 14th, 10944,

18.—ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF

BOMBAY AND SALSETTE AND NEIGHBOURHOOD.

The Large Gray Babbler : : Argya malcolmi (Sykes).

A solitary bird was seen on top of Trombay Hill on 2nd August

1942—an obvious strageler. It is common in the Deccan though

it has not been observed near Khandala. 7

242 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, ViOl wo

[The South Indian Black Bulbul; Microscelis psaroides ganeesa

(Sykes) P.,:

The Fauna records this species from Matheran, and Novarro and

McCann have seen nests with eggs at Khandala in June and August.

Local name ‘gobhai’. |

The Gray-headed Flycatcher: Culicicapa ceylonensis sub sp.

Winter visitor. On 26th December 1941 H. A. obtained a speci-

men in heavy forest a few miles south of Kasa, in the Mahim Dis-

trict north of Wada. Another was obtained at Kihim, Kolaba

district, on the saine Gay tne touowing year! Salim Ali noted it

on the same day the following year! Salim Ali noted it at Mulund,

Salsette, on 23rd December 1943.

The Grasshopper-Warbler ; Locustella naevia straminea (See-

bohm.)

This inveterate skulker was first noticed in tall dry grass on the

borders of a swamp when snipe-shooting near Mumbra (11th Jan.

1943). We have subsequently met it on several occasions across

the Harbour, at. Powai and also at Lake Beale (Ghoti). -A bird

shot on 15th November was in general moult, wings, tail and body.

It is apparently a fairly common winter visitor.

The Jungle Wren-Warbler; Prinia s.. sylvatica. (Jerdon.)

Several birds seen on scrub covered hills-under Sagardadh near

Alibag, April 24th, 1943. Almost certainly noted also at Suria-

mal on 1st June, 1941. Several seen at Shil, near Kalyan, 27 Jan.

LOAD: ;

Richard’s Pipit ; Anthus richardi (Vieillot.)

We shot a specimen (female) within 10 minutes of having obtained

our first Locustella.naevia, near Mumbra (11th Jan. 1942), wing

go mm., tarsus 31 mm., hind toe 12 mm., hind claw 16.5 mm. Seve-

ral were seen, and we subsequently got another at the Chembur-

Katcherpatti on 25th January. It appears to be another regular

winter visitor, so far overlooked. In the field it appéars larger

and darker than the other pipits. It frequents wet ground about

snipe marshes etc. —

The Green Munia; Stictospiza formosa (Latham)

A party of 4 apparently feeding on grass seeds was seen at Tansa

Lake in September 10943.

[The Belgaum Flowerpecker; Dicaeum concolor subflavum (Stuart

Baker)

Stuart Baker in Nidification (vol. i, p. 243) refers to this species

from Khandala and Mahableshwar, but the authorities and sources

‘are not quoted. |

The Little Sunbird; Leptocoma minima (Sykes).

This is common at Khandala where it nests among the topmost

leaves of Strobilanthes during March and April. A male was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ~ 7 Bie

noted building (27th March 1944) at the top of carwandah bush

just below \karnaia Fort (funnei Hill) across the harbour. We

have also seen it at. Bawa. Malang, Vajrabai and Suriamal,, but

not in Salsette Island.

The Malabar Black ba lA cane egret us qavensis hodgsoiu

- (Jerdon). sala

This bird was seen at Suriamal on’ ‘ist June HOLM, (olBololGloSo,

vol. xlii, p. 933). :

The Red-winged Crested Cuckoo; Clamator: corvomandus

(Linnaeus). 3

A bird flew into the Society’s rooms on 7th November 1goo

(J.B.N.H.S., vol. xiii, p. 696). This bird was erroneously poe’

Gajacovimus in). BN 1S. vol. xl, p. 165. Pos

The Sirkeer Cuckoo: = JZaccocua leschenaulti (Lesson).

On 21st June 1942, two birds were seen on a scrub-covered hill-

side with occasional trees on the mainland near Thana. Another

turned up in a beat near the Vaiturna River near Khardi. Was

also noted at Khandala on 22nd March 1943- The red beak and

the white-bordered tail are distinctive.

The Crested Swift: Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell)

There is no record in Salsette Island but birds with flying young

were observed (23rd April 1943) on a teak-covered hillside under

Sagargadh, near Alibag across the harbour. Other records are

from Vajrabai Hot Springs (26th December, 1941, and 6th Septem-

ber, 1942), Khardi (8th March and 18th April, 1943), Mandwa on

Wada Road (31 August 1941).

The Common Grey Hornbill ; Tockus birostris Scop.

A single bird was seen at Powai Lake on 29th April. 1945. The

nearest record is from the Deccan, east of the ghats. The Malabar

Grey Hornbill (T. g. griseus) is common-at Khandala and has

been seen 1n Saisette OF Several Occasions.

The Mottled Wood Owl; = Strix ocellata (Lesson).

We have no specimen, but have heard the eerie and distinctive

‘chu-hoo-wah’ at Elephanta (28th March 1942, Salim Ali), at Khor-

di on the Vaiturna River (48th April 1943) and at Kihim (22nd

April, 1943). Observed by S. A. in mango grove at base of

Trombay Hill. The large amount of yellowish-buff on the wings

is conspicuous in flight.

The Sind or Severtzof’s Shikra > Astur badius cenchroides

(Severtzof).

When examining some specimens in the Society’s Collection to-

crete with Mr. H. G. Deignan, of the U.S. National Museum,

we measured two females (Bombay City, 9th October 1906, Mr.

Keyes; and Malad, Salsette, 17th November 1939, E. Henriques)

as having wing's of 223 mm. These measurements correspond with

those of the Northern race, which may be a winter visitor to our

244 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

area. Koelz measures g females from the Looms District as 199-

209 mm.

ihe indian Tawny Eagle; Aquila rapax vindhiana (Franklin).

This has been inadvertently omitted so far, though it is often seen

during the cold weather when snipe-shooting. Powai, 24th Jan.

1942. Mulund 18th Jan. 1943. ‘he beak is larger than in the

pariah kite and shows more yellow at the gape. The rump is also

paler and the tail rounder.

The Nilgiri Wood-pigeon : Columba elphinstonii (Sykes),

A single bird was seen at Matheran on 23rd April 1944. The

black and white spots on the neck were prominent.

The Blue-breasted Quail: Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis

( Linn.)

In Stray Feathers (Vol. x, p. 165) a specimen is recorded as

obtained by Wenden at Vihar Lake, Salsette.

The Sanderling ; (Crocethia alba (Pallas).

There is-a specimen in St. Xavier’s College marked ‘Gorai’, Sa!-

sette, 16th November 1936—G. Palacious.

The Indian Shag , Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Stephen).

A solitary bird was seen in the large mixed colony of .P. niger

and Bulbulcus at Borivli on 25th August. It is distinctly large

than niger, with a white throat and brown-speckled wings.

33, Patt Hitt, BAanpRa, SALIM ALT,

BOMBAY. HUMAYUN ABDULALI

INDIAN BI RDS—A CORRECTION.

H. N. Lowther in J.B.N.H.S., vol. xliii, p. 389, in an article

on Tacha Hornbills, writes of and has excellent photographs of the

Malabar Pied Hornbill.

This has, however, been referred to as H. malabarica. The

key in the Fauna (vol. iv, p. 286) and the tails which are distinctly

visible in the photographs show that the bird meant is H. coro-

nata. Paradoxically, the trivial name of H. malabarica is the Large

Indian Pied Hornbill.

This may perhaps merit an editorial correction in the Journal.

Messrs. Faiz & Co., HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

75, ABDULREHMAN ST., BOMBAY, 3.

BomBay, 5th October, 1944.

20.—ACCLIMATISATION OF MIRROR CARP IN THE

NILGIRIS.

One aspect of inland fishery development in Madras is_ the

introduction of improved varieties of exotic food fish. The follow-

ing new kinds have been acclimatised and bred in the Presidency.

1. Trout (Salmo iridens) from England and New Zealand.

2. Common carp (Cyprinus carpio) from Europe.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tench (Tinca vulgaris) from Europe.

Gourami (Osphronemus goramy) from Java and Mauritius.

Mirror carp (Cyprinus carpio var. specularis) from Prussia

through Ceylon. me nats :

In this note a brief account of the Mirror Carp is given.

The Mirror Carp is a variety of the common European Carp-

The difference between the two is in scaling. In the common

carp, the body is uniformly covered with large scales of polygo-

nal shape. The Mirror Carp has extraordinarily large scales of

great reflective power which may cover the whole or part of the

body.

The mouth of the Mirror Carp is relatively small and essentially

suctorial. The jaws are devoid of teeth; but the pharyngeal bone»

are provided with teeth for.purpose of crushing. The fish is omni-

yorous. Its food consists of insects, small crustaceans and mol-

luses, and vegetable matter. The latter makes up a large part

of its diet. It obtains its food by rooting about in the mud like a

pig, making the water turbid. By so doing, and by destroying

the natural aquatic vegetation, it sometimes makes the waters where

it is abundant unsuitable for other fishes. It is said that it not

only feeds on the young ana eggs of game fishes, but also attacks

wild fowl.

The Mirror Carp thrives well in higher altitudes. It can be

acclimatised even to lower elevations of 2000 to 3000 feet, but

eets stunted in growth. It prefers quiet, weed-grown waters, but

can also live in rather swiftly flowing streams. If kept in small

ponds the fish has to be fed on earthworms, bread, or rice, but

if in large reservoirs or rivers, it does not require any artificial

food.

The fish breeds prolifically, spawning taking placing during

the cold months. The eggs are deposited among vegetation. In

the absence of weeds, the eggs fall into the mud, and die.

The Mirror Carp is said to grow to three feet in length, and

60 Ibs. in weight. It is valued as an excellent food fish, but not

as a sporting fish. It is tenacious of life and will live out of

water a considerable time, and hence may easily be marketed.

The fish was first introduced into Ceylon from Prussia in 1914

by the Ceylon Fishing Club. They averaged about 6 inches in

length when introduced and speedily grew in the Hatchery Ponds

in Nuwara Eliya, but though kept there for some years did not

breed. To encourage them to breed they were removed to Ab-

botsford Estate at a lower elevation and kept in an open pond,

again with no success, though they attained 5 to 6 lbs. in weight.

Finally they were returned to Nuwara Eliya and turned into a

large pond in the Park, where, due to the presence of a plentiful

supply of water lilies which ‘provide breeding facilities, they bred

and have continued to breed ever since. Mirror Carp were als»

successfully introduced into the Hatton District at an elevation of

4,200 ft. and have bred there. In Ceylon they have srown t+

weight of from 30 to 4o pounds in the Nuwara Eliya Lake.!

Ure Ww

1 These details were kind!y furnished by Mr. Phillip Fewke, Secretary.

Ceylon Fishing Club.

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

Owing to their large size, rapid growth, and _ prolific reproduc-

tion, coupled with their resistance to drought and ability to sustain

life in the most barren ponds, Mirror Carp aré a highly suitable

food fish for culture in South Indian hill waters. In January

1939, fifty-five Mirror Carp fingerlings, ranging in size from 6

to 8 inches were successfully transported from Ceylon and planted ‘

in the Crescentic. pond in the Government Botanical Gardens,

Ootacamund (7,000 ft.). Though the Crescentic pond is small and

only 3 ft. in depth, the fish thrived very well and bred in the

beginning of 1942, after an interval of exactly three years. The

adult fish measured 2 feet, thus showing a rate of growth of 6

inches per year. Nearly 1,000 fingerlings, measuring 3 to 6 inches

in size were found in the pond in May 1942.

The fact that the fish had outgrown the Greccente pond,

necessitated the transfer of some of the adults and fingerlings in

1942 to a more suitable and larger pond in Sim’s Park, Coonoor.

In this pond also the fish bred, and thrived well showing a rate

of growth of 4 to 6 inches in six months. Many. fingerlings were

stocked in the Ooty Lake in 1943. The: fisheries -of. the lake are

now protected and regulated by the issue of licences for angling

only, The :Ralliah Reservoir, which is the main water supply to

the Coonoor town, was also ‘stocked with fingerlings of this fish.

It has. clearly been established that the Nilgiris suits the

Mirror Carp. If lakes, ponds, and streams in the hilly regions

of this Presidency are stocked with Mirror Carp, a new and ‘zood

source of food fish can be made available to the population. It

is, therefore, proposed to stock the Lovedale Lake (Nilgiris), Yer-

caud Reservoir (Shevaroy Hills), Kodaikanal Lake (Palni Hills) and

other suitable hill waters with this fish. As a preliminary to this,

the construction of a fish farm at Ooty for large scale culture of

Mirror Carp is under the consideration of the Department. The

ultimate aim is to place the fish in the markets of Ooty, Coonoor |

and other towns in the hills.

Experiments are being conducted to acclimatise “Mirror Carp

on the plains. In February 1943, fifty fingerlings, ranging in size

from 5 to 13 inches, were successfully transported and stocked

in a. pond in the Thandipandal Fish Farm in the Kambakkam

Forest area (Chingleput District), situated at ‘an elevation of only

500 ft. The fish are thriving well, though the rate of growth is

only 3 to 4 inches per year. aay

Fingerlines of Mirror Carp are now available with the Depart--

ment for supply to those’ interested in their’ culture; at a cost of

Rs. ro per dozen.

DEPARTMENT OF P. I. CHACKO, °B.A.,. 8.Sc.(Hons:), F.z.S.,

INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE, > Assistant. Director .of. Fisheries |

CHEPAUK, MADRAS, . vapeur Th (Inland Development).

September 15, 10944.

References—

1. File on Mirror Carp Culture in the Office of the Director

of Industries and Commerce, Madras.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ae 247

2. File on Mirror Carp Culture in the Office of the Assistant

Director of Fisheries, Inland, Central, Madras.

3. Report on the Fisheries of Madras for the years 1940-41

and 1941-42. .

4.. Administration Report of the Madras Fisheries Department

for the years 1938-39 and 1939-40.

21.—NOTE ON THE FOOD OF TIGER SHARKS (GALEO-

CERDO SSP.) OF THE MADRAS COASTS.

‘All is grist to their mill’: it seems their ravenous appetite

incites them to snap at or swallow whole’ all kinds of objects; they

are said to bite dangling and protruding objects and seem to be

easily attracted by white ones. This particular habit causes the

attacks on human beings by these sharks. The presence of a stray

shark in a pearl bed induces so much of fear in the minds of the

pearl divers that they refuse to dive and sometimes the fishery itself

comes to a sudden end. But these are all items which are not part

of the diet of the Tiger Shark.

During the investigations on the shark fisheries of the Madras

Presidency, a large number of specimens of Tiger Sharks (Galeo-

cerdo articus and G.rayneri) were examined. The stomach con-

tents included the following different kinds of food-fishes in the

different areas: mackerel, seer, soles, silver-bellies, cat-fish, horse-

mackerel, small sharks, skates and cuttle-fish on the Malabar and

S. Kanara Coast; cat- fish, ribbon-fish and anchovies on the Vizaga-

patam Coast; and flying fish, hilsa, horse-mackerels, silver bel-

lies, small sharks, small Sennen in the Tanjore, earanced and

Tinnevelly Coasts.

Besides the above economically important food-fishes, turtles

and sea-snakes have been common items in their diet. Sea-snakes

have been observed in the stomach contents of Tiger Sharks cap-

tured on both the coasts.

’ It may not be out of place here to mention a few of the interest-

ing objects which some of these sharks have swallowed. A non-

gravid female G. articus, measuring 11 ft. in length, and caught off

Tellicherry on 28th June 1943, had the head of a cow in its stomach.

A to ft. male, caught off Pudimadakka in Vizagapatam Coast, on

12th January, 1944, had swallowed two biscuit tins. A male tiger

shark, measuring 5 ft. in length and caught off Lawson’s Bay on

the same Coast on trith January, 1944, had devoured a goat, -and

another male, 8 ft. long, had gulped in a bag containing 10 Ibs.

of raw rice!

West Hint, KK, CHIDAMBARAM,

MapRas. | / Assistant Director of Fisheries,

September 11th, 1944. (Marine Biology).

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

22.—EGG-LAYING OF THE COMMON ‘BLOODSUCKER’

(CALOTES VERSICOLOR).

The terrain is a two or three miles wide coastal strip of sand

The female lived outside the door of the company office (a cala-

boose hut) and was quite well known to the ‘persons therein. In

the afternoon of 11th August, 1944. she was observed to be wander-

ing in a somewhat agitated manner. Having selected a spot she

made a few tentative scratches with her forelegs. Then after a

moment she began to dig in earnest. At first the digging was

done without looking at the ground. The digging was accomplish-

ed by several strokes of a forelimb to lift the sand and then a

stroke of the hind limb on the same. side’ to’ remove the sand

dislodged, and so on alternately.

When the hole had progressed some way the lizard lowered the

forepart. of her body into it. She then proceeded with alternate

fore and hind leg strokes, a few on each side, and.then a change.

over. This was broken by pauses from time to time. After about

three quarters of an hour the hole was complete. Its depth was.

equal to the snout to vent length of the lizard, about too mm. It.

was about 25-mm. wide.

She now straddled the hole resting on the forelegs and _ tail.

The hindlegs hung down the hole and did not appear to be serving

to support the -body in any way. She was now facing in the

opposite direction to that taken up when digging. After a pause

the egg laying commenced. Fourteen eggs were laid at irregular

intervals varying from a few seconds to about half a minute. It

was completed in about a quarter of an hour.

When.all the eggs were laid she turned round and began tamp-

ing with her nose. Then she straddled the hole, and using the

forefeet scraped sand back into the hole and then tamped with

the nose, and so several times alternately. Between the spaces

of scraping and tamping she took short rests. After three such

spells she turned to her left though about a right angle. Straddl-

ing the hole she arched her back and raised and lowered the body

several times on the forelegs. It appeared to be an attitude of

considerable strain. Then the filling continued. The forelegs were

used a few strokes each alternately. As.the filling proceeded she

began to turn in various directions to scrape sand. During this

stage the hind legs were used on one occasion to make a few

strokes in an obliquely forward direction.

When the hole was full, the lizard continued to scrape and

tamp the surface for about five minutes before she eventually

came to an end and departed. | :

The site chosen was in the very doorway of the company

office.

This account is written from the observation of several wit-

nesses besides myself.

The only important resvect in which it differs from Asana’s

account is in the use of the hind legs. )

c/o 30. A.B.P.O. G. L. UNDERWOOD.

InpIA COMMAND,

August 30th, i944.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 240

23.--INDIAN PYTHON (PYTHON MOLURUS) PREYING ON

MONITOR LIZARD (VARANUS MONITOR) |

The following account of an°* unusual occurrence concerning

the feeding habits of Pythen molurus in. captivity is -submitted,

along with the accompanying photographs, as: evidence of a pecu-

liar action by a specimen held in captivity by the writer.

The Indian Python (Python molurus) :

On the 15th October, rq44, a fine example of -the monitor

lizard (Varanus monitor) was captured and presented to ‘me by

a colleague. It measured 4 ft. in length and to prevent escape

a rope had been fastened round the posterior of its 1 belly suse above

the hind legs.

At the time of the presentation, the only mira selena:

tion was a large vivarium already inhabited by an 8 ft. 6 inches.

Indian Python (Python molurus) and it was decided, pending the

construction. of an additional box, to allow the monitor to’ share

the snake’s dwelling place. Here it must be borne.in mind, to

justify the writer’s action in confining the two specimens to the

one vivarium, that throughout the past year the python had been

feeding exclusively on house rats. Further with the advent -of

the cold weather the snake had already been showing the usual

signs of lethargy prior to the commencement of the hibernation

period.

To obviate any immediate friction between the two reptiles. the

monitor’ was slowly allowed to enter the cage by a_ restraining.

grip being kept on the rope. Unfortunately, it began to: burrow

in a corner amongst the soft earth, using its. extremely long claws

to remove the soil. :

Up till then the snake did not appear to have noticed the

entrance of the newcomer and it was not until one of the, moniter’s

< 10a

250% JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 49

claws inadvertently scratched the scales of the python that the

latter proceeded to exhibit any signs of interest. Upon realising

the presence and close proximity of the intruder, the python struck

with the speed and accuracy typical of its genus, instantaneously

enveloping the monitor with all its coils. It must be explained

that whereas an unsuccessful attempt was made by the writer to.

separate the reptiles following. this catastrophe, it was decided to

follow the line of better judgement and refrain from interiering, for

fear of. putting the python off-its food.

Although the lizard’s head, neck, and forelimbs were free

from the ‘coils, it appeared unable to use any of these members

as a means of defence—probably due to the fact that its ribs were

distinctly heard to crack a few seconds after the initial constric-

tion—and- seemed passively resigned to its fate. It did, how-

ever, exhibit a tenacious hold on life and managed to survive

for an hour and a quarter before dying; the pressure at that

period from the coils being extremely powerful. The time was

then 6-30. p.m. and all credit is due to my colleague, Mr. R. M.

Rogers, in obtaining the two excellent photographs during the

failing light and under difficult conditions.

It was just previous to the photographs being taken that the

snake decided to remove its jaws from the hind leg of its victim.

This was achieved with much difficulty owing to the extreme tight-

ness of the coils. The constricting process, however, was conti-

nued. for a further three hours when, at 9-30 pm., the snake began

to swallow the. lizard. |

“Contrary to expectations this latter operation proved an easy

one for the python; the whole four feet of the monitor, plus the

length of thick rope still attached to its body, disappearing within

ten minutes.

The bulge inside the python was visible for 48 hours and the

first discharge of excreta made its appearance on the 22nd Octo-

ber, seven days after the consumption. This was composed entirely

of chalk. A further discharge was noted on the 1st November,

seventeen days after the swallowing and upon examination was

found to contain. the claws, teeth and rope lead intact with the

knot still tied. The remainder of the matter was indiscernible.

As I am not in a position at the present time to consult past

volumes of the J7.B.N.H.S. as works of reference, I would welcome _

any comments by members of the Society on these observations

as I am under the impression, from past studies of the species —

Python. molurus, that it has been generally assumed that its food

consists almost entirely of mammals and birds.. In which case I

must point out that whereas the specimen referred to in these notes

may be excused the initial instinctive attack on the monitor on

the grounds of provocation, it had four hours in which to investi-

gaté its kill and that the swallowing action was nothing less than

deliberate, and without hesitation,

ALLAHABAD, Tea bir ae od P, MASH,

November 6, 1944.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ie)

24.-NOTES ON A RARE AND INTERESTING

NARROW-MOUTHED FROG, UPERODON

GLOBULOSUM (GUNTHER). !

With a view to collecting termite queens from a termitarium,

my colleague, Prof. D., Mukerji with two post-graduate pupils,

Messrs. S. H. Hazarika and P. K. Mitra of this department,

went .to Belghurria (Bengal), some eight miles north of Calcutta

on the 27th August, 1944. A teérmitary was found in_ the

vicinity of the railway station. It was nearly six feet high from

the ground. In course of excavating the mound .for termites,

two specimens of a burrowing frog were exhumed from a. depth

of about a couple of feet from the ground-level. As the. nest was

highly infested with snakes, further excavation was. not.

attempted. Mr. Mukerji recognized the frogs as rare and inter-_

esting forms, and. kindly-presented them to me for study. I am

greatly indebted to him for this: gift and I heartily thank him. .

The two specimens were brought to~ the laboratory and kept

separately in cages filled with earth. They were in the eages for

two days, but to my great surprise and chagrin, I found one of .

them missing after the third night. I am deeply mortified to lose

this rare frog. In the hope of getting a few, at least one more -

specimen, of this uncommon frog, I, accompanied by Mr. Haza-

rika, visited the place of-occurrence next week on September 3,

1944. But, as ill-luck would have it my search for it was. fruit-

less, “although much of teal broken’ termitary was thoroughly dug

out.

Its tiny head with datk eat: like eyes is so characteristic that I

had no difficulty in identifying this frog Uperodon globulosum (Giin- |

ther), especially from the viewpoint of its orbital diameter which

is greatly reduced in comparison with that of its only congener

U. systoma (Schneider) (vide Mukerji, 1931, p. 98, footnote 2). It

may also be recalled that I was a personal witness to Mukerji’s

(1931) fasting experiment of this frog at the laboratory of the

Zoological Survey of India. Prior to Parker’s publication of the

monograph on the Microhylidae in 1934, these frogs were usually

referred to the genus Cacopus.

It is well known that U. systoma is fairly widely, distributed

in India and Ceylon, and very common in certain areas of South

India (Ferguson, 1904, p. 507; Rao, 1918, p. 45). Having obtained

two specimens of Uperadon (sic) systoma at Agra, Mahendra (1939)

has recently extended its northern range to the United Provinces. —

But attention may be. drawn to the fact that as late as 1871,

Anderson in the list of ‘Batrachia Salientia’ in the Indian Museum,

had entered 11 specimens from Agra under ‘Cacopus systoma’... 1.

* Two popular English vernacular names ‘frog’ and ‘toad’. are available

for referring to Salientian Amphibia. Authors, however, do not use these terms

discriminatingly.. Devanesen (1922) and Mukerji (1931) call this form. a ‘toad’. |

As it: belongs. to. Microhylidae—an allied family to Ranidae, 1 have preferred

to call it a frog (Sensu Parker, 1934). Peat hd |

252. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

think that this species may not be uncommon in Bengal, although

I have not been able to obtain a single specimen so far.}

A reference to Mukerji’s paper. (1931) will make the rarity of

U. globulosum quite evident. He notes that only to specimens

have -been..reported from India and Ceylon, four specimens includ-

ing two types. being preserved in the British Museum (Nat. Hist.).

Out of these four specimens, Parker (1934) considers the juvenile

cotype to belong to U. systoma; he also relegates Pearson’s record.

of this species-from Ceylon to the synonymy of the same. Thus

the number of specimens recorded so far has been reduced to. 8

only.. Bengal records of.U. globulosum are only two,. one from

Sibpore Botanical Gardens (Anderson, 1871) and. the other from

Khardah (vide Mukerji, 1924). Now to this list of eight speci-_

mens is added the one obtained from Belghurria (the other speci-_

men being lost is not computed here). Further, I take this

opportunity to add one more pickled frag of this species which

I have recently obtained from Mr. N, K. Mitra, B.Sc., Curator

of the Herbarium, who. collected it from the Sibpore Botanical

Gardens, near Calcutta. This is, therefore, the second specimen

obtained from this. area after Anderson’s record in 1871. The

specimen is without any-apparent history... It is a juvenile female

specimen, measuring 35.5 mm. from tip of snout to vent, and

is slightly mutilated on the pelvis. My hearty thanks are also

due to. Mr. Mitra for the presentation of this rare frog. Thus

the number 10, as recorded by Mukerji (1931), is restored.

It may be observed that from the point of view of tocality

records, U. elobulosum also enitovs a somewhat wide distribution, ©

it being found in the Madras Presidency, Central Provinces and _

Bengal, although numerical records from these areas ate few and

far between. All the same it may be presumed that it is not so-

common as its ally systoma in any of these areas. Why this is

so remains a mystery. Can it be for lack of assiduous search?

Prohahlv its great fossorial habits and subterranean habitat have

enabled it to elude the alert herpetological detectives. .

I am not aware whether there is any male specimen of U.

elobulosum’ on’ record; -at least, I do not find. it definitely men-

tioned-in Mukerji’s: paper (loc. cit-), nor was it noted. in -Parker’s

monoeranh. It may be mentioned here that the specimen which .

escaned: from my cage’ was undoubtedly a male one; as was evi-

denced: by the presence of black pigmented skin on -the throat -

such ascis. found-in U. svstoma (Parker. 1924), Before I lost it,

however, | had examined its fingers and found -no nuptial excre-

scences. for erasnine, nor could T hear its croakine. It was al- |

moct identical-in size with the other one which measures 640mm

The nresent. specimen also shows faint but clear dusky skin under.

the throat, simulatine a male sex, I thought it was not a male.

As there was no other secondary sex character, I could not deter-

—

1 Subsequently, on enquiry (in litevis) ¥ have come to learn from Dr. B.

N. Chopra, Offg. Director, Zoological Survey of India, that there is no speci-

men of this species recorded from Bengal in the collections of the Indian

Museum, and that only eight specimens of this frog from Agra, presented bv |

Anderson, are mentioned in the official record,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 2GG

mine its sex till I dissected it. A non-pigmented internal sub-

gular vocal sac, which does not appear to be well developed, is.

observed under the dusky throat skin, as also the highly pigmented

testes. The vocal sac opening’s in the buccal cavity are two in

number. They are slit-like and situated obliquely along the outer

edges of the extrahyals of the hyoid apparatus slightly hidden by

the thick fleshy tongue. Further, the ‘linea masculina’® which is.

said to be present in the males of majority of Salientian. species

(Liu, 1935) is also observed in U. globulosum. It is a whitish

band, about 2 mm, in diameter, extending along each side of the

ventral abdominal muscles and bifurcating into two in the pec-

toral region. There is also a double line of such bands at the

back on each side of the vertebral axis. This is the first male

specimen of U. globulosum which has ever been recorded.

Much speculation has raged over the remarkable rotund or

globular shape of Uperodon (Devanesen, 1922). My observations

on the present specimen, however, fully bear cut Mukerji’ Ss main

contention that the globular shape of its body is chiefly, if not en-

tirely, due to the digtencion of the body-cavity caused “Thy the in-

flation of the lungs which are also capable of swelling up dorsally

in the form of oval pouches on the two sides of the vertebral axis

(vide Mukerji, 1931, p. 100, and pl. I, figs. 2 and 3).

Further, it may be observed that when I threw it into a big

elass jar contaning’ water, it became very uncomfortable there.

It never dived to the bottom of its own accord when disturbed,

as some frogs and toads often do, but attempted in vain to come

out of the water. It then floated keeping its fully distended body

with its outstretched limbs parallel with the surface of the water

Instead of using the short-webbed toes for floating, its lunes were

called into play for hydrostatic function.

It is interestine to note that when thrown to the hard ground,

this frog is deliberate in its movements, and prefers walking and

running to hopping which it can do a little. It cannot leap to

any extent at all; probably the length of its legs is against leap-

ing’. !

I have nothing to add to Mukerji’s (1931) admirable and _ pre-

cise description of the burrowing habits. in may be noted that

in sticky and clayey soil it leaves a wide hole on the surface pre-

sumably for the purpose of ventilating its burrow. In loose soil

no surface holes were observed. :

The coloration of the living specimen exhibited a uniform. brown-

ish dorsum with little dingy white spots sprinkled on. the flanks

and on the upper surfaces of the fore- and hind-limbs. It. also

exhibited nice dashes of yellow patches extending from the sides

to the creamy white underparts. These yellow patches, however,

disappeared. on preservation. The specimen which escaped had

a slightly greenish ground tone on the dorsum. The pickled speci-

men is more brownish with pale white spots as noted above. Colo-

ration on the whole is unimpressive.

The skin appeared to be thin and almost ‘smooth when the

bedv was fully inflated. On close “examination a few dorsal,

tubercles are evident, but they are by no means prominent. Exuda-

tion of slime secretion was observed when it was kept in the oper:

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

air as noted by Mukerji (1931). With~a- view:to doing some

anatomical works I chloroformed it on the fourth day: of its capti-

vity. When it was being chloroformed, a copious flow of yellow

exudation was given out from the dorsal skin. On examination

it was found to be very sticky, more sticky than any I have so

far seen of such frogs (Rana) and toads (Bufo) as are commonly

available in Calcutta. The sticky yellow exudation is slightly

soluble in hot water, it contains sugar and traces of protein. I

am indebted to my colleague, Dr. S. M. Sircar, of the Botany

Department, for this little piece of chemical information. I do

not find any deposit of fat under the skin worthy of mention. —

Nothing is on record regarding the life history of we globulosum

or its mysterious habits and underground life. —

Measurements in millimetres of some of the body parts of the two

specimens

i 2

of 2

Tip of snout to vent 54:0 35°5

Breadth of head J6°6 © 11:0

Eye (orbital diameter) 520m 2°6

Snout S02, 274. -

Orbital end to tip of snout 7°0 4°53

Upper eyelid 508 OL 1°6

Interorbital width .. 7°7 5:0

Inner metatarsal tubercle 02) 3°5

Outer metatarsal tubercle BU 2°0

19:0 225

Tibia ..... 6 se 900

1. Belghurria: 2. Sibpore Botanical Gardens, near Calcutta.

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, J. ‘A List of the Reptilian Accession to the Indian Museum,

Calcutta, from 1865 to 1870, with a description of some new species.’ Journ.

Asiat. Soc. Bengal XI, pt. I, pp. 18-39 (1871). See also Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, p. 201, 1871).

DEVANESEN, D. W. ‘Notes on the Anatomy of Cacopus systoma. An

Indian Toad of the Family Engystomatidae,’ Pyroc. Zool. Soc. London, pp.

527-550 (1922). sr

FERGUSEN, H. S. ‘A list of Travancore Batrachia.’ Journ. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc , XV, pp. 499-509 (1904).

Liu, C. C. ‘The ‘ Linea masculina’, a new secondary sex character in

Salientia ? Journ. Morph.. LVI, No. 1, "pp. 131-142 (1935).

MAHENDRA, B. C. ‘Extension of the range of the. Microhylid (roe

{ Uperadon systoma (Schn.)].’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc., XI, pp. 180-181 -

193° ;

‘ ye ee D. D. ‘Some Observations on the Burrowing Toad, Cacopus

elobulosus Giinther.’ Journ. Proc. Astat. Soc. Bengal, N.S., XXVIIL, pp. 97-

100 (1931) (issued February 1933).

PARKER, H. W. A Monograph of the Frogs of the Family Micro-

hylide. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.), London, pp. 1-208 (1934).

Rao, C R.N. ‘Notes on the Tadpoles of the Indian Engystomatidae.”

Rec. Ind: Mus., XV, Pt. I, No. 4, pp. 41-45 (1916).

Zoo.ocy DEPARTMENT, JNANENDRA LAL BHADURI.

UNIVERSITY OF CALCUTTA,

35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

BALLYGUNGR, CALCUTTA,

September 18, 1944.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Lon

= Amt OPSILIA ..CROCALE BREEDING WI TH

CATOPSILIA POMONA.

Yesterday I took a pair ot Catopsilia it in the act of mating. The

male was flying strongly with the inactive female firmly attached.

On examination the male was found to be a normal Catopsilia

crocale, Cr. but the female was an unusually coloured Catopsilia

pomona, F. This female carried all the normal pomona markings,

dark brown apex up with inwardly dentate margin, post-discal

band and spot end cell, but the ground colour above was greenish

white with lemon-yellow base H, pomona male. The resulting

effect gave the impression of a female Catopsilia crocale. Would it

be that the male was deceived, as I was at first, that here was a

female of his own species? I understood that a butterfly is in-

capable of distinguishing colour differences, but there appears to

be no other obvious reason for the mistake. Is it possible for

any fertile ova to be deposited as a result of this irregular union?

The specimens are available if anyone is interested in examining

them.

JUBBULPORE, ; JOHN C. GLADMAN,

July 237d, 1944. Major.

DRINKING BUTTERFLIES.

I read with interest the paper on Sap-drinking butterflies by

M. Suter, D.Sc., in the Journal for April 1944, and I would like

to add my own observations to his.

The scene of most of these observations was a small clearing

in a patch of light mixed jungle crowning a small ridge of ground

some four miles from Jubbulpore. In the centre of the clearing

was a recently hewn tree stump, four feet: high, from which a

light sap was pouring in a steady stream. I was able to kecp

this clearing under observation at intervals over the period mid-

February to mid-March by which time the sap had ceased to flow.

The following butterflies were observed to partake of the sap.

the list being in order of frequency :—

Mycalesis mineus polydecta, Cr.

Euthalia nais, Forst.

Mycalesis perseus typhlus, Fruh.

Melanitis leda ismene, Cr.

Charazes fabius fabius, F.

. Eriboea athamas agrarius, Swin.

Charaxes polyxena imna, But.

The last three butterflies are not at all common in this area,

the single imna that appeared, a male, being one of the only two

I have seen. in some eight months in Jubbulpore. Lethe rohria

nilgiviensis, although common in the locality was never observed

to venture out into the open to reach the sap, preferring to keep

to the bases of trees well covered with undergrowth or young

shoots. .

The browns I found rather shy, retreating to the nearest cover

at my approach, but reappearine to feed within a minute or- two

if there was no further disturbance. The other species seemed to

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, VOL. 45

be more concerned with the quantity of sap they could absorb

than with the approach of any enemy. A Charaxes fabius and an

Eriboea athamas, feeding sc close together that they appeared

to be a single insect with a symmetric wings, were taken after

feeding continuously for at least ten minutes. Their. bodies were

swollen to an inordinate size with quantity of. fluid imbibed.

No enemies, myself excluded, appeared to prey upon the feed-

ing insects. In fact the only bird I have seen in this wood was

a Pied Crested Cuckoo towards the end of June, which is_ pro-

bably the reason why this patch of jungle is favoured by so many

butterflies. I have taken specimens of 45 different species in this

wood alone and it is barely 500 yards by roo yards in extent.

In general I found that the two species of Mycalesis listed,

together with Euthalia nais feed throughout the day, Melanitis

leda ismene from 3 to 4 p.m. onwards, while the Charaxes and

Eriboes arrived to feed about 3 p.m. prefacing their meal with a

circular tour of the tree-tops which might commence as early as

midday.

I have also on single occasions noted Kallima inachus Nah

taking sap at Pachmarhi, C.P.S., and at Kathgodam at the foot

of the Kumaon Hills, both towards the end of the day, around 6 p.m.

JUBBULPORE, 3 JOHN €. GLADMAN,

July 23rd, 1944. Major.

27,.—ADDITIONS TO THE LIST OF SIMLA BUTTERFLIES.

PUBLISHED IN VOL. XLI, No. 4.

287. Melanitis zitenius zitenius Herbst. _

Jesus and Mary Nullah, Simla at 7,000 feet on. May 29, 1939, und Simla

at 6,000 feet on May 26, 1941.

288. Pathysa nomius nomius Fsp.

Chota Simla P. O. garden, 1944. A remarkable extension of range.

289. Telchinia violae Ib.

Two, Bishop Cotton Preparatory School, 1944.

290. Tajuria illurgiofdes De N.

Simla, 1944.

291. Pedestes masuriensis De N.

Simla, 1944. The two last species were recorded by Mr. Temple who has

a remarkable flair for finding unusual and rare butterflies in the Simla district.

For reference I give below a summary of new snecies recorded in the Simla

Hills and their immediate interior since the publication of the list in 1940.

279. Papilio machaon asiatica v. ladakensis, M.

Poo, July, ’41.. Rare.

280. Parnassius simo Simo. Grey>

Shipki Distt., July, 1940. Very rare.

281. Parnassus delnhius (stenosomus ?). |

A fine series from the Shirang La in July of 1o640. In

distinet subspecies. ;

all probability a

MISCELLANEOUS -NOLES

202. Bartia baticri batheri om.

Not rare in the Shipki Distt. In July.

233, Venessa lacakensis, M.

We have a few specimens from the Shipki Distt. taken in‘ July.

284. Polyommatus vicrama vicrama M.

Puri, Not rare in July and probably not rare in Shipki Distt.

285. Ismene aedipodea aegina Viotz.

Simla, Spring, 1942. Very rare and an extension of range.

286. Hesperia alpina alpina Erach.

Shipki Distt. Apparently not rare in July.

—

Note :—

77. Maniola lupinus cheena M.

There are apparently no definite records of the appearance of this butterfly

in the Simla Hills. Nevertheless it is almost certain to be found in the

inner ranges as it has been, recorded both to the east and west.

Keri, NILciris. M.A. WYNTER BLYTH,

October 17th, 1944. M. A. (Cantab)

28.—DESCRIPTION OF A NEW DIMORPHIC FEMALE

OF EURIPUS CONSIMILIS CONSIMILIS WD.

Caught at Thaton, S. Burma, slightly above sea-level, March

1927. Description: Expanse: 80 mm’s. Sex:

Conforming to the characteristics of the genus Euripus, identi-

fied as consimilis as the bast of underside of the hindwing is

carmine in colour. Shape: Similar to that of consimilis ¢$ except

that the wings are slightly more rounded in outline. Upper fore-

wing: black-brown, glossed purplish. The apical 2/5 is very light

ly powdered with whitish blue scales in faint streaks. There

is an oblique black bar across the middle of the cell and another

one closing it. These are but faintly visible and are similar in

shape and position to those on consimilis. There are obsole-

scent white sub-marginal spots—two in 1b, one in 2 and 3, and

the trace of a second in 3. In addition there are a pair of small

marginal spots on either side of veins 2 and 3, two-minute ones in

interspace 1b and traces of one in 1a. There is a pronounced fold

in the wing between veins 1 and 2. Upper hindwing: black-

brown, faintly glossed with purple. Deeper black along the veins.

Largish sub-triangular submarginal spots in terspaces 1c to 6,

that in 6 being smaller than the others and the inner half of the

spot in 1c being extended to the margin. A dorsal white patch

in 1b and two small marginal spots in each interspaces from 1b

to 7. Under forewing: brown, spotting as on forewing. 1a and

the basal 2/3 of rb. basal 1/3 of 2 and the lower 4} of cell, glossed

_blackish-purple. Under hindwing: lightish-brown, spotted as on

the upperside. Basal area carmine.. Body: abdominal segments

divided_by yellowish lines beneath. Otherwise the body and head

are similar to those of consimilis ¢.

As the above specimen is not unlike E. halitherses 2 v. cinna-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.’ SOCIETY, VOL. 45

moneus it seems reasonable to suppose that E. consimilis may

have a similar dimorphic form. .

May I put forward the name consimilis Q its captor.

Kerri, NiuGiRis, -M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH,

October 17, eine | bo Je at wn tw IM VAS» Gantabl

29.—FASCIATED INFLORESCENCE OF: SOPHORA,

SECUNDIFLORA DC. Elec:

(With a photo).

Examples of fasciation are not rare among. flowering plants

but when it is developed in an unusual way its description: with

illustrations often proves very interesting—as the unusual and

bizarre always does. Fasciation in plants and comparable mani-

festations of the abnormal development of tissue in animals pre-

sent. one of the most bewildering problems which engage the

FASCIATED INFLORESCENCE OF sophora_ secundiflora

attention of the biologist. Perhaps the plant physiologist and the

pathologist do. not worry so much about this subject for fasciation

is an unimportant malady, indeed it is practically unknown among

the most important economic crops. ‘To the pathologist concerned

with animal diseases, however, development of abnormal tissue

is a subject of very serious thought and attention. The problem

_ MISCELLANEOUS NOVES 259

unfortunately is extremely difficult of solution, for it is associated

win the tundamental principies of cell division and increase, a

subject about which we as yet possess very uttle know.euge.

| ‘Lhe abnormal condition in piants described as tasciation, 1s

first inaucea by irritation of some kind; it may be triction petween

ine soll particies and the young, soit stem as the latter 1s emerg-

ing and pushing through the soil to the light, or it may be brouyat

about by the ailacK uf Some pest Or Gsease. ‘Lhe reason why

phenomenon of fasciation is so common .in Asparagus and many

species of Lily is that these have to force a very thick stem througn

a medium O1 OFlel ULtyiciddug Nature.

_ Fasciation is of rare occurrence in seedlings or in herbaceous

plants in which the young stem tip is formed to a spear-like point.

In cases where the abnorma.ity 1s associated with a pest or dis-

ease, it..spreads from the point of attack. It is said that the

abnormal growths are attempts by- the plant to throw oft the

invader but there is nothing to substantiate this idea. The

original point of ‘infection may be only a very munute portion

of the plant’s surface, but the abnormal activity which the attected

cells develop spreads to other parts of the plant, leading to more

or less widespread twisting and malformation of subsequent growth.

What appearance the plant may ultimately assume is_ incidental

and rests on which particu.ar group of tissues finally become invoiv-

ed. Strangely enough, fasciation does not interfere with the normal

functioning of aftected tissue, although, the plant may succumb

from the attack of the agency which caused it.

Recently an interesting case of fasciation of an inflorescence

in Sophora secundiflora Wc. was detected by the writer in the

grounds of the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, on the

5th July, 1944. This plant is a free flowering ornamental ever-

green shrub or small tree belonging to the family Papilionaceae.

It is indigenous to the Southern United States and North Mexico,

and is also frequently cultivated in gardens in. the plains ol

Northern India. Normally the fragrant pale violet-blue flowers

are borne in dense pera Gocorpsiayes 3 racemes which are 3-5 in.

long. ies .

In the mectpanyine Pibiogiaph can Be seen one ordinary

raceme and another. which exhibits extreme fasciations in that

the nodes of the shoot have apparently become suppressed and

the racemes all arise at one point, finally becoming fused together

in a flattend fan-like structure which is about 4 in. long and

1.2 in. broad at the apex.

Forrest RESEARCH INsTite TE, sa M. B. RAIZADA.

DeHRA Dun, sae mae ee Ag. Forest Botamst.

September 20th, 1944.

30.—NOTE ON SOME GRASSES FROM JUNAGADH.

The monumental monograph on the Bombay Grasses‘ contains

descriptions of 319 species belonging to 110 genera. Of these

only 36 species belonging to 27 genera are recorded from difterent

localities in Kathiawar, such as Junagadh, Porbandar, Rajkot,

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?P. SOCIETY, VOL: 45

Morvi, Dwarka, etc. Kathtawar which has an area of - about

23,500 sq. miles, has. remained the least explored part of the

Presidency as regards its flora. The Province has not been syste-

matically worked and data relative to the species which occur and

the distribution are incomplete and inadequate. Only 8 species be-

longing to 7 genera are recorded from -Junagadh. They are indi-

«ated in my list by an asterisk mark. I have adopted the arrange-

ment and nomenclature followed in the Bombay Grasses which must

remain the standard work for botanists of this Presidency for many

years to come. References are also given to Cooke* and Watt’.

The local vernacular names of some plants are given but not

much reliance should be placed on them. Cultivated species are

excluded from the list.

1. Coix Lachryma-Jobi, Linn. Bomb. Gr 3; FI. Bomb. UH, 997.

Coix Lachryma Linn. Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod. Vol. 2 p. 492.

Vern. Kans; Kassai.

*2. Polytoca Cookei, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 5; Fl. Bomb. II, 998.

*3. Polytoca barbata, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 6; Fl. Bomb. II, 999.

Vern. Gharolum.

4, Ischaemum rugosum, Salisb. Bomb. Gr. 12; Fl. Bomb. Hl, 959; Watt

Dict. -Econ. Prod. Voll 4~ p. 531-

Vern. Gundaran; Chharo.

5. Ischaemum pitosum, Hack. Bomb. Gr. 14; FI. Bomh. HI, 961; Watt.

Dict. sBcons | Rrod Volley eps set: .

Vern. Khev; Khevdo.

6. Sehima mervosum, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 21.

Ischaemum laxum, Br. Fl. Bomb. II, 964 (partim). Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod.

Wl 2 ee Seite

Vern. Saniyar.

7. .Apluda varia, Hack. var. aristata. Hack. Bomb. Gr. 2g; Fl. Bomb. II. 956.

Opluda artistata, Linn. Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod. Vol. I, p. 272. i

“Vern. = Bhangoru; Fofli; Karedi.

8. Sorghum halepense, Pers. Bomb. Gr. 55; Watt. Dict, Econ, Prod. Vol.

CO) Lely Yar fog Beer

Andropogon halepensis, Brot. Fl. Bomb. IT, 983.

Vern. Baru; Boru; Baruva.

9, Chrysopogon montanus, Trin. Bomb. Gr. 70.

Andropogon Monticola, Schult. Fl. Bomb. II, 8s.

Vern. Gadnelun.

10. Dichanthium annulatum, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 94.

Andropogon annulatus, Forsk. Fl. Bomb. II, 88. Watt, Dict, Econ. Prod,

\V Ol maineap scar

Vern, Zinsro; Jinjvo; Motu (big) windadiyu.

11. Eremopogon foveolatus, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 96,

Andropogon fovelatus, Del. Fl. .Bomb. .II, 977.

Vern. Survali; Saniyar; Surtali,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES “doi

12. Andropogon pumilus, Roxb. Bomb. Gr. 99, FI, Bomb, II, 976.

Vern. Dholio; Bhuko. ‘ 2

*13, Cymbopogon Martini, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 104.

Andropogon Schoenanthus, Linn. Watt. Dict. Econ..-Prod. Vol. 1, p. 249.

Vern. Rosh; Roshdo. : vive é

*14, Heteropogon contortus, Roem & Schult. Bomb. Gr. 109.

Andropogon contortus, Linn. Fl. Bomb. II, 990; Watt. Dist. Econ, Prod.

AVON De 244:

~ Vern. Dabhsuli; Dabhsulio; Chokhal.

15, Iseilema ltaxum, Hack. Bomb. Gr. 113; FI. Bomb. II, 996; Watt.

eDictyalcon., Prod.;, Voli 4. ps 1524.

Vern. Ghaoolu.

16. Themeda quadrivalus, O. Kuntze. Bomb. Gr. 118.

Themeda ciliata, Hack, Fl. Bomb. HU, 994.

Vern. Kaliya; Kalioo.

17. Brachiaria Isachne, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 133.

Panicum Isachne, Roth. Fl. Bomb. II, 931.

Vern. .Kaliva; Kalioo.

18. Brachiaria ramosa, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 134.

_ Panicum. romosum, Linn. Fl. Bomb. I], 932. dee

- Panicum. Helopus,. Trin.- Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod.. Vol. Pt. 1, ps 10 (Par-

tim).

..Vern. Pedun. :*

19. Setaria intermedia, Roem & Schult, Bomb, Gry, 174; Fl, Bomb. UL,

qeormavau, Dict EHcon> Prod., Vol. 6, Pt: 11, p.. 546.

Vern. Kuteloo. ;

20. Aristida Adscensionis Linn. Bomb, Gr. 209; Fl. Bomb. HH, 1008. ~~

Aristida depressa Retz. Watt.- Dict. Econ. Prod. Vol. 1,- p. 312.

Vern. QOoth-lampdo; Lampdo. ; Fee Raver Tate

21. Eragrostis rupestris, Steud. Bomb. Gr. 230. eee aN

_ Eragrostis tenella, WVar.. viscosa. -Stapf. -Fl. -Bomb. JI,-- 1024.

-~ Vern. -Dandia; Chidiyo ;- Dundia, - Be Nad = -.

#22, Eragrostis viscosa, Trin. Bomb. Gr. 233.

Eragrostis tenella, Var. -viseosa. Stapf. Fi. Bomb. -11, 10245 VaR S

23. Desmostachya bipinnata, Stapf. Bomb. Gr. 244. a pas

Evagrotis cynosuroides, Beauv. Fl. Bomb. -I],--1028;-.Watt. Dict.- Econ.

Brody Vol) 3, p.- 253. : x

Vern. Dabhdo; Durdha; Kush,

*24, Cynodon dactylon, Pers. Bomb. Gr. 250; FI. Bomb. I, | 1032 ; ~ Watts

Dict. Econ. Prod. Vol. 2 p. 678.

Vern. Dhrokhad; Dharo.

25, Eleusine indica, Gaertn. Bomb. Gr. 259; Fl. Bomb. TI, 1037; Watt,

Dichwicony rod, Vole 2, p. 678. a

Vern. Malan-Moto; Adbaoo-Nagli. : Re 5

26. Dinebra retroflexa, Panzer. Bomb. Gr. 264. i

Denebra arabica, Jacq. Fl. Bomb. TH, 1039; Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod. Vot 3,

1 LS : ‘ a

Vern. Khariyum.

*27. Dendrocalamus strictus, Nees. Bomb. Gr. 285; FI. Bomb. I, i049;

WaittmsDicta BHcon. Prod. Vol, 3, p. 72. |

Vern. Vans; Nakor-Vans; Bans; Nar-Vans, -

262 - JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, VOL. 45

Grasslands are a conspicuous feature of Junagadh State Forest and the

ate the headquarters of dairy produce in Isatniawar. These grasslands

Support approximately 30,000 head of cattle supporting as they do a simau

proportion ol rrees and iarge shrubs; they may be inciuded under the general

-w.ogical type known as savannah. Locally these grassiands are kKnuwn das

‘vie. here are of course may) square miles of grazing land but * Via’

is particularly suitable.

the grass sprouts with the first showers of rain from reeds or rhizomes

and root stocks and. in a remarkably short time the grass is well grown reach-

ing its full juxurance in the months of October ana Novembtr. ‘Lhe majority

01 species flower at the end of the rains and wither and iry-up by January.

ihe principal members of the savannah association are Lschaemum ruga-

summu dalib., Apluda varia, Wack. var. artistata, tHack., Dichanthiwm annu-

—latum Stapt., “remopogon foveolatus, Stapl.,° Cymbopogon Marin Stapt.,

Heteropogon contortus Koem ‘& Schuit., Lhemeda quaarivalus O. Kuntze. etc.

arees growing in association are Butea fronaosa Sxonig., Varbergia lau-

fois woxb., Pterocarpus Marsupium Roxb., Pongamia .giavra Vent., Lamu-

mdus teidtce Lauinn., acacia uruowca Wiiid., Acucia Carechu Willd., Acacia

Jacquemontty benih., Acacia Senegal Wiild., AMormua tinctoria Roxb., Miumnu-

sops hexaidra Roxb., Diospyros Melanoxyion Linn., Lectona granais Linn.

and others. 1In tact any tree, shrub or herp found in our area may occur.

ine habitats of these grasses differ. The majority are xeropuyuc, but

species such as Coix Lacnryma-fobi Linn., Polytoca barbata Stapt., Iscae-

nom rugosum Salish., Brachiaria Isachne Stapt., Hragrosis viscusw trin.,

and Cynodaon dactyion Pers. preter moist places. Cymvopagon Martini Stapf.

is parucularly xerophytic both physiologicaity and pnysicaiy. It matures very

early and with minimum of raintall maintains’ itselt without drying up tor

months. The oils which it contains act as reserve and maintam turgidity.

Most of these grasses serve as todder. Ot these lschaemum pilosum, Hack.

Sehima tiervosum Stapf., Dichanthium annulatum Stapt., Kremopogen joveo-

latus, Stapt., Andropogon pumuis, Koxb., fserlema laxum Hack., Themeda

quadrivalus, O. Kuntze., bracdiaria Ilsachne Stapt.,. and Cynodon dactylon

wers. are considered good. Locally the ‘Jinjvo’ is preierred to ai! other kuinas.

These grasslands support boin annual and perennial species. Some of

-the annuais acquire or possess adaptations which induce a perennial habit.

their erect stems becoming decumbent at the base are modified into creeping

root-stock. Among these are Lremopogon fovevlaius Stapt., Andropogon pu-

milus Roxb., <Inemeda quodrvalus UO. Kuntze., Brachiana Isachne Stapf.

and Brachiaria ramosa, Stapf.

Of the-27 species noted above the following are not listed in the Bombay

Grasses as occurring in Kathiawar. They are Coixlachryma Jobe Linn., var.

artistata, Hack, Iscnaemum rugosum, Saisb., I. pilosum Hack., Apluda varia

Hack., Sorghum halepense. ters., Dichanthium annulatum Stapf. Eremo-

pogon foveoiatus, Stapt.. Andropogon pumilus Roxb., Ihemeda quadrivalus

QO. Kuntze., Brachiaria Isachne Stapf., B. ramosa Stapf., and Eleusine in-

dica Gaertn.

The following genera are recorded from “Kathiawar but not the ‘following

species: Chrysopogon montanus Trin., Iseilema laxum - Hack., Setaria inter-

media Roem. and Schult. and Eragrotis rupestris Steud.

As a supplement to our knowledge of the occurrence and distribution of

grasses in Kathiawar this paper may be of some value.

BAHAUDDIN COLLEGE, G. A. : KAPADIA,

JUNAGADH, :

August 217 1944.

References—

1. Blatter, E. and McCann, C. (1935), “The Bombay Grasses’.

2. Cooke, T. (1901-1908), ‘The Flora of Presidency of Bombay’.

3. Watt, G. (1889-1896), ‘A Dictionary of Economic Products of India’,

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

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EDITED BY

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VOL. 45

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Containing 2 coloured plates, 36 black and white plates,

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 44

No. 3

PAGE

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

(Part XX). By N. L. Bot, Cot. 8%, MAs,.D.SC% B.ls.S., I.F.S.,

and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (With 1 coloured, 3 black and

white plates and 7 text-figures)... SS coat 263

MATERIALS FOR THE ORAS OF i eT eee TR

ParblV. By Hugh Whistler; s(deceased),......--.<0.-2.00. 200

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING

Fish IN INDIA AND Burma. Part VIII. By A. Sv.

J. Macdonald... 5 ah ee ee Pees eee ees G08

SOME RS eae) OF sSrriin InN AssAm. Part II.

By -H. G.-H. M... eats Sacoiddbysi ast tis over oes, » are L

BIRDS OF THE RCN eorcnerer: By Humayun

Abdulalt.. sia Tegatiae’ Be eRe IGhce soak ee meses, ~— OOO

BP OTOCRARHING THE IBIS-BILL. Bs Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips,

1.A.(Retd.) (With 2 black and white plates)... ae 347

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE. By W.S. S. Mackay (With 2 Wane

and white plates)... re oe fe ‘ss 352

THE GIANT PREsewatee Pre ue cy OF Ne ie Des E. W.

Gudger, C.M.z.S., (With 4 plates and 4 text-figures.)...... 374

IMMATURE STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA (Cossidae, [ndar-

belidae). By J.C. M. Gardner. (With a plate)............. 390

NOTES ON THE GENUS RUPPIA EARP By Charles

McCann, F.L.S., (With a plate)... GOOD OBEB OT 396

Tue BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF OAeie SY OSSUS pee. vay

yee Mullan (W211, 2 DIGIC). moe spcicscaccsestacrssheseaccssevcee 402

REVIEW :—

HK BIRDS ORSKUTCH DY “Salitn Alicscccessscccsecsooserccesee 408

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :-—

1. Abnormal behaviour of a Tiger. By Quazi

QO. Ahmed.. aa) | 410

2. On the Habits of We Matblea Poleeat Verniele

peregusna (Guldenstadt), By S.A. Akhtar..... 412

3. Measurements of a Sloth Bear’s skuil from

Assam bys Ras Pizey ee ac. cseccscenee. 413

4, A carnivorous Sloth Bear. By Major R. K. M.

Batt yercsttentseees csc WOVE crhtek Nokes ccrcseseesee 413

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

A Sambar’s death. By Capt. H. S. Crowley.....

Breeding habits of Swamp Deer (Rucervus

duvaucellt) in.Assam. By S. H. Prater.........

Canine teeth in Chital ee axis). By Capt.

H. A. Fooks..

Size of Chital Cerne bri in indaia ane Gevion.

By Lt.-Col. H. G. Rossel... pow

On experiments in albinism aii Chital (Axis

axis). By A.M. Taibel... :

Strange death of a young Neatccs Gueate

canorus). By W. T. Loke.. %

The Avocet (Recur oe ‘Bieerta? Lina)

breeding in India. -By Salim Ali...............

The Whooper Swan (Cygnus op” By

F. Ludlow.. afta Et 5 Sesnt

Migration of Senn to the Persith Gulf. ips

G. BEGilby i eitccce cet eeeen ee a

A note on Binds of the Shani foothills, “By

N. F. Frome... seiear tetcan eee cee rere

Notes on a fue pias from the Louth se the

Tinnevelly District. By C. G. Webb-Peploe

Ornithosis, a disease transmitted by birds. By

Humayun A bdulalitcesseteuecsceseseceeececenateeren

A Crocodile’s misadventure. (Wzth a photo-

graph). By Major R. K. M. Battye........

Bellowing and other habits of the Mugger

See e palustris) By Lt.-Col. H. G.

ROSSON eee alee cons sbecwcaeeenen ceee ean ceeereeeres

Syncope ina Grovdild, ‘By Quazi Q. Ahmed...

A new record of arare snake (Nairix nage!

from Assam. By Lt. J. D. Romer...

A new serum treatment against Sree. bite.

By Editors .

Reptiles and Arachne ap Vigazene ee

neighbouring Ghats. By C. McCann...........

Breeding habits of the Common Krait (Bunga-

rus caeruleus) By C. G. Webb Peploe..........

On the bionomics of the Baril [Barzlus bendeliszs

(Hamilton)]. By P. I. Chacko and R. S.

Venkataraman... sapantacigts sa aweislcios tee

Paraffin wax as a brennan RaeneL ties

By F H. Gravely... -s.ccucse squstemipmaawccsewetenece

437

438

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

26. Security measures taken by the pupa of the

Tussar Silk Moth. By W. T. Loke............ 100

27. Migration of the Common Albatross Butterfly

(Appias alpina princtpalis). ae P, Adrian

Lanktree..

28. On the larva of the ‘buttery! ‘(Chilasin Rylan

lankeswara). By P. Adrian Lanktree............

29. Abnormal flowers of Dolichos lablab Linn. By

Inge Ie oe d Ry GIB V OF REL caesarean Rene pee ee

30. A new variety of Papaya (Carica papaya var.

flava). By L.S.S. Kumar and A. Abraham...

31. Indian Lawn Grasses. By F. H. Gravely........

32. New plant records for Bombay Presidency.

By H. Santapau, Ss. J.. FES tie eldale SG See

33. Some comments on ‘a Seis a the Botany

and Geography of North Burma’. By B. E.

SirytliSSsem anes ces, meat Sea te a hae adele ne cele oe

No. 4

SomME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. (Part

DOC a By No 1) Bor; "CLE; “MCAN, D:SC., F.L.S., I.F.S.,

and M. B. Raizada, m.sc. (Wzth 1 coloured, 4 black and

white plates and 6 text-figures)... werentes tes

MATERIALS FOR THE oMnrvenoen OF Mee airetany

ARVs slush NV nistion==(GeCeaSed)lsrtcete.cc.-.0.ca0

Some REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM. Part III. By

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING [ISH

IN INDIA AND Burma. Part IX. By A. St. J.

Macdonald. (With 9 text-figures)... ea

THE SENSE OF SMELL IN SNAKES. By “Cat Allien ae

(With 2 plates and 1 text-figure)....... WEE Ee Ac ca ta'sievecsne

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE OF THE

WESTERN Coast oF INDIA. By K. Biswas, M.A., D.sc.,

Godin SEAR SHENe (777093! Slates’). cE Ae, IR A. he was cee

BirDS ON THE HINDUSTAN— TIBET ROAD, N.W. HIMALAYA.

By H. W. Waite, C.1.E., M.B.0.U. (With 2 plates).......00.0

Trout OF TRavANcore. PartIIl. By W. S. 8S. Mackay.

(With 2 plates)... be

PROGRESSIVE Desrteasrol OF Moxon TTA F IN Girone

cAL TimES. By M. S. Randhawa, M.Sc., I.¢.S., F.N.I.,

(Wael plate And’ 2, MAPS). Witsa.csede sel dedvan aeletiheecogacey ses

445

448

496

507

ou5

931

542

958

Vv CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

LIFE HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF TWO PREDACEOUS AND

ONE MYCOPHAGOUS SPECIES OF Coccinellidae. By S. R.

Bagal, M.sc., and Dr. K. N. Trehan, M.sc., ieecieesal

(With a plate)... Aah a ie as

THE MEDICINAL AND ) RENSONOES. Sankoncnams: OF rene

By J. F. Caius, $.J., F.L.S., (deceased)... BOS.

Mork ABOUT THE FLAMINGO aneerosens, ruber voseus

(PALLAS)] IN KutcH, By Salim Ali (W7th 2 plates)...

OBITUARY NOTICE :—

Sir NormaniCranstoun Macleod. 20.455 .oc ficcwelee coe soe

REVIEW :—

A Guide to Bird Watching by rime J. Hickey...

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. A Tiger’s record asa ‘cattle killer’. By R.C.

Moniisis. Atte

2. Calling up Tigers. By W. ‘B. ‘Bila,

3. The sense of smell in Tigers. Ba ih Col.

Arundel Begbie... e

4. A Leopard § OGLines ; Be T. B. HL. ‘Smite

5. Northern limits of the Rusty-spotted Cat UP ea?

lurus r. rubiginosus Geoff.) By Humayun

Aisditlalin. ty. taesiek cat eten Win beeen eeeeo ek eeces

6. Sambar ‘Swings’. By Capt. K. Boswell, 1A.m.c.

7. The distribution of the Thamin (Panolia eldz).

By Lt.-Gen. A. F. P. Christison, BT., K.B.5.,

D.S.0., M.C., B.A.. vale sislsiesalce

8. A note on the cheat Gictubuticay ae hel cuca

ran Rhinoceros (Dzcerorhinus sumatrensis) in

the Arakan District of Burma. By Lt.-Gen.

A. F. P. Christison, BT., K.B.E., D.S.0., M.C.,

B.A. (With a map)...

9. The Tamil name of re inetan Bavcolin (Marks

crasstcandata), By K. R. Srinivasan, M.A,......

10. Note onthe Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

By G. Underwood (With a plate) ...6.00 ceescocces

11. Whistling Thrush (A/yophonus caeruleus) preying

on other birds. By Mrs. A. B. M. Way.........

12. Black-capped Kingfisher [ Halcyon pileata (Bodd.)]

nesting in India. By Humayun Abdulali.....

PAGE

566

576

586

594

595

597

598

599

600

601

603

604

€05

13.

14.

NSy

16.

18.

Ise

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45

Notes on the behaviour of nesting Paddy Birds

(Ardeola grayit) in Kashmir. By W. T. Loke

CHAZHURUZUO! PIALCS)) SFr Nate te caieov doeieisdon sha doe dee seo d>

On the occurrence of the Clucking Teal (Nettion

formosum) in the Monghyr District. By D. E.

INCU EMeeseer oe ser ree

Record cintcnt & éo8s nai he “Whistling “Teal

peti ale javanica (Horsf.)]. By H. C.

Aldrich.. ih tee

ne tenention in Wipe geal (Sie eis

Bengal. By M. N. Acharji, m.sc. (W2th a

plate)... q

Addenda and’ B88 dada th, “The Butt Sates of

the Nilgiris’ published in Vols. XLIV and

XLV of the Journal, By M. A. Wynter-

Blyth, M.A.. ws

Two Biraiese Spiders witieiin mimic Gast ine

By J. E. Marson, ¥.R.E.S. (Wth 2 plates)...

Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. By Rev. H.

SAMCAD AU, Silaier cents sates Oaths cone quite ANGANe oe

PAGE

608

609

610

611

613

S16

618

AL RIA BE CAT LEST OG

VOLUME 45

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN, Birds of BATTYE, Mayor R.K.M., A

the Vizagapatam District .. 333 carnivorous Sloth Bear

—— Ornithosis, a dis- —_— A Crocodile’s

ease transmitted by birds 426 misadventure (With a photo-

—_——. Northern limits graph) ses wee O00

of the Rusty-Spotted Cat BEGBIE, Lt.-CoL. ARUNDEL,

(Prionatlurus r. rubiginosus The Sense of smell in Tigers

Geoff.) ae 560 .. 600] Biswas, K. M.A., D.sc. (Edin.),

Se ae Black-capped F.R.S.E., A general review of

Kingfisher [Halcyon pileata the Marine Algae of the West-

(Bodd.)] nesting in India 607 ern Coast of India oe 3

ABRAHAM, A., See Kumar, plates) ae 6

Ih Ss (SY BOR,” Noles, (Cllrs, MAS, D:SC.,

AcHARSI, M. N., m.sc., Axial- F.L.S., I.F.S., AND FRATTON.

bifurcation in Vipera russellii M.B., M.Sc. Some Beautiful

(Shaw) from Benga! (With a Indian Climbers and Shrubs

plate) ep ce LO Part XX (With 1 coloured 3

AHMED, QuUAZI Q., Abnormal black and White plates anad7

behaviour of a Tiger 410 text figures ea aes

AHMED, QUAZI Q., Syacopelin in — Part xxi (wiiccianen

a Crocodile 3; 429 4 black and white plates and

AKHTAR, S.A., On the Hepes of 6 text. figures) ... 2 ast

the Marbled Polecat Vormela BOSWEEL, (CAPT. Kena l.AseM.Cx,

peregusna (Gtldenstadt) 412 Sambar ‘ Swings’ ay

ALDRICH, H.C., Record clutch Carus; J.F., S.J., F-L-S. (Decea-

of eggs of the Whistling Teal sed). The Medicinal and

[Dendrocygna JFJavanica Poisonous Sterculiads of India

(Herst.)] re 610 | CuHacko, P.I., and VENKATA-

Aur, SAtim, The Nee (Re- RAMAN, R.S., On the biono-

curvirostra avocetta Liun.). mics ot the Baril [Barilus

breeding in India coo 41240) bendelisis (Hamilton) ] ane

——-—— More about the CHRISTISON, LT.-GEN. A.F.P.,

Flamin go [Phoenicopterus BL WKB sEe, fe D.S.On MCG eB eAns

vuoer Ge in Kutch The distribution of the Thamin

(With 2 plates) .. 4 1 ES ( Panolia eldi) of

BAGAL, S. R., M.Sc. and Tee CrOWLEY,CAPT., H.S., A Sri

han, Dr.wk Nev eMasCa ene: bar’s death :

(London) Life History and Epitors, A new serum “(ieale

bionomics of two predaceous ment against snake bite

and one mycophagous Species Fooks, Capt. H.A. Canine

of Coccinellidae. (Witha plate) 566 teeth in Chital (Axis avis) ...

CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

413

427

593

515

263

451

601

576

438

603

414

431

416

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

Frome, N.F. A note on Birds of

the Simla foothills... ves

GARDNER, J.C.M., Immature

Stages of Indian Lepidoptera

(Cossidae, Indarbelidae) ( With

a plate) 608

GicBy, G.B., Migration of ewan

to the Persian Gulf

GRAVELY, F.H., Paraffin Wax

asa protection against ‘Ter-

Mules) 2s. eae

aa Indian Lawn

Grasses ... wee cae BAS

GuDGER, Dr. E.W. C.M.Z.S.,

The Giant Freshwater Fishes

of Asia. (With 4 plates and 4

text-figures)

H.G.H.M., Some Reminisc-

ences of Sport in Assam

Pare -... Son

Partly s.. 900

Kuanna, L.P., Abnormal

flowers of Dolichos lablab

Linn, ».

Kumar, L.S.S., AND ABRA-

HAM, A., A new variety of

Papaya (Carica ss hag var.

flava)

LANKTREE, P. Adhiats wee

tion of the Common Alba-

tross Butterfly (dpfzas

alpina pincipalis) «.

SS —— On thelarva of

the butterfly (Chilasia clytia

lankeswara)

Lox, W.T., Strange death of

a young Cuckoo (Cuculus

canorus) ee

- ——— Security measures

taken by the Pupa of the

‘Tussar Silk Moth bail

Notes on the

behaviour of nesting Paddy

Birds (Ardeola graytt) in

Kashmir (With 2 plates)

Luptow, F., The Whooper

Swan (Cygnus cygnus)

MACDONALD, A. ST. J., Cir-

cumventirg the Mahseer and

other Sporting Fish in India

2eo

PAGE

439

444

374

44)

44]

419

440

608

4?)

and Burma. Part VIII (conti-

nued)

en Part IX (With 9

teat figures.) .

Mackay, W.S S., Drone of

‘Travancore

Trout

Travancore, Part II...

MaR‘ON, J. E., F.R.E.S., Two

Burmese Spiders which

mimic Scorpions (With 2

plates) : o0 206

McCaANN, CHARLES, F.L.S.,

Notes on the Genus Ruppia

(Ruppiaceae) (Witha plate)

Reptiles and Am-

phibians of Vizagapatam and

Neighbouring Ghats coe

MorRIS, R.C., F.Z.S,, F.R.G.S.,y

A Tigers record as a ‘cattle

killer ’ G6

MULLAN. D.P. cine Bicloey ant

Anatomy a Scirpus grossus

Lion. Fil (With a plate)...

OBITUARY NOTICE :—

Sir Norman Cranstown

Macleod Re 6K deg

PAYNE, CApT. ALLEN, The

Sense of Smell in Snakes( With

2 plates and \ text figures.)...

PHILLIPS, LT.-Cou. B.T., 1.4.,

(Retd.) Photographing the

Ibis-bill (With 2 black and

white plates) .. ase

PizEy, R.M., Measurements of

a Sloth Bear’s skull from

Assam a are sa

PRATER, S.H., Breeding habits

of Swanp Deer (ucervus

duvaucellz) in Assam , ae

Raizapva, M.B., See Bor N. Bing

Ranpuawa, M.S., M.Sc., LC.s.,

F.N.I., Progressive desiccation

of Northern India in histori-

cal times (With 1 plate and

2 maps)

REUBEN, D.E., On tHe occur-

rence cf the Clucking Teal

(Nettion foymosum) in the

Monghyr District

39€

435

597

402

594

507

958

609

x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

REVIEWS :—

The Birds of

Salim Ali

Kutch by

A Guide to Bird Watching

by Joseph J. Hickey

RoMeER, Lt. J. D.; A new re-

cord of arare snake (Natrix

venura) from Assam Bap

Lt.-CoL. H.G., Size

ROSSEL,

of Chital (Axis WAS in

India and Ceylon ae co

———— Bellowing and

other habits of the Mugger

(Crocodilus palustris)

RuLe, W.F., Calling up Tigers

SANTAPAU, H., S. J., New

plant records for Bombay

Presidency :

ee Cannan Deiidos

montana Grah. Ao

SmitH, T. E.H., A Wena

‘pooking’ ise aoe

SMYTHIES, B.E., Sande com-

ments on ‘a Skéteh of the

Botany and Geography of

North Burma’... 006

SRINIVASAN, K.R., M.a., The

Tamil name of the Indian

Pangolin (Manis crassicau-

data) - 508 500

TAIBEL, A.M., On experiments

in albinism with Chital (Axis

QH1S) GI \.s0 83 see ost

PAGE

408

595

430

417

428

597

445

618

599

443

605

417

TREHAN, DR. K.N. See Bagal,

S.R.

UNDERWOOD, G., Note on the

Indian Pangolin (Zanis cras-

sicaudata) (With a plate)

VENKATARAMAN, R. S.,

CHackK), P. I.

Waltz, H.W., C.1.E., M.B.O.U.,

Sez

Birds of the Hindustan—

Tibet Road, N. W. Himalaya

(With 2 plates) .. sae

Way, MRs. A.B.M, Whistling

Thrush (Myophonus caeru-

leus) preying on _ other

birds 50

WEBB-PgErtLoR, C.G., Notes on

afew birds from the south

of the Tinnevelly District

Breeding habits

of the Common Krait (Bun-

garus caeruleus) 600

WHIsTLER, HuGH, (Deceased)

Materials for the Ornithology

of Afghanistan, Part IV

—— Part V aor) O00

WyNTER-BiytH, M.A., M.a.,

Addenda and corrigenda to

‘The Butterflies of- the

Nilgiris’ published in Vols.

xliv and xlv of the Journal

PAGER

605

931

607

425

437

280

462

613

LA STMOFMPLIAT ES

VOLUME 45

Nos. 3 and 4

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XXII. The Moonbeam (Zabernaemontana coronaria R.Br.)

Plate The Allamanda (A/lamanda neritfolia Linn) New Forest,

Dehra Dun oer wee

Plate do. xe

Plate Madagascar Periwinkle Wines rosea Spin.) New Forest)

Dehra Dun

Photographing the Ibis-bill

Plate I. Fig. 1. A subsidiary valley in Kashmir—a favourite haunt

Fig. 2. Ibis-bill approaching nest...

Plate II. Fig. 3. Settling down to brood

Fig. 4. Disturbed ae

Trout of Travancore

Plate I. Fig. 1. Eruvikulam, where first Brown Trout were caught

Fig. 2. Upper Eruvikulam with Aneimudi in background

Plate II. Fig. 3. Turner’s valley

Vig. 4. Result of careful stocking

The Giant Freshwater Fishes of Asia

Plate I. The Mahseer (Barbus tor)

Plate II. The Goonch or ‘ Freshwater Shark’ i(Bagirius ets)

Plate III. Fig.1. Catfish—the Siamese Pla Btik of Mekong River

eee eee

oa0 ooo

Fig. 2. The Great Pla Bttk (Pangasianodon gigas)

Plate IV. Fig. 1. Chinese Royal Sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis)

Fig. 2. Dabry’s Sturgeon (Acipenser dabryanus)

Plate V. Fig. 1. Swordbill (Psephurus gladius)

Fig. 2. Kaluga (//uso dauricus)

Immature Stages of Indian Lepidoptera

Larvae of Cosszdae

Plate. Fig. 1. Pronotum of Azygophileps scalaris

Fig. 2. 3 Zeuzera cotteae

Fig. 3. 33 Xyleutes ceramica

Fig. 4. 3 Zeuzera multistrigata

Eig os + Xyleutes leuconota

Fig. 6. Posterior spiracle of Zeuzira coffeae

Fig. 7. Head of

Notes on the Genus Auppia (Ruppiaceae)

Plate. Figs. 1-12 Dissection of plant es

The Biology and Anatomy of Scirpus grossus Linn, Fit

Plate. Figs. 1-12 Anatomy

Abnormal flowers of Dolichos lablab ehava,

Plate. Dissection of hower ase

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate XXIII. Beaumoniia grandiflora (Roxb.) Wall

39 9»?

274

346

347

356

357

376

377

38 )

384

385

392

396

402

443

451

xii

LETS TO ka PLATES

Plates Cream Fruit (Stvophanthus gratus Franch.) New Forest,

Dehra Dun

Plates Hill Jassmine (Thuchelospeamurn POE Hook f.) New

Forest, Dehra Dun

The Sense of Smell in Snakes

Plate I. Fig. 1. Bungarus caerulews—Longitudinal section through

tongue

Fig. 2. Rabbit— do. do. os

Fig. 3. Bungarus caeruleus—Portion of longitudinal -

histological section of olfactory tissue

Plate II. Figs. 1&2. Bungarus caeruleus—palate cer 200

A General Review of the Marine Algae of the Western Coast of India|

Plate I. Fig. 1. Ulva fasciata, Delile

Fig. 2. Scinaia furcellata (Turn.) Biv. |

Fig. 3. Dicranema furcellatum (Mont.) J. Ag.

Fig. 4. Callymenia renitormis (Turn.) J. Ag.

Plate II. Fig. 5. Halichrysis depressa Schousb. ai

Fig. 6. rthrocoton Muelleri (Sond.) J. Ag.

Fig. 7. Delesseria sinuosa (Good et Woodw.}) Lamour

Fig. 8. Halymenia fastigiata J. Ag.

Plate IIf. Fig. 9. Sargassum persicum Kuetz.

Fig. 10. Padina Fraseri (Grev.) J. Ag.

Fig. 11. Stoechospermum maculatum J. Ag.

Fig. 12. Phyllaria reniformis (Lamour) Rostaf. xe

Birds on the Hindustan-Tibet Road N. W. Himalaya

Plate I. Fig.

Fig.

Plate II. Fig.

Fig.

am FS o &

Trout of Travancore

Plate I. Fig.

Fig.

Plate II. Fig.

Fig.

Between Namgia and Shipki

The Sutlej between Taranda and Chaura

The Sutlej at Wangtu

The Sutlej between Urni and Rogi

Pangi Village

The Road in the Lipi Valley between Jangi adl

Kanam

The Bridge over the Sutlej between Poo and

Namgia

The Sutlej between Poo and Kanam

Rajamallay hatchery under construction

A Trout coming up the spawning run

Transport of trout fry over the grass hills

Record Trout for South India-7 Ibs. 2 ozs,

Progressive Desicecation of Northern India in Historical Times

Plate Mathura Sculptures of Kushan Period

Map I. Distribution of Saraca indica Linn. frome. 500 B.C. to

c. 640 A.D. ei!

Map II. Present Distribution of Sarath elie Linn. and Rainfall

of India vis we

Life History and Bionomics of two Piedaeods and one Myeopiasens

Species of Coccinellidae

Plate I. Fig. 1. Fourth instar larva of Coccinella septem punctata L.

Fig. 2. Fourth instar larva of Chilomenes sexmaculatus F,

PAGE

456, 457

458, 459

510

530

533

LIST OF PLATES

Fig. 3. Fourth instar larva of Zhea cincta F.

Fig. 4. Female reproductive system of Chilomienes sex-

maculatus F.

Fig. 5. Male reproductive system of Chilomenes sexmacu-

latus F Sc wer

More about the Flamingo [Phoenicopterus ruber roseus (Pallas)] in Kutch

Plate I. Fig. 1. The Flamingo ‘ City’ oe O50

1, 7c do. do.

Plate II. A close-up of a section of the Flamingo ‘City’ ope

Note on the Present Distribution of the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhi-

nus Sumatrensis) in the Arakan District of Burma

Map Areas in which species still exists

Note on the Indian Pangolin (Manis crassicaudata)

Plate Figs. 1 & 2. The Indian Pangolin

Notes on the behaviour of nesting Paddy Birds (Andenle apa a in

Kashmir

Plate I. Fig. 1, Young birds being fed

Fig. 2, do. do. 500 as

Plate II. Fig. 1. Greeting display by Paddy Birds

Fig. 2. Paddy Bird sheltering chick from sun

Weialé bifurcation in Vipera russellit (Shaw) from Bengal

Plate Figs. 1. & 2. Dorsal and ventral view of head _...

Two Burmese Spiders which mimic Scorpions

Plate I. Fig. 1. Red leaf-like Spider

Fig. 2. Yellow petal-like Spider ...

Plate II. Fig. 1. Web with cocoon and debris

Fig..2. House species ... tory ae ies

xili

PAGE

605

606

608

609

611

616

INDEX

OF ILLUSTRATIONS

VOLUME 45

Nos. 3 & 4

PAGE PAGE

Acipenser sinensis 384 | Pangasius sanitwongseii A teil

-- dabryanus 384 | Phoenicopterus ruber roseus §92

Acocanthera spectabilis 278 | Phyllaria reniformis ... 530

Allamanda cathartica ... 270 | Psephurus gladius uae 386

— Neriifolia 268, 269 | Red leaf-like Spider -- 616

Antheraea paphia .-- 440 | Ruppia (Ruppiaceae) ... 2. 396

Ardeola grayii 608 | Saraca indica oes 563

Azygophleps scalaris 392 | Sargassum persicum ... ... 930

Bagarius bagarius 377 | Scinaia furcellata ... wi aiekd 530

Barbus tor... 376 | Scirpus grossus Linn. ... wwe 402

Beaumontia grandiflora (Roxb.) Spiders which mimic Scorpions 616,

Wall... ds0 eee 265, 451 617

Birds on the Hindustan Tibet Staechospermum maculatum ... 530

Road, N.W. Himalaya 532 | Strophanthus gratus Franche. ... 456.

Bungarus caeruleus 510, 511 - 457

Callymenia reniformis 530 | Taberne montana coronaria

Catlocarpio siamensis ... 382 RABERHOL, . Seek wee 1203

Chilomenes sexmaculata 574 | Thea cincta act oy wee! TOKE

Chonemorpha macrophylla 453 | Thevetia neriifolia 267

Coccinella septempunctata 574 | Trachelospermum fragrans ... 458,

Delesseria sinuosa 530 459

Dicranema furcellatum .. 530 | —— - jasminoides... 459

Dolichos lablab Linn. .. 443 | ‘Trout of Travancore .. 356, 357

Erthrocolon Muelleri 530 ee 044, 552

Halymenia fastigiata 530 | Ulva fasciata Bry aay ase 530

Halichrysis depressa 530 | Vallaris Heynei ... woe 409

Huso dauricus 385 | Vinca major ese 0 once

Ibis-bill, Photographs of... 346, 347 | ——~- rosea 274, 275

Manis crassicaudata 606 | Vipera russellii we. 611

Mathura sculptures of Kushan Xyleutes ceramica ees Senooe

Period .. 560 | ———— leuconota ace eve 392

Melodinus monogynus .. .«. 461] Yellow petal-like Spider 616

Nerium odorum 273 | Zeuzera coffeae ... bod woe 392

Padina Fraseri 530 -multistrigata ... ee 392

Pangasianodon gigas 380

Abroma augusta...

Acanthospermum hispidum

Accipiter nisus melanoschistos

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis

Acetabularia caliculus :

Mobii eas o00

Acipenser dabryanus

Acipenser mantschuricus

Acipenser sinensis

Acocanthera spectabilis

Acridotheres t, tristis

Acridotheres tristis

Acrocephalus dumetorum

Adelura coeruleocephala

Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei

Aegithina tiphia humei...

Aegypius monachus

Aithopyga gouldiae ...

——— siparaja ~

Alzmon alaudipes doriae

Alauda arvensis intermedia

- gulgula inconspicua ...

Alcedo atthis pallasii ...

taprobana

Alcemerops athertoni

Alcippe poioicephala brucei

Alectoris graeca oar

— chukar seo

Allamanda cathartica «..

—— — neriifolia

violacea

Alseonax latirostris

———-— ruficaudatus ...

—-— ruficaudus Bae

Alsocomus puniceus.... ove

Ammomanes deserti orientalis

ae ee

oes ee

Ammoperdix g. griseogularis

Anas penelope ... a ane

——-p. platyrhyncha ...

——- p. poecilorhyncha...

Anhinga melanogaster ae

Anseralbifrons ... ...

iNDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

33Y,

phoenicuroides...

——=—— phoenicura zarudnyi

577

445

04]

302

523

522

385

384

277

537

424

338

935

533

335

295

539

424

286

287

292

342

335

467

542

269

271

337

536

424

344

288

468

347

481

346

481

anser

Anthereea paphia

Anthocephalus indicus

Anthropoides virgo

Anthus campestris campestris...

—— griseus

cervinus

-- hodgsoni

——--- h. hodgsoni

——-—--- roseatus...

—-- r. rufulus

-- rufulus waitei

-- similis jerdoni ...

—-—— -- sordidus decaptus

-- sordidus jerdoni

——-- spinoletta blakistoni ...

——_—-- ——-~--—- japonica

———-- trivialis haringtoni

trivialis

Apocynaceze aor ose

Appias albina principalis

chrysaétus

clanga ae we

—— heliaca heliaca ... aes

——— nipalensis..,

rapax or

Arborophila torqueola ...

~ hodgsoni berezowskii

paulina wardi ... eee

Aquila chrysaétos daphanea ...

Pack

424,

285,

284,

Arceuthornis viscivorus bonapartei ...

Ardea cinerea

——— grayii

———prayti ss... eee

Arius sp. a6n

Artamus fuscus ... SA

Asio flammeus flammeus

= otus eee eco ooe

— otus otus wee

Astur badius cenchroides

dussumieri

———gentilis ... Ox

——— trivirgatus indicus

Athene brama ...

480

440

599

470

285

539

284

485

539

340

285

539

285

284

285

539

340

263

44]

613

541

298

299

542

535

449

346

€08

308

338

294

540

294

302

344

301

344

299

xvi INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

- b. brama 500 ofc sos LS

- noctua bactriana oe sen beeg4.

Axis axis ... eee o00 500 416, 417

Aythya f. ferina ... Ae dy Best? TOL’

——_— ~ fuligula ... ae S06 we «= AZ

———-marila ... 500 600 So. 5 ORY

Azygophleps scalaris ... x0 oo?

Barbus bagarius... ae iat Son eS)

- tor oe. ee 500 ETO

Barilius bendelisis 506 508 ww. 438

Beaumontia grandiflora are vee tO

Bélone sp. site wes aoe Sor SAUL)

Boodlea composita a0 iB, Bo O74

Botaurus s. stellaris ... 480

Brachypternus benghalensis namcticols

lis nee 500 ae prmeee ois

Bryopsis conmioees sop acc Son O83

———— hypnoides .. 06 OCS

= pennata aes ove po Oe

——_——. plumosa At ais oes

Bubo bubo bengalensis... ... -. 343

——- ——- turcomanus... 550 Spo CEG)

Buettneria herbacea_... “ OLS

Bungarus caeruleus aes “430, 437, 510

Burhinus oedicnemus ... an toy ed

Butastur teesa «ee wae a we «= 44

Buteo buteo vulpinus .. Axe pe ox

rufinus rufinus ... ase co eR

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus .. 341

Ciconia ciconia ... ‘es ous ee 479

Calandrella acutirostris... dos esonti nico?

-—— brachydactyla longipennis 287

-———= rtufescens persica... ay © she}

Callacanthis burtoni ... sah eos ONT

Calliope calliope ... eee a0 ao OBIE

—.—— p. pectoralis ... aes 485, 535

Callymenia reniformis ... aed ee Oras}

Calotes elliotti ... ope be oo» 436

- versicolor 500 owe se » (436

Capella g. gallinago wes oe = AT

wn——e Solitaria ... eee aes ake HL

-- stenura ... eke oe mn: Yih

Caprimulgus asiaticus ... ene ay ASRS

a. asiaticus wae ceo, 043

Caprimulgus europaeus unwini eees, 293

i, indicus ... a cee 043

i eee macrourus albononotus 343

mons MaAhrattensis tes eed

Caranx sp. x aus ry wo» 308

Carcharias gangeticus ... ‘ks sas) 308

Carica papaya var. flava oe we «= 448

Carissa carandas eee

Carpodacus erythrinus poseatts

Casarca ferruginea 900

Carpodacus p. pulcherrimus ...

——-— -——— rhodochroa

Catharanthus roseus

Catlocarpio siamensis

Catreus wallichii ...

Caulerpa fastigiata

——_—— peltata ...

—--—— scalpelliformis

———— sedoides

—~-—— sertularioides ...

Centropus sinensis parroti

Cephalopyrus flammiceps

f. flammiceps

Ceramium rubrum

Cerbera odollam

Certhia himalayana

h. himalayana ...

- himalayana taeniura ..

Ceryle rudis afghanistanica

——-- leucomelanura

Ceyx t. tridactylus

Chaetomorpha aerea ...

————-— clavata...

indica ...

—_—_—-—_——- Linum ...

DT media oe

Se prostrata

———— torta

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala...

Chalcophaps i. indica ...

Chamaedoris auriculata

Chaptia acnea malayensis

Charadrius dubius curonicus ...

Chaulelasmus streperus...

Chelidon cashmeriensis...

Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum

Chettusia gregaria cee

——--——. leucura

Chilasia clytia lankeswara

Chilomenes sexmaculata

Chiloscyllium griseum ...

Chironomus by

Chlamydotis undulata sate besa

Chlidonias hybrida indica

Chloropsis aurifrons frontalis...

~—— jerdoni ass 3

Chonemorpha macrophylla...

—— rhodochlamys grandis ...

eee 382

mo Ge!

ro 3

Heo S22

346, 481

PaGe

we. 264

339, 538

346, 481

538

274

o41

523

Sco ROZS

523

342

485

537

517

423

485

291

342

wee 425

522

922

522

sso D228

535

344

522

338

473

280

424

474

44]

568

308

589

471

472

335

453

Choriremus lysan

Chrysocolaptes ge. oiiaenistatus

Chrysomma sinensis sinessis ...

Ciconia nigra

Cinclus pallasii cenminestare

Cinnyris a. asiatica

—-——— asiatica ooic wt:

: -= brevirostris...

+———— zeylonica

Circaétus ferox ... “5

Circus acruginosus Aereenente

cyaneus cyaneus

———— macrourus

- melanoleucos

pygargus =

Cirrepidesmus leschenaultii ...

——=$ = St.

= -——— mongolus atrifrons

Cladophora bombayensis

- -——colabense ... ae

— fascicularis...

-———.-——. Fritschii

——_- + ——_--—— — sp. nov....

(Hutchinsize ?)

- magdalene

-——-- =+—— monumentalis

“--——— suracenia

Cladophoropsis sundanensis

zollengeri

Clamator coromandus

=~ jacobinus

——-—— = —_-—_ pica

Clauda multifida

Clupea fimbriata

- lile ses Bes

- longiceps

Coccinella septempunctata

Cochlospermum gossypium ..

Codium coronatum

- elongatum tes

Codium latum

- tomentosem

Colotis amata modesta...

Colpomenia Sinuosa

—- Stellata ph

Coluber (zamenis) florulentus

Columba eversmanni ... Ba

—-— liviagaddi ...

——- livia

_—

intermedia

——-—-—- gaenas Atk

——- leuconota

ae ee

INDEX OF SPECIES xVil

PAGE PAGH

303 | Columba palumba casiotis ... meee 402

341 | Copsychus saularis saularis ... ee eOOO

335 | Coracias benghalensis Sen Scimitar 4240)

79) TCM CA eee me Oa

934 | —- ——— garrula semenowi ... a col)

310 | Cortex quebracho he ae .. 264

.. 039 | Corvus macro:hynchos bet ae 422

289, 485 | Corvus macrorhynchos culmiratus ... 334

340 intermedius. 532

me tcug splendens splendens ... a OOe

301, 344 - ——- zugmayeri ... wa) OO

300 | Coryllis vernalis FA bed eae «OAD

500 | Cossus “30 sue bt boas ee eOOG

eee O44) COsiriix ec CcOturnixd * ee 07

we 300) y Crexicrex ae aK oC =. 469

.. 4/74 | Crocodilus gangeticus ... me enc 74°)

473 | —— palustris = we) 428

522 | Cryptoplectron erytk rorhyne van Ee ataeaalae 2S

522 | Cuculus canorus gee tq; 341, 419

522 —- ——— canorus PR 289, 540

522 | ——~—- micropterus ... mn dee GA

522 | ——-—— optatus ae Jas Sie? 520

522 | ———p. poliecep hatte te vw. ©6040

w. 922 | Culicicapa ceylonensis ae ero

522 —- pallidior serach ts 10)

522 | Curcuma amada BAD a: fee 02d

522 | ——-—-— aromatica oF is ee O23

522 | ——-—-— decipiens 38: oe ae LU

.. 4295 | ———— inodora aes a8 see ODS

485, 540 | ———— neilgherrensis aes “py fetetieald OYA,

341 | — pseudomontana a8. 618, 623

oe SIG purpurea HN; 2 em OlS

308 | Cursorius cursor cursor aw ey yemamar: Al

»- 308 | Cutla buchanani aes as ere SS

308 | Cyanops asiatica eae a: ar 420

568 | Cybium commersonii ... ff se = 3 08

w«. «56. 333 | ———-= guttatum aes Lo eee SUG

G3 523 | Cygnus cygnus wes aif 421, 480

523 | Cynanchum erectum ... on we «= 264

523 | Cynodon barberi exe bee we «=: 44

523 | ——-—— dactylon var. intermedius .. 444

613 | Cyorniss. superciliaris tee wee = 036

ts 523 | Cypsiurus parvus batassiensis ma «SAO

923 | Dafila acuta ose 00 are 346, 482

ee 613 | Delesseria sinuosa aes aa Sie ammo)

462 , Dendrocitta formosae sarkari ... ie Sod

462 | Dendrocitta v. vagabunda ee PSL |

541 vagabunda ..,. 422, 485, 533

344 | Dendrocyegna javanica bis 346, 610

462 | Dendrophassa b. bicincta ws we 344

% 485 | Dendrotreron hodgsoni ane 1» o41

x Vili INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Dicaeum e. erythrorhynchos ... oO BHD

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis vee setae a GOS

Dicranema furcellatum 500 Bon OES |

Dicrurus c, caerulescens one SOS

—— — l. longicaudatus me eee. 338.)

- longicaudatus ints foo ORO

———-——_ macrocercus penirsularis ... 358

Dolichos lablab a3 née ine phd

Dryobates auriceps sis nas OSS:

—————~ brunnifrons ... 600 sho AS)

-—-——-. h. hardwickii 5 Loge eH)

——-—— himalayensis gee 2:9, 425

————- h. himalayensis _... ap OY)

—— -—— leucopterus Mee orne acne 289

SS St, TOONS ont aes oy gO)

———- macei da iat shostZo

——-—— m. mahrattensis ... Bon od)

Ducula badia cuprea_... uw. 344

Dumetia hyperythra hypery eis smu roso

Dussumieria acuta aie sate aoe AS}

Echis carinata ... a mr 431, 432

Ectcearpus coniger 000 560 Soon Oa)

—-——— Cylindricus on ean i2S

—— Mitchellae ... se BG0e, OVS)

Egretta a. alba ‘is aes Fides 19

- g, garzetta ss es rest) v3.46

———-i.intermedia ... ote con BS

Elacate nigra... 50 eae eee US

Elanus caeruleus vociferus ... See 00

Emberiza cia sid see 500 vw. «=» 424

—— -—— cia stracheyi a oe kis)

——_-——- fucata arcuata St pp ase 0.30

oe stewarti oc ave Sarees)

Endoderma leptochaete Sc eel pfO22

—__—_——-— viride ons AO ea per Oe

—_———-—- Wittrockil sf MO Oe

Enicurus maculatus ... tee CAS)

oa m, maculatus di eee)

Enteromorpha compressa AY Hyer mo2i

—— —_-——- intestinalis 505 oc

———— —_—-- minima abe eZ

——-———----- prolifera gi S00 OS

——-- — ——- tubulosa ot on a

Entocladia polysiphonia ee woe? PROT

Equala splendens 600 eee S0a5908

Eremophila alpestris albigulee... 500, CaaS)

—— ————_longirostris 286, 485

Eremopterix g@. grisea ... ius eee olO

Eriolaena quinquelocularis .. a OAS)

Erolia a, alpina ... one 300 ‘sepe pO

m, minuta Be, Pee Be AS

Erolia temminckii _

Erismatura leucocephala

Erythrocolon muelleri ...

Eunetta falcata

Esacus recurvirostris

Kudynamys s. scolopaceus

Eumyias t. thalassina

thalassina

————- thalassinus

Falco cherrug che rug ...

—- c. chiquera... 500

—- columbarius insignis

——- jugger

——- raumanni ... 50 wae

—- Be baie babylonicus

——-— peregrinus .«.

——- subbuteo

— eabDutcol

—- tinnunculus tinnunculus...

=== vespertinus..

Francolinus penealancn

—— henrici

———-- —— p. pictus 0

-—— p. pondicerianus ..

Franklinia gracilis iis 500

Fringilauda nemoricola altaica

Fulicaa.atra... sia

Fulvetta vinipecta 500

Galeocerdo rayneri

Galerida cristata magna

Gallinula chloropus indicus

-—= —-— parvifrons

Galloperdix s. spadicea... oo

Gallus gallus

murghi ...

Garrulax albogularis whistleri

—-—.—leucolophus ...

Garruluslanceolatus ...

Gelocheliden n. nilotica

Gennaeus hamiltoni ... BOC

Geocichia c. citrina ACO 500

Geokichla citrina cyanotus

+— wardii... aNd

Glareola lactea ... 600 ast

—p.pratincola ... ose

Glaucidium b. brodiei ... éa‘s

—-~—— cuculoides ...

-——— ft, radiatttm

Glaucionetta clangula ... 500

Glottis nebularia...

Gonodia arabica... cer ae

PAGE

297,

298,

BED,

476

484

529

481

47)

341

337

536

424

297

426

297

343

298,

297

297.

541

297

S41

297

542

468

345

424

538,

470

534

308

288

469

426

345

425

345

533

423

533

472

542

425

336

472

471

54]

425

343

484

476

523

INDEX OF SPECIES xix

PAGE PAGE

Grus grus... re at & ... 470 | Ibidorhyncha struthersii pen gaiold 347

Graucalus javensis macei - o S38? |) Ibis Tt. leucocephalus. <.: ae ef2 G2A426

Grus leucogeranus aes ae .. 470 | Ictinzetus malayensis: perniger 1.899343

Guazuma tomentosa ... a .. 9/79 | Indarbela quadrinotata... ye Ot BIT 395

Gymnorhis x. xanthocollis ... ... 339 | Ixobrychus m. minuta ... AR bpeto7 479

- xanthocollis fh . 038] Ixulus flavicollis ... B ad 1h AZs

Gypaétus barbatus 558 Sat 296, 541 ——— -albicollis ... anos!

Gyps fulvus 290 a0 600 295 | Iyax torquilla... we a ane nes

-_—- himalayensis oud ewe 203 485, 541 —torquilla ... vo ce 289; 426

5 aly TROGIR Goo Gos ce. ... 343 | Ketupa zeylonensis leschenazlti SoCs meme

Haematopus ostralegus eee ». 473 | Kittacincla malabarica malabarica ... 336

Haematornis cheela melanotis .. 344 | Kleinhovia hospita et ag seri hed80

Halcyon pileata ... 600 Mis .. 607-| Krimnochelidon obsoleta pallida sere cesO

- —smyrnensis. ... gr) 292, 342 ——-—— rupestris baie 280, 538

Haliastur i. indus Si o06 38 344 | Lalagesykesi ... tee = ao338

Haliaetus leucogaster ... ad .. 344 | Laminaria saccharina ... £m apo ols

—-leucoryphus ... oe .. 299 | Laniusc. cristatus a bys san oOd

Halichrysis depressa ... Oe .. 528 | Lanius isabellinus bes ee Sod EN KIO

Halimeda tuna ... ae a a2 = nasutus nigriceps we Fo eS

Halymenia fastigiata ... ees ween 829 shacherythronotus ... Heikstt 230

Hamidactylus brookei ... hte 405 VAttatwGe 2. fu “it cael amiead

- maculatus I .» 435 | Larus argentatus. <b ia i007 3472

Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus. ... 342 | ——- Erehinnens 500 eon ada:

Helicteres isora ... ; , .. 579 | ——- brunnicephalus ... ie w. = 345

Hemichelidon sibirica ee .. 936 | ——- fuscus seis a fe scone » Lhe,

Hemiprocne coronata ... oor .. 343 , ——- genei we 50 alt ax, 472

Hemipus p. picatus... =e .. 337 | ——- ichthyaétus Sore See vemean bie

Herodias garzetta 58 a .. 479 | ——-r.ridibundus ... ai vor — 472

Heterodon simus ei 500 .. 613 | ——-sp.? 500 Al ae)”

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus ... .. 299 | Leioptila capistrata Spies 3k meer OS

———-— pennatus... es se, 9299 | Leiothrix lutea... as ies «ws 423

Hierococcyx sparveroides As: .» 040 | Lerwa lerwa sue i eas cee BOO

--——- varius «. COC ... 9841 | Leucocirca albicollis ... wore . 424

Himantopus h, himantopus. ... 426, 474 | --_——--- aureola eee Sele SO

‘Hirundo daurica erythropygia we = 340 | ——-—- pectoralis vernayi act MSO

— -nepalensis ... . 939 | Leucopclius a. alexandrinus ... rn Y Re)

——_— rufulascullii ... bas ‘oO |} Wimosa,limosay yas eee bs weno A795

— rustica afghanica ... .. 281 | Lobivanellus indicus aigneri .., . 474

————— = Sutturalis .955282,,340; 485 |. = i. indicus... si soe NLS

== - rustica “oc Scop cou ola (?) capillaris S05 oie oor 22

— smithii filifera... 500 emer coe ea dichrous kangrae Oo Slo!)

Homochlamys p. pallidipes —... eiosoo. melanolophus ... tg Goo

Horornis pallidus ee 2a : oa 5 r. rufonuchailis.., OS

Huso dauricus .. sie ... 3888 | Lophophorus impejanus ts 467, 542

Hydroclathus eeclaire ae ... 523 | Loxia curvirostra himalayana ean OS7,

Hydrophasianus chirurgus a. ww. 245 | Lymnocryptes minima ... 500 Bec /7/

Hydroprognec. caspia .. ds: ... 472 | Lyngbya confervoides ... Eo OZ

Hypacanthis spinoides ... nits .. «©5338 | — infixa ... se aes soo Ol

Hypothymis azurea styani. ... OO — majuscula wee eee ‘jefe OCI

lanthia cyanura pallidior ... .. 535 | Mabuya macularia ee aes oe oO

Tanthocincla rufogularis <8 «. 423! Machlolophus xanthogenys .,. oo eh)

PAGE

Machlolophus xanthogenys aplorotus 334

Manis crassicaudata 605

Mareca penelope... ; 482

Marmaronetta angustirostris 483

Martensia spectabilis ... 515

Martula urbica urbica ... 280

Megalaema virens marshalloram 540

Melanocorypha calandra.. psammo-

chroa heh aad xt se 286

SS bimaculata bimaculata 286

Melochia corchorifolia ... 580

Melodinus monogynus .., 460

Melophus lathami subcristata 538

Mergellus albellus . 484

Mergus serrator .. 484

Merops apiaster ... ETE O0

Merops orientalis... 291, 342

superciliosus javanicus 342

-——--- + ---——_ persicus ... 291

Mesua ferrea 5A0

Michelia champaca 560

Micorcoleus chthonoplastes IE 2NS21

Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps... 341

Micropus affinis ... fd ah 293

——.-—— a. affinis 342

——--—-— apus Hs 540

—— - pekinensis 293

-——~-— melba... 540

-_—— -— melba tuneti .. 292

peas pacificus 540

Microscelis psaroides 423

p. psaroides 534

Milvuslineatus ... eos aes 220299

migrans D: 495, 541 |

—— = imiorans Soom ence)

= —- govinda... 299, 344

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla ... 335

Molpastes cafer ... 423

—__--- —— - saturatus 335

—————--— leucogenys ... we / 9423

--— ]. leucogenys 485, 534

Monticola cinclorhyncha 3367-036

-— rufiventris 423, 536

——--—— solitaria pandoo 336

Motacilla alba alboides... woo

ae dukhunensis Coby CS

—-——-— -—— personata 282, 539

——-—— cinerea... 424

—-—---- - caspica 539

— — - melanope 340

a - Subsp, ? 283

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Motacilla citreola calcarata 284

=e - were 284

————--- feldege melanogriseus 283

—— -——.- flava beema as 283

-~- ——- thunbergi az 283

Muscicapula poliogenys vernayi ee SS

——-——— r. rubeculoides ... Pees)

——— ——- superciliaris 336

——_—-—-—- t. tickelliae ens 336 _

—-tricolor ... we 424

Mycerobas melanoxanthus 485, 537

Myophonus caeruleus ... 424, 607

——- t, temminckii 536

Myriogloea sciurus 523

Naja naja 500 ae 55 432

Natrix xenura *e a 430

Nemacystus decipiens ... ete 523

Neophron percnopterus pEReneIeEeS 296,

425, 541

-— ——ginginianus... 343

Nerium indicum ae te shi e272

~ odorum BS oa 272

Netta rufina ... ; 33 347

Nettapus c. cofOTandeenns @ 346

Nettion c. crecca a er «- 482

—- formosum €09

Niltava sundara w= 424

Nucifraga caryocatactes henhispita 28) bo'S8s

Numenius arquata Pr 475

Nycticorax n. nycticorax 479

Nyroca ferina 483

———- fuligula ... 484

———- rufa aes wae 4 483

Netta rufina its wh 483

Oecophylla smaragdina Hii 617 —

Oenanthe monacha +7; Soci son

— - p. pleschanka Bs “ose

Oenopopelia tranquebarica ... 464

Oreicola {. ferrea 535

Oreocincla d. dauma : 535

Oreocorys sylvanus 286, 939

Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus 339

- o. kundoo 332, 537

Orthotomus sutorius of 424

— —— ———- ouzerata... 338

Ostreobium Reineckei ... de 523

Otis tarda dybowskii oi Oo WATG

Otocompsa flaviventris flaviventris .... 335

sane jocosa emeria 335

Otus brucei ave ols te 294

—— scops scops vid am 294

Otus spilocephalus eee

Padina Fraseri Ps:

Pandion haliaétus fe

h. haliaetus

Pangasianodon gigas

Pangasius sanitwongseii

Panolia eldi

Papilio machaon

Parus major ae tee

——- ——-—- caschmiriensis

intermedius

—~-— m. monticolus

—- palustris korejewi 5

Passer domesticus indicus we

rutilans , :

—- cinnamomets ...

Pathysa antiphates naira

Pavo cristatus ig

Pelecanus onocrotalus ...

—- roseus

Pellorneum ruficeps 4

——— ———- ruficeps ...

Pentapetes phoenicea

Penthoceryx s. sonneratti

Pericrocotus b. brevirostris

—_——

—-——- p. peregrinus

Pericrocotus roseus ae

————a - r. roseus

——-—-—-—-- speciosus semiruber

Perissospiza icteroides

Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis

Pralacrocorax carbo sinensis ...

—_—_——_-—_—- niger

————_—_—- pygmeus

Pkasianus colchicus

— bianchii...

— principalis

Philomachtus pugnax

Phoeniconaias minor ... a

————————

—

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

540

530

295

343

378

381

693

44]

422

533

485

533

485

340, 538

A424

538

613

345

346, 478

346

423

335

581

341

536

Stovh

485

337,

$87.

537

344

478

346, 478

478

A418

466

4€6

476

480

Phoenicopterus ruber roseus ... 346, 480, 586

Phoenicurus frontalis

ochrurus ...

Phragmaticola aedon

Phragmatoecia castaneae

Phyllaria reniformis

Phylloscopus affinis ..

——- inornatus humei

- nitidus viridanus

Phylloscopus occipitalis

o. occipitalis

— -—— —— pulcher kangrae

neem ed

485, 535

336, 535

338

393

530

338, 537

338

424

339, 537

111

Phylloscopus trochiloides ludlowi

trochiloides nitidus

——_—— —— tytleri

Picus c. chlorolophus

—— squamatus gorii

—— squamatus

Piprisoma a. agile

Pilta brahcyura ...

Platalea leucorodia

Plegadis falcinellus oot

Ploceus p. philippinus ...

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus

Pnoepyga albiventer 4...

Podiceps cristatus fe

ruficollis capensis ...

Polynemus indicus

—— tetradactylus

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys

Porphyrio poliocephalus

Porzana parva

——-—— porzana

——-— p. pusilla

—-—— pusilla pusilla

Prinia s. socialis

s, sylvatica a

Prinoris sita Sh

Prionailurus r. rubiginosus

Prunella himalayanus

——-—— strophiata jerdoni

Psephurus gladius

Pseudobryopsis mttcronata

Pseudogyps bengalensis

Pseuduevella sp. ... ate

Psittacula cyanocephala

—-—— Cc. cyanocephala

——-—— himalayana himalay ina

owe —— krameri

—e Se

—— manillensis

-— schisticeps

Pterocles alchata

Pterocles coronatus atratus

—— lichtensteinii ...

——-— orientalis

— senegalius ...

Pterocymbium javanicum

Pterospermum acerifolium

—

-—— heyneanum

suberifolium

Pteruthius erythropterus 05

Pterygota alata ... een set

... 303, 308, 311

horsfieldii horsfieldii...

XXi

PAGE

338, 537

537

485

340

; 289

2-9, 539

340

478

479

339

474

934

484

347, 484

309

423, 534

334

469

4.69

345

469

339

613

600

485

536

396

fy 199523

295, 343

1681522

419, 540

342

204

419, 425

342

540

465

485

464

465

581

582

534

582

XSil

PAGE

Pucrasia macrolopha castanea . 466

—__—— m. macrolopha 541

Pycnonotus luteolus luteo!us 335

Pyrrhocorax p. himalayanus ... 533

Pyrrhula erythrocephala 537

Querquedula querquedula 432

Rallina s. superciliaris ... 426

Rallus aquaticus korejewi 469

Rana cyanophlyctis 436

——- breviceps 435

——- limnocaris ... 436

——- tigrina at aid36

Recurvirostra avocetta 420

- avosetta ... EOLA

Rhacophorus maculatus 436

Rhizoclonium grande 522) |

- implexum §22

—_—_—_--- kerneri 72

—-- kochianum 22) ||

== tortuosum 922

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea 346

Rhopodytes viridirostris saietemn aD

Rhyacornis fuliginosa ... 485, 535

Rhynchobatus djeddensis 308

Riparia concolor ... 340

- riparia diluta 230

— einivaate¥ey 0 apc 280

- rupestris... 424

Rosenvingea intricata 923

orientalis ... 923

Rostratula b. benghalensis 478

Rucervus duvyaucelli Al5

Ruppia maritima 396

Saraca indica Bo ey)

Sarcogyps calvus 343, 425

Sargassum persicum 529

Saxicola caprata bicolor 534

-caprata caprata 335

__—--— torquata indica O34

Saxicoloides fulicata intends 336

Scaphium affine. 583

583

Sciaenma sp. 308

Scinaia furcellata 528

Scirpus ZrOSSuS se. ae soon 02

Scolopax rusticola .. 346, 477, 542

Scotocerca inquieta striata 485

Seicercus burkii whistleri 339

-—— xanthoschistos 500. SY

—-— -- albosupercil-

SATIS merstey “4 con vee = 485

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Serinus pusillus eel anbass dacf2 BOSS

Siphia parva albicilla 336

Siphia strophiata euphonia 536

Siphonocladus sp. : 523.

Sitana pondiceriana.. 436

Sitta castanea prateri 50 334

— frontalis frontalis 334

leucopsis leucopsis aeri 933

Sirocoleus kurzii 2 521

Siva strigula strigula 534

Spathoglossum aspermum 523)

— variabile oat OG

Spatula clypeata 247, 482

Sphacelaria furcigera 523

— tribuloides ... 522.

Sphenocercus s. sphenurus 8 541

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops 423, 534

—-——- rufifrons ambigua 335

Sterculia Balanghat 584

foetida 084

— rubiginosa we dee 584

—— —— wrens 984

Sterna albifrons gs 473

fuscata infuseata 426

h. hirundo © 473

melanogasta 473

Stictospiza formoser 339

Stoechospermum maculatum 530

—— ? maculatum 523

—_—_———- ——. marginatum 523

——- patens 523

Stomateus cinereus O00 Che 308

—— niger 308

—— sinensis 500 O06 woe, OS

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis 344, 464

Streptopelia d. decaocto a0 345

-—— decaocto decaocto 464

———-——- orientalis ww. 344

——_—- —-— -meena... 463, 541

———--——- senegalensis oso SA

———- —— ————— cambayensis 345

ee cam baiensis 464

—————_.- —-—___—-—- ermanni 464

——_—_—_—— turtur arenicola 463

Strix aluco biddulphi 295

- nivicola 540

Strophanthus gratus 456

Struvea delicatula 500 922

Sturnia m. malabarica 33g

Sturnopastor contra i 339

Sturnus vulgaris humii me 485

Surniculus 1. lugubris ...

Suya crinigera ... ais

ec. crinigera ese 600

Sylvia althaea ...

—— curruca blythi

Sylviparus modestus

Tabernaemontana coronaria

Taccocua leschenaultii affinis

Tadorna tadorna

Torrietia unifoliolata

Tarsiger brunnea brunnea

ee chrysaeus whistleri

Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster ...

-— p. paradisi

Temenuchus pagodarum

Tephrodornis gularis

Tephrodornis p. pondic-rianus

Terminalia catappa aan don

Tetraogallus h. himalayensis ...

Tetrax tetrax orientalis

Tetrogallus sp. ?

Thea cincta 40

Theobroma Cacao 5D ac

Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps

Thevetia neriifolia ae 500

————- peruviana .. 660

Tockus birostris

Trachelospermum fragrans

jasminoides

Trnga glareola ete

——— hypoleucos ane see

——— ochropus eee

-—— stagnatilis 606 aa

——— totanus

a Teatcatl

: v. variegatum ...

Troglodytes t. neglectus

Tropidonotus xenura ‘

Trygon sephen ... ot aie

Turdoides somervillei ...

—- — --- terricolor

Turdus merula albceinctus ...

o ‘maximus bes

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

341

424

537

333

533

279

342

481

585

335

535

536

337

339

337

446

468

471

942

569

585

34]

267

425

458

460

476

, 475

475

476

423

533

534

430

308

423

334

535

PAGE

Turdus simillimus spencei 336

———- unicolor 336

Tarnix tanki tanki 345

Udotea indica ee Oa

Ulva fasciata S22 O27.

—— indica 522

— lactuca 922

---— reticulata 922

Upupa epops 60 540

—_———— - eeylonensis 342

— ——- epops 292

Urocissa erythrorhyncha aaetioy ital? S. 532

Uroloncha k, vernayi 339

Uroloncha malabarica 485

Uroloncha s. striata 339

Vallaris Heynei 454

Valonia aegagrophila 522

Valonia utricularis 3272

Valoniopsis pachynema O22

Vanellus vanellus 474

Vanvoorstia spectebilis... 516

Vaucheria piloboloides... 23

Vinea major ee 276

——-- rosea re 274

Vipera russellii ... - aoe 432, 611

Virachola isocrates ane eae eo 44]

Vivia innominatus = 510

—- —-- malayorum 341

Vormela peregusna 412

Waltheria indica ... ofc 585

Willelia ordinata.. 580 Ooze:

Xantholaema paeae phala aaies soa eel

Xyleutes .. ee soe 7 395

Zeuzera coffeae ... 393

- indica 393

——-- latreille ... 393

——=- multistrigata OOS

Zigiber cernuum ... 606 ase 618

Zonaria maculatum OLS

Zosterops palpebrosa F 424, 539

—- ——-—-- pecidents 3410

— —— remota ... ore e2Ss

Zygaena blochii ... ate ove .. 308

BRINTED AT THB DIOCESAN Briss, MADRAS—1949 —C2704

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SEPTEMBER, 1945, Price Rs. 12 nett.

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JOURNAL

OF THE

Bompay Natura History Sociery

EDITED BY

Ss. H. PRATER, O.B.E., M.L.A., C.M.Z.S., C. MCCANN, F.L.S., AND

SALIM ALI

PUBLISHED BY

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

fi4 (G) Apollo Street, Bombay.

LONDON AGENTS!

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY),

212, SHAFTESBURY AVENUE,

LONDON, W.C, 2.

THE BOOK OF

INDIAN BIRDS

SALIM ALI

THIRD EDITION

( With 188 coloured plates)

ae Inexpensive, handy volume for every

one interested in the bird life of our

country. It now contains 188 full-page plates

in colour, numerous excellent photographs,

and simple, readable accounts of the habits,

food and nesting of about 200 species of

birds commonly seen about towns, villages

and jheels in the plains of India, and about

our sea coasts. ,

LIST OF CONTENTS

1. INTRODUCTION TO BIRD STUDY.

2. How To RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE

FIELD.

3. DESCRIPTION OF 196 SPECIES.

4, USEFULNESS OF BIRDS.

5. Brrp MrcRATION.

6. BirD WATCHING.

. SOME NESTS AND NESTING BEHAVIOUR.

FLIGHT.

Bound in full cloth. Price Rs. 16/-

(To Members of the Society. Rs. 12-8)

Postage and Packing Re. 1/- extra, _

Published by

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114 (6) Apollo Street, Bombay.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45, No. 3.

os PAGE

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS: AND SHRUBS. Part XX. By

Neg ee DOGGIE a IMGACheDESC.) Hui. Sip LeHeS.)) ANGeM b.tkalzaAda,, M.Sc.

(With 1 coloured, 3 black and white plates and 7 text-figures) 5g0 ae

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. Part IV.

By Hugh Whistler (deceased) se Ste Se .. 280

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN INDIA

AND BuRMA. Part VIII (continued). By A. St. J. Macdonald... 303

Somr REMINISCENCES, OF SpoRT IN AsSam. Part Il. By H.G.H.M. 321

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGA}TATAM District. By Humayun Abdulali OSS

PHOTOGRAPHING THE [BIS-BILL. By Lt.-CoL. B. T. Phillips, 1a.

(Rerp.) (With 2 black and white plates) 327

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE. By W. 8S. S. Mackay. (With 2 black and

white plates) ... 400 0 600 ee so CO

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF AsIA. By Dr. HE. W. Gudger,

C.M.z.S. (With 4 plates and 4 text-figures) ... ss Fo erie!

IMMATURE STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA (Cossidae, [ndarbelidae).

By J..C. M. Gardner. (With a plate) oo So page 2 S0\0)

NOTES ON THE GENUS Auppia (Kuppiaceae). By Charles McCann,

F.L.S. (With a plate)... ih re Su oo Che)

THE BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF Scirpus grossus LINN. Ful. By |

D. P. Mullan. (With a plate) oan aie one sea 402

REVIEW :—

The Birds of Kutch, by Salim Ali... oe zh a 408

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

1. Abnormal Behaviour of a Tiger. By Quazi Q. Ahmed (p. 410). 2. On

the Habits of the Marbled Polecat, Vormela peregusna (Gtildenstadt).. By

S. A. “Akhtar (p. 412). 3, Measurements of a Sloth Bear’s Skull from Assam,

By R. M. Pizey (p. 413). 4. A Carnivorous Sloth Bear. By Major R. K.M.

Battye (p. 413). 5. A Sambar’s Death.. By Capt. H. S. Crowley (p. 414). 6.

Breeding Habits of Swamp Deer (Aucervus duvaucelii} in Assam. ByS.H.

Prater (p. 415). 7. Canine .Teeth in Chital (dazs axis). By Capt. H. A. Fooks

(p..416). 8. Size of Chital (dazs axis) in India and Ceylon. By Lt.-Col.

H. G. Rossel (p. 417). 9. On Experiments in Albinism with Chital

(Axis axis). By A. M. Taibel (p. 417). 10. Strange Death of a Young

Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus). By W. T. Loke (p. 419). 11. The Avocet (/e-

curvirostva avocetta Linn.) Breeding in India. By Salim Ali (p. 420). 12.

The Whooper Swan (Cygnus cygnus). By, ¥. Ludlow (p. 421). 13. Migration

il CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45, Nov 3

of Swan to the Persian Gulf. By G. B. Gilby (p.421). 14. A Note on Birds

of the Simla Foothills. By N. F. Frome (p. 422). 15. Notes on a Few Birds

from the South of the Tinnevelly District. By C. G. Webb-Peplce (p. 425).

16. Ornithosis, a Disease Transmitted by Birds. By Humayun Abduiali (p. 426).

17. A Crocodile’s Misadventure. (With a photo). By Major R.K.M. Battye

(p. 427). 18. Bellowing and other Habits of the Mugger (Cvocodilus palustris)

By Lt.-Col. H.G. Rossel (p. 428). 19. Syncope in a Crocodile. By Quazi Q.

Ahmed (p. 429). 20. A New Record of a Rare Snake (Natvix xenura) from

Assam. By Lt. J. D. Romer (p. 430). 21.-A New Serum ‘Treatment

against Snake Bite.. By Eds. (p. 431). 22. Reptiles and Amphibians of

Vizagapatam and Neighbouring Ghats. By C. McCann (p. 435). 23.

Breeding Habits of the Common Krait (Bungarus caervuleus). by C. G. Webb-

Peploe (p. 437). 24. On the Bionomics of the Baril [4arzlius bendelisis

(Hamilton)]. By P. 1. Chacko ard R. S, Venkataraman (p. 438). 25. Paraffin

Wax as a Protection against Termites. By F. H. Gravely (p.439). 26.

Security Measures Taken by the Pupa of the Tussar Silk Moth. By W. T. Loke

(p. 440). 27. Migration of ihe Common Albatross Butterfly (dppias albina

principalis), By P. Adrian LD. Lanktree (p. 441). 28. On the Larva of the

Butterfly (Chilasia clytia lanteswara). By P. Adrian D, Lanktree (p. 441).

29. Abnormal Flowers of Dolichos ladlab, Linn, By L. P. Khanna (p 443).

30. A New Variety of Papaya (Carica papaya var. flava}. By L. S. S. Kumar

and A. Abraham (p. 443). 31. Indian Lawn Grasses. By F.H. Gravely (p. 444).

32. New Plant Records for Bombay Presidency. By H. Santapau, s.J.,

(p. 445). 33. Sonmie Comments on ‘A Sketch of the Botany and Geography

of North Burma’. By B. E. Smythies (p. 448).

PLATE XXII

eae

Bee

See

p f 4 2 aes 4 Res

Ban

neat:

eeerue

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Moonbeam

TABERNAEMONTANA CORONARIA., R, Br.

~ JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1945. VOL. 45. No. 3.

—

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

IN. Ibo TIBOR, Colkido, Mins IDoSGs5 adsl taSie5 ce Dass,

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RalzaDA, M.-SC.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

|PYNRE DSO

[Continued from Vol. 45, No.'2 (1945), p. 105].

(With 1 coloured, 3 black and white plates and 7 text-figures).

Apocynaceae

The Dogbane Family.

The family gets its name from the Greek name apokynon, used

by Dioscorides in his Materia Medica to describe a plant, Cynan-

chum erectum, whose leaves were said to be deadly to dogs. Inci-

dentally the Greek for dog is kyon, kynos.

_ This family contains many shrubs and climbers with a few

species which reach the status of small trees. The vascular bun-

dies in this family are bicollateral so that phloeum is found on the

outer edge of the pith. Moreover, most species have a milky

juice which is contained in non-articulated lactiferous vessels situat-

ed in the pith and bark and also in the veins in the leaves. The

wood of many species is normal, but again others possess wedges

of soft bast in the normal wood. The leaves are simple, opposite

and decussate, seldom whorled, entire, not unusually with many

JAN 3

i340

264 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4

parallel side nerves. Stipules are rarely present, sometimes inter-

petiolar. Flowers mostly showy, 4-5-merous, with bracts and brac-

teoles, hermaphrodite, usuaily proauced in cymose inflorescences

Calyx tubular or of free sepals often glandular within. Corolla

gamopetalous, funnel- or salver-shaped, sometimes campanulate, or

urn-shaped, with the lobes twisted in the bud, often furnished

with scales in the throat. Stamens as many as the lobes of the

corolla and seated upon it; anthers free, often connate and adnate to

the stigma. A glandular disk is present in most of the species and

takes the form of scales or is shaped like a disk. Ovary of two

carpels, joined together or separate, containing many hanging

ovules. Style slender, Fruit of two separate follicles, seldom dru-

paceous.

Carissa carandas Linn., the Karaunda, is a spiny shrub which

is said to be wild and also cultivated in India. The pinkish-white

fruits are very acid but are capable of being made into a very

pleasant conserve: by the use of plenty of sugar.

The family contains about 1100 species most of which are found

in the tropics. The magnificent flowers and handsome foliage ot

numerous species make them valuable addition to the garden and

they are widely cultivated.

A reference has been made above to the plant Cynanchum erec-

tum from which the family gets its name. This plant, however,

is not a member of the Apocynaceae but of the neighbouring family

Asclepiadaceae. Both families are well-marked, but in one section

of Apocynaceae the manner in which the stamens are connivent

around and applied to the stigma recalls a very definite character

of the Asclepiadaceae.

In nearly all species a milky juice is found. In certain South

African lianes, for example, species of the genera Landolphia ana

Kickxia, quantities of latex are found, and this is tapped and mar-

keted under the name ‘silk rubber’. Other genera in India (Als-

tonia sp., Willughbeia sp.), Brazil (Hancornia sp.), Jamaica (Fors-

teronia sp.) can give a valuable rubber-yielding latex.

A large number of the species have an evil reputation on account

of their poisonous properties. Many contain glucosides and alka-

loids which are valuable drugs in medicine. A few species con-

tain powerful glucosidal heart poisons which belong to the digitalis

group of drugs. To this section belongs the genus Strophanthus

which is mainly confined to Africa, though a few species are found

in this country. Strophanthin is a nitrogen-free glucoside which

is used by certain of the African tribes as an arrow poison. The

drug has a very rapid and powerful action on the heart and is

sometimes used in conjunction with digitalis, whose action is not

so rapid but is more lasting. Quebracho bark (from Cortex que-

bracho, which has the hardest wood known) possesses’ alkaloids

which are valued in the treatment of asthma and fevers. Many

other species yield drugs which are put to various purposes.

Alstonia scholaris R. Br. is a common tree of the Indian jungles.

It gets its specific name from the fact that in bygone days boards

of the wood were used as school slates, the writing being rubbed

off by the use of the rough leaves of Delima.. The tree is called

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 265

‘Devil Tree’ in many places and it is an object of devotion in

Malay.

The mechanism of cross pollination has been worked out in

several species of Apocynaceae.' In species of Vinca, the Pert-

winkle, for example the nectar is secreted by two yellow glands

near the ovary and is stored up in the corolla tube which is .5-.75

in. long. The entrance to the tube has a wall of hairs as a pro-

tection against rain. About the middle of the tube the style thick-

ens conically and terminates in a short cylindrical horizontal plate,

the edge of which functions as a stigma and is covered with a

sticky secretion. The plate bears a tuft of hairs which takes up

the pollen as it is shed from the anthers. The filaments, which

spring from the middle of the corolla tube, are bent into ‘knees’

and are beset with hairs internally. The anthers are situated im-

mediately above the stigmatic disk and dehisce introrsely. Their

margins are hairy so that pollen can only fall on the terminal

brush of the stigmatic disk. Nectar-sucking insects can ‘insert

their heads for a short distance into the tube, as far as the brush,

so that a proboscis between .3 and .5 in. long can reach thé

nectar. The proboscis becomes covered with viscid matter on in-

sertion and when withdrawn carries away some pollen to another

flower. Automatic self-pollination is excluded. As a matter of

fact in certain periwinkles the flowers have been proved to be

self-sterile.

Fig. 1.—Beaumontia grandiflora showing stamens connivent into a cone and

adnate to the stigma.

In certain species of the Apocynaceae the anthers are conni-

vent around the stigma and at first sight this would seem to be

—. ee ee —_——- ——

* See Knuth’s Handbook of Flower Pollination.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

a device to ensure self-fertilisation. As a matter of fact the

purpose is the exact opposite, that is, to ensure cross-fertilisation.

For example, in Nerium odorum Sol. the corolla tube encloses a

cone of anthers covered outside with woody plates, and fused in-

ternally with the dilated end of the style to form a pollen cham-

ber (in which pollen can collect) beneath which is the stigmatic

surface. The anther plates are produced into points below and

covered dorsally with hair. Each stamen 1s drawn out into a long

terminal appendage, which is filiform at its base and then becomes

broader and feather-like. These fine appendages are twisted to-

gether into a loose, woolly, whitish ball, which with the corona

blocks the entrance of the flower in such a way that only long-

tongued Lepidoptera are able to penetrate to the nectar. The

woody plate on the back of the anthers prevent these being gnawed

away in order to open a passage to the nectar. Actually the pro-

boscis of the insect must be inserted in the chinks between the

plates. In its withdrawal the proboscis passes over the stigma,

becomes sticky, and carries out some pollen on it. This is trans-

ferred to the next flower visited. Very often a number of insects

which are not adapted to carry out the process are caught by the

anther plates and are killed.

KEY TO THE GENERA,

Flowers yellow.

Leaves very narrow. ... Ihevetia.

Leaves broad. Z ... Allamanda spe

Flowers blue or violet.

Flowers blue. ‘ ... Vinca, major.

Flowers violet or purplish.

Flowers red.

ee. Allamanda violacea.

Leaves narrow. y ;

Leaves broad.

.» Nerium.

... Vinca rosea.

Flowers white or pinkish white.

Leaves whorled. ... Nerium.

Leaves opposite.

Shrubs. Sie

Flowers not over .5 in. wide: leaves very

coriaceous, tip sharp. ... Acocanthera.

Flowers well over..5 in. broad: leaves soft.

A small herbaceous shrub. ce. Vinca rosea.

A large shrub.

Climbers.

Flowers large, up to 4 in. long.

Flowers campanulate.

Flowers salver-shaped.

Flowers less than 2 in. long.

Corolla-lobes orbicular obovate in shape.

Petals) orbicular “tube 33) ine elongs:

flowers creamy white: no corona. -- Vallaris,

Petals obovate; tube 1.5 in. long;

flowers white — tinted with rose;

ees = Labernaemontana.

--- Beaumontia. °

eee Chonemorpha.

corona present rose-coloured. — — .- Strophanthus.

Corolla lobes ovate-lanceolate or oblong

truncate.

Tube slender below, abruptly inflated. « Lvachelospermum,

Tube gradually swelling above. ... Melodinus.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 267

Thevetia Linn.

(This generic name commemorates Andre Thevet, a French

monk of the sixteenth century who travelled in Brazil and Guiana).

This genus contains a few glabrous shrubs and trees with alter-

nate leaves. The large yellow flowers are borne in terminal -

cymes. Sepals five, spreading, glandular. Petals five, twisted,

combined below into a companulate tube. Stamens five, inserted

at the top of the tube; anthers short, lanceolate, without appen-

dages. Disk usually absent. Ovary 2-celled with a filiform style,

ending above in a thick two-lobed stigma; ovules two in each cell

seated on a conspicuous placenta. Berry fleshy.

Thevetia neriifolia Juss. |7. peruwzana (Pers.) K. Schum. |

(Neriifolia means in Latin, having leaves like Nerium, the

Oleander),

Fig. 2.—Thevetia neriifolia Juss. x}

Description.—A shrub or small tree, sometimes reaching 12 ft.

in height. Stems and shoots quite glabrous, exuding a copious

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

milky juice when cut. Leaves alternate up to 6 in. long by .3-.4 in.

broad, narrowly linear in shape, shortly acuminate and obtuse at

the apex, decurrent at the base, shining green above, paler and

dull below, coriaceous,. glabrous: margins revolute; contol nerve

very prominent below; secondary nervation invisible.

Flowers yellow, arranged in subterminal few-flowered cymes,

seated on pedicels from .3-1.25 in. long. Sepals 5, about .3 in.

long, long acuminate, sharp, spreading, thin, joined below into a

short tube. Petals 5, 1 in. or longer in length, oblong-acute joined

below into a tube which is about 1 in. long cylindrical at the base

and broadly campanulate at its junction with the petals, decorated

with two hairy wings in the cylindrical portion and with hairy

scales at the base of the campanulate portion. Stamens five, in-

serted on the throat of the corolla below the scales; filaments

short; anthers minute oblong, shortly acuminate, with a lamellate

appendage. Disk present, thick, fleshy, as high as the ovary ;

ovary bicarpillary; style slender, .5 in. long. Fruit drupaceous,

fleshy, usually four-angled; seeds four.

Flowers and fruits.—Practically throughout the year.

Distribution.—Native of tropical America, cultivated or natu-

ralised throughout India.

Gardening.—A large evergreen shrub or small tree with alter-

nate, 1-nerved linear leaves and large fragrant yellow, or even

creamy-white, funnel-shaped flowers about 2 in. across. It is a

great favourite with Hindus and is frequently cultivated near

temples, the flowers being offered to the God Shiva. As the plant

requires little attention, is easily grown from seed, transplants

well, and is not touched by cattle or goats, it is useful for growing

in rest-houses etc. It was brought into cultivation in Europe in

1735 and from there distributed to the tropics in general, as a

showy and ornamental plant. Owing to its immunity from damage

by browsing and the ease with which it is propagated it might

ke useful for afforestation work in moister parts of the country.

It is also suited for a hedge.

Medicinal and economic uses.—YVhe wood is moderately hard

and the seeds yield an oil used for burning as well as in medicine.

All parts of the plant are poisonous; owing to the presence in

the latex of a glucoside which acts as a heart-poison. The seeds

were at one time used for animal poisoning and accidental cases

of poisoning by eating its seeds are not infrequent. According

to Heyne its wood is a fish-poison.

Allamanda Linn.

(The genus was erected in honour of Dr. Allamand of Leyden).

A genus of shrubs with handsome flowers. Leaves verticillate

with interpetiolar glands. Flowers arranged in axillary cymes,

showy, yellow or purple. Calyx-lobes acute, conspicuous, with-

out glands. Corolla funnel-shaped, 5-lobed; lobes spreading.

Stamens inserted at the upper end of the cylindric basal tube,

covered by the hairy appendages of the throat. Ovary of two

M. B. RaizaDA,

THE ALLAMANDA

Allamanda neriifolia Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

M. B. RAIzADA,

Photo by

Allamanda neriifolia Hook.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 269

connate carpels, 1-celled, with numerous seeds on two parietal

placentas, surrounded by a smal) annular disk; style filiform ;

stigma capitate. Fruit a globose prickly capsule. Seeds winged,

face ,

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Flowers yellow :

Base of corolla swollen. soo, dle nertfolia,

Base of corolla not swollen. me eA cathartica.

Flowérs violet or purplish. w. A. violacea.

Allamanda neriifolia Hook.

(Neriifolia means having leaves like the Oleander, but in the

case of this plant the leaves are very different from those of the

Oleander).

Description. —An evergreen shrub or half climber. Stems

terete, woody below herbaceous above, smooth and glabrous, but

covered with down when young. Leaves in whorls of two to five,

elliptic or ovate-acuminate in shape, petiolate, dark green above,

pale below, shortly hairy on the midrib and principal veins, other-

wise glabrous; petiole very short.

Inflorescence a terminal panicle becoming lateral owing to the

production of new shoots which continue the growth. Flowers

large, conspicuous, showy, golden-yellow, seated on short, terete

pedicelssup to 75 in. long; bracts .12 in. long, green. ; Calyx of

five unequal sepals, elliptic-ovate in shape, light green in colour,

‘6 in. long. Corolla-tube 2 in. long; base swollen, angled, bul-

bous, green, swelling into the golden yellow tube, which divides

above into five orbicular or oval, spreading, obtuse lobes .5 in.

long. The tube is striped inside with reddish brown. Stamens

five, situated at the bottom of the tubular portion of the corolla,

included. Ovary 1-celled, with many ovules on two parietal pla-

centas. Fruit unknown.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Does not fruit in this

country.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, commonly cultivated in all

tropical and sub-tropical parts of the globe.

Gardening.—A dwarf bush or semi-climber. It differs from all

other Allamandas here described, in its habit as also in the form

of the corolla, with its singularly short contracted base of the

tube, swollen and angled at the base, and very elongated upper.

portion; the colour is a deep almost golden yellow, and it is

streaked with orange. It is well adapted for planting against a

back wall or for training up pillars. It also flowers freely when

treated as a pot plant, the branches being supported either by

stakes or a wire trellis. A mixture of light loam and leaf mould

suits it very well and during the season of growth it needs a free

supply of water. It is readily increased by cuttings and layers...

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCTERY 7 Volk 45

Allamanda cathartica Linn.

Description.—An evergreem glabrous shrub which is capable of

assuming a climbing or rambling habit. Branches smooth, green,

hairy or not. Leaves opposite in whorls of four, obovate or

oblanceolate in shape, cuneate at the base, shortly acuminate at

the tips, papery to sub-coriaceous in texture, glabrous or more or

less hispid or pubescent especially on the nerves, intramarginal

nerve conspicuous; petiole very short.

Fig. 3.—Allamanda cathartica Linn. X 3

Flowers large and showy, yellow, in terminal (afterwards axil-

lary) cymose panicles; bracts deciduous. Calyx of five sepals,

glabrous or hairy without, lanceolate in shape, .3 in. long. Corolla

of two distinct portions: a lower, which is~ tubular, about 1 in.

long and very narrow, and an upper which is campanulate and

about .5 in. in diameter, ending above in five orbicular lobes,

1-1.5 in. long. Stamens five, included. Ovary 1-celled, with nu-

merous oyules on parietal placentas. Fruit a globose prickly cap-

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 271

sule; prickles soft about .3 in. long. Seeds many, obovate, flat,

winged. |

Flowers.—Hot and rainy seasons. Fruits cold season but only

rarely.

Distribution.—Native of tropical America now extensively

grown throughout the tropical and sub-tropical parts of the world.

In recent years it has run wild near Travancore.

Gardening.—A rather large shrub of scandent and rambling

habit. It is one of the commonest plants in all tropical gardens

and one of the showiest and ornamental. The large, pure, bright

yellow flowers are borne in great profusion during the hot and

rainy seasons and produce a most magnificent effect against the

rich deep-green foliage. Like all other species of this genus it

should be fed liberally with natural or artificial manures during

its growing season as it is a gross feeder. It should be cut well

back during the cold season to keep it within bounds. It was in-

troduced into:England in 1785 by Baron Hake where it thrives

well and is considered to be one of the choicest ornaments of the

hothouse. Easily propagated by cuttings and layers.

A. cathartica Linn. var. Schottii (A. Schottii Pohl.) is a plant

with broadly lanceolate, acuminate leaves and longer corolla tube,

which is rich yellow with the throat darker and beautifully striped.

Propagation is by layers and cuttings. .

A. cathartica Linn. var. nobilis (A. nobilis T. Moore) is ac-

cording to Sir Joseph Hooker ‘a magnificent plant, imported into

England in 1867 from Rio Branco, on the confines of Brazil and

Venezuela, by a Mr. Bull of Chelsea and is certainly one of the

finest hothouse climbers in cultivation. It is very doubtful if this is

botanically distinct from A. Schottii and A. Hendersonii, but as a

horticultural acquisition it differs from these and surpasses them

individually, either in habit or in the large size and full green of

the foliage, or in the very large flower, its regular contour and

bright colour, or in the number of flowers produced, or in their

magnolia-like odour—altogether rendering it one of the most gor-

geous free-flowering stove-plants introduced into Europe for many

years past’. Propagated by cuttings or layers. ,

It is perhaps the most popular and widely grown of all the

Allamandas and the reason for this, apart from the beauty of its

flowers, may be found in its strong-growing and free-flowering pro-

pensities. It produces a succession of lovely flowers over a very

long period. Trained over a rafter or porch, its handsome foliage

and large, golden flowers present a fine spectacle. The plants

succeed admirably in a compost of three parts good fibrous loam

and one part of wood charcoal, coarse sand and well-rotted cow

manure. Drainage must be ample and free and all possible sun

light must be provided.

Allamanda violacea Gardn.

(The specific name refers to the colour of the flowers).

Description.—An erect, sometimes scrambing shrub, with

terete branches which are glabrous when old but hirsute when

([OORNATE, BOMBAY NAA SOECATE peES iia S) © Cia Ve may (0mm

young. Leaves. verticillate, 3-5 in. by 1.5 in., very shortly

petioled, oblanceolate, elliptic or oblong in shape, cuneate at the

base, abruptly acuminate at the apex, entire on the margins,

rough on both surfaces with short, stiff, stout hairs; hairs on

the midrib below and on the margins particularly stiff and sharp;

nervation evident but not particularly -_prominent; stipules small.

Inflorescence a _ few-flowered cymes terminal. Calyx of five

separate lobes, the two outer elliptic in shape, the three interior °

lanceolate, bristly hirsute. Flowers large and showy, violet,

purplish-brown or purplish. ~Corolla-tube up to 2°5 in. long, of

two distinct parts, the lower tubular narrow and the upper cam-

panulate up to I in. in diameter, ending above in five orbicular or

broadly ovate lobes, .75 in. long, glabrous without. Stamens five,

inserted at the base of the campanulate portion of the corolla,

included, covered with the hairy appendages of the corolla; fila-

ments very short. Ovary of two connate carpels, containing nu-

merous ovules on two parietal placentas. Style filiform ending

above in a capitate stigma.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Does not set fruit in this

country.

Distribution.—A native of. Brazil, now cultivated in all tropical

and sub-tropical countries of the world.

Gardening.—A fine, handsome, slender growing climber, quite

distinct from all other species and varieties in the colour of its

flowers. It is a poor grower on its own roots, but thrives well

when grafted on A. cathartica var. Schott. It prefers a well-

drained soil and a sunny site like most other species of this genus.

Medicinal uses.—The root is said to be a powerful cathartic

and is used in malignant fevers.

Nerium Linn.

Dioscorides in his Materia Medica gave the Greek name nerion

to the plant Nerium odorum Sol.)

A genus of erect glabrous shrubs. The leaves are arranged

in whorls of threes, and are coriaceous, narrow, with obscure

nervation. The inflorescence is of terminal bkranchy panicles.

Calyx divided nearly to the base into 5 lobes, glandular inside.

Corolla tubular below, campanulate above, ending in five twisted

petals. Stamens five, included, fixed to the base of the campanu-

late portion of the corolla; anthers connivent round the. stigma .

and adherent to it. Ovary of two distinct carpels; ovules numer-

ous. Fruit dry, of two connate carpels. Seeds oblong, hairy.

Nerium odorum Sol, (=Ner‘um indicum Mill.).

The Oleander,

Description.—A glabrous erect shrub. Young shoots greenish,

thin, brown, emitting quantities of milky juice when cut. Leaves

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 273

mostly in threes, sometimes in twos, opposite, 4-6 in. long by

.3--g in. wide, linear-lanceolate in shape, tapering at both ends,

thick, coriaceous, with a thick midrib, decurrent at the base;

petiole .2-.3 in. long, thick.

Flowers arranged in terminal panicles, pink or white, single

or double, fragrant; peduncles and pedicels minutely pubescent ;

bracts: small, .3 in. long. Calyx ,25 in. long divided nearly to

the base into five linear, acute, pubescent lobes. Corolla-tube

.7 in. long, lower half tubular, hairy within, upper half campanu-

late, ending above in five rounded overlapping petals. In the

throat of the corolla can be found a corona of five scales, each

cleft into 3-7 segments. Stamens five, included; filaments short ;

anthers connivent into a cone and adherent to the stigma; con-

nective with two long thread-like hairy appendages. Disk absent.

Carpels 2, distinct; style filiform thickened upwards; stigma 2-

lobed. Follicles connate, 5-8 in. long by .3 in. wide. Seeds

small, .2 in. long, each topped by a tuft of brown hairs .5 in.

long.

Flowers and fruits most of the year. in cultivation.

Distribution.—Found from Persia to China and Japan; fre-

quently grown in gardens throughout the country.

Gardening.—A large, evergreen, hardy, beautiful shrub with

narrow, deep green, tapering leaves, and deep rose or white, fra-

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

grant flowers. The plant is very poisonous and is not touched by

cattle or goats. It is commonly grown in gardens with single or

double flowers, the double pink variety being perhaps the favou-

rite. Easily multiplied by cuttings or layers during the rains. It

is suitable for a screen or as a hedge plant. This shrub 1s consi- °

dered the glory of the gardens of Northern India where during

the hot season it thrives vigorously and keing always in bloom,

scents the whole air round with its perfume.

Medicinal and economic uses.—Every part of the plant is poison-

ous and contains a glucoside allied to digilatin which acts as a

heart poison. _ There is 24 times as much poison in oleander leaves

as in digitalis. The roots if taken internally are highly poiso-

nous but a paste is reputed to be useful in skin diseases. The

leaves boiled in oil yield a medicated ointment which is used in

skin diseases.

Vinca Linn.

Periwinkle.

(In his Natural History, Plinius called the plant by the name

vinca pervinca, by which it is known in Italy even to the present

day).

This genus comprises upright or prostrate herbaceous shrubs

with opposite leaves and a milky juice. Inflorescence of axillary

flowers. Calyx of five narrow acuminate sepals. Corolla-tube

cylindrical somewhat dilated at the level of the stamens; lobes

five, spreading. Stamens five, included; anthers without an ap-

pendage at the base. Disk of two scales. Ovary of two distinct

carpels; style filiform; stigma annular; ovules 6-8, in two rows

in each carpel. Fruit of two follicles.

Two species of this genus are common garden plants in India

and can be separated easily by the shape of the leaf.

KeEy TO THE SPECIES

Leaf oblong, obtuse; petioles very short .1 in. long... V. rosea.

Leaf heart-shaped, acute, petioles over .25 in. long. .... V. major.

Vinca rosea Linn.

| Catharanthus roseus (L.) G. Don].

Madagascar Periwinkle.

Description.—The species is a herbaceous. shrub reaching 2.5 ft.

in height with numerous, erect branches; young parts hairy.

Leaves opposite, oblong, occasionally oblanceolate, obtuse, cuneate

at the base, membranous, up to 3 in. long by r in. broad, smooth

and glabrous, shining green above, paier below; nervation not

marked; petiole up to .5 in. long. |

Flowers solitary in the axils of the upper leaves, pink or white,

very fragrant, seated on very short pedicels. Calyx-tube very short

Photo by

MADAGASCAR PERIWINKLE

Vinca vosea Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

M. B. Raizapa,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 2»

divided above into five sepals, which are linear acute in shape,

hairy on the back and about .2 in. long. Corolla-tube 1-1.25 in.

long, hairy outside, somewhat inflated above, with a narrow throat,

having a hairy ring inside below the stamens and with hairy rugo-

sities above; lobes five, oblong-rounded, about 1 in. long, spread-

Fig. 5.—Vinca rosea Linn. Xj

ing. Stamens five, situated on the swollen portion of the tube;

filaments very short. Disk present, higher than the ovary, consist-

ing of two narrow, obtuse, fleshy scales. Ovary of two separate

and distinct carpels, hairy at the top; style about 1 in. long; ovules

many. Fruit of two follicles.

Flowers and fruits all the year round.

Distribution.—Probably a native of the West Indies commonly

grown in gardens all over the country where it springs up readily

self-sown.

Gardening.—A beautiful herbaceous or somewhat woody shrub

2-3 ft. high with deep green, polished oval or oblong leaves and

pure white or deep rose-coloured flowers in axillary pairs. When

in full bloom, as it nearly always 1s, is a lovely plant. Very readily

raised from seed which it produces abundantly.

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Vinca major Linn.

Greek Periwinkle. :

(Major is a Latin word meaning larger).

Description.—A perennial woody herb up to 3 ft. tall. Stem

prostrate rooting at the nodes and creeping over the soil, the ver-

tical shoots producing flowers. Leaves opposite, petiolate, broad-

ly ovate in shape, obtuse or acute at the tip, rounded or almost

heart-shaped at the base, membranous or somewhat coriaceous

Fig. 6.—Vinca major Linn. x3

in texture, up to 2 in. long by 1.5 in. broad, finally hairy on the

margins, glabrous and smooth elsewhere; petiole up to .5 in. long,

grooved above, margins hairy.

Flowers arising singly from the axils of the upper leaves, bright

blue or violet, rarely white; pedicel. up to 1.5 in. long. Calyx-

tube campanulate, very short, ending above in five, narrow, almost

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 277

setaceous lobes which are hairy along the margins, .5-.75 in. long;

towards the base of the lobes are marginal glands on either side.

Corolla tube as long as the calyx-lobes; tubular portion short,

dilated towards the mouth where the stamens are included; lobes

five; stamens five; filaments short curved, arising from a tubercle,

hairy below, anthers oblong, ending above in a hairy hooded ap-

pendage. Ovary of two distinct carpels; style about .5 in. long;

stigma capitate. Disk of two almost orbicular, fleshy, glandular

scales. ,

Flowers.—December-March. Does not fruit in this country.

Distribution.—A native of Europe, often grown in gardens in

the hills and in the plains of this country. Recently it has run

wild in Barlowganj, below Mussoorie and in Simla.

Gardening.—A small evergreen under-shrub, trailing over banks

etc. The solitary, axillary, blue flowers which are about an inch

across are very pretty. Propagation is by cuttings and seed. It

is suitable, especially the variegated form, for verandah-boxes,

hanging baskets and the like.

Acocanthera G. Don.

(This generic name means ‘mucronate anthers’ and refers to the

fact that in the species of this genus the.connective of the stamens

is produced into a minutely pilose point).

Unarmed shrubs or small trees with opposite very coriaceous

leaves. Flowers numerous, peduncled or sessile, in axillary clus-

ters, sweet-scented, white or pink. Calyx small, of free sepals.

Corolla salver-shaped, tube slightly widened near the mouth; lobes

five, short. Stamens five, included in the widened part of the tube;

anthers ovate; connective produced into a point. Disk absent.

Ovary entire, 2-celled; style filiform; stigma with .a 2-lobed apicu-

lus; ovule 1 in each cell. Fruit a globose or ellipsoid berry.

Acocanthera spectabilis Hook. f.

Winter Green.

(Spectabilis means showy in Latin).

Description.—A glabrous shrub or even a small tree. Leaves

opposite and decussate, very coriaceous in texture, elliptic or ob-

long-lanceolate, acute, usually mucronate, acute at the base, 2.5-5

in. long, 1-2 in. broad, dark green above, paler beneath, glab-

rous; petiole short, stout.

Flowers in short, many-flowered, dense, subsessile clusters or

corymbs. Calyx of five pubescent, ovate-lanceolate, green or

whitish sepals, .15 in. long. Corolla white, tinged with pink, fra-

grant; tube .7-.9 in. long, pubescent or almost glabrous without,

hairy within. Lobes five, elliptic-acute, up to .25 in. long; sta-

mens five, alternate with the lobes, seated on short, hairy fila-

ments and included; anthers ovate; connective produced into a

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

short hairy point. Ovary 2-celled; style filiform; stigma short,

cylindric, obtusely apiculate. Fruit a small, purplish-black berry.

Flowers.—April. Does not fruit in Dehra.

Distribution.—A native of western districts of South Africa,

now cultivated throughout the tropical and sub-tropical parts of

the world. :

i i Ni {

SS & t an { Vib

, QS FE

> . 4 “1 V5 \ 3 LG

Fig. 7.—Acocanthera spectabilis Hook. f.x2

Gardening.—An evergreen shrub with dark green leaves. The

masses of white flowers which are produced at the commencement

of the hot weather are very fragrant and make this plant very

ornamental. According to Sir J. D. Hooker it was introduced

into England by Mr. B. S. Williams about 1872. Propagation is

by cuttings or seed. |

Economic and medicinal uses.—The seeds are intensely bitter

and the whole plant is deadly poisonous.

Tabernaemontana Linn.

(Linnaeus named this genus in honour of James Theodore Taber-

naemontanus of Heidelberg, a physician and botanist of the 16th

century).

This genus consists of glabrous shrubs and small trees with

thin or coriaceous, opposite leaves. Inflorescence of few-flowered

cymes seated on a short peduncle. Calyx of five, imbricate, glan-

dular sepals. Corolla, tubular ending in five petals, hypocrateri-

form; tube swollen at insertion of stamens. Stamens five, insert-

ed towards the middle of the tube bearing sagittate anthers. Disk

absent. Ovary of two distinct or separable carpels ; ovules nume-

rous. Fruit often of two follicles. |

SOME BEAUTIFUL. INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 279

Tabernaemontana coronaria R. Br.

| Ervatamia divaricata (L.) Burkill].

The Moonbeam; Chandnee.

(Coronarius means ‘used for or pertaining to garlands’ in Latin,

and refers to one use to which the flowers are put).

Description.—A glabrous shrub reaching 6 ft. in height, exud-

ing a copious milky juice when cut. The young shoots are bright

green in colour and lenticellate. The leaves are 3-6 in, long by

1-2.5 in. broad, elliptic-oblong, obovate or oblanceolate in’ shape,

attenuate more or less caudate at the tip; acute or obtuse, cuneate

at the base, membranous in texture, dark green; petiole .5 in. long

or less. . .

Inflorescence of geminate or solitary few-flowered cymes in the

axils and also terminal. Flowers often double, white, fragrant.

Calyx gamosepalous; tube campanulate, 1 in. long, ending in 5

oblong-acute-lobes about .35 in. long, glandular inside at their base.

Corolla-tube .75 in. long, cylindrical, slightly dilated below the

top where it divides into five obliquely. ovate lobes which are

horizontal, and about .5 in. long. Stamens five, inserted in

the dilated portion of the tube; filaments short; anthers .15 in.

long. Ovary of two distinct carpels, with a long style ending in

an obovoid stigma. Ovules inserted instwo series of 3-4. The

fruit consists of two recurved, fleshy follicles 1-3 in. long, green

outside, orange or bright red within. When ripe the follicle splits

and turns inside out.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Undoubtedly wild and very commonly cultivated

in gardens throughout India.

Gardening.—A handsome, evergreen shrub, 4-6 ft. high. The

large, pure white flowers, which are usually double in cultivation,

are found on the plant at all seasons and look very lovely against

the dark green, shining foliage. The flowers are inodorous

by day but sweet-scented at night and are used for making gar-

lands. It is suitable for a hedge as well as growing on lawns.

Propagated easily by layers or cuttings.

Economic and medicinal uses.—According to Watt in the Hima-

layas the pulp of the seeds is used as a red dye, and the wood

medicinally as a refrigerant and is burnt for incense and used in

perfumery.

(To be continu ed)

-_~\

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF

; AFGHANISTAN

Hucn WHuistTLEeR (deceased).

| Part IV

(Continued from Vol. 45, No, 2 (1945), p. 122).

Martula urbica urbica (L.).

Specimens collected.—3 ¢ 23-26 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that. House-Martins on passage were passing north

through Bamian in small parties from 22-26 April. At Doshi on 1 May and

at Danaghori on 3 May many were passing north in scattered parties and

often in company with European Swallows.

In the’ Ghorband Valley on 24 May a large mixed flock of Swifts, Sand-

Martins and House Martins appeared, busy feeding and out of range. These

may well have been breeding in the neighbouring mountains as also a few

seen, but not poiained, in the Paghman Valley near Kabul at Brcoe ft.. on

27 May.

[Chelidon. cashmericnsis Gould.

Whitehead found the Kashmir Martin fairly numerous in summer along

the Safed Koh range, nesting either singly or in small colonies under over-

“hanging crags from 6,000-8,o00 ft. It has not yet been recorded actually on

the Afghan side of the border].

Krimnochelidon rupestris (Scopoli).

Specimens collected—j juv. 6 August 1885 Puzah-Gish, Mt. - Doshakh

(Aitchison); sex? 18 May Darband-i-Kil Rekhta (Yate): g Q 12 April Paghman

8,000 ft., Q 18 April 1937 Ghorband 8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that the Crag-Martin was never absent from its typical

country between 5,000 ft. and 9,000 ft. and was breeding in the crags wherever

he met with it. Birds were brooding on 18 April and young were seen on the

wing on: 24 May in the Paghman Valley. Aitchison on the other hand who

was no doubt mostly at lower elevations says he only saw the bird at Puzah-

‘Gish and then in small numbers. Yate obtained it at Darband-i-Kil Rekhta.

On the eastern border Wardlaw-Ramsay found it abundant in the Hariab

_Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. in June and it appeared to be nesting in the cliffs

above his camp. Whitehead also found it nesting in fair numbers in the

‘precipices of the Safed Koh just across the border. s

‘Krimnochelidon obsoleta pallida Hume.

Specimens collected.— 9 13 March 1806 Lijjikarez 2,400 ft.,. Q 20 March

1896 Samuli 4,500 ft. (Maynard). :

These specimens provide the only récords of the Pale Crag-Martin in Afghan-

istan.

Riparia riparia ijimee (Loénnberg).

Specimens collected.— 9 1 May 10937 Barfalx (Meinertzhagen).

which he identified

Meinertzhagen found a small party of Sand Martins,

as of this form, feeding over grassland at Barfak. From the state of their

organs they were clearly not breeding in the neighbourhood.

Riparia riparia difuta (Sharpe and Wyatt).

; ‘8 5 May Danaghori

Specimens collected.—Sex ? Afghanistan. (Griffith) ;

2,500 ft.. SQ 19 May Baghlan 1,700 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

MATERIALS FOR-THE ORNITHOLOGY OF. AFGHANISTAN 281

‘At Danaghori there were many Sand Martins about from 3-7 May, but

probably not breeding. At Baghlan there were hundreds sitting on telegraph

wires on 19 May and from their organs they were almost certainly breeding

in the neighbourhood, though we never located the communal breeding bank.

In the Ghorband Valley on 24 May there were large numbers feeding in the

evening, having appeared from nowhere about 5 p.m. On our return we

found the country round Nimla and Jalalabad swarming with Sand Martins,

old and young, sitting in long rows on the telegraph wires. We were unable

to procure specimens.’ (Meinertzhagen).

Sand Martins of the species riparia were obtained by Biddulph at Danan

Wakkan on 17 April 1874 and at Kandahar on 5 April 1881 by Swinhoe who

said they arrived in the latter part of March but not in any quantity. Yate

obtained one at Karawal Khana, Badghis, on April 14.

A female obtained at Pushat by Griffith, who comments ‘about rivers and

sandbanks’ is identified as probably of the typical race. Stuart Baker (New

Fauna, vol. iii, p. 233) says that Riparia riparia indica breeds in Afghanistan. |

The whole status and identity of the forms occurring in Afghanistan is

evidently in need of revision.

Hirundo rustica rustica [.innaeus.

Specimens collected.—sex? Kabul, sex? Kussack (Griffith); ¢ 3 February 1881,

dis Q 7 December 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 28 March 1885 Gulran,

8 20 ae 1885 Toman-Agha (Aitchison); 2 sex? 12 April Kharawal Khan

(Yate); S 10 August 1833 “Kabul (Maconachie) ; 3 3d 6 May 1937: Danaghori

2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Common Swallow appears to breed throughout the greater: part of

Afghanistan but there is so much divergence between the different accounts

of the bird that I have failed to bring them into correspondence with ea>)

other and therefore summarise them in the hopes that future observers will

be able to arrive at the correct status of the bird.

In the Badghis according to Aitchison the Swallow was very common and

remained the whole winter; whenever a storm came the birds used to seek

the shelter of the Commission’s tents in large numbers.

‘At Danaghori a good few were nesting. At Haibak. and Kunduz they

were breeding freely in buildings in May, and on our return journey we found

them breeding in Kabul. At Baghlan they were breeding freely on 22 May,

in nearly all cases birds sitting on eggs. We were informed that the same

nests are used year after year.

' ‘The country immediately west of Jalalabad seemed a favourite breeding

ground for Swallows for on 31 May we saw hundreds of old and young.

‘Passage was noted at Jalalabad on 3 April at 11 a.m., at Kabul between

8 and 11 April in the mornings, at Bamian on 21 and 22 April at noon. In

every case migratory flight was directed in a due northerly direction.’ (Meinertz-

hagen).

In Southern Afghanistan generally the Swallow is evidently a summer

visitor. In Seistan in 1934 Cumming found that they began laying in the

last week of March, nesting in any building to which they had access. In

1905 the first Swallow was noted in the mission camp on 14 March but cold

weather setting in again most of the birds disappeared and he found no nests.

At Kandahar Hutton, St. John and Swinhoe agree that they were summer

visitors. Hutton gives their earliest dates for 1840 and 1841 as 8 February

and s February respectively and says that they leave again in October. He

points out that their arrival and departure is to some extent retarded or ex-

pedited by the weather though he has seen Swallows on the wing when the

thermometer was as low as 36°. St. John gives his first date for 1879 as 7

February but says they disappeared before the end of September, very few

indeed remaining after the middle of August. Swinhoe in 1881 saw his first

Swallow as early as 29 January and 5 days later another flew into his room

which proved to be a male with enormously swollen testes. _A weelx later they

were in thousands nesting in every suitable spot, the number in the city being

very remarkable. ,

Koelz obtained specimens at Baghlan (July), Mamakhal and Laghman

(May), Charakar and Gardez (June) and Girishk (Oct. 27). On these he bases

-a new race Hirundo .rustica afghanica (Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, vol. 52,

5 June 1939, p. 75—type locality Baghlan) but it is evident from the description

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

that he was merely misled by the normal variation in the colour of the lower

plumage of this species.

[Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli.

This race is stated in the New Fauna (vol. iii, p. 242) to breed in Afghan-

istan but I do not find any evidence to that effect. ]

Hirundo smithii filifera Stephens.

Specimens collected.i—r g 2 9 3 May Doshi 2,750 ft., 2 ¢ 18 May 1937

Baghlan 2,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen). ;

The Wire-tailed Swallow is perhaps only a summer visitor in Afghanistan.

Griffith, according to his Journals, met with it at Ghazni, Kandahar, Mookh-

loor (15 July 1839), the Sorkhab River (g Oct. 1839) and on the Helmund

near Girishk. St. John says that he met with it on several occasions in the

Arghandab Valley and once near Kelat-i-Ghilzai 5,000 ft.

Meinertzhagen first met with this swallow. at Doshi 2,750 ft. on 3 May.

They were breeding there and at Danaghori on 4 May, and Baghlan on 19 May

and again about 30 miles south of Khanabad on 20 May, but the distribution

is clearly very local. .

~ Hirando rufula scullii Seebohm.-

Specimens collected.— 21 June, 1934 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie) ;

15 April Ghorband 6,500 ft., ¢Q 4 May Doshi 2,500 ft., ¢ 4 May 1937

Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found the Red-rumped Swallow building in the Ghorband

Valley at 7,000 ft. on 15 April. It was nesting in stone bridges near Danaghori

and in culverts under the road at Doshi. A slight passage was noted at

Danaghori on 7 and 8 May.

To this form eae enle belong the Swallows noted by Wardlaw-Ramsay

in the Hariab Valley at 7,000-8,o00 ft. and the small flock seen near Kach in

1881 by St. John though he failed to produce a specimen.

Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes.

Specimens collected.—2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢ 24 April 1874 Panjah

(Biddulph); Q Dec. 1880, Q@ 40 January, Q 22 March 1881 Kandahar (Swin-

hoe); ¢ 2 Q 13-21 March 1885 Gulram (Aitchison) ; sex? 15 December Maruchak,

2 sex? 3 March-4 April Chahar Shamba (Yate); $ 11 March 1896 Gazechah

2,400 ft. (Maynard); @ 30 April Ghorband Valley, © 27 August Logar, sex?

13 November 1933 Kabul (Monachie), '@ 20 April 1937 Bamian! 8,500 ft.

(Meinertzhagen). :

Meinertzhagen says that the White Wagtail was abundant at Bamian for

a few days about 20 April and again passing in flocks at Khanabad and

Kunduz about 21 May. Hutton says that it is found at Kandahar in the

spring months and Swinhoe and St. John agree that it is common in winter

at that place. It is no doubt both a winter visitor and a passage migrant in

Afghanistan.

Motacilla alba personata Gould.

Specimens collected.—sex? April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph); @ December

1880, 9 2 January, dG 1 February, ¢ 16 April 1881 .Kandahar (Swinhoe):

So F March 1885 Gulran (Aitchison); @ Shorawak (Maynard); sex? 28 April

1905 Kuhak (Cumming); 2 6 13 December 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale) ;

od 12 July 1933 Panjshir 6,000 ft. (Maconachie); 6 6 5-9 April Paghman,

7,600-8,000 ft., 9 11 April Kabul 5,000 ft., ¢ 27 April Doab 5,000 ft., Q ad.

Meinértzhagen found the Masked Wagtail widely distributed and breeding

throughout Northérn Afghanistan (young on the wing at Kunduz in late May)

and Wardlaw-Ramsay found it breeding commonly in the Har iab Valley 7,000-

8,000 ft. in May and June. He mentions newly-hatched young on 5 June and

c/3 éggs in the same nest on 28 June. Maconachie’s specimen from Panjshir

6,000 ft. was from the size of its organs also on its breeding ground.

Cumming’s ‘specimen from the banks of the Helmund opposite Kuhak on

28 April was in full breeding plumage but it may have been only on passage

MATERIALS FOR, THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 283

as in Southern Afghanistan this Wagtail seems to be only a winter visitor.

Annandale found it very common in the desert and at that season both Swinhoe

and St. John found it common at Kandahar.

Motacilla ;cinerea subsp. ?

Specimens collected.—Q 24 December, 92 16 January 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe) ; sex? 28 April Chahar Shamba (Yate); g 18 June Chahiltan 5,900 ft.,

sex? juv. 12 July 1933 Panjshir 6,o00 ft. (Maconachie); 4 ¢ 1 @ 8 April

Paghman 8,oo0 it., Y 24 May 1937 Ghorband 8,300 tt. (Meinertzhagen).

-Meinertzhagen tound the Grey Wagtail common and breeding in suitable

surroundings throughout his journey but not north or west ot the Shibar

Pass, though suitable country exists there. Pairs were building in the Paghman

Valley in early April with snow on the ground and a nest with its first egg

was tound in the Ghorband Valley at 7,000 ft. on 15 April. Pairs were feeding

young in the nest in the Ghorband and Paghman Valleys at the end of May.

A single non-breeding pair at Haibak on 11 May were possibly on passage as

may ot course have been Yate’s Chahar Shamba bird (28 April). _

Maconachie’s specimens from Chahiltan (18 June) and Panjshir (12 July)

doubtless represent breeding birds and Wardlaw-Ramsay found the species

common through the summer in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. where he

found newly-hatched young on 5 June. Whitehead also says that it breeds

freely along the streams of the Safed Koh from 6,000-8,000 ft. just across

the boundary.

.Further south at Kandahar Hutton says the bird was not uncommon

during the autumn, winter and spring but St. John calls it a rare winter

visitor.

The racial identity of Afghan birds has not been satisfactorily established.

Motacilla flava beema (Sykes).

Specimens collected— dg Q 25 April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph); g 12 April,

oS 20 April 1885 Tirphul (Aitchison); 3 Q 15-18 April Ghorband 8,200 ft.,

2 6 20 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

' Sykes’s Blue-headed Wagtail passes through Northern Afghanistan on the

spring passage. Biddulph found it common in Wakhan in April. Aitchison

obtained it at Tirphul in April. Meinertzhagen first saw it on 18 April in the

‘Gherband Valley at 8,200 it. when a few arrived. There were many in the

Shibar Pass on 1g April at 9,600 ft. and at Bamian they were abundant: from

20 to 26 April, increasing towards the latter date. After that they were seen

no more.

Motacilla flava thunbergi Billberg. ©

Specimens collected.—Q 22 March, g 26 March, g§ @ 27 March, 9 3 April

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 6 Q 11-19 March Gulran, 1 gd 2 Q 11-20 April 1885

Tirphul (Aitchison) ; sex? 5 September 1933 Jaskol 10,100 ft. (Maconachie); 2 ¢

1 Q 20-24 April Bamian 8,500 ft., 1 g- 2 9 1 May 1937 Barfak 3,500 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

The Ashy-headed Wagtail passes through Northern and Southern Afghanistan

on spring and autumn passage. In addition to the above records Meinertzhagen

says that he first met with it at Bamian on 24 April when a large flock were

feeding in a flooded field. At Doab and Doshi they were common on passage

during the first week in May and a large flock was seen at Kunduz on 20 May.

Motacilla feldegg melanogriseus (Homeyer).

Specimens collected.—g Kandahar (Griffith); sex? 17 April, dg 25 April

1874 Panjah (Biddulph); ¢ @ 26 February, 5 gd 4 Q 8-23 March 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe); g 27 March Khwaja Gogirdak (Yate); gi n.d. Lijjikarez 4,000 ft.

(Maynard); G 3 Sept. 1933 Sar-i-Chashma 9,000 ft. (Maconachie).

The Black-headed Wagtail evidently passes through Afghanistan .on the

spring passage—but perhaps with a more southern route than the last two

species—as Hutton, St. John and Swinhoe found it common then at Kandahar.

St. John adds that a few remain to breed about Kandahar but this appears

unlikely. Stoliczka also had an idea that they bred in the Wakkan. Meinerta-

hagen believed that he saw a small flock at Bamian on 24 April. ;

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 43

That the Black-headed Wagtail occurs on the autumn passage as well is

evident from Maconachie’s specimen obtained at Sar-i-Chashma 9,000 ft. on

3 September.

Motacilla cifreola were Buturlin.

Specimens collected.—[ 9,9] Pushut (Griffith); 4 g 2 Q 17-26 March, @

8 April 1881 Kandahar, Q 1 May 1881 Gungazai (Swinhoe); 2 ¢ 19 March

1885 Gulran, g 12 April Tirphul, g 16 April 1885 Khusan (Aitchison); a sex?

28 April Chahar Shamba (Yate); Q Lijjikarez (Maynard); ¢ 6 August 1933

Baqrami 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); 2 g 18 April Ghorband 8,200 ft., g 27 April

1937 Doab 5,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Lhe Grey-backed Yellow-headed Wagtail evidently passes through Maimanah

and Badghis on the spring migration as Swinhoe and St. John say is the case

at Kandahar where it is common. Meinertzhagen found Wagtails of this type

fairly common on passage in the Ghorband Valley in mid-April and again still

more abundant-at Bamian about 24 April. He attributes his specimens to the

typical race.

Motacilla citreola calcarata Hodgson.

Specimens collected.— dg 20 March ¢ 260 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

sex? 12 April 1933 Baqrami 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); ¢ 24 April Bamian 8,500 ft.,

3 28 April Doab 5,000 ft., g 23 May 1937 Shibar Pass 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen). -

Meinertzhagen first saw Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail at Bamian but

it was never common. He says that it is apparently a summer visitor, breeding

in suitable localities in the Bamian and Ghorband Valleys. Maconachie notes

that. ‘Yellow Wagtails’—amongst which must evidently be included this species

-—appear in thousands in the Kabul marshes in April. It is also common on

spring passage at Kandahar according to Swinhoe while St. John states that

a few remain to breed there.

Anthus ¢rivialis trivialis Linnaeus.

. . Specimens collected.— dg 23 April 1874 Paniah (Biddulph) g 2 April 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe); @ 3 September 1933 Paghman 6,500 ft., gd 2 April

3 30 April 1934 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Macorfachie); 3 ¢ 4-11 April Kabul 6,000 ft.,

2.6 8 April Paghman 7,000 ft., 1 ¢ 4 Q 20-24 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found the Tree Pipit common on passage round Kabul, in

the Ghorband Valley and at Bamian from 4-26 April after which date none

were seen. The other specimens listed above would also seem to have been

on spring passage and I find difficulty—in view of the status of this bird in

North-west India—in understanding Swinhoe’s statement that the Tree Pipit

‘is- common: throughout the winter at Kandahar.

Anthus trivialis haringtoni Witherby.

Specimens collected.—sex? ‘Himalayas’ (Griffith); Q 11 April 1937 Kabul

5,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen). :

~. Griffith’s specimen,- now in the British Museum, would seem according to

“his’ Journal to have been collected at Pashat on 25 February 1840 but it must

‘be-accepted with reserve.

~. Lo-this race may also have belonged the pair of Tree Pipits which Wardlaw-

Ramsay says he saw in the Hariab district on 5th May, securing the female.

_.[Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni Richmond.

<-Tean find no corroboration for the statement in the New Iauna (vol. iii,

p. 281) that the Indian Tree Pipit breeds in Afghanistan. It appears unlikely. ]

- Anthus sordidus jerdoni (Vinsch).

“Specimen collected.—¢ 31 May 1937 Jagdalal near Jalalabad (Meinertz>

hagen).

Meinertzhagen only obtained the one specimen of Brown Rock Pipit in

Afghanistan and that he identified clearly as jerdoni.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 288

Authus sordidus decaptus Meinertzhagen.

Specimens collected.—Q 22 June 1879 Shaluzan GWacdlaweRemeny) D Fig

June 1879 Kandahar (St. John).

Wardlaw-Ramsay says that he found this race of Brown Rock-Pipit common

on the slopes of the Safed Koh where he took c/3 eggs on 22 June. I have

examined both the above specimens in the British Museum and they cannot

be separated from Baluch specimens.

Anthus rufulus waitei Whistler.

Specimen collected.—Q 26 April 1881 Gatai (Swinhoe).

The above specimen and St. John’s statement that he got the Indian Pipit

at Kandahar in June provide the only records fon Afghanistan. It is doubtless

a summer visitor.

Anthus campestris campestris (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—z ¢ 4 April Kabul 6,000 ft., g 19 April 1937, Bamian

8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen states that the typical race of the Tawny Pipit was not uncom-

mon on passage round Kabul on 4 April and a single bird at Bamian on 19 April.

A female in the British Museum (wing 93 mm.) obtained by St. John at

Kelat-i-Ghilzai is—if correctly sexed—evidently of the same form.

Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll.

Specimens collected.—sex? April 1874 Panjah, Wakkan (Biddulph); g 23

March, Q 3 April Kandahar, Q 25 April Dubrai, 2 25 April 1881 Gatai

(Swinhoe); Q@ 19 March Gulran, ¢ 6 April Tirphul, 2 Q 16 April 1885 Khusan

(Aitchison); ¢ 2 April 1934 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); @ 23 April Bamian

8,500 ft., Q 30 April Doab 5,000 ft., G 11 April Tash Kotal 3,800 ft., ¢ 16

May 1937 Haibak 3,o00 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found the Tawny Pipit breeding at Tash Kotal and Haibak

and took a nest with 5 eggs at the latter place.

In Southern Afghanistan it is evidently a common winter visitor according

to Swinhoe and St. John. The other records probably refer to passage birds.

Anthus cervinus (Pallas).

Specimens collected.—sex? 16 April 1874 Panjah (Biddulph);.2 ¢ 6 April

1937 Kabul (Meinertzhagen). ;

These are the only records of the Red-throated Pipit in Afghanistan, doubt-

less on passage. Meinertzhagen’s birds were feeding on irrigated meadow-land.

Aathus roseatus Blyth.

Specimen collected.—sex? 10 March Maruchak (Yate).

This is the ofily record of Hodgson’s Pipit- for Afenanistan but Whitehead

says it breeds freely on the Safed Koh from 11,000-13,000 ft. in June.

Anthus spinoletta blakistoni Swinhoe.

Specimens collected.—d dg Q 12-18 December 1880, 3 d¢. 8-18 Jee N aoe)

12=13, March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; Q 17 January 1885, Bala-Morghab, 2 'Q

19 March 1885 Gulran (Aitchison); 5 sex? 3-22 February Chahar- Shamba

(Yate); 2 sex? 10-14 March 1934 Chaharasia ‘(Maconachie).

The Water Pipit -is probably a passage migrant and. winter visitor.

Swinhoe and St. John’s statements that it is very common | in winter in. ‘the

Kandahar district supplements the’ above records.

Anthus spinoletta japonica Témm. & Schl.

Specimen collected.—@Q 9 April 1937 Paghmian 8,000 ft. (ileGtiortetligeds,

Probably a straggler. It will be remembered that Whitehead obtained four

specimens (January to April) at Kohat where it was.a somewhat scarce wintet

visitor, oes 2 ‘ ©

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

Oreocorys sylyanus (Blyth).

' Specimen collected.— dg 19 July 1933 Andarab-Banu 4,000 ft. (Maconachie).

.. The only record of the Upland Pipit for Afghanistan.

‘Alamon alaudipes dorie (Salvadori).

Specimens collected.—Q 26 September 1879 20 miles N.-E. of Kandahar

4,000 ft. (St. John); ¢ 5 November 1884, Zagin (Aitchison); ¢ 21 September

5904, Kuhak (Cumming); .9 Chandan Band, Q Lora Hamun (Maynard),

Cumming says that the Desert-Lark is a resident on the gravel-strewn

‘dashts’ of Seistan where it is usually seen singly or in pairs, though family

parties may be seen together in September. The above records show that it

is also found throughout Southern Afghanistan generally.

Eremophila alpestris albigula (Bonaparte).

- _ Specimens, collected.— J Q 25 January 1881 Kandahar (Gwiiioeye BG 2 Q

14-23 April Panjah, Wakkan (Biddulph); ¢G 19 October 1934, ‘Karganathu

10,200 ft.. gQ 6 January 1935 Musai 5,800 ft. (Maconachie); 9 6 4 9

1g April Shibar Pass 9,800 fte, g¢ 25 April Bamian, 11,600 ft., 4 ¢ 3

25, May Shibar Pass 9,800 {t., go Q 29 May 1937, Unai ‘Pass 1,200 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen.)

Meinertzhagen says that the Horned Lark is confined to the flat tops of the

Hindu Kush above g,o00 ft. in the breeding season and that wherever it

occurs it is common. In winter it drops to lower levels as at Musai where

Maconachie obtained specimens at 5,800 ft. and it also moves south into

Southern Afghanistan where Swinhoe and St. John found it an uncommon

winter visitor.~

[Eremophila alpestris longirostris (Moore).

I can find no authority for the statement in the New Fauna (vol. iii, p. 309)

that this form occurs in Afghanistan].

Melanocorypha calandra psammochroa Hartert.

Specimens collected.—2 g 1 juv. 19 May 1937, Khanabad, 1,800 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen).

' Meinertzhagen says of the Calandra Lark:—met with only in Afghan

Turkestan, some ten to fifteen miles south of Khanabad, in crops and grass

land between 1,300 ft. and 1,600 ft. Not met with elsewhere. Young were

on the wing .(in May) but males were still singing «and soaring.

Melanocorypha bimaculata bimaculata (Menetries).

Specimens collected.—2 sex? Pashat (Griffith); g 15 October Kelat-i-Ghiizai

(St. John); 2.Q 6 February, g 8 February 1881, Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ @

8 November between Sangbar and MKarez-dasht, g 15 November Zind-i-jan,

Q 28 November between Asia-deh and Kar-o-bagh, ¢@ 1 December 1884 between

Aftao and Kara-Kainta, ¢ Q 17 January 1885 Bala-Morghab, Q 17 February

1885, between Mara-chak and Ab-i-goshan, 4 °Q 9-18 March 1885, Gulran

(Aitchison); 2 sex? 17 March Maruchak, sex? 27 March Khwaja Gogirdak

(Yate); ¢ 25 April Bamian 8,500 ft., ¢ Q 18 May 1937 Tash Kotal 4,300 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen states that the pair collected at Tash Kotal were undoudbtedly

breeding. The Eastern Calandra Lark would seem however, to be in the

main, a winter visitor and passage migrant, as suggested by the above specimens.

~ At Kandahar Swinhoe was informed. by the local bird-catchers that it

arrived in October and left at the latter end of March.

Griffith, however, recorded in his Journal at Pashat 26 February 1840 that

the Calandra had just come in in abundance amd at Bala Chugar Serai under

9 March 1940 he again records that it had just come in there and comments

on the supposed difference of 12 to 14 days in the dates of arrival at two places

about. 18 miles apart. These no doubt were passage migrants returning from

their. winter quarters in the Punjab.

In Afghanistan, as in Kashmir, the Calandra is a favourite cage bird.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN | 287

Alauda arvensis intermedia Swinhoe.

Specimens collected.—5 specimens Pushut (Griffith); 3 specimens 23-25 April

1874 Panjah, Wakkan (Biddulph); ¢ 2 February, ¢ 8 February 1881, Kandahar

(Swinhoe); G 1 February 1884, ¢ 12 December Aftao (Aitchison):

The Skylark is a common winter visitor to South-east Afghanistan in the

Kandahar province according to St. John, but Swinhoe appears to doubt whether

it arrives before February in which case it may be only a passage migrant.

‘ Alauda gulgula inconspicua Severtzov.

Specimens collected.— 9 7 April, g- May 1879, Kandahar (St. John); do

20 March, Q 30 March, g¢ 31 March 1881, Kandahar, Q 26 April 1881, Dubrai

(Swinhoe); 2 30 August 1933 Kabul, g@ 22 May 1934, Kabul 5,700 ft.

(Maconachie); 3. d 1 :Q 5-6 April Kabul 6,000 ft. 2 Q 20-26 April Bamian

8,500 ft., 3 ¢ 1 2 5-7 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Little Skylark was tound by Meinertzhagen at Khanabad, Haibak and

Danaghori and Kabul in May in circumstances that can leave no doubt that

it was on its breeding ground. It had been in small parties on cultivated

ground at Kabul and Bamian in the first half of April.

It also breeds in some’ numbers about Kandahar according to Swinhoe ‘and

St. John, and in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,000 ft. according to Wardlaw-

Ramsay. Opinions differ however as to whether it is a resident or a summer

visitor.

Meinertzhagen draws a distinction between his specimens, calling those from

Danaghori true imconspicua and those from Bamian and Kabul as inseparable

from gulgula but with a slight tendency towards inconspicua. Inconspicua is

however itself so poorly defined a race (vide Ticehurst, /.B.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 873)

that it is hardly worthwhile drawing a distinction within the country.

Calandrella acutirostris Hume.

Specimens collected.—sex? 16 April 1874, Panja, Wakkan (Biddulph); sex?

4 May 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); 2 ¢g 20 June 1934 Ghazni road,

Kabul; ¢g 19 April; 5 ¢ 5 Q 23-25 May, Shibar Pass, 9,800 ft., Q 24 May

Ghorband 8,300 ft., 2 g 29 May 1937 Unai Pass 1,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found that Hume’s Short-toed Lark bred abundantly on the

high flat tops in Northern Afghanistan, When he crossed the Shibar Pass

on 1g April he saw only a single bird, but on the return journey on 23 May

it was extremely abundant on the same ground and laying was in full swing.

He recorded an interesting note on the courtship behaviour. They were equally

common and breeding in the Unai Pass at the end of May.

Biddulph’s Panja bird may well have been also on its breeding ground.

Under the name of brachydactyla Wardlaw-Ramsay says that the Short-tced

Lark was found in small parties in the Hariab Valley until the end of May

after which they were not observed. The above specimen in the ~ British

Museum .is acutirostris and it was evidently on passage at Byan Khel. The

winter quarters of this form have not been very accurately worked out.

- Calandrella brachydactyla longipennis (Eversmann),

Specimens collected.—2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢Q March 1870,

Kandahar (St. John); ¢.Q sex? 7 March, Q 9 March, @ 12 March, ¢ -30

March 1891, Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 sex? 17 March Maruchak, Badghis, sex?

27 March Khwaja Gogirdak, Murghab (Yate); 2 ¢ 11-15 March Gulran, 2 ¢

7-13 April 1885, Tirphul (Aitchison), 2 @ 11 April Kabul 6,000 ft., ¢@

26 April Bamian 8,500 ft., 2 @ 7 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen).

I have not been able to see all the above specimens to verify that they

belong to this race of Short-toed Lark but it evidently occurs in enormous

numbers on both the spring and autumn passages in the Kandahar area accord-

ing to both St. John and Swinhoe. Meinertzhagen found it common on passage

at) Kabul in mid-April and a good many small flocks were seen at Bamian

towards the end of April. He had previously seen a few at Jalalabad on

4 April.

It may breed at Danaghori where he located two pairs on the short turf

of the great plain. The females had the ovaries ripe for laying.

288 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. 43

Swinhoe in 1881 remarked on the large numbers of this lark netted: by the

Afghans for eating at Kandahar and Meinertzhagen in 1937 still found them

being sold in huge numbers at Kabul.

-Calandretla rufescens persica (Sharpe).

Specimens collected.—3 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith). :

The above specimens are in the British Museum but there is no other

information about the Lesser Short-toed Lark in Afghanistan.

_ Galerida cristata magna Hume.

Specimens collected.—4 sex? Pushut (Griffith); sex? October 1879, Khelat-i-

Ghilzai (St. John); .Q 15 December 1880, 2 ¢ 1-2 February, ¢ 2 Q 21 February, |

2 © April 1881 Kandahar, 2 ¢ 24 April 1881 Mellkarez (Swinhoe) ; sex? 4 Jan-

uary, sex? 26 January Chahar Shamba (Yate); Q 19 January Bala-Morghab,

3 7 March, ¢ 12 March Gulran, Q © April 1885 TVirphul (Aitchison); ¢

20 April 1905, Kuhak (Cumming); sex? 13 December 1918, Lab-i-Baring

(Annandale); ¢ 2 April 1934, Kabul (Maconachie); 4 ¢ 3 @ 4-7 April Kabul

6,000 ft.,. g 1 May Barfak 3,500 ft., 3 g¢ 1 juv. 4 May Doshi 2,500 ft., ¢

11 May, Tash Wotal 2,300 ft., g 8 May, Danaghori 2,300 ie, Boe uw ©

11-15 May Haibak 3,000 ft.. ¢ 21 May 1937, Kunduz 1,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Crested Lark appears to be very generally distributed and resident

throughout - Afghanistan up to about 6,000 ft. in the Kabul area and up to

3,000 ft. in Northern Afghanistan. According to Cumming the breeding season

in the Helmund area is trom March to June.

About Pushut this form would seem to grade into G. c. chendoola of India

as of 4 birds of Griffith’s from that locality three would certainly pass as

chendoola.

Ammomanes phenicura zarudnyi Hartert.

Specimen collected.—sex? 14 December 1915, Lab- -i-Baring (Annandale).

There is no other record of the Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark. This specimen

was compared at Tring and identified by Mr. Stuart Baker. .

Ammomanes deserti orientalis Zarudny and Loudon.

- Specimens- collected.—¢ Q 27 April, Doab 5,000 ft.. ¢@ 23 May, Barfak

3,000 ft.; 9°17 May 1937, Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

' Meinertzhagen states that the above specimens represent practically all that

he saw of this form of Desert Lark. They.were always on rocky ground at

the foot of _ steep slopes. .

Ammoma nes deserti pheenicuroides (Blyth).

siceouinae collected.—sex? Pushut (Griffith); 2 6 1 @ March-May 1879

Kandahar (St.. John); ¢-Q .5. January Kandahar, 9 24 April Malkarez, Q

25 April 1881, Dubrai (Swinhoe); ¢ 24 April 1905 Khawaja Ahmed (Cumming).

co 20 May, sex? 24 May, 1934, Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie);\ 3° 6: 1 9

4-6 April 1937, Kabul 6,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

~- The Desert ‘Lark is common: and doubtless resident over the greater part

of Afghanistan.~ Farther north it is also resident but less common -round Kabul

and the Lower~ Ghorband ‘Valley, also towards Pushut, confining itself to bare

slopes and waste ground of a sandy nature from 7,500 ft. downwards.

As pointed out by Ticehurst (/.B.N.H.S., xxxi, p. 876) these Afghan birds

are not quite’ typical being really intergrades between phoenicuroides and

tranica, resembling the latter particularly in size.

‘Zosterops palpebrosa remota Koelz.

Specimens collected.—-6 sex? 18 December 1937, Jalalabad.

The White-eye has only been recorded by Koelz who separated his series

from Jalalabad as a new race (Proc. Biol. .Soc. Washington, vol. 52, 5 June

1939, p. 76). I have not seen any of his series but find difficulty in Nieone

that they can be really separable from Z. p. occidentis which is so’ common

in the north-west corner of the Punjab into which the Kabul River drains.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 280

_Cionyris asiatica brevirostris (Blanford).

The New Fauna (vol. iil, p. 399) says that the Purple Sunbird is found

in Afghanistan but I have not been able to find any details of the status and

‘distribution beyond the fact that’ Koelz obtained a small series at Kalaigulaman.

Picus Squamatus Squamatus Gould.

Specimens collected.— 2 Chughur Serai (Griffith); ¢ 10 December 1933 Logar

3700 ft. (Maconachie); @ June 1935 Gardez Forest (Blanchard).

The only records of the typical race of the. Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

It should however occur along the Safed Koh as Whitehead found it fairly

common in winter in the Kohat District.

Picus squamatus gorii (Hargitt).

Specimen collected.—d 26 Oct. 1884 between Padda-Sultan and De-Kamrun,

Lower Helmund (Aitchison).

The above specimen which is the type of the race was shot by Captain

Gore, R.E., and is figured in plate vi of Aitchison’s Report on the Zoology

of the Afghan Delimitation Commission. .

Dryobates himalayensis (Jardine & Selby).

Specimens collected—¢ 5 May, gd 16 May, od juv. 3 June 1879 Byan Khel

(Wardlaw-Ramsay).

According to Wardlaw-Ramsay the Himalayan Pied Woodpecker is the only

species of woodpecker to be found in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. about

Byan Khel. He found it very abundant and breeding. Young had flown by

the beginning of June. Whitehead found it common on the Safed Koh up to

tree-limit.

Dryobates leucopterus leptorhynchus (Severtzow).

Specimens collected.—Q 3 May Doshi 2,750 ft., 2 gf 4 ‘Q 12-14 May

Haibak 3,000 ft.. gd 18 May 1937 Baghlan 2,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

‘First met with at Doshi in the orchards on 3 May (2,750 ft.) and a few

others seen. Apparently absent from Danaghori but at Haibak we found them

abundant in the orchards and gardens in the middle of May. A single bird

was seen at Baghlan but apparently absent from Kunduz’ (Meinertzhagen).

~Dryobates brunnifrons (Gould).

Specimen collected.—Q Pashat (Griffith).

In addition to the above specimen which is in the British Museum, Griffith

recorded in his Journal meeting with the Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker at

Bharowal on 7 March 1840. It may breed on the Safed Koh as it is a common

winter visitor to the Kohat District.

Jyox torquilla torquilla Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—g 2 April 1879, Kandahar (St. John); (9 17 April

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 30 April 1934 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie) ;

6 ¢d 3 Q 20-25 April 1937 Bamian (Meinertzhagen).

The Wryneck is at present only “known as a spring passage migrant through

Afghanistan, but Meinertzhagen appears to be the only observer who has met

with the birds in any numbers. On 20 April he saw 4 birds at Barnian

which. took refuge in a buckthorn hedge. On 24 April the Bamian Valley

was literally overrun with Wrynecks, every available bush having its quota.

When flushed they would often fly round and return to the same bush on

finding all others occupied. Many were sitting about looking stupid and lost

on the road or in the fields. It would have been easy to collect over 50

Specimens if an hour. This rush passed on and a pair at Danaghori were

the only others seen.

Cuculus canorus canotus Linnaeus.

_, Specimens collected.—¢~ Jugdulluck, juv. Afghanistan, sex? Jalalabad, ju.

Kabul. (Griffith); 2 4 June 1934 Kabul (Maconachie); 4 ¢ 5-10 May Dana-

ghori 2,300 ft., ¢ 24 May 1937 Ghorband 8,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen),

299 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The Cuckoo has only been recorded from the north-east quarter of Afghan-

istan. Meinertzhagen first heard it at Doshi 2,750 ft. on 2 May and at

Danaghori on 5 May there seemed to be a larger influx with much noise and

chasing of each other, several females being noted. A hepatic female was

seen 10 May. These Cuckoos were clearly ready to breed and the Great Reed

Warbler appeared to be the most obvious host. Many Cuckoos were seen and

heard at Kunduz, mainly over the extensive marshes, on 20 May. In June

1886 Yate found Cuckoos plentiful in the cultivation along the Oxus between

Khamiab and Karkin (Northern Afghanistan, p. 245).

The specimens collected’ by Gritnth and Maconachie suggest that it must

breed in the Kabul area.

In the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,000 ft. Wardlaw-Ramsay says that it arrived

about the beginning of May though he heard his first bird personally on

15 May. It became exceedingly abundant. On the Safed Koh, Whitehead

observed it up to tree limit where’ it was calling till well past the middle of

July.

Further south Griffith in his Journal mentions the Cuckoo calling on the

IKhojak Pass (just over the boundary) on 12 April though Swinhoe had not

heard it at Kandahar up till his departure on 22 April.

Meinertzhagen attributes three of his Danaghori specimens to the race sub-

telephonus but I doubt whether it is worth recognition.

Coracias garrula semenowi Loudon & Tschusi. ;

Specimens collected.—q sex? Kandahar (Griffith); dg May Kandahar

St. John); ¢@ od 17-18 April 1881 Kandahar, sex? 21 April 1881 Melkarez, ¢

23 April 1881 Abdul Rahim (Swinhoe); ¢ ¢ @ 13 April 1885 Tirphul, 2 16

April 1885 Gulran, 2 19 May 1885 Kambao (Aitchison); 3 sex ? 30 April—1

May Chahar Shamba, sex ? 1 June Min Darakht, Maimanah (Yate); @ 10

March 1896 Robat 4,100 ft. (Maynard); sex ? May 1903, ¢ 24 April 1905

Khwaja Ahmed (Cumming); ¢ 16 July 1933 Deh Saleh, ¢ 10 August 1933

Tezim neat 25 m. E.S.E., of Kabul. sex ? 4 Sept. 1933 Onai Pass (Maco-

nachie); Gg 1 May 1937 Doshi 2,750 it. (Meinertzhagen). ;

The Kashmir Roller is an abundant summer visitor to Afghanistan where

Meinertzhagen says its distribution is governed by altitude—scarce above 5,000 ft.

and common below that elevation. With this provision it seems to be common

everywhere and there is no need to cite the records in detail. The earliest

date on which it has been recorded is 10 March at Robat 4,300 ft. (Maynard)

but the majority arrive in April and Swinhoe gives 4 April as ‘his earliest

date for Kandahar.

The Roller must necessarily be also a passage migrant through Afghanistan

and Cumming records ‘that on 24 April 1905 at Khwaja Ahmed the country

was swarming with them on passage, travelling in a northerly direction.

[Coracias benghalensis Linnaeus.

Wardlaw-Ramsay thought that a Roller which was not very common in

the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. in May was this species and not Coracias

garrula, though I should certainly have expected the latter to occur there. ]

Merops apiaster Linnaeus.

‘Specimens collected.—z2 ¢ June Byal Khel ((Wardlaw-Ramsay); g @ 14

April 1881, ¢ oS @ 17 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 16 April Khusan,

Q 20 April Tirphul, gd 28 April Kambao, Q 3 May 1885 Shore-Kaltegai

(Aitchison); 4 sex ? 29 April-1 May Chahar Shamba, sex ? Minar Shadian

(Yate);. d 25 May 1933 KXabul (Maconachie); ¢ +13 April Kabul 5,800 {t.,

2.6 2 9 14 April 1937 Cherikar 5000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Common Bee-eater is a summer visitor to Afghanistan where it breeds

in considerable numbers at moderate elevations. Aitchison found it breeding

in the Hari-rud area and Meinertzhagen at Doshi, Danaghori, Haibak and

Kunduz, but although Hutton says it arrives at Kandahar in the beginning of

April and leaves in the beginning of autumn St. John and Swinhoe do not

actually clear up the point whether it breeds in that area or not. It must of

course be a passage migrant through Afghanistan as’ well as a summer visitor,

and Hutton inay have been referring to this.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 2091

This Bee-eater arrives in Afghanistan, usually before M. s. persicus, about

the middle of April. Meinertzhagen says he heard it passing over Kabul on

the evening of 11 April and a flock of eight were seen near Kabul on 13 April.

A large flock were resting on telegraph wires at Cherikar on 14 April. Aitchison

procured a specimen at Khusan on 16 April. Swinhoe first met with the species

at Khandahar on 14 April when’ a large flock were flying round and round

some large trees in a garden outside the Herat Gate.

In the Hariab. Valley 7,000-8,000 ft. Wardlaw-Ramsay says that he first

observed this species. on 5 June after which it became quite common. He

goes on to say that on 22 June he found it very common just across the

border between the Kurram Fort and the Peiwar Kotal where neither trees

nor shrubs were to be seen for miles. Up till 1o July when he left the

Kurram Valley these birds were not breeding. These statements are presu-

mably connected with an observation made by Whitehead who remarks that

towards the end of July, when nesting operations were over, flocks of from

ten to forty birds used to fly up the valleys of the Safed Koh to tree limit

(12,000 ft.) every morning and return at dusk. Local feeding movements or

the preliminary movements of young birds are presumably involved.

Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas.

Specimens collected :—2 sex ? Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢@ 9 May 1879 Kan-

dahar (St John); 9 28 April Tomam-Agha, Hari-Rud, ¢ 28 April between

Tomam-Agha and Kambao, ¢ 13 May 1885 Kumani-Besht (Aitchison); sex?

22 April 1905 Kuhak (Cumming); 4 3 8 May 1937 Danaghori 2300 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

Griffith records the Blue-cheeked Bee-eater in his Journal on several occa-

sions, viz. :—Gundamuck 5 June 1840, Chuqur Pir 19 March 1840, Arghundee

6 August 1839, Kabul 5 June 1840, Shah Bagh 24 July 1840.

_ This Bee-eater is like the last a summer visitor to Afghanistan but it appears

to be confined as a breeding species to the lowest elevation in the country and

largely to the neighbourhood of rivers and marshy ground. Meinertzhagen des-

cribes large breeding colonies in the swampy plains of Danaghori and at

Kunduz and Jelalabad. Cumming found it very numerous and nesting in Seis-

tan. Hutton and St. John found it about Kandahar.

According to Cumming it arrives in Seistan from a westerly direction ~ in

April—earliest date in 1905 17 April—and leaves about October. Other ob-

servers say that it arrives rather later than M. apiaster. Meinertzhagen noted

the first arrivals at Danaghori on the early morning of 7 May, the birds being

quite common by the next day.

_Wardlaw-Ramsay (Ibis 1879, p. 446) records a marked passage of Bee-

eaters at Byan Khel. Numbers arrived on 30 April and the following day

but disappeared as rapidly as they came. They were flying at a considerable

height and travelling apparently in a north-westerly direction. He seems

at first to have been doubtful of their identity but later (Ibis 1880 p. 49) he

assigns them definitely to this species.

Merops orientalis Latham.

The Little Green Bee-eater has only been recorded by Meinertzhagen. who

observed it twice on telegraph wires at the Indo-Afghan frontier post Torkham

on 1 April, and near Jelalabad on 31 May,

Ceryle rudis afghanistanica Koclz.

Specimens collected :—3 9 26 May 1937 Laghman (Koelz).

A specimen from Jalalabad, February 1840, is noted in the Worcester MS.

list in the British Museum. . One of the above females is the type of. Koelz’s

new race. I have not peamnined Afghan birds but as. these are from the

Kabul River Valley they are hardly likely to differ from Punjab birds which

like other Indian birds agree with C. r. leucomelanura from Ceylon.

The only other record is St. John’s statement that the Pied Uae was

noted occasionally at Kandahar but is very rare,

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, -46

" Alcedo atthis paliasii Reichenbach.

Specimens collected—2 dG 1 @ Feb.-April 1879 Kandahar (St. John);

2 S 20-22 Dec. 1880, G @ 9-24 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 92 28 June

1933 Logar 5,700 ft., sex? 12 Sept. 1933 Band-i-Amir 9,300 ft. {Maconachie) ;

& 9 21 May 1937 Kunduz 1,400 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

In addition to the above records we have the statements of Cumming, Hutton,

St John and Swinhoe that the Kingfisher is common and resident all over

Seistan and the Kandahar area. Meinertzhagen also met with it in the Ghor-

band Valley at 8,200 ft. The latter does not agree that pallasii is a recogni-

‘sable race—at best it appears to me a poor one—and attributes his skins to

the typical race.

Halcyon smyrnensis Linnaeus.

The White-breasted Kingfisher is only recorded from Afghanistan by Griffith

who saw it at Khoonee near Pashat on 31 March 1840.

Upupa epops epops Linnaeus.

Specimens collected :—sex? Kabul (Griffith); ¢ 14 Feb. 1879, 3 4 March

1879 Kandahar (St. John); sex? Dec. 1880, ¢ 1 Feb. 1881, ¢ 16 April 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2. ¢ 7-12 March 1885 ‘Gulran (Aitchison); sex? 6 March

Maimanah Chul (Yate); 9 27 Feb. 1896 Sahibzada 3,000 ft. (Maynard); 9

g August 1933, ¢ 9 May 1934 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); Q 4 April Kabul

6,000 ft., 2 G 18 April 1927 Ghorband 8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Griffith mentions the Hoopoe_ in his Journal at Ghazni (24 July 1830).

Arghandhi (very common 6 August 1839), Bharowal (15 April 1840) and Shah

Bagh (24 July 1840). It is evidently a summer visitor to the greater part

of Afghanistan, breeding up to at least 9,000 ft. Meinertzhagen found it breed-

ing at Doshi, at Danaghori and at Haibak, near the Shibar Pass at gooo ft.

and in the Paghman Valley at 8000 ft. In Kabul he found that most gardens

seemed to contain a pair. Wardlaw-Ramsay says it was breeding in June in

the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. near Byan Khel. Cumming says he saw seve-

ral.in Seistan hanging about holes in walls during the summer months. At

Kandahar Hutton called it only a summer visitor and considered it scarce.

Both Swinhoe and St. John, however, say that it is common everywhere and

the former added that he believed it to be a permanent resident. That some

birds, at least, are found at Kandahar in winter is clear from his December

and January specimens and it will be noted that Maynard obtained a specimen

at Sahibzada on 27 February.

The Hoopoe is also, doubtless, a passage migrant through Afghanistan.

Griffith, as noted above, found it very common at Arghandhi on 6 August.

Meinertzhagen saw the first bird near Kabul on 4 April. On the 18 April

at 8,200 ft. in the Ghorband Valley he was lucky enough to witness an actual

movement at 6 p.m., or just before sunset. There was a bitter cold wind

blowing from the west with sleet in the air. Two parties of about fifty birds

each passed towards the north, flying some 400 ft. above the ground. They

were in very loose formation and being badly buffeted about by gusts of

wind.

Micropus melba tuneti (Tschusi).

Specimens collected :—sex ? Murghab, Herat (Yate): G@ 9 10 April Kabul

5,500 ft.; 9 6 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen who identifies his specimens as belonging to this pale form

says that ‘the Alpine Swift would appear suddenly from nowhere and as quickly

disappear often at a great height and always with great speed. At Kabul in

the afternoon a large party would come and feed over a small lake too near

the city for shooting with safety. At Bamian a single bird appeared on

22 April and took great interest in the caves and rock dwellings entering and

remaining in them for considerable periods. Two were seen at Doab on 209.

April and many were cireling about a high cliff entering crevices and perhaps

breeding. On 5 and 7 May a few were feeding over the meadows at Dana-

ghori and from the state of their organs were breeding in the neighbourhood.

At Haibak a few were seen flying high over a mud fort on 11 May,’

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 293

St. John says that one specimen only was seen and shot at Kandahar. Un-

“fortunately he -has not recorded the date and I cannot trace the specimen in

the British Museum. The Alpine Swift is a spring and autumn passage

migrant at Kohat. No doubt the typical race must occur in Afghanistan.

Micropus apus pekinensis (Swinhoe).

Specimens collected.—¢ 10 April 1879 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢@ 1 July 1879

Sufed Koh 12,600 ft. (Wardlaw-Ramsay); ¢ 17 February, 2 8 March 1881 ©

Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 sex? 12-17 April Karewal Khana, sex? 13 May Kila-

wali (Yate); ¢@ 7 April Kabul 6,000 ft., 3) 5 May 1937 Danaghori 2,500 ft,

(Meinertzhagen).

The Common Swift breeds along the Safed Koh as. Wardlaw-Ramsay found

it very abundant in May in the Hariab Valley, especially about the summits

of the mountains. On Matungi 12,600 ft., an offshoot of the main range,

they were apparently breeding in the rocks: of the summit. This is confirmed

by Whitehead who says that the bird breeds in small numbers in the cliffs

of the Safed Koh up to the highest elevations. Further north Meinertzhagen

found them common at Jalalabad and evidently breeding on 31 May as they

were seen to enter crevices in walls.

Yate obtained specimens in Badghis and Murghab in May but the status

in Northern Afghanistan is not very clear. so Meinertzhagen’s remarks may

be quoted in full:—‘Swifts were first encountered near Kabul on 7 April

when a few birds were passing from east to west. In the Ghorband Valley

on 15 and 16 April a colony of about fifty birds was seen flying to and fro

about a rock face, but not breeding, as they were not there in May. On

18 April large parties were seen passing west and feeding on the way. On

the Shibar Pass, 9,600 ft., on 19 April, many were seen passing north-west

at about 10 a.m. At Bamian between 20 and 24 April every afternoon scat-

tered parties would appear from the east and pass up the valley feeding, in

a westerly direction, often hanging about the rock-caves and dwellings and

even entering them, but eventually passing on. A few were seen at Doab,

5,000 ft., passing north, and large flocks would sometimes appear on the

Danaghori Plains between 4 and 8 May. At Haibak on 11 May a few were

seen.”

In the south at Kandahar the Swift is very common. Swinhoe says that

he observed the first birds, three together, on 6 February. Hutton’s first date

was 20 February. Swinhoe says they were common in April and Hutton

-says ‘during the summer’ but it is not clear whether the status is that of a

passage migrant or breeding bird.

Micropus affinis (Gray).

Specimen collected.—@ 14 May 1879 Kandahar (St. John).

The Common Indian Swift is only recorded from the neighbourhood of

Kandahar where St. John says it is found in small colonies here and there,

though it is nowhere. common. A few pairs breed on the Baba-wali rocks on

the Arghandab River near Kandahar.

Caprimulgus europaeus unwini Hume.

Specimens collected.—¢ 12 May. 1885 Khusan (Aitchison); 2 ¢ 12 .May

Kila Wali, @ Afghan Turkestan (Yate); © 14 June 1933 Logar 5,700 ft:,

4 June 1934 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

The European Nightjar is presumably a summer visitor to’ Afghanistan.

In addition to the above records Swinhoe attributed ‘to this species two night-

jars seen at Dubrai on 25 April and Gatai 26 April, and St. John says that it

is common everywhere on the Kandahar side, in suitable localities.

Caprimu!gus asiaticus Latham.

Specimens collected. — 14 April 1885 Tirphul, Q 16 April 1885 Khusan

(Aitchison).

No other records of the Common Indian Nightjar.

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

Caprimulgus mahrattensis Sykes.

Specimens collected.—Q 1896 Lijjikarez 2,400 ft. (Maynard); 2 9 Helmund

(Cumming). fe

St. John referred to Sykes’s Nightjar a specimen shot on the Helmund

River near Girishk in 1880 a few days before the battle of Maiwand but it

was lost with his baggage after the defeat. The identification was probably

correct as Maynard obtained a specimen at Lijjikarez. and as Cumming found

this species very numerous from April to September in Seistan where it is

to be seen and heard everywhere on the wing at dusk. It breeds on the

gravel-strewn ‘dasht’ and Cumming secured eggs in April, May and June,

as he describes in some detail (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xvi, p. 690).

Psittacula himalayana himalayana (Lesson).

Specimens collected.—¢ Otipore, GQ Pashat (Griffith).

The above specimens and an entry in his Journals that Griffith saw the

Slaty-headed Parrakeet at Bharowal on 17 April 1840 provide the only records

of this species for Afghanistan.

It may breed on the Safed Koh as Whitehead found a small nesting colony

in the Kurram Valley near Zeran 5,800 ft.

‘Asio otus otus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected-—Q 15 January 1840 Kunar (Griffith); Q 4 Feb.

Bala-Morghab, Q 16 Feb. 1885 Maruchak (Aitchison); sex? ro March Kara

Baba, Maimanah (Yate).

In addition to the above records Hutton says that the Long-eared Owl is

common in the ruins of Old Kandahar about 3 miles from the modern city.

This is supported by St. John’s statement that he shot a specimen there, but

it is not in the British Museum. .

Asio flammeus flammeus (Pontoppidan).

Specimens collected.—¢ 26 Dec.’ 1884 Bala-Morghab (Aitchison); ¢ 19

March, @ 27 Oct. 1933 Bagrami, 2 15 Oct. 1933 Logar (Maconachie).

The Short-eared Owl is doubtless a winter visitor and passage migrant to

Afghanistan. In addition to the above specimens I find that Hutton states

that this Owl, as well as the last, is common among the ruins of Old Kandahar,

that St. John saw three in a garden at Kandahar and that Swinhoe shot one

at Gatai in April 1881.

Otus brucei (Hume).

Specimen collected.—sex? 13 April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan (Biddulph).

There is no other record of the Striated Scops-Owl.

Otus scops scops (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—¢ 11 April 1879 Kandahar (St. John); @ 12 April

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe).

According to St. John the Scops-Owl is very common in favourable locali-

ties, keeping in summer to the juniper forest of the mountains and dispersing

over the country in winter, but it seems probable that the latter part of the

statement is too sweeping and the bird may be mostly a passage migrant in

the low country. Much of the country would certainly be unsuitable for it

in winter.

Athene noctua bactriana Blyth. 7

- Specimens collected.—Q 27 Feb., ¢ @ 10 March, 3 a1 Sept. 1879 Kanda-

har (St. John); 9 24-26 Dec. 1880, od 10 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

gf 25 Oct. 1884 Padda Sultan, 9 6 Dec. 1884 Koaja-palounda, ¢ 1 Feb. 1885;

Bala Morghab (Aitchison); 2 sex? 25 Jan.-4 Feb. Chahar Shamba (Yate); 9°

1896 Shorawak (Maynard); o 21 Oct. 1904 Kuhak (Cumming); @ 17 Dec.

1933 Logar (Maconachie); <f 18 May Tash Kotal 3,000 ft., g 19 May 1937

near Baghlan 1,700 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

According to Meinertzhagen the Little Owl is not at all common in

Northern Afghanistan. Single birds, presumed to be of this species, were

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 295

flushed near Kabul in early April. Both the specimens obtained belonged to

breeding pairs and a third pair was nesting in the old fort at Kunduz.

In Seistan it is also uncommon as Cumming’s Kuhak specimen, shot from

a high bluff near Rud-i-Seistan, was the only one met with by that observer.

In South-East Afghanistan the bird is much more: numerous as Hutton calls

it common in the. rocks and. ruins of Old Kandahar. In New Kandahar

Swinhoe says that it commenced breeding about the mfddle of March and that

there were ten nests with young in the walls of the fort in the early part of

April. A resident species.

[Athene brama (Temminck).

In Horsfield and Moore’s”° Catalogue of the East India Company’s Museum

(vol. i, p. 65), a specimen of Carine brama is listed from Afghanistan (Griffith).

This is not now in the British Museum and it is possible that there was some

mistake either as to the identity or the exact locality. ]

[Strix aluco biddulphi Scully.

Wardlaw-Ramsay states that once or twice he flushed a Wood-Owl in the

Hariab Valley about Byan Khel 7,000 ft. in May and June and that he heard

its call nightly. This he took to be S. nivicolum but it was doubtless S. a,

biddulphi which Whitehead found to be a fairly common winter visitor at

Kohat, coming down no doubt from the forests of the Safed Koh. ]

Bubo bubo turcomanus (Eversmann).

Specimens collected.—@Q 7 Feb. 1879 Kandahar (St. John).

Meinertzhagen saw an Eagle-Owl being mobbed by Lesser Kestrels on the

Danaghori plains on 8 May 1937. He picked up two wing feathers near

Kunduz which exactly matched those of B. b. turcomanus, Cumming received

and preserved a badly injured but living. young bird, not quite fledged, said

to have come from: Shaharistan which was brought to him at Kuhak on ~

6 May 1905. According to Hutton an Eagle-Owl is not uncommon amongst

the rocks of Kandahar and he procured a young bird there. According to

Murray Capt. F. B,. Peile collected a specimen at Zandra and Mr. C.. F.

Hutchins others at Mundi Hissar and Abdul Rahman.

These records appear variously under the names of bengalensis, ignavus

and turcomanus but it seems likely that all refer to the same form which ‘is

represented by St. John’s specimen in the British Museum,

Pandion haliaétus Linnaeus.

In his Journals Griffith records the fact that he saw the Osprey at Pushut

on 25-26 November 1840.

Aegypius monachus (Linnaeus).

Meinertzhagen met with single examples of the Black Vulture near Kabul

on 4 April, in the Shibar Pass on 25 April and between Doab and Doshi at

the end of April. St. John says that it may be seen occasionally, generally in

winter, all over the country from the Bolan to Kandahar. It no doubt breeds

in Afghanistan, as it certainly does in Baluchistan (Vicehurst, J.B.N.H.S.,

vol. xxxii, p. 66) and a fellow officer of Colonel St. John had a tame young

bird which was supposed to have been taken in the Girinslx. district.

Gyps fulvyus (Hablizl).

Specimens collected.—2 sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); sex? 3 August 1933

Kabul (Maconachie).

- Meinertzhagen says that in early April he saw a good many Griffon Vul-

tures feeding on dead: animals near the Kabul-Jelalabad road but they were

very wild and specimens were unobtainable. Otherwise he found them scarce

and many carcases were left untouched. A few were seen near Bamian up

to 9,300 ft. in the snows. Near Doab another one or two were seen on

28 April.

In ordinary times vultures are said to be scarce in Southern Afghanistan

according to Swinhoe, and when the British Army first entered the country

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

in the Afghan War of 1878-79 the carcases of dead transport animals used

to lie about for days with scarcely a vulture near. Later on, however, the

birds gathered all along the line of communications and in March and April

this species was at Kandahar in large numbers. St. John shot a specimen

at Khilat-i-Ghilzai and C. F. Hutchins collected a female at Melkarez on

6 July 1881. Unfortunately the only three specimens, listed above, in the

British Museum available for examination are immature birds and it is there-

fore not yet certain whether Afghan birds belong to the typical race found

in Persia, or to G. f. fulvescens found in India. Some form of Griffon breeds

on the other side of the Safed Koh on the Samana.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin).

_-Hutton. says that the White-backed Vulture was not. uncommon around

Kandahar during the summer months but departed as the winter approached.

He saw it also at Girishk on the Helmund.

St. John has an interesting note that in the Afghan campaign of 1878-79

numbers of these vultures accompanied the army on the march, finding ample

sustenance in the camels that died at every halting place and strewed the road

from. Sukkur to Kandahar. In the spring of 1879 they disappeared and he

did not see them again, a fact which he attributes to the laying of the railway

from Sukkur to Sibi and the transporting of troops by it for the first part

of their journey from India. The Tirah campaign of 1897-98 similarly attracted

them to the plains of Thall. :

Neophron percnopterus percnopterus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—Q 9 June 1879 Kandahar (St. John); 2 @ 11-12 April

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 ¢ 1 Q 30 June 1881 Mundi Hissar (Hutchins) ;_

Griffith saw the Neophron at Yonutt on-.29 August 1839. Meinertzhagen

. says that it is not too common in Northern Afghanistan but probably breeds

there as he saw it throughout his stay up till the end of May. It was observed

in the Ghorband Valley in mid-April, at Doshi at the end of April, a pair

at Danaghori in early May and a pair at Haibak on 11 May. Five were seen

near: Kabul in late May and at Jelalabad on 31 May.

Wardlaw-Ramsay says (Ibis 1879, p. 446) that the Neophron occurs in

spring at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. but he later (Ibis 1880, p. 47) modifies this to

refer to the Kurram Valley. 5

Cumming says that he occasionally saw it near Kuhak and elsewhere in

Seistan.

At Kandahar Hutton considered this vulture a common summer visitor

(seen first apparently on 1 March) but this does not quite agree with St. John’s

views. Both he and Swinhoe agree that the bird is common. everywhere in

the Kandahar Province but St. John says that a few remained near Kandahar

in the summer but the majerity of those that swarmed about the camp in

late winter and early spring disappeared in April and did not reappear till

July or August. At Khelat-i-Ghilzai in October there were none: and by the

end of the same month they had all left Kandahar, not returning till the end

of February or the beginning of March. I am not able to understand this

account.

Gypaétus barbatus (Linnaeus).

Meinertzhagen says that he found the Lammergeier thinly distributed

throughout Northern Afghanistan during April and May; it was usually seen

singly but sometimes as many as seven were seen at one carcase. Griffith

mentions it in his Journals at Pashat (16 Feb. 1840) and at Bharowal (7 March

1840).

Hutton says that it is common throughout the whole of Afghanistan though -

I presume that this statement can hardly apply to Seistan. He _ particularly

mentions it at Kandahar and at Girinsk on the Upper Helmund. St. John

says that it is found everywhere in the Kandahar Province, a pair or two

even breeding in the isolated rocky hills which rise 1,500 ft. or so above the

Kandahar plain. . ae .

It appears to be most common along the Safed Koh where Wardlaw-

Ramsay records it as very abundant and the only vulture in the Hariab Valley

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 297

about Byan Khel 7,000 ft. Whitehead says that it occurs up to the summit

of the Safed Koh.

[Falco peregrinus Tunstall.

There is no satisfactory record of the Peregrine in Afghanistan though it

no doubt occurs there on passage. Hutton said he had a young male from

Kandahar and Wardlaw-Ramsay saw a falcon in the Hariab Valley at 7,000-

8,000 ft. which appeared to belong to this species.

About the end of June 1836 Vigne (Personal Narration of a Visit to Af-

ghanistan etc., p. 136) shot what he called a ‘Churk Falcon’ soon after leav-

ing Ghazni. Of this bird’s appearance he gives a rough description and adds

some account of it in the Punjab. Blyth thought that this specimen must

have been a young Peregrine but ,it cannot be properly identified. ]

Falco peregrinoides babylonicus P. L. Sclater.

Specimens collected.—Q 5 Feb., Q 14 July 1879 Kandahar (St. John).

The Red-capped Falcon is said by St. John to be the commonest falcon

of the Kandahar Province. Further information is lacking but. it is most

probably a resident.

Falco jugger Gray.

Specimens collected.—[ 9 ] Afghanistan (Griffith); 2 @ 1 June 1937 Jelala-

bad (Meinertzhagen).

Nothing is known about the Lugger Falcon in Afghanistan beyond Meinertz-

hagen’s statement that a pair were seen at Doab 5,000 ft. at the end of April

[but can there have been a mistake of identity here?] and the fact that he

shot two males on telegraph wires near Jelalabad.

Falco cherrug cherrug Gray.

Specimens -collected.— 14 Dec. 1884 Bala-Morghab (Yate); Q 11 Sept.

1933 Sar-i-bulak 10,000. ft. (Maconachie).

There is no other information about the Saker Falcon but it is presumably

a Wiater -visitor.

Falco subbuteo subbuteo Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—¢ 1 Aug. Kabul, 2 4 Sept. 1933 Unai Pass ee

nachie); Q 25 April Bamian 8,500 ft., 2 ¢ 1 May Doshi 2,750 ft., 1 2 e

13-16 May 1937 Paibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Hobby is a summer visitor to Northern Afghanistan, where Meinertzha-

gen found them not uncommon and preparing to breed in the tall plane trees

of Haibak. Solitary birds were seen at Kunduz on 21 May and in the Ghor-

band Valley on 23 May.

It is also found on passage. Meinertzhagen first met with a solitary female

at Bamian on 25 April. On 1 May at Doshi a party of some 15 birds, appa-

rently all males, arrived in the evening, hawking insects fairly high up in the

air. All had gone by the next morning.

Maconachie’s birds would also seem to have been on passage but on. the

label of the August bird he notes that they were seen fairly commonly in

pairs, so they may also breed south of Northern Afghanistan.

Hutton says that the Hobby is found around Kandahar but does .not seem

to be common.

Falco columbarius insignis (Clark).

Specimens collected.—¢ 29 January 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 13 Dec.

1880, ¢ 11 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? March 1904 Takht-i-Shah

(Annandale); [Q] 10 March, sex? 23 Dec. 1933 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

The Merlin is a winter visitor to Afghanistan. Both St. John and Swinhoe

agree that it is then common about Kandahar.

Falco vespertinus Linnaeus.

The Red-legged Falcon is only recorded by Meinertzhagen who saw many

migrating at Bamian in company with Lesser Kestrels on 24 April. They were

flying due north about 10 a,m, ;

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45 .

Falco tinnunculus tinnunculus Linnaeus.

Specimens collected—Q Afghanistan (Griffith); 9 4 March, G 27 Nov.

1879 Kandahar (St. John); 2 ¢ 3 Q 2-30 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

Q 3 Nov. between Khushk-rud and Kin, Q 18 Nov. 1884, ¢ 16 April 1885

Khusan, ¢ 24 April 1885 Tirphul, sex? 21 Jan., sex? 4 Feb., sex? 7 Feb.

Chahar Shamba (Yate & Aitchison); Q 12 March 1896 Lijjikarez 2,400 ft.

(Maynard); Q 5 Jan. Kabul, Q 10 Sept. 1933 Pani Kajak, ¢ 3 Jan. 1934

Chahiltan (Maconachie); ¢ 22 April 1937. Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

'The Kestrel seems to be fairly well distributed in Afghanistan as a breed-

ing bird. Meinertzhagen says that it was certainly breeding at Kabul, Bamian

and Haibak. Wardlaw-Ramsay says it was breeding in the Hariab Valley

at 7,000-8,o00 ft. in May. Swinhoe found a nest with young in the ramparts

of Kandahar in the beginning of April.

It is apparently much more common in winter, at any rate at Kandahar

(St. John). cok

Meinertzhagen noted passage near Kabul on 13 April when about 20 birds

were seen passing in a northerly direction in the forenoon. At Danaghori

several were seen on passage to the north between 5 and 6 p.m. on 5 May

and again at Haibak a slight passage was noticed in the evening of 11 May.

Meinertzhagen considers his Bamian specimen (and the breeding birds of

Afghan Turkestan generally in all probability) to be F. t. stegmanni but I am

not personally satisfied with the validity. of this race and consider that the

majority of Afghan specimens are certainly not separable from the typical form.

Falco naumanni Fleisch.

Specimens collected.—sex? 21 March Maruchak, Badghis, sex? g April

Karawal Khana, Badghis (Yate), 4 ¢ 6-7 May Danaghori 2,300 ft.; ¢ 16

May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Yate procured the above two specimens in Badghis and St. John believed

that he had seen the Lesser Kestrel at Kandahar without being able to

verify the fact. Otherwise it remained for Meinertzhagen to give us more in-

teresting details of its passage through Afghanistan. His account may be

quoted in full:—‘We first met the Lesser Kestrel at Bamian at 10 a.m, on

24 April, when a large scattered flock of these birds, mixed with Red-legged

Falcons (F. vespertinus) passed over, flying due north for about ten minutes

at an elevation of 300 ft. They had come down low over the Bamian Valley,

but on leaving it to cross the Hindu Kush I watched them going up and up

until lost to sight over the dazzling snows. This record was perhaps the most

interesting of all during our trip as it located the great African spring migra-

tion returning to their breeding quarters in Asia.

‘We next met. the Lesser Kestrel at Danaghori at 8 a. m. on. 6 May,

raining hard, when about five hundred birds suddenly arrived from the south

and pitched in some leafless fruit trees opposite our camp. Several shot, all

sodden with water, and with empty crops. They moved on about Io a.m.

after the sun had come out. There was a second slight passage that same

evening, when about fifty birds arrived and remained the night after feeding

on flying insects far into the gloaming. This party remained the whole of

the next day, and many of its members took pleasure in mobb:ng an Eagle-

Owl; much to my annoyance, for the poor old owl wished to be left in

peace and sit still, when I might have approached it, but these wretched little

Kestrels thought it a great joke to stoop at it and worry it till it moved on,

and they kept it going the whole evening.

‘At Haibak on 16 May another large passage occurred in the evening about

sunset, with a thunderstorm threatening. There were three to five hundred

birds flying in a loose flock from 100 to 150 ft. up, hawking insects and

picking others from the ground. They arrived from’ the south-east. The

stomach ‘of a male shot contained masses of grasshoppers and a large cen-

tipede. This party roosted in trees near the town and all had gone the next

morning.”’ “

Aquila chrysaétus (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—9Q imm. 2 Oct. 1933 Yakhdarra (Maconachie).

The above specimen provides the. only authentic record of the Golden Eagle

in Afghanistan, but St. John says he is inclined to think that it occurs about

Kandahar, i

MATER#ALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 2g9y

Aquila heliaca heliaca Savigny.

Specimens collected.—¢ 12 January, Q 20 January 1881 Kandahar (Swin-

hoe). Swinhoe says that the Imperial Eagle is common all through the winter

at Kandahar where two or three are generally to be seen on the ground in

the neighbourhood of the racecourse.

[Aquila nipalensis Hodgson.

Hutton says that a single specimen of an eagle was captured at Girishk in

December which he took to be a Steppe Eagle. His description ‘Plumage

dark brown, two cinereous bands in the wings; feathers lanceolate on head

and neck’ certainly reads like this species which one would expect to occur

as a winter species. ]

Aquila rapax Temm, & Laug.

Meinertzhagen says that he saw a single Tawny Eagle at Danaghori on

10 May.

_ Aquila clanga Pallas.

Specimen collected—Q 4 Feb. 1879 Kandahar (St. John).

Meinertzhagen procured, but apparently did not preserve, a Greater Spotted

Eagle at Danaghori on 6 May.

Hieraétus fasciatus fasciatus (Vieillot).

Specimen collected :—¢ 21 Dec. 1884 Balamorghab (Clarke).

This is the only record of Bonelli’s Eagle for Afghanistan.

Hiera€tuS pennatus (Gmelin).

Specimen collected.—sex? 4 August 1934 Ashraf 4,200 ft. (Maconachie).

This bird in the white plumage, provides the only record of the Booted

Eagle for Afghanistan.

Circaétus ferox (Gmelin).

Specimen collected:—Q 24 August 1879 Kandahar (St. John).

Meinertzhagen says that he saw a single Short-toed Eagle flying off with

a small snake in the Ghorband Valley at 8,200 ft. on 19 April. On 9g April

a pair was seen at the western end of the Shibar Pass at almost 9,000 ft.

At Bamian they were seen on three occasions in late April.

According to St. John this species was not uncommon in the Provinc2 of

Kandahar. He frequently noticed its habit of hovering like a Kestrel.

[Haliaétus leucoryphus (Pallas).

Cumming says that on 12 January 1905 he saw a pair of birds on the

high bluffs bordering on the Hamun-i-Sabari between Farrah Rud and Kuh-

i-Gach which very closely resembled this species, Pallas’s Fishing-Eagle. ]

Milvus lineatus (Gray).

Milvus migrans migrans (Boddaert).

Milvus mlgrans govinda Sykes.

Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); sex? 26 April 1874 Panjah,

Wakhan (Biddulph); 1 ¢.5 @Q Jan., Feb., April, Sept., Nov., Dec. 1879

Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 14 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; sex? 4 April Chahar

Shamba, sex? 9 April Karewal Khana, Morghab (Yate); ¢ 10 May 1896 Robat

4,300 ft. (Maynard); 9-25 April 1906 Peiwar Kotal 8,o00 ft. (Whitehead);

3S 29 August Kabul 5,700 ft., g 1 October 1933 Sangi nawishta (Maconachie) ;

c 29 April 1937 Bamian 8,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

I have not been able to disentangle the status of the three forms of Kite

which are all said to occur in Afghanistan. Their identification is always a

matter of difficulty. Different writers have identified many of the above speci-

mens differently and many of them are immature while the matter is further

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

confused by the statements in the literature which do not seem to agree with

the evidence of the- specimens.

It must here suffice to say that some species of Kite, which has been

variously identified with all three forms, is common at Kandahar, apparently

as a summer visitor; that in smaller numbers Kites may be found at some

season or other throughout the country; and that the dominant form

is almost certainly Milvus migrans migrans. Like vultures, kites tend to follow

an army in the field (as has been specifically noted in the case of the Afghan

War of 1879-80 and in the Tirah. Campaign) so it must be remembered that

St. John may have been perfectly correct in saying that M. m. govinda accom-

panied the army in numbers to Kandahar but that it might not normally

be found there.

Under these circumstances I have not considered it profitable to detail the

records in full. It is however of interest to note that Meinertzhagen observed

a ‘considerable passage of Black Kites at Bamian from 21 to 24 April. These

waves of passage always occurred at the same time towards evening, when

birds could be. seen coming in from the south, five or six hundred feet up.

They would all make for a grove of tall poplars where they roosted for the

night and next morning all would be gone. On some evenings ten to fifteen

birds would arrive, but on the 23rd over fifty. On that day three birds were

shot, all males’. These he identified as Milvus migrans migrans.

» (Elanus caeruleus yociferus (Latham).

Specimen collected :—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith).

The Worcester list contains the entry of the Black-winged Kite as obtained

at Kabul by Captain Hay. It is perhaps desirable to wait for confirmation

before this species is fully admitted to the list.]

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin).

Specimens collected :—sex? Otipore (Griffith); 9g 3 April 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe); ¢ 18 March Maruchak (Yate); Q2 March 1896 Mehrab Nawar

3,000 ft. (Maynard); (¢) Feb. 1903 Band-i-Seistan, (2) no date Shaharistan

(Annandale); ¢ 28 Feb., @ 15 March, g 22 March Baqrani 5,700 ft., Q 5

Sept. Farakhulm, Q 24 Sept. 1933 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); 2 Q 24 April

Bamian, ¢ 8 May 1937 Danaghori (Meinertzhagen).

According to St. John the Pale Harrier is a very common spring and: autumn

passage migrant through Afghanistan and rare in winter. The records agree

with this status.

Meinertzhagen says that at Kabul on 4 April many were seen slowly hunt-

ing their way north, all single birds. At Bamian on 24 April about 4o birds

passed -at Io -a.m.- on a northward course, all being females. On 6 May at

Danaghori there was a slight passage at sunset, a few straggling birds passing

towards the north-east.

At Kandahar. in’ 1881 Swinhoe found them passing through in the early part

of April, the passage lasting for about 10 days.

Circus pygargus Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); GQ 17 April Karawal

Khana, Murghab (Yate); & 25 March 1934,: Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

These specimens and a male shot by Meinertzhagen at Barfak 3,400 ft.

on 1 May 1937 provide the only records of Montagu’s Harrier for Afghanistan.

It is doubtless a passage migrant.

Circus cyaneus cyaneus (Linnaeus).

Specimens. collected.—Q 30 Jan. 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢ 23 December

1884, Q 11 Jan. 1885 Bala-Morghab. Badghis (Aitchison); Q 25 Nov. Zulfikar,

Badghis, ¢ 1 Feb. Chahar Shamba, Maimanah, ¢@ 10 March, Q 13 March

Maruchak, Murghab (Yate).

These records. suggest that the Hen Harrier is a winter visitor and Hutton

has to say of it: ‘This is rather a common species at Kandahar and frequents

the marshy tracts below the city to the south, where during the winter snipe

and waterfowl are abundant. I saw them also at Girishk.’

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 301

Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢ 20 April 1874 Panjah,

Wakhan (Biddulph); ¢ sex? 22 Ftb.-4 March 1879 Kandahar (St. John); 4 ¢

1 Q 14-23 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); g 12 March Maruchak, ¢ 16 April

Karawal Khana, @ 13 May Kilawali, Murghab (Yate); sex? March 1903

Nadali, sex? March 1904 Takht-i-Shah ‘(Annandale); Q 10 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-

Baring (Annandale); Q 8 March 1933 Bagrami 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); ¢

24 April Bamian, 2 3 May 1937 Doshi (Meinertzhagen). .

Hutton says that the Marsh Harrier is common at Kandahar especially

near a small swamp to the south of the city and along the banks of canals

in the cultivated tracts. St. John adds that it is common in winter but

Swinhoe says that it arrived there early in February and was there in some

numbers up to the date of his departure, 22 April. This suggests that the

majority are passage migrants though some birds are certainly found in winter

in Seistan (vide the specimen of 10 December) where Annandale says it is the

commonest bird of prey over the reed-beds of the Hamun. Biddulph thought

that his Panjah specimen which was accompanied ‘by a second bird might be

breeding in the high reeds of the swamp where he found them, but all the

other specimens agree in being evidently passage migrants and Meinertzhagen

was lucky in meeting a most marked passage at Bamian. There on 24 April

the passage commenced suddenly at 6 p.m., birds arriving from the south-east

and south, all adult males. They were obviously fatigued for they came down

to roost on a ploughed field. Some 66 birds were counted and more were still

arriving at dark. They must have left early again as there was no sign of

them in the valley soon after daybreak. On the following day and at the same

time about ten adult males arrived from the same direction and roosted in

that identical ploughed field and were gone again next morning.

Buteo rufinus rufinus (Cretzschmar).

Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢ 24 Jan., ¢ Q 7 Feb.

1879 Kandahar (St. John); juv. July 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay) ;

26 1 @ 1-23 Oct. 1879 Kelat-i-Ghilzai (St. John); g 19 Dec. 1879, @ 14

Jan. 1880 Kandahar (St. John); Q@ 21 Dec. 1880, Q 12 Jan. 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe); Q@ 9 Oct. between Sha-Ismail and Salian, ¢ 6 Dec. 1884 between

Koaja-Palounda and Karez-darra, Badghis, gf 9 11 March 1885 Gulran, Badghis

(Aitchison); ¢@ 27 Jan., g n.d.. Q 4 Feb. Chahar Chamba, Maimanah, 9.

10 March Kara Bel, Maimanah (Yate); [dg] Feb. 1904 Seistan (Cumming) ;

Q 3 Sept. Logar 5,700 ft., Q@ 7 Sept. 1933 Badasiab, ¢ 3 Nov.. 1934, Logar

5,800 ft. (Maconachie).

The above series includes both the very pale and the very black phases of

the Long-legged Buzzard. This species breeds in the Hariab Valley 7,000-

8,000 ft. near Byan Khel where Wardlaw-Ramsay received the above juvenile

(of the black phase) from an Afghan. It. probably came from a nest on a

steep ledge above the camp which was known to Wardlaw-Ramsay and of

which he had tried unsuccessfully to obtain the parent birds.

Nobody else has recorded any notes on this species except Meinertzhagen -

and St. John. The former saw an occasional bird around Kabul between 6

and 12 April and two birds at Danaghori on 6 May. The latter says that it

is the commonest bird of prey in the country except in summer when it

vanishes. No doubt it is in the main a winter visitor and passage migrant.

Buteo buteo vulpinus Gloger.

Specimen collected—Q 10 Sept. 1933 Katakhak (Maconachie).

This is perhaps the form which, under the name of Buteo desertorum,

Cumming says he shot at Reg Mori on 27 Feb. 1904.

[Astur gentilis (Linnaeus).

Although there is no definite record of the Goshawk in Afghanistan it is

safe to assume that it occurs on spring and autumn passage, but rarely, as

Mr. Donald, one-time Political Officer at Kohat and a keen falconer, relates the

method of catching them in the Independent territory north of Kohat (Ibis

1909, p. 262)].

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

Astur badius cenchroides Severtzov.

Specimens collected.—¢ Afghanistan (Griffith); ¢ 9 April 1881 Kandahar

(St. John); Q 14 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 13 Feb. Chahar

Shamba, Maimanah (Yate); 2 ¢ 1 @ 14-18 April Ghorband SATO) iil, CG 1

May 1937 Haibak 3,o00 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

In Northern Afghanistan Meinertzhagen first met with the Shikra on 14

April in the Ghorband Valley when there were a few roosting in willows

with Sparrow-hawks. They became more abundant on 16 April, males _pre-

dominating, and were still common on the 17th but all had gone by the 18th.

These no doubt were on passage and the bird was not noted again until Haibak

3,000 ft. where a few pairs were nest-building. At Kunduz it was again breed-

ing in a plane tree as at Haibak.

In Southern Afghanistan the Shikra is not uncommon, according to Hutton,

but the status is not recorded.

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis (Ticlxell).

Specimens collected.—@Q 4 January, Q@ 5 Feb. 1880 Kandahar (St. John) ;

Q 14 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 6 Dec. Hanz-i-Khan, Badghis (Yate) ;

SO Shili Kach (Maynard); g 23 Feb. Chahiltan, sex? 2 July 1933 Ashraf,

Q 24 Sept. 1934 Ashraf Valley 4,200 ft. (Maconachie); Q@ 12 April Paghman

8,000 ft., 3 ¢ 2 Q 14-18 April 1937 Ghorband 8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Some form of Sparrow-hawk breeds in the mountains along the eastern

border of Afghanistan as Colonel Rattray (J.B.N.H.S., vol. xii, p. 344) men-

tions a young bird in down being brought to Parachinar in July from’ the

Safed Koh. Mr. Donald also states that it breeds freely in Tirah (Ibis 1909,

p- 262). Wardlaw-Ramsay on the other hand only once observed. a Sparrow-

hawk in the Hariab Valley. The identity of this breeding race has not yet

been established but it is doubtless the Himalayan race A. n. melanoschistos

which breeds at Ziarat in Baluchistan.

Be that as it may the Central Asiatic form is evidently a common winter

visitor and double passage migrant to Afghanistan generally.

In the south Hutton calls it common at Kandahar; St. John says it is com-

mon all over the Province in spring and autumn; Swinhoe found it common

in the spring.

In the north Meinertzhagen first noted it in the Ghorband Valley at about

8,200 ft., when several, mostly males, were roosting at dusk in young willows

on 14 and 15 April. On the 16th there was a large influx, again mostly

males, consorting with Shikras. On the 18th they had almost gone. At

Bamian there was a heavy influx on 24 April, as many as 20 being seen in

one small poplar grove. These of course were all on passage.

(To be continued)

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER

SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

A. St. J.. MACDONALD.

Part VIII

(Continued from page 188 of volume 45).

SEA AND Estuary FISHING (continued).

Bahmin in Malabar by Munisheh (5). Sea-fishing (West Coast) by Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton (6). East Coast angling localities by Sri E. K. Mahdavan (7).

5. BAHMIN IN MALABAR by MUNISHEH

To the scientist he is known as Polynemus tetradactylus, in

more common parlance “Bahmin’ (Malayalam) ; to the unfortunate

who tries to catch him, ‘a devil incarnate’,

He lives, amongst other places, on the West Gorse of India in

close vicinity to tidal creeks; is said to attain to a length of 4 ft. ;

and is very rarely above 20 Ibs. in weight. But the normal size

caught on a rod and line varies between 3 and 7 lbs.

Having previously heard of and read of his prowess, on being

ordered to the Malabar Coast, I was determined to try my hand

at catching this most elusive fish. The combined experiences of

myself and some friends may prove to be of interest.

Having studied minutely all that those recognised authorities

on fishing in India—‘Skene Dhu’ and H. 8S. Thomas—could teil

us on the subject, we now, with the greatest of deference, beg to

differ on several points. The authorities instruct one to be satis-

fied with spinning one’s lure round the piers of rail and road

bridges. These span the rivers and creeks every few miles up and

down the long coastal strip. Apart from the fact that the fish

seem to haunt these spots only when conditions in other places are

not suitable, the added difficulty of dealing with such a wild crea-

ture rushing madly in and out of any obstruction that may give

him the least opportunity to break, causes one to avoid such loca-

lities as far as possible. Also, it is not everybody who has the

head to walk placidly up and down the open sleepers of a railway

bridge. Most of the rivers on this coast have very narrow mouths,

in and out of which the tide runs at great speed, and there are

definite bars about 4oo yards out from the actual line. Experience

has proved that there is more probability of finding the fish in

either of those spots, rather than inland near the bridges.

The chief difficulty is to ascertain the time that the fish are

likely to be present at one’s selected locality. There appears to

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

be no reason for their movements. One day they will be there

in their hundreds. The next day with identically the same con-

ditions as regards temperature, water, tide, light and wind, there

is not a fish in sight. The most probable times are, however,

early morning and late afternoon. |

‘he second main point of difference is the question of lure to

be used. The authorities recommend an almost exclusively dead

bait. This has been tried, and in addition, phantoms and spoons.

The best sport was obtained by using a large and heavy spoon—

three inch size being the very smallest. Even a small bahmin of

t4 lbs will take this without any hesitation. A heavy spinning rod

with a reel capable of carrying 150 yards of stout line is a Ssine-

qG ua-non.

The method adopted is to be at the selected locality at the

same time as fish have been reported to be rising on the previous

day. A rough country boat is procured, with two paddlers, and

one possesses one’s soul in patience in the hope that a rise wiil

occur. If one’s luck is in, there is no chance of missing that rise.

The water boils and foams with maddened fish. The boat is pro-

pelled as fast as possible to the spot before the shoal moves on

or disappears. Casts need to be long, and the line reeled in as

fast as humanly possible. The spoon is liable to be taken at any

time, from the moment it touches the water until lifted out pre-

paratory to the next cast. On more than one occasion a fish has

rapped its head against the boat in its last frantic effort to seize

the lure. There is neither time nor necessity to strike; all that

is required is a constant tight line. Needle-sharp hooks are an

essential; the bahmin has a bony mouth, and blunt hooks mean

almost certain failure. Even when safely hooked, the odds~are

still in his favour. He is up to every- known trick of the trade,

including dancing on the surface with his mouth wide open and

wildly shaking his head. One fish landed and three spoons lost

constitute a red-letter day. |

‘Apart from his fighting powers, the bahmin’s great curiosity

is his eyes. To quote H. S. Thomas in ‘The Rod in India’:—‘The

eye is covered with a fixed transparent membrane through which

the eye may be clearly seen moving free of it inside it, and

which is so tough that Colonel Osborn has twice hooked fish. foul

by it and landed them.’

At Mahé the local people catch them on heavy bazaar-made

brass spoons, attached by a complicated series of swivels and

thick brass wire to a heavy hand line. They haul this in hand

over hand at a far greater speed than can be attained by an ordi-

nary reel. In less sophisticated places the lure. used. is a piece.

of iron, about the thickness of a middle finger, and 6 inches long.

Attached to the lower end of this and lying in one place are two

large hooks. Half way up the metal rod is attached one more

hook. The whole thing, except the hooks, is then bound with a

piece of white cloth and attached to a strong hand line. Every

morning: and afternoon men may be seen sitting on the high banks

of sand waiting for the fish to show themselves. As soon as the.

rise occurs, the men run down the bank into the breakers whirl-

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 395

ing the lures round their heads and casting them a perfectly amaz-

ing distance. As soon as the lure touches the water, they run

back up the bank hauling the line in hand over hand at the same

time.

All anglers who come to the Malabar coast have heard of the

bahmin; they all prepare their tackle, full of zeal. Many give up

the unequal contest. Even the few that persevere have little to

show as a reward for their patience, and leave the coast feeling

they have more than met their match. Some cease to regard it

as a sport and term it a blood feud.

We hear that there are places outside Malabar where there

are bahmin in great numbers at certain seasons, and that they can

really be caught. We hope to visit them if opportunity arises,

and have our revenge,

6. SEA FISHING (West Coast) by LIEUT.-COL. R. W. BURTON.

The West Coast of India, especially from Ratnagiri south-

wards, affords excellent sea angling at certain seasons and places.

Gadsden has dealt with Karachi, Bombay, and other localities ;

and G. D. Traylen with Bombay especially. No intending sea

angler should fail to consult all the articles cited on the first page

of this Chapter. Dr M. Suter has now dealt with fishing around

Karwar. |

All down the West Coast—the ‘Canoe Coast’ (the East Coast)

is known as the ‘Catamaran Coast,’ the best of sport is to be

had around the many islands scattered along the coast line, and

at the channels where the many rivers enter the sea, also at cer-

tain places up the tidal backwaters, by means of the sailing dug-

outs everywhere available. Below Tellicherry and Mahé, how-

ever, there are long stretches of coast where there is little pro-

spect of sporting fish being found, except at certain states of the

tide at the mouths of the several estuaries; and the only places

worth a visit are Beypore, Cochin, Quilon, at all of which accommo-

dation exists, and Muttam. Opposite Muttam is Crocodile Rock

where is 23 fathoms of water and many big fish of several species.

Here is no sailing dug-out, the local craft being catamarans. Boat

would have to be arranged for from further up the coast. The flat

rocks are named by the boatmen of Muttam as ‘Tharai-par’; and.

the steep rocks ‘Usantha-par’; and the boatmen give names of

Tiger shark (Rajah, Thiruvalli-kalan, Pullyan soya), Saw Fish

(Vela, Iluppa, Vaalu srava), Tunny (Choorai, Soorai, Kethal),

Bonito (Ela-choorai, Mass), Seir (Nedunthalai, Varian), Elacate

nigra (Kada viral), Sword fish (Thalapattu), Spear fish (Kopparah,

Ola-meen). Evidently Muttam is a place to visit, with a proper

sailing boat. Season: October to February. No accommodation.

Mention should also be made of Sacrifice Rock, 20 miles south-west

of Mahé and 7 miles north-west of Cotta Point, where the depth

is around 13 fathoms and many seir, caranx, and gar-pike can be

caught.

Local enquiry has to be made as to time when the surface

306 «6s SUURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

feeding fish are passing down the coast within the period mid-

September onwards to mid-January; and this applies to whatever

part of the coast is visited. At Quilon in the last week of Decem-

ber no seir were found, as the latter part of November and early

December is apparently the time for them there.

Around the islands and rocky places one hopes for seir, caranx,

mooloo, (Elacate nigra), rock perch of several varieties, and gar-

pike: bahmin, nair, mullet, gar-pike, and some other varieties

are to be had at the channel entrances and up the tidal portions

of the rivers entering the sea. But it is only the angler who has

the leisure and opportunity to camp at such places (estuary out-

lets to the sea) who can be fairly sure of sport, for most of the

river mouths are difficult of access and fishing can only be had

at certain states of the tide, the time for which naturally varies

from day to day. So camp one must, or undergo many blank

days and disappointments.

The season for the angler, whichever portion of the West Coast

he may select or have available to him, is from the close of the

South-West monsoon about mid- September, to the middle of Janu-

ary. There may be fishing after that time but the writer is not

able to say so.

Within the period mentioned the best time to fish varies all

down the coast. Sometimes the monsoon closes by the end of

August and then some of the surface feeding fish are migrating

earlier: and off Karwar the bahmin may be more numerous and

larger in size. As a rule it is not worth planning to fish before

mid-September; and during October, sometimes early November

also, violent storms may put a complete stop to all fishing for

as much as ten days at a time, so those without leisure, or patience

to wait, have to go home.

Yhere is yet much to be learnt about the movements of com-

mercially important and sporting migratory fish such as the seir

and larger mackerels. This would involve a complete acquaintance

with the smaller fishes and other food on which they feed, as

their movements must be largely influenced by search for food.

It is by reason of the presence of myriad shoals of ‘sardines’ of '

the herring family, and of the common mackerel (Scomber micro-

lepidotus) which appear on the Malabar coast after the South-

West monsoon, sometimes also large shoals of mullan (Equula

splendens), that the large surface feeders are present; but there

must be more to it than that or these fish wouid remain all the

time with the shoals and not move down the coast as they do.

Probably the reproductive urge is at work and the sumptuous

feeding on sardines furthers that impulse. Where they go to

spawn is not known; it is likely to be over banks far out to sea,

of which there are several—, or it may be in the Gulf of Manaar.

Fishermen come in their fine boats from Ratnagiri to Malpe

and from there go out of sight of land, this in the month of

November, and bring in large catches of seir, kora, and other

big surface feeders, also shark, so this is the time for the angler

to visit Malpe, and the coast line for some distance above and

below, as the writer has found. If the sea current is setting to

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 307

the north there are no fish; the seir etc. come along with the

_ shoals when the current comes from the North. Big’ storms often

upset the season for a fortnight at a time, these upset the ocean

currents, Mid-November' is good because after the first week of

that month storms are unusual.

An essential to successful sea angling is—as said elsewhere by

the writer—to get a firm grasp of the habits and nature of the

particular fish in quest; determine the method which will present

the lure in the most natural way; ascertain what pattern of lure,

or natural bait is most deadly; select the most suitable locality }

and ascertain (the first essential) the precise part of the month

or time of year during which the various species are to be found

at the selected place.

There should be careful study of the weather and condition

of the water, for sea fish, almost as much as freshwater fish,

are affected by the temperature and condition of the sea and

strength and direction of currents.

Causes of failure of newcomers may be mostly attributed to

wrong gear, bait, locality, and judgment of water and weather

conditions. Advice of local fishermen, although. they may know

nothing of rod angling, is most valuable as to exact locality, time,

bait, and depth at which to fish: this last being very important.

Local people give ready help as they are interested in one’s suc-

cess, for. the sportsman usually gives the bulk..of the catch to

those who assist him to obtain it.

Only by reading and studying all the articles cited in this

Chapter will the sea angler arrive at that success, which he would

otherwise attain at long last through vexatious and expensive ex-

perience. ° For instance, Gadsden had much success at various sea-

sons but had evolved a killing method of baiting and presenting

the prawn. |

Except perhaps at Cochin and Quilon, where a friend might

be able to arrange for a power launch, the angler has to depend

on the. sailing dug-out and the eterna that blow. Fortunately

the wind is off-shore from early morning to mid-day and at that

hour. very punctually changes round to waft one back to land.

At a number of places the sailing dug-out is a fairly suitable

arrangement, but all the same a good deal of. valuable fishing

time is wasted. The ideal for a keen angler with the necessary

leisure—and not shy of a roughish time as to bodily comforts—

is to hire a country sailing boat of about 15-17 tons, with a crew

of six. men and_a sailing dug-out in tow, and live on it, so being

free to go anywhere along the coast, Aner: at a suitable mince and

go off in the dinghy, or out to sea. Laccadive islanders have

great fishing over the Padua Bank 150 miles west of Mangalore.

This during December-January when storms very rarely occur.

There are many species of fish in Western India seaboard

waters. Vernacular names change along the coast as the langu-

age of the people changes. Bombay to Ratnagiri Mahratti is

spoken; then comes Goanese; Canarese; Tulu; Malayalam; Tamil;

and along the East Coast north of Madras, Telugu; but even so

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

the names of the fish will sometimes vary within these linguistic

limits. Therefore one should have a scientific list to refer to and

then, recognizing the Family to which any species belongs, a verna-

cular tag can be applied to the fish. Much of interest is lost if

one does not know the names of fish taken: and the information

is useful to others.

Mahratti names of a number of. fish can be known from the

Series ‘The Fish Supply of the West Coast of India’ elsewhere

cited; and a scientific list with Travancore coast names is to be

found in the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, vol.

XXXIll page 347 et seq.

The writer can give names of some fish as known on the

coast of South Canara and Malabar.

True mackerel Cybium guttatum . Canarese, khullkul; Tulu,

anjal; Malayalam, vari-

meen.

De.

Do.

Horse mackerel

Do.

Bahmin 506

Thread fish

Shark (dog-fish)

Shark (ground shark

of rivers).

Shark (hammer

head).

Shark (tiger shark) ...

Skate

Cat-fish (Marine

species).

Sting ray

White pomfret

Black pomfret ond

Herrings and = sar-

dines.

Do.

Silver bellies

Cybium commersonit

Elacate nigra

Caranx, of which a num-

ber of species.

Chorinemus lysan

Polynemus tetradactylus.

. Sciaena, sp. two or three

varieties.

Chiloscyllium griseum,

A shallow water shark.

Carcharias gangeticus ...

Zygaena blochu

Galeocerdo rayneri

. Rhynchobatus djeddensis.

Arius, Sp.

Trygon sephen

. Stomateus sinensis

Do. cinereus

Do. niger 560

Clupea longiceps

Oil sardine, migratory ...

Clupea fimbriata :

Oil sardine, migratory ...

Clupea lile ght

The Malabar sardine,

migratory.

Dussumieria acuta

The Malabar sardine,

migratory.

Egquula splendens

The Malabar sardine,

migratory.

... Canarese, arkulaz; Malaya-

lam, ayakoora,

Mangalore coast,

meen.

Canarese, parat.

Mangalore coast, para, kana-

yan para.

Mangalore coast, pala, pala

meen.

Canarese, vameenu.

Malayalam, Bamin.

Do. kora.

mooloo-

Malayalam, oodumbi shirav.

Malayalam, svavu.

Canarese, famast.

. Malayalam, kannankodi.

Canarese, kabbethatte.

Tulu, p2lthatte.

Malayalam, pullian sravu.

Do. Makara SPAVK.

Canarese, eft7-balliar.

Malayalam, yada, etta.

Canarese, thede:

Malayalam, wei-therandt.

Canarese, neztherake.

Do. mani.

Malayalam, zella avoli.

Canarese, chandratata.

Malayalam, karapu avolt.

Do karutha akolt.

Do. nalla mathi.

Canarese, baige.

Malayalam, chella mathi.

Canarese, ped7.

Malayalam, veloori.

Do. kolachi, kolakayan

Do. mullan.

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 309

_ Silver bellies .. Family Gerridae ... Canarese, kuricht.

Sometimes found in large

shoals hunted by ser,

kora, Chorinemus lysan

etc.; length up to six

inches.

Gar-pike ... Belone, sp. ... Mangalore Coast, kandai.

A caranx Scala rye NAVD mas ewe ee Do. kadai.

PAGSPOLCGSPETCHy Ss. 0 eseehs Do. ambat,

Another perch CO ee ee eo Do. anjel mUurt.

The common mackerel forms the main fish harvest on portions

of the Malabar coast, and is the fish one mainly uses for dead

and live bait when fishing away from the shore. It is Scomber

microlepidotus, about 3 to 5 to a pound, Mangalore coast bangada,

bagala, also ila.

The Great Indian Fin Whale is very rarely seen. So it was

a great surprise when one of these huge creatures uprose about

fifty yards from my anchored boat near Sacrifice Rock.

Of all the fish listed above C. guttatum is perhaps the most

prized by the angler, as it runs to six feet and 60 lbs. and speeds

like a race horse. E. nigra is a most dogged fighter. Those

caught by the writer have not exceeded 4o lbs.; but the fishermen

say they grow ‘as big as three men’ and are sometimes so taken

in their nets. I have no confirmation of this, and doubt it. Day

does not mention size limit.

All horse mackerel (Caranx) fight well; fighting qualities of

bahmin are well known, the ordinary size is five to ten pounds

or so, and around Karwar up to 25 lbs. may be taken. There

is record of 34 lbs. at Goa (‘The Field’, April 1930). Gar-pike are

2 to 5 lbs.: ro lbs. is a big one. Mullet may be up to 2 lbs. or

so. As to fishing for the above (mullet and gar-pike) Gadsden

should be read as to baits and tackle so also for bahmin. Gads-

den and Traylen deal especially with sea angling around Bombay.

Part of the definition of what constitutes sport may be: said

to be the making of it as great a test as possible consistent with

reasonable fulfilment of the main object in view. From this stand-

point,- with tackle to suit the weight of the species as ordinarily

caught, the bahmin is in a class apart from other sea fish off

the coast as he is indeed a contrary and elusive creature. So

perhaps something about the bahmin may be of interest and use

to intending anglers.

Gadsden describes him as a magnificent, game-looking fish

and something of a cross between a salmon and an English sea-

bass. More handsome than the salmon though not so aristocratic

looking. 3

Apart from appearance the bahmin can be likened in a number

of respects to the English sea-bass. He is a sea fish, as is the

' bass, and is equally fond of running up estuaries; he can be

successfully fished for from the shore in the roughest weather;

he has a varied diet, but is especially fond of prawns and small

fish; he prefers a spoon bait silvered on both sides, with a sliver

of mackerel tailing on the end hook; he takes a fly; and is much

esteemed as a fish for the table.

In all the above respects the two species are alike. They

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45

are also alike in that both of them are the most difficult and

contrary fish with which it is possible to try conclusions. Like

bass, bahmin are found in-shore and around rocks. They are

fickle and difficult. One day they may be caught and the next,

under apparently precisely similar conditions, they will wholly

elude one. When in pursuit of bahmin one should bear in mind

all that is written by expert anglers for bass. In one respect

they are different: the sea-bass takes a prawn by the tail, the

bahmin by the head. If a live prawn be used it should be hook-

ed through the last but one segment from the tail and the trace

continued for another hook to be placed below the head and tied

there (also the in-between piece of trace) with coloured thread.

Other fish besides bahmin may take the bait, and mounted in

this way it is ready for all. comers. If the prawn be hooked

through the head it does not live long; in quiet water a lively

prawn is the better bait.

If a dead prawn is used it is best mounted in Gadsden’s way.

Whatever the bait may be the size of hook must be suited to

the bait, and the bait fished at proper depth, being kept there

by lead of suitable weight. Two or three feet below the surface

may be usually correct but circumstances must decide. If speed

of the tide does not keep the bait up a float of the sliding or

‘release’ type is essential. Both the ‘Summers’ and the ‘Wallis’

are good. |

_ Reverting to the two species. They are alike in that the ordi-

nary size taken is from five to twelve pounds; and differ in the

rod and line maximum recorded weights, as the record for the

English sea-bass around the coasts of England and Ireland is

close to 17 lbs. and the bahmin has been caught up to 34 lbs.

It is well, in this place, to say something regarding the genus

Polynemus of which there are as many as eight species (Day’s

Fishes). Of these, two only attract the attention of the sea ang-

ler, the others being small fishes.

In the Rod in India, second edition, page 210, the usual

descriptive quotation (from Day’s Fishes of India, Burma and

Ceylon) of both P. tetradactylus and P. indicus will be found. No

mention of P. plebeius is made in the book.

In vol. 34, No. 4, pages 979-980 of the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society will be found much of interest regard-

ing the two larger species of bahmin. It seems the Mahratti

name ‘Ravas’ is applied generally to all the Polynemus species.

It may well be the case that sea anglers catch not only P. tetra-

dactylus but P. indicus also.

In an article on ‘Estuary Fishing as an Industry in Western

India’. W. A. Wallinger gives at page 635 of vol. 17, No. 3. of the

Society’s Journal a list of fish taken in, and at the mouth of, the

Kolaba greek classified according to their size and habits. Under

‘Large Migratory Fish* weight of P. tetradactylus is given as

‘locally said to attain 168 lbs.’ while in the margin is remarked

‘Buchanan, gives 320 Ibs’.

The origin of this 320 Ibs. statement passed on from one writer

to another evidently emanates from Dr. Day’s ‘Fishes of India

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 31i

etc.’ where he gives the size of this species as ‘attaining six feet

and upwards in length’ and adds Hamilton-Buchanan observes :

I have been assured by a credible native that he saw one which

was a load for six men, and which certainly, therefore, exceeded

in weight 320 lbs. avoirdupois.

In that same list (Wallinger’s) P. plebeius is ‘locally said to

-attain 50 lbs.’ while no mention is made of P. indicus. Day gives

length of P. indicus as four feet, and weight as ‘rarely above

20 lbs’. At page.g7g of vol. 34 we find from records of the Steam

Trawler ‘William Carrick’ that the average weight of P. indicus

taken in the nets was 13 lbs., and the heaviest individual fish of

this species recorded was 34 lbs.—total length 3 ft. 8 inches. No

specimen of tetradactylus larger than 154 lbs. was taken by the

trawler.

Wallinger calls P. plebeius ‘Dara’, which is the Bombay locality

name for indicus. It is certain that his 50 lbs. refers to indicus,

and his 168 lbs. for the other. ‘Rawas’ ts probably a mistake of

the informing fishermen. Anyhow we are still without sufficient

proof of the size to which Polynemus attains beyond the specimen

of P. tetradactylus 38 lbs. captured with a cast-net in very shallow

water south of Pamban as witnessed by Sri E. K. Mahdavan,

Assistant Director of Fisheries, who says that P. indicus is also

found in that locality.

It remains to say how these two species can be readily distin-

guished, and leave to future sea-anglers the pleasure of contri-

buting records of weights to the Honorary Secretary of the Bom-

bay Natural History Society.

Polynemus tetradactylus—

Four free pectoral rays reaching to the end of the ventral. Air-vessel absent.

Colour. Silvery-green, becoming yellowish-white on the sides and abdomen,

dorsal and caudal grayish with minute black points and nearly black at the

edges : ventral and anal pale orange in their outer halves, pectoral filaments

white.

This species is a more shapely fish than the next and has the silvery sheen

and graceful body contour which call to mind comparison with the true salmon

of the north. (Vol. 34, p. 980.)

Polynemus indicus—

Five free pectoral rays reaching nearly to the anal fin. Air-vessel long and

narrow. Vertical fins dark edged. Lateral line continued along the lower

caudal lobe almost to its end.

Colour, black purplish black, abdomen silvery white, dashed with gold.

. First and second dorsals, also anal, stained with black. as is likewise the lower

half of the opercle. Caudal with many black points.

Tackle for Sea Angling.

Until fairly recent years sea rods, lines, traces, etc. have

been unnecessarily coarse and heavy. This still obtains to some

extent. It is seldom one catches with rod and line off the coasts

of India fish heavier than sixty pounds. Take the seir fish, 200-

250 yards g cord cuttyhunk is sufficient; so also for bahmin, There

is no real reason why sea tackle should be coarser and heavier

than freshwater tackle. If it is wished to struggle with big sea

perch of species which grow to hundreds of pounds in weight it

is better to anchor and use a heavy hand line. If such fish are

hooked when trolling for surface feeders the best thing is to break

giz JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi, 45

away, if necessary, and in anticipation of that contingency the

trace should be of lesser breaking strain than the line. That in-

deed is a usual practice in most classes of. angling.

Rods.

The best sport is obtained by use of a spinning rod of green-

heart (preferably spliced) or ringal cane (not split cane—the sun,

sea water, and humid climate will soon ruin it), length about 8

feet for boat work. All metal work brass or rustless, rings pro-

tected porcelain, or agate, end ring side-protected also. This rod

for surtace trolling around rocks and islands, and drift-line fishing.

The cork handle in front of reel should be wrapped over with

whipcord to give nonslip hold.

For fishing from the shore and at estuary channels a jonger

spinning rod is better, The writer uses 10 ft. 6 in.

For mullet and estuary gar-pike, a trout rod and light tackle.

The majority of modern anglers, both sea and freshwater,

prefer the short bait-casting rod, or a modification of it, and mul-

tiplying reel. The use of such .an outfit has many advantages.

Though the rod is not very suitable for trolling it is valuable

for its easy overhead and far-casting capacity, especially when

a school of bahmin is feeding on the surface, or one is fortu-

nate enough to be close to a shoal of small fish being raided

by seir etc.; and for gar-pike around island rocks; also others

in the boat are not endangered by flying hooks. Stiff sea rods

spoil sport unless the fish are very large, and those should be

separately catered for. The spinning rods will cope with all one

meets, and the springy action maintains hook-hold in bony mouths.

Care has to be taken to tire out a fish before bringing it to

the gaff or it may go under the boat and smash the rod. Boat-

men should be carefully instructed in use of the gaff. Carry a

spare rod. -

Reels.

The reel must be proof against sea water corrosion, of strong

make, free running, have line guard, check, and adequate brak-

ing arrangement, and balance the rod in use. Nottingham brass

backed reels of 5 inches diameter, also Bakelite and other makes

of similar size, will give good service. Ratchet check reels sing

pleasant songs but the teeth wear out. Spares should be carried.

With all reels of this type one has to beware of rapped knuckles

from revolving handles.

American and other multiplying reels of sufficient line capacity

(200 to 250 yds.) meet requirements; but as all such reels have to

be fixed on top of the rod rings need to be duplicated, and care

taken that they are sufficiently close together to prevent wear of

sagging line.

Reels of the silent and stationary handle type such as the

‘Fortuna’ and other makes, with the star brake controlling the

drum, are longer lasting and give effective control of the fish at

all stages of the fight. A pinch reel of this type will take ample

line and fulfil all trolling ha drift line fishing requirements for

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 313

as heavy fish as the angler will need to deal with in Indian coastal

waters.

It is likely that after the present War reels of more’ unbreak-

able plastic material than Bakelite will be on the market. The

great - advantage of plastic material reels is that their compara-

tive lightness enables the rod to be suitably balanced with a reel

of large line capacity. Carry a spare reel.

Lines.

It pays to use the best queliey line. Cuttyhunk-—1r2 thread

(30 lb. b.s.) suffices for trolling. For spinning, and the casting

rod, braided line is necessary. For float fishing the front 30 yds.

should be of silk, and greased.

The whole line should be tightly wound on to obviate ‘bird’s

nests’ and disaster. The line should be double-looped to the swi-

vel and whipped, without knotting, a few inches above.

Lines should be washed in fresh water after use; and ‘tor

this purpose it is convenient that the line winder be of make and

material to permit of immersion in the bath.

Line for trolling should be marked by red wool tags fuisted

in at 30 yds.—the usual trolling distance, qo yds. for keeping the

bait at greater depth, and 100 yds. It is well to have two tag's

a few inches apart at 4o, and three tags at 100 so that, after

dark, it can be known by feel what line is out. :

The Sunn Hemp (Crotalaria juncea) is. grown all along the

coast. The fisher folk make their nets and lines from. the retted

fibre. In case of necessity one’s trolling line losses can be quick-

ly. made good by use of a line twisted to. order of length and

thickness required, and waterproofed by rubbing with green fruit

of a tree growing in many swampy places. It is Diospyros em-

bryopteris, Malayalam, Panichi; Tamil, Panichchai.

The floats used by the fishermen for their nets are from the

dried wood of the evergreen tree (Cerbera odollam) which grows

along the coast, Malayalam, Othalam; TE le hendamara ; ee

Kadama.

. In 1943 a 300 yds. 24 lbs. line made on the coast to order in

1935 at cost of Rs. 3 was loaned to a friend who killed wath

it, paste fishing, a 76 lb. mahseer. : ?

Tvace.

This should be of rustless wire. Killin wire can be used, but

may entail loss of fish unless great care is taken for it very

quickly rusts in sea water. Trace used in the morning may not

be safe for the afternoon. oe

~A wire which is quite rustless under any conditions is the

Wissco Leader-Wire of polished stainless steel sold by the Wick-

wire Spencer Steel Company of New York and San Francisco.

It is sold by weight and is not expensive. - Takes solder well

and does not corkscrew or kink. There are other rustless trace

wires not yet tried by the writer. The ‘Asal Special C.N.’ and

the ‘Elasticum’. The former does not corkscrew or kink, and the

latter stretches considerably without losing strength. On general

principles the trace wire should have a less breaking strength

jig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

than the reel line: also the finer one fishes the better. Generally

the trace should be a foot or so longer than the largest fish one

expects to catch. :

Brass wire, annealed, makes a good trace. It is not suthici-

ently. pliable for spoon fishing but does well for trolling. Indian

coast fishermen use it for drift-line fishing and catch big fish.

One writer on bahmin fishing used brass picture wire for traces

and tound it better than anything else, but that was many years

ago. The wire must be brass and not iron, ‘brass-washed’,—-as

is now mostly sold.

Swivels should be brass, or white metal (dulled, or sel may

snap at them). Sizes to suit the tackle in use.

Brass wire connecting links are necessary for change of lure,

whether spoon or dead bait, and can be made up by the angler.

All gear must be sound; any weak point will soon be made

apparent by the fierce and ‘furious rushes of sea fish which are

‘considerably stronger, weight for weight, than freshwater fish.

Spoons.

Heavy spoons made from 1/16 inches copper sheeting and

coated all over with silver solder, 3 in. long by 1§ broad with

‘dish’ of 3 inch are suitable for bahmin. These spoons should

not spin very fast, to ensure which both hooks should be attach-

ed to the spoon itself and not fly loose, and be wobbly in action.

With the bait casting rod smaller spoons have to be used. Spoons

for bahmin, as also for all sea fish, are improved by a thin sliver

of silvery mackerel attached to the end hook.

For seir and other pelagic fish a spoon with a wavy action,

such as the ‘Knowles Automatic Striker’ (44 inches), and the

Gibbs Stewart, brass and nickel, size 6 (4 in.) are good; so is

the Japanese white feather bait; and probably the Pflueger Chum

Spoon which has not yet been used by the writer: there are other

designs also.

Best of all, for the big’ surface feeders, is a dead bait mounted

to work in the water with a wavy action: dead baits for.sea fish

should not spin. <A lure which is good over coral reefs and rocky

places is a bright spoon, without hook, with a sliver of fish on

a wire-mounted 5/0 hook trailing six inches behind the spoon.

The mount must be attached to the trace and not spin with the

spoon which merely acts as an ‘advertiser’ to the bait behind it.

An effective oval ‘fly spoon’ bait can be made from the trian-

gular tail piece of a fresh mackerel. Sharp knife and_ scissors

necessary. A single No. 1 eyed hook is passed through the sil-

very side and back again leaving the shank of the hook on the

fleshy side. The piece of tough tail skin is tied to the trace

above the hook eye in such a way as to give a somewhat convex

shape to the silvery side of the bait. This is a good lure for

gar-pike and other fish, especially in choppy water.

Hooks.

Single hooks should be Limerick bend, have turned down eyes,

and be needle sharp. Treble hooks size 6 are large enough for

most purposes. )

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 315

Mount for trolling a dead bait is a single hook behind the

gill on one side of the fish and treble hook just short of the waist

of the tail on the other side, one hook of the treble being im-

bedded in the fish. Both hooks, and the wire between them,

should be sewn to the bait with strong thread passing round the

backbone. The mouth of the bait should also be sewn up and

the trace arranged to pull from the centre. It is convenient to

have ready single hooks and treble hooks on different lengths of

wire to suit several sizes of baits. The loops of these wires,

passed from behind through the gills to the mouth are fastened

on to the trace link. That having been done the hooks are ad-

justed and the sewing completed. Properly adjusted the bait

works with a weaving motion and does not’ spin. For this and

other mountings of baits the Wissco wire is the best to use.

Leads and sinkers.

Leads are not ordinarily needed for trolling: an assortment

should be carried for spinning, drift-line fishing, and fishing with

prawn. For shore fishing on sandy bottom a mussel shaped lead

is good; and among pebbles a round lead. <A yard of thin line

from the lead to the reel line, or cast, or trace, will enable’ break

away to be effected without loss of gear other than the lead.

Gaff.

Should have a gape of 3 inches, be lashed to a bamboo shaft

to handle of which a lanyard. See that the gaff floats or it may

be lost. +2 Pon emi hte Ba |

A ‘priest’ is necessary as the boatmen never have’ anything

handy for killing fish; a lanyard for this also. |

A landing net of salmon size may be needed for estuary fish-

ing. It, too, must float or may be lost. :

Procuring bait.

Hire of boat should include a stipulation for supply of bait.

Mackerel and sardines are obtained from the many boats engaged

in netting off-shore. Other small fish are obtained by use

of circular cast net along the shore and in any near-by creek,

where also are found prawns and crabs. Generally speaking there

is always trouble over bait. The men dislike the extra work of

searching for bait and will evade or shirk it if they can. If sepa-

rate payment is made for bait the demands are exorbitant.

Boatmen’s ways of keeping bait are crude and inefficient, bait

goes bad very quickly. Proper baskets are necessary for prawns;

a packing case with holes for circulation of water is best for live

bait: a stone in it to make sink. The box and basket are let

over the side to keep bait fresh and lively: Prawns must be on

shady side of the boat: fish too if possible. Bait that is dead

is best carried in a packing case filled with wet sand. If left to

lie about in the boat it soon becomes bad and useless. |

Ground bait is useful at times. Crushed crabs, or any crush-

ed fish mixed with boiled rice and trailed. from: the boat in an-

open-mesh sack will do; or it canbe sunk to required depth,

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Oil sardines squeezed and kneaded beneath the surface and allow-

ed to drift down tide will serve; also such bait put in a string

bag and weighted to hang from stern of boat. All of these will

bring fish on the move to find the food it leads to—the angler’s

tune !

“Cuttle fish and octopus tentacles are good bait for drift- line

fishing.

Sundries and spares. | | /

.. Anti-sunburn cream; brass wire, annealed, of several thick-

nesses; Carborundum stone hook sharpener (if it gets gummy

from use, soak overnight in petrol and burn off the absorbed spirit

—becomes as new); knife; needles; thread, red, black, white;

pliers and wire cutter; watch repairer’s vice; screwdrivers; files;

oil (3 in one); oil—fish oil, on hooks and wire helps against rust;

floats, fine quill for mullet, tapered cork for prawn, best colour

is black above water with white water line; scarlet wool; white

feathers ; wax and silks for rod repairs etc. ; leads of assorted shapes

and makes and weights; lead wire; hank of whipcord; a 150 yard

heavy cotton handline for sharks and big perch; 2 or 3 shark

hooks; leather rod belt with socket for butt; soldering materials;

line winder of large capacity (about 10 ft. at turn of handle).

A packing case with leather cushion; this is necessary in a

dug-out as a seat and box to hold tackle and sundries. . Lid

should be arranged to keep out water, and the box zinc lined.

A. small piece of board on which to cut baits will obviate mess

from such operations.

Spares should include plenty of various kinds of hooks; swi-

vels; spoons etc., trace wire of several thicknesses; spoons

and swivels can be cleaned by putting into a shallow dish of

tomato juice; or immersed in a solution of salt and vinegar; dry

with a soft cloth; solution can be kept for further use.

Rest House etc., Accommodation.

The following list indicates where accommodation can be had

within reasonable distance of possible fishing localities. Places

where there are Estuary mouths but no accommodation are also

shown. At these it would be necessary to camp.

At many of these out-of-the-way Rest Houses very little is

obtainable locally so it is essential to have with one camp bed:

mosquito net; bedding; -basin; tiffin basket with cutlery, plates,

cups etc., food containers, box of essential stores, lanterns,

oil, and an Iemic (charcoal) steam cooker.

Marmugao ... ~spencer’s Hotel. -

Karwar 4. Grand"'Hotel

Gangavali ... Estuary.

Tadri Creek ... Do

Honavar ... Estuary and ielandet

Coondapoor ... Large Estuary.

Hangarkatte ... Do. - and P.W.D. Bungalow.

Malpe .. Islands, Local Fund Rest House about 3 miles inland.

Kap ; 06 Do. do. in. village on main road.

Mangalore .. Netravati .River and Estuary MEE elo Rest House and

P.W.D, Rest House

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 317

Kasaragod .. Estuary Chandragiri River. Local Fund Rest House.

Nilashwar ... Estuary and. backwaters. Local Fund Rest House.

Payangadi Estuary below Mt. Dilli; Local Fund Rest'House inland on

hill above river. Ry. Bridge, Bahmin.

Cannanore 3 Hotels ‘Seaside’, ‘ West Cliff’, ‘Savoy’. Valaipatanam

Backwater and Estuary 7 miles north by rail.

_Bahmin.

P.W.D. Rest House; also The Tellicherry Club.

Bridge,

Tellicherry 0

Mahe Several Boarding Houses; possibly the Postmaster could

inform,

Elattur Estuary.

Calicut Beach Hotel (in Old Malabar Club).

Beypore ... Large Estuary. Local Fund Rest House.

Ponnani .. Esttary, P.W.D. Bungalow.

Cranganur Estuary and Backwaters.

Cochin Malabar Hotel (Spencer's) on Willingdon Island.

Quilon Rest. House on main road. Under-sea rocks few miles to

west, and bar to backwater and lake outlet 7 miles north.

Muttam No accommodation.

First-class Government Hote}, fully furnished electrict light.

Arrange by letter with Butler in zharge for accommoda-

tion. Much fishing done by native fishermen using

catamarans. Should be excellent sea-angling if suitable

sailing craft available or procured from elsewhere.

Language Tamil. Muttam about 12 miles north.

Cape Comorin ...

For occupation of Local Fund Rest Houses apply to President of the District

‘Board at H.-Q. Town of the District.

For Municipal Travellers’ Bungalow apply Chairman of Municipality

concerned.

_ For P.W.D. Bungalows apply to the Collector of the District.

7. EAST COAST SEA-ANGLING LOCALITIES

By Sri E. K. MAHDAVAN, B.A. .

Assistant Director of Fisheries (Inland) Central, Madras

LOCALITY

‘l. Tuticorin. Fishing by sailing

boat inside Harbour, Steamer anchor-

age, and adjacent Islands. P. W. D.

Bungalow.

2. Kilakarai. Accessible from

Ramnad. Old Port Office affords

halting facilities.

3, Pamban Channel. Accessible

~from Mandapam Railway Station, or

Pamban Railway Station

Travellers’ Bungalows are located.

where.

FISH

Cock-up, Bahmin, Kalawa (Lethrz-

nus), Velaimeen (Lutjanus), Seppili

(Hpinephelus), Parai (Caranx).

Season: June to August, Decem-

ber, January.

Important centre from which

special swift country sailing craft set

out across the Gulf of Manaar, right

up to the coast of Ceylon, trolling for

seir (Suvmazt) with hand lines baited

with sardines, coconut rinds, and rag

lures.

Season: May to August.

Handlining by local anglers in the

evenings, during December, from the

viaduct for Cock-up. Stiff rod neces-

sary to play the fish away from the

standstone blocks, preferably from

boats on the Southern side. Carry

plenty of spares as breakages are to be

expected, Live prawns best bait. Also

plenty of Chorinemus at Kundugul

Point. Bahmin caught during north-

east monsoon close in-shore in shal-

lows inundated by the tides.

Season ; Cock-up, November: to

January, Sea Perch, June to August.

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- 45

- LOCALITY

4. Kyrusadait Island. Fisheries

Research Station. 5 miles from Pam-

ban Railway Station. Apply for

permission from Assistant Director of

Fisheries (Marine Biology) West

Hill.

5. Dhanushkodi Pier. Well-

known to passengers to Ceylon. Local

Fund Choultry.

6. TZalaimanaar Pier. Well

known to possengers to Ceylon.

7. Attankavai. -3 miles from

Ochipally Railway Station.

8. Sethubhavachattram. 5 miles

from Peravuruni Railway Station.

9.. Adirampatnam. Railway

Station of same name

10. Velankanni. Well known

Roman Catholic pilgrimage centre.

4 miles from Negapatam Railway

Station.

11. Annaikkaranchattram. 3 miles

from Coleroon Railway Station.

12. Porto Novo, 2- miles from

Railway Station.

13. Buckingham Canal from

Sadras to Kadapakkam.

Former easily accessible from

Chingleput Railway.Station by Bus

15 miles. ‘Travellers’ Bungalow at

present (1944) not open to the public.

Old Historic ruined Fort. A shark

liver oil centre atSadras and a Govern-

ment fish-curing yard at Kadapak-

kam.

14. Covelong.

from Madras.

17 miles by boat

15. Adyay River. Southern bound-

ary of Madras. Local Izaac Waltons

have evolved an interesting tackle for

catching mullets during Feb./Mar.

which is strikingly similar in principle

to those used by the Maltese mullet

anglers. Fish are played by. wading

to prevent breakages.

FISH

Perches, especially Pristisoma

around coral rocks to the north in

Kundyal Channel. Boat rods best,

with Nottingham reels. Cuttle fish

strips—a very good bait in the

evenings. Half-grown sharks in shal-

lows at Sandy Point could be caught

with Tope fishing tackle.

Season: June, July, August.

Cock-up in the evenings from Pier.

Shoals of yellow-tailed mullets during

February and March could be ground-

baited as at Mauritius and caught on

bread pellets. Salmon gut to be used.

Season: June to September.

Large hauls of Cock-up on live

prawns from the pier during the

season: June to September and

November to January.

Cock-up and Bahmin during April

and May.

Cock-up and Bahmin during April

and May.

As above.

Large numbers of Yeri (Chryso-

phrus) caught on live prawn from the

bridge nearer to Velankanni after

North East monsoon. Bahmin, Cock-

up, and Indian Tarpon (Megalops cyp

vinoides) in Same river nearer to that.

A bad reputation for sea snakes and

eels on the Coleroon River.

Good facilities, especially in Killai

oyster _ beds, for Indian, Whiting

(Sillago) during monsoon. Use fine

gut and worm hooks baited with rag

worms ( Polychaetes). Megalops, Cock-

up, and Bahmin also in season May —

to August, but variable. Canoe-shaped

boats available.

Travelling by boat in the Canal

affords Megalops and Pearl Spot

(Etroplus suratensis). latter re-

quires small hook, size 16, baited with

earth worms. For the venturesome

sea angler Seir, Cavanz, Barracuda,

and medium sized sharks a few miles

out to sea ;

Good fishing for Wega/ops and fair

for Cock-up and Bahmin.

Season: February and’ March, but

variable.

Rod 10 ft. long of well seasoned

bamboo reed. Lime 10 to 11 ft. of

thin even-twisted Calotropis fibre

floated with peacock quill pith at

6” to 12” intervals. Mustad No, 12

hooks (mounted on cat-gut) baited

with lumps of green filamentous

algae (Spirogyra?) and at times earth

worm (well scoured).

-CIRCUMVENTING THE

LOCALITY

16. Madras City.

COOUM.

Mouth of the

17. Madras Harbour.

18. Hnnur.

19. Buckingham Canal.

20. Pulicat. Nearest Railway

Station is Ponneri, but best approached

by boat from Ennur.

21. Dugarajapatnam. 18 miles

from Nayudupettai Railway Station.

No oe so best approached by

canal.

Oe Sune a 17 miles from

Nellore. Excise Department Bunga-

low, furnished, on bank of Estuary.

MAHSEER 319

FisH

During the month of November

there is an intensive fishing for Sz/lago

(Indian Whiting). There were more

than a dozen rods (of the type used

for Muliets in Adyar) and the fun was

fast and furious. Polichaete worms

were used as bait The fish are how-

ever undersized as compared to those

in the West Coast rivers and creeks

during the South West Monsoon

floods.

I have it on hearsay that during

normal times good fishing could be

had with stiff rods for sea perches,

including Cock-up and Sfarzdae,

using prawn as_ bait. Fishing is

banned now owing te War conditions.

Of late the Bahmin and Cock-up

fishing has not been very promising.

The best fishing area under the bridge

is rather overcrowded during week

ends. At these times hand-lining at

the bar results in better catches of

smaller miscellaneous fishes. The

channel leading into the Salt Factory

(which is not open to public) yields

good catches of miscellaneous fish in-

cluding Cock-up. and Bahmin. The

lock from near this stretch into the

Canal on the North side attracts both

Bahmin and JVegalops (seasons very

variable).

These regions which are connected

to the estuaries generally afford inter-

esting fishing for Etroplus suratensis

the Pearl Spot. Small hooks and stiff

short bamboo rods are best; with

mooga silk line and thin cat-gut cast.

A float generally scares away the fish.

Many other smaller fry could be cap-

tured on this tackle. It might be

noteworthy that fishing in the locks of

the Canal may very likely be thrown

open to the sporting angler by the

Cana) authorities. I have suggested

that they should be made to record a

return of the catches on each day

Good fishing for Cock-up soon after

the North East Monsoon. The Lake

itself affords Wegalops and Jew fishes

(Sciennidae).

Cock-up and Bahmin after North

East Monsoon. Large mullets during

March and April should be tackled on

a fly rod baited with green filamen-

tous algae (same bait as in Adyar),

(Fishing similar to above with the

addition of Megalops in the creeks.

With suitable rod and tackle big

sharks can be caught. Some very

large Cock-up have been caught here.

There is a good inlet run when tide

coming in. Then Bahmin are to be

had on spoon and prawn,

320

LOCALITY

23. Vutukuru. 10 miles from

Kodavaluru Railway Station (second

Station north of Nellore).

24. Singarayakonda. 5 miles

from! Railway Station, no bungalow.

25. Vetapalem. Creek 4 miles

from Railway Station.

26. Kottapalem. Mouth of the

Kistna River about 30 miles by road

from Masulipatam.

27. Masulipatam. Good bunga-

low and stores. Local Fund Rest House

‘near Railway Station East side of the

town; has electric light installed.

28. Collairy Lake. 5 miles cross

country from Kaikalur Railway Station

where Travellers Bungalow. Guidi-

vada Bhimavaram Railway Line.

29. Coconada, Good P.W.D. bun-

galow and stores. -

30. Pentakota. 7 miles from Tuni

Railway Station.

31. Vizagapatam. Good hotels

‘Sea View’ and ‘Beach Hotel’, both

in Waltair 5 miles from Vizagapatam

Town and Harbour.

32. Sonapur. In Orissa but nearest

Railway Station in Madras-Ichcha-

puram. 10 miles. No _ bungalow,

‘ but obliging village Munsiff, and good

oysters.

33. Gopalfur. Great resort for

bathing, 9 miles from Berhampore

Railway Station.

34. Ganjam. A forgotten centre

of the Old East India Company days

with its old Cemetery and crbmibling

brick Fort.

35. Ram-lanka on Chilka Lake.

“Near mouth of Chilka chala. Nearest

Railway Station, Huma, about 10 miles

away

36. Rambha—on Chilka

Near Railway Station.

Lake.

37. Khallikota on Chilka Lake.

Balugaon do.

Kalupara Ghat do.

Balipatpur do.

38. Puri and Kunarak. Well

known for sight seers.

39. Sandkut. A Bungalow owned -

by the Raja. ‘Apply Manager-in-charge,

Kuganaj Estate.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

| FISH -

- Mouth of the Peneru river. _ Good

fishing for Cock-up. .

Good fishing for Cock-up ; Decem-

ber as well as June/July.

Similar to above, with plenty of

mullets. December as well as June to

July.

Cock-up, Bahmin, Megalops, and

several perches.

Seasons as above. :

Good boats and-deep sea fishing for

Seir, Tunnies, Alacate nigra.

Season ; June 'to August. Broad beam-

ed deep sea boats available.

‘Cock-up after North East Monsoon.

Evidently attracted by the tremendous

prawn fishery here.

Fishing somewhat similar to Masui

patam. Juneto August. Boats as at

Masulipatam.

Cock-up. Juneto August.

Cock-up and other sea_ perches.

Season ; June to August.

Bahmin and Cock-up, with numer-

ous Cat fish and Jew fish.

A few Cock-up and smaller fry in

the creek.

Small Cock-up and Megalops near

the old mouth of the River Rushi-

Kulya. A Government Fisheries Hut -

near the Road Bridge.

Season ; November to January.

Good fishing for Cock-up

Megalops.

Season ; November to January.

and

Good fishing

Megalops.

Season : November: to. January, but

very variable. ~~ 3

The Raja should: know. about the

Megalops and Cock-up. This area is

sadlv over-fished with nets and traps. -

During the winter plenty of ducks and

other water birds.

Cock-up ; but the chief attraction

is the Temple ornamentation. ‘The

mouth of the Astrang river some miles

to the north is however. well co a

visit.

Good fishing for Bahmin. In Nove

ember 1940 saw them scaring the

mullets on to the mangrove banks and

actually snatching them from the mud

(clear of water).

for Cock-up and

SOME

LOCALITY |

40. Kujang. On the Mahanadi

40 miles by road from Cuttack. Raja’s

Bungalow

'4).. Chandipore. Travellers

Bungalow... Where the tide recedes —

for miles. About 12 miles from Bala:

REMINISCENCES

OF SPORT IN ASSAM © 321

FISH:

Great fishing for Cock-up,

the Monsoon, a few miles below.

after

Good fishing from country craft

for Cock-up, etc. in deeper water.

Season November to January. A

few flat-bottomed boats available.

on the rail,

sore.

Local fishing mostly with stake-nets.

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM.!

He G, HeoM:

| Part II

(Continued from page 209 of volume 45).

It may be as well, before proceeding to relate further shoot-

ing reminiscences, to say something about the rules regulating

the sport of hunting tiger with the aid of elephants. In this matter

of the right way and the wrong way to do things the Rajah of

‘G— was very particular, and rightly so, as carelessness in the hand-

ling of weapons has resulted in not a few fatal accidents.

A basic and inviolable rule is that, when the rifle or gun is

removed from the howdah rack, or carried in the hand when shoot-

ing from a ‘chaujamah’, or a plain pad, it must be held—until

actually aimed and fired—with the muzzle pointing upwards. This

rule is insisted upon even during a scrimmage such as‘takes place

on the tiger attacking the elephant; and also under the very dange-

rous and exciting circumstance when the tiger is on the elephant’s

rump and endeavouring to get at the occupants of the howdah.

A weapon should be kept at safe, or uncocked if a hammer arm,

‘until just before firing, and returned to safety before being re-

placed in the rack or held (as on a pad elephant), ready for fur-

ther-use. When changing’ from pad to howdah and vice versa,

-also when mounting or dismounting from elephants, it is verv

necessary that all weapons be unloaded. Noe

~ On one occasion I remembered that I had forgotten this, and

went back miles to find the howdah elephant and unload my rifles

left in the rack. I became a privileged person in. that, when

‘using a very heavy rifle, I was permitted to stand in the howdah

with the rifle breech open and the weapons resting in the howdah

rail, for I found the strain on the muscles of the right hand,

holding a heavy weapon with the muzzle upwards and the butt

to be very great if continued for any length of time.

said the Rajah, ‘you may try that and see what. the ma-

houts say.’ As soon as the muzzle came down on the rail -the

mahout said ‘Sahib!’ and pointed upwards. I asked him to stand

up and see how. safe the method was, and then he grinned and

said, ‘Well, it is you, and we trust you, you can do as you. like.’

‘Ves’

—_—

* It is regretted that through an error the author’s reminiscences have been

associated with the ‘Raja of Goalpara’. The second line of paragraph. 3 of

Part EF of this article, published on page 199 of Vol. 45, No. 2, should read :—

“Rajah of G— until I was posted to the Godlpara District,’—Eps,:

322 JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45

This brings home the point that the mahouts are very critical;

and once they distrust a sportsman it is good-bye to his chance

of bagging a tiger. The next day the Rajah said to me, ‘I see

the mahouts have granted you permission; you. are a privileged

person: not to everyone would they accord their consent in such

‘a vital matter.’

As in small game shooting under ordinary wince so

in tiger shooting from elephant-back, shots across the front of

the line must never be taken. On one occasion a relation of

G’s Dewan shot across my front at an imaginary tiger and was

exceedingly angry when his elephant was ordered out of the line; but

he had to go. The Rajah made no exceptions, and took the

strongest action, whoever the offender might be. In connection |

with this occasion there was an amusing incident. A great friend

of the Rajah’s, who did not shoot, was always to be seen in the

back seat of the Rajah’s howdah. Some of the other guests

were laughing, and laughed all the more when I asked what had

caused the offender to. fire across me, for I had not seen a tiger

and the beat came through without putting up any animal. .One

of them remarked, ‘Look at G’s friend: see his ears twitch!’

Then I noticed that he had, in a marked degree, the ability to

move his ears about in the way small boys often do when making

grimaces. The offending sportsman, when asked what he had fired

at, replied: ‘Why a tiger of course, I saw its ears twitching,’

hence the shot across my front. After that it was always a great

joke, and the Rajah’s friend would violently twitch his ears when

a tiger was missed,

Another strict rule is that when ‘ine line of beating elephants

is approaching from the front no shot must be taken at a distance

of more than about twenty yards: the closer the better, for long-

er shots may endanger the lives of the mahouts. Many accidents.

have happened from non-observance ‘of this rule, and doubtless

there will be many more; yet, if it is adhered to, no such accidents

will occur. There have been many extraordinary accidents owing

to glancing or ricochet shots. The nearer the shot is taken the

less chance is there of the bullet going astray.

Unless general shooting is proclaimed by the Master of the

Shoot no one may fire at any thing but the tiger, Birds flushed ahead

of the line—jungle fowl, peafowl, partridge may all be_ indica-

tions of a tiger on the move; so also the ‘hullee’ of some animal,

a sambar or other deer, or a pig. All such signs have to be

watched for, and experience soon teaches the sportsman what is

indicated by them. Though the beating line may be a long way

off yet a flushed bird may show that the tiger is close by, so one

has always to be watchful, vigilant, with the mind concentrated

on. the business in hand. Right on the heels of a breaking sam-

bar may be the tiger, for when alarmed all animals are thinking

of their own safety and way of escape and indifferent to the

larger carnivora which, they well know, are not hunting them.

No chance shots may be taken;. no firing at moving grass;

for if you fire and kill a deer, or other animal, you may ruin

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 333

the chance for the tiger and, moreover, may perhaps not again

be asked to a shoot by that particular host.

A howdah elephant is often placed in the beating line. The

occupant may not fire at a tiger, for by doing so he may spoil

any chance of the tiger being shot. His job is to act as a beater,

to assist in directing the line, and to drive the tiger to the wait-

ing guns ahead.

On one occasion I was guilty of killing a tiger from the beat-

ing line but it was under exceptional circumstances, and G said

I was acting rightly. This was the largest tiger I have shot-—

over ten feet, with a short tail. I may relate the occurrence later ;

but it was pleasing to me when the Rajah led the cheering; and

the mahouts cheered with a will for they believed this animal to

be a man-eating tiger. It was confirmed the next year because

all killings of people in that district had ceased.

‘It is very often that the beating line views the tiger, and I:

recollect Mr. L, afterwards Sir A. L, Governor of Assam, taking

stones in his howdah to throw at the tiger and make him move

on. Betore he left Assam he had killed perhaps fifty tigers. Ele

frequently used a .4o5, the weapon the late Theodore Roosevelt

called the ‘medicine gun tor lions’, and found it an efficient wea-

pon for hawdah shooting.

When your elephant has been placed at a particular spot you

must on no account move from that spot, for by doing so you

may not only be incurring danger to yourself and your mahout,

but may let the tiger escape.

Sometimes, when there is a large expanse of heavy grass, ele-

phants are used to trample a clear space, along the hither side

of which the guns are placed. The line of beating elephants forces

the tiger towards the cleared tract and the animal, not knowing

it is there, will afford a shot as he hesitates on the further side

of it. Always must the guns be on the hither side. That, of

course, 1s common-sense, and a rule even in small game shooting,

for shots at animals and birds scurrying past you unexpectedly

from behind are very chancy, and you cannot face the other way

-as you would see nothing before it was right on top of you.

In Assam, and also I am told along the Terai, as the jungle

country along the foothills of the Himalaya is termed, are swampy

and boggy places into which elephants cannot go, and indeed

will not go, for they know the danger of it. When tiger make

such places their haunt they are exceedingly difficult to get at,

To meet this kind of situation G. devised a method of which |

have not heard, or read, anywhere else.

He had a supply of 12 gauge ‘firework’ cartridges which could

be fired from an ordinary shot gun without fear of damaging the

barrel. When fired the charge will rise to a height of sixty or

seventy yards and then burst, producing a- wonderful firework

effect. So also, when fired into cover, it produces an effect highly

discomfiting to the tiger! The method was for two howdah ele-

phants to walk on each side of the boggy patch, the firework car-

tridges being fired into the grass during their slow advance. Even-

tually these unwelcome and unusual sounds start the tigers mov-

jag. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45

ing, for in such cover they are often in pairs, and once the

animals are discovered by the ‘hullee’ of the grass to_be roused,

it is fairly easy to keep them on the move, and eventually. drive

them to the- guns on the waiting line of elephants at the further

end.

It could be known by pug-marks in the swampy ground The

the game was ‘at home’, and ‘the animals were kept inside the

cover and prevented from breaking out to one side by a shot or

two ahead of the ‘hullee’. I have seen this method successful

over and over again. The beating elephants and their mahouts

like it, for there is less exertion and they see all the fun. —

Sometimes tigers slip out of a beat to one side or the other

when being hunted in ordinary cover, and their manoeuvre is

often given away by excited twitterings of small birds and calling

of jungle crows. On the very last shoot I was on, a crow kept.

flying from tree to tree—small trees little larger than shrubs—

plainly saying, ‘Here he is, here he is!’ and on this accurate in-

formation a fresh beat was quickly arranged and the tigress shot.

Sometimes the tiger, having heard the sound of an approaching

hunt, will slip off to gain a more undisturbed locality and will be

given away by all sorts of birds, and alarm calls of the smaller

deer. Of the birds the babbler family, ‘Striped squirrels raced,

the mynas perked and picked, the seven brown sisters chattered

in the thorn,—’ are one of the most reliable of these aids to the

hunt, for they persistently follow the tiger, scolding all the time.

He cannot escape their vigilance. When tiger and panther and

the wild cats sleep they are not molested, only when on the move

are they given away. -

The reader will be tired of inothing but tigers so I will relate

an ROMO pelea experience and return to the tigers later on,

ELEPHANTS

We had toured through the Garo Hills, my wife and I with

our two children, then quite small, and had been walking until

we reached Damra. It was. winter time, and between. Damra

and Goalpara good duck shooting was available. When tired of

walking in the hills Douglas and Dorothy used to be carried on a

Garo’s back in a basket supported by a strap going across the

forehead: even grown-ups are carried in this way by the sturdy

hill-people. At Goalpara we boarded the river steamer. The trip

down the Brahmaputra to Dhubri is a very enjoyable one and we

always hoped the steamer would run aground, for if this occurs it

takes perhaps three or four days for another steamer to arrive and

pull the ship off the sandbank. A rest of a few days on the river

craft is always appreciated, for the food, at any rate in those

days, was good, as also the accommodation. After a day at

Dhubri we crossed the river by ferry to Fakirganj and from there

went on to Fulbari whence, after a short stay, we proceeded to

Hallidaygunj. ee

Elephant catching was in progress near Fulbari and we saw

some of the newly caught animals. It was mostly done by ‘mela

shikar’, that is, no stockades had been built and the wild elephants

were caught singly. There was one baby elephant caught only

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 328

a few days previously and this little creature thought it great fun

to undo one’s boot- or shoe-laces; very pretty to watch and highly

amusing for the children. The people responsible for the taking

of this small elephant said that had they not done so it would

have died, or been killed by a tiger, and that it was of no advan-

tage to them to captain it as if cost a lot to feed and would. be

of no value for a number of years.

The roads were in a dreadful state but passable by the old

tin Lizzie brought along from Dhubri. — Hallidayguny Inspection

Bungalow ison a small hill so I backed the car into a sheltered

place off the road and left it there covered by a tarpaulin. Next

morning villagers came to me saying that a rogue elephant had

killed one of their buffaloes, and asked me to shoot it. I thought

it might not be a wild elephant but one of those belonging to

the elephant catchers, in which case the killing of it might mean

a very large sum as compensation. That afternoon they again came

to me and said, ‘You would not shoot the elephant ‘and now it

has killed two men whose lives would have been saved. had you

listened to us.’ Now I felt fully justified in going in pursuit of

the beast so, taking my .475 rifle and some cartridges, went with

the men and saw the two bodies being taken to the village in a

bullock cart.

I followed the tracks of the killer until it became dark, and then

returned to the bungalow. Early next morning we packed up

and went down to the car, finding the elephant had been quite

close to it; why he had not attacked it was difficult to say. We

drove to Mankachar, the .475 ready for action if needed, but saw

no sign of the animal which was evidently keeping to the hills.

After tea with the Mauzidar we pushed on to the ferry which

takes loaded cars across the river, and Janding on the other side

saw things wrapped in matting, and asking what these were learn-

ed they, weie the bodies of three men the rogue elephant had

killed. One was a tailor of Mankachar, the place we had just left

The. elephant, they said, was following the main road and was on

its way to Garobada, and for all they knew might be in the jungle

along the road we were travelling. Though I said nothing I was

fairly terrified as there would be 3 miles of a mud road and. no

possibility of turning: and glad ae relieved I was to get into the

bungalow at Rangapani. The building was not much protection,

for an elephant could have easily knocked it down. I had thought

that the cartmen, learning of the killing of the three men, would

not have faced that length of road, but they came on to our great

relief and. comfort.

Next morning we could obtain no definite information so drove

on. to Garobada, the .475 affording a comfortable feeling of secu-

rity. Nearing a bamboo bridge which is renewed every season

after the rains, a Policeman ran into the road with violently way-

ing hands and gave the news that the elephant had just gone into

the jungle this side of the bridge. The safest thing was to get

on to the bridge as speedily as possible for no elephant would

venture on such a structure. Learning soon that the dreaded beast

was across a small jungle stream we hurried on to the foot. of

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

the hill on which is the bungalow and there parked the car in

a safe! spot, my wife and children went up to the house.

From the time the policeman was met all information gained

was shouted from men perched in the safety of trees. There were

nine men in trees, each with a gun or rifle, and I was asked

to go in after the elephant and kill it; they would protect me!

‘Yes,’ I said, ‘you will see the grass moving and take me for the

elephant. Not much’ or words to that effect. The cover was tall

elephant grass interspersed with clumps of bamboo, so small hope

of obtaining a successful shot.

There were some elephants not far off belonging to a party

of elephant catchers but none of them, very naturally, would con-

sent to giving me a mount to go after the rogue. I told the

men in trees to get away from the jungle and I would go and:

have some lunch and think the matter over. While at this pleas-

ing occupation some men came to say that the elephant was now

out in the river and might make his way towards a ‘hat’ (a market

held on certain days) where there would be hundreds of people,

and that not more than a mile away. It was evident that some-

thing in the way of action was necessary. Already this brute had

killed two men at Hallidaygunj; three near Rangapani; had met

carts on the way to Garobadha and there smashed up several carts,

killed two cartmen and destroyed a bullock or two; seven human

beings had he already slain, and at the ‘hat’—? It was a terrify-

ing thought.

All who had seen him described the animal as a single-tusker.

Taking a handful of cartridges (Solids) and the .475 I ran down

to the road leading to the ‘hat’ and there saw the tusker in the

river sporting about in the water which was about 4 feet deep at

that place. Directly I showed myself on the bank of the stream

he curled up his trunk and charged. His head was held very

high. I sat down for the shot and tried to put the bullet past

his trunk in hope of reaching the brain, but failed. On receiving

the shot he screamed and went back on his haunches, but so

quickly did he turn in his tracks that the second shot aimed at

his chest (side) hit him near the tail: those who have not seen

elephants in the wild state can have no conception of the rapidity

of their movements on such occasions as this. J only had time

to ram in one cartridge and fire as the beast was disappearing

into the bamboo on the further side of the stream. This shot

fairly knocked him over, but only temporarily. I heard the crash

but did not actually see him fall. My wife and children up on

the hill saw and heard the whole affair: the charge, the scream,

the backing on the haunches, the second shot, the third shot,

and the fall. Servants and Garos standing on the hill also wit-

nessed the whole affair; such an exceptional scene as can have

but rarely been laid out as a spectacle for spectators. -

Had I only known it at the time I could have gone along the

road until opposite the car and then got close to the bank without

being seen. The shot would have been a close one and from safety,

as there the bank was very steep. However I did not know all

that and had to act quickly and take my shot at about jo yards.

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 327

There was no elephant I could use for following the woundeil

animal. One of the elephants was a ‘Jung Bahadur’, but not

such a grand animal as G’s elephant of that name. Had he been

available the hunt after this rogue would have been a highly excit-

ing business, and a successful one also. Hurrying down the road

I found the elephant had crossed about three miles on and I

followed on some miles further, but got no news of him. He was

found dead near a Garo village fifty miles away and Mr B, the

Forest Officer, sold the tusk for me for Rs. 4oo.

Those who have been charged by an elephant will tell you

that the on-coming animal appears as if a great railway engine

is advancing on you and that it is impossible to stop it. That

is what it feels like even though experienced several times. Every

time you feel as if nothing could stop the huge thing. The

charge usually takes place from grass jungle and you do not

see the animal until it is almost on top of you, so all the more

do you feel that it cannot be halted. That is my own feeling.

With all dangerous game I am terribly excited and frightened

until I am actually taking aim and then I become perfectly calm

and able to shoot accurately. As soon as the danger is over

reaction takes place with me and the whole of my body trem-

bles for minutes. I have never killed a charging elephant dead

in its tracks but have always been able to stop and turn him.

Tt seems to me that a charge of shot into the turned-up trunk

would stop a charge, for elephants greatly dislike their trunks

being hurt; watch a mahout make an elephant obey him by jabb-

ing the trunk lightly with a spear: but I will let someone else

try the shot gun experiment.

Padre P of the American Baptist Mission located at Tura, Garo

Hills, was keen on big game shikar. I had obtained permission to

kill two rogue elephants, a tusker and a mukna which always went

about together. The Garos came to say that these two were giv-

ing trouble near a village five miles away, so I wrote to the Padre

and asked him to come along and he should have the first shot.

He arrived with his .4oo H.V.D.B. H’less express and we start-

ed off, I with my .475. Some distance from the village the Garos

began to track, and after about an hour we arrived at a small

stream which was not fordable. As I am unable to swim I held

on to two Garos who swam through the deep portion with me.

Having had a rest and dried ourselves we slowly followed the

tracks up a hill, on the top of which we found a flat portion of

ground covered with lantana having among it a few open spaces.

Soon we spied the two elephants standing in the shade of a tree. The

mukna was clearly visible, but not the tusker. P, moving a bit

to one side said ‘I can see the tusker’, and before I could stop

him dived into, or rather under the lantana. The mukna backed

and the tusker moved round the tree. P, who of course could

pot see what was going on, got very near the mukna—actually

within ten feet of it !—and the beast rolled up its trunk, put its

head down and was about to charge into the lantana when I de-

cided that the Padre was in a very dangerous position and fired

from the side to reach the brain, I was fifteen paces away and

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

the solid bullet, though not reaching the brain, knocked the ani-

mal over. P stood up immediately and told me he had, before

it fell, fired a shot into it at very close range. As soon as he

could he came back on his hands and knees, got up a small tree

and stood on a branch no thicker than one’s arm and started fir-

ing shot after shot into the fallen elephant’s head and chest.

- He suddenly said that his rifle was misfiring and I handed my

.475 to him. This also misfired and then the elephant stood up.

I was now behind a large forked tree with the supposed disabled

weapon and put in two cartridges in the hope that perhaps the

rifle would act. Then P. actually succeeded in getting off a shot

which, fired from above, found the brain and the beast fell dead.

The poor beast had eleven bullet wounds, and when standing blood

was streaming down its chest, a terrible and piteous sight. When

an organ that is not usually protruding, protruded it was certain

that the beast was dead. This was P’s first elephant. It turned

out that he had been loading the right barrel and pulling the left

trigger; then he would load the left barrel and pull the right

trigger. In excitement funny things happen. There was nothing

the matter with the rifle. When my weapon was examined it was

found that the right striker was broken.

It will be noticed that this story furnishes at least one moral:

one’s rifle should be carefully examined before starting after dange-

rous game.

On another occasion we had permission to shoot a large tusker

and, to cut the story short, P took the shot and immediately

started running; he had not got very far when he naturally fell,

tripped up by a creeper. He persisted in running away after a

shot and I could not get him to give it up. He did it every time,

and fell every time! This time the elephant was only stunned and

Wwe never came up with it again.

That little tale leads up to this one. A rogue makna elephant

had been proscribed by the D.C. Garo Hills and three of us—Mr.

W, 1.C°S., the D:C.,; Padre PR and I started out tovhuntsits ihe

only one with any experience was myself. I made a bad mistake

and we were lucky to get out of the difficulty as easily as we

did. The mistake was in following the beast in very dense grass

jungle. I should have gone round the hill until it was certain

where the animal was and then planned an attack on it. As it

was I followed the tracks into difficult jungle well knowing that

an animal, especially an elephant, is likely to return on its own

tracks. "Talis is what happened, and it is fortunate we saw the

upraised trunk reaching for some food. I immediately put P, who

was to take the shot, into position near an opening in the cover

where it was certain the elephant would pass. He came into the

clearing as expected, affording a clear side shot at the side of the

head to reach the brain. This is supposed to be an easy shot and a

sure one, but I have seen it to be not a sure one for the bullet

may strike a projecting bone and glance off in a wrong direction,

or the cancellous bony structure of the skull may divert licen

shot on this occasion was a very close one, and the Padre discharg-

ed both barrels of his .g4oo H.V, rifle simultaneously. The -ani-

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM - 329

mal fell over dead—but we did not know it was dead. P, after

firing, did his usual sprint and ran away to, as usual, catch his

foot. in a creeper and fall sprawling. W . jumped backwards at :

the shot and fell into thick lantana which supported him, but he

was in a difficult position had anything happened unarmed as he

was for he had only come out to see the fun. As the animal fell

a fairly thick bamboo hit me on the head and knocked me down.

Fortunately the elephant was dead.

When the usual sign proclaiming death was seen we walked

up to examine the beast. It was seen to have a number of bullets

just under the skin—projectiles from native weapons, so no wonder

that it had turned rogue. By the wound on its head we thought

that both the bullets had reached the brain, but it was later found

that both had been deflected and that the cause of death was in-

jury to the spine—a badly fractured spinal vertebra: an altogether

very extraordinary affair; and, ‘all’s well that ends well!’ The

bullets used were soft nose; and not solid as are usually used for

elephant, |

BUFFALO

Some villagers from. across the Brahmaputra came to the D.C.

Dhubri, Mr. H, I.C.S., to say that a wild buffalo bull was giving

them a great deal of trouble, having killed some of the tame bulls

and lately taken to chasing the people. H. sent word to S. (Forest

Officer) and me suggesting we should go to the assistance of the

villagers, who would give all help in the matter.

These single wild buffaloes—we may call them ‘Rogue Buffa-

loes’, become very dangerous to villages where tame buffaloes are

kept. When I was in the Garo Hills I had to examine a man

who had been killed by one of these ‘rogues’. The buffalo had

got the body of the man up against a bank in such a position

that he could use the massive bony forehead, which is about eleven

inches wide between the horns, to the greatest advantage. The

result, propelled by the enormous strength of an animal weighing

near a ton, can be imagined. The man’s chest was flattened and

nearly all the ribs in the body had been broken. A gruesome sight.

S. and I each possessed .475 H.V. rifles. We set out as soon

as we could and crossed by ferry to Fakirganj. There the villagers

put us into a bullock cart and after a few miles, the track being

deep in mud and slush, we were transferred to a cart drawn by

buffaloes. When this form of conveyance could take us no further

we got into a dug-out canoe and were propelled by means of poles

along miniature canals among the rice fields. The water was

waist deep and in some places deeper. S was a man of over six

feet and much felt the aches and pains of being doubled up with

his knees touching his chin, expressing his discomfort in very

forcible terms. The dug-out wobbled so much that I realized it

would be almost impossible to shoot from it. We tossed for the

shot and I won, so prepared for action. I loaded with a soft nose

bullet in the right barrel and a solid in the left. S pinned his

faith on solids so loaded accordingly. | :

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45

After winding about the fields for about half an hour the bull

was seen to emerge from grass jungle about a hundred yards

away and at this distance the horns seemed to be very good. S$

remarked that they might even be better than those of a buffalo

he had shot in the Garo Hills the measurement of which was little

less than the record for Assam. When we had killed the animal

we found however that the horns were little more than the ave-

rage: so much for appearances at a distance.

When the rickety dug-out had been manoeuvred to within per-

haps fifty yards of the bull I asked the boatmen to try and get

head on and steady the boat, so that I could place my head on

the spot on the animal where the bullet should hit. The men did

not keep the craft steady by ramming the poles into the mud as

they should have done, as they wanted to be able to get away

as quickly as possible—they knew their beast!, so kept in deep

water. The boat caused the rifle to wobble all over the place so

there was nothing for it but to sight as is done when shooting

from an elephant and bring the muzzle of the weapon up from

below and press the trigger when the bead is as near as possible

where it is wanted. To the shot the bull fell over on its side but

was only put down for a small count, for it began to rise. I

opened the breech to put in another soft nose but as I did so the

dug-out lurched over and out fell both cartridges. Stooping to

pick these up the cartridges in my shirt pocket also fell into the

bottom of the boat in which was several inches of water. S being

behind me was unable to see what was going on and asked what

the something was I doing. I told him he had better use his own

rifle instead of spending time and energy tn back-chat. He fired

one shot and the buffalo remained standing, a second one and

the beast walked a few paces forward. Now I was ready with

a soft nose bullet and over went the bull. It is well known that

a wounded animal does not feel the shock of subsequent wounds

to the same extent as the first one. The first shot is the impor-

tant one, and in this case it was amply proved. The soft nose

bullet twice felled the beast, whereas the solid bullets did not

knock it over. We discovered that both S’s solids had passed

clean through the body of the buffalo and out the other side,

whereas the soft nose bullets had remained in the body. To

obtain the full shock the bullet must remain in the body struck,

and the greater the surface struck the greater the shock. All four

bullets struck the side of the chest—there was no end-on shot.

The villagers cut up the animal and feasted for days. The moral

of this shikar was that cartridges should always be carried in a

pouch divided to take the rounds upright, and separated from one

another, and the pouch worn on a belt. The carrying of cartrid-

ges loose in one’s shirt pocket and that not buttoned or in coat

or trouser’s pocket is all wrong for several other reasons and 1s

not a sensible method. It has occasioned loss of coveted trophies

and even fatal accidents.

It was near Rewak, a place in the centre of the Garo Hills

and beloved of all sportsmen. and anglers, that S. shot the buffalo

with the very large horns, It was not very glorious shikar 5S,

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 331

said, for the shot was from elephant back and the buffalo did

not know that the elephant, which of course he took to be a wild

one, carried death on its back. The head was just short of the

record and when S was serving during the Great War he gave

the trophy to the Mess of the Regiment he was serving with. The

Rewak locality was renowned for buffalo with fine horns and it

was near there that Captain M shot one with head a trifle larger

than that obtained by S. It was in the habit of consorting with

tame herds and had killed several domestic bulls. M waited at

the edge of the jungle for return of the tame herd from their

grazing and bagged the wild bull by a chest shot from his .475

rifle. The solid bullet was found somewhere near the tail. There

was at that time a small outpost of the Assam Rifles not far

from Rewak but it has since been abolished, much to the detri-

ment of the sport of the Assistant Commandant who used to great-

ly enjoy the excellent fishing and shooting in that locality.

In my early days in Assam I was the owner of a .450 D.B.H.

less H.V. rifle by Jeffrey and at the time of the following encounter

had little experience in shooting big game and practically none

with high velocity rifles. I had been told that with one of these

super rifles one had only to put a bullet into the body of an ani-

mal, never mind where, and it would immediately crumple up.

I soon learnt otherwise. If the shot is properly placed they are

the best of rifles, but it must be so placed. With H.V. rifles

of smaller bore, of which I became possessed later on, it was all

the more necessary to use great care in properly placing the bul-

let. Coarse shooting with any calibre of rifle is much to be de-

precated. Nothing smaller than .4oo H.V. should be used against

tiger and the larger animals, elephant, buffalo, bison, rhino, the only

exception being the .375 Magnum taking the 300 grain bullet.

My wife and I were going into country where few had travel-

led before, and after touring well into the hills had to make our

way to parts of the Garo Hills bordering on the Mymensingh

District in the Bengal Province. The only way to reach these

outskirts of the hill tract was by boat. The streams were fairly

rapid, and a boat had to be sent on ahead with men to erect new

bamboo huts. I knew nothing of fishing and much regretted this

as the various streams we travelled on must have been able to

show good sport. The streams in winter were about four feet

deep with fine pools at intervals. One’s progress was leisurely,

as the boats had to be poled up the rivers, and all sorts of jungle

life was to. be seen and observed close at hand. Lovely scenery,

beautiful trees, varied foliage of trees, shrubs, jungle grasses, and

the ever graceful bamboo. Anything in the way of wild game might

be seen and we saw much that would have never been sighted

other than by means of the silently poled boats. At night the

boats were tied up and we occupied the comfortable bamboo huts

prepared for us.

One day away from the plains we were in our new bamboo

hut and went up stream with Garos to guide us as it is quite

easy to lose one’s way in those jungles. After about an hour the

boats were tied to the bank and our guides led us off to get to

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST,.-SOCIETY, Vol,” 45

a place where sambar would be tound feeding on a fresh tender

kind of grass of which they were very fond. Scarcely had we

entered the jungle when a sambar broke away and this so frighten-

ed a plains servant who was with us that he fled to the boats, and

would have dived into the river had one of the men not restrained

him. There was great hilarity over this incident.

Proceeding we came across the fresh track of a lone buffalo

bull and were relieved when it was found he had left the game

track we wished to follow and had branched off along another

one. After this the guides lost their way and as it was getting

dark we returned to our boat, being glad to get to our hut before

final darkness set in. I was tempted to stay a few days and

try for the buffalo but decided the time could not be spared so

continued our journey, to halt at Bagmara for three days inspec-

tion work. From here to Rewak is three days river journey, the

arrangement being a sleeping apartment and an eating apartment

built upon two dug-outs securely lashed together by bamboo ropes.

In this way travelling is very comfortable: and all sorts of game,

including elephants, may be encountered. From Rewak we went.

on to Nankong a place noted for buffalo shooting. Here were

also two rogue elephants which I had permission to kill. We

had very nice bamboo huts on the bank of a small stream, the

huts for the camp followers being some little distance down stream.

About an hour before midnight the two elephants arrived in the

jungle on the further bank and fed there until the early hours of

the morning. It was realized that the servants’ huts were too far

away as, had they been attacked, it would have been difficult for

me to have afforded them, help.

_ Next morning I was taken to a place frequented by buffaloes

and had just come to the edge of a clearing, with a nala at my

feet to the right, when I saw, coming into the clearing on the

other side, a big buffalo bull. Seeing me it at once charged. I.

took the shot kneeling, firing the left barrel with solid bullet when

the beast was halfway across the clearing, and the right with

soft-nose bullet took him in the centre of the chest at about 25

yards. I expected the animal to be knocked down but it was not

even checked, and there was only just time for me to drop into

the nala. The buffalo passed over the spot where I had been a

moment before and carried on into, the jungle for about 200 yards:

then we heard moans and it was soon dead. The first bullet had

traversed the length of the body and the second had penetrated

to the chest and a little beyond and damaged the liver. Here was

a case of two bullets failing to stop a charge, whereas the bull

at Fakirganj was knocked over with one bullet both when un-

“wounded and when wounded.

On examining this aggressive bull I found that it had been

very recently wounded by 12-gauge spherical bullets; and later

in the day the Garos who had been making enquiry reported

that only that morning villagers had fired at it” with their ineffi-

cient weapons. No wonder it was savage and charged on sight.

The horns were below the average. ;

(L’o be continued).

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT.

HuMAYUN ABDULALI.

On my way back from Madras in March this year (1944), !

visited friends in Vizagapatam whom | had warned of my coming

under the impression that this would only take me a little out of

my way. The 500-mile run northwards along the coastal plain

was monotonous, but there were some striking differences as com-

pared with the West Coast. Most of the area was under paddy

and the marsh harrier was everywhere. Palmyras were amazingly

abundant, closely grown palms even being used as hedges. All

goats were black and the sheep a dirty brown, yielding the coarse

‘red’ wool of Madras. Along the sea-shore, often visible from

the train, were dense plantations of Casuarina grown as firewood.

(A friend in Madras talked of snipe-shooting in these plantations !)

North of the Godaveri almost every bird seen was something

which the Vernay Ornithological Survey had overlooked. When

I got into Waltair (a suburb of Vizagapatam port) I hustled B.

into taking me over as much of the surrounding country as was

possible over my 2-day stay. We shot a few cotton teal at

Kondakarla, whence pink-headed duck were recorded many years

ago. We ran up into the ghats 7o miles eastwards, and the

country looked more and more intriguing. That magnificent tree

Cochlospermum gossypium was in flower all over the hills, and

the big red squirrel abundant and confiding. I got my first view

of the red jungle fowl and there was so much to see that 1 came

back determined to have another and better look at the country

as soon as possible.

There are few places in India to which Charles McCann of the

Natural History Society has not been for something or the other,

but the Eastern Ghats was one of them, and we decided to do a

short trip together mainly for ornithological investigations. We

reached Vizagapatam on 24th May and with the co-operation and

hospitality of my very good friends at Waltair we were able to

cover a fairly large area in the relatively short time. We first went

to Anantgiri 2,500’ where La Personne, collecting on the Eastern

Ghats Survey had camped from qth Feb. to 15th May. We were

here for two days including an evening run up to Sankrametta,

3,000’. We then went up to Lamasinghi 2,500’ (Narsapatam

Taluka) which is about 50 miles south of Anantgiri in the same

range. These hills form the eastern fringe of the ghats which -

extend much further westwards into the lesser known regions of

_ Bastar and Jeypore States and the forests of Raipur. We camped

at Lamasinghi for four days, stayed in Waltair for a couple of

days, including another look at Kondakarla, and then entrained

for Bombay. ete

During this short trip we noted about 140 species of birds of

which 73 had been overlooked by the Survey. Many of these

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

(27) are the commoner forms of the low country, which the Sur-

vey did not work. For the sake of completeness all the previous

records from the district, mentioned in the Eastern Ghats report

are included in this list, our 73 additions being marked with an

asterisk, while a + indicates that the species (33) was obtained by

La Personne but not found by us. This, number includes at least

16 cold weather migrants.

There are obvious possibilities for further field work in this

area—we pickled a few lizards ana frogs and they fill large gaps

in the known distribution—and we hope to be able to work further

into the interior with more petrol and time. I would like to record

our gratitude and thanks to Mr. and Mrs. B. F. Patuck without

whose unstinted hospitality and enthusiasm the trip would never

have been possible and also to Mr. McCann who seemed to enjoy

skinning by candlelight, and whose decrepit and disreputable .22

added several interesting birds to our list.

(After this was written I went to Vizagapatam again during

Christmas. Due to an unfortunate series of circumstances I was

unable to get into the Hills and except for a couple of duck shoots

did not go afield at all. A few notes made, however, reveal 16

additions to the last note, bringing the total of new records to

89. These together with supplementary notes on species already

recorded are also incorporated herein.)

4 Corvus macrorhynchos culminatus Sykes. The Jungle Crow.

Noted at Waltair, Anantgiri and Lamasinghi.

Corvus splendens splendens Vieiliot. | The House Crow.

Common at Waltair—on nest! Absent at Anantgiri. Two females shot dur-

ing Christmas had ovaries dormant.

Dendrocitta vagabunda vagabunda (Latham). The Indian Tree-pie.

One was seen from the train at Rajamundry in March but noted as scarce

-at Lamasinghi.

Dendrocitta formose sarkari Kinnear and Whistler. The Himalayan Tree-pie.

This was noted at Lamasinghi, a small party flighting across the Rest

House compound every morning.

Machlolophus xanthogenys aplonotus (Blyth). The Yellow-cheeked Tit.

Anantgiri—Lamasinghi-

Sitta castanea prateri Kinnear and Whistler. The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch.

Anantgiri—Lamasinghi !

Sitta frontalis frontalis Swainson. The Velvet-fronted Nuthatch.

Anantgiri—Lamasinghi !

Turdoides somervillei terricolor (Blyth). The Jungle Babbler.

Anantgiri—Lamasinghi. Patchily distributed and not common. Waltair—

Christmas !

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii horsfieldii (Sykes). The Scimitar Babbler.

Anantgiri—Lamasinghi !

* Unless otherwise stated the records.ate between 24th May and 3rd June.

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRIC?T 336

Dumetia hyperythra hyperythra (Franklin), The _Rufous-bellied Babbler.

Anantgiri! Building at Lamasinghi!

| Chrysomma sinensis sinensis (Gmelin). The White-eyed Babbler.

Obtained by Survey at Sankramatta.

Pellorneum ruficeps ruficeps Swainson. The Spotted Babbler.

Common at Anantgiri. Lamasinghi !

} Stachyridopsis rufifrons ambigua Harington, The Red-fronted Babbler.

La Personne shot a pair at Sankrametta. )

Mixornis gularis rubricapilla (‘Tickel!). The Yellow-breasted Babbler.

Two specimens were obtained, one at Anantgiri and the other at Lama-

singhi. The latter, a male, was obviously breeding. Our experience regard-

ing the habits of this bird was quite different from that recorded by La Per-

sonne. The bird was quite common, but was always seen singly in heavy

forest keeping to the tree-tops rather ‘than the undergrowth. The call is a

loud monotonous ‘chweek-chweek-chweek . . .’ half-way between the call of

the tailor-bird and the jungle nightjar. This call would be taken up for a

few minutes at a time, with almost equal intervals of silence, the bird travelling

through the trees in warbler style.

Alcippe poioicephala brucei Hume. The Quaker Babbler.

Lamasinghi! A male obtained had enlarged testes and was probably nest-

ing.

Aegithina tiphia humei Stuart-Baker. The Iora.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi !

Chloropsis aurifrons frontalis (Feizeln).. The Gold-fronted Chloropsis.

Anantgiri !

Chioropsis jerdoni (Blyth). Jerdon’s Chloropsis or Green Bulbul.

Anantgiri !

Molpastes cafer saturatus. Kinnear and Whist!er. The Red-vented Bulbul.

Waltair. Antantgiri common. Lamasinghi very common. 2 young in nest!

C/3.

Otocompsa jocosa emeria (Linnaeus). The Red-whiskered Bulbul.

Anantgiri very common. Flushed off empty nest. Lamasinghi common.

Building.

Otocompsa flaviventris flaviyentris (Tickell). | Black-crested Yellow Bulbul.

Noted at both Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. A female shot at Anantgiri had

quiescent ovaries.

Pycnonotus luteolus luteolus (Lesson). The White-browed Bush Bulbul.

In spite of the statement in the Eastern Ghats’ report (J.B.N.H.S., vol. 355

Pp. 759), this species was not noticed. During Christmas, a few birds were seen

In low country scrub around Waltair.

{ Tarsiger brunnea brunnea (Hodgson). The Blue Chat.

La Personne obtained this species at Sankramatta and in the Jeypore Agency.

Saxicola caprata caprata. The Pied Bush Chat,

Anantgiri! Lamasinghi! Three young in nest!

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

*Phoenicurus ochrurus subsp. The Black Redstart.

Kondakarla 24th December and Waltair 29th Dec. !

{ Calliope calliope (Pallas). The Ruby Throat.

La Personne found them common at Sankrametta in March and they had

left by the last week in April.

Saxicoloides fulicata intermedia Kinnear and Whistler. The Indian Robin.

Waltair! Lamasinghi!

Copsychus saularis saularis Linnaeus. The Magpie-Robin or Dyal.

Lamasinghi common! Anantgiri c/5!

Kitiacincla malabarica malabarica (Scopoti). The Shama.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi common.

Turdus simillimus spencei Kinnear and Whistler. The Eastern Ghats Black-

capped Black Bird.

Sankrametta and Lamasinghi!

+ Turdus unicolor Tickell. Tickell’s Ouzel.

La Personne obtained two specimens at Anantgiri in February.

+ Geokichla wardii (Blyth); The Pied Ground Thrush.

La Personne shot one and saw another at Sankrametta and in the jeypore

Agency in April on migration.

Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine and Selby). The White-throated Ground

Thrush. ; oc

Lamasinghi common !

tMonticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). The Blue-headed Rock Thrush.

La Personne obtained one evidently on migration at Anantgiri in April.

*Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). The Blue Rock Thrush.

Bird roosting every evening in rafters of house at Waltair during X’mas

19 +4: | eae

+Siphia parva albicilla (Pallas). The Red-breasted Flycatcher.

La Personne obtained a female at Anantgiri on 6th February.

Muscicapula superciliaris (Jerdon). The White-browed Blue Flycatcher.

A blue flycatcher with a white eye-stripe was seen at Anantgiri. This

appears to be very late for this species. La Personne got a female at Sankra-

metta on the 4th April. .

+Muscicapula rubeculoides rubeculoides (Vigors). The Blue-throated Fly-°

catcher. st

La Personne obtained a male at Sankrametta on the 2nd April.

Muscicapula tickelliae tickeiliae (Blyth). Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher. |

Nest with four young in hole in banyan 25’ at Lamasinghi.

+Muscicapula poliogenys vernayi (Whistler).

“Curiously, I did not notice this species, having confused it possibly with

M. tickelliae of which a specimen was obtained. This blue-washed race is

very similar to tickelliae, even in the hand, though the tail is appreciably

longer.

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT 339

{Eumyias thalassina thalassina (Swainson). The Verditer Flycatcher.

La Personne got it at Anantgiri and Sankrametta in February and March.

Alseonax latirostris (Raffles), The Brown Flycatcher.

Lamasinghi !

Culicicapa ceylonensis. The Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Several seen at Lamasinghi. Their occurrence at this time of the year

indicates a resident race as suggested by Whistler, J.B.N.H.S., vol. 36, p. 88, the

Survey having collected specimens intermediate between pallidior and ceylonensis

in March at Sankrametta.

+ ‘Tchitrea paradisi paradisi (Linn). The Paradise Flycatcher.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi !

| Hypothymis azurea styani (Hartlaub). The Black-naped Blue. Flycatcher.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. A female obtained had granular ovaries.

' Leucocirca aureola compressirostris (Blyth). The White-browed Fantail Fly-

catcher. .

Anantgiri !

Leucocirca pectoralis vernayi (Whistler). The Eastern Ghats Spotted Fantail

Flycatcher.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. In the field this subspecies looks appreciably

different from the typical race in Bombay.

Lanius vittatus (Valenciennes). The Bay-backed Shrike,

Sankrametta! Lamasinghi! Waltair Christmas !

*Lanius cristatus cristatus (Linnaeus). The Brown Shrike.

Several were seen around Waltair during Christmas 1944.

Lanius nasutus nigriceps (Franklin). The Black-headed Shrike,

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi!

Hemipus picatus picatus (Sykes). The Black-backed Pied Shrike.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi!

Tephrodornis gularis subsp. The Wood Shrike.

A female shot at Anantgiri had a 118 mm. wing and another unsexed at

Lamasinghi w-119 mm. These birds appear to lack the grey tint of the

southern race sylvicola and are probably pelvica.

~ Tephrodornis pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin). The Common Wood

Shrike. 7

A female with granular ovaries was shot at Anantgiri w-89. Lamasinghi!

Pericrocotus speciosus semiruber Kinnear and Whistler. The Scarlet Minivet.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi.

+ Pericrocotus xoseus roseus (Vieillot). The Rosy Minivet.

La Personne obtained this species at Sankrametta in April.

Pericrocotus peregrinus peregrinus (Linn). The Little Minivet.

Waltair and Anantgiri]

338 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL -HIs7T. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

*Lalage sykesi (Strickland), The Black-headed Cuckoo Shrike.

Lamasinghi !

*Graucalus javensis macei (Lesson). The Large Cuckoo Shrike.

Waltair in March! Anantgiri! Christmas Waltair !

*Artamus fuscus (Vieillot). The Ashy Swallow-Shrike.

Waltair! Also at: Anakapalli in March!

*Dicrurus macrocercus peninsularis (Ticehurst). The Indian King-crow or

Black Drongo.

Waltair common! Anantgiri! Lamasinghi common. Female wing 114. Male

w-141. With young out of nest! Waltar X’mas common!

{Dicrurus longicaudatus longicaudatus (Jerdon). The Ashy Drongo.

La Personne obtained it at Anantgiri, Sankrametta and the Jeypore Agency

in April, but we did not notice it. The previous species which he did not

procure may have replaced it!?

*Dicrurus caerutescens caerulescens (Linn). The White-bellied Drongo.

Anantgiri ! (McCann.)

{Chaptia aenea malayensis (Blyth). The Bronzed Drongo.

La Personne obtained it at Anantgiri and Sankrametta. Did we overloox

it or has it gone? The absence of the Racket-tailed Drongo in this area is

remarkable. Lowther found it absent in Manbhum Dist. (J.B.N.H.S., vol. 41,

P. 529).

tAcrocephalus dumetorum (Blyth). Blyth’s Reed Warbler.

La Personne at Sankrametta and Jeypore Agency.

Orthotomus sutorius guzerata (Latham). The Indian Tailor Bird.

Lamasinghi !

Franklinia gracilis (Franklin), Franklin’s Wren-Warbler.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi.

{Phragamaticola aedon (Pallas).

La Personne obtained one on migration in Jeypore Agency on 29 Abril.

{Sylvia curruca blythi (Ticehurst and Whistler). The Lesser White-throat.

La Personne at Anantgiri.

{Phy lloscopus affinis (Tickell). Tickell’s Willow Warbler.

La Personne at Anantgiri.

{Phylloscopus inornatus humei (Brooks). Hume’s Yellow-browed Warbler.

Ila Personne obtained it at Anantgiri and Sankrametta.

{Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus (Blyth). The Greenish Willow Warbler.

La Personne obtained it at Anantgiri, Sankrametta and in the Jeypore

Agency.

{Phylloscopus trochiloides ludlowi Whistler. The Dull-green Willow Warbler.

La Personne obtained it at Anantgiri, Sankrametta and in the Jeypore

Agency.

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT 339

{Phyllosccpus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). The Large-crowned Willow War-

bler.

La Personne obtained it at Sankrametta.

{Seicerus burkii whistleri (Ticehurst). The Black-browed Flycatcher Warbler.

La Personne obtained it at Sankrametta.

tHomochiamys pallidipes pallidipes (Blanford). Blanford’s Bush Warbler.

La Personne obtained it at Sankrametta.

{Prinia socialis socialis (Sykes). The Ashy Wren Warbler.

La Personne obtained it at Sankrametta and in the Jeypore Agency.

*Prinia sylvatica sylvatica (Jerdon). The Jungle Wren Warbler.

A male (w-63) shot at Lamasinghi had enlarged testes and was breeding.

Several were seen. Also seen in scrub round Waltair during Christmas.

*Oriolus oriolus kundoo (Sykes). The Indian Golden Oriole.

Lamsinghi several! Also in March at Waltair and Kondasantha. May pos-

sibly breed in the hills. Waltair Christmas !

*Oriolus xanthornus maderaspatanus (Franklin). The Black-headed Oriole.

‘Kondasantha in March! Lamasinghi scarce!

Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gmelin). The Grey-headed Mynah.

Chintapalli in March! Lamasinghi! Kondakarla Christmas!

*Temenchus pagodarum (Gmelin). The Black-headed or Brahminy Mynah.

Lamasinghi! Anantgiri!

Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linn). The Common Mynah.

Waltair common! Lamasinghi !

Sturnopastor contra (Linn). The Pied Mynah.

In March when travelling north from Madras this bird was first seen about

50 miles south of Vizagapatam. A few were. noted sporadically in the low

country.

*Ploceus philippinus philippinus (Linn). The Baya or Indian Weaver Bird.

Birds and nests were seen high up in trees near Chintapalli (not carefully

glassed). On the 24th May birds were building in a Phoenix sylvestris near

Sentanagram Station (north of Waltair).

Urotoncha striata striata (Linn). The White-backed Munia.

Anantgiri! Lamasinghi building.

{Uroloncha kelaarti vernayi (Kinnear & Whistler): The Rufous-bellied Munia.

La Personne obtained the type specimens at Sankrametta.

Stictopiza formosa (Latham). The Green Munia.

Lamasinghi !

+Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth). The Common Rose Finch.

La Personne obtained it at Sankrametta on 30th March.

*Gymnorhis xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burten). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Lamasinghi. Frequent in thinner forest towards Chintapalli,

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol, 45

“Passer domesticus indicus (Jardine and a The Indian. House Sparrow.

Waltair !

*Riparia concolor (Sykes). .The Dusky Crag Martin.

On Lamasinghi ghats!

Hirundo daurica erythropygia Sykes. The Tadian Ren Swallow.

Anantgiri! - Lamasinghi ! Nests seen under bridge.

*Hirundo rustica gutturalis (Scopoli), The Eastern Swallow.

Common at Kondakarla, probably this race, during Christmas.

*Motacilla cinerea melanope Pallas. The Grey Wagtail.

At Chintapalli in March!

Anthus trivialis trivialis ( Linneeus). The Tree-pipit.

La Personne obtained this at Sankrametta and a tree pipit was noted as

common round Chintapalli in March, and also around Waltair during Christ-

mas.

Anthus rufulus rufulus ( Vieillot). The Indian Pipit.

One was seen in a forest clearing at Lamasinghi. La Personne obtained

it in the Jeypore Agency. Low country around Waltair Christmas !

*Eremopterix grisea prisea (Scopoli). The Black-bellied Finch Lark.

Very common around Waltair.

Zosterops palpebrosa occidentis Ticehurst. The White-eye.

Common at Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. Birds were feeding young in nest

on 30th May at Lamasinghi.

Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Latham). The Purple. Sunbird.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi!

*Cinnyris zeylonica (Linnaeus). The Purple-rumped Sunbird.

Chintapalli in March! Anantgiri! Nesting at Lamasinghi on 30th May.

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham). Tickell’s Flowerpecker.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi!

*Piprisoma agile agile (Tickell). The Thick-billed Flowerpecker.

Bird shot at Anantgiri had 62 mm. wing. Lamasinghi!

{Pitta brachyura (Linnaeus). The Pitta.

La Personne saw and heard it at Sankrametta.

Picus chlorolophus chlorolophus ( Vieillot). The Small Himalayan Yellow-naped

Woodpecker.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi! Wing 120 mm.

Drybates macei macei (Vieillot). The Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker.

Anantgiri! Lamasinghi! Male wing 99 mm.

{Dryobates mahrattensis mahrattensis (Latham). The Yellow-fronted Pied Wood-

pecker.

La Personne obtained it at Sankrametta,

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT 341

Dryobates hardwickii Nardwickii (Jerdon). The Indian Pygmy Woodpecker.

Anantgiri wing 81 mm. Lamasinghi!

Micropternus brachyurus phaioceps (Blyth). The Rufous Woodpecker.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. Female obtained had a 116 mm. wing and

the stomach was packed with Crematogaster ants.

*Brachypternus benghalensis puncticsllis (Malherbe). The Golden-backed Wood-

pecker.

Common in the low country. A female with wing 140 mm. was obtained

at-Narsapatam. The stomach was full of large black ants (Camponotus).

{tChrysocolaptes guttacristatus guttacristatus (Tickell). Tickell’s Golden-backed

Woodpecker.

La Personne obtained one at Sankrametta.

Vivia innominatus malayorum (Hartert). The Speckled Piculet.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. Wing 59 mm. Had fed on small ants. Often

seen in bushes quite close to the ground.

*Jynx torquilla (Linnzeus). The Wryneck.

Seen at Chintapalli in March.

Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps (Franklin). The Large Green Barbet.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi !

Xantholaema haemacephala indica (Latham). The Crimson-breasted Barbet.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi! Waltair (March)!

Cuculus canorus (Linnzeus ), The Common Cuckoo.

Common calling at Lamasinghi. Bird shot calling had wing 223 mm, and

stomach full of caterpillars and covered with fat all over.

*Cuculus micropterus (Gould). The Indian Cuckoo.

Heard at Anantgiri and Lamasinghi.

Hierococcyx varius (Vahl). The Common Hawk Cuckoo,

The Brain-fever bird was heard at Kondasantha (March), Anantgiri and

Lamasinghi.

*Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl). The Plaintive Cuckoo.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi. Bird obtained at Lamasinghi had a 108 mm.

wing and had fed on red bugs.

*Penthoceryx sonneratti sonneratii Latham. The Banded Bay Cuckoo.

One was obtained at Anantgiri wing 116 mm.

*Surniculus lugubris lugubris (Horsfield). The Drongo Cuckoo.

Commonly seen and heard at Anantgiri and Lamasinghi.

*Clamator jacobinus pica (Hempr. & Ehr.). The Pied Crested Cuckoo.

Three birds were seen at Waltair on rst June. A male shot (wing 146 mm.)

was not breeding.

*Eudynamys scolopaceus scolopaceus (Linnaeus). The Indian Koel,

Waltair common! (Also at Kondasantha in March.)

342 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

*Rhopodytes viridirostris (Jerdon). The Small Green-billed Mallkoha.

Anantgiri several (may possibly have been R. t. tristis, Large Himalayan

Green-billed Malkoha cf. Lowther in Manbhum Dist. J.B.N.H.S., vol. 41,

P- 542).

{Taccocua leschenaultii affinis (Blyth). The Sirkeer Cuckoo.

La Personne obtained one at Sankrametta.

Centropus sinensis parroti Stresemann. The Crow Pheasant.

Heard at Anantgiri.

“Psittacula krameri manillensis (Bechstein). The Rose-ringed Parakeet.

Waltair (also in March)! Lamasinghi (female, under, wing 162 mm.).

Psit(acula cyanocephala cyanocephala (Linnaeus). The Blossom-headed Parakeet.

Lamasinghi !

Coryllis vernalis (Sparren). The Indian Lorikeet.

common at Anantgiri and Lamasinghi.

*Coracias benghalensis indica (Linnzus), The Indian Blue Jay.

Waltair common and interested in holes.

*Merops orientalis (Latham). The Indian Green Bee-eater.

A party of 15-20 was seen at Anakapalli and a pair at Chintapalli. Also

at Kondasantha in March. Common at Waltair during Christmas.

*Merops snperciliosus javanicus (Horsfield). The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

Nesting in a very scattered colony in the dry vertical sides of 20’ gullies

washed in laterite soil at Uplands, Waltair. One nest 4’ deep contained

naked young. A female wing 130 mm. had a granular ovary, but a distended

oviduct. Except for a pair at Kondakarla no other birds were seen. These

appear to be the southernmost breeding records unless Rhodes Morgan’s: records

(Ibis 1870, p. 314) of large numbers breeding in the banks of the Kistna and

Cauvery are correct. Betts also refers vaguely to this bird nesting in Coorg

].B.N.H.S., vol. 39, p. 602. Recent records suggest a southward movement ~

extending into Ceylon in September-October and a northward return for nesting

between April and September-October (Chingleput Dist. Mrs. Barnes,

|- BIN. H-S., vol. “40; sp. 467+ Central Indiay Salim Aline BaNereS sanyo leamare

p. 473; Rameswaram Island, C. H. Biddulph, J].B.N.H.S., vol. 40, p. 238).

During Christmas these birds were absent.

Alcemerops athertoni (Jardine & Selby). The Blue-bearded Bee-eater.

La Personne obtained this at Anantgiri in February. McCann saw a large

bee-eater in the hills which may have been this species.

*Cervie rudis leucomelanura (Reichenbach). The Pied Kingfisher.

Kondakarla !

*Alcedo atthis taprobana (Kleinschmidt), The Indian Common Kingfisher.

Anantgiri. .

*Halcyon smyrensis (Linnaeus). The White-breasted Kingfisher.

Common in the rills nesting in roadside cuttings, particularly at hairpin bends.

CHR CHe '

*Upupa epops ceylonensis (Reichenbach). The Ceylon Hoopoe.

Very patchily distributed in the higher forests both at Anantgiri and Lama-

singhi. Two were collected at 3,000’. A juvenile with a soft skull had wing

129 mm. and another wing 122. Stomach contained remains of Cicadae. Also

seen in March. Several (subsp.?) seen in low country during Christmas,

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT 343

Harpactes fasciatus malabaricus (Gould). The Malabar Trogon.

Female with soft egg in oviduct (wing 128 mm.) was obtained at Anantgiri,

face patch bright cobalt blue. Also seen in Lamasinghi area in March,

*Micropus affinis affinis (Gray), The Common Indian House Swift.

Common at Waltair, also at Bobbili.

Cypsiurus parvus batassiensis (Griffith), The Palm Swift. —

Common at Waltair and the low country though relatively not nearly as

abundant as the Borassus palm. Also at Anantgiri and Lamasinghi though the

Borassus did not occur so high, but Caryota urens was present.

Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell). The Crested Swift.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi !

Caprimuigus macrourus albononotus Vickell. Horsfield’s Nightjar.

A young bird was shot dusting itself on the road at Chintapalli.

*Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham. The Jungle Nightjar.

Shot on road along cliffside at Sankrametta 3,500’, Testes 4X5 mm. Heard

lower at Kondasantha in March, also at Lamasinghi.

*Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham. The Little Indian Nightjar.

Heard at Kondasantha in March.

*Ketupa zeylonensis leschenaulti (Temminck). The Brown Fish Owl.

A female shot at Lamasinghi had. dormant ovaries and a 384 mm. wing.

*Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin). The Rock-horned Owl.

Heard at Kondakarla on 24th December 1944.

*Athene brama brama (Temminck). The Spotted Owlet.

Waltair !

*Glaucidium radiatum radiatum (Tickell). The Jungle Owlet.

Anantgiri heard. NKondasantha in March heard.

*Pandion haliactus haliaetus (Linn.). The Osprey. ~~

Seen at. Kondakarla on 30th December.

Sarcogyps calyus (Scopoli). The King Vulture.

Lamasinghi! Waltair!

*Gyps indicus indlcus (Scopoli). The Indian Long-billed Vulture.

Waltair and Kondakarla!

*Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmelin). The Indian White-backed Vulture.

Waltair ! Lamasinghi.

*Neoptiron percnopterus ginginianus (Latham), The Smaller Scavenger Vulture.

Waltair common!

*Falco jugger Gray. The Lugger Falcon.

Specimen obtained over lake at Kondakarla on 31st December. Stomach

contained remains of bird.

_ *Ictinaetus malayensis perniger (Hodgson), The Black Eagle.

-Lamasinghi !

344. JOURNAL,..BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 42

*Haematornis cheela melantotis (Jerdon). The Serpent Eagle.

Female shot at Anantgiri had a wing 439 mm. and dormant ovaries. The

stomach contained the remains of a snake. Lamasinghi !

“Butastur teesa (Franklin), The White-eyed Buzzard.

Lamasinghi !

*Haliaétur leucogaster (Gmelin). The White-bellied Sea Eagle.

Vizagapatam and Kondakarla !

-“Haliaétur indus indus (Bcddaert). The Brahminy Kite.

Waltair ! ;

Milvus migraus govinda Sykes. The Indian Pariah Kite.

Waltair common! Lamasinghi !

*Circus melanoleucos (Pennant). The Pied Harrier.

IWwondakarla in March!

_ “Circus aeruginosus aeruginosus (Linnaeus). The Marsh Harrier.

Common all the way north to Vizagapatam from- Madras in March.

*Astur badius dussumieri Temminck and Lang. The Indian Shikra.

Lamasinghi! Anantgiri! Kondakarla Christmas !

Astur trivirgatus indicus Hodgson. The Himalayan Crested Goshawk.

A female (wing 257 mm.) was obtained at Lamasinghi. The ovaries were

dormant. La Personne obtained a male (wing 220 mm.) on 28th April.

*Pernis ptilorhynachus ruficollis Lesson. The Crested Honey Buzzard.

A female (wing 4oo mm.) shot at Anantgiri had a dormant ovary. The -

stomach contained remains of a small bird.

Dendrophassa bicincta bicincta (Jerdon). The Orange-breasted Green Pigeon.

Lamasinghi frequent !

*Chalcophaps indica indica (Linnaeus). The Bronze-winged or Emerald Dove.

Common at Anantgiri and Lamasinghi (also in March). A male shot had

testes 3X4 mm., wing 143 mm.

*Columba livia intermedia Strickland. he Indian Blue Rock Pigeon.

Common at Vizagapatam.

Ducula badia cuprea (Jerdon). Alsocomus puniceus. (Tickell).

The Vizagapatam Gazetteer 1907, p. 23 reads: ‘In the hills the Imperial

pigeon is’ not uncommon. and a brown pigeon with a white head is seen now

and again.’ Ball recorded this Imperial Pigeon from Jeypore and the Purple

Wood Pigeon was obtained by Mooney in the Singhbhum District where he says

it ts.Jotak but was noted through ‘the forest tracts of Orissa southwards to the

borders of Madras (Presidency)’ (J.B.N.H.S., vol. 37, p. 735).

*Streptopelia orientalis subsp.?2 The Rufous Turtle Dove.

Seen at:-Anantgiri.

*Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin). The Spotted Dove.

Common in_ hills. Two birds shot at Lamasinghi had their organs dor-

ayt. Also around Waltair during Christmas.

BIRDS OF THE VIZAGAPATAM DISTRICT 348

*Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin). The Little Brown Dove.

This was noted both in the hills and at Waltair in neler but not seen on

this occasion. Waltair Christmas !- :

*Streptopelia decaocto decaocto Itrivalszky. The Indian Ring Dove.

Recorded as common round Vizagapatam in March but not noted on this

trip. Waltair Christmas !

Pavo cristatus Linnaeus. The Peafowl.

The Gazetteer states that ‘peafowl are common all over the hills, and the

Savaras catch them by chasing them from side to side of a steep narrow

valley until they are exhausted’. Not seen or heard though reported by shikari.

*Gallus gallus murghi Robinson and Kloss. The Red Jungle Fowl.

Anantgiri and Lamasinghi, but not abundant. C/5 were taken at Lama-

singhi.

*Galloperdix spadicea spadicea (Gmelin). The Red Spur Fowl.

Lamasinghi !

*Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum., The Painted Bush Quail.

In small parties in forest clearings under grass and stumps. Two males. shot

had their testes 3X2 mm. and wings 83 and 86 mm. The bright red beak is

very noticeable as the bird flies across.

*Francolinus pictus pictus (Jardine & Selby). The “Painted Parcidees

A solitary bird was flushed off the road between Lamasinghi and Chinta-

palli at about 2,500’. :

*Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus ((:melin). The Gray Partridge.

Waltair ! 5

Turnix tanki tanki Blyth. The Large Yellow-legged Button Quail.

La Personne shot this bird at Sankrametta. Some sort of--button quail

was seen and heard drumming at Lamasinghi.. A largish odd-sized. pair of

quail flushed in scrub on hill side was probably this species.

*Porzana pusilla pusilla (!cdlas). Baillon’s Crake..

Single bird shot at Kondakarla on 24th December 1944.

-*Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth. The Indian Moorhen.

Kondakarla 24th December 1944. Two shot and several seen.

*Fulica atra atra Linnaeus. The Coot.

Common at Kondakarla. Three birds shot (2nd June)- were all females with

granular ovaries.

*Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scopoli). The Pheéasant-tailed. Jacana.

Common at Kondakarla (also in March in off plumage).

*Larus brunnicephalus Jerdon. The Brown-headed Gull,

Small parties in Vizagapatam Harbour, Christmas 1944. Identified by the

‘mirror’ in the w ings. . :

*Lobivanellus indicus indicus (Boddaert). The Red-wattled Lapwing.

Waltair in March! Lamasinghi, (McCann) ! a EY eS

*Tringa ochropus (Linnaeus). The Green Sand-piper.

Christmas 1944 a few at Kondakarla!

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HisT. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

- “Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus. The Common Sand-piper.

Christmas 1944, a few seen at Kondakarla!

*Tringa glareola (Linnaeus). Green Sand-piper.

~Commonest wader at Kondakarla. Christmas 1944.

Scolopax rusticola Linnzeus.

The Gazetteer states ‘of the rarer game birds, the Woodcock has been seea

around. Padera’. Padera is in the hills, west of Sankrametta. I did not see

a single snipe during Christmas—the soil is perhaps too sandy.

Pelecanus onocrotalus Linnaeus. The Roseate Pelican.

Recorded from Kondakarla by S. C. Law (J.B.N.H.S., vol. 30, p. 483).

*Pelecanus roseus Gmelin. The Gray or Spot-billed Pelican.

Male shot at Kondakarla had fed on fish 1” to 3” long.

*Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot). The Small Cormorant.

Several seen at Kondakarla 24th December 1944.

*Anhinga melanogaster Pennant. The Snake Bird or Darter.

Kondakarla !

*Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler). The Middle Egret.

Kondakarla and Waltair!

*cgretta garzetta garzetta (Linnaeus). The Little Egret.

Kondakarla and Waltair!

Ardeola grayii (Sykes). The Pond Heron or Paddy Bird.

Waltair !

_Phoenlcopters ruber roseus Pallas. The Flamingo.

_C. Law noted flocks flying south at Wirneapetrnl in August (J.B.N.H.S

ar 30, p. 483).

Rhodonessa caryophyllacea (Latham), The Pink-headed Duck. 3

Old records (Game Birds, Hume & Marshall, iii, p. 175) from Kondakarla.

Nettapus coromandelianus coromatdelianus (Gmelin). The Cotton Teal.

Several were shot at Kondakarla on 2nd June. The females had granular

ovaries and the testes of the males measured 8X4 mm. A flapper with moult-

ing quills was shot during Christmas.

*Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield). The Smaller Whistling Teal.

Kondakarla ! 3

Anas poecilorhyacha poecilorhyncha Forster. She Indian Spot-billed Duck.

Mr. R. F. Stoney has shot it in the Vizagapatam District (J.B.N.H.S.,

vol. 39, p. 460).

Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus). The Gadwall.

~Mr. R. F. Stoney has shot a few in the Vizagapatam District (J.B.N.H.S.,

vol. 39, p- 460). ‘One of the commonest duck in this area’ (Gazetteer 1907,

23).

*Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg). The Brahminy Duck,

Seen at Kondakarla during Christmas.

*Dafila acuta (Linnaeus). The Pintail.

Wing of bird shot near Vizagapatam during Christmas examined,

JourN., BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. WARE ele

S \S

1. An early spring vista along a subsidiary valley

in Kashmir —a favoured haunt of the Ibis-bill.

2. Alert and with measured tread, the Ibis-bill approaches the nest.

Journ., BomBay Nat. HIsT.

Soc.

PLATE

vw.

Settling down to brood.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE IBIS-BILL ee o47

*Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus). The Shovellor. »

Seen at Kondakarla during Christmas.

Anas penelope (Linnaeus). The Wigeon.

Mr. R. F. Stoney shot only one in the Vizagapatam District over a period of

about thirty years ({.B.N.H.S., vol. 39, p. 462).

Netta rufina (Pallas). The Red-crested Pochard.

Mr. R. F. Stoney shot 12 in the Vizagapatam District in 1928-29. Christ-

mas Kondakarla !

Aythya ferina ferina (Linnaeus). The Red-headed Pochard or Dun-bird.

Mr. R. F. Stoney shot two in Vizagapatam District in 1928-29. Christmas!

Aythya marila (Linnaeus). The Scaup.

Col. McMaster records seeing several birds of this species on marshes and

salt lakes between Chicacola-Berhanipore (Hume and Marshall, iii, 271), but

Whistler doubts the record. ee

Aythya fuligola (Linnaeus). The Tufted Pochard.

Mr. R. F. Stoney has shot it in the Vizagapatam District.

*Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori. The Little Grebe or Dabchickk.

Common at Kondakarla and also seen from the train at Vizianagram. Three

nests with c/3 each were seen at Kondakarla during Christmas. Curiously all

were left uncovered.

PHOTOGRAPHING THE IBIS-BILL

(Ibidorhyncha struthersii Gould).

Lt.-CoL.. B. T, PuiLuips, 1.4, (Retd.).

(with 2 plates)

Ornithologists will readily appreciate the excitement of a keen

observer and. photographer on hearing that a. rare bird, which

had hitherto been believed to be one of the migrants passing

through on their way to and from the far North, was actually

breeding by one of the mountain streams in Kashmir.

It was indeed a red letter day when I received an invitation

from._a friend, who had known the Ibis-bill in many regions of

the inner Himalayas, to bring out my equipment, stay at his

fishing camp and try my hand at photographing this rara avis.

As I was under the impression that I had already been success-

ful in photographing every species that frequented the Kashmir

torrents, I should have been highly sceptical about the possibil-

ity of adding another series of pictures to my collection, had

not the description of the bird,—a wader, larger than the usual

waders in these parts with a curiously curved long red bill—

placed its identification beyond all possible doubt. The warning

that the bird was extremely shy, and. so rare in Kashmir that

a considerable reward had been offered for a clutch of its eggs,

and the consequent need for the greatest secrecy still further

‘348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

increased my enthusiasm. I lost no time in packing my home-

made equipment and in setting out to avail mysell of this: glo-

riously unexpected opportunity. .

One advantage of bird photography. as a hobby is that, though

it frequently involves considerable labour and pains, it is always

exercised in delightful surroundings; and my pursuit of the Ibis-

bill proved no exception. L’s camp was pleasantly situated on

a patch of green sward on the bank of a swiftly flowing torrent,

which sparkled over the shingle and boulders, and was joined by

a number of merry little babbling side streams. The surround-

‘ing hills were gleaming. with every shade of verdant spring, and

the more distant snow-capped peaks and mountains added to: the

‘splendour of the setting. What could I have wanted more? An

‘ideal ‘camp site, a congenial and enthusiastic companion, a ara

avis awaiting me in the studio and the certainty of succulent trout

‘all-alive-O’ whenever my inner man craved for food. Nothing.

It was with a pleasurable thrill of anticipation that I accompa-

nied my host on a preliminary reconnaissance of the nesting” site.

But ‘there is many a slip ‘twixt cup and lip’. So well did

‘the nest with its clutch of eggs blend into its surroundings that

we were unable to find it! Step by step, with the utmost precau-

tion, we cast in every direction, to and fro, across the spit of

shingle where the pair were known to be breeding, but not an

egg could we find! We renewed our search and were on the

point of abandoning it, and were actually giving vent to our feel-

ings about marauding jackdaws when, with a sudden and painful

kick on my advancing foot, my host just saved me from commit-

ting an irretrievable disaster. I had been within an ace of crush-

ing a clutch of 3 eggs to smithereens. It is no exaggeration

when I say that the joy of discovery combined with the narrow-

ness of my escape gave me no mean thrill. To save time, .and

to eliminate the possibility of error on_the morrow, we laid out

three arrowheads of red stones pointing in. the direction. of the

nest. ,

_ April is a rainy month in Kashmir or, at best, the weather

is very unsettled and anything but ideal for photography; but the

next day was bright and sunny and, the omens being propitious,

my bearer—almost as great an enthusiast as myself—and I set

out to the site in high spirits. | “

‘With infinite care we erected my camera, complete with its

'y2-inch telephoto. lens, stand, and electric wlease, some fifteen

‘feet from the nest and camouflaged the edifice to resemble.a ta-

~marisk bush.. We then ran out the battery cable, taking great

“pains to ensure that we left no kinks in it, as. this might cause

_a slight movement of the wire ‘which would certainly attract the

_bird’s attention: and agitate it, giving it the impression that a

snake. had designs on its sanctuary. ‘Any alteration in. the Jand-

scape, in this case, the appearance of a new bush, never escapes

a bird’s. notice but, after observing its stationary appearance, ex-

cept for the- fronds waving naturally in the: breeze, he, or she,

will soon take it for granted and pay it no further attention. On

this occasion, owing to the exceptionally timid nature of the bird

PHOTOGRAPHING THE IBIS-BILL 349

and the bare stretch of shingle surrounding ‘the nest, I had to

run out the full 150 yards of the cable to where my bearer could

lie hidden in some bushes, press-button in hand, ready to release

the shutter and make an exposure on a pre-arranged signal. I

then took up a more elevated observation post on the bank of the

stream from which, through my binoculars, I could see the direct-

ing arrows pointing to the nest, which was nothing more than a

scrape in the stones and, though it was lined with small

smooth pebbles, was perfectly invisible from the distance of a

few feet. My ambush was now complete. I had not long to

wait. In my younger, and big game shooting days, I have often

trembled with excitement at the sight of an approaching feline,

but the sensation was every bit as intense when, a movement in

the distance attracting my attention, I raised my binoculars and

saw that my harmless feathered quarry had arrived in the vicinity.

The bird, after alighting on the stones, made a dilatory ap-

proach towards the nest, though ever on ie alert for unforeseen

danger. The lesen bby quick growth of the tamarisk bush did

not escape its attention and, from the bobbing of its head, I

gathered it was regarding it with considerable suspicion; but,

soon coming to the conclusion that it was harmless, with a. final

quick little run, it reached the nest and settled down to brood.

It is said ‘patience is a virtue’; but, it can also be a great

trial. The rare Ibis-bill was posing to perfection in the studio. but

I have learnt by experience that it is a great mistake, if you

want a series of exposures, to click the shutter too hastily. A

bird remains in a state of alarm and intensely on the alert for

some time after settling on its nest and, though outwardly at ease,

it is still highly suspicious of the slightest change in the surround-

ings till the presence of the eggs and the undisturbed. nest gras

dually lull it into a sense of security. Notwithstanding my anxie-

ty about letting slip an opportunity that might never occur again

IT have trained myself to wait for at least a quarter of an hour

before proceeding to take liberties.

It may be imagined that my home-made apparatus places me

at a disadvantage when arguing the pros and cons connected with

distant release versus hide methods of bird photography, as there

is no means of resetting the shutter without returning to the

camera for that purpose; but my bearer and I have evolved a

technique of approach which rarely, if ever, seriously disturbs

a sitting bird. I saunter casually towards him, and then we stroll

together very leisurely in the direction of the nest, plucking a leaf

here, examining a flower there, chatting together in low tones

till the fake bush is reached, there one of us quickly resets the

shutter and, if necessary, alters the exposure, this completed, we

saunter off leisurely by circuitous routes. to our respective obsérva-

tion posts. Our movements naturally arouse the bird’s curiosity,

but it soon becomes accustomed to them, and to induce it to accept

them as a matter of harmless routine I. make my exposures at

not less than half hour intervals, notwithstanding the tedium of

motionless waiting. | :

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 4s

Not to trouble the reader with further details of my methods,

in two days I made twenty successful exposures, eight in black

and white and a dozen in colour, three of which illustrate this

article, the fourth illustration shows the valley chosen as the bird’s

habitat and breeding ground, the exact situation of which, for ob-

vious reasons, I refrain from mentioning.

Notwithstanding complete lack of cover in the close vicinity

of the nest, birds brooding in the open are easier to photograph

than those which conceal their nests in bushes, trees, marsh or

water for their suspicions are far more readily allayed as little,

if any, re-adjustment of the immediate foreground is necessary.

To photograph a bird nesting in a bush is a far more tricky

problem, as leaves and twigs have to be removed to expose the

nest to the inquisitive lens of the camera, and to admit sufficient

light to permit the making of an exposure. But these difficulties

can be overcome with patience and care. I never snap off any

obstructions but tie them back with string, releasing them to

resume their former positions again at the end of the day’s work,

thus protecting the nest from marauders and quelling any contt-

nued alarm or suspicion that might cause the bird to desert its

nest. Under adverse lighting conditions, I have even been success-

ful in tempting a bird to leave its nest and pose for me on a

temporary twig placed conveniently ‘within the focused area of

the camera,

Whenever possible I take a series of pictures to illustrate the

individual habits and peculiarities of each bird and have thus ob-

tained considerable first hand evidence of many of Nature’s secrets.

To those who deprecate the art of bird photography, and desig-

nate it as a cruel ‘sport’ which leads to unnecessary destruction

by causing birds to desert their nests, I reply, that if it is under-

taken with due’care and consideration by a lover of birds, no

harmful results need ensue. I have successfully photographed

over a hundred different species on open shingle, in bushes, trees,

marsh or open water and, to the best of my knowledge, not a

single clutch of eggs has failed to hatch out as a result of my

interest and activities in this fascinating branch of natural science.

To return to the Ibis-bill. This clutch hatched out in due course

and the young birds ‘went their way in the natural scheme of

things. On a later-occasion I made the further acquaintance of

this rare bird in Kashmir and now know of three nesting sites in

the boulder strewn beds of its mountain streams, which held clutches

of 3, 4 and 5 eggs respectively. A few words about its habits

as the result of actual observation may add a little interest.

The Ibis-bill is readily recognisable by its three inch long, deep-

red, curved bill and its overall length of fifteen inches. Its white

under plumage beneath a broad black gorget, so conspicuous in

flight, all but disappears the moment the bird alights to become

transformed into a bluish-grey object tinged with rufous, conform-

ing exactly with the general tone of its shingle haunts. The nest-

ing site is usually entirely devoid of cover and is placed on the

crest of a ridge of shingle dividing the main stream of a torrent

PHOTOGRAPHING THE IBIS-BILL B51

from its subsidiary overflows, thereby rendering it safe from flood-

ing by the daily rise of the water level as the snows melt in the

sun. As I mentioned before, the nest is a mere ‘scrape in the

ground, though it is neatly lined with smooth pebbles by the birds

themselves. The colour of the eggs—3 or 4 to a clutch—so re-

sembles the shingle on which they are laid, that careful approach

is essential if a disaster, as nearly caused by myself, is to be

avoided.

After flying towards its brooding area, the Ibis-bill alights on

the shingle some twenty or thirty yards from the actual site of

its nest, usually amongst a patch of stunted tamarisk bushes

whence it emerges, apparently unsuspectingly, into the open, peck~

ing a morsel here, turning over a stone there but none the !ess

ever on the alert, turning its inquisitive eyes with a little bob

of its head in a careful scrutiny of its surroundings. It shows

no sign of haste till within a yard or two of its nest when, pre-

sumably spurred on by the sight of the eggs, it breaks into a

quick run, bends over them, and possibly turns them over before

sitting. Woe betide the impatient photographer unable to refrain

from clicking his shutter before it has finally settled down!

Once brooding, the Ibis-bill, in contrast to most other sitting

birds, remains remarkably still on the nest. There is no pluck-

ing at a leaf or a blade of grass or adjusting an uncomfortable

pebble; but, with head lowered into its neck and its curved red

bill lying along the contour of its breast, it transforms itself

into bluish-grey piece of ‘rock; one of Nature’s perfect examples

of camouflage. Before long another bird will be seen following

the course of the stream, leisurely flapping its rounded wings

after the manner of a Peewit, though every now and again, as

it twists and rises to avoid something suspicious on the ground,

its quickening wing beats give a more jerky appearance to its

flight. This will be the sitting Ibis-bill’s mate coming to keep guard

over their precious nest. On alighting he, or she, will remain

‘perfectly still part and parcel, as it were, of the stones of the

river bed but ready at an instant’s notice to rise with a quick

turn of speed to give aerial combat to such arch marauders as

the kites and crows.

The Ibis-bill shares the common traits of most ground nesting

birds in displaying a very alert all-round watchfulness, not the

slightest flicker escapes attention; also, I assert, a marked intel-

ligence,—a behaviour discriminating between the possible dangers

that arise from the presence of human beings, and that of animals

roaming about their breeding area. In the former case, a direct

approach, even though the individual be still at a distance, is

sufficient to cause the bird to leave its nest and literally creep

away from it, before taking to wing in the distance; on the other

hand, should the approach be circuitous, the bird will sit tight in

the hope that its stillness and feathering, will escape attention.

until it is on the verge of being trodden down, when it will flutter

off, feigning injury; none of this subtility is shown, by the bird

when grazing horses, sheep or cattle, which cause much destruc-

tion to open ground nests, endanger their very lives, for then

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 45

it simply slinks away just out of reach of the murderous hoof

and returns again to its nest, quite unperturbed, immediately the

danger has passed.

In conclusion, I note that it is stated in the Fauna of British

India (Birds) that the adult breeding Ibis-bill has blood red feet

and legs but, on both the occasions on which I have seen them

at their nests, their feet were a livid and greenish grey colour, the

colour assigned to non-breeders. Though the rule laid down may

not be infallible, yet it is possible that I had observed the same

pair breeding again, nesting on a site only seventy yards removed

from that of a former nest used four years previously, perhaps

this is an example of the unerring instinct shown by migrating

birds in their return year-in, year-out, to their same chosen breed-

ing haunts, |

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE.

W. S. S. Mackay.

WITH A FOREWORD

H. A. Race.

(with 2 plates)

‘Of recreation there is none |

So free as fishing is alone ;

All other pastimes do no less

Than mind and body both possess ;

My hand alone my work can do,

So I can fish. and study too.’

The Angler’s Song, 1653.

FOREWORD

It is a great pleasure for me to write a foreword to Mr. Mackay’s

Trout of Travancore as I have been able to watch the results of

various attempts to establish trout in the waters of the High Range

over a period of thirty odd years. It was not until Mr. Mackay

built the Rajamallay hatchery and later took over the stocking of

the waters that success was attained.

The chapters describing the management of the hatchery and the

disposal of the fry make very interesting and instructive reading.

The three outstanding. factors which have been responsible for

turning failure into success are, firstly, the very liberal help which

has been given to the High Range Angling Association by the Direc-

tors of the Kanan Devan Hills Produce Company Limited, without

which it would have been impossible to carry on with the work,

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE Cea 383

secondly, to Mr. Francis for his keenness and foresight in his ‘Eruvi-

kulam. Policy’ as it was very largely due to this scheme that failure

“was averted, and lastly to Mr. Mackay for his untiring energy, and

keenness and for his excellent work in ‘fair weather and foul’.

It is a great pleasure to anglers to wander up these lovely streams

and to see the number and the size of the fish and to realise the money

and energy expended have reaped their just reward.

H. A. RAGG

CHAP. PAGB

Introduction oar es boc es Sa) EROS)

1. How Trout Breed ... 200 ee id ata’ ee Oe

Il. The first experiment with Brown Trout ... si soo SS)

III. Rainbow Trout... “ais ats: as Spo wets,

IV. The First Success 0 0. me Pe eA 2360

V.. Hatchery Construction and Management ceot toot

INTRODUCTION

The Kanan Devan or the Hicu Rance forms part of the system

“of hills and passes known all over the world as the Western Ghats,

stretching from Poona to Cape Comorin. Although much of the

‘country has now been opened up into tea, it has lost very little of its

original grandeur, the highest land being quite unchanged.

_ Messrs. James Finlay & Company of Glasgow were granted a

second concession of 200 square miles some 50 years ago, and

amongst other beneficial innovations the stocking of the streams

- with trout, received their attention. .

The first experiments were carried out as far back as 1tgo9 but

until the year 1939 no great success was achieved.

~The country round which all recent experiments have been con-

ducted lies in close proximity to Aneimudi, the highest. peak south of

‘the Himalayas, 8,841 feet above sea level. It was in the streams of

-Hamilton’s Plateau lying north of Aneimudi that Rainbows were first

~ found to be breeding, and it is on the slopes of this mountain itself

that the present ‘hatchery is situated. .

It was suggested to us that we should write the story of trout

culture in this part of Travancore before the early records available

~ were finally lost in the passages of time. _ Indeed the work was start-

ed, and part of it appeared in the Field of March 1940. The final

attempt to establish trout. was inaugurated in 1937, and by 1944

success had at last been achieved. |

~ Permanent success, however, still remains to be assured and the

“need for knowledge is acute. Though the black years are over, it Is

“necessary to turn to the future, planning for several years ahead, and

much study in relation to local conditions is required. . It is in this

_way only that the angler can be satisfied and big baskets and a reason-

able weight average maintained, |

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45

We hope the following pages will serve two important purposes,

which are :—

1.. To record our varying fortunes from the beginning, in such

a manner that past mistakes cannot be repeated.

2. To stimulate interest and to educate the angling public to

the magnitude of the tasks before them.

Without the co-operation of all anglers in the High Range these

tasks would be impossible, but it is in the full assurance of that co-

operation we submit this work. :

We have to acknowledge with grateful thanks reference to Mr.

Philip Fowke’s work ‘Trout Culture in Ceylon’, and also to his

many interesting and instructive letters. Also to Mr. W. H. Armis-

tead’s ‘Trout Waters’ and ‘Practical’s ‘Fish Farming for Pleasure

and Profit’, 7

I.—How Trout BREED,

In ancient days in the British Isles, nature looked after the

stocking of the rivers and lochs unaided. Indeed until the present

century the proprietors of fishing waters had little or nothing to

worry about, as there were no tar Macadam roads, cars making

access to all water an easy matter, or new fangled methods and

patent instruments, for taking fish. In accordance with indivi-

dual conditions nature allows somewhere between 2% and 7% of the

number of eggs laid by a fish in fresh water to hatch and mature,

and in the good old days this was sufficient to stabilise the trout popu-

lation at a reasonable level. But with the march of time and the

steady decrease of stock, due to excessive fishing, netting, and poison

discharged from factories, nature could no longer tackle the problem

alone. In 1856 the difficulty was overcome by a Russian named

Vrasski, but before we relate this fascinating story, it is necessary

for us to consider how trout breed. a

Trout breed during the coldest period of the year, and when they

come into season they make for the upper reaches of the streams, or

the burns draining into lochs, where cold clear running water is

generally to be found, and where there are sandy banks and gravel

beds. In company with several male fish, each struggling for her

possession, the female or hen fish as she is called, makes her way .

up stream until she finds a suitable place for her nursery which is

generally at the tail of a shallow run or pool. On the hen fish falls

the work of constructing the nest or redd, and this she does by press-

ing herself against the stones and gravel, and moving a foot or so up-

stream, she excavates a hollow with powerful sweeps of her tail.

When the redd is:complete the hen fish makes a new movement.

Once more she passes up the redd turning from side to side. This

time she‘is laying, and the male or cock fish following closely behind

exhibits intense excitement, and driyes away any smaller fish that

may. be in the vicinity. With each flash of her side the female sends

out a single stream of eggs, which. are heavy and sticky. Having

laid a certain number. she immediately passes to one side, to be at

once supplanted by the male who passes over the eggs shedding his

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE Ra

milt as he goes. The fish then move off to another redd leaving the

eggs to the mercies of their very numerous enemies. Several spawn-

ings occur in a season before the spawners finally return to deeper

water. <A hen fish lays between 700 and 800 eggs for each pound of

her weight, and in breeding no actual contact takes place between

the S€xeS.

Now man had for many years studied and observed these opera-

tions, so at last when the necessity for experiments became essen-

tial, he commenced to breed trout by catching the wild spaw-

ners as they came to the shallow pools in the head waters, and

stripping the eggs and milt into a basin of water, placed them in

running water to hatch. A modicum of success was achieved, but an

old gentleman called Seth Green, an American, began to produce

astounding results. He was a dour old man and always kept his

mouth tightly shut, so that when he departed this life his secrets

went with him.

Until this time the ork had been in the hands of practical

men, gamekeepers no doubt, and men well acquainted with the

ways of the woods and rivers, but now Vrasski, a Russian naturalist

and scientist, began to make experiments using the microscope with

which to examine the eggs and milt. He found that the eggs on

stripping were sticky and adhesive, which is a provision of nature to

guard against them being washed from the redds by a sudden

increase in the flow of the water. He found the ova to be intensely

absorbent, and that from the time they leave the fish they absorb

water quickly until saturation point is reached.

He found the sperm of the male fish to be intensely active in

water, but this activity soon ceased, the sperm becoming lifeless or

in other words drowned. It was here that the secret of Seth Green

was revealed, and taking a dry basin he stripped the eggs and milt

into it discovering that now he could, without difficulty, obtain

success, the milt coming into contact with all the eggs before

losing its fertility. Later in this work the stripping of trout is

dealt with in detail.

Despite the fact that Vrasski at once made his niecovers now n

to the world at large, it was nearly a quarter of a century before it

was accepted by the experts who were hatching trout in other coun-

tries. At last however the Dry MeEruop of stripping ova was

acknowledged, and in the Russian’s honour it is popularly called

the Vrasski method to-day.

I].—THr First Expériment with Brown Trout,

Transportation of Ova from Scotland.—The whole question of

breeding trout is governed by temperature. In very cold countries

eggs may lie'in the hatching troughs for a hundred days. In the

warmer climate of the High Range of Travancore the hatching period

is reduced to 28 or 29 day: s. At an average temperature of 50°F. ova

will hatch in 50 days, with a decrease of five days in this period, for

every degree rise in the temperature. With the modern types of cold

storage, it is possible to transport eyed or fertile ova, to almost any

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol, 45

part of the world. The ova is generally packed in moss and placed

on trays, which are fitted into a square wooden box for local trans-

port in India. The temperature is kept constant by the application

of ice, but during transport by sea the box should have facilities for

proper examination to allow for the removal of dead eggs, which are

easily discerned as they turn white and show up well against the

delicate pink of the healthy ones.

In 1909 four planters M. C. Koechlin, John Carless, ‘Daisy’

Bell and ‘George’ Howlett were discussing trout fishing in the bar

of the High Range Club, as at that time great success was being re-

corded from Ceylon, and in the Nilgiris experiments had been going

on since 1863. In 1906 the Nilgiri Game Association were fortunate

enough to secure the services of an experienced pisciculturist, the late

Mr. H. C. Wilson, who had shown that experiments with Scottish

Brown /Trout (salmo. fario) were unsuccessful, because of the

insuperable difficulty of the females being ready to spawn before the

males were in season. He pinned his faith to the Rainbow trout

(salmo shasta) or the Steelhead (salmo irideus) and it is believed

imported ova from Insbruck, Austria, out of which nine trout sur-

vived. Later from New Zealand ova was obtained from which con-

siderable success was achieved. <A hatchery on up to date lines was

constructed at Avalanche, where steady progress has been made

from then, until the present day.

In the light of these successes the planters argued that there was

no obstacle to successful operations of a similar character being

carried out in Travancore, and they finally approached Mr. P. R.

Buchannan, the General Manager of the Kanan Devan Hills Produce

Company, fon advice. Mr. Buchannan was a man of foresight and

sagacity, and innovations of all kinds received his careful attention.

It appears, however, that the experiences of the tyros in the Nilgiri

Hills had not at that time been fully understood, for arrangements

were made to import the eyed ova of Brown trout from the hatchery

at Howieton in Stirlingshire. The first consignment was sent direct

to Bombay where it was met by Philip Gouldsbury and successfully

brought to the High Range. On another occasion a box containing

10,000 ova was duly delivered by the Howieton people into the charge

of M. C. Koechlin returning from leave on board a ship sailing from

Liverpool. No details are available of this particular voyage or of

the difficulties experienced if any, but it is known that the operation

was;successful. In those days transport difficulties were considers

able, so when the chest of ova arrived at Colombo it had to be tran-

shipped to a coasting vessel bound for Tuticorin. In the absence of

cold storage facilities aboard the coaster large supplies of ice had to

be arranged for. At Tuticorin ice was required for the train journey

to Kedaikanal Road Station, and lastly for the 75. miles drive by

bullock cart to the bottom of the riding ghat, where the chest was

taken over and carried by head load to Top Station, an elevation

6,200! above sea level. On one such expedition, the ast of its kind,

which was ‘undertaken by George Strachan in 1913, the ice ran out un-

comfortably far from his destination, but with good fortune, and by

hurrying on the coolies, he suocecded 3 in pchine the Heh Range

palely, and a splendid success was achieved,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate I

. . Cc ‘

(1).Major J. R...S...Mackay .at. Eruvikulam where the first Brown Trout

were caught. about 1910,

(2) Upper Eruyikulam with Aneimudi in the background.

(2) = *SULYIO}S [NJo1wd JO ynso1 oy (+)

I] a1v1g ‘20S ‘ISIET "JEN Avquiog ‘uimor

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 38)

- in the interim period between the ordering of the first ova and its

arrival.in the High Range a small hatchery was constructed at.

Chundavurrai by John Carless who with the help of H. A. Ragg

supervised the work in connection with the hatching of the ova.

The First Hatchery.—This hatchery was situated about a mile

from the Chundavurrai factory. It was a simple enough affair, the

water being led in from an open channel broken at several points by

silt traps, to a distributing trough, from which two hatching troughs

were supplied. The whole construction was of timber and the final

filtration of the water was accomplished by fitting in wooden frames

covered with towelling at the head of the troughs. In theory the

system was adequate, but in practice somewhat unsatisfactory. All

day and throughout most of the night a reliable overseer, which

venerally turned out to be one of the European Managers of a neigh-

bouring Estate, was compelled to be in attendance, constantly chang-

ing the filters which had become clogged with dirt, and keeping an

eye on the flow of the water. History does not record all the

difficulties they overcame, but it is a matter of great credit to them

that they succeeded in hatching a very reasonable percentage of the

ova they had imported all the way from Scotland.

Between 1909 and 1914 at least 25,000 eggs were imported, and

about 10,000 fine little trout were hatched out at Chundavurrai.

When all the difficulties of transport in those days are considered,

this percentage must be looked upon as remarkable. The work was

undertaken without the aid of any informative literature regarding

trout culture in the East such as we have to-day, or the help of such ©

experienced meni as would be readily available at home.

~~ Early Stocking.—The trout bred at Chundavurrai were liberated

in the Kundaly stream above where the new dam for the Power

Scheme is now being constructed. These trout made their way

down stream, but alas many of them fell inte the hands of poachers

who set-nets and night lines in the vicinity of Madupatty Estate.

Some were also liberated at Kanniamallay and Guderale and J. M.

Bridgman and E. H. Francis stocked the Othaparai stream, but few

‘of these fish were seen again. Trout were taken to the wilds of

‘Hamilton’s Plateau and were liberated in the Eruvikulam: river by

A. W. John and‘a fellow planter, and these trout did exceedingly

well. As far as.we know no natural breeding of Brown Trout took

place'in this or any other High Range water.

The records of trout caught are unavailable. It is known that

several magnificent fish were taken at Eruvikulam by ‘Clan’ Fraser

and that a trout weighing 34 lbs. of which there is a cast in the High

Range Club, was caught on a worm near Periavurrai by M. C.

Koechlin. ~The honour of catching the first Brown Trout however

probably fell to Henry Gribble Turner, and this is how it occurred.

H. G. Turner’s name is closely associated with the discovery of

‘the Kanan Devan Hills, or the High Range, which he first came

upon at the end of a lengthy ‘shikar’ expedition. He and his. half

brother, A. W. Turner, later formed a Company styled the North

Travancore Agricultural and Planting Society, to whom a concession

-of 200 square miles was given ‘and to their heirs and successors

for ever’. Messrs. James Finlay and Company took over this Plant-

388 ~ JUURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

ing Company in the year 1896 and formed the Kanan Devan Hills |

Produce Company Limited. The land consists of high grassy peaks

and plateaux, and the valleys which break up the country from end

to end, were clothed with dense forest. Most of these valleys -have

now been opened up into tea, but the higher land remains much as

it was a thousand years ago. H, G. Turner, who was a’servant of

the Government of Madras, was on the eve of retirement when he

experienced a desire to revisit, for the last time, the hills he loved so

much. In company with an old friend, ‘Toby’ Martin, another

pioneer of the District, who was at that time in charge of

Labour Recruiting at Bangalore, he camped out in the wild country

of Hamilton’s Plateau, in the vicinity of Aneimudi. One evening

as they sat on a ridge above the head waters of the Eruvikulam

river, on the look-out for a herd of Bison, they were astonished to

see through their glasses unmistakable rings, apparently made by

trout rising, in the still part of the river. Taney had no idea that any

trout had been put into this river, and it was only then that they

understood from the hillmen with them, that trout stocking opera-

tions had taken place the previous year.

The frequent and determined rises must have been altogether too

much for these old warriors, for they at once proceeded to cut suitable

lengths of cane from the forest with which to make a rod. The hook

they fashioned from an old safety pin, and then all the lengths of

string that could be collected from amongst their camp kit were

joined together, a few grass hoppers were captured, and there they

were ready for an experiment in dapping.

There was a high wind ruffling the water when they reached the

bank, and every now and then, particularly in the vicinity of the

wild Rhododendron. bushes that overhang the banks, there would

be the ‘plop’ of a considerable trout. Gathering a length of line in

his hand Turner gently released the baited hook on the water, the

breeze taking it down stream and gradually straightening out the

line. Anxiously they watched the ‘hopper’ float past a bush.

Then with a swirl and a suck the bait was drawn under the surface

and he was fast into a splendid fish. Fortunately he must have

been able to clear the bush and play his fish from the open bank

beyond, for it was duly landed and weighed over the pound, a perfect

speckled beauty of the variety known as Salmo fario, the Brown

Trout. Several trout. were taken in this manner and thus ‘H. G.’s’

last visit to these hills must have been all the more memorable for

him.

The first Great War which broke out shortly after the last

attempt at stocking foredoomed further experiments, but it appears

clear that the whole project was now being looked upon as a failure

and that the Company were unwilling to continue with it. We

find no further references to fish and. fishing until the year 1932

when A, W. John of Chittavurrai obtained permission from the Com-

pany to undertake experiments on his own account.

IlI.—RainBow Trout.

The so-called Rainbow Trout of the Nilgiri Hills and Ceylon

varies in appearance and habits. Rainbow Trout were first intre-

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 389

duced to the British Isles about the year 1900 and were at once

hailed with great enthusiasm in angling circles. A few voices

were raised in warning, but the success of the fish itself from the

sporting point of view silenced all further argument. The Rain-

bow proved to be a keen feeder, and of extraordinary rapid growth

where feed was plentiful, a free riser and game, but with a ten-

dency to stop rising as its weight increased. In the larger fish

cannibalistic and migratory tendencies were pronounced.

We have often been asked what happens to our trout in the lochs

of the High Range? Let us study the question in the light of ex-

pertence at home and abroad. ?

First it must be understood that the Rainbow placec qd in the same

water as his cousin fario, will develop at twice fario’s rate in size

and weight. The strong migratory instinct may be partly explained by

the fact that, having culled the cream ot the feeding from one part of

the water in a short space of time, as these voracious fish can do,

they move off to another part of stream in search of further well-

stocked larders. But what happens to trout placed in a loch or an

artificial lake from which there is no outlet? ‘The answer may -be

found in the following experiences.

A certain lake in a mountainous part of the British Isles, which

contained only a few wary char, was stocked with a thousand year-

ling Rainbows. The lake did not rise much, and as the outlet was

small it was easily screened. During the first year the trout were

seen rising freely and the general opinion was that though these trout

had grown, they were not yet takable. The following June exactly

14 months after they had been liberated, the owner of the lake went

down to see if he could land a fish or two, so that he might know

how they were getting on. He had no idea in his mind that they

would be ready for the basket. There was a fine ripple running over

the loch when. he arrived, and shifting cloud in the sky, aad he soon

perceived a rise not far away. At the very first cast he rose and

hooked what at once appeared to be a heavy fish. The fish played

well for several minutes breaking the water like a sea trout and

ripping off many yards of line so that the reel screamed as if a

salmon had been hooked in heavy water. When the fish was finally

netted it proved to weigh no less than 2 lbs. and within an hour five

had been caught the biggest being just under 3 Ibs: The news of

this great oakoa travelled far and wide and the experiment was hailed

as a wonderful success. Towards the end of the’ season however

the fishing fell off and the following year only a few trout were taken.

What had happened? The screen was intact, the loch had never”

overflowed, and there was no possibility of the fish having departed

upstream. They had simply taken to bottom feeding, and the deeper

water.

In another instance at home an artificial lake with a bottom

outlet, and containing no fish, was stocked. ~The water was sur-

rounded with trees, and as it was almost stagnant it was deemed

advisable to turn in only a few trout. These were never seen again

for a year and it was thought that they had died. The water was,

therefore run off and there were the fish, almost the entire number,

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

great fat lazy fellows some of 4 pounds, and only two-year old!

(hese experiences bear a strong resemblance to our own trials at

Chittavurrai, Loch Finlay and Devicolam, of which we shall now

hear more. }

A. W. John’s Experiments.—In 1932 Mr. John first made a num-

ber of small artificial lakes at Chittavurrai, an estate lying on the

north-east edge of the Company’s concession overlooking the plains

of Madura and at an elevation of 6,154’. He had taken advice,

sound enough in theory, but incorrect in so far as his particular

conditions were concerned. He hoped that his trout might thrive,

and even breed in the feeder streams leading into his lakes, but im

this he was disappointed. Yearling try, fingerlings, were brought i in

fish carriers by lorry from the hatchery at Avalanche on several

occasions. Supplies of ice were arranged at various points such as

Coimbatore, Pollachi and Udamalpet, and the journey was under-

taken at night. It was an arduous task demanding considerable

endurance. The latter part of this journey up the narrow winding

ghat road to the hills was generally undertaken as dawn began

to break, and it was with relief that the cold air of the hills was felt

and the back of the journey broken.

_ Mr. John at first transported a few hundred trout successtully.

For 18 months he watched these trout rising freely, and then he

allowed a few friends to fish the water. At the first outing five fish

weighing 10} lbs. were caught and throughout the season fish rang-

ing from 2 to 4 lbs. were taken. The second year a fish of 5%

Ibs. was caught but thereafter nothing. The lakes were stocked

again with similar experiences but the big fish disappeared alto-

gether. These lakes which were, in actual fact, acting as eee

silt traps, contained, latterly, many feet of thick ‘black mud at th

bottom. That the bigger fish died, many of them spawnbound na

that they buried themselves in the mud would be a likely explanation

for their disappearance.

_ In spite of the fact that this undertaking had been a failure,

Mr. John had stimulated interest again, and our successes of to-day

are very largely due to his keenness and determination.

A small Angling Association was now formed which was backed

and largely financed by Mr. J. S. B. Wallace, General Manager of the

Kanan Devan Hills Company, and the Association set to work and

built the second hatchery at Arivikad.

IV .—THE First SUCCESS.

The second hatchery was built and managed by Alasdair Steven

but it was dogged by bad luck from the start. The choice of a

site was to some extent that of an expert, and while conditions

at the time of choosing it seemed suitable enough, it soon trans-

pired that there were many disadvantages, the principle ones being

rapid fluctuations in temperature and a water supply subject to

muddy spates from the clearings of a neighbouring Estate. The

hatching troughs were bonne of wood, later lined with galvanis-

ed metal and afterwards concrete. The filters were of cloih, and

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 361

worked efficiently. Several importations of eyed ova from the Nilgiri

Hills failed, the small fish or alevins of which we shall hear more

anon, hatching out almost at once in the apparently too warm water,

and, turning up their little tails, dying by the hundred. Some

success was achieved from stock fish brought over trom the Nilgiris

and developed in ponds at Arivikad.

It was at this period that the general atmosphere round angling

circles in the High Range became one of despair, and backing fell

otf almost entirely. The present General Manager of the Kanan

Devan Hills Produce Company, Mr. E. H,. Francis, was elected

Chairman of the Association now consisting of 11 members, and he

inaugurated a new idea, called ‘The Eruvikulam Policy’ and we

shall presently hear how from this last despairing attempt, the

success of the trout of Travancore, in 1943 became a confirmed

and established fact.

While the experiments at Chittavurrai were going on, the loch

at Devicolam and Loch Finlay had been stocked through funds

raised from private subscriptions from the planters. At Devi-

colam, which is to some extent a natural loch, but screened and

dammed to provide water power for Periakanal Estate, great sport

was obtained, but the experiences here were in line with the

first of the two home experiments already described. At Loch

Finlay one good years’ sport was obtained, but here again conditions

were similar to those of the second home experiment. ‘These fishing

waters however provided sport close to the centre of the district, and

so long as the possibility of catching a trout existed there, a few

members of the planting community retained interest in the project.

Mr. Francis, backed by the Directors of the Company, decided to

review the whole position once again, and briefly. the conclusions

arrived at were these. No natural breeding of Rainbow trout could

be expected at an elevation under 6,000/... Artificial lakes and ponds

were quite unsuitable for these fish, as the big- fish disappeared

within the first year or two and many of these probably died spawn-

bound. It was thought probable that fish died.on reaching an age

of approximately 5 years, but information on this point was still being

sought. The hatchery site had been unhappily chosen and must be

considered a dead loss.

On the credit side, we could turn our eyes to the highlands of

Hamilton’s Plateau where the Eruvikulam River rises, and there,

we were confident, trout would thrive and multiply. Beyond

Hamilton’s Plateau further magnificent water at Puar and Kalar was

clearly indicated on the map, while at Rajamallay Estate a splendid

river drains out to the west. The Loch at: Devicolam had already

proved sufficiently successful to be worth restocking from time to

time, and it had always been a great attraction for the residents in

and around the town of Munnar.

At the hatchery we had some two hundred fry, and a few yearling

trout, which had been earmarked for Eruvikulam. In spite of some

opposition, the Committee decided to move these fry during the heavy

monsoon of 1937 to Hamilton’s Plateau, and liberate them in the

headwaters of the Eruvikulam River, At that time there were no

roads across the plateau, the last Estate path ending at the edge of

go2. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 46

the Upper Vagavurrai Tea Estate, below the ‘Knife Back’ ridge.

From Arivikad the trout were transported by lorry in earthenware

pots, and from the Upper Vagavurrai Bungalow by head-load. The

expedition, in the height of a heavy monsoon burst, was no mean

undertaking, but the hsh travelled well, and the porters put up a

very fine display of endurance. The expedition was well supplied

with rum which put heart into the men tor the homeward journey

in the evening. Not a single fish was lost during the transport and

as the temperature was steadily dropping in the carriers during the

whole journey they were liberated almost at once. It was a wonder-

iul sight to see tne little chaps wriggie off so fit and well, and to

feel that, at all events, the first stocking of this fae nitieent water

had been accomplished. In 1938 Mr. Francis presented 500 fry to

the Association for the purpose of further stocking at Eruvikulam.

These were brought through trom the Nilgiris by one of the hatchery

attendants, but, alas, his transport was not carried out with sufficient

care. Asa result of this a considerable number were lost en route,

but again head-loads were successfully taken across the Cipla teau and

301 fry were liberated.

In completing our stocking operations on this occasion and return-

ing to the site of our camp, on the spot where the Company has now

erected one of their Boundary Inspection Huts, somebody made the

- suggestion that a cast be made to see if one of the trout of the pre-

vious year’s stocking could be caught and examined. <A rod was

put up by the writer, who made a cast with a small ‘Watson’s

Fancy’, at the head of the run into the pool now known as ‘The

General’s Pool’. <A trout rose at once and was missed but at the

second cast it rose again and was hooked. It was a heavy trout

but without a great deal of fight and it was soon brought to the

bank. Astonished eyes beheld a monster weighing 4% Ibs> a cock

Rainbow in perfect condition. This trout, one of 160 liberated

the previous year, had put on at least 4; lbs. in 16 months! This

is a typical illustration of what can happen when rainbow trout

are liberated in virgin water so full of natural food as was Eruvi-

kulam in those days. The following year Lieut.-General E. F.

Norton, C.B., D.S.O., M.C., of Everest fame, his wife and the writer,

caught six trout weighing 20 lbs., no less, while Mr. E. H. Francis

and the writer have between them caught four or five weighing

just under 5 lbs.

Those of you who have read that delightful book by H. R.

Jukes, ‘Loved River’, will remember how they succeeded in hatch-

ing out trout in an old perforated steel trunk filled with sand

and gravel. From this idea in a slightly elaborated form, experi-

ments were now undertaken. The experiments, which were almost

solely governed by the generosity of a few keen fishermen and

the Company, had to be conducted upon an economical basis,

and in order to lessen transport costs ova was purchased instead of

fry. Ova boxes were made approximately the shape of a standard

steel trunk, but constructed with a frame work of angle iron to which

“was fitted very fine perforated zinc sheeting. These boxes were

partly filled with gravel and placed at the tail of a run in the main

river where the current is slow. The first ova was bought from

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 363

the Nilgiris, but this experiment was a complete failure owing to the

hatching boxes having been placed in a side stream in the bed of a

swamp where dirty water was at once stirred up with the lightest

shower of rain. At Christmas 1940, however, a fairly successful

experiment was carried out near ‘Mackenzie’s Old Camp’ site and

a more successful one in the main river itself, with ova from Ceylon.

Some five or six thousand trout were hatched out and liberated, but.

what was even better, definite proof was established that our fish

were breeding naturally and several families of young fry were dis-

covered in the headwaters.

It was stated earlier that the question of breeding trout was.

governed by temperature and that the normal method of sending eyed

ova from one place to another is by packing them in moss on trays

fitted into a wooden box filled with ice. All that is necessary to do

when transporting the box is to make a periodical inspection and

fill up with ice, and as most journeys of this kind in South India

only necessitate a matter of a few days, the question of picking out

dead eggs does not arise. When the ova chest arrives at its desti-

nation it 1s immediately opened and the ice from the top tray

removed. A thermometer is then placed in the box which is closed

again. The temperature of the water into which it is intended to

place the ova is now carefully checked, and after 15 minutes the

thermometer in the box is examined. For the sake of argument

we will assume that the water temperature reads 56°F. and the

temperature inside the ova chest 4o°, a difference of 16°F. It is

necessarv to bring the temperature of the ova chest slowly up to

that of the water, and this operation must be carried out with great

care and without hurry or excitement which are fatal in dealing

with any item of hatchery work. A watering can with a fine rose

should be kept handy, and periodically a little water poured over

the box and on to the top tray. This water gradually seeps dowr

from tray to trav over the moss, and by degrees the temperature

will be observed mounting. Sometimes if the attendant is com-

peting against a rising temperature in the stream or hatchery, it

may take him up to 12 hours to complete this work, but the rule

must always be THE SLOWER THE BETTER, because sudden accelera-

tion, or a degree or two difference in temperature when the ege's are

planted, may well spell death to thousands of them. When the

temperature on the top tray has come.up to the required level then

work can proceed more quickly. Removing the first tray the moss

is lightly picked off, and the eggs, inside a piece of fine cloth or

muslin, disclosed. The cloth is carefully lifted and. placed in a

basin of clean water, and the eggs liberated. Odd bits of dirt and

moss will float to the top and these should be skimmed off. The eggs

which are a delicate shade of pink have a black spot. This is the

eye of the fish, and is the indication that the eggs are ripe. From

the basin the eggs are poured gently into the hatching box and

distributed over the gravel as evenly as possible. The eggs have

a tendency to adhere together and lie in heaps in all little depres-

sions in the gravel. When all the eggs have been placed in the

box, the lid is closed and a grass covering placed on top to obscure

light. The box should be in complete darkness,

364. JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

The fish farmer should, from now on, constantly be on his

knees in prayer, for, should a sudden spate come down and flood.

the boxes with dirty water the eggs will die. Dirty water is death

to the eggs, .but apart from that the sudden rush of heavy water

would tend to wash them against the bottom of the box and so

damage them.

This system of hatching trout by the box method was further

elaborated and carried out with success in 1941 at Rajamallay, in

the river close to where the hatchery is situated to-day. The fry

from this hatch were taken to Devicolam and Chittavurrai and

liberated there. The further purchase of 5,000 ova was made

from Ceylon and these eggs were flown over to Trichinopoly and

from there brought up by car. Two planters went down to

Trichinopoly to meet the plane. All went well until leaving for

home, when the car broke down. It was found that the car could

not be repaired that day, and so while one of the planters stayed

in charge the other proceeded by train with the ova chest. But

further troubles were stil in store, and at Dindigul the train to

Udamalpet, the station nearest to the High Range, was missed.

After much difficulty a car was hired to go to Udamalpet whither

another private car had been summoned by telegram. The eggs

arrived a day late with just sufficient ice in hand. About 2,000 fry

were finally hatched out by the River Box Method, and taking

everything into consideration this appeared, at the time, quite a

satisfactory result.

The position then towards the end of 1941 was that a very

fair degree of success had been achieved at Eruvikulam, a few

thousand fry having been liberated there, fully stocking the river.

Two hundred had also been taken below the falls into Turner’s

Valley. The Devicolam Loch had been stocked again with a thou-

sand fry, and a few hundred had been liberated in the lake at Chitta-

vurral. The promise of some good fishing the following year was

assured, but the membership of the Association had dwindled to 7!

While the waters in the Eruvikulam area had proved suitable

breeding streams, it was felt that without a proper hatchery nearer

home, waters such as Devicolam, Kanniamallay, Loch Finlay and

Rajamallay, could not be stocked and maintained. With encourage-

ment from Mr. Francis, and backing from the Directors of the Com-

pany, it was decided therefore to attempt the construction of a

hatchery once more, this time on Rajamallay Estate, and the work

was commenced on 1st August 1941.

V.—HATCHERY CONSTRUCTION AND MANAGEMENT.

The choice of a site for a hatchery is dependent upon an ade-

quate supply of water from an uncontaminated source, which can

be guaranteed to flow at a low temperature during the hatching

months. This condition would of course be best realised if a suit-

able rock or ground spring could be found and such a place would

be ideal for the erection of a hatchery. The source of a river, or

close to the source of a river and beyond all cultivation, would also

be appropriate, but here care should be taken to choose the correct

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 365

point from which to lead off the water. A good position to ‘tap’ a

stream would be at a fall or cascade, or immediately below it, where

the water would be well charged with oxygen, but in most .cases

where. water is taken direct from a river it is necessary to make one

or two silt traps or settling tanks in the water course to obviate

trouble from sediment.

At Rajamallay the intake was chosen near the bottom of a

cascade about one mile below the actual source of the river and

above the cultivation. The water is led into the hatchery through

earthenware pipes, and over a series of silt traps, and it has

been found that during the hatching months the temperature of the

water in the hatchery itself never exceeds 58°F. while in the early

morning's it is often as low as 48°. For the breeding of trout these

figures have proved very satisfactory but it is thought that anything

over 60° approaches danger mark for the hatching of ova. Our

hatching period is generally between November and the middle of

Tanuary when there are often very severe frosts at Rajamallay parti-

cularly in the vicinity of the hatchery. The mean reading during the

season 1942 was 55° at the hatchery, which is suitable for Rainbows

but on the high side for Brown Trout.

Adequate aeration is not entirely governed by the nature of the

water. Temperature is also an important factor, for it has been

shown that the lower the temperature the higher will be the oxygen

content. As temperatures in the South Indian Hills are on the

high side, it is therefore all the more essential that the intake for

a hatchery should be from high falls and rough water to compen-

sate as much as possible for the higher temperatures expected.

Having satisfied ourselves that our water supply and temperatures

are efficient, we next turn to material for the construction of our

building, bearing in mind that the two greatest enemies we have to

defeat are SEDIMENT and Funcus. The former can only be overcome

by a perfect system of filtration, while defence against the latter is

plain CLEANLINESS.

Tn England hatching troughs were at first made of wood. Disease

from a fungus of a kind thriving’ on wood lying under water fre-

auently developed and large hatches of ova were lost. The signs of

this are that the eggs appear slimy, sodden and lifeless, and that

they exude millions of small hairs which break off, and floating down

the water infect all eggs with which they come in contact. An

improvement on the wooden hatching trough was made by charring’

and varnishing the timber, but in the East, where the dangers of

fungus are even greater due to the warmer water, tar was applied,

though Mr. Philip Fowke who has described this in his excellent

book Trout Culture in Ceylon, states that this further precaution

is insufficient to guarantee immunity. Acting upon Mr. Fowke’s

advice the troughs at Rajamallay were constructed of reinforced

concrete.

The head tank of the hatchery measures 3/ x 3!» 3! and is fed

through earthenware and concrete pipes for a distance ef 400! from

the main river. The water from the head tank is controlled by a

wheel valve which supplies the distributing trough the dimensions

of which are 11!x15”x15”. The water from the distributing

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

trough is controlled and distributed into two filters. These filters

have eight partitions through which the water must travel. Provid-

ed the sand and gravel in these filters is of the correct consistency

no clogging will take place from sudden spates and silt deposit,

during the hatching months. This point must receive very careful

attention each year. The hatching troughs are 10! x 2}! x 1! which

gives sufficient space for about 50,000 eggs provided glass grilles

are used. The ideal method of hatching out ova is on glass grilles.

_ We have already described at some length how to deal with

imported eyed ova, so let us now turn to the question of our own

eva and how we must obtain it and hatch it out.

In the first place we are told the progeny of pond fish are never

so strong and hardy as that of wild ones. While this is partly true

it is not always possible in the early stages of such a project as

‘ours, to obtain the eggs of wild fish, and a makeshift arrangement

for taking the ova of pond fish becomes necessary. |

Stripping.—The pond spawners usually commence running up

the channels at the end of November, but in 1942 only a small pro-—

portion of the fish from which we had hoped to obtain eggs, came

up the run. A modicum of success was obtained and the first Raja-

mallay Trout were hatched out on the 31st December of that year.

These trout, about 600 of them, did very well and developed into

strong sturdy fish. |

The ideal method of stripping has been dealt with many times

in books on the subject, such as Mr. Fowke’s work referred to

earlier. Briefly the system is as follows:—When the trout first

begin to run and show signs that spawning is near, it becomes

necessary to make an occasional examination of the fish. The

run is screened above and below and the fish netted and placed in a

bath filled with river water. In handling fish the utmost care must be

exercised to avoid removing scales which is apt to cause fungus. It

is recommended that wet gloves or a wet towel be used. The fish

should be gripped firmly with the right hand above the tail, and

gently above the shoulder with the left. The slightest pressure with

the left hand down the back is sufficient to start the eggs flowing if

the hen is ripe, but if the eggs do not flow she should at once be re-

turned to the water. On no account should eggs be forced from a

fish. To facilitate the work the male fish should be kept in a separate

bath and the minute the eggs of the female have been stripped into

a dry basin, a male is taken and similarly the milt expressed on to

the eggs. The process should be undertaken slowly and deliberately

remembering that it is possible to keep a fish out of water for at least

a minute. Difficulty is often found in obtaining sufficient milt. —

Mr. Fowke recommends the use of as much milt as possible, and if

the male refuses to part with his milt the immersion of the fish in a

pail of warm water will relax his organs. We have found at Raja-

mallay that by touching the vent of the cock fish on the eggs a good

flow of milt can be ‘obtained. Very little practice 1s required to

differentiate between the sexes, the head and shape of the mouth in

the male fish being distinctive. The fish should all be stripped in

rotation into the same basin, tilting the basin from time to time thus

mixing the eggs and milt together. Five minutes after the last fish

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE | 367

has been stripped pour cold water over the egg’s and place the basin

in a shady place. Tilt the basin every five minutes until the eggs

tend to separate and float. They should then be rinsed with cold

water several times until the dead milt has all been removed when

the eggs are ready for the hatchery. The actual stripping is called

the Dry method but inevitably a certain amount of water is spilled

into the basin during the process. However keep the operation as

dry as possible until the fertilisation has been completed. The eggs

are now gently poured into a jug of cold clean water and taken to

the hatchery. In 1943, 14,000 ova from pond and wild spawners

were taken and 70% were hatched out successfully.

Grilles versus Gravel.—The floors of the hatching troughs at

Rajamallay are usually covered with fine carefully w ashed gravel.

This is undesirable, but is the only alternative to glass grilles ‘known

at present. Glass grilles are unobtainable in war time and those in our

possession, which were sent over from the old hatchery at Arivikad,

are’ insufficient. for our purpose. The eggs however which are

hatched on glass grilles are better in every way and a much higher

percentage of success is obtained with them. The case for and

against is very well set out by J. J. Armitead in his Handy Guide

to Fish Culture, written in 1890. The main points are:—

GRILLES GRAVEL

1. Sediment goes to the bottom and 1. Sediment goes to the bottom and

the eggs are kept clean. the eggs are. in close contact

with an accumulating masg of

filth.

2. Deposit resting on the eggs can 2. Such a deposit cannot be removed

be: easily removed. without stirring up more’ filth -

thus making matters worse.

3. Destructive insects easily detected 3. Insects cannot be detected hidden

and removed. as they are amongst the gravel.

4. Dead eggs easily detected and 4. Dead eggs may remain hidden for

removed. _ days infecting others.

5. Water flows under, over and round 5- Eggs do not get full benefic from

the eggs, which thus obtain the the flow of water and the mortal-

maximum amount of benefit. ity is higher.

6. Fungus easily detected and removed. 6. Fungus could thrive undetected

amongst the gravel.

7. The grilles can be lifted out be- z. The gravel cannot be removed

fore the eggs hatch, and the until the fry have hatched out.

bottom of the trough cleaned. ;

8. The eggs can be accurately 8&8. The eggs cannot be counted easily

counted. or without disturbing them.

It follows therefore that at Rajamallay glass grilles will be used

exclusively as soon as they can be purchased in sufficient quantity.

Having stripped our eggs and taken them to the hatchery as

already described, they are poured gently on to the grilles, or gravel,

and dev elopments are awaited. During this period the eggs are in

a very delicate condition and great care and attention must be exer-

cised by the attendant. They should not be moved in any way and

examined only very occasionally. At Rajamallay the troughs are

covered with wooden frames to which is tacked dark blue veiling

which, while excluding light, yet admits sufficient air,

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The Hatch.—About the fourteenth or fifteenth day an egg with an

eye is observed and a few days later the whole lot have the eye

of the embryo fish in evidence. The eggs are now ‘eyed’ or fertile

and are strong enough to stand handling. It is in this state that

they are shipped from home to many parts of the world. About the

28th day the eggs begin to hatch. The egg cases split, tails appear,

and then with much wriggling and struggling minute fish, queer look-

ing freaks, emerge and drop to the floor of the hatching trough

exhausted. The ‘alevins’ as these are called tend to lie huddled to-

gether in all corners or crevices concealed from light. Trout have

no eyelids and to them light is painful and distressing. Their

protection in this respect is of great importance in this country.

When all the alevins have hatched out the egg shells must be

cleared. This can be done by increasing the flow of the water

from the filter troughs and collecting the shells when they gather

on the screen at the outlet. Nature provides the newly born fish

with a yolk sac on which they exist for the first days of their life.

This sac is gradually absorbed and now the alevins must be fed.

Alevins.—In the alevin stage the hatchery probably requires less

attention than at any other time, but it is necessary to see that all

nossible crevices or flaws in the hatching troughs are filled up, for any

possible exit will soon be discovered. The alevins may wel! be

described as a ‘suicide squad’ for in their efforts to hide they will

endeavour to bury themselves in the smallest cracks in the structure

of the trough. Some years ago we were conducting an experiment

with hatching boxes in the river at Eruvikulam. The boxes had

been very carefully made, the corners and bends in the sheeting

“having received special reinforcement. A good hatch had been

obtained from the ova and all the boxes were full of splendid little -

alevins. Owing to pressure of work the boxes had not been visited

for some days, and our attendants, alas, lacked powers of observa-

tion. When we arrived on the scene of action we were greeted with

emiles and the news that ‘all was well’. On looking into one of the

boxes however, we were horror-struck to find that about half the

alevins had disappeared. The attendant was adamant that the box

was exactly as when last inspected, but a careful examination reveal-

ed the tiniest crack in the zinc sheeting through which it would seem

that nothing could have escaped. However it was indeed through

this crack that some several hundreds had made their escape, be-

cause we watched it happening then and there, and later found a

few of the alevins in the bed of the stream. In the same way numer-

ous fry were lost, shortly after they had commenced swimming, from

a small earth pond the sides of which had been inefficiently plastered.

To be absolutely safe hatching troughs should be of concrete or glaz-

ed tiles, and the first fry ponds or grading ponds as they are called,

made of carefully plastered concrete.

After a few days the alevins will not ‘pack’ so much together,

and will begin to dart about and swim. At this stage the filters can

be removed one by one, for now the sediment so dangerous to the ova

is food for the rapidly developing fry. -Then comes the great day

when arriving at the hatchery we lift off the covers to find a swarm of:

healthy fry battling against the current at the head of the trough,»

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE | 369

Fry.—Our hatch has been a success, and we experience a not

unnatural glow of satisfaction and a feeling of pride in our achieve-

ment. But it is no time to sit back and take things easy. Many

fish farmers look upon this as perhaps the most important time of all,

for the fry must be fed. Four times a day the yolk of a hard boiled

egg is squeezed through a handkerchief and sent down the stream in

a cloud. The fry dart at it continuously and from day to day we

watch them steadily improving in size and condition. Mr. Fowke

in his book lays down that the Golden Rule in feeding fry is.a LirrLe

AND OFTEN. As the fry develop the size of the feed is increased, and

now we feed them, still with the yolk of egg, but administered

through an ordinary tea strainer. Care must be taken to avoid ad-

ministering food too large, or the fry will choke.

Feeding.—Next we augment the diet with a fine liver mince, with

which we continue until the time comes for the fry to be removed to

the grading ponds. Now comes the question of How MUCH food to

give the fry. A Head Keeper from Aberdeenshire stated that he

always found this question difficult, and he could not judge the pro-

per amount to give them, but recommended putting half the hatch in

a slow running stream to find food for themselves. However it is

impossible to overfeed fry and it is therefore better to err on the

generous side. There are four grading ponds at Rajamallay and

here the fry remain until they are big enough for the stew ponds.

The necessity for grading ponds is on account of the divergence in

the growth of fry usually experienced and also on account of the

fact that the fish should. be introduced to depth of water by slow

stages. The diet has been steadily increased and now pastes made

from vegetables, dried fish and meat are given. The greatest care

must be exercised in regard to feeding hatchery trout. In the early

stages the administration of the yolk of eggs and liver mince presents

little or no difficulty but as the fry develop and increase in size our

food bills mount accordingly. The result is that we are tempted to

‘explore methods of economy which to the uninitiated may well spell

disaster. Under the paragraph on diseases a good example of the

kind of thing that can easily occur is given. We find that the best

possible feed for developing fry from the six month to the yearling

stage is beef or mutton chopped, and passed once through the

mincing machine. This is mixed together with carrots, peas, beans,

cabbage or potato which have been well cooked. The peas and

beans should be soaked for 24 hours and then boiled for. four hours,

which ensures the food being soft. Any sudden change to a hard

diet is apt to injure the stomach walls. Liver, dog’ biscuits offer

an useful variation.

In the High Range the pink flesh of the trout proves that the

water is prolific in shrimps. If these are caught they present the

perfect food for trout. Termites have been offered to fry on numer-

ous occasions with success,

A year later the fish are sturdy little chaps many of them 6” in

length and ready for their final journey to the rivers and lochs where

they must look after themselves avoiding, if they can, the Silver

Doctors, and Teal and Reds which seem to appear so regularly at.

Week-ends ! ;

) JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

“I

Diet.—In feeding fry it must be remembered that a wholly meat

diet is detrimental to female fish, diseased ovaries being the almost

certain result. A balanced diet is essential, in which vegetable foods

should play a prominent part. In Fish Farming for Pleasure and

Profit by ‘Practical’ much useful information on this subject has

been laid down but it has been found difficult in Travancore to follow

the ideals set forth, such pastes as the author recommends being

unavailable.

Natural Food of Trout. “Phe Eruvikulam and, indeed, all our

streams were, before the advent of the Rainbow, full of a small

indigenous fish known locally as ‘Kal meen’ Glytothroax Madras-

patnus (Day). It is now nearly a year since we saw ‘Kal meen’ in

number at Eruvikulam or Turner’s Valley and so we can safely

assume that these small fish present a very desirable item on the

Rainbows menu.

Fresh water crabs, beetles and molluscs of all kinds are prolific

in our streams, but these too are rapidly disappearing at Fruvikulam,

where much harm has been done by overstocking. ;

Hatches of fly resembling familiar members of the Ephemeridae,

such as the Blue Dun have been seen at Eruvikulam, while at

Rajamallay caddis flies (Trichoptera) have been frequently noticed.

The most common rise however seems to be to a small black midge

of the Diptera order. It would be of invaluable assistance to us

in our work if all anglers took a keen interest in insect entomo-

logy and sent in their reports. Much study is required, and a

typical High Range stream on Rajamallay Tea Estate has been

left unstocked for observation purposes.

Experiments with the production of water fleas and such animals,

which are collectively known as plankton, by means of artificial

ponds, the bottoms of which have been covered with manure, are

being undertaken. The principle is that the nutrient matter derived

trom the manure will, if exposed to light, grow an enormous quantity

of minute green plants which is the food of plankton animals. Given

such conditions plankton will increase with amazing rapidity and

can be used as food for try. Snail beds are being put down at Raja-

mallay and also the dams and deflectors now being made in the

upper waters are bound to have a beneficial effect on food conser-

vation generally.

It is necessary to reiterate the word cleanliness when dealing —

with fry in the hatchery. The scrupulous cleanliness of the hatch-

ing troughs is more than ever essential, because fry are subject

to sickness and disease. At Rajamallay the fry are changed from one

trough to another weekly, and the sand and gravel replaced with a

fresh supply, a stock of which is kept ready and washed outside.

There is a simple tonic for fry if weakness of any sort is discovered.

A paste of mud from the underside of a turf is released at the inlet

and as the mud cloud filters through the water the fry are seen darting

here and there to avoid it. Finally when the cloud clears the fry are

seen darting about fresh and invigorated. At Rajamallay we give a

dose of this earthy water as a matter of routine. This tonic was first

described many years ago by the well-known fish culturist, Livingstone

Stone. Mr. Fowke mentions nibbling a very irritating habit in which

PROUT OF TRAVANCORE 371

fry indulge. They nibble the tails of their fellows which then

become liable to fungus. Strangely enough we have not so far

come across this distressing vice at Rajamallay, but nevertheless

we are taking Care to spread out the fry as much as possible, and

attend to grading and regular feeding.

To sum up, the two most important factors in hatchery work are:

-1, Caution, do not hurry but take things slowly and deliberately, and

2. Cleanliness. These are golden rules which will repay a thousand-

fold if carefully followed.

Deformed Fry.—Deformed or twisted fry are, alas, common in

a hatchery. There may be several reasons for this, but it is probable

that some accident occurred such as the egg being knocked against a

stone, or in the effort of breaking forth from the egg, perhaps, a little

spine may have become damaged, so that we find fry with twisted

backs, or, peculiarly shaped heads, swimming about with the others.

Siamise twins are by no means uncommon, but we have never

succeeded in keeping these alive for any length of time at Rajamallay.

We think it is rather cruel to keep these little deformities alive at all,

and only the most vigorous ones are liberated in our stream. From

June 1941 to January 1945, approximately 36,000 perfect trout

were hatched at Rajamallay.

Diseases of Trout.—At Rajamallay no sign of disease of any kind

crept in until 1943. °One day however we noticed several oi the year-

lings making for the still water, turning aver and over, and in one

case a fish had fallen to the bottom. Mr. Fowke in his book stresses

the appalling nature of a disease called GyropactyLus which is

very infectious. The cause is dirt, and the remedy, to remove all

the fish to clean water and thoroughly clean out and lime the

pond. It was found that the attendant had been careless and

omitted to clean the pond daily as a matter of routine. Fortu-

nately for us there was no recurrence of this disease. Another

fish was found to be suffering from BLacK OPHTHALMIA, an eye

affection. The symptoms are that the fish turns almost jet black

in colour. The cause of the disease is said to be unknown, and

it is not infectious. ie

During 1943 the vexed question of the cost of fish food led to a

minor disaster. Koons, a type of small dried prawn readily

available at a cheap rate, were being administered together with such

vegetables as were available during the monsoon. One morning the

hatchery attendant reported that the fry were looking ‘off colour’

and tending to fall back to the outlet end of the pond, where the

current is slow. This is generally a sign that fish are weak, and on

examination it was found that many were lying at the bottom and

dying in some numbers. All the usual first aid precautions were

taken. The fry were moved to a spare tank supplied by water from

a fresh source, and used for just such an emergency. The feeding

was stopped for a day and the old tank cleaned and limed. Things

seemed to be better a day later, but deaths now began to occur

amongst yearling trout. It was then discovered that the ‘Koonies’

being given were very old and smelling badly, and further that much

of it was rotting in the tanks, which had not been properly cleaned.

The stomachs of many fry were cut open and carefully examined and

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 4

here it was found that the intestines were full of mucus and blood,

and that the stomachs had contracted to a pin head. Dr. Finlayson,

Chief Medical Officer to Messrs, James Finlay & Company’s High

Range properties, sent intestinal and stomach smears away {for

examination, with negative results. He was of the opinion that a

gastro- -intestinal infection of the Salmonella group of food poison-

ing organism had occurred as a result of the type of food being

given. -The infected ponds were now given an application of a

few grains of permanganate periodically, and feeding was com-

menced gradually, using fresh liver. In a week the deaths had

ceased altogether, and within a month our trout were normal again

and all swarming close to the white water at the intakes of the

ponds. While the actual type of infection has not been definitely

settled there can be no doubt that unsuitable food in a state of

putrefaction was the origin of the epidemic, and the attempt to

reduce feeding costs had proved false economy.

It is interesting to vote that the trout born and bred at Rajamailay

and being graded in a separate set of ponds withstood the epi-

demic, and not a single casualty occurred among them.

Selective Breeding.—While all this work would appear at first

sight to be satisfactory enough, we would do well to look back and

discuss, in some detail, our weaknesses and to look for ways and

means of improving. We had an opportunity of visiting the hatchery

at Howieton, in Stirlingshire, in 1935. Sir Ramsay Gibson Maitland

Bart, who founded this hatchery, laid down in his History of Howte-

ton some invaluable instructions on management. We were unable

to obtain a copy of this work, but received some very valuable infor-

mation from one of the attendants in charge. At that time it was a

little difficult to put forward many questions, for the. Simple reason

that the idea of a hatchery at Rajamallay had not then been conceived.

On looking over our notes on. the. visit, however, we recently -came

across numerous points, which in.conjunction with our recent experi-

ences prove interesting. To begin with the Howieton people distrust

the produce of breeders which have. been confined,-even if these were

originally wild fish. This distrust arises from the. instance of animals

in zoological gardens, the progeny. of which are seldom satisfactory.

But when trout become domesticated and their individual charac-

teristics understood, it is possible within a period of time to go in for

selective breeding from known stock, in the same way that horses,

cattle, or prize rams are bred. The confinement of breeders then

ceases to become a makeshift, but is the primary factor in the deve-

lopment of the required stock. Just how this statement relates to the

particular breed with which we are dealing is not yet fully understood,

at any rate by us, but the problem is one worthy of considerable

study.

There are three primary factors in the incubation of trout.

No STRONG LIGHT. NO SUDDEN CHANGE OF TEMPERATURE. NO STAG~

NANT WATER. Light injures the nervous system and develops ophthal-

mic trouble; sudden. change of temperature injures the venous

system; stagnant water injures both. The three factors are receiving

careful attention at Rajamallay.

It has been noted that the waterflow at the Rajamallay hatchery

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 373

is controlled by a wheel valve. There must always be sufficient flow

of water to impinge upon each individual egg, thus sweeping off the

carbonic acid gas continually produced during the formation of the

embryo. This is particularly important in the period immediateiy

preceding the hatching. Insufficient stress seems to have been laid

by the experts in India on the question of space in the hatching

trough: Eggs should be separate if at all possible, and should on no

account touch one another. This is more than ever necessary when

eyed ova is being put down. [Eyed ova must have the correct flow of

water or otherwise the embryo will be suffocated—drowned in

fact. The water flow should be equal to three gallons per minute

for every 10,000 eggs. Thirdly the level of the water should be

lowered to within an inch of the eggs but this can be raised to

three or four inches as soon as the hatch is on.

Now while space at Rajamallay is ample, there have been several

instances of overcrowding, particularly during the period when river

hatching boxes were used. But without the exclusive use of glass

grilles it is almost impossible to keep the eggs separate one from the

other. <A lower death rate can be anticipated when this difficulty has

been overcome.

Ponds.—The general principles governing the construction of

ponds are shade, food and facilities for draining and cleaning the

pond, and water ‘supply. Particularly in regard to Rainbows, shade

should have primary consideration. Ponds running north and south

with heavy shade are recommended. Without shade trout won’t

live, and without food trout won’t grow. Ponds should be so con-

structed that artificial feeding is made easy, every portion of the

water being within throwing distance. ..If trout are to be kept at the

hatchery with a view to size and growth, it must be borne in mind

that deep water breeds short deep trout, while shallow swift currents

breed them long and slim. If trout are to be grown large they must

have range, and ponds must therefore be constructed accordingly.

The present policy at Rajamallay centres round the stocking of virgin

rivers throughout the concession and it is therefore sufficient to grow

yearlings only. These have been found to do well in all the waters

so far stocked, but the other points mentioned will have to

come up for consideration some day. We are of the opinion that at

Devicolam, for example, we will soon be compelled to stock with two-

year olds, as the feed here is rapidly being used up, and it is said

that there are many trout in the water with cannibalistic tendencies.

(To be continued)

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA

‘Dr. E. W. GUDGER, C.M.Z.S.

American Museum of Natural History

New York City.

(With 4 plates and 4 text figures.)

CONTENTS

. PAGE

INTRODUCTION ie ses Ae oa ARG w. 374

‘THe GIANT FISHES OF INDIA ane mG ae B00 eYhS

The ‘ Mighty Mahseer’, Barbus tor ... eg a3 soho

The Goonch, 4agarius bagarius a ne seks LO

THE GIANT FISHES OF SIAM... aa4 oh Be ... 378

The Pla Buk, Pangasianodon gigas... - ae AN ors

The Pla Tepa, Pangasius sanitwong sett 36K ais ... J8l

The Pla Kaho, Catlocarpio siamensts Lis Bats co ote

THE GREAT STURGEONS OF CHINa ae 6 “33 . 384

The Chinese Royal Sturgeon, Acipenser sinensis Sos .. 384

‘he Manchurian Sturgeon, Acipenser mantschuricus = nO Sieh)

Dabry’s Sturgeon, Acipenser dabryanus a be BOS

The Sword-billed Sturgeon, Psephurus gladius .. os 500 oe G00

ge COLOSSAL STURGEON OF THE AMUR RIVER ... PG see a ER ELS

The Kaluga, Huso dauricus Ae te w-. 388

INTRODUCTION

Some time ago I set to work to answer the oft-asked question

What is the largest fish’—but I soon saw that the freshwater

fishes had to be studied apart from the marine forms. Then,

because there are so many large freshwater fishes worthy of con-

sideration, it became clear that, to keep the articles within bounds,

these fishes must be studied by continents. For North America,

the great white sturgeon of the Columbia River and the huge alli-

gator gar of the Mississippi and other rivers flowing into the

Gulf of Mexico were figured and measurements and weights were

given. For South America, this has been done so far as possible

for the Pirarucu of the Guiana and Amazon rivers, and for the

giant catfishes of the Guiana, Amazon and La Plata. Systems.

For Africa there is only the great Nile Perch, which was wor-

shipped and mummified by the ancient Beyptians 25 centuries ago,

and whose portrait was painted as early as 2780 B.C,

And now, passing by Australia, which has no freshwater fish

qualifying for this category, attention will be given to certain

giant fishes in the rivers of South-eastern Asia, the greatest conti-

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA 375

nent. Little is known of these and that little is published in bocks

and journals not generally accessible. Hence the bringing toge-

ther of these data, to make them known to those interested, while

difficult, has seemed worth while.

Tue GIANT FISHES OF INDIA.

There are in this great peninsula, two fishes which have long

been held to be the largest freshwater fishes of the largest con-

tinent. Because of this belief, because they are the two largest

fishes in India, and because of. the presence of kindred fishes in

the neighbouring peninsula of Indo-China, with which they will

be compared, they must be considered here.

The ‘Mighty Mahseer’, Barbus tor,

This great cyprinoid fish has been exploited under the desig-

nation noted as the largest sporting (rod and reel) fish in Indian

waters. Chiefly because of this exploitation, I have, in the ab-

sence of definite knowledge, long thought it to be the largest

freshwater fish of Asia. So, expecting to get the facts to con-

firm this belief, I confidently went to H. S. Thomas’s ‘The Rod

in India’. But to my disappointment, while this contains much

data on angling and on specimens which are fairly large, from

our standpoint there is little to justify the cognomen—‘Mighty

Mahseer’. }

However, Thomas quotes from a letter written him by G. P.

Sanderson (author of Thirteen Years: among the Wild Beasts of

India) concerning a huge specimen which he caught but was not

able to weigh. Sanderson estimated it at 150 pounds. ‘I had

no means of weighing it, but I found it was' as much as I could

lift a couple of inches off the ground by hugging it in my arms;

no one but a big Mussalman peon in camp could do so much

as this. . . . I have since lifted a man of over 10 stones [140

pounds| with greater ease than the fish’. This fish was only 60

in. long over all, but was 38 in. in greatest girth. ‘It was an

astonishingly thick and heavy fish for its short length. It had

shoulders like a bullock.’ Then Sanderson adds ‘I have no doubt

that they run over 200 or 250 pounds, as I have seen teeth and

bones of them larger than those of my 150-pounder.’ These are

of course only general estimates, not scientific records, but com-

ing from G. P. Sanderson, they cannot be cast aside as wholly

valueless.

The figure of Barbus tor reproduced herein (Fig. 1, pl. I) is

copied from Thomas. It is the almost exact counterpart of the

splendidly mounted skin in the Fish Hall of the American Mu-

seum.. This skin, which came from India a number of years

ago, is 57 inches long to the base of the caudal fin, and 64 inches

long over all. The scales are very large. The largest ones just

behind the operculum average about 3.2 in. in vertical diameier.

Both figure and mounted skin show the. Mahseer to be a _clean-

cut handsome fish. It is a fine sporting fish, and this may ex-

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

plain why it is called Mahseer. Thomas quotes a Persian scho-

lar that the name is derived from the Persian mahi a fish and

sher a lion, in allusion to its gameness,

The illustration reproduced herein is a splendid drawing of

Barbus tor, but it gives one no idea of the relative size of this

great carp. However Thomas has, embossed in gilt on the cover

of his book (2nd ed., 1881), a figure showing a mahseer seeming-

ly. about five feet in length swung up to a limb of a tree. Lean-

ing against the trunk of the tree is a man about five and a half feet

tall. “ahs illustration gives one a very good idea of the relative size

attained by this great cyprinoid.

Sanderson states that another and slenderer specimen measured

5 feet 6 inches but weighed only 80 pounds. This fish was large

but it is not a record fish. However, two high records have been

made by C. E. Murray Aynesley. In 1906 he captured the largest

mahseer of which any account has been found. Its length was

60 in.; girth 37 in.; mouth 8.5 in. across; tail-spread (vertical)

Ig in.; and weight 104 lbs. He fought this fish two hours and

it took two men to land it. In 1909, he records another and

only very slightly less heavy. It was 64 in. long; 39 in. in

girth; mouth and tail as in the other fish; and 103 lbs. in weight.

This fish was also’ so large and powerful that two men were

needed to bring it ashore. The Mahseer probably grows larger

as Sanderson suggests, but so far no records of larger specimens

have been found.*

The Goonch, Bagarius bagarius.

There are in India several catfishes which furnish great sport

to anglers. Some of them are so large, have such formidable

_* In Vol. xliii, No. 4, p. 662 of the Society’s Journal, we published a note

by Col. R. W. Burton, giving details of record mahseer. A mahseer (Barbus

tor) taken by Lt.-Col. J. S. Rivett-Carnac,.in the Cauvery River, 44 miles from

Mysore, on the 28th December 1919, measured as follows :—length, 64 in. ;

girth, 42 in.; weight, 119 Ibs.

A second specimen taken by Mr. A. E. Lobb, in the Kabani River, 65 miles

from MBSR on the 22nd October 1938, measured as follows :—length, 60 in. ;

SPictheas own ; weight, 110 lbs.

A third specimen of this species caught in the Cauvery River near Seringa-

patam. on the 15th January 1920 by Mr. de Wet Van Ingen, measured as

follows :—length, 623 in.; girth, 384 in.; weight, 107. lbs.

Col. Burton commenting on these measurements says: ‘It is interesting

with these large. mahseer to refer to The Rod in India, where the measurements

of a mahseer, believed by’ Sanderson to have weighed 150 Ibs., are the same

as those of Mr. Lobb’s 110 Ibs. fish.’ )

Photographs of the 119- and rro-lb. fish were published with the note and

give a good idea of the relative size of these great fishes as compared with

the men standing by.

The genus Barbus includes yet another Asiatic large carp [Barbus esocinus

(Heckel)]. A specimen measuring 6 ft. 4 in. in length and 3 ft. ro in, in girth

and weighing 215 lbs. was caught in the Euphrates River at Hakika, Mesopotamia,

in 1917 (J.B.N.H.S., xxv, 308) it was at the time wrongly identified as Barbus

scheich (Heckel). A second example of the same species, 5 ft. 9 in. long, 3 ft.

2 in. in girth and scaling 123 Ibs. was caught by Major H. L. Colan, 1.a., in

the Diala River, Mesopotamia, in 1918 (J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 679). A photograph

of this fish carried by four men .on a pole gives a good idea of its s'ze.—Eps.

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THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA BUT

teeth, and are so predatory that they have been dubbed ‘Fresh-

water Sharks’. They are of course not sharks (Elasmobranchs)

but catfishes (Siluroids). However the common name does not

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Text-fig. 1.—A Goonch (Bagarius bagarius) hung by the head with the Sinuleie

standing beside it for comparison as to size.

After Cyril Kirkpatrick in The Field (London), 1875.

seem so totally inappropriate when in a lateral view of the largest.

of these, the Goonch (Bagarius bagarius), one sees that the mouth

is somewhat ‘underhung’ like a shark’s and not terminal as in

the catfishes generally (Hora, 1939). Then again the general ugli-

ness of this fish, particularly when seen in dorsal view (Text-

fig. 1), is very repulsive. However, Hora (1939) notes that the

Goonch is very variable in both form and color, as may be seen _

in both his text-figure and color plate.

The largest of these ‘freshwater sharks’ on record, so far as

I can find, is a Goonch taken with rod and reel in 1875 at the

head works of the Agra Canals in the Jumna River near Okhla,

India. It was figured and described by Cyril Kirkapatrick in

The Field (1875).-.This specimen weighed 136 lbs. and measur-

ed as follows: length to fork of tail, 5 ft.; overall, 5 ft. 8 in.;

girth of head, 3 ft. 6 in.; width of mouth, 1 ft. 6 in. It was

taken on a light rod and fought the angler for over 2 hours.

Two men were required to drag it ashore. In the 1897 edition

of his book, Thomas states that this was at that time the largest

fish that had ever been taken with rod and reel in India.

Text-fig. is a copy of the cut in The Field made from a photo-

graph of the fish taken at the time of capture, with the shikari

(‘a man of ordinary size’) standing beside it. From this one readi-

ly gets a correct idea of what a big and ugly brute a full-grown

Goonch is. However, a better representation is seen in the fine

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

drawing of the fish in lateral view reproduced from Thomas (Fig.

2, pl. DT.

Large as this ‘fish was, it probably is not the exam size.

The distinguished Indian ‘chev clonic Dr. Sunder Lal Hora, in

a late article (1939) on the Goonch, states that ‘. . . it grows to

a size of 6 ft. or more and to a weight of over 250 lbs.’

THe GIANT FISHES OF SIAM,

Large as are the Goonch and the Mahseer, each has one or

more relatives in the rivers of Siam larger than it—and indeed,

so far as is known at this time, each of these is the largest of

its family in the whole world. The progressive development of

our knowledge of these great fishes makes a story not devoid of

interest and value.

The Pla Biik, Pangasianodon gigas.

Our earliest knowledge of this huge siluroid dates back to

1904, when Auguste Pavie published in Paris his ‘Recherches sur

1’ Histoire Naturelle de |’Indo-Chine Orientale’. Pavie 64 years ago

headed the ‘Mission Pavie lIndo-Chine, 1879—1895’. This expe-

dition studied the voyages to, the geography, literature, history

of this great peninsula, and Pavie published the results in ten

thick volumes. Volume III of this series is, as noted above,

given over to natural history studies—the various groups of ani-

mals collected -being described by various specialists. In the in-

troductions to ‘Premiére Classe—Poissons’ are found five repro-

ductions from photographs of a huge catfish. The photographs

may have been poor; in any case the reproductions are small and

lack sharpness—they merely show a massive logy fish. The lar-

gest does give some idea of the shape and relative size, but it

does not seem worth while to reproduce it, even though it is

the earliest known representation of our fish. Splendid figures from

excellent photographs wiil be given later.

In his. introduction to the fishes (described by Leon Vaillant),

Pavie, earliest of all Europeans, makes known this gigantic cat-

fish, which he says merits particular attention because it often

grows to a size Of ate 1/3 meters—but which his best photograph

shows to be about 6 or 8 ft. long.

Pavie states that the Cambodians call it Tvey-Réach or royal

fish probably on account of its great size. They take this fish

in great numbers at the time of the rains in the Mekong off Pnom-

Penh, and at the narrows of Quatre-Bras. At this time the fish

is very fat and from its flesh much oil is obtained. As the flood

in the river subsides, the Trey Réach ascends the Mekong and

when it reaches Luang-Prabang in February it has lost its fat.

At this time the fishermen are on the lookout and when they see

the fish, which swims almost at the surface, they set out in many

canoes with long shallow nets and bar its passage. The fishing

is carried on until June. The flesh is preserved in brine, and of

the eggs is made a kind of caviar much esteemed in Laos. The

numbers taken at Luang-Prabang varied—1,400 1n 1889 and 6,000

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA 379

in 1890. The Laotians allege that only the females ascend the

river, and that the males never leave the upcountry lakes but

await the females there.

The Laotians call this great siluroid Pla boeuk. It was assign-

ed by the experts at the Paris Museum to the long-established

genus Pangasius, but the species could not be determined for lack

of specimens. Vaillant in his description of the species collected

by Pavie, does not list it for the same reason.

Pavie saw the fishing about 1890, and in 1921, A. H. Duke

described a ‘Curious Fishing Ceremony near Vien Chan on the Upper

Mekong’. This fishing was carried on at the time of the full

moon in February by the Laos people for a huge fish locally called

‘Pla Buk’. About the identity of this animal Duke had doubts and

his account of its natural history is at least remarkable, due to

the fact that he saw neither fish nor fishing, but merely reported

what was told him. :

He makes some interesting statements (some true and some

untrue about the Pla Biks. Thus—‘They are about 12 ft. in

length, and 8 to 1o ft. girth have smooth black skins and are

scaleless. Their heads are blunt and mouths toothless. The females

have a pair of mammae (?). When caught their stomachs are

never found to contain anything but stones’. When they are

seen rising and ascending the river, then the fishing is undertaken.

Only certain skilled men are allowed to do the fishing. Boats

laden with long wide-meshed seines go up stream and drop these

at certain narrow defiles. The fish blunder into the seines and

are caught by the gills. The fishermen come up and guide them

ashore, where they are tethered in the water by a rope through

the mouth and gills until sold. ‘The fish is said to be very power-

ful, and it is alleged that purchasers living upstream utilize them

to tow their boats home.’ There is no doubt that one of these

huge fish could tow a small boat, but how about guiding this

unruly aquatic steed? The flesh is much prized and eagerly con-

sumed by the Laos people.

One such interesting observation when published almost in-

evitably leads to another. And so two years later Eric Seiden-

faden (1923) refers to Duke’s account, corroborates it in part and

much extends our knowledge of the Pla Bik. Seidenfaden identi-

fied our*great fish as a siluroid and states that it attains a length

Ol3 em: (9 ft, To int) anda) weight of 240:ke. (528 lbs!); ‘At

Vien Chan the fish are driven into a narrow rocky bay where they

are easily taken in long narrow nets of rope and each fish is then

tethered by a rope through mouth and gills. Seindenfaden saw

one so tied and estimated its length at about 2.5 m. (08 in.), its

girth at 1.7 m. (67: in.) and‘its weight at 180 kg. (396 Ibs.).

Thus tethered the fish in the water lives and its flesh is better

even than if kept in a refrigerator. So at the fish wharf in Key

West, Florida, I have seen the great grouper called Jewfish so

tied to a pile while awaiting customers for its flesh,

Next, F. H. Giles in 1932 records the taking at Chiengsen on

the Upper Mekong on July 12, of a large female Pla Bik, which

he saw and which he assigns to the genus Pangasius. This fish

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45.

was 87 in. long and had a girth of 50 in. It was much smaller

than that seen by Duke. This female was in spawn and while

the fish was not weighed, the roe was—88 pounds. It as well as

the flesh is esteemed as a great delicacy.

Piérre Chevey had long been interested in the fishes of Indo-

China and in our giant catfish, when he journeyed to that country and

saw in the museum at Phnom-Penh two casts of this giant each

measuring, 2.5 m. (98.5 in., 8 ft., 2 in.). Two years later. (August,

1930) he saw in the market of this town a specimen about 2 m.

long. On examining it he was surprised to find it absolutely lack-

ine in teeth, and, since Fargasius has teeth, it was necessary to

set up for this giant a new genus—Pangasianodon; Pangasius—

an without, dens, tooth; and species, gigas=gigantic. - I know

no fish more fittingly named. However, strange to say, Chevey,

while accurately describing this new fish, reproduced photograpiis

of the two casts but got no photograph of the fish itself.

After a long and distinguished service in the U. S. Bureau

of Fisheries—ending with 9 years in the Commissionership—Dr.

Hugh M. Smith retired in 1922. But in. 1923 he went to Siam

and served there until 1935 as Fisheries Adviser to the Siamese

Government. While in Siam, Dr. Smith collected material (spe-

cimens, notes, and photographs) for an extensive monograph (as

yet unpublished) on Siamese fishes. My attention was called

some years ago by Dr: Smith to the three species of giant fishes

of Indo-China, noted herein.

SiMe. dinomes Slack, a resident of Bangkok, presented iO ID}e.

Smith three shovoenasne of a huge Pla Bik taken at Chiengsen

on the Mekong in Northern Siam. These Dr. Smith has given

me permission to reproduce. Two of them were sent by Mr.

Slack to the Illustrated London News and were reproduced with

notes by himself and Dr. Smith in its issue of August 22, 1931.

Mr. Slack saw the huge fish tethered in the water as described

above. He had it trussed up and hauled out alive on the bank

in order to take the photographs referred- tos He measured it

and found it’ to be 100 in. long over all and 54 in. girth over the

thickest part. He had no means of weighing it, but estimated

its weight at about 4oo lbs. This weight seems to me to be at

least roo Ibs. too light. Mr. Slack calls attention to the elevated

platform from which a lookout warns of the approach Sf these

great fish as they come up stream in shallow water during the

dry months (Plate UE Figs. 1 & 2), of the trussed up fish “bine

on the bank of the river, gives a better idea of the size and make

up of this colossal eaitiel,

“Dr. Smith wrote me that at one time he had in preparation

an article on the giant catfishes of Siam, but that press of other

work had prevented his finishing ‘it. Teh data will undoubtedly

be found in his ‘Fishes of Siam’, left unfinished by his untimely

death in 1941, but brought to completion by the devoted labours

of Dr. L.: P. Schultz, Curator of Hishes: in “the U. S. National

Museum. The only data he ever published on the Pla Buk appears

along with the note and figures’ from photographs’ by Mr.

Slack “(referred to above) in the Illustrated London News. Since

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate Ifl

Ss oe

‘ig. 1.—Greatest of all known Catfishes, the Siamese Pla Biik of Mekong River. Behind

the fish is an elevated platform from which the lookout watches for these giants swimming at

the surface of the water. From a photograph by Thomas Slack in Illustrated London

News, Aus. 22). Logi.

Fig. 2.—The Great Pla Biik (Pangasianodon gigas) trussed up and hauled out on the bank of the

Mekong River in order to be photographed and measured. |

From a photograph by Thomas Slack loaned by Dr. H. M. Smith,

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THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA 381

Dr. Smith is one of two scientific men who have seen this great

fish alive, it will be of great value to record here his observations.

The Pla Biik is a colossal catfish of the Mekong River, in Siam and Indo-

China. It ranges as far inland as Chieng Sen, in northern Siam, opposite

the Northern Shan States, and has a well-defined up-stream migratory move-

ment, beginning in February. A fishery, attended by great ceremony and

participated in by 800 boats with two or three men in each, has been conducted

for many years in a narrow part of the river between S.am and French Laos,

near Vienchan. The fishery is.held only during three days following the

full moon in February and wide-meshed nests made of rope are the only appa-

ratus used. The catch in recent years has been small.

The zoological status of the Pla Buk has been somewhat uncertain. The

fish is a_ Pangasius, a genus numerously represented in Indo-China, Siam,

Burma, Malaya, and the Dutch Indies, but the specific determination has been

made difficult by the fact that no fish with a less length than 1.5 metres has

ever been recognized and it is known that fishes of certain species of Pangasius

undergo considerable change in shape, dentition, and feeding habits with

advancing age. The Pla Bik has no teeth, and its food consists wholly of

aquatic vegetation, chiefly algae, cropped from stones in the swift waters of

the Mekong. A max'mum length of 3 meters is attained, but fish over

2.5 meters have been very scarce for many years. A fish 3 meters (118 in.,

g ft. 10 in.) long would probably weigh over 250 kilogrammes (550 Ibs.); one

specimen, 2.5 meters (98.5 in.) long and 1.7 meters (67 in.) in g.rth, weighed

180 kilogrammes (396 Ibs.). Recently (1930) . . . Mr. P. Chevey has described

the Pla Biik as a new species, and made it the type of a new genus, Panga-

sianodon gigas. The new genus is characterized by the absence of teeth,

but it remains to be determined whether the character holds good for young

and medium-sized fish.

Dr. Smith sent me copies of Mr. Slack’s photographs used

in the joint article noted above, and-~reproduced herein, but was

unable to find a photograph which he himself had made of a

fresh caught Pla Bik which measured 2.47 meters [97.24 in.,

J Hivos Wt -ildlg |] lovers.

The Pla Tepa—Pangasius sanitwongseii.

Text-fig. 2.—A giant Siamese Catfish (Pangasius sanitwongseii), the Pla Tepa,

which has been talken up to 3 m. (9 ft. ro in.) in length,

MMiwar Jal, IML, Simin, UGG 8

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol, 45

This giant catfish, a close relative and a rival in size of the

Pla Buk, is found in the Menam River. It was unknown to

science until it was figured and described by Dr. Smith (1931).

The figure (a drawing of a fresh or recently preserved fish) is

shown herein as Text-fig. 2 for comparison with photographs

of the Pla Bik (PI. III). All these colossal catfishes are so

heavy and so soft-bodied that when brought ashore they flatten

down. It is a great pity that they were not hung up by head

or tail, with a man standing by for comparison. The Pla Tepa,

while heavy bodied, is more trimly built than the Pla Buk, has

a deeply forked tail with sharp-pointed lobes, and has dorsal, pec-

toral, and pelvic fins with long filaments—whereas Pla Bik has

none of these. But like Pla Bik it grows to great size. Here

is what Dr. Smith says on this point:

In point of ‘size this fish rivals the celebrated Pangasius of the Mekong

basin called Pla Biik by the Siamese. In former times fish 3 meters (118 in.)

in length were sometimes taken, and at least one fish of that size has been

recorded within eight years. In recent years, examples over 1.5 meters’ in

length have been rare... . Named in honor of Dr. Yai S. Sanitwongsei, . .

who first brought this species to the writer’s attention and pointed out its

distinctive characters.

The Pla Kaho, Catlocarpio siamensis,

The Barbus tor of India (Fig. 1, pl. I), of which the

record * specimen was 60 in. long, 37 in girth, and 104 Ibs. in

_— aA

Prey

isd)

¥,

LY hed J

Text-fig. 3.—The giant of all carps, the Siamese Pla Kaho (Catlocarpio siam-

ensis). Note the huge head and deep body. From Fowler, 1937.

weight, has long been thought to be the largest Cyprinoid. It

is a large fish of its kind, but a larger than it, from the neigh-

bouring peninsula of Indo-China, is now to be considered. I knew

nothing of this latter as a giant fish until Dr. Smith called my

attention to it. And since nothing has been published on its size,

Dr. Smith kindly sent me a copy of the following data from the

MS. of his unpublished ‘Fishes of Siam’.

This is the largest cyprinoid fish in Siam and ne of the largest in the

world. One taken at Bangkok, November 3, 1923, was 2.5 meters (98 in.)

* Vide footnote, Pp. 370.

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA 383

long, and there are other definite records of examples of this size. Fish up

to 3 meters (118 in.) have undoubtedly been caught in the Menam Chao Phya

in earlier years. A dried head 42 cm. (16.8 in.) long, in the collection of the

Siamese Bureau of Fisheries, was from a specimen 1.61 meters (63 in.) long

and 61 cm. (24 in.) deep taken at Paknam, August 24, 1924. A scale from

the side of this fish was 6.8 cm. (2.7 in.) long and 5.7 cm. (2.25 in.) wide;

a scale from the back near the head was 8.5 cm. (3.4 in.) long and 8 cm.

(3-2 in.) wide.

Dr. Smith had a drawing of this magnificent carp loaned by

the Siamese government for reproduction in his book, but since

the book has not yet been published, the figure’ is not available.

However, he very kindly called my attention to an excellent figure

by H. W. Fowler (1937). This illustration is reproduced herein

as Text-fig. 3. It shows a huge stocky fish, of relatively great

depth and covered with huge scales.

Smith’s measurements of the scales give one an idea of the

size of the scales in Fowler’s figure of this huge carp. As the

‘figure of the Mahseer shows, it also has large scales. In our

mounted skin in the American Museum, three scales in the verti-

cal of the dorsal fin average about 80 mm. (3.2 in.) in vertical

diameter.

It is now very much in order to compare our two giant cypri-

noids, the Mahseer (Barbus tor) and the Pla Keho (Catlocarpio

siamensis) as portrayed in Fig. 1, pl. I, and in Text-fig. 3. The

Mahseer is a large fish, but it is trim-built with a small head

and pointed snout, and with a deep body having a clear run. One

can readily understand that it is a fine sporting fish for Indian

anglers. Now let us turn to Fowler’s figure (my Text-fig. 4) and

note the great contrast. Fowler thus characterizes the genus

Catlocarpio: ‘Body short, deep, compressed, deepest at the dorsal

origin. Head very large, robust, long as body without caudal

[i.e. tail]. Snout large broad, obtuse as viewed from above.’ And

further on—‘A very curious genus characterized by its remarkable

combination of characters.’ And then of the most marked organ

of all, he writes—‘The head is remarkably large.’

When one looks at the well-portrayed fish of Text-fig. 3 one

sees the justification for every statement made above. Contrast-

ed with the Mahseer, no one could ever think of the Pla Kaho

as a sporting fish. When one remembers that the largest mah-

seer measured but 66 in. and weighed only 1o4 lbs., while Smith

says that the Pla Kaho has been measured up to 98 in., which

fish must have weighed quite 250 lbs., then one is prepared to

believe that the Siamese fish is the largest cyprinoid in the world.

Such a colossal carp must be very. powerful, and on this point

the words of a native Siamese writer may be quoted. Thus Mom

Chao Vipulya says (1923) that, when a Pla Kaho is hooked on

a hand line, ‘The fishermen let their small boats be dragged about

until the fish is tired, which may take two or three hours.’ This

recalls the like exploits of the Pla Bik as recorded earlier. Un-

doubtedly Catlocarpio siamensis is the largest and most powerful

cyprinoid in the world.

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

THE GREAT STURGEONS OF CHINA.

It is surprising to find that there are four great sturgeons

found in the rivers of China and Manchuria. The crowded milii-

ons of China are hard put to it for meat food, but their rivers

teem with fishes and the Chinese are great fishermen and _fish-

eaters. Probably their sturgeons are nowadays not ‘often allow-

ed to attain the size that they formerly did, but here are the facts

that I have been able to gather. My colleague, Mr. John T. Nichols,

in his forthcoming great report on ‘The Freshwater Fishes of

China’, recognizes four species. All of them are much valued

as food. :

As shown in the first article of this series (Gudger, 1942),

sturgeons have an old if not a ‘distinguished’ ancestry. They

certainly belong to one of the ‘F. F. Fs.’—first families of fishes.

They are Ganoids, as their rows of large and heavy scales show.

These scales are composed of bone with an outer layer of shining

enamel called ganoin. Hence the shiny scales of these fishes pro-

claim their family affinities—they belong to the group Ganoidei.

These Chinese sturgeons will be studied in the order of discovery.

The Chinese Royal Sturgeon, Acipenser sinensis.

The Chinese call this fish Huang Yu, which means Empercr —

Fish, since, when a specimen is caught, it must be sent to the

reigning monarch. This recalls the custom formerly prevalent in

England, that when a sturgeon was caught in the Thames within

the jurisdiction of the Lord. Mayor of London, it was considered

a Royal Fish and was at once sent to the King.

The Chinese Royal Sturgeon was described by J. E. Gray At

a meeting of the Zoological Society of London, November 11,

1834, and was separately figured in color that same year (Gray,

1834, 2, pl. 98). Gray’s splendid figure is reproduced herein as

Fig. 1, pl. HI. Attention is called to the large and beautifully

sculptured ganoid scales on back, side and abdomen.

This sturgeon, while of rather slender build, grows to a con-

siderable size. Thus Sowerby states (1923) that a nine-foot speci-

men was mounted and on exhibition in the Tsi-nan Fu Institute.

He also records one taken in the Dragon River, Fukien, which

measured 11.5 ft. and weighed 438 Ibs. It was purchased by a

wealthy merchant, was photographed and then set free in the

Min River at Lim Po. Sowerby unfortunately got no copy of the

photograph.

Last of all, for data as to size, I can quote the Chinese natu-

ralist, C. Ping, who (1931) nearly too years after Gray. stated

that ‘The Chinese Sturgeon . . . reaches over three meters [c.

10 feet] in mature size and is easy to be recognized by the rows

of bony [ganoid] scutes along the median lines of the dorsal

lateral and ventral surfaces’—as Gray’s illustration (Fig. 1, pl.

II) shows, It is found in the Yangtze from Woosung to Ichang.

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THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA . 385

The Manchurian Sturgeon, Acipenser mantschuricus,

This sturgeon was named and described by the Russian doctor,

Stephanus Basilewsky, while a member of a Russian mission to

Pekin. He seems to have written his ‘Ichthyographia Chinae Borea-

lis’ while in China. On the lower left corner of his title page is

found the following :—‘Pekin, 1852 ann. Januario mense’.

Of the Manchurian sturgeon, Basilewsky writes :—

‘Longitud. usque 10-15 pedes et longior.

Pondere ad 300-500 libr. accedere affirmatur.’

These lengths and weights seem to refer to the fish in the

Amur River since in the next paragraph he states that ‘In winter

it is transported frozen (to Pekin Y from Manchuria where it lives

in the River Amur’.

This is all very clear and straightforward, but the matter is a

bit confused by the next paragraph in which it is stated that ‘This

sturgeon .. . lives in all the great rivers of Manchuria and Mon-

golia, and particularly abounds in the ‘‘yellow river’’, Chuan che

where it attains a length of from 15 to 20 feet and an actual

[vero| weight of from 1,000 to 2,000 Ibs. [libras].’ It is hard

to believe that in these regions such a colossal sturgeon is found.

Basilewsky does not say that he measured these giants. Further-

more one wishes to know what are Basilewsky’s ‘pedes’ and ‘libras’.

Are they our English units? There is no figure of this sturgeon

known to me.

The matter of the identity of the Amur River Sturgeon is still

further complicated by the fact that neither Soldator in his special

study of the Acipenseridae of the Amur (1915) nor Berg, the great-

est of Russian ichthyologists, in his authoritative ‘work on the

freshwater fishes of the U.R.S.S. (1932), refers to Basilewsky or

his sturgeon. From this it may be judged that Basilewsky was

in error in assigning the Amur River as one of its habitats.

Dabry’s Sturgeon, Acipenser dabryanus.

This Acipenser was named by Auguste Duméril after Capt.

Dabry, the French consul in China, who made collections of Chinese

fishes and sent them to Paris. Duméril figured and described this

slender sturgeon in 1868. He gives no sizes for it, but this defi-

ciency is relieved by Clifford H. Pope who (as a member of the

Central Asiatic Expedition of the American Museum) collected the

Chinese freshwater fishes which my colleague, Mr. J. T. Nichols,

has described. Nichols quotes Pope as saying that ‘A big one

was reported as seen at the Port four miles below Yochow. There

are reported to be two kinds here, and both to attain great size,

some 1,500 Ibs.’ Unfortunately Pope had no data as to lengths.

That this sturgeon is amply supplied with ganoid scales may be

seen by reference to Duméril’s figure reproduced herein (Fig. 2,

pl. IV. However, it is interesting to note the difference between

the scales of this sturgeon and those of Gray’s Acipenser sinensis

(ie seep LV) in both shape and sculpturing. This is especially

true of ‘those in each side @ the body below the line of mid-lateral

scales.

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The Sword-billed Sturgeon, Psephurus gladius.

We are now to consider the most remarkable of all the unusual

freshwater fishes of the Chinese empire, and indeed of all Asia. ~It

‘s found nowhere else in the world, and it has but one close rela-

tive, the spatulate or “spoon-billed? sturgeon, Polyodon spathula,

Text-fig. 4.—The sword and anterior part of the head of a large Psephurus

gladius.. Contrast with the swords shown in Fig. 1, pl. V and note here

the shortened blunted bill.

After Rogers, 1935.

found in the rivers of the Mississippi Valley. This latter has the

beak much shorter and much broader, spatulate rather than sword-

shaped as in the Chinese form.

In the Hoangho and Yangtze-Kiang rivers of China lives this

long, slender sturgeon having the beak prolonged into a sword-like

organ comprising nearly one-third the total length of the fish. Lack-

ing a common name I| have given this fish that above. Its scienti-

fic name is Psephurus gladius. These names are interesting.

Psephurus is derived from two Greek words meaning ‘pebbled tail’

in allusion to the large overlapping scales on the upper edge of

the tail fin—as seen in Fig. 1, pl. IV. The-other large ganoid

scales, so prominent in the figures of the other Chinese sturgeons,

are vestigial in this fish. The specific name, gladius, is the Latin

for sword, in allusion to the sword-like snout. This is seen not only

in the fine figure of the fish but is splendidly portrayed in the sepa-

rate figure. For these portrayals of both fish and beak, we are

indebted to August Dumeéril (1868).

Little is known about this aberrant and unusual sturgeon. I

have been hard put to it to find to what size the fish attains. In

an article by the late Dr. Berthold Laufer, distinguished student

of things Chinese, on the ‘Domestication of the Cormorant’, he

incidentally remarks that the sturgeon ‘is from 20 to 30 feet long’.

Now the Sword-bill is distinctively the Chinese Sturgeon, but I

had always considered the Sword-bill as a relatively small fish for

a sturgeon, so-I began a search for corroborative data as to the

alleged size.

This remark of Laufer’s, written with regard to comorant fish-

ing, I have always interpreted as referring to the fish under consi-

deration, since even young ones have less bulk for the length than

the young of any sturgeon known to me. This identification I

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA 387

noted in correspondence with Dr. Laufer and he acquiesced. The

‘Cambridge Natural History’ (vol. VII, Fishes, p. 492) is more

moderate than Dr. Laufer. It notes that ‘Psephurus is stated to

reach a length of 20 feet’. This however is but a repetition of

Giinther (‘Introduction to the Study of Fishes’, 1880, p. 363, and

from which Laufer probably got his information), who states that

this is the length mentioned by Basilewsky.

Five pages away from his Acipenser mantschuricus and under

the heading ‘Pisces Squamis Denudati’, Basilewsky briefly describes

the fish known to us as Psephurus allnatins without giving it any

scientific name. He says that this nameless” fish (‘Acipenseri affi-

nis’), with an acutely pointed beak almost as long as the body, -is

found in the deeper reaches. of the ‘yellow river’ (Chuan che) and

in other Mongolian and Manchurian rivers. Then he adds, set off

by itself, this brief statement :—‘Longit. 10-20 ped.’

The European, who seems to have seen and first handled a large

Sword-billed Sturgeon, was Dr. P. D. Hlandiside. In 1873 he

exhibited before the Royal Society of Edinburgh, various small

specimens and ‘three pieces of an adult fish that measured fully

9 feet long’. He reported further that Mr. H. G. Hollingsworth,

residing at Kiu-Kiang on the same river, had seen one measuring

15 feet and weighing 133 lbs. This small weight, however, seems

entirely too little for the great length of even such a slender fish.

Of the habits of the Swordbill, we know little. The general

body form, the underhung mouth and the strongly heterocercal tail

- give it a decidedly shark-like appearance. But the long pointed bill,

very like that of a swordfish, is most noticeable, and every one

wishes to know its use. The sturgeon lives in the heavily mud-

laden rivers of China (the ‘yellow river’ for one), and in such water

this fish with its very small eyes could hardly discern its food. So

every one conjectures that the fish uses this long snout to stir up

the bottom and rout or scare out the fishes and crustaceans on

which it is believed to feed. This is confirmed by Handiside, who

reported that this snout is thin at the margin but thick and keeled

in the centre (see illustration). He further states that in the young

specimens it is sharp at the point but it afterwards gets blunted

and rounded off by digging in the silt of the river bottom. The

eyes of the fish are of very small size and it is supposed that the

sensitiveness of the spatula Compe males for the lack of larger and

better eyes.

Returning to the matter of size, Ping (1931) may be quoted

that he procured in a fish market ae head of a large specimen

taken in the Yangtze. This head measured about 1.5 m. (59 in.) long

and must have come from a fish about 15o in. (at least 12 ft.) long.

Then he goes on to add that a mature fish may reach 7 m. (22 ft.)

in length.

The last witness is Commander Rogers of H.M.S. Aphis. In

the China Journal for 1935, he tells of the capture of a large speci-

men at Kiukiang on the Yangtze. The overall: length of this fish

was 9g ft. g in. The length of the sword, which had a rounded

point was 3 ft. from tip to crest of forehead. The greatest girth

of the fish (over the gills) was 4o in., the vertical gape was 9 in.,

388 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

and the width of the mouth 11 in. The fish weighed 180 lbs. The

contrast of even this weight to the considerable length emphasizes

the slender form of this species. A like-sized specimen of almost

any other equally long sturgeon would have weighed two or three

times as much. ‘The fish was dissected and two large stones were

found in its stomach.’ The article by Rogers is illustrated by

several cuts from photographs. None of the figures is distinct,

and this is especially true of that of the whole fish. There is a

heavy shadow below the head and bill, and the general background

is of the same tone as that of the fish’s body. However, using an

enlarged photograph of head and sword, my skilful artist has cut

and painted out everything but the anterior head and the bill with

its blunt and rounded point (T ext-fig. 4). When this is contrasted

with the pointed bill shown in Fig. ii Olle Wo ile 1S Seem tne wae

sword has surely lost inches of its tip—perhaps from having been

used to dig in the river bottom for food. This is the only portrayal

known to me of this anomaly, and pains have been taken to make

an adequate reproduction of it.

THE COLOSSAL STURGEON OF THE AMUR RIVER.

I had expected to find in the great rivers of Siberia several stur-

geons so large as to call for inclusion in this article. However,

but one has been found—that whose habitat is in the Amur River.

Most sturgeons spend part of their lives in salt water. Berg, the

great authority on the freshwater fishes of the U.R.S.S., lists no

large sturgeons in the north-flowing rivers of Siberia. This may

be due to the fact that the mouths of these rivers, being north of

the Arctic Circle, thaw late and freeze early, thus much restricting

access to the Arctic Ocean.

The Kaluga, Huso dauricus of the Amur River.

The Amur River Sturgeon has been long known. In_ 1772,

J. G. Georgi travelled through Dauria, that part of Siberia reaching

south-east. of Lake Baikal to the Chinese border. In his book of

travels published in 1775, Georgi described this fine sturgeon under

the name ‘Kalluga, Acipenser dauricus’—the Daurian sturgeon, His

specimen was only *6 Fuss, 4 Zoll’, long. Our earliest knowledge

of the great size attained by the Amur sturgeon comes from V. K.

Soldatov (1915, p. 221). His largest specimen was 418 cm. (13 ft.

Tr in.) long and weighed 541 kg. (1,190 lbs.). That this fish grows

even larger is attested by Berg (1932, p. 43) who states that it

reaches a length of 4 m. or more (13 ft.) and a weight for large

fish running from 820 kg. (1,804 Ibs.) to 1,140 kg. (2,058 Ibs.).

Truly Huso dauricus attains colossal size.

_- Fig. 2, plate IV, was drawn from a specimen only 122° cm.

(48-8 in.) long, yet it portrays a large fish, especially heavily built

forward. If only one could see in the flesh the specimen referred to

by Berg as being over 13 ft. long and more than 2,500 Ibs. in

weight !

From the rivers of the continent of Asia, there have been given

THE GIANT FRESHWATER FISHES OF ASIA 389

data for three huge catfishes—one the largest yet recorded; two

colossal carps—one the largest now on record; and five giant stur-

geons—one of these exceeding in size and weight even those of

the Columbia River in the U.S.A. (Gudger, 1942). And, after con-

sidering all these facts, one wishes to know why there are in Asia

record-breaking specimens of these three groups of freshwater

fishes.

Indeed one might paraphrase Shakespeare and ask: ‘Upon what

food do these Asiatic Caesars feed that they do grow so great?’

And it is a bit disconcerting to have to answer that we do not

know. There must be a favourable combination of temperature

and an optimum diet. ‘This latter must contain all the main groups

of foodstuffs necessary for these huge organisms—the proteins,

fats, starches, inorganic salts, and vitamins. But, alas! of the

food of these fishes there is total ignorance. The Pla Bik of the

Mekong is said by Dr. Smith to scrape algae from the stones at

the bottom of the river, and Duke states that their stomachs are

never found to contain anything but stones. And also Capt.

Rogers states that two large stones were found in the stomach of

his Sword-billed Sturgeon. Algae, even in vast quantities, would

seem to be an inadequate food to keep going the huge engine of

this 12-foot catfish. And the stones, too large to be used to grind

up any molluscan food, must simply serve as ballast. As to why

these fishes reach such great sizes we must simply answer that

We do not know.

These negative answers, recall my oft-repeated statement, after

handling more than 50,000 titles in 25 years’ work on the ‘Biblio-

graphy of Fishes’, that—‘We have barely scratched the surface.’

LITERATURE CITED.

Basilewsky, Stephanus, 1855.—Ichthyographia Chinae Boreal's. Nouv.

Mém. Soc. Imp. Naturalistes, Moscou, 10 (Acipenser mantschuricus, pp. 250-

51; Psephurus, pp. 256-57). ;

Berg, Leo S., 1932.—Les Poissons des Eaux Douces de 1’ U.R.S.S. et des

Pays Limitrophes (Russian). Instit. Péches & Piscicult., Leningrad (Huso

dauricus, pp. 43-44, fig.).

.€hevey, P., 1930.—Sur un Nouveau Silure Géant du Bassin du Mekong,

Pangasianodon gigas. Bull. Soc. Zool. France, 55, pp. 536- 42, 2 figs.

Duke, A. H., 1921.—Curious Fishing Ceremony (for Pla Biik) on the

Upper Mekong (River). Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc., Siam, 4, pp. 197-098.

Duméril, Auguste, 1868.—Note sur... un Esturgeon, un Polyodonte, et

un Marmalat. Nouv. Arch. Mus. Hist. Nat., Paris, 4 (pp. 98-107, pl. 22).

Fowler, Henry W., 1937.—Zoological Results of the Third de Schauensee

Siamese Expedition, Part WIII.—Fishes Obtained in 1936. Proc, Acad. Nat.

Sci., Philadelphia, 89 (Catlocarpio siamensis, pp. 178-79, fig.).

Giles, F. H., 1932.—Pla Biik (Pangasius sp.). Journ: Nat. Hist. Soc.,

Siam, Supp., 8, p. 334.

Gray, John Edward, 1834.—Acipenser sinensis. Proc. Zool. Soc., London,

Nts Ds foo AA Illustrations of Indian Zoology, chiefly Selected from the Collec-

tion oi Major-General Hardwicke, II (Acipenser sinensis, pl. 98, fig. 5).

Gudger, E. W., 1942.—The Giant (Freshwater) Fishes of North America.

Natural History, Ao; pp. 115-21, 7 figs.

, 1943.—The Giant Freshwater Fishes of South America. In press in

Scientific Monthly.

, The Giant Freshwater Perch of Africa, Lates niloticus. In MS.

Handiside, P. D., 1875.—On the Anatomy of a new Species of Polyodon,

the Polyodon gladius of Martens, taken from the River Yangtze-Kiang, 450

miles above Woosung. Proc. Roy. Soc., Edinburgh, 8, pp. 50-51.

390 JOURNAL, -BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Hora, Sunder Lal, 1939.—The Game Fishes of India, Part VI.—The

Goonch, Bagarius bagarius (Hamilton). Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 40,

pp- 583-93, text-figs. and col. pl.

Kirkpatrick, Cyril, 1875.—Fishing Extraordinary (for an Indian Catfish,

Bagarius bagarius). The Field, London, 46 (July 24), p. 94, fig.

Laufer, Berthold, 1931.—The Domestication of the Cormorant in China

and Japan. Field Mus. Nat. Hist., Anthropol. Series, 18 (the Sturgeon

called Chan is from 20 to 30 ft. long in the lower-Yangtse region, p. 214).

Murray-Aynsley, C. E., 1906.—A Huge Mahseer (66 in., 104 lbs.). The

Field, 108, p. 801. —

—-—, 1909.—Another Huge Mahseer (64 in., 103 lbs.). The Field, 114, p. 866.

Pavie, Auguste, 1904. Mission Pavie Indo-Chine, 1879-1895, Vol. III, Re-

cherches sur |’Histoire Naturelle, Paris (Introduction to Fishes, pp. 452-58,

5 figs. of Trey-Réach from photographs).

Ping, C., 1931.—Preliminary Notes on the Fauna of Nanking. Contribs.

Biol. Laby. Sci. Soc., China, Zool. Ser., 7. (Fishes—Acipenser sinensis and

Psephurus gladius, pp. 188-90).

Rogers, R. H. S., 1935.—The Yangtze Beaked Sturgeon. China Journ.,

22, pp. 40-41, 4 figs.

Seidenfaden, Eric, 1923.—The Pla Buk. Journ., Siam Soc., Nat. Hist.

Supp., 6, pp. 138-39.

Slack, Thomas, 1931.—Caught by Swearing Men when all Ranks are Equal :

the Pla Bik. Illustrated London News (August 22), p. 301, 2 figs.

Smith, Hugh M., 1931.—(1) Note on the Pla Buk, the Giant Catfish of the

Mekong River, Siam). Illustrated London News (August 22), p. 301, 2 figs.

(2) Descriptions of New Genera and Species of Siamese Fishes. Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus., 79 (Pangasius sanitwongsei, pp. 29-30, fig.).

Soldatov, V. K., 1915.—Wissenschaftlich-gewerbliche Erforschung der Ge-

wasser des Ferner Ostens. 2. Erforschung der Acipenseriden des Amur. Mate-

riaux pour l’Etude de la Peche en Russie (1914), 1915, 3 (Huso dauricus, pp.

96-113, pls. XIII and XIV). (In Russian.) )

Sowerby, Arthur de C., 1923. The Chinese Sturgeon (Acipenser sinensis).

China Journ’ Sci. & Arts, 1, pp. 480-83, 2 figs.

Thomas, H. S., 1897.—The Rod in India, London (3rd ed.). (The Natural

History of the Mahseer, chap. iii, pls.).

Vipulya, Mom Chao, 1923.—Notes on Rod Fishing in Bangkok. Journ.,

Siam Soc., Nat. Hist. Suppl., 6 (Pla Ka-ho, p. 226).

IMMATURE STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA

(COSSIDAE, INDARBELIDAE).

J. C. M. Garpner,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

(With a plate)

The families Indarbelidae and Cossidae contain species the

larvae of which attack the living stems of numerous valuabie

species of trees and are therefore of great economic importance.

A means of identifying larvae is particularly desirable since rearing

to the adult stage is difficult and also because nearly all requests

for advice on control measures are accompanied by preserved larvae

only.

In the following key to mature larvae, the Hepialidae (repre-

sented by Phassus spp.) are mentioned since their larvae super-

ficially resemble those of Indarbelidae and have similar feeding

habits, that is to say, they feed mainly on the soft external tissues

of the stem under a camouflage of frass and silk, with a deeper

iMMALURE STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 391

tunnel for refuge. The Cossidae on the other hand feed internally

on the sapwood.

In all three families the prespiracular setae on T1* are three in

number, indicating affinity with the Microlepidoptera.

KEY TO FAMILIES.

1. The dorsal plate of Tr is continued downward on each

‘side in front of spiracle and bears the 3 prespiracular

setae. Crochets of ventral prolegs biserial, that is,

with an outer ellipse of small crochets in addition

to the main ellipse ser Bod 506 ... Hepialidae.

The 3 prespiracular setae of 1 isolated from the

dorsal shield. Crochets uniserial, with no outer row. (2).

Head smooth, partly retracted into prothorax. Ocelli 1

to 4 in a nearly evenly spaced semicircle. Setae I

and II not all on a common dorsal plate on ante-

rior abdominal es (Pronotum San or

not) at, .. Cossidae.

Head rugulose, not ‘overlapped by Brothers A wide

- gap between ocelli 2 and 3. The four setae I and

Il borne together on a dorsal plate. (Pronotum

smooth) : sb : ..» Indarbelidae.

iS)

Larvae of Cossidae.

Family characters.—Head rather small, partly embedded 1n pro-

thoracic skin, nearly horizontal. Ocelli six on each side, the upper

four in a semicircle, about equally spaced. Frons distinctly higher

than wide. Adfrontal area rather narrow. Labrum with at most

a trace of anterior emargination. Prothorax with three prespira-

cular setae which are separate from the well sclerotized dorsal

shield. Mesothorax and metathorax with setae I and II one above

the other, and with only one seta (VI) above the legs. Abdomen

with seta I well anterior to, and more dorsal than seta II on ante-

rior segments; setae IV and V approximate below spiracles. Head

and body without secondary setae. With five pairs of short and

stout prolegs, four ventral, one anal; crochets in an ellipse on

ventral prolegs (transverse bands in Cossula, an American genus).

Borers in living wood or in reeds (Phragmatoecia).

Seta IIIa anterior to spiracle. Small additional setae may be

present near the anterior margins of the segments. The setae

may be borne on small plates (pinacula) but these are isolated and

not as extensive as in the Indarbelidae, except dorsally on pro-

thorax, Ag and Ato. The body is on the whole rather soft, less

cylindrical than in Indarbelidae. Spiracles oval, small; apparently

non-functional spiracles are present on T2 and T3.

Key to Genera.

t. Pronotum smooth. Seta III on A8 directly above the

spiracle (Cossinae) a 500 we Cossts,

Pronotum asperate oniealonby Seta III on A8 either

directly anterior. to the spiracle or higher and slightly

anterior (Zeuzerinae) a es sea sau (2)

* The thoracic and abdominal’ segment are referred to as Tr to T3 and

Ar to Ato respectively.

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS a SOOLE Inve Vol, 45

2. The asperities on pronotum coarse and prominent,

especially in the anterior rows. Crochets biordinal

or triordinal Hb 500 = ies eeien (3))s

Pronotal asperities small, more granular, but there is

an anterior row of four widely spaced transverse

ridges, which, although fairly large are only Seopa

raised. Crochets uniordinal 60 . Azygophleps.

3. Not more than the posterior third of pronotum is aspe-

rate. Spiracle of A8 at least 1.5 times as large as

that of A7, which is distinctly larger than that of AG. Zeuzera.

One half, or nearly half the pronotum is asperate.

Spiracle of A8 less than 1.5 times as large as spiracle

7 which is subequal to spiracle A6 in mature larvae Xyleutes.

Cossus F.

Larval characters.—Head slightly wider than long, with a deep

posterior emargination (visible in dorsal view) which is continued

anteriorly as a deep groove to not far from the middle of the head.

The adfrontal sutures meet the apex of this groove.~ The frons

nearly one-third as long as the head, and longer than the distance

between its apex and the posterior groove. The prothoracic plate

smooth, transverse, its lateral margins horizontal and near spira-

cles. Seta III of A8 above the spiracle. Setae II of Ag closer

together than Setae I and also closer than Setae II of the preced-

‘ing segments. Spiracle of A8 not enlarged, at the same level as

the preceding spiracles. Crochets biordinal (or partly triordinal)

in complete ellipse on ventral prolegs.

Cossus cadambae Moore has the head pale brown, pronotum

testaceous, the setae not borne on pigmented plates. The spiracles

large. The crochets triordinal in part. Three larvae, about 0

mm. long from. Tectona grandis, Travancore.

Cossus acronyctoides Moore resembles the former except that

‘the spiracles are very small... One larva, length 25 mm., from

Tamarix articulata, Punjab.

Azygophleps scalaris F.

Larva Get 1).—Head about as wide as long, the posterior emar-

gination rather narrow and about one-third length of head. Frons

nearly one-third length of head, convex. Adfrontal sutures not

quite reaching apex of posterior sirius. Prothoracic shield with

a little more than the posterior half asperate; the asperities small,

granular, irregularly arranged and more or less equal in size ex-

cept for a posterior group of smaller asperities; anterior to this

convex patch 1s a widely spaced row of four large, but weakly

raised, transverse carinae. Spiracles large; that of AS slightly

larger than that of A7 and above the level of the preceding spi-

racles. Crochets of ventral prolegs uniordinal, in an ellipse. Seta

III of .A8 anterior to spiracle but well above it. Body setae in-

conspicuous. Some of the middle body segments somewhat raised

dorsally forming weak ‘ambulatory ampullae’. Length about

25 mn,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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J. C. M. Gardner—Larvae of Cossidae.

For explanation see end of articie.

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IMMATURE STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 393

Described from two larvae lent by the Imperial Agricultural

Entomologist, New Delhi: one from stem of Sesbania grandiflora,

Madras; the other from Sesbania sp., Orissa.

The larva is figured by Fletcher, 1918, Rep. Imperial Entomo-

VOZVSti, FOG THO, Tiers jy

Phragmatoecia castaneae Hubn.

I have not seen larvae of this species which also occurs in Europe

as a borer of reeds. The pronotum is asperate (Buckler), the last

pair of spiracles enlarged and more dorsally placed and the crochets

uniordinal and in a complete ellipse (Fracker).

Zeuzera latreille

Larval characters (figs. 2, 4, 6, 7).—Head much larger than

wide, somewhat narrowly rounded posteriorly with at most a shal-

low emargination visible from above. Frons very small, about

one-sixth as long as the head. Adfrons extending a short way

beyond frons and distant from attachment of prothorax. Protho-

racic shield strong, the lateral margins well above spiracles; not

more than the posterior third asperate; the asperities in middle

of anterior row coarse, longer than wide. Ag with a transverse

plate bearing the dorsal setae. The other body setae on more or

less circular isolated plates. Seta III of A8 anterior to the spiracle.

Spiracle of A8 one and a half times or more larger than that of

Avy and at a higher level; spiracle A7 larger than spiracle Ao.

Crochets biordinal (or triordinal in part), in a complete ellipse.

The elongate oval head has some resemblance to certain larvae

of Lamiinae. However the figure of -Z. pyrina from Europe, given

by Frackler (1915, fig. 72) shows a transverse head with a strong

posterior emargination which suggests that that species may not

be really congeneric with Indian species of Zeuzera.

KEy TO SPECIES.

1, The inner two of the four middle asperities of the an-

terior row on pronotum ea smaller than the

other two ot an (2)

The four middle asperities oi the anterior. row all

of about the same size ... Z. coffeae,

2. The posterior spiracle with a small ip or angulation o on

the upper margin ; a . 4. multistrigatd,

Peritreme of posterior spiracle even, without a lip. Z. indica.

Zeusera coffeae Nietner (figs. 2, 6, 7).—Head mostly testace=

ous; pronotum with dark brown anterior patches and dark asperi-

ties posteriorly, otherwise testaceous; body pink, the dorsal plates

of Ag, Ato pale brown. The asperities on pronotum as in figure 2,

an antero-median row of four, large and equal and a small one on

each side, continued laterally where they become minute; a second

row of six moderate asperities; the remainder very small. The

last posterior spiracle has a distinct lip dorsally (fig. 6). Length

about 4o mm. The larva attacks numerous living trees, including

Tectona grandis and Santalum album and is a pest on tea and

coffee.

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

Z. multistrigata Moore (fig. 4).—The anterior row of asperities

continued laterally and slightly backwards as in coffeae, but the

middle two teeth are much smaller than the two on either side.

The setal plates more deeply pigmented than in coffeae. The pos-

terior spiracle with a lip or angulation of upper margin. Length

about 65 mm. In small larvae (up to 17 mm.) the body is dark

red, the head pronotum and dorsal plates on Ag and Ato black.

In larger larvae these parts are smoky testaceous. Described from

larvae extracted from Cryptomeria japonica, Darjeeling (J.C.M.G.,

1923). These larvae, and those of Hepialids, were doing consider-

able damage in young plantations. Larvae sent me by the Ento-

mologist, Fruit Research Station, Chaubattia, from apple trees,

are identical.

Z. indica H. Schatfer.—The anterior row of asperities on pro-

hnotum very much as in multistrigata (two small in the middle, be-

tween two larger ones, and then a small one on each side) but the

middle ones are rather more out of line with (more anterior than)

the lateral row. The tergal plates and setal plates brownish. ‘The

posterior spiracle with no lip. Length about 60 mm.

Described from one larva from Litsea polyantha, Dehra Dun;

moths were reared and later identified by Mr. G. E. Bryant. iva

other larva taken from the root of Miliusa velutina, Bhamo, Burma,

appears to be identical; however, I have no record of the moth

of this species from Burma.

Xyleutes Hubner.

Larval characters.—Very much as in Zeuzera, but the asperate

patch on pronotum more extensive, covering distinctly more than

the posterior third; the coarse anterior asperities more transverse.

The head longer than wide, narrowed behind the middle; with a

narrow posterior cleft which is almost closed in persona. Seta III

of A8 anterior to spiracle and not above its level. Spiracle of A8

about 1.3 times larger than that of AZ which is subequal to that

of Ao. Mature larvae larger than Zeuzera. Borers in living wood.

In small. larvae (length about 25 mm.) the spiracle of A8 is much

larger than that of AZ and is actually nearly as large as in the

mature larva.

AXyleutes ceramica Walker is the notorious Beehole Borer of

teak in Burma and the larval instars have been described in some

detail by Beeson (1921). The head moderately elongate, the frons

about one-third as long; the posterior margin with a narrow pos-

terior cleft and groove. The pronotal asperities (fig. 3) extend. to

the middle of the shield, as far as the posterior paramedian setae;

the posterior asperities small, more granular, numerous, the last

row not widened. Setae I on Ag well anterior to setae II and

only slightly more separated. The posterior spiracle larger than

that of AZ and above its level; the peritreme evenly oval with no

‘lip’. Setae of middle segments on at most very small plates.

Length up to 62 mm.

Xyleutes leuconota Walker differs from ceramica as follows :

Frons about one-fourth as long as head, which is more elongate,

the posterior cleft of head narrower. The patch of asperities on

IMMATURE STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 395

pronotum (fig. 5) reaching neither the middle of pronotum nor the

posterior paramedian setae; the posterior small asperities less nu-

merous, the last row slightly enlarged, flattened. Setae I on Ag

only slightly anterior to setae II and distinctly more widely sepa-

rated. The posterior spiracle with a shallow ‘lip’ on posterior

dorsal margin (when seen obliquely). Length about 85 mm. This

species attacks species of Cassia and causes serious damage. De-

scribed from larvae ex Cassia sp. from Burma. It appears to be

doubtful if leuconota is a synonym of persona le Guill.

INDARBELIDAE.

The generic name Arbela, Moore (1879) is preoccupied by Arbela,

Stal (1865) in the Reduviidae. Fletcher (1922, Entomologist, 55,

231) renamed the genus Indarbela. The family name is therefore

Indarbelidae. Dalla Torre and Strand (1923, in Wagner, Lep.

‘Cat., 28: 3) overlooked Fletcher’s remark and introduced the name

Lepidarbela for the genus and later refer to the family as Lepidar-

belidae (1928, ‘Lep. Cat. Junk, pars. 28).

I have seen larvae of only one species of this family.

Indarbela quadrinotata Walker.

Larva.—Head as wide as thorax, transversely subcircular, not

retracted into thorax, the frontal surface nearly vertical, rugulose

with a groove, bordered by carinae, running back from each an-

tenna. Frons small, very slightly higher than wide, its apex near

the middle of the head. Adfrons wide, the sutures. meeting the

coronal suture well before the posterior sinus. Ocelli six, a wide

gap between 2 and 3. Labrum transverse, not emarginate. Pro-

thorax with a transverse smooth shield and each following tergum

with a distinct shield which bears the four setae I and II; the three

prespiracular setae of T1 borne on a small separate plate. T2 and

T3 with I and II approximate, one above the other, and with only

one seta (VI) above the leg. There are no secondary setae. On

the abdomen setae II widely separated, setae I only slightly closer

to one another than, and not far anterior to, setae II; seta III

above the spiracle on an elongate plate; setae IV and V approxi-

mate below ‘spiracle on a small plate behind which is another

plate without a seta; VI on an elongate plate; VII (on base of

proleg or at that level) with three setae. Legs normal. Prolegs,

one anal and four ventral pairs. Crochets of ventral prolegs uni-

serial in an incomplete ellipse which is very weak externally and

more distinctly broken internally where the anterior band overlaps

the posterior band; the crochets of the anterior band are stronger

than those of the posterior band and four alternating sizes of

crochet are recognizable; crochets of anal prolegs in a continuous

transverse band. Spiracles small, oval, those of Ar and A8 en-

larged and all at the same level.

The head dark castaneous. Body white with the numerous

plates usually infuscated. Setae mostly quite long. Body slender,

subcylindrical, tapering slightly posteriorly. Length up to 50 mm,

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The larva has numerous host trees and may cause serious

damage. It feeds on bark under a camouflage of frass and silk

and has an internal tunnel or retreat very much as in Phassus

(Hepialidae) to which the larva has a superficial resemblance, al-

though very different in important characters and closely related

to the Cossidae.

REFERENCES.

Beeson. 1921. ‘The Bee-hole Borer of Teak’, Indian Forest Records, 8 (3).

Fracker. 1915. ‘The Classification of Lepidopterous Larvae’, Illinois Biol.

Monogr., 2 (1).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Fig. 1, pronotum of Azygophleps scalaris; 2, saine of Zeuzera coffeae; 3, same

of Xyleutes ceramica; 4, same of Zeuzera multistrigata; 5, same of Xyleutes

leuconota ; 6, posterior spiracle of Zeuzera coffeae; 7,. head of Z. coffeae.

NOTES ON THE GENUS RUPPIA (RUPPIACEAE).

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

(With a plate).

The genus Ruppia is represented by a single cosmopolitan spe-

cies (Willis); it is the only genus in the family Ruppiaceae, order

Potamagetonales (Hutchinson).

After a detailed examination of a large amount of living mate-

rial in the field, and of plants kept in’ an aquarium, I am of

opinion that Ruppia is sadly in need of a clearer definition than

is to be found in most works dealing with it. Ruppia does not

make a very satisfactory herbarium specimen. If the original de-

scription was based on such material it is not surprising to find

ambiguous, and even erroneous, statements in- literature, as some

of the minute structures are distorted beyond recognition. Below

I give Griffith’s description from the Notulae, and a fuller de-

scription by myself based on living material.

Ruppia maritima Linn.

Description.*—‘Planta aquatica in massis intricatis, gracilis, fucoidea, dicho-

toma.

Folia cylindraceo-planiuscula e basi lilatata Jonge attenuata, acutato-cus-

pidata pallide viridescentia. Structura e canaliculis 2, initio septis transversis

interruptis septo longitudinale centrale interposito.

Axillae, folia alia gignunt bina? vel una quorum interius junius in parte

inferne membrana stipulacea involvitur.

* This description I submitted to a friend, who is well versed in Latin, for

favour of translation. He held up his hands in horror at the ‘Latin’ and

politely suggested that I had copied it wrongly! I went back to the original

to make sure, and found that the book was wrong and not I! The Notulae

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

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eas

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Bir

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Poon coset oer

Ruppia maritima Linn.

For explanation see end of article.

WN iq uit é Wok

AG on

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NOTES ON. THE GENUS RUPPIA (RUPPIACEAE ) 397

Spadix terminalis e partibus dilatatus fol. 2 terminal, subopposita vix exserta,

subclavata 2-4 linealis.

Spatha plana spathulata structura vaginarum apice pleurumque denticulata.

Flores in spadici sessiles numero semper 2, inconspicui omnino nudi,

Stamina 4 in spadice saepius transverse sita, brunnescentis.

Antherae sessiles oblongi uniloculares rima centrali quoad axin: transversa

dehiscentes cellulae fibrosae sub o.

Pollen singulari forma, magnum oblongum curvatum, subreniforme e vesi-

culo e plicato, e perforato translucido globulos majusculos (fovillam) includens,

apicibus interdum. constrictis.

Ovaria 4 subsessilis, cum antheris alternant, oblonga, glabra. Stylus nul-

lus. Stigma discoid., magnum. Ovulum unicum hine oblique gibbosum sub-

sessile, foramen apicale, tegument cellulosa exterius laxum. Spad. pedunculus

demum paullo elongatus rectus. . e

Capsula ovata in spicem pedicelli albi subclavati fere uncinalis; apice stig-

mati coronata parietes cellulosa. Pyrena tenuia, conforme, nigram osseam

apice attenuata in corpore styliforme acuto stigmata attingens, epicarpium

soulbile erectum, secus faceum internam sulca lanceolata notat.

Parietes ejus crassi sunt spongiosi, et cavitatibus parvis excavati.

Semen pendulum albumen: tegument externius laxum celluosum_ interius

simili sel tenuius foramine laterali !

Embryo conforme carnosus, e radicula maxime crassissimus aspectu albu-

minis, obtusissimus, apicem geometricam seminis oblonga spectans. Cotyledone

cylindraceus parvus, in basi radicis incumbens. Plumula inclusa, minima, in

basis hujus, fissura minima e rumpens.’ (Griffith.)

A submerged aquatic herb growing in brackish water forming dense masses

of filiform, leafy, flaccid stems and branches, 15-75 cm. long. Roots 20-70 mm.

long, filamentous, cylindric, covered with a dense growth of long root hairs,

arising in opposite pairs at the nodes of the rhizome and lower branches. Stem

a creeping rhizome, cylindric or subangular, dichotomously much _ branched ;

branches arising between scales (the remains of abortive leaf bases?) with 2

somewhat stout roots at each node, ascending; internodes 45-50 cm.; nodes

slightly dilated. Leaves 7o-g0 mm., filiform, green, base with spathaceous

wings (stipular?), opposite or nearly so; wings 12°mm. as wide as the leaf,

hyaline, sheathing, tips rounded (of wings). ‘Flowers minute, in 2 clusters of

4-6 (reduced to pistils and stamens). Peduncle 4-5 mm., elongating to 7 mm.

in fruit, with two alternate pits containing the florets; often terminated by a

mucronate appendage ; peduncle subtended by a hyaline, linear bract about half

its length, tip subacute or errose. Male flower represented by 2, one-celled

anthers borne on an extremely short filament which ends in an appendage, and

occasionally an abortive bud. There are 2 male florets in each cluster. An-

thers ellipsoid or suborbicular, dehiscing through the centre. Pollen long-kidney-

shaped, buoyant, pale yellow, smooth, exhibiting large granules within. Female

florets 2-4 in each cluster, reduced to pistils, stipitate, stipe elongating from

25-30 mm., obovate-oblong, truncate, surmounted by a dense discoid, peltate

stigmatic canopy; stigma minute, mammillate, to one side, tinged with light

or deep pink. Ovule solitary. Fruit ovoid, obliquely ovoid, or subreniform

achene, compressed, beaked; pericarp. subcartilaginous, green, endocarp_ hard,

black, bearing barbs and excrescences. Seed solitary, testa membraneous. (Mc-

Cann.)

Field Observations.

Ruppia is a submerged, rhizomatous, much branched flaccid, aquatic plant

srowing in saline water. It forms dense growths, often covering large areas.

When the tops of the branches reach the surface, and lie parallel with it, they

are composed of a collection of Griffith’s papers and were published posthu-

mously, and therefore, Griffiths is not responsible for such ‘Latin’, but the

compiler. However, I feel it is necessary to point out that it is much better

to have a good English description rather than an unintelligible Latin one!

If Latin must be used, the description should be submitted to someone fully

conversant with the language,

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

are often fractured by the action of waves, and drift on the surface till stranded.

Masses of detached pieces are washed ashore. The plants require a fairly still

situation where there are no strong currents. The slender rhizome is much

branched and is anchored to the substratum. Willis describes it as: ‘A slender

swimming pl. with the habit of Potamageton.’ Both Ruppia and Potamageton °

(and so also, Aponogeton) are normally anchored in the mud of the habitat,

and only break away from their moorings by some accident, such as the action

of waves or of animals. In the case of Ruppia, detached fragments do not

survive for long, but in the case of Potamageton such pieces float and survive

for a considerable period. Potamageton produces submerged and _ floating

leaves; Ruppia produces submerged leaves only, not capable of surviving the

direct rays of the sun. Thus. Ruppia cannot be called a ‘swimming’ plant.

Another big ‘difference between the two genera is that Ruppia produces flowers

and fruits under water, whereas Potamageton produces its flowers and fruits

above the surface.

Stem,—The stem is represented by a much branched slender rhizome which

sends up many leafy shoots. The branching is dichotomous. At the nodes of

the rhizome, and of the lower branches, appear two long _roots bearing long

and numerous root-hairs.

Leaves.—'T. Cooke describes the leaves as ‘formed of two parallel tubes’,

This statement puzzled me considerably until I was able to consult Griffith’s

work on the subject. The statement ‘two parallel tubes’ is an anotomical char-

acter referring to a cross section of the leaf, and should not have been placed

among morphological characters in such a misleading manner. The leaves are

filiform with stipular, hyaline wings at the base. There are two leaves at each

node. In the axil of each leaf a new branch develops, thus giving rise to the

dichotomous arrangement.

Flowers.—The most important point regarding Ruppia is to determine whether

we are dealing with two flowers as described or with two clusters of florets

on each peduncle. The following are extracts from authoritative works :—

(a) ‘Each spike of 2 fls. not enclosed in the spathe at flowering time. The

fl. has 2 sta. with small outgrowths from the connectives, and 4 cpls.’ ( Willis.)

(b) ‘Flowers minute, in pairs, enclosed in a leaf-sheath.’ (Cooke.)

short peduncle which usually elongates generally after flowering; and is then

straight or spirally twisted.” (Hooker f.)

After an examination of a large number of flowers in all stages of develop-

ment, I am of opinion that in the case of Ruppia we are in reality dealing

with an inflorescence composed of two clusters of florets and not two flowers.

My chief reasons for adopting this view are :—

(a) As the so-called separate carpels are each provided with a separate

stigma each is capable of independent development, which is in reality the case.

(b) The difference in time of the development between the two pairs of

‘carpels’ points to a.difference in the time of maturation and fertilization of

the stigmas. We shall now deal with the details of the inflorescence in order,

commencing with the peduncle. ;

Peduncle.—A narrow hyaline bract or sheath subtends the peduncle, On

this subject the authorities write:

‘On an ultimately elongating straight or spirally coiled peduncle (Cooke).

Peduncles j-1 in. long, not spirally coiled.’ (Cooke)

‘Short peduncle which usually elongates greatly after flowering, and is

then straight or spirally twisted.’ (Hk. f.) ‘Peduncle straight after flowering.’

(Hk. f.) ‘Fruiting peduncles 1-6 in.’ (Hooker f.)

Both these authors are inconsistent in the same description and the student

is immediately put in doubt! At times it appears that the term peduncle has

been used indiscriminately for the peduncle proper, and the stipe.

According to my own observations, in no case do I find the peduncle to

exceed 7 mm., whether in flower or in fruit. I have also failed to find one

spirally twisted, the two alternate pits in which the florets are borne may give

the twisted appearance. In this regard Trimen is correct in saying ‘not spirally

twisted’. At the top of the peduncle may be found a short appendage.

Fl, Bombay Presidency, Vol. 2 (1908), p. 839.

NOTES ON THE GENUS RUPPIA (RUPPIACEAE ) 399

-Flowers.—The number of florets in each hollow varies slightly, but the

normal appears to be two males (stamens) and four pistils in each socket. It

is the number of females in each cluster which varies; the males appear to

be constant Male floret: The male floret is reduced to a single filament bearing

two one-celled anthers. With regard to the anthers the authorities write :

‘Anthers 2, sessile, opposite, 2-celled.’ (Hk. f.)

‘Stamens 2; anthers sessile, 2-celled.’ (Cooke) The above statements are

most confusing !* :

‘Cn each filament there are two sessile, ellipsoid anthers which dehisce through

the middle. The anthers are one-celled. The two halves remain gaping and

the pollen leaves gradually and floats to the surface. The pollen is long-

kidney-shaped, smooth, granular within, pale yellow. In each cluster there

are two male florets one above, and the other below the female cluster. Female

floret: The female flower is represented by the very shortly stalled pistil.

The pistil is obovate-oblong,: truncated, and surmounted by a somewhat fleshy

peltate or discoid, stigma-like organ, which I propose to call the stigmatic-

canopy. This ,organ has been referred to as the stigma itself in all works, but

I cannot agree on this score. The stigma is in reality a minute mammilate

structure to one side and just beneath the stigmatic-canopy. The pistil is a

uniform green, like the leaves, and it is only the mammilate stigma which is

tinged with pink or somewhat reddish hues. In dried material the student will

experience difficulty in determining the stigma.

The stigmatic-canopy is a dense discoidal layer of tissue which is readily

detached from the pistil. It is rounded elliptic, or sometimes irregular in out-

line. The centre is more thickened than the surrounding tissue and when it is

détached exhibits a minute perforation corresponding to the beak of the achene ;

thus it forms an umbrella over the pistil. This curious organ puzzled me for

a considerable time and after much observation I finally arrived at the con-

clusion that it is a pollen trap. The pollen, as it rises through the water, is

caught by it. The pollen adheres to the margin, and under the margin of the

canopy; gradually it drifts round towards the stigma, thus effecting pollina-

tion. The remains of the canopy persist in the mature fruit, but in a very

shrivalled and reduced state.

Fruit.—After fertilization the stipe begins to lengthen, Its length may vary

from 15 to 30 mm. The stipe appears to me to be a prolongation of the hard

endocarp as in the case of the beak. It is thus not a true pedicil. The peri-

carp is subcoriaceous. Soon after the achene .leaves the parent plant, the

pericarp decomposes leaving the hard, black endocarp covered with barb-like

excrescences over its whole surface and the two ‘spinal’ processes at either

pole. The stipe is not long-lived, and in course of time the achene loses its

beak and the surface becomes somewhat smooth. When mature the fruit. appear

like two umbellate clusters on either side of the peduncle. On maturity, the

fruit detach and sink to the bottom. On dessication the stipe coils in various

ways and thus forms a sort of prehensile tail to the achene for a time. I shall

refer to this point once more under the heading of seed dispersal.

The shape of the achene varies slightly from ovoid, obliquely-ovoid to sub-

reniform, somewhat compressed. The seed is protected by a submembraneous

testa. The embryo is macropodal.

Germination.—The achene splits along one margin for almost its full length.

The endocarp is almost persistently attached to the plants. Germination appears

to be rapid and soon after maturation of seed: this continues till the salinity

of the water is too great for the well-being of the plant.

Seed dispersal.—There appears to be little doubt that aquatic birds are

largely responsible for the dispersal of Ruppia. The carriage may be external

or internal. The barb-like excrescences of the achene enables it to be carried

in the plumage of birds; the small size enables it to be attached to birds in

clots of earth. The wind would only play a part when the-seeds are exposed

on the surface, or when mixed in other debre which is easily carried by wind.

A large number of seeds may escape the digestive tract of some birds, but I

* Griffith described the number of anthers in each floret, and the number

of cells in each anther correctly, and my own observations agree with his. It

is difficult to see how both Hooker f. and Cooke overlooked these points.

goo JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

doubt if the seeds would survive the gastric juices of healthy birds, and of birds

whose regular food is Ruppia seed. In an article on the breeding of Flamingoes

in the Great Rann of Cutch,” I pointed out that the young of the birds that

bred in the Rann depended entirely on Ruppia seeds for their existence. It

was only the vast amount of seed that was produced that made breeding pos-

sible. Most of the birds of prey which feed on aquatic birds are winter visitors

to India, like the aquatic birds themselves. Such birds of prey assist indirectly

in the dispersal of the seed. Ruppia is at its height when the visitors are here.

The stomach contents of the prey are usually discarded, and in this way the

birds of prey assist in dispersal. 3

The following are extracts from Ridley’s work on seed dispersal :-—

‘It appears that when the peduncle is detached the fruits become subject to

the action of the wind and wave, and are washed ashore, probably mixed with

green algae, which, together with the decaying outer layer of the pericarp,

causes a certain amount oi adhesiveness, so that when rolled along the shore

by the wind they sausage-like or round masses, the fruits being so compacted

together that it is difficult to extract single specimens.’ (From a note by T.

Kirk in Herbarium Kew, Ridley, p. 36.)

Kirlk evidently refers here to the stipe as the peduncle: as the peduncle

does not become detached, but as the masses referred to may be composed of

green algae and fragrnents washed ashore, there is the possibility that the

peduncle itself may be present. The barb-like processes on the achenes and the

‘prehensilt’ tail could certainly @nable the seeds and the algae to form masses..

So far IT have not observed this, but there is plenty of algae growing in the

same _ habitat.

‘The fruits of this plant float but a day (Praegér), but fragments of the

plant bearing fruit certainly float longer than this. It is a world-wide plant

apparently mainly dispersed by attachment to water-fowl.’ (Ridley, p. 233.)

According to my own observation mature fruit sink in water as soon as they

are detached from the parent plant.

(‘... . and I select merely those which could readily pass through it. with

the seeds unharmed): . . . Ruppia maritima, . . . ’ (Ridley, p. 400.)

The seeds referred to were obtained from the stomach of the Mallard (Anas

platyrrhyncha). As I have already mentioned, I doubt if seeds would pass un-

harmed through the alimentary canal of a bird which depends on Ruppia for its

food. ;

Pollination.—Referring to the subject of pollination Willis states: ‘The fis.

are borne just at the surface of the water where fert. occurs by floating pollen.’

This statement is not, wholly correct and needs explanation. That fertilization

may, and probably does, take place near or at the surface, between flowers on

floating fragments, and floating pollen, cannot be ruled out, but as the frag-

ments themselves soon perish there is little chance of such fragments maturing

freshly fertilized ovules. However, according to my own observations, the

normal method of pollination is under water, otherwise it would be difficult to

explain the development and maturation of fruit deep below the surface.

As I have already explained, there are four anthers in each cluster, two

above and two below the female cluster. The anthers dehisce first and shed

their pollen little by little. The pollen drifts upwards and on its way is arrested

by the stigmatic-canopy. The pollen adheres to the margin of the canopy and

under it; gradually it drifts round to the stigma when fertilization tales place.

The pollen grains may be seen singly or in sausage-like strings clinging to the

canopy. So far I have not witnessed any pollen adherent to the upper surface

of the canopy.

Of the normally four female florets, the ‘upper’ two generally appear to be

fertilized before the ‘lower’ two, and develop into fruit. They are. closely fol-

lowed by the lower ones. The stipes elongate so rapidly that there does not

appear to be a great interval, for the stipes are soon equal in length.

Distribution.— Ruppia maritima is another world-wide aquatic found on the

coasts of Europe, Asia (India, China, Formosa), Malay Peninsula, Phillipines,

South Africa, Socotra, Canaries. Madeira, Mauritius,. Australia, New Caledonia,

| | sBUNG ELC Sy Oy Ole PAnIn (ORO) smpapetan

NOTES ON THE GENUS RUPPIA (RUPPIACEAE ) 4ot

New Zealand, all America and West Indies, including Bermudas, probably

mainly dispersed by ducks.’ (Ridley, p. 694.) ;

As Griffith’s work is not readily available to most students, I reprint his

observations from the Notulae :—

‘I have not met with specimens in a state sufficient to warrant me in

forming any conclusion as to the fact of the nucleus changing its position or not.

‘Ruppia appears to me to be a cellular plant, the stem consists of a central

bundle of longitudinal tissue, and the space between this and the circumference

-is occupied by air cells of the usual formation, [ have not been able to trace

the existence of any vessels.

‘The division of the axis is d‘chotonous, an arrangement which pervades

throughout the lower orders of vegetables, and which would seem to mark this

as a transition from flowering to flowerless plants,

‘The leaves consist of two tubes, separated by a septum which occupies the

centre, a similar structure exists in other aquatic plants.

‘The spadix is always terminal and the two uppermost leaves are so approxi-

mated as to appear opposite. The axilla of each leaf bears a bud consisting

generally of two leaves, but occasionally of a branch of the axis.

‘In this last case, it is furnished with a sheath, in the former, the inner

leaf is always similarly provided. The spatha is of a similar structure and

possibly of a similar origin, it never even in very young stages protects the

spadix, although its margins are curved in this direction. Although not evi-

dently belonging to the peduncle of the spatha, yet as it always exists, and is

never folded round the leaf or the ramifications of the axis, I am disposed to

consider it as being a true spatha.

‘The flowers are of very similar conformation, consisting of 4 anthers, and

4 alternating ovaries, the disposition is always alternate, and the number

limited to two. In the pollen I have not yet ascertained tht existence of a fold

or pore, or an indication of the existence of an inner membrane. In the appear-

ance of this structure and the large size of the contained granules, it agrees

entirely with Naias and Ceratophyllum, and with some very widely different

dicotyledonous plants, such as Sarcocodon, all of which are immediately allied

with Rafflesiaceae.

‘I have seen that the radicle presents a marked deviation from its usual

relations with the coats of the ovulum. Before impregnation, which appears to

be of very general occurrence, the foramen of the coats of the ovulum is situated

at the apex of the seed, and to this the apex of the nucleus, strictly corresponds.

In the mature the foramen will be found somewhat about the centre of the

outer face of the seed on which it presents a mammilar appearance.

‘The change in the direction of this occurs very rapidly, and at the time —

when it is quite completed, the radicle will be found developed at the geometrical

apex.

‘Whether this change is accompanied by the usual corresponding change in

the nucleus I cannot state from demonstration, for the nucleus presents none

of those indications by which its apex is in most other ovula or seeds so easily

recognised, on the contrary, its surface is homegeneous and equal throughout.

But it may be inferred that it does not; for although one instance has been

adduced in which the radicle does not correspond to the apex of the nucleus,

for even in cases where it is formed externally to the nucleus, it agrees in the

direction with the body.

‘The ovulum has, I think, the ordinary structure differing only in the very

large size of the cell from which the embryo is developed, and to which, under

some modification or other, it is always attached. In supposing this globular

body to be the footstalk of the embryo, I am guided entirely by analogy, for

I have not been able to separate the embryonary sac, which [ consider to occupy

closely the more transparent part of the young seed. Of such extreme tenuit#

and intimate adherence, examples are by no means wanting, but it would be

contrary to all analogy to assume that the embryo is formed outside the em-

bryonary sac. The direction of the young radicle does not appear to be other-

wise constant, that it is not always in the axis of the ovulum, but is generally

inclined to one side or the other. I thought at one time that it was generally

inclined towards the foramen, but I am not disposed to say that it is constantlv

so, indeed the cavity of the embryonary sac is so large, and its contents sc

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

aqueous that very slight pressure necessarily consequent on dissection may cause

a change. See bees

‘The cotyledon is not tardy in making its: appearance, its direction Is oblique

with regard to the radicle, and it assumes its subsequent recumbent position

owing to the-resistance it meets on its reaching the upper part of the cavity

of the sac; and when the embryo is half developed, the existence of the plumule

may likewise be ascertained.

‘The radicle. always maintains its original direction which is that of the

ovulum before impregnation. That part of its base which is contiguous to the

foramen is more transparent than the rest, and is somewhat conical and _ this

appears to be considered by Hooker as the radicle.

‘Examination of germinating specimens can only help to clear up which

part of the immense radicle first germinates, All analogy would teach us that

its true apex is the first part that undergoes any change. And the resistance

of the drupe being overcome, that of the coats of the seed is so small, that

there is but little ground for assuming than any extraordinary change ‘in this

respect would occur. The change in the direction of part of the seed is in

accordance with the structure of the order ? Ruppia is, I believe, a new addi-

tion to the Flora of India, and it is an additional instance of the fact that

the flora even of Calcutta, is by no means exhausted.

‘Of the fourteen genera of this family enumerated in Lindley’s Introduction,

India possesses Caullinia, Naias, Potamageton, Zanichellia and Ruppia. To

these are to be added Ceratophyllum, Potamageton is the most perfect in the

number of parts, and of species.

‘It belongs to an order in which the extremes of geographical distribution

occurs. Whether this depends on the habits of the plants, or on their low

organisation (shown by their comparatively small number of species), remains to

be shewn. It is a curious thing that some of the species are decidedly marine

plants, thus forming an obvious approach to algae, as Thalassia marina, Zostera,

Cymodora Posidoniei,’ (Griffith.)

Illustrations.—Though the Latin of the Notulae is faulty, Griffith leaves

us in no doubt as to the plant and characters observed by him—his plates

cclvii to cclix are on the whole very good.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE, :

1. Portion of plant. 2 & 3. Peduncle and florets. 4. Pistil. 5. Stamen.

6. Dehesed achne (shell). 7. Node with roots. 8. Rhizome with shell of achne

attached. 9. Achne after decomposition of pericarp. 11. Embryo. 12. Disposi-

tion of florets. R=Root. S=Stigma.

THE BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF

SCIRPUS GROSSUS LINN. FIL,

D. P. Murian

St. Xavier's College, Bombay

\ (With a plate)

Synonymy.—Cooke (7) describes Scirpus grossus [Linn. fil. Suppl. (1781) 104]

and S. Kysoor [Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 6] as distinct individuals, thus restoring

Roxburg’s. species. Sedgwick (18) follows Cooke and treats the two plants

separately though he says: ‘I am unable to separate satisfactorily the

available material.’ Other authors like Clarke in Hooker’s Flora (14) and

Woodrow (21) regard S. Kysoor Roxb. as a variety of S. grossus Linn. fil.

Blatter (4) remarks: ‘We are quite unable to distinguish between S. grossus and

S. Kysoor, which we think may only be a form. We do not feel justified in

keeping the two apart and therefore unite them under the older name of Scirpus

grossus Linn. f.’ Haines (13) and Index Kewensis follow the same synonymy,

viz. S. grossus Linn. fil. syn. S, Kysoor’ Roxb. ‘

Indian names.—Kaseruka (Sanskrit); Kachera (Bombay); Kasara (Marathi) ;

Kasuru, Kesur (Hindi); Kaseru (Urdu); WKasura, Kesor, Kesur (Bengali),

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

D. P. Mullan—Scirpus grossus Linn. Fil.

For explanation see end of article.

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THE BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF SCIRPUS GROSSUS LINN. FIL. 403

Uses.—The. plant is sometimes cultivated for the tubers which are eaten

in many parts of India as an article of food. According to Haines (13) the stems

are often used for coarse matting. The leaves and aerial stems are often used as

fodder. According to Dymock (10), Watt (20), and Nirtikar (15): the tuber has

astringent properties and is given in indigenous medicine in diarrhoea and

vomiting. It is chewed for the purpose of checking sickness or to remove the

taste of medicine. According to Caius (5): ‘Yumanists describe the root as

slightly sweet, cooling, laxative, tonic to the liver, good against burning sensa-

tions, vomiting, diarrhoea and gonorrhoea.’

DESCRIPTION

Scirpus grossus Linn. fil. syn. S. Kysoor Roxb. is a large marsh sedge, grow-

ing in beds of rivers, tanks, etc. It grows more or less throughout India and is

very common in the Isonkan, principally Salsette. The lower part of the plant

lives in a foot or more of water or in soaking soil. The rootstock bears several

stolons which run underground for a short distance and frequently bear, at

the ends, hard, globose, dark-coloured tubers clothed with matted fibres. The

flowering stem is erect, 4-6 ft. high, triquetrous with sharp angles which are

hispid in the upper part. Several long leaves radiate from the base of the flower-

ing axis. The leaves are linear, acuminate, with the margins. and keel minutely

serrulate in the upper part. The flowers are borne in terminal umbels of brown

spikelets. Flowering and fruiting is towards the end of the mcnsoon, i.e., mostly

from September to November in Salsette.

During the period of vegetation, the plant sends out long stolons which creep

underground for some distance; ultimately the growing apex turns upward, and

produces a new plant. Thus the stolons are propagating organs and are a means

of vegetative multiplication of the plant, since one individual may give rise to

several stolons. Under favourable conditions, i.e. if the pond remains full of

water, the stolons produce new plants at their extremities and thus continue to

live throughout the.year. But if the pond begins to dry up, as is usually the case

during the dry season, the stolons swell at the ends and produce tubers. With the

drying of the pond, the plants die down to the surface of the soil but the tubers

perennate, remaining. dormant throughout the dry season and sprout in the nexs

monsoon. The tuber on sprouting usually produces’ a new stolon which runs to a

short distance and gives rise to a new plant at its apex. At times, the new plant

arises directly from the top of the tuber. Thus the tubers are of the nature of

hibernating organs and are a means of tiding over dry seasons unfavourable

to vegetative growth.

ANATOMY —

The anatomy of the Cyperaceae, including some species of Scirpus, is investi-

gated by Duval-Jouve (8), de Bary (2), Plowman (16), Haberlandt (12), Sabnis

(17), Arber (1) and others.

Leaf-Blade.—The leaf consists of a linear leaf-blade and a sheathing leaf-base

which merges in a joint with the leaf-blade. In surface view, the epidermal cells

of the leaf are elongate-rectangular in shape with sinuous walls. Longitudinal

rows of stomata, typical of Grasses and Sedges, are more numerous on the lower

surface on the basal part of the leaf, while on the upper part they are equally

distributed on both surfaces. In the furrow of the midrib region, the upper

epidermal cells are distinguished by being deeper than the rest of the epidermal

cell. These cells are thin-walled, elongated at right angles to the surface,

narrowed above and wide below (Figs. 1, 2). Such cells are characteristic of

many Grasses and Sedges and are described by: Duval-Jouve (9), Warming

(19), Haberlandt (12) and others as hinge-cells, motor-cells, articulation tissue,

etc. Apart from functioning as water-reservoirs, according to Duval-Jouve (9), the

hinge-cells play some part in the upward folding or rolling of the leaf by the

decrease in their turgor during dry weather, thus reducing the transpiring surface.

The internal structure of the leaf-blade is divided into a single row of com-

partments by narrow girders or bridges of tissue arranged parallel to one another

and at right angles to the surface of the leaf (Fig. 3). The girders are composed

of clear cells and alternate with air-passages. The upper and lower flanges of

the girder are composed of sub-epidermal fibrous strands, while the web consists

of a vascular bundle in the middle, enclosed in a sheath of large, clear celts

(Fig. 4). Thus the mechanical tissue of the leaf is composed of isolated I-girders,

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST; SOCIETY, Vol. 42

‘The veins or vascular bundles are placed in the bridges, smaller bundles alter-

nating between the larger ones. The bundles are all of the normal collateral type.

The air-passages are placed between the girders and are one of the marked anato-

mical characters of aquatic and marsh plants. As shown in various plants by

Goebel (11), Warming (19), Haberlandt (12) and others, the air-passages serve

mainly for aeration. lhe air-passages are stiffened by a stellate parenchyma which

fills the air-passage (Fig. 4). he stellate tissue thus performs a mechanical function

by preventing the collapse of the air-passage and also acts as an aerenchyma,

The stellate parenchyma is composed ot cells with a small central portion of long

aris by which the different cells are joined together, leaving large lacunae in

between (ig. 5). The outer cells hold a few chloroplasts, while the inner stel-

Tate cells are clear. Towards the marginal region the stellate parenchyma fills

the air-passages, but in the central region as the air-passages expand, the tissue

gets stretched and ultimately breaks down. Each air-passage is divided into

sections by transversely placed diaphragms which occur at intervals. The dia-

phragms are transverse plates of tissue perforated by minute openings (Fig. 6).

Goebel (11) and others believe that the diaphragms permit the passage of air but

not of water and are a reaction towards water in which such plants live; while

Le Blane (3) considers them as a portion of the mechanical tissue system con-

cerned with support. Owing to the development of large air-passages, the main -

photosynthetic tissue of the leaf is reduced to peripherai plates, situated towards

the upper and lower sides of the air-passages, next to the epidermis. It is a

weakly-developed palisade tissue consisting of 1-2° layers of compactly arranged

cells with chloroplasts (Fig. 7). Yannin cells occur among the palisade and

stellate cells, being more common towards the margin of the leaf. Along the

margin the epidermal cell is developed into a short, sharp, sclerotic spine. The

lower surface of the midrib region is prolonged into a prominent keel which is

stiffened by two pairs of fibrous strands placed laterally (Fig. 1). Associated

with the midrib is a median vascular bundle of the normal collateral type, common

in Grasses and Sedges, with a strand of sclerenchyma on either face of the

bundle. In the lower half of the leaf-blade the keel becomes very proneunced by

the addition and enlargement of the air-passages (Fig. 2).

Leaf-sheath.—The sheathing leaf-base surrounds the flowering axis. The basal

part of the leaf-sheath, which. usually. remains submerged in water, is lacking in

a prominent keel and the hinge-cells on the upper surface are absent. (Fig. 8).

Towards the junction of the leaf-sheath and the leaf-blade, the hinge-cells make

their appearance but they are few and not. deep. Where the leaf-sheath

merges in the joint of the leaf-blade, the sclerenchymatous strand on the upper

face of the median bundle gets prolonged into a beak-like strand, reaching almost

upto the hinge-cells (Fig. 9). The strand starts a little below the joint and stops

at or a short distance beyond the junction of the leaf-sheath with the leaf-blade,

thus serving evidently to strengthen the joint. In surface view, the upper epider-

mal cells, on the adaxial side, - have straight walls, while on the abaxial side they

have slightly sinuous walls. Stomata are absent on the adaxial surface of the

basal part, while the abaxial surface bears very few stomata at rare intervals.

Chloroplasts are absent on the basal region. Owing to the great development of

the air-passages, the basal part is thick and spongy. The stellate parenchyma

is greatly stretched and gets mostly torn.

-Culm.—The flowering stem or the aerial culm is thick, spongy, sharply tri-

quetrous with concave sides. The central region of the culm is composed of

large, thin-walled cells with a few collateral vascular bundles. Each angie is

divided into halves by a bridge of tissue running lengthwise from the central

region to the angle. Each half is further divided into air-passages by trans-

verse bridges as in the leaf-blade. Thus each angle has two rows of air-pass~

ages (Fig. 10). The mechanical tissue is composed of sub-epidermal strands of

fibres. Larger collateral bundles are placed, at intervals, along the partition

dividing the angle into the two halves; while smaller bundles occur in transverse

bridges under each sub-epide mal strand. The air-passages are filled with stellate

parenchyrna and are crosser, at intervals by diaphragms similar to those of the

leaf-blade.. The photosynthetic tissue occurs on either side of the air-passage.

‘The stomata occur in grooves between the fibrous strands. On the lower part of

the culm they are fewer, while on the basal part they are mostly absent. In the

submerged part chloroplasts are absent and the cells of the bridges and of the

central region act as storage tissue holding starch, Towards the apex of the

THE BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF SCIRPUS GROSSUS LINN. FIL. 408

culm, where the flowers arise, the central region is more compactly built while

the air-passages are small and are pushed towards the sides. Embedded in the

central region are a number of normal collateral bundles from which vascular

strands are given off to the ‘ndividual spikelets. Thus the ordinary conducting

system is augmented in the region of the culm below the inflorescence. Tlie

angles, in the upper part of the culm, bear spines. Tannin cells are more numer-

ous towards the periphery.

Rhizome.—The mechanical tissue of the rhizome is confined to a_ series ot

hypodermal ribs of sclerenchyma. The rest of the cortex is divided into two

zones: an outer and an inner. The outer zone is composed of 3-5 layers of clear

polygonal cells in uninterrupted contact and is mainly protective in function. The

inner cortex is many-layered and shows a number of large lacunae separated by

radially-placed plates of tissue. The lacunae are vee. in origin. - Each starts

just under the outer zone and advances inwards by the destruction of cells. The

cells towards the endodermis are thin-walled, bluntly stellate with prominent

spaces between them. The whole of the inner cortex is thus adapted for aeration

oi the rhizome which is submerged under water or lives in soaking soil. Con-

centric or amphivasal (leptocentric) bundles with xylem su: ‘rounding phloem, are

scattered in the inner cortex, each bundle being placed in a radial plate separating

the lacunae. Such amphivasal bundles constitute the leaf-traces.

The stele is large and contains many scattered, normally — oriented

bundles embedded in. the fundamental tissue. The larger, centrally

placed bundles are of the normal collateral type, each having an ordinary

V-shaped xylem group with protoxylem lacuna and fibrous sheaths on either face

of the bundle. The smaller, peripheral bundles are amphivasal (leptocentric) in

which the xylem more or less completely surrounds the phloem, while others show

an intermediate condition: As shown, in the developmental studies of various

plants, by Chrysler (6), Plowman (16), Arber (1) and others the amphivasal

bundles are derived’ from the collateral type through the xylem elements

creeping around the phloem until they completely inclose it. The smaller

amphivasal bundles are mostly the result of the introduction of the leaf-traces into

the stele and some of them are continued as amphivasal bundles of the cortex.

The pericycle. is 3-5 layered. The endodermis is composed of cells with thick,

brown walls. Adventitious roots originate from the pericycle. The fundamental

tissue of the stele consists of thin- walled, rounded-polygonal cells with small inter-

cellular spaces. Starch occurs in the cells. Scattered among the inner cortex and

the fundamental tissue are vertically elongate tannin cells.

Stolon.—In the young parts, the epidermis is strengthened by a series of hypo-

dermal ribs, while in the mature pans the cells between the ribs also become

sclerenchymatous thus forming a 2-3 layered sclerotic mechanical tissue of a deep

brown colour. ‘The stolon repeats ine structure of the rhizome. The outer cortical

zone is’ composed of 2-3 layers of thin-walled polygonal cells in close contact ;

while the inner cortex becomes lacunar by the arising of lysigenous cavities

which are separated by radial plates of tissue, each having an amphivasal bundle.

The stele has vascular bundles arranged in more or less three concentric rings

(Fig. 11). The bundles towards the centre of the stele ate mainly of the

normal collateral type, while those towards the periphery are of the amphivasal

(leptocentric) type. The latter give out branches which are continued as the

cortical bundles. “The endodermis consists of prominent cells with brown walls

and projects some distance upon the outgoing bundles. Adventitious roots arise

from the pericycle. Starch and a few tannin cells occur in the inner cortex and

in the fundamental tissue of the stele. The leaves on the stolon are reduced

to scales at the nodes. The veins of the scale leaves are composed mostly of

fibres. :

Tuber.—The tubers are spherical or ovoid, dark-coloured, having a diameter

of 2-3 cm. They are covered at the nodes with circles of scale-leaves and roots.

The tuber arises at the apex of the stolon due to the expansion of the stele. A

comparison of Figs. 11 and 12, magnified equally, brings out the contrast in size

of the stele of the. stolon and of a young tuber. The stele of the tuber attains a

diameter g-1o times that of the stolon from which the tuber arises. The swelling

of the tuber is mainly due to the hypertrophy of the fundamental tissue of the

stele in which the bundles are embedded. The cells of the fundamental paren-

chyma increase in size and later get fully loaded with starch. The bundles give

gut branches which anastomose and proceed towards the pericycle where they

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

form a dense plexus of transverse and oblique vascular strands (Fig. 12). It is to

this plexus that the root-strands and leaf-trace bundles are attached. Due to the

expansion of the stele, the cortical zone appears comparatively narrow. The

peripheral portion of the cortex is modified to form a 5-6 layered sclerosed hypo-

dermal zone of mechanical tissue of a dark brown colour.

Root.—The piliferous layer is strengthened by a 1-2 layered hypodermal zone

of sclerotic mechanical tissue. In the young root the cortex consists of 5-6 layers

of thin-walled, rounded cells arranged with regularity in radial rows. In the old

roots some of the cortical cells get destroyed and form lysigenous cavities sepa-

rated by radial plates of parenchyma. ‘The endodermis consists of large cells with

brown walls. The stele is 7-8 arch. The pith is obliterated by two large

metaxylem vessels which, in the older parts, fuse and form a single, relatively large

vessel in the centre of the stele.

SUMMARY

The habit of the plant under wet and dry conditions is described.

The anatomy of the various vegetative organs is given and the mode of deve-

lopment of the stem-tubers is discussed.

REFERENCES

. Arber, A. (1925).—Monocotyledons, a Morphological Study. Camb.

2. Bary, A, de (1884).—Comparative Anatomy of the vegetative organs cf the

Phanerogams and Ferns. Engl. Ed., Oxford.

. Blanc, M. le (1912).—Sur les diaphragmes des canaux aeriferes des plantes.

Rev. gen. de Bot., XXIV, pp. 233-243.

4. Biatter, E. (1935).—Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency.

Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., XXXVII, No. 4, pp. 769, 770.

Gn Caisse yey ck. (1935). —The Medicinal and Poisonous Sedges of India. Jour.

Bom.: Nat. Hist. Soc., XXXVIII, No. 1.

6. Chrysler, M. A. “ (1904). —The development of the central cylinder of

Araceae and Liliaceat. Bot. Gaz., XXXVIII, 9.

7. Cooke, Th. (1904).—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. Oat, II,

Pp. 893-4.

8. Duval-Jouve, J. (1874).—Etude tretoraerue des Cyperus. .

Q. ee reece J. (1875).—Histotaxie des feuilles de Graminées. Ann. Sci.

} Nat., Ser. ay Bot., I, pp. 294-371.

10. Dymock, W. (1890).—Pharmacographia Indica. III, Kegan Paul, Lond.,

P5598

11. Goebel, K. (1891).—Pflanzenbiologische Schilderungen. II.

12. Haberlandt, G. (1914).—Physiological Plant Anatomy. Engl. Ed., Lond.

13. Haines, H. H. (1922).—Botany of Bihar and Orissa. IV, p. 927.

14. Hooker, J. D. (1894).—The Flora of British India. VI, pp. 659-660.

15. Wirtikar, K. R. & Basu, B. D. (1918).—The Indian Medicinal Plants.

Pepa is5c:

10. Plowman, A. B. (1906).—The Comparative Anatomy and Phylogeny ot

the Cyperaceae. Ann. Bot,, XX, pp. 1-33.

17. Sabnis, T. A. (1921).—The Phyciolonical Anatomy of the Plants of the

Indian Desert. Jour, Ind. Bot., 11, pp. 165-222.

18. Sedgwick, L. J. (1918).—The Cyperaceae of the Bombay Fresideney.

Jour. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., XXVI, No. 1, p. 202.

19. ' Warming, E. (1909).—Oecology of Plants. Engl. Ed., Oxford.

20. Watt, G. (1893).—A Dictionary of Economic Products ok India. VI, Part II,

Cal., p. 491.

21. Woodrow, G. Marshall (1901).—The Flora of Western India, XIII, No. 3,

Pp. 432.

EXPLANATION OF PLATR. .

Scirpus grossus Linn. fil.

Vig. 1.—T. S, mid-rib region towards the upper part of leaf-blade. h, hinge

cells; v, median vascular bundle; a, air-passage; f, fibrous strand. (x 42).

lig. 2.—T. S. midrib region towards the basal part of the leaf-blade. (x 41).

THE BIOLOGY AND ANATOMY OF SCIRPUS GROSS LINN. FIL. 40)

Fig. 3.—T. S. leaf-blade. f, fibrous strand; v, vein; a, air-passage. (X51).

Fig. 4.—T. S. leaf-blade, showing the girder. f, fibrous strand; s, stellate

parenchyma; v, vein. (X150).

Fig. 5.—High power detail of stellate parenchyma. (xX 500).

Fig. 6.—Part of a diaphragm-perforations unshaded. (500).

Fig. 7.—T. S. part of lamina. e, upper epidermis; g, stoma; p, palisade cells ;

s, stellate parenchyma. (xX 500).

Fig. 8.—T. S. basal portion of the leaf-sheath, showing the midrib region.

Fig. 9.—T. S. leaf-sheath, showing the midrib region towards the joint with

the leaf-blade. h, hinge-cells; s, strand of sclerenchyma. (X41).

Fig. 1o.—T. S. part of culm. f, fibrous strand; v, vascular bundle; a, air-

passage. (X51). .

Fig. 11.—T. S. stolon. s, stele; c, cortex with vascular bundles. (x 16).

Fig. 12.—T. S. tuber. s, stele; c, cortex with vascular bundles; 7, adventitious

root. (X16).

REVIEW

THE BIRDS OF KUTCH by Salim Ali.- Published for the Government

of Kutch by Humphrey Milford, Oxford University Press. Pp. i to xVili and.

1 to 175, with 20 coloured plates, depicting nearly 100 species, by D. V. Cowen,

and 32 photographs. Price Rs. 20.

I awaited the arrival of a copy of Mr. Salim Ali’s latest work The Birds

of Kutch with the keenest anticipation. Those conversant with the ability

with which Salim Ali compiled The Book of Indian Birds, already in its third

edition, had every reason to expect something good and I feel they will not

be disappointed. Certain defects in the book are obvious but these defects are

largely those inherent in ony work of this nature brought out in India under

such adverse conditions as pertain in war-time. The paper is unfortunately of

somewhat poor quality, but I gather it was with the greatest difficulty, and

after much delay, that any paper at all was released. That used for the coloured

plates is likewise not of a quality calculated to bring out the best from the

artist’s originals. I have seen Mrs. Cowen’s paintings and can state categori-

cally that the colours in the plates are insipid in comparison with the brightness

of her originals. This is no doubt due in part to the difficulty of procuring

suitable inks at this time, but India is not yet, I am afraid, in a position to

produce first class colour work. The registration of the blocks has at times

been faulty, causing blurred outlines and overlaps. Nevertheless these coloured

plates are a great asset, being both artistic and accurate. Particularly pleasing

are Plates 9 and 20, of certain birds of prey and ducks. There is considerable_

variation in the quality of the black and white illustrations, this fault possibly

lying with the block-maker, but I feel that one or two enlargements of poor

tone have been. supplied for which the block-maker cannot be held responsible,

as for example in the case of the photograph of Marshall’s Iora on Plate IV.

The binding is simple and effective, and the type used easy enough on the eye,

but the sketch map of Kutch, a very necessary adjunct to a work of this

kind, might well have been drawn to slightly larger scale. Had it taken up

the whole page, it might have been possible to read the piace names without

the necessity of using a magnifying glass. There are a few printer’s errors

but on the whole the proof reading has been well carried out. Lastly, heading

the index is a note to the effect that italics refer to illustrations; no italics

have been used, so presumably the author changed his mind about indexing

the illustrations but omitted to delete the note. Now let us take a glance at

the text. The general layout, as stated by the author, follows in ‘part that

adopted by him in the Book of Indian Birds. That is to say, each description

is divided into Size, Field Characters, Status and Distribution, Habits and

Nesting. To this has been added for the benefit of the serious student a para-

graph giving the actual range of .measurements,—chiefly wing and_ tail—as

taken from fresh specimens collected by Salim Ali during the Kutch survey.

To depict size, the author compares each species with one of ito universally

known birds; an admirable arrangement since in the field inches and milli-

metres can only convey a somewhat hazy impression of size. For instance the

statement that the Pied Crested Cuckoo is about ‘the size of a myna but with

proportionately much longer tail’, gives a very fair idea of the size and shape

of that sleek cuckoo. As the majority of species listed are shown on the

coloured or black and white plates, lengthy descriptions of plumage have quite

rightly been omitted, but salient points to help in identification have been

added under ‘Field Characters’. For those who wish to delve deeper a refer-

ence to the second edition of the Fauna of British India-Birds, giving volume

and page numbers, heads each description. As is only to be expected from the

pen of such a painstaking and observant naturalist as Mr, Salim Ali, the

information regarding each species contains a concise but full summary of the

bird’s status, Distribution, Habits and Nesting, culled from all available sources

such as Lester’s Birds of Kutch, the Society’s Journal, Hume’s Stray Feathers,

etc., but to this has been added a considerable mass of new information § ob-

tained by Mr. Salim Ali himself as the result of the Ornithological Survey of

Kutch carried out by him in the years 1943 and 1944. This book, in fact,

REVIEW . 409

adds a great deal to our knowledge of Indian birds as a whole, as weil as

being a revelation of the treasures of a none too well-known part of the sub-

continent, namely that small, but ornithologically important, State of Kutch.

In addition to the description of each species, there is an admirable Introduc-

tion giving very necessary information regarding the Physiography, Climate

and Rainfall, and Vegetation of the area, as well as a most illuminating para-

graph on Bird Migration, a pointer to the importance of Kutch as. a ‘Clapham

Junction’ for migratory hordes coming from, and to a certain extent returning

to, the North and North-West, as well as from a great part of Eastern Africa

via Arabia and the Indian Ocean. The work is rounded off by the inclusion

of an interesting article on ‘Goose-shooting in Kutch’ by Maharajkumar Shri

Vijayaraj taken from the Society’s Journal. To sum up: this slender volume

will prove of great use both to the serious worker and to the less scientifically-

minded bird-lover. The price at Rs. 20 is not excessive, taking into considera-

tion the large number of coloured and black and white plates and the diffi-

culties which a long and bitter war has thrust upon both author and publisher.

RS. PB.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1.—ABNORMAL BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGER.

Khajoori is a tiny village of barely a dozen hutments or so,

in a remote jungle tract of a State in Central India.

The village itself 1s situated on a bare undulating plain, some

2 or 3 square miles in area surrounded on all sides by densely

wooded hills. The inhabitants live by sparse cultivation and graze

their cattle on the nearby grass land. The village belongs to a.

prominent jagirdar who maintains a nakehdar (collector of forest

revenue) and it was he who related this extraordinary story to

me while I was out there on a shikar trip. The incidents related

below were corroborated by other witnesses and I have absolutely

no doubt as to their authenticity.

The villagers, it appears, were greatly distressed by the fact that

several of their cattle had been killed or seriously mauled in the

past fortnight or so by a tiger. They were still more perturbed

because they had no more effective weapons than bamboo ‘lathis’

with which to ward off any further attacks he might make.

One hot night, when all the villagers were asleep in the open,

they were suddenly aroused by a wild shriek and on waking were

horrified to find that the tiger had seized a youth in his mouth and

was stealthily walking off with him. The men reached for their

‘lathis’ and scrambled after him shouting and yelling and making

a great hubub.

This perhaps had the desired effect, for the tiger dropped the

boy, and after going a few paces turned round quietly and sat

on the ground, watching them unperturbed where they had lined

up some twenty yards away. (The local nakehdar was one of

them.)

The unfortunate youth had been very severely mauled and lay

on the ground bleeding profusely. An old: man (the lad’s father)

slowly crept up to the boy and carried him back, while the others

stood by, breathless, expecting a charge at any moment.

As soon as they laid him down, the youth regained conscious-

ness. He began struggling with them in a frenzied, hysterical

way, trying to rush towards the tiger, as they held him back,

shouting mujhé uské pas pané do (let me go to him; let me go to

him). Very soon the whole village was there and by beating tom-

toms and throwing burning logs of wood at the tiger, they mene

to scare the brute away. But the youth had bled so heavily that

in about a quarter of an hour he was dead.

The idiosyncracies of this particular animal were numerous.

Soon after the incident related above, he decided to ‘move into

the village’ as one might put it. Close to the group of huts—about

50 yards away, was an old peepul tree (J*icus religiosa) and _ it

became customary for him to be seen sleeping under it in the day

time. Or he would prowl along the road through the village and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Alt

enter some hut and promptly go off to sleep for hours on end! All

this without so much as scratching anybody. Quite naturally the

entire village was terrified, but after a week or two people got so

used to the tiger’s ways that they went about their normal business.

The children (when the elders were out) went right upto him and

he would just sit and calmly ignore them.

But with nightfall there would come on him the most extra-

ordinary change. His tameness and docility would be gone. He

prowled around the village growling angrily, and soon it became

usual for people to huddle together in a locked hut for the night

and no one dared stir out till the sun was well up.

Actually the mud huts with their thatched roofs were hardly

any protection against a tiger but it was their good luck that

he did not try to get inside!

One of his pet aversions, they found, was the cry of a baby.

It was sure to bring the tiger to the door; but by day time he did

not seem to mind.

To scare the tiger away a huge bonfire was made one night and

the men sat round it hoping that the blaze would keep the beast

away. It did not.

He came walking along as usual, and as he passed the fire,

he stopped, and suddenly leapt into it and with sweeps of his

paws, sent the burning logs flying all around him. ‘The villagers

scurried away while he was thus engaged. When eventually shot,

two weeks later, his right forepaw was found blackened and charred.

No old wounds were found on his body and it seems probable that

he had never been shot at before. ‘As a result of his ‘fire fighting’

he limped slightly, otherwise he attacked cattle as usual and went

about his business seemingly none the worse for the experience.

An extraordinary incident brought about his undoing. When

walking along the village lane one afternoon he took a queer fancy

to some brass utensils he saw in a hut. The occupant, an old

woman, was out in the fields and on her return she found the

entire floor littered with bits of brass. The tiger had crunched

them in his mouth and it would appear, that in so doing, he swal-

lowed some chunks of the metal. From that day on he appeared

il. For a fortnight he went completely without food of any kind,

and the villagers noticed that he often passed blood in his excreta.

Very soon he so thinned down that he was little more than a

bag of bones and became so utterly weak that he did not have the

strength to get up. He spent several days just lying under the

shade of his favourite peepul tree. It was at this time, in answer

to some six weeks of pressing requests to come to their aid, that

the local jagirdar sent one of his shikaris to the villagers. They

led him to the old peepul tree where the tiger lay, almost in his

last stage. He looked up and surveyed them coldly as they ap-

proached and the shikari shot him. .

PaLacE Roap,

Nacpur, C.P. QUAZI Q. AHMED,

29th January 1945. Pemety

“412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

2,—ON THE HABITS OF THE MARBLED POLECAT,

VORMELA PEREGUSNA (GULDENSTADT).

The Marbled or Tiger Polecat, Vormela peregusna (Gildenstadt) :

is found in Eastern Persia, Afghanistan and Baluchistan but is rare

in Kabul. Last June I caught one in cornfield in the western part of

the city, Chhardehi Kabul. It lives mostly on rats and mice. The

animal is locally known as Pallung Mush or the ‘Tiger of Rats’,

hence it is often kept by shopkeepers specially by bakers. The

example I caught lived for about five months and became rather

tame. It escaped twice and disappeared, but returned of its own

accord, probably pressed by hunger, and came direct to me. It

hardly allowed itself to be touched. If handled it would demon-

strate with tail erect, and hairs a-bristle uttering a shrill and

menacing shriek. This was always too much for our house cat, who,

otherwise always friendly, retreated. When so protesting, the pole-

cat gave off a very offensive smell which tainted the air very dis-

agreeably for a considerable time. It would keep up a kind of

groaning for some time even after its anger was abated. It would

grip firmly with its teeth on a piece of meat and hang on even if

suspended in the air. Helpless thus, the children were able to

stroke it without fear. |

The polecat lives in burrows. When digging, its chin and

hind paws are pressed firmly to the ground and the earth removed

with the fore-legs. Roots or other obstacles are gripped in the

teeth and pulled out. My captive had little chance to dig, yet it

frequently scratched the floor with its fore-paws, apparently to

satisfy its desire to burrow. The animal moves backwards into

its ‘dugout’ and sits inside facing the entrance. It licks its fur

very much like a cat, sits upon its haunches or even stands erect

on its hind-legs like a ferret or weasel, and when so erect peers

and sniffs around. Its power of scent is decidedly not very keen.

Small birds, mammals and insects appear to be the main food.

An egg was only eaten when its shell was removed from one end,

and placed before it. My polecat then licked its contents clean,

but the faeces showed that its digestion was disturbed by such

food. Fat and tendons were not eaten. Nor did it take any meat

if cooked, even when very hungry. It totally refused to take

frogs, toads, or a fish. Fresh meat is eaten readily, especially

spleen or liver. Birds were eaten whole with their feathers. After

eating its fill the remains of a meal are taken to the burrow and

stored for future use: a habit most probably developed from the |

scarcity of food in winter when there is little to be had on the

snow-covered ground. When hungry our captive would even eat

the muslin door curtains !

FACULTY OF MEDICINE,

KABUL. S. A, AKHTAR,

t2th March 1945.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 413

3-—-MEASUREMENTS OF A SLOTH BEAR’S SKULL

FROM ASSAM.

Mr. R. M. Pizey has sent us at the request of Mr. H. F. Meston

the following measurements of the skull of a very large Sloth Bear

which was shot by him in Mangaldai, Assam.

Length between uprights _... 144”=369 mm.

Width | eS 77S. —122 Onin

Height ca 63” =172 mm.

The largest measurements recorded by Pocock, Fauna of British

India, Mammals, vol. ii, 2nd ed., p. 145, are as follows :—

Condo-basal length. Zygomatic width. Locality.

345 mm. 21g mm. Balaghat, C.P.

BomBay.

2and June 1945. EDITORS.

4.—A CARNIVOROUS SLOTH BEAR.

On the 20th February 1945 a large panther killed a cow in

the vicinity of some rocky, jungle-clad hills. My machan was tied

in a mowha tree in a field 25 yards from the carcass of the cow.

At 7-40 p.m. a large bear arrived under my tree and started eating

the flowers which had just begun to fall. After a few minutes of

this appetiser, the bear made its way to the carcass of the cow,

sat on its haunches and helped itself to such delicacies as it could

find in the cow’s stomach, finally gnawing the skin and meat off

one of the front legs. After about an hour of this, it returned to

‘my tree for some more mowha flowers before making off down

a path, where it was met about 50 yards away by a she-bear with

two cubs. The encounter appeared to cause mutual delight and

it was evident that the first visitor passed on the information about

the mowha flowers having fallen, as the she-bear then cantered

gaily straight to the tree uttering chortles of delight as she came,

followed by her cubs.

Mother and young then proceeded to the carcass and the three of

them set on the stomach and intestines in earnest, one of the cubs

finally extracting and removing the former into some bushes where

with luscious sucking noises they all proceeded to devour it. Several

times the cubs or the she-bear returned to the carcass to extract

some other succulent morsel. The whole time in the intervals of

loud inhalations and other slobbering noises, the bears seemed to

keep up an animated buzz of conversation with one another.

Finally at 9-30 p.m. they all departed.

The panther meanwhile had been giving tongue from a hill

about 500 yards away, but was evidently deterred from approach-

ing the kill by the formidable family of bears. |

I remained in the machan until 11 p.m. and heard the pan-

ther’s ‘pheaul’ noises every Io or 15 minutes getting less distinct

in the distance till ro o’clock. He never returned.

The episode is of interest as it indicates the extent to which

Sloth Bears, both -young and old, relish a diet of meat, and also

because this fact is evidently known to panthers, this particular

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

panther certainly deeming it not worth his while returning to the

carcass after the four bears had eaten their fill therefrom.

The moon was over half full and the episode provided one of

the most interesting two hours’ entertainment I have yet. witnessed

in the jungle.

CaMp, Bara DONGAR, , Re Kee vie AGEs

BASTAR STATE. 7 Major.

22nd February 1945.

[The Sloth Bear is perhaps the least carnivorous of our bears.

“It feeds mainly on fruits and insects. The eating of carrion, though

observed occasionally, is exceptional.—Eps. |

s.—A SAMBAR’S DEATH.

At about 5-15 p.m. on the evening of the 27th December, 1944,

Captain Ray and I were sitting on the west bank of the Bhim-

goda Weir on the Ganges facing Hardwar. We were having a

rest after a long day’s shoot on the nearby islands and waiting

for Lieut. Eaton, a member of our party, to join us. It started

to rain so we decided to call it a day and return to the bungalow

at Laljiwalah, and leave a message for Eaton to follow on. We

stood up to have a last look around down the river, where pea-

fowl usually come down to have a drink. To our great. sur-

prise we saw a large dark animal approach the river from the

island and dive into the river. We were some 150 to 200 yards

from the scene. It looked like a large pig from the back as we

could only see its hind quarters. The animal then turned round and

faced us with its body completely submerged, and we could discern

~that-it was a large deer with its antlers sticking out of the water.

Ray and two of the native beaters went down to investigate, while

I stood and watched the scene. The deer every now and then

would stand up and plunge its head into the water. When Ray

was about 30 yds. from the river the animal again stood up, and

[ expected to see it leave the water and go back to the island

and the forest when, to my surprise, it once again plunged its

head into the water. Ray had now reached the bank and stood

looking at this strange sight. He waved to me to come down,

and on arrival at the river bank I was surprised to see a magni-

ficent sambar in about 2 ft. 6 in. of clear water—some 1o ft.

from the bank where we stood. It was kneeling on its front legs

with the head resting on the river bed and its hind quarters pro-

truding in the air.

The beaters said it was trapped in the sand and boulders but

this I could see was not the case as I could see the bottom of the

river. I immediately despatched one of the beaters to fetch some

woodcutters who were going home and had reached the weir.

While these men were coming down, the animal raised its head

and turned towards us. Its mouth was wide open and the tongue

hanging out as if it was gasping for breath. It then plunged

its head into the water again, remained in that position for a

few seconds and then turned over on its side. -The men now arriv-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 415

ed and 8 of them went into the water to pull the sambar out.

It was still alive but expired when it reached the bank. It was

now 5.30 and we had watched this drama for 15 minutes. The

sambar was a beautiful, well-built animal in its prime with a

lovely winter coat, in perfect condition and weighing about 300 ibs.

the antlers being approximately 18 in. On examining the body

we found that it had been shot through the left jaw—the bullet

going through the tongue and coming out of the right jaw. The

jaw was completely broken and the animal must have been in

great pain. The wound was quite fresh. Lieut. Eaton had arriv-

ed and came down to see the animal while the woodcutters were

cutting it up. There is no doubt that the animal, suffering ex-

treme pain and unable to eat or drink, had come down to the

river and deliberately taken its own life.

lak, So (CINONWAL ING

RoOoRKEE, U.P. Captain.

31st December, 1944. K.G.V.O.’s Bengal Sappers & Miners.

{The motive of suicide must be ruled out. No animal, except

Man, not even the higher apes, is conscious of or able to recog-

nize the state of death; as such, no animal can deliberately choose

death as a means of escape from pain and other adverse circum-

stances. For the same reason it is incorrect to describe the instinc-

tive behaviour manifested by hyaenas, opossums and other animals

as ‘shamming dead’. In the present instance the sambar was pro-

bably driven to the river by thirst. Its repeated plungings of its

head into the water were probably vain efforts to drink. Death

would have ensued with or without drowning from shock and ex-

haustion from its wounds.—Eps. |

6.—BREEDING HABITS OF SWAMP DEER

(RUCERVUS DUVAUCELLI) IN ASSAM.

The Society seeks information relative to time of horn growth

and development and the breeding season-of Swamp Deer in Assam.

In a letter to the Field dated 23rd September 1944, His Grace

the Duke of Bedford questions a statement made by Lt.-Col. C. H.

Stockley that, in Assam, swamp deer rut when the stags: are in

velvet. As evidence, Col. Stockley (Field, 20th January 1945)

quotes in full a note by Mr. C. A. R. Bhadian, ‘On Swamp Deer

in Assam’, published in the Society’s Journal (vol: xxxvii, p. 485).

Mr. Bhadian says that in Assam, stags commence to grow their

new antlers in April and May, and growth in velvet is completed

in July-August. Velvet is shed and the antlers are hard from

August to February, and in the instance of antlers which have

matured in August—from September to March.

As regards the time of the rut, Mr. Bhadian says that this takes

place between April and May ‘when the male is practically without

antlers’.

Mr. Bhadian’s statement as regards the time when stags shed

their horns in ‘Assam, and the period of their growth and develop-

ment is at variance with the observations of other writers. Capt,

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

D. Moncrieff Wright, writing in our Journal (vol. xxxiv, p. 236),

says that in Assam he saw ‘stags with horns fully grown in velvet

and in process of shedding their velvet in April’. This would im-

ply that the period of horn growth in velvet is between December

and April (growth to maturity takes approximately 5 months, vide

Bhadian, loc. cit., and Dunbar Brander, Wild Animals in Central

India, p. 200 (U.P. & C.P.)). The period when the horns are

hard would be between May and November. Capt. Moncrieff

Wright’s statement is supported by Lydekker (Royal Natural His-

tory) who says that ‘single stags are met with on the plains of

Assam during March with antlers in velvet.’ Blanford (Mam-

malia) says that ‘at the end of March in Assam bucks are. found

in grass singly with horns for the most part partly grown in velvet’.

Swamp deer stags, like many other deer, live singly during the

time of horn growth, and assemble in herds after the -horns have

hardened; such assemblage being preliminary to the development

_of the rut. The evidence of these writers indicate that in Assam

horn growth of many stags is completed in April and May, when

according to Mr. Bhadian the rut takes place.

In Mr. Bhadian’s view there is no linkage between horn growth

and the development of the rut. This is not the case with Swamp

Deer in the C.P. and the U.P. Dunbar Brander writing of Swamp

Deer in these provinces (Wild Animals in Central India, p. 200)

says that the horns begin to grow shortly before the commence-

ment of the rains (June), the period of horn growth and develop-

ment is between. July and October. The stags congregate in

November and the rut does not develop till December reaching its

climax between mid-December and January.

We should be glad to have further evidence on the following

points relative to Swamp Deer in Assam :—

(1) Time of horn shedding. It should be noted that the time

when antlers are cast is not uniform for all stags. Adult stags shed

their horns earlier than younger animals.

(2) Period of horn growth in velvet.

(3) Period during which the antlers are hard.

(4) Time when the majority of ‘stags rut.

(5) Time when the majority of young are born.

BomBay Nat. Hist. Society. So taly IPIRVAIPIB IR,

15th April 1945. Curator.

7.—CANINE TEETH IN CHITAL (AXIS AXIS).

With reference to Mr. Nolthenius’s note on the canine teeth’ in

chital stags (Vol. 45, No. 1, p. 83), I should like to say that after

examining a number of chital and sambar for these ‘tushes’ [|

have only found them in a very rudimentary form and then only in

older beasts.

In Europe it is possible to estimate the age of a stag both fr om

the colour and size of these tushes. In young beasts they are

pure white and small in size. A fourth year stag has the centre

of the tush a pale golden brown. This patch of colour darkens

and grows larger with age.

MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES ‘ 4l7

_ The expression most generally used in Germany and Austria

for these ‘tushes’ 1s Kvranel.

I have always understood that these teeth were all that is left

of the canines.

P. O. Box 67, H. A. FOOKS,

POONA. Capt.

t2th January 1945.

8.—SIZE OF CHITAL (AXIS AXIS) IN INDIA AND CEYLON.

I was most interested in Mr. Tutein Nolthenius’s note on chital

(Vol. 45, No. 1, p. 83). I myself have seen in S:-E. Ceylon as

good chital heads and as large bodied stags as anything in North

or South India, and secured a good ‘movie’ record of them. Nor

have I noticed any difference in body size between chital in North

or South India and have seen as good heads (upto 37” actually

measured) from the Wynaad and the U.P.

SoH ALC. — Ikls Ge JROS SIDE,

13th January 1945. Lt.-Col.,

: 12 Madras Engineers.

| Pocock’s conclusions as regards Axis deer (Larger Deer ot

Brit. India, Vol. 44, p. 169) were based on skull measurements. _

Average measurements of the total length and the condylo-basal

length suggest that chital from north of the Ganges have smaller

skulls than those from Peninsular India; while measurements of

two skulls from Ceylon, from their small size suggest a nearer

approach to the smaller skulls of Trans-Gangetic animal. Further

measurements of skulls (total length and condylo-basal length) of

chital from S. India and Ceylon would help to verify. the correct-

ness or incorrectness of this conclusion.—Ebs. |

9.—ON EXPERIMENTS IN ALBINISM WITH CHITAL

(AXIS AXIS).

Whilst going through the pages of the Journal, I found an

interesting note by His Highness the Maharawat of Partabgarh,

Ram Singh Bahadur, on some experiments in albinism His High-

ness has been carrying on (Vol. 43; Nos 3, Dec. 1942, p. 523). My

previous experiments and work in this line suggest a possible ex-

planation of the results obtained by. His. Highness of Partabgarh.

Having obtained an albino typeof the chital stag (Axis axis),

His Highness wished to fix such a type; for this purpose he crossed

the albino male with a normal coated doe; the résult was a normal

coated female chital. This was again crossed with the original

albino sire; the result was again a normal coated male, and on

a subsequent occasion a normal coated doe (C). When C was

once ‘more crossed with the albino sire, the result was again a

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45+

normal female (D). When D was put back to the albino stre, the

result was two albino males (E and F).

The technique followed is proper and rational. It 1s known for

those vertebrates, whose genetic behaviour has been experimented

with, that ‘albinism’ is a character that behaves as a ‘recessive’

to the ‘normal condition’; my experiments with the common

pheasant, Phasianus colchicus, further suggest that ‘albinism’ or

‘normal coated condition’ is a character that depends on a single

factor for transmission.

If we assume that the normal. coated doe was homozygous as

regards the colour of its coat, and that ‘normal coated’ is dominant

to. an ‘albino coated’, we could. only expect that the offspring

would all be like the normal type, that is to say, phenotypically

normal, but. genetically heterozygous for the colour of the coat.

If, therefore, we mate successively the ‘dominant heterozygous’

(i.e. the apparently normal female) to the ‘recessive’ albino male,

we can only have two possible genetic combinations, with an equal

chance of success in either case: either the product is ‘apparently

normal’ (the ‘normal’ being in a heterozygous condition, as that

of the mother), or it is of the albino variety. ;

In fact, if we call exhibit N the ‘normal coat’ dominant condi-

tion, and n the ‘albino coat’ allelomorph,. recessive condition, the

result of mating N with n will be Nn, that is to say, an individual

apparently normal, but heterozygous for the colour of the coat.

Nn @ (A) apparently normal.

The female A had the genetic constitution Nn, that is to say, under

an apparent normality, possessed also the character for ‘albinism’.

Mating this female A to the sire, the expectation is ‘albinos’ and

‘normal coated’ products in the proportion of 50 per cent of each.

Albino male ¢ x @ Apparently normal female

nn Nn

Nn no

apparently normal ¢ or 2 albino ¢ or &

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES diy

After repeated crossings of the ‘apparently normal’ females with

the albino sire, His Highness at last obtained two albino male stags

in the fourth generation; it is, however, scientifically inaccurate to

say that the fourth generation bred true to type; for the genetic

constitution of the female D is in no way different from that of the

females A, B and C.

The fact that the albino type was only seen in the fourth genera-

tion was due to a mere chance; the probabilities for albino progeny

in the second and third generations were equally strong as in the

case of the fourth generation. Theoretically the results of the

various matings (A, B, C and D) should have been 50 per cent

albinos against 50 per cent normal coated animals. The only reason

why His Highness did not obtain these results is the small num-

ber of births. If we wish in practice to obtain results approaching

the proportions established by theory, a much larger number of

experiments is necessary.

In the note referred to above, His Highness of Partabgarh

mentioned another experiment, the crossing of an albino female

parakeet (canary yellow in colour, with ruby eyes)—with a male

blossom-headed parakeet (orange in colour with light pink head and

ruby eyes), that is to say,

& Psittacula cyanocephala x Q Psittacula kramert.

I should be very grateful to His Highness if either through the

pages of this Journal or otherwise, he lets me know the result of

such an attempt. Genetically the experiment is a very interesting

one for two reasons, the first being the question of interspecific

hybridisation between two distinct species of the genus Psittacula

differing in many somatic characters, and the second reason being.

the possible hereditary behaviour of the two colour anomalies,

which are clearly two mutations and which must be adscribed to

the phenomenon of ‘flavism’ rather than to that of ‘albinism’.

| A. M. TAIBEL,

INDIA, i Delegate Director of the Experimental

November 1944. Station of Aviculture of Rovigo, Italy.

10.—STRANGE DEATH OF A YOUNG CUCKOO

(CUCULUS. CANORUS).

While in Sonemarg, Kashmir, on June 25th of last year (1944)

some friends showed me a nest of a plumbeous redstart (Rhya-

cornis f. fuliginosa) which contained a young cuckoo just hatched.

Two eggs in an advanced state of incubation and belonging to

the redstarts lay smashed on the ground, presumably having been

ejected from the nest by the cuckoo. I intended to keep the

nest under observation until the cuckoo should grow bigger before

photographing it. Visiting it again on the following day, I was

surprised to find the bird dead. Examination showed that the

cuckoo had, by some accident, swallowed several strands of a

quantity of human hair which had been. used to. line the nest.

One end of the hairs was down the bird’s throat while the other

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

end remained attached to the bottom of the nest. Dissection (kindly

performed by Mr. McCann) revealed that the hairs had reached

the stomach where they became rolled into a large ball. A strand

of hair was also caught up at the base of the tongue, and due

to the peristaltic movement of the stomach, had been twisted

tighter and tighter round the tongue until the bird was choked

and killed. The strands of hair between the base of the tongue

and the stomach had been subjected to such twisting that, under

a magnifying glass, they look like the twisted wires of a length of

cable.

It would be interesting to know if other readers have experience

of young birds dying from a similar strange cause.

Bompay.- | | W. T. LOKE.

15th March 1945.

11.—THE AVOCET (RECURVIROSTRA AVOCETTA LINN.)

BREEDING IN INDIA.

On a recent visit to the famous flamingo nesting colony on the

Great Rann of Kutch (19-23 April 1945) I came upon a consider-

able gathering of avocets on a flat muddy island exposed by the

gradual drying up of the water. I had not met with this species

at all during the Kutch bird survey (August to October 1943 and

March/April 1944), and even now besides this one place it was

not to be seen anywhere else in Kutch. My first impression was

that the birds had collected here prior to emigration, but their

general behaviour was somewhat odd and early €xcited suspicion.

Pairs kept constantly flying overhead in a highly agitated manner,

rather like nesting red-wattled lapwings, screaming kleet, kleet,

kleet etc., continuously at the rate of about 3 per seoondl, “TNs

quality of this sound was very like the call of the Stone-Curlew

(Burhinus), . ver] a

Suspicion deepened hen a Aan chick I was. eae to

catch and ring, strayed into a spot where it was furiously set

upon by one of a pair of avocets, while the other was assiduously

fluttering along the ground doing the broken wing trick, pre-

sumably against me. A search soon disclosed an unlined scrape

with 4 eggs. In the near distance, about two furlongs away

(and within half a mile of the flamingo city) there were a thousand

or more avocets dotted about. A little watching soon convinced

me that they were not there merely on passage. As I approached

the place a great many birds started running about, crouching,

stretching open their wings above the back and doing the broken

wing trick, while many took to the air flying around in agitation.

At one time, more than 30 birds were fluttering on the ground:

all around me, It soon became evident that this vast concourse of

avocets were actually nesting here. Standing in one spot I counted

over 4o. nests a few yards from each other. There were over

150 nests in an area of 4-6 acres, and beyond were hundreds more.

The eggs were laid on the hard baked mud sometimes. on a bed

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4a

of mud pellets but mostly on the bare ground in a shallow un-

evenness. All nests contained one to four eggs on 21 April. Only

two downy chicks were seen running about on the wet slimy mud

near the water’s edge some distance away from the nests.

Four full clutches were taken. Average measurements of 16

eggs 49.25x35 mm. Largest 54x 36.5; smallest 46x34 mm.

Untfortunately it. was not possible to collect skins of the birds.

This is the first record of the avocet breeding within the limits

of Peninsular India. The nearest it was lenox to do so is in

Northern Baluchistan. After this experience I feel that a great

many other waders (e.g. whimbrel) whose breeding in India has

often been suspected, but never authenticated, may be found to

do so on remote islands in the Rann. The Rann is an area which

would well repay careful investigation at different seasons and,

I am confident, produce many surprises.

33 Pati HILL, BanprRa, :

BomBay. SALIM ALI.

3rd May 1945.

12.—THE WHOOPER SWAN (CYGNUS CYGNUS).

This swan is a rare visitor to India, and as far as I am aware

it has so far never been recorded from Kashmir. On 20th Feb-

ruary 1945, a Kashmiri punt gunner brought to the Srinagar Club

a skin of this bird which he had shot the previous day at Bad-

shahi Bagh. I examined the skin and found it to be an undoubt-

ed specimen of the Whooper, with the yellow on the bill extending

right up to the nostril.

SIRINAGAR. | er LUDLOW.

roth March 1945.

“13. -MIGR. ATION OF SWAN TO THE PERSIAN GULF.

“Mr. -G.-B. Gilby, Cable & Wireless, Ltd., Bushire, writes: ‘1

enclose, three each, primary and secondary feathers from the wing

of a swan which was shot in Bushire, on the 17th of December

by Mr. M. Haddow, I.C.S., whose letter I am forwarding to you

in original. From what Mr. Haddow tells me the bird was pro-

bably an immature specimen and was evidently wounded as it did

not leave with its companions.

We are anxious to know exactly what: type of swan this is

and whether they are frequent visitors to this part. of the world.

In the 21 years in which I have been associated with the Persian

Gulf I have not heard of a case of swans visiting this area. We

have had an abnormal amount of rain this year soinitelh may account

for their visit.’. We publish below Mr. Haddow’s description. of

the bird.

‘In my opinion the bird was a swan, being much larger than

any wild goose I have seen. It was entirely white in colour, with

433 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

very pale brown patches on the back and Wane The feet were

grey-black and the beak, which was at least 33 inches long was

black. .The bird was obviously in an exhausted condition and did

not w ch to fly, and when put up merely flew about 300 yards at

the height of 2-3 feet above the ground to another pool nearby.

When swimming it kept its long neck very erect, which made it

look unlike a goose on the water.

‘The Persian lighthouse-keeper who appeared on the scene when

we shot it, said that it had come onto the landing-ground the

evening before with about 15 others, and .had remained~ behind

when the others flew on. He also had seen a flight of about

2000 of the same bird two weeks before which had spent the night

on the landing ground. They had flown off in a north-westerly

direction. He said he had seen similar birds in previous flighting

through, and staying a night here when there was sufficient water

for them to come down on.’

The three primary and three secondary feathers sent to us

were certainly those of a swan, possibly a Whooper Swan (Cygnus

cygnus), The length of the bill ‘at least 34 in. long’ helps to

support this view. Bills of other species measured from feathers

to tip are smaller. (Bewick’s Swan bill go-g8 mm. Mute Swan

73-90 mm.). The distribution of the Whooper Swan is Iceland,

North Europe and North Asia. It migrates southward to Central

and South Europe, more rarely to North Africa, Central Asia,

Persia, India and China. So large a migration of these swans

to the shores of the Persian Gulf is unusual and may have been

influenced, as suggested, by abnormal climatic conditions.

EDITORS.

14. A NOTE ON BIRDS OF THE SIMLA FOOTHILLS.

Being fairly familiar with the birds of the Delhi district and

those of the hills around Simla it has always been the writer’s

CSIR to see something of the avifauna of the ‘gap’ in bet-

clad foothills. Six days leave over Christmas

es year ‘eaelbld this ambition to be realistd by a very enjoyable

stay at the P.W.D. Rest House at Koti (3,500 ft.) 74 miles from

Kalka on the Simla road. Many hours of scrambling on hillside

paths and watching of skies, trees and undergrowth resulted in

a record of an interesting mixture of plains and hills birds. The

following list applicable to the winter is, of course, of necessity

incomplete but may be of interest to others who have speculated

on the contents of the ‘plains to 4,000 feet’ terrain.

(1) Corvus macrorhynchos. The Jungle Crow. As always the deep caw of this

bird is the first greeting to the hills. Common—individuals and small parties.

No House Crows seen,

(2) Dendrocitta vagabunda. The Tree Pie. Common around cultivation.

Seen daily.

(3) Parus maior. The Grey Tit. Common—often seen foraging on the ground

of the bare terraced fields. No other species of Tits seen,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 42g

(4) Garrulax leucolophus. The. White-crested Laughing Thrush. Cackling

calls often heard, and seen on two occasions—once when a party was disturbed

from thick undergrowth by a woodcutter and a second time when disturbed by

a deer. Keeps to the lower parts of the valleys.

(5) lanthocincla rufogularis. The Rufous-chinned Laughing Thrush. In spite

of its reputation as an inveterate skulker this bird was seen on three occasions ;

the first time in the open at least four, feet from the nearest- cover! Another

day two of them came some feet out into a ploughed field and spent over

5 minutes in the open affording an excellent opportunity for study of all the

detailed points of colour and markings.

(6) Trochalopteron lineatum. he Streaked Laughing Thrush. Seen fairly

frequently particularly in jungle on the edges of cultivation.

(7) Turdoides somervillei. The Jungle Babbler. Fairly common in the usual

fussy part.es in the more open country.

(8S) Pomatorhinus erythrogenys. The Rusty-cheeked Scimitar Babbler. Seen

once when an individual appeared at the top of a bush to pick off a red berry

with the tip of its curved b.ll—stay.ng to survey the countryside long enough

for its description to be noted before descending suddenly into the undergrowth

again.

(9) Peliorneum ruficeps. The Spotted Babbler. Seen on one oecas‘on in thick

cover after a wait of 20 minutes in the jungle. Two individuals observed with

others heard in adjacent cover,

(10) Stachyridopsis pyrrhops. The Red-billed Babbler. This bird (with its

brown bill!) is common in parties in the jungle clad nullahs and often seen but

is so easily -disturbed and so quick and restless in its movements that the col-

lection of data for identification with field glasses is a matter of the noting of

‘points’ a few at a time.

(11) Ixulus flavicollis. The Yellow-naped Ixulus. Common—in parties parti-

cularly in small trees bearing.a species of ‘oakapple’ fruit and often in company

with White-Eyes. Presumably these two little species consort to adm:re each

other’s white spectacles!

(12) Leiothrix lutea. The Red-billed Leiothrix. Fairly common in parties in

undergrowth.

(13) Microscelis psaroides. The Black Bulbul.—Why not the ‘Grey Bulbul’

which would be much more descriptive of its general colour? Fairly common

in parties in trees in thick jungle. ;

(i4) Molpastes caier. The Red-vented Bulbul. Common particularly around

cultivation. z

(15) Molpastes leucogenys. The White-cheeked Bulbul. Very common. Al-

most every other bird seen is of this species and it seems to abound everywhere

—in open country and in thick jungle.

(16) Certhia himalayana. The Himalayan Tree-Creeper. Fairly common but

usually solitary.

(17) Enicurus macuiatus. The Spotted Forktail. Occasionally seen along

streams and. irrigation channels.

(18) Monticola rufiventris. The Chestnut-bellied Rock Thrush. A pair of these

birds were constantly to be seen near the bungalow the female usually making

itself evident with its scolding alarm note. Incidentally, I have never found

this bird so ‘wild and shy’ in summer in the Simla hills as the ‘Fauna’ implies.

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s

(19) Myophonus caeruleus. The Himalayan Whistling Thrush. — Fairly

common near the hill streams but with song and calls nothing like as evident

as in the summer and rains.

(20) Eumyias thalassina. The Verditer Flycatcher. Seen on three occa-

sions—solitary.

(21) Muscicapula tricolor. The Slaty-blue Flycatcher. Occasionally seen

in the nullahs near cultivation, the white patches in the tail always being.

conspicuous.

(22) Alseonax ruficaudus. The Rufous-tailed Flycatcher. Possibly, a doubt-

ful identification but nothing else seems to fit. Seen on one occasion.

(23) Niltavya sundara. The Rufous-bellied Niltava. Seen on two occasions—

solitary in low jungle.

(24) Chelidorhynx hypoxanthum. The Yellow-bellied Flycatcher. An unfor-

tunate trivial name for a very attractive and sprightly bird. Common—its

poised half drooped wings, fan tail and the flash of bright yellow in its wheeling

sallies from tree tops being notable.

(25) Leucocirca albicollis. The White-throated Fantail Flycatcher. Fairly

common and almost as attractive as the last species in spite of its sombre

colouring.

(26) Orthotomus sutorius. The Indian Tailor Bird. Common around

habitations—seen daily.

(27) Franklinia gracilis. Franklin’s Wren-Warbler. Seen on a number. of

occasions in small parties in cultivation and scrub jungle. Identified as Frank-

lin’s Warbler in winter plumage but somewhat doubtfully.

(28) Phylloscopus occipitalis. The Large Crowned Willow-Warbler. Occa-

sionally seen—minus its consp:cuous summer song.

(29) Suya crinigera. The Brown Hill- Warbler. Seen on one occasion only

in sparse scrub on open hillside.

(30) Acridotheres tristis. The Common Mynah. Only noted once.

_ (31) Passer rutilans. The Cinnamon Sparrow. Fairly common in ones

and twos in trees near habitations. No House Sparrow seen.

(32) Emberiza cia. The Eastern Meadow Bunting. Seen on two or three

occasions on open hillsides in its dull coloured winter plumage.

(33) Riparia rupestris, The Crag Martin. (Possibly the Dusky Crag

Martin?). A flock of 25 to 30 of these birds appeared on two occasions in

the river valley below Koti preceding cloudy weather.

(34) Motacilla cinerea. The Grey Wagtail. Noted once (solitary) on hill -

stream.

(35) Anthus hodgsoni. The Indian Tree Pipit. Seen on two occasions on

scree and scrub covered hillside.

(36) Zosterops palpebrosa. The White-Eye. Common—in small parties

particularly evident probing into the ‘oakapple’ fruit of trees in jungle near

cultivation.

(37) Aethopyga Siparaija. The Yellow-backed Sunbird. Seen on two occa-

sions but for so short a time that a full description could not be noted,—

a possibly doubtful identification therefore.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 425

(38) Dryobates macei. The Fulvous-breasted Pied Woodpecker. Fairly com-

mon. At first taken to be the Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker but later checked

by the complete red crown of the male and the black crown of the female.

(39) Dryobates himalayensis. The Himalayan Pigmy Woodpecker. Seen

only on one. occasion near the Rest House.

(40) Cyauops asiatica. The Blue-throated Barbet. Common. Heard daily

and frequently seen in fruit bearing trees.

trees both in cultivation and thick jungle. These birds seemed to be of a

clearer grey colour than the brownish grey of plains birds,

(42) Psittacula krameri. The Green Parrakeet. Fairly common. Small

flocks and solos.

(43) Glaucidium cuculoides. The Large Barred Owlet. Seen on one occa-

sion at 11.00 a.m. in thick jungle in the Koshalia river valley.

(44) Sarcogyps calyus, The King Vulture. Common—seen daily.

(45) Gyps himalayensis. The Himalayan Griffon. Common—seen daily.

(46) Neophron percnopterus. The Neophron. Not very common but seen

occasionally. ;

(47) Milvus migrans. The Common Pariah Kite. Frequently seen in flight

but on some occasions suspected to be M. m. lineatus, the Black-eared Kite,

but not with any certainty.

(48) Gallus gallus. The Red Jungle Fowl. Common. Heard daily and

frequently seen in parties foraging in the undergrowth or flapping away and

wheeling into the nearest cover after being disturbed.

Notable absences from the above list which indicate uncommon-

ness, at any rate in winter in the Koti area, are drongos (a careful

watch was kept for the Hair Crested Drongo in particular) shrikes,

doves and birds of prey. There is no doubt that the chief interest

of the Simla foothills lies in the variety of laughing thrushes and

babblers to be found in the undergrowth—if one has the patience

to stalk these skulkers.

N. F. FROME,

Clinidby Il Cay WE Sos

Se NOUNS ON A FEW BIRDS FROM THE SOUTH OF

THE TINNEVELLY DISTRICT.

(The numbers refer to Baker and Inglis’s The Birds of S. India).

60. Geocichla citrina citrina (Orange-headed Ground Thrush). Single birds

have been seen in December 1931, 1937, 1944, and in March 1943 one stayed

in the vicinity of our compound for about a week.

235. Clamator coromandus (Red-winged Crested Cuckoo). Single birds have

been .seen in November 1936, December 1944, February and March 1943. Usu-

ally they stayed several days, and the most recent one was very tame, flying in

and out of verandahs of several houses.

258. Ceyx tridactylus tridactylus (Indian Three-toed Kingfisher). This has

been noted by mountain streams not ten miles away on 7th November 1943.

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

I thought I saw this bird near my house in the morning, and later in the day

many of us were able to watch it on a tree beside the verandah. It flew

down on to the ground after (?) ants several times. It spent at least seven

hours near my house.

311. Falco chiquera chiquera (Red-headed Merlin). This is often scen

flying over our compound. A nest with young was found on 21st: April 1944

on a palmyra tree,

219. lynx torquilia torquilia (European Wryneck). This was observed on

12th February 1943 feeding onthe ground at the foothills, a few miles from

here. It was captured and lived with us for a number of days and quickly

became tame. It ate mostly black ants.

389. Rallina superciliaris superciliaris (Banded Crake). On 13th November

1931 and 30th October 1937 specimens of this bird have been caught inside our

houses, having presumably wandered in from the garden in the dusk. In each

case we released them in thick grass cover and they were not seen again.

394. Gallinula chloropus parvifrons (Indian Moorhen). This is seen—several

pairs—in a tank near here every year between November and March. There

is a good deal of cover when the tank is full, Where they go to when the

tank dries up, I do not know.

431. Sterna fuscata infuscata (Sooty Tern). This was found, obviously

unwell, in our garden on 24th April 1941. We kept it and fed it on small fish.

It seemed to be recovering, and would fly 10-20 yards to take a fish from the

hand of the one who fed it, when he called. But after about three weeks it

died. There had been no severe storm at the time it was found, to account

for its coming thirty miles inland.

451. Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Black-winged Stilt). In Decem-

ber 1934 and January 1935 a single bird and a pair respectively were seen,

feeding at a tank edge.

508. Ibis leucocephalus leucocephalus (Painted Stork). On 21st April 1944

I. visited the nesting colony of this bird in a village called Kunthakulam (men-

tioned by Mr. C. E. Rhenius in J.B.N.H.S., vol. xvii, p. 806). It is about

ten miles from here. There were about 200 nests of Painted Stork, not more

than ten Spot-billed Pelican, and many Night Heron. and Little Egret. The

nests were built on Azadirachta indica, Thespesia populnea, Delonix elata,

and one large Ficus sp. Some were on quite low trees. The birds were fishing

in all the tanks and rice-fields around and bringing food to the young. Many

of the parent birds stood with out-stretched wings to shelter the young in the

nests, which were without any natural shade. The noise and the smell caused

some of the villagers to suggest. destroying the nests and driving the birds

away some years ago, but the head-men of the village protect them. This

colony seems to have existed for 60-70 years at least.

DOHNAVUR (30 miles north of Cape Comorin), 2

TINNEVELLY DISTRICT, C. G. WEBB-PEPLOE.

oth February 1945.

16.—ORNITHOSIS, A. DISEASE TRANSMITTED BY BIRDS.

The following is reproduced from page 36 of Time dated the

8th January 1945.

‘ORNITHOSIS’.

‘The disease-scare headline of the week was that pigeons carry

a virus which can cause virus pneumonia. In the Journal of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 427

American Medical Association, Army Lieutenants David C. Lovinson

and John Gibbs and Philadelphia’s Dr. Joseph T. Beardwood jr.

reported six pneumonia cases definitely traced to pigeons—two had

handled the birds and four lived in neighbotrhoods where they

could easily breathe particles from the bird’s excreta in dust.

‘This report confirms a belief doctors have had ever since the

discovery three years ago that pigeons (40% of them in some areas)

and many other fowls (sometimes even ordinary hens) carry

a virus similar to that of psittacosis, the very much dreaded parrot

disease. Both viruses produce a virus pneumonia, but the parrot

virus is much more dangerous, usually killing about 18% of its

victims. Both behave so much alike that medical men now refer

to all bird-borne virus pneumonias as ornithosis, and call both

viruses ‘‘members of the psittacosis group’’.

‘Doctors think that pigeons may explain many cases of hitherto

unexplained virus pneumonia. But so far no one has recommended

shooting all the pigeons in City Hall Park—possibly because if

the pigeon ornithosis were really serious everyone would have been

lead long ago.’

It may perhaps be worthwhile reproducing this in the Journal

for the interest of our members together with a suitable comment

on the matter from a Medical authority.

BomBay. HUMAYUN: ABDULALI

toth April, 1945. |

[Commenting on the above note Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, I.M.S.,

writes :—

‘Ornithosis is the name given to the infection—it may be trans-

mitted by doves, pigeons, chickens, and the like, to distinguish it

from a similar infection called psittacosis, transmitted by psittacine

birds, such as parrots, parakeets, lovebirds, and also by canaries.

The disease was first described in 1941 and since then there have

been five papers on the subject all from U.S.A. Thirty-seven cases

have been described. While in one series there was a case morta-

lity of 4 in 10, another series of 6 did not have any deaths.

The virus of ornithosis is related to the virus of psittacosis and

lympho-granuloma.’—EDs. |

17.-A CROCODILE’S MISADVENTURE. (With a photo.)

A flight of whistling-teal were sitting on some weeds about 40

yards from the earth bund in one of the larger Barsur tanks.

Having only a .22 and a .30 Springfield rifle with me, I shot one

of the teal with the .22 on the muzzle of which I had fitted a

home-made silencer. The shot made hardly any noise but the

teal flew up leaving one of their number struggling in the water.

In an instant a crocodile was ploughing over the floating weeds

from some grass in which it had evidently been lying about 25 yds.

away towards the struggling teal. Before I had time to change

rifles the crocodile had seized the bird and dived.

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vok 45

Presently its snout appeared out of the water followed by the

whole of its jaws and head in a vertical position. The teal was

still in its mouth and it started trying to swallow it whole. I

gave it a shot from the Springfield in the back of, the head and

it turned over and sank. Two Murias volunteered to swim out

to where it had sunk and recover the body. I was reluctant to

let them go as the weeds were very thick and the water was deep,.

but with a rope they were quite ready to try. One man swam out

while the other held the rope just within his depth, but the search

was fruitless and we were obliged to abandon it for the day.

The following day I realised that the muzzle cap of my Spring-

field had been left behind at the scene of the occurrence so I re-

turned to search for it. The crocodile’s body had then come to

the surface and was floating where it had been seen to disappear.

As there were no Murias in the vicinity at that time I stripped

and swam in myself, seized the crocodile’s corpse by its right fore-

arm and swam back to the bank with it in tow.

It only measured about 54 feet in length, but the teal was still

in its mouth!

It is possible that the crocodile had not heard my shot at the

teal and was so intent on retrieving the struggling bird that it

did not notice me standing on the bank, nevertheless it was greed

which cost it its life.

BARSUR, | R. K..M. BATTYE,

BASTAR STATE. Major.

30th March, 1945.

18.—BELLOWING AND OTHER HABITS OF THE MUGGER

(CROCODILUS PALUSTRIS).

Major Battye’s note in the December Journal on crocodiles -bel-

lowing was interesting. While stationed in Ceylon last year, I

had an experience of this, when camping with a brother officer

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 429

by the large Kantalai Tank (over 8 square miles of water) near

Trincomalee. We were out for ‘movies’ of Ceylon elephants to add

to my Indian elephant films, and filled in the time in stalking

some of the large crocodiles (C. palustris) in the tank. Inciden-

tally, we found a service rifle quite ineffective in stopping these

big mugger (unless hit in the spine) in fact very different in effect

from the .318 I used for big garial (G. gangeticus) on the Indus

in years gone by.

One afternoon we, separated by some hundreds of yards, were

lying watching for mugger to emerge on a scrub covered island,

when I noticed an apparently not very large mugger lying in the

shallows with only its back, and tail flanges showing. I put it

down as about 10 feet. Shortly afterwards my companion fired

a shot in the distance, and at the sound, the mugger in front of

me reared a truly colossal head from the water at an angle of

45 degrees, and let out a roaring bellow before dropping back with

a splash. I hesitate to intimate the length and bulk of that really

prehistoric and awe-inspiring head, but considering how much

bulkier the mugger is for his length than a garial, I should imagine

the beast certainly not less than 15 feet and probably more. It

certainly appeared so in comparison with a to footer shot shortly

before. There are reported to be many large mugger in this tank.

Why the bellow was given on the sound of a distant shot is

obscure. |

A curious habit of the Ceylon mugger—which I have not seen

in the U. P., where my previous experience of mugger has been

—is to emerge in the evening, and lie out all night—certainly

where they have been much disturbed.

I have never seen a garial walking with its body clear of the

ground like a mugger—I do not know what others’ experience has

been.

S.E.A.C. H. G. ROSSEL,

13th January, 1945. Lt.-Col.

19.—SYNCOPE IN A CROCODILE.

Quite close to Datia in Central India are several large tanks;

some right in the city where people bathe and fish (on the sly, not

being permitted in the State) all around are pretty little old stone

houses. There are other tanks, some five or six miles out of

the city, one of the largest of which is flanked by a large stone

wall, and a long flight of descending stairs takes you to the water

level. These are the only remnants of what one day must have

been a flourishing township.

During the monsoon the tank fills up rapidly and would then

be about 2 miles across both ways, but in winter the level recedes

considerably, and in. May or thereabouts it generally dries up com-

pletely. Fish abound in this tank and quite naturally a lot of

crocodiles (C. palustris) too.

Often on a winter day if one looks through ‘binoes’ one can

quite easily discern their snouts slightly above the water as they

half bask in the sun, But when summer comes round the tank:

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

becomes a scene of. utter desolation with its parched and cracked

surface and its filthy odour of decay. The crocodiles have to take

a long track on dry land to the next water. This they under-

take after dark and the journey is accomplished usually in one

night but occasionally an individual miscalculates the distance to

its next abode and is compelled to lie up for the day concealed

in dense undergrowth, or it is,-as may happen, surprised in its

wanderings by the villagers and killed with their ‘kulharis’ (hat-

chets).

There were five or six of us on the stone parapet beside the

tank and it was about 6 in the evening. Down in the tank about

fifty yards away a long black line (a partly submerged crocodile)

was clearly visible in the water. One of the party, a State Jagirdar

and a good steady shot, took careful aim and fired. The ‘croc’

slightly lifted to one side, and for a moment one just caught a

glimpse of its creamy belly and then it just floated on the water,

utterly still. Immediately one of the local ‘Bunrakhas’ (trackers)

was sent down into the water to drag the ‘croc’ out. We could

see it was a small creature, about 4 feet in length, and the man

had armed himself with a ‘kulhari’ as a safeguard. His task

was easily accomplished for the crocodile was in shallow water

and was now being dragged up the steps by the tail, the man

putting in all his strength to do so. Man and ‘mugger’ were

half way up the steps, when suddenly the animal showed signs

of life. It jerked: its head right and left in an attempt to get

at the man, and swished its tail about angrily, while the poor

chap (now at his wits’ end. !) held tightly on to it.

We shouted to him to hit it with his ‘kulhari’ (firing would

not have been safe) while a couple of fellows dashed down to his

rescue. - He promptly released the mugger giving it in parting a

sound blow or two on the head, which stunned the creature, and

with the aid of others the ‘croc’ was finally dragged upto us.

Close inspection revealed that it was completely unhurt. The

bullet had not so much as touched its body anywhere. It was

finished off with a hatchet.

The rifle used was a Savage 250/3000. Did the shock of its

report or the terrific impact of the bullet- near at hand, temporar ily

stun the animal?

PALACE ROAD,

NaGpurR, C.P. ~~. OUNZI OO: AHMED:

2nd lebruary, 1945.

20.—A NEW ,RECORD OF A RARE SNAKE:

(NATRIX XENURA) FROM ASSAM.

I. would like to. record the taking of a further specimen

of a very rare snake, first described under the name J ropidonoius

xenura by Wall (1907). in this Journal, Vol. xvii, No. 3.

Whilst stationed near Kohima in the. Naga Hills, Assam in

May, 1944, a small and sombrely coloured snake was brought to

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . | 431

me for identification, which, as I had only the old edition of the

‘Fauna of British India’ (1890) with me at the time, I was un-

able to identify. After making notes of the description, however,

I despatched the specimen home to England for my collection with

instructions that it should be sent to the British Museum, Natural

History, for identification. The snake was subsequently identified

at the Museum by Dr. Malcolm Smith as Natrix xenura.

The type specimen of N. xenura has been lost and the only

others recorded by Dr. Smith in his recent edition of the ‘Fauna

of British India’ are three in the Indian Museum from Cherru-

punji in the Khasi Hills, Assam.

Descriptive details of the specimen I am recording are as

follows :—

Costals all strongly keeled; two heads lengths behind the head,

19; midgody, 19; two heads lengths before the vent, 17. Ventrals,

158. Subcaudals in a single row, 66 in number.* Anal divided.

Supralabials 9, with the 4th, 5th and 6th touching eye. Infrala-

bials 9. 1 large preocular and 3 postoculars. Loreal 1, squarish

but broader at the base. Rostral only just visible (i.e. its top

edge) when looked at from above. Mental triangular, with a broad

base. 5 infralabials in contact with anterior chin shields, the latter

being shorter than the posterior pair. Colour very dark brown or

almost black above, the majority of scales being flecked with a

number of very minute olive dots, thus producing a faint olive

tinge, particularly evident on the head. There is a series of small,

buff coloured spots along each side of the back, these being more

distinct anteriorly and entirely absent on the tail. Belly uniformly

white, except for a dark brown spot at each outer edge of the

ventrals and subcaudals throughout the entire length of body and

tail. Supra- and infra-labials white with dark markings, the latter

very well defined and larger on the supralabials. The measure-

ments of this snake are: snout to vent, 164 inches; vent to tip

of tail, 5+ inches.*

*As the extreme tip of the tail was missing, this may .account for a

few additional subcaudals. :

OFFICE OF THE D.I.S. anp C.,

OI ID os J--Do ROMER,

SEWRI, BomBay. Lieutenant.

30th April, 1945.

21.—A NEW SERUM TREATMENT AGAINST. SNAKE BITE.

The polyvalent anti-snake-venom-serum available hitherto was

only effective against the venom of the Cobra and Russell’s Viper.

Subsequent research has however led to the production of a lyophi-

lised polyvalent serum which besides being a remedy against the

poison of these two species is also effective in neutralising the venom

of the Krait (Bungarus caeruleus) and the Saw-scaled Viper or

Phoorsa (Echis carinata). Its discovery represents a considerable

advance in the means of treating snake bite in India, we take this

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

opportunity of congratulating Col. S. Sokhey and his colabora-

tors in the Haffkine Institute, Bombay, on their fine work. Only 5

snakes, the Cobra, the Krait, the Russell’s Viper and the Saw-

scaled Viper are, ordinarily, deadly to man in India. The fifth

deadly species, the King Cobra, is limited to forest tracts. Fatali-

ties from its bite are uncommon. Difficulties of securing sufficient

venom of this snake for experiment, have prevented a test of the

efficacy of the new serum in the treatment of its bite. |

Through the courtesy of Lt.-Col. S. S. Sokhey, I.M.S., we

publish below a pamphlet issued by the Haffkine Institute, Bombay,

which gives general directions for the treatment of snake bite and

for using the new lyophilised polyvalent anti-snake venom serum.

‘The anti-snake-venom serum is prepared by hyper-immuniz-

ing horses against the venoms of the four common poisonous

snakes of India, namely, (1) Cobra (Naja naja), (2) Common Krait

(Bungarus caeruleus), (3) Russell’s Viper (Vipera russellii), and (4)

Saw-scaled Viper (Echis carinata). Plasma, obtained from the

hyper-immunized horses, is concentrated and purified. Each c.c.

of the concentrated serum neutralizes not less than the following

quantities of dried venoms, when the serum is injected along with

the venoms intravenously into white mice: Cobra, 0.6 mg.; Com-

mon krait, 0.45 mg.; Russell’s viper, 0.6 mg.; Saw-scaled viper,

0.45 mg.

The serum is lyophilised by drying it from the frozen state

under a high vacuum. ‘The drying process is continued until the

moisture content is reduced to less than 0.1 per cent. The dried

serum, however, retains its affinity for water to the fullest extent,

and, therefore dissolves rapidly on addition of water. This pro-

perty is maintained by the dried serum even after storage for

many years.

TREATMENT OF SNAKE BITE.

1. First Aid. :

Snake-bite should be treated immediately. The measures to

meet the emergency should be quick and positive. The follow-

ing first-aid measures have definitely proved their value :—

1. Ligation.—A ligature of some type should be bound a mode-

rate distance above the bitten part, to prevent the venom being

absorbed into the upper part of the limb. The ligature may con-

sist of a strip of cloth, a large handkerchief, or even a _ piece

of heavy cord. A rubber ligature is much the best. It is neces-’

sary to make the ligature sufficiently tight to cause a stoppage

of the circulation. Ligation should not continue for much over

half an hour, and even then should always be slacked off at regu-

lar intervals of ten minutes during this time.

2. .Incision.—Having thus retarded the absorption of the poison

the fang-wounds should be opened by cross incisions a quarter of

an inch long and a quarter of an inch deep over each fang mark.

The incision should be made with care so as not to injure the

delicate membrane covering a bone or to cut into a blood vessel.

At this stage, it is desirable to give the first dose of the anti-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 433

snake venom serum, preferably intravenously. For instructions

see below.

3. Suction.—Drainage of blood and lymph from the cuts should

be induced by suction. Suction should be done mechanically by

means of a cupping device, which consists of a glass or metal

cup with a rubber suction bulb attached to it. There should be

at least two different sizes of cups in a snake bite kit—one of

glass with a round opening of about one inch in diameter for

flat surfaces, and another of metal with narrow, oval opening to

fit against the surface of a finger or other rounded part. Mecha-

nical suction should continue several hours after ligation has

ceased. During the intervals in the suction treatment, the incisions

should be covered with wet pieces of cloth saturated with solution

of table salt or epsom salt in water, in order to promote drainage

of lymph by osmosis.

If no cupping device is at hand, drainage should be induced

by sucking the wound, there being practically no danger from

this if lips and mouth are free from cuts and sores.

4. Caution.—It is well to wash the incision with a weak solu-

tion of potassium permanganate crystals in pure water (to pro-

duce a pale amethyst hue), as this solution will neutralise by

oxidation what venom it may reach. But it is very dangerous to

apply crystals or strong solution of potassium permanganate into

wounds. Cauterizing the wounds is still worse for it actually seals

the deadly poison within the tissue.

2. Specific Serum Treatment.

Once the venom has got into the circulation, it is only the

anti-snake venom serum that can neutralize it, and in order to

derive the greatest benefit out of serum treatment, the serum

should be injected as soon after the bite as possible. ‘As a first

dose at least 20 c.c. of the reconstituted serum (see below) should

be injected intravenously. The second dose should be repeated

two hours after the first dose or even earlier, if symptoms persist.

If the symptoms, which vary with different venoms, indicate per-

sistence of venom action, further doses should be repeated every

six hours until the symptoms completely disappear. In the case of

a viper bite some serum should also be injected round about the

site of the bite to prevent gangrene, which otherwise results owing

to the very destructive effect of localized viper venom on tissue.

In cases of Cobra and Krait poisoning’s constitutional symptoms

are more prominent than local pain and swelling. General intoxi-

cation is soon followed by a sense of creeping paralysis beginning

in the legs and ascending to the head by way of the trunk. Para-

lysis of the muscles of the eyelids, staggering gait, incoordination

of speech, paralysis of the limbs, drooping of the head and com-

plete paralysis of all voluntary muscles develop. Nausea and

vomiting frequently occur. Breathing gets more and more diff-

cult and finally stops. In the case of Krait poisoning, in addi-

tion, there are convulsions and violent abdominal pains due to

internal haemorrhages.

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 45

In cases-of Russell’s and Saw-scaled viper poisonings the local

symptoms are prominent and severe. There is a great and persis-

tent pain and intense swelling. There is constant and incessant

oozing of blood from the punctures. Sloughing occurs permitting

other infections. The constitutional symptoms are characterised

by haemorrhages, both external and internal. Haemorrhages into

the abdomen are responsible for pain, tenderness and vomiting.

The death is due to heart failure; there is no paralysis.

It is well to remember that if nothing happens within ten

minutes following a bite, the snake was harmless.

The venoms of Cobra and Common Krait act very rapidly if

a large amount of venom is absorbed into the circulation. Hence,

it must be understood, that unless the absorption of the venem

into the circulation be retarded by ligation, incision and _ suction,

the anti-snake-venom serum does not get a chance to neutralize

the venom and save the victim. The first-aid treatment should,

therefore, never be relaxed even if the serum is administered.

Intravenous injection of serum in horse-serum-sensitive subjects

can produce very severe serum sickness and even acute anaphylaxis.

Every care should be taken to prevent these reactions.

Intramuscular or subcutaneous injections of the anti-snake-

venom serum are not as effective as intravenous injections. But if

expert medical aid is not available, the serum may be administered

by the subcutaneous or the intramuscular route. The dosage

should then be increased from 2 to 3 times that recommended for

administration by the intravenous route.

3. Associated Treatment.

In cases of Russell’s and Saw-scaled viper poisoning sedatives,

such as morphine, small doses of a barbiturate; or aspirin, may

be given to relieve pain and nervousness. They should, however,

be used with great caution in Cobra and Krait poisoning. For

collapse, strychnine, pituitrin, or other general stimulants are of

special value. In all severely poisoned persons, great relief 1s

likely to be experienced from the infusion of a large amount of

physiological saline, or still better, transfusion of blood or plasma,

the effects of which may be life-saving in borderline cases.

RECONSTITUTION OF LYOPHILISED SERUM.

(1). Draw 10 c.c. of the distilled water in a sterile syringe.

(2) Cut a line with the file about halfway round the neck of

the ampoule of Iyophilised serum, and gently break open the neck.

(3) Transfer the water from the syringe to the serum ampoule.

(4) Cover the opening of the ampoule with the sterilized pad

of handyplast, gauze surface downwards, press it down with the

thumb, and holding the ampoule in the hand shake it vigorously

for about one minute. For the purpose a piece of sterilized handy-

plast is proyided; for use remove it from its cellophane cover, —

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435

(5) Now let the ampoule stand for one minute for the serum

to clear. The reconstituted serum will become crystal-clear and

ready for injection. Froth and undissolved particles, if any, should

be left in the ampoule; excess serum has been added to allow

for this.

(6) If the pad of handyplast falls on the floor after it has been

removed from the cellophane cover it should not be used. Instead,

the opening of the ampoule may be closed for shaking with the

tip of the thum painted with tincture of aodine or any other anti-

septic carried in your first aid snake-bite kit.

(7) Por the second and subsequent injections, you’ will have

more time to dissolve the lyophilised serum, For these add 10 c.c.

distilled water to the serum ampoule and rotate it between the

palms of your hands until the serum is fully dissolved, and let

the ampoule stand for serum to clear.

STORAGE.

Liquid serum is very unstable at room temperature. It requires

storage at o°C. to 4°C. Even then it deteriorates and .2 years

from the date of manufacture, the serum is unfit for use. In India,

proper cold storage facilities are not freely available and therefore

liquid serum can only be stored at the risk of very rapid deteriora-

tion. Lyophilised serum obviates this difficulty, It 1s many times

more stable than liquid serum. It should retain its potency

for 10 years when stored in a cool dark place. Thus anti-

snake-venom serum can be made available for use far away from

cold storage facilities. It can be safely kept at rural dispensaries

and even carried in a haversack on one’s back if an occasion de-

mands it. However, it is preferable to store it in a refrigerator

if one is available.

EDITORS.

22.—REPTILES AND AMPHIBIANS OF VIZAGAPATAM

AND NEIGHBOURING GHATS.

Whilst on a short and hurried trip to the Vizagapatam Dis-

trict in company with Mr. Humayun Abdulali at the latter end of

May, 1944, we recorded the following species of lizards and frogs.

Mr. Abdulali has already dealt with the avifaunal aspect of the

trip and topographical conditions, so I need not refer to this again.

(See p. 333 of this volume.)

Hamidactylus maculatus Smith.

According to ‘the Fauna, 2nd ed. (Reptilia), this gecko has been so far

recorded only from the ‘Bombay district, Malabar, Tinnevelly, S. India, Salem,

near Madras’. We obtained three specimens in the Forest Bungalow at Lamur-

singi, 2,700 ft. This is a considerable extension of the range of this species.

Hemidactylus brookei Gray.

This species was seen in the bungalow at Vizagapatam. Brookei has a

very wide distribution.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Sitana ponticeriana Cuv.

Quite common on the sandy shore where it dodges in and out of the masses

of Spinifex and Ipomoea pes-capra: It is also fairly common more inland.

The vivid colouring of the gular region of this lizard did not appear to me to

be so bright as it is in the western representatives.

Calotes versicolor (Daudin).

The Bloodsucker was very common on the plain, but it was less so about

Anantagiri, 3,000 ft. and Lamasingi. At Anantagiri we obtained breeding

individuals with well advanced. eggs.

Calotes elliotti Gunther.

At Anantagiri, this lizard was very plentiful and breeding was in full swing.

It was also obtained at Lamasingi but was not so numerous as at the former

place. At first glance C. elliott: looks very much like C, rouxi of the western

side of the peninsula: the behaviour, too, is very similar, but it is a much

larger animal (i.e. C. elliotti). The breeding colours of elliotti males are also

similar to rouxt, black and scarlet, but the scarlet colouring is more extensive

‘in the former. The female has a subdued blush only about the cheeks and

throat. Like rouxi it is also a forest animal but comes out on to the road and

open boulders.

According to the Fauna the distribution of this species is ‘Southern India

(Anaimalai, Tinnevelly and Sivagiri Hills; Malabar). Found in the hills up

to 6,000 feet.’ Hence the present record constitutes a considerable extension

of the range of this species.

Mabuya macularia Boulenger.

A single specimen of this species was caught below Anantagiri at an eleva-

tion of about 2,000 ft., among dead leaves, its usual haunt.

Rana cyanophlyctis Schneid.

As usual, as in other parts of Endia, the Skipper haunted the tanks and -

lakes.

Rana tigrina Daudin.

The Bull-Frog was seen at Kondakala lake and in water on the way to.

Anantagiri, on the plain.

Rana limnocharis.

Seen among herbage skirting a well at Lamasingi.

Rana breviceps Schneider.

A single specimen was taken at night near a well at Lamasingi, ‘where

it had come to water.

Khacophorus maculatus Boulenger.

Several males were seen and heard calling in a well at Lamasingi—by

tipping my companion over the brim and securing his legs we brought one to

bag !

I cannot conclude this note without expressing my thanks to

Mr. Abdulali for giving me the opportunity of accompanying him,

and to Mr. and Mrs. Patak, our hosts at Vizagapatam, for the

generous hospitality during our stay.

BomBay NATURAL HIsToRY SOCIETY,

BomBay. ~ C. McCANN.

r5th April 1945.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 43

“J

23.—BREEDING HABITS OF THE COMMON KRAIT

(BUNGARUS CAERULEUS).

As I have noticed in an article in a back number of your Journai

that it is unusual to find snakes in pairs after the laying of the

eggs, the following may be of interest.

A large pile of loose lumps of sand-stone was being removed

in a market garden some two hundred yards from my house by

some boys in our school. Near the bottom of the pile a krait

about 3 feet long was found in a small hollow between the lumps

of stone. This was killed as it tried to escape. Then some eggs

were seen. Eleven were taken out by the boys, and just as the

twelfth and last was to be removed a second larger krait was

seen, in another hollow between stones, beside the eggs. Later

this was killed also. The eggs averaged 1$x 4/5 in. They con-

tained fully formed snakes which would have hatched in a few

days. One or two showed signs of movement when the eggs were

opened. This took place on 17th April 1945.

Kraits are very rarely seen here except in rainy weather, when

they are fairly common, and there had been no appreciable rain for

several months. May is our hottest month. Presumably these

snakes aestivate in such places as that in which this pair were

found.

On the next day, while clearing a further part of the pile of

stones, two more kraits were found and a second collection of

fifteen eggs was uncovered at a place about five feet distant from

the first. So that in all four kraits and twenty-seven eggs were

destroyed out of quite a small pile of stones.

I am sorry that I was not informed at once of the second find,

but I am quite satisfied that my informant is speaking the truth,

and both finds were witnessed by at least 15 people.

DOHNAVUR,

TINNEVELLY DISTRICT,

S. INpIA. | C. G. WEBB-PEPLOE.

28th May 1945.

[In an article on the ‘Social Life of Snakes’ (Vol. xxvi, p. 460),

Mr. S. H. Prater discusses what is known about association be-

tween snakes. Such records as are available indicate that associa-

tion between the male and female may continue after union has

taken place and is sometimes prolonged even after the deposition

of the eggs. Unfortunately the writer of the note did not ascer-

tain the sexes of the kraits. If they were male and female his

record is an interesting instance of, prolonged association. The

note also supports a previous record in our Journal that the female

krait assists the incubation of the eggs by coiling around them.

Undoubtedly more snakes than we are aware of do this. Common-

ly, the eggs are deserted and their incubation assisted by the heat

of the sun and from the fermenting animal and vegetable matter

in which they are laid. The number of eggs reported by the author

of the above note is larger than previously recorded. The largest

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

number so far recorded for the common krait (B. caeruleus) is

10, in this instance the writer records two clutches, one of 12, the

other of 15 eggs.—EDs. |

24.—ON THE BIONOMICS OF THE BARIL

[BARILIUS BENDELISIS {HAMILTON)].

The Barils are a group of small brightly coloured carps occur-

ring in the rivers and other fresh waters of India. They prefer

clear water with rocky or sandy bottom; and they are abundant

in the hill streams. In the Madras Presidency, the Barils are re-

presented by the following four species:—(1) Barilius bendelisis

(Hamilton), (2) B. bakeri, Day, (3) B. gatensis (C. & V.), and

B. canarensis (Jerdon).*

Over one hundred specimens of Barilius bendelisis (Hamilton)

ranging in size from o.8 to 12 cm. were collected from various

sections of the Godavari, Kistna, Tungabhadra, Cauvery, Bhavani

and other rivers and several tanks and examined for the purpose

Ole this) nOte ae.

The fish is both a surface and column feeder. The following is

an analysis of its stomach-contents :—

Algal filaments, chiefly Rhizoclonium, Cyclotella, Eunotia,

Kragillaria, Melosiva, Navicula, Nitzschia, Tabellaria, volvox colo-

nies, vorticellids, larval worms, insect larvae, parts of insects,

daphnids, copepods and sand particles.

The fish breeds in the hill streams from July to December.

During the breeding season the fish swims in small shoals of about

1o to 15, in which only 2 to 3 males have been noticed. Specimens

with ripe gonad weré collected from July to November; and fry

were collected from September to February. On an average, the

mature ovary contains, about 90 eggs, each measuring I-1.5 mm.

in diameter. During the breeding season, the males are more

brightly coloured, with golden yellowish operculum, greenish snout,

orange-coloured lower jaw, tiny tubercles on both jaws, orange

tinge on the paired and anal fins, and with yellowish but black-

margined caudal fin.

The young fry are observed to swim upstream in shallow run-

ning waters in small schools of about 30 to 50. It 1s common for

the parents to follow these schools till the fry attain a size of about

Ass Cine Jl: approached the fry dart towards deeper waters, but

return after 1 or 2 minutes, and thereafter take no notice of

the intruder. Fry below 1 cm. in length have an elongated body

with prominent deep blue eyes, and without any demarcation

between the anal and caudal fins, and with comparatively large

ventral fins. A dark spot on each scale is developed when the fry

is about 1.2 to 1.5 cm. The anal and caudal fins are demarcated,

* Barilius bola (Hamilton), popularly known as the Indian Trout, does not

occur in the Madras Presidency. Efforts are being made to introduce it from

Bombay and Orissa, so that it may become a valuable addition to the English

Trout already thriving in the Nilgiris.

MISCELLANEOUS NOLES | 430

and the dorsal fin is well developed with a few dark spots on it

at this stage: The dorsal halt of the body and head gets grey

coloured when the fry is 1.5 cm. in length. The coloured spots on

the body show a tendency to group into descending bars on the

sides of the body when the fry is between 1.5 and 2 cm. in length.

On the dorsal side of the head, the spots group into a V-shaped

pattern. When the fry is 2.5 cm. in size, 8 greyish bars are com-

pictely formed, 5 being predorsal.. By the time the young fish

attains 6 cm. in size, 11 bars (6 predorsal) are developed. The full

adult features are attained when the fish reaches a size of 7 cm.,

12 bars now being distinct. Thereafter, a gradual reduction’ in the

number otf bars take place. in the adults these bars become in-

distinct this observation substantiates Day’s statement on this

point.

The Barils are eaten by the poor people. They are populat

with the anglers as one of the lesser fly takers. The fish are also

useful on a moderate scale, as larvicides, especially in the hill

ranges.

We thank Mr. G. K. Ramachandran, B.sc. (Hons.), Assistant

Professor of Botany, Presidency College, Madras, for kindly identi-

fying the algal filaments of Ikhizoclonium. We are also thankful

to the Director of Industries and Commerce, Madras, for kindly

according permission for the publication of this note.

FISHERIES BRANCH,

DEPARTMENT OF INDUSTRIES AND COMMERCE, Een HACKS,

MADRAS. R. S. VENKAFARAMAN.

LITERATURE CITED.

Day, l., Hauna of British India, Fishes, vol. i (1889).

Hora, S. L. and Mukerji, D. D., Health Bulletin, no. 12, Malaria Bureau,

nO. 4, Pp- 1-47 (1938).

Spence, R. and Prater, S. H., J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvi, no. 1, pp. 29-66 (1932).

Sundara Raj, B., ‘The Value of Fish as Natural Enemies of Mosquitos in

combating Malaria’, Madras Fisheries Department Pamphlet (1930).

Thomas, H. S., The Rod in India, 2nd ed., pp. 147-57 (1881).

, Lank Angling in India, pp. 164-65 (1887).

Venkataraman, G., “A Systematic Account of Some South- Indian Diatoms’,

Proc. of the Ind. Acad. of Sciences, vol. x, no. 6, pp. 293-368-.(1939).

Wilson, H. C., Madras Fisheries Bulletin, vol. xi, pp. 161-72 (1917).

25-—PARAFFIN WAX AS A PROTECTION AGAINST

TERMITES.

As the value of the paraffin wax in checking the depredations

of termites (whiteants) does not seem to be generally known, I

should like to call your readers’ attention to it through your

columns.

My first knowledge of it came from. sleeping on the ground

when camping in a Madras compound which proved to be riddled

with termite runs. Several of us used water-proof ground-sheets

that we had prepared from unbleached calico by sprinkling grated

paraffin wax over it and then running this into the fibre by passing

a very hot iron very slowly over it. In the morning the undersides

of these ground- sheets were found to be covered wih termite mud,

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

but to be unharmed and to have served as a complete protection

to everything upon them, whereas all campers without them had had

their blankets and some even their pyjamas badly eaten, some of

the blankets having been reduced to rags.

At that time termites were a constant menace to the books in

the Connemara Public Library, where almost all the shelves were

built into the walls. In view of the above experience, therefore,

I tried coating the insides of all the book-cases with paraffin wax.

A great improvement resulted immediately, though termites quickly

found their way through any small gaps that had inadvertently

been left. This incidentally made these easy to locate and to fill

in, since when all trouble from termites has ceased, the danger

having been completely and apparently finally averted, for it is

now a number of years since the treatment was effected. And the

same method has subsequently been used with equal success in

almirahs and boxes elsewhere.

Obviously paraffin wax cannot be thus used everywhere. But

wherever it can it affords complete and certain protection.

MAapDRAS. ; F. H. GRAVELY.

2nd February 1945.

26.—SECURITY MEASURES TAKEN BY THE PUPA OF

THE TUSSAR SILK MOTH.

(With a text-figure.)

Last year (1944) on the 31st of January Mr. Salim Ali and I

found a cocoon of the Tussar Silk Moth (Antheraea paphia Linn.)

Cocoon in situ showing precautionary ‘stem’.

[From a photo by W. T. Loke.|

which was attached to the upper side of a large leaf of Terminalia

calappa. Besides being attached to the leaf, the cocoon was fur-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 441

ther made safe by a strong stem of hard resin-like. material issuing

from its top which was securely fastened to the branch of the tree

from which the leaf arose. Thus, even if the leaf had fallen before

the end of its pupation period (which it was about to do), the moth

would still have been safe. It will perhaps be of interest to recall

that Eha mentions a similar experience in one of his notes in the

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society in connection with

the larva of the butterfly Virachola isocrates which feeds and

pupates inside the fruit of the pomegranate. Some time before

becoming a pupa the larva eats its way out and fastens the fruit

to its stalk with silk thus preventing the fall of the fruit before the

butterfly escapes. Eha experimented with a pomegranate infested

with larvae by placing it overnight in an egg-cup. By the follow-

ing morning the fruit was so securely fastened to the cup that fruit

and cup could both be lifted up together. Eha then goes on to.

say :—‘As far as I have observed it, the larva never leaves its

shelter except for the definite purpose so necessary to its safety,

and it taxes ingenuity to suggest any possible conditions under

which some larvae might have performed the act in the first instance

without purpose.’

Whether we agree or not with Eha on this last point, the actions

both of the pupa of the Tussar Silk Moth and the larva of Virachola

isocrates are certainly mysterious and interesting. Other readers

of this Journal will perhaps have noticed similar phenomena: if so,

we should like to hear from them.

The period which elapsed between the day we collected the

cocoon in Hyderabad and the final emergence of the pupa as a

full-fledged moth was just over 11 months.

BoOmBay. , Wig bs KOU

15th March 1945.

27.—MIGRATION OF THE COMMON ALBATROSS

BUTTERFLY (APPIAS ALBINA PRINCIPALIS).

Flight observed on 5th April 1945 over 10 miles of road before

and after Embilipitiya (S.-W. Ceylon). Movement generally

north-westwards. Great swarms were seen either. settled on or

circling round damp patches on stream beds, silt ridges and other

damp places. Flight kept mostly to the road. owing to easier

line of progress. In a clearing in a wood took two poor speci-

mens of var. flava.

No. 4, RESERVE BASE, P. ADRIAN D. LANKTREE,

INDIA COMMAND. Craftsman, Tele. Mech., R.E.M.E.

toth May 10945.

28.—ON THE LARVA OF THE BUTTERFLY (CHILASIA

CLYTIA LANKESWARA)

On the afternoon of 1st April 1945, on a tree belonging to the

group Lauraceae, I observed several Chilasia clytia lankeswara

larvae in their characteristic positions, lying along the midribs of

leaves, weighing them down, so that they hung head downwards,

curiously all these larvae faced the same direction dorsally.

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

I obtained the nearest specimen, which had just completed the

ecdysis before the adult stage, obvious from the loose puffiness of

the new skin. It fed voraciously and grew rapidly, drinking quite

a number of drops of water put in its path.

On the afternoon of 3rd April 1945, the larva began to wander.

The yellow markings on segments 3 and 4 had translucent patches

on them, and the larva had become more tapered towards the

anal end, and had deposited a considerable mass of soft ill-defined

excreta. I supplied some suitable dead twigs, and the larva chose

and settled down, head upwards on one of these.

On the evening of the same day, the pupal site having been

selected, the larva, anal end uppermost, began to spin its cre-

master pad. This was really a triangular pocket, apex downwards

and rounded off, the side opposite this apex being the open end of

the pocket. The larva ensured that anchoring threads from the

two closed sides of the pocket met on the reverse side of the twig.

The pad finished, the larva re-inverted itself to its head upper-

most position, inserted its anal eclaspers in the cremaster pocket,

and extending and retracting over its length, worked the cilia on

the anal pro-legs firmly into the silk. This done,. gripping only

with the third, fourth and fifth pro-leg, proceeded to spin the girdle.

Firstly, it bent backwards from segment 8, brought its head

forward until as a whole it was ‘S’ shaped, then bent sideways

until its spinnerets were within reach of one side of the twig, and

made a silken attachment.

It then drew out the thread sideways until this first ond

was caught round the fleshy part of segment 3 in front of the

meso-thoracic legs (the larva retaining its ‘S’ shape until the last

strand of the girdle was woven), and then continued bending

laterally, rotating, in the opposite direction to affix the remaining

end of the strand. This process was repeated 25 times in approxi-

mately half an hour, all 26 strands being co-incidental to form

one, and the hump of the ‘S’ shape was worked laterally, never

once being relaxed, beneath the forming girdle. Sometimes the

larva made its strands meet at their ends on the reverse of the

twig as in spinning the cremaster pocket. E

“Spinning the girdle appeared an uncomfortable and strenuous

task, but having metaphorically ‘got it over its chest’, it now

had to get its head through and slip it over its dorsal spines!

Since the abdomen of the pupa of this species is curved to allow

the pupa to lean out at quite an angle from the supporting twig,

‘the loop is quite big (in comparison to the pupal girdle of

e.g., the English Papilio machaon), but still it cannot be entered,

without considerable contortion. (Note.—The leaning angle of the

pupa completes its excellent resemblance to a dead twig which has

been broken off near its base.)

It achieved this by bending over, laterally, to the right, still

‘S’ shaped, then twisting the first 3 or 4 segments anti-clockwise

until its third pair of thoracic legs was through the loop, and

then crawled with its 3 pairs of true legs on the twig until its

whole body was straightened, and the loop dropped back over

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STA RIAL

TUBE

CARPELS

PETA

STALK

Dissecreo ABNORMAL FLOWER OF

Doticnos Lagras Livy.

L. P. Khanna—Dolichos Jablab Vinn.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 443

the fleshy spines (fourth pair), to come to rest between segments

6 and 7.

The larva finally stretched itself fully, gave one or two lateral

movements, and relaxed completely save for second, third, fourth

and. fifth pro-leg pairs.

One hour after completion of the girdle, the larva relaxed its

grip, hung by pad and girdle only, and gave its first few pre-pupal

ecdysis exercises laterally.

The following evening of 4th April 1945, the red-and yellow origi-

nal markings were just shades of purple, and the pro-legs, flattened

projections. The final larva-pupa ecdysis was completed by 11 p.m.

just 84 hours from the commencement of the spinning of the pupal

tail-pad.

No. 4 RESERVE Base, P.. ADRIAN D. LANKTREE,

INDIA COMMAND. Craftsman, Tele Mech., R.E.M.E.

6th May 1945. ;

29.—_ABNORMAL FLOWERS OF DOLICHOS LABLAB

LINN.

(With a plate).

Among a number of flowers of D. lalab brought for students

for work in the class were a few branches bearing abnormal flowers.

In a number of cases the abnormalities were present in corolla,

androecium and gynoecium. The stamens were in three bundles

of 5, 4 and 1 and in some the number of the stamens was reduced

with a corresponding increase in petals. The shape of the petals

was different from the normal type. The gynoecium was unusual

in number of abnormal flowers. The number of the carpela in

the abnormal flowers varied from 2-5 and usually the condition

was apocarpous though cohesion was present in varying degree.

In one flower the carpel was open with naked ovules and there

was a bud present at its base.

More or less similar type of abnormalities were observed in

Rangoon, in Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swtz. The material with

notes was sent to Prof. H. Gluck of Heidelberg University for

collaboration.

Ewinc CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, ;

ALLAHABAD, U.P. La Po KEANINAS:

10th February 1945.

30.—A NEW VARIETY OF PAPAYA (CARICA PAPAYA

VAR. FLAVA).

A Correction.

In the note on ‘A New Variety of Papaya—Carica papaya

var. flava from Travancore’ printed in the August, 1944, issue at

page 602 of this Journal an error has crept in. In the title of the

note ‘the new variety has been described as C. papaya var. flava

from Travancore, whereas in the heading to the second para and

12A

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45

in the captions to the three figures it is described as C. papaya

var. travancorica. The latter nomenclature is incorrect, the cor-

rect one being C. papaya var. flava. |

POONA. aoe SUIMEARS

2nd February 1945. A. ABRAHAM.

31.—INDIAN LAWN GRASSES.

In the Administration Report of the Madras Government

Museum for 1938-39 I recorded methods that had been found suc-

cessful in dealing with some of the most troublesome and persistent

lawn weeds in South India, and called attention to the superiority

of Cynodon barberi over all other grasses known to me for grass-

ing lawns in Madras, since it combines good drought-resistance

and small, relatively inconspicuous flowers with close, short growth,

and a complete absence of underground stems. It therefore pro-

duces a much closer and tidier turf than does the better known

hari-hati or dhup grass, unless this is constantly cut, and can more

readily be prevented from spreading into flower beds, paths or .

drives.

Since my retirement to Kodaikanal I have found and used a

grass with precisely the same qualities there. It resembles C.

barberi so closely in its growth and general appearance that I at

first presumed it to be that species, and was greatly surprised to

learn that botanically it is regarded as a variety of dhup grass

(C. dactylon), and that it is known as C. dactylon var. interme-

dius, though Mr. K. S. Srinivasan tells me that it differs from

typical examples of this variety in having pointed hairs on the

margin of the glume (as in C. dactylon) instead of club-shaped

ones.

Lawns of mixed indigenous grasses tend to be even worse in

Kodaikanal than in Madras, so that a foreign grass of strong

growth and bright emerald green colour has been introduced and

has become very popular. Garden lovers are now discovering,

however, that its long and stout underground stems grow so rapid-

ly and penetrate so deeply that it becomes a positive menace to

neighbouring flower beds, paths, drives and even walls, where it

becomes almost uncontrollable. C. dactylon var. intermedius pro-

vides a less coarse and far more amenable, though less brightly

coloured, alternative. |

Both C. dactylon var. intermedius and C. barberi can usually

be distinguished. from other grasses growing with them by the

presence of paired instead of alternate side clusters of leaves on

their long runners, though this character is less definite in the

former than in the latter. In both long runners tend to form

above the turf and need occasional cutting if the lawn is to look

its best. :

In conclusion, I must thank Mr. K. S. Srinivasan of the Madras

Museum and Mr. T. S. Ramakrishnan of the Agricultural Research

Station, Nanjarad, Ootacamund, for their help in identifying C.

daclylon var. intermedius. ;

Mapras. F. H. GRAVELY.

2nd Iebruary 10943.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445,

32. NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

In our rambles about Bombay and neighbouring districts it

has been our fortune to find a number of plants of which there ts

no mention in Cooke’s Flora of the Bombay Presidency ;° occasion-

ally we have met with plants which are considered by Cooke as

‘rare’ or ‘very rare’; due to such a want of ample material, Cooke’s

descriptions are, not seldom, very imperfect.

It is our intention in this and subsequent notes to supplement

such descriptions. In every case our new description is based on

fresh and ample material; and it is our sincere hope that botanists

all over the Presidency will come forward with their new findings

so that in the course of time the phanerogamic flora of Bombay

may be fully and adequately recorded.

We offer today three plants, the occurrence of which in our

Presidency has so far passed unnoticed.

1. Acanthospermum hispidum DC., Prodr. V, 522.

The genus Acanthospermum: was described for the first time

by Schrank in Pl. Rar. Hort. Monac. vol. 2 (1819), t. 53; the

species A. hispidum was described by DC. in his Prodromus. The

following is the translation of the generic and specific characters

as given by De Candolle [1.c. |:

‘Capitulum many flowered, heterogamous; ray florets uniseriate, female,

ligulate-cucullate; disc florets male, tubular, 5-toothed. Involucre uniseriate,

of 5 elliptic, concave bracts. Receptacle flat; outer paleaé covering the ovaries,

armed externally with herbaceous, hooked prickles ; inner paleae concave, toothed

at the apex, protecting the male flowers. Anthers apendiculate, not caudate.

Branches of the style recurved, glabrous at the apex. Achenes tightly covered

with prickly paleae, compressed, obtuse, sub-attenuated at the base. Pappus O.

American herbs, branched, low or diffuse, trichotomous (?). Leaves oppo-

site, punctate beneath. Floral heads solitary, terminal or in the forks of the

dichotomous branches, comparatively small. Corolla yellow.

Sect. II. Ceratochlaena. Outer paleae (that is, those covering the achenes)

trigonous, not sulcate, produced into long horns. ;

A, hispidum. Stem erect, hispid; leaves ovate, base cuneate, sessile, mem-

branous, sub-hispid, sub-dentate from the middle upwards. Collected by Salz-

man in Brazil on sandy sea-shores near Bahia. Hairs long, white, spreading,

articulated. Fruit exactly like that of the previous species, a_ little more

echinate.” -—DC., Prodr. v, 521-2.

Among the various Indian floras in our library, we have only

found a reference to this plant in Gamble’s Flora of the Presidency

of Madras, Part IV (1921), where on p. 704 Gamble writes :

‘Acanthospermum hispidum, DC., a South American introduced plant, has

been’ found in S. Canara and Salem Districts, and is said to be spreading and

likely to become common. The plant is hairy, the leaves obovate, spathulate ;

the heads in the forks of dichotomous branches, the achenes spinous.’

The first time that this plant was brought to our notice was

from a letter of the Right Revd. The Bishop of Bombay, R. D.

Acland, M.A., of December 2nd, 1944:

‘These are the inadequate remains of the strange Composite which I men-

tioned ‘to you the other day. Is there enough to identify it by? Shall I send

to Poona for more, if now available?

It appears to be a foreign weed, not in Cooke’s Flora, that has established

itself in great quantities on uncultivated land round about the Parbati temple.

4.46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HAIST..SOCIETY, Vol. 45

I call it a Composite because in the centre of. the curiously rayed flower

heads there is a cluster of about half a dozen typical composite tubular florets,

extremely small, while at the ends of the now hard and pr.ckly rays there were

typical, .tiny, ray florets (ligulate), one to each radiation.’

Shortly after receiving this note, we found the plant at Mum-

bra, about a quarter of a mile from the G.I.P. local station, along

the main road towards Bombay (No. 5527 in Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College, Bombay). The plant at first sight might

be mistaken for a young specimen of Xanthium strumarium Linn. ;

in fact the plant was growing in a clump of Xanthiums; but the

floral heads and especially the fruits of Acanthospermum are quite

distinct and totally different from those of Nanthium. There is

an outer whorl of 5-6, or occasionally 8, echinate and horned

achenes spreading star-like and surrounding a group of minute,

pale yellow, tubular, male florets. The female outer florets are

also yellow, but they are ligulate and slightly bigger than the

male disc florets.

2. Campanula canescens Wall. Cat. 1289.

This is another plant of which there is no mention in Cooke’s

flora; the following description is taken from C. B. Clarke in

Hooker’s Flora of British India, vol. III (1882), p. 439:

“C. canescens, Wall. Cat. 1289; hairy, leaves oblong or lanceolate crenate,

calyx teeth linear-lanceolate, 1/10-1/5 in. A. DC. Prodr. vii, 473.

Throughout Northern India; alt. 0-5,000 ft., from the Himalaya. to Central

India and Pegu, very common. Ceylon, Thwaites.

Stems 6-24 in. Leaves 1 by 1/4-1/3 in. Flowers numerous, clustered in

panicles, dimorphic (both forms frequently on one stem); one form complete,

the -other very much smaller without corolla or stamens. Calyx-teeth 1/5 in.

in the perfect flower, often scarcely 1/12 in. in the imperfect. Corolla 1/4 by

1/5 in., broadly campanulate, shortly lobed, grey-purple. Ovary 3-celled, or

in large examples 5-celled. Capsule 1/5-1/4 in. in diameter; or in the imper-

fect flowers often scarcely 1/10 in., producing perfect seeds. Seeds very minute.’

In an old copy of Hooker’s Flora that was frequently used

by the late Fr. E. Blatter, there is a marginal note in pencil in

the hand-writing of Fr. Blatter stating that he found the plant

at Panchgani. T. R. D. Bell collected the same plant at Amba-

vadi, Thana district, N. Konkan, in February 1918 (Sedgwick’s

Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, nos. 3618 & 3618 II). During

the Christmas season of 1944 we found the plant growing and

in flower at Purandhar, Poona Dt. (No. 5738 & 5738 II, Blatter

Herbarium); the plant was nowhere abundant, but it was spread

all over Purandhar hill, in gardens, along the paths, etc.; on

some of the specimens all the flowers were of the imperfect type

mentioned by Clarke; other specimens had perfect flowers mixed

with imperfect ones. Our specimens agree in all respects with

Clarke’s description except for the colour of the flower: in: old

flowers the colour was greyish-purple, but fresh, young flowers

were of a brilliant purplish-blue colour. The whole plant is cover-

ed with spreading hairs; on the calyx such hairs are found along

the midrib of the lobes, from the base to the very tip; the leaves

are covered on both sides with stiff hairs which are spreading or

appressed. The size of the leaves in Sedgwick’s specimens 1s

bio) (Wey inate 1 WA.

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 447

3, Aeginetia pedun Wall. Pl. As. Rar.. iii, 13, t.. 219.

The following is the description of the plant as given by J. D.

Hooker in Fl. Br. Ind. IV, (Jan. 1884), p. 320:

‘Scape short, stout very fleshy many-fid., flowers on long peduncles, brac-

teate at the base, corolla-tube yellow mouth blue, placentas 2 each of 2 plates.

Throughout India, on the roots of grasses, from Murree, Elliot, Sikkim,

Clarke, and Assam, to Travancore and Singapore.—Distrib. Cochin China,

Java.

Whole plant 3-6 in. high, red or yellow. Stem very short, as thick as a

swan’s quill, buried in the soil, giving off numerous alternate pedicelled flowers

that rise above the surface of the ground, rarely slender and 1-fld. Peduncles

1-4 in., slender to stout, bracteate at the base; bract 1/4-1/2 in., ovate obtuse.

Calyx 1 1/2-2 1/2 in. long, fleshy, red then yellow white, loaded with mucilage,

tip obtuse, acute or shortly beaked. Corolla-tube as long as the calyx, yel-

lowish, limb bright violet, lobes crenate and erose. Anthers of lower stamens

with large dorsal fleshy decurved horn. Stigma broadly cordiform, peltate.

Capsule ovoid. Seeds brown.—Wight’s figures represent une placentas as more

divided than other analyses show.’

This plant grows abundantly on the slopes of Behram’s Plateau

at Khandala on the Western Ghauts, just above tunnel no. 23 of

the G. I. P.-line Bombay to Poona; it was found growing on

the roots of various grasses. The ‘following description was

written at Khandala on Sept. 4th, 1943, and was based on fresh

specimens collected that very morning at the place mentioned.

Peduncle of flower up to 2.5 in. long. Bract at the base of

the flower about 3/8 in. long, triangular, acute; calyx spatha-

ceous, split down one side to about half its length, up to 2 in.

long, inflated, ‘dirty’ yellow in colour, coriaceous, glabrous, in-

clined to be ane ular (perhaps this is due to the pressure exerted

by the neighbouring flowers). Corolla tubular, with 5 free, sub-

equal lobes; tube curved; limb of the corolla slightly 2-lipped,

the lobes orbicular, margins undulate. The colour of the corolla

lobes is purplish-blue with a bright yellow spot in the centre of

the midlobe; throat yellow; tube white. Stamens 4; filaments

stout, glabrous, inserted on the corolla tube. Style incurved, stigma

large, umbonate, white. Ovary superior, 2-locular, ovules|) many

in each loculus; ovoid, about 3/8 in. long, divided into two lobes

by shallow, longitudinal depressions. Stamens, stigma and ovary

included. There is an abundant mucilaginous secretion between

the calyx and the corolla tube. (Nos. 2605, 2606, 2607).

On October 1st, 1943 the plant was still in full bloom at. the

same spot. A specimen collected at this later date shows re-

markable abnormality in that one flower is perfectly regular

in structure and colour and the number of petals was 6 in place

of the usual 5; each one of the lobes of this flower had a bright

yellow spot in the centre. The other flowers on the same plant

were s-lobed, slightly two-lipped with but one single yellow spot

in the centre of the midlobe of the lower lip. The abnormal flower

has been preserved in formaline in the Blatter Herbarium (No.

2775).

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4s

Acknowledgements.

Our sincere thanks are due to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Ph.D., the

Curator of the Calcutta Herbarium for helping us in the identi-

fication of Acanthospermum hispidum DC.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

BOMBAY

April 1945. H. SANDARAWER iss.

33. — SOME COMMENTS ON ‘A SKETCH OF THE BOTANY

AND GEOGRAPHY OF NORTH BURMA’.

Those interested in North Burma will be grateful to Kingdon-

Ward for his valuable monograph entitled ‘A Sketch of the Botany

and Geography of North Burma, parts I & II of which were

published in the August and December 1944 numbers of the Jour-

nal. Is it too much to hope that he will one day produce a flora

of the’ area, even though the materials be inadequate or at least

a guide to the more beautiful flowering plants and shrubs? Such

a guide would greatly enhance the interest of a visit to the area,

and who is better qualified to write it than Kingdon-Ward, with —

his unique field experience of North Burma?

One or two minor errors in the monograph need to be correct-

ed. On page 557 he writes:—‘South of Fort Hertz the Nam

Yak, rising in the western range, joins in; its broad valley forms

the southern boundary of the plain.” The Nam Lang is the river

that forms the southern boundary of the plain. The Nam Yak

rises at the Chaukan pass and after describing a wide U finishes

up with a 12-mile stretch running almost due north to join the

Nam Lang a few hundred yards above its junction with the Mali

Hka. |

On page 558 (top) he writes:—‘Two other shorter rivers join

the Taron immediately east of where the Nam Tamai parts com-

pany from it, both flowing from the north. These are the Dablu

and the Tazu...’ In actual fact the Dablu Wang is a tributary

of the Nam Tamai, and joins it about 2 miles north-west of the

Taron junction.

On page 553 he states that in 1922 he reached the Taron for

the first time and continuing south-east reached Hkamti Long

via the Nam Tamai. Hkamti Long is south-west of the Taron.

On page 17 of the December -issue he writes: ‘Few villages

appear to last more than 20 years; quite a number scarcely last

ten’. The people certainly move about a good deal, but taking

the Nam Tamai as a whole the majority of the villages are found

exactly where they were when mapped by the Survey some 25

years ago. The backward Nung tribes of the “Taron and upper

Nam Tamai valleys seem to be the most mobile; in the Putao

subdivision the most noticeable changes have taken place in the

Dablu and Nam Tisang valleys; all the villages in the latter north

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

of Nogmung except one, and nearly all the villages in the former

have vanished. The Kachin villages of the Konglu tract and the

Nung and Lisu villages of the Ahkyang and lower Nam Tamai are

much more stable.

On pages 18 and 19 the absence of permanent cultivation, away

from the Tibetan villages, is attributed to lack of tradition and

insufficient population. | Those are probably the most important

factors: others that might be mentioned are lack of tools and

abject superstition. Small areas of terracing occur in the Lakin

valley and round Htawlang and Namretung, and more noticeably

up the Ahkyang valley between Abumtang (Abuta) and Zangyaw.

The rice crop in the Nam Tamai taungyas has been poor for the

last 3 or 4 years, total failure in some places, partial in others.

Asked why they did not go in more for terracing, the headmen

gave lack of tools (mamooties, spades, shovels) as one reason, lack

of time as another; the tendency seems to be to abandon the few

terraces that exist rather than to construct more. As an example

of the inhibiting effect of superstition the case of Gawai in the

upper Nam Tamai might be quoted. Here the villagers some

years ago, so I was informed, terraced a small area for wet

paddy cultivation; but a number of them happened to fall sick

that year, and the local ‘myihtoi wa’ or village seer pronounced

that the Nats were offended, so the terraces were abandoned and

are still out of commission. The largest area of permanent

cultivation seen was at Nogmung, the largest and most prospe-

-rous Nung village in the area; here some 20 acres of paddy land

have been laboriously hacked out of virgin evergreen forest on the

flat alluvial land beside the Nam Tisang, and the area is being

enlarged year by year.

On page 560 the book Birds of Burma is dragged in by the

tail (‘Botany’ may be a vague term as stated on page 551, but

I was not hitherto aware that it covered the study of birds) to

receive a few passing kicks. As I have, I believe, read every

book Kingdon-Ward has ever written: and those on Burma in

particular have been a source of consolation in desolate places

far removed from mountains: it would be a poor tribute to his

powers of description were it true, as he suggests, that I was

‘quite unable to visualise North Burma’; having in the past year seen

considerable areas of it, both from the air and from the ground,

from Saramati to Ka-Karpo Razi, I find it differs little from the

picture I had formed of it except that the birds are much fewer

and more far between than I had imagined.

{ recently toured extensively in the Putao subdivision, covering

800 miles on foot; I followed the Nam Tamai valley from Htaw-

lang (just north of the Lakin stream) right up to the last village

in the Adung Valley, also up the Ahkyang Valley to Nyitadi, the

Taron Valley to the China border, and the Seinghku Valley to

Guba. The paucity of bird life in this area in winter, both in

number of species and in number of individuals, is very marked,

and I saw few of the species I had hoped to see and none at

all new to Burma, although IJ tried all elevations up to 11,000 ff.

4s JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45 Zz

I was, unfortunately, about a month too early to see ‘the vastl

procession of migratory birds passing up the Adung Valley.’

How many species still remain to be recorded from North Burma

is a matter for opinion; I think Col. Stanford was too modest when

he stated or implied that many had eluded him and the local vil- ~

lagers who collected for him. He has spent months collecting

in the mountains of the Htawgaw and Hpimaw areas, and Lord

Cranbrook spent a whole season in the Adung Valley; I saw noth- |;

ing to indicate that there are vast numbers of undescribed species |

in the intervening area, and I should be most interested to know

what are the 50 species new to Burma that Kingdon-Ward wagers

he can find in North Burma. |

I do not maintain that the Burma list is anything like com-,.

plete. When I wrote ‘with remarkable complacency’ that ‘the'

chances of meeting with a bird not described in this book are

remote ’ T had in mind the average reader: the business

man, the Govt. civilian, the army officer, etc., who in the course

of his daily round will be lucky if he comes across a_ species

new to Burma; I would wager that not one in a hundred of

those who read the book will ever explore the remote mountains

of North Burma, still less encounter Kingdon-Ward’s guaranteed

50 species, and a I in a 100 chance may fairly be described as

remote. Had I written ‘the chances of finding anywhere in Burma

a species not described in this book are remote’ Kingdon-Ward’s

criticism would have been justified; that he has interpreted my

remark in this sense my clumsy pen is to blame.

Fort HERTZ.

15th March, 1945. B. E. SMYTHIES,

Burma Forest Service.

et ee Ae ee nn = te

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EDITED BY

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LIST OF CONTENTS

INTRODUCTION TO BIRD STUDY.

How TO RECOGNIZE BIRDS IN THE

FIELD.

DESCRIPTION OF 196 SPECIES.

USEFULNESS OF BIRDS.

BIRD MIGRATION.

BIRD WATCHING.

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45, No. 4.

PAGE

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part XXI. By

N. L. Bor, C.1.E., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada, M.Sc.

(With 1 coloured, 4 black and white plates and 6 text-figures) ah

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN. Part V.

By Hugh Whistler (deceased)

SoME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM. Part III. By

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER SPORTING FISH IN

INDIA AND BurRMA. Part IX. By A. St. J. Macdonald. (With

9 teat-figures) a8 006 eee ee

THE SENSE OF SMELL IN SNAKES. By Capt. Allen Payne. (With 2

plates and 1 text-figure) a 500 ace

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE OF THE WESTERN

Coast OF INDIA. By K. Biswas, M.A., D.SC. (EDIN.), F.R.S.E.

(With 3 plates) 0 000

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD, N.-W. HIMALAYA. By

H. W. Waite, C.1.E., M.B.0.U. (With 2 plates) aes we

TrRouT OF TRAVANCORE. Part I]. By W: S. S. Mackay. (With

2 plates) 506 500 wee 600 006 600

PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF NORTHERN INDIA IN HISTORICAL

TimES. By M.S. Randhawa, M.SC.,1.C.S., F.N.I. (With1 plate and

2 maps) Soc 600 BoA 600

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF TWO PREDACEQUS AND ONE

MYCOPHAG OUS SPECIES OF Cuctinellidae. By S. R. Bagal, M.sc. and

Dr. K. N. Trehan, M.sc., PH.D. (London). (Witt a plate) O00

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS STERCULIADS OF INDIA. By J. F.

Caius, S.J., F.L.S. (deceased )

MORE ABOUT THE FLAMINGO [Phoentcopterus ruber roseus (Pallas)] IN

KurcH. By Salim Ali. (Wath 2 plates)

OBITUARY NOTICE—

Sir Norman Cranstoun Macleod

REVIEW—

A Guide to Bird Watching

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

451

462

435.

496,

507

515:

531

542

558

566.

576:

586:

994

595-

1, A Tiger’s record as a ‘Cattle killer’, By R. C. Morris, F.z.s.,.

F.R.G.S. (p. 597). 2. Calling up Tigers. By W. F. Rule (p. 597). 3. The

Sense of Smellin Tigers. By Lt.-Col. Arundel Beghie (p. 598). 4. A Leopard.

ii CONTENTS OF VOLUME 45, No. 4

‘pooking’. By T. E H. Smith (p. 599). 5. Northern limits of the Rusty-

Spotted Cat (Prionailurus vr. rubiginosus Geoff.). By Humayun Abdulali

({p.- 600). 6. Sambar ‘swings’. By Capt. K. Boswell, 1a.mM.c. (p. 601).

7. The D.stribution of the Thamin (Panolia elit), By Lt.-Genl. A. F. P.

Christison, BT., K.B.F., D.S.0., M.C., B.A. (p. 603). 8 A no‘e on the present

distribution of the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in the

Arakan District of Burma. By Lt.-Genl. A. F. P. Christison, BT., K.B.E., C.B.,

D.S.0.,.MC., M.a. (With a map.) (p.604). 9. The Tamil name cf the Indian

Pangolin (A/aais crass:caudata). By K. R. Srinivasan, M.A. (p. 605). 10. Note

on the Indian Pangcolin (JZanis crassicaudata:. By G. U1.derwood. (Witha

blate.) (p. 605). 11. Whistling Thrush (Mi; ophi nus caeruleus) preying on other

birds. By Mrs. A. B. M. Way (p. 6.7). 12. B ack-capped King Fisher [Halcyon

pileata (Bodd)] restirg in India. ky Henayun Abdulali (p. 607). 13. Notes

on. the Behaviour of Nesting Paddy Biids (Ard-ola grayii) in Kashmir. By

W. VT. Loke. (With two. plates) (p. 608)., 14. On the Occurrence of the

Clucking Teal (Nettion f.rmosum) in the Monghyr District. By D. E. Reuben

“(p. 609). 15. Record Clutch of Eggs of the Whistling Teal [Dendocygna

javanica (Horsf.) ] By H. C. Aldrich (p. 61u). 16. Axial-bifurcation in [Vipera

russellit (Shaw )] from Bengal. By M..N. Acharji, M.Sc. ( W7tz a plate) (p. 611).

17. Addenda and Corrigenda to ‘The Butterflies ot the Nugiris ’ published in

Vols. XLIV and XLV of the Journal. By M. A. Wynter-Blyth. m.a. (p. 613).

18. ‘Two Burmese Spiders which min.ic Scorpions. By J. E. Marson, F.R.E.S.

(With 2 plates) (p. 616). 19. Curcuma pscudomontana Grah. By Rev.

H. Santapau, S.J. (p. 618).

tra, 8

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—

JOURN. BomMBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. PLATE XXIII

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BEAUMONTIA GRANDIFLORA (Roxb.) Wall.

x >

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1945. | VOL. 45. No. 4.

—

———e

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INfs Ibo TOR, CollelBon Wiig Woo, TawoSos Usle Ses

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. RAIZADA, M.Sc.,

Assistant Forest Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Part XXI.

| Continued from Vol. 45, No. 3 (1945), p. 279].

(With 1 coloured, 4 black and white plates and 6 text-figures).

| Beaumontia Wall.

(This generic name commemorates the name of Mrs. Beaumont

of Bretton Hall, Yorkshire, England).

A genus of tall, climbing shrubs. Leaves rather large, oppo-

site, coriaceous. Inflorescence of terminal cymes; flowers large,

white, fragrant; bracts often foliaceous. Calyx of five large, foli-

aceous sepals, glandular or not within. Corolla white, shortly

tubular below, widely campanulate above, 5-lobed, lobes twisted.

Stamens 5, inserted at the base of the campanulate portion of the

corolla; anthers sagittate at the base, connivent around the stigma.

Disk present. Ovary of two carpels; style filiform. Fruit of two

follicles; seeds compressed ending in a tuft of hair.

BAR 13 -4¢

452 JOURNAL BOMBAY “NATURAL AIS ie 1S OCKE I Yem. VoleAs

Beaumontia grandiflora (Roxb.) Wall.

(Grandiflora means large-flowered in Latin).

Description.—This species is a huge evergreen climber which

ascends to the tops of the tallest trees in its home, Assam, and

covers the crown of its’ support with its beautiful foliage and

flowers. The stem is woody with rusty pubescent shoots, and in

old plants reaches a considerable. thickness. The leaves are oppo-

site, exstipulate, membranous to coriaceous in texture, ovate to

ovate-oblong in shape, smooth and glabrous, rarely sparsely hairy

beneath; nerves 7-16 pairs, arching and forming loops within the

margin; reticulation prominent beneath; petiole 4-1 in. long,

sometimes. especially in young leaves, rusty pubescent. Inflore-

scence a terminal cyme, few- to many-flowered. Bracts large: and

leafy. Calyx of five oblanceolate, obovate or lanceolate, acumi-

nate segments, often glandular within, 14 in. long, dark red, or ~

reddish brown in colour.

Corolla 3-5 in. long, campanulate from a very short tubular

base, with five large, rounded, acute lobes about 1 in. long, of a

beautiful, pure white or cream colour, greenish towards the base

without, gla4brous or hairy. Stamens five, inserted on the corolla

at the top of the tube, alternate with the lobes, anthers sagittate

4-2 in. long, connivent to the stigma-by their inner surfaces

forming a five-sided cone, the stamens and style lying along the -

inner surface of the corolla. Ovary superior, seated on a five-

lobed disk, 2-celled, with many ovules in each cell. Style filiform,

expanding above into a fusiform stigma to which the anthers ad-

here. Fruit long, thick, woody, eventually dividing into two hori-

zontally spreading follicles. Follicles turgid, fleshy, green, with

a thick, hard, spongy, yellowish endocarp. Seeds many, compress-

ed, ovoid or oblong, contracted at the top, 2 in. long, crowded,

with a coma of hairs 14 in. long.

Flowers.—March-April. fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution:—Native of the Eastern lower. Himalayas now fre-

quently cultivated in gardens throughout India.

-Gardening.—A huge and truly magnificent climbing shrub with

large, white fragrant, trumpet-shaped flowers. It is of very rapid

growth and ascends to the height of a lofty tree in no time. Pro-

pagated by seed, cuttings or layers.

Economic uses.—The young branches are sometimes used for

making coarse ropes.

Chonemorpha G. Don.

A genus of high-climbing shrubs.- Leaves opposite, broad, with

distant. nerves.’ Inflorescence paniculate, terminal or axillary.

Calyx-tube cylindrical with an annular glandular area at the base

inside. Corolla-tube cylindrical, slightly narrower at the base, end-

ing above in five large twisted petals, horizontally spreading. Sta-

mens five, epipetalous, connivent into a cone and adhering to the

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. 453

stigma, sagittate at the base. Carpels two, distinct; style fili-

form; stigma thick. Fruit of 2 follicles.

Chonemorpha macrophylla G. Don.

(Macrophylla means large-leaved).

Description.—A scandent shrub capable of overtopping the

largest trees; stems more or less pubescent, emitting quantities of

a white latex if wounded. Leaves opposite, up to to in. long and

as much broad, ovate, obovate or even orbicular in shape, round-

ed or cordate or even cuneate at the base, dark green above, paler

Fig. 1.—Chonemorpha macrophylla G. Don.” x2

beneath, almost hirsute below, sparsely hairy above, entire on the

margins; petiole short, cylindrical. 2 ee ey

Flowers borne in sub-terminal, short-pedunculate cymes;

branches cylindrical, green, speckled with red. Calyx-tube .75 in.

454 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val.° 45

long, cylindrical, shortly 5-lobed, at length withering red-brown and

tightly embracing the base of the corolla tube. Corolla-tube white,

narrow at the base, swelling above into a throat, about .75 in.

long, ending above in five white petals which spread at right angles

to the tube; lobes broadly obliquely triangular or trapezoid from

a very narrow base, white, yellowish in the throat. Stamens five,

inserted at the bottom of the throat. Disk 5-lobed. Ovary of

two distinct carpels. Fruit of two long straight hard trigonous

follicles 12-18 in. long. Seeds flat with a long tuft of hair.

Flowers.—May-July. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Throughout India 2,000-6,o00 ft. extending to

Burma, Malaya and Ceylon.

Gardening.—A large powerful climber with copious milky juice

and very large leaves. The fragrant, pure white flowers, about

3 1m. across, appear in great abundance during the hot weather.

Propagation is by seed which is produced abundantly. It is suit-

able for cultivation in the open on a long trellis or on trees.

Vallaris Burm.

(This name is derived from the Latin word vallo, I enclose,

owing to the fact that some species are used for screens in Java).

A genus of climbing shrubs with punctuate, opposite leaves.

The white flowers are borne in dichotomous or fascicled cymes

issuing from the axils of the leaves. Calyx 5-lobed, from a short

tube. Corolla-tube short, with five petals. Stamens five, fixed

to the top of the tube seated on short filaments; anthers acumi-

nate and sagittate at the base, connivent at the apex into a cone,

with a large gland on the connective. Disk of five scales or

lobes. Ovary of two hairy carpels, at first connate, soon free.

Fruit of two oblong acuminate carpels.

Vallaris Heynei Spreng. | Vallaris solanacea (Linn.) O. Ktze.].

(This plant was named in honour of Frederick Adolf Heyne, a

German botanist who lived at the beginning of the nineteenth

century).

Description.—A hoary, climbing shrub or creeping over the-soil.

Stems covered with a grey lenticellate bark, emitting a copious

white latex when wounded. Leaves opposite up to 5 in. long by

2 in. broad, elliptic, oblong, acuminate, sometimes somewhat ab-

ruptly narrowed to the acute apex, membranous, cuneate at the

base; nervation rather obscure; petiole up to .75 in. long, slender,

channelled above.

Inflorescence of axillary cymes about 1 in. long, 3+6-flowered;

flowers white, fragrant, seated on slender pedicels. Calyx-tube

very short, 5-lobed; lobes up to 1 in. long, acuminate, thin, short-

ly ciliate on the edges. Corolla-tube about .3 in. long, narrow

and cylindrical and hairy within below, campanulate above, end-

ing in five petals, which are orbicular in shape, .25 in. long.

Stamens five, inserted at the top of the narrow portion of the tube;

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 455

anthers acuminate above, sagittate at the base; carrying a large

horse-shaped appendage on the connective. Disk annular, 5-toothed.

Ovary of two connate carpels. Fruit of»two follicles, straight.

Fig. 2.—Vallaris Heynei Spreng. x%

Flowers.—December-April. Fruit January-April next year.

Distribution.—Native of India and Burma, often grown for orna-

ment in gardens. |

Gardening.—An extensive, vigorous climber, evergreen and

drought-resistant, with small elliptic-ovate leaves. |The creamy

white, scented flowers are produced in profusion during December-

April. It is an excellent plant for cultivation in the open on trellis,

or arches or trees. Propagated easily by layering, cuttings,

suckers or seed. It was brought into cultivation in Europe in

1818. .

Medicinal and economic uses.—The bark is bitter and astrin-

gent and according to Haines is chewed by Kols for fixing loose

teeth. The latex from the stem is applied to sores and wounds.

According to Rev. Thompson it is believed to keep away snakes

during the rains when it is suspended from the roof on a certain

day in June.

456 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,. Vol. 45

Strophanthus DC. (Roupellia Wall. et Hook.). —*

(This generic name comes from two Greek words which mean

twisted cord and flower and refer to the long, caudate petals of

some species. The other generic name Roupellia was selected by

Wallich and Hooker to commemorate the name of Charles Roupell

of Charlestown, South Carolina, ‘commemorated in many of the

pages of Sir James’ E. Smith’s Correspondence of Linnaeus’.)

This genus contains a number of shrubs, some of them are

climbers. The leaves are opposite and penni-nerved. The inflo-

rescence is terminal and consists of few-flowered cymes, compact,

or many-flowered corymbs. Sepals five in number with 5-20 glands

at the base. Corolla-tube short, campanulate in the throat, ending

above in five petals which are more or less long caudate; throat

with ro scales. inserted in pairs. Stamens five, attached to the top

of the tube, included; filament short; anthers sagittate, more or

less acuminate, connivent. Disk absent. Ovary of two distinct

carpels; style filiform.: Fruit of two follicles.

The seeds of the species of this genus are well known for the

presence of an active. chemical substance called strophanthin. It

raises the blood pressure, acts as a diuretic and is a.powerful car-_

diac poison. Because of these properties different species have

been used as arrow poisons in different parts of the world.

Strophanthus gratus Franch.

Cream-fruit.

(Gratus is a Latin word meaning pleasing).

Description.—A handsome, climbing, shrubby plant. Shoots

green, terete, very glabrous. Leaves opposite, petiolate, stipulate,

up to 6 in. long by 2 in. broad, oblong-elliptic or elliptic in shape,

glabrous, entire on the margins, acute at the tip, cuneate at the

base, dark green on the upper surface, paler below; nerves some-

what impressed on the upper surface, slightly prominent below,

joined by an intramarginal vein; stipule short, awl-shaped; bases

of the petioles joined by a stipular line.

Inflorescence terminal, of 6-8 white, rose-tinted flowers, crowded

into a cyme. Bracts ovate-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, keeled

on the back, .15-.2 in. long. Pedicels longer than the bracts but

shorter than the calyx. Calyx of five lobes, each .6-.8 in. long,

obovate in shape, obtuse, greenish but reddish at the tip. Corolla-

tube swelling above, glabrous without and within, 1.5 in. long,

ending above in five petals; petals broadly obovate in shape, crisp-

ed on the margins, under 1 in. long. In the mouth of the flower

is a corona of to linear-lanceolate scales, connate at the base,

erect, of a beautiful rose colour, .4-.5 in. long. Stamens five, in-

serted at the beginning of the swollen portion; filaments short,

thick, slightly papillose; anthers produced above into a subulate

process protruding from the corolla tube. Ovary surrounded by

i> \

Photo by M, B. Raizapba,

CREAM FRUIT

Strophanthus gratus Franch.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

“YOUTY SHIDAT SNYJUDYGOMS

INU], WvaaD

“VAVZIVY ‘gd “W ,

; AQ 0J0Ud

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 457-

a nectariferous disk. Carpels distinct, joined by a filiform style;

ovules numerous, on axile placentas.

Fig. 3.—Strophanthus gratus Franch. xX }

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. fruits cold season, but very

rarely.

Distribution.—Native of Sierra Leone, tropical Africa, now in

cultivation in all tropical and subtropical countries of the world.

Gardening.—A handsome, climbing, shrubby plant or a rambling

shrub requiring considerable space for its full growth but it can

be kept within bounds by judicious pruning. The large, leathery,

bell-shaped flowers are white tinged with rose-purple and are

attractive just as they are opening. As it is a fast grower it

requires plenty of water during summer. Good fresh loam, with

a little leaf-mould suits it best. It is well adapted for a trellis

or to train up a pillar or rafter. Propagated easily by cuttings

which strike root readily during the rains. It is commonly known

under the name of Roupellia grata in Indian gardens.

Trachelospermum Lemaire.

(This generic name comes from two Greek words, trachelos,

a neck, and sperma, a seed. The combination refers to the long

seed of the species.)

4c8 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

A genus of climbing shrubs with opposite leaves. Inflores-

cence of terminal or axillary cymes. Flowers white or purple.

Sepals 5, small, glandular or scaly at the base inside. Corolla-

tube cylindrical, dilated at the insertion of the stamens, ending

above in five spreading lobes. Stamens five, included in the tube,

connate at the apex and connivent around the stigma. Disk an-

nular, truncate, or 5-lobed. Ovary of two distinct carpels. Fruit

of two dry follicles.

KEy TO THE SPECIES.

Calyx-lobes erect .. I. fragrans.

Calyx-lobes reflexed we =. Jasminoides.

Trachelospermum fragrans Hook. f. [T. lucidum (Don)

K. Schum. ]}.

Description.—An evergreen, twining shrub. Young shoots

slightly hairy, emitting a milky juice when cut. Leaves opposite,

up to 6 in. long by 2 in. broad, elliptic-lanceolate, acuminate, gla-

brous, bright green above, paler below; petiole about .2-.4 in.

long, minutely hairy.

Fig. 4.—Trachelospermum fragrans Hook. f. x‘

Inflorescence a lax, terminal or axillary, trichotomous panicle-

Flowers white, seated on glabrous pedicels decorated by minute

bracts. Calyx about .1 in. long, cleft almost to the base, 5-lobed ;

lobes ovate, obtuse, ciliate. Corolla-tube about .4 in. long, very

slender below, inflated at the top, glabrous within and without ;

mouth thickened, hairy, 5-lobed; lobes spreading, cuneate below,

obliquely truncate at the apex, overlapping to the right, twisted

ge ee ay

Photo by v. L. Bor.

HILL JASSMINE

Tvachelospermum fvagvans Hook. f.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

Photo by

Lo)

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 459

to the left. Stamens 5, included; anthers connivent to the top

of the style. Disk of 5 erect lobes. Carpels two, glabrous, dis-

tinct; style filiform; stigma columnar; ovules many in each cell.

Follicles up to 12 in. long by .2 in. broad, incurved, cylindrical.

Seeds .7 in. long, linear, flattened, dull-brown; coma _ copious,

r in. long.

Flowers.—April-June. Fruits October-LC:ecember.

Distribution.—North-West Himalayas 3,000-7,000, Assam,

Cachar, and Upper Burma.

Gardening.—A tall climber with dark green leaves and white

fragrant flowers which are produced in great abundance during the

hot season. It is suitable for covering embankments and the like

and prefers moist shady places. Propagation is by cuttings. of

half-ripened wood during the rains or by seed.

Fig. 5.—Tyrachelospermum jasminoides Lem. X1/1

460 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURALS HISD. SOCIEMY, Vol. 45

Trachelospermum jasminoides Lem.

[T. divaricatum (Thunb.) K Schum. |.

Star Jessamine.

(The specific name jasminoides means jessamine-like in Latin).

Description.—A pretty, evergreen, climbing shrub; young parts

puberulous. Leaves petioled, opposite, elliptic, elliptic-lanceolate

or even oblanceolate in shape, glabrous and smooth, somewhat

coriaceous in texture, entire on the margins, up to 2.5 in. long by

I in. wide; petiole very short, grooved above.

Inflorescence a few-flowered cyme seated on a peduncle much

longer than the subtending leaf. Flowers pure-white, very fra-

grant. Calyx divided almost to the base into five reflexed, lanceo-

late, ciliate segments .1-.2 in. long. Inside the calyx at the base

of the corolla are several jagged scales. Corolla-tube .25-.3 in.

long, abruptly contracted below the middle, glabrous outside, hairy

within at the mouth, ending above in five lobes; lobes oblique,

obovate-spatulate, spreading, waved, with reflexed margins.

Stamens five, sessile on the corolla; anthers lanceolate; connective

produced above into a spur, the whole five stamens connivent into

a cone round and adherent to the stigma. Ovary of two carpels.

At the base of the ovary are five large glands, two united, three

Trees

Flowers.—March-April. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Indigenous to China and Japan, commonly

grown in gardens throughout the country.

Gardening.—A pretty, white-flowered, evergreen climbing

shrub with deep green, smooth foliage. The delightfully fragrant

flowers are produced in great profusion during the early part of

the hot weather. It is well suited for growing over a trellis. It

was collected by a Mr. Fortune from Shanghai and introduced by

him into European gardens. Propagation is by cuttings or layers

during the rains. It is best suited for pergolas, arches and the

like.

Melodinus' Forst.

Climbing shrubs. Leaves opposite, penni-nerved; nerves paral-

lel. Inflorescence terminal of trichotomous panicles, many-flowered

or axillary and then few-flowered; flowers white, often fragrant.

Calyx of 5 sepals, without glandular scales. Corolla-tube dilated

at the insertion of the stamens, ending above in five twisted petals;

throat of the corolla furnished with scales. Stamens five, inserted

towards the base or in the middle of the tube. Disk absent.

Ovary entire, bilocular, style short; stigma thick; ovules numer-

ous. Fruit globular, pulpy, containing many seeds.

Melodinus monogynus Roxb.

(Monogynus means with a single ovary).

Description.—A large, glabrous, scandent shrub. Branches and

branchlets at first green, afterwards turning brown, containing copi-

ous quantities of latex. Leaves opposite, petiolate, up to 6 in.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 401

long, elliptic, elliptic-oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, ela-

brous and smooth, chartaceous in texture; margins incurved ;

petiole .2-.4 in. long.

Fig. 6.—Melodinus monogynus Roxb. x3

Inflorescence close, terminal, of trichotomously branched

panicles; branches puberulous, rather thick. Flowers white fra-

grant. Calyx of five sepals, elliptic-obtuse, elliptic-oblong or even

ovate, ciliate on the margins, .1-.15 in. long, imbricate.. Corolla-

tube .7 in. long, tubular, below becoming funnel-shaped above,

glabrous without but hairy within, ending above in 5 lobes; lobes

spreading, up to .5 in. long, oblong or ovate, obtuse; corona of

scales present, five in number, villous, bifid at the apex. Stamens

five, filaments very short; anthers without basal appendages. Disk

absent. Ovary of two connate carpels. Fruit a globose berry,

smooth, yellow or orange in colour, up to-3 in. in diameter.

Flowers.—April. Fruits cold season.

Distribution.—Native of Sylhet and Assam extending to Malaya

Peninsula and China. Occasionally cultivated in gardens through-

out the plains and up to 4,ooo ft. in the hills.

Gardening.—A large climber with milky juice and bright dark-

green, lanceolate leaves. The pure white, very fragrant flowers

are produced during spring and make this plant very ornamental.

The fruit which is the size and colour of an orange is said to be

edible. Propagation is by seed, cuttings or layers during the

rains. It was introduced into. England by Capt. Craigie as a

present from Dr. Wallich of the Calcutta garden.

for growing over arches, pergolas and the like.

(To be continued).

It is well suited

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN.

HuGcu WHuHISTLER (Deceased).

Part V

[Continued from Vol. 45, No. 3 (1945), p. 302].

Columba palumbus casiotis (Bonaparte).

Specimens collected.—sex? Bharowal (Griffith); ¢ 15 March 1879 Kandahar

(St. John); Q 22 April 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-Ramsay); G 22 Oct. 1934

Ashrat 4,000 ft. (Maconachie).

Wardlaw-Ramsay found the Eastern Woodpigeon in the Hariab Valley 7,000-

8,000 ft. in flocks varying from ten to fifty individuals. Throughout April a

large flock could always be found in the pine-forest between the main range

of the Safed Koh and the village of Ali Khel. These paired by the middle of

May and several nests were found.

According to his Journal, Griffith’s specimen was obtained at Bharowal on

7 March 1840.

St. John and’ Swinhoe say that the Woodpigeon is very common in the large

gardens about Kandahar.

Columba oenas Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—d 2 9 28 Nov. 1884 Karabagh (Aitchison).

These, the only records of the Stock-Dove in Afghanistan, suggest that it

is a winter visitor.

Columba eversmanni Bonaparte.

Specimens collected.—sex? Bharowal Soorgunge near Chughur Serai (Griffith) ;

2 ¢d 3. Q 22-23 April 1885 Tirphul, 2 ¢ 28 ae 1885, Tomam-aghi (Aitchison) ;

sex? 1 June Min Darakht, Maimanah (Yate); 2 ¢ 2 @ 7-10 May Danaghori

2,300 ft., 2 ¢ 20 May 1937 Kunduz 1 00 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Commenting on his series of Eastern Stock-Doves in the above list, Aitcheson

says that they were nesting in trees in the bed of the Hari-Rud river in consi-

derable numbers. Meinertzhagen first met with this bird at Danaghori where

it was quite common, often feeding in. the cultivation and marsh-land with the

Rock-Pigeon but segregated in its breeding area, the groves of mulberry and

old stubs. Birds were flushed from holes in the trees and their organs were

ripe for breeding in the second week of May. They were common also at

Haibak but outnumbered by the Rock-Pigeon. .At Kunduz they were common

and breeding, the Rock-Pigeon being then in a minority. At Kunduz. they

were breeding also in ruined buildings. Six out of fifteen birds shot by Meinertz-

hagen’s party had had their tails recently pulled out, the new feathers being

then in growth.

In Seistan, Cumming only saw a single specimen and that he procured at

Kuhak on 28 April 1005.

Cotumba livia gaddi Zarudny & Louden.

Specimens collected.—Q Khorsa: (Griffith); Q 30 Dec. 1880, '2 4 Jan. 1881,

¢ 20 March 1881 (Swinhoe); juv. 30 Jan. 1881 Kandahar (St. John); sex?

22 Feb. Chahar Shamba. (Yate); sex?- December Lab-i-Baring, 'Q 22 April

1905 (Annandale); ¢ 27 August 1933 Logar 5,700 ft..(Maconachie);. ¢ 16 April

Ghorband 9,000 ft., dG 19 April Balula 8,000 ft., 2 6 20 April Bamian

9,000 ft., go 26 April Akrobat, 3 gS 2 Q 12 May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

The hybridisation of the Blue Rock-Dove with the domestic pigeon appears

to have reached its apogee in Afghanistan and all writers comment on_ this

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN — 463

fact and the varieties of plumage to which it gives rise. Wardlaw-Ramsay

found them common in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,000 ft. in May and June

and attributes their great variation of plumage to hybridisation. Yate (Northera

Alighanistan, p. 46) has the following interesting note:—‘The nearer one gets

to Herat the thicker the pigeons become and the villages round the city simply

swarm with them. The fields are alive with flocks but woe to the man who

shoots them as they are all considered private property and a regular source

of income. The round towers at the corners of the villages are generally made

into pigeon houses in addition to the regular square-built pigeon towers that

one sees dotted about the country. The birds have to be ted throughout the

country or otherwise they go off to a more hospitable place as it is the object

of every owner to tempt as many birds as possible to take up their residence

in his particular tower for the breeding season. A large tower, it is said, will

produce as much as 15 kharwars (1 kharwar=10 maunds Indian) of manure

in a year and the ordinary round bastion-shaped tower at the corner of a

village preduces at least 6 or 7 kharwars. Each kharwar sells at the rate of

15 krans or 6 rupees.’

The Rock-pigeon is found in Seistan (Cumming) and St. John notes that

enormous flocks occur everywhere at Kandahar in winter. They commence

“nesting early in March. Both St. John and Swinhoe discuss the variations in

plumage and their connection with tame _ stock.

The above summary was written before Meinertzhagen’s account appeared

with which it has little agreement. He says that domestic pigeons are not very

usual in Afghanistan and he saw no evidence of feral birds. His account of

what he considered truly wild stock is as follows :—'The Rock-pigeon is appa-

rently resident throughout Noithern Afghanistan up to at least 9,o00 ft. in

suitable localities. At Danaghori they were in about equal numbers’ with

Columba eversmanni, at Haibak the latter was in a minority, but at Kunduz

eversmanni predominated. They were often in small mixed parties and did

not appear to compete one with another. Though eversmanni occasionally nests

in banks and buildings (never in cliffs), the usual nesting site is a hole in a

tree, a situation never used by Rock-pigeons. ;

The largest colony of Rock-Pigeons we saw was at Bamian, where they

had taken advantage of human excavations and were breeding in numbers on

the Buddhas and in the rock-dwellings.’

The two accounts, of course, refer to different areas and are divided by a

number of years so there is not much point in discussing how they may be

reconciled. Both grey-rumped and white-rumped birds eccur throughout the

country. Afghan birds have hitherto been attributed to intermedia or neglecta

but Meinertzhagen who has had the best series for examination attributes his

specimens to the Persian race gaddi and Swinhoe’s and St. John’s specimens

which I have seen would I think pass as that form.

Streptopelia turtur arenicola (Hartert).

Specimens collected.—2 dG 1: @Q 12 May 1885 Khusan (Aitchison); sex?

2 July Chilik, Afghan Turkestan (Yate); Q 4 July 1933 Ashraf Valley 3,700 ft.

“(Maconachie); 2 ¢ 1 9 8 May Danaghori 2,300 ft., 9 20 May 1937 Kunduz

1,400 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Aitchison states that -the Common Turtle-dove suddenly arrived on_ the

Hari-Rud in Jarge flocks about 12 May. Meinertzhagen first met with them at

Danaghori on 8 May where they were common and had just arrived. By

10 May, they were still more abundant and pairs were courting and evidently

preparing to breed. They. were equally abundant at Haibak and Kunduz from

the second week in May and on the return journey they were common at Doshi

on 22 May. Maconachie obtained a female in the Ashraf Valley on 4 July

* ORS

This Turtle-dove evidently does not breed in Southern Afghanistan as_ the

only record is afforded by a specimen Colonel Swinhoe is said to have obtained

at Kandahar. I have not been able to trace it.

Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes). [=ferrago auct.].

Specimens collected.—sex? 23 May, 3 5 June 1879 Byan Khel (Wardlaw-

Ramsay); 2 ¢ 1 May Doshi 2,750 ft., ¢ 13 May Haibak 3,000 ft., g 24 May

1937 Ghorband 8,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

404 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

‘First met with at Doshi, when four birds were seen feeding on fallow land.

Their organs were ripe for breeding. Again at Haibak on 12 May a single

pair was found in the mulberry orchards, another pair at Baghlan on 18 May

and several pairs were found breeding in the Ghorband Valley at about 8,000 ft.

on 24 May where they were absent in mid-April’ (Meinertzhagen).

Apart from the above records, which incidentally confirm the correctness of

keeping orientalis and turtur as separate species, the Eastern Turtle-Dove is

only recorded from the Sufed Koh where Whitehead says it is common in

summer in the woods from 7,000 ft. to tree limit. There Wardlaw-Ramsay says

they arrived at Byan Khel 7,000 ft. in large numbers between 12 and 26 May.

Streptopelia senegalensis ermanni (Bonaparte).

Specimens collected.—2 ¢ 14 May 1937 Haibak 3,000 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen met this race of the Little Brown Dove at Haibalk where

it was breeding in buildings jin mid-May. He also observed it at Kunduz on’

20 May, where there were a few about the old ruined town.

Streptopelia senegalensis cambaiensis (Gmelin).

Specimens collected.— dg 10 March 1879 Kandahar (St. John); ¢-9 19 March

1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); Q 31 June 1933 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie);

31 May 1937 Jalalabad (Meinertzhagen).

_Meinertzhagen found the Little Brown Dove breeding commonly at Jalalabad

on 31 May, on which day a nest with eggs was found. He also observed it

as far west as Nimla; and Maconachie obtained it at Logar on 11 June. It

is presumably a resident in this area as it is in Southern Afghanistan where

St. John and Swinhoe found it common. It commences breeding at Kandahar

in the latter end of February and is very common in the city, nesting in holes

in the mud walls.

Streptopelia chinensis suratensis (Gmelin).

-Nobody has obtained a specimen of the Spotted-dove in Afghanistan but

it is recorded by Hutton who says it is common during the summer at Kandahar.

Meinertzhagen observed it at Nimla and Jalalabad on 31 May but says it was

not common.

Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Irivalsky).

Specimens collected.—2 sex? Chughar Serai, sex? Khursak, 2 ¢ Kabul, sex?

Kandahar (Griffith); ¢ 7 May 1879 Kandahar (St. John); 9 15 Dec. 1880,

Q-14 April 1881 Kandahar, 2 & 1 May 1881 Gungazai (Swinhoe); ¢ 7 May

1905 Khwaja Ahmed (Cumming); ¢ 17 May 1933 Kabul (Maconachie).

~ Wardlaw-Ramsay found the Indian Ring-dove not nearly as abundant as

S.d. meena in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft. He first observed it there on

10 June. At Kandahar, according to Swinhoe, it is common . throughout the

year, avoiding the city and being found in the surrounding gardens. Nests were

being built in April. It must be fairly widely distributed in the country, as

besides the localities provided by the above listed specimens, Meinertzhagen

found a pair breeding in the Legation garden at Kabul on 25 May. He also

observed it on the Upper Kabul. River near the Unai Pass at ‘about 7,000 ft.

in late May and breeding at Jalalabad on 31 May.

Oenopopelia tranquebarica ((Mermann).

Meinertzhagen observed several Red Turtle-Doves in the hotel compound at

Jalalabad on 31 May. Doubtless a summer’ visitor.

Pterocies orientalis (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—¢ Subzeekote, 9 Afghanistan, ¢@ .13 July. 1839. Goj-

haur, 2 25 Oct. 1839 Kabul (Griffith); @ April 1879 Kandahar (St. John);

2 6 1 Q 2-20 Jan. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 9 3 Nov. Kin, 9 5 Nov.,

od 6 Nov. Kagin, ¢ 9 Nov. 1884 Karez dasht, 9 ‘9° 12 March 1885 Gulran

(Aitchison); sex? 1896 Shorawek (Maynard).

The earliest’ record of the Imperial Sandgrouse in Afghanistan is provided

by Vigne (p. 110) though I cannot quite identify his locality. About 12 June

MATERIALS- FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF. AFGHANISTAN 465

1836 he was on the plain of Suliman Khel between Ser-i-Koh and Dsharah

Ridge and relates how his party frequently disturbed the boora korra (black

breast) or large Sandgrouse with its gurgling cry. These birds afforded him

good sport to the delight of the Lohanis many of whom had never seen anything

killed with shot before. These birds must have been on their breeding ground

and it is clear that this species is widely distributed as a breeding bird in

Afghanistan. As regards South-east Afghanistan, St, John says that a few

remain to breed, and Swinhoe adds that they commence pairing early in March,

eggs being said to be laid about the middle of April. This is supplemented by

C. H. T. Marshall (Stray Feathers, vol. viii, p. 492) who says that he has

just heard—possibly from St. John—that P. arenarius was found breeding in

numbers on the Wuzeer Korey plain, about 10 miles from Kandahar. No eggs

were taken as the discoverers’ did not wish to disturb the birds.

In North-west Afghanistan Aitcheson and Yate® (p. 45) found them breeding

in pairs all over the plains “in May and June, the nest being a mere hollow

scratched in the ground by the side of a tuft of wormwood. Yate remarks on

the excellence of the young birds for the table.

It would seem, however, that the Imperial Sandgrouse is found in greater

numbers as a winter visitor or passage migrant. Swinhoe says they are found

in the Kandahar area throughout the year, but St. John says that the majority

of the immense flocks seen in winter move northwards in the spring.

In the North-east, Yate (p. 45) under 14 Sept. 1885 at camp Robat-i-Afghan

says that the Sandgrouse are now appearing in regular flocks and Aitchison

also speaks of them occurring in large flocks during autumn and spring.

Koelz (Proc. Biol. Soc, Washington, vol. 52, p. 81) would separate Afghan

birds as Pterocles orientalis bangsi.

Pterocles alchata (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—@Q Afghanistan (Griffith); 2 dg 18 June, 3 Q nd.

Kham-i-ab, Afghan Turkestan (Yate).

Under the description of the ‘white-breasted pintail Sandgrouse’ Yate men-

tions meeting the Large Pin-tailed Sandgrouse at Khusan on 12 Oct. 1885 and

in May in the desert that lies» between Andkhui and the Oxus. In the latter

area he says he used to see them coming to drink in small numbers wherever

a tew inches of mud and water were left. As Yate’s specimens were obtained

in June it seems safe to assume that this Pin-tailed Sandgrouse breeds in Afghan

Turkestan.

John considered that it bred in the desert between the Helmund and

Kandahar as he met it there in July. He says it is more of a desert form

than arenarius and in consequence not*so generally distributed. At Kandahar

Swinhoe says several flocks were about for a week or ten days about Christmas

time. He killed five from a passing flock about half a mile in front of the

Idghar Gate.

Pterocles coronatus atratus Hartert.

Specimens golllectteel, —2 6d Bassoolah 1,500 ft. (Griffith); ¢ 1896 Shorawak

(Maynard).

St. John says that the Coronetted Sandgrouse is the only small Sandgrouse

of Southern Afghanistan where it is very generally distributed though nowhere

numerous. It is commonly seen in small parties of six or so and is more active

on the ground than other sandgrouse, running about and picking up seeds like

a partridge in contrast with the staid and leisurely movements of arenarius

and alchata. It evidently breeds in the Helmund desert for he found it common

between Kandahar and the river in July.

There is no record of it out of this area.

Pterocles senegallus (Linnaeus).

Specimens ccllected.—J 1: March 1896 Lijjikarez 2,400 ft. (Maynard); 9

21 Dec. 1918 Lutak Road, Seistan, 1,600 ft. (Annandale & Kemp).

According to Cumming this is said to be the common sandgrouse of Seistan

and Annandale & Kemp’s bird, which I have been able to. examine through the

eourtesy of Dr.-Baini Prashad, is certainly a specimen of the Spotted Sandgrouse

though it was recorded as Pterocles arenarius caudacuta (sic).

466 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

[It is not clear whether the Common Sandgrouse (Pterocles senegalensis

ellioti) actually occurs in Afghanistan. Hutton certainly says that it is com-

mon throughout the southern parts of Afghanistan and that he has seen their

nests in August and the young ready to fly by the end of September, but this

seems to have been due to confusion with some other species,

It is useless speculating as to the identity of the pair of sandgrouse Wardlaw-

Ramsay saw flying over the camp in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,o00 ft, at the

same hour in the same direction on three successive evenings. ].

Pucrasia macrolopha castanea Gould.

Specimens collected.—2z2 ¢ Kafaristan.

According to Griffith’s Journal the Koklas was brought in to him at Bala

Chughar Serai on g March 1840.

I can trace no other information about this pheasant in ‘Afghanistan and

the above types are, so far as I know, the only specimens at present existing

in any collection.

Phasianus colchicus principalis Sclater.

Specimens collected.—z ¢ 3 2 29 Dec. 1884, 2 ¢ 3 Feb. 1885 Balamorghab,

rg 2-9 15 Feb. 1885 Karawal Khana, Badghis (Aitchison); ¢ 10 Feb.

Chahar Shamba, ¢ to March’d 20 March Q 26 March @ 25 March Maru-

chak, Murghab (Yate).

The first example of this pheasant to reach the notice of a scientist was

probably the mutilated specimen sent to Hutton (p. 782) from Herat by

Lieut. North of the Bombay Engineers. It was recorded by Blyth under

the name of Phasianus colchicus and from his description appears to have

been an old or barren female in partial male dress.

It remained however for the officers of the Boundary Commission to collect

a good series of skins on which the bird was separated as a distinct species by

Sclater. The Commission found that the pheasant was extraordinarily numerous

in north-west Afghanistan in the swampy tamarisk and grass jungles of the

river beds—jungles where the tiger and the wild pig were also found. Kuhsan

and ‘Tomam-agha on the Hari-Rud; Kara Tepi in the Kushk Valley; Maruchak,

Shukar-Gujar, Karawal Khan, Chahar Shamba, Bokum and Kila Wali, all

in or near the Morghab Valley; and Chashm-i-Sher near the Chahar Dar Pass.

of the Hindu Kush—all these are localities where the birds were found as de-

scribed» by Yate in his ‘Northern Afghanistan or Letters from the Afghan

Boundary Commission’ (pp. 45, 59, 102, I12, 124, 125, 129, 207 and 326) where

a good idea is conveyed of the habits and habitat of the bird. It was then suffi-

ciently numerous for 72 birds to be bagged in the best days shooting and more

than 400 were killed in the march of 30 miles up the Morghab.

The breeding season is fairly early as Yate states on 2 April that the ees

ants were then all breeding, the hens having begun to lay a month previously.

It is curious for English readers to learn of this species that ‘it not only

wades through the water in trying to make from one point of vantage to

another, but swims, and seems to be quite at home in these thickets,. where

there is always water to a depth of two or three feet’. Morning and even-.

ing the pheasants fed on the more open and dry country around. The local

method of riding down the birds on horseback in the snow and catching them

by hand is described by Yate.

Phasianus colchicus bianchii Buturlin.

Specimens collected.—9 ¢ 8 @ 4-9 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertz-

hagen).

‘This pheasant was only met with in the marshes in the Danaghori Plains.

They also occur at Kunduz in similar country, but probably have no _inter-

mediate station owing to lack of suitable country. Birds were laying in the

first week of May. . . . The Danaghori pheasants roost and spend the heat

of the day in the extensive reed-beds, coming out to water-m2adows and crops

in the morning and evening. If flushed they at once make for the reeds,

and if they find one between them and the marshes they fly back over one’s

head. Nothing will drive them from their home’. (Meinertzhagen),

This series was identified’ by Meinertzhagen after comparison with topo-

typical material in the Leningrad Museum.

MATERIALS FOR THE. ORNITHOLOGY. OF- AFGHANISTAN 407

Note.—Three pheasants of the colchicus group are in the Maconachie collec-

tion. Unfortunately they were evacuated from - the British Museum before I

had examined them or ascertained the data.

Lophophorus impejanus (Latham).

The Monal Pheasant according to Whitehead is fairly numerous on the

Sufed Koh from 9,o00 ft. to tree-limit. So Wardlaw-Ramsay’s informants

were right who told him that they had seen the birds on the Safed Koh

and the Peiwar Range and that they were plentiful.

Whitehead met young fairly strong on the wing on 27 July.

In 1840 Griffith notes in his Journal that the Monal is not uncommon on

all the hills about Bala Chughur Serai, the local name being Moorgi Zureen.

Coturnix coturnix coturnix (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—2 6 26-27 April -Tomam-agha, Hari Rud, 9 4 May

Tirphul, Hari-Rud, Q 21 May 1885 Sang-haji, Badghis (Aitchison); ¢ 4 April

Chahar Shamba (Yate) ; é 1g April -Karawal Khana, Murghab, G 6 May

Chahar Shamba (Yate) ; 22 Sept. 1904 Kuhak (Cumming) ; oe 4 May

1934. Bagram (Mconschie) 3 6 22-26 May-April 1937 Bamian = 8,500 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

~ The Common or grey Quail seems to be fairly generally distributed as a breed-

ing bird in Afghanistan. Aitchison says a very few pairs were met with all over

~ Badghis. - St. John says they breed in small numbers in cornfields in the Kandahar

Kuhak 30 March (1 egg), and Kila-i-Konah on 25 April (10 eggs). Cumming

Province. Cumming mentions nests found in 1904 at Zahidan 22 March (1 egg),

also implies that a “few are found in Seistan in. winter. In the. main however

‘the bird is evidently a spring and autumn passage migrant evidently in con-

siderable. numbers. The spring passage takes place in March, April and May.

At Kandahar the Quail. arrives in the middle of March according to Swinhoe

or the end of March according to Hutton. At Bharowal in 1840 Griffith notes

their arrival on 26 April in his. Journal. In the north Meinertzhagen did not

observe Quail until the night. of 20-21 April at Bamian 8,500 ft. when numbers

arrived and the local population turned out to noose them. He noted another

large influx on 26 April but no more were seen, save for a single bird at

Haibak on 15 May. Se eu:

There is little information about the autumn passage save that it takes

place in September and October. Griffith, mentions Quail in his Journal as

abundant at Bamian from 3 to 6 September, at Zohwal on 6 September, abun-

dant at Kurzar 10 September at the Sorkhab River on 9g October and as

scarce ‘at Sultanpur on 20 October. .

Quail are commonly kept by Afghans for fighting and in the spring nearly

every man and boy is seen with one or two about him, often dancing the bird

up and down on the hand to strengthen its legs.

Alectoris graeca (Meisner).

Specimens. collected.—2 sex? Bala Chughur Serai (Griffith); 3 'Q 17 Nov.

Khusan, Hari-Rud, ¢ 28 Nov. Kar-o-bagh, ¢ 16 Dec. 1884 Bala Morghab

(Aitchison); ¢ 1896 Khwaja Amran (Maynard); ¢ 27 August 1933 Logar

5,700 ft. (Maconachie); Q iz April Tangi Gharo, Kabul 5,500 ft., ¢ 6 April

Ghorband 6,000 ft., ¢'2 27 April Dar-e-shikari 8,200 ft:, .Q 22 April 1937

Bamian 10,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Boundary Commission found the Chukor very numerous and in large

‘coveys all over north-west Afghanistan from Khusan to Bala Morghab; and

Yate (p. 56) gives an appreciative picture of the sport to be obtained when a

pack of a hundred or more had been broken up in suitable cover in the bed

of the Hari-Rud. He describes the Iskar Valley. of the Hindu Kush as_ simi-

larly swarming: with chukor. These numbers have now no doubt been reduced

with the general introduction of fire-arms but the bird is apparently still com-

mon. Meinertzhagen says it occurs in suitable country round Kabul north to

Ghorband,.Bamian and Doab but not much further north in spring and sum-

mer. In winter it descends» and is then common at: Doshi,. Danaghori and

Haibak though it does not seem to. breed much below 5,500 ft.

468 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Val. 45

Further to the north-east in Wakhan, Biddulph found the Chukor especially

abundant in the valley between Panjah and Sarhad and the local people were

then accustomed to hawk them.

The bird is also found in the hills of the south-eastern border and White-

head says it occurs up to at least 8,o00 ft. on the Safed Koh.

Meinertzhagen says birds were laying at the end of May in Afghan Turkestan.

and Wardlaw-Ramsay obtained a nest in the Hariab Valley on 16 June.

I am not fully satisfied as to the identity of Afghan Chukor and it may

well be that more than one race occurs within the political boundaries.

Meinertzhagen attributes his series to the race falki and Biddulph calls the

Wakhan birds pallidus, while it seems probable that birds from the south-east

should belong to the Persian and Baluch race koraikovi.

Ammoperdix griseogularis griseogularis (Brandt).

Specimens collected.—Q Bala Chughur Serai (Griffith); dg 29 May 1879.

Kandahar (St. John); @ 5 January 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 8 Nov. 1884

Karez-dasht eee 3 10 March 1896 desert near Gazechah 2,500 ft.

(Maynard); d 5 July 1933 Asraf 3,700 ft. (Maconachie); 2 Q 16-17 May Haibak

3,000 ft., Q 22 May 1937 Barfak 3,o00 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

In his Journal, Griffith says he found the Seesee very common at Jagdulluck

and very abundant at Gundamak and he also met it at Futtehabad and Bala

Chughur Serai. It is now probably less common in those localities as Meinertz-

hagen found it’ decidedly scarce in Northern Afghanistan. In addition to the

three specimens procured he only saw a pair at 10,000 ft. in the Bamian Hills.

on 24 April and another bird at Doab 5,000 ft. on 28 April. Aitchison says

the most northerly locality at which he saw it was at Mont Do-Shakt near

Kilki.

To the south-east it is found in broken and rocky ground by the hills of the

Kandahar area and it was recorded as common by Hutton, St. John and

Swinhoe.

Meinertzhagen’s specimens were breeding in May.

Francolinus francolinus henrici Bonaparte.

Specimens collected.—¢ Kandahar (Griffith); Q 26 Oct. between Padda-

Sultan and De-Kamran, 2 27 Oct. 1884 between De-Kamran and De-Doda

Aitchison; 9Q juv. August 1904 Kuhak (Cumming).

Swinhoe says that a few Black Partridges are to be found in the gardens

near Kandahar and one day he shot five over an Irish Setter. He heard the

characteristic call at Kokeran on the River Argundab. St. John says it is.

found in suitable localities throughout the Kandahar province up to 4,ooo ft.,

being very numerous in the tamarisk jungles of the Helmund and among the

dwarf palms of That Chotial. Throughout Seistan it is—or was in Cumming’s

day—an extremely common bird in the extensive tamarisk jungles which cover

the banks of the numerous streams. Bags of 28 brace and 223 brace were

killed by Major T. W. Irvine and Capt. R. C. Bell who were with the

Mission. Eggs were obtained at Kuhak in April, May and June.

The only specimen I have been able to examine from South Afghanistan is.

Griffith’s Kandahar bird which in my opinion agrees with F. f. henrici.

Hutton remarks on a Kandahar specimen as pale and so does Annandale with

reference to Cumming’s Kuhalx bird. Ticehurst would however assign these

birds to F. f. bogdanowi (Zarudny).

The only other area where the Black Partridge is recorded is between

Padda-Sultan, De-Kamras and De-Doda. Here numbers were shot by Aitchi-

son’s party but only two were preserved. I have examined the De-Kamran

specimen which is in the British Museum and consider it very close to henrici.

though the pngenparte are very pale and lightly marked showing transition to.

avabistanicus.

Tetraogalfus himalayensis himalayensis Gray.

Specimens collected.—Sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); sex? 7 Oct. Dhap Darah,

Hindu Kush (Yate); Q June 1933 Paghman Range (Maconachie); 'Q 21 Aprik

1937 Bamian 10,500 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Griffith specimen may have come from ‘Topehee 9,000 ft. where he

mentions the species under the date 2 Sept. 1840 in his Journal. Meinertzhagen

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 469

says two Snowcock were seen hanging in a shop in Kabul on 13 April. They

were said to have been killed in the Paghman Hills. In the Ghorband Valley

they were heard at 10,000 ft. in mid-April and at Bamian, south of the village,

there were a few at between 9,000 and 12,000 ft. in April. Birds were breed-

ing in the third week in April for the bird he shot had a fully-formed shell-less

egg almost ready for laying.

Yate (p. 330) relates how the Hindu Kush specimen was caught ig a

Sowar under a rock where they had seen it take refuge from the pursuit of an

eagle.. Maconachie’s bird was brought alive from the Paghman Range.

The Snowcock also occurs on the Safed Koh where Whitehead found it

from about 9,000 ft. to the summit in summer though it was rather scarce.

Rallus aquaticusi korejewi Zarudny.

Specimens collected.—d 20 Oct. 1884 between Lundi and Rudbar, Jd 10 Jan

1885 Bala-Morghab (Aitchison); sex? 23 Dec. Maruchak, Morghab (Yate) ;

10 April 1937 Kabul (Meinertzhagen).

The above specimens provide the only records of the Water Rail in Afghan-

istan. ;

Crex crex (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—sex? 7 May Maruchak, Murghab (Yate).

Blyth states, apparently on the authority of a Captain Duncan who brought

specimens, that the Land-Rail 1s a common summer visitor to Afghanistan but

this presumably applies to the north only.

Porzana porzana (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.— dj 10 March 1881 Kandahar (St. John); sex? g April

Karawal Khana, Murghab, sex? 30 April Chahar Shamba, Maimanah (Yate) ;

Q 4 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

In addition to the above records, Blyth says that Barnes procured the

Spotted Crake at Kabul and Hutton that it was shot at Kandahar.

Porzana parva (Scopoli).

Specimens collected.—? 7 Feb., Q 17 Feb., G18 Feb. 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe); 2 6 Sept. 1904 Kuhak ‘ (Cumming),

According to Swinhoe and St. John, the Little Crake is common about the

Kandahar marsh and the wheatfields on its borders about February. Cumming’s

Kuhak specimen was identified by Annandale with some hesitation.

Porzana pusilla pusilla (Pallas).

Specimens collected.—Q 10 Feb., Q 17 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

7 Oct. 1884 between Gaz-i-cha and: Safia (Aitchison); 2 sex? 24 April Kila

Wali, Murghab (Yate); G 5 April Chahzrasia 5,700 ft., @ 7 Sept. 1933 Rahkol

(Maconachie) ; Q@ 10 April 1937 Kabul (Meinertzhagen).

The above records supply our information about the Eastern Baillon’s Crake

in Afghanistan except that Swinhoe says that it is numerous about the Kanda-

har marsh where Hutton also mentions it.

Gallinula chloropus indicus Blyth.

Specimens collected.—sex? Kabul (Griffith); ¢ 7 April 1879 Kandahar (St.

John); sex? Band-i-Seistan (Cumming).

Griffith mentions the Moorhen in his Journal at Shah Bagh on 24 July

1841. It evidently is not common though Blyth mentions it at Kabul, Hutton

Says it was shot at Kandahar in winter and Meinertzhagen says that it was.

often heard in the marshes at Danaghori in May.

Porphyrio poliocephalus (Latham).

Specimens collected.—Q 13 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 sex? Nov.

1934 hear Kabul (Maconachie).

The main stronghold of the Purple Coot in Afghanistan is in the dense

reed-beds of the Naizars of Seistan where it is numerous though seldom seen.

Cumming obtained some live specimens which took kindly to captivity and

470 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

lived with the chickens belonging to the Mission boatmen; and Swinhoe also

mentions a tame bird which lived in the transport square at Kandahar all the

winter, Meinertzhagen says that a few birds are shot in the winter round

Kabul by sportsmen out after snipe. ;

Fulica atra atra Linnaeus.

Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 29 March 1885 Kalla-i-Maur, Badghis

(Merk) ; sex? March Andkhui (Scully); $2 9 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring 1,600 ft.

(Annandale). : Gone: ;

The Coot is very abundant in enormous flocks in the reed-beds of- the

Naizars and the Hamuns of Seistan, according to both Cumming and Annan-

dale. It is resident and Cumming took three clutches of eggs near Adimi on

14 March 1904. Large numbers are caught for food in nets stretched across

channels in the reed-beds. These nets are hung on sticks stuck in the mud

the lower edge being in the water and the upper edge about 2 ft. above the

surface. The flocks are driven into the nets with the aid of rafts.

Elsewhere the Coot seems to be a winter visitor or passage migrant, being.

particularly common in the reedy moat of the old city of Kandahar where

Swinhoe says it arrived in enormous numbers in February. Meinertzhagen saw

several hanging up for sale in Kabul on 13 April. :

Specimens collected.—j 22 Feb. 1879 Kandahar (St. John) 94) O-17=26

Grus feucogeranus Pallas. |

Blyth (apud Hutton, p. 791) states that the Great White Crane was procured

at Kabul by Sir Alexander Barnes.

Grus grus (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—sex? 7 Feb. 1903 Khwaji Ali (Cumming).

Anthropoides virgo (Linnaeus).

There is no doubt that most of the cranes which visit the. Punjab on winter

must pass over Afghanistan on passage, but there are very few actual records

-of the fact. s

lor the spring passage Whitehead remarks that ‘Residents at Parachinar

say that. Cranes on migration fly straight over the Safed Kob Range (lowest

point 11,760 ft.) and not round the western- shoulder, but that they are fre-

quently forced to turn back by storms. Major Magrath, too, has often observed

them returning south-east to Bannu after a storm’.

Cumming mentions the above specimen which was shot by Col. A. H.

McMahon on the banks of the Helmund on 7 Feb. 1903 and says that. he him-

‘self saw a flight passing over the Mission Camp at Kuhak on 30 March 1905.

At Kabul Meinertzhagen was informed that cranes pass north in large

numbers in spring during the first half of April. e

For the autumn’ we have the authority of Yate (p. 56). At camp Khusan

in- October 1885 he noted that large flocks were seen daily wending their way

south doubtless on the road to India.

These records appear under the names’of one or other of the two species,

the Common Crane and the Demoiselle, but I have combined them because in

my experience the identifications of cranes in the field are usually quite un-

reliable (though they are ‘not difficult to separate by those who know the dis-

tinguishing points). The-single specimen collected at Khwaji Ali has in fact

appeared in print in different papers under both names in turn. Both species

do however migrate through. Afghanistan as. Meinertzhagen saw « Demoiselle

hanging in a poulterer’s shop in Kabul on 13 April and Barnes figured a speci-

men from Kabul as the ‘Shuck Duruck’. ;

Otis tarda dybowskii Taczanowski.

Specimens coilected.—¢ 29 Jan. 1885 Bala-Morghab (Aitcheson); sex? Jan.

1935 Danaghori 2,000 ft. (Maconachie). = f

Aitchison’s specimen of the Great Bustard was shot by Lieut. Rawling out

of a fleck of seven. Weight 17 lbs.; weight of solid vegetable matter in the

gizzard 2 lbs.; spread 7 ft. 4 :in. This flock had been seen for fully a month

in the vicinity and one had apparently been killed by a wild animal as feathers

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN .471

were picked up in large quantities. The bird was shot when the flock had

been seen to alight on the top of a small hill with extremely precipitous sides,

up which the sportsmen climbed. The stench of the bird was so great that

the carcase was nearly abandoned by Mr. Rawlins.

Meinertzhagen ascertained that the Great Bustard is a regular winter visitor

to the Danaghori Plains but it had just gone by the first week in May. Maco-

nachie’s specimen confirms this locality.

Tetrax tetrax orientalis Hartert.

Specimens collected.—sex? Koolsei near Khujah (Griffith); Q Nov. 1880

Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 12 March Maruchak, Murghab, sex? Dec. Chaman-

i-Bed, Badghis (Yate). ‘ |

The Little Bustard would seem to be a winter visitor to Kandahar. The

above records are supplemented by St. John who says that he saw several

specimens shot by sportsmen at Kandahar and once put up one himself when

riding across country 12 miles south of that city in April.

Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni (Gray).

Specimens collected.—Q 12 Feb. 1881 Abdul Rahman (Swinhoe); sex? Shora-

wak (Maynard); :Q 25 March 1934 Logur 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

~The Houbara Bustard is fairly plentiful in Seistan during the spring accord-

ing to Cumming, being found on the dasht salt-covered plains and sand-hills-

near cultivation. Four birds were trapped by Seistanis near Ziarat-i-Bibi Dost

between Zahidan and Nasratabad and brought into camp at Kuhak on 18 March

1905. Several were subsequently seen about Sabzkim, Zaridan and elsewhere.

The Biluch Nomads: said that the birds bred locally but Cumming’ was unable

to establish this point... Eastwards round Kandahar St. John said it was com-

mon on the edge of the desert but did not breed there. Swinhoe mentions a

specimen shot at Maiwand by Capt.e Cuthill in February. Maconachie’s bird

was presumably on passage.

Burhinus oedicnemus (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—sex? 11 March 1885 Gulran (Aitchison).

Whitehead states (on the authority of Mr. Donald) that the Stone-Plover

occurs commonly on the boundary cf Afghanistan in the desert country between

Jamrud and the Khyber Pass. The above specimen supplies my only record

actually within the country. It is in the British Museum (wing 237 mm.,

tail 117 mm.) and is labelled as astutus but it appears to me in colour to be

very close to the typical race.

Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier).

Cumming states that c/2 slightly incubated eggs of the Great Stone-Plover

were found by some camel men at Kuhak not far from the Rud-i-Seistan and

brought to him on 5 June 1904. As this would be an extension of range for

this species and the measurements given (2.06X1.5 in.) would pass for extremes

of either this species or the last, the inclusion of the G'reat Stonme-Plover in

the Afghan list needs confirmation.

Cursorius cursor cursor (Latham). ; :

Specimens collected.—Q 19 March Gulran, ¢ 8 June 1885 Karez, Khorasan

(Aitchison); G 13 March 1896 Lajjikarez 2,400 Lite (Maynard) ; sex? March

1903° Nadali, Helmund, 2 sex? April 1903 Khwaja Ahmed (Cumming).

Aitcheson says that the Cream-coloured Courser was very common but very

wary on the great gravel plains of the north-west and Cumming says that it

is found all along the Helmund and its numerous branches. He adds that he

had seen them in April so doubtless they breed there. :

Glareola pratincola pratincola (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—@Q 23 April 1879 Kandahar (St. John). ;

This specimen, now in the British Museum, provides the only record of the

Common Pratincole in Afghanistan.

472 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 45

Glaieola lactea Temminck.

Two specimens from Jelalabad taken in March 1840 are listed in the

Worcester MS. list in the British Museum.

Larus ichthyaetus Pallas.

Specimens collected.—sex? 14 April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan (Biddulph); sex?

March 1904 Seistan (Annandale).

According to Cumming the Great Black-headed Gull is fairly common in

Seistan. A live bird was captured on 2 April 1904.

Larus ridibundus ridibundus Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—d 30 Dec. 1880 Kandahar, 2 ¢ 13 Feb. Argandab

River, -6 24 Feb., .¢ 26 Feb.; 9 11 March, 9-17 March, 1881 Kandahar

{Swinhoe); Q 12 March 1885 Gulran (Aitchison); sex? 18 March Maruchakk,

Morghab (Yate); sex? Jan. 1904 Seistan (Cumming); sex? 11 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-

Baring (Annandale).

The Black-headed Gull is a common winter visitor to Kandahar according

to St. John and Swinhoe, and the latter says that they started arriving about

‘Christmas, remaining on the marsh in large packs. The above specimens com-

plete our information about the species.

Larus genei Brome.

Specimens collected.—2 @ 26 April 1905 Kuhak (Cumming).

Cumming shot the above specimens of the Slender-billed Gull at Kuhals from

a small flock which flew overhead.

Blyth (apud Hutton, p. 792) mentions a gull which is figured in Burnes’

drawings (of which the originals are in the Indian Museum, Calcutta) as ‘shot

at Cabul in the middle of February: a bird of passage’. He gives a very good

‘description which in my opinion clearly refers to this species.

Larus sp. ?

Large gulls of the argentatus-fuccus group occur in Afghanistan and there

are the following records which I am not able to identify more exactly :—

(a) Larus fuscus. The adult and young are figured by Burnes from Kabul

(Hutton, p. 792). )

(b) A bird in juvenile plumage in the British Museum labelled 1 Nov. 1879

Kandahar (St. John) was called Larus affinis by Howard Saunders.

argentatus cachinnans by Annandale.

Chlidonias hybrida indica (Stephens).

Specimens collected, sex? 29 May 1840 (Griffith); 2 ¢ 31 May 1937 Kabul

5,800 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen found hundreds of whiskered-terns on a shallow area of

flooded land near Kabul on 31 May.

Hydroprogne caspia caSpia (Pallas).

Specimen collected.—Q 26 April 1905 Kuhak (Cumming).

The above specimen was one of a pair. Cumming says that the Caspian

Tern was common in Seistan but he does not mention its status.

Gelochelidon nilotica nilotica (Gmelin).

Specimens collected.—sex? Jelalabad (Griffith); sex? R. Oxus, sex? 12 June

1886 Kham-i-ab, R. Oxus (Yate). |

Cumming says that the Gull-billed Tern was common in Seistan and that

some pairs were flying about on 22 April. Status uncertain. This and the

Little Tern are evidently the species of Tern referred to by Yate (p. 245) as

hovering over the pools of water caused by the overflow from the canals.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AEGHANISTAN 473

[Sterna melanogaster Temminck.

| Cumming says that only a few Black-bellied Terns were seen in

Seistan and that it was less common than in India, As no- specimens were

collected I feel inclined to suggest that the birds seen were in reality Whisker-

-ed-term. |

Sterna hirundo hirundo Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.— 2 28 April. 1905 Seistan (Cumming); Q 10 May 1937

‘Danaghori (Meinertzhagen). it:

Cumming says that the Common Tern was common in Seistan. Meinertz-

hagen found a few feeding on the open waters on the Danaghovi Plains in

the second week in May,

Sterna albifrons Vroeg.

Specimens collected.—sex? 12 June 1886 Kham-i-ab, R. Oxus (Nate) ie OR

May Khwaja Ahmed, 3 6 May, gd 7 May 1905 Nasratabad (Cumming).

The above specimens supply the only records of the Little. Tern except

that Cumming, who says that it is common in Seistan, found pairs flying

about on 5 May 1905.

[Leucopolius alexandrinus alexandrinus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—j 9 February, 3 27 February 1881 Kandahar (Swin-

hoe). Swinhoe and St. John say that the Kentish-plover is common jn winter

in the Kandahar area.

Haematopus ostralegus Linnaeus.

Blyth (apud Hutton p. 789) says of the Oyster-catcher ‘Tertah-wuck of

‘Cabul.. Also procured by Sir A. Burnes’ but I can find no further information

about it. |

Charadrius dubius curonicus Gmelin.

Specimens collected,—2 sex? Kandahar (Griffith); ¢ 23 April 1879 Kandahar

(St. John); Q 27 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); @ 20 April 1885 Tirphul,

Hari-Rud (Aitchison); 2 sex? 1ro April Karawal Khana, Murghab (Yate); ¢

@ 31 March 1896 Lijjikarez 2,400 ft. (Maynard); ¢ 1 April 1904, Q 9 May

1905 Kuhak (Cumming); @ 16 April 1933, Q@ 2 May 1934 Kabui 5,700 ft.,

3 21 June 1934 Logar 5,700 ft. (Maconachie); 3 ¢§ 2 Q 6-7 April 1937 Kabul

(Meinertzhagen).

The Little Riged-plover is rather plentiful along the banks of rivers and

streams in Seistan according to Cumming and as he saw some there in

summer he considered that it most probably bred in the country.

In the Kandahar area it is common in winter according to both St. John

and Swinhoe, the former adding that it stays until April.

In Northern Afghanistan, Meinertzhagen. considered it to be only a_ bird

of passage. He found it not uncommon in large wisps round water near

Kabul in early April and many were seen in « poulterer’s shop. A pair on

passage on top of the Shibar Pass at 9,000 ft. on 18 April. At Bamian

on 19 April a flock of eight arrived in the morning and remained throughout

that day. Burnes procured it at Kabul.

It will be noticed however that Maconachie obtained a male at Kabul

on 21 June and it seems difficult: to believe that the bird does not breed

more widely in Afghanistan than these records suggest.

I have combined all these records under the race curonicus as some of

the specimens undoubtedly belong to it and it is the most likely form to

occur. Annandale however records Cumming’s birds from Kuhak as jerdoni

-and Maconachie’s Logar bird (wing 109.5 mm) would certainly pass as that

form.

Cirrepidesmus mongolus atrifrons Wagler.

Specimen collected.—@ 13 March 1896 Lijjikarez 2,400. ft. (Maynard).

This affords the only record of the Lesser Sand-Plover which must be a

spassage migrant.

474, JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

‘Cirrepidesmus leschenaultii Lesson.

- Specimen collected.—¢ 1896 Shorawak (Maynard).

The Large Sand-Plover must also be a passage migrant but this is the

only record.

Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin). |

Specimen collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith).

“St. John says that he shot a Golden Plover near Khalat-Ghilzai in October

1879 which he was unable to preserve but which he took to belong to the

eastern form as the axillaries were not white.

Golden Plovers of sorts were seen by the officers of the Seistan Mission.

Vanellus yanellus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—¢ 9 24 Nov., $ 92 26 Dec. 1880, 9 11 Feb. 1881 -Kan-

dahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 16 Nov. 1884 between Zind-i-jan and Roznak, 2 16 Jan.

1885 Bola-Morghab (Aitchison); sex? a1 Feb. Chahor Sramba, Maimanah

(Scully); Q@ 29 Oct. 1933 ¢G 28 Feb. 1934 Bagrami:5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

The Lapwing is evidently only a winter visitor to Afghanistan. It is

common in the Kandahar area according to St. John and Swinhoe and Cum-.

ming says it occurs in Seistan. Hutton lists it for Kabul. The only other

details are afforded by the above records.

Chettusia gregaria (Pallas).

Specimen collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); Q 20 Oct. 1934 Kalayal

(Maconachie).

The only records of the Sociable Lapwing.

Chettusia leucura (Lichtenstein).

3 sex? Otipore (Griffith); ¢ 19 Dec. 1880, 2 15 March,.

Specimens collected. e

3S 28 March, Q 31 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 sex? 12 June Kham-

i-ab, R. Oxus (Yate), Q Robat (Maynard); @ March 1903 Nadali, Helmund,

@ 23 March 1903 Shahgul on Rud-i-Pariun (Annandale); ¢ 6 May 1905.

Nasratabad (Cumming).

According to St. John and Swinhoe the White-tailed Lapwing is very common

all the winter about Kandahar, but Cumming’s specimen was the only one

met in the Seistan area. Burnes procured it at Kabul. The only other

information is supplied by the above records,

Lobivanellus indicus aigneri Laubmann.

Specimens collected.—@2 21 Feb...¢ @ 25 Feb., ‘¢ 15 March 1881 Kan-

dahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 14 March 1896 Duganan 3,500 ft. (Maynard). |

According to St. John and Swinhoe the Red-wattled Lapwing is common

everywhere in the Kandahar area.

Himantopus himantopus himantopus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—¢ 27 March, ¢ 5 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;:

sex? R. Oxus, sex? 12 June Kham-i-ab (Yate); Q 4311 March 18096 Lijjilxarez

2,400 ft, (Maynard); ¢ 3 March, 2 3 Sept. 1904 Kuhak, @ 24 April 1905

Khwaja Ahmed (Cumming). .

According to his Journal Griffith met with the Black-winged Stilt at Koonur

(Kunar) on 31 March 1840 and at Chughar Serai-i-Pushat on 28 Nov. 1840.

Yate’s specimen from Kham-i-ab on 12 June suggests that there may be

breeding places in Northern Afghanistan and Cumming says that two birds.

were shot at Nasratabad by Mr. McManus on 13 May 1905.

In the main however the Stilt is evidently a passage migrant both in

spring and autumn. Meinertzhagen saw several in a poulterer’s shop at ‘Kabul-

on 13 April. St. John says they were common in early winter and spring

at Kandahar, his specimens being shot on 22 February and g April. Swinhoe

says they arrived at Kandahar in some numbers in the middle of March.

Cumming’s specimens from Kuhak (3 March and 3 September) and Khwaja

Ahmad (24 April) agree with this status while the two Nasratabad_ birds

(13 May) may have been only late migrants. |

*-MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY. OF AFGHANISTAN = 475

Recurvirostra avosetta Linnaeus.

Griffith mentions the Avocet in his Journal as seen at Pushut-Chughar

Serai on 28 Nov. Otherwise it is only recorded by Meinertzhagen who saw

some in a poulterer’s shop at Kabul on 13 April.

Numenius arquata (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith).

Blyth lists the Curlew from Kabul (apud Hutton p. 790.). Cumming says

it is very common along the shores of the Hamuns of Seistan in winter.

Limosa limosa (Linnaes).

Specimens collected—Q 2 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ 6 May

1905 Nasratabad (Cumming); 2 ¢ 12 December 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale).

Cumming’s specimen of the Black-tailed Godwit, which was said to be

largely in breeding plumage, was secured on 6 May by Mr. E. A. McManus

from a flock of about zo birds.

Annandale found this species feeding in large flocks at the edge of the

Hamun in December. He watched them continuously grubbing in the mud

where he himself could find no living thing. An examination of their stomach

contents, however, shewed that they were feeding on the seeds of water

plants which were doubtless lying dormant ready to sprout when the flood

season began. -

At Kandahar Swinhoe shot the above specimen out of a number which

appeared to be on passage. There is evidently some mistake about Hutton’s

statement that this godwit is common all the year.

Tringa ochropus Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—sex? Pushut (Griffith); gd 30 Dec. 1880, 92 6 January,

S .1 February, G 9 February 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 9 Dec. 1884

between Ab-i-Kamarra and Ab-i-Shora, Q 1 April 1885 Gulram (Aitchison) ;

sex? 14 April Karawal Khana, Murghab (Yate); Q Shorawak (Maynard) ;

Sa B SEs 1933 Sar-i-chashma 9,000’ (Machonachie); 2 Q 13 April Ghorband

6,700 ft., 2 ¢ 18 April 1937 ‘(Ghorband 8,200 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Apart from the above records Swinhoe and St. John found the Green

‘ Sandpiper common everywhere in the Kandahar area in winter. In the North

Meinhertzhagen met with it on passage, He says :—Common in the Ghorband

Valley in flocks of from eight to fifteen birds in mid-April and were on passage

being atrociously fat. At Bamian they were also in flocks, up to twenty birds,

on 23 and 24 April. There were several single birds at Danaghori in. the

marshes on 7 and 8 May.

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein).

The Marsh Sandpiper was noted only at Danaghori on g May, when

a pair was seen, and at Haibak, when three Were seen on flooded fields.

(Meinertzhagen).

Tringa hypoleucos Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—sex? 18 May Darband-i-Kel Rekhta, Murghab, sex?

22 May Maruchak (Yate); Q 27 August 1933 Logar 5,700, ft. (Maconachie) ;

3 92 14-18 April, Q 24 May 1937 Ghorband (Meinertzhagen).

Both St. John and Swinhoe say that the Common Sandpiper is commen

in summer in the Kandahar area but no doubt they are referring to non-

breeding birds as this species is not likely to be breeding in Southern Afghanistan.

It might, however, breed in the Hariab Valley 7,000-8,000 ft. as Wardlaw-

Ramsay found a few pairs about the river there in May,

It certainly breeds in Northern Afghanistan. Meinertzhagen found that

it had already arrived on the mountain streams by the first week in April

and a pair was observed in copula in the Ghorbund Valley on 15 April. Ob-

served also in breeding pairs on: the river at Doab and Doshi in late April

and early May, On the return journey they were noticed breeding in the

Ghorbund and. Paghman Valleys during the last week of May. Yate’s speci-

mens suggest that they breed in the north-west.

476 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. “45

Meinertzhagen also observed passage movement for birds were found at

Bamian in flocks of twenty individuals on 24 April in association with

the Green Sandpiper and all had gone by the following morning.

Tringa glareola Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—Q 1 May 1881 Gungazai (Swinhoe); Q 5 May Khawja

Ahmed Q@ 7 May 1905 Nasratabad (Cumming); @ 6 August 1933 Bagrami

Asia 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

The Wood Sandpiper was numerous in May in Seistan according to Cum-

ming and the above specimens show that it passes through on both migra-

tions. It is common according to St. John. Meinertzhagen saw three at

Danaghori on 8 May in the marshes.

Tringa tetanus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—@ 9 January, @ 11 January, ¢ 24 January, ¢ 9

February, ¢ 30 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? January, sex? n.d.,

sex? 7 January 1904 Seistan (Cumming); 2 20 May 1937 Khanabad 1,600 ft.

(Meinertzhagen).

Swinhoe says that the Redshank is common throughout the winter on the

banks of the Argendab River and St. John says that it stays till the middle

of Aprii. It also occurs in Seistan.

Meinertzhagen’s specimen showed slight ovary development but he does

not throw light on whether it appeared to be on its breeding ground.

Owing to the war I have not been able to examine the above specimens

but Meinertzhagen calls his bird terrignotae.

Glottis nebularia (Gunnerus).

Specimens collected— i 6 January, 2 Q 8 February 1881 Kandahar (Swin-

hoe); sex? 6 Sept. 1933 Farakhulm 9,300 ft. (Maconachie).

Both St. John and Swinhoe say that the Greenshank is fairly common

in winter in the Kandahar area and Swinhoe says that it appeared to leave

early in March.

Philomachus pugnax (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); 2 dG 4 March, ¢ 9

March, Q@ 11 March, @ 15 March, @ 22 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

sex? 14-23 April 1874 Panjah, Walthon (Biddulph); ¢ 19 February Q 4 April

Chahar Shamba (Yate); sex? 1 March 1903 Shaharistan, Seistan (Annandale).

The Ruff and Reeve are common spring passage migrants in Afghanistan,

passing through “all parts of the country, mostly about the beginning of March. ~

Earliest date 19 February. Meinertzhagen saw a, few Reeves, but ‘no Ruffs,

in the marshes at Danaghori in 6 and 8 May.

Erolia minuta minuta (Leisler).

Specimen collected.—Q 5 April 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe). — an

Both Swinhoe and St. John call the Little »Stint a summer visitor to

Kandahar but this is of course a mistake for spring passage migrant. Swinhoe

says he saw several at Kandahar just before he left and he again saw

it at Gungazi, Syed Yarroo and Kushdil Khan (in Baluchistan) ‘in the begin-

ning of May.

Hutton obtained it at Kandahar and Burnes .at Kabul.

Erolia temminckii (Leisler).

According to Blyth Temminck’s Stint was obtained by Burnes at Kabul.

Meinertzhagen saw a few singly and in pairs on the Danaghori marshes in

the first week of May.

Frolia alpina alpina (Linnaeus). - ,

» December, ¢@ 8 December, 2 6 13. Dec. 1918.

ee 5

Specimens collected.—Q 7

This affords the only record of the Lesser Sand-Plover which must be a

Lab-i-Baring (Annandale).

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 477

Annandale remarks that these 4 specimens of the Dunlin have wings 108-

115 mm., so they must belong to the typical form. No other record.

Scolopax rusticola Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—sex? 3 February Chahar Shamba, Maimanah (Yate) ;

Q 26 Dec. 1931 Chailtan 5,900 ft. (Machonachie). |

The Woodcock is a winter visitor to Kandahar—as Hutton, St. John and

Swinhoe all record—first arriving about October or early in November and

increasing with the cold weather about Christmas time and leaving about

February or March. A favourite locality is the Arghundab River above Kan-

dahar where extensive orchards and vineyards provide satisfactory cover. Swin-

hoe says the largest bag he had heard of was five in one day and Swinhoe

‘mentions 20 killed in two days by two guns. Cumming says that one or two

only were noted in Seistan. The only other records are provided by the above

specimens,

Capella solitaria (Hodgson).

Specimens collected,—sex? Jugdulluck (Griffith); sex? 8 October Deli Tang,

Ghorband (Yate);.:2 26 Dec. 1931 Chohiltan 5,900 ft. (Maconachie); ¢ 9

April 1937 Paghman 8,ooo ft. (Meinertzhagen).

There is no other information about the Solitary Snipe except Meinertz-

hagen’s statement that his bird was one of a pair, doubtless in their winter

quarters, on the rocky stream of the Paghman Valley amid snow and _ ice.

Capelia gallinago gallinago (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—sex? Pushut (Griffith); dG 19 October 1884 between

Hadj-Ali and Lundi, 2 17 January Bala-Morghab ¢G 19 March 1885 Gulran

(Aitchison); sex? 5 February Chahar Shamba, Maimanah (Yate); ¢G 13 March

1896 Lijjikarez (Maynard); Q 10 May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

The Common or Fantail Snipe is evidently a winter visitor and passage

migrant to the whole of Afghanistan from early in September until well

into April. In Seistan, snipe settle in large wisps in the dense reed-beds of

the Naizars according to Cumming. At Kandahar they swarmed in the large

marsh outside the south gate, according to St. John, though better bags were

to be made along the watercourses and in the inundated fields. The only

idea of the numbers obtainable by sportsmen is given by Cumming who says

that 185 couple on 6 January 1905 was the largest bag for the Mission

sportsman. Meinertzhagen says that fairly large bags are made round Kabul

in March and April during passege. He noticed a few passing through Barnian

on 26 April. On 7 May at Danaghori several wisps of a dozen birds or

sO were seen. passing north at 6-30 p.m. and about a hundred feet up,

calling loudly as they went and other birds from the marshes were seen

to respond with a loud call and rise up to and join the migrating party.

At Danaghori there were one or two single birds in the marshes’ which

may or may not have been going to breed. The female obtained showed

slight ovary development.

Capella stenura (Bonaparte).

_ Cumming says that the Pintail Snipe is common in winter with the Fan-

tail in Seistan, settling in big flocks in the dense reeds of the Naizars. There

must be some mistake about this record, possibly confusion with the Great

Snipe Capella media].

Lymnocryptes minima (Briinnich).

Specimens collected.—2 sex? Pushut (Griffith); G 19 Oct. 1884 between

Hadj-Ali and Lundi, g 5 March 1885 Glran (Aitchison).

In North-west Afghanistan the Jack Snipe was seen occasionally all over

the country according to Aitcheson and it will be noticed that his specimens

give arrival and departure dates of 19 Oct. and 5 March. Cumming says

this species is moderately numerous in Seistan, At Kandahar St. John says

that it arrives later and leaves earlier than the Fantail and Swinhoe says

it came in with the very cold weather about Christmas, was fairly plentiful

all through January and then disappeared again, :

Meinertzhagen says there were many in the Kabul marshes on_ spring

passage in the first week of April, as many as fifteen being shot in a day.

In fact they then seemed to be more abundant than Fantails.

Griffith mentions in his Journal that the Jack Snipe was common at

Bala Chughur Serai on 3 March.1840 and he notes it again at Pushut on 31 -

March 1840.

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—sex? 17 April 1840 Jellalabad (Griffith).

Hutton says that the Painted Snipe occurs at Kandahar.

Pelecanus onocrotalus Linnaeus.

Hutton describes a specimen of the White Pelican which he says was

shot in a pool of water at Kandahar. It was alone and from its emaciated

condition appeared to have alighted from fatigue. Several were brought into

Kandahar, he continues, which had been found ‘sitting on the rocks far from

any water.and had offered no resistance to capture. All these birds he consi-

dered stragglers from the large flocks that arrived on passage at the begin-

ning of March, travelling eastwards.

Cumming also mentions a live specimen brought to Col. A. H. McMahon

at Natali on 6 March 1903. This may have been the same bird as_ the

unlabelled specimen which Annandale lists as a very typical example of this

species:

As Yate (Northern Arghanistan, p. 56) remarks under Camp Kuhsan, Oct.

1885, that now and then” a flock of Pelicans ‘were seen travelling south, this

bird would seem to pass over Afghanistan on both passages.

Cumming saw two large Pelicans (species unidentified) on the Hamun-i-

Sabari on 12 January 1905.

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis (Shaw & Nodder).

Specimens collected.—Q 14 March, 2 16 March 1881 Arghandab River

(Swinhoe); sex? 19 March Maruchak, Badghis (Yate); sex? Feb. 1904 Seistan

(Annandale).

Griffith describes in his Journal two cormorants ‘distinct from any I have

seen hitherto, very black with some white marks. The common black one also

seen.” This was at Bala Chughur Serai on 16 March 1840.

St. John says the cormorant is occasionally seen on the Arghandab River

but is not common. Swinhoe’s two specimens were the only ones he saw.

In Seistan, cormorants are common. Annandale says they are captured and

shot in large numbers by the Saiyids. The down from the breasts is sometimes

mixed with the soft wool out of which the felt hats worn by Persians are made.

Scully says that the Maruchak specimen is in full breeding plumage.

Phalacrocorax niger (Vieillot).

Specimens collected.i—sex? 28 Dec. 1884, Q 12 Jan., Q Jan. 1885 Bala

Morghab (Aitchison).

The only records of the Little Cormorant.

Phalacrocorax pygmaeus (Pallas).

Specimen collected.— Q 7. May 1937 Danaghori 2,300 ft. (Meinertzhagen).

Meinertzhagen says that the Pygmy Cormorant was not uncommon at Dana-~

ghori but he found no evidence of nesting though the large reed-beds were

ideal for it.

Platalea leucorodia Linnaeus.

' Specimens collected.—2 sex? 25 March 1885 Kalla-i-Maur, Badghis (Aitchi-

son);. ¢ 4 June 1931. Bagram 4,900 ft. (Maconachie). aaded

The Spoonbill was procured at Kabul by Sir A, Burnes. St. John says that

he saw one at Khalat-i-Ghilzai and heard of others being shot. The specimens

complete the records, but Maconachie’s bird was received from. captivity.

It should however be recalled that Magrath and Whitehead were standing

on the Peiwar Kotal (8,200 ft.) on 30 April 1906 when « flock of about 20 Spoon-

bills came up from the ISurram and passed overhead—but apparently not

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 479

relishing the strong north-west wind which met them as they topped the Kotal

(i.e. pass) they wheeled round and flew back down the valley’ (Ibis, 1909,

p- 278).

Plegadis falcinellus (Linnaeus).

_ Specimens collected.—sex? Pushut, sex? Afghanistan (Griffith); sex? 14-23

April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan (Biddulph).

From Griffith’s Journal it is probable that his Pushut specimen was obtained

a 31 March 1840. Sir A. Burnes met with the Glossy Ibis at Kabul and

. John says that a solitary bird is found here and there about the Kandahar

area. Meinertzhagen saw a flock of twelve birds at Danaghori feeding in the

marsh on 6 and 7 May. A second and larger flock was seen in a marsh near

Kabul on 31 May.

Caiconia ciconi (Linnaeus).

John says that the White Stork is occasionally noted at Kandahar: on

spring and autumn passage but curiously enough no one else has recorded it.

Ciconia nigra (Linnaeus).

Meinertzhagen met with a single Black Stork in the stream-bed of the

Bamian Valley on 27 April. It was very wild, rising at 500 yards and sitting

en a rock so situated that he could see all around him. Blyth says that Burnes

procured this species at Kabul.

Ardea cinerea Linnaeus.

~ Specimens collected.—¢ 12 Dec., @ 17 Dec. 1880, g 2 Jan., ¢ 26 Feb.

1881 (Swinhoe); sex? Feb. 1903 Khwaja Ali, sex? Dec. 1904 Farrah Rud (Cum-

ming); ¢G 26 March 1933 Jebel Siraj 5,400 ft. (Maconachie).

The Heron is common in winter in the Kandahar area according to St.

John and Swinhoe and Cumming found it in Seistan. Whether it breeds in

the country is unknown. Sir Alexander Burnes obtained it at Kabul and

Meinertzhagen saw specimens thére for sale on 13 April. The latter saw several

every day in the marshes at Danaghori in the second week in May and a

single bird at Kunduz on 21 May.

Egretta alba alba (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—¢ 24 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢G 11 June

1933 Kabul 5,700 ft. (Maconachie).

Meinertzhagen-' saw two specimens of the Large Egret near Kabul,

namely a tired bird resting on ploughed land on 11 April and a ‘second bitd

in a marsh on 31 May. The late date of Maconachie’s bird should be noted.

According to St. John and Swinhoe it is not uncommon about Kandahar, the

latter considering it a winter visitor leaving about the end of March.

Herodias garzetta (Linnaeus).

According to Blyth the Little Egret was obtained by Sir Alexander Burnes

> Kabul but there is no other record.

AS ‘

Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected.—Q 1 May. 1934 Jalalabad 1,800 ft. (Maconachie).

Meinertzhagen saw six Night Herons at Kunduz on 20 May flying over

the marshes «et dusk. In addition to Maconachie’s specimen and St. John’s

statement that there was a small colony in a garden near Kandahar this bird

is only recorded by Hutton as found in the winter on the banks of the larger

rivers. a

Ixobrychus minuta minuta (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—sex? 28 April, sex? 1 May, sex? 15 June 1879 Kanda-

har (St.- John); sex? April..1903 Khwaja Ali (Cumming); ¢@.27 May. 1934

Bagrami 5,700 ft. (Maconachie). ;

These records are only supplemented by St. John’s remark that the Little

Bittern is not uncommon at Kandahar in summer. - e a

480. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. (45

Botaurus stellacis stellaris (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected—Q 18 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 ¢ 1 Q

29 Dec. 1884 Bala Morghab, ¢ 15 Feb. 1885 Karawal Khana, Bedghis (Aitchi-

son); sex? Dec. 1904 Farrah Rud (Cumming); 9 15 March 1933 Bagrami

5,700 ft. (Maconachie); ¢ 10 April 1937 Kabul (Meinertzhagen).

The Bittern appears to be very generally distributed in Afghanistan. At

Kunduz on 20 May Meinertzhagen heard continuous booming in the marshes

towards sunset and one is probably justified in believing that the birds were on

their breeding ground. In the Morghab in winter Aitchison found it very

common, living in exactly the same places as the pheasants. At Kabul accord-

ing to Meinertzhagen it is a regular bird of passage and many are shot in the

marshes there in spring. In the south Cumming’s specimen shows that it is

found in Seistan and Hutton says that it is found along the banks of the larger

rivers such as the Arghandab and the Helmund. At Kandahar it seems to

be a winter visitor but Swinhoe only met with it between the middle of February

and the middle of March.

[Phoenicopterus ruber roseus Pallas.

Cumming states that he saw a flock of Flamingoes flying over the Mission

Camp at Kuhak on 28 April 1905, travelling north in the direction of the

Hamuns and odds that other flights were seen from time to time. ‘The identi-

fication of the flocks with this species seems conjectural. though no doubt

both species of Flamingo occur in the country. |

Phoeniconaias minor Geoffroy.

Specimen collected.—sex? June 1904 Kuhak (Cumming).

This specimen was identified by Mr. Stuart Baker who says that it is a

young bird but exceptionally large with a wing of 13.6 in. (345 mm.). There

seems, however, to be some confusion over the data as Cumming himself says

that the only specimen secured by the Mission was shot by K. B. Mir Shams

Shah on the Farrah Rud in Dec. 1904.

Cygnus cygnus (Linnaeus).

Specimen collected. Lis | Dec. 1904 Hamum-i-Sabari (Cumming).

Cumming says that ‘a fine specimen of the Whooper Swan was brought

into the Mission Camp on the Farrah Rud on 13 January 1905. It was shot

by a Sayid (Fowler) on the Hamun-i-Sabari where it appears to be fairly

numerous. Many of the young are said to have been caught on the Hamuns

so that this Swan may be considered a resident.

This is evidently the same specimen mentioned by Stuart Baker (p. 132)

and by Colonel Sir Henry McMahon (Ibis, 1906, p. 398) who says that it was

obtained on 14 January 1905. I presume the contradiction in dates would

have been due to the Sayid bringing in the bird as a skin and not in the flesh.

Sir Henry goes on to state that the Mission observed a great many swans,

all as far as he could see of the same: species, and that he also saw several

young birds which had been bred on the Hamun. This information was eli-

cited by a note in the Ibis by Buturlin (Ibis, 1906, p. 737) suggesting on the

authority of Sarudny that it was the Mute Swan (Cygnus olor) that bred in

Seistan and that the Whooper was only a rare winter visitor to the country.

Dr. Annandale (Ibis, 1906, p. 612) and Mr, A. Thomson (Ibis, 1907, p. 511)

then wrote to confirm the identification of the specimen as a Whooper Swan.

Cumming was of opinion that the Mute Swan also occurred on the Hamuns

of Seistan though no specimen had been procured.

Anser anser (Linnaeus).

According to Cumming the Grey-Lag is common in Seistan. He preserved

no specimens but says he obtained one near the Hamun-i-Sabari on 27 Dec.

1904 and was sent another from Kila-i-Nao during March 1905. .

According to Hutton this species is a winter visitor to Kandahar. As

Swinhoe, St. John and Murray all mention geese of sorts as being fairly

common about Kandahar and the River Argandab, the probability is that

they are, mostly referring to this species.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN 481

[Anser albifrons (Scopoli).

Murray says that a Mr. Hutchins obtained the White-fronted Goose on the

Argandab River. Swinhoe says that he noted two (and he believed three)

kinds of geese on that river in the winter. ]

Tadorna tadorna (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—sex? Feb. Oxus River (Yate); pull, August, pull. n.d.

Seistan, G juv. Sept. Kuhak, 2 ¢ juv. 3 Oct. 1904 Seistan (Cumming); ¢ ad.

14° Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale); @ 12 Nov. 1934 Kabul 5,700 ft.

(Maconachie).

Cumming has the following note on the Sheldrake in Seistan:—‘This is a

permanent resident in Seistan and rather numerous during the winter. On 22

April 1904 the Irrigation Camp came across a large number of very young duck-

lings of. this species between Chah Mahomed Raza and Sekkoha, in small bush-

es at the foot of the high ‘‘dasht’’ on a dry’ portion of the Hamun. Near by

were some low reeds, while the water of the Hamun itself was some three

hundred yards off. There were several full grown sheldrakes, each followed

by a brood of some 15 or 16 ducklings. Eleven of these ducklings were captur-

ed and sent to me and a few of them lived till they were full grown. On 24

June 1904 one of these flew away and I was compelled to clip the wings of

the remainder.’

Hutton says the Sheldrake is a winter visitor to Kandahar as it may also

be at Kabul and on the Oxus.

Casarca ferruginea (Pallas).

Specimens collected.—Q 25. Feb., G 1 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

sex? 10 April Karawol Khana, Murghab (Yate); ¢ 6 March 1886 Gulran (Aitchi-

son).

According to Dr. Aitchison the Ruddy Sheldrake was occasionally seen and

was breeding in the cliffs overhanging the Hari-Rud River.

Hutton, St. John and Swinhoe all agree that it is a winter visitor to Kanda-

har.

Anas platyrhyncha platyrhyncha Linnaeus.

Specimen collected.—Q Shorawak (Maynard).

Meinertzhagen considers it -probable that the Mallard breeds at, Danaghori

where a few were seen in pairs in suitable country on 6 May.

St. John says that he had seen ‘a related couple or two’ on the Argandab

River as late as the first week in June.

With the exception of these two statements the Mallard is only known as

a winter visitor or passage migrant to Afghanistan. At Kandahar Hutton,

St. John and Swinhoe all found it common. St. John says it arrives about the

end of October or early in November. Swinhoe found it common in January

and February, starting to leave again ct the beginning of March and all being

gone by the middle of the month.

In Seistan Cumming says it is numerous on the Hamuns, arriving late in

autumn and leaving in March. —

Meinertzhagen found this to be the most abundant species of duck about

Kabul both in the winter months and on spring passage.

Eunetta falcata (Georgi).

Specimen collected.—[ dg] 28 Dec. 1884 Bala Morghab (Aitchison).

This specimen, shot by Capt. Heath, provides the only record of the Bronze-

capped Teal for Afghanistan.

Chaulelasmus streperus (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—d 14 Feb., ¢ 18 Feb., Q 20 Feb., ¢ 20 March 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe); ¢ Q 22 Jan., ¢ 9 Feb. 1885 Bala Morghab (Aitchison) ;

sex? 16 April Karawal Khana, Murghab (Yate).

The Gadwall is a winter visitor and passage migrant to Afghanistan and

in addition to the above records from the north Burnes records it from Kabul

and Meinertzhagen saw it hanging up for sale there on 13 April. In the

482 \- JOURNAL: BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Kandahar area St. John says it was common throughout the winter and

Swinhoe found it in great numbers throughout the months of January, Febru-

ary and March, leaving about the end of the last mentioned month.

In Seistan alSo Cumming says it leaves in March but there he did not find

it commen. si os

Mareca penelope (Linnaeus).

_.. Specimens collected.—@ Otipore (Griffith) ; 14 Jan., G:Q 20 Feb. 1881

Kandahar (Swinhoe); @ 14 Jan. 1884, ;f 20 oe 1885 Bala-Morghab (Aitchi-

son); ¢@ 15 March Maruchak, Morghab (Yate); .9 Shorawak (Maynard).

Swinhoe says .that.a few Wigeon are occasionally shot at Kandahar in

January and February but that ee species was scarce and he didnot see it

before or after those months. John also found it uncommon but Hutton

calls it a winter visitor, ee es gradually to the end of April.

In addition to the records for the north provided by the above specimens

I may ‘add that Meinertzhagen saw this apeccs exposed for sale in Kabul on

TQ oN pill:

Nettion crecca crecca (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—@ 14-23 April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan_ (Biddulph); 2 ¢

17 Dec., Q@ 23 Dec., 9-25 Dec. 1880 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 4.23 Jan. 1885

Bala-Morghab (Aitchison); ¢- 25 Jan. Chahar Shamba, Maimanah (Yate) ;

1896 Sahibzada (Maynard); dG 3 Oct. 1904 Kuhak (Cumming); 3 8 Dec.,

¢G it Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale).

The Teal is said to be a very common winter visitor to the whole of Afghan-

istan wherever there is any suitable water, being found alike in the north,

in Seistan and in the Kandahar area. It is also numerous on passage and

Cumming relates how Capt. R. C. Bell saw thousands all over the country

between Kuhak, Zahidan and Lutak between 1 and ito April 1905. Every

piece of water he came to was literally covered with them.: :

Whether the Teal breeds in the country is not quite clear. Swinhoe under-

stood that it did-so in the Kandahar area and says that he flushed 2 or 3 pairs

at Syed Yaroo and Gangazai from the reeds in the watercourse at the beginning

of May. Cumming says it appears to breed in Seistan and Meinertzhagen

thought that it prob bably bred at Danaghori where he saw the lonicls in pairs

in suitable. country on 8 May.

Dafila acuta (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—Q 18 Feb., ¢ 20 Feb. 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

8 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale).

The Pintail appears to be one of the commoner ducks of Afghanistan as

a winter visitor. Burnes, and Meinertzhagen both record it from Kabul. St.

John found large flocks in the inundated fields bordering the river near Kelat-

i-Ghilzai in October. Hutton, St. John and Swinhoe say they are common at

IKandahar in winter, Swinhoe adding that they left altogether about the middle

of March. : Epes

In Seistan they are also’ common, arriving late in autumn and leaving in

March according to Cumming. .

Querquedtla querquedula (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—@ 14-23 April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan (Biddulph); ¢

28 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe).

The above ‘specimens, doubtless birds on passage, furnish the’ only records of

the Garganey for Afghanistan beyond the ste atement made. by Blyth that Burnes

obtained it: a Kabul. :

Spatula clypeata (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—sex? 14-23 April 1874 Panjah, Wakhan rea of

15 Feb., Q 27 Feb., ‘6 21 March te Kandahar (Swinhoe) ; 18 March

1885 Kalla-i-Maur, Badghis Oe 1896 Shorawak (Meee ie

The Shoveller is said by Hutton, Crohn and Swinhoe to be a common

winter visitor to the Kandahar area are it leaves in March according” fo

Swinhoe. Cumming found it numerous on the Hamuns of Seistan and suspected

MAPERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN — 483

that it might breed there. Burnes and Meinertzhagen record it from Kabul.

Further north our only records are furnished by the above specimens,

Marmaronetta angustirostris (Menetries)..

Specimens collected.—Q 7 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); sex? 27 Oct.

1884 between De-Kamran ‘and De-Doda, sex? n.d. Bala-Morghab (Aitchison) ;

sex? 12 June Kham-i-ab, R. Oxus, Afghan Turkestan (Yate); 4 juvs. 6 July

1904, G 22 April 1905 Kuhak (Cumming).

The headquarters of the Marbled-Duck in Afghanistan are evidently in Seis-

tan and it is worthwhile quoting Cumming’s account :—*Within a radius of

4 miles round Kuhak, Major. ‘F. W. Irvine, 1.M.s., and Capt. R. C. Bed between

7 and 23 April 1904 shot no less than 80 of this species alone. It is a perma-

nent resident and begins to breed at the end of April. I shot a pair on 22 April

1905 near Kuhak and found on examination that the female would have laid

in about a week’s time, while on 5 May of the same year a female with nest

and 16 eggs, all more or less fresh, was sent to me by Lala Thakur-dass,

Irrigation Supervisor, from near Old Shaharistan. Ducklings were also brought

to me on the following dates :—

1 June 1904 ream wl

~y4 June 1904 SO ok a aa rota Sica eek :

“26 July 1904 tic Cine S .. 5, nearly fulkgrown.

8 July 1904 zele ae ... Several, nearly full-grown.

I also shot a fully-grown bird on the Rud-i-Seistan on 3 October 1904.’

At Kandahar, according to St.: John, the Marbled-Duck is not very un-

common, most large bags containing one or two, but Swinhoe says that his

specimen was the only one obtained. The only other records are furnished by

the specimens enumerated ‘above. ra

OTIS IND

_ Netta rufina (Pallas). Ne eas eS ;

‘Specimens: collected.—¢ - 28 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2 @ Jan.

Q 23 Jan. 1885 (Aitchison); Q Dec. 1904 Farrah Rud (Annandale).

According to St. John the Red-erested Pochard was not uncommon at Kan-

dahar but Swinhoe says that he did not meet with it except in March when

he knew of 5 being shot. Cumming found it numerous on the Hamuns of Seis-

tan in winter and thought that it might remain to breed in the Naizar. Burnes

recorded it from Kabul. The only other records are provided by the above

specimens,

Nyroca ferina (Linnaeus).;

Specimens collected.— dg g Mareh, @ 11 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe) ;

2 ¢ 10 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale).

Burnes met with the Common Pochard at Kabul and Meinertzhagen noticed

it exposed for sale there on 13.April. At Kandahar both St. John and Swinhoe

found it uncommon, the former saying that it was not as frequently met as

the Red-crested Pochard, the latter saying that a few were shot in March only.

In Seistan Cumming found it eommon in winter and he hazards his usual

suggestion that it might breed on the Naizars.

Nyroca rufa (Linnaeus).

Specimens collected.—d 14 Feb., ¢ 17 Feb., gS 19 Feb. 1881 Kandahar

(Swinhoe); ¢.2 5 March Kila Wali, Murghab, 3 16 March Maruchak, Badghis

(Yate).

Hutton, St. John and Swinhee all agree that the White-eye is very common

in the Kandahar area. Swinhoe indeed calls it the commonest duck in the

country after the Gadwall and says that it arrived in the beginning of February

and’ suggests that some appear to remain in the country to breed. He flushed

many pairs out of reeds "and tamarisk on the banks of the water-courses in

the Pishin and right down the Bolan as far as Kirta in May (though these

localities are of course actually ‘across:the Baluch border). Maynard met it on

the Afghan-Baluch border.) ) 9.) 8. 2 ) na

484. JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 45:

Cumming found it. common in Seistan. in winter. Yate’s specimens from’

the Morghab and Badghis complete the record. d

Nyroca fuligula (Linnaeus).

Specimens. collected.—G 19 Feb. 1881 Kandahar, 2 -¢ 2 5 March oe

IXokeran. (Swinhoe);. sex? 20 Feb. Chahar Shamba, “Maimanai EQvate)

Afghan-Biloch border (Maynard). 5

“The Tufted-Duck is very common at andere according to Sernnoct arriv-

ing at the beginning of April.. Cumming found it in winter in Seistan. ‘Burnes

found it common at Kabul where Meinertzhagen saw it exposed for sale on

13 April, Yate’s Maimanah specimen completes the record,

Glaucionetta clangufa (Linnaeus).

‘Specimens collected.—g_ 15 Jan. 1885 Bala-Morghab (Aitchison); Q 12 Feb.°

Chahar Shamba, Maimanah, sex? 15 March, ¢ ~20 March Mericiae Morghab

(Yate); g¢ Dec. 1904 -Hamun, Seistan (Annandale).

The above records suggest that the Golden-eye is a winter visitor to Afghan-

istan generally but in spite of Hutton’s remark that it is common at Kandahar

—neither Swinhoe nor St. John record it—it would seem to be uncommon.

Cumming says that only two specimens were shot in Seistan by the members

ot his Mission. That was in January 1905 when the cold was unusually: severe.

Erismatura. leucocephala (Scopoli).

Specimens collected.—¢.? 20 Oct. 1879 Jameh River near Khelat-i-Ghilzai ;

sex? 21 March Maruchak (Yate). Feo 8 vitae

The Stiff-tailed Duck was first discovered in “Afghanistan by St. John who

procured the above pair of immature birds on 20 October 1879 on the Jameh

River near Khelat-i-Ghilzai. The event is recorded in full by Hume in Stray

Feathers, vol. viii, p. 456. Yate then obtained a specimen on 21 March at

Maruchak and later Cumming found it very common on the Hamuns: of. Seistan

during the winter when several were . shot but: apparently not preseived by

members of the Mission.

Mergellus albellus (Linnaeus). a me

Specimens collected.—2 92 30 Jan. 1881 Argendat Raver near Kokeran, “O

2 March 1881 Kandahar (Swinhoe); 2: 1 ‘@ 29 Dec. 1884 Bala- -Morghals

(Aitchison); .¢ 10 Feb. Maimanah, ¢ 12 Feb. {Q° 17 Feb. Chahar Shamba, |

Maimanah (Yate).

The list of the above specimens is supplemented by Hutton’s statement that

he only saw one specimen of the Smew at Kandahar but heard that iti was*ébm-

mon in winter near Ghuzni.

- Mergus serrator Linnaeus.

Specimens collected.—@Q 21 Jan: ¢§ 30 Jari. 1885 Bala-Morghab (Aitchison).

‘I--can trace no other record of the Red-breasted Merganser in Afghanistan.

- Podiceps cristatus (Linnaeus).

The Great Crested Grebe is only recorded by Cumming who says that it

is fairly common in the Seistan Hamuns during winter. He adds . that »on

4 February 1904 he saw several near Puzak in the deep open patches of water.

Podiceps ruficollis capensis Salvadori.

Specimens: collected.—¢ 4 March, 2 9 °8 March 1881 Kandahar (Guinhoey

2:11 Dec. 1918 Lab-i-Baring (Annandale)... ain

The Little Grebe is very) common ‘among. the: reed-beds of the Hamun_ in

winter according to Annandale.and it must, breed there as a young bird. was

brought to Cumming at Kuhak on 7 July 1904. 3Hutton says it is common. in

the marshes and pools south of eancahas in‘ winter but St. John and*Swinhoe

both—probably more correctly—say that it is found there on passage in. spr Ing

and autumn, Swinhoe says that it arrived in the beginning of March.

MATERIALS FOR THE ORNITHOLOGY OF AFGHANISTAN — 485:

Sy)

In conclusion it-is perhaps worth stating that I can: find no evidence. for the

inclusion .of the following species or races in the avifauna. of Afghanistan. though

that country is included: in ‘their range’as given in the second, edition of the

Fauna of British India, Birds. That» many of them do actually occur within

Afghan. boundaries is of course not -improbable. RSS SRENE ARY STE eos

Corvus. splendens zugmayeri. Scotocerca inquieta striata, —

Dendrocitta vagabunda. Cephalopyrus flammiceps.

Parus major intermedius. Sturnus vulgaris humet..

‘Parus palustris korejewi. Uroloncha malabarica. - rie

Molpastes leucogenys leucogenys. Mycerobas melanoxanthus.. , -

Certhia himalayana taeniura. Hirundo rustica gutturalis. ~~

Oenanthe monacha. : Anthus. hodgsoni hodgsoni,

Phoenicurus frontalis. -Eremophila alpestris longirostrts,

~Rhyacornis fuliginosa. Cinnyris asiatica brevtrostris.

Calliope pectoralis pectoralts. Clamator jacobinus.

Prunella. himalayanus. ~ z Gyps himalayensis.

Pericrocotus roseus., Coiumba leuconota.

Phylloscopus tytleri. ,... : , Pterocles lichtensteinii.

Phylloscopus pulcher kangrae. Lerwa lerwa.

“Seicercus xanthoschistos albosuperciliaris. :

pis SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN “ASSAM. —

tas eRe & .

) (Continued from page 332: of. volume 45).

SPARD lle 7 :

In some parts of the plains of Assam are to be found vast

stretches.of country covered by grass in patches, in some places high

and dense, in others light and interspersed with open spaces covered

by green grass. These uncultivated areas are called ‘chapris’ and

a,well known one is the ‘Pakar Chapri’ which is: surrounded by

heavy, dense. jungle bordered on three sides by a stream in which

there used to be very good fishing. I use the past tense, for

in Assam, as in most’ parts of India, the people of the country

have woefully diminished thé freshwater fish supply of the land

by all sorts of poaching and destructive malpractices:: and this ‘is

true of even the larger rivers. 3 ee

To get to the Pakar Chapri from Sadiya'one drives to” the

bank of the Brahmaputra river which is then crossed by means

of a ‘mar’. On the other side is a wide stretch of sand—this

is in the cold. season .when the river. runs’ low—over which is

laid a brushwood track for the easier passage of motor cars. Thus

one arrives at Saikwa, Ghat, the terminus of the Assam-Bengal

heavy tree jungle; the haunt of ‘all sorts of wild animals, and a

rich, avian life. . Then. one arrives: at Kobo on the Brahmaputra

which is reached by,again ‘crossing the river on a ‘mar’. During

this passage over the river there are sandbanks to be avoided

and there are days when the crossing’ can be dangerous owing

to a sudden rise.in the river which at this place has not long issued

from: the mountains. Thinking of Kobo brings to mind the occa-

sion when. the.. Assistant Commatidant at Pasighat was on his

486 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

way down to Saikwa Ghat. He ran his car down the bank too

fast and so shot over the ‘mar’, burst through the pole barriers

on the further side of it and plunged into the river! ‘More haste

less speed’, ‘Safely First’? and that kind of thing. In the car

was a box containing his wife’s party frocks and fripperies. The

box was to’ be forwarded to her in Shillong, and as the car was

not retrieved from the water for several hours the state of the

garments can be imagined, as also. the state of mind of the poor

wife when she saw them:

From Kobo we drove through more forest to Pasighat. This

used to be a very pleasant place as the houses of the officials

were along the river bank and one had only to go a_ hundred

yards or so to fish for mahseer. There were times’ when there

was not at Pasighat anyone fond of fishing. What waste of

opportunity ! On the way down river from Pasighat to. Pakar

Chapri there are many rapids to be negotiated, some’.of them,

to the mind of a non-swimmer, appearing very dangerous, but

good fun to those less timorous. I was in a large dug-out which .

could have easily been capsized, for the river had suddenly begun

to risé and it was impossible to stop the boats which were, how-

ever, most skilfully managed by the expert and courageous boat-

men. On the return journey I preferred to ride an elephant.

The elephants were made to swim across the river, and so

swift was the water that they were many times submerged, only

their trunks being above the surface, and how the mahouts manag-

ed to stick to their charges was a mystery to me, but all crossed

in safety.

- Life in this camp was very delightful. We had fishing and all

sorts of shooting with rifle and shot gun. Daily the chapri was

explored on elephant-back. A number of buffalo was seen, as

many as sixteen in one herd, among them two young bulls; and

one female had such enormous horns that we debated whether

they were not something approaching the record which is nearly

fourteen feet tip to tip across the forehead! I don’t suppose they

were within a couple of feet of that but it was seriously discussed

whether we should shoot the animal and pay the fine of fifty rupees.

Better counsels prevailed so she was left in peace. She was not

an old animal, though to have. attained such imposing horns she

must have been well on in years.

Green-pigeon and jungle-fowl were shot, some of the latter

with a .22 rifle as they pecked about on the edge of the cover across

the stream. Green-Pigeon were in thousands in those parts, the

larger flocks containing birds of several well-known species. Large

bags are made during the months succeeding the breeding season,

the time when this has ended being known by the birds collecting

into huge flocks which, with some species, amount to many thou-

sands. The largest bird is the Bengal Green-Pigeon; others are

the Ashy-headed and the Thick-billed both of which are very fast

fliers, and the Orange-breasted Green-Pigeon. The jungle fowl is

the Common Red variety and among other game birds is the Black-

breasted-Kalij Pheasant not easily come by owing to its skulking

habits. That shoot at Pakar Chapri in company with our son-in-

‘SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN. ASSAM 487

law, C. of the Police, T. the Forest Officer, and N. of the Saw

Mills (Bird & Co.) remains a very pleasant memory to us both.

But I have forgotten the rogue elephant. There was known to

be one in the jungles through which we had to pass on our way

to camp: and my wife, who had not been on an elephant where

tiger could be met since she experienced the charge previously

related, was very much alarmed when the mahout suddenly pointed

to a spot in the forest where an elephant had evidently just passed.

I did not feel too happy, having with me only one of those all-in-

one three-barrelled weapons—a double 12 gauge with a .405 barrel

beneath. We pushed on as fast as possible and left the tree jungle

for the open grass land as soon’ as could be managed. By doing

this we saw various kinds of game animals: buffalo, sambar, hog-

deer, also wild cats and pig. In the stream not far from camp

quite large mahseer were caught.

On a number of occasions the Rajah of G. arranged shoots for

the Governor of Assam and other high officials; then he would

supplement his own elephants by animals of the Forest Department

and others borrowed from zamindars. He did not very much care

for these big occasions but always did his best to make them a

success. From the time he arrived in camp he every evening inter-

viewed ‘khubberias’—bringers of information of the whereabouts

of tigers, and decided what beats to carry out the next day. Buffa-

loes were never tied out as baits as is commonly the practice in

other parts of India. Months before these important shoots his

shikaris toured through all the likely jungle tracts and marked

down all the places where cattle were being killed. A central spot

was chosen for the camp—usually on the banks of a stream and

in. Open country, so that those bringing information could have

ready access to it. The men would cover all the country within

ten or twelve miles round the camp. The informant was given ten

rupees for each tiger shot, was fed in camp for as many days as

was necessary, and taken out on a pad elephant when his parti-

- cular tiger was to be hunted.

Every evening the Rajah arranged details of how the elephants

_ should be fed, making fodder arrangements for twenty-four hours.

He would also listen to all complaints, make particular enquiries

as to any tusker becoming ‘musth’, and if in any doubt would

personally inspect the animal. All elephants had to be daily exa-

mined for sore backs or other injuries, rope-galls and the like.

In all this he was thorough and painstaking, as a good Com-

mander should be, hence his known success on all occasions. A

start was-always made by ro a.m. and the shooting ground reached

by tor 2 p.m. Then, as soon as the Rajah had personally ascer-

tained the lie of the land and the signs of the tiger being present

were good, beats would be arranged, the guns placed in position,

and the beat started, he himself giving orders as to the manner

and direction of the drive. If tiger were few the sport was per-

haps over by 3-30 p.m. when Junch would be served; but if there

were several tigers then it was good-bye to lunch. On the way

out and back all guests rode pad elephants, these animals having

faster paces: they did not generally take part in the beats.

488 JOURNAL BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

_ On return to, camp tea was available, and dinner at 9-30: to

10, p.m. After that one could go to the big tent in which was

singing and dancing. The first time I. saw a boy dressed as a

girl I was asked his sex, knowing the Rajah did not allow women

in the camp I said ‘Middle-sex’; and this was thought a great

joke, that boy being ever after know n. by the name of Middlesex.

The Rajah always said of these semi- official outings that they. were

not ‘shoots’ but huge picnic.parties, and that it could be very dan-

gerous both to guns and beaters. ‘I like punctuality,’ he said,

‘and .the starts are frequently delayed for one reason or another

so the shooting ground is not reached in time and lunch is de-

manded, tables laid out, chairs placed, and so on, all meaning

delay and waste of time, so that it is after 3 o’clock before a start

can be made. Then the guns, having had lunch and beer. are in

an excited mood and do dangerous things; it is difficult to control,

and frequently the tiger gets away from the beat.’ One reason

for tigers escaping without being shot at is that the mahouts,

seeing the ‘hullee’ approaching and having little confidence in

the howdah guns, deliberately cause their elephants to turn away

and fidget, or even run away, The visiting sportsman as often as

not knows. nothing of ‘hullee’: sign, or. that the elephant is being

wilfully made.unruly and does not connect this with the advancing

tiger which quietly slips by and escapes the beat.

Mahouts have to be considered. Seated astride the- necks of

their majestic beasts they are in considerable danger from the

attacking tiger, and it is natural they should be anxious as to the

nerves and weapons ' ‘of the sportsmen in the howdah, not only the

guns on his own elephant but those on either side of him.:. They

do not. like single barrel weapons or small bore: rifles, and one

cannot convince them of the efficacy of magazine weapons. Very

naturally mahouts discuss among themselves the merits and de-

merits. of the various sportsmen; more especially on these semi-

official shoots, and also gather information from camp servants

as to their respective masters.

The Rajah always strongly objected to ladies shooting; he was

ever afraid of something happening and there was once a terrible

tragedy during one of his semi-official shoots. He never spoke of

it. A mahout was killed, one of the guests shot in the ankle, and

an elephant subsequently died of a bullet wound. To guests not

known to him, not known that is as to nerves and straight shoot-

ing, he gave a card of ‘Don’ts’ and arranged for a reliable and

experienced man to be at the back of the howdah. During beats

he walked his own elephant backwards and forwards behind the

line of howdah elephants and shot at those tigers only which were

missed by the guests. I have seen him shoot a number of tigers

under these circumstances.

The question whether tiger shooting from elephants is a dan-

gerous sport is often discussed. Many there are who assert that

it is not, but much can be said for the opposite view. Shooting

tigers by sitting up over a kill at night is often looked down upon

by those who bag’ tigers by beating for them. In the latter case

the sportsman is almost always perched in a tree, on:a_ladder, or

SOME. REMINISCENCES: OF SPORT IN ASSAM 489

other elevation as also in the former. In both instances the sports-

man is in almost no danger unless: and until he wounds the tiger.

Then, it must be admitted, he more or less takes his life in his

hand when he follows up—as he must do; and, it has to be added,

his mostly unarmed followers, without w hose help he would, in most

cases, be unable to locate and bring the wounded beast to action

are equally exposed to death or injury.

Tigers are hunted and shot from elephant-back in jungles where

to pursue them on foot is mostly impossible owing to the dense-

ness of the cover. To beat. them out without elephants is almost

hopeless, the only alternative being sitting up, or through some

more or less chance encounter.

Is tiger shooting: from elephants dangerous? I think I can

demonstrate from a number of experiences that, though it is not

always so, it can be and;may be; not so much on account of the

attacks of wounded, surrounded, infuriated tigers as through the

uncertainties and vagaries of -elephantine tempers and irresponsible

actions of people on their backs.

In the same year, the first of my tiger shooting career with

elephants, there were, besides the charge of Sibjee against Jung

Bahadur, two other instances of the kind. One took place at

Bijni, the headquarter .station. of the Bijni Raj: -the other at an

, estate owned by the zamindar of Rupsi. The Bijni Raj was then

oy the Court of Wards and the Manager had asked Mr. H. of the

A. Be Railway and living, at Haflong to a small tiger shoot. Both

Mr. and Mrs. H. took part in the shoot and though tigers were

seen none were shot owing to the small number of elephants avail-

able: one howdah and five beaters. Among the elephants was a

notorious brute known to have killed some 15 mahouts and grass-

cutters. During the beats he behaved himself, but when the party

was returning he suddenly charged the Sieotant in front of him

on which was seated Mrs. H. The animals were in single file

and H., just behind, shouted to his wife to jump off and she was

able to ‘do this before the assault of the charging elephant arrived,

falling between the oncoming beast and the one she had left with

such presence of mind. I met her not long after at Dhubri and

heard from her that she could not remember exactly what happened

after leaving her elephant, only that she kept on rolling away. The

attacking elephant knocked the other one heels over head, instantly

killing the mahout. It was a miraculous escape for Mrs. H.

The other charge took place at a small tiger shoot on the Rupsi

Estate when some twelve elephants were out. At the end of the

day a male elephant charged sideways at a female, knocking. it

over. Of the three people aboard one was uninjured, the mahout

was killed, and the other man had his jaw broken. Having some

knowledge of dentistry I tried to improvise methods to keep the

bones together but had to fall back upon the usual treatment which

succeeded absolutely—a perfect result. This man could only remem-

ber that he found: himself mixed up with elephant legs and then

became unconscious. He probably received a kick from a fore-

Ot and was fortunate not to be more seriously injured.

«-The -Zemindar of Rupsi, whom I. knew well, met his death

490 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

through avoidable circumstances. The Zemindars of Lakipur got

up a shoot to which Rupsi contributed his own nine elephants.

With him was a Khasia boy he was supporting and educating.

When the Zemindars learned that Rupsi intended to put this Kha-

sia lad into howdah to use a rifle they objected, saying he had

no experience and it would be unwise. Rupsi said he was certain

the boy could use a rifle as well as any of them and that he would |

- not be frightened if -he saw a tiger. After these preliminaries the

Zemindars decided: to place the lad on the extreme right of the line

of waiting guns as they did not expect the tiger to go there, and

Rupsi was placed next to him. In Rupsi’s howdah was sitting the

rt years old child of an English lady, the wife of one of the Zemin-

dars. Things will happen, ‘Kismet’ one can call it. As soon as

the line of beating elephants advanced the tiger was seen to be

moving in the direction of the Khasia boy so Rupsi, an experi-

enced sportsman, seeing this, moved down to the lad’s elephant

but was too late to steady the boy and give him confidence. The

tiger was seen by the lad, who panicked, brought up his rifle in

direction of Rupsi instead of the tiger, and pulled the trigger.

Poor Rupsi was killed instantly, the high velocity bullet passing

through his arm and on through the chest. In doing this it went

very close to the small. girl sitting next to him. A terrible ex-

perience, for she was drenched in his blood. We were on our

way to a shoot with the Rajah of G when I met his Dewan who

told- me all this, at the same time informing me that three of

G’s elephants had gone musth, and in addition that a known bad

elephant had escaped from the Zemindars’ camp some forty miles

away and was reported to be making towards G’s camp.

Having heard all the news I drove on in my car and got into

a bad bit of road where the car became ditched. Some villagers

were yelling that the musth elephant was coming across the plain

and I found the car could not be re-started. With me were .475

cartridges but the rifle had gone in advance to the camp}; so we

took suitable cover to see the elephant take no notice of. the car

and proceed on down the road. Were we relieved ! This was a

female called Megmala. Had I known that in time I might have

been able to stop her and ride her to the camp.

The car was started without difficulty after it was found that

my wife’s handbag handle had slightly turned the switch key!

When we got to. R’s camp we found there had been yet another

tragedy. The Rajah of G had been out looking for tiger tracks

and village ‘Khubber’ and somewhere about midday his mount Sib-

jee charged this female elephant Megmala from behind, knocking

her heels over head and instantly killing the mahout. I saw the

dead man; a good mahout whom I knew well. Megmala made

her way across country to Gauripur, swimming the Brahmaputra

on the way. For many years she was G’s best howdah elephant

but having been badly mauled by.a wounded tiger could not, after

that, be depended on. hag Nie 3

That night I took my -475, (in. case, of accident !) and went to

see the three musth animals picketted about a hundred yards from

“SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM Agi

the tents. Had one of these broken loose that dark night there

would indeed have been trouble. The shoot was abandoned and

being late in starting we did not catch the ferry, so returned to

the Fakirganj Inspection Bungalow for the night. Our slumbers

were not sound as Sibjee and the musth elephants were. tethered

in the compound! Glad indeed were we to return safely next day

to Dhubri. Can tiger shooting off elephants be dangerous?

There will be more ‘incidents’ in course of these reminiscences,

but at this point a method of shooting tigers. off elephants which

affords good sport and is not ordinarily dangerous may be suitab-

ly mentioned. The requirements are two reliable elephants, one

for the sportsman, the other for two shikari attendants and to

carry the bag to camp. A ‘Charjamah’ which is a pad having

low rails is better than the more cumbrous howdah, which is not

suitable for forest work. The method requires that the sports-

man should be thoroughly acquainted with the habits of tigers;

should know the language of the countryside; have a good manner

in dealing with the people; and be not too niggardly, or the

reverse, in payment for services rendered.

Where wild elephants are not uncommon all jungle animals

are easily approached, and it is by quietly wandering along in

the likely places, especially in the vicinity of any kill the where-

abouts of which may be indicated by crows, birds of prey, or

vultures, that tigers may be shot out of hand without incident,

or may sometimes be moved out of cover by the pad elephant.

Should the tiger be wounded there may be plenty of incident,

but the sportsman is at any rate not in peril from actions of other

elephants or sportsman. Silence on the sportsman’s elephant is

essential: any instructions to the other elephant being by whistle

or signs, or signal horn when really necessary.

In course of Shikar of this description much jungle life may

be observed—life of animals, birds, and insects which would other-

wise never be seen, for it is a leisurely affair with plenty of oppor-

nity for observation. It is not too much to say that a week of

such hunting will furnish more experience of nature in the jungle

than many ‘shoots’. Elephants can be used with much success

for fishing in deep and rapid streams where dug-outs or other

boats are not easily obtained, carried, or used. From elephant

back many places otherwise quite inaccessible owing to trees and

riverside jungle growth can be well fished, and return to camp

made without trouble. On such excursions a rifle or gun is usually

taken in case of need as, apart from some chance opportunity

of bagging a feline, the camp larder needs replenishing both for

oneself and one’s followers.

-Howdahs in use over eighty years ago, as seen by illustrations

in shikar books of those and earlier days, were of better design

than many in use at the present time. There were, as there should

be, places—racks—for several weapons on either side of the occu-

pant of the front seat in the howdah. ‘All sportsmen of experi-

ence sav that more than one weapon is essential for howdah work,

and one of these a shot eun. The Rajah of G always had 4

492 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL GUSTS ~SOCIUB IS WOlls AS

weapons with him and sometimes as many as six; but as many

as that may be thought unnecessary.

A shot gun is advisable as, when a tiger 1s on the elephant,

and perhaps trying to get into the howdah, a charge of shot 1S

sufficient. On one occasion when shooting off: Sibjee the Rajah

was following a supposedly wounded tiger which was, however,

unhurt. The tiger was a bad tempered beast and charged ‘seve-

ral times, being missed on each occasion owing to Sibjee dancing

about. Eventually Sibjee turned and bolted or rather, as G said,

the mahout it was who turned tail. The rampaging tiger follow-

ed apace—the whole shooting party seeing this wonderful show—

caught up the elephant, jumped on from behind, and tried to get

into the howdah. The Rajah had trouble with the occupant of

the rear seat who lost his head and would not keep down, so the

first .essav with the shot gun was a miss. The noises of it caused

the tiger to quit but he followed along and again got on to the

elephant. By this time the back-seater was frantic and as G ex-

plained when it’ was all over, only by keeping the man’s head

down with his hand was it possible to use the gun. To use the

weapon with one hand while the elephant was running as fast as

it could. was almost impossible; however, by pressing his’ knees

against the howdah to steady himself as much as possible, he was

at last able, as the tiger’s ferocious head came over the howdah

rail. to place the muzzle against the beast’s neck and press the

trigger. So all was well. 7 7

This has been a long digression from the subject of howdah

design but has an important bearing on it. I have seen a num-

ber of howdahs which are fitted with doors to admit of easy entry

on’ either side. These doors sometimes fly open. Had that hap-

pened in the above encounter there would have been certain tra-

gedy. In earlier days G’s howdahs, and those I have seen on

elephants of two Maharajah’s had side doors, and were also too

low front and back. <A man sitting or standing in those howdahs

was certainly not really safe as it would not take a great deal

of movement on part of the elephant to toss him out. An instance

was what happened to Captain R, then a Civil Surgeon. He was

invited by the Rajah of G to a tiger shoot and while taking aim

at an advancing tiger about twenty yards away his elephant sud-

denly lurched forward, causing him to hit against one of the doors

which opened and shot him out somewhere near the tiger! G laugh-

ed at it afterwards, as R shinned up a small tree near by with

the agility of a monkey; but it was no laughing matter at the

time. After that occurrence G had all his howdahs altered to a

fool-proof design.

Things may happen which put howdah construction to the most

extreme test imaginable. Even when the elephant is tumbled ‘on

to its side it is possible for the sportsman to remain in the how-

dah, but only if it has high sides and no doors. This was the

way of it,

The M. brothers are two of the nicest men one could meet,

both. of them very good shots. They have seen hundreds of tigers

.SOME : REMINISCENCES (OF. SPORT: IN. ASSAM | 493

‘killed. On one: occasion a large tiger pressed’ home his attack,

landing on the head of the elephant on whose back was.M senior.

‘The elephant sank on one knee, which is their habit in an endea-

vour to kneel on the tiger and crush it. The tiger jumped. on

to the ground and with its forearms -round the head, before the

elephant could stand up, pulled it over on to its side..M’s rifles

and ammunition fell out of the howdah and it was with difficulty

_he remained inside, but he managed to do so by ‘holding on to

the rails. Three times the tiger pulled the elephant over: M« still

in. the howdah, when finally, for no reason that could be imagined

it suddenly abandoned the fight’ and’ was shot by other guns on

nearby elephants. Things occur so rapidly in cases like this that it

is impossible to see in detail what actually takes place. Only a

cinema picture could show that, and changes in position take place

so rapidly that it was not possible for guns on other elephants to

risk shooting. In after years M was often. asked what. if ‘felt like

when the elephant went on its side with the tiger in touching

distance. ‘Yes’, he would say, ‘it was very touching, and I hope

if-it happens to you it will’ develop your sense of humour’. _ ale

pianist had sense of humour particularly’ dev ‘eloped.

yatt, it-is said, ‘a tiger, though spined, struck ‘a tusker elephant

with its paw with! such force that 2 claws were actually embedded

in the elephant’s thigh.’ When told of the above the Rajah. of

G. remarked, “Quite true. I have seen something similar. I once

wounded a tiger at the end of a field, just short of the edge of

heavy jungle. He was hit far back and the spine was broken.

I pushed my elephant along and as I got close to him he was. in

“a sort of sitting up position. I was preparing to kill the.tiger when

I saw to my left a number of tame buffaloes, among them an

enraged bull pawing the ground and making ready to charge. Wish-

ing to see what would happen I held my fire and to. my surprise

the bull actually charged the tiger which, in his crippled condition,

waited until the bull put his head doom: Then the tiger with a

smack with one paw and a turn with the other knocked the buffalo

over, killing him instantly. I could not believe the bull dead and

waited for him to rise. Having killed the tiger we found the

vertebrae of the neck had been dislocated’. I have read in shikar

books of tigers, when breaking back through beaters, smashing

a man’s head like an egg- -shell with a mere passing tap with a

paw and can well imagine it happening: indeed, Mr Hazlitt,

I.C.S., who was the. Superintendent of the. Lushai’ Hills, told me

that he actually saw this happen. <A tiger was seen to jump over

the spot where an old woman was collecting firewood; when the

party got to this place the woman was found dead with a frac-

tured skull. As he jumped over he had just hit the head with

his paw.

~ Most. people having acquaintance ofl elephants’ know how

much they dislike dogs, especially yapping ones of the small terri-

er variety but there. are other -animals equally obnoxious to them.

In beats. ‘for. tiger I have seen them show fright of even rats which

494 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

run squeaking out of the cover, and they have a marked dislike

of wild pig, even giving the tiger sign—the metallic rap of the .

trunk. on the ground with the accompanying low rumble, on their

approach. At times they will even turn and run away from these

small creatures, even rats!

One speaks of an elephant being perfectly steady but what ts

meant is that he will stand without movement, his mahout having

given him the order by recognized pressure of knee or driving-

hook, for the actual shot to be taken, a matter of a few seconds.

While waiting for the beating elephants to approach he 1s cons-

tantly moving his ears and tail and shifting his weight from one

leg to another, also swishing his legs with tufts of grass etc., to

keep off flies: all this ceases for the taking of the shot; that ts,

it does when the animal is properly trained. A mahout will often

be dozing during a beat but is wide awake when the time comes

to be alert, and in any case a touch from the sportsman is. suffi-

cient warning. Just as.a nervous rider will communicate his con-

dition to his mount so will a mahout to his elephant. A good

mahout will have a steady elephant as the sagacious beast soon

knows he can trust him., ey

Bees. and hornets may at any time be met with so a blanket

is always carried. Blankets are also of use to quieten excitable

animals, for even elephants becoming musth,-if taken in time, can

be controlled by a blanket over the eyes, thus averting possible

serious consequences. Mahouts like the fun of tiger shooting and

will deliberately leave camp on ‘musth’ elephants. It may be in

case of beating elephants that they wish to enjoy the sport, for

they all get an allowance whether staying in camp or not; and

the drivers of howdah elephants are reluctant to forgo the chance

of an extra ten rupees should the tiger be shot from their howdah.

It behoves the organizer of the shoot to be always on the watch

for an appearance of ‘musth’, and it is well for sportsmen also to

be able to recognize the signs.

I have mentioned in connexion with the shooting of a rogue

elephant that the right striker of my .475 H.V. rifle was found

to be broken and that of course might have had serious or fatal

consequences. Had I tested the rifle before setting out this would

have been known. Such a thing should never occur, for it is so

easy to make the necessary tests before putting the weapons away

after cleaning. Dummy cartridges should always be used in ham-

merless weapons to guard against strikers being broken or damag-

ed by snapping against no resistance. Before putting away ham-

merless and ejector weapons the springs should be eased; and

it is seldom that the owners of ejectors know how this is done.

Ejector springs cannot be expected to work for ever if put away

at tension for months on end.

There is no doubt that a double barrelled rifle is better than

a single for howdah shooting. The great advantage of the double

is fully realized when a second shot has to be immediately taken.

The few seconds longer needed to get off the single weapon may

be all important; the bagging of the tiger or not. Shots at the

head should be avoided. From elephant-back the plunging shot

SOME REMINISCENCES OF SPORT IN ASSAM 495

between the shoulders is always fatal, that is if the bullet is what

it should be. One of the secrets of successful tiger shooting,

whether with elephant or with men, is never to hurry the animal,

which ought to be brought to the waiting gun as unalarmed as

possible so that a quiet unhurried shot may be taken, the angle

being judged so that the bullet will find a vital place. Further

dissertation as to shots to take and weapons to use or: not. to

use must be held over to another time.

This rather rambling writing may be closed with some tales

which occur to me as being perhaps of interest to the reader.

Mr de C. was an Assam Police Officer who stood no nonsense,

a man of action, if sometimes a little eccentric in some things.

I can vouch for the following. He and a Sub-Inspector were in

a hole in the ground waiting for the return of a tiger to his kill.

The tiger was dragging the kill away in the Waskeness when de

C got out of the pit, ran towards the kill and as soon as he was

able to get his torchlight to bear killed the beast with a shot

in the chest. ‘This detail was given by the Inspector. On an-

other occasion de C. was asked to witness the enclosure of a tiger

in- netting, a method practised in other parts of India also. He

went with the Inspector of Police to see the fun. This was in

the. Dibrugarh District. He and the Inspector were standing very

near the netting when the tiger suddenly charged and though: it

did not break through it tore the Inspector’s coat and inflicted

some scratches, This: was too much for de C. He took an old

D.B. 12 gauge shot gun from one of the villagers, put some shot

_ cartridges in his coat pocket, loaded the gun with ‘Lethal’ bul-

lets, raised the lower edge of the net and walked in. He had

not gone far in the direction to which the tigress—for it was a

female—had retreated when she charged at him belly flat to the

ground, as he described it and as I have several times seen—no

bounds or jumps. Before she reached him he shot her dead. Good

work. He was making sure the tigress was dead when he was

charged by a wild boar. He had just time to jump to one side

and fire as the pig passed. The boar turned and again charged,

but waiting until there could be no miss or ineffectual shot he

killed the animal almost at the muzzle. Again good work. By

this time the fore-end of the old weapon had dropped off and,

without noticing this he reloaded with shot cartridges and leant

the gun against the pig’s body. How it happened he cannot

say but both barrels went off and peppered. some thirty coolies.

Not such good work! Fortunately the distance was such that the

pellets only penetrated skin deep. It was always a great joke:

de C. bagging on one day a tigress, a boar and thirty coolies.

But it was no joke at the time and the. affair eventually cost de

C. about a month’s salary one way and another.

(To be continued.). .

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER AND OTHER ~

'.. SPORTING FISH IN INDIA AND BURMA.

A. St. J. Macponarp.

(ith 9 text-figures).

Part IX

Mcontaned from page 320 of volute 45)-

TANK ANGLING

The fish (1). Best places to fish (2). The Bottom (3). The Rod (4). Hooks

(5). The Float (6). The Mount (7). Machan (8). Depth of water (9). Ground

baiting (io). Method of Fishing (11), Bait (12). How fish bite (13). Striking

a fish (14). Playing a fish (15). Shelving banks (16). Season and Time (17).

Cutla fishing (28). Mr. Corbet’s note on Cutla (19). Mr. Kitchen’s note on

Cutla (20). shri) Ere oss

=, ~~ “Tank ANGLING FOR | LABEO:

In this chapter I propose to deal Breny with. bottom Rohing: in

tanks for Labeo, Mirgil, and Cutla. For those wishing to further

their knowledge I strongly recommend Thomas’ TANK FISHING

IN ; Inpia or better still Hints To AMATEURS IN TANK ANGLING,

by P. N. Bhattacharyya, which cover the subject fully. Fishing

for the predatory fish in tanks is dealt with in Chapter VII. ;

. Although Mahseer rightly take pride of place: with the: angler

a India, circumstances may not always permit or satisfy his

wants.. He may find himself stationed hundreds of miles: from

the nearest’ Mahseer water, with little opportunity of getting away.

Its under these conditions that he has to turn,to other fishing

if one is still to enjoy the sound of a singing reel. The Rohu or

Labeo and his two cousins run large and are :strong fighters, and

no mean game. Do not be discouraged by. the. Mahseer conque-

ter of fly..fishers scorn, laughing down, bottom: fishing. If once

tried to success you, will be converted. These fish’ are to be found

in tanks within easy distance of almost any decent sized town in

the plains of India. pai

The method of fishing is a secHaique. won of the best ele-

ments of angling, and on entirely new lines, to that of the float

fisher in other countries.

_CIRCUMVENTING ’ THE: MAHSEER : 497...

Before settling down to the vigil of the float, standing upright,

and only one inch out of the water, let us consider a.few genera}:

principles, and why this is different to other forms of fishing.

The Fish.—The mouth of the Rohu (Labeo) is ridiculously-

small for his size but is well provided with taste buds, and

situated well below the head. The same applies to the Mirgal.

but. to a slightly lesser degree. The Cutla has no. taste buds, .

but a large mouth badly put on with no upper lip, thus causing the.

mouth to open upwards. This makes them all feed and take bait.

in a similar manner, i.e. by sucking in their food, much as’ a

puppy does, when feeding from its mother. Their natural food

appears to be slime and weed on or near, the surface, and: organic

matter on the bottom; but paste and, worms are readily taken,

and. prov ide an ideal bait. h

It is to the peculiar nibble with w hich these fish tale the bait,

that tackle has to be adapted, in order to detect the slightest move-

ment of the baited hook.

The float must be light and sensitive, a porcupine quill or the

tail feather of the Peacock cut to a suitable length ‘and bound

with silk do excellently when adjusted correctly so as ‘to register

the minutest bite. ~

. The Best Places to Fish.—Time spent in the selection of

Arstly the tank, and secondly the part of the tank, is well repaid.

Old tanks with weeds or masonry walls or steps, that are

land bound with no water escape, will generally hold good fish.

This is provided it is protected from netting and does not: dry

up in the hot months.

Having selected an old tank and satisfied yourself that it holds

Labeo, the next point is to select.a suitable place from which- to

fish, and erect a machan, if you can reserve a place for a fee.

Here are just some of the points to consider in ‘the selection of

a site.

(1) Avoid sitting with the sun-in yaqur eyes, and as far as

possible select a part of the tank shielded from the wind.

(2) The bottom fiat and firm, at a depth of from 4 to 6 feet.

(3) Should there be a Ficus tree overhanging the tank, select

it.to fish under... All fish are attracted by ripe figs or berries.

Bathing ghats; where pots and pans are washed; near masonry:

walls or steps; at the entrance of water feeder channels,—are ail

good places to select.

3. The Bottom. — Surv ey the bottom with a plummet, and where-

ever possible select a flat portion, this is. very important for the

correct adjustment of the.line and float.. Most tanks are however

basin- shaped with shelving. sides, special adjustment to. the float

must be made in such cases. (See Fig. 8)— .

Having considered the fish .and. selected. the: tank: and fishing

site, we will now consider. tackle. . ae

4. >The Rod:—Cheap ringal. rods can be: ebnede in the tabdae

of any decent size town, their price, mounted and: fitted. with ‘rings,

is only Rs. 4-or 5. Better rods can-be had. from, any of the tackie

makers. Ten feet or so ‘is quite: long enough, it, must. however, be

498; JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

fairly stiff for brisk striking, the same as a casting rod, on ‘Wee

Murdoch’ lines. ;

Cheap brass reels can be had for Rs. 10 or so, and are good

enough, with roo yards of line.

Twisted or plaited lines can be had for Rs. 4 or Rs. 5. per

too yards. The Tussa silk lines are the most favoured, as they

are elastic and give with the strike which is necessary. They

are cheap and very strong. Any good line does. I myself favour

a smooth green or black line, not the khaki colour, and. rough

coil of the Tussa which must set up reactions in water.

5. The Hooks.—The short shank variety is the best for this

form of fishing, and the types

made in Calcutta and stocked

by Mantons and called ‘For

India’ are as good as any.

I like Hardy’s best. I give

here a diagram of one’ I had

specially made by them. —

The important thing is a

short shank with a sharp point,

(A) (B)

and a thin short barb. [See

Kigeen Age

6. The. Float.—A quill

a Fig. 1

(A). The advantage of A over B is

the short barb to the point of the hook,

for easy penetration. And the wide

rounded sweep of the hook and _ turn

down eye, for direct draw by the line.

float made up of either the tail

feather quill of a peacock, or

a thin porcupine quill. In the

case of a feather quill, it is

made up with fine cotton or

silk lashings at intervals-of $ an inch, to enable one to detect the

slightest movement of the float. It should be about 44 to 5 inches

long, with a loop at one end a couple of inches long. (See Fig. 2).

Fig. 2.—A quill float.

The float can be either attached or taken off quite easily, by

bending the line double, passing it through the loop and over

the end of the float. This gives one a slip knot over the line,

so that the float can be run up or down the line to the required

depth.

7. The Mount.—For very clear water, a good mount is a

single hook mounted to a couple of lengths of stout gut, with

a small lead, the weight of 2 or 3 B.B. shot. In coloured water,

the ordinary mount with two hooks is good enough, mounted on

to line. This then completes the outfit, the whole of which should

be obtainable for Rs. 30. (See Figs. 3 and 4.)

8. The Machan.—These can be made from either bamboo or

timber, though the latter is the better, and this I consider the

most important factor to success. The machan must be rigid, as

however expert one may be at sitting still, there are times when

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER .| 499

movement is necessary and if the machan is not quite rigid on its.

supports, fish are frightened away; the lower the platform is_ to

Fig. 3.—Gut mount shelving banks or clear tanks,

Fig. 4.—Two hooks for flat bottom fishing.

the surface of the water the better. A’ small footway connect-

ing the machan to the bank, should not be attached to the machan,

but a small gap left between, so that if an attendant brings any-

lie Ea T Taniae

ean e

A VTS a Te L L. OF TANK

; ue V

lig. Shoe ue yels showing rod rest, point of rod, float | in correct position and

directly over bait,

500 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

thing along: to you, while you are fishing, his movements are not

taken. by the posts: of the machan. A small stool or chair of any

kind, and a rod rest completes the outfit, and we are ready. to

make adjustments of our fishing gear. (See diagrams 5 & 6.)

g. Depth of water.—This is the first thing to be done. A

careful reading is made of the depth of the water, and the float

adjusted to stand vertical in the water. If the bank is shelving

one must consider the exact distance each time to lower the bait,

and the baited hook must be dropped in directly over, or you

will find that the line is not vertical from the float to the hook,

a most important detail. (For proof of this see Figs. 5 & 8.)

4” DIA. BULLIE

1” PLANKS

"DIA. BULLIE [S| EYEO

4” DO.

ELEVATION

—_— — m—|—-

4” DIA. POSTS eo

EYED BOLT

10" EYED BOLT 4” DIA

4° DIA. POSTS

Fig. 6.—Adjustable fishing machan.

10. Ground Baiting.—There are many kinds of ground bait;

oil cake either mustard or castor, fried or fermented is good. Mix

it with mud. or gram or atta or rice, and throw it in. A large

variety of ground baits can be bought, if one is foolish enough

to do so. I myself think, provided the machan is a good one.

the bait is a secondary matter, and the best and most pleasant

bait to use is roasted mustard cake, mixed with bran, damp earth

and water, made up into slabs 4 to 5 inches in diameter,’ and a

couple of inches thick. Mix in the proportion of 2 parts oil cake,

2 parts bran, and one part mud. I say in flat cakes because of

the usual practice of making balls. These, if the bank happens

to shelve towards the middle of the tank, will roll down and away

from your fishing ground, if the cake is hard.

A cone-shaped weight, with a cork strip let in, and a loop

at the top, is best, and the most convenient plummet, but any

weight will do equally as well, A “Hillman Lead’ for instance,

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER Se sore

11. Method of Fishing.—The points to attend to then are:—

(1) Ground bait for 3 or 4 days before you attempt fishing

depending on the size of the tank. .

(2) If the bottom is soft and muddy, a good

dodge is to drop in a few baskets of gravel, and

have: it -séttled on the bottom by some local

fishermen, Malars or any other of the tribe who.

can dive, this is a precaution well repaid, and

is besides an attraction to the fish. Only 3 or

4 sq. feet of bottom need be prepared in this

way, so that the baited hook will not be obscured

from view, by sinking into the soft mud.

(3) Next get the correct depth in a vertical

line from.your float to the bottom, by means of

the. plummet. This should be adjusted, so that

the float is 2 under and 4 out of. the water, or

as near as possible, with the sinker just resting — Fig. 7.—Plummet.

on the bottom. (See Fig. 7.)

(4) The float should be as near and under the point of the

rod as possible, with the head line reduced to the minimum. This

enables one to instantly strike a fish. It will be seen later that

this is of great importance. The weight of the baited hook should

be greater than the resistance of the float. That is, if the line

connecting the float to the bait is less than the depth of the water,

the float should be carried under water. This is important.

12. Bait.—The usual bait is paste, either flour or atta, or

nice red worms. There are many others besides... Adding smelly

stuffs to the bait, onion juice, turmeric (huldee), asafoetida (heeng)

and numercus others; dried weed powdered and mixed with gram

flour is supposed to be good for Cutla. Whichever is selected,

should be prepared in the manner I have suggested for mahseer

fishing, by boiling it a few minutes, when it gets nice and sticky,

and will not leave the hook so easily as if it were not so treated.

Mixing cotton wool is another dodge, a bait little known is the

leech. It is a lively worm and takes excellently, only give a fish

lots of time before you strike.

White ants or wasps’: eggs are sometimes fancied. The variety

of bait used by the Bengali and the Mohammedan would fill a

book ; let us select from this humble list, one of the few mentioned.

13. How Fish Bite.—The idea of so sensitive a float, is to

delicate manner. The first indication of the fish at the bait, is

that the float moves slowly, either up or down, this being follow-

ed by a number of bobs, moving perhaps half an inch in either

direction, or even less. Strike when the float is going down,

or when the fish is sucking in the bait. The other signs are,

float slowly disappears or lies flat on the surface, both are in-

dications to strike, and more satisfactory than the first mentioned.

In the second case, the fish has lifted the bait into its mouth

and is moving off. A third, is the fish lifting the bait off the

bottom, and taking the weight of the sinker off the float by moving

upwards. Strike hard,

so2, JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

14. Striking a fish,—The more pliable a rod the less chance of

breaking your line in a strong strike, which must be sharp

and firm, to send your hook home into the tough mouth of the

fish, and it must be quick or the fish expels the bait from his

mouth, as soon as he feels the drag on the line. Too stiff a

rod will cause breakages, which occur in the most mystifying

fashion, You strike but do not feel the fish, yet the line snaps.

The best way, I think, is to strike off the reel, provided you

have a strong check. Do not hold the line against the rod when

striking ; with sharp hooks a single-handed strike is quite sufficient

to drive the hook home.

15. Playing a fish.—If£ possible move away from the machan,

so as not to disturb. the baited ground. A landing net or an

attendant can then fix your fish for you. The Rohu goes cff

with a strong rush when hooked, and will. sometimes jump out

of the water. The Mirgil often comes to the surface on being

hooked, and remains there a few seconds, before dashing off.

16, Shelving banks.—lf the tank has a bottom falling away

to, increasing depth, I have found that the small weight can be

dispensed with, and a very light and long float used, say to inches.

Allow’ the bait to rest on the bottom, with the float as much

out as possible, the object of the large float is obvious, and re-

est a

“SURFACE

<A MD aew

COTTOMm

Fig. 8.—Position of float alters with position.

duces the error of exactness in lowering the bait, Frequent

striking is necessary, under these conditions, or the bait gets

carried down beyond the registering depth of the float. (See

Bore Sa) : Paar

17. Season and time.—This is a matter of local conditions.

In. so vast’ a country as India a general ‘remark is all that is

possible. The rains is the best ‘time, ‘when the fish’ take fairly

regularly, almost all day ; in the hot weather’ the. morning and

CIRCUMVENTING THE. MAHSEER 503

evening at the changing of light, appears to be the best time,

from 5 to g a.m. and then again from 4-30 to 7 p.m. or uatil

it gets dark.

I hope that this brief description of the methods, aided by the

diagrams, will acquaint the reader sufficiently with this form of

fishing, and that it will help, him to success. They are no mean

game, either in circumventing or fight, and well worth an after-

noon’s sport, for they will steal your bait, and tax both skill

and patience to the utmost.

18. CUTLA FISHING

The Cutla is to be found in most tanks where one gets Rohu

and Mirgil and attains a greater size than either of the two fish

just mentioned.

It-is rarely caught hooked-in the mouth; I have never caught

one, though I have fished in tanks where they were plentiful, and

attained a huge size.

The methods. of foul hooking, used- by Bengali gentlemen,

who incidently are masters at this form of fishing, are fully des-

cribed by Mr. Bhattacharyya in his book, and in Mr. Kitchen’s

Note. |

I am indebted to Mr. A. Corbet for the following Note- on

Cutla fishing, and can thoroughly recommend it to all tank ang-

lers. Mr. A. Corbet has caught more large fish in tanks than

any one else I know.

Ig. CuTLA FisHinc By A. CORBET

‘Cutla buchanani. U. P. ‘Boassa.’

Teleg., Botchee, Punj. Taila,. Bom.; Tambra, Behar, Bhakur.,

Hind., Bing., U.P. ’Boassa.’

‘Usually found in all tanks throughout India. Represented by only one

species.’

‘Like a carp in appearance, but much more heavily built, and attaining a

very large size, sometimes about 100 pounds. Very large head, the length

of the fish is usually three times the circumference of the head, broad snubby

snout, mouth turned upwards, with no upper lip’.

A bottom feeder, like most other tank fish, and not quite as shy. Often

known to take bait within a yard of the bank, in three to six feet of water

or deeper. Its nibble is shy and gentle.’

“A spot or ‘‘char’’ should first. be selected in the tank, preferably where

the water is from 3 to 7 ft. in depth, and the bottom for about 12 ft. out

and: 5.ft. across be thoroughly cleaned of all grass and weeds, also of all

black or ponky, rotted earth, found in most tanks.’

‘Liberal ground baiting is necessary, and there are several highly vaunted

nostrums. for this purpose. A few of the most successful used for attracting

most kinds of Tank fish, ake (Ixhulli), teemul, methi,

mumegreilla, and jeera.’

‘A small portion (about 1 0z.) of each of the last four named ingredients

should be fried and pounded, and mixed with reddish earth (Chikna Mutti),

the fried mustard cake can either be crushed and added or thrown. in whole

pieces of about 3 pound in weight.’

‘The mixture of earth and ingredients should be made up into small flat

cakes, the size. of the palm of the hand, and thrown into the fishing ‘‘Char’’.’

‘The baited hook should rest on the bottom, where the ground bait has

been. laid.’

‘Tank fishermen are always pestered by turtles, prawns, or crabs. A good

method. of keeping the first two away from a fishing Charis toflltta

504 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

~a Sug

ein a stone und sink about 10 ce away on any Bile ot your_ “Char?

this will keep them busy most of the day.’ ek

‘A handful of “Dhal” thrown around your bait, is usefal. in keeping

away--crabs.’

Bait. ‘Most kinds of paste bread, boiled flour and atta from preference.

Before the monsoon when the water in tanks is low, and not too clean,

some:‘honey mixed with the paste bait, preferably flour, which is the: whitest

bait,, is recommended. Cutla seem to be attracted by most highly scented

baits, and during the Jack fruit season, a couple of dozen flakes thoroughly

ripe, mixed in with. the ground bait, is a most successful lure. ‘Slight fla-

vouring of the same fruit, used in the hook bait or paste, adds to its effect-

iveness. Besides paste bait, cutla and other tank fish will take wasp and

bee grubs, maggots, sometimes worms’ and. pieces of raw prawns.’

Tackle. All that is required is a one-piece bamboo rod, fairly ‘stiff, with

some country silk tussore line, preferably mooga four ply, medium thickness.

Special modern rohu hooks, easily obtained these days, and a peacock quill

float about 6 inches in length’.

_ Mr. -A. Corbet has not detailed the method of fishing, but

this is the same as mentioned earlier in this chapter, tor all

bottom feeding’ fish. Es

. lam also indebted to Mr. P. H. Kitchen for the following

note on Tank Fishing. Mr. Kitchen is an experienced angler,

and sent Ime besides some very interesting notes on Mahseer: fish-

ing in Burma.

His note on the Cutla is most enlightening and the eatto of

Cutla to the Rohu and -Mirgil he has taken, is better than I

have had the good fortune to experience. I have caught scores

of Rohu and Mirgil, several over 30 pounds, but never a Cutla,

although I have fished in tanks where they were both numerous

and large.

20. TANK FISHING BY Pe lal. KITCHEN

“With 18 years’ experience of tank pene between Calcutta

and Hazaribagh I would unhesitatingly advise the angler who

aspires to even moderate success in Bengal waters to study the

methods of Bengali fishermen, and with inet slight modifications

10 adopt his ways to theirs. With this word of caution 1 shall

proceed to a general description of tackle required and the method

of using’ it.

Rod.—A plain Ringall bamboo, length to’ to 11’, never more,

stiff in the butt, and with a arradhinn pliable top is the best.

When such sophisticated and shy fish as. Cutla are nibbling, the

strike must be as quick as lightning, and a flexible rod would

spell failure.

The first reaction to a sharp strike with a pliable rod is ‘that

the point bends downwards and strikes the water and the frac-

tion of a second is lost before the point springs back and tightens

the line. This means the loss of the fish. When selecting a rod

care should be taken to pick one in which the knots are close.

together, and of which the outer skin is bright and glossy. These

are stronger and quicker, and do not warp so easily as bamboos

of which ‘the knots are far apart and of a dull appearance. Lin-

seed, or mustard oil should be rubbed into the rod monthly, and if

this is done, and granted a rod. has been carefully. selected in

CIRCUMVENTING THE MAHSEER 3 505

the first instance, there is no reason why it should not last for

15 years..

Such a rod mounted by the angler with. which fittings and

rings would cost about Rs. 3. Tackle shops would charge Rs. 10

to Rs. 15. —

Reel.— 34" to 4” preferably of aluminium alloy. Revolving.

plate, plain check. )

Line.—Cotton and flax lines are inclined to swell’in water,

and are not as good as undressed, handmade, silk Mooga lines

the best quality of which costs Rs. 2-8 per tola. These lines

are immensely strong in proportion to their: thickness and are

slightly elastic. ;

Gut.—Quite unnecessary. Japanese ‘Ja-gut’ is all that is re-

quired.

Hooks.—Short shank, round bend, needle pointed. Genuine

Burdwan hooks are the best. Manton of Calcutta stock hooks

similar in shape, but the points should be sharpened.

Iloat.—A piece of peacock quill 6° long, one end of which

should have painted on it 2 narrow black bands 2” apart, aud

the other end furnished with a loop of thin twine for fixing it

to the running line. This is commonly known as Thomas ‘De-

tective’ float, but was actually in use centuries before Thomas

came to India.

Bait.—The first consideration is ground bait.

There are various spices and concoctions, some unmentionably

filthy, used for attracting fish, but after considerable experiment

I have ruled out all except the following as being essential or

desirable :— |

_ (a) Mustard seed oilcake—} Ih.

(b) Maithee seed—1—oz.

(d) Yellow clay—1 Ib.

Pound the. oilcake and roast it in an old frying pan until it

smokes slightly.

Grind maithee seed and groundnut separately and roast until

of a rich, brown colour.

Mix these ingredients with the clay which should have been

powdered in a dry state, add water, and knead to a stiff consis-

tency. Break this mixture into lumps the size of billiard balls,

and throw into water 4 an hour before actually fishing, and just

where the hook will rest at the bottom.

Hook bait.—From June to end of July during the first

showers and when water is discoloured, earthworms are as a

rule—there are exceptions—readily taken by Rohu and Mirgal.

August to end of October, after which tank angling is useless in

Bengal, the bait par ercellence is ‘Maitah’ or ‘Meotah.’ Country

liquor in Bengal is brewed from fermented rice, and the residue

left-over after the liquor has been strained off is called Maitah.

This should be squeezed on the hook in a lump the size of a

marble, and the line carefully lowered into the water. Maitah

is soft and flakes off readily, and this should be borne in mind

when a fish nibbles. |

so6, jOURNAL BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Depth at which to fish.—This is most important. The hook

and a single shot fixed on the snood 6” above the hook should

just rest on the bottom, and the float regulated on the line so

that only the bands painted on it appear above water.

Care should be taken to choose a spot where the water is from

3’ to 5’ in depth, and if there are reeds and grasses between

the point of the rod and the angler, so much the better. I have

heard it advocated that the deeper one fishes the better. This is

1 think distinctly wrong. Fish particularly towards evening, are

inclined to browse amongst the reeds in the shallows and when

the water is discoloured. I have hooked a 36-lb. Cutla in 24

ol water.

When to strike.—It is usually possible to determine from tie

behaviour of the float, and occasionally from bubbles rising round

it, the species of fish in the-swim. A Mirgal sends up a burst

of small bubbles, a Rohu fewer and larger, and a Cutla one or

two very large bubbles. When a Mirgal accepts the bait, the

float after one or two slow bobs sometimes disappears from sight.

A Rohu after several bobs usually raises the float well out

of, and sometimes lays it flat in the water. Strike to this move-

ment, and the fish is a gift. A Cutla after one or two bobs twitch-

es the float rapidly. Strike hard and quick, and with luck 7o

yards of line will be torn off the reel after which a stubborn fight

will follow. On one occasion I saw a Bengali Babu strike and

play a Cutla from 3 to 5-30 p.m. during which time the line off

another man’s reel was brought into requisition. The fish scaled

68 Ibs. On yet another occasion I watched a struggle with a

Cutla from 4 p.m. to 7 p.m. when eventually the sorely tried hook

broke off at the barb and the darkness of night swallowed the

profanities of an exhausted fisherman.

As a rule when a Rohu its struck he springs clear out of water

and then dashes off at a speed which would seem to indicate an

urgent engagement elsewhere. He has not however the Scottish

dourness of the Cutla. The Mirgal bores deep, but his first rush

is not to be compared with that of the Cutla or Rohu. When

fishing in tanks equally stocked with Cutla, Rohu and Mirgal

one’s proportion of fish taken in a season would be approximately

Cutla to every dozen or more Rohu and Mirgal. The Cutla is a

finnicky brute, and in spite of his big head and mouth he is the dain-

tiest of feeders and a thief so one must not expect to meet very

many of these fine fish. The Bengalis have interesting method

of fishing for Cutla which I have on occasion seen successful.

This method is called ‘Char-Kati’ and is a poaching dodge pure

and simple, but possibly excusable when Cutla of 50 Ibs. and

more are sucking surface weeds, and no bait however tempting

will induce them. to accept it.

Strips) of bamboo are woven to Roya a hollow shell, the size

and shape of a large cocoa-nut, and a thin bamboo some 6/ in

length passed throws it. Tins shell is filled with boiled rice,

spices. and ‘Maitah’ after which one end of the bamboo. is thrust

into: the soft mud at the bottom of the tank leaving the other

end protruding about 1’ above water. The angler then seats him-

THE SENSE OF SMELL. IN SNAKES 607

self with rod and. line to which are attached 2 or 3 hooks very

square in the bend and known as Cutla hooks, and watches the

end of the bamboo.

When this twitches it indicates a fish nosing around and trying

to get at the tit bits in the bamboo shell.

The hooks are carefully lowered until approximately under the

fish, when a hard strike may result in it being foul hooked (lig. 9).”’

CHAR-KATI

Fig. 9.—The ‘Char-Kati’ in action.

I have little to add to these notes except to say that a sound

knowledge of the Code of the peacock quill, perfect co-ordina-

fion of eye, brain and wrist. and patience in broiling sun or pour-

ing rain are essentials to success in tank angling. The man who

would ‘chuck and chance it’ had better stick to his spoon and

rapid in some brawling Himalayan stream.

(To be continued.)

THE SENSE OF SMELL IN SNAKES.

Capt. ALLEN PAYNE.

(With 2 plates and 1 text figure.)

INTRODUCTION

The senses in the order Ophidia are very interesting, inasmuch

as one finds according to the demands of food, protection, social

life and the like, that one or more of the senses is to some extent

exaggerated to. compensate for the lack of, sometimes complete

lack of, a particular sense.

This is most conveniently illustrated in the case of snakes by

the fact that although a snake has no external auditory meatus.

and is to all intents and purposes quite deaf, they do possess a

most uncanny sense of so-called ‘hearing’. This is probably due

to a very highly developed sense of ‘feel’; nerve endings in the

epithelium, scales and rib endings are developed in excelsis, even

to the extent of recording minute vibrations. This high develop-

ment and distribution of the nerves together with a very keen power

of sight and extensive field of vision, is without doubt compensatory

for the snake’s deprivation of a sense of hearing.

Some years ago I interested myself in the sense of taste in

snakes. As I was at that time in the United Kingdom, my speci-

308 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 4%

mens were mainly obtained through the kindness of Dr. Burgess

Barnett, at that time Curator of Keptiles at London Zoo. I was

able to obtain python’s heads from which I removed the tongues

and prepared histological sections. ‘These stained with haematoxy-

lin and eosin did not lead me to believe that the python possessed

any appreciable sense of taste as there was no evidence of the pre-

sence of taste buds in the epithelial layers. No doubt there is some -

other more highly csvelopanl power vested in pythons to compensate

for this too.

A. F. Abercromby writing from Travancore on the 12th July 1921

to the Bombay Natural History Society’ mentions that ‘it is how-

ever doubtful whether the snake possesses much, if any, sense of

taste. He also mentions instances of snakes swallowing pieces

of cloth and in one case a stick, which had recently been in contact

with and absorbed the scent of rats. A most extraordinary appetite

and palate! He was of the opinion that the snakes appreciated

the smell of rats and took these articles to be them. ‘The same

Writer records an incident of a python seizing and swallowing

rug. These observations however, do MISE a very powerful

sense of smell in snakes.

It is well known from field observations that certain snakes

quite definitely stalk their prey. The snake will be seen to make

«a meandering course, frequently flicking its tongue at objects and

then proceeding on its way; eventually the snake will catch up with

its objective and then depend on its keen visual powers and agility

to effect capture.

Opinions are divided when it comes to the true function of the

tongue, but in my opinion quite strong evidence is at hand to sug-

gest that one of its major. functions is the conveyance of scent

spoors through the palatine openings into the internal nares.

In the same communication, Abercromby says, ‘at any rate the

tongue appears to act as the carrier of the scent to the nostrils’.

Reference should also be made to a most interesting paper pre-

sented by A. G. L. Frazer, 1.M.p., on ‘The Snakes of Deolali’,?

which includes an item, ‘Note on the peculiar use made of the

tongue by snakes and some lizards’.

He writes: ‘A striking feature in the behaviour of a snake is

the peculiar use it makes of its tongue. The cause of this seem-

ingly purposive act is not generally understood, ... The habit as

noticed amongst the Ophidia synchronises with the exercise of mus-

cular activity, such as locomotion, or when in the case of the cobra,

the hood is expanded and the anterior third of the body is erected.

It is only in these active states that the creatures shoot out the

forked tongue in quick succession. The act appears to be in the

nature of a physiological expression of some function serving to

their benefit. The author is unaware of any scientific explanation

for this characteristic behaviour. Any theoretical consideration

offered in elucidation of the act must necessarily be advanced on

some physiological ground. . .. Snakes being cold-blooded, their

”_,

1 Journal, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxviii, p. 812.

* Journal, Bom, Nat, Hist. Soc., vol. xxxix, p. §8.

THE SENSE, OF SMELL IN SNAKES § 99

temperature varies with the surrounding medium and is normally

a degree or two above it. Any muscular output is always attended

by heat production in the tissues and there must be some means

for eliminating the heat engendered, especially in an animal which

is totally unprovided with sweat glands. In view, therefore, of the

fact that the act is a spontaneous one and associated with muscular

activity alone, there are tenable reasons for believing that the

heat formed in the tissues is got rid of by evaporation of the mois-

ture from the extruded surface of the tongue.’

This is yet another theory of the function of the tongue, but

1 feel that the tongue has a more powerful role to fulfil in the life

of snakes and it was the idea that the tongue is very closely con-

nected with the olfactory organ that activated my interest to study

the subject,

The following paper is a short study then, of the sense of smell

in snakes, carried out over a period of about a year. The area

from which I have drawn my specimens has been the United Pro-

vinces—mainly Lucknow district—and the species I have dealt with

throughout the study has been the Common Krait (Bungarus caeru-

leus) as these are in abundance in this area and as I had promised

to collect them in numbers to send to the Hattkine Institute, Parel,

for. antivenine research.

The major part of the investigation is based on twelve malcs

and twelve females captured at village Kakori, U.P. The ages

ranged between one yéar and two and a half years, and the males

were between about three and four feet in length and the females

two to three feet eight inches.

To make the discourse and the diagrams more clear, I have

outlined very briefly the general anatomy and physiology of the

organs of smell in snakes, and made special anatomical and histo-

logical observations in the case of Bungarus coeruleus.

Anatomy.

In any living creature the gustatory apparatus proper accom-

modates four main sensations, namely sweetness, salt, sourness and

bitterness. These four sensations are but a mere portion of the

wide range of sensations generally classified as taste. The appre-

ciation of taste and smell is jointly derived from the sense of smell,

which is subserved by the olfactory nerve.

Generally the organs of smell are two rather irregular cham-

bers enclosed by the nasal capsules. These chambers are paired:

and separated by the nasal septum and are communicated with

the internal nares; the linings of which are in connection with

the olfactory nerves of each appropriate side.

- In Ophidia, Jacobson’s glands are present; these are situated

between the nasal sacs and the palate, that is to say, between the

turbinals and the vomer. They appear as a pair of sacs having an

olfactory epithelium, and are actually outgrowths of the nasal sacs,

innervated by the olfactory (and trigeminal). They open into the

mouth immediately in front of the choanae and as such are consi-

510 JOURNAL: BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 46

dered as secondary olfactory organs specifically developed to serve

the mouth. (See plate and diagrams of the mouth and skull.)

PREMAXILLA. | ETHMOID,

VOMER.

CHOANAE.

PALATINE.

MAXILLA.

«FRONTAL,

BASISPHENOID.

hE act. rl

lig. 1.—General idea of the anterior aspect (ventral) of a snake’s skull showing

the. relationship of the vomer and choanae.

Anatomy of Bungarus caeruleus.

The general anatomy of the olfactory organ and its complimen-

tary Structures is not exceptional in the case of the Common Krait.

An anterior palate, made up of thin tissue forming a sort of roof, is

stretched across between the maxillae. Its length completes about

one-third of the total tooth bearing maxillae and is rather short.

Leaving a space of about one-eighth of an inch above this,

lies ‘the roof of the mouth and the palate proper. Behind this

tissue roof are the openings into the internal nares and the con-

nections with the nostrils. (See plates.)

A note on nervous tissues.

Nerve tissue is made up of a series of cells which have the

power of not only receiving but also interpreting’ stimuli. These

cells are neurons and have a main body, a nucleus and radiating

from the whole are many tails called dendrites with ‘one parti-

cularly long dendrite known as the axon. It is along the axon that

the nerve impulse passes. The axon eventually breaks up into

tufts of many branches (terminal arborisation) and it is from here

that the axon passes on the stimulus to either another cell or to

fibres within the muscle, whence it is conveyed to the central ner-

vous system, The axons sometimes become very long and come

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PiatTE |

Ai So

Bey 7 KIN

Fig. 1.—Longitudinal section through Fig. 2.—Longitudinal section through

the tongue of Bungarus caeruleus. tongue of a rabbit showing taste

(Note absence of taste buds.) buds in the epithelium.

Fig. 3.—Portion of a longitudinal histological section of a piece of olfactory

tissue from Bungarus caeruleus showing nerve fibres in section and bundles,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soe. Prate TI

Fig. 1.—Photograph of the palate of the Common Krait (Bungarus caeruleus), A. Dissected.

B. Natural. See explanation below.

Fig. 2.—Diagram in explanation of the photograph above.

A.—This shows the palate after the removal of the arch of tissue covering the

openings into the nares (dotted line shows the original position of it). The

Openings into the nares are marked *

£.—The natural palate showing the arch and the cavernous appearance of the

roof of the mouth going beneath it.

THE SENSE OF SMELL IN SNAKES 511

together to form nerve fibres of which some tissue is made up.

Wetnity the sense cells in the epithelium have a supporter cell

lying on either side of them.

Physiology.

When air containing odorous particles is drawn through the

nostrils or the mouth into the olfactory chambers, the cells Kenown

as receptor cells (which are particularly irritable to certain ‘stimuli

and line the nasal chambers) react to these odorous particles and

the stimulus is passed to the afferent fibres, that is to say, those

which pass through the dorsal root or one of the sensory. cranial

nerves, from eee they conduct the particular stimulus to the

central nervous system. BG

A’ sensation is thus recorded.

Histology.

Specimens were dissected from the’ heads of both the male and

female kraits and these were ‘histologically sectioned as thinly

as was possible and stained with haematoxylin and eosin and the

nervous tissue stains.

First of all the tongue was sectioned (see plate) and this was

compared with that of. a rabbit. There were no traces whatso-

ever of any taste buds in the tongues of the snakes to suggest a

sense of taste in these creatures. The plate will readily show

the taste buds in the section. of the rabbit’s tongue; they lie within

the epithelial papillae.

The snake’s tongue demonstrates a wealth of epithelial cells

and some muscular tissue.

Next, the olfactory was sectioned and proved to be most in-

teresting on.examination. Both the olfactory lobe and a_ portion

of the nasal tissue were examined.

Generally the surface showed evidence of cross-sectioned nerve

bundles overlaying many small granule-like cells with a few nerve

fibres running” in between them.

Dotted about the entire centre of the organ were many large

nerve cells and although the sections were rather thick it appeared

that these large cells were ‘held together by strand-like structures

or fibrils which were no doubt made up from the cell dendrites.

Beneath these large cells ,many bundles of nerve fibres were seen

containing a medley of cells.

The organ:as a whole appeared to be well endowed with nerve

cells and fibres and suggested a quite highly developed and effi-

cient working olfactory organ.

EXPERIMENT No. 1.

Sensitivity Tests.

A box was prepared, having a glass front and being divided

centrally into two chambers. The dividing piece had in one bottom

corner an aperture 3 inches by 3 inches, over which was hung a

piece of damp cloth to cover it.

For -the purpose of the experiments the left-hand chamber is

to be known as ‘A’ and the right ‘B’,

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

or.

The tests were carried out between about 8 p.m. and 8 a.m.

In chamber ‘A’ a bowl containing slightly warmed concentrated

Formaldehyde was placed and a male krait was also put in the

same side. The vapour from the Formaldehyde did not appear to

embarrass the snake for some time; the next morning, however,

the krait had moved its abode by means of the aperture and was

seen to be in chamber ‘B’ which was well ventilated. The experi-

ment was. repeated several times with males and females and

most of them moved to the neighbouring chamber. Three died in

chamber ‘A’, two being females.

I attribute the delay in any reaction to the fact that snakes

appear to have the power of ‘cutting off’ their respiratory system

on receipt of an unpleasant stimulus (Formaldehyde is more of an

irritant than a bad smell) and also to the fact that the Formalde-

hyde vapour was of insufficient strength to more than irritate the

nasal membrane in the first instance.

Similar experiments were carried out with other commodities

and a table is appended to show the reactions.

Table showing the various reactions of Bungarus coeruleus

| to the given commodities.

Commodity Snake} Sex. Reaction

5 ¢@ |4from AtoB.

(1 died in A).

2 from A toB.

(2 died in A),

(1 remained in A).

Nil.

[Nal

2 from A to By

Nil.

Formaldehyde

Decomposing vegetable matter...

Petrol, Turpentine, Pyridine ... |

|1 from A te B.

Nil.

All to Chamber B.

(Apparently to escape the

maggots.)

2 from A to B.

(1 died in A.)

1 from A to B.

(2 died in A.)

Fresh wild flowers. ee

Decomposed_ fly-blown _ krait

covered with maggots

—— ee,

- v : .

BUNGARUS COERULEUS.

Sulphur fumes sole

ise) (Sw) aMmuniwmn > PhP LP

40 OQ, 40OX4t0R° 40240,

me —S_—\

There is no conclusive evidence that the movements were due

to the snakes recording a had stimulus by means of the olfactory

organ but it 1s interesting to note that the males appeared..more

reactive than the Resmmallos,

Samples of the commodities soaked into cotton wool and placed

on the end of a. stick were held over the nostrils of the snakes

and the reactions were generally that the snake hid its head in

its coils.

If the tongue actually touched the commodity the reactign was

certainly more pronounced and rapid,

THE SENSE OF SMELL IN SNAKES 513

EXPERIMENT No. 2.

On February 4 two of my specimens were seen to be locked

in coitus. The. female was removed and the anal scent .glands

were carefully dissected. The dark black creamy substance there-

from was then removed and a line of it was streaked from Sarto

to ‘B’ through the aperture.

The male krait was placed in chamber ‘A’. After about three

hours he was seen to be in chamber ‘B’ exploring. This experi-

ment was not repeated. |

Whilst I do not believe that the anal gland has any significance

sexually, as Ido not perceive any macroscopical or histological

change in it, and as insufficient data is available to prove that it

is by this means that the male detects its mate,! I do feel that the

krait was appreciative to the particularly pungent smell of the

excretion from the glands.

Later, a corner of another box was smeared liberally with the

same substance from the anal glands and be it by choice or coin-

cidence, the entire kraits contained therein coiled themselves in

that corner and if moved soon returned to the same spot.

Mr. ,.S. .H. Prater in his article “The Social Life of Snakes’

(J.B.N.H.S., vol. xxxvi, p. 475) suggested that the function of

the anal glands may be in the locating of the female by the male

during the breeding or mating season; he adds that these problems

require further elucidation.

Colonel Wallon the same subject writes: ‘Anal Glands.—The

anal or scent glands secrete a blackish material of the consistency

of a soft ointment. This has a peculiar, rather disagreeable, but

not very penetrating smell. The glands in the both sexes are

active at all seasons, and at all stages from the time of hatching,

so that I am inclined to question the popular belief fostered by

Darwin (Descent of Man, p. 539) among others that they are con-

cerned with the sexual functions.’

Conclusion.

From the anatomy of the palate and the olfactory organs it

appears that there is a definite functional link between the two.

The presence of the tissue stretched across between the palate and

the mouth is suggestive of an attempt to collect odorous particles

which enter the mouth by means of the tongue. The vapour there-

from would be conveyed through the narial openings to the internal

nares lined with epithelium innervated by the olfactory.

In this connection the tongue undoubtedly plays an important

role in being the method of transport of the odorous particles. to

the narial openings.

From the histology it would appear that the tongue has no

appreciable sense of taste. Experimentally it is observed that al-

though there is some reaction to certain commodities touched by

the tongue, this reaction is due largely (that is, when the com-

1 T have frequently dug for Kraits and found male and female paired during

hibernation,

513 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

modity was not an irritant) to the tongue conveying the particles

of the commodity to the olfactory organ and thereby setting up a

stimulus, |

This method of the appreciation of smell in snakes is, I think,

as well developed as the method of through-the nostrils’.

I do not consider that the snake places its tongue over the

nostrils in order to deposit odorous particles. I admit that parti-

cularly with the larger snakes and lizards too, the tongue becomes

so unwieldly that on the tongue being withdrawn it tends to flap,

thereby giving the impression that it is ‘licking its nostrils’.

It appears, then, that the snake is endowed with a very efficient

organ of smell and that this is used in all phases of its life.

The olfactory mechanism including the nostrils is reinforced by

the action of the tongue, which may be considered as a secondary

olfactory organ, inasmuch as it conveys the odorous particles

through the mouth to the palatine narial openings. I suggest

that the majority of the flicking in and out of the tongue is done

with the object of collecting these odorous particles for identifica-

tion by smell. In this way the snake may often be mistaken and

this would account for its most extraordinary tastes at times.

I do not find that the belief that the tongue serves as a sweat-

ing apparatus to regulate the heat engendered in the body by mus-

cular action, very tenable, as in the number of histological sections

I have examined I do not perceive any trace of sweat apparatus

nor do I see any relative tissue.

The findings of this short study tend to support the theory that

snakes are by no means anosmic but they can and do differentiate

very considerably between the various smells, and that they use

this sense very largely during the process of their lives.

Appreciation.

My very grateful thanks are due to my friend Capt. (Miss)

Margaret Hamilton, R.A.M.C., for her kind criticisms and assis-

tance and also to Major C. Lyn Greening, I.M.S., Director of the

District Laboratory, Lucknow, for allowing me all facilities, for

the preparation of the histological sections and for his advice.

REFERENCES.

Textbook of Zoology, Vol. 2 (Ophidia). Adam Sedgwick, F.R.s.

ihc

2. Fundamentals of Biology (1942). Stork and Renouf.

3. Manual of Elementary Zoology (9th ed.), Borradaile.

4. Jcurnal, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvi, p. 475 (Prater).

5. Journal, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xviii, p. 723 (Wall.).

6. Journal, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxviii, p. 812 (Abercromby).

7. Journal, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxix, p. 58 (Frazer).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Prate I.

ig. 1.—Longitudinal section through the tongue of Bungarus caeruleus. (Note

absence of taste buds.)

ig. 2.—Longitudinal section through tongue of a rabbit showing taste buds

in the epithelium.

Fig. 3.—Portion of a longitudinal histological section of a piece of olfactory

tissue from Bungarus caeruleus showing nerve fibres in section and bundles,

A’ GENERAL REVIEW.OF THE MARINE ALGA

1D) 515

Pirate II,

{PIs ite —Photograph of the palate of snake (Bungarus coeruleus).

YAY, Dissected. *B’, Natural.

Fig. 2.—Diagram in explanation of the photograph above.

A.—This “ROWE the palate after the removal of the arch’ of tissue covering

“the openings into the nares. ‘(Dotted line shows the original position of it.)

“Lhe openings into the nares are marked *.

_ &.—The -natural palate showing the ‘arch and the cavernous “appearance of

dhe roof of the mouth going beneath it.

A GENERAL REVIEW OF ,.THE MARINE ALGAE OF

THE. WESTERN COAST OF INDIA.

_, Katrpapa Biswas, M.A., D.Sc. (Edin.), F.R.S.E.,

Superintendent, Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, and

Honorary Lecturer in Botany, Post-graduate

Department-in Science, Calcutta University.

(With 3 plates)

CONTENTS

Page

1. Infroduction and Acknowledgement one. eis)

z. Review of past work and collections of Indian Marine Algae 565 WI

3. Distribution of Marine Algae of the Bombay Coast line 560 UY)

4, Charts showing the range of distribution of the recorded species

‘from Bombay seaside in different parts of the world . 5a9 | OA!

5. Description of the unrecorded and little known species... 08 OL

6. Explanation of plates bc Bee AOE sua Ostl

INTRODUCTION AND ACKNOWLEDGEMENT.

A paper entitled ‘A note on the Algae collected by James A.

Murray at Karachi’ by Mr. S. C. -Dixit, published in Current

Science, Vol. 9; No. 1,. pp. 27-28, 1940, prompted me to under-

take searching for the old species of marine algae of the coasts

of Bombay and Karachi. This search led to several important

discoveries on the question of distribution of the marine species

of the western coasts of India. It was also discovered that cer-

tain observations made by Mr. Dixit on Murray’s collections needed

modifications as dealt with in the first paper. The interest thus

‘created urged the writer to undertake a survey of all the species

of marine algae of the coast line of Bombay Presidency known up

to the present time. The result of this survey is embodied in

brief in the general review of my paper. Recent investigation by

Dien eae icin hae NES Cee HOD ss Or ethie, Punjab: Wniversity, as

reported in his contribution on ‘Marine Algae from Karachi’,

Chlorophyceae, Pt. I, 1940 and Rhodophyceae, Pt. II, 1943, led to

the discovery of a few new records and new species. These however

have since been published. So far my examination of these species

reveals their record from this part of the sea is not likely to alter

materially my observations on the distribution of the marine algae

of this part of India. .

I express my indebtedness to Mr. Gopal Chandra Mitra, m.sc.,

for his valuable assistance in the preparation of this paper.

516 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

REVIEW OF PAST WORK AND COLLECTIONS OF INDIAN MARINE

) ALGAE,

Collection of Indian algae can be traced from as early a period

as 1798. Records show that marine algae growing along the

coastline of India were gathered about 60 years earlier than the

period of Murray’s collection at Karachi. Wallichian sheets of

marine algae (Wall. Cat. Nos. 7481, 7482, 7483, 7484, 7485, 7486,

7487, 7490) from the Andaman Islands, Penang and Singapore were

collected in 1822. These algal materials can be taken as the oldest

specimens of marine algae collected and preserved in India for the

last one hundred and twenty-three years. Therefore collection and

study of marine algae of the Indian seas date from 1822 onwards.

Dr. Alexander Braun and Dr. W. Hervey mentioned in 1826 about

Belanger’s and Wight’s collection of Chara and sea-weeds. Belan-

ger was an ardent admirer of the treasures of the Indian seas. In

1836, as Director of the Botanic Gardens in Pondicherry, he col-

lected sea-weeds along the coasts of Cape Comorin and its neigh-

bourhood in South India. James Forbes Royle, late of medical

staff of the Bengal Army, published a short note on algae in his

monumental work on the ‘Hlustrations of the Botany and other

branches of the Natural History of the Himalayan Mountains and

of the Flora of Cashmere’ in Vol. 1, pp. 441-42, 1839, where Royle

suggests that the Dictyoteae increase in numbers as we approach

‘the equator; and Hypnea, Cystoseria, Sargassum, Zonaria, Spharo-

coccus, Thamneria, Acanthophora, Tamnophora, Amansia, Cau-

lerpa and Gelidiwm, of which swallows build the so much prized

‘edible bird’s nests’ abound in tropical seas. Few have been de-

scriked from the Indian Ocean, but several are contained in Dr.

Rottler’s Herbarium.’ He also mentioned that ‘A few species of

Confervas’ are found in Dr. Rottler’s Herbarium from the neigh-

bourhood of Tranquebar. Dr. W. H. Hervey described three

charming sea plants in 1854 from the south coast of Ceylon under

three genera. The three species mentioned by. him are Vanvoorstia

spectabilis, Claudea multifida and Martensia spectabilis. The

genus Vanvoorstia was named after the reputed naturalist John

Van Voorst, author of the Natural History of Great Britain. This

genus was established for the first time by Dr. Hervey. Reports

on the marine algae of Ceylon—Ecological and Systematic studies

of the Ceylon species of Caulerpa by Dr. Nils Svedelius of Upsala

published in the Biological Results of the Ceylon Fishery, 1905, 1s

a valuable contribution towards our knowledge of marine flora of

India and Ceylon. The original set of Hervey’s collection of

Ceylon algae is preserved in Trinity College, Dublin. The dupli-

cates are available for study at the Royal Rik’s Museum in Stock-

holm and in J. G. Agardh’s Herbarium in Lund: A few stray

sheets are in the Calcutta Herbarium mixed up with Fergusson’s

specimens. (1) The earliest collector of sea-weeds of Karachi is not

J. A. Murray but Vice-Admiral W. J. S. Pullen who gathered

some interesting specimens of marine algae from. Karachi proper

in 1859-60. A large number of valuable well-preserved old sheets

of Wallich (1822), Hervey (1853), Anderson (1861), Kurz (1867),

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE 517

Fergusson (1875), J. A. Murray (1881), King and Prain (1889-90),

Heinig (1896), Gardiner (1899) and others are in the Calcutta Her-

barium under the safe custody of Government. Prof. Borgesen

visited India at the invitation of the Bombay University and during

his stay in this country from the middle of December 1927 to the

end of January 1928 made a fair collection of algae ‘:0m_ the

Bombay coast with the help of Messrs. S. C. Dixit, GC. Ayengar

and K. G. Naik. These were subsequently worked out by Prof.

Borgesen in Copenhagen and the result published mostly in the

Journal of the Indian Botanical Society and Kew Bulletin. [I am

not aware if the original set of this collection is in the Bom-

bay University or elsewhere in India. If not, steps should be

taken to obtain for India the original or at least the duplicate

set of this collection including the type or cotype sheets of the new

and unrecorded species discovered in this collection.

A set of 39 excellent Herbarium sheets of Murray’s original

algal specimens from Karachi collected in 1881-83 and preserved at

the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, proves that

Mr. Dixit’s inference that ‘it is a loss to science that Murray’s

first collection is not preserved in the country’ as mentioned in his

note on the algae collected by James A. Murray at Karachi, in

Current Science, Vol. 9, No. 1, pp. 27-28, January 1940, is also not

based on sufficient authentic information. Any algologist dealing

with sea algae cannot but doubt the accuracy of the determination

of algae mentioned in Murray’s book on ‘The Plants and Drugs of

Sind’. In this book under class I, Thallogens Alliance 1. Algalis

Murray records under 3 Natural orders 22 species representing 14

genera. It is expected that if these algae were correctly identified at

least some of the species would have been mentioned in Prof. Borge-

sen’s works which were based on Murray’s Karachi algae located

in the Kew Herbarium and the Herbarium of the British Museum

(Natural History), London. There would also have been some of

Murray’s species represented among the Calcutta set of his Karachi

algae, 25 per cent of which are found among: the Herbarium mate-

rials at Kew. The Calcutta’ Herbarium possesses a set of well-

preserved sheets of Murray’s algae which were sent to the late

Sir George King some time in 1884 or thereabout evidently for

naming. Of these excepting six species which are both in Kew

and in Calcutta collections the rest of the Karachi specimens of

Murray at the Calcutta Herbarium do not seem to have been re-

ported so far. Examination of Murray’s list of algal specimens

reveals that there is much confusion in the nomenclature too. Out

of 22 species noted in Murray’s book only one species, Ceramium

rubrum (Huds.) Ag. var. virgata Ag., is reported by Borgesen with

the remark, that ‘two well-preserved specimens of this form of

Ceramium rubrum widely spread in the Arctic Sea and in the

northern Atlantic Ocean are present in the collection of Algae

belonging to the Kew Herbarium. Their occurrence in the Arabian

Sea is therefore rather astonishing’—Kew Bull., No. 1, p. 19, 1934.

This species Borgesen reported again in his exhaustive paper on

Karachi algae entitled ‘Some Marines Algae from the Northern Part

of the Arabian Sea with remarks on their geographical distribution’

518 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

(published in Det. Kgl. Dansk.: Viden. Sel. Biolog. Medd. Vol.

xi, No. 6, p..41, 1934) with locality ‘India, Karachi’. He however

omitted this species in his subsequent paper on ‘A list of. Marine

Algae trom Bombay’ (published in Ibid., Vol. xu, No. 2, 1935) as

he was then definitely doubtful about the occurrence of some of

the northern species which were incorporated in his previous lists by

mistake and he explained this fact in his footnote to the paper. Fur-

ther it cannot be imagined how the northern temperate species of

Laminaria saccharina (L.) Lam. was found by Murray in Karachi.

The family Laminariceae is confined entirely to the north temperate

regions. It is equally puzzling to account for the range of distri-

bution of the species Laminaria saccharina as noted by Murray in

his book ‘from the Caspian into India. In the Thibet it is said by

Honigberger (a medical man) to grow in Salt Lake’. This species

is distributed in the northern part of the Atlantic and the Pacific

Ocean. From the above facts it becomes clear that Kirtikar and Basu

are not far wrong in doubting the specific determination of the plants

catalogued by Murray. They in their work on Indian Medicinal

Plants, Pt. I, p. xiii, para 3, 1918 (Introduction) remark that ‘Mur-

ray neither being a medical man nor a skilled botanist compiled his

work from other sources and, as such, the work is of doubtful

value’. The literature and the authorities consulted by Murray

leads any botanist to the same conclusion. Moreover, the range

of distribution of many of Murray’s sea algae hitherto recorded in

standard works shows that it is extremely unlikely that some of

his northern species as noted in his contribution can possibly find

their abode in Karachi. Prof. Borgesen therefore in the conclud-

ing sentence to his discussion on the geographical distribution of

the algae. of the northern Arabian Sea remarks that ‘it would be

of great interest to confirm the presence of the above mentioned

northern species found there by James A. Murray according to his

collection in the Kew ‘Herbarium’. Extracts quoted above by

Mr. Dixit from Borgesen’s paper in support of his argument is

therefore rather misleading. The full paragraph relating to the

point is as follows :—

‘But the most important result of the examination of the col-

lection of the: British Museum was. to establish that none of the

northern and arctic algae mentioned'in my list were found in the

collection. When I heard that the British Museum also possessed

a large collection of J. A. Murray’s Algae from Karachi I was of

course especially interested in finding out whether the northern

species were found there too. This not being the case greatly in-

creases my doubts as to whether they really live there, and seems

to me to render it probable that they have come into Murray’s col-

lection found in the Kew Herbarium by mistake.’ The specimens

of James A. Murray as noted in his book are not likely to be lost

to science but the confusion is due to their wrong identification.

This explains the reason why the specimens mentioned by Murray

are absent in the collections of his Karachi algae at Kew, British

Museum and Calcutta Herbarium. Consequently the species as

named in Murray’s book are also not found in Borgesen’s works

on Karachi algae including Murray’s original materials. Thus: it

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE 519

follows that the original collection of Murray is not only at the

Kew and British Museum but also in the Calcutta Herbarium evi-

dently under different names. These algae have already been worked

out by Prof. Borgesen. Mr. Dixit therefore need not burden under

the misapprehension that James A. Murray’s collection of marine

algae from Karachi is lost to science. ‘It will also be obvious from

the points discussed above that Prof. Borgesen simply asserts that

some of the ,specimens .of northern arctic dlgae, referred

to in his paper on the Marine Algae from northern part

Of the Arabian Sea, found! their access into J. A. - Mur-

ray’s collection at. Kew Herbarium. through mistake. These

specimens wrongly placed with Murray’s collection set Bor-

gesen to speculate on the migration of some of the northern tem-

perate species in tropical seas and to draw certain rather far-

fetched conclusions while dealing with the geographical distribu-

tion of the, marine algae on the northern part of the Arabian Sea.

Some of Borgesen’s arguments advanced to account for the occur-

rence of these northern specimens cannot be supported by previous

data which established the dominating influence of Malayan and

Australasian elements in the distribution of deep water and littoral

algae in the tropical waters of the Indian Ocean. Borgesen’s foot-

note, quoted above, to his paper on ‘A list of marine algae from

Bombay’ where he points out his mistakes detected during his scru-

tiny of Murray’s set of algae at British Museum (Natural History),

London, is of greatest importance to oceano- and phyto-geographers

and those interested in the distribution of sea-weeds. Some of his.

views expressed under the heading ‘Some Plant Geographical Con-

siderations’ demand revision in the light of the distribution of species

contained in the additional collection of James A. Murray’s algae

at the Calcutta Herbarium which he does not seem to have exa-

mined in dealing with the Bombay algae.

It will be obvious from the statement above ‘how a wrong state-

ment made by Borgesen led to misleading speculation about the

geographical distribution of the flora and fauna in this part of the

Indian sea. Sewell states, ‘It has recently been discovered that a

very high percentage of species of Marine Algae are common to the

Indian Ocean and the North Atlantic Ocean, some even occurring

in the Arctic region.’ (‘The oceans round India’ by R. B. S. Sewell,

p. 40, An outline of the Field Sciences of India, 1937). This state-

ment is evidently based on Borgesen’s observation on the geogra-

phical distribution of the algae of the northern Arabian Sea after

Borgesen’s comparison of Murray’s sheets at Kew. ‘It would be

of great. interest,’ Borgesen however remarked, ‘to confirm ‘the

presence of the above-mentioned northern species found there by

James A. Murray according to his collection in the Kew Herbarium.’

DISTRIBUTION OF MARINE ALGAE OF THE BOMBAY COAST LINE.

The total number of species and varieties known to us from the

western coast of India is 255, representing 5 species of Myxo-

phyceae, 81 of Chlorophyceae, 38 of Phaeophyceae and 131 of Flori-

deae.. Endemic species, varieties and forms aré only 45, thus repre-

senting only 17 per cent of the algae recorded from this area of

520 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

the seashore of the Peninsular India. South-Western Australia has

many species common to the Malayan Archipelago. Hence from

the point of view of algal distribution the part of the water bor-

dering the south-western coast of Australia may very well be con-

sidered botanically as a part of the Malayan Archipelago. The.

south-eastern element therefore becomes predominant in the algae

of the western coasts of India as this element represents approxi-

mately 50 per cent of the Malayan and South-West Australian

species, while the Atlantic or north-western element including

Europe, Africa and the Mediterranean element 1s about 33 per cent.

Some of the Malayan species evidently migrated to the Arabian

Sea from the Pacific and the Indian Oceans with the oceanic cur-

rents and ships calling at the port of Bombay. Climatic and biotic

factors might have thus influenced the passage of many overseas

western and eastern species into the Arabian Sea and their subse-

quent acclimatisation along the coastline of Bombay -and Sind.

The inference is based on the analysis of the species as illustrated

in detail in the following table showing regional distribution of

the species :—

The table shows the regional distribution and percentage of the

different species recorded from the Bombay Coast.

Bombay coast Percentage

West Indies and America (Atlantic coast) 500 101 39°6

Kurope and Africa (Atlantic coast) 500 S60 99 38°8

Mediterranean Bh vee ae ee 77 30°2

Cape ae ae ca owe 36 14:1

Red Sea Pe 600 aes 70 27°4

Malayan Archipelago 606 ae 600 103 40 3

S. W. Australia... Oe ae sc 78 28°6

Japan tee 506 sta a8 80 31°3

N. E. Australia... as ou0 ne 38 14°9

Polynesia 506 Bac aoe 70 27°4

America (Pacific coast ) oes 52 20°3

‘Total number of species, varieties and cerns recorded 255

Endemic species, varieties and forms ... ae 45 17-6 6

The census reveals, as already mcieared by previous physiolo-

gists, that the Malaysian element is more dominant than the At-

lantic. The difference however is not very great. This may be

due to the geographical position of Bombay and Sind in the

Eastern portion of the Arabian Sea. It remains however to be

investigated how many of the species actually occur along the

Bombay Coast and how many are migratory which simply float

down to the Arabian Sea.

The question of the distribution of marine algae is more com-

plicated than that of the higher plants. The problem of distribu-

tion of the Indian marine algae is dependent on ecological factors,

physical and chemical nature of the water, hydrographical and bio-

logical conditions in the Indian seas, geological history of the land

masses and periodicity and auto-ecology of the different species of

algae representing the marine flora of the area under investigation.

Our knowledge of the Indian Sea algae belonging to all the groups

is far from complete, although some valuable works by distin-

guished physiologists exist. It is too early to draw any definite

conclusion on the distribution of our marine flora.

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE 521

A detailed field investigation and a careful study on the differ-

ent aspects of the marine algae including Diatomales ranging for

at least three different seasons are likely to throw light on many

important questions such as distribution, nature of the growth

and yearly production of the economic species. These data are

of considerable value not only to science but also to the important

question of utilising the marine vegetation of the Indian Coast line.

for commercial, agricultural and industrial purposes.

In order to have an approximate estimate of the marine flora

of the Indian coastline extending over nearly 5,000 miles and the

islands in the Indian Ocean, it is imperative that a systematic

physiological survey on proper scientific lines should first of all be

undertaken without further delay. Such a survey will form the

basis of all subsequent studies. When the survey work is com-

pleted a detailed investigation should then be carried on by a set

of scientists and industrialists in order to devise ways and means

for utilising the useful species of sea-weeds and other marine flora in

a suitable manner. The importance, therefore, of gathering necessary

information on the Indian marine flora need not be emphasised.

Chart showing the range of distribution of the recorded species

from Bombay seaside in different parts of the world:—

- | Atlan-

an | Indian Pacific

Oeenn Ocean Ocean

| @ | ran}

ES lies.

5 E |

Name of species under each class of Algae § “=| | =o le 3 |

‘12/8 Fille veal inalias

Seg} | fal<|z) (al,

Bloje! |SOlsl¢| ielalg

Qu) = | Mi) sc] al ela]. c a

aloe Blo lZISIFisia|/ so

OS/2) sl olSisl iS iota

Sins olmlSislalSizlaic

Myxophyceae |

Micorcoleus chthonoplastes (Fl. Dan)

Thuret 500 600 PH Sy ap

Sirocoleus kurzii (Zell) Gom. +/-+ oP

Lyngbya majuscula Harv. a's coe (HIE HE] [It Rit} ] 4 t+

Lyngbya confervoides C. Ag. +.) | + HY) PEE] +t +e

Lyngbya infixa Fremy a hs la ap

Chlorophyceae |

Enteromorpha compressa. (Linn) Grev. var. |

typica forma campanulata Chapman soe 4p

Enteromorpha flexuosa (Wulf) J. Ag. ooo Pe sellers] ae sels + I+

Enteromorpha intestinalis Kuetz. var. cornu- |’ |

copiae Kuetz. COD oc0 4h ay

Enteromorpha tubulosa Kuetz. S60 +(+ +) ple] +} ]+

Enteromorpha intestinalis Kuetz. forma tubu-

losa Chapman o ae 500 | =|

522.

sre \

Name of species under each class of Algae

JOURNAL. BOMBAY. .NATURAL HIST.

West Indies, America

Europe, Africa

Mediterranean

Cape,

SOCLETL VE SViol:

Indian

Ocean

India, Ceylsn, Africa

. W. Australia

Malayan Archiplg.

Japan

Pacific

Ocean

E. Australia

Polynesia

Enteromorpha prolifera (Muell.) J. Ag. An

Enteromorpha prolifera Ag. forma capillaris

Chapman ... ae

Enteromorpha minima “Naeg.

Ulva lactuca (L.) Le Jolis ;

Ulva reticulata ee : ae

Ulva indica sp. rfv. Anand

Ulva fasciata Delile ... 660

Ulva fasciata Delile forma taeniata | sSetch

Hndoderma leptochaete Huber

Endcderma viride (Reinke) Lagerheim

Endoderma Wittreckill (Wille) Lagerh.

Valonia aegagrophila C. Ag. aa0

Valonia utricularis (Roth) Ag. ais

Entocladia polysiphonia sp, nov. Anand

Cladophoropsis suncanensis Reinbold

Cladophoropsis Zollengeri (Kuetz.) Boergs.

Pseurduevella sp.

Boodlea composita

Brand She

Valoniopsis pachynema. (Mart. ) Boergs.

Willelia ordinata Boergs

Chaetomorpha prostrata sp, nov. Anand

Chaetomorpha media (Ag.) Kuetz.

Chaetomorpha torta (Fariow) McClatchie

Chaetomorpha Linum (Muell) Kuetz.

Chaetomorpha indica Kuetz. “as

Chaetomorpha aerea (Dilw.) Kuetz.

Chaetomorpha clavata (Ag.) Kuetz. 5

Lola (?) capillaris (Kuetz’) A. et G. Hamel ...

Rhizoclonium kochianum Kuetz. BHA

Rhizoclonium tortuosum Kuetz.

Rhizoclonium implezum (Dilw.) Kuetz.

Rhizoclonium grande Beoergs. ;

Rhizoclonium Kerneri Stockm.

Cladophora colabense Boergs.

Cladophora Fritschii Sp. nov. Anand

Cladophora Fritschii Anand var. nov. Ke-

mariensis Anand 60% ae

Cladophora saracenia Boergs. 60

Cladophora fascicularis (Mart) Kuetz.

Cladophora bombayensis Boergs. ..

Cladophora Magdalene Harv.

Cladcpbora monumentalis Boergs.;

Cladcphora (Hutchinsiae ?) (Dilw.) Kuetz.

Struvea delicatula Kutz 500 :

Chamaedoris auriculata Boergs. .... 1900

~. Acetabularia Mobii Sokms-Labauch

(Harv. et Hook.

eee

i ded

aie ioe

+++

Pht t+

sees

Lea ae

+++

| Red Sea .

-+-

teat

Zz Oe ay Mie ee ia ie eee tp aE

! te ae + 4

-+-

4--

7 ee AMET Ca

+ See

+ ~-

A GENERAL, REVIEW.OF THE. MARINE ALGAE

| Aueiee Indian

Peses Ocean

Ocean

is B

Ls |

3 3 24]

Name. of species under each class of Algae 5 * \ S 1B) c

Hoy q 7 |S

Ars 1S § ae

- |S\4\e aE

aiole!l |SiOlsia

: Alaa eae

S/E SESS le ©

S| SIO [a4 |S Cn |

Acetabularia caliculus Quoi et Gaimard ae ab +f

Bryopsis corymbosa J. Ag. +f late

Bryopsis Plumosa ( Hud.) Ag. 5 TSE APIS) Se) ariar

Bryopsis pennata one var. minor Te Ag... ar

Bryopsis hypnoides Lamour . ap jar state 3 | ot

Pseudsbryopsis mucronata Boergs... es 1 |

Codium coronatum Setch ve “us

‘Codium tomentosum (Huds.) Stackh wee Pe |e (ee y-E e+] 4

Codium latum Sur 990 “+ a

Codium elongatum Ag. eeile eey tele alata eet

Udotea indica A and “E. Se Gepp.. (eee

Siphonocladus sp. Hate |

Halimeda Tuna (EI. et. Sol. ) Lamour SESE |e | ue |e |

Caulerpa taxifolia (Vahl.) Ag ee ey as +) LF]

-Caulerpa sealpeliformis (R. oa Web. v. | | |

Boss | : - wate Jo) oj) ase) seis

£, intermedia Web. v. B. | Jr |

f. dwarkensis Boergs. | + |

Caulerpa sedoides (R. Br.) Ag. + ell

Caulerpa fastigiata Mont +| fete

Caulerpa sertularioides (Gmel.) Howe Bees Jee | te) | =F

Caulerpa racemosa(Forsk) Webb. v. Boss. var. I leona

_ clavifera (Turn) Webb. v. Boss. a oe

f. typica Boergs oe [Pee here let

var tivivera (Turn) Web. v. Bess. eae teed

f, condesata (Kuetz) Web. v..Boss. se ese cee

var laetevirens (Mont) Web. v. Boss.

f. typica Web v. Boss. he iE | cb

f. laxa (Grev.) Web v. Boss. ... | +. |

var corynephora(Mon ) W.v. B. aL |b] 4e ae

Caulerpa peltata Lamour ee len (reve tes |

Vaucheria piloboloides ‘Chur. boy) allt =e ae

Ostreobium Reineckei Bornet. aa see + es FF |

Phaeophyceae | | |

Ectocarpus coniger Boergs. Re alae Lea

Ectocarpus Cylindricts Sanuders.... 506 hoot ea

Ectocarpus Mitchellae Harv. 690 they Eee

Myriogloea sciurevs (Harv.) Kuck. | Ab 7

Gonodia arabica (Kuetz.) Boergs..n. Comb. ai Fees |

Nemacystus decipiens (Suhr.) Kuck. oC Nene es he |

RoSenvingea intricata (J. Ag.) Boergs. bon. {abi ) se Pe eth |hett|

Rosenvingea orientalis (J. Ag.) Boergs. leit f iensttins |

Colpomenia Sinuosa (Roth.) Derb. et. Sol..... | /+)/¢)4)4)-+/ +4) 4

Colpomenia Stellata (Boergs.) Boergs. we We lel

Sphacelaria tribuloides Menegh. ... SE |e et | te PS ne

523:

2 ae SS ee

Pacific

Ocean

Australia

524 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL GIST.

Name of species under each class of Algae

Sphacelaria furcigera Kuetz.

Spathoglossum asperum J. Ag. .

Spathoglossum variabile Fig. et. De. Not.

Stoechospermum marginatum (Ag.) Kuetz.

Stoechospermum patens Hering) =. 500

Stoechospermum ? maculatum J. Ag. tae

Zonaria variegata (Lamour.) Ag.

Padiva tetrastromatica Hauck

Padina Fraseri (Grev.) J. Ag.

Padina Commersonii Bory

Phyllaria reniformis (Lamour) Rostaf

Dictyopteris acrostichoides J. Ag.

Dictyopteris australis Sond

Dictyota Bartayresiana Lamour

Dictyota dumosa Boergs.

Dictyota maxima Zanard

Dictyota Atomaria Hauck a 560

Dictyota pinnatifida Kuetz. ras See

Dictyota acuminata Kuetz. ae

Dilopus Fasciola (Roth) Howe _... 580

Cystophyllum muricatum (Turn.) J. Ag. ba

var. virgata (Endl. et. Diew) J. Ag.

Sargassum tenerrimum J. Ag. 000

* Sargassum persicum kuetz.

Sargassum illicifolium (Turn.) C. ‘Ag.

Sargassum cinereum J. Ag. ee

var. berberifolium Grum.

Sargassum plagiophyllum (Mert. ) aR Ag.

Rhodophyceae

Erythrotrichia carnea J. Ag. ace

Goniotrichum elegans (Chauv.) Le ‘Jolis

Erythrocladia subintegra Rosenvingea

Acrochaetium crassipes Boergs. e

Acrochaetium erectum Boergs. .. O00

Acrcochaetium sargassicolum Beorgs. 500

Acrochaetium Gwarkense Boergs. ... 506

Liagora ceranoides Lamour 000

Heliminthocladia australis Harv. ... Bae

Chrysymenia Uvaria (L.) J. Ag. ... wee

Scinaia Hate? Boergs.... 00¢ 500

Scinaia indica Boergs. ... oo

Scinaia furcellata J. Ag. aes

Gloeophlea fascicularis Boergs.

Golaxaura oblongata Lamour wee

Asparagopsis sandfordiana Harv... .. 330

Gelidium pusillum (Stackh) Le Jolis 300

West Indies, America

Atlan-

tic

Ocean

Europe, Africa

Mediterranean

SOSCTETANE

“Wolk.

Pacific

Ocean

Cape

Red Sea

India, Ceylon, Africa

Malayan Archiplg.

S. W. Australia

Japan

N. E. Australia

America

+ +

++++

+ +++ +

bette tt+tet+tteee+tteett+eettesgs

+ +

+++ +

t+t++++

+++

toett++44++

+ +

+++ +

| Polynesia

+] +

+++

A GENERAL REVIEW -OF THE

MARINE

ALGAE 525

Avan) | Indian | Pacific

Ocean Ocean Ocean

| eee

g B| |

oD | 5) lol

Name of species under each class of Algae Stila Sal lel |

<6) Sesite| tefl

eS la eBlalg) 12)

eye! | lBialel |elsle

rele) Bl ele ele

4/25 \slols Se q || 5) 8

o|s iY \ aly ig ore Sie |O;s

BIDS Fain SA a ix

(ie fff

Geidium pulvinatum (Kutz.) Thur. + at

f. parvissima Boergs. |

Gelidium heleroplator Boergs. ae | “P

Gelidium corneum ‘ Huds.) Lamour +) ftp] y yep] +} i+} +

Gelidiopsis variabilis (Grev.) Schmitz Pan lata icts +] p+} of +

Gelidiella myrioclada (Boergs.) Feldm. et

Hamel 500 ar

Echinocaulon acerosum “(Forsk. ) Boergs. +)-i+] J+i+ i+}. J+] f+

Caulacanthus ustulatus (Mert.) Kuetz. Se SP ari) aorq|ar

Chondrococcus Hornemanil (Mert.) Schmitz. so (cl et At Pl lO lf

Peyssonnelia obscura Web. v. Bosse F

var. bomabyensis Boergs. oe

Crouriella bicolor Boergs. a ae We

Hildenbrandia prototypus Nardo.. 600 t)a)e yt) yb yt S60, ||] 15 | ae

Amphiroa fragilissima (L.) Lamour ala as pial 45)? fell

Amphiroa anceps (Lamour.) Decsne wen [aot Se fez cyl ete [ete ai |) ny

Amphiroa dilatata Lamour ae ee as +r ff Ete

Cheilosporum spectabile Harv. ea style= +

Corallina officinalis Linn.... Sis coe | ELE EEL + a +) }-+}+

Jania rubens (L.) Lamour Pyar iselsriar| wise tari {Se

Grateloupia indica Boergs. +

Grateloupia filicina (Wulf.) Ag. So ff arise to iiae +] 4 ans ti)

Halymenia fastigiata J. Ag. 2 500 ste aif

Halymenia porphyroides Boergs. ... Pye ae

- Halymenia polydactyla Boergs ee +

Halymenia venusta Boergs. oes a abi lea

Cryptonemia undulata Sond Py fee

' Cryptonemia Lomation (Bertel.) ie ‘Ag. +/+ +] |

Solieria robusta (Grev.) Kylin fe el ec oa

Sarconema scinaioides Boergs. ... et st |

Sarconema furcatuim Boergs. Ber ae + |

Sarconema furcellatum Zanard ... r +) + |

Sarconema filiforms (Sond.) Kylin ses wate 4

Sarconema miniata (Ag.) J. Ag. ... woe | HI + +

Meristotheca populosa (Mont.) J. Ag. So yee Ey ef elt

Catenella repens (Lightf.} Batters ese | tee] ar oP

Cystoclonium purpureum (Huds.) Batters > ft SPi)ae +

Calliblepharis fimbriata Kutz. 600 600 . ai

Hypnea Valentiae (Turn.) Mont. S|) eae eres Ssay) yah

Hypvea musciformis (Wulf.) Lamour coe | Pelt] p+] ye y+ it ae

Hypnea specifera (Suhr) Harv... 600 ate Aa

Hypnea hamulosa J. Ag. Be 00g |e +| +) +) + amet

Plocamium coccineum ( Huds.) Lyngb. Soe | ARISSIES SS ae heen | atetten,

Plocamium ‘relfairiae Harv. ~ Sie ay fall sect

Sarcodia dichotoma Boergs ae +

Gracilaria foliefera (Forsk.) Boergs weft cee Net te Sates [agai =ts

Gracilaria corticata J. Ag. 606 ENC ar earl ise

var, ramalinoides J. Ag. ave os: +] aE

520 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 45

| [Agee [

Be Irdian | Pacific

Omen Ocean Ocean

sm pe

a: 3 : Ab | <x 108 \

Name of species uncer eaca class of Algae |4/, ‘| 2 a

io} s q}.g Sales

j . giBie| | lsiziS| |e

a= q Sa) o a a

S . e elOle =) 3 a oe:

4 A. D oO} -| a.m <q ey a)

» Sly YS] o)-/ Spe gla

Nn 2) ue} Se G fs = ce | S| oO.

S18 Sie olals|— |S! iSeig

Fla S/O 4/42! 5 | Siz ial

fed

Gracils ria confervoides (I.) Grev. Eley i-EL de )-e yp] yey ef te

Gracilaria arcuata Zanard ues dell Parl iar ae ++ is

Corallopsis Cacalia J. Ag. : tiie Oy y ye

Gigartina acicularis (Wuld.) Lamour ap lset sar] + ata ele

Abnfeltia plicata (Huds.) Fr. So aa ate + fe

Callymetia reniformis (‘lurn.) J. Ag Pectsltie | ats a

Rhodymenia australis (Sond.) Har = alltel tag

Halichrvsis ? strafforellii (Ardiss. ) De ARontiere ati “F

Botryocladia leptopoda (J. Ag.) Kylin P +} -++

Dicranema ? furcellatum (Mont.) J. Ag. Pe

Coelarthrum Muelleri (Sond.) Boergs. sei ae ar

Champia compressa Harv. ae (te +) || + ae

Champia indica Boergs. ae | +

Champiz somalensis Hauck Ph | iets

Champia parvula (Ag.) Harv. aoe silted ata ST ale [

Erythrocoloniim Muelleri Sond ..... | ap r

Ceramium rubrum (Huds.) Ag. ... earl 4 ar

var. virgata Ag aos 550 Ag | |

Ceramium miniatum Suhr... eat ary ae fe

Monospora indica Boergs : ap

Spyridia filamentosa Wulf.) Harv. Seer feria) ae/ee le

Spyridia alternans Boergs. oP etan

Spyridia aculeata (Schimp.) Kuetz. Hii} fi + he

var. inermis Boergs. : tested) alieteiliats

Centroceras clavatum (Ag.) Mont. vee TREE LEY 4 JPET Le]

Haloplegma Duperreyi Mont. oGe Peo edt ae s+ seit far ae

Grimthsia tenuis C. Ag. ar ee eee + +} -b 1]

Griffithsia flabelliformis Harv. (?) Be Pi) {Se ci

Hypoglossum spathulatum (Kuetz. ?) J. Ag... Sesh Tell

Membranoptera Murrayi Boergs. ... a |S |

Myriogramme okhanensis Boergs. ode a |

Caloglossa bombayensis Boergs. Nee ren +

Caloglossa Leprieurii (Mont.) J. Ag. ati, | te ary] lpae | tet tel

Nitophyllum punctatum (Stackh.) Grey. ooo tt bt eI Str +

Platvsiphonia miniata (Ag.) Boergs. | foi) (et se |

Cottoniella fusiformis Boergs. es “+ + |

Claudea elegans Lamour tar ft aerate

_Laurencia papillosa (Forsk.) Grev, ee PEY EU] Eee te ye fe

Laurencia obtusa (Huds.) Lamour el fee eo eeu eel alee ae

var. divaricata (J. Ag.) Yam ,.. 3 ot | te

var, majuscula Harv. ae xe ay

Laurencia cruciata Harv. wae 5 ao Sele

Laurencia pannosa Zand 500 + +

lLaurencia virgata J. Ag 300 nO | |

LLaurencia hypnoides Boergs. aes < - + “fi.

Laurencia filiformis (Ag.) Mont .... +] +

Laurencia platyclada Boergs. seh - i

lLaurencia pedicularioides Boergs, j +}.

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE 527

| Atlan-| KE

£3 Indian Pacific

1c > 2

Oreeara | | Ocean Ocean

w | | |

Ss LO og

| 5 ie ee |

.Name of species under each class of Algae B | <q = a at

wia\ 8 eiSla| |e

2] oc a a AS | dq Sit e fy ise}

Glo}? vO ran gq qlnlo

SSE ION el lela: | Sle

S/Ol gi d/l al” |S) .aia

EIS Sl0 led SS li Siz lai

Chondria dasyphylla (Woodw.) AS. soo «||P IIS ‘| aP anharlar || ae ap

yar. stellata Boergs .. a |=

Chondria cornuta Boergs. Sede oc Ge

Chondria tenuissima ... Ba boo War SPIE Neato fantasti te

Aacxthophora Delilei Lamour Ss see + ae Setar

Acanthophora dendrcideas Harv. ... P56 sted (est ate

Polysiphonia platycarpa Boergs. ... Be oF . |

Polysiphonia variegata (C. Ag.) Zanard 660. {SE a +

Polysiphonia ferulacea Suhr See S00. aR iar Slee ise l- | |-+

Polysiphonia elongata ( Huds.) Harv. bos |i speifar fae P

_ Polysiphonia utricularis Zanard ... a8 steak

Polysiphonia corymbosa Jj. Ag... ox Sth

Roschera glomerulata (C. Ag.) ... ae FY] -E| +] +

Lophocladia Lallemandi (Mont.) Schmitz ... [+) {+} |+)+/+|+/+

Spirocladia Barodensis Boergs. ... 6: at ae

Herposiphonia tenella (Ag.) Naegl. 600 ar Sear |-F} + |

Leveillea jungermannioides (Mart, et Her.) 4

Harv. ce ee nei tie +l+ +] f+

Heterosiphonia cloiphylla (Ag.) Falkb. ae ++ ar |

Heterosiphonia Muelieri (Sond. ie DeWtornia... a [S| se

Heterosiphonia Wyrdemanni (Baill.) Falkb ... | |

f, laxa Boergs. 006 506 j6o|}ar {ae lide 4p ae

Dasya flagellifera Boergs. eee site ar

Halkenbergia rufolanosa (Harv.) Schmitz... I+} -+ + +

Systematic enumeration of unrecorded and little known species in

James Murray’s Collection of Sea-weeds from Karachi (Bombay

Coast) in the Herbarium of the Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta.

CLass—CHLOROPHYCEAE.

Famity I. ULVAcEAE.

1. Ulva fasciata Delile. forma typica. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Chlo., vol. i,

pp. 114-15. (Plate I, fig. 1.)

Thallus green or slightly vollowisht green, 25-30 cm. long and 22-25 cm.

broad; fronds. fasciated, shortly stalked at the base, rather cuneate; segments

opposite, simple or dichotomous, long, linear or linear lanceolate, gradually

attenuated towards the apices, sometimes divided upwards, irregularly tortuous,

sinuate’ and ‘sparsely toothed along the margin, apex acute or obtuse; cells of

the frond more or less verticillate, elongate, omen less elongated when con-

verging tangentially towards the margin, rounded or angular in surface view,

‘about 10 & in diameter, oblong or rectangular as seen in the cross section of the

upper part of the frond but much narrowly rectangular, nearly oblong or linear

528 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

towards the base, about 16-20 # long and 10 # broad. Reported for the first

time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—Manora rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 11, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881.

leaks Jk, ia¥sk,, tis 20/5) INietts Sze,

This torm of Ulva fasciata agrees well with the characters of the typical

form of U. fasciata, forma typica, hence it has been accepted as such. It

differs however in some points trom the form described as U. fasciata by Anand

in his ‘Marine Algae from Karachi’, Part I, Chlorophyceae, p. 16, 1940. ;

Ciass—RHODOPHYCEAE (FLORIDEAE).

Famity II. CHAETANGIACEAE.

2. Scinaia furcellata (Turn) Bivona. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Florideae, vol. i,

PDs 104-5. (elatemelhestig ome.)

Thallus fastigiate, one to many growing together, 5-25 cm. long and 10-15

cm. broad, brownish red or pale pink; fronds 2-15 cm. long, 1-2 mm. thick,

cylindrical or sub-compressed, sometimes constricted at intervals, gelatinously

membranaceous, somewhat tapering towards the base, repeatedly and regularly

dichotomous and fastigiate; apices optuse or occasionally prolonged to subacute

ends. Fruits not seen. Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—On rocks, “Kurachee’, No. 44, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881. Pile I;

fig. 2,,1/7 Nat. size.

Famity III. DicRANEMACEAE.

3. Dicranema furcellatum (Mont.) J. Ag. De Toni Syllg. Alg,, Florideae,

Vole) 1, spp. 271-72 (Plate aeng.733%)

Thallus solitary or more than one, rather furcate upwards, 10-20 cm. long

and 8-15 cm. broad; fronds 5.1 mm. thick, slender filiform, cartilaginous-gelati-

nose, Sparsely dichotomously branched, more or less fastigiate, branches often

erecto-patent. Fruits not seen. Reported for the first time from the Bombay

Coast.

Habitat.—Attached to rocks, ‘Kurachee’, Nos. 53, 54, 55, Leg. J. A. Murray!

18510 Pl ee hicams eu/omNatsasize:

Famity IV. CaALlLyMINIACEAE.

4. Callymenia reniformis (Turn.) J. Ag. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Florideae,

vol. i, pp. 297-98. (Plate I, fig. 4.)

Thallus 5-8 cm. in diameter, pinkish or flesh coloured; fronds about 10 cm.

wide, membranous, gelatinous, irregularly lobed, the base of the frond when

mature conspicuously stalked, broadly obovate or often reniform, lobes obovate,

irregularly splitted, cuneately expanded, margins somewhat smooth, entire or

more less minutely proliferate, proliferations obovate, orbicular, subacute. Fruits

not seen. Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—Attached to rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 42, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881.

Pe ati seca iSiNateaesides

I confirm the determination and the name noted on the sheet. This form

is more allied to the variety Undulata but it does not tally with this variety in

all respects.

FaMILy V. RHODOMENIACEAE.

5. Halichrysis depressa Schousb. De Toni’ Syllg. Alg., Florideae, vol. ii,

PP: 534-35. «(Blatew IT, “figeyex.)

Thallus about 18 cm. long and 20 cm. broad, carnose; fronds 3-8 mm. wide,

mempbranaceous, even, more or less thick, widely expanded, irregularly lobed ;

lobes 2-5 mm. broad, oblong, dilated upwards, subpinnalifid upwards; fruits not

seen. Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—Attached to rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 48, Leg. J. A. Murray! 188r.

Aly JU oe / Wien, Sivae,

This species is named Chrysymenia depressa Schousb. on the Herb, sheet.

Examination of the actual specimens and literature proves that the specimen is

a form of the species described above.

A GENERAL REVIEW OF THE MARINE ALGAE 529

6. Erythrocolon Muelleri (Sond) J. Ag. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Florideae,

WOl, ii, for Beis (PEWS Wl, eT 5)

Thallus 15-20 cm. long and 20-30 cm, broad, gelatinous, membranaceous,

spreading, purplish red; fronds cylindrical, tubular, constricted at regular inter-

vals, divided into long pyriform joints by internal diaphragms; secondary fronds

10-16 cm. or more in length, fastigiate, regularly di- or trichotomously-branched,

constricted into joint-like internodes; internodes 10-20 mm. long, 5-6 mm. broad,

oblong, rounded at the apices, slightly tapering towards the base, the upper

internodes short and more rounded, and each internode is surmounted by

generally 2 or sometimes 3-4 similar internodes which are separated by distinct

stalk-like nodes or pedicels; pedicels 1-3 mm. long and 5-1 mm. broad, slender,

cylindrical, scattered over the internodes as minute tubercles. Reported for the

first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat——On rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 50, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881. Pl. II,

fig. 6, 1/6 Nat. size.

Chylocladia Muelleri Sond. is a synonym.

FamMILty VI. DELESSERIACEAE.

7. Delesseria sinuosa (Good, et Woodw.) Lamour. De Toni Syllg. Alg.,

Florideae, vol. ii, pp. 705-6. (Plate II, fig. 3.)

Thallus 6-10 cm. long and 5-20 mm. broad, elongate, sinuose, bright-red

with widely separated fronds; fronds fasciated, leathery, ribbon-shaped, irregu-

larly attenuated at the base, stipitate, stalk 1 mm. thick, dark rred, midrib

prominent, 5-1 mm. thick, reaching half or a little above but never reaching

the apices of the fronds, lateral veins absent, margin irregularly lobed or some-

what proliferate. Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habttat.—On rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 51, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881. Pl. II,

Hoe yaw W/O) Nat. (size:

The specimen which was identified as Delesseria subdichotoma J. Ag., as

noted on the Herb sheet, has been ascertained to be a form of D. sinwosa (Sond)

Wo BYES

Famity VII. GRATELOUPIACEAE.

8. Halymenia fastigiata J. A. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Florideae, vol. iv,

Daws4r. delatey Thies 45)

Thallus 5-16 cm. long and 6-10 cm. wide, fastigiate, pink or dark pink ;

fronds 1-3 mm. broad, compressed, tubular, gelatinous, more or less loosely

dichotomous, upper segments ; sometimes spreading or furcate, attenuated towards

the base, tapering acuminately into fine acute points, terminal segments often

minutely proliferate. Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—Attached to rocks, ‘Kurachee’, Nos. 56, 57, Leg. J. A. Murray!

netoiis Selle Ws aie, SF ae INleley Gieaey

Crass—PHAEOPHYCEAE (FUCOIDEAE).

Famity VIII. SarGassackak.

g. Sargassum persicum Kuetz. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Fucoideae, p, 114. (Plate

IC, 38K, | Ha)

Thallus 15-25 cm. long and 4-15 cm. broad at the base, 10 mm. broad at

the ends; primary branches of the frond 15-25 cm. long, narrow, more or less

filiform, slender, terete, glabrous; secondary branches 1-8 cm. long, alternately

arranged on either side of the primary branches and at a distance of about

I-3 cm. apart, these carry shorter tertiary branches in their turns; leaves

variable, 2.5-4.5 cm. long, 5-19 mm. broad, marked with a distinct or slightly

indistinct midrib, apex broadly or obtusely rounded, margins indistinctly denti-

culate or irregularly wavy, subsessile or stalked, pedicels 1-3 mm. long, .5 mm.

thick; leaves of secondary branches smaller and those of tertiary still smaller

and apices shortly obtuse; vesicles obovate, globose, 1-2 mm. diameter, borne

on very short filiform stalk. Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—On rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 49, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881. Pl. II,

figs95 1/6) Nat: ‘size:

530 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 4;

Famity IX.~ DictyoTackaE-”

10. Padina ‘Praseri (Grey.) J. Ag. De Toni Sytig. Alg., Fucoideae, p. 240.

{Plate tll; fig. 2.)

thallus 12-15 cm. long, 14-15 cm. broad, brown to dark brown in colour,

cuneately lobed, attached to the substratum by subconcentr.c basal organ with

hairy rhizoids covered with chalky powder; fronds 5-16 cm. long and 1-5 cm.

broad at the ftanshaped apices, attenuated to 1 mm. to 5 mm. broad at the

staik-like. bases, cuneated, membranous above at the broad rounded ends, some-

what subcoriaceous towards the narrowed bases, irregularly somewhat dichoto-

mously branched by splitting up more or less deeply of the blades; lobes of

the flabellated portions d.stinctly marked by narrow concentric bands of minute

hair-like structures,’ 1-6 mm. apart, dark brown at the base and pale brown

near the margin. Fruits not seen. Reported for the first time from the Bombay

Coast. é

Habitat.—On rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 40, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881. P1.-.111,

YS, Oh, i INIZIE, SAS

11. Stoechospermum maculatum J. Ag. De Toni Syllg. Alg., Fucoideae,

Ds Aes (Uekerwe, IL, Ket, g0)) ;

Vhallus 15 cm.. long, 4 cm. broad above brown,. elongate, more or. less

-‘lanceclate attenuated below ending in a stalk-like base; fronds sub-fastigiate,

decompos.tely dichotomously branched; segments lanceolate or linear-lanceolate

‘flattened, fongue-shaped towards the apices. Fruits not seen. Reported for

the first time from the Bombay Coast..

Habitat.—On rocks, “Kurachee’; No. 71, Leg. J. A.) Murray! 18817 Pile TIE

DVS, ost, Tes NaI Size,

FAMILY X. DLAMINARIACEAE,

12. Phyilaria reniformis (Lamour) Rostaf. De Toni Syllg. Alg.,’ Fucoideae,

pp. 321-22. (Plate III, fig. 4.) |

Thallus about 30 cm. long and 10 cm. broad, brown_or greenish brown,

ovate-oblong or reuniform, fastigiate, digitately expanded, ending in somewhat

solid, flattened, roundish stalks; fronds, about 30 cm. long. 2-10 mm. broad,

ribbon-shaped, slightly attenuated towards the base, tapering to acuminately

pointed ends, membranous, segments digitate, 10 mm. broad at widest middle

portion. Fruits not seen. ~ Reported for the first time from the Bombay Coast.

Habitat.—On: rocks, ‘Kurachee’, No. 10, Leg. J. A. Murray! 1881. “Pl. III,

MSG TA. Sek INI. SAS.

Laminaria brevipes Ag. is considered 0 synonym of the above specific name.

The species described differ from the typicel form in several characters. It is

therefore rightly suggested, as noted on the Herbarium sheet, to be a variety

of the above species. The variety, however, can only be established by further

examination of ‘the fruits which are absent in the specimen available.

EXPLANATION OF FIGURES.

Prate I.

1.—Ulva -fasciata Delile. 1/5 Nat. size.

Fig. 2.—Scinaia furcellata (Turn.) Biv. 1/7 Nat. size.

3.—Dicranema furcellatum (Mont.) J. Ag. 1/6 Nat. size.

Fig. 4.—Callymenia veniformis (Turn.) J. Ag.

Prare II.

Fig. 5.—Halichrysis depressa Schousb. 1/5 Nat. size.

lig. 6.—Erthrocolon Muellert (Sond) J. Ag. 1/6.Nat.: size.

Fig. 7.—Delesseria sinuosa (Good, et Woodw.) Lamour. 1/6 Nat. size.

Vig. 8.—Halymenia fastigiata J. Ag. 1/5 Nat. size.

Prate III.

ig. o.—Sargassum persicum Kuetz. 1/6 Nat. size.

*\g, 10.—Padina’ Fraser (Grev.) J. Ag. 1/5. Nat. size.

Fig. 11.—Stoechospermum maculatum J. Ag. 1/5 Nat. size.

Wig. 12,—Phyllavia reniformis (Izaamour) Rostaf. 1/8 Nat. size.

| Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE

oe .

i RWgy

aN Saree re

A MEPS Ag Ms .

WA s

: s

RAGS ye “|

Bak Bot tent on” ~ : : : q

: x a me fa ES SACO! S24 |

< mC < Se af eas >

: fer ae ca eS CORY Lith Porrrrts oe pea frre & cs g

SSS R S ae es ogee < : 3

x ‘ ‘ ‘ Aka os Pray ey

os ae. Seip bys as i

be IM Menten — “ fA Bi wusey SfER

Fig, 1.—Ulva fasciata, Delile. Fig. 2.—Scinaia furceliata (Turn.) Biv.

PLEABE ROY:

PALCuT ys

bs 4

Mpg ors f

PS MF

: of es

MW allegwicrnss Mecvefiren Og : .

> a ra

hg ectbate feat

Z es

fh ey

Kes

Slay $500

ue ‘ S

a wm J 4 Wastrag MEL

GEIS

Fig. 3.—Dicranema. furcellatum (Mont.) J. Ag. Fig. 4—Callymenia reniformis (Turn.) J. Ag.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pate II

I eS ot ba) Lal I Stitt SS GSS SY DOD

ES SCALA Oe ORE ie MT OOOO Ne ATE

BORD AR

Se ‘ WON

goat

= tok Bast LAK ashe nee

Ka AP

| Chyleobae Bourbon, Jo!

: ha yoga those Oe 2

Ok ‘ < .

koe :

ig Aacey ae ~

Rs ere

oO a ace ae err a : - +b

SES eeicosns a

Fig. 5.—Halichrysis depressa, Schousb. Fig. 6.—Erthrocolon Muelleri (Sond) J. Ag.

p A

Db ints arb hakelns bg |

Roe Fa

be Pa Chon:

LEX x

lig. 7.—Delesseria sinuosa (Good, et - . Fig, 8.—Halymenia fastigiata, J. Ag.

Woodw.) Lamour.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SSE

\ «

tos

\ \

IAN \\

N \

Cae. < . ~ \

Fig. 9.—Sargassum. persicum, Kuetz.

SERENE RRR ITERATOR te SeeNEEN

RA hem

i :

ee Lec. Se ie .

gay EET

EBL: PE :

te fA Favicey FIG : : : | oa

Se ee a OS

EO ASABE DERE EU NBS D CI IUCRA TEN SEC eats caiss,

Fig. 11.—Stoechospermum maculatum J. Ag.

Puate III

a ae |

: x Ss ay . xe

Ve PeRON Meawce

Kok Kl LI

Fig. 10.—Padina Iraseri (Grev.) J. Ag.

bes Soh Hot Seeetas

Bek

isn tates eae ~ 47

Maks

ee fa Bearings

P87

Fig, 12.—Phyllaria reniformis (Lamour)

Rostaf.

ae PR re te sad ns

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD,

N.-W. HIMALAYA.

| BY

H. W. WAITE, C.I.E., M.B.O.U.

(lVith 2 plates)

Stoliczka’s ‘Ornithological observations in the Sutlej Valley,

N.-W. Himalaya’ appeared in the Journal of the Asiatic Society

of Bengal (Vol. xxxvii, Part 11) in 1868 and so far as I am aware

no similar observations in that area have been published since.

The following list of birds seen during a trek along the Hindustan-

Tibet Road in April-June 1941 may therefore be of interest.

I left Simla on April 10, reached Namgia (10 miles from Shipki

and 2 miles from the Tibetan frontier) on May 24 and returned to

Simla on June 27. In the itinerary given below the figures in

brackets denote the road mileage from Simla and the dates in

italics are those of the return journey.

Simla, 7,000’.

Kufri, 8,270° (9g). 10-11 April.

Fagu, 8,200° (12) 26 June.

Theog, 7,500 (18) 12-13 April.

Matiana, 7,430° (29) 14-15 April, 25 June.

Narkanda, 9,130 (40) 16-17 April, 24 June.

Bagi, 8,830° (49) 217-23 fune. Thanedar, 7,300’ (51) 18-19 April.

Sungri, 8,850 (66) 18-20. fune. Nirth, 3,250° (59) 20-21 April.

Bahli, 8,100’ (77) 16-17 June. Rampur, 4,150 (71) 22-25 April.

Taklech, 5,460’ (87) 15 june. Gaura, 6,580 (80) 26-27 April.

Daranghati, 9,240’ (98) 13-14 June.

Sarahan, 6,875’ (89) 20-29 April, 11-12 June.

Chaura, 6,050’ (98), zo June.

Taranda, 7,000 (104) 30 April-2 May.

Paunda, 6,300’ (108).

Nachar, 7,090’ (112) 3-5 May, 7-9 June.

Wangtu, 5,390° (116).

Urni, 7,300 (124) 6-7 May, 6 June.

Rogi, 8,970’ (136).

Chini, 9,265’ (140) 8-11 and 14-17 May. 31 May-5 June.

Pangi, 8,520 (444) 12-13 and 18 May, 30 May.

Jangi, 8,980’ (159) 19 May, 29 May.

Kanam, 9,200’ (172) 20-21 May, 27-28 May.

Poo, 8,400’ (187) 22-23 May, 26 May.

Namgia, 9,750° (194) 24-25 May.

Beyond Narkanda the road descends to the bank of the Sutle}

at Nirth and thence continues along the south side of the valley

to Wangtu. Between Narkanda and Thanedar a high-level branch

takes off and runs along the north side of the Hathu range to

Bagi and Bahli. From there it descends to Taklech and then_

climbs to Daranghati, whence it drops to rejoin’the main road

about two miles short of Sarahan. At Wangtu the road crosses

to the right bank of the river and runs high above it to Kanam.

From Kanam it drops to cross to the left bank again between. Poo

and Namgia and so on to! Shipki.

LS)

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.. 45

oun

The physiography of the Sutley Valley is thus described by

Stoliczka :—

‘Proceeding westwards from the Kanawar frontier, near Shipki, we find

that the Sutlej has forced its passage through the principal N.-W. Himalayan

chain, cutting its bed to a depth of several thousand feet. Former terraces

and old gravel beds of the river (and also of its tributaries) are seen, three

and four thousand feet above the present level, which descends from

about 8,o00° at Shipki to 3,000’ below Kotegarh. Within this entire length

(amounting to about 160 miles) from Shipki to Suni (north of Simla) the

Sutlej flows in a narrow channel between perpendicular cliffs of gneiss, the

width of which seldom exceeds a few hundred ‘feet. The Wanga and Baspa

rivers, both of which are situated within the branches of the Central Hima-

layan chain, are the only large tributaries on the Indian slopes. (The longest

tributary is the Spiti river :* its valley has in coe: rather a Tibetan climate

and a corresponding fauna and _ flora.)

The highest peaks in the Central chain rise on an average somewhat over

22,000° and the limit of snow lies in general at about 17,000’, increasing to

about 18 ,500° on the Tibetan slopes.

In the Sutlej valley itself only the -higher terraces, situated between

6,000’ and 9,000’ are generally sufficiently large- to ‘afford room for cultivation

and settlement, the slopes of the mountains being. mostly precipitous.. The

width of the valley is even at these higher elevations merely a few miles... On

the whole its physical conditions are not particularly favourable to agriculture,

nor is there much room for. a large population. ... . Viewing the general

physical construction of the valley within .the Central chain of the N.-W.

Himalaya the greatest peculiarity consists in its small width, while the neigh-

bouring hills rise to a very considerable elevation, and thus exhibit very

different conditions of climate within a comparatively small. geographical area.

As regards rainfall, there is a moist zone in the lower 30 miles

of the valley up to Wangtu, a dry zone in the next 20 miles and

an arid zone in the upper 30 miles to the Tibetan frontier, where

the monsoon nearly peters out. The figures of rainfall of Kota-

garh (moist zone) and Kilba (near Urni,:dry zone) are :—

Dec.-Feb. Mar.-May —_June-Sept. Oct.-Nov. Total

Kilba 8.63 11.18 10.68 1.92 32.41

Forest ceases at about Kanam, and beyond that the mountain

sides are mostly bare.

Owing to the great depth and narrow width of the valley to

cover any appreciable amount of ground entails strenuous climb-

ing. Unfortunately ill-health severely curtailed my activities, and

but for the efforts of my shikari, Lala Sheikh, the following list

would have been even shorter.than it is.

In the cases of birds marked with an asterisk specimens were

obtained and these were identified by the late Hugh Whistler,

to whom, and to Mr. A. E. Jonesy I am indebted for much valu-

able advice and assistance.

For the convenience of those to whom old volumes of the

J.A.S.B., are not readily available I have added Stoliczka’s re-

marks, including those on species which were not observed.

*Corvus macrorhynchos intermedius Adams. Himalayan Jungle Crow.

Common throughout the valley and observed right up to the Tibetan frontier.

*Urocissa erythrorhyncha occipitalis (Blyth). Red-billed Blue Magpie.

Frequently met with as far as Taranda. Not seen beyond that nor lower

than about 7,000’. ore ;

* The Spiti river joins the Sutlej alittle below Namgia.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate I

Fig. 2.--The Sutlej between Taranda and

Chauré

Fig. 3.—The Sutlej at Wangtu. Fig. 4.—The Sutlej between Urni and Ruvgi.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piate II

——

Sal

pea

QO,

hae

fai

ge. Fig. 6.—The Road in the Lipi Valley between

Jangi and Kanam,

lig. 7.—The Bridge over the Sutlej between

Poo and Nam

Bla.

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD 533

Dendrocitta yagabunda Lath. Tree-pie.

Seen between Nirth and Rampur.

*@arrulus lanceolatus Vigors. Black-throated Jay.

Observed as far as Taranda but not beyond that nor below about 7,000’.

*Nucifraga caryocatactes hemispila Vigors. Himalayan Nut-cracker.

Frequently seen between Fagu and Sungri but not further east. Stoliczka

noted that it was common from Simla to Chini.

*Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himalayanus (Gould). Red-billed Chough.

First seen between Pangi and Jangi and commonly thence to Namgia.

Stoliczka noted it as rare in summer round Chini, ,

*Parus major caschmiriensis Hart. Kashmir Grey Tit.

Only observed at comparatively low elevations in the neighbourhood of

Rampur, Gaura and Taklech. |

*Parus monticoius monticolus Vigors. Green-backed Tit.

Commonly met with as far as Pangi, but not below 7,000’. One was seen

carrying moss to a hole in a bank at Kufri on April 10, and a pair was feeding

young in a hole in the wall of Daranghati Rest House on June 13.

. *Lophophanes melanolophus (Vigors). Crested Black Tit.

Common as far as Chini, but not seen below 7,000. One was collecting

moss at Narkanda on April 17, and a nest with 4 eggs was found above

Chini on May to. : :

*Lophophanes rufonuchalis rufonuchalis (Blyth). Simla Black Tit.

Observed about Chini and Kanam and also at Bagi, where it appeared to

be fairly common.

*Lophophanes dichrous kangrae, Whistler. Brown-crested Tit.

A male with organs in breeding condition was obtained above Taranda on

May 2. Occasionally seen at Sungri and Bagi. Not mentioned by Stoliczka.

“

[Syiviparus modestus Burton. Yellow-browed Tit.

Stoliczka recorded that this species was ‘in summer common on the apricot

trees about Pangi and Chini’. Although specially looked for at both of these

places it was not observed. |

Machlolophus xanthogenys (Vigors). Yellow-cheeked Tit. ~

Only seen in the neighbourhood of Bahli and Sungri.

*Aegithaliscus concinnus iredalei Stuart Baker. Red-headed Tit. .

Met with from Sarahan to Nachar and also at Thanedar, Bahli and Sungri.

*Sitta leucopsis leucopsis Gould. . White-cheeked Nuthatch.

This Nuthatch is still, as Stoliczka recorded, tolerably common in the -neigh-

bourhood of Chini. It was also obtained at about 9,000’ between Sungri and

Bagi.

* Garrulax alboguiaris whistleri Stuart Baker. Western White-throated

Laughing Thrush.

Several were seen singly above Thanedar.

*Trochalopteron variegatum variegatum (Vigors). Eastern Variegated Laughing

Thrush. ~

Noted as common from Thanedar to Nachar, but not seen beyond that.

Also observed about Daranghati, Sungri and Bagi. Two nests containing two

and four eggs respectively were found at Rampur on April 24. According to

534 JOURNAL BOMBAY ‘NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Stoliczka it occurs ‘through the entire extent of the Sutlej valley up to Sung-

num’ (Sungnum is on the branch road which. talkies off. between Kanam and

Poo and goes to Dhankar in Spiti).

{Pomatorhinus erythrogenys Vigors. Vigor’s Rusty-cheeked Scimitar-Babbler.

Stoliczka recorded that this species was ‘not common in the forests and

thick brushwoods between Kotegarh and Nichar’. |

*Stachyridopsis pyrrhops (Blyth). Red-billed Babbler. . rg

Only met with at Taklech, where a nest with one addled and two hard-set

eggs was found on June 16. The nest was on the ground in a small bamboo

clump on the edge of a brook. It was a compact structure of bamboo leaves

and grass, and the fairly substantial foundation was. completely sodden.

[Fulvetta vinipecta (Hodgs.). Hodgson’s Fulvetta.

Recorded by Stoliczka from Matiana. Mr. A. E. Jones obtained it at

Narkanda (J.B:N.H.S., xvi, 604).] sii eee aes

*Leioptila capistrata pallida Hart. Pale Sibia. =

A pair was seen near Sarahan in April and another in the same place in

June. ~ - Sih ; 5 sd

*Siva strigula’strigula Hodgs. Stripe-throated Siva.

A pair was obtained at Sarahan in April and a male at Bagi in June.

Stoliczka says that this species ‘in summer frequents thick forests, between

6,000 to 9,000 all along the elevatéd range from Simla to Nachar’.

*Ixulus fiavicollis albicollis Ticehurst and Whistler. Yellow-headed Ixulus.

A male was secured at Bahli, the only one seen.

[Pieruthius erythropterus (Vigors). Red-winged Shrile-Babbler.

Stoliczka says ‘as far east as Nichar. Seen at Sarahan “between 9,000

and 10,000’. Rare.’]

*Microscelis psaroides pSaroides (Vigors). Himalayan Black Bulbul.

Commonly seen as far as Pangi. Stoliczka found it ‘common in the forests

between Kotegarh and Nachar’.

Molpastes leucogenys ieucogenys (Gray). White-cheeked Bulbul.

Not observed beyond Sarahan, but common as far as that. According to

Stoliczka it is occasionally to be seen as far east as Chini.

*Certhia himalayana himalayana(Vigors). Himalayan ‘Tree-creeper.

Met with from Narkanda to Bahli and also about Rogi and Chini.

*Trogiodytes troglodytes neglectus (Brooks). Kashmir Wren.

Fairly common about Chini and also seen at Nachar. Young birds were

seen at Chini on June 3.

[Pnoepyga albiventer (Gould). Scaly-breasted Wren.

Stoliczka says ‘very rare in the forests about Nachar and Chini; it is found

about Kotegarh in winter’.]

*Cinclus pallasii tenuirostris Bonaparte. Indian Brown Dipper.

Seen on streams about Chini and Pangi.

Saxicola caprata bicolor Sykes.- Pied Bush-Chat.

Only seen in the neighbourhood of Nirth and Rampur. Stoliczka found it

‘common all through the Sutlej valley up to Nachar’.

*Saxicola torquata indica Biyth. Indian Bush-Chat.

Common as far as Chini; also observed between Pangi and Jangi. <A nest

with. four eggs was found, at about 10,000’ above Chini on May 15.

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET. ROAD .°. 535

*Oreicola ferrea ferrea (Gray). Dark-grey Bush-Chat.

Commonly seen as far as Chini,, where Stoliczka says it breeds.. A nest with

three eggs was found at Gaura on April 27.

*Oenanthe pleschanka pleschanka (Lepschin) Pied Chat.

Not uncommon on the bare hillsides about Kanam and Poo. Not mentioned

by Stoliczka.

*Enicurus maculatus maculatus Vigors. Western Spotted Forktail.

Seen about Nirth and Gaura and at Taklech.

*Phoenicurus frontalis (Vigors). Blue-fronted Redstart.

Met with at Chini and Pangi and high above Nachar. Not mentioned by

Stoliczka.

Phoenicurus ochruros (Gmel.). Black Redstart.

A few were seen across the Tibetan frontier between Namgia and Shipki on

May 25; they were extremely wild.

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala (Vigors). - White-capped Redstart.

Observed between Sarahan and ‘Taranda.

Rhyacornis fuliginosa (Vigors). Plumbeous Redstart.

Frequently seen from Wangtu onwards as far as Kanam.

*Calliope pectoralis pectoralis Gould. Himalayan Rubythroat.

A fair number seen, amongst boulders and scrub, above Chini in May and

June. There was a marked preponderance of males.

*Tarsiger chrysaeus whistleri Ticehurst. Golden Bush-Robin.

The male of a pair was secured above Nachar on May 5. Stoliczka noted

that he had never met this species on his summer visits to the Sutlej valley.

*lanthia cyanura pallidior Stuart Baker. Kashmir Red-flanked Bush-Robin.

Observed at Nachar and Chini. One was also obtained above Taranda on

May 2 and a juvenile at Bagi on June 22. Stoliczka says ‘this species does

“a

not occur in summer to the west of Nachar and not below 8,000’. It breeds

near Chini.’

*Adelura coeruleocephala (Vigors). Blue-headed Robin.

Frequently seen from Urni to Pangi. Stoliczka says ‘occurs plentifuily

beyond Pangi and about Chini, generally on small streams; it also breeds here’.

*Turdus merula maximus (Seebohm). Central Asian Blackbird.

A pair, the only ones seen, was obtained above Chini on June 1. It is not .-

mentioned by Stoliczka, and this appears to be an extension of its known range.

*Turdus merula albocinctus Royle. White-collared Ouzel.

Several were observed singly near Narkanda in April and a pair at Daran-

ghati in June. -

*Arceuthornis viscivorus bonapartei (Verr.). Missel Thrush.

A pair was obtained from a flock near Narkanda in April. Also seen

between Bagi and Narkanda in June. According to Stoliczka it breeds about

Chini.

*Oreocincla dauma dauma (Lath.). Small-billed Mountain-Thrush.

A juvenile male was obtained on Mount Hathu, between Narkanda and

Bagi on June 24. (Two other juvenile thrushes were secured at Sungri and

Bagi but it could not be determined with certainty to which species. they

belonged.) ‘s

536 JOURNAL BOMBA¥. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

*Monticola rufiventris (Jard. and Selby). Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush. ~

Met with in the neighbourhood of Sungri. Stoliczka says ‘only found in the

lower hills about Simla and Kotegarh’. =e

*Monticola cinclorhyncha (Vigors). Blue-headed Rock-Thrush.

Several were observed at Taranda and Nachar, and it was also seen at

Pangi. Stoliczka found it ‘common about Sarahan and Nachar. but rare at

Chini’.

*Myophonus temminckii temminckii (Vigors). Himalayan Whistling-Thrush.

Common all the way from Simla to Namgia. Stoliczka noted that it bred

at Chini and Sungnum.

*Prunella strophiata jerdoni (Brooks). Jerdon’s Accentor.

An adult male and a juvenile were secured above Chini at the beginning

of June. Stoliczka says ‘occasionally comes in winter to Kotegarh and to other

Himalayan parts of the Sutlej valley’.

*Hemichelidon sibirica gulmergi Stuart Baker. Kashmir Sooty Flycatcher.

Only seen at Nachar. Stoliczka says ‘very common between 4,000 and

11,000’, at which elevations I have often found it in the neighbourhood of Chini’.

*Siphia strophiata euphonia Koelz. Orange-gorgetted Flycatcher.

Obtained at Narkanda in April and Sungri in June. Stoliczka noted that it

only came in winter to Kotegarh and even then was rather rare.

*Cyornis superciliaris superciliaris (Jerd.). White-browed Blue Flycatcher.

Stoliczka’s remark that this is one of the most common birds in the Sutlej

valley and is seen all the way to Pangi still holds good. A nest with four eggs

was found at Urni on May 7.

Eumyias thalassina (Swains). Verditer Flycatcher.

Frequently seen as far as Taranda. Stoliczka noted that it did not go east-

wards of the Nachar forests.

*Alseonax ruficaudatus (Swains.). Rufous-tailed Flycatcher.

Only seen at Urni, where a pair was obtained in May. Stoliczka found it

‘abundant among apricot trees near Chini and Pangi’.

*Culicicapa ceylonensis pallidior Ticehurst. Simla Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Met with from Taranda to Nachar and was common at Taklech.

*Tchitrea paradisi leucogaster (Swains.). Himalayan Paradise Flycatcher.

Only seen at Rampur and Taklech. Stoliczka says ‘rather rare in eastern

portions of the Sutlej valley; I have never seen it much beyond the Nachar

forests and above elevations of 9,000’ ’.

*Lanius shach erythronotus (Vigors). Rufous-backed Shrike.

Observed at Rampur and Gaura and was not uncommon about Sarahan. and

Chini. Whistler noted on four specimens collected that they were intermediate

with tephronotus but closer to erythronotus.

[Lanius isabelinus H. and E. Isabelline Shrike.

Stoliczka noted that he once met with this shrike east of Chini.]

*Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). Short-billed Minivet.

Common as far as Pangi but not seen below 7,000’.

*Dicrurus longicaudatus Hay. Indian Grey Drongo.

Common from Matiana to Sarahan and observed as far as Urni.

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD 537

*Sytvia althaes Hume. Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat.

A male was obtained at Urni on May 7 and another near Kanam on May

29. Stoliczka does not mention any Whitethroat.

*Phylloscopus affinis (Tick.). Tickell’s Willow-Warbler.

One was obtained at Chini on May g.

*Phylloscopus trochiloides nitidus (Blyth). Green Willow-Warbler.

Met with at Thanedar and between Nirth and Rampur.

*Phylioscopus trochiloides ludlowi Whistler. Dull Green Willow-Warbler.

A female was shot from a nest above Nachar, at about 10,000’, on June 8.

The nest, a loosely made domed structure of grass without any moss, and

lined with a few Monal feathers, was on the ground amongst birch saplings

and contained four fresh eggs. <A fifth egg was about to be laid.

*Phylloscopus occipitalis occipitalis (Blyth). Large-crowned Willow-Warbler.

Obtained at Fagu, Chini and Namgia. A male shot at Namgia was evVi-

dently breeding.

Seicercus xanthoschistos (Gray). Grey-headed Flycatcher Warbler.

Seen at Taranda in May. :

*Horornis pallidus (Brooks). Pale Bush-Warbler.

Common, and calling freely, round about Sungri; also met with near Nar-

kanda in June.

*Suya crinigera crinigera Hodgs. Brown Hill-Warbler.

Common about Rampur, Sarahan and Taranda; also observed at river level

between Wangtu and Urni. Stoliczka noted that it did not go very far into

the interior.

*Cephalopyrus flammiceps flammiceps Burton. Fire-capped Tit-Warbler.

A male obtained at Gaura was the only one seen.

Oriolus oriolus kundoo Sykes. Golden Oriole.

Seen at Rampur and heard at Sarahan and Chini.

Stoliczka remarked that it was occasionally seen between Kotegarh and

Rampur.

Observed as far as Sarahan, where it appeared to be common,

*Perissospiza icteroides (Vigors). Blaclk-and-yellow Grosbeak.

Met with in parties about Narkanda in April; also found at Gaura and

Nachar. At Narkanda one was seen foraging on a FOES heap by the side

_of the road.

‘wycerobas melanoxanthus (Hodgs.). Spotted-winged Grosbeak.

In June a few were seen near Sarahan and in the forests between that place

and Daranghati. Not mentioned by Stoliczka,

*Pyrrhula erythrocephata (Vigors). Red-headed Bullfinch.

Seen above Nachar and Chini in May. Stoliczka noted that it bred about

Kotegarh between 6,000 and 8,000’.

fLoxia curvirostra himalayana Blyth. Himalayan Crossbill.

Stoliczka noted that the Crossbill was ‘only to be found in the forests -about

Chini and towards the east’.]

538 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

*Carpodacus pulcherrimus pulcherrimus (Moore). Beautiful Rose Finch.

Found in fair numbers above Chini in May and June; also obtained above

Nachar in June. Not mentioned by Stoliczka.

*Carpodacus rhotochlamys grandis Blyth. Red-mantled Rose Finch.

Sparingly met with above Chini, between Jangi and Kanam and about

Namgia.

*Carpodacus rhodochroa (Vigors). Pink-browed Rose Finch.

Not uncommon at about 10,000° above Nachar, Chini and Pangi both in

May and June.

*Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Hodgs.). Common Rose Finch.

Seen commonly at Rampur, between Wangtu and Urni and at Chini and

Pangi in May.

*Callacanthis burtoni (Gould). Red-browed Finch.

Two pairs were obtained, and a few others seen, at Chini in June.

*Serinus pusillus (Pall.). Gold-fronted Finch.

Numerous flocks proceeding up the valley were observed almost daily all

the way from Rampur to Namgia. The last were seen between Jangi and

Pangi on May 30.

*Hypacanthis spinoides (Vigors). Himalayan Green Finch.

First met with about Chini in June. Later it was seen frequently from

Daranghati to Matiana.

Gymnorhis xanthocollis (Burton). Yellow-throated Sparrow.

Seen at Nirth and Rampur.

*Passer domesticus indicus Jard. and Selby.. {Indian House-Sparrow.

Noted at Rampur, Gaura, Sarahan and Poo.

*Passer rutilans cinnamomeus (Gould). Cinnamon Tree-Sparrow.

Observed at Gaura, Taranda.and Chini end between Taklech and Bahli.

*Fringilauda nemoricola altaica (Eversm. ). Stoliczka’s Mountain-Finch.

Met with in flocks above Chini in the second week of Suleey and also obtained

above Kanam in the last week of that month.

*Emberiza fucata arcuata Sharpe. Indian Grey-headed Bunting.

A few were seen between Narkanda and Matiana in June.

*Emberiza stewarti Blyth. White-capped Bunting.

Common from Nachar to Poo. On the return journey it was seen frequently

from Sarahan to Bagi. Stoliczka says, ‘In the Sutlej valley it is scarcely seen

west of Wangtu bridge, but is very common about Chini and further to east.

I found young birds about the middle of June.’

*“Emberiza cia stracheyi Moore. Eastern Meadow-Bunting.

Common in April about Fagu and Theog.

*Melophus lathami subcristata (Sykes). Crested Bunting.

Only seen at Nirth.

Krimnochelidon rupestris (Scop.). Crag Martin.

Occasionally seen from Wangtu to Namgia.

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD 539

*Hirundo daurica uepalensis Hodgs. Hodgson’s Striated -Swallow.

Observed on the outward journey at Matiana, where a pair was completing

a nest on April 15, and from Thanedar to Sarahan. On return noted -at Pangi

and from Daranghati to Fagu. :

Motacilla alba personata Gould. Masked Wagtail.

A few seen along the river from Nirth to Rampur.

*Motacilla alba alboides Hodgs. Hodgson’s Wagtail.

A few observed on river-side shingle between Kanam and Poo, and a male

obtained had its organs in breeding condition. One was also seen in the Hub-

sang Khad which marks the Tibetan boundary two miles beyond Namgia.

Motacilla cinerea caspica (Gmel.). Eastern Grey Wagtail.

One was seen on the road at Narkanda on April 17.

*Anthus trivialis haringtoni Witherby. Witherby’s Tree-Pipit.

One was obtained above Nirth.

* Anthus hodgsoni berezowskii Sarudny. Kansu Tree Pipit.

A female was. shot from a nest with four eggs in a forest clearing above

Taranda at about 9,000. on May 1. Another was obtained a few days later

above Nachar.

*Anthus similis jerdoni (Finsch). Brown Rock Pipit.

Only seen above Nirth.

*Anthus roseatus Hodgs. Hodgson’s Pipit.

Met with in May above Nachar and Chini at about 10,000’.

*Oreocorys sylvanus (Hodgs.). Upland Pipit.

Seen and heard commonly in suitable localities between 4,000 and 8,000°

as far as Wangtu.

Zosterops palpebrosa (Temm. and Schlegel). White-eye.

Noted at Gaura and Nachar. Stoliczka found it breeding. above Chini and

says ‘it is very common all through the valley as far as any rich arboreal vege-

tation exists’.

[ Ethopyga gouldiae Vigors. Mrs. Gould’s Yellow-backed*> Sunbird.

Stoliczka says ‘very common at Kotegarh and through the whole valley as

far east as Chini, living here at an elevation of between 9,000 and 10,000! ’.]

Cinnyris asiatica (Lath.).. Purple Sunbird.

Only seen between Nirth and Rampur.- According to Stoliczka it occurs as

far east as Wangtu.

*Picus squamatus squamatus Vigors. Scaly-breasted Green Woodpecker.

Frequently seen as far as Taranda. Stoliczka noted that it was common ali

through the forests up to Chini and ascended to elevations of nearly 11,000’.

*Dryobates himalayensis himalayensis (Jard. and Selby). Western Himalayan

Pied Woodpecker.

Commonly met with as far as Kanam, where a pair was seen feeding young

on May 20. A nest, with entrance 6 ft. from the ground, in the trunk of an

apricot tree a few yards from the Rest House at Pangi contained three-fledged

young on May 30. Stoliczka says ‘common in the cedar and fir forests all

through the valley as far east as Chini’.

*Dryobates auriceps (Vigors). Brown-fronted Pied Woodpecker. |

_ Not seen beyond Thanedar. Stoliczka says ‘I have not seen it to the East

’

of Nachar but about Gaura it occurs at elevations of 8,000 and 9,000’ ’,

540 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

[Vivia innominatus (Burton). Speckled Piculet.

Said by Stoliczka to occur about Sarahan.]

Megalaema virens marshallorum Swinhoe. Great Himalayan Barbet,

Common as far as Taranda.

*Caculus canorus canorus L. Common Cuckoo.

Common as far as Pangi.

*Cuculus optatus Gould. Himalayan Cuckoo.

Heard almost as frequently as the last as far as Chini. Not mentioned by

Stoliczka. ‘

*Cuculus poliocephalus poliocephalus Lath. Small Cuckoo.

Obtained in June at Chini, Sungri and Bagi and also met with between

Narlanda and Matiana. Stoliczka remarked that it was ‘very rare in the in-

terior of the N.-W. Himalayas’.

*Hierococcyx sparyeroides Vigors. Large Hawion@uckoet

First heard between Bahli and Sungri and then frequently round about

Bagi. The birds were calling high up in densely foliaged trees, and it was

with considerable difficulty that a specimen was secured on Mount Hatha,

between Bagi and Narkanda.

Clamator jecobinus (Bodd.). Pied Crested Cuckoo.

First observed at Sarahan on June 11 and subsequently seen at Matianet

Psittacuia cyanocephala (I..). Blossom-headed Paroquet.

Only seen in the neighbourhood of Sungri.

[Psittacula schisticeps (Hodgs.).

Stoliczka says that this Paroquet is rather common in the neighbourhood

of Chini, where he found it breeding. He adds that towards the end of August

‘its shrieking voice may be heard between Sarahan and Nachar almost in every

ravine wherever the elder and the elm are abundant, on the seeds of which

it principally feeds’. ]

Upupa epops L.. Hoopoe.

Seen at Nirth, Rampur, Sarahan, Nachar and Sungri.

Micropus melba (L.). Alpine Swift.

Micropus pacificus Lath. White-rumped Swift.

Alpine Swifts were seen in company with what I took to be M.. pacificus

at Gaura and Bahli.

Micropus apus (L.). Common Swift.

What appeared to be this species was seen sparingly at Chini and in con-

siderable numbers at Pangi and Kanam.

[Asio otus (I..). Long-eared Owl. ,

Stoliczka says that he found this Owl conimon near Nachar.]

[Strix nivicola (Blyth). Himalayan Wood-Owl.

Stoliczka obtained it at Chini and an Owl seen there by my shikari was

probably of this species. ] .

[Otus spilocephalus (Blyth). Spotted Scops Owl.

What was believed to be the call of this Owl was heard: during the night at

Ar aklech. ]

BIRDS ON THE HINDUSTAN-TIBET ROAD 541

*Glaucidium brodei brodei (Burton). Western Collared Pigmy Owlet.

Met with at Bahli and Bagi.

Gyps himalayensis Hume. Himalayan Vulture.

Seen frequently as far as Kanam.

Neophron percnopterus (L.). White Scavenger Vulture.

Observed at Narkanda, Rampur, Gaura and Taranda in April and at Sara-

han in June. Stoliczka says ‘often seen in summer in the lower ranges about

Belaspoor and Suket, but is almost never to be observed further in the interior’.

Gypaétus barbatus (L.). Bearded Vulture.

Noted at Pangi, Chaura and Bagi. Stoliczka remarked that it was common

all through the Sutlej Valley and permanently resided about Chini.

Falco subbuteo (L.). Hobby.

A pair was seen frequently about Nachar in May. They were much worried

by Jungle Crows and were still there when I returned a month Jater.

*Faico tinnunculus tinnunaculus L. Kestrel.

Observed between Thanedar and Nirth, about Sarahan and Taranda, and

at Pangi and Chini. A pair was seen feeding well-grown young on a ledge

immediately above the road at Sarahan on June 12.

Aquila chrysaétos daphanea Hodgs. Golden Eagle.

I saw what I thought was a pair of Golden Eagles on the wing between

Matiana and Narkanda on April 14. Mr. C. H. Donald, who has taken nests

near Bagi, Daranghati and Kilba (opposite Urni) states that it is ‘to be met

with right along the Sutlej watershed, from Kotegarh to the Kailas Range,

in suitable localities’ (J.B.N.H.S., xxvi, 632).

Milvus migrans (Bodd.). Common Pariah Kite.

Only seen at Rampur.

*Accipiter nisus melanoschistos Hume. Indian Sparrow Hawk.

A male was obtained near Namgia.

*Spenocercus sphenurus sphenurus (Vigors). Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon.

One of a pair was secured at Gaura.

Columba livia Gmel. Blue Rock Pigeon.

Common in the river gorge between Poo and Namgia.

*Streptopelia orientalis meena Sykes. Indian Rufous Turtle Dove.

Common as far as Nachar and frequently seen from Chini to Kanam. Sto-

liczka says ‘is only found in summer in the lesser ranges and does not go far

in the interior, I have not seen it beyond Kotegarh.’

{[Dendrotreron hodgsoni (Vigors). Speckled Wood Pigeon.

Stoliczka found this Pigeon ‘tolerably common near Chini and somewhat

further to east’. ]

Streptopelia senegalensis (L.). Little Brown Dove.

Only seen round about Thanedar and Nirth.

[Catreus wallichii (Hardw.). Cheer Pheasant.

Stoliczka says “does not usually go beyond Nachar forests. Said to be very

rare near Chini.’]

*Pucrasia macrolopha macrolopha (Less.). Koklas Pheasant.

Seen .round about Narkanda, above Gaura and at Daranghati.

542 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Gennaeus hamiltoni (Griff.). White-crested Kallj Pheasant.

Stoliczka says that this Pheasant occurs’ at. Chini. ]

Lophophorus impejanus (Lath.). Monal. ae . eg

Seen above Taranda and at Daranghati. Its feathers were found in a

Willow-Warbler’s nest above Nachar. .

Arborophila torqueola Valenc. Hill-Partridge.

Several were heard calling between Bagi and Narkanda.

*Alecteris graeca chukar (Gray). Chulkor.

Heard calling below Nachar and Sungri and many coveys were seen between

Kanam and Namgia.

Francolinus francolinus (.). Black Partridge.

Common at Sarahan. Also seen at Nirth, Taklech and Matiana and below

Bahli and Sungri.

Tetrogallus sp.? Snow-Cock.

A solitary bird was seen above Namgia.

[Scoiopax rusticola (L.). Woodcock.

Stoliczka says that the Woodcock breeds about and beyond Chini.]

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE

We Ss So IMAC ANT

[Continued from Vol. 45, No. 3 (1945) P- 373-]

Part II ae

(With 2 plates)

VI.—RIVER AND HATCHERY IMPROVEMENT.

Under ideal conditions Rainbows would have shade, fast

running water, gravel, and rocky runs leading into deep pools

overhung with trees and bushes. Such conditions are to be found

on the Rajamallay river and prophecies of success there made pre-

viously had been more than fully justified by 1945. .

Rainbows like the fast rocky runs of a river and generally séek

them out. Brown Trout on the other hand prefer quiet pools and

slow running flats such as Upper Eruvikulam. Rainbows how-

ever lose none of their fighting qualities if placed in such water,

a fact that is amply borne out by our fine fighters in the Devi-

colam Loch. Most of the Rajamallay river is fishable but there are

certain barren reaches which would soon hold trout if the judicious

construction of dams here and there, was undertaken. Much the

same applies to the Turner’s Valley river, though this water is

teeming with small fish. We are ofthe opinion that in connection

with the rivers on Hamilton’s Plateau, there is an absence of

predatory life, and that little or no interference with the spawn-

ing beds other, than possible spates from the N. E. Monsoon can

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 543

be anticipated. From the number of trout seen at Poovar on the

last inspection one might be led to believe that something like 25%

of the eggs laid by wild fish here hatch out and come through

to maturity.

Generally speaking, we have at Rajamallay the nearest thing

to ideal conditions for Rainbows obtainable.

Turning for a moment to the other side of the picture, to

Devicolam, a loch which has already proved its popularity, but

which can hardly be called ideal water. Work must be under-

taken here to speed up the flow of the feeder stream- which can

be done by the construction of a series of small dams. In making

dams for a sluggish stream such as this, it should be remembered

that three one-foot dams are of more use than one of say four

feet. The more aeration the better, particularly where tempera-

tures are inclined to be high. Next comes the ‘Problem of Mud’

which may also be called the ‘Anglers’ Nightmare’. Mud may be

composed of mineral matter such as sand, clay, and mica. This is

probably harmless, but the black mud of Chittavurrai, and parts

of Devicolam, which is made up of rotting vegetation and plant

life, is dangerous and sometimes fatal, and when it is stirred up

gives off a most unpleasant sulphurous smell. The centre of

such heaps are lacking in oxygen, and foul smelling gases are

formed. When the mud is exposed to the air or well aerated

water, oxygen is used up very quickly and the sulphide gases

are exceedingly poisonous to fish. It is therefore quite obvious

that at Devicolam where the water already lacks aeration, steps

should be taken to control mud to the maximum extent. In

England, mud is sometimes controlled by a series of hurdle

batteries. .-When sufficient mud collects behind the hurdles selec-

tive weeds are planted in it, and in this way the harmful properties

of the mud are gradually dissipated.

In cutting back reeds or overgrown weeds it should be un-

necessary to mention that the cut stuff should on no account be

thrown back into the water, but should be carefully collected and

heaped on. the bank for burning. Rotting vegetation soon uses

up valuable oxygen supplies and that part of the water where it

had been left might soon be rendered quite useless. °

All these observations to some extent apply to the hatchery,

but here the river and ponds are under constant supervision, and

cleaning etc., is carried out under ordinary routine. c

And now a word about otters. It is thought that the common

Indian Otter (Lutra Nair) (Tamil, Nir Nye) is a much maligned

animal. There is no doubt that he is a sporting ‘jolly little dog’

and we love nothing better than to watch him at play. At times

however he can be a destructive pest and given the opportunity

will kill fish by the hundred, far in excess of his own food require-

ments. We recently experienced most bitter examples of his capa-

bilities in this direction. The run from the big pond at the hatchery

was, until quite recently, unscreened, and there can be no doubt

that these little robbers succeeded in getting away with several

644. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

brace of fine three-year olds which had come up to spawn. On

another occasion otters succeeded in getting into the ‘stews’ for

yearlings, and took no less than 300 fine trout in one night. Wire

mesh fences set into the ground to a depth of about one foot and

sloped outwards, to 6 above the ground have proved most satisfac-

tory in keeping otters out of the stews. A wild spawner taken from

the river in 1944 had its nose, and the side of the gills, torn

away in a manner suggesting that it had been attacked by a

cat. It was thought that this must have been the work of a

wild cat or jackal. The latter feed freely on crabs, and a large

trout coming into the shallows at night would prove an easy prey.

The Brown Mongoose (Herpestes fuscus) should also be on the

black list. e

Hatchery improvement during the year 1942-43 consisted princi-

pally of the construction of a large pond for breeders. Water

was diverted from the main stream into a natural ravine at the

bottom of which a concrete dam was constructed. The water is

exhausted over this dam into the river, below, about 100 yards

from the intake. Surface water is also taken off by concrete

boxes, each 18” x9”, which fit into one another, control the level

of the water, and facilitate drainage when the pond is due to. be

cleaned out. Absolute control is of course necessary in construct-

ing any sort of fish pond as otherwise it would be impossible to

undertake cleaning efficiently. We have now at the hatchery,

four stews, four grading tanks, and the large pond or ‘stew’ for

breeders. For our own requirements this is ample accommodation,

though of course trout should never be overcrowded. The figure

given at home for two-year olds is one trout to one cubic yard.

Out here at least five times that space should be allowed in our

opinion.

From the new pond, spawners first began to come up the run

in November 1943. Wild fish were showing signs of spawning

about a month before that and up to the end of January. A

small percentage of eggs from natural redds and wild spawners

were taken. These eggs are usually much healthier in appear-

ance and it is desirable to collect as many of them as possible.

The trapping of wild spawners presented some difficulty owing

to transport restrictions and pressure of other work on_ the

Estate. Spawners were trapped in the main Rajamallay river

and the Aneikad river which joins the former above the Swing

Bridge pool. There are many perfect natural spawning beds in

this area. Early each morning men are sent out to look for fish,

and as soon as these are discovered on the redds suitable lengths

of wire mesh of the kind generally used for withering green leaf

in the tea factories, are stretched across the river above and

below the runs. These improvised fences are quickly clamped

down with stones and supported with stakes. The spawners are

then netted and stripped on the spot, the ova being taken up to

the hatchery in a galvanised pail. It is an interesting provision

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PraTe I

Rajamallay Hatchery under construction.

A trout coming up the spawning run,

a ee ee

=. wv Ws

oe x - -

RYMAN ge eeye ate ate

Segre ramen ge:

os Rie maar

ns ee ae a

ae) aie

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 545

of nature that eggs will stand a certain amount of movement

immediately after impregnation, and there is thus no difficulty in

carrying them a distance of three or four miles, provided the sun

is kept off them with a damp towel. A fine hen fish 243” in

length was tailed under a bank and placed in one of these screen-

ed runs. She appeared to be a ripe fish but there was a hard

spot round the vent and after a month she still showed no signs

of laying.

We will conclude this chapter with the observations that

while the eggs of wild fish appear in every way more desirable

than those of pond fish, the cost of obtaining it is very consider-

ably greater.

Also the eggs of wild fish seem to be more delicate, though

it is not quite clear why this should be. The acid test is

fertility and the colour of the eggs has nothing to do with it.

Provided well shaped alevins hatch out then the rest is merely a

matter of correct feeding and sanitation. The rich pink of eggs

from some wild fish is a question of feeding entirely and shows

that they have come from water rich in crustaceous food.

VII.—TRANSPORT, STOCKING AND RIVER MANAGEMENT

Transport.—Tiansport from the hatchery has been carried out

to all parts of the Concession, mostly by cooly headload. Where

possible, trout are taken in fish carriers by lorry. This can easily

be done where roads lead to the water, but transport to Eruvikulam

and the Sambumallay river is undertaken in half a day by head-

load from the hatchery. .

A big undertaking in connection with fish transport was

completed successfully in 1942. This was the stocking of the

Pooar river in the remote areas lying towards the Northern

boundaries of the Company’s Concession. This is a river notable

for its beauty and fishing possibilities, and it has been the dream

of many, interested in trout culture, to see it stocked. It has

always been our policy to undertake headload transport in the

height of the monsoon, it being argued that at such a) time the

danger of the water in the fish carriers overheating, or running

out of oxygen, was minimised. Such expeditions, however, called

for great hardship and endurance from the labour, and those in

charge of the operations, so that it was decided that the Pooar

project should be engaged upon in two stages, and in comparative-

ly fine weather.

A stew pond was made at Eruvikulam, and on the first day

the fry were successfully brought there without mishap, a

distance of about 12 miles. Unfortunately the sides of the stew

pond had been made flush with the bank, and only about 18”

above the level of the water. Consequently during the night a

few fry succeeded in jumping out and wriggling their way into

the grass, where they were found dead in the morning.

The carriers used for headload transport are ordinary earthen-

ware jars made locally, and fitted with a perforated metal cover-

(ap)

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vols 45

ing. They form the most excellent carriers and the water keeps

remarkably cool, even at noon on a hot day.

On the second day of the transport the weather was so fine

that we were able to film the whole proceeding from the. start

at dawn, to the actual liberation of the fish. This half of the

journey, over a distance of eight miles, was a difficult undertaking

on account of the percipitous nature of the country and the

absence of any sort of path other than the rough game tracks,

a network of which are to be found everywhere on the grass

hills. The expedition arrived shortly after noon and it was

found that the temperature of the water in the river was 4

degrees below that of the water in the carriers. The process. of

liberating the fish had therefore to be carried out with great

care and two hours were occupied in. bringing the temperatures.

together, by the gradual application of river water.

In stocking a virgin river the correct procedure is to com-

mence as near the source as possible, and to dibble the trout out

in families of seven or so, at intervals, downstream. Hatchery

bred fry tend to keep together in swarms and if this is not done

they become an easy prey for their natural enemies. Although

the work was carried out very carefully, fry were actually seen in

the river well over a mile below the point where the last had been _

liberated, on the same evening, thus showing at what rate they.

will move off down stream.

It should have been mentioned that an experimental transport

of 100 fry had been undertaken some months previously, in Feb-

ruary 1942. The fish of this stocking were seen rising freely

down the river, and in 1943 a number were caught nigiohing 2 Ibs.

What was still more gratifying, however, was that their sons and

daughters were seen in numbers in May 1943, thus proving another

stream to be successful, from the breeding point of view. In 1944

a stream in British India 35 miles from the Hatchery was success-

fully stocked with Rajamallay yearlings.

We have studied in the foregoing a brief history of the in-

troduction of trout of Travancore, and something of the lessons

learnt in the hatching and transport of these fish. Let us now

turn to a study of the fish itself, and, later, to a very important

item, the question of overstocking.

The first trout tried out in Travancore was the Brown Trout

(Salmo fario) which is indigenous to Scotland, and nowhere ex-

celled for beauty and sport, unless by its first cousin the Loch

Leven Trout (Salmo levinensis) believed by many to be the same

fish. It was discovered that though these trout had all the ap-

parent qualifications for success in our waters, they would not

stand. such a high range of temperature as we experience here.

In consequence breeding was upset, the sexes never being in sea-

son at the same time. The Rainbow Trout successful in Ceylon

and the Nilgiris was next introduced with undoubted success, but.

let us try to study the actual degree of ‘success obtained, and

probable difficulties of the future. . i

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 547

The Migratory Instinct—We came into close contact. with the

Rainbow Trout only after coming to the East, and for what little

knowledge we now possess we are indebted to Mr. Fowke of

Ceylon who appears to have arrived at the answers to the most

of the problems. Mr. Wilson H. Armistead in his book ‘Trout

Waters’ refers to the introduction of Rainbow Trout from America,

in 1900, to the British Isles, while in ‘Fish Farming for Pleasure

and Profit’, Rainbow Trout (Salmo irideus) are referred to as

being native of the country extending from California near the

Mexican Boundary to Southern Alaska. Mr. Fowke states that

the pure Rainbow (Salmo shasta) is a river fish, whereas Salmo

ivideus which should properly be called the Steelhead, is anadro-

mous, that is to say, it lives in the sea like a salmon, and

has to come to fresh water to spawn. The two varieties are so

alike that it is only by careful scale counting and vertebrae count-

ing, that they can be accurately distinguished. Our trout are a

cross between the two and the resultant fry in which the Steel-

head predominates, will make for the sea at a certain age, while

those in which the Rainbow predominates, are left behind. Trout

have been caught in our waters which in some respects resemble

the Scottish Brown Trout. Ts some interesting change taking

place due to our local conditions? The theory that cross breed-

ing with Brown Trout had taken place previously either in the

Nilgiris or in Ceylon does not seem to have any foundation.

3 In Travancore the artificial ponds, holding only muddy water

and with no proper inlet stream, were a failure. Here the trout put

on tremendous weight in the first two years, disappeared, or died

in the mud. Loch Finlay a splendid sheet of water, but lacking

aeration and a feeder stream, was a partial success only; the

trout seemed to do quite well in the first and second years, and

then disappeared. Here also it was thought that trout had deve-

loped one of these strange diseases to which Rainbows placed

in stagnant water are prone. The Devicolam Loch had proved a

go per cent success but required restocking every second. year.

The Loch is fed by a good stream and weed and shade is plenti-

ful. Rainbows require plenty of food and plenty of shade to be

successful, and Devicolam has both assets. Lack of shade might

cause ophthalmic trouble, a point sometimes overlooked. Eruvi-

kulam, 7158! above sea level had proved a great suCCESS and

natural breeding took place from the very first. The original trout

grew to a tremendous size, some close on five pounds having

been caught. Most of these disappeared in the third year and in

company with many other trout went down over the falls into

Turner’s Valley, a drop of tooo’, That trout have actually

reached the Lower Vagavurrai Estate, an elevation of 4540! is an

established fact, and from that, it is safe to assume that many

ssave reached the borders of Travancore, an elevation of 1480’.

A trout can adapt its temperature to that of the water it travels

through, and Mr. Fowke has successfully moved trout in Ceylon

from a temperature of 56° to 83°.

548 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The question of what happens to our trout when they leave our

highland areas is a contentious one, and a subject upon which.

none of us are at the moment in a position to debate. ‘lhe natural

breeding at Eruvikulam has been augmented with fry from the

Rajamallay Hatchery, with the result that the head’ waters have

now been so overstocked that the pound trout is the exception rather

than the rule. As a result, further stocking has been postponed.

meantime, but it 1s a great pity that the larders were not more

sparingly used, and thus a higher weight average maintained for

a little longer.- The waters here lack shade, but this is being

planted up gradually. The Turner’s Valley stream stocks itself from.

Eruvikulam, but trout tend to congregate here either at the top,

near the falls, or at the bottom, where the river enters the forest.

This is because good deep pools with shade and shelter for the

dry weather months are not available in the intermediate stretch.

Much river work such as the construction of stone dams and.

deflectors to create good holding water throughout the whole

valley remains to be done. The First Turner’s Valley trout was

caught by Mr. E. H. Francis on 27th October 1941, weighed 1lb.

The Sambumallay River which is within 20 minutes’ walk of

the Eruvikulam camp is a small river containing a few pools at

the bottom. It is excellent water in which small trout are thriv-

ing. The river at Kanniamallay is holding trout. The head

waters of this stream come through the tea for about two miles

and the river is subject to spates of dirty water. It is very doubt-

ful if natural spawning will take place. The Rajamallay River

contains several miles of splendid. water, with deep pools and

cataracts, very reminiscent of the highland streams of Scotland.

So far it seems that trout are going to do well there. The water

was first stocked with a few trout in 1941 and these were liber-

ated on the slopes of Aneimudi. The summit of Aneimudi is.

8840! above sea level, and the trout were probably put out at

7500’. These worked downstream but not quite so rapidly as in

other rivers. In March 1943 a hen fish which had died spawa

bound, was taken from the river some three miles below. It

weighed 8 lbs. and was 25" in length! This is another example of

what can happen when a few of these trout are liberated in such

well stocked larders as our Highland streams in Travancore. But

let us beware of using up these valuable larders_ indiscriminately.

Rather let us see to it that we preserve them and where possible

increase them. Let us preserve our trees and shrubs, on the river

banks, and where there is no shade let our motto be PLANT,

PLANT, PLANT:.-The penalty for cutting trees should be

death! Clumps of Black Wattle are being encouraged, and also

Hakea saligna (The Needlewood tree of Queensland), but it is diffi-

cult to find a suitable tree which will thrive under such inclement

weather conditions as exist in the monsoon months. ‘However the

work MUST go on from year to year, or many of our present gains.

may be lost. Aquatic plants (Watercress) (Nasturtium officiale)

and grasses have been successfully brought from Chittavurrait and

Devicolam and established in ponds at the hatchery. The Raja-

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 549

mallay river in common with most of our best water rises close

to Hamilton’s Plateau, which is the principle water shed in these

hills. It is, however, subject to even greater spates than probably

elsewhere, on account of the fact that the South West face of

Aneimudi upon which it rises, receives the full blast of every

monsoon burst. The average rainfall, taken a few miles below

the hatchery, amounts to no less than 315 inches over the last ten

years, and on 13th July 1943, 22” of rain was measured between

the hours of 6 p.m. and 8 a.m. . It is therefore useless to attempt

planting weeds by artificial means in the main streams under such

conditions. The answer is to make experiments in side streams.

and ponds not subject to serious floods.

About three miles below the hatchery, the river flattens out

into a swamp which has recently as 1926 was the home of Ele-

phants and Bison, and a place well known to ‘Shikaris’. Silt

from the clearings has turned most of this swamp into a sand

bank through which the river flows at an almost imperceptible

pace. At the corners of the river there are several exceedingly

deep pools overhung with jungle trees, and in these, many trout

averaging not less than two pounds have been located. Their

,age cannot be greater than three years, and we: are convinced

that several of them are over 5 pounds in weight, judging from

the one already referred to as having been found spawnbound.

Below the swamp the river falls away into rapids and great pools

overhung by rocks. The man,who has the luck to hook one of

these monsters in such heavy water will have an experience worth

remembering.

Since writing the above, several trout were caught at night on

a fly resembling a Peter Ross, but with a woodcock wing. Their

weights were from 2 to 5 lbs. 12 oz. The stomach of one

trout of 2 lbs. was crammed full of recently devoured and quite

undigested fresh water shrimps, 87 of them, no less. The

voracious habits of the Rainbow are truly remarkable. Once

again we say, for indeed it can never be too often said, ‘BEWARE

OF OVERSTOCKING’, and explore all methods of food conser-

vation. — .

The importation of the eyed ova of the pure American Rainbow

Trout (Salmo shasta) and Brown Trout (Salmo fario) has been

advocated. This might be done but the writer can see no

advantage in such an undertaking, or in what direction the fish-

ing would be improved. Our hybrid trout which can never return

from the Sea if they ever reach it, and which can therefore safely

be called Rainbow, are hardy, sporting, and prolific, and seem well

suited to our water. What more can be wanted?

The growth rate of trout 1s governed solely by the amount of

feed available, so that in the hatchery it is possible to tell the

exact amount of food required to grow a pound of flesh. We have

already seen what our trout can do when liberated in such virgin

waters as Eruvikulam and Poovar. We have also seen, alas, how

quickly food stocks deteriorate and how quickly the weight average

falls. Our future policy must centre round two very important

points. These are:—(a) conserve and increase the food content

550 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

of our streams and (b) keep a sound balance between food and

stock, by increasing limits, or netting, where water has already

been overstocked. :

Since writing the foregoing the question why big trout die

spawnbound has been asked. Unless trout have suitable conditions

they lose the incentive to spawn, though the ova continues to

develop until eventually the mass so formed presses against the

pericardium and heart causing death. Trout must have low

temperatures and range with access to shallow evenly running

water flowing over gravel and small stones. Semi-stagnant or

muddy conditions upsets metabolism particularly in the case of

these fish which, as has already been explained, are to a great

extent migratory.

The broad principles of Trout Stream improvement as _ they

apply to the High Range were dealt with in a supplement to the

General Report for the season 1944-45. In this work great stress

was laid upon the necessity for making the best use of natural

food reservoirs. Ditches and side streams can by _ judicious

management be made to maintain large stocks of many fresh

water animals. Shrimps (Gammerus pulex) will breed freely all

the year round and their introduction to almost any class of water

is no very difficult matter. In conjunction with shrimps, snails

(Paludomus stomatodon) which are very prolific in our waters,

can be introduced. Often old game wallows or hollows below the

level of the main stream can be turned into excellent food farms

by diverting water through a channel and controlling the level

and the pace of the water through the artificial pond so formed, by

means of sluice gates. In such ponds vast supplies of the

natural food of trout can be built up and maintained, and from

time to time a proportion of this can be induced to make for the

main stream by opening up the gates. Any such work on food

conservation is absolutely invaluable.

VIII.—Some FISHING INCIDENTS

This work will, I am told, be incomplete without some

reference to fishing itself. So many factors of wind and weather,

and other conditions, come into the question, that when I am asked

what are the best flies to use on our rivers I am unable to give an

answer. The ancient ‘Book of St. Albans’ mentions twelve

flies. The ‘Dunfly’, body of dun wool and the wings of the

partridge would appear to be the oldest and most popular. The

best known after the ‘Duns’ are the ‘March Browns’ and _ the

‘Greenwell’s Glory,’ and on most brown trout streams at home

these take as big. baskets as any other fly. A long list of new-

fangled flies has crept in. The list is so long in fact that one’s

brain reels on attempting to memorise it. A great many are mere

‘catch pennies’, for nothing looks more attractive and alluring

than a host of flies neatly set out in the tackle expert’s shop.

Many trout are taken on small salmon flies, and such new inven-

tions, with silver bodies, as the ‘Butcher’ and ‘Peter Ross” which

are really lures. In some respects the capture of fish with them

is tantamount to spinning, as they suggest the small fry of indi-

genous fish found in most waters, but certainly the bigger trout

are often caught that way, which is a very good thing indeed. It

has been stated that the Rainbow Trout is easier to catch than

his cousin Salmo fario, and at certain times of the year this is

undoubtedly true. The Rainbow Trout often accepts a big variety

of flies under similar fishing conditions. In my experience the

never-failing fly or lure contains red, with either a teal or wood-

cock wing, but when the water is heavy the silver body is very

deadly. For the late evening a black fly with a silver twist, red

hackle, and jungle cock wing such as Watson’s Fancy does good

work, and late at night’the Teal and Silver. Rainbow trout

when they are on the feed are much less ‘gut shy’ than the

Brown, and if anything the splash of a badly cast fly seems to

attract them. It is necessary, however, under almost all condi-

tions, to keep well out of sight. I know of a pool on one of

our rivers where big trout lie. The head of the pool contains

many rocks and boulders affording the most magnificent sanctuary

for wary trout. The ‘hing’ or end of the pool is full of gravel

and sand, and the big trout if undisturbed, will lie there through-

out most of the sunny part of the day. I always found great

difficulty in approaching this pool and on each occasion managed

somehow to give myself away. At last I discovered an infalliable

line of approach, some trick of the lght, or. the particular

location of the pool, making all others impossible. Having. got

into position I began very carefully to look from behind the

‘hide out’, and soon discovered two of the trout lying in their

favourite spot. When a light breeze sprang up I cast and im-

mediately hooked one of the fish which on being netted was

found to weigh two pounds. When big wary trout are lying

in clear water they can be caught if patience, combined with

careful observations, are applied.

At nearly all times of the year the floating fly will do well on

Upper Eruvikulam- and most of the Pooar river. One year the

fishing in April and May fell off very badly and for a menth no

records were sent in except those of a keen dry fly fisherman who.

consistently collected 2 or 3 brace of trout, particularly on windy

days.

The waters of the High Range will in time, all provide sport

of the very finest, but the cost of the success to date has been

heavy, and the Company and their employees have borne the

whole expense themselves. It is therefore no wonder that so far

the waters which are private, are seldom open to visitors, though

occasionally a guest of the Company is granted permission for a day

on one or other of the streams or lochs.

The following is an extract from the author’s Fishing Record

Book:—‘*The Eruvikulam River falls into Turner’s Valley and

then winds its way through grassland and jungle, eastwards and

then North eastwards towards the plains and the Coleroon which

it ultimately joins. After leaving Turner’s Valley it falls away

sharply in a series of great falls and cascades towards Luckham

S52 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 45

and the Lower Vagavurrai Tea Estate, where there is a famous

pool called the Luckham pool. In February 1944 an-old planter

who has been connected with sport in these hills for many years,

reported trout in this water. The elevation is about 4,100’ above

sea level here, but as the water pours straight off the high hill

temperatures probably do not exceed 65° at the hottest time of

the year. All the water from this point downwards for some

miles, is.in every. respect ideal, although it is very unlikely that

trout will breed successfully in it. On the night of 29th February

1944, I went with this planter down to the pool to try a cast or

two. Towards 7 o’clock a big trout came into the shallows at

the mouth of the pool together with three or four smaller ones.

In crossing the ‘river however. I fell and smashed the point of

my rod just above the last rung but one, This made further

fishing exceedingly difficult, for with each cast the line whipped

itself round the broken end of the top joint. But for the moment

the big trout had disappeared into the black depths of the pool.

The light was going fast when its shadowy form appeared again

in the shallows, and several casts were made over it with a large

fly, ‘‘a grouse and claret’’. Suddenly when hope had been given

up, the fish took the fly with a tremendous splash and was off

like an express train into the centre of the pool, but I fortunately

had the presence of mind to lower the point of my rod after

striking, thus freeing the line. The fish rolled several times like

a salmon, and then came back to the shallows, but after the

initial rush it gave little trouble, although with the anxiety of

the broken rod and the thought that it was very lightly hooked

and the cast frayed the final outcome was in doubt up to the last

moment when it was netted successfully. It was immediately

taken up to the Factory and accurately weighed there at 7 Ibs.

2 ozs. It was 243” in length and had a girth of 154”. It was

a hen full of almost mature ova which weighed a pound and a

half. The stomach was quite empty arguing that it was a late

fish in season and about to spawn. I was of the opinion that it

was not spawnbound and that it would have g6t-rid of the eggs

within ‘a few weeks: This is the largest trout to be taken on

the rod in Travancore, and I have not so far heard of anything

bigger in the Nilgiris, though no doubt such fish must have been

caught there in the early stages. Trout when they come into

season do not feed readily and in many cases probably do. not

feed at all. A trout in this condition is however either annoyed

into taking a fly by its frequent appearance adjacent to a favourite

lie, or because the fly represents some insect dangerous to the

spawning beds. Mr. Philip Fowke wrote on ‘the .11th March

1944 that this, fish broke his long standing record for Ceylon

Of (6 vIbse 12 OZSHa

Big Trout.—Other notable trout have already been referred

to the biggest of these being the eight-pounder found lying dead

in Rajamallay river in 1943. Mr. E. H. Francis caught. fish

of 4) Ibs. to 4% Ibs. on several occasions. The visit of Major-

General (now Lieut.-General) E. F. Norton, c.B., D.S.0., M.C., in-

1939 when six trout were caught weighing 20 lbs. has also been

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pirate II

Transport of trout fry over the grass hills.

Record trout for South India—7 lbs. 2 oz,

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referred to. The biggest in that basket was caught by the General

on a dry fly and weighed 44 lbs. One of the biggest trout record-

ed previously, came from the Chittavurrai Lake. It was 5% lbs.

and was caught by Philip Gouldsbury who was also connected

-with the early efforts to establish Brown Trout.

Exciting incidents make more pleasant reading than a mere

list of records and we will try to glance through the Association’s

Game Book and recall a few of these. The description of the

catching of the first Rainbow Trout at Eruvikulam has already

been. given. This should have been a signal for the opening of

the river to fishing, in the opinion of many, for in the spawning

months that followed none of these monsters were seen again.

Many of them succeeded in negotiating the 1000! falls in the

monsoon and getting into Turner’s Valley, where in September

1942 the most perfect specimen of a Rainbow Trout so far seen

was caught by Mr. Francis. On that occasion I had received

instuctions to meet Mr. Francis at a point half-way between the

High Range and the Anamallais, the next range of hills, from

“whence he was walking on an inspection of concession land. It

was a longish trek taking in all three days, and on arrival in

Turner’s Valley on the homeward journey it was about 12 noon,

with time enough for a few hours’ fishing” before proceeding to

the last camp. The sky was cloudless and the water clear as

-gin, but it was decided to try a few casts in the runs towards

the end of the valley. At the second or third cast a heavy

trout was hooked’ on a ‘teal and silver’. After the first rush the

fish bored back into rough water and at such speed that for a

tine there was several yards of slack in hand. However after

a splendid fight the net was slipped under him and a fine trout

of 32 Ibs. was brought to the bank. That was the only trouf

seen that day but one well worth and even longer trek. Those

who are known to have caught trout over four pounds, are only

seven in number and as these monster trout will always be few

and far between, a note of their names will be of interest.

W.S. S. Mackay from the Luckham Pool a) 2 lbs 2;ozsalength 2427 .

Philip Gouldsbury at Chittavurrai 53 lbs.

E. H. Francis at Eruvikulam and Turner’ s Valley. 2 @ 43 and 1 @ 4¢ lbs.

Mrs. W. S. S. Mackay at Chittavurrai --. 45 Ibs.

Lieut.-General E. F. Norten at Eruvikulam ... 44 lbs.

W.S. S. Mackay at Eruvikulam or .- 2@ 43 and1 @4 lbs.

Alasdair Steven at Rajamallay ae bon Ge loss

‘W.S.S. Mackay at Raiamallay 06 .. of lbs.

It is thought probable that J. S. B. Wallace and J. M. Bridge-

man caught trout over 4 Ibs. but these were not recorded by the

Association.

John Hamilton Wilkes did a great deal of work in connection

with stocking the rivers. How he caught his first trout, and

‘gave the name ‘Hamilton’s Hole’ to the Big pool at the bottom

of Turner’s Valley makes a story worth recording. He had been

fishing for some hours without result, when he felt a steady pull on

-a large salmon fly which he was drawing across the river at a

554 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

depth of several feet. With a yell he announced that he was into

a fish, that his reel had jammed, and his line became entangled.

It will never be quite known how he accomplished it, but without

the aid of a free running reel, he succeeded in bringing to the

bank a fish weighing 3? lbs. which in contrast to the one just

mentioned, was one of the ugliest-looking cannibals yet seen in

our waters. The fish, a male, had a more than usually pronounc-

ed hooked jaw, and was almost yellow in colour, with a deep

red line. It took 25 minutes to land but fortunately never made

a run out of the pool.

At Devicolam some very big baskets have been recorded.

One day in June 1943, 29 trout weighing 29 lbs. 15 oz. were

taken, by four rods. |

In 6 days’ fishing on Hamilton’s Plateau two planters from

Burma took 75 trout weighing 44 Ibs. 12 oz. In March 1945

two rods took 87 trout under the 4 lb. average, in 6 hours’ fishing

at Pooar. There is no doubt. that when the war is over and

those on service return, some even bigger baskets will be record-

ed. The most killing fly on most occasions seems to have been

the ‘teal.and red’ but owing to the difficulty in obtaning proper

gut most fishermen handicap themselves by using stuff which is

far too thick. 3

IX .—FURTHER FISHING INCIDENTS

‘Let us not burden our remembrance

With a heaviness that’s gone’—SHAKESPEARE. |

Trout lost.—It is a pity that there is no means of recording

the stories of trout hooked and lost. Fishermen are generally a

trifle reticent on the subject of lost monsters, and I think that

as a general rule the lost one seems, in the mind of the fishermen,

gigantic, in comparison to those successfully brought to the net.

Perhaps the biggest fish ever played for any length of time and

finally lost by a piece of ill luck, was at Eruvikulam, when in

1942 the then Chairman of the Association, Mr. H. A. Rage, was

fishing the stretch in the upper waters, from the junction pool,

towards the falls. The previous evening a tackle box had been

lost, and early in the morning he had gone out unaccompanied,

to make a search for it. The box was soon found and he put up

his rod to have a cast or two before returning to breakfast. He

had no net, but was not unduly worried as no big fish had been

reported in this water for some months. At the second or third

cast, however, he rose and hooked one of the monsters, no doubt

a member of the original batch put in during 1937. .There was.

no use shouting as the camp was too far away for the sound

to carry, and it would only have been by a stroke of luck if he

had been spotted by one of the watchers. The rod that he was.

using was a short light affair with which it would have been

dificult enough to control a heavy trout in any case, but neverthe-

less at the end of twenty minutes he had the fish below him,

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 555

more or less on its side, and ready for the net. From his posi-

tion it was apparently quite impossible to tail the fish, but there

was a weedy bank a little lower down on which he attempted to

beach it. The fish was probably 6 lbs. in weight, but alas it never

reached the camp to be correctly weighed. In the effort of try-

ing to beach it, the cast broke close to the fly and slowly the

fish recovered itself and swam off into the deeper water beyond.

There have indeed been some very large trout lost at

Eruvikulam, and in 1941 Major J. R. S. Mackay hooked: one

on a small Dyson opposite the Rhododendrons about half-way down

the same stretch. The fish took the fly close into the bank and the

Major saw it clearly before it made the first rush. He thought that

the trout was bigger than any he had caught in many years of

fishing, and it certainly fought like an exceptionally heavy one for

some seven or eight-minutes. By an incredible stroke of ill fortune

the knot at the fly slipped and the fish got away.

Though the weight of these lost fish can never be known, it

is safe to assume that there are many trout within our concession

of 5 lbs. and over and by concentrated night fishing a few of

these could no doubt be. taken on the fly. Using a teal and

silver and perhaps with the help of a maggot or two, big trout

can often be persuaded to move. During daytime and late evening

they are wary and keep to deep pools and cover.

In 1944 some complaints were heard regarding the falling

off in weight averages. These mostly came from _ fishermen

suffering from a ‘big fish complex.’ Having caught the monster

trout which grew in the lakes and rivers in the first year or

two after stocking, disappointment was felt when baskets con-

taining only half pounders were the order of the day. As has

already been explained trout put on great weights when liberat-

ed in virgin water, but the average eventually falls to a standard

in direct ratio to the class of water.

If big weight averages are to be obtained trout must have

tremendous range with access to and from big water. In: the

High Range our streams are torrential and there is little or no

catchment area between us and the plains. On the West the

waters fall in one mighty drop to the plains and the coast of

Malabar, while on the East they are broken up by a series of

falls and cascades which no fish could ascend. It follows there-

fore that we can hope to breed only a race of hardy hill trout

and if baskets average out at 8 ozs., what more can be expect-

ed? With proper river management this might possibly be im-

proved upon, and undoubtedly there will always be the chance

of a big one on some of our water. Indeed there are more of

these trout about that is properly realised. There are many »

jungle pools fed by broad stretches of shallow rough water and

in the late evening big trout are to be found in these runs.

It is interesting to note that on Hamilton’s Plateau there

are two rivers within a few minutes’ walk of one another which

are frequently fished on the same morning. The water from the

first flows east and eventually joins the Cauvery and the Coleroon,

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. 45

while that of the other flows west, and joins the Periyar and the

sea near Cochin. 7

The best and most exciting time for fishing in the High

Range is probably just as the South West Monsoon rains begin

to abate—that it, if the fishermen are prepared to stick the !eecnes

which on most of our rivers are so bad that for some people the

whole joy of the day is lost. Those who are allergic to leeches

should avoid the High Range !

_. There was a break in the weather towards the end of last

monsoon and for three whole days the sun shone. On the last

day I woke up to the fact that I should be fishing, and sent men

down to a favourite beat some miles below the cultivation on

the Rajamallay river to light fires and keep a look out for these

pestilential elephants. Here there is a fine deep pool of about

two acres in extent, fed by a broad stretch of rough rocky but

shallow water—a aines such as big trout love in the “latte evening.

The light had almost gone when fishing began above the

Pool in the rough water. “At the third or fourth cast. a pound

trout took the bob fly and fought so well that the next fifteen yards

or so of water was hopelessly disturbed. Shortly afterwards

there was another rise to the bob fly but theréafter nothing, and

the impression was that the best of a good late evening rise had

been missed. At the tail of the run however the steady pool of

a heavy fish was felt and a big trout took the tail fly, a teal and

silver, quite quietly, as does a salmon very frequently. Steadily

pomean cruised this large trout and presently its dorsal fin was

right out of the water and the back of a real ‘whopper’ dis-

played itself. As the fish came directly opposite it suddenly

seemed to realise that all was not well, for it turned in a flash

and was off downstream, and clean across the jungle pool in one

glorious rush. Here I made the great mistake of trying to stop

it and the line went slack. The cast had held alright, but the

line of all things had broken, and then only I realised that lines

cannot be expected to last indefinitely even with the greatest care, |

and that the one in use was seven years old! But that great

rush will live in-the memory. Indeed it is the stories of these

mighty lost ones that live for ever.

An Experience.—A point has now been reached in the story

of our High Range Trout Culture, from where it is impossibe to

proceed further. Most of the work now being undertaken centres

round important hatchery HON ROVeMIeTIs, viver improvement, and

general observations. In two years’ time perhaps, another instal-

ment may be forthcoming and I look forward with hope to writing

of success, in a world free from war and misery. In looking over

the pages of this report, for it is thus the work should be des-

cribed, I wondered how many. would be really interested in it?

It has often been said that fishermen are ‘Lunatics’ who are born

not bred. To some extent that may be true, but I know men

who have taken to‘fishing for the solace and peace of mind a day

on the river gives. them, for the beautiful places it takes them to,

and for the wild bird and animal life they see. To illustrate this

point I, will record a story. A few days before departing on two

TROUT OF TRAVANCORE 557

months’ local leave, a planter left his Estate to walk over to

Sambumallay and Eruvikulam, to have a look at the waters, and

to see how things were getting on. It was a clear morning but

with wisps of mist floating on the summit of Aneimudi, and as he

marched along, he felt he didn’t want to go on leave at all, and

that all he wanted was to be left alone, to wander about these

beautiful hills for the rest of his life. Written up in his shikar

diary is a short list of the game he saw that day. On the Vaga-

_vurrai rock a fine saddleback, at Neelakal a sounder of. pig, at

the Junction Pool of Eruvikulam a jungle sheep, on Sambumallay,

a herd of 50 Ibex, at the head of Turner’s Valley a fine Bull

and four cow Bison, at the bottom of Turner’s Valley two sam-

bhur hinds, and on the Luckatavurrai another herd of Ibex. It

may indeed seem like a romance, but on the same day he saw a

spotted panther in the distance. He knew there was a_ big trout

in a pool in the river and his choice was between the panther

and the trout. He chose the trout and got him too, and it weighed

44 lbs! Such days may be exceptional but they are there for all

of us. . “a ae

Conclusion.—Nearly all the resident planters in the High

Range and many of the ladies have at one time or another sub-

scribed to the work of the Angling Association, and it would be

quite impossible to mention the names of all of them individually.

This work cannot however be finally closed without one further

reference to the first Chairman of the present Association, A. W.

John, who first introduced the Rainbow, and the Secretary, John

Muir, J. S.. B.. Wallace, E. H. Francis, General -Managers of. the

Kanan Devan Hills Produce Company Limited, and Alasdair

Steven. These gentlemen’ revived the experiment in 1932, and

stuck to it through its many adversities, and it is to them that

the thanks of all the young men who will return from the war

-and who will enjoy happy days on the lochs and rivers will be

due. Those who were left behind to carry on in the High Range

during the second Great War, undertook the work of hatching .

trout and stocking the waters with the additional satisfaction of

knowing that they were doing something that would give plea-

sure to the boys who have been fighting for them in Burma, the

Middle East and elsewhere. If when these return they find amongst

the hills and upon the rivers that tranquillity for which they must

have so often craved, the debt, if such exists, will have been more

than fully repaid.

PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF NORTHERN INDIA

IN HISTORICAL TIMES.

M. S. RANDHAWA, M.SC., I.C.S., F.N.I.

(With one plate and 2 maps.)

During ‘his studies of the beautiful trees of ancient India the

present author came across some interesting evidence, archaeolo-

gical as well as literary which sheds light on the climate of northern

India from Circa 500 B.c. to C. 640 a.D. Most of this evidence is

from Mathura region and is based on the study of numerous sculp-

tures recovered from time to time from that district due to the

efforts of pioneers like Mr. F. S. Growse, Pt. Radha Kishen, Dr.

Fuhrer and others, and now housed in the archaeological museums

at Lucknow and Mathura. It shows that about 2,000 years ago the

‘Brij’ districts which today have a desert vegetation were covered

with wet tropical forests containing evergreen trees of Indo-Malayan

affinities which flourish at present in Assam, Bengal, Burma, and

west coast of India

This evidence is in conformity with that obtained from the ob-

servations of Douglas and Ellsworth Huntington on the annual

rings of Sequoia trees of South-western United States. This

evidence shows that a very wet period prevailed from C. 100 B.c.

to C. 100 A.D. and since then the curve of humidity has a down-

ward trend on the whole with only brief interludes of wetness. Since

then aridity has been on the increase though it cannot be said

with certainty whether it is due to shifting of climatic zones or .

due to other causes. Writings of Herodotus show that Western .

Asia was very wet between 400-500 B.c. The presence of animals

of the swamps like elephants and rhinoceros in Sind and the West-

ern Punjab is proved from the seals recovered from Mohenjo-

Daro and Harappa which date from C. 3250 B.c. to C. 2750 B.C.

Sind and Western Punjab are practically deserts now, though the

evidence from the presence of these denizens of swamps in these

regions points towards considerable wetness if we bear the present

distribution of elephant and rhinoceros in mind.

MATHURA SCULPTURES OF WOMAN AND TREE DESIGN.

In excavations carried out at the ancient site of Kankali Tila,

about half a mile to the west of the present city of Mathura from

1888-91 A.D. Dr. Fuhrer discovered the remains of a Jaina monas-

tery which proved to be a veritable mine of beautiful sculptures.

Many exquisitely carved bracket figures of Woman and Tree (Sala-

bhanjika) design were discovered. The sculptors of these figures

used spotted red sandstone, similar to that found in the quarries

of Tantpore and Fatehpore Sikri in Agra district for carving these

PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF NORTHERN INDIA — $59

figares. Chronologically these ‘Woman and Tree’ bracket figures

have been ascribed to the Kushana period, from 1 A.D. to 170 A.D.

These bracket figures were described by Vincent Smith! in

1go1 in a valuable iconographic monograph, but he did not identify

any of the trees. It is tor the first time that we find Asoka and

Kadamba trees mentioned by name in the catalogue of the Mathura

Museum compiled by Dr. Vogel’ in 1gt0. The remaining two

trees have not been identified so far.

A close examination of Mathura sculptures reveals that leaves

and flowers of Asoka (Saraca indica) was a popular motif of their

decorative designs along with flowers and leaves of the lotus. While

the elephant, horse, lion, and the antelope were their favourite ani-

mals, Savaca indica was their favourite tree. In the sculptures

displayed in the Curzon Museum of Archaeology at Mathura and

Provincial Museum, Lucknow, we find numerous sculptures in which

Asoka tree is associated with male and female figures. In the

Bacchanalian groups discovered from villages Maholi and Pali-

khera we find the drooping branches of Asoka with its unmistak-

able lanceolate leaves and also an inflorescence. On a slab with

the figures of a couple feeding a parrot we find the blossoming

branch of Asoka on the lower panel. On another fragment we

see a squirrel climbing an Asoka tree. On a railing pillar we see

a woman standing under a flowering Asoka tree.

Some of the Mathura sculptures displayed in the Provincial Mu-

seum, Lucknow, are still more interesting. In one of these we find

a beautiful woman with a happy face standing cross-legged on a

crouching dwarf, fastening a lotus garland on her head. Behind

her we see an exquisitely carved branch of Saraca indica with its

characteristic lanceolate leaves and ixora-like inflorescence (fig 2),

which are so true to nature. In another we see a woman gather-

ing Asoka flowers. .

_ Apart from the Asoka, we find three other trees depicted in these

sculptures. In one of these we see a woman under a Kadamba

tree (Anthocephalus indicus Rich.) displaying a sword dance and

touching its ball-like flowers (Fig. 1). The broad ovate leaves

with conspicuously marked venation and globose inflorescences are

prominent characters of Anthocephalus indicus which have been

faithfully carved by the sculptor.

The third unidentified tree which we find appears to be Cham-

pak (Michelia champaca Linn.) and forms a background to a beauti-

ful female figure wearing a peculiar head-dress (Fig. 4). The

ovate-lanceolate leaves tapering to a long point, segments of the

_ perianth in three series, oblong sepals and the stalked gynophore

-with numerous carpels, are characters of Michelia champaca Linn.,

a member of the family Magnoliaceae. The cone-like terminal

structures appear to be the compound fruit of Michelia champaca

rather than the flower.

The fourth tree with leaves like an Asoka and comparatively

‘smaller axillary flowers, which we find in a sculpture behind the

figure of a woman treading over a dwarf resembles Mesua ferrea

Note.—For Ref. Nos. quoted in the above text see page 565.

560 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Linn. (fig. 3) the well-known Nagkesar tree of Eastern Bengal,

Assam and Burma. Its linear-lanceolate acuminate drooping oppo-

site leaves with short peduncles and axillary: solitary flowers re-

semble those of Mesua ferrea rather than of any other Indian

tree. Mesua ferrea with its strikingly beautiful leaves and highly

fragrant flowers must have been as popular in ancient India, as

it is now in Eastern Bengal and Assam.

The accurate delineation of the ‘foliage and flowers of these

four trees, Saraca indica Linn., Mesua ferrea Linn., Michelia cham-

paca Linn., and Anthocephalus indicus Rich. suggests that these

trees were familiar tc the Kushana sculptors from personal ob-:

servation.

PRESENT RESTRICTED DISTRIBUTION OF Saraca indica

LINN. AND OTHER KUSHANA TREES.

At present Savaca indica Linn. has a much more restricted dis-

tribution. According to Hooker® it is found only in the evergreen

forests of the west coast of Bombay, Northern Circars, Khassia

Hills, Chittagong, Upper Burma, Arakan, Tennaserim, Ceylon,

Andamans, Malaya and lower elevations of Himalayas from Kumaon

eastwards. (Map II).

As regards the present distribution of Michelia champaca Linn.

Hooker® mentions: ‘It is found wild in the forests of the tem-

perate Himalayas from Nepal eastward, Nilgiris, Travancore, Pegv,

Tennaserim, Malaya and Java. MHaines* mentions Western Ghats,

Singhbhum, Palamau, Neterhat and Mayurbhanj in Bihar in addi- -

tion to the places mentioned by Hooker, and also states that at

other places it is cultivated.

Anthocephalus indicus Rich. is found in natural condition in

North and East Bengal, Western Peninsula, Ceylon, Andamans,

Pegu, Malaya, Sumatra, and Borneo, and elsewhere it is cultivated.

It is absent from the dry areas of the United Provinces, Delhi

and the Punjab. Even in comparatively wet districts of Oudh

it is rarely found cultivated in gardens, and if you inquire from

people you will find very few who have seen a Kadamba tree,

except in the mythological pictures of Krishna. The fourth tree

which appears to be Mesua ferrea Linn.—the Nagkesar tree is found

in Eastern and Northern Bengal, Assam, Eastern Himalayas, North

Behar, Orissa, Western Ghats, Burma and Andaman Islands. Else-

where in India it 1s cultivated only.

From the above it is apparent that the peeseilt distribution of

these four trees is almost co-terminous, and the distribution of

Michelia champaca, Mesua ferrea Linn. and Anthocephalus indicus

Rich. falls in the line with that of Saraca indica Linn. A glance

at the rainfall map of India, and neighbouring countries shows

that these trees are found in the evergreen forests of India, Burma,

Ceylon, Malaya and Sumatra with a rainfall of over 80 inches,

and particularly Saraca indica, Mesua ferrea and Michelia cham-

paca (Map II). Saraca indica is the most moisture loving of all

these four trees, and then Michelia champaca followed by Mesua

ferrea and last of all Anthocephalus indicus which can be cultivated

in comparatively dry areas. Even in districts of Oudh with a

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PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF NORTHERN INDIA 561

rainfall of go inches Saraca indica grows with great difficulty in

gardens as it is very susceptible to hot winds. It is commonly

confused with another cultivated South.Indian tree, Polyalthia longi-

folia, and even Sanskrit scholars, who ought to know better, call

’ this much less attractive tree Asoka. This shows how com-

pletely the people of these parts have forgotten the real Asoka tree

due to its extinction in these parts centuries ago.

From the present natural distribution of these four trees and

particularly that of Saraca indica Linn. one can safely infer that

about 2,000 years ago, Mathura district which has almost become

a desert with an average rainfall of about 24 inches had a much

higher rainfall. It is probable that Mathura and North India en-

joyed a comparatively wet and mild tropical climate. This is

inferred not only from the presence of tropical trees like Saraca

indica, Michelia champaca and Mesua ferrea, but also from the

frequent use of lotuses in architecture. In Mathura sculptures

we find lintels carved with lotus buds and flowers, and women

wearing lotus garlands. The resemblance of the dress of Mathura

women with the women of present-day tropical island of Balt who

are also undraped from waist upwards is apparent. So the compa-

rative nakedness of the women of Mathura in the Kushan period

is not due to sensuousness of the inhabitants, but an adaptation to

a mild tropical climate. The wet nature of the country is also

proved from the figures of women shown bathing under water-

falls. Waterfalls are found onfy in rocky places with heavy

rainfall.

Use of aquatic or semi-aquatic animals in sculpture.—The fre-.

quent use of aquatic animals like fish and alligator in decoration

of pillars and gate-ways, and of domestic animals like elephants

which flourish in heavy forest also point in the same direction.

Past distribution of Saraca indica Linn.—The past distribution

of Sarvaca indica Linn. in Northern India, the region from which

it is absent now is established from archaeological evidence and

literary evidence from ancient Sanskrit literature (Map 1).

t. Archaeological Evidence.—Saraca indica Linn. was the most

popular tree with the Mathura sculptors of Kushan period, and

the presence of this tree in Mathura from Circa 1 A.D. to C. 176 A.D.

is well-established from the railing pillar ‘Woman and Tree’ figures

of Mathura. In the sculptures of Sanchi in Central India which

date from first century B.c., we also find this tree. In Sanchi

sculptures we find a bracket which has been wrongly described by

Sir John Marshall as a Bignonia tree bracket. The shape and

arrangement of its leaves and structure of its flowers show that.

it is an Asoka tree. We also find a beautiful figure of a woman

under an exquisitely carved Asoka tree in sculptures from Barhut

in Nagod State, Central India. The Barhut sculptures date from

the period of Sungas from.112 B.c. to 72 B.c. In a Ramayana

panel of a Gupta temple at Deogarh, near Lalitpore in the Jhansi

district, we find the branches of an Asoka tree. Guptas ruled from

. 320 A.D. to 490 A.D. and in those days this tree was probably

flourishing in the now arid district of Jhansi. We also find the

Asoka tree depicted in Ajanta paintings dating from 500 A.D.

562 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Evidence from Sanskrit Literature.—We find numerous refer-

ences to the Asoka and the Nipa (Anthocephalus indicus) in Sanskrit

literature particularly in the Ramayana and Mahabharata, works

of Kalidasa, and Harsha’s ‘Ratnavali’. An author usually incor-

porates the description of those trees which he observes, and from —

this point of view the references we find to Asoka and Nipa trees

in ancient Sanskrit literature are valuable in ascertaining their dis-

tribution.

Macdonnel has concluded that the kernel of the Ramayana was

is mentioned that Sita was kept by Ravana in an Asoka grove in

Lanka. Asoka trees are still found in Ceylon and the West Coast

of Bombay. When Rama returns to Ayodhya after rescuing Sita

from Ravana it is described that he bade farewell to his friends

and allies and retired in an Asokavatika.

Though it is difficult to be precise about the date when the

epic Mahabharata was written, and the place of origin Vyas _ his-

torians generally agree that it was composed between C. 500 B.c.

and C. goo A.p. From the descriptions which the author has

given one may Safely presume that he lived somewhere in the

area between the Srasvati and the Ganges. In ‘Van Parab’ in

which the exile of the Pandava is described we find references to

Kadamba trees in Dwait forest. This forest existed in the region,

covered by the present districts of Saharanpore and Dehra Dun.

Similarly we find a reference to Kadamba trees in Kamyak forests

which existed south-west of Delhi, and it is likely that the exist-

ing Kadamba forests in Mathura and Bharatpore are remnants of

this ancient Kamyak forest.

Though it has not been historically established as to when

Krishna lived, we at least know that the authors of the epic Maha-

bharata were familiar with jungles of Anthocephalus indicus in the.

neighbourhood of Mathura, and that is why we find Krishna so inti-

mately associated with this tree. That this is an accurate record

is proved from the remains of a Kadamba forest in Mathura.

We find numerous references to the Asoka tree in Buddhist litera-

ture. Among the trees associated with the miraculous birth of Bud-

dha which took place in Lumbini garden near Kapilavastu, we find

the Asoka tree mentioned along with Mango, Dhak (Plaksa) and Sal

trees. In the description of a Buddhist sanctuary, Punnabhadde

near Campa we find the Asoka tree conspicuously mentioned. As

Ananda Coomaraswamy quotes, ‘This sanctuary was encompassed

round by a great wood. In the wood was broad mid-space and

therein was a fine Asoka tree.’

There is a consensus of opinion among most historians that the

famous dramatist Kalidasa was a native of Malwa, and was con-

temporary of Chandra Gupta, II Vikramadatiya and lived between

C. 375 to C. 455 A.p. Kalidasa has left us accurate descriptions of

the ancient city of Ujjain and from his accounts it is evident that

the Asoka tree was common in and about Ujjain.

Kalidasa describes Nipa forests (Anthocephalus indicus) near

Nichai hill near Sanchi, and along the banks of Reva (Narbada

river). He also describes ‘a red-bloomed Asoka tree with tremb-

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THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF SARACA INDICA LINN.

AND RAINFALL OF INDIA

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PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF NORTHERN INDIA 563

ding leaves’ in the town of Alaka in the Himalaya, which was pos-

sibly in the outer Himalayas of Garhwal.' The Asoka occurs at

present in the lower elevations of the Himalayas eastwards of

Kumaon. In the age of Kalidasa it was growing further north as

far as outer-Garhwal above Hardwar.

In the celebration of seasonal festivals of spring in ancient

India we find numerous references to the Asoka. There was a favou-

rite festival celebrated in spring known as ‘Asoka-pushpa-prachyi-

ka’, gathering of Asoka flowers when young women collected them.

Vatsayana, the celebrated author of Kam Sutra, the Hindu ency-

clopaedia of sex, probably lived at Ujjain in 4th century A.D.

in the reign of the Guptas. In his description of popular festivi-

ties (Samasyakrida) he mentions seventeen seasonal festivals inclu-

ding an Asoka festival and a Kadamba festival, when people fought

mock battles with ball-like Kadamba flowers. We find a descrip-

tion of worship of the Asoka tree at Kanauj during the celebration

of the spring festival, Madan Utsav, in Harsha’s Ratnavali which

was written about 600-648 a.b. It is also mentioned that the citizens

of Kanauj decked themselves with the Asoka flowers. Such activi-

ties are possible only if the Asoka trees were growing in abundance

in these localities.

REMNANTS OF ‘KADAMBA’ FORESTS IN MATHURA.

Another reason which supports the presumption of the presence

of Asoka forests in Kushana Mathura is that we still find remnants

of Kadamba forests in the Mathura district. We find an unmistak-

able ‘Kadamba’ tree in one of the railing figures from Kanakali

Tila. As compared with the ‘Kadamba’ tree the ‘Asoka’ was much

more frequently sculptured by Kushan sculptors, and consequently it

can be deduced that Savaca indica Linn. was a commoner tree than

Anthocephalus indicus Rich., and very probably there were wide-

spread forests of this tree. While the more moisture-loving Sara-

ca indica has disappeared on account of increasing desiccation,

the comparatively more drought-resistant Anthocephalus indicus has

survived in some swampy pockets. Sir Digby Drake-Brockman, -

who compiled the Gazetteer of Mathura district, describing the vege-

tation writes: ‘Many of the villages stand out devoid of trees; but

near others, especially those of old standing, there are fairly large

commons known as ‘rakhya or kadamb’ woods (Kadamb Khandi).

The poorer specimens of these are merely uncultivated land covered

with ‘karil, ‘pilu’, ‘hins’ and other jungle shrubs; but in the better

ones there are large ‘kadambas’ (Anthocephalus cadamba) and other

fine jungle-trees which make these ‘rakhyas’ look like pieces of

real forest. Many of these are of considerable size.’

These so-called ‘kadamba rakhyas’ or ‘kadamba khandis’ are

barren waste-lands supporting only xerophytic shrubs and herbs

used as pasture land by villagers. While the ‘kadamba’ trees have

vanished, the name has lingered as a vestigial feature reminding

one of the wet days of Mathura, when it was surrounded by luxu-

riant tropical evergreen forests. Mr. Babu Lal Gupta who has made —

a detailed study of the vegetation of the ‘Brij’ the Bharatpore-Agra-

564 JQURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SQCIETY, ‘Vol, 45

Mathura area reports that Kadamba trees are still planted’ near

seme temples and ‘along roadsides in Mathura. He also found’ a

remnant of Kadamba forest in Keola Deo jeune near Bharatpore.

Some, of these trees are as much as one hundred years old, and

Mr. Gupta is of opinion that these are possibly the remnants of

Kadamba forests.on. the verge of extinction.

_The.forest at Chhata, which is described in the Gazetteer as the

largest Kadamba forest, contains very few Kadamba trees now and

is. mostly filled with Neem and Babul. In ‘Kokila Ban’ at

Bathan almost all the Kadamba trees have disappeared in the last

30 years, and old inhabitants of Bathan say that about 30 years

ago it was all a Kadamba forest. Large empty spaces have ap-

peared. in the Kadamba forest at Nandgaon as several Kadamba

trees have died off. These observations of Mr. Gupta show that.

Kadamba trees in ‘Brij’ area are on the verge of extinction due

to lack -of sufficient moisture and this may mean the end of the

ancient ‘Kamyak. Ban’ of Mahabharata in the near future.

FROM EVER-GREEN TROPICAL FOREST TO DESERT.

The present vegetation of the ‘Brij’ country is xerophytic, and

is not very different from that of the Rajputana desert. The ave-

rage annual rainfall of Mathura is’23.61”, which is the lowest in the

United Provinces, and that of Agra is 25.1”. After the close of

the cold months, the temperature rises rapidly in the. month of

March, and humidity goes down. Night temperatures shooting upto

114° F, in the shade, and desiccating hot west winds from the rocky

Aravalli hills and sandy deserts of Rajputana, often-accompanied by.

dust-storms in May and June have produced a typical desert vege-

tation of xerophytes, with adaptations against dry conditions and

with devices for conserving moisture. The commonest trees are

the leafless Karils (Capparis aphylla Roth.), the ungraceful pilu

(Salvadorva oleoides Dene.), with tough leathery leaves, the ubiqui-

tous Babul (Acacia arabica Wild.), the feathery-leaved Chonkar (Pro-

sopis $picigera Linn.), the Hingot (Balanites aegyptiaca Delile), Pa-

sendu: (Diospyros cordifolia), Pilkhan (Ficus cordifolia) and several

species of Tamarix with reduced scaly leaves. The waste spaces

between the villages are more or less bare with occasional patches

of Jharber (Zizyphus rotundifolia Lamk.), Salvadora persica Linn.,

and Dhak (Butea frondosa). The rocky areas are covered with

hardy shrubs like Dho (Anogeissus parviflora). Among the herba-

ceous: vegetation we find such interesting xerophytes such as Kheep

(Leptadenia spartium Wight) with erect cylindrical almost leafless

branches, the spiny Jawasa (Alhagi camelorum Fisch.), and the

deep-rooted Ratanjot (Arnebia hispidissima DC). In the shade of

the prickly bushes of Capparis sepiaria Linn. grows the inconspi-

cuous drought-resistant Gillirgitta (Ceropegia bulbosa Roxb.)

The ‘Brij’ country which was covered with luxuriant evergreen

tropical forests of Saraca indica, Mesua ferrea and Anthocephalus

indicus about 2,000 years ago has completely changed now. The

jungles which were the abode of the rhinoceros and the wild,

elephant, have disappeared, and in their. place. we find sandy

PROGRESSIVE DESICCATION OF NORTHERN INDIA 565

wastes haunted by flocks of black back and chinkara deluded by

mirages of rivers and lakes which exist no more. The ponds

‘and lakes which were filled with pink and white lotuses and visited

by ducks and wild geese providing inspiration to the Kushana sculp-

ture, have completely disappeared, and in their place we see ravines,

sand dunes and parched plains which have become the rendezvous

of the Grey Partridge (Irancolinus pondicerianus .Gmelin.), quail

(Coturnix coturnix Linn.) and the sand-grouse (Pterocles exustus

Temm. and Lang.) the typical birds of the Rajputana desert.

I acknowledge with thanks the help I have received frim Dr.

V. S. Agarvala, Curator Provincial Museum, Lucknow, in various

ways. il am also grateful to Mr. Babu Lal Gupta of Agra College,

Agra, for making use of his valuable observations on the vegeta-

tion of ‘Brijj’ area, to Dr. A. C. Joshi of Hindu University, Benares,

for the benefit of his views, and to Dr. K. Biswas, Superintendent,

Royal Botanic Garden, Calcutta, for so kindly sending information

about the distribution of trees discussed in this paper and supply-

ing preserved specimens for comparison.

. EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Mathura Sculptures of Kushan Period.

Fig. .1—A woman under a Kadamba tree (Anthocephalus indicus Rich.)

Fig. 2.—-A. woman under an Asoka tree (Saraca indica Linn.)

Fig. 3.—A woman under a Nag-kesar tree (Mesua ferrea Linn.)

Fig. 4.--A woman under a Champak tree (Michelia champaca Linn.) .

Fig. 5.—A sculptured fragment showing leaves and flowers of Saraca indica

JRREFERENCES

1. Agarwala, V. S. (1939)—Hand Book of the Sculptures in the Curzon

Museum of Aschaeligy, Mathura. Superintendent, Govt. . Printing

Press, Allahabad.

2. Agarwala, V. S. (1940).—A short Guide Book to the Archzeological

section of the Provincial Museum, Lucknow.

3. Basu, e N. (1943)-—Kama Sutra of Vatsyayana, Medical Book Co., Cal-

: cut

Blatter, 1B. (1937)-—Some Beautiful Trees of India.

Coomaraswamy, A. K. (1928).—Yaksas, Smithsonian Miscellaneous’ Col-

lections, Volume 80, No. 6. :

Drake Brokman, D.—Gazetteer of Mathura District.

Hackin, J. (1939).—Les Editions d’ Art et d’ Historie, Memoire de la

Delegation Archaelogique Francaise en Afghanistan, Tome IX.

Haine, H. H.—Botany, of Bihar and Orissa, London.

~ Hooker, J. D. (1872).—The Flora if British Lndia Part I. Reeve &

Co., Henrietta St.; London.

io. Huntington, Ellsworth (1922).—Climate and Civilisation. Yale Univer-

eal > sity’ Press, New Haven, U.S.A. ;

11. Mackay, F. J. H. (1937).—Further Excavations at Mohenjo-Daro.. Govt.

i __ of India Press, New Delhi.

- 12, -Marshall, Sir John (1931).—Mohenjo-Daro and the Indus Civilisation.

Arthur Probasthian, London,

13. Ryder, W. A.—Kalidasa, Translations of Shakuntala and other works.

J. M. Dent & Sons, London.

14. Smith, V. A. (1901).—The Jain Stupa and other Antiquities of Mathura.

Superintendent, Govt. Press, Allahabad.

15. Tripathi, R. S. (1942).—History of Ancient India. Nand Kishore &

Bros., Benares.

16. Vats, M. S. (1940).—Excavations at Harappe. Govt. of India Press,

Calcutta.

17. Vogel, J. J. Ph. (1910).—Catalogue of the Archaeological Museum at

Je Mathura. Govt. Press, Allahabad.

OM WD Vp

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF TWO PREDACEOUS

AND ONE MYCOPHAGOUS SPECIES OF

COCCINELLIDAE, |

S. R. BaGAL, M.Sc.

Entomological Officer, Agricultural Research Station, Padegaon.

AND

Dr. K. N. TREHAN, M.Sc., PH.D. (London)

Agricultural Entomologist to Government, Bombay. .

Entomological Laboratory, College of Agriculture, Poona.

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTORY.

Ladybird beetles may be harmful or beneficial, the former be-

ing the reputed pests of certain crops and vegetables, while the

latter include predaceous as well as mycophagous species. With

the recent development of biological control of insect pests the

study of predaceous species has achieved considerable importance.

The first successful experiment of this nature, was carried out in

California in 1889 to control cottony cushion scale, Icerya -pur-

chasi through the agency of a ladybird beetle, Rodolia cardinalis

Muls. from Australia. This enterprise served as a stimulus to

applied entomology in the field of biological control. Since the

application of predators under field conditions, needs a thorough

knowledge of their bionomics and seasonal activities, the present

investigations were taken up with a view to studying in detail

some of the important species of! this province, namely (1)

Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. (2) Coccinella septempunctata L.

and (3) Thea cincta Fabr. Their life-history, morphological

characters and habits etc., are described below :—

HISTORICAL.

Mulsant (1866), Crotch (1873), and Gorham (1894), contributed

valuable information on the systematics and distribution of various

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF COCCINELLIDAE 567.

species of coccinellids. Stebbing (1903) published an account of

16 predaceous species from India and included them in 11 genera.

His descriptions include generic characters, life histories of some

of the species, feeding habits, distribution as well as description

of the adults of Coccinella septempunctata and Chilomenes sex-

maculata. Lefroy (1906) gave the broad characters of the family

Coccinellidae and briefly described some of the species, with short

notes on the colouration of the larvae and adults of Coccinella sep-

tempunctata, and Thea cincta and the life-history of Chilomenes

sexmaculata. Clausen (1915) added notes on the life-histories, and

other biological features of about ten different species except the

ones selected for this study. Tullgren (1916) recorded for the

first time Perilitus terminatus, a parasite of the larva of Coccinella

septempunctata. Subramanyam (1923) published a list of 38 spe-

cies and briefly described the adults, feeding habits, distribution

and life-histories of a few species, and colour variation in Chilo-

menes sexmaculata. He also described briefly the immature

stages of Thea cincta and three distinct types of adults in Chilo-

menes sexmaculata. Dobrzhansky (1926) added valuable notes on

the systematic position of some genera of Coccinellidae on the

basis of their genitalia and also studied Coccinella septempunctata

in this respect, whereas Strouhal (1927) has brought out some

structural variations in the mandibles of Epilachninae, Coccinel-

linae, and Psylloborini as diagnostic characters. Pradhan (1935)

contributed on the study of genitalia in Epilachna indica and re-

ferred to the male genital tube of Chilomenes sexmaculata while

Volkov (1937) added information on the food of Coccinella sep-

tempunctata feeding on two species of moths recorded on cotton.

‘TECHNIQUE.

The material was collected from various crops at the Agri-

cultural College Farm, Poona. For laboratory observations how-

ever, rearing was managed in glass jars or tubes of 3”x1” with

muslin tied at the open end. The mycophagous larvae could be

reared successfully upto the third instar in similar jars simply

by providing small pieces of leaves infested with fungus.

Feeding habits were studied under controlled experiments. The

beetles, however, were given more aphids than was actually needed.

The first and second stage larvae were fed on young nymphs.

For the study of the mouth parts, specimens were treated in 10

per cent. KOH solution and boiled for about ten minutes. The

mouth parts were dissected out, washed in fresh water and _ pre-

served in 70% alcohol. The larvae of the first two instars were

treated in the same way, but the grown up larvae and the pupae

were punctured before treating them with KOH and were kept

over night for penetration. The copulating adults were killed in-

stantaneously with chloroform, and treated similarly for further

studies. For the study of digestive system, the material was

fixed. in Carnoy’s fluid, white for other systems Allan’s modifica-

568 JOURNAL. BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45°

tion of Bouin’s fluid and corrosive sublimate were -used. Acid

fuschsin proved. a useful stain for general purposes, but. double

staining with Delafield’s haematoxylin and eosin was rather more

effective. Sketches. were made with a Camera Lucida.

DESCRIPTION OF STAGES.

Chilomenes sexmaculata—Egg.—Smooth, cigar-shaped, standing erect deep

yellow when fresh, light yellow when about to hatch. Average measurements

I.0 mm. X 0.45 mm. micropyles 26 to 30 arranged in a circle at the free end.

1st Instay Larva.—Yellowish-white when newly hatched, turns to grey sub-

sequently, average measurements 1.65 mm. x 0.46 mm. faint coloured. patches

‘on the body; compound spines distinct, bristles variable; head broader poste-

riorly, bristles 15 pairs, ocelli three, antennae two joined. Prothorax trans-

versely oval, margins rimmed, beset with 8-10 bristles on each side, a com-

pound, well developed spine laterally and a smaller one on each side near

the mid-dorsal line and near the posterior edge. The meso- and -metathorax

have two dorso-lateral compound spines and two smaller ones in the middle

of each segment. Each abdominal segment except the last, provided with six

compound spines—two median, two dorso-lateral and two lateral, these consti-

tute six longitudinal rows of compound spines; bristles variable in different

regions, terminal portion tubular, anal-foot fleshy, broader at the free end and

provided with a sucker.

2nd Instar Larva.—Average measusements 2.62 x 0.62 mm.; head 0.34 X

0.48 mm. shining black, compound spines and bristles as in the previous instar,

dorsal spines on the fourth and the dorso-lateral spines on ‘the first abdominal

segments, white.

3rd Instar Larva.—Average measurements 4.24 x 0.97 mm.; head 0.45 x

0.61 mm. colour’ deep black, spines as in previous instar.

4th_Instar Larva.—(Pl..1. Fig. 2). Average measurements 7.10 x 0.97 mm.

thin- white band at the anterior margin of prothorax, white patches’ between fie

median pairs of spines and especially between those on the thoracic segments,

head brown - anteriorly, .black posteriorly, legs lomgyei in appearance.

Pupa.—Average measurements 3.65 x 2.65 mm.; oval from above, irregular

posteriorly, whitish-yellow with black markings ; prothorax deflexed, anterior

portion rimmed ventrally, spotted with black posteriorly ; elytra visible within

sacs; mesothorax with two semicircular black marks, one on each side, poste-

rior edge with a thick oblique black band; metathorax with similar black

markings; second to sixth abdominal segments with a pair of pyramidal black

marks, one on each side of the mid-dorsal line.

Adult.—Three types—only colour variations, oval, convex above, measure-

ments vary from 3.99 mm. to 5.5 mm.; males smaller than the females, head

yellowish-white anteriorly, black posteriorly, o.88-1.05 mm. in length and _ 1,00-

1.36 mm. in breadth; eyes black, bean-shaped, relatively larger in males;

antennae clavate, eleven segmented, 0.44-0.58 mm. long, club three or four

jointed; mouth parts modified into chewing and biting type, prostheca present,

mandibles bifid at the apex, with a basal tooth; prothorax yellow, orange or

orange-red with a black spot in the middle, 0.85 to 1.16 mm. long, 2.00-2.55

mm. broad, concave anteriorly, lateral margins deflected. Elytra yellow, cr-

ange or orange-red each with two transverse zigzag dark bands, 0.1 mm.

broad, and a black oval spot near the apical angle, on an average 3.12

mm. in male, 3.81 mm. in female. Legs retractile, tibia with two. spurs at

the distal end, the tarsus four jointed, first two segments pubescent, the third

minute and the fourth long and thin ending in two claws, the last sternum

flat in male with hinder margin notched, triangular in female, a portion of

the pygidium visible in male.

Coccinella septempunctata—Egg.—Smooth, cigar-shaped, standing erect, deep

yellow, measures on an average, 1.29 mm. xX 0.53 mm. micropyles 30, arranged

in a circle atthe free end.

ist Instay larva.—Black with darker patches—dorsally two on each thoracic

segment and laterally two on 2nd. and 3rd thoracic segments; six. patches on

each abdominal segment—two medium, two dorso-lateral and two lateral, ave-

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pate |

| a

Life-history and Bionomics of predaceous and mycophagous Coccinellidae.

For explanation see end of article.

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LIFE-HISTORY .AND.. BIONOMICS. OF COCCINELLIDAE 569

rage measurements 1.88 mm, x 0. 50 mm.,, head with 18 pairs of bristles, anten-

na two jointed, prothorax 15- 18 pairs, distributed around rim, meso- and meta-

thorax with .nine pairs, 2-5 bristles laterally, three. prominent bristles on each

abdominal segment at the region of the patches. Ventrally the larva possesses

protuberances distributed in the thoracic and abdominal region. °

2nd Instayv larva.—Black, average measurements 3.43 mm. x 0.81 mm.

patches as in the: previous instar, dorso-lateral and laterals on the first ab-

dominal segment transformed. into orange, and dorso-lateral. sides of the pro-

thorax develop warts; number of bristles on each segment increased by 3-5

smaller ones, ventral "protuberances developed into bristles and distributed as

in previous instar. |

3rd Instar larva.—Average measurements. 6.02 mm. x I. | mm, dorso-lateral

and lateral patches on the first abdominal segment deep orange and similar ones

on the fourth abdominal segment, bristles on prothorax and warts on ail the

abdominal Se pOel US prominent, ventral groups of bristles as. in the previous

instars.

4th ._Instar larva.—(Pl. 1, Fig..1). Average mpasurements 17,95 mm,<xX 2.52

mm. when. full grown; head, yellow ; four. orange patches. on; prothorax, orange

coloured dorso- lateral and lateral patches on the first and. fourth abdominal

segments, warts well developed, ventral bristles conspicuous,, rest as in other

instars.

Pupa.—Shape similar to the previous example; average measurements 5.67

mm. x 3.83 mm., deep yellow when fresh, subsequently develops black .mark-

ings, a pair of ‘orange spots on. the. first abdominal segment. and two pairs on

the fourth. Eyes prominent; prothorax yellow with two pairs of black dots ;

mesothorax and metathorax with one pair each; elytra extending to. the first

two abdominal segments, decorated with three black dots; second to the sixth

abdominal ségments each with. a pair of median and dorso-lateral “patches,

spiracles distinct. aes ye

Adult.—Measurements vary from “$.8k-7 mm., males relativély smaller

in size, oval, convex above; head black, eee posteriorly, mouth parts as

in the previous species, white spots near the eyes, each measures 1.27 mm.,

X' 1.62 mm., antennae eleven segmented, 0.88 mm. long. scape the longest,

terminal segment the broadest ; prothorax deep black with two quadrangular

white patches on the anterior angles, more than twice as broad as long, mea-

sures 1.34 mm. xX 3.14 mm. Proximal tarsal joints pubescent, tibia with }two

spurs at the distal end; elytra yellow, orange or.orange-red, each with. three

black circular spots longer than broad, average measurements 5.32 mm. x

5-03 mm. The last sternum triangular in female, the anal margin notched in

the male.

Thea cincta —Eg¢.—Cigar-shaped, creamy white, chorion ceuipeuredl average

measurements 1.04 mm. X 0.4 mm., micropyles 30 in a circle at the free’ end.

ist Instar larva.—Yellow dorsally, ventral surface white, average measure-

ments 1.61 mm. x 0.38 mm., head. with black spots. and 18 pairs of bristles,

oceli three, antenna three jointed, prothorax rimmed, bloched, bristles 10-12

pairs, abdominal blotches each beset with three bristles. a)

2nd Instar larva.x—Same as in the previous instar, average measurements

2.85 mm. x 0.59 mm. E

3rd Instay larva.—Practically similar to that of the previous instar, average

measurements 3.68 mm. xX 0.91 mm., prothoracic bloches not complete. :

4th Instay larva.—(Pl. 1. Fig. 3). ‘Thorax deep yellow, bloches divided, abdo-

men banded... Measurements 4.95-6.6.3 mm. long and 1.44-1.88 mm. broad. ;

Pupa.—Deep. yellow, average measurements 4.08 mm. x 2.75 mm. protho-

yax rimmed, white, mesothorax slightly depressed in the middle, two black

spots; faint black patches on 1-4th abdominal segments, elytra do. not meet

in the middle. .

Adult.—Measurements 4.0 to 4.8 mm. long. males .relatively smaller than

the females, head yellow, broader than long, measures. 0.45 mm. X 1.14 mm);

eyes bean-shaped, relatively bigger in male; mandibles bifid apically,” tips den-

tate antennae eleven segmented, 1.22 mm. long., scape the longest, terminal

segment the broadest, last but two segments serrate, prothoax concave ante-

riorly, curved laterally, broader than twice its length, measurements 0.86 mm.

x 2.18 mm., yellowish with two black spots; elytra yellow, rimmed, average

measutements 3.52 mm. x 3.42 mm., legs: long, yeliow, claws each with a

basal tooth; last sternum as in the previous example. ae La

570 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Foop

The predaceous species feed on aphids which have been recorded from the

following plants :—

a a

Serial Common English

No. Anis Botanical Name. | Family

1. Safflower ..- | Carthamus tinctorius, L. ...| Compositae.

2. Cabbage ee. | Brassica oleracea ...| Cruciferae.

3. Knolkhol Ses ESD: see 0

4, Turnip ee » campestris, L. ae rs

5. Radish .- | Raphanus sativas, L. Secu 3

6. Zondli — wee | Coccinia indica, W. & A. *...| Cucurbitaceae

7.* Jowar «. | Andropogon sorgham, Brot.| Gramineae.

8. Cluster bean «| Cyamopsis psorulioides, De. | Leguminosae.

Ore Wentilers. «| Lens esculentas, Moench ., O06

10.* Lucerne ee. | Medicago sativa, Linn. ae O00

11. Pea ... | Pisum sativum, Li. Seal a

12. Linseed ... | Linum usitatissimum, L. ..| Linaceae.

1She aC ottone es eee | Gossypium spp. ... ... | Mawaceae.

14, Lady’s finger ... | Hibiscus esculentus, L. S| S00

15.* Mosambi » <4 (@zi7us spp: nae w. | Autaceae

16.* Brinjal ...| Solanum melongena, Ll. .. | Solanaceae.

17. Chilly «| Capsicum annum, Li. veel eae

18. Potato ... | Solanum. tuberusum, Va. ee | ~

19* Tobacco «. | Nicotiana tabacum, lL. anal we

N.B.—1. * The plants recorded by the previous workers, others are recorded by

us which may probably be new ones.

2. ‘The predaceous species have also been recorded on the following plants :

(1) Mountain spinach, (2) A spider wort, (3) Bur weed. (4) Chrysanthemum,

(5). Coreopsis aristosa, (6) a knot grass, (7) Petunia and (8) Dill.

Lire Hrusrory.

Oviposition.—Copulation may take place: throughout the day. This, how-

ever, iS not in conformity with Pradhan ‘(1934-35). First copulation after emer-

gence usually takes longer and may last upto two hours. Eggs are generally

laid in batches on the under surface of leaves. Copulation as well as oviposi-

tion are continued during the life of the adults and sometimes parthenogenetic

eggs may also be laid which are usually scattered and do not hatch. In

Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. eggs in each batch are laid in 2-3 rows and

their numbers varied from g to 22 with a maximum of 2,384 eggs per female

in 2 months and 9 days. Pre-oviposition period ranges from 2-4 days. Coc-

cinella septempunctata L. lays in irregular batches with a maximum of 82 eggs.

recorded so far in a batch. Pre-oviposition period varies from 4-5 days during

monsoon and 7-10 days during winter. The maximum number of eggs laid

by a female was 3,765 in 2 months and 21 days. Eggs of Thea cincta Fabr.

are also laid in rows and the maximum number recorded in a batch was 28.

Incubation period.—The incubation period is about three days during mon-

soon when the temperature ranges from 68.0 to 90° F.. During winter, how-

ever, with the fall in temperature this period extends to four days. Normally

hatching is cent per cent but the newly hatched grubs may devour the un-

hatched eggs. The egg hatches by a vertical slit at its free end. The larva

rests over the egg shell and commences free movements after about 3-6 hours.

“In Epilachna 28-punctata—a purely phytophagous—form the mandibles, are

broad at the base, concave laterally, serrate, basal tooth wanting.

LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF.COCCINELLIDAE 571

Eggs hatch even when immersed in water but not at a low temperature of

10° F,

Larval stage.—There are 4 instars and -the total. duration varied from 4.6

days to 14.7 days in all the three species. In Chilomenes seamaculata Fabr.

it was 4.6 days during July and August and 14.7 days during November and

December. In Coccinella septempunctata L. the duration was 9.16 days during

October and 11.15. days during January and February, and that of Thea cincta

Fabr. 11.29 days and 12.56 days during July and November-December respec-

tively. :

Pupal stage.—Fullgrown larva attaches itself by the hinder end and trans-

forms into a pupa. The pupal stage on-an average, extended from 3 to 5.7

days. .

Life-cycle—(Table 1).--The duration of life-cycle varies from 11-23 days

according to the season. The shortest duration was noticed during April and May

when the temperature varied from 78° F. to 98° F. During December and

January, however, with the fall in the temperature, the duration of life-cycle

extended to 23 days. During August 1938 to June 1939 fifteen generations

of the predaceous species were reared under laboratory conditions but it has

been estimated that about twenty generations may pass during one year.

The average life-cycle of Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. during monsoon

when the maximum and minimum temperatures ranged between 75 to go° F.

and 68-78° F. respectively, was 10.6 days, but it. extended to about 22.9 days

during winter when the temperatures were comparatively lower. The _ iite-

cycle of Coccinella septempunctata L. was on an average 16.2 days during

the month of October and 18.8 days during January and February while that

of Thea cincta Fabr. was 17.3 days in July and 20.4 days during November

and December. The duration during the month of July however, was very

much prolonged as compared with other species. ;

Longevity of adults.—The beetles are long lived and under laboratory condi-

tions the adults of Chilomenes sexmaculata, Coccinella septempunctata and

Thea cincta could survive for about four months, five months and three months

respectively.’ The females when kept alone lived for a relatively longer period.

Habits.—The adults are usually found on the under-surface of leaves. They

feign death when disturbed and exude a viscid liquid. This liquid is yellow

or amber in colour in the predaceous species and whitish with a tinge of

yellow in the mycophagcus species.

SEASONAL HIsToryY.

In nature Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. always outnumbers Coccinella

septempunciata L. in spite of its relatively lower fecundity. From June to Feb-

ruary both the species are found on various crops infested by aphids but during

summer they are mostly found on lucerne. Thea cinta Fabr. on the other

hand, found in plentiful on cluster beans and lady’s finger during monsoon

and on Coccinia indica during winter. During hot weather however, adults

of Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr., and Coccinella septempunctata L. were

also found feeding on young nymphs of Pundaluoya simplica, on jowar shoots.

It has been observed that Coccinella septempunctata, L. and Chilomenes sex-

maculata Fabr. are found almost in association with each other, and the

females generally predominate in numbers: (Table II). The two predaceous

species are active throughout the year whereas Thea cincta Fabr. is not met

with during summer. Of all these beetles Coccinella septempunctata L. may

live upto-41 days without food, but Thea cincta Fabr. could not survive for

more than four days under such conditions. Under low temperatures how-

_ever, the adults of Chilomenes sexmaculata died after 7 days at 20° F while

those at 42° F lost their activity and entered hibernation much earlier. At

50° F the insects showed some activity even after a week.

ECONOMIC IMPORTANCE,

The adults of the predaeceous species are more important than their larvae.

Lefroy (1906) remarks that a single larva of Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr.

consumes about 2,400. aphids during its life-time. This is contrary to our

observations because the maximum number of aphids that a single larva could

consume during its larval period was 303 in Chilomenes sexmaculata and 420

in Coccinella septempunctata. The feeding capacity increases with the age.

sje: JOURNAL: BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45:

The adults, however, are great feeders. The maximum number of sonttile: con:

sumed by a pair of Chilomenes seamaculata, was 16,321 and of Coccinella

septempunctata, 22,574, during their life, with an average of 60. 84. and | 100. 29

per adult per day respectively. .

_ According to Fernald (1936) about 30,000 adults’ of Hippodamia convergens

proved effective over. an area of 10 acres, while Dutt (1927) concluded ‘that

3,000 ladybird beetles were enough to control the aphids within fifteen ‘days, in

an area of 1,200 sq. feet.’ Oe

Our. observations under controlled conditions yielded that 75 adults cf Chilo-

menes sexmaculata could destroy practically all aphids from five — cabbage plants

which were severely infested with them. With these encouraging results it

may be presumed that satisfactory biological control may be achieved through

the application of these beetles.

INTERNAL ANATOMY.

.. Alimentary system.—Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. Paired “pouches anterior

to proventriculus and gastric coeca as observed by Landis (1936) in Ceratome-

‘gilla fuscilabris Muls. are not present, enteric coeca prominent, salivary glands

wanting ;.malpighian tubes six in number.

REPRODUCTIVE SySTEM?,

Female.— | ote

Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. (Pl. 1, Fig. 4)—Two ovaries, each consisting

of 20 ovarian tubules, oviducts, vagina, bursa copulatrix and the receptaculum

seminis. Each oviduct measures 0.55 mm., bursa copulatrix stands dorsally

on ‘the vagina having its anterior end tapering and somewhat tilted towards

the left side on the 4th sternite; receptaculum seminis small, curved, chitinous

sac. There is» a small accessory gland for the receptaculum seminis. A pair

of collecterial glands open later rally in the vagina. eS

Coccinella septempunctata L.—Each ovary consists of fifty ovarioles. The

receptaculum seminis is attached to the bursa copulatrix by a small, slender

duct known as the ductus receptaculi that passes through a funnel-shaped dila-

tation of the infundibulum. The major part of the infundibulum remains

within the bursa copuiatrix, and its free pointed end is called the cornu.

The distal end of the bursa copulatrix does not taper.

Thea cincta Fabr. Each ovary consists of twenty ovarioles; receptaculum

seminis relatively small and ringed, <ttachment to the bursa copulatrix by a

small narrow duct.

Male.—

Chilomenes sexmaculata Fabr. (Pl. I, Fig. 5).—A pair of testes, vasa defe-

rentia, vesiculae seminales, ductus ejaculatorius, two pairs of accessory glands

and the copulatory organs. Each testis looks like a bunch of. grapes of twenty

testicular follicles.

The external genitalia consists of a sipho,. the penis, basal plates, a

trabes. and two paramera. The intramitant organ is . the. sipho. and

the covering tube is the penis (Siphonal sheath of Pradhan). . Siphonal

capsule is. strongly chitinized, boot-shaped, the distal part of the penis is fused

with the basal plates, strongly pointed and slightly curved. Paramera hairy at

distal ends, 0.55 mm. long; trabes (strut) rod-like, broader distally.

Coccinella septampunctata L.—Almost similar to that in the previous species

but each testis has fifty testicular follicles; accessory glands very long and

coiled. :

Thea cincta Fabr.—Testicular follicles twenty, ejaculatory duct long; acces-

sory glands very long and coiled. The paramera longer than those in other

two species. The distal end of the sipho is spoon-shaped and bears tender

hair-like structures.

1 Nomenclature after T. H. Dobrzhansky. °

2! Not described in, detail in all the species

only differences are given.

LIFE-HISTORY -AND. BIONOMICS OF. .COCCINELLIDAE 573°

SUMMARY.

The life-history of the two predaceous and one mycophagus species namely

Chilamenes sexmaculata’ Fabr., Coccinella. \septempunctata L. and Thea

cincta, Fabr. respectively is described.” Eggs are generally laid in batches on

the underside of ‘leaves and hatch within g-4 days.) The maximum number of

eggs laid by a-female of the first two species, was 2384 and 3765 respectively.

The larval stage on an average, varied from, 4.6° days to 14.7 days and the

pupal stage from 3 to §.7 days. The duration of life-cycle varied from 11

to 23 days, according to the season. About twenty ' generations have been

estimated during the course.of a year. The various stages of the insects, their

habits and seasonal activities are described. : Of the predaceous species the

adults have been found more important from the economic point of view than

their larvae.~ The “alittiéntary system of Chilomnes sexmaculata Fabr. and

the differences in reproductive systems of all the three species. are also discussed.

TABLE I

Life-history of ‘ali the three spectes during 1937--39 |

Average duration

is Be =

| Re of larvel stage oe = q

Species ‘ Months eal Instars Faas) ae aS

} da. on ECO Sop larcieen

= ‘\8e)-y7 n mavl £2 8s] 2

ae er 2a

: ‘1987 |

Chilomenes sexmncu- | ~~ o

lata Fabr. wa] July-Aug. ...|:3:0/ 1:1 | 1:0} 1-1) 1:4] 4:6) 3:01. 10°6

* 4, *| Nov-Dec. ...| 3:0; 3-8} 20 | 2-0) 4-2] 12:0)58) 20-7

re >| _December...| 4:0 4-7 2°613-513:9| 147142] 22-9

+ eee alduly, ..{2°5|1:6/10)1:2)22! 6012-8] 10-8

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1939 |

a = Jan.-Feb......| 3:0 | 2°3 | 23} 2°5| 4-8] 12:6] 3-0| 18:0

1938 Sul |

Coccinella seplem- . | | :

punctata L. elvan Hebe ciel 320), 3°0)) 18.) F940) 10°81 $:0)) 188

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Jan.-Feb. ... | 3°0} 2°8

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Thea eincta Fabr. ...| Nov.-Dec. .;. | 3°0 | 2°6| 2:0 | 2:4 | 5°6

12°6; 4:9) 204

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LIFE-HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF. COCCINELLIDAE 575

JRREFERENCES.

Clausen; C. P. (1915).—J. Eco. Ent. 8: 487-491

Crotch, G. R. (1873).—Trans. Ann. Ent. Sec. 4: 363-382

_Dobrzhansky, Re ne (1926): ells Anzeiger. 69, (7/8): 200-208 (Abs. Biol.

Ab. (1922):

Dutt Gueke Be ie: ik India. 22: 291-292.

Gorham. (1894).—4Ann. Soc. Ent, Belg. 38,: 200 :

cau ae Ifo Meee Ent. Soc. Amer. 29, (1): 15-27 -(Abs. JBrol.

3)s

Eee Sate M. Saeco Tnaian, Insect life. (2): 303-309

Lefroy, H. M. (1923).—The Manual of Entomology.

Meissner, O. (1927).—Sco. Entomologica. 42. (9): 34: 35 (Abs.. Biol. Ab.

‘ (1929) 3, (1-3)

‘Menozzi, C. (1927).—Bull.’ Sec. Ent. Ital. 59. (5-6): 72-78 (Abs. Rev. App.

Ent. (1927) 15: 507 ae

Mulsant, F (1866).—Acad. Sci. Lyon, 15, 16, 17

Pradhan, S.. (1934-35)-—Proc. Acad. Sci. U.P. 5

Sharp and Muir. (1912).—Trans,. Ent. Sec., 477-642.

Stebbing, E. P. (1903).—Ind. Mus. Notes. 6, (1), 47-62

Strouhal,- Hans. (1929).—Arch. Naturgesch Abt. A, 92, (3), 1-63 (Abs. Biol.

Strouhal, Hans. .(1926).—Zeitschr Wiss. Insekten Biol. 21 (6/7) 131-143

(Abs, Biol. Ab, (1928) 2,- 9-11) 1862). °

Subramanyam, T. V. (1923).—Rept. Proc. 5th Ent. Meeting, Pusa: 108

& 363

Tullgren (1916).—Entomologist, Tidskrift, Stock: 95-98 (Abs. Rev. App.

Ent. (1916). 4, 509.)

ABBREVIATIONS USED.

ACG ».. Accessory glands.

[ol 8 me Anal foot.

AN. .... ‘Antenna,

B.C. - Bursa copulatrix.

B.P. .es . Basal: plate.

BR. O06 Bristle.

C.G. ... Colleterial glands.

C.OD. ‘... Common oviduct.

CrP. ..«. Compound spine.

DEJ: .... Ductus ejaculatorius.

DERESZ ... Duct of the receptaculum seminis.

E-€, at weg oucalyx. :

1a By .... Flagellum.

OV. con OETA

PA. ... Perameron.

R.S. ... Receptaculum seminis.

“elle SID LOs

SRC! ... Siphonal capsule.

SSE: .s» Siphonal sheath.

& ST. eer LUC:

SU. Pe SUCIKXeL:

glo =. Lesticular. follicle.

VG. wt Vagina.

VS. es Vesicula seminalis.

EXPLANATION OF THE PLATE,

ig. 1.—Fourth instar larva of Coccinella septempunctata.: L.

Fig. 2.—Fourth instar larva of Chilomenes sexmaculata. F.

Fig. 3.—Fourth instar larva of Thea cincta. F.

Fig. 4.—Female reproductive system of Chilomenes seaxmaculata. F.,

Fig. 5.—Male reproductive system of -Chilomenes seamaculata. F.

“THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS STERCULIADS OS

INDIA.

By |

J< FB. CAlus, 's.J.; F.L.S. (Deceased)

The STERCULIACEA! are herbs, shrubs or trees, sometimes

lianes, which belong to tropical and subtropical regions. There are

660 species, distributed into 48 genera.

They contain an abundant mucilage, combined in the. old bark

of the woody species with a bitter astringent extractable matter, and

exhibit stimulant and emetic properties. Many yield gums which in

their appearance resemble tragacanth, and are reputed tonic. The

fruit is often. astringent and antidysenteric. The seeds may ‘be

diuretic and have a stimulating effect on the central nervous system.

Among the products isolated we may mention :—(1) glucosides—

kolatin—; (2) tannins—kolatannin—; (3) gums; (4) alkaloids—

caffeine, theobromine—; (5) acids—tartaric—; (6) amino-acids—

asparagin—; (7) fats and carbohydrates.

The medicinal and poisonous Sterculiads of the world belong to.

23 genera:—ABRomaA (tropical Asia to Australia); BUETTNERIA

(tropical) ; Coa (Africa); DomBeya (Africa, Madagascar) ; ERIOLAENA

(Indomalayan) ; FRemontTia (California) ; GuazuMa (tropical America) ;

HELICTERES (tropics, except Africa); HERMANNIA (tropical and sub-

tropical, chiefly Africa); KLEINHOviIA (tropical Asia); LEPTONYCHIA

(tropical Africa and Asia); Manernia (Africa); MELocuta (tropical) ;

Myropia_ (tropical); PENTAPETES (Indomalayan); PTEROCYMBIUM

(Burma, Malaya); PreEROSPERMUM (tropical Asia); PTERYGOTA (trop!-

cal); ScapHium (Burma, Malaya, Borneo); STERCULIA (tropical) ;

TARRIETIA (Eastern Asia, Australia); THEOBROMA (tropical America) ;

WALTHERIA (tropical America). |

The medicinal and poisonous Sterculiads of India belong to 16

genera :—ABROMA, BUETTNERIA, ERIOLAENA, GUAZUMA, HELICTERES,

KKLEINHOVIA, MELOCHIA, PENTAPETES, PTEROCYMBIUM, PTEROSPER-

MUM, PTERYGOTA, SCAPHIUM, STERCULIA, TARRIETIA, THEORROMA,

WALTHERIA.

A. Flowers unisexual; petals noné; stamen-column

with anthers on the apex, clustered or in a ring.

I. Ovarian cells 1-ovuled; fruit of thiclk samaras

with foliate ‘wings a a, ... LARRIETIA.

II. Ovary with 2 or more ovules in each cell; fruit

dehiscent

1. Radicle remote from the hilum. Follicles

coriaceous or woody... Bon oe SRPROULTAG

2. Radicle next the hilum.

a. Follicles woody. Seeds many, winged

at the apex, albuminous... ... PTERYGOTA.

THE. MEDICINAL AND. POISONOUS STERCULIADS OF INDIA 577

b. l*ollicles membranous, opening — long

before maturity.

i. Calyx smail, iobes lanceolate ; follicles

very large, green, one, seed at base

- of each Seek eg aM opine an Mc

ii. Calyx campanulate; 2 seeds in each

SCAPHIUM.. -

follicie ie ee ... _ PTEROCYMBIUM.

b. Flowers bisexual.

1. Petals deciduous ;. stamen-column- bearing a cup

edged with anthers and staminodes, 5 to 15.

I. Shrub; flowers pink, capsule membranous

inflated a0 ae bc .... KLEINHOVIA,

2. Shrub; flowers purple or white; capsule

woody not inflated; seed not winged .., HELICTERES.

3. Trees; flowers large, white; capsule woody,

large; seed winged ae ae .... PTEROSPERMUM.

II. Petals deciduous; stamen-column tubular,

conical, antheriferous for nearly its whole

length; staminodes none. Capsule ovoid,

woody or coriaceous 06 Das ... ERIOLAENA.

III. Petals persistent; anthers 10 to 20 on the tip

of a cup on the column. Bracteoles caducous.

Herb; petals red ae: oS .... PENTAPETES.

IV. Petals marcescent, flat. Stamen column tubular

at the base only ; stamens 5; staminodes none.

1. Shrubby herb or shrub; capsule 5-celled;

flowers pinkish me aa ... MELOCHIA.

2. Shrubby; capsule 1-celled, 1-seeded; flowers

yellow ine a re -... - WALTHEREA-

V.- Petals concave at the base; stamen-column

tubular; anthers marginal, solitary or in

groups between the staminodes.

1 Fertile stamens 5 opposite the sepals ~ ... [HEOBROMA.

2. Stamens uniseriate.

a. Anthers solitary between each staminode.

Petals clawed with 2 lateral lobes and

a long appendage. Climber ... ... . BUETTNERIA.

b. Anthers 2-4 between each staminode.

i. Petals with a stipitate ovate blade.

: Capsule turbinate,. membranous ... ABROMA.

li. Petals with a linear bifid’ blade.

Capsule oblong, woody, tubercled.

Flowers yellow oa ... GUAZUMA,

ABROMA.

The genus consists of 10 species spread over tropical Asia and

distributed to Australia. |

A. aigusta Linn. fil. is used medicinally in Indo-China and in the

Philippine Islands. In the latter country A. alata Blanco is also

credited with therapeutic properties.

Abroma augusta Linn. fil. is found indigenous or cultivated

throughout the hotter parts of India, Java, the Philippine Islands,

and China. : |

_. In Lakhimpur, Assam, the bark is. used for sores. A part of the

root is used internally and externally by the Santals to cure abscess.

578 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The root bark has long been used in Bengal as an emmenagogue.

As far back as 1873, Thornton wrote in the American Journal of

Medical Science (p. 276): ‘The fresh viscid juice of the root-bark is

useful in the congestive and neuralgic varieties of dysmenorrhoeay, it

regulates the menstrual flow and acts as an uterine tonic.’ °

In the Indian Medical Gazette of May 1900, Sircar reported as

follows :—

‘Forty years ago I first came to know the medicinal arenes of

this indigenous plant as a good emmenagogue in menstrual dis-

orders... . . The official part of the plant is the fresh viscid sap,

which abounds in the thick easily separable bark of the root and is

insoluble in water. ... Attempts have been made to administer the

drug in the more acceptable forms of tincture, pull or powder, but

none prove so efficacious as the fresh viscid SO) in substance, in

which form I have used it with wonderful results.’

On analysis, Chopra, Ghosh and Chatterjee obtained from the

root-bark a mixed oil, resins, an alkaloid-—in minute quantities—,

and water-soluble bases. The alkaloid and the various other frac-

tions were then ‘passed through pharmacological tests, but no re-

-. markable activity was manifested on the gastro-intestinal tract,

circulation, respiration, etc., nor was there any marked effect on the

uterus whether virgin or pregnant, isolated or in situ. In the absence

of any signs of physiological activity, clinical trials were not carried

out.’

It was left to K. C. Bose to solve the problem satisfactorily.

“The root-bark is an emmenagogue and uterine tonic. The action

of the dried root as well as the sap of the fresh root, has been studied

in my laboratory. It showed a tonic contractile action on the

uterus and its use is, therefore, indicated before the menses, to help

the uterine contractions to bring about a proper flow of menstrual

blood. The active principle of the drug is totally destroyed if mixed

with alcohol or any other preservative; either the fresh root-bark or

dried root-bark should be used.’

Assam: Gunakhiakarai—; Bengal: Olatkambol, Ulatkambal, Ulutkambal—;

Bombay: Olatkambol—; Canarese: Melpundigida; Ceylon: Ulatkambal— ;

English: Devil’s Cotton—; French: Abrome—; German: Abrome—; Hindi:

Kumal; Ulatkambal, -Sanukapashi—; Indo-China: Bom vang, Tai meo—;

Philippines: Anabo—; Tagalog: Anibog, Anibong—; Tamil: Sivapputtutti— ;

Uriya: Pisachogonjai—.

BUETTNERIA.

The .genus consists of 60 species inhabiting the tropics; mostly

American, a few ‘Asiatic and African. _

Buettneria herbacea Roxb. occurs in the Western Peninsula,

Orissa, the Northern Circars, the Deccan, the Carnatic, and the

IXonkan.

The rootstock is ground and rubbed on swellings of the legs by

the Kols.. It is used in combination with Bael fruit, hesel gum,

and Banyan root in cholera and diarrhoea. It is given in the female

complaint known in Santali as ‘prodhol’ (Campbell).

;. Porebunder: Adbaubal, Vagdaubal— ; Santali :. Deku

Kolami: Idel sanga

sindur—.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS STERCULIADS OF INDIA 579

ERIOLAENA,

The genus consists of 8 Indo-Malayan species.

Eriolaena quinquelocularis Wight is found in the Bombay

Presidency : Konkan, Western Ghats, Deccan, Southern Maharatta

Country; in the Madras Presidency : Deccan, the Sandur Hills of

Bellary, the hills of Coimbatore, the Western Ghats from Mysore to

Travancore at 2,000-4,000 feet.

‘A poultice made of the roots is said to heal wounds.

Bombay: Budjari-dha-mun;— Chota Nagpur: Bhawat—; Canarese: Gomaj-

jige, Kattale—; Konkan: Bujaridamu—; Malayalam: Vetinar—; Mundart:

Bunduddaru—; Tamil: Malamtutti, Nayunnu, Vattanunnu—.

GUAZUMA,

The genus consists of 5 species, natives of tropical America.

G. noua Lam. is used medicinally in Colombia, Brazil, and

La Reunion.

Guazuma tomentosa H. B. and K., a native tropical America, is

found. frequently cultivated in India.

_ The bark is tonic and demulcent, and is used with benefit in

some of those cases in which calumba and gentian are indicated

(Moodeen Sheriff).

The inner bark is esteemed as a remedy for elephantiasis in the

West Indies; the infusion of the old bark is considered sudorific,

and useful in cutaneous diseases and diseases of the chest.

In Mauritius the fruit is used as a pectoral in cases of bronchitis.

| Bengali: Nipaltunth—; Deccan: Bandog—; Canarese: Bucha, Rudrakshi— ;

Ceylon: Patti-parutti—; English: Bastard Cedar, Honey Fruit Tree, Musket

Tree— ; Honduras : Bay Cedar—; Malayalam: Rudraksham—; Mauritius: Caca

poule, “Orme pyramidale, Thain pachai—; Sinaloa: Guasima—; Tamil:

Rudrasam, Tenbachai, Tengai, Tubakki, Uruttiracham—; Telugu: Rudraksha,

Udrikpatta—; Tulu: Rudrakshi—; Uriya: Debodaru—.

HELICTERES.

The genus consists of 40 species, distributed over the tropics of

‘both worlds. -

The following species are used medicinally i in Indo-China and the

Philippine Islands—H. Isora Linn.—; in Brazil—H. brevispira A.

Juss., Hf. corylifolia Nees and Mart: H. ovata Uam., H. Sewell

A. Juss., H. Vuarame Mart. |

Helicteres Isora Linn. is rarely found in open country} it occurs

in the dry forests throughout Central and Western India, and from

the Punjab and Bengal to Ceylon and Burma. It is distributed to

Malaya, Australia, and the West Indies.

The juice of the root is said to have a beneficial effect in empyema

and stomach affections. In the Konkan it is used in diabetes, and

is.a favourite cure for snake-bite.

_ The bark is used in diarrhoea and dysentery. °

~The fruits are made into. a liniment for sores of ie ear, and

ney are administered internally for colic. They are demulcent,

580 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

mildly astringent, and useful in the griping of bowels and flatulence

of children.

The Santals credit the root, the bark, and the fruit with the same

therapeutic properties: demulcent, expectorant, astringent to the

bowels, a cure for scabies when applied topically.

The fruit, under the name of Chabei Pintal, is sold as a drug in

the shops ah Malaya. |

A decoction of the leaves is used as an enema in Jamaica.

Mhaskar. and Caius have shown experimentally that neither the

bark nor the root is an antidote to snake venom.

Aratic: Altwa-al-latu—; Banwara: Anteri—; Bengal: Antamora, Antomura,

Atmora—; Berar: Marorphal, Muradsheng—; Betul: Aitha, Aithi—; Bombay:

Kawun, Kevana, Kewan, Khiran—; Burma: Khungiche, Thuguaykhyae,

Thungeche—; Canarese : Bhutakarulu, Edamuri, Kadukalnaru, Kaiyuri, Kavargi,

Murudi, Narukolu, Thunshulla, Yadamuri, Yedamuri—; Central Provinces:

Boltuka—,; Ceylon: Kawa, Vullum-puri—; Deccan: Dhameenee, Dhamni,

Kevan, Kewanne, Maradsing, Marorikephalli—; Godaveri: Itah—; Gond:

Aita—; Gujerati: Murdasing—; Haldwani: Benwa—; Hindi: Bhendu, Jonkaphal,

Kapasi, Maraphal, Maraphali, Marorephalli, Marorphal, Marorphali, Marosi,

Merosi, Murad, ‘Muradsing—; Indo-China; Cay do tron—; Kharwar ; Aita, Aitem,

Aiteni—; Khond: Kavali, Korajbothi, Pitabaranda—; Kolami: Goinr, Potoporla,

Renta, Sakomsang, Sinkari—; Konkani: Kivani—; Khmaon: Marorphal—;

Kurku: Korajbothi, Koributa—; Lambadi: Moldaphaliro—; Malay: Mori—,

Malayalam: - Ishvaramuri, Kaivalanara,. Kaiyuna, Valampiri—; Marathi.

Kewan, Muradsing—; Matheran; Dhamni, Kewan, Muradsing—; Monghyr:

Ainthiadhamin—; Mundari-: Rantadara, Rentadaru—; Nimar: Aitha, Aithi—;

North-Western Provinces: Bhendu, Marorphal—; Persian: | Kishtburkisht,

- Pechaka—; Porebunder: Anted, Antedi—; + Punjab; Kupasi, Marorphali—;

Saharanpur :. Kapasi—; Sanskrit: Avartani, Mrigashinga—; Santal: Petcamra,

Petchamra—} Sind: Vurkatee—; Sinhalese: Liniya, Liniyagass, Zimiagaha— ;

Tamil: Vadampiri, Valamburi, Valampuri, Valumberi—; Teheran: Pachman-i-

puh—; Telugu: Adasamanti, Adasyamali, Gubadarra, Gubalada, Kavanchi,

Nulitada, Nuliti, Peddasamanti, Sadala, Samanti, Syamali, Tada, Uttrasi,.

Valambiri— ;_ Tulw; Kaiycli, Muriga—; Urdu: Marorphali—; Uviya: Mur-

muria Orola, Kaval, Modimodi, Murimuri.

KLEINHOVIA.

K. Hospita Linn., the sole representative of the genus, inhabits

the tropics of both hemispheres. -It is found in the Eastern and

Western Peninsulas of India, and distributed to Malacca,. Singapore,

Ceylon, Java, the Philippine. Islands, and East Tropical Africa.

_ A. decoction .of the leaves is used in the Philippine Islands as a

remedy for scabies, and as a lotion for cleaning skin eruptions.

Iocano : Bignon, Bitnog, Bitnong—; Indo-China: Tra—; Pampangan : Panam-

pat—; Philippines: Bitang, Bitnon, Pampar—; Sunderbuns: Bhola—; Tagalog:

Tan-ag—; Visaan: Hamitanaga, Tan-ag—. ae

MELOCHIA.

The genus consists of 65 tropical ‘species.

| M. borbonica Cav. is used medicinally in La Reunion, M. pyra-

midata Linn. in Mauritius. :

_ Melochia corchorifolia Linn. is found in the hotter parts of India

from ,Kumaon to Sikkim and the Malacca. Peninsula; in Cutch

}

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS STERCULIADS.OF INDIA 58%

Gujerat, the Konkan, and North Kanara; in most of the districts of

the Madras Presidency, and in Ceylon.

~The whole of this ‘plant, with the exception of the root, boiled in

oil, is supposed on the Malabar Coast to be ‘an efficacious remedy for

preventing bad consequences from the bite of a water snake (Ainslie).

Water snakes are harmless (Caius).

Rexnysail Timiolras Tikiopra—; French Sudan : Togoyo—; Fulani: Tukurra— ;

Hausa: Tukurra—; Hindi: Bilpat—; Malay: Wumah ketam; Malayalam ;

Seruvuram—; Mende: Ndopa-yengei, Ngengele—; Mundari: Dela ara, Delka

ara—; Philippines: Calingan—; Santali :-Thuiakarak—; Sinhalese: Hingalkara,

Kingalkara—; Sokoto: Tukurra—; Susu: Suri—; Tamil: Chiraparam, Pinnak-

kuppundu, Punnakkukkirai—; Telugu: Ganugapindikura, — Sittantakure,

Tutturubenda—; Timne: Kirkinkirin-Kobanabana—; Uriya Chyeron, Dasoke-

rotan, Nolita—; Wolof: Pag hou gor—.

PENTAPETES.

The only representative, P. phoenicea Linn., is indigenous in

North-Western India, Gujerat, and Bengal. It. is distributed to

Malaya, Java, the Philippine Islands, and China.

The fruit is mucilaginous. The root is employed as a medicine

by the Santals. The plant 1s used as an emollient in- anpam and in

China. a |

The Chinese use the plant in indigestion and in Atony? of the

stomach. .

Bengal: Bandhuli, Doopahuria, Katlala— ; Chinese: Ou Che Hoa, Ou Ts’ai

Hoa—; Gujerati:» Duporio, Sowbhagyasundari—; Hindi: Dopaharia, Daparia,

Dopohoria— ; Indo-China: Da lac kim tien, Hoa ti ngo,. Ngo thi tra—; Marathi :

Tambridupari— ;_ Punjab: Guldupaharia—; Sanskrit: Arkavallabha, Bandhu-

jiva, Bandhujivaka, Bandhuka, Bandhula, Bandhura, Haripriya,. Jvaraghna,

Madhyadina, _ Madhyanika, Oshthapushpa, Pushparakta, Rakta, Raktaka,

Raktapushpa, Saratapushpa, Supushpa, Suryabhaka—; Santal: Barebaha--;

Tamil: Nagappu—. .

PTEROCYMBIUM.

The genus consists of 2 species, natives of Burma, the Nicobars,

and Malaya. :

Pterocymbium javanicum R. Br. is found in the open forests of

Malaya by creeks or open woodland. It is distributed to Burma,

Nicobars, Java, and Philippines. | |

The tree yields a gum which is a fair substitute for tragacanth.

Burma: Tshaw—; Malay : Kluet, Kulunot—.

PTEROSPERMUM.

The genus consists of 20 species, natives. of tropical Asia.

A. Bracteoles: linear, entire, very caducous. Leaves 5-15

Dy? Bol Cone Sos fre wie sie ... P. suberifolium,

Bb. Bracteoles laciniate or palmately divided.

1. Leaves 25-35 by 15-30 cm.

. weer: P.. acerifolium

2. Leaves 10-15 by 5-9 cm.

. P. heyneanum —

582. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

1, Pterospermum acerifolium Wild. is found in the sub-Hima-

layan tract and outer Himalayan valleys and hills up to 4,000 feet,

from the Jumna easterwards to Bengal, Chittagong, and Burma.

It is extensively planted in the Bombay Presidency.

The down on the leaves is used by the hill-people in Sikkim to

stop bleeding in wounds.

In the Konkan the flowers and bark, charred and mixed with

kamala, are applied in suppurating small-pox.

The flowers are used as a general tonic. They are employed by

Bengalis as a disinfectant and to keep insects away from bed clothes.

They are also said to render water gelatinous.

Bengal: Kanakchampa, Muchokunda, Mus—; Bombay: MKanakchampa,

Karnikara—; Burma: Tha-ma jam _ wai-soke, Toungpetwun—; Canarese:

Kanakachampaka, Rajataru—; Hindi: Kanakchampa, Kanier, Kathachampa—-;

Jaunsar ; Mayeng—; Kachin: Magwi napa—; Kolami: Muchukundi—; Konkani :

Kanokchampo—; Lepcha: Numbung—; Magahi: Gaik—; Michi: Laider—;

Mundari : Makcunddaru—; Nepal: Hattipaila—; Philippines : Bayoc—; Sanskrit :

Karnikara, Mushukunda, Padapotpala, Parivyadha—; Santali: Machkunda—,;

Tamil: Vennangu—; Telugu: Matsakanda—; Tharu: Machkan—; Uriya:

Konokochompa, Mushukundo.

2. Pterospermum heyneanum Wall. occurs in the Western

Peninsula. 2

‘The leaves are used in leucorrhoea; they are smoked like tobacco.

Khond: Baili—; Tamil: Polavu—; Telugu: Duddika, Loluga, Machchakanda,

Nolika—-; Uriya: Bailo, Giringa, Machkunda—.

3, Pterospermum suberifolium Lam. is found in the Northern

Circars, and Carnatic. It is sometimes planted in the Bombay

Presidency. ;

The flower rubbed into paste with rice vinegar is an ancient and

well known application for hemicrania. It is said to render water

gelatinous, .

Bengal: Muchkand, Muchukunda, Muskunda—; Bombay: Muchunda,

Muchukunda—; Burma: Naji—; Canarese: Muchukunda—; Ceylon: Tada,

Toddi; Vinanku, Vinnaku—; Hindi: Muchkand—; Konkani: Munchund— ;

Marathi: Muchkund—; Sanskrit: Arghyarhalakshanaka, Bahupatra, Chitraka, -

Dirghapushpa, Harivallabha, Kshatravrikha, Muchukunda, Mundivrikshanu-

karaka, Prativishnuka, Raktaprasava, Sudala, Supushpa—; Sinhalese; Velanga,

Velenge, Venangu—; Tamil: Sembolavu, Sittilaipolavu, Tadai, Vennangu—;

Telugu: Lolagu, Narudu, Tada—; Uriya: Baelo, Giringa, Guputi, Gureno—.

PTERYGOTA.

The genus consists of 4 palaetropical species.

Pterygota alata R.Br. (=Sterculia alata Roxb.) occurs in the

Western Peninsula, Sylhet, Chittagong, Pegu, and Martaban down

to Tenasserim. It is also found on the Andamans.

In Sylhet the seeds are used as a substitute for opium.

Assam: Tula—; Burma: Wetkope—+; Canarese: Bekaro, » Jaynkatala— ;

Chittagong; Buddhanarikella—; Malayalam: Anattonti, Porila, Porutonti—;

Tamil: Anaittondi, Kodaittondi—, et. s

PHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS STERCULIADS OF INDIA 583

SCAPHIUM.

The genus consists of 4 species found in Martaban,. the Malay

Peninsula, and Borneo . i

Leaves 15-20 by 10-12.5 cm. 200 ae need e: CLIC.

Leaves 30-35 by 15 cm. Bec wee .. 2, S.- Wallach.

1. Scaphium affine Ridley is fairly common in the forests in the

south of the Malay Peninsula. Sel

The fruit acts as a demulcent. ,

The seed, immersed in water for a night, exudes a gum, contain-

ing bassorin, to such an extent as to fill a small cup. This, mixed '

with sugar-c andy, is eaten as a stomachic, and is very pieesant and

wholesome.

Malay : Kembang semangkok, S’ilayer—.

2. Scaphium Wallichii Schott and Endl. (=Sterculia scaphigera

Wall.) is common in the tropical forests along the eastern and central

slopes of the Pegu Yomah and Martaban. It is also found in Chitta-

gong, Tenasserim, and Malacca.

The fruit is used in China as a remedy for piles and dysentery,

and for diseases of the lungs and the kidneys.

In Cambodia, Siam, and Malaya the fruit is macerated in water,

when the outer shell or pericarp increases enormously in volume form-

ing a large gelatinuous mass. The jelly is sweetened and eaten as a

delicacy, and is said to be a specific in diarrhoea and dysentery.

Chinese: Ta Hai—; Malaya: Kembang semangkok, Tai hoi—; Siam:

Bungtalai—.

STERCULIA.

The genus consists of 100 tropical species.

_ Many of the species yield gums in considerable quantity, most of

which resemble tragacanth in their appearance and properties.

The following are used medicinally in Japan—S. javanica R.Br.—;

in the Philippine Islands—S. Balanghas Linn., S. foetida Linn., S.

oblongata R.Br., S. rubiginosa Vent, S. Siipulavis R.Br., S. urens

Roxb.—; in Indo-China—S. Napoennon Pierre, S. lychnophora Hance,

S. platanifolia Linn., S. foetida Linn., S. Thorelii Pierre—; in

China—S. platanifoliia Linn.—; in West 'Africa—S. tomentosa Gui.

and Perr., S$. Tragacantha Lindl.—; in Australia—sS. acerifolia A.

Cun., S. diversifolia G. Don., S. rupestris Benth.—; in Brazil—

S. chicha St. Hil., S, striata A.St. Hil. and Naud.—.

A. Leaves digitate Dae aot 5G s- 9s foetida,

B. Leaves palmately lobed ... baa bei Bee) TCR ULENS:

C. Leaves simple, not lobed, 1-nerved.

Calyx-lobes narrow, incurved, frequently cohering

at the tips, gaping at the sides.

1. Leaves pubescent beneath . ... S. Balanghas.

2. Leaves with the nerves rusty-hispid beneath. S. rubiginosa

584, > JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Voi.

J, Sterculia Balanghat Linn. is found throughout. the hotter

parts of India, on the coasts of Tenasserim, in Ceylon, and the

Andaman Islands.

In the Philippines the fruit is considered cooling and laxative.

French: Bois-'de cavalan—; Malayalam: WKavalam—; Philippines: Balan

ghas—; Sinhalese: Nawa—.

2. Sterculia foetida Linn. occurs in the forests of Western and

South India at low elevations. It is also found in Burma, Ceylon,

and the Malay Peninsula. It is distributed to East Tropical Africa,

the Philippine Islands, and North Australia.

- The oil from the seeds is a mild laxative and is used as a carmi-

native. The seeds when swallowed incautiously bring on nausea and

vertigo.

‘The leaves are repellent and aperient.

A decoction of the fruit is mucilaginous and astringent.

_In Java the fruit is employed in gonorrhoea. ;

“Bombay. Junglibadam, Pun—; Burma: Hlyampyu, Letkok, Shawbyu,

Showbju—; Canarese: Bhatala, Bhutaili, Gotinakayi, Jaynkatala, Jenulxayitaili,

Kwuduregotu, Penari—; Ceylon: ISaditeni, Pinari—; French: Arbre puant, Bois

caca, Bis Bois de cavalam, Bois de merde, Bois puant—; Goa: Junglibaddam,

Kkuomhad, Virhoi—; Hindi: Jangalbadam, Janglibadam—; Ilocano: Bangar—;

Indo-China: Chim chim rung, Trom—; Jolo: Caumpang—; Konkani: Cun-

vemruc, Viroi—; Malay: Kelompang—; Malayalam: Pinari, Pottakavalam—;

Marathi: Goldaru, Janglibaddam, Nagalkuda—; Muduva: Kaludaivitte—;

Pampangan : Calumpan— ; Portuguese: Puna, Puna bastarda—; Pulaiya: Kesala-

maram—; Sinhalese: Telambu—; Tagalog: Calompan, Calumpag, Calum-

pang—;_Tamil:, Arali, Attirappidukkan, Kudiraippidukku, Malaittengai, Pinari,

Pudagarappanbattai— ; Telugu : Guttapubadamu, Manjiponaku, Piyyattiponaku— ;

Lulu; Pinari—; Visayan: Bobag—.

3. Sterculia rubiginosa Vent. is common in woods in open cour-

try in Burma and the whole of the Malay Peninsula from Singapore

to Penang. It is distributed to Cochin-China, Java, and Sumatra.

The fruit is used as a mild laxative.

Malay ; Dundanak, Saburu, Sakelat, Unting-unting besar—; Tagalog : Nato—.

4, Sterculia urens Roxb. occurs in North-Western India, Assam,

Behar, the Eastern and Western Peninsulas, and Ceylon.

The leaves and tender branches steeped in water yield a mucila-

ginous extract, useful in pleutro- -pneumonia in cattle.

The gum, known as karai-gond, is used as a substitute for traga-

canth in Bombay.

The Santals consider the gum a useful medicine in throat affections.

In Philippines the root bark is pounded, made into a poultice, and

‘applied to wounds, and fractures; it is also used in orchitis.

Ajmere: Kalru, Katila—; Assam: Hatchanda, Odla—; Banda: Kulu—;

Berar: Guru, Kairu,. Karai, Kulu, Tallej—; Betul: Guru, Karai, Kulu—;

Bombay: Gular, Gulu, Gwira, Kadai, Kandai, IKando, JKandol, Kandula,

Kawalee, Kullin, Kulu, Pandruka, Sardol, Sardora—; Canarese: —Bhutali,

{Kempudaili, Kempudala, . Kempudale, Pinari, Punike—j; Central Provinces :

Gulu, Gurlu, Karhar, Kulu—; Ceylon: Kavali—; Deccan: Kurdu—; French:

Sterculia déms angeant, Touroutier—; Gond: Hittum, Pinoh—; Gujerati: Kada,

Kagdol, Karai—; Hindi: Bali, Gular, Gulu, Kabru, Karrai, Katira, Kuli, Kulu,

Tabst Tanuku—; Jeypore: Kaddu, Karr—; Khandesh; Kud—; Khawar:

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS STERCULIADS OF INDIA | 585

Kaunji—; Kkhond: Gauduli, ; Kolani+: Feley, -Kaunji, -Teley—;

Nonkani: Pandruk—; Kurku: Takli—; Malayalam: ‘Yonti—;. Manbhum:

-KKeonge—; Marathi; Gwira, Kandol, Kanduia, Karai, Kavali, Pandruka,

Soldawar—; Matheran: Bandruk, Jsaoli, Kuari, Sardol— ;. Melghat : Teklej-=;

Merwara:; Kkor—; Monghyr : Kanaunji, K: araunji, Mogul—; Munda : Burkunda,

Gurkaranj, Makchund—; Nimar: Guru, Karai, Kulu— ; North-Western Provinces ;

-Gulli, Kuli; Panch Mahals: Kalauri—; Raychoader ; Kadai, Kadayo—;

Santali: TYelhec’-—; Tagalog: Banilad—j; Tamil: Resellen, Puttali, Sendalai,

Sendanakku, Sigapputtanakku, Tanakku, Vellaipputtali—; Telugu: Ettaponaku,

Kavali, Kavili, Ponaku, Tanuku, Tapasi—; Uran: Keunji—; Uriya: Girungilia,

Gudalo, Kavili—; Visayan: Banilad—.

‘TARRIETIA.

-The genus consists of 7 species inhabiting Malaya, Cochin-China,

and Australia.

Tarrietia unifoliolata Ridl. occurs in Malacca. ‘The plant is used

‘medicinally by the Malays.

Malay: Kamuning hutan—.

‘THEOBROMA.

The genus consists of 20 species, natives of tropical America.

The seeds are analeptic. They yield a fixed oil known as ‘oil of

Theobroma’ or ‘Cacao Butter’, and they are extensively used for the

extraction of the alkaloid ‘theobromine’.

The species used are all originally South American: T’. bicolor

H. and B., T. Cacao Linn., T. glauca Krst., T. martiana D. Dietr.,

7. macrantha Bernoulli. 7. microcarpum Mart., T. syvestris Aubl.—

Theobroma Cacao Linn. has long been introduced into India, and

is cultivated in the Southern Presidency and Ceylon,

A light yellowish, opaque, solid oil, known as ‘Cacao butter’, is

prepared for use in pharmacy, by. pressing the warmed seeds. It is

officinal in the pharmacopcecias of Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Den-

mark, Finland, France, Germany, -Great Bricaint Holland, Hungary,

Italy, Japan, Mexico, Norway, Portugal, Russia, Spain, Sweden,

Switzerland, Turkey, United States, Yugoslavia. . ;

The seeds contain from 1.5 to 2.4 per cent theobromine.

Ceylon: Chocolathgas, Cocomaram—; Dutch: Cacaoboom, Kakauboom—;

English: Cacao, Chocolate Tree, -Cocoa—; French: Cabasse, Cabosse,

Cacao, Cacaotier, Cacaoyer—; German: Kakaobaum—; Guam: Kakao—-;

Hungarian: Kakao, Kokuszfa—; Italian: Albero del Cacao, Cacao—; Mexican’:

Cacacoatl— ; Portuguese: Cacao—; Roumanian: Cacaotier—; Russian: Kakao-

voi derevo—; Spanish: Arbol del cacao, Cacao, Haba de Mejico—; Swedish:

Kakao—; Turkish: Kakao—.

WALTHERIA.

The genus consists of 30 species, mostly American.

W. Douradinha A, St. Hil. is used medicinally in Brazil.

Waltheria indica Linn. is a widely difuced onicat veel

common in all the hotter parts of India, from .Kumaon at 4,000 feet

to Malacca and Ceylon.

$80 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

In Mauritius the plant is credited with emollient and bechic pro-_

perties, and is used as a cough medicine.

In West Tropical Africa the plant is a common medicine for

infants. - In Northern Nigeria the infant is given to drink or to snitt

or inhale a decoction of the root boiled along with native natron. In

Yoruba and in Togo the plant is a constituent of various infusions,

both to drink or as wash for a few weeks to strengthen the child’s

resistance against fevers and other troubles. |

“Amongst the Hausas the root is considered to be purgative; also

a decoction of the plant is believed to be a preventive of syphilis, and,

if taken frequently, to afford immunity. It is also drunk by agricul-

turists as a restorative during the labours of harvesting.

In Togo a spoonful of the pulverised plant with hot water is

taken morning and evening as a cough medicine.

In Gold Coast the plant is used to cause abortion.

The Thangaan women take a decoction of the root for barrenness.

The Sutos either chew the raw root or drink a decoction of it for

internal haemorrhages.

Bambara; Dabada—; Irulani. Kafafti, Kapappi—; Ga: Fufunoba, Navsuru— ;

Gban: Nyiknapmiyaya—; Hausa: Hankufa, Yankufa—; Malinke: Bourai—;

Mauritius: Guimauve, Guimauve créole, Youtti—; Mende: Ngala-yuyui—;

Shangaan: Simbongana—; Suto: Lexutasela—; Telugu: Nallabenda—; Togo:

Adu weti, Bati—; Twi: Apem—,; Uriya: Bojoromuligna—; Wolof: Bourai-—;

Yoruba: Korikodi, Opa-emere—.

MORE ABOUT THE FLAMINGO [PHOENICOPTERUS

RUBER ROSEUS (PALLAS)] IN KUTCH.

SALIM ALI.

(With 2 plates.)

When Mr. C. McCann visited the ‘Flamingo City’ in the Great

Rann in October 1935 the nesting season was unfortunately al-

most over. There were evidently no fresh eggs, or eggs being

brooded, at the time and most of the adult birds seemed to have

left. What he was chiefly able to see was a large number of

non-flying young birds in various downy and juvenile stages. His

interesting account, published in Vol. xli of the Journal (August

1939, pp. 12-38) is a useful contribution to our knowledge of

this species.

When I first visited the nest ‘city’ eight years later (in October

1943) I had even worse luck. It had been reported earlier in

the season that large concentrations of flamingoes—‘y to 8 thous-

and’—had been observed in that area. As the monsoon had been

favourable, and water conditions in the Rann after a series of

drought years at last seemed as required, it was confidently ex-

pected that the birds would breed. Some unfavourable factors

MORE ABOUT THE FLAMINGO IN KUTCH 537

appear to have intervened, however, for when JI visited the nest

‘city’ later on, during the first week of October, the water had re-

ceded a long way leaving the nests high and dry. Irom the de-

siccated condition of the ground surrounding the nests it was evi-

dent that the water had been gone a month or more. The clear

imprints of flamingoes’ feet around and in among the nests, the

fresh ‘scoops’ in the mud when it must have been wet, and the

partial replastering of old nest mounds showed that the birds. had

certainly been there when the place was inundated and had com-

menced to rehabilitate the deserted ‘city’.

The following monsoon (1944) was a particularly heavy one.

The nesting grounds were apparently immersed in such deep water

until December or January that no nesting by the birds would

have been possible, and it looked as though the birds would have

to skip yet another season. It seemed rather extraordinary, how-

-ever, that they should miss season after season and apparently

fail to reproduce altogether for so many consecutive years. And

it seemed worthwhile to determine whether, given favourable

-conditions, the flamingo may not breed at a different season to

what was so far known. Here was the opportunity. At my sug-

gestion, and with his characteristic keenness, His Highness

Maharao Vijayarajji very kindly arranged to have the relevant

area of the Great Rann suitably patrolled for as long as any

water stood there, even well after the known breeding time was

past. Such a step appeared at first to be waste of time and

labour, but we had not long to wait before it was proved justi-

fied. Contrary to precedents, flamingoes were reported by the

patrols to be concentrated and nesting in great abundance at their

accustomed spot in late March 1945, when the water level in ihe

Rann had subsided to what it is in normal years towards the end

of the monsoon season. His Highness at once despatched a re-

liable shikari to obtain confirmation of this unusual happening,

and also sent the State photographer along to get a graphic re-

cord of the same. These men returned on t1oth April with un-

questionable evidence—some excellent photographs showing enor-

mous numbers of birds at their nests, and eggs collected in the

colony both fresh and in various stages of incubation. One of these

eggs actually hatched out in the cardboard box in which it was

kept. Upon H. H. telegraphing to me in Bombay I lost no time

in arriving on the scene. Sir Peter Clutterbuck who chanced

to be in Bhuj at the time, inspite of the fact that he is no longer

as young as he used to be, was enthusiastic enough to face the

heat and hardships of the journey and accompany me. We camped

as before at Nir on the N-E tip of Pachham Island. The flamingo

‘city’—the same used in successive seasons—is located directly N-E

of Nir, 6 to 7 miles out in the Great Rann. It is on a dry pan-

cake-flat ‘island’ which at the time of our visit was about one mile

long (W to E) and about half a mile in width. To reach it one

Rad to wade or ride through shallow water—more or less concen-

trated brine—ankle to thigh deep for most of the distance, inter-

spersed here and there by other similar ‘islets’ whence the wind

588 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HiST. SOCIETY, Voi. 45

had temporarily driven off the water. The average time taken

to reach the ‘city’,from Nir was 2 hours and 4o minutes.

The first. visit to the colony was made on the morning of 19

April accompanied by Sir Peter Clutterbuck. On the 2oth after-

noon. I visited the place again—alone this time—arriving there

at 6-45 .p.m. and bivouacing overnight. I left the colony at

It a.m..on the 21st. A third visit. was made .on the afternoon

of. 22nd April which lasted till 11-30 a.m. on the following day.

These notes, scrappy as they necessarily have to be from the

shortness of the time .at my disposal, are the result of the three

visits—particularly of the last two when unhurried observations

were possible, and also some during the night under a bright,

nearly full moon. eye

Meteorological Conditions.—Temperature: | Minimum (during

night) 77°F; Maximum (at 11 a.m.) 116°. Presumably consi-

derably hotter in the afternoon. In the above instance, the ther-

mometer stood against a nest-mound on its shady side and was

not exposed directly to the sun as the eggs and young are. A

newly hatched chick died when left exposed on a nest-mound for

between half and one hour (about 1o a.m.).

Practically all day and all night a strong wind was blowing

from NW (or NNW) to SE with often the intensity of a Moder-

ate Gale (Force of the Beaufort scale=28 to 33 m.p-h.) Sky

clear. Visibility good in early morning, getting hazy in distance

(near horizon) after sunrise. Nights clear, moonlit.

The Nest ‘City’: Its extent and Population —The ‘city’, to the

nests on its extreme periphery, measured 480 yards (W to EI)

+x 245 yards =117,600 square yards. Sample plots were selected

at random, each to yards x10 yards =100 square yards,

and nests on these counted, as. follows: (135, . 151,

128, 110. Averagé 131. The result of a further indepen-

dent count on the second day was essentially the same. Taking

off 20% of the total area for the bald (unbuilt) patches inter-

spersed in the middle and on the outskirts (117,600 less 23, 529)

leaves 94,080 square yards. Therefore total number of nests in

the city 123,245. ~

Taking off 15% of the above for old nests and those not in

use at present (123,245 less 18,487) leaves 104,758 active nests.

Counting 2 adult birds to each nest ... MAEEZ OOS LO

ie say only 2 young to every 3 nests ... 69,839

Total population of the city : 279,355 birds

It seems to me more than likely that at least 2 successive broods

are raised. Enormous numbers of young birds of the year were

scattered in the shallow water all along the periphery of the island

‘so that. the population of flamingoes .within sight in this area at

present, including breeding and non-breeding adults and young

in all stages, could on a conservative estimate, not have been less

than about 500,000 (half a million) birds.

_. Food.—The question of the food of the flamingo in the Rann is

naturally of great interest considering the vast population it has to

support for certainly not less than 3 months in the year, and possibly

MORE ABOUT. THE: FLAMINGO IN KUTCH 589

much longer. Both Ticehurst in Sind and McCann in. the Great

Rann found seeds, mostly of aquatic freshwater or waterside

plants in flamingoes’ gullets and stomachs. There is so far no

justification, however, for supposing that these constitute the

only or indeed the staple diet of flamingo in these parts. ‘It seems

difficult to conceive that sufficient quantities ef such seeds, e.g.

kuppia, could be washed down by the rivers flowing into the Rana

{rom the north-east to. sustain a population of this magnitude for

so long a period. The matter calls for careful investigation.

The stomachs of 2 adult birds shot by me in the salt pans at

ISandla in September (1943) contained ca }{ oz. (when dry) of

grit or coarse sand (ca 1 mm. in diam.), In addition to this there

was a small quantity of slimy greenish-brown vegetable matter

like the ‘scum’ from the bottom of the salt pans, and a large

number (Over 50 in each case) of red thread-like ‘worms’ ca 10

mm. long, later identified as Chironomus larvae. The latter

hgured largely also in the stomach contents of Dunlins and other

waders frequenting the salt pans at this period.

Adulls.—When a bird first settles on eggs it pivots from side

to side until comfortable. Birds ‘sitting on nests, and at case,

have their back feathers (Scapulars) trowzled and erected, looking

like gigantic chrysanthemums! An incessant babbling ‘roar’—

kakak, kaka, kakak etc. (of the wheezy quality of a mallard

drake’s quack, but louder) and goose-like gentle honks in varying

keys, emanate from the nesting colony day and night. birds

not brooding stand upright beside their partners and usually have

their backs to the sun. Thus from a distance the assemblage

is Clearly seen in two tiers, as it were, and from the side all birds

appear in profile, facing away from the sun. A considerable,

and almost continuous, trafic was kept up during the bright moonlit

nights between the nest city and various parts of the Rann,

evidently the birds foraging. Birds sitting on nests whe:

approached, were far less loth to leave the contents exposed dur-

ing the night than in the heat of the day.

When the ‘city’ was visited by the shikari and photographer

in the first week of April, most nests contained eggs—only one

each—as will be seen from the photo reproduced. In the 3rd

week of April (between 20th and 23rd) single newly hatched

chicks or chipping eggs predominated. Besides these there were

large numbers of slightly older downy chicks running about all

over the place in among the nest-mounds. <A _ considerable

number of nests, moreover, still had fresh eggs—ainvariably one

per nest—and there were innumerable others, fresh, hard-set and

addled lying helter skelter all about the colony at the base of the

nest-mounds. It is difficult to say how they got there, since

without deliberate effort or some degree of violence it is incon-

ceivable they could roll off over the rim of the ‘crater’, Are_

dislodged eggs ever retrieved? Or is a fresh egg’ always laid to

replace the dislodged one? ;

590 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Chicks.—Flamingo chicks are extremely precocious from even

when little more than animated powder-pufts, a few hours old.

When lying inert on top of the nest-mounds, necks stretched

prone, they will attempt while the observer is still some distance

away to slither down the mound and escape, shuffling along

balancing themselves with their stumpy wings and waddling

comically like some plump small gentleman in a hurry! It is a

puzzle how the adult. birds ever find their own nests and eggs

and/or chicks from amongst the close-packed thousands that

extended for acres. But I think that once the young have begun to

run about, and confusion becomes worse confounded, and until such

time’ as they are led out into the shallow water to fend for

themselves (apparently only a matter of days) the community ts

run on a communistic basis, and adults feed young more or less

indiscriminately. No other course seems imaginable. When the

nest colony was approached, the adults gradually moved off

towards the water’s edge followed by a. dense broad band of

downy chicks, like a conveyor belt, running alongside them, in

amongst and around their legs or trailing behind like scared

refugees from a bombarded city. When approached closer, most

of the adult birds flew off leaving only a handful of the bolder

ones in charge. These were loth to desert the chicks, and only.

did so in the last resort, when hard pressed... Thus ‘it was aot

unusual to find. about 20 adult birds leading off a thickly packed

jostling army of several hundred downy chicks of all ages and

sizes, from those scarcely 3 or 4 days old upwards. A plausible

explanation for the strongly webbed feet of the flamingo now

occurs to me. Old birds use them for swimming but compara-

tively rarely. Their legs are long enough to enable them tc

wade into all the depth of water they normally require for feed-

ing in. The baby flamingo’s legs are short and he would never

be able to escape enemies or forage for himself in shallow water

unless he could swim. This he does remarkably well, kicking

out his little legs rapidly to paddle like a duck whenever the

water becomes deeper than he can conveniently run in. And he

moves much faster and far less unsteadily this way than he can

do on land. In the shallows he progresses just like an amphibian

jeep, running along or swimming, all in his stride as the depth

of the water demands. The tibia and tarsus begin to get dis-

proportionately long at an early age; somewhat older chicks can

run extremely fast and are difficult to overtake. |

Enemies.—Except for a couple of Scavqnger Vultures (cf.

McCann also) which were observed smashing hardset eggs and

leisurely devouring the contents in the interval when the birds

had been scared away by our activities, I saw no enemies. A

number of such eggs, smashed and with- part or the entire

contents devoured, presumably by the same agency, were found

lying on the nest-mounds or about their base. It appears that

these vultures must take a regular but not very considerable toll.

From its far-lying and islanded situation the ‘city’ seemed to

immune from four-footed enemies. Although jackals are plentiful

MORE ABOUT THE FLAMINGO IN KUTCH 591

in the hills about Nir, I saw no evidence during the time I was

there of their visiting this place or of any damage that might

reasonably be attributed to them. There seems no doubt that

the greatest casualty among the eggs and young is due to the

scorching relentless sun, The number of dead and desiccated

chicks strewn about the colony I can only ascribe to this cause.

An instance is given earlier on of the fatal effect of even a

comparatively short exposure on a newly hatched chick. The fact

that chicks, a few days old, are led away by the adult birds to

the shallow water doubtless acts as a safety measure against the

broiling heat of thé exposed sun-baked nests. It would appear

that the chicks thereafter fend for themselves and do not return

any more to the nest colony to roost or be fed.

Migration and Local Movements.—The appeal published in the

Journal (Vol. 44. p. 476) with a view to eliciting information on

these points has so far met with poor response. We are no nearer

to solving the problem of what happens to the flamingo hordes

in drought years, when conditions are unsuited for their breeding

on their accustomed grounds in the Great Rann. They are

apparently able to breed here only once in 3 or 4 years, occasional-

ly even longer periods.

It will be remembered that Mr. McCann by a process of jig-

saw-puzzle working in of breeding seasons and dates of recorded

movements in Mesopotamia, Persia and elsewhere, put forward

a suggestion to the effect that Indian flamingoes perhaps normal-

‘ly migrated to breed in the marshes of Southern Spain, another

well known breeding ground. Under favourable conditions, main-

ly depending on good winter rains, the nesting season. there

commences in May. His suggestion was that if unfavourable

natural conditions were encountered in Spain the birds turned

about and made for Kutch. The normal breeding season in the

Great Rann -being September to October, they would get ample

time to do the return journey in. Then if they meet with the

required conditions. here, they undertake breeding. Thus the

marismas of Spain and the Great Rann of Kutch would, accord-

ing to him, be the erratically used alternative breeding grounds

of our Indian flamingoes. Personally I did not at the time, nor

do I now, find Mr. McCann’s ‘supposition’ a convincing one, but

of course it does not do to be too dogmatic in such matters, and

more data are needed. Mr. McCann pertinently observes that to

obtain any proof the wholesale ringing of birds in the two areas

(Spain and Kutch) would be necessary. It is a pity he had no

rings with him when he visited the nest city, when the opportunity

for marking seems to have been good. On my recent visit (April

1945) I was fortunate in being able to mark a few young birds.

Theoretically there would seem no reason why, provided one got

there at the appropriate time as I did, one should not be able

to ring a thousand or 5000 or even 10,000 chicks within a compa-

ratively short time considering the immense numbers of them

about. In practice, however, the matter proved to be much less

simple. “With the help of five active locals, ringing 192 birds ‘s

$92. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

all I could) do during the best part of 2 mornings. I

had no more time at my disposal. For one thing young flamingoes

of an age and size suitable for ringing (from about 10 days to 3

weeks old) run like stags and often require all-out sprinting to

overtake. For another, the ground on which this race is run is

all in the bird’s favour. The surface is generously buttered with

semi-liquid mud. -You slither and slide and skid the whole time.

Frequently when just within grasp you lunge at the quarry and

suddenly find yourself on your bottom or grovelling in the mire

with a perfect worm’s eye view of the escaping chick. The only

consolation in such a predicament is when you look round and

find that half your helpers are in like case. It is exhausting

work. he

The rings used on the birds are the Bombay Natural History

Society’s standard duck rings No. 6036 to 6169, and 6301 to

6360. They are all attached on the bare portion of the left tibia

(just above the ‘knee’ joint) so that they may easily be seen at

a distance with field glasses. I shall be glad if any of these

ringed birds seen are reported to the Society with dates and

particulars.

The Photographs.—Some of the beautiful photographs that

illustrate this note were taken by Ali Mohammad, the State photo-

grapher, under conditions that do him great credit and call

for special mention. Se

At a crucial moment, on first arrival at the nest city with

Sir. Peter Clutterbuck, I discovered that my own camera, fitted

with telephoto lens, on which I had been banking so complacently,

was out of order. In response to a desperate S.O.S. to Bhuj,

His Highness kindly sent out post-haste not only his own Kodak

for my use, but also the State photographer with complete para-

phernalia. Ali Mohammad was accompanied by a special assistant

whose exact purpose or function was not apparent at the time.

The 2 photographers and their equipment made up 2 complete

camel loads. The apparatus—a full-plate studio. camera of solid

teakwood of enormous size and cumbrousness—looked very like

some antique piece of furniture of the period of William the Con-

querer or thereabouts. It had no shutter but worked by the

doffing and donning of a cap over the lens. And after every ex-

posure you expected the photographer to bow and say ‘Thank

you’. The results of his sleights-of-hand were, that even with

comparatively slow plates and the diaphragm shut down to a. pin-

point, the plates were somewhat overexposed. (The Weston

meter showed the correct exposure to be 1/200 of a second at.

F 22 with Super XX film). It was obviously a camera with a

history and it would not surprise me to learn that it

is the same as made the original picture of the flamingo

nests in the Rann, published in the Journal in 1896 by His late

Highness Maharao Khengarji. The apparatus not only needed

two.men to rig it up for action, but I discovered that the focus-

sing was also a highly complicated cooperative business. It was

worked like a ship, and this is where the trained assistant came

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MORE ABOUT THE FLAMINGO IN KUTCH 593

in. The chief photographer (the Captain) had to enshroud his

head in several yards of black mourning cloth with his eyes glued

on the focussing screen. From this position—the ‘bridge’—he

had to signal down orders to the ‘engine room’ as it were, to his

assistant in front to turn the focussing knob this way or that,

a little more to the right or just a wee bit to the left. The focus-

sing knob was so far in front as to be quite out of reach of the

Captain himself, and only a_ specially trained assistant could

assist.

The camera, erected at the nest colony, showed up in the dis-

tance like a fair sized house on the bare flat expanse of the Rann.

And when a wind sprang up and the black cloth round the Cap-

tain’s head commenced to flutter and flap I thought there could

be no earthly chance of getting any photographs of the birds. At

first I was very loth to allow Ali Mohammad to go into action

at all for I feared the disturbance might cost me the opportunity

of making observations. I am afraid I was also inclined to be

rather facetious at the Captain’s expense but he bore it all with

surprising good nature. It was not until we got back to Bhuj

and he produced these (by me completely unexpected) results out

of his dark room that I realised the laugh had really been on me.

And further, when on return to Bombay I discovered the rather

mediocre result of my own efforts with H. H.’s Kodak, it be-

came more obvious than ever that it needs something more than

a good camera to produce a good photograph.

OBITUARY NOTICE.

‘SIR NORMAN CRANSTOUN MACLEOD,

Sir Norman Macleod who was Chief Justice of the Bombay

High Court from 1919 to 1926 died suddenly on the 5th July,

1945. Sir Norman was always interested in Natural History and

was Honorary Treasurer of our Society from rg01 to 1906 and

was Vice-President from 1918 to 1924. He was a keen sports-

man and a good shot and went out regularly after snipe, quail

and duck in the vicinity of Bombay.

Mr. M. R. Jardine—a very old friend of Sir Newnane s at the

High Court, Bombay, writes saying that Sir Norman continued

to take great interest in the High Court both as regards its judge-

ments. and its administration right up to the end, and he frequently

contributed articles to the Bombay Law Reports under a nom-de-

plume.

It is only right that some notice should be recorded in our

Journal of one who in his time did so much to help the Society.

Weesia Vir

REVIEW...

: A GUIDE TO BIRD WATCHING by Joseph J. Hickey. With illustrations

by Francis Lee Jaques and Bird Tracks by Charles A. Urner. Pp. xiv+262.

Published by Oxford University Press (1943) ‘Price $ 3.50. ~

There are many things the youthful bird lover and the amateur ornitholo-

gist are constantly wanting to know about their hobby: How to observe,

What to observe, What to record, How to record, What is already known,

What has. still to be learnt, and so on.’ Experienced workers are not

always on tap, and not all average students. can answer their difficulties.

Thus it not infrequently happens that an enthusiastic and promising beginner,

for want of suitable guidance, has his keenness blunted or diverted into other

channels. . Here, at long last, is just the book for just such persons, and no

doubt the seasoned ornithologist will find it. equally illuminating. Some of

the chapter headings will indicate the wide scope of its contents: How to

begin. Bird Study, The Lure of Migration Watching, The Romance of Bird

Banding, The Art of Bird Watching. They cover.such topics as Distribution,

Habitat Selection, Territory, Song, Food, Trapping,. Censuses, Co-operative

Bird Watching and others that are for ever falling within the purview of the

intelligent watcher.

. Methods of conducting investigations and. the manner of recording and

publishing them most uselully, are suggested. This d propo of that well-known

type—a beginner usually—who is (quite pardonably) carried away by the ima-

ginary importance and uniqueness of the observations he makes, and is convinced

that they are all worthy of appearing in print forthwith. He is not a little dis-

appointed, and even peeved, when harassed editors are obliged to differ. With

the: present and ever-rising spate in ornithological literature it is desirable

that people who work or write on any particular aspect of birds should first

acquaint themselves in a general way with what work has already been done on™

similar lines so as to avoid unnecessary redundance.

The Art of Bird Watching (Chapter 6) with its different sub-headings is

particularly lucid and instructive, and will be read with profit by every shade

and grade of bird lover. Chapter 3 entitled Adventures in Bird Counting is

of special interest to us in India. It is a subject in which we have done no

serious worlx so far, but which obviously holds enormous potentialities. When

a proper scientific investigation of the economics of Indian birds comes to be

undertaken, as it is bound to be under any well planned scheme of agricultural

research, the importance of bird counts will be more fully appreciated. Take

for example a species which has been determined by a study of its food and

feeding habits to be harmful to agriculture, forestry or fishing interests in a

given locality. How is the aggregate damage it causes to be assessed unless

and until we possess sufficiently reliable data of the density of its population?

It is a completely erroneous and misleading notion that any estimate of numbers

is better than no estimate at all. Population counts to be of real use need

to be fairly accurate. And in order to obtain accurate estimates certain tech-

niques, evolved after much experimenting in other countries—notably England,

America and Germany—have to be followed. The methods vary with lcecal

ecological conditions and the species of bird to be dealt with. Some of the

methods now in use are described, which could well be modified end adapted

to conditions obtaining here. But others wil’ have to be evolved by ourselves

to suit our peculiar needs. I have searched the pages in vain for anything

to suggest a method of counting that could successfully be applied to some of

the conditions we are up against here. For instance how can one _ obtain

even the semblance of an accurate census of the thousands upon thousands

of water birds of mixed species—Painted and Open-billed Storks, Herons, Cor-

morants (of 3 species), Darters, Egrets (of 2 or 3 species), Paddy Birds, White

Ibises and Spoonbills—that nest in such bewildering’ confusion on some of our

Indian jheels? In particular 1 have in mind the Keoladeo Ghana of Bharatpur

which has defeated me more than once. I daresay some comparatively satis-

factory method can, and will eventually, be devised. Our problem is to devise

it. It is a challenge which some of the census experts in England , might

wel] take up, since obviously a greater degree of special experience in this

596 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

line of work is called for than is available in our country. All these birds.

subsist more or less exclusively on fish. A single cormorant has been éscer-

tained to eat about 14 Ib. of fish per day. Painted Storks, by virtue of their

larger size, presumably need a larger quantity. Young birds, moreover, are

notorious for the healthiness of ‘their appetite. And considering the multitudes

of both adults and young that inhabit the Keoladeo heronry for several months

in the year, it is evident that hundreds of tons of fish must be needed to

_ sustain this vast population. Just what tonnage? That is what we are con-

cerned to know. And if the species of fish that go to make these birds are

oi economic value to man, then so much the worse for Man!

The appendices at the end of the book are not its least interesting or

useful part. Appendix A—An introduction to Bird Tracks—is a novel aspect

of bird study which I believe is so far practically unexploited except in America,

It is good to have attention drawn to it, though one may doubt the practical

value of this study since by itself it can scarcely provide adequate clues or

precise identification. Appendix C—Outline for Life History Study—is a help-

ful section and offers a number of suggestions of how an investigation may

be carried out. The annotated list of books on various aspects of bird study

forms a very desirable adjunct for those not in touch with the more important

bibliography.

The usefulness of this well-written volume as a guide to bird watching is.

unquestionable. The general parts of it are of more or less universal appli-

cation, but to us here in India much of the value of the book is lost since

most of the examples cited are of American birds and American conditions

with which the beginner and less serious student are not likely to be fami-

fiar. But the potentialities of this sort of epitome are patent, and it is to

be hoped that some day one of our own ornithologists will undertake to

‘Indianise’ the more relevant portions for the benefit of bird lovers in this

country, and of Indian ornithology in general. Till that day comes, I would

strongly recommend this book to every one who has an interest in birds.

Ss. A.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.

eg GEHRY S RECORD AS Ay “CAG on SKN EIR’:

| A tiger, which came to be known as the ‘phantom’ tiger, for un-

til the day it was shot, it was neither seen nor located, was finally

shot on the Billigirirangans (S. India) on July 11th, 1945—a

male 9/ 5” in length—in prime condition. This tiger invariably

killed cattle or cart-bulls inside their sheds or kraals at night—

never on their grazing grounds. |

Its activities comprise :—

1. 2 buffaloes 10. 2 COWS

2. 2 COWS ils fh COW

2 cart-bulls 12. 1 cart-bull

Separate sheds—same night 13. I COW

3. 2 buffaloes 14. 3 cart-bulls

4. 2 cows 15. 3 Cows

5. 1 buffalo 16. 4 cart-bulls

6. 2 cows 17. 1 cart-bull

7. 3 COWS 18. 2 cows and 1 buffalo

8. 2 cows 1g. 1 cart-bull

9. 2 COWS 20. 4 cart-bulls.

Only in three cases did the tiger attempt to make a meal. off

its kills. Only in two cases did the tiger return to its kills the

second night: the latter occasion ending its exploits.

Its head, neck, back and flanks were scored with scratches

from forcing its way through the barbed wire fences.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE,

ATTIKAN P.O. RANDOLPH C. MORRIS.

via Mysore, S. INpIA.

toth September 1945.

2.—CALLING UP TIGERS.

I have read Corbett’s ‘Man-Eaters of Kumaon’, a review of

which appeared in the April 1945 issue of the Journal of the

Society. 5

Commenting on Corbett’s ability, by use of his vocal

chords alone, to successfully summon tigers of both sexes to his

vicinity, the reviewer remarks that in South India a mechanical

contrivance is used to call up tigers.

This refers no doubt to the earthenware chatty, the mouth of

which is tightly covered by a parchment-like skin, and the sound

5938 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

produced by pulling of a string, fastened to the inside of the parch-

ment and passed through a hole in the base of the chatty. I

have not myself seen this contrivance in use, but have personal

experience of the vocal calling up of a tiger which will be of

interest to the readers of the Journal.

While after sambar on the Brahmagiri Hills “of. Southern

Coorg, my shikari (a kurumba) and 1 saw a tiger disappearing

down a grassy slope, into a_shola.

The shikari asked me to sit down near him below the crest

of the hill. He cupped his hands together, placed them to his

mouth. The sound was Uh—h—h—ug ! Uh—h—h—ug! repeated

two or three times. ' This struck me as so ridiculous, ‘that

I put my head down and shook with laughter—silent of course.

An elbow jabbed my ribs—I raised my head—there, 75 yards away

and twenty-five from the shola was the head: of the tiger. He

had come back to investigate the call. This investigation cost

him his life.

Later on this same shikari took a planter out shooting. They

heard a tiger in a shola. The shikari called, imitating a tiger's

voice, but the animal did not walk straight towards the call. He

came from behind the men and stopped a few yards from them.

Something made them look round just as the tiger was perhaps

about to attack them. This tiger also was killed.

I find there is in the Journal of the Society, Vol. xxxill, page

696, an account of the decoying of a tiger by a tea planter.

Two tigers had been frightening ponies in the stable near the

house, and on the second night. of his attempt to get a shot at

the animals he heard them calling some three hundred yards

away and started to imitate. In this way he got the male animal

within a few yards- of his verandah and killed it-by aid ou torch

on his rifle.

Except for this record there does not appear to be any account

in the Society’s journals of the calling up of a tiger by the

human voice. There is an Editor’s foot-note to the above that

in Burma tigers have been known to be attracted to the concealed

gunner by the peculiar bleating noise produced by blowing on

a leaf held edgeways between the palms of the hands; a dodge

commonly employed by the Burman _ pot-hunter for calling up

Barking Deer and-Sambar to be slain.

BANGALORE, W:. F. RULE.

24th July 1945. | |

3-—THE SENSE OF SMELL IN TIGERS.

I only received the April number of the Journal a few days

ago, or I would have written earlier to give my experience of

the tiger’s sense of smell, which does not accord with H.G.H.M.’s

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 599

opinion. Elsewhere I have told the story of an incident which

took place while I-was a guest of that good sportsman,. Dr. C.

W. Quinn, civil-surgeon of Damoli, C.P. He sent me to sit

over a kill by a tiger described by Fateh Khan—a highly ex-

perienced shikari—as ‘a very wise and wily one, and one who

would never return to a kill if there were any suspicious cir-

cumstances to warn him of lurking danger’. When Fateh Khan

and I eventually found the kill, there were no trees in which a

machan could be contrived, so Fateh Khan did what he could in

an overgrown shrub. To cut a long story short, the tiger. came

about 4 p.m. and sat down underneath me, so that I could only

see his tail by looking over my shoulder. After an appreciable

time, he began to sniff, his inhalations growing louder and _ loud-

er, and his back coming into view from the root of his tail up-

wards, as he gradually leant further and further back, until he

eventually looked into my face—I can assure you his was

unpleasantly close to mine, when he spat at me exactly as a

domestic cat does, and dashed off under the low brush cover.

May I add as a postscript, what a joy the Journal is to me,

and it goes from me to rejoice another retired from India.

CHNINGO MT,

N. BRIDGWATER, ARUNDEL BEGBIE,

SOMERSET, Lt.-Colonel.

11th August 1945.

[It is commonly maintained that a tiger hunts with his ears

and eyes and makes little use of an enfeebled sense of smell. We

know little as to the extent to which nocturnal animals rely on

vision in getting their food. It is probable that all the tiger’s

senses play their purpose in its life—the predominance of any

one of its faculties depends upon the individual and equally upon

the factors in the environment which are then influencing its

action.—Eps. | |

4.—A LEOPARD ‘POOKING’.

The following account of an experience of mine may be of

interest. .

Some time ago I sat up in fairly heavy virgin forest over a

small bullock killed by a leopard. The kill was lying in a track

cut through the undergrowth and was thus well exposed.

I got up into my shikar chair about 4.30 p.m. and in about

half an hour spotted a big male leopard circling around in the

undergrowth on my right. However he did not come out to the kill

and gave no chance of a shot. -He then moved out of my view.

Just at dusk I spotted him on the track about hundred yards away

where he was more or less silhoutted against the afterglow in

the sky, but too far away for a sure shot in the tricky light.

600 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The animal seemed to moan or sniff about for a time, and then

squatted down in the usual cat.manner and defaecated, of course

this act was not distinctly visible, but the signs were there when

I examined the place later. Now comes the interesting part,

after defaecation he moved forward a few paces in a stiff legged

manner, and then let out a very high pitched cry, almost a squeak,

best described as a ‘pook’ and at the same time stretched out

and seemed to shake one of his hind legs, then a step forward,

another call and a shake of the other leg. In all he made this

call five times.

I have heard of tigers making this ‘pook’ call but never of a

leopard, and I shall be very interested to hear if anyone has had

a similar experience ?

Finally I did not manage to shoot this beast, though he came

on to the kill well after dark, as, on my switching on my torch

he leapt into cover like a flash. I sat tight and after a short

time, back he came and was off again on the switch of the light. A

third time he came and on this occasion I allowed him to feed

for about fifteen minutes (the kill was well pegged down) before

taking up the rifle, first pressure taken on the trigger, but it was

no use, he was off like lightning and for good this time.

I was once stationed for four years on a garden absolutely

infested by leopards, where I saw and shot many of them, but

never heard such a cry. The lightning reaction to the torchlight

is also quite out with my previous experience.

Altogether a very interesting beast.

Powal T.E. & P.O., |

U. ASSAM, T. E. BH. SMITH:

12th August 1945.

[The peculiar call of the tiger described popularly as ‘pook-

ing’ is interpreted by some observers as a mate call. But.it is

indicated that the call has been frequently uttered as a direct re-

sult of disturbance by human agency and as such is probably an

expression of surprise, suspicion or alarm. This call is not com-

monly observed among panthers.—EDs. | ;

5-—NORTHERN LIMITS OF THE RUSTY-SPOTTED CAT

(PRIONAILURUS R. RUBIGINOSUS GEOFF.)

In the new Fauna the paragraph on the distribution of this

cat reads “Southern India’ and there is reference to one specimen

taken at Khandalla by Phillip Gosse.

‘It might be of interest to record that on the 2nd Feb.

1941 I shot one near Suriamal on the Wada road about 7o miles

north of Bombay. This cat appeared to be fairly common in that

area as we had seen them several times before when motoring

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Gor

through at night, but had mistaken them for stray domestic cats

from nearby villages.

While I hope to obtain more specimens when travelling

becomes easier, I might mention that another cat shot in the same

area a few weeks later has been identified as a domestic cat,

though a few spots on its flanks suggest that it may have a

strain of this or some other wild cat in its origin.

Messrs. Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDULREHMAN ST., HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

BOMBAY, - 3.

12th July, 1945.

6.—SAMBAR ‘SWINGS’.

I wonder whether any members have seen—and, if so, can

explain the purpose of—the Sambar’s jhoola (swing). What-

ever the purpose, [I think it will explain a fairly well known

superstition of the jungle people,concerning that deer.

In the month of January, but many years ago, | was shoot-

ing from a camp, which I was obliged (from the lack of fresh

water) to pitch close to a small wayside station, Bahilpurwa, on the

Jhansi-Manikpur line; with Manikpur the next station to the

south and Karwi on the north. For a few miles northward from

Bahilpurwa was a dense belt of thorn (Ber) Jungle, interspersed

with trees and harbouring most of the game in that hlock—hear,

sambar, chital, a few chinkara, in the thinner portions, and a

few roving panther (though sambar were plentiful, tiger had

not been there for about to years then—the dense thorn might

explain this, for it held many small herds and solitary stags).

On the east of the thorn belt and as far as the railway was

tree jungle—some of which was being felled. Westwardly, the

thorn gave to more open tree jungle—which contained a ‘famine

tank’, close to the thorn belt. Roughly eastward of the tank,

and near to where a straggly nullah seemed to separate the thorn

from the tree jungle on the east, was a small glade where I saw

one definite ‘jhoola’ and two other, seemingly, attempted ones.

A local villager had guided me to that glade to show me a ‘soiling

pool’ in it; this was drying up then, but had not caked or crusted

over and the mud, still boggy, showed signs of very recent use—

the innumerable, short, curly hairs in it proving the user to be

a sambar. The Indian then directed my attention to the broad

trunk of a banyan tree at the edge of the glade and, when we

arrived there, pointed at a thin branch overhead, saying repeated-

Ty ‘jhoola’.

What I saw was this: Upon the trunk of the banyan, facine

the glade, were blobs and smears of moist, as well as dry, clay—

the bark bearing reddish abrasions and scorings in many adjacent

places—up to a height of about 5 feet. A couple of feet above

this the trunk forked to right and left upwards, the large right

602 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

arm (the one to my right) of the fork showing similar signs

for a little way along it. This arm passed closely behind a

seemingly dried up tree of another species, which grew about a

yard away and had a curious twist to it all the way up and

extending to its few branches. The lowest of these grew widely

into a Y, the lower arm of which jutted out almost horizontally

towards but diagonally away from me as I stood facing both

trees. This narrow branch bore smears of clay too. The ground

in front of both trees was pitted with the tracks of sambar.

Climbing to this thin branch (g inches circumference, spanned

by finger and thumb) and, closely examining it, I found that

most of the clay was on its top and outer sides and that adhering

to it. were many of the short, curled hairs that grow below the

‘burr’ of a sambar’s antlers; and in a few places I saw that

the bark had been worn through to the wood, which showed

the smooth polish of repeated friction..

Dropping to the ground I sought a means for measuring the

height of that. branch and my 12-bore, with its 30-inch barrels,

best served the purpose; for, by holding it so that thumb and

forefinger exactly encircled the line of the breech, and drawing

down my. shoulder to its limit, I was able to fairly scrape the

branch with the muzzles—wearing then low-heeled crepe soled

shoes.. As my own height is exactly 72 inches, the height I thus

reached to would be 120 inches, roughly—ro feet. Incidentally,

the circumference of the trunk was, by spanning roughly, about

73 inches. That such a narrow branch had borne the weight of

a full-grown stag—for some rakes in the soil below suggested

that he must have swung—I could ascribe only to the spiral

twist in the wood. What amazed and still puzzles me was that

the signs indicated that, instead of merely rearing up against the

large tree with his forefeet and then craning backwards to hook

his antlers over the small branch, the stag had preferred to do

so by reaching under and engaging it from the far side—and had

succeeded ! :

At two other banyan trees, some distance away at the edge

of the glade, the stag (or stags) had attempted to do the same thing.

At one the attempt was quite tentative—merely hoof marks on

the trunk. At the .other—a tree, almost similar in shape to the.

first—the hoof marks went up to the fork (about 5 feet), then a little

further along the arm. to ‘the right; here, at about 7 feet, it

formed a narrow and steeply inclined Y—and the stag had tried

foengage the lower arm from beneath and beyond! Had he

“succeedéd, I am’ sure he’d have had the greatest difficulty in

disengaging. Or, was he thus trying to shed his antlers? The

signs on those trees were fairly fresh and the month was January.

The several stags I saw there carried good heads of hard horn,

but only one showed very bleached tips.

HosprraL Sup ‘MELcurIor. TREUB’, |

C/o British FLEET Mal_s, K. BOSWELL,

INDIA, » Capt., I.4.M.C.

Sih July ro4qs. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 603

[Commenting on the above Note Col. R. “W. Burton writes :—

Sambar stags are very fond of rubbing their horns against

trees long after the horns are hard and all the velvet has dis-

appeared. In many cases the beam, for some inches above the

brow-antlers, 1s polished quite smooth from the habit. This would

account for ‘the bark worn through to the wood which showed

the smooth polish of repeated friction’ observed by your

correspondent.

In most forest tracts of Central India and the Central Provinces

the story, ‘myth’ it can be styled, that sambar have the habit

of swinging by their horns is widely believed and related by the

jungle tribes, Bhils, Gonds, Konds, Korkus. I have often had

a tree pointed out to me as being one used by Sambar for , the

‘Jhoola’ practice (Hindustani, Jhoolna, to swing).

Dunbar Brander, at page 178 of this book ‘Wild Animals in

Central India’ describes what he terms ‘preaching’ by Sambar

-stags and has ‘seen the stag’s antlers become entangled in the

overhanging bough, and this no doubt has given rise to the story

that they swing by their horns’.

I never met a jungle man who could say that he. had witnessed

the swinging. It is no doubt a myth, like some other jungle

beliefs, with some sub-stratum of truth as foundation for the

story.—Eps. |

Vices ou EAs DISTRIBUTION OF THE THAMIN

(PANOLIA ELDI).

In his article on the ‘Larger Deer of British India’ in the

Journal of the Society, Vol. xliui No. 4 of April, 1943, -R. J.

Peacock gives the distribution of Panolia eldi as ‘Manipur, Burma

as far South as Tennasserim probably at least the Northern parts

of the Malay Peninsula, Siam, Annam, and Hainan’.

Although Burma naturally ‘includes eaten there is no mention

of any specimens ever having been obtained from that District or

from that part of Eastern Bengal with which it marches.

I was surprised to come across Thamin during the _ recent

campaign in Arakan on two or three occasions. My attention

was first drawn to the presence of this species by Lt.-Col. Edgerly

of the Civil Affairs Service, and late of the Burma Forest Service,

a keen naturalist who. knows the Thamin well, and thought it

strange to find it on the west coast.

I never managed to shoot one, and personally saw only two,

both adult males, and in the winter only.

One of the locals had caught a young female and had it as

a pet in his village.

They seem scarce and very local and confined to the low

ground and coastal foothills on either side of the Indo-Burma

border where the country in winter is dry, and the jungle scrubby

and open, with grassy hillocks, ‘kunai’ grass growing on the

foothills.

604. JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

The southern limit in Arakan seems to be MAUNGHNAMA

about 10 miles North of Mauncpaw.

How far North does it extend?

It certainly occurs in the open foothills 15 miles N-E of Cox’s

Bazaar where I have seen it twice. I found some Chittagonian

villagers and local shikari knew it, but all said it was scarce.

The Kumis and Moros who lived higher up had never heard of

it.

Villagers said they never saw them in the monsoon, but the

monsoon is so heavy that villagers do not get about much at that

time. Is it possible that the Thamin migrates over the Yomas

from the east in the dry season? On the other hand the doe in

captivity in the village of Maunghnama was taken as a fawn in

October 1943.

I hope someone will secure a specimen in order to ascertain

whether there is any deviation from the type.

Main HEADQUARTERS,

15 INDIAN Corps, Ae Js IeleDUbWe ClsteiisiTtsOuNl,

Tipe ele @)): / Lt.-General.

2oth June, 1945.

8.—A NOTE ON THE PRESENT DISTRIBUTION OF THE

SUMATRAN RHINOCEROS (DICERORHINUS SUMATREN-

SIS) IN THE ARAKAN DISTRICT OF BURMA.

(iriih a map).

The recent campaign in Arakan from the autumn of 1943 till

May 1945 offered a unique opportunity for trying to ascertain

the present distribution of the Sumatran Rhinoceros in this Dis-

trict. Throughout this period I had special patrols, usually con-

sisting of two British officers with some local levies and _ inter-

preters, operating in the Arakan Yomas east of the Kaladan and

Lemro rivers, and later all the way south to the Sandoway Yomas.

I briefed these officers, and they sent me regular reports of their

observations. Unfortunately none of them were naturalists, but

they produced much useful material, and this note is a collation

of their reports. . |

Visual records were very few indeed. During the whole period

only three were seen by British officers. In addition, tracks were

seen at rare intervals, and droppings and wallows were pointed

out by locals. On only two occasions were tracks pointed out

as belonging to a cow followed by a calf. However, local tribal

headmen who were consulted by patrol leaders knew the animal

well where it existed, while others were quite definite either

that it had never been known in their area, or that none had

heard of it in their lifetime, though it used to be known there.

As these patrols moved continuously in the Yomas, and as 1

was constantly asking them about rhinoceros, I got a. pretty

Meat Steet I | 008 REE Dy aaaiall NaH)

ops alae co pit Nl shirt a E “he A hs

oo Oneneatege: 7 a)

See ¥ egies ut ike a eh al eset i white ial ya .

aah f |

pos ce ua ey che :

Mere aS

Diane Aet wie ieee

pie ioe? abba bls ota a oy

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bs O00,000,0 pit ‘plead .

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Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

irae

ae BAZAR

MAUNGDOW\e

NOR

7 Areas in which

Op the rhinoceros still exists

Scale: 1+ 2,000,000

Miles. 20 10 96 20 40 60 80

Pea 8D 8 pose nae mercassuacned Iams EE |

1.014 Inches = 32 Miles.

P. Christison.

Present distribution of the Sumatran Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in the Arakan

District of Burma.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605

comprehensive picture of its present distribution, but a very vague

one as regards numbers.

The accompanying sketch shows the areas where this species

undoubtedly still exists.

As regards the three actually seen :—

No. 1 was seen in January 1944 about 7o yards away in a

sandy wallow in a rocky gorge. On getting wind of the party

it dashed into thick cover, and from the noise apparently made

straight up the hill side. :

No. 2 was seen in the early morning in April 1944, stand-

ing near a stream 100 yards away. When the officer crawled

up nearer to observe it he heard it make off, and never got a

second sight of it.

No. 3 was surprised on a game path on the spine of a

bamboo covered ridge. It wheeled round and made straight back

up the path. This was in March 1945.

All these were seen by different officers, and all the officers

were quite definite that the animal only had one horn. I do

not accept this as indicating sondaicus, as this species is probably

extinct in Arakan and does. not haunt the hill crests lke

sumatrensis. The posterior horn is not likely to have been

noticed by untrained observers.

Main HEADQUARTERS VRIES CERTSMmISON-:

15 INDIAN CoRPs, | Lieut.-General.

11 A.B.P.O.

24th July 1945.

9.—THE TAMIL NAME OF THE INDIAN PANGOLIN

(MANIS CRASSICAUDATA).

On page 233, vol. 45, Miscellaneous Notes—6 of the Journal

of the Society, Mr. R. W. Stoney refers to the Tamil name of Manis

crassicaudata as ‘Arrunkku’. The name by which the animal is

very commonly known in the Tamil Districts of Trichinopoly,

Tanjore and Madura, is ‘Alungu’. In other places it is called

Kalundu ‘Kadhundu’.

Udumbu, as he rightly says, is the Tamil name for the

Monitor Lizard—Varanus sp.

STATE MUSEUM, K. R. SRINIVASAN, o.a.,

PUDUKKOTTAI (S. INDIA). Curator.

3rd July 1945.

10.—NOTE ON THE INDIAN PANGOLIN

(MANIS CRASSICAUDATA).

(With a plate).

I obtained a male Pangolin on 6-7-45. It had been seen two

or three days previously floating in the floodstream of the Mutha

River at Poona. It rapidly became very tame; it appeared also

606 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. {SOCIETY sVolawas

to become accustomed to being taken. out in daylight. My

observations of its behaviour conform with the account given

in Sterndale’s ‘Mammalia of India’. In addition however obser-

vations were made on its mode of digging. When put in an

opened termite nest it would set to work unembarrassed by

spectators.

First it would sniff around, moving its snout rapidly from

place to place and making an occasional tentative scratch with a

forelimb. .When it had selected a spot it would begin to dig

making a few ‘scratches with each forefoot alternatively. The

rapid sniffing continued all the time, as the hole began to appear.

As .it progressed it would sometimes change direction, the animal

appearing to be guided by smell. If it started working sideways

or upwards it would turn over onto its side or back as the case

might be, and continue to dig in these positions.

Photograph No. 1. shows it working on its side. The hind.

legs were then frequently applied to the walls or roof of the

hole to obtain a better purchase. When: the hole was well

advanced it would periodically back out to eject the excavated

earth. The actual ejection from-the mouth of the hole was

performed in two movements. First the hind legs were planted

firmly astride and by a rapid movement of the whole of the.

forepart of the body (as when curling up) the earth was shot

between the hindlimbs. This is shown in photograph No. 2. the

part of the body in rapid motion at the moment of exposure (1/50

sec.) can be seen to be blurted. The downward curve of the

tail was caused by the fact that tip caught the ground as it moved

backwards. Secondly the forelimbs are planted on the ground

and a vigorous backward thrust is made with the hindlimbs

together. The animal then returns down the hole until the next

load is ready to be shifted.

When it struck one of the combs! in the nest, the digging

would cease whilst the ants are eaten. There -were however

many ants still in the remains of the comb when ejected.

For about six weeks it was fed on white ant combs and

condensed milk. In its box it would start on the combs as soon

as it smelt them, and sniffing continually, turn over the bits of

comb with rapid strokes of its tongue. The worrying action of the

tongue crumbled up the comb. IT was puzzled by the fact that _

it did not appear to pick up any of the actual comb, on its

sticky tongue. It would sometimes lick my hands if IT had been

handling combs, the tongue did not feel sticky.

On this white ant diet, its faeces were a bright’ straw yellow,

and the consistency of half set jelly, they were squirted out in

one action, they always appeared to contain some membrane.

With a view to accustoming it to a change of diet in prepara-

tion for a journey, the white ants were stopped, and it was fed

on milk alone for ten days, and then on milk and custard,

Four days after this it died (31-8-45). The cause of death

was not known; there was a fair amount of fat in the tissues

1 Fungus gardens,—Eps, :

1. The Indian Pangolin.

Photos by G, UNDERWOOD.

2. The Indian Pangolin,

MISCELLANEOUS: NOTES — 607

se evidently it had sufficient food; the stomach was nearly empty,

-so-evidently also it was able to digest its food.

I send a tube of ticks preserved in spirit, some of them were

found round the anus, but the great majority. were found under

the scales which provided ideal shelter. 1 noticed that the ticks

were quite willing to bite me. I hope you can identify them.

No. r. Licgut Scour Car Fietp PARK,

AGE Bs (POS WW: GARTH UNDERWOOD.

oth September 1945.

11.—WHISTLING THRUSH (MYOPHONUS CAERULEUS)

PREYING ON OTHER BIRDS.

The other day while watching a pair of Whistling Thrushes

(Myophonus caeruleus) in Naini Tal and trying to locate their

nest, I noticed one of them fly down on to the ground when it

was immediately attacked by several angry small birds, chiefly

the dark grey Bush Chat. The Thrush appeared from the lone eorass

‘with something large in its. beak which at first I took to be a

large slug, but soon saw it was a young bird, fully fledged. The

Thrush flew off on to a boulder and beat the small bird to kill

-it‘and then flew away with it in the direction of its nest. I never

found this nest because it was built on the side of a particularly

poisonous drain and I could not bear the smell long enough to

stay and watch.

Could you tell me if it is ageril for this Thrush to kill young

birds; it seemed to me not very characteristic of it; it could not

possibly have fed its own young with the bird it had dsilled.

1/29 PRITHVIRAJ Roap, a

24th June 1945.

[While Whistling Thrushes: (Myophonus) are. carnivorous in

the sense that they eat worms, insects etc. they are. not usually

given to feeding on other .birds: an individual, may however

-acquire such a habit as a development of its carnivorous appetite.

A Whistling Thrush in captivity was seen to kill and feed on a

-mouse which entered its cage. . Eps. ] 3

12.—BLACK-CAPPED KING: FISHER [HALCYON PILEATA

(BODD)] NESTING IN INDIA:

My brother, Shamoon, was touring) Mysore this year, when

(5th May) he found a nest-of this Kingfisher in the banks of the

.Sheravati River at the ferry just above the Gersoppa (Jog) Falls.

The nest was ae 3/ deep -and contained 2 newly hatched young

qand two egg

> Wig, 1S 58) iO Ginneee species, and noun it strageles up the

coast of. Western India, as far north as Bombay during winte:,

608 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

the only nesting record from India is Stewart’s (Nidification

p- 423), who.took four eggs from a hole in the bank of a small

river in Travancore forest. Nests have been taken in Burma

and at Bangkok, but though = fairly common in the Malay

Peninsula, the next nesting records are from Hongkong and

Foochow.

Messrs. Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDULREHMAN STREET, HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

BomBay.

19th June 1945.

13-—NOTES ON THE BEHAVIOUR OF NESTING PADDY

BIRDS (ARDEOLA GRAYII) IN KASHMIR.

(With two plates).

The Paddy Bird, Pond Heron or Blind Heron has had the

good fortune of being rescued by ‘Eha’ from a somewhat drab

obscurity with a sparkling phrase.' The bird is not uncominon in

Kashmir where it breeds in the Vale in some numbers, nesting by

or above water usually in willow trees. The main facts relat-

ing to its nidification are already well-known and need not be

recapitulated here, although some notes elicited by a spel! of

watching the breeding bird in Kashmir this summer (1945) may

be of interest.

During the breeding season, the Paddy Bird is by no means

the ‘silent bird’ of Mr. Stuart Baker’s Fauna of British India;

instead, in the vicinity of its nesting site, it keeps up an incessant

talking. A favourite call is a contented ‘huh’ varied with a

sort of asking sound, a duo-syllabic ‘yuck-kuck’ like old men ex-

claiming in weak voices. In its breeding plumage, the Paddv

Bird is extremely handsome, the head, in both sexes, developing

a long pointed white crest; while the back is adorned with de-

composed feathers of a rich maroon colour. Both crest and back

feathers are used in display as will be described hereafter. The

young, especially when clamorous for food, are also noisy keep-

ing up a continual ‘chick-chick-chick’, a noise uttered by the

young of other members of the heron tribe. A great part of

the time is spent by the adults and the more grown-up young

in a careful preening of the feathers principally of breast and

wing. Both young and old, like the Darter, habitually vibrate the

throat, the action having the effect of a pair of bellows which

blow the small feathers adhering to the mandibles from constant

preening, gently and flutteringly in an outward direction.

‘In his Common Birds of Bombay, Eha writes of the Paddy Bird, it ‘is

little persecuted and grows very familiar, allowing you to approach within

a few paces before it suddenly produces a pair of snowy wings from its pockets.

and flaps away’—Ebs.

Journ., Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PoAre I

Photos by W., JT. LoKE.

ig. 2. ‘‘— and yet more.”’

Journ., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Il

Fig. 1. Greeting display by Paddy Birds.

Lon

Photos by W. T. LoKkeE.

Tig. 2. Paddy Bird sheltering chick from sun.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 609,

Due to the presence of crows (Corvus s. zugmayeri) near the

nest I was observing one parent, even when the chicks were al-

most ready to fly, remained always on guard. Errant crows or

returning parents were greeted in a similar fashion; the crest

feathers were raised and spread, the breast and back feathers

fluffed out and shivered. (See fig. 1, Plate II). In addition, in the

greeting ceremony, the birds welcome each other with cries, the

parent on guard rushing up to the returning bird as though to drive

it off. When they get near, defiance gives place to the endear-

ments and the birds will caress and nibble the feathers of one

another’s neck.

The young birds, when they are large enough, demand food

from their parents in a most curious fashion. ‘In this connexion

I should like to refer the reader to Lt.-Col. R. S. P. Bates’

article in the Journal (Vol. 44, pp. 179 seq.) describing a similar

display in the case of the Little Bitterns (Ixobrychus minutus).

The bill of an adult is seized by a youngster in its own mandibles

and vigorously twisted, the head of the former being sometimes

forced to the level of the floor of the nest. (See figs. 1 and 2, Plate I).

That the adult does not enjoy this kind of treatment is proved by

the attempts (not always successful!) to escape filial attention by

stretching the telescopic neck to maximum extension. When the

young become too importunate, the adult will leave the nest and

seek quiet on a distant branch of the family nest-tree. When

the bill of the parent is out of reach, the young practise their

‘asking-for-more wrench’ on the twigs or branches. They will also

bill-wrestle with each other. The young are fed by regurgitation,

the parent depositing food on the floor of the nest and this is

seized with avidity by the hungry youngsters. On one occasion I

also saw a young bird, an hour after it had been fed, bringing up

two pieces of fish which were then picked up and eaten by one

of its three brethren. The bill does not appear to be much used

by the young as an aid in climbing, although when caught for

ringing they invariably seized their feet in their own mandibles.

Fig. 2, Plate II shows a parent sheltering a chick under its

wing from the heat of the sun.

BomBay. — W. T. LOKE.

22nd September 1945.

14.—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE CLUCKING TEAL

(NETTION FORMOSUM) IN THE MONGHYR

DISTRICT.

_ Stuart Baker notes in his ‘Game-Birds of India, Burma and

Ceylon’ that the occurrence of the Clucking Teal (Nettion formo-

610 JOU NAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

sum) within Indian limits is of the rarest. It may therefore be of

some value to add to the known record of its occurrence in India.

A, male of this species in full breeding plumage was shot at Simri

Bakhtiarpur in the north of the Monghyr District in the winter

of 1937-38 by Mr. Krishnanand Sinha, Proprietor, Banaili Raj.

The stuffed skin is now in the Patna Vineet

Cunayusacny,

Patna. | | _. D. E. REUBEN.

goth June 1945.

15.—RECORD CLUTCH OF EGGS OF THE WHISTLING

TEAL [DENDOCYGNA JAVANICA (HORSF.)]

_ While climbing up into a Banyan (Ficus bengalensis) tree to

get a shot at a mugger in a village tank (Sandhana, Kaira Dist.)

on September rst 1945, I found a Common Whistling Teal

(Dendocygna javanica) including a clutch of seventeen (17) eggs.

Though the Whistling Teal is common in Kaira District this hap-

pens to. be the only nest I have found of this species; so I can-

not say what the usual number of eggs in a clutch is in this

district. However on looking up the matter I find the following

information : =

Stuart Baker—6-8 eggs. In Punjab and Western India _1o-

12 common. Assam 4-5. #

Whistler—8-1o ‘ . ... though more or less are often laid’.

F. Finn—‘About a dozen white eggs are laid . . .’

Salim Ali—‘Seven to twelve eggs form the normal clutch,

the commonest number being 10’.

_. T’am fairly certain that only one bird laid these eggs, as when

I fired at the mugger, the duck off the nest, joined by its mate,

were the only two Whistling Teal to be seen flying around the

smallish tank.

Metruopist HospirTat, H. C. ALDRICH,

NADIAD, GUJARAT. . Surgeon-in-charge.

gth September 1945.

[Stuart Baker (Nidification of the Birds of the Indian Empire,

Vol. iv, p. 501) says that the normal clutch is eight to ten which

agrees with the estimates of many observers but occasionally

exceptionally large clutches are laid. He had one record of sixteen

and two clutches. of twelve and fourteen, both of which appear

to have been laid straight on end by one and the same bird.—EDs. |

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 611

16.—AXIAL-BIFURCATION IN [VIPERA RUSSELLII

(SHAW)| FROM BENGAL.?

(With a plate)

Though there are many authentic records of the occurrence

of double-headed snakes from different parts of the world, only

three such specimens appear to have been recorded in India so

far. Dobson’ reported, in the form of an abstract, cases of an-

terior dichotomy in two specimens of Lycodon aulicus (Linn.) and

Naja tripudians Merr., belonging to the Indian Museum. The

third record is by Wall*, who gave an excellent account of the

abnormality in the cephalic region of a juvenile specimen of

Lycodon aulicus (Linn.), found in the Fyzabad Museum. He re-

marked: ‘It is perhaps not so well-known that the genuine double-

headed snakes do occur occasionally as freaks, but in these instan-

ces both heads are always attached to the anterior extremity of

the body constituting what is technically called anterior dichotomy’.

Among various kinds of abnormalities, Johnson* recorded over

a dozen instances of dicephalic condition found in snakes, picked

up from the various museums of America, and tried to ee

this abnormal condition with the help of Jeanne.

Recently Cunningham’ has reviewed the published literature on

anterior dichotomy or axial-bifurcation in snakes and has given—

the geographical distribution of the abnormal specimens as fol-

lows: North America 76, Central America 4, South America 5,

Europe 31, Asia ro,° Australia 2, Africa 3 (Total 131).

The specimen of Vipera russellii that forms the subject of. the

present note is in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India.

It was caught at Tarakeswar in the district of Hooghly, Bengai,

and was purchased in May, 1929. It has been kept in alcohol over

a period of 16 years, and has turned hard and unfit for any an-

atomical investigation. It is 216 mm. in length and is no doubt

juvenile. The maximum length of the species so far recorded is

about 5 ft. 6 inches. (Brook-Fox).7 On account of the present

condition of the specimen and lack of facilities for X-ray work,

it has been possible to make observations on external characters

only.

In order to study the changes in the general form due to diceph-

alic condition, the abnormal Russell’s Viper (Fig. 1) has been

compared with a normal specimen of the same species and of

almost the same length. In the abnormal specimen the heads have

undergone no change in shape etc., but the scales appear to be

* Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Dobson, G. E., Proc. Asiat. Soc. Bengal, pp. 23-24 (1873).

° Wall, F., Journ. Bom. Nat, Hist. Soc., XVI, pp. 386-388 & 752-753 (1905).

4 Johnson, R. H., Trans. Wisconsin Acad., XIII, pp. 523-535 (1901).

° Cunningham, B., Azial- Bifurcation in Serpents, p. 68 (1937).

®° Probably the three abnormal specimens. recorded from India have been

included under ‘Asia’.

7 Brook-Fox, F. G.,. Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc.,. VIII, p. 565 (1894).

612 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

slightly fewer in number than in the normal specimen, as iS seen

in the following table.:— .

Tasre I.

Scale of abnormal and normal specimen

of Russell’s Viper.

- Scale counts

a SS || eel iornete,

Ventrals | Mid-body| Subcaudals

Abnormal Specimen

48 | 216 mm.

(Reg. No. 20434) 165 29

Normal Specimen

(Reg. No. 3144) | 168 31 52 220 mim.

The slight variation in scale count is within the range of variation es.

shown by Smith; Ventrals ¢ and @ 153-18); Subcaudals ¢ and 2 41-64;

Scales in the Mid-body 25-29; 27-33; 21-22.

No appreciable difference could be detected either in lepidosis

or in the shape and size (Table II) of the heads. Dentition is

normal and the poison fangs are developed in both the heads.

The two mouths appear to be capable of functioning in a normal

way.

TaB_e II.

Measurements (mm.) and scalation of the right and

left head of the abnormal and normal specimens.

Abnormal head

Sane SE a a ee UNOnMmalehead

| Right | Left

Length of head NZ, 16 16

Breadth of head 9 8 8

Scales between nasal and eye 2 2 2

Scales round the eye 12 14 14

Number of supralabials 10 . 10 10

The ventral scales up to the 8th are normal, but from the oth

to the 17th they are irregular (Fig. 2) and broken in the middle.

There is a slight vertebral projection, but without a skiagram

it is not possible to locate definitely the exact point at which the

projection has taken place. The projection lies at a distance of

34. mm. from the tip of the snouts.

* Smith, M. A., Fauna Brit. India (Rept. & Amph.), III, p. 483 (1943).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 613

Johnson (loc. cit., p. 533), has attached great importance to

the “Degree of bifurcation’. In almost all cases the angle of

bifurcation has been ascertained. either by dissecting the speci-

mens or with the help of skiagrams. With the specimen under

report either of these methods could not be resorted to.

Very little information is available on the behaviour of double-

headed snakes. Some authors, as Wall, Fischer! etc., observed

the behaviour of abnormal specimens kept in captivity.

Heasman* who carried out anatomical investigations on a

double-headed Coluber (Zamenis) florulentus Schlegel, has stated

that as ‘each head has a complete set of receptor organs, a com-

plete brain and a normal musculature it is reasonable to suppose

that the heads, being subjected to different stimuli, will behave

independently’.

A very interesting account of the behaviour of a _ double-

headed American hog-nosed snake (Heterodon simus), was pub-

lished in the Madras Times in 1897. It was stated that. the

snake used to feed with the two heads. simultaneously, and the

heads sometimes fought, and at other times played with one

another.

I am grateful to Dr. B. N. Chopra, Director, Zoological

Survey of India, for going through the manuscript and for mak-

ing some suggestions. I wish also to thank Mr. A. K. Mondul,

artist, Zoological Survey of India, for the drawings he has made

for this note.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

BENARES CANTT., Mia Nia A Eee} Peete Scr

3rd August 1945.

17.—ADDENDA AND CORRIGENDA TO ‘THE BUTTER-

Pel Se ORE NRE GURI SAU BIS SUNs \@lE Ss:

ILD ZINIIDY: DOU COUR GSIE CONOIRUNAUL:,

ADDITIONS.

New Species :—

292. Pathysa antiphates naira: Recorded from the Nilgiris in

July or August (Sanders).

293. Appias paulina wardi: . Foot of the Nadgani Ghat in

January (Emmet). Several from below Coonoor. (Florence).

294. Prinoris sita: Two from the middle of the Nadgani Ghat

in July or August. - (Sanders). |

295. Colotis amata modesta: 2v. albina: Recorded from the

Nilgiris by Sanders.

1 Fischer, E. C., Scientific American, LXXV (1806).

* Heasman, W. J., Journ. Anatomy (Cambridge), LXVII, pp. 331, 345

(1933).

614 JOURNAL {BOM BAVA TN A TOT CAE RSE omens OGLE STs Ya mea VaO lemme

Rearrangement of local Melanitis :—

gt. Melanitis leda ismene.

92. Melanitis phedima varaha.

93. Melanitis zitenius subsp. nov.

94. Melanitis tristis (or M. phedima vy. tristis ?)

296. Melanitis sp. nov? (or M. leda variety?)

In the list the female described was wrongly attributed to

phedima. It is obvious from further specimens of both sexes

caught in August at Walayar, near Coimbatore, that it 1s zitenius,

and apparently a very distinct subspecies. (See the description

given in the list, the male being very similar but differing in

shape. See also illustration in vol. xliv).

On the Mettupalaiyam Ghat in the wet season at the end of

the year there is a very common Melanitis similar to M. leda D.S.F.

but larger, brighter above, and more deeply and distinctly marked

below. We flies together with M. leda W.S.F. In the list this

species- was attributed, perhaps nonsensically, but by a process of

elimination, to M. gitenius. In the dry season only the D.S.F.

of leda apparently is to be found. What is this species ...a

variety of leda or 4 distinct species?

A detailed study of the imagines and larvae of the local Mela-

nitis would probably repay anyone who had the time for it.

297. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis: Recorded from Wen-

lock Bridge, Kallar and the Nadganit Ghat in July and August.

(Sanders). } :

298. Thaduka multicaudata kanara: Foot of the W. slopes

in May and January. Silent Valley in the same months. (Pringle).

299. Pratapa deva deva: Below Coonoor and at Kallar in

July and August. (Sanders).

300. Tajuria jehana: Mr. Wenlock Bridge in July or August

on Loranthus (Sanders). Tiger Hill, May. (Rawlins).

301. Tagiades distans : Major Emmet pointed out to me that

distans apparently is found in the Nilgiris and is not uncommon.

bf examining my specimens of T. obscuros athos, two from Kallar —

certainly answer superficially to T. distans. Emmet has specimens

from the Nilgiris and the Palnis and he informs me that he has

examined the clasps of the latter and they answer to the descrip-

tion of the clasps of 7. distans given-by Ormiston in his ‘But-

terflies of Ceylon’.

302. Halpe mooret moorei: Sigur Ghat in December (Emmet).

Local Padvraonae :—

279. Padraona cato cato.

280. Padraona pseudomaesa psendomaesa.

303. Padraona tropica diana.

304. Padraona palnia palnia.

Cato is abundant on the Nadgani Ghat in October. Also re-

corded from Singara in December and the Mettupalaiyam Ghat

in February. .

Pseudomaesa from Singara in December, tropica from the

MISCELLANEOUS -NOTES..... 4 4.7 . 6s.

Nadgani Ghat in October and from the plateau. Palnia from the

plateau.

Additional information on recorded species :—

11. Papilio buddha: Mid-Nadgani Ghat in September.

74. Mycalesis visala visala: Common at Guddalur in the

autumn.

ror. Euripus consimilis meridionalis: Two females | from

Kallar. (Sanders). ee!

108. Limenitis procris undifragus: Nadgani Ghat in Septem-

ber and July. Silent Valley in May. By the Moyar River in

December. (Pringle).

160. Megisba malaya thwaitesi: Kallar, 24th July .1945.

183. Nacaduba helicon viola: Nadgani Ghat in September.

(188. Nacaduba noreia hampsoni: Major Maitland Emmet

caught a good series of these at the foot of the Coolie Ghat in

the Palnis in May of this year. This is, of course, outside the

Nilgiris, but an interesting record).

193. Iraota timoleon arsaces: Kallar, July or August. (San-

ders). Foot of Nadgani Ghat, May. (Pringle). |

194. Horsfieldia anita dina: Near Coimbatore. (Pringle).

Gudalur in December. (Emmet).

196. Amblypodia centaurus pirama: Kallar, July or August.

(Sanders).

200. Surendra todara todara: Below Coonoor. (De Nicéville).

Nadgani Ghat in July or August. (Sanders).

204. Spindasis abnormis: Several records from Coonoor.

(Florence). |

209. Pratapa cleobis: Gudalur Dak Bungalow, below Coo-

noor, and from Wellington, in July and August. (Sanders).

211. Tajuria cippus cippus: Can be obtained on Loranthus.

below Wenlock Bridge and at Kallar in July and August. (Sanders).

213. Cheritra fraja jaffra: Nadgani. Ghat in September.

215. Horaga onyx cingalensis: Can be caught near Sultan’s

Battery in January. Local.

217. Catapoecilma elegans myositina: St. Catherine’s Falls,

Kottagiri, in December. (Emmet).

219g. Zeltus etolus: Nadgani Ghat in September. ,

227. Bindahara phocides moorei: 3 Kallar in May. (Emmet).

253. Baracus vittatus subditus: Dimbum Ghat in July.

(Pringle). 3

Errata :—

203. Spindasis schistacea. 251. Astichopterus jama mercara.

There are no records of these species: remarks apply to S. vul-

canus and to S. pulligo respectively.

262. Notocrypta paralysos alysia: Hampson’s is the only re-

cord I can find. My remarks apply to N. curvifasciata.

KETTI. M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH, m.a. (Cantab.}

July 1945.

l1—A

616 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

18.—TWO BURMESE SPIDERS WHICH MIMIC

SCORPIONS.

(With 2 plates).

The area of country close to Tongup, Burma is very rich in

spiders. During a period of three weeks in that area I collected

over seventy different species including the following two scor-

pion mimics.

These are apparently allied to the Genus Avaneus, but as |

have as yet been unable to identify them the following is an

ecological description only. In these numbers the tip of the abdomen

is elongated to form a scorpion-like ‘sting’. The first two pairs

of legs are larger than the hind two pairs, the femur being re-

latively large. Just as the mimicry of the ant-mimic genera

Myrmarachne and Amyclaea is partially dependent upon the an-

tennae-like waving of the first pair of legs, and by the ant-like

movement of the spider, so scorpion-mimicry of these two species is

dependent upon the aggressive attitude adopted by the spider

when it falls to the ground on being disturbed in its web. Most

members of the gefius Araneus ‘sham death’ when they fall to

the ground, but these two species curl the tip of the abdomen

forward over the cephalothorax and hold the first two legs on

each side close together, and straight forward, appearing very

like the pincers of a scorpion.

Both these spiders spin‘ simple orb webs about eight inches

in diameter, which are found under shrubs and trees in a vertical

position.

The web of the yellow species is found amongst small shrubs

with a yellow flower. When I saw this spider I thought that

it was a dried petal hanging in a web. The spider rests just above

the centre of its web with its abdomen flat against the webbing,

quite un-scorpion like in this position. Dried cast skins and petals

are also found in the web providing what Hingston terms ‘Decoy

Devise’ protection. When the web is touched the spider drops

to the ground and adopts the scorpion mimic attitude described

above. This will give protection due to the apparent rapid

change in form just as a rapid change in colour gives ‘Flash

colouration’ protection.

The red species is found beneath trees with very finely divided

compound leaves, the dried leaflets of which are reddish ‘brown

in colour. These dried leaflets are found in the web as ‘decoys’.

The spider rests in the centre of the web, the flattened tail being

apparently the stem of a leaflet. When the web is touched the

spider drops. as the yellow species does. Et

In this area I found many species of Avaneus, very dried-leaf

like in form when they are seen hanging in the web, or more

usually resting at the side, but the above two are the only mimetic

forms which I have found in Burma.

The mimetic protection obtained by these spiders is due —

entirely to their scorpion-like form ‘and attitude when on the

ground. They do not receive protection because they are found

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MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 617

in areas where scorpions are plentiful because I found very few

small scorpions in this area.

I would like to amplify this statement with reference to the

ant-mimic genus Myrmarachne. Around Tongup, the red ant Oeco-

phylla smaragdina is very common on the mango trees. The ant-

mimic spider Heplataloedes is also common on those ant infested

trees and is never found on trees without ant colonies. In this

case the mimetic protection is two fold, firstly that of similarity —

and secondly that of living with the ant ‘model’. Many other species

of Myrmarachinae, usually shiny black species, are common in

Tongu but I have never found them on trees where a model ant

colony exists. There may be a similar ant to be found, but in the

held they cannot be ‘paired’ together ecologically. In these cases

as with the scorpion-mimics described above the protection obtain-

ed is only half that of the red ant-mimic.

C/O Heap QuaRTERS,

22ND (E.A) INFANTRY BRIGADE, J. E. MARSON,

Sal BoA Ce F.R.E.S.

8th Spetember 1945. ) yaa

P. S.—I have today found another species of scorpion-mimic

spider which is to be found in dwellings here in Mawchii. Its web is

spun so that it is visible against abe sky and a typical position

is from the eaves to the supports of a verandah.

The web is usually about eight inches in diameter with about

twenty widely spaced radiatory web strands. The spider rests

centrally with its abdomen pointing downwards, the first two pair

of legs being straight forward and the abdomen tip flattened

against the web. The cocoon is spun just above the centre of

the web in a position between the spider’s first two pairs of legs.

A vertical jine of widely spaced debris, acting as ‘decoy’

device continues upwards from the cocoon. The illustrated web

(vide fig.) contains in insect’s leg and three sets of insect

remains.

The spider’s abdomen is centrally white with small pink dots

and the markings are golden brown standing darker to the sides

of the abdomen. |

When in the web the spider is difficult to see but when

disturbed it moves in the web with the tip of the abdomen curled

forward, a position which it continues to adopt when it falls to the

ground on a thread.

Mawcuil, J. E. MARSON,

5th October 1945. F.R.E.S.

Vott, H. B. Adaptive Colouration in Animals (1940).

Hinston. 1.M.s. Field Observations on Spider Mimics. P.Z.S. 1927 NVolaai\

Devices in Spider Webs. P.Z.S. 1927 Vol. XVIII.

JY Ue)

618 JOURNAL BOMBAY. NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

/19.—CURCUMA PSEUDOMONTANA .GRAH. »

~ Curcuma is one of the first plants to show up in Khandala short- °

ly after the beginning of the rainy season, and from its first appear-

ance till well into October it is one of the most showy and abun-

dant plants in the district. For this reason the very deficient and

often contradictory descriptions found in current floras are almost

inexplicable. I have been observing this plant for the last four

years, and it was only after many a day spent in pouring rain that

the various difficulties concerning the Khandala Curcumas were

solved. Through all these years I have often had the company of

Mr. C. McCann, who at a moment’s notice has always been

ready to brave the wettest and muddiest of conditions in Khandala

and elsewhere; without his support and company these notes could

not have been written.

Cooke (II, 734) when speaking of Zigiber cernuum Dalz. makes

an interesting remark, which can be fully applied to the various

species of wild Curcumas: ‘The plant unfortunately flowers in

July, at which time the whole of the hill-sides are streaming

with water, rendering plant-collecting a task of no ordinary

difficulty.’ The reason for this ‘unfortunate’ difficulty will be

appreciated when it is known that the rainfall in Khandala for

the last 15 years has averaged 188.37”, with a maximum of

230.90” in 1942 and a minimum of 154.85” in 1932; most of

this rain comes between June 15th and August 31st; this is the

reason why plant collecting during that most interesting part

of the monsoon is a task of no ordinary difficulty. Due to such

abundant rain, rocks become covered with slime and soil turns

loose and slippery, so that the danger of landing at the bottom

of one of the ravines after a very swift journey is a very real

danger and is always present during the monsoon.

As a consequence of such difficulties, the material preserved

at Kew and other national or foreign herbaria is very scrappy;

hence it is that descriptions of the plant such as are found in

Cooke’s Flova or in Schumane’s Zingiberaceae, etc., are necessarily

very incomplete, since they are mainly, if not exclusively, based on

preserved herbarium materials. In the following pages I shall

try and give as complete a description of the Khandala Curcuma

as.I have been able to gather in four years of intensive study of

hundreds of living specimens.

Occurrence. .Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. is one of the

commonest plants in Khandala throughout the rainy season; it is

particularly abundant about St. Xavier’s Villa, on the plateau

near Kune Katkari Settlement, on Behram’s Plateau and on the

top and upper slopes of Bhoma Hill (popularly known as ‘The

Sausages’); it is rarely to be found in the ravines, except on the

upper slopes where the climatic conditions are about the same

as those prevailing in Khandala Plateau.

From all these places large numbers of specimens have been

collected; often after a day of Curcuma-hunting. there were as

many as fifty different specimens on the tables of our improvised

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 619

iaboratory. Each plant was examined and measured carefully for

its height, size of leaves, colour of bracts, etc. After this

thorough study of the plant in -the living condition, it was

conveniently dissected, poisoned and pressed; most of the specimens

collected at Khandala are now preserved in the Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier's College, Bombay

From the very beginning there were a number of details that

seemed to differ considerably from the description given in Cooke’s

Flora. In order to get an insight into the story of the develop-

ment of Curcuma pseudomontana, a square plot of about 20 m.

side was marked off with stones in front of and near St. Xavier’s

Villa. Visits to Khandala and to this ‘observation plot’ were

paid every two or three weeks from June to October; this went

on for three years. On the fourth year the plot was found to be too

large, and certain anomalies that appeared in some of the plants

could not be accounted for. In 1944 a much smaller plot was

selected, about 2 sq. m. containing about 5 or 6 Curcuma plants.

The results obtained from visiting such plots and other places in

Khandala amply repaid the trouble taken during four successive

years.

DESCRIPTION OF Curcuma pseudomontana Grah.

Rhizome conical or cylindrical, about 6.5 x 2 - 2.5 ems.

Fibrous roots:many, stout (about 5 mm. diam.), up to 20 cms.

long but generally shorter (8 - 15 cms.); each root bearing at its

end an elliptic or globose tuber of 1.5 - 4 x 1.5 - 2.5 cms. Both

the rhizome and the small tubers are white inside in their young

stage, or white with a pale tinge of yellow; as they become

old, and their starchy contents get absorbed, the colour of the

tubers deepens into. orange yellow. Rhizome and tubers, when

freshly cut, are pleasantly aromatic and taste very strongly of

Ginger. The small tubers are formed towards the end of the

rainy season and together with the rhizome are the means of

insuring the survival of the plant during the dry periods of the

year; at the beginning of the next monsoon the plant draws on

last year’s supplies for its immediate growth and_ flowering.

During August one can see the remains of the old, exhausted tubers

at the end of decaying roots, and the beginnings of the new tubers

on freshly formed roots.

Generally there is but one aerial shoot from each rhizome; on

several occasions, however, we have found two shoots growing side

by side from the same underground rhizome.

The leaves come out either after the inflorescence spike, or

occasionally at the same time as the spike or in very rare cases

just before the spike. Generally when the spike is about 10 - 15

ems. high, the first leaf appears above ground, all curled up

longitudinally; the unfolding of the leaf is just a matter of a

few hours; as the season progresses other leaves appear, so that

by the end of the rains there are 5 - 7 leaves per plant.

The size of the leaves varies with the season and the location in

which the plant is growing; on exposed slopes near the top of

620 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.-SOCIETY, Vol. 45

Bhoma Hill throughout the whole season, or elsewhere at the

beginning of the rains, leaves are relatively small; during

September and early part of October they attain such large

proportions that at a little distance such plants are easily mistaken

for wild banana plants. There is in Blatter Herbarium a set of

specimens with leat blade 69 x 30.5 cms., petiole from ground level

to leaf base 74 cms. long; the largest leaf collected up to the

end of 1944 was 160 cms. long from ground level to tip of

leaf.

Leaves are entire, ovate, or oblong lanceolate, acute or

shortly acuminate, -base acute or shortly decurrent into the

petiole; lateral nerves numerous, parallel among themselves

and forming a broad angle with the midrib, very conspicuous

on both sides of the leaf, which occasionally even appears

plaited. Petiole stout, cannelled above; base of the petiole

broadening out and forming a sheath which embraces the stem

tightly; at the upper part of the sheath there is a conspicuous:

ligule, which is truncate, membranous, up to 16 mm. broad, 5 mm.

long, entire, ciliate at the edges. The general-colour of the leaf

and petiole is of a deep rich green, and of about the same intensity

on both sides, becoming a little paler or almost white at the base

of the petiole. 3

Inflorescence spikes come out together with or béfore the

leaves; when these appear, they push the spike to one side, so

that inflorescence is definitely lateral. By the middle of August

lateral spikes decay and for a time flowers are not to be seen.

-In the second half of the monsoon all the plants have spikes

coming out of the centre of the leaves i.e. spikes are central; for

three years this proved an insoluble riddle. <All the plants with-

in the observation plot were with lateral spikes up to August;

then suddenly and unaccountably such plants seemed to disappear

and a new set of plants with central spikes take their place.

For all this unfortunate riddle we have Cooke and his key to

thank. The solution of the puzzle was only found when eventually

a plant was noticed with a large central spike and the remains

of a decaying lateral spike still attached to the same _ plant.

This at once suggested that one and the same plant had lateral

and central spikes at different periods. After this, plants. were

collected wherever they showed a lateral spike: on dissecting

such plants, invariably we found that there was a central spike

still enveloped by the leaf sheaths but with the upper coma bracts

already coloured rose or purple. On July 21st, 1945, a number of

plants were examined for the double spike; the lateral spike was

fresh, in full bloom; at.first the central spike seemed to be ab-

sent altogether, but after careful dissection a minute central spike

was found in most plants, the ‘embryonic’ spike being only about

1.5 cms. long and about 3 to 5 mm. at its broadest, and com-

pletely colourless. From observation of the living plant we may,

therefore, say that Curcuma pseudomontana Grah. has a lateral

spike at the beginning of the flowering season (‘flowering spike

vernal or aestival, lateral’ Cooke) and a central one at the end of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 621

the rains (‘flowering spike autumnal, rising in the centre of a

previously formed tuft of leaves’, Cooke). It is obvious, there-

fore, that such keys as are to be found in Cooke, Schuman,n,

Baker, etc. where the basis for the classification of the various

specimens of Curcuma is the position (lateral or central) of the

spike, must be scrapped altogether.

The size of the spike varies considerably with the season; the

biggest spikes generally occurring during the second part of the

monsoon, i.e. during September and early October. In June the

spikes are small, from 6 to 12 cms. long and 2 to 3 cms. in dia-

meter, with a peduncle 6 to 10 cms. long. At the end of Sep-

tember some of the spikes measured in Khandala were 25 x 12.5

ems. with a peduncle 4o cms. long.

Floral bracts green, or green with purplish or reddish tips,

rounded, saccate, a little shorter than the bracts of the coma.

Each flowering bract subtends sometimes three, most often four,

and occasionally five flower buds which open out successively.

‘Sterile’ bracts of the coma are very variable in colour; the

following are some of the colour variations noticed in Khandala:

(1) Uniform pink of various shades; this is the commonest colour.

(ii) Pure white all through. (ili) Pure white with pink tips. (iv)

White with pink tips and a broad stripe or stripes of pink colour

running down along the centre of the bract. (v) White with

several green stripes running longitudinally downwards and _ paral-

lel to each other. (vi) Pink with very deep purple, almost black,

tips. The size of the coma bracts is up to g to 10x 4.5 cms.

Generally the brightly coloured coma bracts are sterile; but to-

wards the end of the season they often support a number of

buds or flowers, especially bracts away from the very apex of

the sptke. Both coma and floral bracts are free in the upper

part, but are attached to the spike by their bases and lower por-

tions of the sides, thus forming a _sac-like cavity for the flowers.

The venation of all bracts is very prominent, parallel, and in the

case of the lower bracts often marked with greenish or purplish

lines.

Calyx membranous, about 1o mm. long, or occasionally going

up to 18 mm. in length; 3-lobed, the lobes 4 to 6 mm. long and

about as broad, rounded or subacute at the apex; occasionally the

calyx splits longitudinally down one side. The colour of the calyx

is pale creamy yellow almost white.

Corolla at first pale cream in colour with a touch of pink at

the tips of the petals, later on turning completely yellow; up to

6.4 cms. long; corolla tube up to 3 cms. long, 3 to 4 mm. broad

at the height of the calyx mouth; corolla limb 1.5 cms. in dia-

meter. Petals subequal, or the dorsal petal larger than the other

two, ovate, acute or mucronate; lateral petals ovate, obtuse, with

hyaline margins.

Stamen one, 5 to 7 mm. long including the spur at the base,

two celled, each cell ending in a spur slightly curving outwards ;

anther connate with the staminodes, filament short, almost O,

the whole stamen white. Staminodes two, petaloid, ovate-oblong,

slightly oblique at the apex, obtuse almost truncate, free limb

622 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

12xg mm. Dehiscence of the anther cells seems to be through a

small pore in each cell near the base.

Lip divided to half its length or merely notched, with two

lines of reticulately spongy tissue running down the whole length

of the lip along the centre; lip 12x12 mm. Lip and staminodes

bright yellow, uniform in colour with the petals.

Style filiform, up to 38 mm. long, pale white in colour; stigma

small, variously lobed; nectaries two near the base of the style,

5 mm. long, 1 mm. broad and about 0.5 mm. thick, rounded at

the tip, whitish in colour. Ovary 3-locular, inferior, densely hir-

sute outside, the hairs being short, whitish and pointing up-

wards; the whole ovary greyish in colour. Fruit 3-locular, tri-

gonous, 1.3x1 cm., white in colour at maturity; seeds numerous,

arillate with a hyaline aril. Given the large number of flowers

produced by the plant, it is remarkable that the number of fruits

is not correspondingly large. This may be due to the fact that in

many flowers fertilisation does not take place at all, or if it does,

insects get at the fruit too soon and destroy it in the early stages;

towards the end of the rainy season it is rare to find a fruit which

has not been more or less damaged by insects.

A FEW NOTES ON THE NOMENCLATURE OF THE KHANDALA CURCUMA.

Graham called his plant C. pseudomontana, and the descrip-

tion, however imperfect it may be in many respects, seems to

apply to the Khandala Curcuma. Baker in Hooker’s FI. Br. I.

(6: 214, Dec. 1890), and Schumann in Engler’s Pflanzenreich

(iv, 46, p. 106, Nov. 1903) reduce Graham’s C. pseudomontana

to C. montana Roxb.; Index Kewensis (i: 672, 1895) gives C.

pseudomontana Grah. as ‘nomen rejiciendum’, and mentions C.

montana Roxb. as the only correct name. Cooke (II, 731) makes

a few apposite remarks on the subject that deserve considera-

tion. The question of the colour of the tubers must be left aside

altogether, as it varies not with the species but with the age of

the plant. Roxburgh says of C. montana: ‘bulb conic, with pale

yellow, palmate tubers’; Schumann adds that the tubers are

sessile with fleshy roots. Graham clearly states (Cat. no. 1477)

that. in his plants the bulb or root is oblong, and that ‘from it

descend rather stout fibres bearing at their ends round tubers of

the size of a small potato’. We have examined hundreds of

specimens in Khandala at various times, and in every singie

case the tubers were found to be oblong or globose, but never

palmate, and always at the end of long fleshy roots, never sessile.

The question as to whether the spike is vernal or autumnal,

lateral or central, seems also to have vexed many of the authors

who have written on the Scitaminaceae; but the cause of such a

confusion must be attributed to defective observation of the plant,

which has the ‘unfortunate’ habit of bursting into flower during

the most unpleasant part of the year.

Whilst reading carefully through the description of Curcuma Rana-

dei Prain in J.B.N.H.S. (ii: 463, 1898) one cannot fail to notice the

very close similarities between Prain’s new species and Graham’s

Curcuma pseudomontana. For three years I have examine?

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES .. 623.

specimens of Curcuma growing on the upper slopes of Bhoma

Hill, where due to the exposed position of the plants, they go

through the monsoon as dwarfed specimens; when these dwarf

plants are compared with Curcuma Ranadei Pr., it is impossible

-to see any difference between them; and the Bhoma Hill speci-

mens are decidedly Curcuma pseudomontana Grah.

New Key To THE CURCUMAS OF BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

In order to facilitate the identification of Bombay Curcumas,

the following key is proposed, where the whole question of lateral

and central spikes has been left aside as unsatisfactory; this key

is purely artificial, and is intended for the convenience of , field

workers who may in the past have experienced some difficulty m

identifying their Curcumas from the key supplied by Cooke. The

basis of the present key is the colour of the flowers, which seems

to be permanent for a given species of Curcuma; the only claim

we make for the present key is that it has been used for the last

two years and has been found to be helpful and correct.

In the present key we have included two new species of Curcuma

‘described by. Blatter in 1930, Curcuma inodora and Curcuma pur-

purea. I have omitted C. Ranadei Pr. as being synonymous with

Graham’s C. pseudomontana. .

Corolla yellow :

Rhizome small:

No tubers at the end of the root fibres: ... C. neilgherrensis,

Small subglobose tubers at the end of the root fibres .... C. pseudomontana.

Rhizome large; tubers sessile B60 06 wa C-samada.

Corolla white or yellowish white C. amada.

Corolla purple:

Corolla with a yellow streak on the lip:

Tubers numerous : .

Tubers at the end of the root fibres oe .. CC. imodora.

Tubers sessile, palmately divided ate a1. C. aromatica,

Tuber one, sessile ane im bee .. Cy. purpurea.

Corolla without a yellow strealx on the lip oa --. C. decipiens.

REFERENCES TO LITERATURE.

Baker, J. G.—‘Scitamineae’ in Hooker’s Flora of British India, vi, 198-

264, 1890-1892.

Blatter, E.—‘New Species of Indian Plants’, Journ. -& Proceed., As. Soc.

Beng, (N.S.), 26 (1): 239-366, 1930. ,

Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. 1901-1908.

Graham, J.—Catalogue of the Plants Growing in Bombay and its Vici-

nity. 1839 :

Schumann, K.*—‘Zingiberaceae’, in Engler’s Pflanzenreich, iv, 463; 1903.

St. XAVIER’S COLLEGE,

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18th July 1945.

624 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 45

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FOR SALE

The Game Birds of India, Burmah and Ceylon by Hume and Marshall,

published by A. O. Hume and C. H. T. Marshall, 2 Hastings Street, Calcutta,

with illustrated cnromo-litnography of various Game Birds.

Vol. I (First Edition, 1869)

Wolholllas an (Get oneal S710)

Moles (e ee. 1870)

Price Rs. 175 for three Volumes.

Apply to

Col. A. H. Erskine-Lindop, M.C.,

Commandant, No. 9, Ind.M.T.Trg.Centre,

R.I.A S.C., Meerut, U.P.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS (P, I, C, NO, Q.H. MS. 5)—20-12-45—1,250 COPIES—C81

EDITORS : S, H. PRATER, C, MCCANN AND SALIM ALI, 6, APOLLO STREET, FORT, BOMBAY

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS.

Birds.

Game Birds of India, Vol: III. Pheasants, 1st Edition. : Rs. 32,

(Price to Members Rs. 24).

Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali, with many colour and black and white

plates, 3rd edition, revised and enlarged. Rs. 16.

(Price to Members Rs, 12-8).

Snakes.

identification of Poisonous Snakes—

Hanging Wall Chart, 30740". (Revised in 1940). Rs. 8.

Folding Pocket Chart. Re. 1-12.

Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by E. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S. Re. 1.

Miscellaneous.

Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a Domestic Dog or Jackal,

rf etc. Rs, 2-8

Back Numbers of the Journal.

Back numbers of the Society’s Journal, Rates on application.

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP.

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and a Life Membership fee of

Rs. 350.

Ordinary Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 10 and an annual subscrip-

tion of Rs. 25.

The subscription ef members elected in October, November and December

covers the period from the date of their election up till the end of the following

year.

MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA.

The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers tu pay the

amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-o—to the Society in

Bombay on the 1st January in each year. If this cannot be done, then the sum

of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, E.C.

NATURE CALENDAR

FOR 1946

The Bombay Natural History Society proposes to és

issue a Nature Calendar for 1946. It is illustrated with

beautiful Nature photographs of Birds, Mammals, Butter-

flies, etc. by Messrs. E. H. N. Lowther, Lt.-Col. R. S. P.

Bates, Lt.-Col. B. T. Phillips, O. C. Edwards and others.

The demand for these calendars has prompted us to

publish them annually. Itis hoped that they will help to

solve the question of Christmas and New Year Greetings.

The last issue of the Nature Calendar was limited

to a weight of 2 oz. by the Government of India Paper

Control (Economy) Order. This limit has since been

raised. The new calendar will contain 12 pages (a

month to a page) and will be mounted on card as

formerly.

Price Rs. 3. (Price to members Rs. 2-4)

Postage and Packing extra

Apply to:—

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

ree e.

THE BIRDS OF KUTCH

SALIM ALI

With 20 coloured plates (illustrating about 100

species) and 16 in half-tone from photographs.

_ A concise handbook of the birds, both resident and

migrant, found in Kutch, Kathiawar, Gujarat and the

adjoining areas of Western India, describing their Field

Characters, Habits, Nidification, etc.

Published by the

OXFORD UNIVERSITY PRESS. Price Rs. 20

(To Members of the Society. Rs. 18)

Packing and Postage, Re. 1 extra

On Sale by

THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

114, Apollo Street, Bombay.

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