CONDENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

No. 3

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (W2th a coloured

plate.) OF THE EaSTeERN COMMON CRANE WMegalornis

grus lilfordt AND THE DEMOISELLE CRANE Anthropotdes

virgo. By E. C. Stuart Baker, P.Z.S., F.U.S., M.B.0O.U.,

H.F.A.O.U-; ee

REVISION OF THE aa Gi OF THE ROR TAS beg ESIDENCY. oe V.

By Wa biatver and, ©. McCain Jaz eeicecuseuwetacdctconece eke

PAGE

397

408

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA. (Witha map and ten ~

plates.) By Marius Maxwell..

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXIX, “(With ee blates.) By

Et.-Col. F, C. Fraser, 1.M,S.,-F.8.S:. ae

A SIND LAKE. (With six plates and yee Tae Lene ‘By

Salim A. All... :

THE LANGURS, OR par homens OF Sees ieee ‘(With

one coloured and one black and whtte plates and twenty-one

text-tieuyes.) By K. 1. Pocock, F.R-s..

A COLLECTING TRIP TO LapaKk. Part I. With a ioe ee,

iive plates.) “By V5. LVaPersonte... a

A List oF ORCHIDS, WITH SOME News Suneiaees FROM THE

HicH Wavy Mountains (Mapura District). (Wzth a

PGC) By OIE oS. ND, hale. Sy oh sometyade acy tea cari

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF ‘TUTICORIN,

MarcCH AND APRIL, 1927. (With four plates.) By P. R.

Awati, I.E.S.. oa Se Re Ae ate Sati Mode ties cachaiae

MoDERN Was Me ODss pea I. (Wz2th stx plates and

ite textizgures.). By ©. H. Prater, C.M.Z.s.. ae

BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S Mian Sorat OF

INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. Report No. 46. By T. B.

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ANATOMY AND LIFE

HISTORY OF THE COMMON EDIBLE BACKWATER OYSTER,

Ostrea madrasensis. (With two plates). By S. T. Moses,

MBAy 2 FZ. 5 RoRsAcl.: .

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE ae By the ee ie [Col C. E. ane

DINERO Mauser 8 Sas eee ater eect ck fae< stidlem: ase dalsexs cate os adabeeed one She

@ BIW Vireo team erediw ooh tae iio owas aw dod eT EY cdva see ees ea kees

436

450

460

472

505

518

524

532

545

548

o/ 1

589

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Readers’ Views on ‘ Game Preservation in India. ’

By W. M. Logan Hoine.. ; ase

II. A Unique Lion BRO ter oi “(With a piney =

Salim A. Ali.. ve Vat a

III. White Tigers. (With a phen ape By FB. 5

Robinson.. : yak

IV. A Pussle eee aver aon Buffalo ‘Bait. ‘ay

Ss a\iro.C-Cliver: ;

V. Unusual Benaviour he Teeeen ithe Live Bait.

(With a plate.) By F. O. Cave...

Vi. ‘What is the Record Panther ?* by Ww. M. dean

Home.. : aSadleys SONS Tae eRe eee

Vito A Beane rer Flashi@ent: “(With a plate.) By

B. Avs. Brunskills ae :

VIII. Boldness of Banter ie W. M. ie ‘Homer

IX. Circumstantial Account of a Panther attached oy

Wild:Dogs: By Je McC Clive, Ce eee

X. Wild Dogs. By J. C. Faunthorpe.. M

XI. How Wild Dogs kill their Prey. Be A A. Daal

Brander... ie Sees eh eee

XII. The Record: Eoqcnoned tantslopee ( Tetraceros

guadricornts). (Witha photo.) By C McCann...

XIII. Abnormal Blackbuck and a Good Chinkara Head

from Bikanir. (Wz7th a plate.) By Surajmal

Singh... eae: jodie haNaiis eee

XIV. Clicking Meiee ae te Munn ey Charles

Theobald, F.zZ.S.. RPE ee et Ue ee

XV. The Bray of the Chital ee oe W. M. Logan

Home.. Ra ame rh ok

XVI. Musth in See: cae N. , Coen Rep eee hk eee a

XVII. - A Large Tusker Blephant. By A. W. John...

XVIII. A Good Nilgiri Tahr (Hemztragus hylocrius.) By

A. We JSonn.. Ee ete nts Ai te

OX Birth:<Ot Frente Calf at igo "(With a photo.)

By C.°E. -D: Mears... setae eae

XX. An‘ Example of an Assisted iDascase! es Hugh

Whistler, F.L.S., F.Z.S.. aoe Tae

XXI.- Extraordinary Pa enuciie saa hel Ruse. Cheniea

Scimitar Babbler Oo eee Me ce)

By Arthur H. Berriff... ivha as

XXII. Occurrence of the Wode ne in ane ‘Conteal

Provinces. By J. McC. Clive......

PAGE

592

Ss)e)

599

600

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

XXIII. Notes on Duck Shooting in the Roorkee District,

7 U.P. in the years 1903 to 1927. CE ee

By A. H. Cunningham... : SAG ge

-XXIV. Snipe and Woodcock in S. Hectic aS Ha, G.

- Phythian Adams.. Sere

XXV:. A Correction to Mr. ss 8 Osiastons ss NRE on

oe the Birds of Kashmir’. By Hugh Whistler......

Mex LE Aan Aibino Turtle: By B.A.~D’ Abreau, F:Z.S.....

XXVII. Notes on the Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus)

" and the Spiny Tailed Lizard ( Uvomastix

microlepis). By Norman L. Corkill... ce

XXVIII. Hamadryads in the Kumaon Terai. By, W. M.

Logan Home.. : eae Dee

XXIX. Mer. Slater’s Death a Saale! Bite. ins Charles

oe ‘+: : Theobald.. a

XXX. A Note on ne (ones sais onae. Tb yonis

- myctertzans) and Young. Cee photo.) By

C. McCann.. :

- XXXI. A Record She Nesneee ‘(With a Pein) ne

G. A. Hare.. :

XXX. “Aquatic anchor in hire eoliecion of the ye

| ‘cultural College, Coimbatore, S. India. By

CedticWDiOvCres win aliens eu eee ot been emu

EpR@ OI DENG Shae tele antec vc erst Somtinr pemsee teeeed anne ce oc oaesk es

No. 4.

THE our BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (With a coloured

plate.) OF THE BLACK-NECKED CRANE Wegalornis nigrt-

colitis, “By B.C. Stuart Baker, ¥-Z.S.) 81S. M.B.O;U.,

BLIGH CA@r incre sinc te ieee errant, cota th anusgia wade eo ee alan Sais

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, Part

Wik By re blauten S.J ePlicl Hal Gr 42 ds:4Mecale abe,

A COLLECTING Trip TO LApak. Part Il. (W2th two plates.)

Vg N aS: ECT SONG ek iio bata tel uel Wie seo cotenaa tyes

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA. Part

Il. (With two plates and three text- -figures.) By R. I.

HO COCR MREG: att secnen | eel ne soe een. Bumaeys! a, MEd

THE Bic BULL OF SEMBUTOLLAVU. (Witha plate.) ByC. P.

CLOGS Wii vase tens hot Canes Si eentekcss Sth catkins. uatuats:

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXX. (With three plates.) By

ew oll. ©! Nraser, 1.M.S.5 FoEsS 20 occ de cen Lo. eakentencce

THE STUDY OF PLANT Lire. Partl. (With two De nid

Sieve lext-tioures.) By Charles’ McCann, ..-. ses. 0.09: ecs cc.

608

610

611

612

613

614

616

617

622

650

660

678

683

692

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

Notes AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FISHES FROM CEYLON. (With

two plates.) By Tieniy WV emer ae 9.) es ee eee

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT

Hit. PROVINCES, “RartVil, By ColscA. Be ward &

FORAGING TERMITES. (Lutermes biformis, Wasm.) (With a

plate.) By R. W. G. Hingston, Major, I.M.s., ae

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS ABOUT SIMLA. By reese Whistler

LD Pits Gt 0) Ais Wa rere od te ney Runs chins Pry cone Ge HEVIA babi SA MeSt gy rl nact nie

SOME NEW SPECIES OF PLANTS FROM THE WESTERN GHATS.

(With a plaice.) By le Blatternand ©. McCann a.c.c- ace

BIRDS OF PREY AND THEIR Uses. (W/7th four plates.) By

Cy BH. Donald, 2rez:s< -M. BiQaUs 3 sa eee oe eee

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR Districr. (Witha

map.) By Rev. F. S. Briggs and B. B. Osmaston,

M.B.O0:Ui; 2.BsS. ((RCtda) tea ena en me eee ee eens

MODERN Museum Mrtuops. Part Il. (Wzth two plates.)

By > Hie <Prater, G2 beZi6 eee ate ae an eet aan are ee

REVIEWS :—A eee oor OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA.

Part LV.

avals: 6.0.0 e700 16,4 05a 8,0 bole; 'ete/e) 6 ake. 66.6 6 eiererepes @pelelere 98:9 aera

THE LITTORAL FAUNA OF KRUSADAL ISLAND 1 IN

THE GULF OF MANAAR WITH APPENDICES

ON THE VERTEBRATES AND PLANTS...........

With A CAMERA IN TIGHR: ANDi. .c.-ccu eee ee

DWELLERS IN THE JUNGLE 0 ae ee

EDITORIALS A ne ee cee J Pia Ade igs a ee

OBITUARY. 2S cee Pn nee ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. ‘A Unique Lion Photograph.’ By F. W. Champion,

LFS and téeply by-SalimyAd Alt... sense oes

II. A Clouded Leopard (Felis nebulosa) attacking

Man. (With a plate.) By A. Browniow, Indian

Police sfc. 2 sas eae nt ele toa lee eee eer

III. Noosing Tigers. By H. A. Boas.. ae

lV. Reply’ to Mr: Phillips” Note onin: “371, ok

XXXII ve Colour of the Long-armed Shonthe

tailed Bat (Zaphozous longimanus.) By C.

MocCann, 33. gacscictt cages ee tees nena eee

V. Habits of the Porcupine. By Ralph C. Morris..

VI. An Elephant with extraordinary ‘ Glands’. ( With

a plate.) By A.S. Laurie... Ae

VII. Ons Natural Deaths’ in Wild aleohante ie

Ralph: ©.aMortis, «can ..2). ot cee ee eer oe

788

789

790

791

Tou

792

«194

VIII.

XII.

XIII.

XIN

XV.

XVI.

OVO

XVIII.

XIX.

XX:

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXII

Clicking Noise made by Muntjac. By B. B.

Osmaston, Indian Forest Service (Retd.). .......

Grows and —<Koels; By E. <A. Andrews,

Entomologist, Indian Tea Association

The Rufous-breasted Blue Flycatcher ( Cyornts

hy perythra) at High Levels. By C. Boden Kloss

The Nidification of the Sind Hill Warbler (Suzya

crinitgera striatula). By H. W. Waite,

eereceec eee eee

F.Z.S y

BE BuON Win. Lil cia OLICE! nannies eer a seine cobs dette

On the Unusual Food-habits at Horibills, By

Satya “Churn. WawieMes., BL. Ph.D.,. F:Z.S.,

Wee By ORWeeth, area cats wanes eek he oka etary staat a8

The Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) i in

the Darbhanga District, Bihar. By Chas. M.

[ne@lis, F:Z.S:,. F-B.S., M.B.O.U.. aoe

A Quail’s Queer Retreat. Reseed: fon ihe

Sunday Times, Johannesburg, Transvaal,

INFO VERIDEE LS p20 ok NaN Mews ool ida eee. cel oes

Occurrence of the Sheldrake (7% ador na 2 tadorna) in

the Darbhanga District, Bihar. By Chas. M.

MMe liSy -Pe2(S4 Fae .Sa 5, Me BcOe Uni. foc tinctaek Se pew eatiee

Occurrence of the Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna) in

the United Provinces. By Capt. BE. E. L.

Seats ots Cat) creas fee oes 20 oh els cbs ee te a,

Recovery from the Bite of a Phoorsa (&chis

By Lieut.-Col. A. A. Meaden,

The Mogul Emperors of India as Naturalists and

Sportsmen. By Sunder Lal Hora, D. Sc., F.t.s.,

F.z.S., Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta......

The Effects of Bee Venom. Reprinted from 7he

Indian Medical Gazette, Vol. LXII, No. 5, May

1927. By A. Bayley de Castro, Junior Medical

carinata).

eee eeeree © F&F eee F-8OF ses eoersr neers reres ZF © ee oF FF Hoe OOD

Plants and Insects. eye H. Jouguet... a

Weeds of the Indian Wayside. By H. idagaees

PROCEEDINGS AND STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS.

eoe eee eer ees O82 FT eFe

vii

PAGE

795

796

OSL

798

799

793

800

802

805

807

810

813

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XXXII

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE PAGE

ppAMS Major E. G. PHYTHIAN, BEATTER,- 7 Sede oe alae

I. A.; Snipe and Woodcock in F.L.S. and McCann, C. ; A list

South India : 606 of Orchids with some new

ALT @OALIM oN.4 VA Boing ale species from the High Wavy

(with six dates and three text- Mountain (Madura District)

figures ) a feet 7.20 2460 (wth a plate) : : 518

—_—— ; An Unique Lion ; Some new species

Photograph (wih a plate) 583 of Plants from the Western

— ; ‘A Unique Lion Ghats (wzth a plate) 733

Photograph ’ (a reply) 788. | Boas, H. Ag Noosing Tigers .:. “790

ANDREwS, E. A.; Crows and Bor., N. L.; Musth in Ele-

Koels : a .. 796 plant. yee: ; nee we <OUe

AWATI, PoORG tee 5oseean | BRANDER, A. A. Dunbar How

Account of the Pearl Fisheries Wild Dogs kill their Prey 591

of Tuticorin, March and April, Briccs, Rev. F. S. AnpD

1927 (with four plates) 524 OSMASTON, B.B.,M.B.O.U.,

BAKER, Bi Co STUART ers I.F.S. (Retd.) ; A Note on the

| DDR Cr a le Anes Wiles eOe Oia. Birds of the Peshawar District

H.F.A.O.U. ; The Game Birds (with a map) ae we «744

of the Indian Empire, Vol. BRowntow, A.; A clouded

V. The Waders and other Leopard (Felis nebulosa) attack-

Semi-sporting Birds. Part V. ing Man (wzth a plate) 789

(With a coloured plate). The BRUNSKILL, Major B.A.S.;

Demoiselle Crane, Eastern A Panther and Flashlight _

Common Crane ke om O97, (with a plate) . ios O08

-—___—- 7 Parte Vi aKa acne CASTRO, A. Bayley de.; The

a coloured plate). The Black- Effects of Bee Venom . Aire teil)

necked Crane, The Great CAVE, @ CAPD... uOce Unusual

White or Siberian Crane, The ; behaviour of a Tigress with

Hooded Crane ... 617 Live Bait... vee ese ROOT,

BERRIFF, ARTHUR H.; et. CHAMPION, F. W., I.F.S.; ‘A

oalinieray Pugnacity of the Unique Lion Photograph’ ... 788

Rusky-cheeked Scimitar Bab- CLIVE, Capt. J. Mc C., Mce>:

bler (Pomatorhinus erythro- A Tussle between Tiger Baa:

genys) ye Bete + gu OO Buttale Bait. so... eee 586

BRATTER seryn moe) ce Ph.D., : CircHeetneunl

Boe Sond se McCann, 2 Cx: Account of a Panther attacked

Revision of the Fauna of the by Wild Dogs 590

Bombay Presidency, Part V. a MO coutrenee? of tite

Gramineeé ; we 408 Wood Sine in the Central

——— ; Part VI. PLE, 622 Province ~., a 6

600

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

PAGE

CorKILL, NorMAN L.; Notes

on the Desert Monitor

(Varanus griseus) and the

Spiny-Tailed Lizard (Uromas-

tix microlepts) ... sae

CUNNINGHAM, Capt. A. H.;

Notes on Duck shooting in the

Roorkee District U.P., in the

years 1903 to 1927 (wzth a

graph) a ar

D’ABREU, E. a oF. Z. S. An

Albino Turtle ..- oe

DONALD, Celis: F.Z.S.,

NEB.O Us ; Birds of Prey

and their Uses (wth four

plates) ane See

DoveR-CEDRIC; Aquatic

Rhynchota in the Collection

of the Agricultural College,

Coimbatore, South India

EDITORIAL oe;

FAUNTHORPE, Coron a Ci

Wild Dogs

FowLeR, H. W.; Notes Pe

Descriptions of Fishes from

Ceylon (with two plates)

FRASER, Lt.-Cou. F.C., I1.M.5.,

F.E.S.; Indian Dragonflies

Part XXIX (with three plates)

oe Pt, KO (eh three

RRy. Be; Cenper Nataral

History Society’s Mammal

Survey of India, Burma and

Ceylon, Report No. 46, on a

Collection from ‘Toungoo,

Burma ae ie

GOULDSBURY, C. 'P. The Big

Bull of Senmibnrollava (with a

tlate) Be aes

HARE, Lt.-CoL. G. A:;

Record Cubbany Masheer

Hincston, Mayor R. W. G.,

I.M.S.; Foraging Termites

(Eutermes biformes, Wasm.)

(with a plate) :

Homes, Mayor W. M. crate

The

Readers’ View on Game

Preservation in India é

; What is the Reco

Tiger

608

600

608

737

450

683

544

678

613

716

581

587

PAGE

Home, Major ;

Panthers ...

Boldness of

; he Bray of the

Chitral Stag oe

; Hamadryads

the Kumaon Terai as

HorRA, SUNDER Lat, D. Sc.,

Peso HeZ.5.13> Che Mocul

Emperors of India as Natural-

ists and Sportsmen as

INGEIS, (C.mASG Ma) BAS.

F.E.S., M.B.O.U. ; The Black-

capped Kingfisher (Halcyon

pileata) in the Darbhanga Dis-

trict, Bihar

——ees

; Occurrence of the

Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna)

in the Darbhanga District,

Rihar

John. AgwwW. s A Large: seer

Elephant ee wae see

——_ 4 Good ) Niloizi

Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius)...

JouGuET, H.; Plants and

Insects ay aes ite

; Weeds of the

Indian Waveinee

KLoss, C, BODEN * The Rarouc:

breasted Blue mighnbone:

(Cyornis hyperythra) at high

levels fh ae ie

LAPERSONNE, V. S.:; A Col-

lecting Trip to Ladak, Part II

(w2th two plates)

LaurIg, A. S.; Elephant mie

Extraordinary ‘ Glands’

Law, Satva CHURN,

Beene Lee ge Me Ze See

M.B.O.U.; On the Unusual

Food-habits of Hornbills

Luarp, 1L1-Cor, (Cy, Eie(The

late) ; Ornithology in the Bible.

McCann, C. ; The Record Four-

horned Antelope (Vetraceros

guadricornts) (with a photo) ...

; A Note on the

Green Whip Snake (Dryophis

mycterizans) and Young Pe

; The Study of

Plant Life, Partl. (Wzth two

plates and five text-figures) ,..

M. A.,

588

594

610

802

798

799

596

597

807

810

796

650

792

798

593

592

612

‘CO

x7 LIST OF CONTRIBUTROS

PAGE

McCanvn, C. ; Reply to Mr. Phil-

lips’ “Note sons ip. 3/71) Vol:

XXXII ve Colour of the Long-

armed Sheath-tailed Bat

(Zaphozous longimanus) ... 791

McCann; See Blatter, E.

MACKIT#,. n:-@o 1m. VE Ve;

R-AL.MéC. > = Indian “Snake

Venoms ... : Mes set iE

MAXWELL, erercee The Home

of the Eastern Gorilla (wth a

map and ten plates) Ex pe a'4 36

MesDEN, LT.-CoLt., R.A.M.C.;

Recovery from the Bite of a

Phoorsa (Echis carinata) ... 800

MEARS? Ci -E.- 1D. > Birth sof

Freak Calf at Indore (with a

photv) Ee oer ee oT

Morris, RALPH C, ; Habits of

the: Porcupite: 3: ste set OW

——— ; Elephant with

Extraordinary ‘ Glands’ saa 7/88)

“NiO? Nvat area

Deaths’ in Wild Elephants ... 794

MOSES. (5. 1s, NiAg,. SEZ. os:

Baa Ae eee. ~ Preliminary,

Report on the Anatomy and

Life-History of the Common

Edible Backwater Oyster

Ostrea madrasensis (with two

plates) —::: a 2 es Ot8

OBITUARIAL NOTICES 530, 786

OsmastTon; B. B:, -M.B:O:.U.,

Los. (Retds)s Clicking

Noise made by Muntjac wn OS

; wee Brices, Rey:

—————

| sesh

ROCOCK. OR. «Fy ESR aS che

Langurs, or Leaf Monkeys, of

British India, PartII (with

PAGE

two plates and three text-

figures) ... re a oe OO

PRATERS Oe. Hs Ce M.2 Z. eS.5

Modern Museum Methods,

Part I (with six plates and

five text-figures) Nese Oe

—— ————; Part II (with two

plates) ase es Oe

REVIEWS 57 laa 73

ROBINSON, F. B. . White Tigers. 584

SEARIGHT, CAPT. E. Bb Rie

Occurrence of the Silelarabe

(Zadorna tadcrna) in the

United Provinces ads 6 800

SINGH, SURAJMAL; Abnormal

Blackhuck and a Good Chin-

kara Head from Bikanir Sent O93

‘SUNDAY TIMES’, JOHANNES-

BURG; A =gQOuail’s'~ Oweex

Retreat ... Rae 99

THEOBALD, CHARLES, FB. Z:S.

Clicking Noise made oy

Muntjac ... ss 593

——.— —- ; Mr. Staters’ beet

by Snake bite es che soe) Od

“WAITER: HS W.) Fee ZeeSs

M:°B.O.U: ; fhe -Nidification

of the Sind Hill-Warbler

(Suya crinigera striatula) ... 797

WARD, Cot. A. E.; The Mam- ;

mals and Birds of Kashmir

and the Adjacent Hill Provin-

ces; Part Vil. =: 71

WHISTLER, HuGH ; An neamle

of an Assisted Passage ee DOS

; A Correction to

Mr. B. B. Osmaston’s Notes on

the Birds of Kashmir ... O07

; Further Notes on

Birds Snot Simla ee ix = 726

LISTE OF PLATES

VOLUME XXXxXIl

No. 3

PAGE

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

The Eastern Common Crane (Megalornis grus lilfordi). The Demoi-

selle Crane (Anthropoides virgo) ae ae seer OOF.

The Home of the Eastern Gorilla—

Plate I—No. 1. Mt. Mgahinga (11,400 feet) with Mt. Mukavura

(13,547 feet) in the background . .. 436

No. 2. Mr. James Hugh Barnes, the wien: com-

panion, with the Porters. The Precipitous

Peaks of Sabinio in the background 436

Plate II—No. 3. Panoramic View of Mt. Mikeno (14,385 fect)

and Mt. Karisimbi on the left (14,633 feet)... 438

No. 4. Panoramic View of Mt. Sabinio ... 438

Plate III—No. 5. A Typical Forest of Mt. Mikeno (alt. about

11,000 feet) showing Hagenia trees in tall

undergrowth ss 439

No. 6. Another Forest Scene on “Mt. Milcene at 11, 000

feet altitude, showing a portion frequented

by Gorillas.. 439

Plate IV—No. 7. A Forest of are Deepa on : Mt. Maeno

at an altitude of over 9,000 feet . .. 440

No. 8. Arboreal Heath (Arica arborea) and Senecio, a

Giant Groundsel (Senecio johnstonz) 440

Plate V—No. 9. The Summit of Mt. Mikeno (14,385 feet)

showing alpine vegetation on the slopes of

the peak ~ ... 44]

No. 10. A Startled Female Goniia tating off with

young on her back ... rote wes 441

Plate VI—No. 11. An adult Male Gorilla ... re .. 442

No.12. A pair of female Gorillas secured on

. Mt. Mikeno ae oon, 442

_ Plate’ VII—No. 13. Four captured young Gonles ees we 443

No. 14. One of the four young Gorillas, with its

guardian .., : 443

Plate VIII—No. 15. A Gorilla shelter in the roan me ofa iene ge

. tree Me 444

No. 16. A recently vacated hehe shelter of a family’ Gt

Gorillas showing the excrements of the

. Apes (X) in the right foreground .. 444

. Plate IX—No.17.' A Gorilla ‘Bed’ or ‘Nest’ formed in the

is crotch of a bifurcated tree on the western |

ae slopes of Mt. Karisimbi at an altitude’ of ©

i ee | some 11,000 feet os we, ww 445

xii LIST OF PLATES

Plate X—No. 18. Dead Leopard on the branch of a ‘large

Hlagenia tree, showing a vacated Gorilla

shelter below

Indian Dragonflies—

Plate I—1. Wings of Rhinocypha bisiguata, Selys, Male

2. 6 s btforata delimbata, Selys,

Male..

3. Wings of Rhinecy pha elenien Pers merche

Male ... ae

Plate II—1. Wings of Riper MEERA, herby: cite

2: ; Micromerus lineatus, Burn., Male

Sh ar Calocypha laidlawi (¥ras.) Sips

Plate JII—land2. Two Views of the Cauvery River near

Fraserpet, Coorg By abe

A Sind Lake—

Plate I— 1. Negotiating the Reedy Marginal Shallows

2. Nearing the Butts ies

Plate II— 3. The Fowlers ieaving the bane

4, The Fowlers about to enter a Flock

Plate III— 5. A successful Catch

6. The Gazis in action :

Plate IV— 7. Red-crested Pochards in a hues Net |

8. Removal of Captives from Dhubbi

Plate V— 9. An Egret Farm on the Manchar

10. Interior of the same

Plate VI—11. Fishing on the tienehae = aneine the Caen

12. Another Snap of the Landing Operations

The Langurs, or Leaf Monkeys, of British India—

Plate I— Newly-born Langurs 1. The auratus-Group; 2. The

aygula-Group ; 3. The Antellus-Group ae

Plate II—l. The Kangra Langur (P. entellus ajax) ...

2. The Nepal Langur (P. entellus achilles)

3. The Common Langur (P. entellus entellus)

Plate Iil1—Map of Kashmir and Ladak

A Collecting Trip to Ladak—

Plate I—1. House-boat arabella on Wular Lake

2. Sind Valley, one of Kashmir’s Picturesque Side

Valleys : ive see

Plate II—1. Baltal, 9,000 Feats at ne Head of the Sind

Valley

2. Kolahoi, 17,800 eae a Sonepicdous Pea in nthe Great

Himalayas, with its Glacier a LO;aat hie

Tree-line :

Plate III—1. A Morning’s Bag of Show: (oe: a Mauibecs

11,000 feet ‘ “ts

2. Market Place at Leh, and ee Gompat above the

Winter-Quarters of the Ecclesiastical Head of

Western Tibet

Plate IV—1. Looking through the Carerara of Leh to the Taeae

Range , are cs te

2. Leh in Spring ime abs ai aes

PAGE

446

450

451

456

462

463

464

465

466

467

474

478

502

506

- 506

507

510

511

Plate

LIST OF PLATES

V—1. Our Transport of Hybrid Yaks

2. Camp at Chang-Chen-Mo Valley, 14, 500 feet

Orchids from the High Wavy Mountain (Madura District)—

A. Odontochilus rotundtfolius

B. Diusperts neilgherrensis we hi ae Big

Pearl Fisheries of Tuticorin—

Plate

I—1. Pearl Bazaar Guarded by Police oe Lie

2. A corner of the General Bazaar, Pearl Fishery

Camp

II—3. Divers’ Encampment

4, Divers at Work

III—5. Division of spoils at Sea

6. Bags of Oysters

IV—7. The Return of the Divers

8. Washing the Pearl Oysters

Modern Museum Methods—

Plate

I—Plate of Domed Ceiling of Bird Gallery, American

Museum of Natural History, New York

II—Model of Exhibition Hall, designed for the New

Museum of Natural Sciences, Buffalo, New York

IlII—New Reptile Hall, American Museum of Natural

History, New York, showing ‘ Built-in’ Groups

IV—Model! of New Hall of African Mammals, American

Museum of Natural History, New York :

V—Curved Background in course of preparation for a

Group at the American Museum of Natural History,

New York

VI—A case of birds snowing the ole jens meted of

Exhibition

Life-History of the Common Edible Backwater Oye =

Plate 1—Anatomy of Ostrea madrasensts

2— re) oe) i)

Young Lion attacking a Zebra

A Tigress with its kill

A Panther and a Cow ‘< Kill’

Abnormal Blackbuck shot in Bikaner—

A Good Chinkara Head from Bikaner, Horns, 144” use

Record Cubbany Mahseer, weight 105 lbs.

No. 4

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

The Black-necked Crane (Megulornis nigricollis)

A Collecting Trip to Ladak—

(A) The Rocky Road to Yarkand

(B)

Our Camp at 15,500 feet in the Kareena

Stoliczka’s Tomb, Leh ... ="

The Langurs, or Leaf Monkeys, of Baten rade

Plate

late

Il1I—The Capped Langur and Young (P2thecus pileatus)

IV—The Dusky Langur (Pithecus obscurus)

The Big Bull of Sembutollavu

xiii

PAGE

514

921

221

526

926

527

227

528

— §29

529

536

So/

538

539

542

543

550

551

583

587

588

593

613

Ziv VAST OF PLATES

Indian Dragonflies—

Plate I—Micromerus greent, M. aurantiacus, M. andamanensts,

M. finalis, M. lineatus indica, M. lineatus lineatus,

Calocypha laidlawt, Libellago astatica, L. curta

Plate II—Two Views of the River Cauvery, Coorg-Mysore

Frontier en mee at ae

Plate Ill—-Libellagine Larve. Fig. 1. Rhinocypha ignipennis,

Fig. 2. Micromerus lineatus indica, Fig. 3. Rhino-

cy pha bisignata

The Study of Plant Life—

Different Types of Roots eet

(A) Aérial Adventitious Roots of fe Hanan awe Wen Lees bse

(B). Another type of Adventitious Root. The ‘Screw Pine’

(Pandanus sp.)

Fishes from Ceylon—

Plate (—Cypselurus hallbergi

Plate Il--Atherina duodecimaltis

Foraging Termites—

Eutermes btformis, Wasm. 6

New Species of Plants from the Western Ghats—

Barleria gibsonioides, Blatter, sp. nov.

Birds of Prey and their uses—

1. (A) Bonelli’s Eagle (Avzeretus fasciatus) ...

(B) Golden Eagle (Aguila chrysetus daphaneé)

2.(A) Eastern Goshawk (Astur gentilis schvedowt)

(B) Laggar Falcon (Falco jug ger) Ae

3. (A) Eastern Steppe-Eagle (Aguila nipalensis Abalone)

(B) Booted Eagle (Hieretus pennatus)

4.(A) Kestrel (Falco tinnunculus) A

(B) White-eyed Buzzard (Butastur teesa) ...

Modern Museum Methods—

1. A Lesson in Minerals—Children’s Museum, Brooklyn, New

York e's tee oe. we ac

2.(A) The Vivarium (a great centre of attraction to young

visitors )

(B) A corner of the walle used Lipa

Clouded Leopard (Felis nebulosa) ...

Elephant with extraordinary ‘ glands’

PAGE

686

688

690

700

701

706

707

718

733

738

739

740

741

768

769

789

792

TMA PO TELUSTRATIONS

VOLUME XXXIi

Nos. 3 and 4

PAGE PAGE

Anthropoides virgo, Pl. 397 5. A Typical Forest of Mt.

Aguila chrysetus daphane, Pl, Mikeno (11,000 ft.) .. 439

fig. 2 ; 738 6. Forest scene on Mt. Mikeno

——— nipalensis nipalensis, PI, (11000 ft:) PI. 439

fig. 1 ate 740 7. A forest of Hagenia aye.

Astur gentilts apeedowe. Pl. Gee sinica on Mt. Mikeno(9,000 ft.) 440

1 : oh es 739 8. Arboreal Heath (rica

Atherina duodecin:alis P\. 707 arborea) and Senecio, a giant

Barleria gibsonioides, Pl. 733 Groundsel (Senecio john-

Blackbuck (abnormal) shot in stont), Pl. : ee .. 440

Bikaner, Pl tig! 593 S. Summit of Mt. Mikeno

Bos gaurus, Pl. : 678 (14,385 ft.) 441

Butastur teesa, Pi. fig. B. a. 741 10. A Startled Gorilla, Panine

Calf born with bifurcated Week, off with her young on her

Photo on OO back,. Pl, 44]

Calocypha Mialeon “Pl, ae 3... “451 11. An adult maie Celie 442

Ae ae Pl. fig. 10... 686 12. A pair of female Gorillas

Chinkara. Head from Bikaner, secured on Mt. Mikeno, PI. 442

fig. 2 593 13. Four captured young

Cy pselurus fallbencs. Pl. .. 706 Gorillas eS ... 443

Disperis neilgherrensis, Pl. fig. B. 521 14. One of the four young

Dryophis mycterizans, and Gorillas with its guardian,

Young, Photo ; 612 Plies? qichin loud ge see ota

Elaphus indicus, Tiskerenomine 15. A Gorilla shelter in the

peculiar gland-like growths on hollow-base of alarge tree... 444

neck 8 792, 16, A recently vacated night

Eutermes Pies Pl. ee oe 718 shelter of a family of Gorillas,

Falco jugger, Pl. fig. 2 739 Ph Ge eae eg ae aed

—- tinnunculus, P\. fig. 1 741 17. A Gorilla ‘ Bed’ or ‘ Nest’

Felts nebulosa, Pl. seen i sh’) on the western slopes of Mt.

Gorilla, Home of the Eastern-- Karisimbi (11,000 ft.), Pl. ... 445

Map of Uganda ; 436 18. Dead Leopard on the

1. Mt. Mgahinga, (11,400 ft. ) branch of a large Hlagenta

with Mt. Muhavura (13,547 tree, showing a vacated

2 ft.) he ee; 436 Gorilla shelter below 446

oe MYrJ., EL, Barnes with the Hieretus fasciatus, Pl. fig. 1 738

ih Porters, Pl... of 436 — pennatius, Pl. fig>2- 740

-3. Mt. Mikeno (14,385 ft. ) and Indian Dragonflies—

Mt. Karisimbi (14,633 ft.) ... 438 Views of the Catvery Ree eee

4 Mt. Sabinio, Pl... 438 near Fraserpet, Coorg, Pl... 456

Xvi

Indian Dragonflies—

Two views of the River Cau-

very, Coorg-Mysore Frontier,

Favourite haunts of many

species of, Pl. wes

Kashmir and Ladak, map of.

Ladak, a collecting trip to—

House-Boat arabella on Wular

Lake, Pluie. 1

Sind Valley, Pl. fig. 2.

Baltal, 9,000 ft. at the Heae ot

the Sind Valley, Pl. fig. 1 ...

Kolakoi,17,800:ft., Plone. 1;

A morning’s Bag of Snow

Cock at Moulbeck, 11,000 ft.,

Pl. tis. rs

Market place at Leh ane Aine

Gompa, PI. fig. 2

Gateway of Leh, PI. fig. 1

Leh in Springtime, Pl. fig. 2.

‘Transport of Hybrid Yaks, PI.

pce OU es

Camp at Chang: bonene ‘Mo Val-

ley, 14,500 ft., Pl. fig. 2

Rocky Road to Varkaad Camp

at 15,500 ft. in the Kara-

KOfanm: ies on

Stoliczka’s Tomb

Langurs, newly born, Pl.

Libellago astatica, Pl. fig. 11

—__—_—_— curia, Pl. fig. 32

Lion, (young) attacking a Zebra

Macaca irus, Stomach of, fig. 1.

-- silenus, Hand of, fig.

— Foot - a

The Record Cunpaae:

Masheer,

Photo

Megalornis grus Die PL.

-—_—--——._nigricollis, Pl.

Micromerus andamanensis,

fig. 3 ‘

—_——--—— aurantiacus, Pl. fig. 2,

—__—_—_--—— finalts, Pl. fig. 4

CECT MP figs.)

—_—-—— lineatus, P|. fig. 2...

—— —___ —__———_— indicus, Pl.

fig. 5. 3.

—_—_—_-—_—___——-——— Pl.

fic. 2. larva nc. ee

—_—_—__-- Bodies. Pl.

figs. 6-9

PAGE

688

502

506

507

510

511

oll

514

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Museum Methods, Modern—

Part of Domed Ceiling of Bird

Gallery, American Museum

of Natural History, New

VYoruc el: 536

Model of Exhibition Hall ne

signed for the New Museum

of Natural Sciences, Buffalo,

New York, PI. Pen OSG

New Reptile Hall, American

Museum of Natural History,

New York, showing ‘ Built-

in’. sroups, PI: 538

Model of New Hall of Atuican

Mammals, American Museum

of Natural History, New

York, Pl. 539

Window-seat for Victiore: co 539

Type of Desk Case in use in

the Geological Gallery,South

Kensington, fig. .. 540

Curved Background in course

of preparation for a group at

the American Museum of

Natural History, New York,

Pi; a eee nee soe, O42

A case of Birds showing the

shelfless method of Exhibi-

tion, Pl. 543

Side View of Group Cae. aoe 543

Plate I. Children’s Museum,

Brooklyn, New York Pl. 768

LI >(A); Viavarinms.< Pl: 769

(B) Library, Pl. eaata ge Act]

Odontochilus rotundifolius, Pl.

He paw hoy. ios RE see el

Ostrea madrasensis, Pls. 550, 551

Panther and a Cow ‘ Kill’ 588

Pearl Fisheries of Tuticorin :— $

Pearl Bazaar guarded a Police -

Plone 526

Corner of the Concea Dasaen,

Pearl Fishery Camp, PI. fig.

2 nee See so an E20

Divers Encampment, Pl. fig. 1. 527

at work, Pl. fig. 2 fee Ded

Division of spoils at sea, Pl.

sehen Wma = 528

Bags of Oyen Pl a 2 528

Returao of the Divers, Pl. fig.

i ave ct son) hese eo

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

PAGE

Washing the Pearl Oysters, Pl.

fig. 2 aes

Peshawar District, eifap of

Pithecus auratus, Pl. fig. 1

— entellus, Hand of, fig.

Foot of, fig. ..

—_—__—_——_-—_ P.. fig. 3 :

achates, skull,

fig.

———_—— — —_ achilles, Pl. ae

2 3

—_—_———— - ajax, Pl. fig. 1.

skull, fig.

——_—_—_—_——_——- entellus, PI. fig.

3 :

skulls, figs.

——_——__ — ———._ hector,

fig. :

—— —- —_—- inlus, skull, fig.

a —--——— -—— pallipes, skulls,

figs.

—— —_ —-._ priamellus, Frais,

figs.

———_———— schistaceus, skull op

ae aaee aa

———— femoralis, Pl. ae 2

Sa keatit, figs.

skulls, front and side views ...

——— obscurus, Pl,

pileatus,

es er

skull,

adult and

young, Pl.

pileatus, figs.

—— ee

skull, front and side view

———— pyrrhus atrior, fig.

skull, front view :

—_— —— shanicus, fig.

skull, front view

———— sener nestor, skull, fig.

vetulans, stomach

of fig.

Plant Life, the Study of—

Dicotyledonous seed, section of

fig.

Menecotviedonone nee

tion of, fig.

Box of soil with seed, Ae

Box containing seedlings,

illustrating tendency to

sec-

485, 486,

529

744

474

473

474

489

478

482

478

487

483

491

497

495

478

474

676

668

662

671

499

472

694

696

XVil

PAGE

turn towards source of light,

fig’. 697

Seedling of a Bean Ponting

the parts of which it is com-

posed, fig. ; 698

Roots, Different pes: of, Pl,

figs. 1-10 700

Aerial adventitious Roots of the

Banyan, (Ficus bengalensts),

PY axe ae a LOL

Adventitious Root, another

type of, Pl. ao 701

Rhinocypha biforata delonbatn

Pipi 2 450

—__—_—_-——- bisignata ... 450

———_—___—__-—__-—-— Pl. fig. 3

Larva ... re aes ... 690

od tontpennis, Pl. fig. 1.

Larva ... os bis ... 690

—— perforata perforata,

Pl, ie. 3 — e tp 400

—— whiteheadi, Pl. fig. 1. 451

Sembutollavo, Big Bull, Pl. 678

Sind Lake, A

(a) Negotiating the Reedy

Marginal shallows 462

(6) Nearing the Butts, Pl. 462

(a) The Fowlers leaving the

Punt 463

(6) ————-—— about to enter

a. Flock, Pl. 463

(a) A Successful Catch 464

(6) The Gazis in action, Pl.... 464

(a) Red-crested Pochards in a

Dhubbi net 465

(6) Removal of ae om

Dhubbi, P .. 465

(a) An Egret ea on the

Manchar ».» 466

(6) Interior of the same, Pl.... 466

(a) Fishing on the Manchar—

Landing the catch 467

(6) Another snap of the Land-

ing Operations, Pl. .. 467

Tetraceros quadricornis, Photo

of Record Head... 592

Tiger (white variety) 584

Tigress and its kill 587

ERRATA

Vol. XXXII, Nos. 3 and 4

Page 514, line 1 for furruginea read ferruginea

506

566

656

659

749

740

749

tbe

> din

Me)

379:

38 for chenchrts read cenchris

20 for Cicona read Ciconia

30 for Cotyle read Cottle

10 for Pyrrospiza read Pyrrhospiza

9 from bottom for Allen Hume vead Alan Hume

2 for Octocris read Otocoris

1 for fulginosa read tuliginosa

38 for mustcapa read muscicapa

42 for musicapa read muscicapa.

INDEX OF SPECIES

Acanthis flavirostris baltistanicus

ladacencis

Accipiter nisus nisosimilis

-— virgatus affinis

Acridotheres ginginianus

tristis

———- tristis

Acrocephalus agricolus

—————— eo

PAGE

515,

2 CONCINeENS CONCINENS ...

Adansonia digitata

AXgithaliscus concinnus

Zfrides cylindricum

AEthopyga gouldize

—— siparaja

Agrion fenestrata

fulgipennis

lineata

perforatus

Agrostis ramosa

verticillata

Alauda arvensis dulcivox

- gulgula ... ;

Alcedo atthis as aie

——_——_-—— _pallasi

Alectoridia quartincaria

Alectoris graeca chukar

—---------—-——. pallescens

Alloteropsis

——--—— — cimicina

—--———-— similata

Alseonax latirostris

Alternanthera echinata

Amandava amandava ...

Ambassis gymnocephalus

——-—— safgha

-——- ——. uroteenia

Amia endeketzenia

haringtoni.

stentoreus brunnescens.

683,

Ammomanes deserti phoenicuroides.

Ammoperdix griseogularis

griseogularis ...

658

757

729

752

726

192

607

7S!

700

746

520

UCT

727

683

684

451

636

409

754

756

468

418

O12

572

635

749

811

752

708

755

758

Ammoperdix heyi

Amphilophis compressa

——_——-—— concanensis

—_——-—-——- ensiformis

-—- ——— glabra

—_——-——- k untzeana

odorata

————— _ —,—_- Pertusa

woodrowii

Anabas testudineus

Anezctochilus elatior

Anapheeis mesentina

Anas platyrhyncha

——- p. poecilorhyncha

Anatherum muricatum...

Andropogon acicularis

aciculatus

——— ---—— alectoridia

-annulatus

——-_-—_——_ aristulatus

armatus

arriani

- asper

—_—_— ———_ assimilis ...

—_——_——_ aucheri

—_—_ -—-— —*—-- genuinus

-— ——_——_ besukiensis

bicornis

breviaristatus

—_——-——-_ brevifolius

—_—— ——. calamus aromaticus

——_-_——_— caricosum

———_—-—— cerriferus .. ;

——_—— ciliolatus ceruleus

-——— increscens

—_——__——- circinnatus

——_———— citratus

—————_ citriodorum

—_——_———- compressus

—_-_-——_-——-. concanensis

—_—___—_———- contortus

ceokei

xx INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Andropogon debilis.... oe ... 428 | Andropogon pachnodes oe beer ees

demissus ... ae ... 429 | ————-—— pachyarthrus ... we. 429

-— -———— echinatus es ... 417 | ———--——— parvifolius Ms w 428

——— echinulatus ee .. 411 | ——-—~—— pertusus ae ee 4)

——- ensiformis set 421, 422 | —_-___-____- —______ var. genuinus... 421

—— ———— festucoides ee .. 409 | ————~-——— ——-wightii.. 421

——_——— filiculmis ... aoe -. 420 | --———— polphyllus ak .. 416

——. Horidus 4:. ene we = 428: | -———-— —— polystachyos ..-622, 623, 624

ee foveolatus s .. 427 | ————— prionodes po we 417

——e glaber .. ae .. 422 | —————— pumilus ia ee 429

——_——-—— glabratus ... 3 . 411) — punctatus Sas sos 422

—__——_-——- gryllus.... i . 411)—— quadrivalva age .. 1630

———_-—— heteroclitus ae .. 631 | ———— ritchii one 622, 623

—— ———— hispidissimus ... we = 625 | —————— roxburghii i ons -, 432

—_—_——_--— hugelti. ... ve .. 421 | —————— royleanus Bs w= =6 4]

————-——— humilis ... see .. 623 | —————— schcenanthus 430, 432, 433

--—- ——_——-. intermedius ee w 422 | ——————- —__—----——- var. cesius 434

a subvar. gla- SS SS = - genuinus’- 433

ber .. 422 | —-— “= martini 433

———— —__ ——-—_ var. pune- SS ee ALS ay woe 417

tatus' .... 0 4225) =———-_- —_—_‘sprengvelit wee om ei: 81S)

——-——-—— ischynanthus... .. 632 | ———— -- squarrosus Af .. 409

—_—_——_-——_ jwarancusa nis . 431 | —-—_——_— — var. genuinus 409

or ae es PAnISCr hist AO eee strictus aA : 427

——__—__ ———_-—- proper Sot 432 ——_——_——- tenellus See Bae 428

a var. genuin- —_———_——- trinii fon le weep) 2413

us ... 432 | ——————triticeus ... Aa 622, 623

——_——_—_-—— —__--__ -——. —-tantum. 431 | ———- um bellatus ae wae 7 O31

—_———— kuntzeanus to we. 422 | ———--—— violaceus 23 win 418

—————_——— lancearius aa .. 412 | ———— wightanus a Same

————-——_ lanceolatus . ay. | WOOd Tonal ais wer AO)

Lt eee So -——~ subvar. ser- Androscepia tremula ei be) -O3:

rulatus .... 417 | Anisops sardea SAS is see 615

ee -——-var. genuinus 417 | ——-—— niveus oe He wi, OLS

—__——-——-laniger ... @ ... ... 430 | Anser anser ve sc oe. 260

eee LAWSON ee SLAs mae 409 ——-— indicus oe axe mal 470

———_—__— _ Jjananthus he .. 623 | Anthistiriaargentea ... i: re O28

i be martini ... Pee mee 433 —_———_— australis aaa ot see 629

SS —_ -— Mmonomeros de ets 631 —_—— ciliata oe wes 628, 630

————-—— monostachyus ... *%. 427 | ———-—— ceespitosa ne tte 51-45:

ee Ont anus are ... 420 | ————— cuspidata os «ss ~~ 628

= = jonticola S .. 413 | ————— cymbaria te i401 de OOU.

bE ee igor velutinids aloo depauperata 230 ee) ees

ee I TICaAtiS a nee. 409 oa desfontainei ate isle 628

— ——_——_ nardoides Ae we 433 | —————- forskahlii oes -- 628

———_———_—— nardus var. ceriferus ... 432 | ——-——-— glauca vee .. 628

as nutans... eo ... 630 | —~——— heteroclita oss cen, -- 63]

=. _-__ optusifoliue hee. Hse 1428 |e hispida bent |) users 028

——— odoratus ... = .. 424 | ————— imberbis oe -. 628

————-—— oliganthus i .. 623 | ———-——laxa tee -. 628

— Olivieri .y6 as = 0,2 430 |] —— paleacea rete = 628

—___ + schmidtii

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Anthistiria punctata 628

——————. scandens 630

———— semiberbis 630

—-——_-———. syriaca 628

——— —— tremula 631

——— — vulgaris a 628

Anthracoceros m. Ee labaticus TAs:

Anthropoides virgo 398, 469

Anthus campestris 754

richardi rufulus 754

spinoletta blakistoni 754

Apis melifica 805

Apluda gryilus 4}]

Apus melba ToL

Aquila chrysaétus dapharias 738

- clanga 20. 469

heliaca 469, 757

nepalensis 731

rapax vindhiana 757 |

Arboricola torqueola millardi Reed Loe

Ardea cinerea 563, 760

cinerea 471

grus 402

purpurea ... 563

virgo 398

Ardeola grayi 760 |

Argya caudata 746

_-—— earlii 746

pathraxon ciliaris ae 41

ae - quartinians 418

————- cloratus 418 |

———— cuspidatus 418 |

——_—— echinatus 417 |

-—__— —— inermis 416

-—_—__-—— jubatus 418

—_—_———- lanceolatus ... eae a7

_——— ——-— —- var. schinatis.. 417

——-— lancifolius 418

—-———— langsdorfii 418

-——_———- major 418 |

———_-——- meeboldii 418

——-———— microphyllus 418

—— ——- var. aneifoling 418

————_——- minor 418

-—__——— molle 418

——-——- multicaulis ...° 418

—_—— —— nudus 418

——— —— plumbeus 418

—_——. quartinianus 418

Ea SC uper 418

418

| Arthraxon serrulatus

submuticus ...

—_—_-——- violaceus

—— vriesii

Asio flammeus cee

Astur gentilis schaedowi

Athene glaux ie

Atherina duodecimalis ...

— forskalii

— lacunosa

Atta barbara

Axonopus

-— cimicinus

Barbus hexastichus

— tor

Barilius bola

Barleria gibsonioides

Batratherum echinatum

-———— ——-— lanceolatum

molle

schimperi ..

serrulatum

Belostoma indicum

Bos gaurus

Botaurus stellaris

Brachiaria

—$—— ———

distachya

——-——— distachyum ...

——_—_---— isachne

——_——. mutica

————— notochtona ...

——_—_——- prostrata

—-— ramosa

Bubo bubo bengalensis

Buteo ferox 5

Bulbophyllum milenemenee

Butastur teesa Pe

Buteo buteo rufiventer

Caccabis chukor ...

XX1

PAGE

TAQ;

.. 785, 802,

637,

638,

Te IO al AU;

Cacomantes merulinus passerinus

Calamina imberbis _

Calandrella rufescens persica...

Callacanthus burtoni

Callosiurus ferrugineus...

Calocypha laidlawi

Calopteryx lineata

Calotes versicolor

Camponotus compressus

Canis aureus

——- lupus

——- pallipes

683,

417

418

756

739

565

706

724

635

785

804

733

417

418

417

615

678

760

636

639

637

645

643

645

756

797

519

Tod,

471

559

fa7

628

755

727

546

457

684

809

724

713

712

713

Xxil

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

Chrysopogon wightianus var. leucan-

thus

Chelidon urbica ...

Chrysoglossum ace

-—_—_——-—— hallbergii

Ciconia alba

— nigra

Cinnyris asiatica...

Circus zeruginosus

cyaneus

-——- macrourus

macrurus

Cirrhina mergata

— mrigala

Cirrhopetalum gamblei...

- —— thomsoni

Cisticola juncidis cursitans

Cleisostoma tenerum

-—— stocksii

Clione vastifica

Clupea ilisha

—-—

| Coelogyne corrugata

| ——--—— nervosa

Columba livia, subsp.

Conitermes similis

Coracias benghalensis penphalonee as

— garrula semenowi

Cordiochloa cimicina

—- fimbriata

Corvus corax aan

———- ——- tibetanus...

- cornix sharpii

— —+—- corone orientalis

| ———- splendens

- Cotile TIPEStiiSis:s

PAGE

Cannomys pater ... 547

en plumbescens 547 |

Capella gallinago gallinago 759

Capillipedium assimile ... 420 |

—_-——_-——_ filiculme 421 |

——-—— -—— hugelii 421 |

Capparis aphylla 808

—————. spinosa 808 |

---~ zeylanica 809

Caprimulgus sp... 756

Caranx ignobilis.. 707

- sexfasciatus 707 |

Carine brama - 737 t|

Carpodacus erythrinus .. 152 |

——- thurus blythi oe sO 4|

Casarca ferruginea 514, 760 |

Catla catla ba 802, 804 |

Centrophorum chinense : is 412

Cepalopyrus flammecips Tre oat 7208

Cephanodes hylas eee oleh

Cercopithecus cephalopterus ... = S01

—— kephalopterus ... isheeos4 98

—__——_—_ -—— senex oe 498, 500

——— vetulus .. 498, 501, 504

Certhia himalayana 508, 747

Ceryle rudis leucomelanura 468, 756

Cettia cetti cettioides fio

Chaimarrhornis leucocephala ... 748

Charadrius dubius 759

Chettusia leucura = 469

Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni 759

Chlidonias leucopareius 760

Chrysopogon aciculatus 412

asper 412

——_——— auccheri 416

—_—_——_-—— ciliolatus ... = 413

———_——_—_—_ ——-——_ auccheri eee AlS

—_——— ——_ ——-——-_ var. aucheri... 416 ©

creeds as 413

—————— esenbeckii 413

—__———- glabratus 411

—_——_——_ glaucopsis 421

——_—_—— gryllus - ... 411

————-—— increscens 413

—_—__———. lancearits 412

== ae On LantS, 413

= omnibusware 413

——__——— pictus © 420

ol payilucs 416

—_—_—_———. serrulatus 413

: 412

‘Wwightianus

coronoides intermedius

lawrencii .

ruficollis

--— frugilegus 360

———- monedula scemmeringii

——- + zugmayeri ...

Coturnix communis

———— coromandelica

Cot tmnix ae,

ee OEE

- Crinum eleonore

Cuculus canorus... .

Culicicapa ceylonensis ...

Cuncuma leucorypha

Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis

Cygnus bevicki Det gee pore =

413

2 366

519

566

755

469, 757

757

471

757

468

804

519

75]

521

408

vi 550

468, 803

—-§20

520

758

723

755

635

745

512

745

wa. 655

655, 745

rn 745

745

654, 745

ake w598

655, 745

2. 4566

802,

757

658, 749

7€0

—s.

INDEX OF SPECIES xxiii

PAGE PAGE

Cygnus cygnus se re entice 760) | Digitaria royleana oe oe “ae 633

~ olor ee. oe .. 760 | ————sanguinalis ... ws 632, 634

Cylindrostethus Reeders Mae ee OLE Ware = - var: Ciliaris - 633

Cymbopogon arabicus tas bees 4230 ————-~ tenuiflora ea oe w. 634

! arriani nae ue .. 430 —-——ternata he a wat Oe

SS —— CSIUS ae fae ve 434 ———— vaginata oak oe .. 641

—_——_——- circinnatus ee .. 430 Dipcadi saxorum sah ees ae. 730

—_—_———- citratus... wi en oe -- ursule ... se ee ind Vh35

eee jwarancusa ss ... 431 | Disperis neilgherrensis .. Re vu C2

— ei —— artini... ee we = 433 -- zeylanica © ae — ae gow

—_——-——_ martinianus a ... 433 | Dodoncea vicosa . oe oe ae WhO

schoenanthus ... ... 430 | Dryobates He pedy hier. sts ete Ae

Cynodon ternatum ae ... 632 | ——-—---scindianus ... i te bio)

Cynopterus brachyotis anealate ge Odd Dryophis mycterizans ... sy ell ie Ole

Cyon dukhunensis ys ee 714, 780 | Duranta plumieri sed es ee = CUS

Cyornis hyperythra Bue se .. 796 | Echinochloa ac xi wes see: 22040

Cypselurus hallbergi... oe aw) 705 -- - colona ‘ oa . 646

oxycephalus ae .. . 706 | —-—— ——-—— var. frumentacea. 647

—— sinius oh ses .. 706 | ——-—- commutata bs, ... 647

Dendrobium nanum ... a ee —_——-+——- cruciformis ie oe WOSt:

—_—_—__-—— nuttans.. .. 618 | —— - crus-galli ie ste. OEF

—_——___-—— -. ——- var. Fubrclapner 518 -_——--——-- frumentacea Ste .. 647

———_—— sp. age aa .. ol9 | ——-———- hispidula ... a vais, « O47

Dendrocygna javanica ... Bie ae 700 ——-——-scabra_... = .. 648

Derris robusta ... as a .. 496 -stagnina ... a .. 648

Diceeum ignipectum ... = eee ee Echis carinata... ios bs 800, 801

Dichanthium ae . ds ... 623 | Egretta alba bes sot ae 470, 760

anata ae 425, 426 | Eicharniacrassipies _... ace ... 810

—__——_——- armatum oe .. 425 | Hlaphiis indictis ... ae abs 792, 794

—_—= - caricosum ee .. 425 | Emberiza cia ee a a eed VATA

—_——_-——-- mccannii re = 425 | ~ ——- —— par es we as © Jol

—-- panchganiense ... .. 425 | -——-—— cioides vayans ay soar LAPS

— + - serrafalcoides ... ac. 7427 -——— ——-- fohkienensis se, AUS

Dichoceros bicornis bat 798 | ———-—- godlewski_... a ee, Me

Dicrurus leucocephalus innoicaadatns 750 | ——-—~—- icterica a 2 Se)

———-— macrocercus ... a? ... 450 | -—-——-- leucocephala oo fo 18

Digitaria affinis ah ae moa 2 O42 ——— —-- melanocephala or fon 18

—- appressa aie oe .. 642 | —-—— schcemilus pallidior... re:

—-— chrysoblephora s .. 633 | Emyda granosa intermedius ... J. | -608

———— ciliaris var. quadristachya... 633 | Engraulis commiersont... ee .. 104

--——-~+ commutata’ ... ee .. 633 | Enithares indica... ane a OS)

———— distachya ae se .. 639 | -—~——-—triangularis ... oes foe SOLS

—— — fimbriata ae its ... 633 | Eremophila alpestris deosai ... sss 7 G09

———— foliosa i Ve ea Ga — longirostris ... 512

—-— linearis oe sas .. 634 | Eremopogon foveolatus ee ae ed

———- longiflora see sea. .-Od4 paranipyeanunm ... 2H a7

—-— marginata var. Ginbtiata a. , Ooo. tia braccata ... a oe Some hsv ES)

———— paspaloides var. longipes ... 641 | —— nana... an a ne sa, 019

ao PCUICEllariS” ... ie .. 634 | —— pauciflora ... au obs sceay)

—— —— pennata aes A .. 634 | —— pseudoclavicaulis ... bee see ue OO

foo Pseudo-durva *... ae fen 034 reticosa A m st ae golG

XXKiV

PAGE

Eria arborea 439

Ericholoa .. 636

— annulata 636

——-—— hackelii 636

—— -— polystachya ... 636

-——- ramosa 636

Erolia minuta 759

Erythrina rhodGen (sae 651

—— rubicilla severtzovi ... oie HOO

——-—— rubicilloides lapersonnei ... 651

Eudynamis scolopaceus malayana 796

se -- scolopaceus. 756

Eunetta falcata ... 605

Eutermes biformis Gd

——-—— vastator 724

Exonantes ee 706

Falco chiquera enlatiers = a abe ele)

——~ jugger 739, 740, 758

——- peregrinator 725,

——- subbuteo Pre {0

- tinnunculus 741, 758

Felis chaus aa 18

nebulosa 789, 790

Ficus bengalensis 701

Franklinia buchanani (py!

Fringilla montifringilla ded

Fulica atra 759

atra 469

Galerida cristata cheadesla 755

-——--——- magna 755

Gallinago nemoricola 600

Gallinula chloropus ee wef hohe,

Gamphrena decumbens 810, 811

Gelochelidon nilotica 760

Gerris adelaidis 614

——-- anadyomene 614

—--- lucidus 709

—-- paludum ... 614

—-- spinole 614

Glaucidium brodiei 728

Glaucionetta clangula ... 605

Glossogobius biocellatus 710

Gomphrena globosa 811

Gorilla beringeri... “436-449

Grus communis ... 402, 563

——- leucogeranus 618

—- lilfordi 402

——- monacha 620

——- nigricollis ... 617

Gunomys varius ... 547

Gypeetus barbatus 558 757

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Gypetus barbatus hemachalanus 728

Gymnanthelia lanigera 431

Gymnema sylvestre 703

Gymnorhis xanthocollis 753

Gyps fulvus “ze 558

Habenaria peristyloides 522

aa stenostachya 522

Hagenia abyssinica 439

Halcyon pileata 798

-— smyrnensis fusca 799

——_—— smyrnensis 756

Haliastur indus ... 757

Helopas annulatus 636

~--- ——= leevis es 636

Hominieeiodee shaeinvinyien 704

————- --—— neglectus 705

———_—_- -——__ unifasciatus ... 705

Hemitragus hylocrius .. 597

Hetropogon 3 622

—_-——_--—-— contortus ... 623, 624

——_——_—_+—_ var. genuinus,. 624, 625

—_-—_ —___-—. glaber 624

———_—— genuinus sub-var.

hispidissimus 624, 625

a ee —— roxburghii ... 624

-——— -___—_ ——. ——— — secundus 624

—__—_—_-——-— typicus 624, 625

——_——— insignis 623

——-------—- oliganthus 622, 623

——_—— —— polystachyos 623

——-—_-——_ ritchiei 623

Hevea brasiliensis 703

Hiereetus fasciatus 728

pennatus 738

Hilsa ilisha wes.» SOS

Hirundo daurica 754, 773

———— nippalensis 773

—--— PUSticae ss : 566

— TUSEICA es 753

——--— smithi filifera 754

---—---.-— striolata 113

Holcus gryllus... 411

——-— pallidus 41]

~ pertusus 421

Horeites pallidus Pallas 726

Horornis pallidus 751

Hyena creata TVA

——-—- striata 711

Hydrometra greeni 614

——_-——--- — lineatus 614

aa vittata 614

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Hydroprogne caspia caspia 469

Hypacanthis spinoides 793

Hypogynium fovuolatum Soe LACT

Ictinzetus malayensis perniger 728, 738

Inocotis papillosus 470

Iphigenia stellata 734

Iseilema anthephoroides 626

———— laxum 627

—__—— wightii 627

Ixobrychus minutus 760

Tynx torquilla 5 eo

Josephia lanceolata 520

Labeo calbasu 804

——— dyocheilus i ... 804 |

——— rohita 458, 802, 804

Laccotrephes griseus a Ole

_ ruber 615

Lanius cristatus isabellinus 750

excubitor lahtora 750

schach erythronotus 750

vittatus 750

Lantana camara 812

Larus brunneicephala ... 516

Lawana conspirsa 806

Leiognathus splendens 707

Lethrinus reticulatus ae, 409

Libellago ; 683, 691

—- asiatica Seven 459

-———-- bisignata 455

——-—-- blandus 687

————-- lineata 684

——_——-- perforata 451

Limosa limosa limosa Po. opal)

Liopicus mahrattensis purocrier ates aoe, CTS)

Liparis viridiflora 518 |

- wightiana 518

- sp. 518

Lobivanellus indicus 759

Lophoceros birostris 798 |

Loranthus sp. 701

Luczea ciliata 418 |

Lindia maculata hess OU |

Liiscinia svecica ... mes 654

MED abot . —-654

————- ——- —- pallidogularis 654, 658

Lusciniota melanopogon mimica Zou

Lutjants kasmira 709

Macaca mulatta Des 545

——-—-silenus ... be 43

———-vius a 72

Macroniés seenghala BO

aes

KKV

PAGE

Malachra rotundifolia .:. 810, 811

Mareca penelope : 761

Margaritifera vulgaris ... ta, Dee

Marmaronetta ee $3 605, 761

Megalornis grus . -402

—_——- frond 402, 469

——- leucogeranus 618

—— — monachus 620

~ —— nigricollis 617

Merganser castor | 13

—— merganser aricntalts - 761

Merops or entalis... VSI)

persicus persicus 756

superciliosus javanicus... 795

Messor barbarus ‘ 724

Metaponia pusilla som 7% 7953

Metrocoris staii ; 614

Micromerus Andon iene 687

-——-- aurantiacus 690

——_—-——- finalis 688

—___-——-- greenei ss 069

——_—_—_———_-- lineatus 683, 686

—— ——- - blandus . 687

————____-—_—— indica yh xe)

—__—-- —— —-—- lineatus ... 684, 686

—- obscurus 684

- uxor 684

Micropus affinis ... 756

Milium cimicinum 635

— compressum 635

——— - crus-galli 647

— filiforme ... 634

— ramosum 636

— sanguinale 634

Milvus ater ay 558

migrans govinda ee)

regalis gree orto)

Molpastes heemorrhous irermenit: ea, 240

———--—— leucogenys humii 746, 747

——---—- ——-— ieucogenys 746, 747

——--——- leucotis _ 746, 747

Monocharia hasteefolia ... 810

Monodactylus argentens.. | 710

Monticola solitaria pandoo . 749

| Montifringilla brandti eT VOR ye 513, 650

Motacilla alba dukhunensis 468

——-——— —-— personata © - 154

ae cinerea caspica wy j -T-n 754

——-—- citreola _ eve 6 468

ee eT VINEE EES calcar ata . Peete =|

oa flava cre Uy 43 eo ABB

XXvi

PAGE

Motacilla ava thunbergi 754

Mugil longimanus 707

Murex tenui spina 550

Muscicapa hypoleuca : 749

—— striata neumanni ... 749

Myiophoneus temminckii 749

Nelumbium speciosum ... Bene

Neophron percnopterus 508; /0V

Nettion crecca crecca 761

Nucifraga hemispila 5 726

--—— multipunctata 507, 745

Nycticorax nycticorax ... 760

Nymphea lotus . 461

Nyroca fuligula ... 605

- marila marila 605

- rufa : 761

- —— rufa 470

Oberonia brunoniana 518

-—— lindleyana 518

——-—— iridifolia 518

——-—— verticillata 518

Odontochilus rotundifolius 2k

Odontotermes fex 719

CEcodoma sae ee

CEcophylla T23°RL29

(Enanthe capistrata 748

deserti 748

——-—— isabellina 748

——-——— opistholema ... see 148

picata ... coe 658, 748

——--———- xanthoprymna chrysopygia 748

(Enopopelia tranquebarica tranque-

barica 758

Onychotrechus oaaan 614

Oplismenus crus-gallz .. 547

-—— frumentacens 647

—_—_--—— limosus 647

———-+——-. scaber 648

-——- stagninus 648

Oreocincla dauma 749

-— mollissima simi dienes |

Oriolus oriolus kundoo ... 752

Orthopogon crus-gallt... 647

647

-—— stagninus ... 648

Ortygornis pondicerianus 758

Ostrea angulata .. 548

edulis TOON

cucullata ... .. 548

gryphoides var. cuttackensis . 548

madrasensis — 548

INDEX OF SPECIES

Ostrea virginiana

—-—— virginica. ...

Otis tarda. ane

Otocoris Sipcstic longirodeHoe

—— var. madrasensis ...

PacE

548

759

659

— (Eremophila) alpestiie déosai 659

Otus ascalaphus ... 565

- spilocephalus 728

Ovis ammon ee elt

Oxyura leucocephala 605, 761

Palzornis nipalensis eupatria 756

—-- torquatus : 756

Palumbus palumbus casiotis ... 758

Pandanous sp. 701

Pandion haliztus fog SY

Panicum affine 642, 644

— appressum 642

————. arabicum 646

——-—_ argyrotrichum 634

— —— arvense 638

———— awelianum 643

——— barbatum 643

——-— barbinode : 637

———— beckmanniz forme... 642

——~— brachylachnum 638

——-— brizeforme 642

— ——-— brizoides 642

——— burgi .. 648

—_— — cespitosum 643

—--—— calauzense 643

——— — carnostm 642

——-——. caucasicum 637

———- ciliare ... 633

——— cimicinum 635

cognatissimum 638

——— colonum 646

———— conjugatum 635

— — controversum 644

—— — crispum 643

—— cruciforme 31, SOS

——— crus-galli : 647, 648

——— var. colonus 646

—_—____ —_—_—__ -—__-—_. frumenta-

ceum 647

———_———___—___——_—— leiostachyum. 648

———_———__— maximum 648

wi —-———— stagninum ... 648

————o —— submuticum. 648

———- cuspidatum 646

—_-——— daltoni ..s 646

———-— distachyum 637, 639

ee ae

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Panicum equinum 637

—— —-— equitans ce 646

———— fimbriatum 633

——-— flavidum 641

——— floridum 642

fluitans.. ave O92

————. frumentacea ... 647

—_——- galli .. 648

———— geminatum 642, 644

———— glomeratum 642

-——-—— _ grossarium me. 1-043

—— —— helopus 2 vi 638, 644

—_——— —var.glabrescens ... 644

——— hirsutum 644

———— hispidulum 647

———— hispidum 647

—— — hostiti 647

———— insularum 647

————_ isachne... 633

————_ javanicum 645

kenegi 644

———— lielievrei 648

——_—— limosum 647

———— longiflorum 634

——— marathense 644

—-——— marginatum 643

-———— muticum 637

— —— notochtona ... Ree cea = O45

——————— NUMIdiIanum ... ... 637, 642, 646

oryzetorum 648

—_——- oryzinum 647

——— parvulum 634

——_—— paspaloides 642

—-—- patens ... 638

——-— pennatum ww. 634

———— petiveri sf i 638, 646

—— — nosteasintin var. GS 632

——-— pictum 648

—-—— procumbens 643

———— prostratum 643

——_—— pseudocolonum 646

pubinode 637

——— punctatum 642

————— purpurascens... 637

pyzmeum “2 203d

——_——— ramosum 637, 638

———— repens ... 643

———— reptans : ssaee “643

sanguinale var. alsnwsene

thum 633

ee ———— Ciliare 633

eee

XXVil

PAGE

Panicum sanguinale var. macrostach-

yum 633

————— sarmentosum ... 637

———— scabrum 648

———— setigerum j 644

——_——__——__-———- tomentosa 644

————- sieberi ... sae 043

———. stagninum ise 647, 648

—- —-—-—~ —— var. frumentacea 647

—--—— subquadriparum 639

——_—— ternatum 632

———— tetrastichon 646

————- trichopus 645

-—--—— truncatum 642

—-— turgidum 642

—-—— wumbrosum 638

————- viaticum 643

——— wightt... ioe ©1637,

— — zonale ... 646, 647

Papaver somniferum 703

Papilio agamemnon 811

—-——- aristolochize 811

- hector ane 812

Paradoxurus binneniods 546

niger ae .. 946

Parus major kashmiriensis 508, 512, 745

—-—-- melanolophus 508

——-- monticolus 745

——-- rufonuchalis ronuehalic 508

Paspalidium es 641

— flavidum ... 641

——— geminatum 642

punctatum 642

Paspalum ... ee 639

—-- annulatum 636

———--——. appressum 642

——--—— boryanum 641

-—-- brachiatum ... 641

——--—— brevifolium ... 634

——--——. canarze 640

———--——. compactunm ... 640

-———-- -- —— dilatatum .. 640

-—-----— distichum~ ... fe 640, 641

—_- — -- var. vaginatum. 640

——--—— filiculme 634

——-— -- foliosum 641

——-—— imperfectum ... 640

-—_——- -— inflatum 641

—_——-—— kleinianum 641

—_—— -— littorale ... 640

— longiflorum ... 634, 64]

INDEX OF SPECIES.

XXViii

PAGE

Paspalum miliaria 640

-— orbiculare §39

——--—— ovatum 640

——-— pedicellare 634

—— -— pedicellatum... 634

——--—— pennatum 634

——_-——_ pratense 640

——-— pseudo-durva 534

——-—— royleanum 634

———---- sanguinale 633

——___—____ -_-— - ——- var. ciliare 633

——-—— scrobiculatum : os 639

—-——_ —_ —_--—— var. com-

mersonii 639

+ —___ ——-——.- var. frumen-

taceum ... 639

—___—- —_— —--—_——- var. poly-

stachyum 639

—_——- — selloi... 640

——--— squamatum ... 641

——--—— ternaturm ay pe oe

——_--—— vaginatum as 640, 641

—-. — forma longipes. 640

Passer domesticus ees es),

——— hispaniolensis “753

Pastor roseus Zaz

Pelecanus crispus 562

——-- ---— onocrotalus ... 562

Perdix hodgsonie caraganaz... oly

Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris.. 750

Perristylus stenostachyus Be Ole

Petaurista cineraceus ae: 1 O46

—_—--—— philippensis... 546

Petrocossyphus cyanea... 566

Phalacrocorax carbo 562

-- pygmeeus 562

Phalaris zizanioides seen = 409

Pheidole ... he ae Ass 719, 724

Phoenicurus erythrogastra grandis 652

—-- erythronotus Li 748

—=-- ochrurus phcenicuroides

658, 748

Phylloscopus collybita tristis 751

—~--— subviridis Fo

Pica pica bactriana — oil

Picus squamatus 755

Pipatherum annulatum =... 1636

Pithecus auratus 660, 667

————_ aygula... 675

——— brahma 664

——'— cephalopterus 498

PAGE

Pithecus chrysogaster ... 2-2 666

———— crepusculus 667, 669

————- cristatus 667

———— durga ... a3 vee es, 1003

——— entellus 473, 476, 660

—-—- ——~—-- achates 476, 488, 489

—_—— ——-—--- achilles 476, 478

———_ —-—-- ajax ... 476, 480, 482

— -—-— -——-- dussumieri ... 477, 491

—_——- ——-—--- elissa 477, 493

—- -- entellus

476, 484, 485, 486, 487

-——-——- —__--- hector ... 476, 481, 483

———_— -- hypoleucos ... 477, 492

—_—— -- inlus ... 477, 490, 491

—_——— -—_—--- lanius ... 480

—_———_ -———--- ceneas 477, 492

—_—_—— -- pallipes 477, 497

——_——- -———--- priamellus 477, 494, 496

—— — -- schistaceus ... 476, 477

~—-——— femoralis [675

——_—— ——--— _keatii 676

——-——. germani 667

———— johnii ... S08,

—_—— margharita - | 667

——_—— melamerus 670

———— obscurus 667

———— phayrei 667

—-——— pileatus 660

————— -- brahma 664, 666

—_—— -- durga 663, 665

———— —-——--- pileatus __.... 661, 662, 665

—_———- ————--- saturatus 5, S003

—_—— ———--- shortridgei ... 663, 665

—__——— —_—---- tenebricus ... €64, 665

———— potenziani 666

-—— pruinosus 666

——_—— pyrrhus : 667

—_—— ———--- atrior 2;. 671,673, 734

Eatla di SePR -- barbei 768

as Le oe -- crepusculus . 672, 676

Se = AVICAUGA ee. 672, 674

—_—_—____——_ pha yyrei ... 669, 672, 674

ee Se San crortin 673

—shanicus _... 670, 671, 674

wos cehex 498, 660

a johnt : 503

eee 5 nestor .. ...499, 502, 504

—————— senex Pere es)!

—_— —————-_ vetulus ... 472, 501

—_——— shortridgei .. 665

ove \ onal

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Pithecus shortridgei belliger ... 663, 665

—vetulus 498, 499

= -— monticola 502

_ as nestor... 502

ee. -—__—_phillipsi 502

-—.-—— vetulus 501

Platalea leucorodia major 470

Plectranthus rugosus 808

——_—— - — ternifolius 808

Plegadis falcinellus 470

Pleuroplitis ciliata 418

——-——-— major 418

——-— -——— plumbea 418

——-——— schimperi 418

— ———-- vioJacea 418

Podiceps al bipennis 470

—-—— cristatus cristatus 652

—-—— ruficollis capensis 761

Pollinia brevifolia 428

———— fulva 413

——— gryllus 411

Pomatorhinus erythrogenys 599

Porphyrio poliocephalus poise phatn: 469

Presbytis albinus ... 900

——_——— barbei 668, 670

——_——. brahma ; : 664

———— cephalopterus var. monticnla 502

———— crepuscula 672

——__— —-— Sraieantinn 672

———— durga 663

entellus .. 484

SS — anchises 488, 493

——w—w— feimoralis 675

——_—_ johnii 503

———— lania 480

——-—— maurus see. 007

melamera 668, 670

— neglecta keatii 676

——_—— obscurus 669

— -—— carbo Heat = OWS

aia Phayrei 669, 672

——_—— pileatus 660, 663 |

priamus 495

— sanctorum 673

— schistaceus . 481

-———— shanicus 670, 671

— shortridgei 665

——— thersites 495

ursinus 502

Prinia gracilis lepida 751

inornata inornata 752 —

PAGE

Prunella atrogularis 749

———— rubeculoides 659

—_—— muraria 659

Pseudanthistiria heterodita zt 631

—. --—— hispida 631

—_——_--——-— umbellata wo, ~-631

Pseudogyps bengalensis 728, 757

Psilopogon schimperi 418

Pterocles corunatus atratus 758

— indicus : 758

Pteroclurus alchatus eamaseaene 758

- senegalensis 758

Ptilomera laticaudata 614

Ptyonoprogne rupestris 753

Pucrasia macrolopba biddulphi 507

Pygathrix cephalopterus 498

flavicauda 672

——_-——-— pileatus : 660

Pyrrhocorax graculus age tel olZ

-——-- pyrrhocorax himalayanus 512

Pyrrhospiza punicea humii 658

Pyrrhula aurantiaca 508

Rallus aquaticus korejewi 799

Ranatra elongata 615

Raphis ciliolata 413

coerulea 413

Rattus concolor 547

——w— rattus khyensis 547

rufescens 547

Ratufa gigantea 546

Rhaphis acicularis 412

—— -—~ echinulata 411

od gryllus 411

-——— — orientalis 412

——— trivalvis 412

— wightianus w. 412

Rhinocypha 683, 691

——- apicalis 451

——-——-- beesoni 453

——_——_——-- biforata abbreviata 454

——-—__——__——_—- beesoni 455

—__—_—__—___-—_-- biforata ... 453

—__—_—_-—_—_—_—- delimbata 453

——_———_- bisignata oe 455

-—_—— ——-- inas 451

—_—_——_-- laidlawi és 457

—_— ——- perforata Beatiien 452

ee — limbata... 451

—_—_ -—__—_—_ —, perforata 0° 452

——- whiteheadi 450, 451

Rhyacornis fulginosa 749

Rhynchops albicollis ever pk tOO

EXX INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Riparia riparia indica ... one ces DS

Ritaarita---. ae ee oe 802, 893

Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis 759

Saccolabium filiforme ... Je A O20.

—-— gracile... ee eave

—_—_———— nilagiricum he ara 20)

—— pulchellum ae. ee O20

Sanguinaria vaginata ... oa ie Al

Satyrium nepalense Ase es EO

Saxicola caprata bicolor ae nanprean oF

———- torquata indica A ves) EAS

—_——_-——- leucura _... .. 448

Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis ... 749

Schizachyrium brevifolium ... we. 428

Schcenanthus amboinicum ... Aer iert: sey

Scolopasx rusticola ans oie ed EN)

Scotocerca inquieta striata... ‘ecto

Scotophilus castaneus ... pe. Boe ere): )

ecyllaiserrata: \\s.: bei aoe Pe sll)

Semnopithecus anchises Se we = 488

——__———--— argentatus hi 661, 663

——__——__———— barbei ... oe aan Ors

—— barbus ... at ‘ae 9068

—_—_—— dussumieri ... an eee

—_——_-——— entellus acs .. 484

—__——_ ——— femoralis i ZOO

— — holotephreus ... ne O69

—_—_—__ ——— hypoleucos ... x 492

——_———_-——— hypoleucus ... 221 488

——-——-_ — -—johnii ... ae Bee ar O03

—_——_——-— kelaarti ae fee, Soe

—_—— ———_ maurus a3 ace OOF

————- ——— neglectus “ee seta 07/9)

——_——_-_——_— nestor ... 0 Se Ue

—_—_——_——-_— nipalensis hey eee cw

-———.—___-——. obscurus ee 667, 672

——_——_-——_ pallipes a bee Ado

——_——_- ——— pileatus ae 660, 661

—_——_——_——__—— priam ... wey Seer 295

—__——_-——— _ pyrrhus re eh eOOT,

—_-_-— schistaceus.... 477, 478

——_——- senex ... ieepdet eta 00

Senecio johnstoni ee Poe seo 1439

Serinus pusillus Ss aap Boe en ed

Setaria hirsuta ... oe Ee an £045

Siganus javus.... such td sakes ada oval

——_——— —— Virgatus... as wr LO

Sillago sihama ais ae ee LOU.

Simia aygula on bes en 07544

——- entellus nee vee .. 484

Jona sac, oo a ee eS

Simia maura BAC ons S50 see

Siphia parva parva ai

Sitta europea kashmiriensis .., 5c

Sparus berda

Sphazerodema rusticum

Spilornis cheela

Spiranthes australis

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops

Sterna melanogaster

~——— seelia

Stipa arguens

——- paleacea BoD M3

Streptopelia decaocta decaocta

-——--~ senegalensis cam bayensis

Strix aluco biddulphi

— nivicola

-——- indranee indranee

Struthio camelus es ae aod

Sturnus vulgaris humii mas

~-——~-—-- nobilior ae

——_—-————-—- poltaratzskyi. . 726,

——-— - porphyronotus ;

Suya crinigera striatula : dos

Sylvia althea me ae eat 607,

— curruca affinis ... ant 607,

—— -- minula...

Syrrhaptes tibetanus

Tadorna cornuta Bae

——_—— tadorna uae ae 799,

Tamiops macclellandi...

Taphozous longimanus ... ae 546,

Tarsiger chryszeus whistleri

Tephrodornis pondicerianus

Terias hecabe 66

Terpsiphone paradisi ... 500 wes

Tetraceros quadricornis ay

Tetraogallushimalayanus ... 510,

——-- tibetanus es eas

——-——- tibetanus

Tetrarhynchus unionifactor

Themeda australis

= ciliata s

——-—— cymbaria .. soe 627,

—- —_—_—-— forskallii oe Mes 628,

—--— imberbis

—— polygamna

—— -— quadrivalvis ... aa 627,

-_—— —-- tremula re a Boo

- —-— triandra wn O27 SOZSs2 020m

Therapon jarbua a aes

‘Tichodroma muraria

Tinnunculus chenchris ...

Tomeutes phayrei phayrei

————- pygerythrus ...

Torgos calvus

Tringa glareola ...

- hypoleuca

-——--- ochropus

- totanus

Tristachya leucothrix

Tupaia belangeri belangeri

- —_—_——-—- Siccata

- ——-—-— tenaster

Turdoides somervillei

Turdus atrogularis

- viscivorus

Turtur communis

senegalensis

Upupa epops

- ——-- epops

Urginea polyantha

Urochloa ‘

- cimicina

————-- helopus

———-—-- marathensis

- panicoides

————- pubescens

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

563,

558

546

547

728

759

dey)

628

546

599

749

563

658

' 756

735

642

635

644

Urochloa reptans

—— —— setigera

-—— trichopus

Uroloncha malabarica ..

Uromastix microlepis ...

Vanda pulchella

Vanellus vanellus

Vanessa cardui

Varands griseus ... ‘

Vetiveria arundinacea ...

lawsoni

inuricata

——-— odorata

——--——- zizanioides

Viscum album

Viverra zibetha

- ———-- picta

—- —— —- prilinosa

Viverricula malaccensis

Vulpes alopex

- bengalensis

- ferrilatus ...

Zenarchopterus dispar ...

Zeuxine blatteri ... Ss

-- longilabris se =

Zosterops palpebrosa occidentalis

XXX

PAGE

643

644

645

752

608

520

759

811

608

409

701

546, 778

546

778

715, 716

715

716

705

§22

759

ae ‘ x 7" S — i ~ ?-

7 ry .

7 cael * geo eee

E POP ae aes Os

’ = y

= ? =

ri !

‘

. J

“

Ae “toa . | } ;

ne °

i me ee : THE eo ae

_ JOURNAL |

- Bompay Naturat History Socrmry. —

EDITED BY

SiR REGINALD SPENCE, KT., F.Z.S., S. H, PRATER, C.M.Z.S.,

& SALIM A. ALI.

we tee ; VOL. XXXII, No. re

f= Date of Publication, 15th. January, 1928.

3 Price to Non-Members ue ia Fis foe.

Bb | | : or £ 1-7-0

For terms of membership see inside front cover.

_ Honorary Secretary ’s Address :

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ® ms

6, Faas of aries Bombay. : <agenian STS

APR 9 71928 3a)

ED ede

Tonal MUSES

“LONDON AGENTS:

DULAU & Co., Ltd.,

a _ 32, Old Bond Street, W. 1.

“aq

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

Mesopotamia. “

A ourvey Be the Bona or Saas ~Mammals, Birds, Reptiles, etc., 1 ade.

_ Members of the Mesopetaine Pape Taary aoe 2 , 1915-1919. ee R

Birds. og OT toe Sas a Ce

if : ; ~ fe ae gets facts 8 : , eae

A Hand List of Genora ands Species of Birds of the Gadtan! Empire ny

ly OF en ea OBE. MB.O.U., F.Z.S., HPAO.U, ee 6)

(Price to Members Rs, 4- 12).

(pone Birds of indi Burma & Ceylon. Vol. Ty (Indian Ducks and their Allies)

Bea ea 2nd Edition. : ; Rs, 63 _

ie ia (New Price Ma Members Rs. 35). aN

bet ‘Game Birds of indies Burma & Ceylon. Vol. II. (Woodcock, Snipe, Bustards, oe

Piha and Sandgrouse): Ist Edition, Rs, 55

Ae ! (New Price to Members Rs. 30). : is

“Set of Game Bird Plates (30), Vol. I. : wi Se 20° i a

— (Price to Members Rs. 15). is

Set of Game Bird Pines (19), N O82 Ta eo 85 Rs. 13. By oO

‘ | (Price to Monier: Rs, 10), S

Siaane Pigeons and Doves with coloured illustrations by E. C, Stuart meer,

oe (O°8. Bs 'M,B:0:U.,.F iZ. Ss ete: Rs, 37-12

(Price to Members Rs. 80) a me

Snakes. Si hase

Poisonous Terrestrial Snakes of our. British’ Indian Deacoas by ‘Cor. FP ple

AEN, CoM God. M. S. Orders being 2 es ie Fourth © ‘Edition. ;

CES Rs. 3

fa Adedtification of Poisonous Snakes— a Ee ROEBS Be pao

Hanging Wall’ Chart,907 x407\s0. “ee os | RES ae

Folding Pocket Chart. . ae ae Rs. 1-12.

Snakes of Bombay Island and Salsette, by Si H, Prarer, c. M. Z. Ss. : Re. 1

‘Miscellaneous. Ae aes ree ; ee

‘Wood- -Destroying White Ants of the Bombay Presidency, by Rey. J. Aeon eo ee

SJ. baie 0 OER OAD ine

‘ dpa ~ Catalogue of the Society’s isbravy § Se i SC aeeey q. eee,

oF List of Indian Butterflies, by Lt.-CoL. W. H. EVANS, R. E 0 POEs =) ca

‘Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog froma Domestic: Dog or Jackal. Rs, 2-

" Adentification of Indian Butterflies, by Cot. W. H. Evans, R.E. © Rs: eA

Se TANS aire m PE

ities: to Members Rs. 10. ye é oe

‘ ¥

TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. Bera NES -

Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 20 and a Life Membership fee of a

Rs, 350. AG ;

Ordinary Members _ pay an entrance fee of Rs. 20 and an sonval

subscription of Rs. ZS,

ioe eee The subscription of members elected i in Oéianer. Mover ter and Decéki ber’ ee

hs covers the period from the date of their election up vt the end (of the Seve

- following gee \ ; : : eae,

Meee es ie MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE | INDIA. at Oe

ANE OC The terms are the same for members living outside India. Such members a

should pay their subscriptions by means of orders on their Bankers to pay the

Mae? amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26-8-0 to the Society in.

oe Maat Bombay on the Ist January in each year.. If this cannot be done then the sum —

hte as of £1-15-4 should be paid annually to the Society’s London Bankers—The

Bee eh, gs _ National Bank of India, Bishopsgate Street, London, Hy Ose aes

CONE ES OF VOLS XXALL, NG. 3

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (With a coloured plate.)

Bye ©. Stuart’ Baker, F.Z.S.; F..S;, M.B.0.U., H.F.A.O.U, 4.0 .5..05

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. Part V.

yee biciter andi NICCANI 2, cork Seence 5+ sess teuecssiasiicaeeses sas eses ees

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA. (With a map and ten plates.)

By Marius Maxwell....... Picmice coe eeniae Seiotmuiieas GPs ea ta gael as sons de eerkoehew

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXIX. (With three plates.) By Lt.-Col.

CMe EN ASG: Tk NT Sag Ey E0.S 5) cole sie'siviee eign. eceins A tei tinjevsocae osbusleguieudies seuss meee es

PPA ee ah eens dower eaee oes aul ne ss owsicinioetuancleAuaienigasre nasi on siaswegners islstealtaisicrese

Tur LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BrRiTIsH INDIA (With one

coloured and one black and white plates and twenty-one text-figures.)

By Re Te POCGCK, B.RiS: iti s.c tes csccstcereeeere ececsstraseds tstncnaces costes cei Sls

A CoLLECTING TRIP TO LADAK. PartI. (With a map and five plates.)

Vee Saale A ECLCOMME cas avretoes assem tater sbiancbtetn «Gn. ekiasewh emeee aa nacsestone tenses

A List OF ORCHIDS, WITH SOME NEW SPECIES FROM THE HIGH WAvyY

MounTAINS (MapurRA District). (With a plate.) By E. Blatter,

Seren PD AIG S 5 -obre petra «00d 0 Se'oGla'e cio nest wisiasslelohisinn's eSivis's vis oissets vas «now shiviaws "eos

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF TUTICORIN, MARCH AND

Apri. 1927.2 (With four-plaes.) By Pi. KR. Awati, 1.2.8. ...:.08..

MODERN MusEuM METHODS. Part I. (With six plates and five text-

MDEULESE ant Oh abl eA PLALET 8 GC MeZiG.© a.couceniseshaesiesene ants PO oe ne

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

BURMA AND CEYLON. Report No. 46. By T. B. Fry

Ceoercorersevreceses

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ANATOMY AND LIFE HISTORY OF

THE COMMON EDIBLE BACKWATER OYSTER, Ostrea madrasensis.

(Hith lwo plates.) -By S: 7. MOSES, M.A., F.Z.S., F.R.AsTuis. cesecses ss aes

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE. By the Late Lt.-Col. C. E. Luard

eee eee ee eee eee ee ee ee ee ee ee ere er ey

FOC mM Peo tA OS OSOOHHT EH SESH TOE OO DETHS GOL SEH HEE Be DF EH OOHHAE LEH HHT OEE OOH EEO SEHBAC OL OOD

Ceo eee eee eeer FF OOH ors HEE FH FOr FEF Bree eFTs Boe SH EFF HHBH ooo TEH HOTEL EET OOTES EHO EE Os OOEEDE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—Readers’ views on ‘Game Preservation in India.’ By W M.

Logan Home ...

rn oe ee ee oe ee ee ee ee 2 2

Il.—A Unique Lion Photograph. (Wz7th a plate.) By Salim

Aeeeut

COOCECOEET SOS THS HOHE ST HOOSHEHHOHHHHLG: SHLOHHESs CHL TZ FHEHHHTHHETMHTHHOHOH HO SB ES OED

II].—White Tigers. (Witha photograph.) By F.B. Robinson ......

IV.—A Tussle between Tiger and Buffalo Bait. By J. Mc C.

Clive

oe eeere 9 eee 246 ee veese eee cect eeeerseee Boe ee se - Cee r1 ee HT he ee BO BEES geeeer

450

460

586

il CONTIN TS “OF Vol. DXTT No.

PAGE

V.—Unusual Behaviour of a Tigress with Live Bait. (Wzth a

plater = “By FE AO CAvic ee seer eres ctniwn rs 20s celae see eseieo mares 587

VI.—What is the Record Panther ? By W. Me Logan Home ......... 587

VILA Panther and Flashiiont. = Cy77easplaie.) By, BY Also:

Bruriskalil i os Ue ke ccae vas eae eee eee eee me eeece tenia ae tems eee inareaine 588

VIII.—Boldness of Panthers, By W.M. Logan Home: (00.00... see coe en: 588

IX.—Circumstantial Account of a Panther attacked by Wild Dogs.

By JoweiC Cline. i. Gass. -eees Oe iia Ned Ren oe othe es ce ciple 590

Xe—Wild’ Dogs; . ByJ. Go launthonper sc ances tess brary se 590

XI.—How Wild Dogs kill their Prey. By A. A. Dunbar Brander ... 591

XII.—The Record Four-horned Antelope (7etraceros guadricornis).

(With a photo. \ = By Cy McCan te iawacncase een senes acne ees Se

XIJJ.—Abnormal Blackbuck and a Good Chinkara Head from Bikanir.

(Withia plate.) “By Surajimal sim elgaer ne een eae 593

XIV.—-Clicking Noise made by Muntjac.. By Charles Theobold,

BiZsSe' seed Sivaae abs sudeaeee Seat se a tieen satetias tee eeine te see ea eats 593

XV.— The Bray of the Chital Stag. By W. M. Lie Home Sentero E

XVi.—Musth in‘Hlephant By NUM BOts iia tates ee eee tence nes 594

XVIL.—A Large Tusker Elephant: By A. We Jon. 2.) 22 Gisescsceestns tee 596

XVIII.—A Good Nilgiri Tahr (Hemztragus hylocrius). Ry A. W. John.. 597

XIX.—Birth of Freak Calf at Indore. (Witha photo.) By C. E. D.

1) eth oy Ae AE ME ater Oy Rae Ronin ear iA RA caren tuna RI Re cha 597

XX. —An Example of an Assisted Passage. By Hugh Whistler,

BST 5-0 oZaScce eek oesey ems tone Cena a eee ee ee ee ee epee 598

XXI.—Extraordinary Pugnacity of the Rusty-Cheeked Scimitar

sabbler (Pomatorhinus erythrogenys). By Arthur H. Berriff 599

XXIL.—Oceurrence of the: Wood Snipe im, the Central Provinces:

By J Me GC Clive ee eet ka ole: eee re tee i ey Sa ele ae 600

XXIII.—Notes on Duck Shooting in the Roorkee District,-U. P., in the

years 1903 to 1927. (With a graph.) By A. H. Cun-

MNO HAM | 1. eee aedekeg foares oeque cede as ater oe eee ek sere ener aoe ee eee 600

XX1IV.—Snipe and Woodcock in S. India. By E.G. Phythian Adams.. 506

XXV.—A Correction to Mr. B. B. Osmaston’s ‘ Notes on the Birds of

Kashmir’) “By Huoh Winistler =a .s). cet eeeceee: eeentae eeeeece 607

XX ViE—An Albino Turtle. By he A lB’ A breat, IZ {Seen eee 608

XXVII.—Notes on the Desert Monitor (Varanus griseus) and the Spiny

Tailed Lizard (Uvromastix microlepis). By Norman

eee Corkille rtersc.. sce eeee saa @anls cag satu detoae Bede raouiamrenie s smsementaseet ess 608

XXVIII.—Hamadryads in the Kumaon Terai. By W.M. Logan Home. 610

XXIX.—Mr. Slater’s Death by Snake Bite. By Charles Theobold ......... 611

XXX.—A Note on the Green Whip Snake (Dryophis mycterizans) and

VYoune.. | (W227i a prolos) By. Ce Me Cangas ere, seta ate eee 612

XXXI.—A Record Cubbany Masheer (With a plate.) By G. he Hare. 3613

XXXII.—Aquatic Rhynchota in the Collection of the Agricultural

College,. Coimbatore, 8. India. .By Cedric Dover :)........5.5.. 614

PROCEEDINGS | sic g cncte cece ace tnouistcte ei tette ete Ace tell ae ete oe en ee eae pa ccceitaie’ cist ean ee 616

ee <r

te ‘azIS "YEN 6/ ‘azIs "FEN 6,

os4iA saprodouyquy Ipdojf1] Sn4u8 siusojesay|

ANVaD SlISssiOWSsd Sahl SANVYQ NOWWOD N&YSlsSvya AHL

“O00 “LSIP “LV AT AVENOGT ©

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

JANUARY, 1928 VoL. XXXII No. 3

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

BeGr SLUART BAKER, BZ.S:, F.L:S., M.B.O.U.,.H.F.A.O.U.

VoL. V

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS

PART V

(With a coloured plate)

(Continued from page 245 of this Volume)

SUB-ORDER BALEARIC#

FAMILY BALEARICID

CRANES

The True Cranes are birds of large size with long necks and legs

but with a bill only equal to, or but little longer than, the head. The

nostril is enclosed by a membrane on the posterior side and it is

placed in the base of a groove which extends about half-way up the

upper mandible. There are 12 tail feathers and 11 primaries. The

tracheze pass into a hollow space between the long walls of the

sternal keel and are more or iess convoluted.

Our Indian Cranes were divided by Sharpe into the genera Grus,

Sarcogeranus, Antigone and Anthropoides.. ‘The name Grus is not

tenable and has to give way to Megalornis, whilst the differences

between this and Sarscogeranus seem hardly generic. On the other

hand Antigone, not recognized by Blandford, is now generally accept-

ed as sufficiently defined to form a good genus.

KEY To GENFRA

A. Crown of head bare; sides of head and

upper neck feathered By, ... Megalornis.

B. Crown of head bare, sides of head and

neck not feathered te . Antigone.

- C:; Crown of head feathered _... ... Anthropordes,

$98: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol secre

Genus—ANTHROPOIDES

Anthyropoides. —Vieill., Analyse, p. 59, 1816.

Type.—Ardea virgo Linn.

In this genus the head is feathered throughout and there are long

white plumes springing from behind the ear-coverts ; the feathers

of the lower neck are long and lanceolate, whilst the inner second-

aries are much lengthened but not disintegrated as in Grvus. The

bill and legs are shorter in proportion than they are in that

genus.

ANTHROPOIDES VIRGO

| The Demotselle Crane.

ortente. Restricted to India).

Anthropoides virgo. Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 190.

Vernacular names.—Karkarra (Hind.); Ghants (Nepal); Karkuchi

(Mahr.) ; Kallam (Deccan); Garara (Uriya); Wada-Koraka (Tel.);

Kar-koncha (Can.) Ses Ont aie |

Description.—Forecrown tonape grey ; patch below the eye, a line

over the ear-coverts and long aigrette behind them pure white ;

remainder of head and neck black, the feathers of the lower fore-

neck very long and lanceolate falling over the breast; winglet,

greater coverts and wing quills blackish; ends of lengthened inner

secondary plumes black, grading into the pale French grey of the

rest of the plumage; the grey of the upper plumage extending on to

the base of the hind neck.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris red-brown (possibly young birds) to

crimson or red; bill sage-greenish with a red tip; legs and feet

black. ; fee ia

Measurements.—Wing 450 to 530 m.; tail 165 to 182 m.; tarsus

170 to 187m. ; culmen 63.10.70 a.

-- Young birds are like the adult, but have the head wholly grey ;

‘the black of the neck is browner behind, more grey in front, and

there are no lengthened plumes ; wings coloured as in the adult but

the inner secondaries but little lengthened.

Distribution.—Breeding in Southern Europe and the high plateaus

of Algeria; Central and Northern Asia as far East as Western

Mongolia. In Winter south to Northern Africa, Mesopotamia,

Palestine and India. Inthe last-mentioned country it has occurred

south as far as Kollegal in Coimbatore, but is rare south of the

Deccan. East it extends through Eastern Bengal and Assam to the

greater part of Burma, but it is not common east of Bihar.

' ~WVidttication.—No better description of the breeding of these

beautiful cranes exists than that given by Dr. A. S. Cullen in his

account of the Nesting of Birds in Bulgaria, though it is to be feared

that the birds no longer exist in such great numbers.

‘‘ This-bird arrives in the Dobrudsha in about the second week

of April.- It makes its appearance in flocks of from twenty to

thirty birds and upwards, and the form of these flocks very

much resembles: those of the Common Crane, and they almost

always fly very high, especially when passing wooded country;

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 399

but when crossing the plains they fly lower, and occasionally

come within gunshot. For the first week after their arrival

flocks of these birds mingle with those of the Common Crane,

and resort to any fields of newly-sown grain that they can

find, and to these they often do great damage. Regularly

once or twice during the day they repair to some lake or pond

ot fresh water to drink. Inthe evening the fields are desert-

ed, all the birds going to the nearest lakes or marshes, where,

I believe, they remain a]l night. About the second week after

their arrival the flocks break up into pairs, which disperse

themselves all-over the country. Very soon after the birds

have paired they begin to lay. Eggs may be found from

about the third week in April to very nearly the end of.May ;

but much depends onthe state of the weather. The nest of

the Demoiselle Crane is, without exception, made on the

..ground, usually amidst some kind of young grain, but. often

amongst grass on fallow land, and now and then, though more

rarely, amongst stubble. The nest—if indeed ‘such it_can be

- called—is made by the birds pulling up or treading down the

grain, grass, or stubble for the space of about two feet, and

scratching the shallowest possible hollow in the middle of-the

-bare patch thus formed. A few small straws and stones are

often found in and about this hollow, but whether they are

brought there by the birds, or found there by them, which _ Is

very probable, I cannot say with any certainty.’

‘“‘T believe myself, however, that they are placed there by the

birds. The eggs, which are never more nor less than. two. in

number, are a/ways placed side by side, in, the hollow already

described, with their small ends pointing in the same direction.

The male assists the female in hatching the eggs; indeed, I

-have every reason to think that he sits as much as the female.

To the uninitiated in the habits of this bird, its eggs are very

difficult to find. When an intruder approaches the spot where

the eggs lie, he at first sees nothing except perhaps a solitary

bird Standing on one leg as if sleeping. Should he not be a

very good observer, as he draws nearer he will probably only

notice a pair of birds walking rapidiy away, plucking the grass

as they go, apparently feeding eagerly, and he will most likely

account for the sudden appearance of the second bird by con-

cluding that it had been sitting on the ground resting, and will

not think anything about the matter, and pass on. Very few

persons indeed would at all suspect that the birds had a nest,

Often, nay, almost always, when the birds have placed some

distance between them and their nest, they will take flight, and

to all appearance desert the spot altogether, but no sooner is

the intruder’s back turned, than there they are again in a

wonderfully short space of time. One of the birds, I believe

the male, always keeps watch over the other, except in the

middle of the day in very hot weather, when the bird, which

acts as sentinel, deserts its post and goes to the nearest pond

_ or lake to drink. It does not, however, remain away very

long.’’

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

‘¢ Should the bird whose place it is to watch while the other sits

be absent, the sitting bird when disturbed is not quite so guarded

in its movements, and will allow a much nearer approach.

When the eggs are first laid the birds will leave them as soon as

an intruder comes in sight, but as the incubation advances they

become Jess shy, and will not leave their eggs so readily.

‘¢T cannot say whether the bird which watches stands close to

ora little distance fromthenest. I rather incline to the latter

opinion. Ifacrane be observed chasing other birds away from

any particular spot, it isa sure sign that it has a nest not far

off. This bird will give chase to eagles and great bustards

without the ieast fear, should they venture near its nest. For

all kinds of harriers and seagulls it has a great dislike. I

have been told by the Tartars that, should a dog by chance go

near the nest of this bird, both the birds will attack him, strik-

ing him with their beaks and wings, and making a great noise

all the time. I myself have never had an opportunity of

witnessing such an interesting encounter, but I am certain

that this bird has sufficient courage for one. The Demoiselle

crane is easily domesticated when young.”

Dybowski says that in Dauria ‘‘it nests onthe rocky banks of

rivers andrarely on bare mountains. The nest is made of small

stones fitting close to each other, the surface of the nest is flat or

deepening somewhat towards the centre; it chooses sometimes a

place which is a few inches higher than the surrounding ground,

and fills up all the crevices and openings with stones.”’

The breeding season lasts from the middle of May to the middle

of July, a month earlier in its most southern breeding haunts, even

later in the more northern. ‘The normal clutch of eggs is two only,

but three are occasionally laid. In appearance generally they are

small replicas of those of the Common Crane, but they are still

longer and more narrow in proportion to their size. The ground

colour varies from a pale olive yellow to a warm olive brown or

olive green whilst the markings consists of large primary blotches of

brown or purple brown and secondary blotches of neutral tint of pale

purplish-lavender. In most eggs these are fairly numerous over the

whole surface, but insome they are confined to the larger end where

they form an indefinite ring or cap. One hundred and twenty eggs

average 83°3 & 53°1 mm., maxima 91°4 & 55:1 and 84:2 & 56°6 mm. ;

minima 74:1 & 48°5 and 78:0 & 47:0 mm.

Habits.--The Demoiselle Crane arrives in India in October and

the first flocks which arrive seem to fly straight down to their

southern limits as it is said to arrive in the Deccan in the middle of

October, whilst in the north few birds seem to settle until the end

of that month, though they must pass over on their way south.

They return North in March and April, Whistler recording numerous

flocks from the Jhang District between March 8 and April 7. Both

coming and going they assemble in vast multitudes, and a most

interesting letter from Mr. A. A. Phillips, quoted by Whistler,

gives a graphic account of one of these assemblies :

‘On March 25, C. and I went out after them. They were a

sight worth seeing and hearing. There seemed ‘to be vast

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 401

divisions of them about, but we only shzkaved one division:

while they were feeding on the ground there was a broad band

of them for about 14 miles. When alarmed they bunched to-

gether and looked just like a white pebble beach about 100 by

500 yards in extent, and when they rose the noise was like the

roaring of the sea. We shot three which were all Demoiselles.”’

The dancing of this Crane is well known, Nordmann’s description

having been translated by Bree, as follows :—

‘« They arrive in the South of Russia about the beginning of

March, in flocks of between two and three hundred individuals.

Arrived at the end of their journey, the flock keeps together

for some time ; and even when they have dispersed in couples,

they reassemble every morning and evening, preferring in

calm weather to exercise themselves together, and amuse

themselves by dancing. For this purpose they choose a con-

venient place, generally the flatshore of a stream. There they

place themselves in a line, or in many rows, and begin their

games and extraordinary dances, which are not a little surpri-

sing to the spectator, and of which the account would be con-

sidered fabulous were it not attested by men worthy of belief.

They dance and jump around each other, bowing in a burlesque

manner, advancing their necks, raising the feathers of the

neck-tufts, and half unfolding the wings. In the meantime

another set are disputing ina race the prize for swiftness.

Arrived at the winning-post they turn back, and walk slowly,

and with gravity; all the rest of the company saluting them

with reiterated cries, inclinations of the head, and other

demonstrations, which are reciprocated. After having done

this for some time, they all rise in the air, where, slowly

sailing, they describe circles, like the swan and other cranes.

After some weeks these assemblies cease, and from that

time they are constantly seen walking in loving pairs

together.’’

In flight and voice these cranes are very similar to the Common

Crane ; they migrate in broad V shapes or in long waving lines, and

their call is a beautiful sonorous trumpet, somewhat less loud per-

haps than that of Wegalornis grus. Vidal says that they are very

slow rising off the ground, and considers the best way to get a shot

at a flock is to walk straight up to it without concealment, ‘‘ and

immediately the first bird flaps his wings preparatory to taking

flight, to run as fast as ever you can, straight at them. If you

have any breath left in you, after a short spurt of 60 or 70 yards you

are almost certain of a shot at the fag-end of the flock within killing

distance.”’

Most people, however, who shoot cranes do so from behind the

cover of a cart or of a led bullock, or if there be high crops about,

by stalking them under cover of these. They are extremely wary,

clever birds and, whether it is desired to shoot or trap them, they

are very difficult to bring to bag. They are, however, sometimes

caught in nets and, less often, in nooses, and when once caught

soon become affectionate pets, but they are very jealous of other

pets and jealous and irritable with small children.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

As an article for the table the Demoiselle ranks very high, some

people considering it the best of all Indian Game-Birds. They feed

almost entirely on shoots, seeds and young crops, but also eat

insects, small reptiles, etc.

Genus.—MEGALORNIS

Megalornis.—Gray, List Gen. Birds, p. 85, 1841.

Type. :

In the genus Megalornis the crown of the head is bare but the

sides of the head and neck are feathered and not bare as in Antigone.

The wings are long with the inner secondaries lengthened and

considerably exceeding the primaries ; tail short ; the tibia naked on

the lower half ; toes short and strong with short, blunt claws. The

sexes are Aike in plumage.

Cranes are almost cosmopolitan in range, three genera and five

species being found in India.

Kky TO SPECIES

A. Plumage grey, tail grey.

(a) Throat grey ; white on neck confined to

a ime ccowi thieysides, 2: M. grus.

(6) Throat white ; greater part of sides and

backtot neck white Ue .. MM. monachus.

B. -Plumage grey, tail black ~..: i” M, nigvicolits.

C. Plumage white ... a ... MM. leucogeranus.

MEGALORNIS GRUS

Ardea grus Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th ed., 1, p..153.

Type locality.—Sweden.

The typical form differs from our Indian bird in its darker plum-

age more especially in the colour of the inner ornamental] seconda-

ries.

MEGALORNIS GRUS LILFORDI

The Eastern Common Crane

Grus lilfordi Sharpe, Cat. B. M., xxiii, p. 252, 1894 (BE. Siberia). .

Grus communis. Blant. and Oates, IVe 8p. eG.

Vernacular names.—Kurunch, Ki urch (Haind.) ; Awn7 Sind)\s 70 ase

(Deccan) ; Kelangi (Tel.).

Description. -—Lores and crown to nape bare black stan with scat-

tered black hairs; a broad band of bare skin brick-red to red,

across the nape, ae black hairs even more scarce than on the crown ;

a patch of grey feathers behind the bare red spaces; sides of face

grey ; ear-coverts, sides of head and neck white running back behind

the grey neck patch and down the hind neck; winglet, primaries,

the terminal portions of the primary coverts and the tips of the long

secondaries black; chin, throat and foreneck dark siaty brown;

remainder of plumage pale, almost silvery grey ; tail slightly darker

grey, blackish towards the tip. - .

Colours of soft pavis.—Iris orange-red to red-brown .or crimson ;

bill dull glaucous or dingy green, paler and more yellow towards

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 403

the tip; legs and feet black, the soles paler, more brown, greenish

- or even fleshy. —

~ Measurements—Wing 533 to 608 mm.; tail 192 to 205 mm. ; tarsus

225 to 258 mm. ; culmen 103 to 118 mm.

Young birds have the edges of the grey feathers isabelline or

rufescent isabelline ; the sides of the head and neck and hind neck

pale rusty rufous; feathers cover the red bare skin on the nape

whilst the crown also is more or less covered with the same; the

drooping inner secondaries are wanting.

Halt-grown birds have the edging to the feathers more rufous and

more conspicuous and the whole crown and neck clothed with rusty

coloured feathers.

Chicks in down are pale golden fulvous above: a broad line of deeper

tint runs down the centre of the back and two narrower, less defined

lines from the wings down each side of the body; centre of crown

and a mark above the eye dark golden rufous; below sandy buff,

albescent on the chin and foreneck and pale on the centre of the

abdomen. |

Distribution.—The Eastern Common Crane breeds in Eastern

Siberia from the Yenesi basin eastwards and in Turkestan. In winter

south to China and practically the whole of Northern India. It is

extremely common in North-west India and extends south through

the greater part of the Bombay Presidency and the Deccan. It has

occurred in Southern Orissa and I have seen it as far East as

Lakhimpur and Cachar in Assam on several occasions.

Nidtitication.—There is very little that I can find on record in

regard to the breeding of the Eastern form of the Common Crane

H. E. Dresser had eggs which he received from the Russian

collectors round about Tomsk which is considerably to the West of

the Yenesi. Of these he merely says that they differ in no way

from the European bird and that their breeding habits are similar.

I have also two pairs of eggs in my collection collected by

Smirnoff north of the town of Yenesi and on the east of that river.

A brief note which accompanies the eggs says: ‘‘ These birds breed

in small communities of half a dozen or so, the nests being placed

on the ground from 50 yards to half a mile apart, sometimes two

quite close together. The nest is a big untidy one made of all kinds

of things which the birds pick up from the ground such as rushes,

moss and lichen and otner scraps. It is sometimes quite high, as

much as a foot whilst across it sometimes measures over a metre.

The eggs always number 2.’’

The sort of country it selects as a breeding site is nearly always

such as contains swamps and lakes and it is said by Burturlin to

sometimes breed on the extreme edge of the lakes in among the

rushes and reeds, probably however, more often it breeds on

marshy ground some little distance from the lakes themselves.

_ The only eggs I have seen of this race have all been laid in May

or early June but they are said to breed sometimes as late as the

last week of the latter month. The eggs could not possibly be

distinguished from those of the Common European Crane. In

shape they are rather long drawn-out ovals, the smaller end blunted

although distinctly smaller than the other end. The texture is

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ATST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

rather coarse but the surface is quite smooth though with little, if

any, gloss and the shell is stout though not particularly so for such |

large eggs. The ground colour varies froma pale greenish-grey

or yellowish-grey to olive or yellow brown and the whole surface

is sparingly marked with reddish-brown streaks and blotches with

other secondary markings of paler tints of the same and dull

lavender grey. Occasionally an egg is found with rather darker

browner markings.

Six eggs average 93°38 K-59:6 m:,, maxima, 95-2 x 95:0am.-

minima 90:2 « 57:0 m,

Burturlin gives the breeding distribution of the eastern form of

the Common Crane as Altai, Turkistan, Dauria to Manchuria and

north from Siberia to the 66th degree of latitude.

Habits.—In India, the Common Crane is only known to us as a

winter migrant, arriving generally about the second or third week in

October; Hume records their arrival on one occasion as early as

October 3, whilst Doig says that in Sind, many birds arrive as

early as the end of August, though this must be very exceptional.

They begin to leave again by the middle of March, the bulk of the

birds moving about the end of that month anda few staying on

until the end of April. These late birds Hume thought were young

birds not anxious to breed and therefore not leaving as early as the

old ones. In the east of India the few Cranes that are to be seen

arrive in November and I do not think that I have ever seen them

after the second week in March. In North-west India they are

often found in very great numbers said sometimes to be in many

hundreds.

The Crane is undoubtedly one of our most wary game birds and

one of the most difficult to approach within gun shot.

Colonel Tickell refers to this bird and gives a most interesting

account of their habits which is quoted by Blyth in his monograph

on the Cranes. He says :— :

‘In serene weather in the cold season, when, though the skys

are cloudless blue, the mild atmosphere enables the sportsman

to roam aJi day long over miles of far-reaching plains, the

sonorous trumpet cail of the Crane is one of the most familiar

sounds that meet the ear. The cry resembles the syllable

‘kurrk’ a single loud brassy note, harsh and metallic, but

mellowed by the vast distance at which it is generally heard.

At such times the birds may be seen high in the air, advancing

in an angle or ina single diagonal line winnowing their way

across the pathless vault to distant regions, or soaring round

and round in irregular swarms, and independently, as if re-

connoitring the country below to select a fit place for their

nocturnal meal. When thus employed sometimes two or

more parties meet, and the clamour amongst them then

becomes extreme, like the mutual clacking and cackling of

assembled geese. Should the country, as beforesaid, be quite.

open, and no human being be observed moving on the plain,

they will sometimes descend to the ground in the day-time,

and on such occasions the downward sweep, from a height of

perhaps a mile in the air to the face of the earth, of two or

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 405

three hundreds of these large birds, is a majestic spectacle,

though of necessity only to be seen from afar.”’

‘© T once, indeed, met with a striking exception to this wary

habit of the Crane in keeping, during the day, out of gunshot

inthe air. In January, 1845, as I was one day riding along the

Trunk road (as the old Government road from Calcutta to

Delhi is called), in the district of Manbhoom, near the village

or Chowkee of Niamutpoor, I came in sight and within point

blank bail shot of a host of these birds collected in a rice

stubble field. There was a prodigious concourse of them

amounting probably to a thousand. They were making a

deafening clamour and seemed in great agitation, while every

now and then a party of them would take wing and fly off,

generally to the eastward, towards the Damoodur River, but

many went in other directions. The country in the vicinity

was open and wild, with bushes scattered about, and here and

there a cultivated patch; the hour early in the morning, by

sunrise they had all disappeared. I was told by the villagers

that as night fell the birds would return and re-assemble in

the same spot, and that they had been in the habit of doing so

for many years. I confess I was never more astonished at

anything within the circle of Ornithology than at this instance

of exception to the wild and wary habits of the Crane. They

could not have assembled in the field (which was not a large

one)to feed, asthe grain in the stubble would not have

afforded a night’s meal to a tenth part of the flock. The most

probable conjecture is that they fed elsewhere during the

night, as is the wont of the bird and repaired to that particu-

lar spot to rest till dawn, congregating in separate and

independent parties. But why they should have collected

night after night and have stopped so near a village, and

so liable to approach, is inconceivable. The people of the

vicinity are, it must be noted, no shikaries and the report of

a gun was probably a sound almost unknown in that part of

the district. The Crane, like most waterfowl, feeds at night,

more as amatter of precaution than by choice. No such

nocturnal habits are perceived in tame individuals, nor, is it

probable, in the wild steppes of Tibet or Siberia, where these

birds breed unmolested and roam about free from the sight

even of a human being.”’

‘¢ Tn India, after filling their crops with the gleanings from

the rice and vetch stubbles, the Cranes retire at or soon after

sunrise to sand flats or islets in large rivers, or to open

downs inland, where no coverts afford means of approach to

an enemy. And there they may be seen through a telescope,

preening themselves, lazily stretching forth their legs or wings,

or sitting dozing on their heels. One or two, however, keep

on the alert, their heads raised high; and these, to judge by

their size and flowing plumes, are old males.’’

As we have already seen the Crane is a magnificent flier, one

with great power and endurance and also capable of carrying out

both graceful and intricate evolutions at pleasure. It is also a fine

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL ‘AIST. SOCLETY, Vol. XXXII

runner and a wounded bird will often give its would-be captors a

long chase before success crowns their efforts, indeed on marshy

ground a second shot is generally necessary to bring to bag a bird

that is merely winged. He is also a good swimmer but takes to

water of swimming depth only under pressure, though they are

very fond of wading about in shallow water when there is a supply

of food to tempt them. The Common Crane, like all cranes, when

only wounded, will put upa very fierce resistance to capture,

striking viciously with the bill but, as Hume points out, a very

slight tap with a stick on its long slender neck is quite sufficient

to place it hors de combat. Hume gives a remarkable example

of the force with which a Crane shot dead falls to the ground

He writes: ‘‘ As we walked back to the boat we became aware

that an enormous flock of Cranes that had been trumpeting all

the while, were practically over our heads. I wanted to unload

my big gtn and so fired at random straight up. I had hardly

recovered from the recoil when a peculiar rushing sound caught

my . ear, (luckily the sound ‘outsped-~ ‘the. bird),, I sjust < started

back to listen when with a ‘scrush’ a dead bird plopped on the

ground at my feet. The Crane had fallen back downwards, the

shoulders first striking the ground and was firmly embedded in the

clay. Wepulled it out and found a_ basin-like depression in the

ground, as faras I could judge inthe dark, fully 8 inches deep in

the deepest part.’’

Cranes feeding as they do so muchin cultivation, very soon get

used to the cultivators moving about in their small carts or

with their bullocks and frequently donot trouble to keep out of

gun-shot of these familiar objects. Accordingly, advantage is

taken of this both by Indian and European sportsmen who approach

under cover of bullock cart or bullock and thus get shots at birds

which it would be otherwise impossible to approach. At other

times birds may be driven towards the sportsmen bat to do this

with any success afew beaters only must be employed and

these must know their work well. For a line of beaters to

walk straight towards the birds is merely a signal for the latter to

rise ez masse and to take their departure high in the air and far out

of shot of the gunners. If the birds are to be persuaded to fly over

these latter within shot, the two or three beaters employed must

slowly and apparently casually work their way up towards the

birds so that these do not become really frightened, but gradually

move along inthe desired direction until finally they are within

about 100 yards of where tne sportsmen are hiding, when they may

be startled into flight. A flock, however, once thus moved and

shot at may be given up as hopeless for the rest of the day and if

more birds are wanted, the sportsmen must move on to fresh

ground.

Cranes are very omnivorous in their diet but probably on the

whole prefer a vegetarian meal toany other. Different shoots of

all kinds of crops, especially rice, are greedily eaten and in some

cases, when the flocks are numerous and large, they cause con-

siderable damage tocrops.. They are saidto be especially fond of

water melons and destroy even more of these than theyeat. In

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 407

addition to all kinds of aquatic plants, grain and shoots they will

eat any small reptile and all kinds of large insects and it has been

alleged that on occasions they even catch fish. They feed princi-

pally in the very early mornings and late evenings whilst, where

they are much disturbed, they feed a great deal during the night,

more especially when there is a moon. During the hot hours of

the day they resort to the banks of rivers and tanks where they

have a wide view all roundthem and there pass the time away

dozing and often standing on one leg in shallow water with their

head and neck tucked away into the feathers of the back. Directly

they flight towards their feeding grounds Cranes become very

noisy, constantly uttering aloud trumpet-like call but during the

day they seem to keep more or less silent.

Like all their family this bird indulges in dancing during the

breeding season and at odd moments even during the Winter

months, when the attitudes, bowings and scrapings indulged in

during these preformances are often very ludicrous.

A flight of these birds when moving for any distance is always

carried out inregular formation, either a long line or a wide‘ V’,

the leader at the apex apparently changing place every few minutes

with one of the other birds in the rear. When flying short dis-

tances from one feeding ground to another, this formation is not

always observed and the birds move in indiscriminate flock.

(Zo be continued)

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

EK. BLATTER: §.J.40P0s, F.l.S.

PART V

GRAMINEAL

E. BLATTER and C. McCann

(Continued from page 298 of this Volume.)

27. CLHISTACHNE, Benth. in Hook. Ic) Pl. xiv, 60,.¢.1379. Stapt ina.

Trop. Atr. ix. lod.

Tall, rather coarse grasses, annual according to Stapf, perennial according

to Hook. f. Leaves long, narrow, flat, with stout midribs. Panicles narrow,

more or less contracted, greyish or fulvously hairy. Spikelets solitary, all

alike, hermaphrodite, pedicelled on the tough rhachis of racemosely arranged

or panicled racemes, falling entire from the thickened tips of the pedicels.

Florets 2, lower reduced to an empty gliime, upper hermaphrodite. Involucral

glumes equal, very similar, with involute margins, more or less coriaceous,

delicately 7-9-nerved, muticous. Floral glumes hyaline, lower 2-nerved, upper

2-dentate or subentire, 3-nerved, with a twisted flexuous awn from the sinus or

tip ; pale very minute, ciliate. Lodicules 2, broad-cuneate, sparingly ciliate.

Stamens 3. Stigmas laterally exserted, plumose. Grain oblong to obovoid-

oblong’, very obtuse or truncate ; embryo half the length of the grain.

Species 3, one in West India and 2 in tropical Africa,

1. Cleistachne Stocksii, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 163.

Descripiton : Stem tall, stout, simple. Leaves 3J-40 cm. by 12 mm., finely

acuminate, softly hairy, midrib stout, margins slightly thickened, ciliolate,

sheath terete, ligule oblong, coriaceous. Panicle 15-20 cm. long, long-

peduncled, sub-erect ; rhachis and branches sparsely ciliate, pedicles of spike-

lets strigose with bright yellow hairs. Spikelets 5mm. loug, crowded, dark

brown, callus short, bearded. Lower involucral glume dark brown, obscurely

many-uerved, hirsute, shining, upper like lower, but narrower nearly glabrous.

Lower floral glume 2-nerved, margins infolded, tip hispid, upper a twisted awn

16-25 mm. long, dilated at the base into a hyaline, entire, 3-nerved membrane,

embracing the minute, ovate, obtuse pale.

Locality : Tungar forest, Bassein (Bhide!).

Distribution : So far only found in Malabar on the Bababoodan Hills.

28. VETIVERIA, Thouars ex Virey in Journ. de Pharm. 1. ser., xiii, 499 ;

Stapfin Fl. Trop. Afr.ix, 156.

Coarse, perennial, glabrous grasses ; rhizomes stout ; culms stout, more or

less compressed below. Leaf-biades firm to hard, conduplicate in bud, then

flattening out, at least upwards, gradually passing into the sheath ; lower

sheaths much compressed, flabellate-imbricate. Panicles erect, long, of many-

rayed whorls of slender simple or rarely compound racemes, glabrous except

for the frequently bearded calli. Spikelets 2-nate, of each pair subsimilar,

differing in sex, one sessile, the other pedicelled, on the articulate fragile

rhachis of copiously whorled (rarely panicled) peduncled 3-to many-jointed

racemes, the sessile spikelets falling with the contiguous joint and the accom-

panying pedicelled spikelet or at least the accompanying pedicel; joints and

pedicels slender, stightly and gradually thickened upwards. Florets 2, lower

reduced to an empty glume, upper hermaphrodite in the sessile, male in the

pedicelled spikelets. Sessile spikelet laterally slightly compressed, awned or

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 409

awnless. Involucral glumes equal, lower more or less coriaceous or char-

taceous with a broad rounded back and subinflexed margins, usually muti-

cous, upper boat-shaped, keeled upwards, with broad hyaline ciliate margins,

muticous, mucronate or aristuiate. Floral glumes hyaline, of lower floret

2-nerved, of upper minutely 2-dentate, muticous or mucronulate or with a per-

fect or imperfect awn from the sinus. Pale minute, hyaline, nerveless. Lodi-

cules 2 glabrous. Stamens 3. Stigmas laterally exserted ; styles subterminal.

Grain oblong, slightly oblique at top. Pedicelled spikelet dorsally compressed ;

involucral glumes much thinner than in the sessile, like the floral glumes

usually awnless.

Species about 7 in the tropics of the Old World.

1. Leaves 5-13 cm. long. Panicle 15-18 cm. long ... 1. V. Lawsont.

2. Leaves 30-90 cm. long, Panicle up to over 30

cm. long aie on os: 2. VV. SISQnIOIdes.

1. Vetiveria Lawsoni, Blatter & McCann, mov. comb.—Andropogon Lawsont,

Hook; f. F.B.1. vis, 187.

Description: Rootstock stout, horizontal. Stem erect, simple, slender,

internodes very long. Leaves chiefly subradical, 5-13 cm. by 5mm., exactly

linear, rigid, curved, acute or obtuse, tips serrulate, base not contracted, mar-

gins ciliate, nerves 4-8, strong ; sheaths compressed, of lower very short, of

cauline very long, striate; ligule a ridge of hairs. Panicle 15-18cm. long,

narrow, elongate, branches or peduncles of spikes opposite and fascicled,

branchlets slender, puberulous with a white scurf. Spikes 6-12 mm. long, pale

reddish, erect ; joints 6-8, very obliquely truncate, tips obscurely ciliate, pedi-

cels nearly equalling the spikelet, slender, compressed. Sessile spikelets 4

mim. long, linear-lanceolate, callus bearded with silky hairs. Lower involucral

glume linear, rigid, coriaceous, tip obtuse, bristly, keels muricate, scaberulous

margins inflexed, upper involucral glume cymbiforin, tip 2-fid, awn longer

than the glume, base ciliate, keel pectinately ciliate above the middle. Lower

floral glume oblong, ciliate, nerveless, upper arched,‘ linear, obtusely 2-dentate,

awn very slender. Pale oblong, ciliate, nerveless. Anthers Jong. Pedicelled

spikelets male, longer and narrower than the sessile, callus naked ; lower in-

volucral glume 3-nerved, awned, keels pectinately ciliate, upper acuminate,

awned. Floral glumes oblong, obtuse, ciliate.

Locality: S. M. Country: Dharwar District, very common (Sedgwick

2170!) ; Dharwar (McCann A277 !).

2. Vetiveria zizanioides, Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 346-49, 362, in Fl. Trop.

Afr. ix, 157.--V. odorata, Virey in Journ. de Pharm. 1. ser. xiii, 499.—V. arundi-

nacea et muricata, Griseb., Fl. Brit., W. Ind. 559, 560.— Phalaris zizaniotdes,

Linn. Mant. Alt., 183.—Andropogon muricatus, Retz., Obs. iii, 43; Roxb. Fl.

ind. 1, 205° Gtah, Cat, Bonib, Pl. 238; Grif. Ic. Pl. As. t. 139) f.57, €..155,

f.1; Dalz. and Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 302; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 90, Fodd.

Grass. N. Ind. 36, t. 24.—A. FHestucoides, J. S. Presl in C. B. Pres] Reliq.

Haenk. i, 340.—A. sguarrosus, Hack. (won Linn. f.) var. genuinus, Hack. in

Monogr. Androp. 542-44.—A. sguarrosus, Hook. f. (#om Linn. f.) in F. B. I,

vii, 186.—.4. sguarrosus, Cooke (mom Linn. f.) in Fl. Bomb. Pres. ii, 991.—

Agrostis verticillata, am. Ill. Gen. i, 162.—Anatherum muricatum, Beauv.

Agrost. Expl. Planch. 15.

J. D. Hooker and Cooke and many others have followed Hackel in calling

this plant Andropogon squarrosus, Linn, f. Stapf (in Kew Bull. 1906, 347) has

explained that this name applies to quite a different plant: ‘ No notice was

taken of Scheuchzer’s description or of Petiver’s and Du Bois’s specimens, and

when Linnzeus, about 1770,* received the grass from Koenig he described it

as something new under the name Phalarts zizantoides. Koenig, however, also

sent specimens of the grass to Retzius, who published it as dudropogon murt-

catus * in 1783. This name, which was suggested by Koenig himself, was

subsequently adopted by Roxburgh and most other botanists. More recently,®

however, it has been replaced by Andropogon sguarrosus, aname adopted by

the younger [Linnzeus * for a plant, also communicated by Koenig, who found it

1Linnzeus, Mant. Alt. (1771), 183.

Retz. Observ. iii (1783), 43.

3Hackel, Andropog. in DC. Monogr. Phaner. vi (1889), 542.

*Linn. f. Suppl. (1781), 433.

410 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

‘“cirea Zeylonam natans supra stagna profundiora,’’ and entirely distinct from

Andropogon muricatus. ‘The specimen is still in Linneus’ herbarium and was

correctly identified by R. Brown? with his Panicum abortivum, that is Chame

vaphis spinescens, a characteristic floating grass of the Indo-Malayan region.

Retzius? himself is responsible for the erroneous reduction of Andropogen

squarrosus to Andropogon muricatus, which recently has been revived, although

Roxburgh*® long ago drew attention to the confusion. ‘‘ Zzzanioides’’ being

the earliest specific epithet, it will have to be adopted for the ‘‘ Khas Khas,’’ so

that its name under Ve/zveria must be V. zizanioides.’

Vern. Names: Vala, Ushir, Valo, Bala, Khas Khas of the Anglo-Indians,

Description: Adensely tufted perennial grass. Rootstock branching with

spongy aromatic roots. Culms stout, up to over 1'8 m. high, usually sheathed

allalong. lLeaf-sheaths compressed, especially the lower which are sharply

keeled and fan-like, imbricate, very smooth, firm ; ligules reduced to ascarious

rim; blades narrowly linear, acute, 30-90 cm. long, 4:2-10°6 mm. wide, erect,

rigid, firm or somewhat spongy, usually glabrous, rarely more or less hairy

downwards on the face, pale green, midrib slender, lateral nerves close, 6 or

more on each side, rather stout, slightly prominent, margin spinously rough.

Panicle oblong, up to over 30 cm. long, usually contracted ; rhachis stout,

smooth ; whorls 6-10 with up to 20 rays; branches oblique to suberect, naked

for up to 5cm., filiform, slightly rough. Racemes up to 5 (rarely 7'5) cm. long,

very slender ; joints about as long as the sessile spikelets or sometimes distinctly

exceeding them, smooth or more or less rough, minutely and unequally ciliolate

at the slightly oblique tips; pedicels similar, but shorter. Sessile spikelet

linear-lanceolate to almost linear, acute or subacute, 4*2-4°8 mm. long, yellow-

ish, olive or violet-brown or purplish to almost black; callus obtuse, under

1mm. long, glabrous. Involucral glumes, acute, coriaceous, lower niuriculate

all over the back, 5-nerved, lateral nerves close, very fine; upper spinulously

muricate on the keel. Lower floral glume as long as the involucral glumes,

acute, reversedly ciliolate, upper up to 3°3 mm. long, narrow, oblong-lanceolate,

mucronulate, ciliate. Lodicules 2, quadrate and conspicuous, though sinall.

Styles and stigmas short. Stigmas purple. Anthers 2-3°3mm.long. Pedi-

celled spikelet sparingly aculeolate or almost smooth ; upper floral glume entire,

acute.

Locality: Gujarat: Road to Lasandra (Chibber!); Daman (Bhide)) ;

Ahmedabad, common in damp valleys (Sedgwick !).—Konkan : Ghatkoper,

Horse-shoe Valley (McCann 9957 !).—N. Kanara : Dandeli (Talbot 2209 !).

Cke. l.c. classes this species amongst non-indigenous plants. We are of

opinion that it is indigenous in most parts of the Presidency.

Distribution: Practically over the whole of India, and eastwards to Burma.

Occasionally cultivated. Lower Guinea in Tropical Africa. Throughout the

Malayan region only cultivated or as anescape. Introduced into the Mascare-

nes, the West Indies and Brazil.

Farly history and economic uses: See Stapf in Kew Bull., l.c.

29. ‘CHrySopoGon, Trin. Fund. Agrost. 187; Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr.,

ix, S159;

Perennial (at least in the Old World). Leaf-blades narrow. Panicles

usually lax, of whorls of simple or basally divided filiform branches, rarely

the branches 2-nate or solitary. Spikelets in threes at the ends of the

branchlets of terminal panicles, one sessile, the other 2 pedicelled, the three

falling entire from the thickened, nearly always bearded, oblique tips of the

peduncles ; exceptionally 2-nate in 2-jointed racemes, one sessile, the other

pedicelied, each sessile spikelet falling with the contiguous joint and its

pedicelled companion, pedicels and joints, if present linear-filiform, never

longitudinally grooved or appendaged. Florets 2, lower reduced to an empty

glume, upper hermaphrodite in the sessile, male or neuter in the pedicelled

spikelet. Sessile spikelets usually laterally compressed, awned. Involucral

glumes subequal ; lower coriaceous or chartaceous, involute with a rounded’

*R. Brown Prodr. Fl. Nov. Holl. (1810), 193.

*Retz.,° l.c.,3v (1789), 21- .

°Roxburgh Fl. Ind. ed., Carey and Wall. I (1820), 270.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 411

back or complicate and more or less keeled upwards, upper boat-shaped,

more or less keeled. Floral glumes hyaline, lower 2-nerved, upper linear,

entire or 2-dentate with a usually perfect awn from the sinus. Pale 0 or small,

hyaline, nerveless. Lodicules 2, small, glabrous. Stamens 3, Stigmas

exserted laterally low down. Grain linear, laterally compressed ; embryo half

the length of the grain ; scutellum linear-oblong. Pedicelled spikelet dorsally

compressed, awnless or aristulate.

Species about 18 in the hot parts of the Old World, only a few entering the

temperate zone. One in Florida and Cuba.

Cooke (ii, 984-986) describes 4 species of Andropogon belonging to the

section Chrysopogon : A. aciculatus, Retz., A. lancearius, Hook. f., 4. montt-

cola, Schult., and A. Auchert, Boiss.

To these we add 4 species not noted from the Presidency before : Chrysopogon

Wightianus, Ness, Ch. asper, Heyne, Chr. polyphyllus, Blatter and McCann, and

Ch. Gryllus, Trin.

A. Pedicels of the upper spikelets half as long as

the sessile spikelets or longer

I, Pedicels of upper spikelets glabrous or

nearly so

1. Stems erect. Leaves 15-45 cm. long ae le VER Gryllus:

2. Stems creeping below. Leaves 2-13 cm.

long ... a wis at On ACLCULOLIES.

il. Pedicels' of upper spikelets villous with

rusty rarely pale hairs

1. Lower involucral glume of pedicelled

spikelets long-awned, upper not or very

shortly awned

(a) Callus long villous all round 3, Gi asper.

(6) Callus giabrous in front ... 4, C. lanceartus.

2. Involucral glumes of pedicelled spikelets

both awned - 5. C. Wightianus.

B. Pedicel of upper spikelets not half as long

as the sessile spikelets

1. Lower sheaths compressed 6. C. montanus,

II. Lower sheaths terete

1. Leaves, peduncle and branches of panicle .

glabrous 7. C. polyphyllus.

2. Leaves, peduncle and branches of panicle

not glabrous oe ie an On Ce AUCHELT,

1. Chrysopogon Gryilus, Trin. Fund. Agrost. 188 ; Nees Gen. Fl. Germ. Mono-

cot. i, t. 93; Benth. Fl. Austral. vii, 537.—Andropogon Gryllus, Linn. Cent. Pl.

iso; black. Monogr. Androp. 550); Host. Gram. Austr: 11, 1, t21; Sibth, Fi,

Grec.. i. t. 67; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 22, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 40; Hook.

f.in F. B. I. vii, 187; Collett Fl. Siml. 602, fig. 191.—A. echinulatus, glabra-

tus et Royleantus, Steud, Syn. Gram. 395, 397.--Chrysopogon glabratus, AMabor

in Mem. Acad. Petersb. ser. 6, ii (1833), 318. —khaphis Gryllus, Desv. Opusc.

69.—F. echinulata, Nees in Royle Ill. Bot. Himal. 417.—FPollinita Gryllus,

Spreng. Pugill. ii, 10; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ. t. 54.--4pluda Gryllus, Pres.

Cyp. & Gram. Sic. 55.—Holcus gryllus et pallidus, Br. Prodr. 199.

Description ; Stems simple, forming dense hard tufts, erect, 15cm. to 1°5

m. high; nodes smooth, Leaves 15-45 by 4-8 mm., linear, acute, glabrous or

hirsute, margins serrulate; sheath keeled above, glabrous or pubescent.

Panicle large, 12-20 cm., rhachis angular, scabrid, axils bearded, branches long,

5-10 cm., capillary, spreading, simple or branched, usually very many ina

whorl and bearing 2-4 spikes, tips obliquely truncate and densely bearded.

Sessile spikelets 5-8 mm., callus straight, acute. Lower involucral glume

coriaceous, 2-toothed, dorsally rounded with 2 muricate or mamillate keels or

channels, shining, smooth or scaberulous, margins broadly involute, upper

chartaceous, hyaline, lanceolate, mucronate or aristulate, awn equalling the

spikelet or shorter, keel and sides bristly above the middle. Lower flora] glume

linear-oblong, obtuse, nerveless, upper linear, minutely 2-toothed, awn minute

or 12-35mm. long. Pale small, oblong, glabrous. Pedicelled spikelets rather

longer than the sessile, terete, lanceolate, acuminate; pedicels glabrous or

ciliolate. Lower involucral gluine acuminate or aristulate, 5-9-nerved keels

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXII

ciliate above, upper lanceolate, acuminate, ciliate. Floral glumes narrower,

ciliate, awn of upper half the size of the glume.

Locality: N. Kanara: WHalyal (Talbot 2088 !).

Distribution: Temperate Himalaya from Kashmir to Sikkim, 4,000-9,000

ft. Khasia Hills, 4,000-5,000 ft., westwards to N. Africa and S. Europe,

Australia.

2. Chrysopogon aciculatus, Trin. Fund. Agrost. 188; Duthie Grass. N. W.

Ind. 22 (acicularis), Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 39; Benth. Fl. Hongk. 424, Fl.

Austral. vii, 538.—Andropogon aciculatus, Retz. Obs. v (1789), 22 ; Roxb. F1.

Ind..i, 262 ; Grah. 238; Hack) Monogr. Androp. 562); Hook.f. in F.3d .gvais

188; Cke. ii, 984.—A. acicularis, Willd. Sp. pl. iv, 906.—Ahaphis acicularis,

Desv. Opusc. 69.—A. trivalvis, Lour. Fl. Cochinch. 553 ; Trin. Sp. Gram. Ic.

t. 8, 9.-—Centrophorum chinense, Trin. Fund. Agrost. 106, t. 5.— Rheede Hort.

Mal. xii, t. 43.

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality : Konkan: Alibag, sandy shore (Ezekiel!).—NV. Kanara; Karwar,

sea-shore (Sedgwick and Bell 5070!) ; Jog, hills (Hallberg and McCann A272 !).

Distribution: More or less throughout India, Ceylon, Tropical Asia,

Australia, Polynesia.

Uses: According to Haines the leaves which lie close to the ground escape

to a large extent the lips of cattle. The plant is a pest on account of the sharp

callus and small awns sticking to the clothes.

3. Chrysopogon asper, Heyne ex Wall. Cat. n. 8784.—Andropogon asper,

Heyne in Herb. Rottler ex Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 189.

Description : Stem 30-90 cm., leafy below, very slender above. Leaves

distichous, 30-45 cm. by 12-18 mm., broadly linear, acute cordate, coriaceous,

flat, smooth, li-nerved, midrib very slender, spinulose beneath, margins

spinulosely serrulate, and with a few long tubercle-based cilia towards the

broad semi-amplexicaul base ; sheaths broad, compressed, laxly hirsute, lower

ones 12 mm. broad, keeled, armed with scattered tubercle-based hairs.

Panicle 18 cm. long, narrow, of many whorls of short, unequal, simple, smooth,

erect branches bearing solitary rarely 2 erect spikes, tips very shortly bearded.

Sessile spikelets 6 mm. long, pale, coriaceous, callus up to 2 mm., long villous

all round. Lower involucral glume hispid beneath, the tip strongly compressed

above ; upper with the keel and sides more or less hispid above the middle, awn

as long as the glume or shorter. Lower floral glume shorter than the upper

involucral, narrow, obtuse, 2-nerved, ciliate, upper consisting of the linear,

hyaline, 3-nerved base of the awn, awn 35-50 mm. long. Pedicelled

spikelets 8 mm. long, narrowly lanceolate, 7-nerved, pale, shining, keels

ciliate ; pedicels very shortly rufous-villous on both margins, excised at

the tip in a semi-circle ; lower involucral glume thin, tip 2-dentate, nerves

strong, sub-equidistant, or the 3 lateral on each side submarginal, margins

narrowly incurved, keels ciliolate from base to tip, upper lanceolate, acuminate,

3-nerved, ciliolate. LI.ower floral glume linear-oblong, 2-nerved, ciliate, upper

narrowly lanceolate, 1-nerved.

Locality : N. Kanara: Tinai (Talbot 2564 !).

Distribution : Madras : Pulicat Hills.

4. Chrysopogon lancearius Haines in Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1036.— Axndro-

pogon lanceartus, Hook. f.in F. B. I. vii, 190; Cke ii, 985.

Description . Cke. l.c.

Locality: Deccan; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B 1230;).—S. AZ.

Country: Castle Rock (Woodrow). Seems to be very rare in the Presidency.

Distribution : Sikkim Himalaya, Behar, Chota Nagpur, Orissa, W. Penin-

sula.

Uses: A good fodder according to Haines.

5. Chrysopogon Wightianus, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 397.—Andropogon

Wightianus, Steud. Syn. Gram. 395; Hook. f. in F. B. [. vii, 191.—A. aristu-

latus, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 397; Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 556.—

A. breviaristatus, Steud. 1. c. 396.—Rkhaphis orientalis, Desv. Opusc. 69.—

Rk. Wightianus, Nees ex Steud. 1. c.

Description : Very variable in habit. Stems short or long, erect or ascending

from a short stout creeping stock. Leaves 7-25 cm. long, linear, acute, rigid,

from glabrous to pubescent on both surfaces and with sometimes tubercle-

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 413

based hairs, spinulosely serrulate ; sheaths glabrous, lower ones compressed ;

ligule very short, villous. Panicle 7-13 cm. long, contracted, lower branches

long, few in a whorl, rhachis and branches minutely hairy ; spikes solitary, green

or brownish. Sessile spikelets subcylindric, 4nim. long, callus long, densely

bearded with rusty hairs all round. Lower involucral glume laterally compres-

sed above, minutely truncate, glabrous below, hispid above, obscurely 4-nerved,

tip 2-dentate, upper chartaceous, hispid above onthe keel and sides, tip 2-

lobed, awn as long as the glume cr shorter. Lower floral glume linear-oblong,

2-nerved, ciliate, upper consisting of an awn with a narrowly dilated 2-lobed

base, awn 50-65 mm. long, column hispid. Pedicelled spikelets nearly 12 mm.

long, lanceolate, pubescent ; pedicel truncate, margins shortly villous. Lower

involucral giume glabrous or pubescent, 7-nerved, awn longer than the glume,

keels ciliate, upper lanceolate, 3-nerved, awn as lonz asthe glume or shorter,

Tower floral glume oblong, 2-nerved, ciliate, upper very narrow, ciliate,

nerveless.

Locality : S. M. Country ; Castle Rock (Bhide!). — NV. Kanara ; Jog to Sid-

derpur, open grass land (McCann A273!).

Distribution : Madras, Nilgiris, Burma, Assam. (Hackel mentions a speci-

men gathered in Ceylon but, according to Hooker f., it seems to be a starved

specimen of Chrysopogon zeylanicus, Thw.).

6. Chrysopogon montanus, Trin. in Spreng. Neue Entdeck, ii, 93; Haines Bot,

Bihar and Orissa 1037.—Andropogon monticola, Schult. Mant. (1824), 665 -

Kunth Enum. Pi. i, 506 ; Steud. Syn. Gram. 395; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 557

(excl. var. velutinizs); Hook f. in F. B. 1. vii, 192, cum omnibus var.; Cke. ii,

985 ; Holein Ind. Forest Mem. i (1911), 108.—A. Sprengeliz, Kunth Rev. Gram.

166.—Pollinia fulva, Spreng. Pugill. ii, 93—Andropogon Triniz, Steud. Syn,

Gram 395; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 558.-- A ciliolatus caruleus et

tucrescens, Steud. 1. c.— Chrysopogon ciliolatus, Boiss, Fl. Or. v. 458 (excl. var.

Aucheri, Boiss); Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 22.—C c@eruleus, Duthie 1. c. 23,

Fold. Grass. N. Ind. 39, t. 60.—C. increscens, Nees ex Steud. 1. c. 396.—C.

Wightianus var. leucanthus, Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 366.—C. serrulatus, Trin.

in Mem. Ac. Petersb. ser. 6, ii (1833), 318, Spec. Gram. t. 331.— C. Esenbeckit,

Arn. in Steud. Syn. 395.—Aaphis ciliolata et cerulea, Nees ex Steud. Syn.396, 395.

This synonymy requires an explanation. Chrysopogon montanus, Trin. as

understood in this place comprises Hackel’s two species Andropogon monticola

Schult. and A. Triniz, Steud., and is identical with Hook. f.’s. 4. monticula,

Schult. with all its varieties.

Hackel has two species and he distinguishes them by the following characters :

A. monticola : Upper involucral glume of sessile spikelet keeled, the keel

from the base up to 3-7 of its length densely pectinate ciliate with long, rigid,

rufous hairs, shortly white hispid in the upper 7.

A. Trinii: Upper involucral glume of sessile spikelet keeled below the apex

only, keel white-ciliate, the lower §-$ not keeled and glabrous.

Hook. f. in F. B. I. makes of these species two varieties : var monticola proper

and var. Triniz, and includes them under A. monticola, Schult., adding a third

variety : var. robustus.

At the same time Hooker confesses: ‘lam unable to classify the varieties of

this common and variable plant in accordance with geographical areas or

other considerations. This, if possible, must be effected by field-botanists in

India. There is every gradation from the coarsely hirsute keel of szontzcola,

to the perfectly smooth of some states of Zz7imzz; from the awnless to long

awned gl. I of the pedicelled spikelets, and from the glabrous to the pubescent

of the same organ ; the colour of which affords no character; nor does its

length, orthat of the cilia on its keels.’

Cooke (ii, 985) bas adopted the name A. monticola, Schult. with Hooker’s

description and evidently also the latter’s varieties. But his opinion does not

count in this case as he hasnot seen any specimens from the Presidency and

‘ was therefore ’’ as he says himself,‘ unable to fix definitely the variety to

which the Bombay species belong. They will probably belong to var. Trinzi

H.f.’ What induced Cooke to say that they probably belong to var. 7yzn7zz we

cannot understand, especially as Hooker came to the conclusion that he was

not able to classify the varieties according to geographical areas.

We have examined a great number of specimens from all parts of the Presi-

dency, except Sind, Cutch and Kathiawar and we have been able to separate

4144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

many into the two varieties. They exhibit almost the same distribution and

often both are found in the same locality, with this exception that var. 7riniz

has not been observed in N. Kanara, Gujarat and the Konkan. But we must

also mention, and thisis the most important point, that we saw many specimens

all over the country which could net beclassed under either variety, and it

would require many new varieties if we wanted to give aname to all the

different variations. Andeven then they would be forms only and not

varieties.

Haines seems to have felt the same difficulty when he tried to classify the

montanus material of Bihar and Orissa. He distinguishes five forms. If we

wanted to follow the same method for our area, we doubt whether double the

number of forms would yield satisfactory results.

Stapf describes the specimens from Tropical Africa under the name of

C. montanus var. tremulus, Stapf. He calls it ‘ one of the several races which

constitute the rather polymorphic species C. montanus, Trin., whose area

includes Southern Africa, Madagascar and India. The var. tremulus ap-

proaches very closely the var. elatzor, Stapf, a large-spikeleted parallel to the

var. serrulatus, Stapf (Chrysopogon serrulatus, Trin.) and differs from it

apparently only in the almost quite smooth rhachis and branchlets (a few sharp-

pointed hairs may be found under a high power) and the pedicels, which are

glabrous almost up to the middle, and not ciliate from the base.’ It seems

to us (it may look like presumption on our part to criticize our veteran and

highly merited agrostologist) that it is somewhat risky to found new varieties

of a protean species on a few specimens only.

According to Hole all the 3 varieties mentioned by Hooker ‘appear to vary

greatly, as regards their habit and vigour of growth, in response to the moisture

conditions of the habitat and also according as whether, or not, the plants

are habitually grazed, cut for fodder, or periodically burnt. The colour of

the cilia of glume II of the sessile spikelet (pale or white in robustws and rufous

in monticola), accordingly, appears to be the chief difference in the habit, and

these forms appear to have different and fairly defined areas of distribution

(monticola occurring citiefly in Central and Southern India, while vobustus is

mainly found in N. India, in the outer N. W. Himalayas and Sub-Himalayan

tract).’ Hole who studied the varieties vobustus and Tyrinzi both from

herbarium specimens and in the field kas observed that the plant at Dehra Dun

graduaily and imperceptibly passes from the typical robustus to the typical

Trinit. We are justified in stating that a similar transition takes place between

monticola and Triniz in Western India. (Of Central and Southern India

we have no experience). We have therefore a gradual transition from

robusius to Triniz at Dehra Dun, and from TJyriniz to monticola in W. India

and consequently, we are not allowed to consider Hooker’s varieties as good

varieties.

Vern. Names: Sunthia Khad (Dohad), Agiva, Gogar, Ghora, Dand,

Pandhari Kusal (Poona), Kare Hullu (Bijapur).

Description: Avery variable perennial grass. Stems usually slender, erect

or geniculately ascending, glabrous, sometimes robust, simple or branched,

30 cm. to 1°2 m., but often attaining 2 m., slightly compressed, solid, develop-

ing usually axillary leafy and flowering branches from all the upper nodes except

the one next below thepanicle. (The branches growing within the sheaths

push the latter away from the stem which often results in a characteristic fan-

shaped appearance.) Blade of uppermost leaf of flowering stem usually

mucroniform, but attaining 8 cm., of lower leaves up to 43cm. long and 8 mm.

broad, linear acuminate, tapering from the base, scabrid on margins, sometimes

also scabrid dorsally on midrib, and scaberulous above, especially towards the

apex, often ciliate towards the base with tubercle-based hairs, at least when

young; sheath glabrous. compressed, keeled, especially of the lower leaves,

shorter or longer than the proper internode ; ligule a minute membranous rim.

Panicle 5-15 cm. long, ovate tosubcylindric, yellowish to purplish, of several whorls

of few or many capillary flexuous very unequal branches bearing solitary spikes,

branches of flowering panicle more or less horizontally spreading, of the fruiting

panicle erect and closely appressed to the rhachis, rhachis and branches smooth

or scaberulous. Spikelets in clusters of 3, a central sessile hermaphrodite one

with 2 lateral pedicelled male ones, the clusters being terminal and solitary on

the capillary branches of the panicle. Sessile spikelets laterally compressed,

4-7 mm, long, tip of peduncle brown-bearded, clavate, callus short, with ova]

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 415

scar and dense beard. Lower involucral glume laterally compressed, narrow-

oblong, embracing the margins of the upper, chartaceous 2-4—-nerved, hispidly

ciliate dorsally on keel towards the apex or almost glabrous, often scaberulous

dorsally on nerves and minutely pubescent with appressed hairs dorsally near

margin, apex subtruncate or 2-dentate. Upper involucral glume laterally com-

pressed, broader than lower, obtusely keeled, subcoriaceous, 3-nerved, margins

broad, hyaline, membranous, ciliate or not, very variable with regard to its

hairiness, sometimes almost glabrous, at other titnes hispidly ciliate dorsally on

keel with long white or rufous hairs more or less from base to apex, sometimes

also pubescent, or minutely villous dorsally on keel and lateral nerves, awned,

awn 2°5-6 mm. long, apex entire or 2-lobed. Lower floral glume 7 the length

of to subequal the upper involucral glume, linear, hyaline, ciliate, nerveless or

indistinctly 1-3- or more-nerved, apex obtuse. Upper floral glume consisting of

the narrow 3-nerved base of the awn, basal 3 or 3 hyaline, membranous,

upper portion chartaceous, awn geniculate, 10-18 mm. long, but also reaching

37 mm. (including the twisted column), margins ciliate or not, apex entire or

2-lobed. Pale sometimes present, very narrow, 1:°25mm. long: Lodicules 2,

cuneate, glabrous. Anthers3, upto3mm. long, yellow orpurple. Stigmas

2, laterally exserted at base of spikelet, yellow. Pedicelled spikelet dorsally

compressed, subequal the sessile spikelet ; pedicel less than half the sessile

spikelet, usually about 3 the spikelet, densely ciliate on both margins with stiff

rufous or white hairs, the upper of which are shorter than to subequal the

spikelet. Lower involucral glume lanceolate, membranous, 5-7-nerved,

minutely pubescent with appressed hairs dorsally, especially towards the apex,

or almost glabrous, sometimes ciliate dorsally on midrib and marginal nerves,

especially towards the apex acute or shortly awned. Upper involucral glume

subequal to the lower, 3-nerved, marginsincurved, long ciliate, apex acute or

mucronate, glabrous dorsally. Floral glumes linear, hyaline, ciliate, nerveless

or indistinctly nerved. Pale sometimes present, as in sessile spikelet, but

slightly longer, very narrow.

The flowers are much visited by smal! bees. sean

Locality : Gujarat: Mahal-Dangs, elevation 800 ft., rainfall 100” (Sedgwick

and Bell 5391 !) —AKhandesh: Tapti River (Blatter and Hallberg 5476!); Bhusawal

(McCann 5224 A!); Nandgaum, Bori River (Blatter and Hallberg 3827!) ;

Bori, Tapti Island (Blatter and Hallberg 5146!) ; Amalner, Bori River (Blatter

and Hallberg 4455!).--Konkan : Sion Creek (Sabnis A 231 !); Matheran

(D’Almeida 9958 !).—Deccan: Khandala to Karjat (Blatter and Hallberg

A. 232!) ; Kirkee (Talbot!) ; Pashan (Gammie!) ; Mangiri, 8 miles E. of Poona

(Gammie !); Katraj (Gammie !); Pasarni Ghat (Blatter and Hallberg

B 1209 !).—S. MW. Country > Dumbai (Talbot 2317!) ; Badami (Talbot 2926!) ;

N.W_ of Dharwar (Sedgwick 3141 !); Dharwar, dry pasture land, elevation

2 400 ft., rainfall 34” (Sedgwick 1817!) ; Konankeri, elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall

35” (Sedgwick and Bell 4439!); Haveri (Talbot 2189!).—Kanara; Jog to

Siddhapur, open grass land (Hallberg and McCann A274!). This species

forms patches of many individuals, or combines with other individuals to form

associations of a few species.

Distribution - Throughout India, especially in hilly tracts, from the N.W.

Himalaya southwards, ascending to 6,000 ft., extends to Ceylon, Burma,

Afghanistan, Tropical and S. Africa, Madgascar.

Uses : In Bihar and Orissa this grass is considered to bea valuable fodder,

and Hole, writing of the Siwalik Division, calls it one of the most valuable

fodder grasses. In Mount Abu, according to Lisboa, it is reckoned as a good

fodder grass and the grain is used as food by the natives, But the same writer,

under the name of Axdropogon serrulatus, Trin. (= Chrysopogon montanus

var. Frinii) remarks: ‘Said to be good fodder, used much in Poona, but

reports from other places unfavourable.’ (J. C. Lisboa, List of Bombay

Grasses, Bombay (1896), 81).

The last statement might find an explanation by a suggestive note made by

Hole (l.c. 111): ‘So faras the local (Dehra Dun) plant is concerned speci-

mens with the more hairy glume II tend to occur in localities where there is a

scarcity of available moisture, both on the dry ridges and slopes of the Siwalik

Hills and also (rarely) on water-logged soil, and the writer believes that the

characters which have been utilized to define these varieties vary in response to

the factors of the habitat and particularly in response to the available water

supply. Provided that the development of the plants has not been interfered

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS17. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1i

with by grazing, grass-cutting, or other agency, those plants with the more

hairy glume II are usually less robust and less coarse, or rank, than the others,

and they are therefore as arule most valued for fodder and are distinguished

locally by the vernacular name of dhaula, whereas the coarser plants with

smooth glume arecalled gurv/a. As this grass affords a valuable fodder and is

sometimes cultivated, in consequence, it is important to determine the extent to

which its characteristics are constant. If, as suggested above, they depend on

the available moisture, it is obvious that cultivation of this grass on good

agricultural land, with a large quantity of available moisture, would result in

producing an inferior class of rank, coarse fodder.’

7. Chrysopogon polyphylilus, Blatter & McCann, comb. nov.— Andropogon

polyphyllus, Hook. f. in F. B.I. vii, 194 (gee habet Hack. mss. in Herb.

Duthie).—A. Aucheri, var. polyphyllus, Hack.in Herb. Duthie.

Description : Stem 60-90 cm, high, as thick as a crow-quill or more, stiff,

simple or fastigiately branched, quite glabrous. Leaves crowded or not, 15-25

cm. by 2-4 mm., narrow, rigid, acuminate, flat, pale glaucous-green, glabrous

on both surfaces, coriaceous, midriband nerves very slender, margins minutely

scaberulous ; sheaths terete, appressed, hard. Panicle 10-13 cm. long, oblong,

subsecund, dense- flowered, very pale, branches 6-12 mm., very unequal, in many

closely approximate whorls, smooth, peduncle slender, quite glabrous.

Sessile spikelets 4mm. long drooping, white or pale purplish, callus long,

ieiooheels long, obtuse, bearded at the very base only with long fulvous hairs.

Glumes asin C. montanus. Lower involucral glume obtuse, glabrous, keel

ciliate towards the tip; upper not awned, keel glabrous or ciliate. Upper

floral glume with an awn 3-8 mm. long, nearly straight, pale. Pedicelled spike-

lets narrowly lanceolate, acuminate, glabrous, 7-nerved, eciliate, not awned,

rather longer than the sessile ; pedicels naked, villous at the tip only.

Can easily be distinguished from C. montanus by the stout naked callus

Which is bearded at the base only, and by the naked pedicels which are long-

villous only at the tip.

It differs from the next species, C. ducheri by its size, the long, glabrous,

glaucous leaves and the glabrous peduncle and branches of the panicle.

Locality : Gujarat > Porbandar (Bhide !) ; Dohad (Bhide!) ; Watrak River

on rocks (Sedgwick 1165!) ; Daman (Bhide).—Deccan - Dhond, river-bank

(Bhide !).

Distribution - Central Provinces. W. Peninsula.

8. Chrysopogon Aucheri, Stapf in Kew Bull. (1907), 211. —Andropogon Auchert,

Boiss. Diag. ser. 1, fasc. 5 (1844), 77; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 155; Cke., ii, 986.-A.

Auchert, var. genuinus, Hack. Monogr. _Androp. 560. NG ‘hrysopogon ciliolatus,

var. Aucheri, Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 458.

Description : Cke.Akc,

Stapf thinks that C. Aucheri comprises several geographical] races and that

the one from which the species was first described extends from Arabia through

Southern Persia and Baluchistan to Sind. He characterizes it‘ by the lower

glume of the pedicelled spikelet being usually awnless or in any case much

more shortly awned thanthe upper, by the glume awns not being ciliate or

ciliate only at the base, and by the longer beards of the pedicels.’

Locality : Sind: Gizri (Sabnis B777!) ; Jemadar ka Landa near Karachi

(Stocks).

Distribution: Sind, Baluchistan, Afghanistan, S. Persia, Arabia (not

Africa).

30. ARTHRAXON Beauv. Agrost. 111; Cke. ii, 967.

Species about 20, in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World.

We retain the 6 species mentioned by Cke. lc. His Al. lanceolatus,

Hochst. will be slightly restricted under the name of 4. serrulatus, Hochst., the

name A. lancifolius, Hochst, will be substituted for A. microphillus, Hochst.,

and 4. guartinianus, Nash, will take the place of 4. czlzaris, Beauv.

Key as in Cke.

1. Arthraxon inermis, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 145; Cke. ii, 968.

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality : Konkan : Okda Forest, Thana District (Ryan 718!); Wada Range,

Thana District (Ryan 692!) ; Matheran (Woodrow !); Marmagoa (McCann !).

— Deccan : Mahableshwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4513!, Woodrow) ; Purandhar

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 417

(McCann 5592!); Khandala (McCann 9950 !, 9740!).—S. WZ. Country : Derikop

woods (Sedgwick 1845!) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15678 !).

Distribution: W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

2. Arthraxon serrulatus, Hochst. in Flora (1856), 188; Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr.

ix, 163 —A. lanceolatus, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 348 (excl. var. echinatus) ;

Duthie, Grass, N. W. Ind. 17; Hook.f. in F.B.I. vii, 143 (partim excl. Batra-

therum echinatum, Nees in Edinb. Phil. Journ. xviii, (1835) 181; Andropogon

echinatus, Heyne ex Steud. Nomencl. ed. 2, 91: Arthraxon echinatus, Hochst.

in Flora (1856), 188 ; Andropogon lanceolatus, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 257) ; Cke. ii,

968 (partim). A. lanceolatus var genuinus, subvar, serrulatus, Schweinf. in

Bull, Herb. Boiss., 2. ser. ii, 10.—Andropogon serrulatus, Link Hort. Berol. i,

241 (quoad specimen, descriptio partim erronea?); A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii,

458.—A prionodes, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. I, 383.—Satratherum lanceolatum,

Nees in Edinb. New Phil. Journ. xviii (1835), 181.-——. serrulatum, Hochst., ex

Steudlic.

This species includes all the material of the Nileland of Tropical Africa, of

tropical Arabia and the greater part of the Indian specimens which, up to now,

were ranged under Arthraxon lanceolatus, Hochst., as understood by most

authors.

It has been pointed out by Stapf that Arthraxon lanceolatus, Hochst., was

founded on Andropogon lanceolatus, Roxb., a Coromandel plant, which has

larger and wider long-awned spikelets with the lower involucral glume very

minutely imuricate towards the tips only. Neither of these names can,

consequently, be mentioned as synonyms of Arihraxon serrulatus.

Description.—A perennial grass; rhizome short, emitting fascicles of closely

set culms and innovation shoots, which are more or less thickened below and

covered with reddish silky cataphylls. Stems rather slender, up to 90 cm.

high, many-noded, usually finely pubescent, sometimes glabrous, with vegeta-

tive branches below and usually solitary flowering branches above, the latter

subfastigiate. Leaf-blades lanceolate to ovate-lanceolate, setaceously acumi-

nate, witha caudate amplexicaul base. glaucous or greenish, 2°5-5 cm. long, 12-

18 mm.wide, margins cartilaginous, ciliate with the cilia springing from tuber-

cles, smooth, very finely pubescent below or glabrous, primary lateral nerves

about 8-11 on each side, fine,slightly raised below; ligule 1-2 mm. long, rounded,

membranous; sheaths terete, tight, slightly shorter than the internodes or exceed-

ing them in the leafy shoots, more or less hairy with tubercle-based hairs and

often softly pubescent at the nodes, the uppermost frequently glabrous. Racemes

2-5 nate, slender, greenish or suffused with purple or violet, 3-over 5 cm. long on

a short common axis, the fascicles borne on a slender peduncle, shortly or far

exerted from the supporting bladeless or almost bladeless sheath ; rhachis fragile

shortly bearded at the nodes ; joints narrowly linear, 3°3-6°3 mm. long, hairy on

the back and sides, or the lowest almost glabrous, hairs increasing upwards to

more than 2 mm.; pedicels very similar, but much shorter and more slender.

Sessile spikelets narrowly lauceolate-linear to linear slightly tapering upwards

upto 74mm. long (not including the awn), glabrous; callus very short,

puberulous. Glumes 4. Lower involucral glume chartaceous, 6 mm. long,

lanceolate, with a minutely truncate hyaline tip, very convex on the back,which

is smooth or more often muricate along the 4 indistinct or faintly raised

inner, spinulously muricate along the outer nerves, margins hyaline, compara-

tively wide ; upper linear-lanceolate in profile, membranous, 3-nerved, glabrous

or nearly so. Lower floral glume linear, acute, up to 4 mm. long, hyaline,

nerveless or obscurely l-nerved at the base; upper membranous at the base,

hyaline upwards, narrowly lanceolate-linear in profile, 2-dentate, with the

teeth minute, sometimes produced into short capillary bristles, delicately

3-nerved, awned from near the base, awn 8-15 mm. long, very fine, kneed

about the middle, twisted below. Anthers up to3 mm. long. Grain bacilliform

about 4°2 mm. long. Pedicelled spikelet male, linear-lanceolate, acute, about

5 mm.long. Involucral glumes subequal, lower herbaceous-chartaceous, acute,

Scaberulous along the outer and slightly soon the 4-5 inner nerves or almost

smooth, upper slightly shorter, membranous, otherwise as in the sessile spikelet.

Lower floral glume as in the sessile spikelet, upper linear-ob!ong, obtuse,

nerveless, muticous.

Locality : Sind: (Stocks 642).—Gujarat- Morvi, Kathiawar (Woodrow).—

Deccan : Lonavla (Woodrow) ; Pashan, tank (Gammie!). Panchgani (Blatter

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volt, XXXII

and Hallberg B1277!).—S. M. Country: S. W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick and

Bell 4436!) ; Derikop (Sedwick 2022!); Belgaum, Fort wall (Sedwick

3013 !).

Distribution ; More or less throughout India, Tropical Arabia and Tropical

Africa ( Nileland).

3. Arthraxon Meeboidii, Stapf in Cke. ii, 969, in Kew Bull. (1908), 449.

Locality: Western Ghats: Khandala, in open grassland on a hillside, 600 m.

(Meebold 9132) ; Khandala, common (McCann 9949!, 9948!); Lonavla,

eommon (Bhide!, McCann!); Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1238!,

B1225!), Tableland (Blatter 3804 ;); Mahableshwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4523).

__N. Kanara: Tinai (Talbot 2569!).

Distribution - W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

4. Arthraxen lancifolius, Hochst. in Flora (1856), 188; Stapf in FJ. Trop.

Afr. ix, 165.—-A. microphyllus. Hochst. in Flora (1856), 188; Hack. Monogr.

Androp. 351, imel. var. lanctfolius; Hook.f. in F.B.I. vii, 147; Cke. ii, 970 ;

Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1026.—A. Schmidtii, Hochst. (1856), 189.—A.

minor, Hochst. l.c. 188, partim.—A. Schimperi, Hochst. l.c. partim.—A.

molle, Balt. f. Bot. Socotra 315.—A. ciliaris, Henriq. in Bolet. Soc.

Brot. xiii, 133, mom Beauv.—Andropogon lanctfolius, Trin. in Mem. Acad.

Petersb. 6 ser., ii (1833), 271.—A. molle, Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 17.—

A. multicaulis, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 383.—Batratherum molle, Nees &

Arn. in Edinb. New Phil. Journ., xviii (1835), 181; Aitchis. Cat. Panj. Pl.

174.—B. Schimperi, Nees ex Hochst. l.c. 179 —Psilopogon Schimperi, Hochst.

ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 447.—APleuroplitis ciliata, J. Schmidt Beitr.

Fl. Cap. Verd. 152.—P. Schimpert, Regel in Bull. Acad. Petersb. x (1866),

369.—Lucea ciliata, Steud. l.c. 414.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Gujarat: Surat (Herb. Dehra Dun !, Cooke !).—Konkan : Tun-

gar hill, Thana District (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!); Parel (Herb. Econ, Bot,

Poona!); Kutla (Garade!); Salsette (Jacquemont 713).—Deccan : Trimbak,

Nasik District (Herb. S. X. C., Bombay!).—S. MW. Country: Belgaum

Fort walls (Sedgwick 3012!); W. of Dharwar, banks of road, in forest

(Sedgwick 1851!); Castle Rock (Bhide !).—Kanara: Karwar (Talbot 1308 !)

Yellapore (Talbot 2084 !).

Distribution : More or less throughout India, Ceylon to Tonkin and S. W.

China, tropical Africa (Upper Guinea, Nileland).

5. Arthraxon quartinianus, Nash in North Americ. Fl. xvii (1912), 99,

Merrill in Phillip, Journ. Sc. Bot. vii. (1912), 229; Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr: ix

166.—A. major, Hochst. in Flora (1856), 188.—A. coloratus, Hochst. 1.c.—-

A. plumbeus, Hochst. l.c. 189.—.4. violaceus Hochst. l.c.—1. Schimperi,

Hochst. l.c. partim.—A. ciliaris, Rendle in Cat. Afr. Pl. Welw. ii, 138, xon

Beauv.—A. ciliaris, subsp. guartinianus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. (excl. vars.

Hookeri et glabrescens).— Alectoridia quartiniana, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss.

ii, 448, t. 99. -Lucea major, Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 414; Hochst. l.c. 179 —

L. plumbea et violacea, Steud. l.c.—L. Schimpert, Hochst. in Flora (1856), 180

(the genuine).— Pleuroplitis plumbea, Nees ex Steud. 1.c.—P. violacea, Nees

ex Steud. l.c.—P. major, Regelin Bull. Acad. Petersb. (1866), 369, partim,—

P. quartiniana, Regel !.c. 376,partim.— Andropogon violaceus, Heyne ex Steud.

Jd.e.—A. Alectoridia, Steud 1.c. 383.

We wish to substitute 4. guartinianus, Nash in place of J. ciliaris, Beauv.

This latter species which was described in 1812 has been emended repeatedly

since then, and that to such an extent that it is scarcely possible to recognize

the original plant. Hackel made five subspecies: Langsdorffit, submuticus,

nudus, Quartinianus, and Vriesii, and nine varieties. The subspecies were

arranged by him in two leading groups :

1. Joints of rhachis glabrous, or with a few scattered hairs towards the tip

(Langsdorfi1, submuticus, nudus).

2. Joints of rhachis, at least the upper, more or less ciliate (Quartinianus,

Vriesii).—To these two groups Hooker f. added athird one (F.B.I., vii, 146):

3. Spikes silkily villous, spikelets 5-7 mm. long, lower involucral glume

entire or minutely 2 toothed, awn 12 mm. or more. (This is Arthraxon

cus pidatus, Hochst., considered by Hackel as a distinct species.

Arthraxon quartinianus, Nash, and adopted by Stapf. c., covers part of the

subspecies Quartinianus in Hackel’s group 2, including var. Quartinianus

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 419

s. sty. and var. coloratus, but excluding var. Hfookeri and var. glabrescens.

Quartin’s specimen No. 14, collected in Abyssinia, and representing a form with

large spikelets, has, according to Stapf, to be considered as the basis of the

species, whilst Schimper’s 1532, the type of Arthraxon coloratus, stands for

the other extreme.

Arthroxan quartinianus, Nash, includes all the material of the Bombay Pre-

sidency that has come under our observation.

The rest of A. ciliaris, Beauv. et auctorum has to be studied separately, but

as the material lies outside the Presidency we leave it to other botanists to work

out their respective material.

Description: Annual. Stems very slender, ascending from a_ branched,

sometimes prostrate and rooting base, from 8-30 cm. high, smooth, glabrous or

finely puberulous below the inflorescence, with solitary or 2 to 3-nate branches

above, internodes mostly exserted. Leaf-blades ovate-lanceolate to oblong-

lanceolate from a cordate amplexicaul base, finely acuminate, 25 to over

50 mm. long by 6-12 mni. broad, flaccid, with scattered tubercle-based hairs on

both sides, ciliate towards the base, primary lateral nerves 3-4 on each side,

very fine ; ligules membranous, ciliolate, short, truncate ; sheaths lax, the upper

very often more or less inflated and bladeless, more or less hirsute in the upper

part with tubercle-based hairs and densely ciliate along the upper margins,

nodes shortly bearded. Racemes 1 to about Q, in fascicles, born on filiform,

ultimately long exserted peduncles, 2°5-15 cm. long, very slender, flexuous ;

rhachis fragile ; joints 3°3 mm. long, usually shortly ciliate, but the uppermost

cilia sometimes up to 16 mm. long, sometimes glabrous or nearly so ; pedicels

reduced to a minute point or subule. Spikelets solitary, sessile, oblong-lanceo-

late in profile, somewhat oblique, laterally compressed, including the very

minute glabrous or minutely puberulous callus, 3°3-4°2 mm.long. Involucral

glumes subequal, lower subchartaceous, acute, scaberulous along the very

slender 7-9 nerves or almost smooth towards the base, upper obliquely lanceoiate

to linear-lanceolate in profile, acute or minutely mucronate, 3- (rarely 5-)

nerved, eciliate. Lower floral glume oblong, obtuse, hyaline, obscurely

2-nerved, shorter by %than the involucral glumes, upper narrowly linear-

lanceolate in profile, 2-2°7 mm. long, awn from near the base, usually 6°3 mm.

long, more rarely down to 4°2 or up to 8'5 mm. long, very delicate, kneed and

twisted below the middle. Stamens 2.

Locality: Gujarat: Chamargaon (Woodrow).—Khandesh: common

(McCann !).—Konkan : very common (McCann !).—Deccan . Mahableshwar

(Sedgwick and Bell 4501!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1244!, B1252!,

B1257!, B1266!, B1273!, B1290!) Khandala, very common (McCann!).—

S. MM. Country: S.W. of Dharwar (Sedgwick and Bell 4434!) ; Dharwar

(Sedgwick 3098!) ; Gadag (Talbot 2304!) ; Belgaum (Ritchie 796A).— Kanara:

Halyal (Talbot 2161!) ; Yellapore (Talbot 1057 !).

Distribution: From Bihar southwards to Ceylon, Tropical Africa (Nileland,

Upper and Lower Guinea, Mozambique District), introduced into Jamaica and

Guadeloupe.

6. Arthraxon jubatus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. (1889), 358 ; Hook. f. in F. B. I.

vii, 147; Cke. ii, 970.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Konkan: (Law, Stocks).—Deccan: Kori Fort, 12 miles south of

Lonavla (Woodrow) ; Khandala, damp rocks (Hallberg 9788!) ; Lohagad Fort,

top (McCann 9789 !).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, apparently endeinic.

31. CAPILLIPEDIUM, Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 169.

Annual or perennial grasses. Stems slender, simple or branched, sometimes

very copiously, often bearded at the nodes. Leaf-blade with a rather con-

spicuous white midrib. Panicles delicate, when much divided the branchlets at

length more or less divergent. Spikelets small, 2-nate, one sessile, the other

pedicelled, similar in shape but differing in sex, in 1-2- (rarely up to 8-) jointed

racemes at the ends of the capillary primary and secondary and often tertiary

or even quaternary branches of a loose panicle; joints and pedicels finely fili-

form, longitudinally grooved and hyaline in the groove, disarticulating

horizontally ; sessile and pedicelled spikelets deciduous, the former with the

adjacent joint and pedicel. Florets 2 in the sessile spikelet, lower reduced to

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Wolo!

an empty glume or quite suppressed in the pedicelled spikelets, upper her-

maphrodite ; one male or neuter, in the pedicelled spikelet. Sessile spikelet

dorsally compressed, awned, callus small, shortly bearded. Involucral

glumes equal, membranous to subherbaceous ; lower 2-keeled, with narrow

inflexed margins ; upper boat-shaped, 3-nerved, keeled, grooved on both sides

along the obtuse keel. Lower floral glume hyaline, nerveless, upper consisting

of a hyaline, linear stipe, firmer upwards, passing into a slender awn. Pale0O.

Lodicules 2, minute, glabrous. Stamens 3. Stigmas exserted laterally, longer

than the styles. Grain oblong-ellipsoid or oblong, dorsally slightly compressed;

embryo exceeding zof the grain. Pedicelled spikelet awnless, glume, if

present, hyaline, nerveless.

Species 6, in tropical and subtropical Asia, Polynesia and Australia, tropical

Africa.

Three species, described by Cooke (ii, 981, 982) under Andropogon assimilis,

Steud., 4. Hugeli, Hack., and A. fzliculmis, Hook. f. belong to this genus.

I. Stems more or less suffrutescent below, stiff,

erect

1. Nodes of stem glabrous ; callus shortly

bearded ay oe as ELEC. SASSOUIZ01S »

2. Nodes of stem bearded ; callus densely

villous Pr a seseQan iG. ah woeltr.

Il. Stems decumbent and interlaced, very

weak, filiform... ie Semon “GC. 1tleculines.

1. Capillipedium assimile, A. Camus, Graminées in H. Lecomte. FI.

Générale de l’Indo-Chine 7 (1922) 314; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa

(1924), 1028 (.4. Camus prior fecit combinationem novam).—Andropogon

assimilis, Steud. in Zoll. Syst. Verz. (1854), 58; Syn. Gram. (1855), 397;

Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 179; Cke. ii, 981.—4. montanus, Benth. Fl. Hongk.

423, non Roxb., excl. syn.; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 490, excl. syn.— Chrysopo-

gon pictus, Hance in Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 5, v (1866), 252.—C. glaucopsis, Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 22.—Raphis repens, Nees ex Steud. l.c.

Description : Cke. 1. c.

Locality : Khandesh: Toranmal, growing among Strobilanthus (McCann

9671!).—Konkan: Above Kenery Caves (McCann 9959!).—Deccan: in dry

forest, between Mahableshwar and Panchgani, at 4,000 ft. (Sedgwick and Bell

4738 !).—Kanara: Jugglepet, road side, common (Talbot 1386 !).

Distribution : Temperate Himalaya, Khasia, Behar, N. Bengal, Rajputana,

Central India, W. Peninsula, Java, China, Japan.

2. Capillipedium Hugelii, Blatter & McCann, nov. comb.—Andropogon

Hugeliit, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 492 ; Hook. f.in F. B. I. vii, 180 ; Cke. ii, 982.

Description: Cke. l.c.

Locality: Khandesh: 'Toranmal (McCann 9672!).—Konkan: Mulgaum

(McCann 3664!).—Deccan: Khandala, St. Xavier’s Villa (McCann 9423!) ;

dry forests between Mahableshwar and Panchgani (Sedgwick 4738!) ;

Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1321!, McCann!).—S. MW. Country:

Deciduous forests west of Dharwar (Sedgwick 4498!).—Kanara : Halyal (Tal-

bot 2082!) ; Ecumbi to Mungod (Hallberg and McCann A288!).

Distribution : Rajputana, Central Provinces, Central India, W. Peninsula.

3. Capillipedium filiculme, Blatter & McCann, w#ov. comb.—Andropogon

filiculmis, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 181; Cke ii, 982.

Description : Cke.1.c.

Locality: Konkan: Trombay (McCann A286!).—Deccan. Khandala to

Karjat (Blatter and Hallberg A287!) ; Igatpuri (Blatter and Hallberg 5117 !) ;

Poona, in rocky places (Jacquemont 310) ; Donshi, Mawal Districts (Woodrow

26); Purandhar (McCann 5570 !).—S. MW. Country: forests near Dharwar

(Sedgwick 1854!).

Distribution + W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

32. AMPHILOPHIS, Nash in Britt. Man. Fl. N.U.S. ed. i, 71;

Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 171.

Perennial grasses. Stems slender, simple or branched, bearded or beardless

at the nodes. Panicles mostly subdigitate with a short primary axis, rarely the

racemes on branches of the second order; racemes always shortly peduncled,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 421

Spikelets small, 2-nate, one sessile, the other pedicelled, similar in shape or

the pedicelled reduced ‘and smaller, the latter always different in sex except

sometimes the lowermost pair which may be homogamous (male or neuter), on

the fragile rhachis of many-jeinted shortly peduncled racemes ; joints and

pedicels filiform, longitudinally grooved and hyaline in the groove, disarticu-

lating horizontally ; sessile and pedicelled (always ?) spikelets deciduous;

the former with the adjacent joint and pedicel. Florets 2 in the sessile

spikelets, lower reduced to an empty glume, upper hermaphrodite, 2 or 1 in

the pedicelled spikelet, the lower male or neuter, the upper neuter or usually

quite suppressed. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed, awned ; callus small,

shortly bearded. Involucral glumes equal, thinly chartaceous to membranous ;

lower 2-keeled, with narrow sharply inflexed margins ; upper boat-shaped,

3-nerved, acutely keeled. Lower floral glume hyaline, nerveless, upper a

hyaline linear stipe, firmer upwards, passing into aslender awn. Pales 0 or

very minute. Lodicules 2, minute, glabrous. Stamens 3. Stigmas exserted

laterally usually low down, longer than the styles. Grain oblong, obtuse,

dorsally slightly conipressed ; embryo about half the length of the grain.

Pedicelled spikelet awnless, glumes, if present, hyaline, nerveless.

Species probably over 25, mostly in Tropical Asia.

Cke. (ii, 977-981) mentions 8 species which belong to tlie section

Amphilophis of Andropogon : Andropogon compressus, Hook. f., A. Wooa-

rowit, Hook. f., A. pertusus, Willd., A. Kuntzeanus, Hack., A. ensiformis,

Hook. f., A. concanensis, Hook.f., A. tutermedius, Cooke (von R. Br.),

A. odoratus, Dna. Lisboa. Allthese are now being transferred to the new

genus Amphilophis, Nash.

Key to the species (after Cke.)

A. Racemes digitate or fasciculate, the lower longer than the rhachis of

the inflorescence

I. Lower involucral gluine of sessile spikelets

villous below the middle

1. Lower involucral glume not pitted

(2) Upper involucral glume mucronulate ... 1. <A. compressa.

(6) Upper involucral glume obtuse 2. A. Woodrowit.

2. Lower involucral glumes pitted ... 3. A. pertisa,

II. Lower involucral glume of sessile spikelets

glabrous below the middie (sparsely silky

in A. enstfornits)

l. Nodes of stem densely bearded ww. 4. A. Kuntzeana.

2. Nodes of stem glabrous

(a) Leaves reaching 12 mm. broad ww. O. A. ensiformis.

(6) Leaves reaching 3 mm. broad 6. A. concanensis.

B. Racemes panicled, the lower branches shorter

than the rhachis of the inflorescence

I. Non-aromatic ; sheaths terete ee .. ##. A. glabra.

ie sAromatic. sheaths compressed ite . 8 A. odorata.

1. Amphilophis compressa, Blatter & McCann, an nov. Andropogon

compressus, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii (1896), 172; Cke. ii, 977.

Description ; Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Deccan: Khandala, plain behind the Saddle (Hallberg 9657 !,

Se Lonavla (McCann 9433!) : Mawal (Wocdrow!) ; Poona (Wood-

row).

Distribution : Western Peninsula, apparently endeinic.

2. Amphilophis Woodrowii, A. Camus. Andropogon Woodrowti, Hook. f. in

Bal, vit (1896), 173); Cke. ii, 978.

Description : Cke. 1. ¢.

Locality : Deccan: Khorbasa, Mawal Districts (Woodrow); Pand, 20

miles W. of Poona (Woodrow !).

Distribution ; Western Peninsula, apparently endemic.

3. Amphilophis pertusa, Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 175; Haines Bot.

Bihar and Orissa 1030.—Hfolcus pertusus, Linn. Mant. Alt. 301. — Andropogon

pertusus, Willd. Sp. Pl. iv, 922; Beauv. Agrost. 131, t. 23, fig. 2; Roxb. Fl.

Ind. i, 258; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 479 (vars. genuinus et Wightit) Duthie

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Grass. N.W. Ind. 21 (excl. Syn.), Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 38, t. 25; Boiss. Fl. Or.

vy. 464; Balf: £. Bot. Socotra’ 316; -Hook. £..:F..B.I,: vii, 173 ;7Cke.il;"-978:=—

Lepeocercis pertusa, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 364.

Vern. Names: Ghanga, marvel (Satara, Sholapur, Poona), payen, palva,

alvan.

Description: Cke. ii, 978. A very variable plant. We must confess we

find it impossible to follow various authors who have described a number of

varieties. It would be easy to increase their number on merely morphological

grounds, but the results would be highly unsatisfactory. It is only from

genetical tests that we can expect to get an insight into the natural variations

of this and other species of this genus.

Locality: Gujarat: Perim Island, Gulf of Cambay (Blatter 3814 !).—

Konkan: Daman (Bhide!); St. Xavier’s College compound, Bombay

(McCann 9630!, 9631!).—Deccan: Nasik (Bourke 11!); Rahuri (Nana

A278!) ; Khandala, Campoli (McCann 9961!) ; Pashan (Gammie!) ; Lonavla

(Woodrow) ; Agricultural College, Kirkee (Bhide!); Poona (Cooke) ;

Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1236!), on edge of Tableland (Blatter

9962!), on roadside 4,000 ft. (Sedgwick and Bell 4699!) ; Satara (Lisboa) ;

Sholapur (Lisboa) ; Joonur (Talbot!).—S.47. Country: W. of Dharwar,

elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 35” (Sedgwick and Bell 4494 !} ; Dharwar, elevation

2,400 ft., rainfall 34” (Sedgwick and Bell 4488!) ; Kunur, elevation 2,000 ft.,

rainfall 35” (Sedgwick and Bell 4953!) ; Badami (Talbot 2944!) ; Haveri

iain 2233!); Gokak (Sheodye!).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2080!,

2106 !).

Distribution: More or less throughout India, chiefly in the drier parts,

Ceylon, Afghanistan, Arabia, tropical Africa (Upper Guinea, Nileland,

Mozambique District).

Uses: A good fodder grass. (See W. Burns, L. B. Kulkarni and S. R. God-

bole: A study of some Indian grasses and grasslands. Mem. Dept. Agr. in

India, xiv (1925), 47, 48.)

4. Amphilophis Kuntzeana, Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1031.— Andropogon

Kuntzeanus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 478; Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 175 ; Cke. ii,

979;

Descripion «| Cke. lec.

Locality : Konkan: (Stocks).—Deccan » (Woodrow 153!) ; Mawal (Wood-

row).

Distribution : Bihar, Central Provinces, W. Peninsula.

5. Amphilophis ensiformis, Blatter & McCann, comb. nov.—Andropogon ensi-

formis, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 175 ; Cke. ii, 979.

Description: Cke.1.c.

Locality : Deccan: Lonavla (Woodrow !).

Distribution: W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

6. Amphilophis concanensis, Blatter & McCann, comb. nov.—Andropogon

concanensis, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 174; Cke. ii, 980.

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality : Konkan: Matheran (Woodrow !).—Deccan : Yenna River, Ling-

mala, Mahableshwar, 4,000 ft. elevation, 200” rainfall (Sedgwick and Bell

4652!) ; Tingmala, Mahableshwar (Blatter and Hallberg B1328 !) ; Khandala,

in water courses, common (McCann 9651!) ; Manmad, river-bed (Blatter

A283 !) ;—Kanara: Kalanadi River, Supa, on rocks, elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall

100 ” (Sedgwick and Bell 4857!) ; Halyal (Talbot 2221!) ; Goond (Talbot

2202!) ; Gersoppa Falls, on rocks in river bed (Hallberg and McCann A279 !).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

7. Amphilophis glabra, Stapf in Fl. Trop. Afr.ix, 172.—<Andropogon glabver,

Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 271; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 392.—A. punctatus, Trin.

Ic. t. 328, non Roxb.—A. intermedius var. punctatus, subvar. glaber, Hack.

Monogr. Androp. 487.—A. intermedius, K. Schum. in Engl. Pfl. Ost.-Afr.

C. 98; Hook. f in F. B.I. vii, 175; Cke. ii, 980.—A. imutermedius, var.

punctatus, Stapf in Dyer, Fl. Cap. vii, 345.—Amphilophis glabra. Haines

Bot. Bihar and: Orissa 1028, zon Stapf and partim.

It will be seen from the above synonymy that Stapf considers Andropogon

glaber, Roxb. as the type of the species. Of Andropogon intermedius, R.Br. as

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 423

conceived by Hackel he includes only the var. punctatus, subvar. glaber. Haines

in his Bot. Bihar and Orissa, 1028, adopts Stapf’s name Amphilophis glabra with

the following synonyms: Andropogon intermedius, R. Br. inc. A. glaber,

Roxb., A. punctatus, Roxb. and A. montanus, Roxb. ?

This is evidently not Stapf’s Amphilophis glabra. WHaines includes Andro-

pogon intermedius, R. Br., whilst Stapf confines his species to var. punctatus,

Haines has A. punctatus, Roxb. as asynonym, Stapf excludes it expressly.

Haines’ description is much wider than that given by Stapf and includes

Hackel’s vars. genuinus, Henket, punctatus and glaber, and one of his own

var. hirta. He says in a foot-note (p. 1029) : ‘ These varieties are after Hackel

and were described before I consulted Stapf’s Graminez in Fl. Trop. Africa,

where he reduces Hackel’s zztermedius to Roxburgh’s glaber. Thenames (e.g.

genuinus) in some cases become inapplicable if Roxburgh’s gladver is the type.

Var. Henketz is, | think, a distinct species and easily distinguished in the field.

It should be called Amphilophis Henke.’

Haines seems to overlook the fact that Stapf’s glabra is restricted to one of

Hackel’s varieties of Andropogon intermedius, viz., punctatus and that, conse-

quently not all of Hackel’s names can be applicable.

In our opinion Haines is not justified in calling his species Amphilophis

glabra, Stapf. As it includes practically the whole of Andropogon intermedius,

R. Br. taken in Hackel’s sense he might have called it Amphilophts intermedia,

Haines, if that name had not been preoccupied by Stapf (Fl. Trop. Afr. ix,

174).

We are not arguing the point whether Stapf or Haines is right in the

treatment of Andropogon intermedius, R. Br. et auctorum ; good reasons can

be adduced for both cases. All we wish tosay is that Haines’ Amphilophis

glabra is not A. glabra, Stapf.

Those who prefer to adopt Haines’ A. glabra and Hackel’s varieties might

consider a remark made by Hackel himself (l.c. 487): ‘ 4. fascicularts

Thwattes Enum. Pl. Zeyl. p. 437 non Roxb. complectitur varietates B

[Henket] et 8 [punctatus| formis inlermedits (spiculis in eadem panicula

mixtis) conjunctas. Etiam in Bengalta transitus et ipsa varietas B [Henket]

proventunt ; in Himalaya,e. gr. pr. Simlah forme inter § [punctatus] et

oc [genuinus| intermedie inveniuntur.’

We adopt Stapf’s conception of 4. glabra together with his description. Dr.

Stapf was kind enough to name some of our Bombay specimens,

Description: Perennial. Rhizome very short, hard, innovations extravagi-

nal, cataphylls ovate to lanceolate, acute, hard, smooth. Stems tufted, erect

or shortly ascending, to overlm. high, rather stout below, glabrous, 5-7-

noded, simple or very sparingly branched. Leaf-sheaths terete, glabrous,

smooth, the intermediate and upper mostly shorter than the internodes, nodes

glabrous or the upper bearded. Blades linear, long-tapering to a setaceous

point, hardly broader, not or slightiy contracted at the base, up to over 30 cm.

by 8°5 mm. (mostly narrower), pale green, often turning reddish or purplish,

glabrous, rarely with very fine, long, spreading, white hairs at and above the

ligule, smooth except at the margins, midrib rather stout to very stout down-

wards, lateral nerves 3-4 on each side ; ligules truncate, very short, scarious.

Panicle narrowly oblong, 10-23 cm. by 25-38 mm., erect, primary axis much

longer than the lowest racemes, somewhat stout and (at least when mature)

stiff, smooth, shortly bearded at the branch axils, otherwise glabrous and

smooth ; branches whorled, up to 6 in a whorl or semiverticillate, or 2-nate or

solitary from the weaker nodes, straight, 25-75 mm. long, the longer divided

from 12 mm. above the base, few to 7-noded, secondary branches simple.

Racemes 12-38 mm. long, straight or flexuous, usually purplish, inconspi-

cuously white-villous ; joints and pedicels 2-3°3 mm. long, ciliate, uppermost

cilia much longer than the rest, up tol mm. long. Sessile spikelet pale green

or purplish throughout, including the small minutely bearded callus 3°3-3°8

mm. long. Involucral glumes equal; lower truncate, slightly concave on the

back, chartaceous-membranous, hairy below the middle, more rarely glabrous,

keels rigidly ciliolate upwards, intracarinal nerves 4-5, very fine, evanescent

upwards with or without a pit above the middle: upper lanceolate, acute, 3-

nerved, keel scabrid upwards, margirs sparingly ciliate. Lower floral glume

oblong, 2°7 mm. long, hyaline, nerveless, ciliate, upper an awn 6:3-]2°7 mm.

long, brown below, pale above the bend. Pedicelled spikelet neuter, mostly

reduced to the glumes, narrowly linear-oblong to linear, 2°7-3'3 mm, long,

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

glabrous, of the same colour as the sessile. Lower involucral glume rigidly

and minutely ciliolate, 5-9-nerved, often rolled in, not pitted, upper hyaline,

nérveless, often minute.

Locality : Konkan: Penn (McCann A282 !).—Deccan : Pimpalgam, on the

brink of astream (Bhide!) ; Lonavla (Hallberg 9955!) ; Khandala, St. Mary’s

Ravine, on a water course (McCann 9435 !).

Distribution : More or less throughout india, Tropical Asia, N.E, Australia,

Tropical Africa (Upper and Lower Guinea, Mozambique District, Nileland)

Madagascar,

8. Amphilophis odorata, A. Camus. <Azdropogon odoratus, Dna. Lisboa in

Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soe. iv, (1889), 123, cumic. and vi (1891), 68,

203; Hook.f. in F.B,I. vii, 177; Cke. ii, 981.

Description : Cke. l.c.

Locality : Khandesh (Lisboa).—Konkan : Khardi (Mrs. Lisboa).—Deccan :

Igatpuri (McCann A281] !), Lonavla ; (Mrs. Lisboa, Bhide!) ; plain at foot of

Lohagad (McCann 9956!) ; Pand, 20 miles W. of Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot.

Poona!) ; Mawal, Poona District (Woodrow) .

Distribution : W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

33. DICHANTHIUM, Willemet in Usteri Ann. xviii (1796), 11;

Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 177.

Perennial or annual. Stems simple or branched, usually many-noded,

bearded or beardless at the nodes. Panicles usually subdigitate with a short

or very short primary axis, rarely the latter elongated ; racemes always shortly

peduncled. Spikelets small, 2-nate, one sessile, the other pedicelled, similar

in shape, different in sex, except the lowermost 1 or 2 pairs (sometimes 3 or 4)

of each raceme which are (with occasional exceptions in 0. annulatum)

homogamous (male or neuter), in many-jointed, shortly peduncled, subdigi-

tate, rarely subpanicled or racemosely arranged, racemes ; joints and pedicels

filiform, solid, disarticulating subhorizontally except the lowest barren pairs ;

fertile sessile and pedicelled spikelets deciduous, the former with the adjacent

joint and pedicel. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed, awned except the

basal homogamous ones; callus small, shortly bearded. Involucral glumes

equal, thinly chartaceous, lower usually very obtuse, 2-keeled, with narrow

sharply inflexed margins, upper boat-shaped, 3-nerved, acutely keeled.

Lower floral glume hyaline, nerveless, upper reduced to the hyaline base of a

slender awn; pale minute or absent. Lodicules 2, minute, glabrous.

Stamens 3. Stigmas exserted laterally at or above the middle or near the tips.

Grain oblong, obtuse, dorsally compressed ; embryo rather more than half the

length of the grain. Pedicelled spikelet awnless. Lower involucral glume

oblong, many nerved, upper flat with sharply inflexed margins closing over the

hyaline lower floral glume if present and the stamens, upper floral glume

usually 0, never awned.

Species 10 in the tropical and warm-temperate regions of the Old World.

So far 4 species were known from the Presidency and described by Cooke

under Andropogon armatus, Hook. f., A. Cooket, Stapf, A. caricosus, Linn.

and 4. annulatus, Forsk. To these we have added 2 new species:

Dichanthium panchganiense, Blatter & McCann, and DD. McCannit,

Blatter.

Key to the species

A. Racemes digitate (sometimes solitary in

D. earicosus), 25 mm. long or longer

I, Lower involucral glumes of pedicelled

spikelets armed with marginal bul-

bous- based bristles

1. Lower involucral glume of pedicelled

spikelet always pitted 1. D. pancthganiense.

2. Lower involucral glume of pedicelled

spikelet not pitted

(a) Ligulé absent ..; a .. 2. 0. armatum.

(6) Ligule present ... ini ww 3. D. MeCannit.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 425

Il Lower involucral glumes of pedicelled

spikelets not armed with marginal

bristles

1. Nodes of stem glabrous; Jigule a

shortly ciliate small membrane 3. 6 4. DD. Cavitésam:

2. Nodes of stem bearded ; ligule large,

membranous : » 8S. D. aennulatum.

B. Racemes solitary, less than 25 mm. long... 6. D. serratalccides.

1. Dichanthium panchganiense, Blatter & McCann in Journ. Bomb. Nat

Hist.so0c, xxxit (1927), 381.

Locality: Deccan: Panchgani (McCann!)

Distribution: W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

2. Dichanthium armatum, Blatter & McCann, comb. nov.—Andropogon

armatws, Hook. f. in F. B: I. vii, 197: Cke. ii, 987.

Description: Cke. 1. c.

Locality : Konkan. Stocks (teste Hook. f.).—Deccan: Kalsabai Hills,

Nasik District (Patwardhan 1183 !); Gira Hill, Khandala (McCann 9430 ! 9431 !);

Lohagad (McCann 3871!); Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1212!) ;

Pasarni Ghat (Blatter and Hallberg B1304!).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

3. Dichanthium McCannii, Blatter in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxii

(1927), 381.

Locality : Deccan: Panchgani (McCann ! ).

Distribution: W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

4. Dichanthium caricosum, A. Camus: Note sur le genre Dichanthium

Willemet in Bull. Mus. Hist. Nat. (Paris) 27 (1921), 549.—Andropogon cart-

cosum, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed. 2 (1763), 1480; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 567 ; Hook.

f. in F. B. I. vii, 196; Cke. ii, 937; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa, 1039.—For

further synonyms see Hook. f.l.c.

Three authors have made the new combination Dichanthium caricusum :

(a) A. Camus. c. (6). Stapf in Ridley Fl, Malay Penins. v (1925), 210. (c)

Haines in Bot. Bihar and Orissa (1924), 1039. A. Camus has therefore to be

adopted as authority for D. caricosinm.

We are not trying to describe varieties or forms of this very variable species.

Vern. Names: Marvel (Mar.), Zinzvo (Guj.).

Description : Cke.l.c. :

This species can, according to Burns and others* be distinguished from

D. annulatum, Stapf by the following characters :—

Dichanthium cavicosum. Dichanthium anniulatum.

Habit : Big and tufted with ter- Medium size with termi-

minal and axillary in- nal inflorescences.

, florescences.

Nodal hairs on stem : Short. Long.

Colour of inflorescence: Light purplish-green. Purple.

Hairs of inflorescence: Short. Long.

Haines |. c. believes there is no single character by which DY. cari€osum can

be distinguished from 1). annulatum. ‘1 have,’ he says, ‘ tested all those given

in the F. B. I. and found them fail on specimens named by Sir J. D. Hooker

himself ; the key characters in Bengal plants are also unworkable as applied to

the same specimens, many of which have bearded nodes, and the character of

spiral or subdistichous spikelets is difficult to apply. Linnaeus described

Andropogon Caricosus .as with solitary spikes, and Willdenough (sic!) adds

‘leaves with sparse hairs and sheaths hirsute at the base’ (probably he refers

to the nodes).’

In his key-characters Haines says that in J. caricosum tne callus is glabrous.

This seems to be amistake. Hackel calls the callus Brevissime barbatus, Cooke

has ‘ bearded,’ Rangachari describes it as ‘ short and shortly hairy below.’ We

have always found it bearded.

Locality : Gujarat: Surat, road sides (Sedgwick 315!).—Khandesh ;

Toranmal (McCann 9669!) ; Tapti, N. E. of Bhusawal (Hallberg 5111 !) ;

* W. Burns, L. B. Kulkarniand S. R. Godbole : A Study of Some Indian

Grasses, in Mem. Dept Agr. Ind., xiv (1925), 46.

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

N. slope of Chanseli (McCann 9968! ).—Konkan.: Parsik, railway tract

(McCann 9633!).—Deccan: Junnar (Mamlatdar of Junnar!) ; Shevgaon

(Mamlatdar of Shevgaon!); Lohagad, half-way up (McCann 9627!) ;

Agricultural College Farm, Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Khed

(Mainlatdar of Khed!) ; Purandhar (McCann 5570!) ; Bairawady, Purandhar

(McCann 5075! ) ; Panchgani (Blatter 3803! , Blatter and Hallberg Bi223! ) ;

between Mahableshwar and Panchgani, elevation 4,000 ft. (Sedgwick and

Bell 4743;).—S. J7. Country: Dharwar, elevation 2,400 ft., rainfall 34”

(Sedgwick 1828!).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2427 !).

Distribution : India, Burma, Ceylon, Mauritius, China.

Uses: A good fodder grass.

5. Dichanthium annulatum, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 178; Haines Bot.

Bihar and Orissa 1039.—Andropogon annulatus, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.-Arab,

(1775), 173 ; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 33, t. 20 ; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 570 ;

Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 196; Cke. ii, 988.~ For further synonyms see Hook. f. 1. c.

Vern. Names: Zinjoo, handi daroya, daroya (Surat), dhrow (Broach),

zinzma (Charodi), jinjva (Panch-Mahals), marvel (Poona), sheda, sam-payen

palvan-hullu, marwalyan-hullu (Dharwar).

Description: Cke. 1. c.

Locality : Sind: Jamesabad (Sabnis B972!); Mirpurkhas (Sabnis B1028!,

B1185!) ; Hyderabad (Sabnis B51!); Pad-Idan (Sabnis B515!); Larkana

(Sabnis B462!) ; Nasarpur (Sabnis B1140!) ; Tatta, Kullan Kote Lake (Blatter

and McCann D667!) ; Tatta, tombs (Blatter and McCann D668 !) .—Gujarat :

Kabirwad (Chibber!) ; Nadiad Farm (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) .—Khandesh :

Amboli, Bori River (Blatter and Hallberg 5148!) ; Dadgaum (McCann 9665!) ;

Toranmal (McCann 9670!) ; Bor, Bori River (Blatter and Hallberg 4428! );

Umalla, Tapti Bank (Blatter and Hallberg 5228! ).—Kunkan : Sion (McCann

3672 !) ; Sewri (McCann 3587!) ; Parsik, railway line (McCann 9654!) ; Cam-

poli (McCann 5356!).—Deccan : Kirkee to Poona, railway line (Garade 83!) ;

Cellege Garden, Poona (Garade!); Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel) ;

Trimbak (Chibber!) ; Khandala, very common (McCann 5297!); Manmad

Blatter 9970!) ; Purandhar, north foot (McCann 9421!).—S.M/. Country :

Devikop, elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall 40” (Sedgwick 3984 !).—Kanara - Halyal

(Talbot 2081 !) ; Kulgi (Talbot 2299!).

Distribution - Tropical Africa (Nileland, Mozambique District), from

Morocco through North Africa, the Orient and India to China and Australia,

Pacific Islands.

Uses ; Considered good fodder.

§. Dichanthium serrafalcoides, Blatter & McCann, xov. comb.—Andropogon

Cooket, Stapf ex Woodrow in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xiii, 438 (omen

tantum) ; Cke. ii, 986 (descriptio).—A.( Dichanthium ?) serrafalcoides, Cooke et

Stapf in Kew Bull. (1908), 450.

The systematic position of this species is somewhat doubtful. Cooke already

found that it does not agree with Hackel’s subgenus Dichanthium, but he adds:

‘It is the only subgenus into which it will fit at all.’ Cooke and Stapf, when

describing the same species under a different name, remark : ‘Ob spiculas secun-

darias intimas saepissime neutras caeterum eadem forma ac fertiles si vis ad

Dichanthiun referendus, sed nulli speciei arcte attinis spiculis maiuscults in

vacemos spiculis Serratalct haud dissimiles congestis insignis.’ Following

this suggestion we have put it under Dichanthium.

Description : Cke. ii, 9s6.

Lotality: Deccan : Lonavla (Bhide !); Khandala, Echo Point (McCann 9403!) ;

Kalanbai Hills (Patwardhan !); Sakar-Pathar near Lonavla (Woodrow !) ;

Mahableshwar (McCann!); Panchgani (McCann!, Blatter and Hallberg

B1250 !).

Distribution: W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

34. EREMOPOGON, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix (1917), 182.

Perennial or annual grasses. Stems slender, simple below, more or less

branched above, the branches often gathered in fastigiate bundles, each sup-

ported by a bladeless sheath and terminated bya solitary raceme. Spikelets

small, 2-nate, one sessile, the other pedicelled, similar in shape, different in

sex, on the fragile rhachis of many-jointed solitary spatheate racemes which are

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 427

frequently gathered in fastigiate bundles, rarely the lowermost 1-3 pairs homo-

gamous ; joints and pedicels filiform, compressed, solid or slightly grooved,

disarticulating horizontally ; spikelets deciduous, the sessile with the adjacent

joint and pedicels. Sessile spikelet dorsally compressed, awned ; callus small,

shortly bearded. Involucral glumes equal, thinly chartaceous to membranous,

lower 2-keeled, with narrow inflexed margins, uppet boat-shaped, 3-nerved,

acutely keeled. Lower floral glume hyaline, nerveless, upper reduced to a hya-

line upwards firmer linear stipe passing into a slender awn. Stamens 3. Stig-

mas exserted laterally nearthe middle of the spikelet, longer than the styles.

Pedicelled spikelet awnless ; soniewhat similar to the sessile.

Species about 5, in the tropical and warm-temperate parts of the Old World.

Cooke knew one species from the Presidency which he described under the

name of Andropogon foveolatus, Del. Weadd Fremopogon Paranjpyeanum,

Blatter and McCann.

1. Lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet 4-nerv-

ed... a ane ee w. 1l. £. foveolatus.

2. Lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet faintly

5-7-nerved ... ticle iss w. 2. L. Paranjpyeanum

1. Eremopogon foveolatus, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix (1917), 183.—

Andropogon foveolatus, Del. Fl. Egypte 16, t. 8, fig. 2; Duthie Fodd. Grass.

N. Ind. 35, t. 22; Hack. Monogr. Androp. 402; Hook. f. F. B.1. vii, 168;

Cke. ii, 977.—A. strictus, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 260.—A. monostachyus, Spreng.

Pug. ii. 9.—Aypogynium foveolatum, Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa (1924),

1041.

Description: Cke.l.-c.

Locality : Sind: Sehwan to Laki, foot of hills (Sabnis B 651!).—Gujarat -

Road to Lasandra (Chibber !) ; Bhuj Hill, Cutch (Blatter 3765 !).—Khandesh :-

Umalla, Tapti Bank (Blatter and Hallberg 5222! ); Bhusawal (McCann 4243 !);

Bor, Bori River (Blatter and Hallberg 4309!) ; Naradana (Blatter and Hallberg

5180 ;).—Konkan: Parel, poor specimen (McCann 5373 !).—Deccan.: Pan-

chgani, roadside, elevation 4,000 ft., rainfall 60” (Sedgwick and Bell

4735!) ; Yeola (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Arangaon, Ahmednagar (Ryan !) ;

Chattarshinji Hill (Ezekiel!) ; Deolali (Blatter 4550!) ; Manmad (Blatter

A261!) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1245!).—.S. 7. Country : Dharwar,

elevation 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 ” (Sedgwick 1825 !) ; Haveri (Talbot 2229 !).

Distribution: Tropical Africa (Upper Guinea, Nileland), Canaries, from

Egypt and Tropical Arabia to the drier parts of India.

2. Eremopogon Paranipyeanum, Blatter & McCann, comb. nov.—Andro-

pogon Paranjpyeanum, Bhide in Journ. and Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng., New

series, vii (1911), 514.

Description: A delicate-looking grass. Stems slender, erect, 30-45 cm.

high ; upper nodes pubescent; leaves 2°5-7°5 cm. by 2mm., subcordate at

base, long-hairy on both sides, the margins thickened and minutely irregularly

repand and spinulosely serrulate; sheaths glabrous; ligule a short erose

membrane. Racemes solitary, 12-25 mm. long (without the awns), on a very

slender peduncle. Sessile spikelets 3 mm. long. Lower involucral glume

oblong, obtuse, faintly 5-7-nerved, glabrous, margins narrowly incurved, keels

shortly ciliate at the apex, upper just a little longer than the lower, 3-nerved,

oblong, apiculate. Lower floral glume shorter than the involucral glumes,

hyaline and with ciliate margins, epaleate, upper floral glume consisting of the

narrow base of the awn, just a little more than half as long as the lower in-

volucral glume, obscurely margined and 1-nerved with 2 obscure narrow lobes

at the apex, and an interposed slender, twisted, scabrid awn about 4 cm. long,

bearing a bisexual flower. Pedicelled spikelets about 4mm. long. Lower

involucral glume oblong, obtuse, 7-9-nerved, margins incurved and broadly

winged at the keels, wings shortly ciliate towards the apex, upper involucral

glume a little shorter than the lower, oblong, acute, 3-nerved, margins ciliate.

Lower floral glume shorter than the upper involucral, hyaline, ciliate, faintly

3-5-nerved, epaleate, male. Joints and pedicels compressed, obliquely truncate,

3-3 as long as thesessile spikelets and ciliate with short white hairs on both

sides,

Locality : S. M. Country : Castle Rock (Bhide !).

Distribution: So far endemic,

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

35. SCHIZACHYRIUM. Nees Agrost. Bras. 331. Stapf in Prain

Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 1184.

Annual or perennial grasses, rarely suffrutescent, never very tall. Stenis

slender. Leaf-blades folded in bud, usually narrow. False panicles varying

from very loose and scanty to densely fascicled ; spathes mostly very narrow,

scarious, membranous or lower down herbaceous. Spikelets 2-nate, of each

pair differing in sex and mostly also more or less in shape and size, one sessile

the other pedicelled, on the articulate fragile rhachis cf many-jointed solitary

racemes terminating the culms and their branches, supported by spathes and

often collected into a false panicle, the sessile spikelets falling with the conti-

guous joint and the accompanying pedicelled spikelet ; joints and pedicels

thickened upwards, often rather stovt with ascarious cupuliform and more or

less dentate terminal appendage. Sessile spikelets dorsally compressed or some-

times in their lower half almost terete, awned ; callus short with a short beard

at the very base. Involucral glumes equal or subequal, lower chartaceous to

subcoriaceous, more or less convex or flat on the back with, at least from the

middle upwards, sharply inflexed and mostly narrow margins, 2-keeled, the

keels running out into teeth or mucros, upper thinner to membranous, nar-

rowly boat-shaped to dorsally flattened, keeled (at least upwards), 1-3-nerved,

the delicate margins ciliolate Floral glumes, ciliolate, hyaline, lower mem-

branous downwards and often purplish, 2-nerved, upper usually 2-fid or 2-den-

tate, rarely entire, awned, awn from the sinus or continuing the entire valve,

Pale 0 or a microscopic hyalinescale. Lodicules 2, minute, glabrous. Stamens

3, rarely 2. Stigmas laterally exserted low down; styles terminal. Grain

narrowly linear in outline or tapering upwards, subterete; embryo short.

Pedicelled spikelet similar to the sessile, but usually relatively broader and

flatter, or more or less reduced and then sometimes quite small. Involucral

glumes more or less membranous, the lower aristulateor muticous. Floral

glumes, if present hyaline, ciliate, muticous.

Species about 50, in the tropics of both hemispheres.

1. Schizachyrium brevifolium, Nees Agrost. Bras. 332; Miq. FI. Ind. Bat. iii,

495; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 187; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1042.

— Andropogon brevifolius, Sw. Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 26, Fl. Ind. Occ. i, 209;

Hack. in. Monogr. Androp. vi, 363 (excl. var. fragilis) ; Duthie Grass. N. W.

Ind. 19, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 34; Hook.f F.B.I. vii, 165.—A. obtusifolius,

Poir. Encycl. Suppl. i, 583.—d. parvifolius, Roxb. Fl] Ind. i, 277.—A. tenellus

Pres]. Rel. Heenk. i, 335.-—-A. dedilis, Kunth Enum. Pl.i, 488.—A. floridus,

Trin.in Mem. Acad. Petersb. 6 ser. ii, 265.—FPollinia brevifolia, Spreng. Syst,

i, 288.

Description: Annual. Stems weak, up to60cm. long, usually ascending

from adecumbent base, rarely erect many-noded, branched from most of the

nodes: branches often 2-4-nate and dividing again, very slender to filiform,

geniculate, glabrous, the lower internodes usually much compressed. Leaf-

blades linear, constricted at the junction with the sheath, the lower and those of

the primary branches obtuse or sub-obtuse or suddenly narrowed to a sharp

point, 25-38 mm. long and 2-6'3mm. wide, the upper and those of the secon-

dary and tertiary branches much narrower and more acute, often glaucescent,

smooth except along the margins and the lower side of the midrib, nerves very

fine. Ligules membranous, very short, ciliolate. Sheaths compressed, the

lower keeled, somewhat lax, glabrous, smooth, the uppermost spathe-like ;

leaves like the spathe of the inflorescence ultimately turning reddish. Spathes

on subcapillary curved or flexuous branchlets, very narrow, acute, reaching to

the base of the racemes or slightly exceeding thei ; racemes borne on filiform

upwards clavate peduncles, slender from less than 12mm. to slightly over

25 mm. long, 5-11l-jointed ; joints 2-2°7 mm. long, widening upwards from a

slender base, tips 2-dentate glabrous, smooth ; pedicels as long as the joints,

very slender and only slightly thickened upwards. Sessile spikelets linear-

lanceolate, acuminate, more or less convex on the back, pale green, about

3°3 mim. long including the minute callus, which is more or less shortly bearded,

at least on the sides. Involucral glumes equal. lower thinly chartaceous, 2-

dentate, scaberulous along the keels, with very tine intracarinal nerves, smooth

or very minutely scaberulous on the back ; upper boat-shaped, acute, l-nerved,

ciliolate. Lower floral glume elliptic, obtuse, hyaline, nerveless, ciliolate,

upper 2-fid almost to the base, 1'6 mim, Jong, segments linear-oblong, sub-

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 429

obtuse, sparingly ciliolate, awn 8°5-12°7 mm. long. Anthers 0'5mm. long, deep

redor purple. Grain sublinear, tapering upwards. Pedicelled spikelet reduced

toa minute glume, often passing indistinctly into the pedicel and produced into

a bristle-like awn, about 4:2 mm. long.

Locality : S. M. Country : Badami (Talbot 2930 !).

Distribution : Widely distributed throughout the tiopics.

36. ANDROPOGON, Linn.; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 208.

After the restoration of Hackel’s subgenera to the rank of genera, the general

characters of Andropogon itself must be modified in many ways:

Mostly perennial grasses of various habit. Spikelets 2-nate, the sessile and

pedicellea differing trom one another in sex and more or less heteromorphous, all

pairs similar, or if the lowest sessile spikelet male or imyerfect then resemb-

ling the others. Spikes (spiciform racemes) many-jointed, fragile. paired (very

rarely solitary) or corymbose (digitate or subdigitate) on terminal pedurcles,

embraced below by a spathe-like leaf (spatheole), frequently 2 or more pairs

with their spathes subtended by a common spathe and soon to more compo-

site branching, the whole forming a false panicle; the sessile spikelets falling

with the contiguous joint and the accompanying pedicel; joints and pedicels

filiform or thickened upwards and then the tips frequently more or less cupular

or auricled Sessile spikelets dcrsally or iaterally compressed, rearly always

awned ; callusshort, mostly quite obtuse, shortly bearded. Involucral glumes

equal or subequal, subcoriaceous to membranous, lower flat or coucave or

channeled on the back. withatleast from the middle upwards sharply inflexed

margins, 2-keeled ; upper more or less boat-shaped, keeled upwards, 3-1-nerved,

sometimes aristulate. Flcral glumes ciliate or ciliolate, rarely glabrous, lower

hyaline, 2-nerved, upper 2-fid or 2-dentate, hyaline or firmer and some-

times substipitiform below the insertion of the awn. Pale a hyaline nerveless

scale or 0. Lodicules ?, minute, glabrous. Stamens 3. Stigmas lateially

exserted ; styles terminal. Grain narrowly lanceolate to oblong in outline,

subterete to planoconvex ; embryo about half the length of the grain. Pedicel-

led spikelets often very different from the sessile in shape and less soin size,

always miore or iess compressed dorsally, never concave or channelled on the

back, sometimes reduced and then often small or quite suppressed. Involucral

glumes herbaceous-chartaceous to niembranous, the lower muticous or very

rarely aristulate. Floral glumes, if present, hyaline. ciliate, muticous.

Species about 100, mostly in the tropics of both hemispheres.

1. Andropogon pumilus, Roxb. Fl. Ind. 1 (1832), 273; Steud, Syn. Gram. 388 ;

Hook f.in F.B.1. vii, 170; Cke. ii, 976; Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1044.—

A. demzssus, Steud, l.c.—A. pachyarthrus, Hack. Morvogr. Androp. 449;

Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 21, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. t 39.

Vern. Names: Zinzvo (Surat), berki, gondwal, la!lgavat, tambrut, gondal,

chiman chara, malakava.

Description » Cke. l.c.

Locality: Gujarat. Nadiad farm (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Surat

(Dalzell).—Ahandesh ; Bhusawal (McCann 5451!)! Bor, Bori River (Blatter

and Hallberg 5116!) ; to Naradana (Blatter and Hallberg 5207!).—Deccan -

Pashan (Gammie!) ; Bairawadi, Purardhar (McCann 5054!) ; Manmad (Blat-

ter A262!); Shinda (Sabnis A260!); Panchgani (Blatter and Hallbeig

B1268 !, B1274!, B1326!).—S. 7. Country: Haveri (Talbot 2230!) ; Dumbal

(Talbot 2318!) ; Harsol (Sedgwick 1083!) —Kanara : Karwar (Lisbea).

Distribution : Nepal, Bihar, Rajputana, Central P:ov., W. Peninsula.

37. CYMBOPOGON, Sprevg.; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 265.

Perennial, densely tufted and usually aromatic grasses. Leaves often very

coarse. Panicles frequently much compound and contracted, spatheate.

Spikelets 2-nate, those of each pair differing in sex and more or less in shape—

except those of lowest pair of the lower or of both racemes which are homoga-

mous (male or neuter)—one sessile, the other pedicelled on the articulate tragile

tha:his of many-jointed paired racemes, terminating the culms and their

bianches ; raceme-pairs supported by a spatheole, collected into often decom-

pound or supra-decompound spatheate panicle ; the fertile spikelets falling with

the contiguous joint and the accompanying pedicel ; joints and pedicels filiio1m

430 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

or linear with frequently more or less cupular or auricled tips, those of the

lowest pair (raceme-base) often conspicuously swollen, oblong or barrel-

shaped and hard. Sessile spikelets (above the lowest) feraale or hermaphro-

dite, dorsally, rarely, laterally, compressed, awned (normally) ; callus very

short, obtuse, shortly bearded. Involucral glumes equal or subequal, more or

less chartaceous, lower almost flat or slightly depressed or narrowly grooved on

the back, with at least from the middle upwards sharply inflexed margins, 2-

keeled, upper more or less boat-shaped, keeled upwards, usually 1-nerved.

Floral glumes ciliate or ciliolate (sometimes cbscurely), lower entire, hyaline,

2-nerved, upper 2-fid or 2-lobed, hyaline, rarely firmer and almost stipe-like

below the insertion of the awn; column of awn, if any, smooth. Pale 0.

Lodicules 2, minute, glabrous. Stamens3. Stigmas laterally exserted ; styles

terminal. Grain oblong in outline, subterete to plano-convex in cross-section ;

embryo about half the length of the grain. Pedicelled spikelets usually slightly

different in shape and size from the sessile, but never depressed or grooved on

the back. Involucral glumes muticous, lower chartaceous to sub-chartaceous

upper thinner. Lower floral glume hyaline, 2-nerved, upper 0, but usually a

male flower present.

Species about 36, in the tropical, more rarely in the subtropical regions of the

Old World.

Cooke mentions one indigenous (Andropogon Jwarancusa, Jones) and one

cultivated species (Andropogon Schenanthus, Linn.) belonging to this genus.

We add two indigenous species and a cultivated one:

Key, mainly after Stapf -

A. Blades long, hard, rough-edged throughout, filiform to linear ;

lower involucral glume of sessile spikelet flat or concave between the keels

I. Raceme-joints villous all over, hairs long,

more or less concealing the sessile

spikelets ; awn usually a straight, very

short bristle

1. Basal leaf-sheaths in dense tufts, tightly

clasping, thickened below ; blades

more or less filiform and flexuous,

except when very short; raceme-

fascicles more or less simple we Ll. C. Schoenanthus.

2. Basal leaf-sheaths ultimately loosened

and curled; blades flat; raceme-

fascicles compound bs 2. 2. °C. Jwarancusa.

II. Raceme-joints bearded along the sides,

but hairs not concealing the sessile

spikelets; fertile spikelets awnless ... 3. C. cztratus.

B. Blades flat, 5-30 mm. wide, rounded to

subcordate and stem-clasping at the base,

of a soft texture, with smooth edges, at

least in the lower part ; lower involucral

glume of sessile spikelet with a narrow

groove from the middle downwards

corresponding to a keel inside

I. Blades 10-30 mm. wide (rarely under 10

mm.), somewhat fat, rich green, at

least above; panicles 10-30 cm. long,

turning reddish when mature oa ACM Martine.

II. Blades 2-6 mm. wide, thin, glaucous ;

panicles 10-20 cm. long, glaucous or

straw-colour when mature ... ptt se Oma StULS.

1. Cymbopogon Schenanthus, Spreng. Pug. ii (1815), 15, wow Schult.; Stapf

in Kew Bull. (1906), 303-313, 352-353, in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 268.—C.

arabicus, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i (1855), 387.—C. Arriani, Aitch.

Cat. Punj. Pl. (1869), 174.—C. Curcinnatus, Hochst. ex Hack. in Monogr.

Androp. 599.—Andropogon Schenanthus, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed 1 (1753), 1046

(non Hackel et plurimorum auct.).—A. bicornis, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab.

(1763), 173, non Linn.—A. laniger, Desf. Fl. Atl. ii (1800), 379; Boiss. FI.

Or. v, 465; Balfour Bot. Socotra, 316; Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 598;

Benth. in Hook. Ic, Pl. t. 1871.—A. Olévieri, Boiss. Diagn. Pl. Or. ser. +1,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 431

fasc. v (1844), 76.—A. circinnatus. Hochst. e¢ Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i (1855),

387.—A. Arriani, Edgew. in Journ. Linn. Soc. vi (1862), 208.—A. Jwaran-

cusa, subsp. daniger, Hook.f. F.B.I. vii. 203; Cke. ii, 976 (var. tantum).—

Gymnanthelia lanigeru, Anderss. in Schweinf. Beitr. Fl. Aethiop. 306 (nomen

tantum).

For Mee a of the foundation of this species see Stapf in Kew Bull.

(1906), 303-305.

Description: Perennial, compactly cespitose, with numerous intravaginal

innovations, 15-45 cm. high. Culms erect, slender, few— to 4-noded and simple

below the inflorescence, terete, glabrous, very rarely with a few small hairs at

the nodes. Leaf-blades semiterete, filiform, wiry, flexuous, very firm and

often circinate upwards, rounded on the back, channelled on the face, or those

of the culms somewhat flatter and shorter, up to more than 23 cm. long, 1 mm.

in diameter, glabrous, finely scaberulous on the nerves below, though often

smooth to the touch, pale, glaucous, evenly 7-9-nerved, the midrib showing

only above as a broad, white band. Ligules membranous to scarious, oblong,

truncate, ciliate, up to 3°3 mm. long. Sheaths very firm, smooth, glabrous,

tight, those of the innovations and base of the culms widened at the base, very

tough and long-persistent, straw-coloured, up to 13 cm. long. Spatheate

panicle narrow, 8-30 cm. long, few—to 7-noded lower internodes 5-7°5 cm.

long, upper rapidly decreasing in length, slender, glabrous ; lowest primary

branch rarely undivided at the base, 3-2-noded and up to ]5cm. long, usually

forming up to 4-rayed tiers ; lowest subtending sheaths with foliaceous blades;

rays finely filiform, 2°5-3°7 cm. long, rarely to over 5cm., glabrous; spathes

narrowly lanceolate, subherbaceous, often tinged with pale purple, witha

short blade or the upper bladeless and produced into a setaceous point, 3°7-4°3

cm. long, glabrous. Spatheoles very narrow, acute or with a setaceous point,

12-25 mm. long, pale or straw-coloured ; peduncles finely filiform, widened up-

wards 3°3-4'2 mim. long, tips truncate. Racemes 2-nate, more or less divari-

cate, at length epinastically deflexed, 1-2 mm. long, white-villous, pale or

tinged with purple, one subsessile, the other with a bare base, 1-2 mm. long,

bases puberulous to pubescent in the fork, ciliate-bearded upwards, with

minutely cupular and denticulate tips, that of the subsessile raceme as well as

the adjacent pedicel stout, elliptic to elliptic-oblong in outline and convex on

the back, ultimately more oz less glabrescent and glossy ; fertile joints filiform,

slightly widened towards the oblique subcupular auricled tips, 2°7-3'3 mm.

long, densely hairy to villous from the back and the angles ; adjacent pedicels

similar to the joints but more slender. Womogamous pair of spikelets one at

the base of the sessile or of both racemes ; the sessile spikelet of the lowest but

one of the sessile raceme intermediate and imperfectly awned. Fertile spike-

lets linear-lanceolate, more or less acuminate, acute, including the callus

5'3-6°3 or even 7°4 mm. long, glabrous, pale green below, reddish upwards ;

callus short obtuse, shortly bearded. Involucral glumes equal, chartaceous,

lower nerveless and shallowly concave between the acute scaberulous keels,

minutely 2-denticulate, upper lanceolate-oblong in profile, acute, slightly

curved on the back, l-nerved, margins broadly hyaline upwards, ciliate.

Lower floral glume linear-oblong, nerveless, hyaline, ciliolate, slightly shorter

than the involucral glumes, upper very narrow, shortly 2-fid, cuneate-linear

and chartaceous below the insertion of the awn, less than 3°3 mm. long,

lobes broadly lanceolate, ciliate, awn up to 1 cm. long’, very fine, niore or less

keeled at and slightly twisted below the middle; column smooth. Anthers

2mm. long. Pedicelled spikelets male, linear-oblong, 4:2--6°3 inm, long,

glabrous, more reddish than the sessile ; involucral glumes subchartaceous,

with 5-9 evenly distant intracarinal nerves, the upper thinner, 3-nerved ; lower

floral glume linear-oblong, sub-2-nerved, ciliolate, 42 mm. long; upper

floret reduced to a male flower, or its glume present as a microscopic scale.

Locality: Sind: (Stocks 816, Woodrow); Jemadar ka Landa _ near

Karachi (Stocks).

Distrbution : From Morocco through N. Africa, Arabia, Persia, Afghani-

stan, Baluchistan, Punjab, Sind.

flistory and Uses: See Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 305-313, 353.

2. Cymbopogon Jwaranctisa, Schult. Mant. ii (1824), 458 ; Stapf in Kew Bull.

(1906), 354: Haines Bot. Bihar and Orissa 1045.— Andropogon Jwarancusa

Jones in Asiat. Research. iv (1795), 109; Cke. ii, 976.—A. Jwarancusa var.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

genuinus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 5)9.—A J. subsp. Jwarvancusa proper,

Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 203.—A Jlaniger, Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. t. 23.

Vern. Names : Jwarankusa (i.e. fever-restrainer) (Sanskr.), khavi (Hindust.)

Description: Usually a tall grass, up to 18m. high, with very aromatic

roots, densely tufted, the stems from clusters of firm, persistent, finaliy loose

and open and tortuous leaf-sheaths, more or less widened below. Leaves flat,

up to 60cm. long and 5 mm. broad, narrowly linear, filiform above and ending

in along capillard tip, liguleQSmm. long, membranous. Panicles long,

narrow interruptey, with very compressed, short, fascicled branches bearing

spathes about 5 cm. long and spatheoles 6-18 mm. long. Racemes 1 4-18 cm.

long, often 5 joined, joints half as longas the uppermost villi. Spikelets 3-4

pairs, green, half hidden by the 5 mm. long villi, on the joints and pedicels.

Sessile spikelets 5 mm. long; lower involucral glume flat or concave

between the keels, which are neither winged nor margined (omitting

of course, the ordinary inflexed margins of the glume common to the genus)

or sometimes narrowly margined, scabrid or ciliolate, nerves 2-4 or 0 between

the keels. Joints of rhachis and pedicels subclavate, with toothed tips.

Pedicelled spikelets equal or rather longer than the sessile, narrowly lanceolate,

purplish ; lower involucral glume 7-9 nerved.

Note.—This species is nearly related to C. Schenanthus and the two, as

pointed out by Hackel (1. c. p. 600), are not always distinguishable with cert-

ainty. ‘At high altitudes, ’ says Stapf (1. c. 314), ‘ asin Kumaon and Spiti, or

inthe dryer parts of the Punjab, it (C. Jwarancusa) becomes dwarfed

and narrow-leafed and forms a ‘‘ transition state’’ to C. Schenanthus. The

latter is a characteristic desert plant, able to exist witha minimum supply of

water. On the other hand, C. Jwarancusa is dependent on an, at least

temporarily, abundant supply of water, and prefers the neighbourhood of

rivers, or actually grows in the beds of torrents. Itis not impossible, that the

distinguishing characters of C Jwarancusa as compared with C. Sche-

nanthus, that is the robust state, the long, flat and relatively broad leaves, and

the more composite panicles, are mainly due to eolaphic conditions.’

Locality : Stnd: Karachi (Dalzell and Gibson); Bholari (Bhide !); Shikarpur

(Bhide !); Umerkot, sandy plains (Sabnis B1082!); Gharo (Blatter and McCann

D669! D670!) ; Gholamalla (Blatter and McCann D671!).—Gujarat - Ahmeda-

bad (Dalzell and Gibson).

Distribution : Outer hillzone of the United Provinces, Kumaon, Garhwal

(up to 3,000 m. or over) and westwards as faras Peshawar, Jodhpur and Jais-

almer States, Sind, Bihar.

Uses : Stapf is of opinion that this grass is very probably used along with

C. Schaenanthus. See also Stapf (1. c. 313-314).

*3. Cymbopogon citratus, Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 357 in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr.

ix, 282.— Andropogon Schenanthus, Linn. Syst, ed. x (1759), 1304, not of Sp.

Pl.; Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey and Wall. i (1820), 278.— A. citratus DC. Cat.

Hort. Monsp. (1813), 78 ; Nees in Allgem. Gartenz. iii (1835), 266.—A. citriodo-

rum (sic!) Desf. in Tabl. Ecole Bot. ii (1815), 15.—A. Roxburghit, Nees in

Wight Cat. (1833), no. 1699 (nomen tantum) ; Steud Syn. Pl. Gluin. i,

(1855), 395---A. ceriferus Hack. in Mart. Fl. Bras ii, pt. iii (1883), 281.—A.

nardus, var. ceriferus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. (1889), 605. Sehwnanthus

amboinicum, Rumph. Herb. Amboin. v, 181, t. 72.

For the taxonomic position of this species see Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906),

330-333.

Vern. Names: Oleu cha, hirvacha (Mar.), lilicha (Guj.), vasane-hullu,

kavance hullu, majjige hullu (Canarese).

Description « A tall perennial, throwing up dense fascicles of leaves from a

short, oblique annulate, sparingly branched rhizome, usually barren, but

occasionally giving rise to a stout erect culm up to over 18 m. high, 7-8-noded

and simple below the panicle. Leaf-blades linear, long-attenuated towards the

base and tapering upwards to a long setaceous point, up to over 90 cm. long by

16-18 mm. wide, very firm, glaucous-green, glabrous, sinooth or more or less

rough upwards and along the margins ; midrib somewhat stout below,

whitish on the upper side; primary lateral nerves 4-6 on each side, raised

particularly above with 2-4 secondary nerves between them. Ligules very

short, scarious, rounded or truncate. Sheaths terete, those of the barren

shoots much widened at the base, and tightly clasping each other, narrow and

separating upwards, with rounded shoulders at the mouth, 10-30 cm. long,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 433

subcoriaceous, quite glabrous and smooth, more or less cinnamon-coloured or

russet on the inside ; sheath of the culms tight, shorter than the internodes,

finely pubescent or velvety at the nodes . Spatheate panicle decompound to

subdecompound, loose, 30 to over 60cm. long, nodding; internodes 4 to over

6, the longest up to 20 or 22 cm. long, rapidly, decreasing in length upwards;

lowest primary branches undivided at the base, upto over 45 cm. long, and

up to 5- or 6-noded, the following forming mixed tiers of very unequal variously

compound and sim ple rays, ultimate tiers upto 4-rayed ; rays filiform and

glabrous; spathes narrow-lanceolate, acute or acuminate, 2° 5-5 cm. long with

narrow membranous margins. Spatheoles very narrow, linear-lanceolate to

aimost subulate when inrolled, 14-18 mm. long, acute or finely acuminate,

reddish to rich russet. Peduncles 6-10 mm. long, glabrous. Racemes 2-nate,

finally spreading at right angles or epinastically deflexed, moderately dense,

14-25 mm. long, pale, variously tinged with duli purple, loosely villous, one

subsessile, the other with a slender filiform bare base, almost 2 mm. long and

hairy, the pedicel of the homogamous pairalso slender, though short; fertile

joints filiform, slender, 2-3 mm. long, ciliate on both sides, tips obliquely

auriculate and cupular, adjacent pedicels very similar. Homogamous pair of

spikelets 1 at the base of the sessile raceme, its sessile member usually slightly

differing in shape from the fertile spikelets. Fertile spikelets linear to linear-

lanceolate, acutely acuminate, 5-6 mm. long, reddish, glabrous; callus short,

obtuse, minutely bearded. Involucral glumes subequal, lower subchartaceous,

slightly depressed towards the base, otherwise flaton the back, keels acute,

scaberulous above, intracarinal nerves 0 orl, short or indistinct, upper boat-

shaped, slightly curved on the back, acute, keeled upwards. Lower floral

glume hyaline, linear-oblong or almost linear, sub-2-nerved, ciliolate above,

slightly shorter than the involucral glumes, upper narrowly linear, acute, about

4mm. long, usually entire and awnless, rarely more or less 2-fid with a small

bristle from thesinus. Anthers 2mm. long. Pedicelled spikelets male or

neuter, linear to subulate-lanceolate, as long as the sessile, reddish, glabrous;

lower involucral glume 5-9-nerved, upper 3-nerved; lower floral glume

shorter to much shorter than the involucral glumes, hyaline, ciliolate, upper

very narrowly linear, nerveless if present at all.

Locality: Gardens in Bombay.

Distribution: This grass is only known in the cultivated state. Probably of

Indian origin, and now widely distributed over the tropics of both hemispheres.

See Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 334.

History and uses of the Lemon-grass : Stapf 1.c. 322-330. 334, 358.

4. Cymbopogon Martini, Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 359 ; Haines Bot. Biharand

Orissa 1046.—C. Martinianus, Schult. Mant. ii (1824), 459.—Andropogon

Martini, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1820), 280.--A. pachnodes, Trin. in Mem. Acad.

Petersb. ser. 6, ii (1833), 284. and Spec. Gram. Ic. (1836), tab. 327.—A.. Calamus

avomaticus, Royle, Essay Antiq. Hind. Med. (1837), 33 (momen tantum), Ilustr.

Bot. Himal. (1840), tab. 280.—A. nardoides, a Nees, Fl. Afr. Austr. (1841), 116.

—A. Schenanthus, Fluck. and Hanb. Pharmacogr. (1874), 660 (zow Linn.)—

A. Schenanthus, var. genuinus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. (1889), 609 (artim).

—A. Schenanthus, var. Martini, Hook. f. in F.B. I. vii (1897), 204 (exclus.

synon. referentibus ad plantas Africanas).—For the foundation of this species

and its synonymy see Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 335-337.

Vern. Names: Geranium grass, Rusa grass; rohisha, rosem (Sanskr.) ;

rusa, gandh-bel, mirchia gandh, tikhari (Hindust.): rohish, roshegavat

(Mar.) ; rhonse, rauns (Guj.) ; eunthi hullu, khasi hullu (Kanar.).

Description - A tall, perennial. sweet-scented grass, 1°5-2°4m. high. Stems

glabrous, straw-coloured, leafy. Leaves flat, usually broad, rounded or sub-

cordate at the base, more or less glaucous beneath, those below the inflore-

scence rarely under 23 cm. long by 1] cm. wide at the base, but often 2'5 cm,

wide below, tapering from a little above the base or from the middle to a firm

tip, glabrous except for the scabrid margins, margin sometimes smooth near

the base. Spikes 2-nate, 12-18 mm. long, oblique or divaricate or less often

deflexed. Peduncle about half the length of the 18-25 mm. long spatheole,

several spatheoles and their peduncles from a spathe of lower order, these

arranged in long usually narrowly oblong panicles not more than 3'5-5 cm.

wide, but sometimes panicle with many branches and broader. Joints and

pedicels slenderly clavate (excluding the much thickened lowest), about half as

434 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

long os the sessile spikelets, tips with a lanceolate tooth or 3-toothed, margins

long-villous, 3°5-5 mm. long. Lower involucral glume (above the lowest spike-

let) with lanceolate centre becoming oblanceolate or oblong from the keels

being membranously winged above the middle, back with a vertical median

depression below the middle corresponding to a ridge inside ; upper cymbiform

with the dorsal keel winged above, minutely ciliate below.

Locality : Gujarat: Champanir (Chibber!) ; Ahmedabad, dry hills (Sedg-

wick 310!) : Junagad, Kathiawar (Blatter 3783!) ; Bhuj-Rhodir-Maha, Cutch

(Blatter 3649!) ; Anjar, Cutch (Blatter 3741 !).—Ahandesh : Road to Chinchpada

(Chibber!) ; Toranmal (McCann A235 !).--Konkan : Wada Range (Ryan

488!) ; Gokhirva, Bassein (Ryan 41!); Keltan (Ryan 392!) ; St. Xavier’s

College compound (McCann 446! !).-—-Deccan : Ganeshkhind Botanic Gardens

(Garade 435 !) ; Purandhar (Bhide !) ; Pashan (Gammie !) ; Modasa (Sedgwick

and Saxton!) ; Khandala, very common (McCann !) ; Igatpuri (Blatter and

Hallberg 4432!) ; Purandhar (McCann 5010 !) ; Kasara, Igatpuri Ghat (McCann

4343A !) ; Panchgani (Blatter and Hallberg B1248!, B1282 !, B1297 !, B1324 !).

—S. M.Country : Haveri (Talbot 2180!) ; Dharwar (Talbot 2616!) ; Badami

(Talbot 2928 !). [According to Malcolmson, ‘ the Rusa grass in the Deccan

affects particularly the trap, more or less avoiding the granite, so much so that

he was able to trace the green-stone dykes across the granite by the luxuriance

of the grass ’ (ex Stapf) ].

Distribution : From the Afghan frontier to the Rajmahal Hills in Bengal and

from the subtropical zone of the Himalaya to about 12° N., excluding the desert

region of the Punjab and the greater part of the northern Carnatic.

Stapf excludes also the outer slopes of the Western Ghats, but the localities

given above show that tne grass is well represented in that region. For the

history and uses of the Rusa grass oil Olewm Palmarose seu Geraniti Indici

(Palmarosa oil) see Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 338-341, 360.

5. Cymbopogon caesius, Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 360. ia Prain FI. Trop.

Afr. ix, 287.—Andropogon caseius, Nees in Wight. Cat. (1833) nos. 1700b (omen

tantum) and in Hook. and Arn. Bot. Beech. Voy. 244 cum descriptione

(partim).—A. Schenanthus, var. crvestus, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 610;

Schweinf. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, App. ii, 14; Hook. f. in F.B.I. 205, exlus.

fere omnibus synon.

For foundation of this species see Stapf in Kew Bull. (1906), 344.

Description : A perennial, tufted grass, up tol m. high, with intra— and ex-

travaginal innovation-shoots from a short rhizome. Culms erect or geniculate-

ascending, slender, more or less wiry, frequently branclied below, the branches

often in fascicles from the knees, often many-noded, terete, glabrous, smooth.

Leaf-blades linear from a scarcely narrcwed rarely slightly rounded base,

tapering to a long setaceous point, those of the culms up to over 15 (sometimes

almost 3C) cm. long, 2-6 (sometimes 10) mm. broad, of the innovations usually

much shorter, flat, bluish-glaucous, glabrous, smooth, midrib slender, primary

lateral nerves very fine, 3-4 on each side. Ligules very short, rounded,

scarious. Sheaths rather firm, tight, the lowest mostly short, those placed at

branching nodes at length thrown aside, inrolling or deciduous, glabrous,

smooth, usually much shorter than the internodes. Spathaceous panicle

narrow, mostly 7-15 cm. long, rarely much longer, sometimes reduced and

small, dense or interrupted ; internodes usually 4-6, the lowest rarely exceeding

athird of the panicle, the following gradually decreasing ; lowest primary

branch shortly exserted from its sheath, undivided at the base, or like the

following forming mixed or (upwards) simple-rayed tiers; rays of ultimate

tiers 5-3, finely filiform. 7-10 cm. long, glabrous ; lowest subtending sheaths

with foliaceous blades: spathes lanceolate, acuminate—2°5—4 cm. long, sub-

herbaceous, glaucous, sometimes turning reddish. Spatheoles narrowly lanceo-

late, acuminate, 14-16 mm. long, subherbaceous to scarious, turning dirty

straw-colour or slightly reddish ; peduncles filiform 5-6 mm. long, glabrous.

Racemes 2nate, obliqualy erect. 12-14 mm. long, greenish, more or less

white-villous, one subsessile, the other with a bare base, over 2 mm. long, finely

pubescent on the inner side, clliate and thickened upwards, base of the sub-

sessile raceme swollen, hard, fused with the equally swollen and hard adjacent

pedicel ; fertile joints filiform, about 2 mm. long, glabrous on the back,densely

ciliate on the sides, cilia snow-white, tips often cupular with a crenulate margin

or auricle ; adjacent pedicels very similar. Homogamous pair 1 at the base of

REVISTON OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 435

the sessile raceme. Fertile spikelets oblong, slightly wider above the middle,

subobtuse, 4 mm. long, greenish, glabrous ; callus very small, obtuse, minutely

bearded. Involucral glumes equal, subchartaceous., lower minutely truncate,

flat on the back with a fine median grove in the lower half, keels narrowly

winged from the middle upwards, intracarinal nerves 1 on each side towards

the keels, very fine ; upper narrow in profile, very acute, very narrowly winged

above the middle with ]1 delicate nerve on each side near the margin. Lower

floral glume delicate, oblong, minutely truncate, ciliolate, nerveless, upper

substipitiform, almost 3 mm _ long, 2-fid to the middle, segments subulate,

ciliolate, awn very fine, 10-14 mm. long, bent at and twisted below the middle.

Anthers almost 2mm. long. Pedicelled spikelets male, linear to lanceolate-

oblong, subobtuse, 4 mm. long, green, glabrous ; lower involucral glume

slightly convex on the back, subherbaceous, about 10-nerved, the inner 6 nerves

prominent, upper subhyaline, 3-nerved ; floral glume oblong, truncate, sub-2-

nerved, almost 4 mm. long.

Locality : Gujarat: On sandy and gravelly hills and banks, Ahmedabad and

Pranti}.

Distribution : Throughout the Carnatic, Gujarat, Arabia, Somaliland.

For history aud uses see Stapf Kew Bull. (1906), 342-345, 361.

(To be continued)

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA

Marius MAXWELL,

Author of ‘ Big Game Hunting with a Camera in Equatorial Africa’

(With a map and ten plates)

INTRODUCTION

Intending to visit a portion of the Eastern Congo and in parti-

cularthe Birunga (Virunga) mountains. I left Nairobi with my

companion, Mr. James Hugh Barnes, on February 11, 1925,

and travelled by motor car across Uganda. We joined our porters

at Kabale, a few days’ march from the border of the Belgian Congo,

and proceeded to Behungi (altitude 8,214 feet). From this spot,

situated on the eastern wall of the great Central Depression, we

enjoyed a splendid view over an extensive stretch of craterland,

partly on the border-line of Western Uganda and partly in the ad-

joining territory of the Congo. We also gained our first view of the

magnificent chain of mountains known as the Birunga volcanoes.

These mountains have long been known to form the main habitat of

the Birunga Gorilla! (Gorilla beringerzi), named after Oscar von

Beringe, who discovered the species in 1903. This is a very

different animal from the lowland gorilla found in other parts of the

Congo and West Africa, a young specimen of which could at one

time be seen in the Zoological Gardens in Regent’s Park. The

Kivu, Birunga, or Eastern Gorilla is a much finer creature, the adult

male being particularly impressive in appearance. The West

African Goriila differs from the Birunga Gorilla in many respects,

the hair, for instance, on the head and body being considerably

shorter in the Western form.

Our object was not only to acquaint ourselves with the home of

this comparatively little known ape, but aJso to study its habits

more closely. Incidentally, I wished to take a few snapshots of the

animal in its native surroundings. In accordance with these

intentions, over a month was spent on several of these volcanoes,

with an aneroid barometer and a hand-camera as our chief

equipment.

GEOGRAPHY OF THE BIRUNGA MOUNTAINS

It may perhaps be as well to preface this account of my experi-

ence with a brief description of the geographical position and the

physical aspect of these mountains. This introduction, illus-

trated with a few photographs, may help to establish a better under-

standing of the habitat of the Birunga Gorilla. (See Map.)

1 Also known as the Eastern or Mountain Gorilla,

SALPIULO[TY 4-Z OF RTSUTIUAG |

a ne

PMH Se Ot Ge be: es s Gite ® G FamUTy

Salpauy F10-] 02 SoTYA F eTROS : stoarigy 70 ceyonugy Cope ee

PEP VW OA Pusu RAOCaA Aon sng eTUOWNOLT UPUDbY

-gagnequemogy “brgrprmenuys Ai asensp PUD SY TPYS SHOLOAD

SLOPE OSTEO PAI DIN WL SY TOL AOI GS ALLS PAPACY

A gS

=e aN

bak AS Be ¥

6 Pav GP SIV AA WIAD?

is 6

(ZNSSI TWNOISIAON d)

OHIGKAOHOAAN | _. 900062 L VORLIV

see rreeerrnomense

RR RAS ALG ORCS RRR ROSE UR ST : ; ee Se gegen : 7) eae eee

oo -WERVOD. ee

UGANDA

FRICA b: 250000 : 4

AP RVSIOAL 10S MUFUMBIRO SHEET SOUTHASS

LAKE KIVU

}

Scale 4Miles to bow Inches > =|

eRe on ; 2 pass |

. ieee 22 er s 0 2 20 35 xo

| Gentimetre to 2: Kilometres

~~ =

“

[eau

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate I, -

No. 1. Mt. Mgahinga (11,400 ft.) with Mt. Muhavura (13,547 ft.)

in the background.

(See Hxplanation of Plates.)

No, 2. Mr. James Hugh Barnes, the writer’s companion, with the Porters.

The precipitous peaks of Sabinio in the background.

(See Explanation of Plates.)

mongin = aes

iy ap

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 437

The Bitunga Mountains proper, as the map indicates, are situated

to the north-east of Lake Kivu, and present, with the eight main

volcanoes, an imposing chain. This chain runs in a somewhat

south-westerly direction, almost at right angles across the main

depression or Central Rift, and roughly speaking separates the

basin of the Congo River from that of the Nile. Attheir base, and

extending over a large tract of country to the north as well as to the

south of these volcanoes, can be distinguished a multitude of small,

extinct craters overgrown with grass. These forma veritable

‘craterland’, and appear, when viewed from a great elevation

dotted like hillocks about the floor of this great depression. Inci-

dentally it may be observed that so much progress has been made

of late years inthe development of the Congo that the locality is

now easy of access.

The eight main volcanoes of the Birunga range to which reference

has just been made, are taking them in order from east to west :—

1. Muhavura, with an almost perfect regularity in shape, and

a summit rising to a height ! of 13,547 feet above sea-level.

2. Mgahinga, a truncated cone with slightly concave sides and

a height of 11,400 feet.

3. Sabinio, with its array of jagged and precipitous peaks, and

deeply furrowed slopes, attains a height of 11,960 feet.

4. Visoke, a truncated cone with almost straight sides, has a

height of 12,568 feet.

5. Karisimbi, with its unpretentious flat cone, is the highest

mountain in the whole range and reaches an altitude of 14,633 feet.

6. Mikeno, a massive mound with a rocky summit, as may be

seen from the illustration, is perhaps the most favoured home of the

Kivu or Mountain Gorilla, which is known by the local name of

Negéghi (pronounced Angéghz). Mikeno has a height of 14,385 feet.

Then follow the most westerly craters, Niragongo (11,250 feet) and

Namlagira, the lowest mountain of the whole range, with a height

of 9,766 feet. Niragongo and Namlagira stand side by side

together, but detached from the other six. The last two volcanoes

are at present the only ones that are still active. Niragongo appears

to be dying out.

The first six volcanoes can be divided into two distinct groups

connected by a long and comparatively low saddle, roughly eight

miles long, densely wooded, mainly with bamboo and tropical

undergrowth.

The eastern group consists of Muhavura, Mgahinga anc Sabinio,

which stand closely side by side in a line running approximately

from east to west. They form the present boundary between a

corner of Western Uganda and the mandated territory known as

Ruanda (Belgian occupation). Sabinio stands on the boundary of

Uganda and the Belgian Congo.

The second group, consisting of Visoke, Karisimbi and Mikeno,

is situated in Congo Territory, and the three volcanoes are situated

-1 The heights of the various volcanoes are taken from the Boundary Commis-

; South A. 35

sion Maps, 1923. (Provisional Issue) Sheet =a (ee

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

roughly at the corners of an isosceles triangle. The saddle, men-

tioned just now, connects Sabinio of the first group with Visoke in

the second group.

These splendid mountains rise from the level of the highland

plains which are already from 5,090 to 6,000 feet above sea-level.

On aclear day they forma commanding array visible for many

miles around.

It is locally known that the Birunga Gorilla, or as the natives call

it, Megdghi, occurs in’ both the Sabinio and Mikeno groups of

volcanoes. The latter, however, is the more favoured habitat.

There can be no doubt that an occasional migration may take place

from the one group of mountains to the other, since the gorillas can

wander across the densely forested saddle between Visoke and

Sabinio without having to pass through inhabited valleys or piains.

There can therefore be no question of local distinctions between the

gorillas living in the two groups of mountains. Although it is not

improbable that these apes occasionally frequent the two most

westerly volcanoes Nirangongo and Namlagira, their presence there

is apparently, not so common that these volcanoes can be regarded

as permanent habitats.

The shooting of these great apes is now prohibited by the Congo

Government under penalty. Although the Birunga volcanoes have

recently, in 1924, been declared a closed sanctuary for gorillas, the

provincial Commissioner of the Kivu District, M. Ernest Ledocte,

very kindly allowed Mr. J. H. Barnes and myself to enter the

reserve, on condition that we would avoid killing any of the gorillas,

a condition we willingly accepted.

The absence of successful photographs showing the Birunga

Gorilla inits native forests is due mainly to the following causes:

Their normal habitat on these mountains lies at an altitude of

between 7,000 and 12,000 feet and they live among the densely

carpeted slopes, or in the thick bamboo forests, and the wooded

ravines and kloofs, where the light conditions are mostly too

unfavourable to allow for an instantaneous exposure. These

equatorial mountain regions have in general a humid and mist-laden

atmosphere, especially in the higher zones, above, say, 9,000

feet altitude. In these increased altitudes, the slopes and crags

are more frequently than not enveloped in mist, with the peaks

and the summits shrouded in dense clouds, or they are exposed to

rains, varying from a cold continuous drizzle, with heavy showers at

intervals, to a pelting tropical tornado and occasional hailstorms.

Secondly, the gorilla is averse to showing itself to human

beings. Its tendency is to shun observation and, if its privacy is

invaded, it retires into the densest parts of the forest undergrowth,

offering little opportunity for what can only be a hurried snapshot,

even with reasonable light conditions.

The vegetation on these Birunga volcanoes, especially on Mikeno’

and Karisimbi, can be roughly divided into three distinct zones.

The lower belt, say from approximately 7,000 to 9,000 feet,

consists of bamboo forests and large trees with dense under-

growth. Tangles of lianas and a variety of creeping plants hang

in curtains or festoons from the tree stems or from the lofty

(‘saqn7q fo woununjidxgy 929)

OIUIQVS “FJ JO MOTA OlURIOUeg “PF ‘ON

TA ae REE REE ETON PCE RECN UREN A

(‘saqn7g fo uouvunjdan aag)

(93 SG9'PT) 4JOL OY UO IquUIIsIIVy “a pue ("97 EgS‘FT) CUSXIL., JI JO MOTA OTUTeIOUeG *g ‘ON

“LSIFT “LVNT AvVaWod “Nuno

TT @iviat

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

No. 5. A Typical Forest of Mikeno (alt. about 11,000 ft.), showing

Hagenia trees in tall undergrowth.

(See Explanation of Plates.)

No, 6. Another Forest Scene on Mt. Mikeno at 11,000 ft. alt., showing

a portion frequented by Gorillas.

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 439

branches. In short, the scenery of this zone presents in many

places the primeval nature of a typical Congo Forest as it is so often

depicted in illustration.

The intermediate zone, say from 9,000 to about 12,000 feet

altitude, as typified by the vegetation of Karisimbi and Mikeno,

consists in the main of a vast undulating carpet of a chervil-like

plant and stinging nettles, interspersed with giant lobelias, docks,

sorrels, hemlocks and similar plants. Stately, broad-crowned

Hagenia trees (Hagenia abyssinica) rise from among this dense

undergrowth at such distances that in many places their crowns

touch one another. They form, as it were, a roof that covers the

undergrowth aia height of twenty-five to thirty feet from the ground,

while transmitting a certain amount of light, so that the mountainous

landscape below the trees remainsin moderate gloom. These Hagenia

trees, as may be noticed in the photographs, have mostly short,

thick stems with here and there very widely diverging branches of

great size. Some of these, especially the broken and decaying

branches, are heavily overhung with a variety of vines and creepers

and carry massive pads of rank moss and lichens. The base of the

stems of old trees frequently reach a circumference of fifteen feet ;

their roots are exposed and are often hollowed at the base. Cur-

tained as they are with trellises of luxuriant creepers, they form

niches serving as snug resting-places and night-shelters for the

gorillas of these regions. ‘The cautious stalker, if he is fortunate,

may occasionally finda gorilla peering out at him from among such

thickets. Owing to the height of the surrounding vegetation, the

animals are able to enter or leave these shelters without being

observed. The crevices and rents of these trees constitute the

favourite home of the mountain Hyrax, a small beast like a marmot

in appearance, which utters a peculiar cry.

The highest zone, commencing at an altitude of approximately

12,000 feet, shows an equatorial subalpine and alpine flora beginning

with patches of Giant Heath (£77ca arborea), the stems being ,fre-

quently covered with a ragged beard moss, which hangs in places

in long grey-green shreds. The height which these tree heaths

can reach is shown in the accompanying photograph. The foliage

-varies in colour from heather and dark brown to a light brown or

deepred. The giant heaths appear to grow best on shallow surface

soil resting upon the rugged volcanic rocks. ‘The rock is here and

there covered with great golden patches of moss or exposed in

scored and precipitous patches with glistening streaks of moisture

trickling from the sodden slopes and mountain ledges above.

Where the layer of soil is too thin to furnish sufficient hold to the

roots of these giant heaths, the heavy trees topple over. These

fallen trees, enveloped as they are in thick beard moss and lichens

present a curiously dismal conglomeration of dying and decaying

alpine vegetation. Higher up, the lobelias with their tall poker-

like tops and the giant grotundsels (Seveczo johnstonz) are the most

dominant features of the flora. In the highest regions the ground

- is covered with Alchemillas and thick drab moss.

After these remarks upon the local conditions, we will proceed

to discuss the habits of the gorilla itself.

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

GENERAL HABITS OF THE BIRUNGA GORILLA

In disposition, these apes are normally neither ferocious, nor

aggressive, nor do they even appear to be quarrelsome among

themselves. They naturally resent being suddenly and unexpected-

ly interfered with while dozing, or feeding in their secluded

retreat. Except under such provocation the beast is decidedly of a

retiring nature, and takes care to avoid human observation. On

the other hand it may well be imagined that the gorilla offers in its

appropriate mountain wilds an aspect quite different from that pre-

sented by an occasional immature specimen of the West African

lowland gorilla in captivity. In the former case, it is generally met

with in circumstances and surroundings that are apt to excite the

imagination of the pursuer, especially after he has read the various

stories of their ferocity and other alleged undesirable traits. On

close acquaintance with this inoffensive inhabitant of these altitudes,

it will be found that the gorilla differs in mentality very little from

the other apes. A more profound study. of the animals does,

however, show that certain primitive human instincts exist in these

anthropoids. On the other hand, it should be emphasized that there

is no suggestion of any skilled movements ; the idea of these apes

employing, in their wild state, sticks or stones as means of defence

or offence, would strike an observer, even after a most preliminary

acquaintance, as far from correct. Nature has provided these large

apes, especially the old males, with ample means for safeguarding

themselves against the attacks of carnivora. An occasional young

one may fall a victim to the leopard, traces of which animal are

fairly common in these regions, occurring even up to an altitude of

13,000 feet. The lion is not included in the fauna associated with

the gorilla of the Birunga volcanoes.

The first glimpse ofa gorilla in the more open parts of the

Hagenia and ‘ wild-chervil’ forests is as a rule the appearance of

a large, jet-black and shaggy head seton a pair of disproportionately

broad and square shoulders. Although the normal gait of the

gorilla is ostensibly not that of a biped, but that of a quadruped,

it frequently and unconsciously retains the erect posture. It may

on occasion be seen standing, or wading through the green vege-

tation, moving at intervals for afew steps in an erect attitude, and

reaching out for some attractive stalk. In its erect gait the gorilla

stoops forward perceptibly and shows in profile the back ofits

shaggy head in a straight line withits somewhat inclined back.

Gorillas squat about a good deal, and show a variety of comical

poses, especially when picking at the soft bark of the chervil-like

plants. They consume the pith of these plants, which, in certain

regions appears to constitute their main diet.

Curiosity will, as arule, prompt them to stand erect on their

short, bandy legs for quite along time and peer intently at the

intruder; in such cases, however, they rarely show more than their

head and shoulders, above the vegetation. The countenance of

this ape, when its curiosity only is aroused, bears a most peaceful

expression. ‘The neck being very short and massive, the head is

in consequence held somewhat rigidly. When scared or pursued

JouRN. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Prats IV.

No. 7. <A Forest of Hagenia abyssinica on Mt. Mikeno at an altitude of

over 9,000 ft.

(See Haplanation of Plates).

No. 8. Arboreal Heath (Hrica arborea) and Senecio, a Giant Groundsel

(Senecio johnstoni). Note their respective heights by comparison

with the figure below the trees.

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate V.

No. 9. The summit of Mt. Mikeno (14,385 ft.), showing alpine vegetation

on the slopes of the peak. -

(See Explanation of Plates.)

No. 10. A startled Female Gorilla (marked with cross in foreground)

making off with her young on her back.

(See Explanation of Plates).

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 44]

the gorilla does not take to the trees, but prefers to move silently

off on all fours through the dense under-vegetation, shunning

observation as much as the surroundings wil] permit. It is quickly

out of sight, anda fleeting glimpse ofits head and sloping back is

all that is presented to the observer. The arms being very long

in proportion to the bowed legs, it goes without saying that the

body stoops less during locomotion than it does with other apes.

The forepart of the body is supported by the knuckles of the hands

_ placed onthe ground. The adjoining photograph shows a startled

mother-gorilla in the act of escaping with her progeny seated like a

jockey and clinging to her back. I took this snapshot at a moment

when the animal mounted an obstruction across her path. She was

thus for an instant exposed to the camera, before disappearing

in the thick, yielding undergrowth. The attitude here depicted

is evidently the way they carry their infants when they are

prompted to move hurriedly through the dense ground vegetation.

At other times the young one may be seen encircling with its

arms the neck of the seated parent, sometimes with its little feet

clinging to the shaggy hair of its mother.

On the right of this picture, somewhat indistinctly, about half-

way up the mountain-slope, is a sub-adult gorilla in an agitated

condition and standing up among the dense forest undergrowth and

exposed to its waist. The circumstances were briefly these: I

happened to come suddenly upon a party of the feeding creatures.

Startled by my appearance, they uttered their discordant shrill and

reiterated cry of excitement previous to a hurried departure. The

_younger members are, on such occasions, apt to show their resent-

ment, or terror, by antics as well as by shrill cries, thus occasionally

giving the stalker time to take a hurried snapshot of his subject.

It will be noticed that the mist-laden atmosphere has somewhat

interfered with the clarity of the photograph, but in the circumstan-

ces it was all that the lens could be expected to give.

DIFFERENCES OF SEX AND AGE

The sexual differences in these apes are considerable. Whereas

the female gorilla, which is in build and height much inferior to

that of the male, invariably makes off with the stoop in the case of

a disturbance, the old male ‘of the family will, at close range,

behave quite differently. The bull gorilla of the party, usually a

very fine and powerful creature is on such occasions apt to give a

display of his violent resentment at the sudden intrusion. The

resentment is exhibited, first by a quick approach on all fours, to

the accompaniment of a sharp, abrupt and reiterated sound, some-

thing between a grunt and a bark, followed by an impressive ad-

vance in an erect posture, accompanied by a quick succession of

discordant screams not unlike the noises of a pig as it finds its way

to the slaughter-house. The suddenness, and the fact that these

demonstrations are generally carried out at uncomfortably close

range, in unexpected and awkward thickets, leaves one baffled for

the moment. Inthe cases experienced we found that once it has

expended the effect of its bluff and realized that its menacing

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

approaches are of no availin driving the stranger away, it turns

promptly and joins the departing family group. The grotesque

appearance, at close quarters, of the stocky, bowlegged creature,

advancing at atoddle in an erect attitude is impressive ; with its

scalp drawn down and thus bristling its hairy crest it isa sight

enough to scare any wild creature of the forest. With the mouth

open and the retracted lips exposing the canines at each expiration,

the irritated animal then undoubtedly gives a pronounced ap-

pearance of ferocity. Heapproaches the intruder rapidly in his

stooping attitude, on all fours, and only rises on his feet at a few yards

from his adversary. The environment is usually such that it .

increases the effect of the sudden appearance from the undergrowth

of the great shaggy head and broad shoulders. I have not seen

gorillas beat their chest in such circumstances ; and I am not aware

that they ever do so when in movement, as their arms then seem

instinctively inclined to take advantage of any support. The noise

produced by thumping on the body is occasionally heard coming

from adult members of a party, and is inthe absence of intruders,

presumably purely an expression of exuberant spirits.

At a distance the old male may beat his chest in mild defiance

of an intruder, but the performance is, I have noticed, usually

carried out from some covert or in thickets where the creature

imagines himself concealed from observation. The performance

becomes sometimes ludicrous.

Whereas the tautiy paunched belly in the male is covered

with hair (as the adjoining photograph of gorilla clearly

shows), the chest is bare and _ wrinkled, attaining with

age a marked flabbiness; the armpits are likewise bare.

The sound of the beating on this part of its anatomy is in

the case of an old male nothing more formidable than that

which a portly person can produce by the loud and repeated thump-

ing of his naked chest with either the palm of his hand or with the

closed fist; the Kivu Gorilla appears to produce both these sounds.

The impressive forest-environment and the silence which reigns

over these man-forsaken regions has no doubt much to do with the

elaborate descriptions of these quite natural sounds.

The females are insignificant in appearance as compared to the

adult male, and are known to be from a foot to about a foot anda

half shorter than the males ofequal age. The female gorilla looks

in its wild state more podgy, or squatter, than the male.

The photograph of the dead male gorilla, as well as those that

follow of the captured young ones, were very kindly given to me

by Pére G. Provoost of the White Friars Mission at Lulenga, in the

Kivu District. The official seated beside the animal’s body is the

late Commandant Elias Arrhenius, a well-known Swedish gentleman

who was in the service of the Belgian Congo Government. Arrhe-

nius, who it will be remembered, accompanied Prince William of

Sweden to these parts, was among the first to send specimens to

Europe. This particular one, together with the pair of female

gorillas also shot by Arrhenius, appears to have reached the Swe-

dish Museum of Natural Science in the year 1916, although they

were secured before that date.

Journ. Bompay Nat, Hist. Soc, Prater VI.

No. 11. An adult male Gorilla.

(See Hxplanation of Plates.)

No. 12 A pair of female Gorillas secured on Mt. Mikeno,

(See Hxplanation of Plates.)

JOURN. BompBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate VII.

No. 13. Four captured young Gorillas.

(See Hxplanation of. Plates.)

No. 14. One of the four young Gorillas

with its guardian.

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 443

It will be seen from the photographs of the young gorillas, cap-

tured in the same region (Mount Mikeno), that they differ materially

from the adults. The very young ones have their whole body

covered with the coarse hair except the face and parts of the hands

and feet. The glabrous skin of the face is black and shiny. The

nostrils are large and prominent, and the deeply set eyes almost

hidden by the overhanging brows. The hair is jet-black and coarse

and resembles that of the common Himalayan Black Bear. In fact,

the first glimpse of a young female gorilla moving on all fours

- through the undergrowth reminds one much of the black bear in

India. One of the four young gorillas, a female, figuring in the

adjoining illustration, reachedthe Antwerp Zoological Gardens but

died unfortunately some time towards the end of 1924. One of the

warders of this Zoo, in charge of the Monkey House, informed me

that it had succumbed to an abscess of some kind in the throat, after

an unsuccessful operation. Its food in captivity consisted of bana-

nas, apples and vegetables. Celery, I should imagine, would be

the nearest approach to the gorillas’ natural foodin its mountain

home, which as already stated, is a kind of wild chervil with long

blanched and succulent stalks.

Another of the four specimens, if I am rightly informed, died

during the sea voyage, and the remaining two perished locally in

the Congo.

The capture of such young gorillas can easily be effected, in suit-

able localities, by creating a sudden commotion among a troop by

concerted shouting and the firing ofa rifle. Thus embarrassed, in

the confusion the young ones are separated from the others and

give an opportunity to the pursuers to close in and throw a sack, or

blanket over the terror-stricken creatures. Unfortunately such a

procedure is apt to involve the killing of one or two of the adults

among the party.

With adult individuals, especially the males of more advanced

age, the chest is bare to a well defined line about the waist, with

the skin wrinkled on the breast, forming in the old males distinct

creases. The back of the adult male exhibits a patch of grizzled

hair, which develops with advancing age into a broad and conspi-

cuous silver-grey band across the loins. ‘Thecrest of hair growing

on a fleshy swelling along the line of the sagittal suture, is very

prominent in the male, much, more so than in the female. This

sagittal crest is only erected to its full extent when the beast has

been molested and is thoroughly roused, either enraged or terrified.

The same habit is, of course, frequently exhibited by many other

mammals.

It will, however, be noticed that the gorilla does not, as monkeys

usually do, display their endeavour to terrify their antagonist by

approaching in abrupt starts. The adult male gorilla carries his

bluff further by a continuous advance in the upright attitude to

within very close proximity of the intruder. By such means he is

confident and no doubt accustomed to succeed in scaring the

occasional Batwa hunters that venture to seek their honey and other

edible forest resources in these regions. Ata distance he will not

embark upon this advance, but will usually content himself with

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

breast-beating and other signs of defiance and displeasure. In their

normal mood these great apes look phlegmatic and good-natured.

There isa varied individuality in their appearance and features.

Chest measurements of dead specimens at sixty inches in fully-

grown males have been recorded, and even a couple of inches more.

These measureinents would naturally be proportionately more for

the expanded chest of the live animal. Although their maximum

height is known to be in the neighbourhood of only six feet from

the crown to the heel, the weight of an adult male exceeds that of

two men of average weight. Some old males have been secured in

these regions which are stated to have weighed between four and

five hundred pounds. The short, bowed legs of the gorilla, sup-

porting the heavy, pot-bellied body, the excessively broad and

square shoulders and the long and powerful arms, reaching to the

knees when the creature is erect, give the Kivu Gorillaits singularly

stocky and massive appearance.

ARBOREAL HABITS

Although on the whole the Kivu Gorilla is not arboreal in its

habits, as can be seen at once from an examination of its hands and

feet,1 it should not be presumed that it is always a clumsy climber.

In the lower forest regions of Mount Mikeno, at an elevation of

approximately 8,000 feet, it is not unusual to see a young or a sub-

adult gorilla climbing atree some forty to fifty feet in height. In

such a case, the favoured observer will be astonished to perceive

the deliberate and, as it struck me at the time, methodical manner

in which these apes are able to ascend the tall trees, in much the

same way as amanclimbing up a pole, fitted with cross-spokes,

i.e. in an upright posture and using the human overhand move-

ments. They can remain comfortably perched among the top

branches, every now and then phlegmatically reaching out their long

hairy arms and plucking at some favourite morsel in the way of a

fruit or some young shoots. It is surprising to see how well they

blend with the foliage and how little of their body is exposed to the

observer, giving no chance of a successful snapshot. In the cases

witnessed, I have invariably seen them descend by the stem by

which they ascended, and in the same way. They seem to be far

from at ease when they are surprised in atree. In such a case they

will, after a moment devoted to satisfying their curiosity climb

down promptly and move off through the undergrowth.

They may at times remain hidden among the thick vegetation at

the base of some tree and utter their spasmodic bark of defiance

with the object of deterring the intruder trom further interference.

On one occasion I spent the greater part of an afternoon in the

1 Itis known that the hand of the gorilla is relatively shorter and broader

than in any of the other apes, the Orang-utan, or the Chimpanzee. It is the

same also with regard to the feet, which are almost flat and not arched as in

man, with the big toe widely separated from the other digits as in the other

apes. The photograph of the dead male shows that the fingers are short,

tapered, and thick at the base. In the foot, as the tracks of the gorilla on soft

ground will show, the heel is distinctly in evidence. The digits of the animal’s

foot are somewhat webbed at the base, making the small toes appear short

and stumpy. .

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piuate VIII.

No. 15. A Gorilla Shelter in the hollow base of a large tree.

(See Haplanation of Plates.)

No. 16. A recently vacated Night Shelter of a family of Gorillas showing

the excrements of the Apes (x) in the right foreground,

(See Haplanation of Plates.)

‘33 OOO'TT 9UIOS Jo opNgiy]e Ue 4B IqUTISIAey “4IT

JO Sedo[s usojsomM 04} UO 901} poyBoINziq V JO YOJOIN GYY UI pouUTIOJ ,, SANT ,, JO « P°Ds, BINOD Y “LT ‘ON

“XI Givig ‘009 ‘LSI “LVN AVANOG ‘Nunor¢

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 445

close vicinity of a troop of feeding gorillas, in the hope of being

able to secure a snapshot. The troop, which may have consisted

of a couple of dozen or more members, were busy feeding within

the confines of a very dense bamboo clump. Beyond hearing the

loud snapping or the splitting of stems at intervals, occasional

grunts, or a bark, we saw nothing but a stray glimpse of a peeping

head or a passing body. The flock, which we had disturbed earlier

in the day, was well aware of our presence but appeared now to pay

not the slightest heed to us. They pretended to be unaware of any

- scrutiny and wenton with their feeding, freely and without a care.

It appears quite evident that they are incapable of swinging

themselves from tree to tree as do the Orang-utans, for instance.

This is not difficult to understand, if we consider their external

anatomy. It is worth noting, however, that the younger gorillas

are capable of moving over the tops of dense bamboo thickets,

causing comparatively little damage to the trees, considering their

weight and bulk. In such case, they can spread themselves out

Sometimes with their arms apart, and crawl, so to speak, over the

bending clusters of bamboo tops, snapping an occasional weak

stem by their weight. The heavier males content themselves with

seeking their food at the base of the trees, causing at times aregular

din by the intermittent snapping of bamboo stems. The noise

created in a bamboo patch by a troop of a couple of dozen feeding

gorillas is not unlike that caused by a few elephants feeding in

similar forests. On the other hand, among open forest in the

higher altitudes, I found the gorillas singularly quiet and almost

silent, unless they happened to be suddenty startled at close range.

They remain quite silent throughout the night. A bamboo patch

evacuated by a large flock of about a couple of dozen individuals

bears ample testimony to the strength of which these animals are

possessed, especially the old males, not only in the shape of broken

bamboos some two and a half to three inches thick, but also of split

bamboo stems deliberately twisted.

Among the forests of the higher regions, the gorilla may show a

certain slowness, amounting almost to clumsiness, when they

proceed on all fours along the overhanging or slanting branches of

the Hagenia trees. This is readily understood if we consider the

animal’s configuration, and bear in mind the fact that the abdomen,

especially in large individuals of advanced age, protrudes considera-

bly, and gives a markedly pot-bellied appearance. The great weight

of these heavy apes must also be taken into account.

SLEEPING-PLACES, FOOD AND ENEMIES

Sleeping-places are commonly met with, and gorilla tracks are

plentiful in certain localities. These apes move about a good deal

and are constantly changing their feeding grounds. ‘Their un-

sheltered resting-places are made of twigs and leaves heaped up a

few inches from the ground, and generally bear the deep impression

of their posteriors, as they squat on these ‘ground-nests’. The

young ones, as the traces show, huddle at night round their parents.

It is not infrequent to see these nests fouled, and their vacated

sleeping-places are often littered with dung. Their proper night-

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

quarters are mostly sheltered, and the following photographs will

give an excellent idea of these retreats. The shelters are also

sometimes occupied in the day time at intervals during heavy

thunderstorms. The sleeping-places are, as a rule, not used on two

nights in succession. The gorillas of these regions appear to be

continually on the move from day to day, and seem to favour certain

surroundings. ‘This is acurious fact as there cannot be any question

of scarcity, nor any marked difference in the food on the slopes, or

ridges, in whichever direction they happen to turn. The shelters

have often the appearance of a natural wigwam formed at the

bifurcated or hollow base of some old Hagenia tree, with low and

massive overhanging branch; they are curtained with a profusion

of luxuriant vines and climbers. One of the photographs shows the

nature of this creeper-vegetation round a newly-vacated gorilla

night-shelter. In one corner may be noticed the excrement (marked

with a cross) of the departed occupants, reminiscent of the dung of a

horse. This was a snug and spacious retreat, which could have

offered a comfortable rain-shelter for some half-a-dozen men. In

some cases, the space is just enough to accommodate one large

male: here the old man gorilla squats on his ‘throne’ apart from

his family, surrounded by a drapery of creepers, which offers

effective protection against wind andrain. ‘The old animal is, more-

over, enabled to-peer from his eminence over the immediately

surrounding undergrowth, as the shelters are often situated on the

ridges or slopes.

Whereas the adult male gorilla seems to prefer the ground seats,

it not infrequently happens that the younger members of a flock

occupy small platforms, from four to six feet above ground level:

such little platforms, which resemble nests after they have been

occupied, are usually roughly built in the crotch of some large

Hagenia tree. |

The food of these animals consists mainly of tender bamboo

shoots, sorrels, hemlocks, etc., and especially the pith of the parsley-

like:plants already referred to as the wild chervil. Berries are also

eaten, and one finds, in addition, the remains of stalks of the

taller plants from which the bark has been neatly peeled off and

chewed.

As regards enemies of the gorilla, it may safely be accepted that

no herbivorous forest animal would feel inclined deliberately to

disturb a troop of gorillas, or even to remain for any length of time

in their immediate vicinity. On the other hand, I have reason to

believe, from the presence of leopards prowling on the skirts of a

party of gorillas that, as has been already mentioned, these wily

animals, with the patience and cunning characteristic of such

prowlers, prey upon anoccasional young gorilla. The gorillas of

these forests cannot be regarded as particularly wary. The adult

male gorillas are doubtless free from any kind of persecution by

beasts of prey, and therefore more unwary. The young gorillas

appear ignorant of their enemies; nevertheless they do not stray

far from their parents.

Apart from the strenuous exercise with which the stalking of

these great apes is invariably associated ina mountainous country

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE X,

No. 18. Dead Leopard on the branch of a large Hagenia tree, showing a vacated Gorilla Shelter below.

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 447

covered with luxuriant vegetation, where, moreover, the atmosphere

is mist-laden and rarified, the shooting of these animals can present

no difficulty to the determined hunter. Few Europeans, however,

would feel inclined to take the life from these normally harmless

creatures, unless they were wanted fora definite purpose. The

gorilla is,in these regions, by no means as rare ashe has been

supposed to be. The difficulty of obtaining photographs does not

lie so much in actually surprising the animal in his mountain home as

in finding circumstances which will allow a snapshot to be taken

with areasonable hope of success. ‘The securing of a really effec-

tive picture remains at all times largely a matter of luck, although,

of course, the greater the patience and deter mination exercised the

greater the chance of success.

Nove ON THE GAIT OF THE GORILLA

‘As to the gait of the gorilla it is cléar that in the wild State but

few opportunities are obtainable for observation, owing to. the

difficult nature of the forest undergrowth.

Although rarely, they may yet at times expose themselves ange

completely when they happen to move across the trampled vegeta-

tion of their feeding tracks. Much can be learned from the animals’

spoor on the damp and soft humus soil.

In captivity the animal shows quite clearly the nature ef its

gait, as may be seen by watching the young West African specimen

which wasfora time at Regent’s Park. It was found to exhibit

three distinct gaits, namely: The walk on all fours, the upright

walk, and the run.

In the first instance there is nothing unusual about the motions

of their limbs as they are identical with those of a baboon moving

on all fours. The application of the extremities of its limbs to the

ground is, however, entirely different, since the gorilla, like the

Orang-utan and Chimpanzee, does not place the palms, but the

knuckles of the flexed hand on the ground. In the case of the feet,

it walks on the outer margin of the sole and heel with the toes

somewhat bent downwards.

Their walkin the upright attitude, in contradistinction to that on

al] fours, is in appearance not unlike the toddling gait of a pronoun-

cedly bandy-legged child.

Their accelerated mode of progression, or run on all fours resolves

itself into the following impacts, namely: right knuckles—left

knuckles—margin of right foot pad—margin of left food pad. In

fact, the impacts themselves succeed one another in much the same

way as in the canter of a four-footed animal, i.e., a transverse

motion. The arms of the gorilla being very long in proportion to

its bowed legs, the body naturally slopes at an angle towards its

posteriors, and consequently causes the head to remain more eleva-

ted than inthe baboon, for instance. The forward progression of

the body, in the run, is accompanied by a slight side swing, an

almost imperceptible side twist, of the animal’s hind quarters.

Although the great toe of the gorilla is widely separated from

the smaller digits, and forms with the latter a prehensile foot, it will

be noticed in the young specimen at the Zoo that in its erect, as

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

well as in its stooping gait the great toe is usually held in close to

the other digits. The large toe is held somewhat flexed, with the

ball turned inwards and slightly downward. The creature walks

normally on the outside margin of its heel and foot pad and holds

the sole slightly at a slant. Its tracks onthe soft mud usually show

adeep impression of the outer edge of the foot and heel, anda

faint impression of the small toes.

FULLER EXPLANATION OF PLATES

No. ]

Mount Mgahinga (11,400 ft.) with Mount Muhavura (132,547 ft.) in background.

Taken in the evening from the slopes of Mount Sabinio.

No. 2

Mr. James Hugh Barnes, Mr. Maxwell’s companion, with the porters. The

outline of the preciptous peaks of Sabinio, seen inthe background, bears resem-

blance to thatof a molartooth. This photograph was taken from a point on the

saddle between Sabinio and Mount Mgahinga, at an altitude of 8,600 feet. It

is remarkable with what scanty clothing these natives can face the raw cold on

these heights. The steep slopes of Sabinio are covered with bamboo to a

height of nearly 9,000 feet from which altitude commences the subalpine vege-

tation, first the arboreal heaths and finally the alpine groundsels with lobelias

among the Alchemilla rmeadows.

No. 3

Panoramic view of Mount Mikeno (14,385 ft.) and Mount Karisimbi on the left

(14,633 ft.), with the summit of the latter hidden inthe clouds. This photograph

was taken from a spot, to the east of Mikeno, with an altitude of 8,400 feet.

On these two mountains the bamboo forests cease at a height of some 9,000 ft.

and the vegetation from this height to about 12,000 ft. consists mainly of

Hagenia trees with widely spreading branches, amidst a meadow undergrowth

of chervil-like plants, nettles and other harbaceous growths, interspersed with

tall giant lobelias. Above 12,000 ft., the arboreal heaths, giant groundsels and

lobelias, among other alpine plants, make their appearance more common,

and take the place of the Hagenias; a soft carpet of Alchemillas and different

kinds of drab moss constitutes the ground vegetation. The three zones of flora

can roughly be distinguished on the photograph. ‘Traces of gorillas are met

with from an altitude of 7,000 ft. and are fairly common in places up to 12,000

feet. They become scarce above this height.

No. 4

Panoramic view of Mount Sabinio, taken from an altitude of some 8,000 ft.

above sea level, looking up into the north eastern gorge. Apart from numerous

glens and corries, the slopes of Sabinio are intersected by no less than three

immense gorges, one on the north-east, another on the south-east and a third

on the north-western slope.

The white patch of smoke, on the right-hand side of the throat of the gorge

shown about half-way up the mountain, indicates Mr. Maxwell’s night camp,

at an altitude over 9,000 ft.

No.5

Hagenia trees among the carpet of a soft undergrowth consisting of nettles,

docks, sorrels, hemlocks and mainly of a plant resembling a wild chervil, which

is a favourite food of the gorilla. This scene represents a typical forest of

Mikeno at an altitude of 11,000 ft. and thereabouts. The height of the under-

growth is indicated by the native standing on the right-hand side of the fore-

ground.

No. 6

Another forest scene on the same altitude and showing a portion frequented

by gorillas.

THE HOME OF THE EASTERN GORILLA 449

No. 7

A forest of Hagenta abyssinica with a view onthe western slope of Mikeno,

looking up towards itssummit. This view was taken at an altitude of a little

over 9,000 feet. The poker-like tops of a few giant lobelias are visible in the

foreground.

No. 8

Arboreal Heath (4rica arborea) and Senecio, or giant groundsels (Seecio

johnstont). Note their respective heights by comparison with the figure below

the trees.

No. 9.

The summit of Mt. Mikeno, height 14,385 ft. Taken from a point over

12,000 ft. in altitude to the south-east of this peak. The peak is occasionally

covered with snow at thesummit and frequently enveloped in clouds. In the

foreground can be seen the crowns of the last Hageniatrees. Note the alpine

vegetation on the slopes of the peak.

No. 10.

A startled female gorilla making off with her young on her back. Indistinct-

ly, on the right, about halfway up the slope may be seen a sub-adult Gorilla

showing the upper part of its body above the undergrowth. This photograph

was taken on the Western slope of Mt. Karisimbi, at an altitude of some

11,000 ft.

No; it.

An adult male gorilla, shot by the late Commandant Elias Arrhenius for the

Swedish Museum of Natural Science.

Norm .2;

A pair ot female gorillas, secured by the late Commandant Arrhenius and

destined for the Swedish Museum of Natural Science. The specimens were

secured on Mount Mikeno.

No. 13.

Four captured young gorillas, of which two were destined for the Antwerp

Zoological Gardens but only one of the two reached Antwerp. The remaining

two appear, from accounts given to me, to have died locally.

No. 14.

One of the four young gorillas with its guardian.

No. 15.

A gorilla shelter in the hollow base, and among the bifurcated roots of a

large tree. It forms a snug and spacious shelter for several people. Note the

vegetation round the roots and the luxuriant growth of the mosses.

Now-16:

A recently vacated night shelter of a family of gorillas, at the base of an old

Hagenia tree. Note the nature of the vegetation at this altitude (approxi-

mately 11,000 ft.) and the excrements of these apes on the foreground, to the

right of the trellis of climbers in the centre.

Noe dy,

A gorilla ‘Bed’ or ‘Nest’ on the western slopes of Karisimbi, formed in

the crotch of a bifurcated tree. ‘he ‘ Nest’ is about four feet from the ground.

As their traces point out the adults prefer their resting places on the ground,

The young ones occasionally occupy such elevated little platforms, a few feet

from the ground. This photograph was taken at an altitude of some 11,000

feet.

No. 18.

Dead leopard on the branch of a large Hagenia tree. Below the branch is a

vacated gorilla shelter.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

F.C. FRASER, Lt.-COL., I.M.S., F.E.S.

Part XXIX

(With three plates.)

(Continued from page 319 of this Volume)

Genus—RHINOCYPHA Ramb. (cont.)

Group—ferforata.

Rhinocypha whiteheadi, Kirby, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist, (7), ae v, p. 536, pl. xii,

fig. 4 (1894) ; Martin, Mission Pavie, Nevrop. (sep.) ieee Laid. Rec.

Ind. Mus. “vol. xili, pp. 38 and 39, (A917) me MEG pate (Ent.

Ser.), vol. Vii. No. 7, pl. viii, ig. 4 (1922)

Male. Abdomen 17 mm. Hindwing 21 mm.

Head: labium and labrum and rest of head velvety black marked with blue

as follows :—a reniform or oval spot on the outer side of each hinder ocellus,

asmaller postocular spot behind it and a medial linear occipital spot behind

tnem.

Prothorax black marked on each side with a rounded pale blue spot, anda

large blue spot on the dorsum of posterior lobe and hinder portion of middle

lobe, shaped like an arrow-head.

Thorax velvety black with a dark violet lustre, marked with azure blue and

chorome-yellow as follows :—the mesothoracic triangle pale blue, extending con-

siderably less than half-way up the dorsum of thorax, and very broad at base,

far more so than in others of the genus; an antehumeral stripe consisting of a

small isolated spot above and anarrow curved stripe on the lower half of

dorsum ; a fine posthumeral stripe closely apposed to the humeral suture, broken

above to leave a small isolated spot, behind which is another elongate larger

spot, all blue A broad interrupted stripe on lower part of sides, yellow, but

the portion on the metepimeron, blue anteriorly. Pruinosed white beneath.

Legs black, the two hinder pairs of tibia, and the femora pruinosed white.

Wings hyaline palely tinted with yellow at the bases, opaque blackish brown

apically, the hindwing marked on this part with three rows of vitreous spots.

Forewings with the apical portion opaque blackish brown as far inwards as,

rather more than half-way from apex to node, extending nearer the node along

costal border of wing, the inner border of the area serrate and running oblique-

ly backward and outwards; pterostigma black, the cells immediately beneath

it hyaline. Hindwing with opaque area darker and extending inwards for

about three-fourths the distance between apex and node, its inner border very.

irregular, indented and serrate. The vitreous spots a beautiful violet from what-

ever angle viewed. The apical spot single, 4 cell-rows deep by 6 cells wide,

irregularly shaped, situated 3 cell-rows behind pterostigma, which is black;

the middle row of spots 3 in number, all in alignment and of about equal

length, about 10 cells wide, the costal spot lying between /Azz and A7zzz, the

mid spot between //Azzz and Riv -+v, the hinder spot between Cuzz and JA ;

the proximal spot single, short, only 5 cells long, lying between /A7zz and

Riv + v, projecting slightly into the opaque area. All wings with 14 to

15 antenodal nervures; discoidal cell traversed 3 times in the forewing,

4 times in the hind ; wings petiolated to level of 2nd az; 21 to 26 postnodals.

Wings of approximately the sameshape and length, long and narrow, the hind

slightly broader than the fore.

Abdomen black marked with azure blue as follows :—segiments 1 to 4 with

lateral rounded spot at apical end of segments, growing successively smaller

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

mm 2

aS A TE Ee,

: ci

ae a

Ate

cid

Pr D

shu

‘a8

1. Wincs or Lhinocypha bisignata, Selys, male.

2. Wrixcs or Rhinocypha biforata delimbata, Selys, male.

3. Wines oF Ahinocypha perforata perforata, Perch, male.

PLATE II.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

5H i LB

~ i fo

inocypha whiteheadi, Kirby, male.

WINGS OF &h

male.

male,

Wincs oF Micromerus lineatus, Burn.

Wines oF Calocypha laidlawt (Fras),

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 451

from 1 to 4, segment 1 has also the apical border narrowly lined with blue, and

there is ashort ventro-lateral stripe on segments 2 and 3. Anal appendages

shaped as for genus; inferior appendages with a series of small robust spines

on upper surface.

Female. Unknown.

Distribution. Cachar, Assam. Very local but apparently not uncommon

where found, to judge by the numbers taken by Mr. Antrim. Martin reports it

from Tonkin, but Iwas unable to find any specimens in his collection in the

Paris Museum, and infer that he has mistaken arace of perfurata for this

insect. There is a single male from Sibsagar, Assam, in the Indian Museum

collection. Although belonging to group perforata, it is not very closely re-

lated to perforata itself, and cannot even be considered as a subspecies of that

insect as has been suggested. Its wings are not only broader than perforata

but are distinctly rounded at the apices. It ought not to be difficult to discover

the female of this beautiful insect.

Rhinocypha perforata perforata Percheron. (Agrion perforatus), Gen. Ins.

Neur. t, 2 (1835) ; Ramb. Ins. Nevrop., p. 235 (1842) ; Selys, Syn.

Cal., p. 63 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal., p. 219 (1854) ; Id. Bull. Acad. Belg.

(2), vol. xxxv, p. 487 (1873) ; Walk. (Lzbellago perforata), List. Neur.

Ins. B.M., vol. iv, p. 647, No. 7 (1853) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 114

(1890) ; Mart. Mission Pavie, Nevrop. (sep.) p. 17 (1912) ; Wiil. Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxvii, p. 174 (1904) ; Krug. (A. apicalis) Stett.

Ent: Zeit. p. 79 (1898); Laid. (#. zzas) Proc. Zool, Soc., Lond,

pp. 88-90, pl. vi, fig. 6 (1902) ; Id. (#. apicalis) Fascic. Malayen-

sis (Zool), part 1. p.. 196; Id. Rec: Ind, Mus., vol. xii; pp. 38, 39,

(1917) ; Fras. Mem. Pusa (Ent. series), vol. vii, pl. viii, fig. 3 (1922).

Rhinocypha perforata perforata is not found within Indian limits, but is

represented by its subspecies or races /imbata and beatifica described below.

The type comes from Cochin China, and cotypes exist in the Maclachlan

collection from the Isle of Hainan, China, collected by Swinhce. It differs

from limbata by not having the border of the apex of hindwing vitrefied

hyaline and by the reduced opaque area in both fore and hindwings. In the

forewing this area occupies a little more than the apical fourth, but in the

hindwing extends to within four cells of the ncde. In /zmbata this area

extends nearly up to the node in the forewings, but is variable in the hind,

usually to about the same distance from the node, whereas in deafzifica it

extends right up to the node. Typein Paris Museum.

(In referring to my paperin the Memoirs of Pusa cited above, 1 note that

the figures have been wrongly numbered in the plate. Figure 4 is really

k. whiteheadi, and figure 3 should be F&. perforata limbata. ;

Rhinocypha perforata limbata, Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), vol. xlvii. p. 392,

(1879) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 114 (1890); Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus.,

VOL. Xi, pe oo (1917 ).

Male. Abdomen 16-18 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Head : labiuin dirty white, the apices of lobes black; labrum and rest of

head velvety black with a small rounded spot on the outer side of each

posterior ocellus, a larger rounded postocular spot and a linear medial spot on

the occiput, all bluish.

Prothorax black with the greater part of the posterior lobe rose pink or

lilaceous, and a large blue spot on either side of the middle lobe.

‘Thorax velvety black, the mesothoracic triangle extending rather more than

one-third up the dorsum, lilaceous in colour. On the outer side of this triangle,

and slightly longer than it, a large subtriangular azure blue spot with its

hinder border meeting the anterior part of the humeral suture. Above this

spot a small triangular upper humeral spot also blue, whilst laterally the greater

part of the sides are of the same colour, viz., nearly the whole of the mesopi-

meron, the upper two-thirds of the metepimeron and a narrow prolongation

along the hinder border of the humeral suture going as faras the root of

forewings. Beneath thorax 2-4 yellow spots which may be somewhat

obscured by pruinescence. In the Siamese and Annamese forms, there are

only two small rounded spots at the hinder part of thorax, whereas in speci-

mens from Assam, there are two additional larger oval spots in line with and

in front of these, .

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Legs black, the flexor surfaces of the two hind pair of femora and tibiee

pruinosed white or creamy white.

Wings very long and very narrow, of equal breadth, hyaline in the basal

portions where they are palely tinted with yellow; opaque blackish brown in

the apical portions, marked with two series of vitreous spots in the hindwings.

Forewings with the outer third oniy opaque, this area stopping short of the

hinder border of wing, with a serrate border proximad and prolonged inwards

along the costal border between the costa and Az, to within 2-4 cells of the

node ; the hyaline border of wing posterior to the opaque area vitreous with

bluish, violaceous or green reflex which may extend as far as the extreme apex

of wing. Pterostigma black ; 15 antenodal nervures, 24 postnodals; discoidal

cell traversed twice only; petiolation ends at level of 2nd antenodal nervure.

Hindwing with opaque area extending inwards to within 1 to 4 cells of node,

the proximal border of this area ragged and indented deeply by a vitreous spot

8or9 cells long, between JAzzz and Riv-+v. The hinder border of wing

narrowly hyaline and vitreous, finely reticulated and extending round apices of

wing as far as pterostigma. ‘The apical series of vitreous spots very variable,

‘usually composed of 3 linear spots which decrease in length from costa to

hinder border of wing and which slightly overlap the level of inner end of

pterostigma. The costa] spot 11 to 16 cells long, lying, between /A7z and F222 ;

the hinder spot 3 cell-rows deep by 4 to 8 cells long, lying between //A7zzz and

Riv 4- v, whilst the middle spot, which is 2 to 3 cell-rows deep by 9to 10 cells

long, lies midway between the two others banded by short intercalated sectors ;

the inner series lying rather nearer the node than pterostigma, composed of 3

spots, a costal spot l cell-row wide by 10 cells long, lying between /Aiz and

Riiz, a medial spot 2 cell-rows wide by 10 to 15 cells long between /Azzz and

Riv +- v, and a hinder spot 1 cell row wide by 9 to 12 cells long between WA

and Cwiz. All these vitreous spots and areas glowing emerald green or

opalescent according to the angle from which viewed ; 2@ postnodal nervures,

14 to 15 antenodals ; discoidal cell traversed 3 to 4times ; petiolation the same

as for forewing ; pterostigma black.

Abdomen black marked laterally with azure blue as follows :—segment 1

with a large cuneiform spot on each side, 2 with a bilobed, longitudinal spot

extending from near the base to apical border, 3 to 4 with long wedge-shaped

spots with base of wedge at apical border of segments, segments 5 to9

with short triangular apical spots, that on 9 being very reduced.

Anal appendages black, superiors slender, cylindrical, semi-circular, a little

broadened at apex which is curved strongly in. Inferiors half the length of

superiors, moderately separated, bluntly pointed, a little denticulated at apex.

The superiors minutely spined on the outer sides near apex.

Female. Abdomen 18mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Differs from male by having the wings entirely hyaline, tinted palely with

greenish yellow; pterostigma blackish brown, its outer half yellow at the

centre, especially in the hindwings ; 13 to 15 antenodal nervures in forewings,

26 to 30 postnodals.

Head similar to that of male with the addition of a large spot of yellow on

upper surface of epistome and two smaller ones behind it. The spots on vertex

and occiput also yellow, body-markings same as for male but yellow instead of

blue, the mesothoracic triangle finely outlined in yellow, its centre black.

Legs black, tibia and femora not pruinosed. Abdomen black with yellow

markings as for male, but with additional ventro-lateral stripes on segments

2to5. Vulvar scale as for genus.

Distribution. Limbata extends from Annam, through Siam to Burma and

Assam. The type in the Selysian collection, is from East Burma. The type

of perforata perforata is from Cochin China and is distinguishedfrom Jimbata

by the total absence of the hyaline and vitreous border of the hindwing, the

opaque area here coming right down to the border of wing, at least along the

extreme apex. The abdominal markings, said by Selys to be more restricted in

limbata, are not found to be so when aseries of specimens are examined. Inthe

forewing at least, the opaque areais greatly reduced as compared to /imbata or

beatifica.

Rhinocypha perforata beatifica, Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxix, pp. 86-87 (1927).

Similar in size and markings to /7mbatc, from which it differs by the greater

extent of the opaque area in all wings, extending in the fore and hind right up

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 453

to the level of node. This is especially noticed in the forewings, where not

only does the costal streak extend to node, but also the body of the area, the

serrated border running from the node and extending as far asthe apex of

wing, leaving a rather broader area of hyaline border than is found in dimbata.

In the hindwing, the hyaline border broadens out at apex of wing, extending

right up to, or even overlapping, the outer end of pterostigma. This latter

has a narrow bluish centre in the hindwing along its outer half, and that of

forewing is pale for the same extent. In the outer series of vitreous spots, the

middle spot is 2 cell-rows deep and is fused completely with the costal spot, so

that in reality there are only two spots in this series.

Distribution. Naga Hills, Assam, from Aprilto June. ‘Type in the Fraser

collection. Seatifica differs from /zmbata to about the same extent as does the

latter from true perforata, so that it is quite possible, that given sufficient

material, it might be possible to construct a series showing agradual merging

of one into the others. For the present I consider it better to consider the

perforata series as one species with two subspecies.

Rhinocypha biforata biforata, Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) vol. vii, p. 446 (1859) ;

Id. ibid. (2), xlvii, p.392 (1879) (A. dzforata, race delimbata) ; Kirby,

Gat, Odon. “7p. li3;(1690); Waid. roc. Zool. Soc. Wound. (1), p. s&8.

(1902) ; Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxviii, pp. 173 and 179, fig.

12, (1904) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xiii, pp. 37 and 38, (1917) ;

Fras. (2. deesoni) Mem. of Pusa. (Ent. Ser.), vol. vii, No. 7, pp. 61 to

63, (1922).

Male. Abdomen26mm. Hindwing 23 mm.

The species is not found within Indian limits but is represented by its sub-

species—ézforata delimbata Selys, biforata beesoni, Fras, and biforata abbreviata

subsp. nov. From all these 6zforata is easily distinguished by the greater extent

of the opaque area in the hindwings, where it extends right up tothe nodeora

little beyond it. The vitreous spots tend to be longer in ézforata and the reti-

culation somewhat closer. /&. deesoni falls closer to the parent species but

curiously enough, is separated from it geographically by the intervention of the

other two subspecies.

Rhinocypha biforata delimbata, Selys, Bull. Acad Belg. (2), vol. xlvii, p. 392

(1879) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 113 (1890) ; Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Hist.

Mus., vol. xxviii, pp. 173 and 179, fig. 12 (1904) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus.,

vol. xiii, pp. 37 and 38 (1917).

Male. Abdomen 19-20mm. Hindwing 23-26 mm.

Head velvety black marked with five bright ochreous spots, one-rounded or

oval on the outer sideof each posterior ocellus, around postocular spot on

each side anda medial oval occipital spot. Labium white, the lobes tipped

with black.

Prothorax black, the posterior lobe finely bordered with yellow and witha

large rosepink spot in its middle. A large bluish spot on each side near the

trochanters and a similar subdorsal spot on each side of middle lobe.

Thorax velvety black marked as follows :—the mesothoracic triangle rose-

pink or lilaceous, extending less than half-way up the dorsum of thorax but

continued as a fine line of the same colour along the middorsal carina as far as

the antealar sinus. On each side of the mesothoracic triangle, a large irregu-

larly ova! spot of the same colour, much larger than the triangle itself, a small

upper antehumeral spot, a broadish stripe behind the upper two-thirds of the

humeral suture, the greater part of the mesopimeron, and metepimeron, azure

blue. The hinder lateral suture, the lower part of the metepimeron, anda

quadrate area on the upper anterior part of mesopimeron all black, the latter

area bearing a small isolated blue spot. Beneath 6 large yellow spots separated

by black sutures and framed narrowly in black.

Legs black, the two hinder pairs of tibiz pulverulent white, the same two

pairs of femora pulverulent yellow on the flexor surfaces.

Wings hyaline, the greater part enfumed and tinted with yellow, which is

most intense near the bases. Forewings with apices tipped with blackish brown,

this marking gradually shading off into the hyaline area at outer end of ptero-

stigma (in ézforata biforata this area begins well proximal of the pterostigma

and covers about the outer fifth of the wing) ; discoidal cell traversed 3 times ;

14-16 antenodal nervures, 27-32 postnodals ; petiolation ends at the level of the

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

2nd antenodal nervure. Hindwings with about the apical fourth opaque black-

ish brown (the apical third or more in 6zforata biforata), this area marked with

a series of four linear vitreous spots, very irregular, each varying in length,

and the costal three often linked up by one or more connecting cells, the inner

level of the spots forming a concavity towards apex of wing, as dues also the

inner border of the opaque area, which extends slightly more basad along

hinder border of wing. Just proximal of the opaque area (projecting into it in

biforata biforata) a second row of vitreous spots.

The costal one of these spots lying slightly nearer the node than pterostigma,

composed of one row of cells, about 12 in number, lying between /Azz and R2iz,

the second spot shorter, lying more distad, 2 cell-rows deep by 8 or9 cells long.

lying between Aiv-+v and A722, the hinder spot at the same level as the costal,

9 cells long by 1 row wide, lying between WA and Cuzz. In the same space as

the medial spot of this series, but lying behind level of node, another vitreous

spot 1 row wide by 11-18 cells long. Pterostigma black; 15-16 antenodal

nervures, 26 postnodals ; discoidal cell traversed 3 times.

Abdomen black marked with azure blue as follows :—a large triangular spot

on each side of segment ], a midsubdorsal and an apicolateral spot on each

side of segment 2, as well as a ventro-lateral stripe below them ; similar spots

and stripes, but longer, on segments 3 to 5; segments 6 and 7 with the ventro-

lateral stripe only.

Anal appendages black, shaped as for genus.

Female. Abdomen 15-16 mm. Hindwing 23 mm.

Head black with the same markings as for male, but in addition, the bases

of mandibles, the basal segments of antennz, two large spots on frons and two

minute linear spots in front and to the outer side of the anterior ocellus all

ellow.

" Prothorax black with the following yellow markings :—the hinder border of

posterior lobe outwardly finely yellow, a narrow longitudinal medial line, often

broken into minute points on the dorsum of same lobe, a geminate point at the

anterior end of this on the medial lobe, a largish triangular spot on each side

of midlobe and a rounded spot on each side of the anterior end.

Thorax black, marked with blue and yellow as follows :—the mesothoracic

triangle finely mapped out in yellow, its centre black, a fine antehumeral line

incomplete above and strongly hooked outwards and backward in front, a fine

incomplete humeral line, all yellow. The sides similar to the male, blue.

Legs black, not pruinosed, the flexor surfaces of the hinder pairs of femora

yellow.

Abdomen black marked exactly as for male. Vulvar scale and anal ap-

pendages as for genus.

Distribution. Burmah and Assam, common in parts of the former but

apparently rare or local in the latter. I have specimens from Mergui, Lower

Burma collected in November, and from Maymyo, Upper Burma, collected in

July, the latter specimens by Col. F. Wall. It appears to be the commonest

Rhinocypa in the Maymyo district.

The measurements differ widely from those given by Selys for dzforata, but it

is obvious that these are incorrect, at least those for the abdomen. The Maymyo

specimens are very constant in their markings, especially with regard to the

extent of the opaque areas of wings, so that I think delimbata should at least

rank as a subspecies.

Rhinocypha biforata abbreviata subsp. nov.

In a male specimen from Assam, now in my own collection, and which I have

named adbdreviata, I note the following differences :—

The mesothoracic triangle is considerably smaller than in delimbata and the

carina above it is unmarked ; the antehumeral spot is absent; the forewings

have only the extreme tips opaque and the nodal index is considerably lower,

(12 antenodal nervures and 21 postnodals) ; the outer series of spots are discrete

and all are much shorter than for type (12 to 13 cells for costal spot in 6zforata,

only 6 in adérveviata, 18 cells in the second spot, only 14 in abbreviata, etc.).

The middle series of spots show the same difference, being only 4 to 5 cells in

length and falling well short of the opaque area, although in the hindwing,

this area is as extensive as in 6zforata btforata. Finally the proximal spot is

only 8 cells in length. The nodal index of hindwing lower, 11 antenodals and

23 postnodals,

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 455

Abdomen with markings present on the first five segments only :—a large

triangular blue spot on the sides of segment 1, an apical rounded spot, a short

mid-latera] stripe and a ventro-lateral stripe on segment 2, segments 3 to 5 as

for 2 but the medial stripes absent and the other markings much reduced.

The sinall size of this insect, the abbreviated vitreous markings, and the

reduced abdominal markings are, I think, sufficient to form a well-defined

_subspecies, bearing the same relation to 6zforata as does trimaculata to

tonipennis.

Rhinocypha biforata beesoni, Fras, Mem. Dept. Agricult. Ind. (Ent. ser.) vol.

vii, No. 7, pp. 61 and 62 (1922).

Male. Abdomen 18mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

FR. beesoni shares the characters of 6zforata and delimbata, in that the apical

opaque area of the forewings is as extensive asin Ozforata, and the same area

in the hindwings is as reduced as in—de/imébata. In—the forewing the opaque

area extends 2 to 3 cells proximal of inner end of pterostigma, the inner margin

somewhat irregular, bevelled outwardly from costa posteriorwards and

prolonged slightly along the costa as far as half-way between pterostigma and

node between the costal and radial nervures. ‘There is also a slight prolonga-

tion along hinder margin of wing. Inthe hind wing the opaque area covers

nearly the outer third of wing and the middle series of spots extends right

up to it or even invades it for a short distance. The length of these spots is

slightly greater thanin adbreviata, but decidedly less thanin 62zforata or

delimbata. ‘The vitreous spots in all these subspecies have a metallic green or

coppery reflex in the opaque areas, violaceous in the hyaline area.

The discoidal cells are traversed 3 and4 times respectively, the forewing

has 14-15 antenodals, and 22-25 postnodals. The body markings are similar

to those of delimbata.

Distribution. Thetype in the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, comes

from Lachiwala in that district, and was collected in the month of November.

I have also seen two pairs in the Pusa collection which were collected at Mergui,

Lower Burma, during June. ‘There areno records of its having been taken in

the vast stretch of country separating these two localities and it may be that

some error in tabulating has crept in, for Mr. C. F. Beeson collected in Lower

Burma as well as around Dehra Dun. It is easily distinguished trom delimbata

and aboveviata by the extent of the apical marking of forewing, and from

biforata by the much reduced opaque area in hindwing.

Rhinocypha bisignata, Selys. Syn. Calop. p.62. (1853); Id. Mon. Calop. p.

214, (1855) ; Walk. (Lzbellago bistgnata) List. Neur. B.M. vol. iv.

p- 648. No. 9, (1853) ; Kirby, Cat, Odon. p. 113, (1890); Laid. Ree. Ind.

Mus. vol. xiii, p: 38, (1917) ; Fras. Mem. Pusa. Dept. Agric. (Ent.

series) vol. vii, No. 8, pp. 80 and 81, pl. x (1922) ; Id. Rec. Ind. Mus.

vol. xxvi, p. 483 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 20mm. Hindwing 24-26 mm.

Head. Eyes brown, rest of head, including lips velvety black. A small spot

external to each posterior ocellus, a similar postocular spot on each side and

an occasional occipital spot all bright ochreous.

Prothorax black withalarge yellow spot oneach side of middle lobe, a

similar spot on the outer ends of posterior lobe and a large rose-pink spot

covering the greater part of dorstum of same lobe.

Thorax black marked as follows:—the mesothoracic triangle rose-pink,

extending for more than one-third, but for less than half-way up dorsum of

thorax ; a large oval spot of the same colour, pointed at both ends, bluatlyso

anteriorly, lying between the humeralsuture and mesothoracic triangle, but

well separated from latter, and of twice itslength; a small upper yellow

anterkumeral spot, a narrow yellow stripe bordering the upper half of humeral

suture behind; a broad very broken stripe on hinder half of mesopimeron and

the whole centre of metepimeron golden yellow. Beneath three pairs of yellow

spots, the hind the larger, the middle pair obscured. Legs black, the two

hinder pairs of tibicee and femora pruinosed white on flexor surfaces.

Wings long and narrow as in 6zforata, the hind slightly broader than the

fore, hyaline in the basal portions, where they are tinted with yellow, opaque

blackish brown in the apical areas, the hind bearing here a large vitreous

fuliginous spot. Forewings with the outer fourth or more opaque, this area

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

being briiliant coppery or with fiery reflex as in zguipennis, with its inner

border prolonged slightly basad between costa and Az and running obliquely

out towards the hinder border of wing. Hindwing with the inner third opaque

and marked with two series of vitreous spots which glow with a coppery reflex,

or violaceous, the inner spot always the latter colour. The outer spot produced

by a fusion of similar spots to those seen in 6zforata, but often completely or

partially divided into two or more spots, lying between (zz or WA or Riv+v,

and its outer border on a level with the middle of pterostigma. The inner

series composed of 3vitreous spots similar to those seen in dzforata but the

middle one usually prolongedinwards to fuse with the nodal spot seen in

biforata. Thefirst spot of this series one row deep by 8 cells long, lying

between /A72zz and Azv-+v, the middle spot 20-22 cells long when fused with

the nodal spot, otherwise only 10 cells long, lying between /Azzz and Riv+u,

the hinder spot 11-12 cells long, lying, between J7A and Cwzi. Pterostigma

black in all wings ; nodal index 12-14 antenodals and 28-31 postnodals in the

forewings, 12-14 antenodals and 22-28 postnodals inthe hind; discoidal cell

traversed 2-3 times in forewings, 3-6in the hind; petiolation begins slightly

proximad of the 2nd antenodal.

Abdomen black marked with yellow as follows :—segyment 1 with asub-

triangular lateral spot on each side; segment 2 with a midlateral stripe, an

apical spot and a ventro-lateral stripe ; 3 and 4 similar to 2, but the mid-lateral

spot obsolete, whilst 5 has the apico-lateral spot only. All other segments

unmarked.

Anal appendages as for genus, the inferiors minutely spined above.

Female. Abdomen 16mm. Hindwing 22 mm.

(Although so common an insect, and known forso long atime, the female

of this insect has hitherto escaped description).

Head. Labium bluish green tipped with black; labrum black with a large

oval or triangular yellow spot on each side ; cheeks broadly yellow, this colour

continued up as a narrow bordering to eyes as far back as the level of the

posterior ocellus, the basal segments of antenne, a small triangular spot low

down on sides of epistome, two large triangular spots on the upper surface of

frons, two transversely oval spots just behind these lying in front and to outer

side of anterior ocellus, all yellow; a small rounded spot on the outer side of

each posterior ocellus, a rounded postocular spot on each side and a mid-

occipital spot, triangular in shape all bright ochreous.

Prothorax biack with a large yellow spot on each side and the borders of the

posterior lobe finely yellow laterally.

Thorax as for male but the large antehumeral spot replaced by a fine ante-

humeral! line incomplete above, whilst the mesothoracic triangle is black, finely

outlined in yellow, as also the middorsal carina. Legs black, not pruinosed.

Wings entirely hyaline, tinted palely with yellow, the apices narrowly en-

fumed ; pterostigma black with pale creamy centre; discoidal cell traversed

twice, or more rarely, thrice in all wings ; 12-14 antenodal nervures, 21-27 post-

nodals in forewings, 19-24 in the hind.

Abdomen black marked with yellow as for male but rather more extensively,

thus segments 3 to Sare marked similarly to 2, and 6 and/7 similar, the

remainder unmarked.

Anal appendages and vulvar scale similar to genus.

Distribution. ‘This species is the sole representative of the genus in Southern

and Peninsular India. It is a widely distributed insect, thus I have records

of its capture in localities as wide apart as Cochin and the Central Provinces.

It is common throughout the Palnai, Nilgiri and Shevaroy Hills in the far south,

abundant in Coorg, less common at Khandala and Igatpuri on the ghats near

Bombay, !astly it is widespread throughout the Agency Tracts and Jeypore on

the East Coast. Its exact limits here are yet to be worked out but it probably

stops short of Bengal. It isa submontane insect, living and breeding between

2,000 to 5,500 feet altitude Its iarva was discovered inthe Nilgiris and—was one

of the first to be described of the genus. The females congregate on the

bare twigs of neighbouring trees in great numbers and are very rarely seen

pairing. Occasionally they may be seen ovipositing ona piece of dead twig

floating in mid-stream. ‘The males frequently disport in couples before the

females, circling and sparring with one another, their white pruinosed legs glis-

tening and thrust out like the arms of a wrestler seeking for an opening.

Meanwhile their wings flash like living jewels of fire.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prats Ili,

EER EX

Wie. 2)

lanp 2. Two VIEWS OF THE CAUVERY RIVER NEAR FRASERPET, COORG,

WHERE Phinocypha bisignata AND Micromerus lineatus ABOUND. OTHER

DRAGONFLIES TAKEN IN THESE SPOTS WERE Chloroneura apicalis AND

guadrimaculata Zygonyx isis, Macromia indica, Macromidia donaldi, Onycho-

themis testacea ceylanica, ETC.

: :

-_ zi

aary 7

= 7 rs ;

rat ‘ A

ald . 4 :

. :

. - =

7 . an

> = .

INDIAN DRAGONFIIES 457

Genus CALOCYPHA, gen. nov.

Moderately small but robust insects with characters similar to those ot

Rhinocypha, differing mainly in details of venation and the greater petiolation

of wings. Head, thorax, abdomen and legs similar to Rhinocypha. Wings

equal in length, similar in shape, apices markedly rounded, reticulation more

open than in Ahinocypha, hyaline with opaque apices; the arc very oblique,

lying almost in the same line as the costal border of disccidal cell, the latter

shorter than in most Ahinocypha and acutely pointed outwardly ; petiolation

beginning at or well distad of the inner end of discoidal cell; the nervure ac

situated more basad than in Aehinocypha ; anal appendages slenderer, the supe-

riors twice the length of segment 10, narrow, cylindrical, curving in at apices

which are bluntly pointed, furnished with a few hairs. Inferiors much shorter,

half the length of superiors, broad at base, directed directly back and parallel

to one another, furnished with a few minute spines on upper surface.

Female with apices of hindwings partially opaque, the venational details as

forthe male. Vulvar scaie and anal appendages as for genus Ahinocypha.

Calocypha laidlawi (Fras.) (AAznocypha laidlawt) Rec. Ind.Mus., vol. xxvi,

pp. 482, 483 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 17-18 mm. Hindwing 20 mm.

Head black marked with bright vermilion as follows :—a large oval spot on

dorsum of anterior part of epistome, a pair of large subtriangular spots behind

the former on frons, two large tongue-shaped spots on vertex nearly confluent

with former, closely apposed to the ocelli which they partially enclose. The

latter spots changing from vermilion to pale ochreous at their hinder ends; a

postocular spot on each side of occiput of the same colour. Eyes dark brown;

labium pale yellow ; labrum glossy black.

Prothorax black marked with creamy yellow as follows :—a narrow anterior

collar, an oval spot on each side of middle lobe, a spot on each side of posterior

lobe and a large spot on trochanters.

Thorax black, the mesothoracic triangle very narrow, very elongate, extend-

ing the whole length of dorsal carina, expanded in its lower third, with parallel

sides in its upper two-thirds, bright vermilion red. The central part of alar

sinus creamy yellow, laterally the lower parts of sides azure blue save for a

small triangular area posterior to the humeral suture and a small linear spot on

upper part of 2nd lateral suture. The dark area in front bearing a small upper

posthumeral blue spot. Beneath thorax six large rounded yellowish spots, the

anterior pair confluent.

Wings hyaline, the bases tinted with yellow, rather less than the apical thirds

of all wings opaque black with a dark violety metallic reflex, the margin of this

opaque area straight and sharply defined, not bearing any clear vitreous spots

or stripes. Pterostigma black, swollen outwardly, oblique at both ends.

Legs black, the flexor surfaces of the two hinder pairs of tibiz pruinosed

white, the same pairs of femora very slightly so.

Abdomen black marked with bright azure blue on segments 1to8. Seg-

ments 1 to 3 broadly blue on the sides from base to apical border, segments

4to 8 with a broad wedge-shaped spot tapering apicad but not reaching apical

border of segments, gradually diminishing in size from4to8. Segments

2 to § with narrow paired basal subdorsal blue lunules. Anal appendages black.

Female. Abdomenl17 mm. Hindwing 24 mm.

Differs from the male by the markings bright pale ochreous instead of ver-

milion and azure blue, and by its forewings entirely hyaline.

Head black marked with pale ochreous as follows :—two large oval spots on

labrum covering the greater part of its surface, the same series of spots on

upper surface of epistome and frons as seen in male, the bases of mandibles

and a narrow stripe alongside each eye, as faras level of ocelli, the basai seg-

ments ofantennz, asmallspot on each side of epistome, and lastly, the same

postocular spots as seen in the male,

Prothorax similar to male but the middorsum bearing a stripe which runs

from posterior lobe nearly to anterior end of prothorax.

Thorax black marked with greenish yellow as follows :—two minute spots on

the antealar sinus, the middorsa! carina finely, a fine antehumeral stripe, its

anterior end curling abruptly outward, a short posthumeral stripe, incomplete

below, astill shorter vestigial stripe just posterior to the upper part of first

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

lateral suture, a long stripe traversing the whole length of sides, crossing both

sutures obliquely, its upper and lower borders very irregular and serrate.

Legs black, femora a dirty yellow on inner sides.

Wings hyaline, the hind with the apices broadly brown as far proximal to the

inner end of pterostigma asits own length, and of a much deeper tint in the

hinder two-thirds of wing. Anteriorly the cell-middles are hyaline, whilst at the

apex of wing, the brown area is replaced by a small opaque white area.

Pterostigma with inner half black, outer half whitish margined with black.

Antenodal nervures 10 to 11 in forewings, postnodals 18 to 19 (10 toll, and

18 to 24 in the male) ; discoidal cell of forewings traversed once only, rarely

twice, in both sexes, 2 to 3 times in the hindwings. Petiolation beginning at

inner end ot discoidal cell in the female.

Abdomen black marked with bright ochreous and greenish yellow :—segment

1 with a large lateral spot and a minute middorsal linear apical spot, all seg-

ments from 2 to 8 with the middorsal carina finely yellow and from 2to7 with

a long narrew stripe followed by a large apical spot on each side, whilst

beneath this marking, on all segments, is a superventral stripe ; remaining seg-

ments unmarked.

Anal appendages black, long, acuminate. Vulvar scale as for genus.

Distribution. Confined to South Kanara, to the net-work of rivers about

Sulia. I well remember the first discovery of this beautiful insect, when in

company with Mr. C. A. Souter, I was making my way up the bed of the river

in the Coorg—S. Kanara enclave. We had come to a fork in the stream and

agreed to part company, each to work his own branch of the fork. Shortly

afterwards I came on my first specimen which I mistook for a Pseudagrion

rubriceps. Its size and conspicuous colouring led me however to glance at it

a second time, when I at once recognized that it was something altogether new.

I took eight males in all and when I rejoined my fellow shikari, found that he

too had made the same discovery, having taken four more males (Nov. 9, 1923).

Mr. Souter discovered the female on this same riverin the following April, where

I again found it later. For a long time, the discovery of a second species of

Rhinocypha in South [India has been visualized by Dr. Laidlaw and myself, so

that it was very gratifying to come upon this insect. Dr. Laidlaw has pointed

out to me the marked differences in venation and has suggested the removal of

the insect from genus Ahinocypha, a suggestion here carried out. The type and

co-type in the British Museum. Paratypes in the Fraser, Ris, Laidlaw, Morton,

Pusa and Inglis’ collections. The insect is a shade lover, albeit its bright

colouring. It is found perched on half-submerged logs in midstream, or

resting on twigs overhanging the river. The reds and blues are very con-

spicuous when the insect is in flight, whilst the black tips form an a]most com-

plete circle round it as the wings whirl with cinema effect.

Genus, LIBELLAGO, Selys.

Selys, Syn. Cal., p. 57 (1853) ; Id. Mon. Cal. p. 226 (1854) ; Walk. List,

Neur. Ins. Br. Mus. vol iv, n. 643 (1853).

Moderately robust insects with characters very similar to genus Ahinocypha

but differing less from that genus than does Calocypha.

Head, thorax and abdomen similar to ARhinocypha, but mesothoracic

triangle undeveloped and uncoloured ; the abdomen, on the other hand, of the

males, usually brilliantly coloured. Wings entirely hyaline in both sexes,

narrow, the hind not noticeably broader than the fore, venation close, similar

to that of ARhinocypha, except J7A which is more or less zig-zagged for at least

the outer part of its course, so that the cells bordering it are pentagonal instead

of rectangular as in Rhinocypha ; petiolation ends well proximad of the inner

end of discoidal cell. Legs variable, similar to Ahinocypha in the single

Asiatic representative, similar to A&hinocypha, or widely dilated, in African

species and usually brilliantly coloured. Anal appendages and genitalia very

similar to Rhinocypha.

Distribution. Orly a single species has been recorded from Asia, ZL. aszatica

vittata, which extends through Burma and Tonkin, tothe Philippines where

it is represented by ZL. astati¢a astatica. The gerus although so closely allied

to Rhinocypha, is essentially an African one, and it is doubtful whether aszatzca

should be included in it, as the venational differences seperating it from

Rhinocypha are not nearly as marked as they are in the African species of the

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 459

genus, nor is the abdomen marked as brilliantly asin the latter. The Asiatic

species may be regarded as a link bridging the gap between the two genera, and

raises a point of profound interest as to how, when and where the passage took

place. (Genotype—Libellago dispar Beauv.

Libellago asiatica vittata Selys, Ann. Mus. Civ. Genov. (2a), x, (Xxx),

pp. 58, 59 (1891); Will. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus., vol. xxviii, p. 173

(1904) ; Mart. Mission Pavie, Neuropteres (sep.), p. 17 (1901) ; Laid.

Rec, Ind. Mus., vol. xiii, pp. 39, 40 (1917).

Male. Abdomen 23mm. Hindwing 33 mm.

Head black unmarked ; prothorax black unmarked.

Thorax black with a fine posthumeral yellow stripe and two oblique dark

ochreous bands on the sides. Legs black.

Wings hyaline suffused with brown at extreme bases, especially in the

subcostal and median spaces as far as the basa! antenodal nervure; 16

antenodal nervures, 19-22 postnodals in forewings, discoidal cells traversed

twice or thrice ; pterostigma black, about 2 mm. in length.

Abdomen black marked with reddish brown, segments 1 and 2 entirely black,

dorsum of segments 3 to 8 reddish brown, the sides yellow, as well as the

dorsal carina finely ; apices of segments narrowly, and the whole of segments

9 and 10 black. Anal appendages black, superiors twice as long as segment

10, slender, curving in towards their apices which area little spatulate ;

inferiors cylindrical, separated, curving in at apices, about half the length of

superiors.

Female. Abdomen 20 mm. Hindwing 30 mm.

Head. Labium black; labrum black witha large diffuse rounded central

spot of pale yellow ; bases of mandibles, a large spot on the sides of epistome,

another on the sides of frons, the basal segments of antennae, the cheeks

broadly, a small oblique spot on the outer sides of the posterior ocelli and a

rounded postocular spot on each side of occiput pale creamy yellow.

Prothorax black, the lateral ends of posterior lobe and a large spot on each

side of middle lobe pale yellow.

Thorax black marked with apale greenish yellow antehumeral stripe

incomplete above, where however, is an isolated spindle-shaped spot of

ochreous ; a bright ochreous elongate posthumeral upper spot, at the lower end

of which, and on the dorsal side of the humeral suture, is a somewhat smaller

triangular spot ; laterally the whole of the lower half of mesopimeron, and the

whole central portion of the metepimeron as well asa small curved stripe

behind the upper part of the first lateral suture bright ochreous. Beneath

thorax a broad transverse stripe behind the legs, followed successively by a

large arrow-head shaped spot and a broad terminal stripe all ochreous.

Legs black, coxe and trochanters yellow, proximal ends of all femora

yellowish brown.

Wings hyaline, the extremity of all apices clouded narrowly with blackish

brown ; 15 to 16 antenodal nervures in forewings, and 17 to 18 postnodals, 16

antenodals and postnodals in hindwings. Discoidal cells traversed thrice ; the

nervure ac well proximad of inner end of discoidal cell; petiolation begin-

ing at level of 2nd antenodal ; pterostigma blackish brown, longer than in

male.

Abdomen black marked with yellow as follows:—segments 3to 8 with a

narrow middorsal carinal stripe, segments 1 to 7 with the sides broadly yellow,

this colour expanding dorsalwards at apical ends of segments ; segment 8 with

a rounded apico-lateral spot.

Anal appendages black, long and narrow, pointed. Vulvar scale as for

Rhinocypha, black with a large medio-lateral bright vellow spot.

Distribution. Bbhamo, Burma, within Indian limits, June and July.

Reported also by Martin from Tonkin. Type inthe Selysian collection.

Appears to be a rare insect wherever taken.

(70 be continued.)

Note :—In part xxvii, Indian Dragonflies of this volume, by a printer’s error,

the figures have been transposed. Fig.1 should be Fig. 2as regards the

explanatory text, and vice versa.

A SIND LAKE

SALIM A. ALI

Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Soctety

(With stx plates and three Text figures)

This is the narrative of a delightful New Year week spent on the

Manchar, perhaps the largest fresh water lake in India, and certainly

the most enthralling from the point of view of the sportsman and

ornithologist.

Situated in the Larkana District, the Manchar, like all the other

numerous dhunds (jheels) of Sind, owes its existence principally to

the annual inundations of the river Indus. A portion of the Indus

waters teaches the Mancnhar by a natural and very tortuous channel

known as the Western Nara, and again finds its way back to the

parent river through another—the Aral. This latter commences

at a point near the dusty little town of Sehwan whose chief pride at

the present day lies in the dilapidated ruins of a mud-and-brick fort

claiming an abstruse connection with the invasion of Alexander

the Great, and in the annual fair held at the dargah of a pzr

long-defunct but who continues to perform his miracles

notwithstanding.

The Manchar, in other words, may be regarded merely as a

local expansion of the Western Nara Canal; during inundations

when the level of the Indus rises much higher than that of the lake,

the Aral discharges water into the Manchar; when these floods

subside, the current is reversed and the water carried back to the

river. A vast expanse of land—20,000 acres or more—is exposed

by the post-monsoon drying or draining off of the lake which

is extremely fertile and valuable for the cultivation, of vadz crops

such as wheat aud gram. It is these cultivations, incidentally, that

afford attractive pasture to the innumerable hosts of geese and

cranes which constitute such a salient feature of the bird-life on

this wonderful lake.

Unfortunately for the bird-lover, by reason of this very fertility

of the soil left high and dry by the retiring floods, the days of the

Manchar as a wildfowl resort are numbered. A mammoth scheme

is afoot for draining off the lake more or less completely in the

cold weather so as to render the greater part of its bed available

for cultivation. The disappearance of these extensive feeding

grounds will doubtless produce a marked effect on the bird-life

not only of the district but of the province of Sind as a whole,

especially as the project is expected to come into operation

simultaneously with the mighty Sukkur Barrage and its intricate

network of canals, with the consequent opening up of enormous

tracts of hitherto unpopulated country.

As a whole, the waters of the Manchar are shallow, ranging froma

few inches in depth to eight or nine feet. The surface of the marginal]

a SIND LAKE 461

shallows is covered with tangles of the floating lotus plant (chiefly

Nymphea lotus and Nelumbium spectosum) which grow in unbounded

profusion in every dhund in Sind. These in the Manchar yield

a considerable revenue to Government. The roots of both, called

Lorh and Beeh are extensively used as food, as a substitute for

potatoes and in many other forms—whilst their seeds or nuts (Vago

and Pédbiro) are also much eaten and sold in the bazaars.

Apart from these littoral lotus tangles, the shallows abound in

reeds and sedges affording ideal shelter to countless myriads of

wildfowl of every description which, driven by the bitter cold and

scarcity of food from their northern homes, migrate southwards and

find an agreeable haven in their hospitable seclusion.

We were encamped in the District Local Board bungalow at Shah

Hassan, a tiny village on the western shore of the Manchar,

between its waters and the desolate looking Kirthar Range which

forms the natural boundary between Sind and Baluchistan. The

road to Shah Hassan from our iast camp ran for a good way by the

margin of the lake, and all along in the distance could be descried

millions of waterfowl, floating on the water lumped together, look-

ing like immense floating islands, while the terrific honking,

quacking and ‘spattering’ set up by the birds sounded like the

distant grind of some weird machinery. Every now and again there

passed over or in front of us within distinguishing range, flocks of

various species of duck, and skeins of Grey Lag Geese leisurely

winging their way lakewards from the direction of the Kirthar where

they retire nightly to feed on the beloved grit which the hills supply.

A chronicle of one of these memorable days spent on the lake

will suffice as sample.

We left the bungalow soon after daybreak in punts, each punt

manned by one gun, a shikari and three mohanas with poles. The

mohanas or ‘ mirbahrs’ (literally ‘ sea-Jords’’ or ‘Admirals’ ! ) are

Mohomedans of what one may call an amphibious species. They

spend their lives on or near the River Indus or one of the numerous

dhunds created by its monsoon inundations, and eke out a bare

livelihood by plying boats, gathering lotus seeds and roots, fishing

and capturing wildfowl in a number of ingenious ways, some of

which are hereafter described. Some of the more cnterprising ones

also go in for farming egrets, an industry which holds much promise

when the traffic in plumes is legalized. Fatigue is a thing unknown to

these ‘ sea-lords’ and it is remarkable how they will go on punting

almost incessantly all day without exhibiting any symptoms of it.

We glide placidly over the limpid waters in the direction of the

butts that have been prepared overnight in the neighbourhood of a

bank where Grey Lag Geese have been observed to congregate in

the mornings before repairing to their favourite feeding grounds

among the tender gram and wheat fields hard by the margin of the

lake. A piercing north-easterly wind is blowing which strikes our

faces like needles, and pierces through great-coat, tweed jacket, and

thick Jaeger vest to the very marrow of our bones. We sit on the

bow of our punt with our heads snugly buried io the ears in the

coljlar of the trusty great-coat and our hands thrust well down its

grateful pockets. In our course, we disperse immense flocks of

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXH

coots, with which are mingled odd parties of gadwall and other

species of duck. The Manchar is, and has long been, notorious for

the masses of coots it harbours, but their numbers are totally incon-

ceivable until you actually see them and can believe your eyes. Great

patches of the lake are literally blackened with their multitudes and

their ‘ spattering ’ on the water as they attempt to rise, is positively

bewildering to the new arrival. Inspite, however, of the wholesale

slaughter and destruction that proceeds apace from the time the

coots arrive till their return migration at the commencement of the

hot weather, their numbers appear to remain unaffected, and the

legions that visit the country again the following season show that

the coot is one of those fortunate species that is in some way ex-

ceptionally well-fitted in the struggle for existence, and stands in

no immediate danger of extinction.

But to continue with our narrative. Owing to exceptionally

heavy inundations of recent years, the greater part of the thicker

reed-beds on the Manchar which erstwhile provided such admirable

cover to the sportsman have disappeared, rendering satisfactory

sport none too simple a proposition. The butts or ‘hides’ in the

present instance consisted of a few twigs of tamarisk thrust into the

lake-bed to conceal the punts, there being no natural cover at hand.

These were arranged in a row at distances of 40 yards or more

from each other. We soon take up our positions, and at a given

signalthe drive commences. Some of the punts have gone ahead

to round off the birds, while others are stationed at a distance in the

rear to turn the birds back over the guns. The first to take alarm

are a party of Pintails—all males keeping together. They fly low

and unsuspectingly over the central ‘hide’ from where the right

rings out, followed by the left in quick succession. ‘These are

accommodatingly responded to by splashy thuds as two of the fat

birds pay the penalty of blissful ignorance. The flock breaks up

to right and left at lightning speed, and the birds lose no time in

rising well out of range.

The reports of the gun rouse the other habitués of the lake into

action and now follows a sight that can never be forgotten—a sight

that must leave an indelible impress on the mind of every sports-

man who shoots on the Manchar. The birds rise in their thousands

to the accompaniment ofa veritable babel of flapping, swishing,

spattering, honks, quacks and a variety of other noises. Nowcome

the pochards and the shoveilers, spotbills, mallard and teal ali in a

jumble, some swishing past in orderly flocks overhead, others flying

singly or in twos and threes. The clouds of mixed species that rise,

soon resolve themselves into little parties of their own. Unfortu-

nately the wind keeps up and spoils the fun. The birds get steadily

higher and higher and are soon quite out of range. Our gunners

have been feverishly active all this while, and the firing has been

fast and furious. The average of kills however, dwindles off appal-

lingly after the first few fusilades, and in the later stages of the shoot

the sportsman has to rely more upon his luck than on his skill.

In a very short time the birds have disappeared. The tiring now

becomes sporadic and far between as an occasional mallard or

white-eye returns blundering past to reconnoitre ground so lately

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE |

1. NEGOTIATING THE REEDY MARGINAL SHALLOWS.

Up sennpiin:

NS ANON OA XS.

2. NEARING THE BUTTS.

(Note masses of wildfowl in the background).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

4. THE FOWLERS ABOUT

TO ENTER A FLOCK.

Prate if

A SIND LAKE ; 463

evacuated. Very good sport may sometimes be had at this stage,

as the gunner need be in no hurry, and the tendency to ‘ brown’

flocks, which is perhaps the most important cause that contributes

towards unsatisfactory averages, is eliminated.

None of the Grey Lag Geese which formed such an imposing

array on the mud-banks in our front have come our way during the

drive except a pair, of which one fell and the other was disgracefully

missed. During operations, a great many skeins have been noticed

flying over, well out of range, in the direction of the young wheat

and gram on the farther margin of the lake. The masses that rose

at the first shot have also madea bee-line for these parts. A

hasty confab of the shikaries decides that our acquaintance with

the birds might be renewed with advantage, and we push off. Ali

the way in the punts, flock upon flock of the geese are observed

leisurely winging their way towards their rendezvous flying

studiedly out of range and frankly disdainful of our murderous

aspirations. Notwithstanding the obvious, the more enthusiastic

section of our party have been totally incapable of restraining the

trigger-finger. On the universally accepted and sound principle

that accidents wz// happen in the best regulated households, the

Mannlichers are brought into action, but magazine after magazine

has failed to disturb the complacence of the assaulted, who doubt-

less regard it all as a rather meaningless and totally unnecessary

demonstration on the part of the human biped.

True, one ‘accident’ did happen. A stray bullet caught the

leader of a wedge plumb in the centre of his fat body blowing his

back completely away, and the bird arrested dead in his flight as if

by a stroke of heart failure, hurtling down like a stone through 500

feet or more of space presented a remarkable spectacle. ‘This

event of course roused hopes which conduced to dissipate ammuni-

tion in the shortest possible time !

In an hour we are on the farther shore. Punts are discarded and

a rigorous tramp of about three miles over slushy ground brings us

within reach of our objective. By the time we arrive at our destination

it is 10.30. ‘lhe distant fields, as far as the eye can reach, are one

seething mass of jostling Grey Lags, but the total absence of

suitable cover presents a problem. ‘The shikaries however are up

to the game. They put their heads together and we soon find our-

selves hustled along to within a few hundred yards of the birds—

now crouching, now crawling on all fours, now halting motionless

then again running cautiously forward taking the fullest advantage

of every unevenness the ground offers. Here we are made to squat

behind diminutive tussocks of grass in ankle-deep water, all in aline

at intervals of a hundred yards or so. The beaters who have gone

ahead in the opposite direction, seeing us safely ensconsed, com-

mence walking towards the birds. The foremost to scent trouble

are the odd parties feeding on the outskirts who rise, as often as

not to settle again after circling the fields. When the men have

managed to edge themselves more or less into the centre of the

congregation, the shout is raised. The sight that now ensues com-

pletely baffles description. Momentarily your horizon is obscured

by dense masses of Grey Lag Geese and the din of their honking is

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

such as to render the various excited injunctions of your shikari

positively inaudible. The birds spread themseives over a vast

front. The guns have been placed directly in their line of retreat

to the lake, and you presently see a few thousands coming

your way. You crouch and prepare to send up your greetings,

cylinder and choke, but before you have been able to gauge the

range, the great multitude have swept over, and now come smailer

skeins which happily are flying lower. You hear shots from your

neighbours and occasional heavy splashes in response. The birds

swerve to right or left, but before they can rise much higher they

are directly over you. If you remain cool and collected and pick

out your birds before firing, a couple of rights and lefts will bring

you two brace without difficulty. If ambitiously inclined, however,

and aspiring to a record bag by ‘browning’ the flock, you wilias

likely as not be left cursing your stars with a clear blue sky above and

precious little to compensate for it in the nature of birds in hand !

This briefly is the typical programme of a day’s shooting on the

Manchar, which with sundry variations may be experienced by all

sportsmen who shoot on the lake.

A couple of days were spent in watching the wildfow] netting and

fishing operations of the mohanas, which proved both enjoyable and

instructive.

The flesh of the coot, though somewhat rank and fishy to ‘ sophis-

ticated’ palates is held at a premium by the Sindhi, especially of the

poorer classes. He prefers it toduck and other wildtowl, and the

coot accordingly is a coveted object of the mohana’s attentions and

devices.

There are numerous little villages and hamlets by the shores of

the Manchar and most of the larger dhunds in Sind, the inhabitants

of which subsist throughout the cold weather months either on the

flesh of this unfortunate bird or otherwise by the wherewithal pro-

vided by traffic therein. In the neighbourhood of every such

village may be seen masses of coots’ feathers which bespeak the

sad fate of the many gone before. Coots sell in the villages at

about two annas apiece, and owing to their ready demand, bring

brisk business to the fowler. A véry common method of capturing

the birds is for a man to wade into the shallows frequented by the

coots, wearing on his head in the form of a cap, the complete skin

of a duck with head and neck properly set up, and provided with

breathing and eye-holes for the fowler. Under cover of this decep-

tion he stalks gradualiy up right into the midst of an unsuspecting

flock, nothing visible except the harmless looking decoy on his

head. When well within the assembly, the fell work commences.

A bird is grabbed by the leg under water and in the twinkling of an

eye, before it has time to flutter, the victim disappears below the

surface. Its legs are bound up with water weeds and the captive

firmly secured to a belt round the fowler’s waist. The other mem-

bers of the flock have noticed nothing of this foul treachery, and are

as confiding as before. Presently a second bird disappears, a third

follows rapidly, and then a fourth. Shrewd suspicions now begin

to cross the minds of the silly coots and misgivings become appa-

rent as to things being as they should ; there is certainly something

‘NOILIV NI $1205 AH,

‘HOLVO InassHooaS YW °S

"20 "}SIP] yen) Aequiog ‘-uanor

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

7. RED-CRESTED POCHARDS IN A Dhubbi NET.

8, REMOVAL OF CAPTIVES FROM Dhubét.

siaiade

A SIND LAKE: *.° °° hee 465

wrong somewhere! A number of the birds spatter away some

distance from this mysterious duck, but are too dense however to

detect that unlike other self-respecting ducks, this one of. their

suspicions that follows steadily, progresses backwards or sideways !

The eye- and breathe-holes for the fowler are placed near the vent

and undertail coverts of the skin, so that the decoy and the man

below are facing in opposite directions! When the fowler has

gathered half a dozen birds or so below the water, he fastens their

legs together and moving off some distance from the flock, he

allows his ring of captives to come to the surface for breath. It not

infrequently happens that when sport is good and the fowler

ambitious, some delay occurs in this very necessary operation with

the result that several of the hapless prisoners are drowned.

Leaving the knot of captured birds on the water, the wily mohana

again sidles into the flock and the process is repeated. Thus it is not

unasual for twenty or thirty birds to be taken by a single man in the

course of a morning’s work. Duck are also taken in this manner,

but the stupidity of the coot lends itself particularly to this

device, and they make by far the more ready victims. By way

of a variation, in place of the duck-skin cap a tame cormorant is

frequently perched on the man’s head, and the bird appears to parti-

cipate whole-heartedly and to enjoy the sport thoroughly. This

method of fowling is of great antiquity and has been pursued

through the ages practically unchanged in every detail. It was

greatly in vogue in the time of the Emperor Akbar.

A method of netting wildfow] on a somewhat larger scale is

known as the Diubdi. Here a net, about 30 feet 20 feet is stret-

ched on the shallow bed of the lake at a favourite feeding ground

of the birds. A quantity of grit from the neighbouring barren hills

is sprinkled over the net by way of bait. A drag-line, 200 yards or

more, is attached to one end of the net by the pulling of which the

net closes up in the form of a Gladstone bag.

i Lif

Pa &

a |_| } \

Quiman eves Snaeene aeeneye lato eer

LY 7] a Ena oot ease

= Eanae pees

ie] a) a

Ae aie

S EEEEEECR EEE

Fee :

Pia eee

Paice

4am

ATA

Open “Dhu bby’ Net

net closes A meels B and C neels D.

Fug. 1.

When

Drag Line

ST ae _ 7 =

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

The fowler withthe loose end of this line conceals himself and

his punt ameng the reeds at a distance and keeps a vigilant look-out.

While ‘tipping ’ about for food, the presence of the grit is dis-

covered by the birds and this marks a general scramble for the spot

within the sphere of influence of the hidden net. Now is the time

for the fowler to get busy: the line is pulled steadily and gradually

till one final and mighty heave leaves the birds entangled. One of

my photos shows thirty-five Red-crested Pochards taken ina net of

this size. The fowler now approaches, and removing one captive

after another, proceeds in the most matter of fact manner to inter-

lock their wings—twisting one wing round the other over the

back—and to dump the birds mercilessly into his punt prior to pack-

ing them up in crates for despatch to Karachi and other markets.

On a vaster scale, and for business on wholesale lines, the modus

operandi of the mohanas is as follows :—

A flight-net about 12 feet high and a quarter of a mile or more in

length is stretched on upright poles across a portion of the lake in

the proximity of some favourite feeding ground, with due regard to

direction of wind, etc. This net is turned up at the bottom, just

below the water-line, to form a continuous bag running all along the

the lower border. A quantity of the beloved grit is dropped along

the length of this net. Ducks, geese, coots and other wildfowl

gatherin their hundreds tofeed on this spot at night, and under

cover of the darkness a number of punts move up in line for-

mation from the opposite direction collecting and driving the un-

conscious birds towards the net. When the punts have advanced

to within thirty yards or so of this ‘barrier of twine’, a signal is

given and a terrific uproar set up. Lighted faggots and torches

are all of a sudden hurled at the birds who rise in distraction and

attempt to flee in the opposite direction. Before they are able to get

well under way and rise high enough to clear the cryptic net, they

dash into it headlong to be thrown down fluttering into the gaping

bag below, whence they are soonextracted by the mohanas who

hurry forward anon. In this manner athousand or more birds may

be taken in the course of a single drive.

A rather sporting method of procuring coots for the pot is

frequently indulged in by the mohanas. The gadgets employed in

this sport are a powerful bow made of bamboo and a number of

blunt, headless, unfeathered arrows, about three feet in length and

three-quarters of an inch thick. The hunters approach a flock of coots

in punts and divesting themselves of their clothing to very nearly the

irreducible minimum, launch into the waist-deep water where they

crouch submerged up to their chins in a row at intervals of fifteen

yards or thereabouts. The punts move off to round up the birds and

drive them towards the bowmen or Gazisas they are called. For

some time the coots continue to swim away from the advancing

punts and in the direction of the archers, but on being pursued

closer, they attempt to rise. They spatter along the surface before

taking off, and by the time they are over the line of bowmen they

are scarcely higher than fifteen or twenty feet. The men who

have hitherto been immersed to their chins with bow and arrow

in readiness under water, suddenly pop up and discharge their

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE V

10. INTERIOR OF THE SAME,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

11. FISHING ON THE MANCHAR—LANDING THE CATCH.

12. ANOTHER SNAP OF THE LANDING OPERATIONS.

467

He wiil spend the

A SIND LAKE

The arrows strike the birds crosswise, i.e., on the flat,

and often with such force as to take a wing clean off. The men are

four or five birds.

The mohana’s methods of fishing also afford interesting watching,

and the industry and hard labour entailed by some of the Jess whole-

sale systems leave one in strong doubt as to whether after all the

zeal displayed is not worthy of a better cause!

best part of a morning—his family in full strength participating —

such adepts at the game that misses are a rare occurrence, and a

volley from half a dozen bowmen seldom accounts for less than

rocking his boat from side to side and creating the most deafening

and unholy row with tom-toms and copper ‘dekchies’ in attempts

to drive the fish into the nets he has put up at a distance, and when

missiles.

Direction °f drive

Reaizacara,

2S Saetuges a

y= @aenmasa

J aoe ane

So ssucnenmes

2 = ea Gy es a

STR EE,

es =

rT)) tity

plissecee

| f

PSCPEET ,——

sS fp tf «. if

TCC) to bff —f Fk} een aN

3 He | A] RSS

rasssnan=— poo

. ere eS

<< eee i ert << BSS

aeaee ‘on Tan WS a ee F

~ a, TC a’'g

\SSamanar ene »

ES SESSA

DS ESS

CSSA |

Se ==- ’

OA a

eee =

Sr S

SS SSD

level

Fig. R

With

pull out a single fish or sometimes a couple—a catch not worth

everything has gone off well and ‘ according to programme ’, he will

more than four annas!

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII

In one of the methods most commonly employed, the nets are

arranged as shown in Figure 2.

The fish are finally driven into the enclosed spaces marked A and

B whence the mohanas land them by diving, or ifthe water be

shallow, by means of a hand net like the one shown in the photo

(Noes)

The most important fish of Sind is the Pala (Clupca ilisha). Itis

a sea fish belonging to the same genus as the herring, and ascends

the Indus in the months of February and March for spawning in

enormous numbers. Fora short period at this time, this species

fairly swarms the Manchar. Next in importance come the Dambhro

(Labeo rohtta) which may grow to a length of three feet, and the Worz

(Cirrhina mirgala). Two specimens from the lake sent to the Indian

Museum, Calcutta, have been identified by Dr. S. L. Hora as these

species.

When the catch is not large enough to warrant its being carried to

market, the fish are kept over till the next day, the day after, or

even longer. The mohana, on withdrawing a fish from the landing

net, probes deep into the animal’s side just below the spinal chord

with a large skewer-like needle. Having thus paralysed his captive,

he proceeds in the most callous manner imaginable to drive this

same needle threaded with twine through one eye-socket and out

through the mouth. The fish along with other hapless ones is now

secured to the punt and the bunch is left floating listlessly on the

water in a comatose condition till gathered in and carried off to

market. It is thus that the mohana always manages to supply

‘fresh fish’!

Apart from duck-shooting, which is par excellence the sport of Sind

in general and of the Manchar in particular, by far the most en-

grossing charm of the Manchar lies in the unequalled variety of bird-

life it presents. I mention only a few of the species met with in

the course of a day’s casual observation when the main object was

shooting. This is only a very small fraction of the species I was

able to recognize, and in addition there were a host of others which

could not be identified for obvious reasons.

Flocks of Starlings, chiefly from five to twenty birds but some-

times hundreds, kept about the margins of the lake feeding on the

semi-marshy grassland whence the water had lately receded. A

specimen obtained proved to be Srurnus vulgaris nobilior.

Wagtails were plentiful, both along the margin of the lake and in

the shallows overgrown with the lotus plant, where they could settle

on and hop about from one floating leaf to another. The common-

est species—specimens of which were secured and have since been

identified by Dr. C. B. Ticehurst—were: (1) The Indian White

Wagtail (Aotacilla alba dukhunensts); (2) The Blue-headed Wagtail

(M. flava melanogriseus); and (3) The Yellow-headed Wagtail (JZ.

cttreola).

The Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudts leucomelanura) was perhaps the

commonest kingfisher. Seen mostly in parties of four or five.

Extremely pretty to watch as he hovers stationary over the water

and hurls himself head foremost at some unsuspecting fish from a

height of fifteen to twenty feet. The small Alcedo atthis pallasi was

aE Sa :

A SIND LAKE 469

also notuncommon. His tactics as a general rule differ fronr those

of his pied cousin. He sits on a branch rarely five or six feet above

the surface and drops perpendicularly on a passing fish with which

he flies off to a neighbouring perch.

The Indian Purple Moorhen (Porphyrio poliocephalus poliocephalus) :

This bird was an extremely common frequenter of the reed beds,

where it must breed. An immature male was caught by the

mohanas by surrounding a patch of reeds in which it had taken

refuge, being unable to fly well. It looked lean and lanky. The

iris were brown; bald patch on forehead and bill] black, slightly red-

dish on lower mandible. Legs and feet pale orange brown.

Coot (Fulica atra atra): As mentioned before, this is without

doubt the most abundant species onthelake. Besides the incessant

ravages of man, a great many fall victims to the numerous species

of accipitrine birds that ceaselessly beat over the waters of the

dhund. Iwas the fortunate witness of a raid ona flock of coot by

a large eagle, the species of which I was unable to ascertain owing

to the distance. It was I think either the Imperial Eagle (Aguzla

heliaca) or the Large-spotted Eagle (Aguzla clanga) both of which

were common about the locality. The plan of attack was interesting.

The eagle swooped down on the compact flock (about 200 birds)

and in this first bout broke it up. Several of the coots spattered

off, some dived below the surface while others swam away as fast

as possible from the scene of assault. The eagle renewed the attack

three or four times, till, having made confusion worse confounded, it

succeeded in isolating from the flock an individual which promptly

dived. This was the assailant’s opportunity. After a couple of

unsuccessful stoops, whenever the coot appeared on the surface for

breath, the eagle bore down on him like a hurricane and carried

him away in his talons.

In this particular case I was able to notice nothing of the singular

manner, often described, in which coots are said to defend them-

selves against eagles. It has been recorded that on the appearance

over them of one of these birds, the coots collect in a dense body

and when the eagle stoops at them, they throw up a sheet of water

with their feet and completely baffle the enemy.

No cranes, neither Megalornis grus liltordt nor Anthropotdes virgo,

were seen. I was informed that it was as yet somewhat early for

them and that they swarmed the localities, especially round our

latter camp, Janghar, in January and February when the crops were

fully grown.

White-tailed Lapwings (Chettusza leucura) were fairly common

along mud banks, feeding in companies of four or five birds.

The Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa limosa): This bird

was extremely abundant on the shores of the lake near Shah Hassan.

Their numbers must run into tens of thousands, and large patches

near the margin of the water were literally obscured by their

multitudes.

The Caspian Tern (Hydroprogne caspia caspia): Numbers of

this beautiful tern were seen flying over the lake. When one of the

specimens I shot dropped into the water, it was immediately swoop-

ed upon by a Marsh Harrier (Czrcus eruginosus) which is perhaps the

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

most numerous species of the Accipitres about the lake. This bird

was also secured.

The Black Ibis (/uzocotis papillosus): Flocks of from twelve to

twenty birds, feeding on the drier portions of the lake margin.

The Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus): Parties of twelve to fifteen

birds appeared to be the usual thing. When flying away from or

coming towards one in their usual V formation, they are easily mis-

taken for geese at a distance.

The Large White Egret (Zgvetia alba): Only two pairs were

seen and one specimen secured. The birds were very shy and

wary. Measurements of this specimen were as follows: Bill from

forehead feathers, 127 mm., tarsus 214 mm., bill yellow; legs and

feet greenish-black.

The Bar-headed Goose (Amser indicus): It was significant that

during the three or four days spent at Shah Hassan not a single

bird of this species was seen. When camp was shifted to Jhangar,

about eight miles eastward, it was found that all the geese

frequenting this portion of the dhand were indicus and no Grey

Lags were observed. The two species appeared to have appor-

tioned off distinct zones. The numbers of these birds were consider-

ably less than those of the Grey Lag at Shah Hassan. Some large

flocks were seen feeding on the young wheat and gram by the dhand

in the early mornings and at sundown. ‘They feed throughout the

night and repair to the open water during the day where they ride

on the surface and rest.

Among the ducks, the commonest species by far appeared to be

the White-eyed Pochard (Wyvoca ruta rufa). This bird is an expert

diver, and unless squarely hit it dives and holds on to the sub-

merged water weeds andis then extremely difficult to recover.

The Little Grebe (Podiceps albtpennis): This little bird is also ex-

tremely abundant in the shallows. Flocks of fifty to sixty birds were

common, and the rapidity with which they dived was indeed remark-

able. When fired at, in many cases they had almost disappeared

below the surface before the charge reached them! My diary records

the following peculiarity as regards the colouration of the irides in

fresh specimens which in the Fauna (Azrds, Ist edn. vol. i, p. 475)

is stated to be ‘red-brown’.

tng bo fs fs

Some of the other birds seen on the lake and in its precincts

were :

The Spoonbill (Platalea leucorodia major); Large flocks on mud

banks,

A SIND LAKE 471

The Common Heron (Ardea cinerea cinerea): Quite common.

Seen singly.

The Desert Buzzard (Buteo buteo rutiventer): Seen usually in

pairs perched on mounds near the lake. Obtained a specimen.

The Pale Harrier (Circus macrourus): Extremely common.

Continuously beating over the shallows everywhere.

Before concluding, a few hints as to how a shoot on the Manchar

can be arranged may prove useful to intending sportsmen.

It is best to get into communication with the Deputy Collector

of Sehwan (Larkana District) and inform him well in advance of the

dates on which you propose to shoot. The stations to get down at

are either Sehwan or Bubak Road on the N.W. Rly. (Karachi-Lahore)

at both of which places tongas can be easily got. If you leave

Karachi at 11 p.m. you reach Sehwan at 9 a.m. the next day, and

Bubak Road is only 20 minutes further on. About Rs. 5 per day

for a punt and crew would be enough.

There are no bungalows on the Manchar. The P. W. D.

Bungalow at Bubak might be used. The Local Board Bungalow at

Shah Hassan where we stopped is a long way from the Railway.

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA

R: 7. Pocock. F.R.Ss

(With 1 coloured and 1 black and white plate and 21 text figures)

THE DIFFERENCES BETWEEN THE LANGURS AND THE MACAQUES

Although the name Langur is, strictly speaking, the Hindi title for certain

Monkeys restricted to the northern parts of India, it has been extended during

recent years to include a great variety of related forms widely distributed in

the East. In this paper I have adopted it for all the eastern monkeys which

are not Macaques.

The Langurs are found. mostly in thickly forested districts, throughout

British India from Kashmir and Upper Burma in the north to Ceylon and

Tenasserim in the south. Outside that area they extend into southern China |

and Siam and through the Malay Peninsula to Borneo. There are several |

genera; but the only one which, as occurring within the British area, |

concerns us at the present time, is the genus now called Pzthecus, which was

formerly better known as Semnopithecus or Presbytts.

Except where regarded as sacred and encouraged to enter native villages,

Langurs avoid the presence of man and are essentially dwellers in the tree-tops,

feeding mainly upon leaves, shoots and buds and, in case of alarm, passing from

branch to branch with prodigious leaps or swinging from one branch to another

by means of their arms somewhat after the manner of Gibbons. ‘They are less

terrestrial and more arboreal than the Macaques and differ from them also in

diet. And the differences in these respects between these two groups of monkeys

are accompanied by important structural modifications connected with the

digestive organs and limbs. The Macaques have large cheek-pouches and

a comparatively small, simple stomach, whereas in the Langurs there are

no check-pouches and the stomach is capacious and sacculated. In the second

place the hands and feet of the Macaques are shorter and broader than in

the Langurs and have a larger thumb and great toe. (Text figs. 1A, iB, 2A, |

2B, 3A and 3B.) |

Fic. 1.—A. Simple stomach of the Common B. Sacculated stomach of Ceylonese Langur

Macaque (/JZacaca trus) from the Malay ( Pithecus senex vetulus).

Peninsula.

Half nat. size.-

Half nat. size

= — Wie al psy es

—— ~ : yyy

— ee \

K ek G (WY Qi, NESS

elie, JOS ory

a OS Ge ene ay WW

: Sa) | cee NN AY

B. Hand of Malabar Macaque (Macaca stlenus).

si Gu Wr

Fic, 2.—A. Hand of Indian Langur (Pzthecus entellus).

Half nat. size.

Half nat. size,

Fic. 3.—A. Foot of Indian Langur {Pithecus entellus).

B. Foot of Malabar Macaque (Macaca silenus).

474. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

These differences are expressed by referring the Macaques and Langurs to two

distinct families, the Macaques to the Cercopithecid@, which also includes

the Baboons, Mangabeys, and some other African Monkeys, and the Langurs to

the Colobid@, which also includes the Guerezas (Colobus) of Central Africa.

THE CLASSIFICATION OF THE LANGURS

For the original descriptions of the Langurs of British India we are indebted

to many authors, more particularly to Blyth; but the most important attempt

to deal with them comprehensively was made by Anderson, who not only had

in his hand Blyth’s specimens in the Calcutta Museum, but also made a point of

seeing, where possible, the speciinens described by French, Dutch and other

foreign zoologists and preserved in the Museums of various countries in Europe.

This work which is a monographic revision of all the species of Langurs, then

called Semnopithecus, known up to that time, was published in 1878 in the

Zoological Results of the two Expeditions to Western Yunnan. It was an

important treatise and formed the basis of Blanford’s account of the Langurs

contained in his classic volume of the Wammals of British India, published in

1891, and of Forbes’s account of these monkeys in vol. ii of his Handbook of

the Primates, 1894. But the arrangement and treatment of the species in the

three volumes cited does not attest any clear understanding of their mutual

affinities on the part of the authors; and this statement is still more true of

Elliot’s classification of the Langurs contained in vol. iii of his Review of the

Primates, published as recently as 1913.

On working through the collection in the British Museum, I find evidence

that the Langurs of the genus /Pzthecus may be divided primarily into three

groups sharply distinguishable by the colour of the newly-born young; and this

character is sometimes correlated with others in the skull, coloration or other

external features of the adult which make it possible to assign with some degree

of assurance to one or the other of the groups those species in which the

coloration of the young has not as yet been ascertained.

These groups may be defined as follows :—

Group 1.—Newly born young, a uniform dark blackish-brown all over.

(Plate I, fig. 3).

This group, which may be called the Auéellus-group, since the Entellus

Langur is the best known species contained in it, is restricted to India and

Ceylon and ranges in suitable localities throughout those countries from the

Himalayas southwards but does not, so far as is known, cross the Brahmaputra.

All the known Langurs of this group are discussed in this paper. I refer them

to two well-defined species, Pzthecus entellus and Pithecus senex, each of which

is represented by several local races or subspecies. The colour of the young

has not been recorded, so far as | am aware, in the typical form of either

of these; but it is known in the subspecies. dussumieri and achates, which are

admittedly closely related to typical entellus, and in the subspecies johnzz

which is admittedly closely related to typical senex.

Group II.—Newly born young, a uniform golden or orange red all over.

(Plate 1,sfic. 1):

This group, which may be called the Auratus-group after one of its earliest

known species, ranges from Assam, Upper Burma and Siam southwards through

the Malay States, Sumatra, Java and Borneo. So far as British India is

concerned it is represented by two distinct species, Pzthecus pileatus found in

Assam and other districts near at hand, and Pizthecus auratus which, as here

understood, extends from Upper Chindwin to Southern Tenasserim. Both these

species are represented within the British Indian area by several local races.

Group Il/.—Newly born young parti-coloured, white below, on the sides

of the body, the legs and the forepart of the head, but with a blackish or dark

brown spinal stripe of varying width extending from the back of the head

on to the tail and usually at all events spreading more or less on to the

outer side of the arms. (Plate I, fig. 2).

This group I call the Aygula-group, from the oldest known species belonging

to it. Containing several distinct species and subspecies in Borneo, Java,

Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, this group is more southern in its distribution

than the 4uratus-group and only just enters our area in South Tenasserim

where it is represented by Pithecus femoralis, a species well known in the

Malay Peninsula.

|RN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC.

I. The Auratus-Group.

& SEABORNE, LTD.

LONDON,

NEWLY-BORN LANGURS

2. The Aygula-Group.

3. The Entellus-Group.

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 475

My conclusions regarding the numbers of different kinds of Langurs occurring

in British India and concerning the importance of the differences between

them vary considerably from those of my predecessors. It is needless here

to enter into the details of this subject since they are set forth in the following

pages ; but it must be explained that the divergence of opinion is due mainiy

to two things. In the first place, I use the word ‘species’ in a much

wider and more comprehensive sense than that adopted by those who

determined the langurs collected by the Mammal Survey, a great many of

the forms they considered as species being regarded by me as subspecies

or local races. In the second place, as compared with the pioneer workers,

Blyth, Anderson and Blanford, I have had the advantage of most of the

splendid material collected by the Mammal Survey, organized by the Bombay

Natural History Society. Where the authors mentioned had only one or

two, probably badly preserved skins and a few skulls to guide them, I

have had several, in some cases a dozen or more properly prepared, measured

and dated skins, from various localities, with skulls to match.

This material has revealed greater individual variation, especially perhaps in

the skulls, than was formerly supposed to exist; and it has established the

occurrence of a number of local races or subspecies linking forms to which,

in the absence, or rather ignorance, of interyrading types, full specific rank was

by common consent formerly accorded.

Although the material collected by the Survey has vastly extended our

knowledge of the Langurs of British India, it cannot be claimed that it has made

easier the task of naming them. It has, indeed, greatly increased the difficulty

of constructing analytical keys to facilitate their determination because it

has shown the impossibility of assigning definite and constant characters to

all the named representatives of this group. There is still much to be learnt

about them. Further collections in areas not yet investigated, like the eastern

parts of India from Orissa to south of Madras, will almost certainly bring

to light new local races and will perhaps show that some of the forms here

nominally distinguished are based upon characters not deserving that distinction.

For the most part I have had several specimens to guide me; but in others

I have been compelled to rely upon a single locally isolated example; and

in cases where I have given a name to one or two such examples, it has

been to draw especial attention to some particular character of interest,

although of doubtful systematic value.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT OF THE SPECIES AND SUBSPECIES

The characters of the three groups above described into which the Langur

of British India fall may be expressed analytically as follows :—

(a2) Newly born young uniformly coloured above and

below ; never more than one frontal whorl in the

hair on the head ; nasal bones in the skull not

convexly bulging below the brow.

(6) Newly born young uniformly blackish brown.

(Himalayas to Ceylon) .. Lntellus-group.

(61) Newly born young uniformly golden yellow | or

golden red. (Assam to Tenasserim) .. Auratus-group

(a*) Newly born young particoloured, white with a

black or brown spinal stripe from the head to the

tail tip; a pair of frontal whorls; nasal bones

convexly bulging below the brow. (S. Tenasserim) d4ygula-group.

I, The ENTELLUS-group.

Characters as set forth above.

The Langurs of this group were referred by Blanford and other authors to six

or seven or even more species. But that method of treating them does not

express their true affinities. They are very obviously assignable to two categories

to which I give specific rank and their characters may be contrasted as follows:—

(2) Asingle whorl or parting on the forehead behind

the brow ; hair of the loins not shorter than else-

where on the back ; lower side of the body paler

than the upper; skull with prominent brows, the

plane of the orbit sloping downwards and back-

wards from its upper to its lower rim ... .. entellus,

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

(a*) No whorl on the forehead ; hair on the loins, or |

croup, shorter than on the back and typically

paler ; lower side of the body approximately the

same colour as the upper ; skull with less promi- |

nent brows, the plane of the orbit sloping down- |

wards and forwards from its upper to its lower |

TID. Her aoe ay aoe - SCHEX. |

1. Pithecus entellus, Dufresne.

Simia entellus, Dufresne Bull. Soc. Phil., Paris, i, p. 49, 1797. |

It is needless to repeat the distinguishing characters of this species as stated

above. Itis also needless to quote more than the original reference to the name,

because I use the specific title in amuch more comprehensive sense than my

predecessors to embrace the Langurs assigned by Blyth, Anderson, Blanford

and other authors to several distinct species, schzstaceus, entellus, hypoleucos,

anchises and priam, all of which, with the possible exception of azchises, I

regard merely as local races or subspecies of a single species for which estellus

appears to be the oldest name available. |

Distribution. North of the Ganges from Kashmir to Sikkim, possibly to |

Bhutan, and south of the Ganges from Cutch and Kathiawar to Bengal, thence

southwards into northern Ceylon.

KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OF P. enfellus |

(a) Whiskers long and thick, mostly or completely hiding

the ears ; head and whiskers uniformly whitish or

pale buff and contrasted with tint of back. (N. of

Ganges).

(6) Coat long, shaggy and mane-like ; arms below

elbows black and strongly contrasted with

colour of body ont GIO.

(6+) Coat shorter, not shaggy and mane- -like ; arms

and hands not black and not sharply con-

trasted with colour of body.

thick and woolly ... achilles.

(c1) General colour paler, slaty or greyish- -buff :

coat shorter and less woolly.

(2) Skull larger, with Pas nasal

region and larger teeth . hector.

(dq?) Skull smaller, with less. prominent

nasal region and smaller teeth we. SChistaceus.

(at) Whiskers shorter, not or only partly hiding ears ;

head and whiskers variable but never so white

and strongly contrasted as in section (a) (S. of

Ganges).

{e) Hands and feet black and generally sharply

contrasted with the arms and legs.

(f) Crown of head at most only a little paler

than nape and shoulders ; hands and feet

black or brown and typically sharply con-

trasted with arms and legs... entellus.

(f+) Crown of head clearly defined from the

shoulders and back by its paler tint.

(g) No tuft on crown; upper portion of

whiskers typically clouded with black.

(hk) Paler; crown of head uniformly

buffish in tint; tail and outside

and inside of legs below knees not

black. y

(z) Arms below elbows not black,

contrasted with the hands ... achates.

(71) Arms below the elbows black,

blending with tint of. hands.

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 477

(7) Paler ; cheeks pale like the

crown : dussumtiert.

(77) Darker ; upper part of

cheeks blackish .. 2ulus.

(A) Darker; crown of head suffused

with dark hairs ; tail and outside

and inside of leg below knee

black.

(k) Notso dark above or below ;

inner side of thigh clothed

with white hairs ; size smaller Ayvfoleucos.

(£*) Darker above and _ below ;

inner side of thigh mostly

clothed with black hairs;

size larger ies . C@neas.

(g*) -Agtiit On-the: crown ; upper portion

of whiskers pale like the crown ... elisa.

(e1) Hands and feet not black, practically uniform

in colour with the arms and legs. ;

(7) Crown of head pale, like the cheeks, and

contrasted with back ; notuft;sizesmaller priamellus.

(77) Crown of head typically darker than

cheeks, hardly contrasted with back,

and typically tufted ; size large .. pallipes:

In the construction of this key, my aim has been the juxtaposition of what

appear to be related forms, although it would perhaps have been easier to make

a frankly artificial analytical table by the rearrangement of the characters em-

ployed. But the actual or probable occurrence of intergrading specimens, it

must be remembered, makes the construction of such keys difficult and their use

somewhat unsatisfactory. Also it must be remembered that the distinctive

features of dussumierzt and hypoleucos, which I have not seen, have been inferred

from the descriptions of authors and that the form, also unknown to me, named

anchises by Blyth, which in the tint of its hands and feet is intermediate between

e and e?, has been omitted.

Subspecies schistaceus Hodgson.

Semnopithecus schistaceus, Hodgson, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, ix, p. 1212,

Semnopithecus nipalensis, id. 161d.

Not Semnopithecus schistaceus of Blanford, Anderson and other authors, or at

least only in part.

Dark slaty above; below and entire head pale yellow; hands and feet

somewhat darkened ; concolorous. Hair of one sort, more or less wavy. Head

and body, 30 inches ; tail, 36 inches ; hind foot, 83 inches.

Distribution. Nepal; the Terai Forest.

The description of this race given aboveis taken from Hodgson’s original

diagnosis which, as indicated by the measurements, was based in all probability

upon an adult male. It is important to remember this because the description

cannot be applied to the adult males of any of the Himalayan Langurs in the

collection of the British Museum.

This series comprises several examples belonging to Hodgson’s collection

which are ticketed Nepal. No doubt Hodgson regarded them as specifically

identical with the form he described as schistaceus ; but by no stretch of the

imagination can they be described as ‘dark slaty above.’ They are most

emphatically brown, without any perceptible trace of dark, or even light, grey to

justify the epithet ‘ slaty.’ Moreover, the available evidence suggests that these

brown langurs, as stated below, live at high altitudes in Nepal and possibly

Sikkim. There is at all events no evidence that I can find of their occurrence at

the relatively low level of the Terai Forest ; and this was the opinion of Blanford,

who supposed the langurs of the Terai to be typical entellus and thus rejected

Hodgson’s original locality for schistaceus. :

The only specimen in the British Museum that was shot at a low level in Nepal-

is a female procured for the Mammal Survey by N. A. Baptista at Hazaria

Aya!

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Pathergatti at an aititude of 300 feet. This has the clearly defined pale head,

the yellowish tinted under side and the uniform coloration of the upper side of

the body and outside of the limbs described by Hodgson for schistaceus and

Hinton and Fry? identified it as that form, probably quite correctly. It cannot,

it is true, be accurately described as ‘ dark slaty above,’ because the tint of the

upper side is pale and greyish-buff. The animal, however, isa female giving the

following approximate measurements in inches :--Head and Body, 23; Tail, 36;

Hind foot, 73; Ear, 13 ; and since the skull, although the teeth are fully up and

even worn, has the occipital suture open, the langur was probably not quite full-

sized and might wel! represent the female of schistaceus on the assumption that

Hodgson’s type of schistaceus was a male.

This skull is of particular interest because it is intermediate between the skulls

of typical extel/us of the low levels of Bengal and those of the large langurs

described below which inhabit the Himalayas at higher altitudes and have

always, but wrongly, been regarded as true schistaceus. Its measurements in

millimetres are as follows :—Total length, 115; lenyth of palate, 41; of upper

molars, 34; width across orbits, 64; across zygomata, 82. (Text fig. 4 B.)

It will thus be seen that it is noticeably smaller than the skulls of females of

the races from Chamba, Kumaon and Sikkim and has smaller teeth. On the

other hand, it hardly differs in these respects from the skulls of some examples of

entellus, although the face is more sloped and less vertical than in average

examples of that race owing to slightly greater prominence of the jaws, but the

suborbital area of the face does not recede more than it does in many examples

of entellus. The brow ridges are prominent and in the middle line rise vertical-

ly above the base of the nasals,

Pic. 4B.—Skull of Pithecus entellus schistaceus from

Hazaria Pathergatti in the Nepal Terai, 2 subadult.

Two-thirds nat. size.

Subspecies achilles, nov.

(Plated hos2.)

Semnopithecus schistaceus, Anderson, Blanford, Elliot and other authors, at

least in part.

Not S. schistaceus, Hodgson, 1841 (cf. swpra).

Distinguishable from schistacews by the nearly uniform chocolate or dusky

sepia brown colour of the upper side of the body, the tail and the outside of the

limbs. The upper surface, however, has a paler brown or buff sheen in

* Jour., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol, xxix, No. 2, p. 404, 1923,

PLATE 11.

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE Kanera Lanaur (P. entellus ajax)

THE NEPAL LANGUR

lles)

entellus achi

(

THE Common Laneur (P. entellus entellus)

ant Vy AL

’ , BY ‘ ;

, c vel ie t ne

; ‘he ‘ y had Fy : p

ms i n ‘ bs

Al i v7 i

: cat ; M has a uf

iJ PTneLy

! ‘ t ‘vei i ths onan

i ‘ brik mi Ai nae < ae

othe ti "oe . fie ¥

tet y 7 ah AY,

, t

‘ , mt eg

r E ry ieee

f iene

? ' i We -%

. = , , ‘ we

“ , , bi ‘ 7

mies

! .

i .

fy . * :

\ 3

' i

‘

. ‘ A '

‘

’ =-

. _

‘

| q y

s ‘

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 479

reflected light, the tip of the tail is sometimes pale and the hands and feet are

sometimes patched with black. Head and nape of neck and whiskers cream or

dirty white and contrasted with the brown hue of the shoulders. ‘The lower side

and the inner surfaces of the limbs whitish, sometimes tinged with buff.

Coat full, thick and long, but not markedly shagey, the hairs being tolerably

uniform in length and generally more or less wavy especially on the head.

Type. Adult male from the Satthar Hill (12,000 feet) in Gorkha, Nepal.

Distribution. Nepal at high altitudes ; and possibly Sikkim.

The only specimen certainly assignable to this race in the British Museura

which is labelled with full particulars is the type mentioned above, an adult

male shot for the Mammal Survey by N. A. Baptista at an altitude of 12,000 feet

on Satthar Hill, Gorkha, about 50 miles north-west of Khatmandu. Its

approximate measurements in inches are as follows :—

Head and Body © Tail Hind Foot Kar

30 364 | ge i

‘

These dimensions correspond tolerably closely with those recorded by

Hodgson for schistacews and with those of the males of the local race from

Chamba and Kangra described below.

The skull, too, although somewhat flatter along the top, is very like the skulls

of that subspecies, as the following dimensions in millimetres show :—

. f

Total length | Length of jLength of Upper

Palate Molars

; | Zygomatic

Orbital width | widen

In addition to the type, the British Museum possesses several skins of this

race belonging to Hodgson’s collection and ticketed Nepal. These, referred to

above under schistaceus, have always been regarded as schtstaceus. No doubt

they were considered to be identical with it by Hodgson himself and also by

Blanford who saw them. No doubt, too, they are the specimens, or some of the

Specimens, which induced Blanford to describe schtstaceus as ‘ earthy or

greyish-brown.’ Earthy-brown describes them well; but there is no grey in

the pelage of the upper side of the body. Blanford, however, like Anderson,

used the title schzstaceus in a comprehensive sense for all the big langurs living

at high altitudes in the Himalayas.

This race may also occur in Sikkim. There is at all events in the British

Museum a skin, alleged to have been collected in Sikkim by Mandelli, which is

in all important respects like the type and like Hodgson’s specimens. Moreover,

Elliot’s description of schistaceus which he said was ‘mars brown’ above, was

taken from a specimen in the Calcutta Museum ticketed Sikkim. And since

many of Hodgson’s specimens ticketed Nepal came, as Hinton has shuwn, from

Sikkim, Hodgson’s examples of achilles referred to above, may have come from

the latter country.

The available skull material of achilles is unfortunately scanty. Setting aside

the skull of the type, perhaps the most important is that of a young female

belonging to one of Hodgson’s specimens. A comparison between this skull

and that of the female described above as schzstaceus is interesting, It is much

younger as is shown not only by the distinctness of its sutures but more

particularly by the state of its dentition, the upper canine and last upper molar

only just appearing above the bone of the jaw, both being probably covered by

thegum when the monkey was alive. Nevertheless its measurements in

millimetres are as follows :—Total length, 112; length of palate, 40; of upper

molar series, 37; width across orbits, 69; across zygomata, 85. Thus it is

wider across the eyes and temples, has larger teeth andas longa palate, and

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

although a trifle shorter owing to the lesser development of the occiput, it would

certainly have exceeded the length of the skull of schistaceus with growth. The

profile too is very different and recalls that of the skull of the female of the race

from Kumaon, described below, in the prominence of the nose and the receding

brow.

Of Langurs from Kashinir there is very little material in the British Museum,

namely two skins only. These, however, appear to be identical with the Nepal

form achilles. This is perhaps surprising considering the difference between

achilles and the Langur of Chamba and Kanera described below.

I provisionally refer to achilles four skins from Sikkim which are a little

paler and greyer than skins from Nepal, but like them in the length and

texture of the winter coat. The dimensions of three out of these four female

specimens, collected in December and January for the Mammal Survey by

Mr. C. A. Crump, are as follows :—

| |

See Head & Hind | aS

Locality Body Tail foot | Kar | Weight

Chautang,5,350 ft, 2 fe. | 263°— | 33%—)| 87 —| 12” | ae

Lachen, 8,800 ft. 2 ea Solem 26h aye ee 35 Ibs.

Chautang, 5,356 ft.2 _... el BEE SO ees aS are ae

The only available adult skull is defective, one side of it having been shot

away. It isa little lower in its facial portion than the female skulls of hector

and ajax, but this may be an individual peculiarity because otherwise it is very

similar, except that the nasal region is less prominent that in hector and like

that of the Kangra examples of ajax. Its total length is 125 mm., and the

upper molar and premolar teeth measure 38 mm.

This is probably the Langur which has previously been recorded from

Sikkim as schistaceus. But, as stated above, there is in the British Museum a

skin labelled Sikkim which was collected by Mandelli and presented by

Blanford. But this skin is racially indistinguishable from Nepalese skins of

achilles ; and since, according to Blanford, Mandelli’s localities are not trust-

worthy, it is not improbable that the skin in question came from Nepal and

not from Sikkim. And the same may be said of the example of achilles in the

Caleutta Museum from Sikkim which Elliot described as schistaceus.

A distinguishable Himalayan race closely allied to P. entellus achilles has

been described and may here be mentioned, although it does not, so far as is

known at present, occur within the area of British India.

This is :—

Subspecies Zanzus, Elliot.

Presbytis lania, Elliot, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (8), iv, p. 273, 1909; zd. Rev.

Primaiés, ii, p. 93, 1913 (under Pygathrix).

Colour very like that of typical achilles from Nepal but with aslightly greyer

sheen especially on the loins and hind legs, and with more white on the back

of the thighs. lie coat is a little longer, thicker, softer and more wavy.

Distribution. Chumbiin Tibet, 10,000 feet.

The dimensions in inches of the single fernale specimen collected by Major

F. M. Bailey are as follows :—

Head and body 25; hind foot 734; ear 1%.

The skull, which I have not seen, measures, according to Elliot, 125 mm.

in total length, and the zygomatic breadth is 102 mm.

Subspecies ajax, nov.

(Plate I], fig. 1.)

Pithecus entellus, Lindsay, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxxi, p. 599, 1926

(not P. extellus, Dufresne.)

A big handsome langur as large as achilles but differing in the colour and

texture of its coat. The general colour of the upper side is dusky brownish-

grey, much greyer than in achilles, with the whitish cap on the crown typically

less distinctly defined owing to a greyish tinge on the nape blending more or

THE LANGURS, Ok LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 481

less with that of shoulders ; the arms below the elbows and the hands are black

or blackish brown in adults and the legs paler greyish-brown, darkened with

sooty grey on the thigh and knee in front, the feet at most a little darker than

the area below the knee, with the foot bordered externally with white and some

whitish hairs on the toes. The whiskers and throat, the under side of the body,

the inside of the liinbs and the backs of the thighs, and as much as four inches

of the tip of the tail are white.

The coat is loose and shaggy, forming a kind of mane over the shoulders and

upper part of the arms and on the flanks, and consisting largely of long greyish

white glistening hairs such as are seen in typical entellus.

Type. Adult male from Deolah, Chamba, 6,000 feet (H. W. Wells).

Distribution. Northern Punjab ; Chamba, from 6,000 to 7,500 feet ; Kangra,

from 2,450 to 9,500 feet ; Kulu, from 9,800 to 11,000 feet.

Young specimens differ considerably from adults in being much paler in

colour both on the back and onthe arms, and the coat consists of long thick

more woolly hair, the coarser glistening hairs of the coat of the adult being

practically absent. ‘The examples from Chamba were collected in December

and January by H. W. Wells. Those from Kangra, procured in March and

April, differ in having the pale cap on the head move clearly defined and in

having the arms browner. Three females from Kulu, collected in June, still

carry the winter coat but itis very shaggy and wavy. These specimens also

have paler arms. Such differences as those observed between the Chamba,

Kangra and Kulu individuals are probably seasonal.

The following are the approximate measurements in inches of some selected

individuals :—

| | |

Locality and Sex | “Head and Tail | aed Ear | Weight

‘ eRe oe 7

Chamba, Deolah, 6 000 ft., ¢ £3 |e BOs Bee ile LOS = 2 be

2 bara Tissa, 7; 500 fie Ce 30” B27 1h Se Zo 43 lbs,

we. ; ©halan Tissa; 6,700 it. cr 30” BB 0=—| FO 22 ia

Kangra Fort, 2 ASO it. ia 34a”) 847") 14” 46 lbs.

», » Chicaian, 9,000 ft., Q eo age Coa aon ca tan 28 lbs.

eee wamyala, Go00 ft, 2-201 23% SH esas. oi ielilas te i

Kangra, 2. 400 ft., ; a t Med 33” 73 14”

Kulu, Rahla 9,800 Et, One. ee nels 217 — 31 7 id”

ys ” ria me cae Ses ele 303” | 7 3

The skulls (Text fig. 5A.) do not differ in any important points from those of

achilles, as represented by the one from Gorkha and the fragments of those

collected by Hodgson referred to above. The following table shows their

dimensions in millimetres :—

— : |

Total | Length of | Uength of | Orbital | Zygomatic

length Palate | Upper Molars width width

ee ee an |

Locality and Sex

Chamba, ¢ 147 o/ 4] | 84 | ja0

ete = Ol 145 o4 40 | 82 111

pe es 141 34 40 84 109

Kangra, Jb 144 54 41 S4 109

3 2 124 46 40 72 94

rae g 120 43 40 13 94

ee ee

Subspecies A#ector, nov.

Presbytis schistaceus, Wroughton, Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soe., xxiii,

p. 286, 1914 (not P. schistaceus, Hodgson).

Approximately the.same size as achilles and ajax but differing from both in

colour and in the shortness of the hairs of the winter coat. General

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

colour slaty-grey tinged with buff or pale brown ;_ the outside of the arms grey

below the elbow and a little darker than the back, but not nearly so dark as in

ajax; the outside of the legs paler than the back and with a sooty grey tint on

the thigh in front. The white cap on the head and nape sharply detined and

the under side either dirty white or more frequently suffused with buff or pale

red. The winter coat consisting of hairs of tolerably uniform length, shorter

than in achilles and not so thick and very much shorter than in ajax.

Type. Male (skin and skull) from Sitabani, Ramnagar, Kumaon, 2,000 feet.

B. M. No. 14.7.10.10.

Distribution. Kumaon up to 6,000 feet.

In general coloration the known examples of this race closely resemble

the specimen of schistaceus from Hazara Patherghatta described above. The

skulls of adult females of the two are, however, different in dimensions

and shape, those of hector being larger, with bigger teeth, less pronounced

brows and more prominent nose. But additional specimens from the Terai

Forest may prove hector to be identical with schistaceus, if the skulls are found

to intergrade.

The following table gives the approximate dimensions in inches of the skins

of this langur shot by C. A. Crump in November, January and February :—

Head and Tail | Hind

Locality and Sex Body

Kar Weight

Champawat, Almora, 6,000 ft., @ ... 274+ | 39 9+ | 2— git

Sitabani, Ramnagar 2,000 ft. ; a ee 26 3/ 84+), 2—) 38 lbs.

Dela, Ramnagar, 1,500 ft. ~ ae 24+ | 333—| 73+) 1$ | 39 1bs.

Ratighat, Naini Tal, 3,700 a 233-+ | 33 8 2—{ 31 lbs.

a TE ID PT LE SED

The two males, it will be seen, area little smaller than the adults from

Chamba ; but the skulls show them to be rather younger animals.

y ht My

UH VLA gy af

aA pa ns LY i

Hi me eT’ CJ

-- RE = Wy)

EZ2Z=8B eS 5

eae. 7

Fic. 5A.—Skull of Pithecus entellus ajax from Chamba, ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

THE LANGURS, Ok LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 483

The skulls generally resemble those of achilles and ajax, but have the nose

more prominent. Thisis particularly noticeable in the skulls of two adult

females when compared with the skulls of adult females of ayax from Kangra.

It is also observable in two male skulls. These also are narrower than the

skulls of adult males of ajax ; but they are younger, the basioccipital suture

being still open. Their youth, no doubt, accounts for their narrowness; and

probably increase in the size of the brow ridges with advance of years would

lessen the appearance of prominence of the nose. (Text fig. 4A.)

Fic. 4A.—Skull of Pithecus entellus hector from Naini Tal. 2 ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

The dimensions in millimetres of four skulls are as follows :—

Total

Locality and Sex | : Length of Length of Orbital} Zygomatic

ength | Palate Upper Molars| width width

| e | | ff

Ramnagar ¢ || 135 | 50 3 ad 96

a Be ee ls 2130" 49 40 | 75 Y8

Naini Tal 9 a 123 46 40 70 94

Ramnagar @ | 119 46 41 | 70 90

Several skulls of adult males from Garhwal, presented to the British Museum

by B. B. Osmaston, may, for geographical reasons, be provisionally assigned to

this race; but unfortunately there are no skins from this district of Kumaon by

which the correctness of this inference can be tested. These skulls do not differ

appreciably from those of achilles and ajax.

The Langurs recorded by Blyth on Hutton’s authority as occurring in

Mussoorie and Simla up to 11,000 feet and described by Hutton as dark greyish

with pale hands and feet and white head, throat breast and tail-tip, certainly

differ from ajax from Chamba, but appear to agree very closely with this

Kumaon race, hector; and anumber of skulls of adult males presented by

Hutton to the British Museum, which may have been procured by him either at

Simla or Mussoorie, are not distinguishable from the skulls of adult males of

ajax and achilles. Nevertheless, as stated above, the skulls of adult females of

hector from Kumaon have, owing to the prominence of the nose, a different

appearance from adult female skulls of ajax,

484 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Subspecies emtellus, Dufresne.

(Plate II, fig. 3.)

Simia entellus, Dufresne, Bull. Soc. Phil., Paris, 1, p. 49, 1797.

Semnopithecus or' Presbytis entellus of Blyth, Anderson, Blanford, etc.; and of

Dollman, Journ., Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 3, p. 438, 1913.

Smaller than the Himalayan races and distinguishable from them by the

uniform coloration of the head and shoulders and by the sharp contrast between

the black or brown and black hands and feet and the grey of the arms and legs

below the elbows and knee. General colour of upper side darker or lighter

shining sepia brown, becoming paler on the shoulders and head. Outer side of

arms to, or almost to, the wrists and of the legs down to, and often including,

part of the foot, much the same tint asthe back, as also is the greater part of

the tail ; but the leg below the knee is generally paler and greyer and the end

of the tail is usually nearly white. The whiskers, which do not conceal the ears,

the throat, the chest, the belly, the inside of the limbs and the back of the thighs

whitish or buffy- white.

Distribution. Northern parts of peninsular India south of the Ganges from

Bengal westwards to Kathiawar and Guzerat.

The Mamma! Survey secured a useful series of this langur from various

localities ranging from Bengal, whence the original example came, westwards

to Kathiawar and Guzerat. I have been unable definitely to establish the

existence of local races over the whole of this area which is probably tolerably

uniform in its physical features ; but the series of skins as a whole shows that

entellus is not nearly so sharply differentiated as is suggested by the writings

of Blanford and other authors. Blanford, for instance, following Blyth and

Anderson, lays great stress upon the uniform tint of the head and shoulders,

involving the absence of a distinct pale cap on the crown, and the sharp contrast

between the blackness of the hands and feet and the paler tint of the arms and

legs. Both these features are, however, variable. In aseries from Midnapore

(200 feet), for example, the head is paler than the shoulders, but the tints blend

on the nape; the hands and the feet are black in adult males but brown with

black fingers and toes in a young male and adult females. Similar variation

with age in the tints of the extremities is seen in other specimens. A female

from Junagadh in Kathiawar is darker above than the Midnapore examples but

has the feet grey with black toes and the hands and wrists black; and a female

from Deesa in Palanpur is paler than the Midnapore series but this langur was

shot in May when it was apparently still carrying its shagsy winter coat.

The following are the approximate dimensions in inches and_ the weights of

a few specimens picked haphazard :—

Locality ane Sex Rae Tail eee Ear | Weight

Hazaribagh, 1,000 ft., 4... ate 253 AP 8a e= 2

Midnapore, 200 ft., ¢ ae 25 44 S| 14-|. doebs.

Hoshangabad, 3,300 ft., ¢ es 25 42% | 8} | 2

Chikalda, Berar, 366 ft., ¢ ny 233 42 83

Junagadh, Kathiawar, 200 ft., ¢ ... 23 37 5, 73 13

Seonbadoh, Berar, 1,800 ft., 9 ey: Zo Lar Svene le ever 13

Midnapore, 200 ft., 9 ee ae Der 8 | 7 14 | 25 lbs.

Deesa, Palanpur, @ | | 7% 15

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 485

These measurements bear out the statement made above regarding the

comparative dimensions of eztellus and the related langurs to the north of the

Ganges. In connection with Blanford’s statement that the ears of entellus are

larger than those of schistaceus, it must be remembered that he was unacquainted

with schistaceus in the restricted sense in which that term is used in this paper.

The ears on dried skins of ente/lus look larger mainly because they are not

concealed to the same extent by the whiskers. Nevertheless they are on the

average a little larger than the ears of the races from the high Himalayas.

The skulls vary greatly in shape. Blanford’s statement that the skull

differs from that of the mountain forms he took for schistaceus in having the

nose not projecting beyond a straight line tangential to the middle of the brows

and the alveolar border of the incisor teeth is not true. In two female skulls

from Hewra in Nimar and Seone, Malwain the Central Provinces, the nose

projects beyond that line. Similar variation in the shape of the cranial

portion may be seen by a comparison between the figure of an adult male

skull of ezte/lus published by Blanford where the upper surface is low and

flat, with a very long and projecting occipital region, and the skull of the

adult male from Hazaribagh which is more steeply sloped. Of particular which is

interest is the skull of an adult male from Deesa in Palanpur, which in its low

facial portion recalls the skull of the South Indian and Ceylonese race formerly

known as priam and described below as pallipes. Nevertheless, as Anderson

pointed out, the skulls of evtellus certainly differ on the whole from those of

the northern mountain races in having the line of the face more vertical, with

the nose and jaws less prominent. It also is alittle smaller and has smaller

teeth. But, as stated above, these differences will in all probability be found

to break down when more is known of true schistaceus from the Nepal Terai,

(hext fics. .5B;, 6A, 6B) 7A and 9A.)

SSS,

WSS

————

—

——!

—

FIG. 5B.—sxull of Pithecus entellus entellus from Hazaribagh, ¢ ad,

Two-thirds nat, size,

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. X.<XT1I

Fic. 6A,--Skull of ‘Pzthecus entellus entellus from Midnapore. 2 subadul¢

Two-thirds nat. size,

IND DZ.

sas

SMOSSEZ

Fic, 68.—Skull of Pzthecus entellus entellus from Palanpur. ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size,

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 487

Fic, 7A.—Skull of Pzthecus entellus entellus from Hoshangabad, @ ad,

Two-thirds nat. size.

Fic 9A.—Skull of Pzthecus entellus entellus from Midnapore, ¢ subadult.

Two-thirds nat. size.

488 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The following are the measurements in millimetres of some of the speci-

mens :—

ican 2 Total | Length of Length of | Orbital | Zygomatic

ocality sand ex length Palate Upper Molars | width width

Hazaribagh, @ ...| 131 51 | 34 82 106

a bare 128 47 36 78 102

Bengal, ¢ evel leo 46 SY 81 104

Deesa, 3 ae het a7 42 36 81 103

Midnapore, ¢...| +123 46 36 a 92

Chikalda, ¢ sncfoay 120 42 33 75 98

Junagadh,

Kathiawar, ¢ oy 0) 42 35 73 91

Midnapore, 2) o...| 2 130 36 34 67 89

Hoshangabad, 2...| 109 37 35 65 87

Junagadh, 2 rel LOG 37 33 72 88

With the exception of the second and third on the list, which were presented

to the British Museum by Mr. W. Theobald, these skulls were collected by the

Mammal Survey. The male examples from Midnapore and Junagadh are not

quite fully developed.

Biyth (Journ., As. Soc., Bengal, xiii, p. 470, 1844 and xvi, p. 733, 1847)

gave the name anchises to the skin of a Langur, from an tnknown locality in

the Deccan, which he described as like the darkest examples of entellus but

with the hands mixed white ard blackish, the feet whitish with dusky black

above the base of the toes and on the terminal phalanges and the leg from the

knee whitish. Coat generally much lcnger, the hair from 4 to 6 inches on the

sides of the body and not wavy as in entel/us ; the toes having long hairs like

those of aspaniel’s paw.

Out of the very large number of extellus and entellus-like langurs in the

British Museum procured by the Mammal Survey in India to the south of the

Ganges, there is not one that exactly fits the description of anchises. Nearest

to it comes a female, collected in November at Hewra (1,000 feet) in Nimar.

This resembles entel/us in the uniform tint of the head and shoulders; but

the coat, as in azchises, is long, there are longish hairs on the toes and the feet

are much paler, being grey, like theleg, with some black hairs on the knuckles.

The hands, however, are notso pale as in the type of anchises ; they are

distinctly brown, that tint blending with the colour of the arm, and have black

hair on the knuckles.

Very like this example from Nimar is one obtained by Mr. Prater at Lahi,

Seone Malwa, in the Central Provinces; but the hands and feet are a little

darker; and a second specimen from the same locality is still blacker on

its extremities and is hardly different from emfellus in that respect, but the

head is paler than the shoulders as in the more southern races below recorded.

These specimens, with the type of anchises, are peculiarly interesting be-

cause they show a complete gradation in the colours of the hands and feet

between entellus and the entellus-like form from Southern India and Ceylon

usually cited as przam or priamus which is described below under the name

pallipes. And the specimen with the darkest hands and feet and the paler

head similarly reveals a gradation between ezfellus proper and the race next

described.

The exact status of amchises must forthe present be left unsettled. It may

represent a distinct subspecies. At all events on the available evidence it can-

not be assigned to typical extellus; and equally certainly it cannot be

regarded as identical, as Blyth supposed, with the black-footed, black-handed

forms of southern India. Conceivably it may represent a variety or sport

of either.

Subspecies achates, nov.

Semnopithecus anchises var. Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xiii, p 471, 1844.

Presbytis entellus anchises, Dollman, Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxii, No. 3,

p. 442, 1913. Not typical S. anchtises, (cf. supra.)

Semnopithecus hypoleucus, Blanford, at least in part. Not S. Aypoleucos, Blyth.

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 489

Closely related to typical enteldus and intergrading with it, but with the buff

or greyish-buff coloured crown of the head paler than the shoulders and differen-

tiated in tint, although not so sharply differentiated as in the races to the north

of the Ganges. Its liair also is more woolly. The general tint of the dorsal

surface is on the average soinewhat darker, the upper part of the cheek between

the eye and the ear is tinged with blackish-grey and the black of the hands and

feet is not so defined from the tint of the arms and legs owing to the somewhat

darker hue of the lower half of these limbs, especially of the legs below the

knees.

Distribution. Bellary, Dharwar and Kanara, from 1,500 tc 2,000 feet in

the Western Ghats; also Karwar, on the sea coast, to the west of the

Ghats.

Type. Adult {from Hausbavi, 2,000 feet, S.W. of Dharwar. B.M. No.

14.11.18.1.

The following are the measurements and weights of some of the specimens

collected by Mr. Shortridge for the Mammal Survey :—

: ind | |

Locality and Sex "Body | Tail | foot | Ear | Weight

Vijayanagar, Bellary, 1,600 ft., ¢ ...| 263”-—- | 40” ae 24% | 635. Tbs.

Fausbavi, o.. Dharwar, 2,000 ft, ¢... |; 27”%— 43”+" 8” | 2”— | 30 lbs.

Devikop, 26 miles 8. of Dharwar, |

2,000 10. t= Ses 2 2On OO ea a SOU

rate 26” | 38” 74” | Diem

Samasgi, Kanara boundary, | |

S. W. Dharwar, 2,000 ft., ¢ ...| 24” 34” | 7” . | ya” | 992 Ibs.

Biber raat ek 34”) 7” | 1g” | 193 ibs.

Vijayanagar, Bellary, 1,500ft., Q@ 1.) 26” 35” | 74"%—| 2” 27 lbs.

Alnavar, Dharwar, 2 oe cOK 345” | 73”°+| 2”7— om

Devikop, 26 miles S. of Dharwar |

ZOOO tte) a5 i eZ B7ne |) Fae) | -oH ae

Hausbavi, S. Dharwar, 2 pect 2agt |) Soe. || 7 127- |. 223 Ips,

Samasgi, Kanara boundary,

Ss. W. Dharwar; 2,000 ft., 2 2.) -228’—. | 314” | 64""- | 1k” | 17 Ibs;

POW

Fic. 7B.—Skull of Pithecus entellus achates from Hausbavi. ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Three examples collected at Potoli, N. Kanara (1,800 feet) are interesting.

Two of them resemble typical acha/es in colour ; but the third is darker, as dark

as the two examples from Jog described below, and is in this respect a transi-

tional specimen between the two races.

From Blyth’s original description of amchises it is clear that he knew by

hearsay from Eliot of the existence of exteliws-like langurs to the south of the

range of typical entel/us. Although he did not know the exact locality of his type

of anchises, he stated that that form represented entedlus in the Deccan and along

the foot of the Western Ghats. He also had a specimen from Coimbatore

which he regarded as a probable variety of ezchises from which it differed by

having black hands and feet as in entelius. ‘This langur no doubt belonged to

the race here described as achates. It was probably Blyth’s statement regarding

the distribution of auchises, and not his description of it, that induced Dollman

to identify as anchises the langurs here described asa new subspecies.

The skulls (Text fig. 7B) in form and also in individual variability are very

like those of typical entellus, but aresmaller, with a more vertical face, shorter

jaws and smaller teeth. The measurements in millimetres of a few of them

are as follows :—

SOTO OAD RR SO SN a TT ar

: Total Length of Length of | Orbital | Zygomatic

Be ay eax length Palate Upper Molars | widthi width

Hausbavi, ¢ oy ee 0 eal 41 32 74 93

Samasgi, ¢ seciee Ome 37 30 66 87

Potoli, N. Kanara, |

6) = AlZ | 40 34 70 oI

Devikop, 32 seat Vie 38 32 70 —

Vijayanagar, Q@.... 110 | 38 33 69 89

Alnavar, @ ae ALO} 4 39 SL 68 84

Samasgi, 2 gcc) LOZ) Yl 62 30 65 81

Karwar, & sae}, O00 34 31 61 82

These measurements show that whereas the skulls of the males are on the

average distinctly smaller than those of extellws, the skulls of the females are

quite as big. The sexual difference, therefore, in aczates is much less than in

entellus. Since moreover, the body measurements of the males attest approxi-

make equality in size between the males of achates and entellus, it is evident that

the males of achates have a relatively much smaller head.

Subspecies zuwlus, nov.

Resemnbling and intergrading with P. entellus achates, but smaller and with

closer, softer, less shaggy hair, and darker in tint, the back being deep brown,

against which the pale buff coloured head shows up conspicuously. Cheeks

with a considerable quantity of black hair between the eye and the ear, as in

achates. Arms in the male black from the elbow outside, a little paler in the

female. Legs deep greyish-brown outside. Tail blackish-brown with the termi-

nal third whitish. Lower surface and inside of arms and legs pale as in achaieés.

Distribution. Jog, Gersoppa Falls on the Kanara-Mysore Boundary, 1,300

feet. (G. C. Shortridge).

Type. 3h, BM. No. 14.11-18.7.

The two adult examples collected at this locality give the following approxti-

mate measurements in inches :—

Su oP Cae te Geis Ce oy cn hl geen | ane aon Panera

te Hand and) -, | Hind :

sex Body | Tail | Shae Kar | Weight

= | = ——

3 oP re se aZOE rim gt |Oe Hse sofa a 21 lbs.

Q ee ea see ee ete 50 4= O10 Disa 183 5

Except for the conspicuous paleness of the head, this langur much resembles

the race, Aypoleucos, in the darkness of the back, the black tint of the arms

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 491

and the proximal two-thirds of the tai] ; but in the paleness of the head, of the

tip of the tail, the grey hue of the outer side of the legs and the absence of

the blackness from the inner sides of the arms and legs it is like typical achates.

And the interest of the specimens lies in the link they form in the chain between

hypoleucos and entellus, (Text fig. 8A) hitherto regarded as well-defined species.

— Ges Y/);

WW Zr BaeBeg

= NZS

esa Y fos

o/s 1s

OAL

Fic. 8A.—Skull of Pithecus entellus iulus from Jog in Kanara. ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

The skul!s measure. in millimetres, as follows :—

RE EEE 2 rare

{

ae Total | Length of Length of Orbital Zygomatic

length Palate Upper Molars | width | width

Me. eas is) 2 AO6 S15 30 65 84

ete. sae 103 36 3] 63 85

- Judging from the somewhat scanty material, there is scarcely any difference

in size between the male and female of this race.

Subspecies dussumtert, Geoftr.

Semnopithecus dussumiert, 1. Geoffroy, C. R. Acad. Sci., xv, p. 719, 1842,

and Arch, Mus., ii, p. 538, pl. xxx, 1843.

Back greyish-brown ; crown of head, cheeks, neck and flanks yellowish ;

outer surface of arm to the elbow a little darker than the back, from the elbow

to the finger-tips black ; outer surface of legs tothe ankle a little darker than

the back, feet black ; tail black turning to greyish: brown in the terminal third ;

under side and inside of limbs yellowish.

Distribution, Coast of Malabar.

Since the single known example of this langur was collected by a French-

man, it probably came from Mahé, the French Colony in Malabar.

No langurs quite resembling this race, as described and figured, were collected

by the Survey, those most like it being the specimens referred to achates and

tulus. The latter, indeed, so far as it is possible to judge, only differs from

dussumiert in being much darker on the back, which cannot be described as

greyish-brown, and in having the upper part of the cheek or whiskers between

the eye and ear washed with black pigment. Otherwise they appear to re-

semble one another in colour, particularly in the blackness of the arm below

the elbow. Close resemblance to dussumieri is also shown by achates, but in

492 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the latter the ariui below the elbow is not black, being noticeably paler than the

hand, the upper part of the cheek is dark and the basa! two-thirds of the tail is

not black. It may be added that dussumieri differs from hypoleucos in being

much paler above and in having the area of the leg below the knee about the

same tint as the back and not black. Yet in spite of these obvious differences

between the description of dussumieri and the type of hypoleucos, which he had

in his hands and described, Anderson quoted dussumier? as an unquestionable

synonym of hypoleucos. Naturally his description of hkypoleucos does not fit

dussumiert. Blanford, on the other hand, gave a description of Aypoleucos

which fits dussumiert, but not the type of hypoleucos. Finally, Elliot’s state-

ment that the type of dussumuzert, which he saw in the Paris Museum, agrees

with his description of an apparently accurately determined specimen of

hy poleucos from Travancore must be untrue, if any reliance is to be placed on

Geoffroy’s description and figure of dussumieri.

Subspecies Aypoleucos, Blyth.

Semnopithecus hypoleucos, Blyth., Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, x, p. 839, 1841;

also xiii, p. 470, 1844; and xvi, p. 733, pl. xxvi, fig. 1, 1847 (Presbytis).

Anderson, Zool. Res. Yunnan, p. 20, 1878. Not S. hypoleucos, Blanford,

Mamm. Brit, India, p. 33, 1888, or at least only in part.

Back and shoulders deep dusky brown, head and whiskers brownish-white, a

little darker on crown ; outer surface of arms to elbows and of legs to knees the

same colour as the back but arms below the elbows and legs below the knees,

including the hands and feet, black; tail also black. Sides and lower surface

of body, inner side of arms to elbows and of legs to knees white; arms below

elbows and legs below knees mostly black with some whitish hairs on the arms

and on the front of the leg.

Distribution. Travancore.

No langurs exactly fitting this description, which is taken from Blyth’s

original diagnosis, were collected by the Mammal Survey. Blyth had one skin

of an old mate said to have come from Travancore and the dimensions he gave

of the head and body, 21 inches, and of the tail, 32 inches, are probably only

approximately correct. Nevertheless, Anderson, who extracted the skull from

Blyth’s type, stated that its total length is 106 mm., and since this type was an

old male, it is clear that Aypoleucos is a small race closely resembing in that

particular the race from Jog described as zwlus. It is also evidently very like

zulus in colour especially in the blackness of the outer side of the arm below the

elbow ; but it differs from zudws in having the legs below the knees black out-

side and inside, with apparently more black on the inside of the arm below the

elbow and a somewhat darker head.

Subspecies @neas, nov.

Evidently tolerably closely resembling hypoleucos but a larger and more

heavily pigmented form. Back dark brown ; the top of the head much darker

than in achates, iulus and priamellus and not nearly so sharply contrasted with

the shoulders but passing into reddish-buff in front. Arms very dark, deep

brown close up to the body but black in front on the shoulder and from above

the elbow tothe finger-tips on the inner as well as on the outer side. Outer

surface of legs like the arms, brown close to the hip but black in front and

from above the knee to the tips of the toes, black also on the inner side up to

the pubic region. Tail blackish throughout. Whiskers, throat, flanks and

lower surface buffy or reddish-white, this hue also extending along the inner

surface of the upper arm and obscurely down the middle of the pubic area

between the thighs,

Distribution. S. Coorg from Makut, below the Ghats, 250 feet, to Wottekolli,

2,000 feet (G. C. Shortridge).

Type. Adult male from Makut, B.M. No. 14.11.18.23.

The description given above was taken from a sub-adult male from Makut

and an adult female from Wottekolli. They resemble /ypoleucos in general

coloration but certainly differ from it in the blackness of the hairs on the inner

side of the thigh making a sharp contrast with the white of the belly. A young

male with the head and body 24 inches and the tail 32 inches is not so heavily

pigmented on the limbs and in this respect comes nearer “ypoleucos. ‘The head

of @neas also seems to be considerably darker than in hypoleucos ; and the only

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 493

known example of the latter, au old male, is considerably smaller than the adult

male of @zeas as the following measurements show :—

Head and

. | Hind | ;

Locality and Sex Body | Tail | foot | Ear | Weight

tas vee e eo a es ha a ee S| ge PP ee ) |

Makut, 250 ft., ¢ ... a | 28” S27 he 13” | 253 1bs.

Wottekolli, 2,000 ft.,2 _... ia 250 Soe | 6” | qa” | 22 Se

The skulls of these two adult examples measure, in millimetres, as

follows :--

Bay Total Length of Length of | Orbital Zyyzomatic

f length Palate Upper Molars width | width

re 112 40 a2 68

2 106 38 RY? 66 86

It seems singular that two races of Pithecus entellus should occur in Coorg,

namely, e/zssa at Nagarhole in the south-eastern part of the province and

céneas at Makut and Wottekolli in the southern part, and both at nearly the

same elevation. Nevertheless the two are readily distinguishable by their

colour and it seems probable that neas inhabits a zone with much heavier

rainfall than edissa.

Subspecies e/zssa, nov.

Presbytis entellus anchises. Dollman, Journ. Bomb. Nat, Hist. Soc., xxii,

p. 494, 1913. Not auchises, Blyth.

Indistinguishable in general colour from some examples assigned to achates

and no two of the four specimens examined exactly alike. But differing

apparently from achates in having somewhat softer, silkier hair, a distinct tuft

or crest on the crown of the head aud in the uniformly white or whitish-tint of

the cheeks, the dusky hue between the eye and the ear, present in achates and

zulus, being absent.

Distribution. Nagarhole, S. E. Coorg (2,600 feet).

Type. Adult 2, B. M. No. 14,11.18.16.

The chief interest of this form lies in the presence of the crest or tuft on the

crown of the head, which was noticed by Mr. Shortridge, the collector, and is

apparent on all the skins. A similar crest has hitherto been regarded, so far as

the Indian and Ceylonese langurs are concerned, as distinctive of the race

described below as fallifes and generally known as priam or priamus. I do

not attach very much importance to this crest as distinguishing e/zssa from

achates ; but its development in e/7ssa unquestionably lessens the systematic

value that has been attached to the development of a similar crest in pallipes

and it is worthy of special attention on that account alone.

The measurements in inches and the weight of two adult females and of

an immature male are as follows :—

Sex | cece | Tail Hiud foot ! Ear Weight

raf DAY | 36” | 74” 13” 20 lbs.

Oe Dae ear |) BG Me 14” 23 Ibs.

ees" Be i give ||, gust 14” 184 lbs.

494 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The following are the dimensions of the skulls of the same specimens :—

Sex Total jLength of} Length of Orbital Zygomatic

length Palate Upper Molars | width width

Pee Nees eee eS | ey | 63

QO. | - 103. 36am 33 | 67 79

Q So | 34 30 65 81

In the skull of the male the canine and the last molar, although through

the bone, are only half up; and since it may be assumed that the monkey

was not full sized, the conclusion that e/zssa is about equal to achates in size

is justifiable.

Subspecies priamellus, nov.

Colour of upper side sepia brown, similar to that of achates, but with the head

and cheeks dirty white, without any dark pigment on the cheeks between the

eye and ear, with the outer side of the arms and Jegs uniformly brown, about

the same tint as the back, this colour blending with that of the hands which are

not black and only slightly darker than the arm, while the feet are greyish-

brown and the same colour as the leg below the knee, the tail being the same

colour as the back with its terminal portion whitish. The back of the thighs,

the whole of the underside of the body and the inside of the limbs clothed with

white hairs.

Distribution. Shernelly in Cochin.

Type. Adult male, collected for the Survey by Mr. Riley O’Brien. B.M.

Now 21 21155:7;

One specimen only was obtained and no measurements were recorded.

The chief interest of this specimen lies in the resemblance it shows to achates

and pallipes. It approaches achates in the paleness of the head as compared

with the back but differs in the absence of blackness from the hands and feet,

and it resembles pal/ipes in the hands and feet being the same tint as the arm,

and legs but differs in the colouring of the head. ‘There is also no trace of a

crest on the head.

The skull has prominent brows and the interorbital nasal region is concave,

being vertical above and projecting below at an angle of about 135°; but the

most noticeable peculiarity about the skull is the shape of the nasal orifice which

instead of being long and narrow, as is typically the casein the other races of

entellus, is wide, the width considerably exceeding half the greatest height.

(Text figs. 8B and 9B.)

The dimensions of the skull are as follows :—

| |

Total Length of

Length of la Orbital Zyzomatic

length Palate | Upper Molars | width | width

7 | | |

105 | 38 Slee 69 52

Since the skull! attests the full maturity of the specimen, it is clear that this

race of langur is much smaller than pallipes, considerably smaller than achates

and as large only as zu/us ; but from the structure of the skull and the colour of

the hands and feet I am disposed to think this langur is more nearly related to

pallipes than to achates or tulus.

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 495

Fic. 8B.—Skull of Pzthecus entellus priametlus from Cochin. ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

(j th aN Wh

Weis /

’

“shy

ugonne’l My} {}

Feat; i) 4

| ) 2 Nl y

|| +i, in 4 f

UTATTRDM |

| |

Fic. 9B.—Skull of Pithecus entellus briamellus from Cochin, -¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size. :

Subspecies pallipes, Blyth.

Semnopithecus pallipes, Blyth, dun. Mag. Nat. Aist., p. 312, 1844 (April).

Semnopithecus priam, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xiii, pp. 470 and 476,

1844 (after October).

Presbytis priamus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xvi, p. 732, pl. liv,

fig. 1, 1847.

Semnopithecus priamus, Anderson, Blanford and most recent authors.

Presbytis thersites, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xvi, p. 1271, pl. liv,

fig. 3, 1847.

Tolerably closely resembling typical ewte//us in size and general colour, the

back and outside of the limbs varying from uniform sepia brown to slaty-grey,

the crown of the head being brown and hardly contrasted with the tint of the

shoulders, although frequently contrasted with the whiter hue of the cheeks and

496 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

brow ; but the hands and the feet are practically the same colour as the arms

and the legs and not blackened as in emtellus. Also the hair of the crown is

typically raised into a compressed crest or tuft. Thetail is tke the back in

colour except its extreme tip which is grey or buffand the whole of the under

side, the inside of the limbs and the backs of the thighs are white or whitish.

Distribution. Southern India, the Coromandel Coast from Nellore south-

wards, to, according to Blanford, Trivandrum and up the Nilgiri Hills toa

height of 6.000 feet, as reported by Davison. Also Northern and Central Ceylon

as far south as Trincomali and the Kandyan Hills.

In regarding this langur as a distinct species from enfe//us, Blanford relied, so

far as external characters are concerned, upon the pale hands and feet and the

presence of the crest on the head. But the importance of these characters is

lessened by the presence of pale hands and feet in frzamellus and in the form

named azchises by Blyth, the presence ofa similar crest in e/zssa from $.E.

Coorg, and its absence in the Ceylonese examples of pallipes nanied thersiles by

Blyth.

The following table shows the approximate dimensions in inches and the

weights of some of the specimens obtained by the Mammal Survey :—

[Head and |

| |

Locality and Sex Body | Tail |Hind et Ear Weight

Cheddikulum, Ceylon, ¢} 25” 36” 74” 2” | 293 Ibs.

rs » d| - 232" 32” 75” 2”— | 252 Ibs.

Mahendragiri Range, S. | |

Travancore, ¢ 4 pais | 26% 74” Be | ae

Mankeni, Ceylon, 9 ... 20m | 3438” 67 14” 15> ibs:

. .. Oo a 2 30” 61” 1k” 13 Ibs.

The Ceylonese examples were collected by Major E. W. Mayor in the

northern and central provinces of the island, and the single example from

S. Travancore by Mr. R.S. Pillay at Avambo at the foot of the Mahendragiri

range.

These measurements show that the adult males are about the same size as

entellus and achaies, and suggest that the females are smaller; but the two

females measured are shown by their skulls to be scarcely full grown. Neverthe-

less, the skull of an adult female, recorded below, from the Nilgiri Hills, is

considerably smaller thau that of a male from the same locality, thus showing

that in pallipes the sexual! differences in size are as marked as in the skulls of

typical evtellus.

The measurements in millimetres of the available skulls are as follows :—

Loony and Sex| otal | Leng of | Lesa of] Oral Zygor

a ee eee ire ! :

Mahendragiri |

Range, ¢ Rit a 23 43 32 fee: 95

Nilgir? Hills, ¢ ...) 122 45 34 78 97

Cheddikulum, aed 117 42 31 74 90

Nilgiri Hills, 2 .../ 100 36 : 30 | 65 82

Mankeni,@ ...|_—-:100 32 30 64 75

oe. POP Sy OO Be 30 63 78

yn Sly 4 Waals ee 34 30 60 77

{

LR LT TE SE EE FT I STS TT I

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH [NDIA 497

- But the measurements convey no idea of the profound variation in the shape

of the skulls. The skull of the adult male, collected by Davison in the Nilgiri

Hills, which is certified by Thomas and Blanford to have been taken from the

head-skin of aspecimen of pallipfes (prianz), has the nose prominent, the back

of the cranium high, the plane of the occiput steeply sloped and the lower jaw

very massive, with the symphysis strongly inclined. But in the skull of the

male from the Mahendragiri Range the nose is almost vertical, the back of the

cranium is much less raised, the occipital! plane is less steeply sloped, the lower

jaw is less massive and its symphysis is more vertical. (Text figs. 10A

and 10b.)

Fic. 10A.—Pithecus entellus pallipes from the Nilgiri Hills. ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

Fic. 10B.—Pithecus entellus pallipes from the Mahendragiri Range. ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

The female skull from the Nilgiri Hills (Davison) has the nose nearly vertical,

the cranial portion short high and rounded and the lower jaw massive, where-

as the female skulls from Mankeni in Ceylon have the facial portion less steep,

the cranial portion lower and flatter, especially in one of the specimens and

the lower jaw much less massive.

The skulls of adult males of pallzpes differ from those of typical etellws in

having the face lower and the upper jaw less massive; but they resemble in

that respect, as stated above, the skull of an adult male of entellus from Deesa

in Palanpur. This last-mentioned skull, indeed, is very like the skull of

pallipes from the Mahendragiri Range except for the prominence of the nose,

and in that respect it closely resembles the skull from the Nilgiri Hills.

The names pallipes and priam were given in the same year to this langur and

Anderson, Forbes and Elliot, assuming apparently that przam was the first to

be published, added padlipes to it asa synonym. But since pallipes was pub-

lished in April and przam not until after October, it is clear that pallipes is the

older name and by the law of priority must, if properly introduced, be adopted.

Blanford omitted to quote it, possibly regarding the name as invalid. But

Blyth applied ¢allifes to the ‘reputed’ Entellus monkey of Southern India

which is quite different from the true extellus. Technically perhaps it may be

claimed that this is not a description ; but since Blyth had a skin and knew it

came from Southern India, it is clear that by reputed he meant ‘ so-called ’

and not ‘ surmised’ ; and what he said about this langur was quite sufficient

to enable it to be identified with certainty. ‘This apparently was the opinion of

Anderson who quotes pallipfes in the synonymy of priamus without any query as

to the validity of the description or doubt as to the identity of the species. His

verdict, being that of the first reviser, I have adopted.

The only other name to be considered is ¢hersifes given by Blyth toa langur

from Nuera-Kalawa, west of Trincomalee in Ceylon, differing from fallipes

(przamus) in having no crest on the crown. Blanford interrogatively added

thersites to the synonymy ot the Ceylonese langur cephaloplerus, now known as

veltulus ; but Blyth was much too good a zoologist and knew the Indian langurs

too well to have overlooked the very obvious differences between the cepha-

lopterus and the entellus group of langurs; and it is quite clear from his figure

and description of ¢tersztes that it belongs, as he said, to the latter category.

It is most emphatically an exzellus-like, not a cephalopterus-like monkey, and I

have no doubt that it is identical with pallipes (priam), despite the absence of

the crest. Kelaart also obtained a specimen in Ceylon without a crest.

Two langurs alleged to be representatives of these so-called species are figured

side by side on Wolf’s plate of Ceylon Monkeys in Tennent’s Natural History

of Ceylon, 1861. Wolf was a first-rate animal artist and his illustrations on

this plate are so good that it may be inferred that they were drawn either from

living specimens or skins. Now itis interesting to note that the top left-hund

figure representing ¢hersites, alleged to have no crest, has a crest as large as

that in the Survey specimens, whereas the top right-hand figure, representing

priamus, has a high peaked crest larger than in any example of this langur I

have seen, although there is a good deal of individual variation in the size of

the crest. I think it probable that the crest is actually or potentially present

in all individuals of the race and that its occasional absence is due to

moulting.

Pithecus senex, Erxleben.

Cercopithecus senex, Erxleben, Syst. Regn. Anim., p. 24, 1777.

Cercopithecus vetulus, Erxleben, fom. cit. p. 25 (in part).

Cercopithecus kephalopterus, Zimmermann, 1780=—Presbytis, Semnopithecus.

Pygathrix or Pithecus cephalopterus, Anderson, Blanford, Elliot, Wroughton

and others (in part).

Pithecus vetulus, Hinton, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), xi, p. 506, 1923

(in part).

Resembling, except in albino specimens, the Langurs of the Entellus-group

in the deep blackish-brown hue of the newly born young, but differing in the

absence of the frontal whorl-like parting on the forehead, the presence of a

patch of shorter paler hair upon the croup or loins, the black or brown tint of

the under side and, usually at all events, in the presence in the female of a

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 499

white or whitish patch of varying extent on the pubic region below the

callosities, and on the inner side of the thighs.

Distribution. Southern India and Ceylon.

The closeness of the affinity between the Langurs described below as

subspecies of Pithecus senex was well-known to Blyth, Anderson and other

authors. Hence the grouping of them under one specific name is not a novel

idea, although most modern authors have followed Blanford in admitting three

species.

Phe skulls, so far as my observations go, present a considerable amount of

individual and but little subspecific variation. The sketch of the side view of

the skull of P. senex nestor will give an idea of the general form. It will be

noticed that the brows are not nearly so pronounced as in the subspecies of

Pithecus entellus, so that the plane of the orbit is not vertical but inclined back-

wards. But the prominence of the brow and consequently the slope of the nose

and the inclination of the orbit vary a good dealindividually. (Text fig. 11A).

Fic. 11A.—Skull of Pithecus senex nestor from Panadura. ¢ ad.

Two-thirds nat. size.

The skulls may be here dealt with comprehensively. There will be no

occasion to do more than refer to them very briefly under the subspecific

headings.

The following are the measurements in millimetres of a few :—

Total

j |

: Q Length of Length of Orbital | Zygomatic

ecu and Sex length Palate Upper Molars; width | width

johnii, S$ (juv.), | |

Cochin im 108 32 30 65 | 80)

johnii, 2, Nilgiris. 108 36 on 64 83

johnii, 2, Cochin. 95 30 30 oe aN.

vetulus, &, Anasi- |

galla 1 103 34 26 61 74

nestor, 3. Pana- |

dura sea 98 33 26 60s 19

nestor, 2, Pana-

dura see 94° 32 26 607 4) 72

These measurements suggest that the South Indian subspecies, ju#miz, has a

considerably larger skull than the Ceylonese races vetudus and nestor ; but I

500 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

have seen a male skull belonging to a form from Ceylon clesely allied to vetulus

and nestor which gave the following measurements :—Total length 109, length

of palate 39, of upper molars 28, orbital width 65, zygomatic width 80.

KEY TO THE SUBSPECIES OF Pithecus senex.

a General colour white or whitish are gee AESCHEZG,

a* General colour brown or black.

6 Crown and whiskers tolerably uniformly coloured

buff or brown; the throat darker than the

crown ; general colour black; the tail also

mainly black . johnit.

6+ Crown and whiskers contrasted, crown brownish

or buff, whiskers white or whitish; throat

lighter than crown ; tail greyish to brownish,

not black.

¢ Coat thick and shaggy; head and croup not

sharply distinguished by colour from the

back ae monticola.

ce! Coat shorter and smoother : head and croup

more distinctly defined from colour of

back in adult.

dad General colour black, with head darker

but croup patch silvery grey vetulus.

d* General colour brown, with head paler

and croup patch grey to grey brown westor.

Subspecies sevex, Erxleben.

Cercopithecus senex, Erxleben, Syst. Regn. Anim. Mamm. p. 24, 1777.

Seninopithecus senex. Schlegel, Mus. Pays Bas, Simie, p. 53, 1876; Blanford,

Faun. Brit. Ind. Mamm., p. 35, 1888.

Presbyits albinus, Kelaart, Prodrom. Faun. Zeyl, p.7, 1852: 72d, Journ. As. Soc.,

Bengal, xx, p.A82,\852:;

Fur dense, wavy, of a nearly uniform white colour, with only a slight dash

of grey on the head; whiskers white, full and pointed laterally ; hands and

feet with long white hairs overhanging the tips of the finzers and toes. Face

and ears black, eyes brown ; palms and soles flesh-coloured.

Distribution. Ceylon, Matelle (Matale).

Erxleben gave the name sevex to a white Ceylonese monkey referred to by

Knox! as another sort of monkey, milk white both in body and face. This

no doubt was a pure albino possibly, perhaps probably, belonging to one of

the Ceylon races of Langurs recorded below; and since senex has page

priority over vefulus, the former name must, according to the rule, be

adopted, although it was unfortunately probably applied to a variety.

The available evidence does not at present enable us to say to which, if to

any, of the now well-known races sexex should be applied. In adopting

the name I have, therefore, followed Schlegel who seems to have been the

first reviser to affix senex toa definite type of Langur from Ceylon. ‘This

was represented by a specimen brought by Temminck from that island

and presented to the Leyden Museum. Schlegel described it as yellowish-

white, washed with brown on the back and with red on the upper

side of the head and nape. Blanford, who saw what was no doubt the same

specimen in Leyden, endorsed, with unimportant modifications, Schlegel’s

description of the colour, adding that the face and ears were black, the palms

and soles flesh-coloured, the fur dense and wavy, the whiskers full and the

toes well haired. He compared its dimensions to those of P. ursinus (=montt-

cola) and the thickness of the coat bears out the view that the two are similar.

Although the blackness of the face and ears and the wash of colour on the head

and back show that this specimen is not so complete an albino as the white

*Flistorical Relation of Ceylon, vol. i, Ch. VI, p. 25, 1681.

Mitt LANGORS, OR LEAP MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 501

langur recorded by Knox, Schlegel’s application of the name sevex need not

on that account be set aside.

But many years before Schlegel’s time, Kelaart gave the name albinus to a

whitish Langur received as a living animal from Matelle, and his description

applies so closely ina general way to Temminck’s specimen, although the

latter was paler, that there seems no reason to doubt that Temminck and

Kelaart had very similar varieties of the same Langur. I have, therefore, fol-

lowed Schlegel in adding aléznus to the synonymy of senex and have reproduced

Kelaart’s description and fixed upon Matelle as the typical locality for senex in

view of the possibility of the existence now, or in the part, of a very pale race

akin to the darker races, vetulus, nestor and monticola. This possibility must

be borne in mind because it is in a measure supported by an old record by

Spence Hardy, quoted by Sir J. Emerson Tennent, to the effect that a troop of

white monkeys was seen at Dambool on the rock upon which the great temple

stands and by Blanford’s statement that white monkeys might be seen occa-

sionally on the Ceylonese mountains in parties of three or four, always apart

from other monkeys.

On the other hand, Sir Emerson Tennent had a white langur, taken between

Ambepasse and Kornegalle, where they were said to be numerous; and this

specimen, according to him, had all the characters of cephulopterous, apart from

its colour, which was strikingly white with the face and eyes black. He was

told, moreover, that white monkeys had been seen near the Ridi-galle Wihara

in Seven Korles and also at Tangalle. This suggests that the lowland form,

probably vetu/us, is addicted to albinism.

Subspecies vetulus, Erxleben.

Cercopithecus vetulus, Erxleben, Syst. Regn. Anim. Mamm. 3, p. 25, 1777.

(= cephalopterus of later authors).

Pithecus vetulus vetulus, Hinton, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (9), xi, p. 509.

1923.

Colour of back from nape to croup black finely speckled with grey; croup

grey or silvery, this tint spreading on to outside of thighs and root of tail; tail

greyish to greyish-brown ; arms and legs at least from the knees downwards

black like the back ; head brown above ; whiskers and throat mostly white

but whiskers brown at the ends and some brown on the middle of the throat ;

under side and inside of limbs black, but some white on the pubic region

beneath the callosities in the female.

Distribution. S. Ceylon from about Ranna through the Udugama Hills in

the Galla District and up the western coast to the Kala Ganga River ; probably

also in Ratnapura.,

This information regarding the range of this race was supplied by Mr.

W. W.A. Phillips to Mr. Hinton, who quoted it in his paper.

The following table gives the approximate dimensions in inches of some

examples of this race :—

Locality and Sex Bea Tail Hind foot, Weight

Kalutara, ¢ | 24 — 28” — 63” —

mnasigalla; cf .... ..| 2157+ 29” +- 64” — 123 lbs.

Matugama, ¢_... eh ee th BOR = 7” — |

Kalutara, © Bes es) fae | 2747+ 6c

Kalutara, Q ee molweiege | 280 6” — | lit tbs

Anasigalla, 9... stl ee | 30” | G7

502 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XAX2G7

Subspecies wzestor, Bennett.

Semnopithecus nestor, Bennett, Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 67, 1833.

Semnopithecus kelaarti, Schlegel, Monogr. des Singes, p. 52, 1876.

Pithecus vetulus nestor, Hinton, Ann. Mag. Nat. Aitst. (9), xi, p. 510, 1923.

Pithecus vetulus phillipst, Hinton, zdzd.

Differs from P. senex vetulus, in having the blackish hue of the upper and

under sides and limbs replaced by deeper or lighter sepia brown which, toning

more with the paler areas on the head and croup, lessens their conspicuousness.

The whiskers, however, are white and conspicuous, the head is, ochraceous or

buff, and the patch on the croup varies from silvery-grey to pale brown.

Distribution. Southern Ceylon ; the Panadura and Horana Districts, north of

the Kala Ganga River, and ranging up the west coast to a little way north of

Colombo and inland up the Kelani Valley, probably to the foot of the Adam’s

Peak Range.

This information regarding the range of this race was published by Mr. Hinton

from information received from Mr. W. W. A. Phillips ; and Mr. Hinton has

shown that it inhabits an area where the annual rainfall is less than in the area

inhabited by vetulus.

The type of zesfor, in the British Museum, is a half-grown langur, merely

ticketed Ceylon. I cannot, however, distinguish it by any reliable characters

from the series of skins, sent by Mr. Phillips, which were described by Mr.

Hinton as Pithecus vetulus phillipst.

The type of pxzllipsz, an adult male from Gonopola in the Panadura District,

has the back, the arms and the legs sepia brown, with the limbs darkening to-

wards the extremities and turning black on the hands and feet ; the croup patch

and tail are grey, the head buffy brown and paler than the back, the whiskers

and throat white and the lower side dark brown.

An adult female from Horana in the Panadura District is tolerably similar and

has a white patch below the callosities.

Anotiier adult female from Godigamiura in the Panadura District is darker

brown both above and below than the type and has the croup patch, not grey

and conspicuous, but pale brown as in the type of wesfor.

The approximate measurements in inches of three specimens from the Pana-

dura district are as follows :—

| Head and

, ; Hela Se

Locality and Sex | Body -| Tail Hind a Ear

Gonopola, 2 , in 20” 253” 64” 13”

Gonabendaluwa, Q ae 223” 31% 67 | 13”

Horanna, @ ae Po laetorg coo sis | ia)

ETI me — a (RT CRE LT ET

Subspecies monticola, Kelaart.

Presbytis cephalopterus var. monticola, Kelaart, Journ. Rov. As. Soe.

(Ceylon Branch), ii, No. 5, p. 321, 1850, zd. Prodr. Fauna Zeylan, p. 2, 1852.

Presbytis uwrsinus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., : Bengal, -xx, p. 155, 1851; and

of Anderson, Blantord, Elliot, Wroughton and other authors quoted under

Semnopithecus, Pygathrix or Pithecus.

A large mountain-form closely resembling P. vefulus nestor in colour but

with shaggier longer coat, and the pale patch on the croup usually at all

events less distinctly defined. Colour varying from deep blackish-brown to

sepia brown on the back and limbs. Summit of head and nape always

brown ; whiskers, throat ard chin grey or white and contrasted with the colour

of the head and chest. Face black, bordered with black hairs.and with a line

of black hairs between the eyes and expanding on the summit of the nose

between the nostrils.

Distribution. Mountains of Southern Ceylon.

Examples of this fine langur are rare in collections. ‘The British Museum

has four examples only. An adult male from Adam’s Peak (S. B. Bell) is

dark blackish-brown, blackening on the hands and feet. The croup patch

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA _ 503

is paler, sepia brown ; the whole of the crown of the head and the nape are

also paler sepia brown and, like the croup-patch, are sharply set off by the

darker hue of the back; the whiskers, throat and chin are grey ; the tail, which

in its basal half is like the croup patch, becomes greyer in its terminal portion.

Another adult male from Pattipola in the Central Provinces, where it was

shot at an altitude of 6,200 feet by Major E. W. Mayor, is considerably paler

brown than the one from Adam’s Peak. Hence the croup patch and the crown

of the head are much less conspicuous and the hands and feet are brown.

An adult female from Hakgalla Uva, 5,600 feet (A/ajur E&. W. Mayor) is

also paler than the male from Adam’s Peak but somewhat darker than the one

from Pattipola. The patch of white hair below the callosities is quite distinct.

The fourth example, ticketed merely Ceylon and received from Dr. Kelaart,

is too old and worn to call for comment.

Hitherto this langur has always been cited as wrstnus ; but monticola appears

to be the older of the two names. It was given by Kelaart to a langur from

the higher part of the Kandyan Province, Nuwara Eliya, which was described

as similar to typical cephalopterus (== vetulus) but without white on the inner

side of the thighs and on the rump. It was also said to be larger and darker

than its low country relative, with a rufous tinge on the neck and longer and

more wavy hairs.

The following approximate measurements in inches are available from two

examples collected by Major E. W. Mayor :—

Locality and Sex sae ee Tail nes | Weight

F 7 : 7

Pattipola, 6,210 ff 5, ch ... 23¢° 243” rg 20 lbs.

Hakgalla Uva, 2 ine 214”7+ 2050 63” 163 lbs.

The type of monticola, a female from Nuwara Eliya, was probably young

since, according to Kelaart, its head and body measured only 17in., the tail

being 26 in. and the hind foot 6in. But he sent, he tells us, a larger specimen

to Blyth, which was deseribed by Blyth as wrsinus, as Kelaart stated in 1852.

The largest specimen, so far as I am aware, of which the dimensions have

been recorded, was measured by Elliot. The head and body were 28 in., the

tail 31 in. and the hind foot 7 in. It also came from Nuwara Eliya; but the

measurements were taken from a dried and probably stretched skin.

Setting aside Elliot’s specimen, it will be observed that, according to Major

E. W. Mayor’s recorded measurements, monticola is no larger than P. s.

vetulus and P. s. nestor. It is true that made-up skins of smonticola look

larger, but this is no doubt largely due to the thickness of the coat. There

is nevertheless considerable cifference between P. s. monticola and P. s.

vetulus in weight, monticola: being much heavier. Moreover according to

the measurements recorded by Hinton in his paper quoted above, the skull

of monticola (=ursinus) is about 10 mm., nearly half an inch longer than

the skulls of vetwlus and nestor.

Subspecies johniz, Fischer.

Simia johnit, Fischer, Syn. JZamm., p. 25, 1829.

Semnopithecus, Presbytis or Pithecus qohnit or johni, Anderson, Blanford,

Elliot and most recent authors.

A mountain-race of large size, nearly as large as monticola but with the coat

shorter, closer, blacker and more glossy on the body and limbs, the general

colour being jet black, or nearly sv, above and below. It differs also from

Pithecus senex monticola in the uniform buff-brown tint of the long hairs

of the crown and of the whiskers and throat, there being no contrast in tint

between the whiskers and crown; the tail alsois nearly black and not very

noticeably paler than the middle of the back, as in the Ceylonese fornis.

Distribution. Mountains of Southern India, the Anamalai, Palni and

Nilgiri Hills and the Western Ghats from Coorg to Cape Comorin.

504 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The following table gives the approximate dimensions in inches of examples

of this langur collected for the Mammal Survey by Mr. G. C. Shortridge and

Mr. Riley O’Brien :—

Locality and Sex | pee | Tail Hind foot | W

Brahmagiri Hills, 8.

Coorg, 2,780-5,138 ft.,¢ 26% 303” 7" — 214 Ibs.

Kumblacodie, Cochin, |

3°500-£t.,, ¢ zee 2a 344” 74”

Anamaad, S. Malabar,

3,200 ft., ¢ | 224” SWE | ES

Kukkal Shola, Palnis,

6,100 ft; 2 ae: 24” 32% | igs [25> bse

Made-up skins of this langur appear to belong to a considerably larger form

than the typical Ceylonese vefulus and nestor. But the dimensions show

that there is not very much difference. It is, however, a heavier animal as

indicated by the weight. I have not seen the skull of a fully adult male, the

one measured above 268 having the occipital suture open and the upper canines

hardly longer than in the female. But the skull of the fully adult would

certainly be larger than in the Ceylonese races vefulus and nestor and the

teeth are larger.

Although this langur has always hitherto been regarded as a species distinct

from the related Ceylonese langurs, it does not appear to me that its characteris-

tics should be given more than subspecific importance.

( Zo be continued)

oe ag oT Oe

beans 2 —

Bch ag es

YY ¢ 2 sax)

r 3

Ai Be CS

P20 cx

yy hice,

NAISON AUNIOY, ©

yd INO NAT cd Vv 4

es ‘ : :

: : i we Sry ; Sa

A; COLLECTING TRIP’ TO LADAK

V. S. LAPERSONNE

Asst. Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

PART I

(With a map and tive plates)

It was a happy opportunity that allowed me to hitch my cart

behind that of Col. Meinertzhagen’s, when he organized a collecting

trip to Ladak and on to the borders of Chinese Tibet for the purpose

of acquiring a thorough knowledge of the resident bird life at the

higher altitudes, and also authentic proof of the migratory species

that cross the Great Himalayas and breed in the highlands of Ladak

and Little Tibet. The success of this collecting enterprise and the

subsequent recognition of new species added to the fauna of Ladak

was the work of a congenial employer and friend and a first-class

organizer. It is to him I owe whatever knowledge I have of

Systematic collecting and of preparing bird skins that will be a

‘thing of joy for ever.’

The path of a bird collector is not always strewn with roses. His

peregrinations may take him, at times, well beyond the pale, where

perhaps, through sheer malice, he may see a‘ snow man’ and come

back to us with photographic proofs of human foot-prints in the

snow.

On the other hand the field is infinitely varied. There are hunting

grounds to suit all tastes. The arid desert, the tropical forest with

its varied and multi-hued denizens, or the bleak glacier-hung moun-

tain top.

Col. Meinertzhagen and I left Pindi on February 21 and passing

up the picturesque Jhelum Valley arrived in Srinagar on February

27, having collected a good many migrants on the way.

We left Srinagar on March 23 and crossing over the Great

Himalayas at the depression known as the Zogi-la Pass, followed

the Indus Valley and reached Leh on the 6th May. Leaving Leh

on the 17th May we crossed over the Ladak range by the Changla

and Marsimik la passes and reached Changchen-Mo Valley on the

31st May.

Retracing our steps we made a wide detour, skirting the

Pangkong Lake to Shushal and thence crossing the Indus reached

Puga on June 20. Returning to Leh we struck north and arrived at

the foot of the Kara Koram Range on July 22.

We returned again to Leh and worked down the Indus to Skardu

in Baltistan on August 13. Thence we returned to Kashmir by way

of the Deosai Plateau and reached Srinagar on September 5.

During the period of collecting we covered over 2,000 miles and

in the course of our travel reached an altitude of 21,050 ft. in the

Kara Koram.

The Vale of Kashmir is described asa saucer-shaped valley between

the Great Himalayas and the Outer Himalayas or the Pir Panjal

506 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Mountains between the Great with a length of about 80 miles, a

breadth of 24 miles, and a mean altitude of 5,600 feet above sea-

level, corresponding in latitude to Palestine, the Mediterranean

and California. ‘Thus it has a blend of temperatures which should -

compare favourably with any other summer resort in the world.

For its genial beauty Kashmir should stand alone, for here you

have a combination of lakes, the quiet beauty of cultivated fields

and gardens, and a snow-capped mouutain range which completely

encircles the luxuriant valley.

It would be as great a mistake to generalize on the character

of the Kashmiri, as to accept the theory that all Kashmiri

women are beautiful. Yet if we must err, let it be on the side of

caution. Sir Francis Younghusband, for many years Resident of

Kashmir, has written a very interesting book on this province, and,

as a man who knows what he is talking about says, ‘A Kashmiri

soldier is almost a contradiction in terms. There is no such thing.

They will endure and suffer but they will not fight. And they are

very careful of the truth.’ Col. Meinertzhagen added a rider to

that by saying, ‘ They areso careful of the truth that they seldom

use it.’ However, it isto their splendid endurance there we owe the

success of our enterprise.

We had arrived in that ‘ Valley of Bliss’ just when the almond

blossoms were in bloom and Kashmir was warming up after a

rather severe winter. We had intended staying in an hotel, but this

became impossible. Being the earliest visitors we were preyed

upon by every shopkeeper who had anything to sell. The

climax of Col. Meinertzhagen’s patience seems to have been

reached when a none too clean fellow offered to give him a Turkish

bath !

- The ‘ Season’ had not begun when we arrived in Kashmir and

the houseboats were piled up along the banks. The Kashmiri boat-

man claims Noah as his ancestor and if, as Younghusband says,

‘they didn’t borrow the pattern of their boats from Noah, he must

certainly have borrowed it from them.’ They are known as

MANJIS and live entirely on their boats with their families and

cattle, and one can picture the squalor when all agree that the

Kashmiri could make Kashmir prefection if only he would wash.

We engaged a houseboat which gloried in the name of ‘ Arabella’

but nothing else happened; and slipping anchor from a regular

hulabaloo of ‘ Papier Mache Sir.’ ‘ Shampoo—furst Class 2?’ and

one or two pointed remarks as ‘ Hair cut and Shave Sir?’ we

worried our way down stream through the crowded waterways to

the accompaniment of frantic yells of our boatmen anda return

‘cuss fire from Kashmiri bargees’ wives, which if understood

suits the circumstances down to the ground.

We glided down the river passing the Maharaja’s Palace and just

beyond the precincts of the city a fair amount of dead horses and

cattle, which the Kashmiri delights in pushing into the river when

their days are done.

The most conspicuous object inthe immediate neighbourhood of

Srinagar is Takht-i-Suleiman, ‘The throne of Solomon’ a bare

rocky hill rising 1,000 feet from the floor of the valley, and sur-

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

- Sinp VALLEY, ONE OF KASHMIR’S PICTURESQUE SIDE VALLEYS.

HLIM ‘SVAWIVWIF] LVEXD AHL NI MVAQ SNONDIASNOD V ‘LA 0O8‘ZT ‘IOHVIOY

— Ia xy re y ee See eZ ie, %

"205 “3S!IPT Wey) Aequiog “uinor

A. COLERGTING. TRIP TO LADAK 507

mounted with a Hindoo temple. The view from this height will

repay the climb. On one hand the climber looks down on the town

of Srinagar, the Venice of the East, with its numerous waterways

and gaily coloured boats, following the course of the Jhelum with

little hamlets and temples clustered on its banks, and then away-

over the valley the land rises to the pine-covered slopes and the

culminating touch to every Kashmir scene—the snows. Looking in

the opposite direction the view is not so extensive. In the fore-

ground the Dal Lake with stately poplars on its shores and on its

placid waters the famous Isles of Chenars, mirrored again in its

crystal clear depths. Fleecy clouds crept over the snow peaks that

strung out in a jagged line against an azure sky while a bluey haze

hung over the valley and the sparkling domes of the temples sent

back the rays of the setting sun.

We camped in the Jee of acraggy hill and had an uninterrupted

view across the still waters of the Wular Lake to the stupendous

snow-clad mountains, that stretched across the eastern sky. The

pass into Ladak and the land of the laughing Bhudda led over these

mountains, but was considered impassable at this time of the year.

We decided to wait a month, and fill in the time collecting birds in

the vicinity.

Few of the summer visitors, in the course of their migration from

the plains and foot hills had arrived, though in those quite historic

gardens of Shalimar where the ‘ playing fountains ’—never play, the

Paradise Flycatcher, or as he is known to the residents of Kashmir

the ‘Ribbon-bird’, with a flash of satin white, darted among the

dark green of the chenar trees.

At dawn the call of that game little fellow, the Chukar, who can

be relied upon to give a good morning’s sport, is echoed back and

forth among the hills. Higher up on the pine-covered tops are the

haunts of the Koklass (Pucrasta macrolopha biddulphz), and the Nut-

cracker (Nuctfraga multipunctata).

In the valley the House Crow is entirely replaced by the Jackdaw

during winter, and the sight of these birds leaving the valley in

thousands every morning for villages along the Jhelum Valley and

returning to roost among the chenar trees in the heart of the town,

can hardly be missed by any visitor.

With the rise in the temperature and the melting of the snows on

the heights, we decided to commence the trek that was to take us

into Ladak and allow us to dangle our feet into Chinese Tibet. On

the 25th March we bade farewell to the ‘ Arabella’ at the mouth

of the Sind River and moved up that beauteous valley, which at any

season surpasses in beauty any other side valley of Kashmir. A

thick forest of fir covered the northern slopes with glimpses of snow

showing through the dark green, and toy-like villages clinging to

the lower slopes.

Such natural beauty of scenery, the varied bird life and exhile-

rating climate enhanced our collecting spirit considerably. Even our

local shikari, who usuaily suffered from a stomach or a backache,

‘girded up his loins’ to bag the wary Monal Pheasant, though

these when brought in were too full of holes and lead to be of much

use for specimens or the pot.

508 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATOGRAL FIST. SOCIETY, Vol. X2°2g7

Small parties of Tits, Tree-Creepers and Nuthatches, which

consisted of Parus major kaschmtriensis, Parus melanolophus, Parus

rufonuchalis rutonuchalis, Sitta europea kashmiriensts, and Certhia

himalayana(?) frequented the forests. The sub-specific rank of

this last birdis under discussion as being intermediate between the

Himalayan and Turkestan races.

The Orange Bullfinches (Pyrrhula auzvantiaca) were not un-

common in the fir forests. Col. Meinertzhagen writes of this bird in

the /ézs of July 1927, ‘The brilliant orange of their plumage

showed up like some precious stone on the drab dull green of the

ground on which they fed. Aftera moment they would fly up into

a tree, soon to return one by one and sit quite still munching small

seeds. Their dislike of movement when feeding and when in a tree

was due to their inherited consciousness that in such brilliant plums

age they would become visible and an easy prey to any feathered

enemy.’

As we moved higher up the vailey, forest bird life became

Scarce |

The few that braved the winter conditions at 8,000 feet were the

Brown Dipper, White-capped Redstart, Guldenstadt’s Afghan Red-

start, and higher still, the White-breasted Dipper.

On the 7th April we left Traghol, 9,500 feet. This was our fourth

day in this picturesque valley. Each day brought forth more

wonders in mountain scenery ; each turn in the road a surprise.

The thick belt of fir trees thinned out ; giving place to the slender

hardy birch. Snow lay thick everywhere, at times completely

bridging the river, and then one enters Sonamarg. Glaciers move

down the flanking mountains, and in spring, the snow having melt-

ed, the glacial formation reaching down to the tree line, is a mass

of dazzling ice and bare jagged rocks.

Kolahoi, 17,850 feet, its sharp peak conspicuous from any point

along the Sind Valley ridge is the highest point in the Great

Himalayas. The peak is six thousand feet above the glacial

formation, which stretches down to the tree line.

We arrived at Boltal 9,700 feet on the 10th April. It has a

delightful dak-bungalow at the head of the Sind Valley, and is

completely surrounded by the wildest and grandest scenery of

snow, mountain and mist.

This is the stage when the traveller realizes what he is up

against. The Zogi-la Pass which crosses the Great Himalayas

into Ladak and which is usually open to traffic after the 15th May,

was bunged high with snow; the only alternative was a snow-

bound, precipitous ravine that really was a frozen mountain torrent,

covered over with snow.

We remained three days here and every day were made

acquainted with the awe-inspiring sight of avalanches. With the

thawing of the snow, a few tons would rush down the slopes with

the roar of an express train.

The traveller can never be too cautious in his plans of an

assault on these mountain fastnesses during winter.

He must be up and away before dawn to avoid the avalanches,

his face and hands well greased to avoid frost-bite, his feet shod

AvCOLLEGTING TRIP TO LADAT- 509

with grass shoes fora firm foot-hold on the frozen surface of the

snow, and, as fancy dictates, a flask of rum or brandy, or if this is

‘haram,’ chocolate will be found an admirable substitute.

At an ungodly hour in the early dawn of Easter Sunday on

April 13 when the temperature was below zero—and our circulation

almost that—we set out for the assault on the snow-bound ravine.

Ten minutes brisk walk brought us to the foot of the ravine.

Here each man readjusted his load and snapped his belt into the

‘starvation hole.’

The coolies were dimly visible in the darkness which precedes

dawn as they grouped together for a final smoke. Their gnome-

like figures stood out against a sombre sky, and little points of

light from their cigarettes, stabbed into the darkness. Col.

Meinertzhagen gave the signal and we fell into single file and began

the assault.

That scramble up the ravine lasted a little over an hour and for

the greater part it was a ‘ fly-on-the-wall’ business. To add to the

discomfiture, a howling gale, accompanied by a blizzard, tore down

the closed-in ravine. ‘A gale,’ as our cook said, ‘ guaranteed to

disembowel a camel,’ or the equivalent to that in Hindustani.

Looking back on the events of that day, my diary helps with the

one elucidating word—‘ Hell,’ followed by notes of exclamations,

queries and asterisks, which apparently had its soothing effects, and

continues ‘ But still the wind blew, howling over the peaks, the

stinging snow finding its way down your neck, in your ears and

nostrils. The fine snow being blown from the heights, resembled,

as it caught the sun’s rays, a spreading white fire.’ We topped the

pass and paused for a ‘breather’ and watched the coolies ; these

gallant fellows who will not fight, but who can be thoroughly relied

upon in these mountains, were putting up a final spurt to gain the

top, and as they filed past with their 40 lbs. loads, we could not help

but cheer.

Physical disasters have made the Kashmiri selfish ; tyranny has

made him a liar, and superstition has made him timid. Yet, as he

swings along, to the lilt of a mountain song, indifferent to the cold

or steep ascents, we have nothing but admiration to offer.

We were now in that range of snows, the snowy range par ex-

céllence, which extends in a southern direction ina line of snowy

peaks, seen from Simla, to the famous peaks of Gangotri and Nanda

Devi in Garhwal. And we struggled along over a snow-bound

freezing cold valley, among the snow clad giants for three days,

seeing extremely little of bird life. Tie winter conditions prevail-

ing in the region, would hardly appeal to any birds, not even to

that curious bird which seems to spend its life either flying at

ridiculous altitudes or sitting on bare rocks—the Chough.

As we neared Ladak the temperature rose, though the altitude

(11,500) remained the same, and on the 16th April we were thank-

ful to see the last of the ‘snowy range par excellence,’ and which,

omitting those unrivalled mountains seen from Darjeeling, is second

to none.

We fully expected to see, after crossing the Himalayas, a broad

undulating plateau stretching away from our feet to the eastern

510 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

horizon ; instead our vision was plunged into a conglomeration of

barren hiils, parched valleys and gaunt Bhuddists’ monasteries,

which seem perched on every peak.

The track now followed the contour of the hills, with not atree to

break the monotony of barren hillside or a river cradled in the

valleys. At Molbek the atmosphere, people, and villages entirely

change. We were walking now on ‘the roof of the world,’ among

an ancient race, with still more ancient customs. Monuments, .

prayers and supplications carved and inscribed on stone, are piled

high along the caravan route which reaches to Leh, the capital of

Ladak,

We put in a few days at Molbek chiefly for the Himaiayan Snow

Cock (Tetraogallus himalayanus) which were quite common on the

hills, and secured quite a good series with the help of Tibetan

guides who take their pleasures in dead earnest, and appear to de-

light in seeing you, purple about the gills, climbing to 14,000 or

16,000 feet in pursuit of these birds.

We found that these descended tothe river at an early hour of the

morning for a drink, and, as the day warmed, moved higher up—at

times to the summit of the bare hills—where they roosted during the

warmer hours of the day, at elevations of 14,000 and 16,000 feet.

They rarely fly, and then only to cross the valley, if hard pressed by

asportsman. ‘They weigh about 5 lbs. and it takes a good knock to

bring them down. During the breeding season they utter a long

drawn-out whistle—a dismal sound well associated with the dreary

isolated haunts of this bird. The limits of the Himalayan species

appear to be at 16,000 feet, and roughly all that region south of the

main Ladak chain. Further north, the Tibetan Snow Cock replaces

the Himalayan.

To refer again to the Tibetan gun-bearer : he hasno equal in these

hills, possessing, as he does, an unflagging spirit, an unquenchable

zeal and a clean sense of humour—but keep to windward of him, for

if to his lee you can judge the full extent of his cleanliness! !

The road now follows the course of the Indus and we plunge again

into a labyrinth of confined valleys and gorges, shut in on either

hand by vertical walls of rock, and emerge with the Indus into a flat

bottomed broad valley that gently slopes to the foot of the Ladak

range, where the flat roofed houses of Leh crowd around the

monastery, aschickens do round a well-fed hen.

Leh, the great emporium of the trade which passes between India,

Turkestan and Chinese Tibet, has been the starting point of many

an adventurous journey into the last named country. The town does

not seem to have much of a historical past. The unwarlike Ladakis,

even with nature fighting on their side, were conquered by the

rulers of Kashmir. The Kashmiri troops left to garrison Leh were,

on one occasion, slaughtered by a strong force of Chinese from

Tibet, since when Ladak, though still a province of Kashmir, is

ecclesiastically subject to Lhassa, paying tribute, in the guise of

presents, to mollify the Chinese who are held in wholesome fear by

the Ladakhis to this day.

The Ladakhi, or ‘hybrid’ Tibetan is of a mild easy-going disposi-

tion, thoroughly honest, with the thinking capacity of a Yak,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

FEET.

MARKET PLACE AT LEH, AND THE ‘ GOMPA’ ABOVE, THE WINTER QUARTERS OF THE

ECCLESIASTICAL HEAD OF WESTERN TIBET.

HHI OL

Ha] AO

‘AONVY MVAVW'Y] a

AVMHLVS) HHL HOAOMHL ONIMOO’T

‘205 ‘slp ‘yey Aequiog “usanoe

A COLLEGTING TRIP 70 LADAK 511

The effects of high altitude may account for his wholesome horror

for any form of manual labour and he seems fortunate in possessing

a spouse who fills the roles of husbandman and handmaid. A

part of her dowry is a turquoise studded headgear—the remainder

of it—her slave-like willingness to work.

The price of a bride or brides, fluctuates with the supply, and on

our visit in 1925, the women constituted 8U per cent of the population

of Leh. What a happy hunting ground is Leh for our be-(k)-nighted

bachelors of Bombay !

Since time immemorial, man’s soul has yearned for a ball of some

kind. An ‘oblong’ one, a wooden one, or even a rag one. Buta ball

of some description it must be and until he gets it, he is never really

happy. The Ladakhi is no exception to the rule. Every fair sized

village has its polo ground and though the game, as played in the

plains of India, is atame affair to the one played here, there is a

general tendency to adhere to rules.

_ Throughout the hour’s play there is no change of ponies, the

game is fast and furious, and the ball never out of play.

Fouls are unknown; in a scrimmage, you may take a ‘ whack’

at your opponent or his horse. On occasions the game is played

down the broad main street, and norule exists preventing an attack

from a player who has lain in ambush in one of the shops flanking

the polo ground.

The word ‘ pulu’, which means ‘ ball’ in Tibetan has given rise to

the theory that polo originated among the Mongolians, but history

tells us that the game drifted from Persia through Turkestan into

China and Japan, thence from Tibet to Gilgit and so to the plains.

The earliest records of this ‘game of kings’ in Tibet seem to

tend more to feats of horsemanship and skill with stick and ball,

than to the scoring of goals.

The nature of the present game is a mixture of thetwo. The ball

is brought into play, in the event of a goal, ina most skilful manner.

A player gallops at full speed down the ‘ wing’ and, near the haif

way line, still at full gallop, tosses the ball into the air and smites it

square towards his opponent’s goal.

Being the centre of the trade of these parts, Leh boasts a reason-

able sized bazaar and market.

Goods are more often bartered for goods than sold forcash. The

Yarkandi from over the Kara Koram arrives in Spring with his

caravan of wooland dried fruits, exchanging these for silks and

wearing apparel from Kashmir. The Tibetan after a long and

arduous journey over wind-swept desolate plains, arrives with his

loads of Chinese brocade and quaint ornaments. The Kashmiri

floods the market with all conceivable goods, even to the extent of

Huropean provisions. The Ladakhicontributes an occasional Yak

tail.

Above the market and perched on an impassable rock are the

winter quarters of the ecclesiastic head of Western Tibet. Like

most monasteries it has an equally impassable ‘ stairway ’ leading up

to the entrance, but offers no other obstruction to sightseers.

Bhuddhism may not interest everyone of us, and few travellers

have the time to ‘worry’ about such matters. We accept the

§12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

existence of those silent edifices as part of the abominable landscape

and pass on. Yetin those silent evenings, when the clouds have

crept up the valley, the monastery sticks out above like an isoiated

island in a billowy sea; when the still night air throbs with

the sonorous convocations from the deep-throated trumpets up in

the monastery, when the moon shines down on the unscrutable

face of Bhudda—it would almost seem as if Bhudda walks this earth

again.

We have not the desire to tackle Bhuddhism, nor the time to dip

into dimmest antiquity. With our object ever in view we begin

preparations to leave Leh for the borders of Tibet proper, the

region of the wild yak, the wild ass and the fabulous unicorn of

Tibet.

No jungle exists in the whole of Ladak; the few trees, mostly

willow and poplar, are planted in villages for building purposes

and fuel. The traveller will find no ‘ shady’ tree under which to

have his Junch between stages and, as he travels higher the gardens

around villages will thin out and disappear.

The bird life then, for the most part, is terrestrial in habits and

palaearctic in its zone of distribution. Thus the traveller meets,

when he crosses the great Himalayas, the Magpie (Pca pica

bactriana). Col. Meinertzhagen points out, in his paper on the Birds

of Ladak in the /ézs, that the Magpie is essentially a bird of the

wind-swept, open and almost treeless Ladak, in contradicton to

Baker’s habitat of this bird as being Kashmir, Kumaon and Gharwal.

Visitors to Kumaon and Gharwal will bear out the statement of

Col. Meinertzhagen that the Magpie is not a bird of ‘ well-wooded ’

parts. Observations in Mesopotamia, Persia and Baluchistan, all

countries that could do witha bit of vegetation, shew that the

Magpie frequents the upland steppes.

The Tibetan Raven (Corvus corax tibetanus) is met with all over

Ladak. His bell-like tones should be unmistakable to any visitor

to the highlands of Ladak.

The Red-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax himalayanus)

extends over the greater part of Ladak, chiefly over 12,000 feet.

It occurs on either side of the Great Himalayas as low as 6,000 feet

in winter, up to 19,000 feet in summer.

The Yellow-billed Chough (Pyrrhocorax graculus forsytht) hardly

distinguishable, on the wing, from the above bird appears to fre-

quent the same localities—though not quite so common. Both these

birds were breeding at Leh at 11,600 feet. Horned Larks (Zvemo-

pbhila alpestris longtrostris) were common from 12,000 feet to the

snow line.

The Great Tit (Parus major kaschmiriensis), common on either

side of the Himalayas, extends for a considerable distance into

Ladak, wherever there were trees.

Snow-Cocks (Zetvaogallus himalayensis himalayensts) and the

Chukor (Alecloris graeca pallescens) as distinguishable from Alectorts

graecca chukar, a darker race, were common inthe alpine regions

of Ladak.

We left Leh on the 17th May for the valley of Chang-chen-Mo,

245 miles westward, which is the furthest point reached by any

————

A COLLECTING TRIP TO LADAK S13

traveller, for beyond lies a wilderness of the coldest, bleakest and

most desolate region conceivable,

We crossed over the Ladak range by the Chang-la pass, a regular

corker in the way of passes—and one which touched the scale at

18,000 feet.

We had camped just below the pass at 15,700 feet the evening

before the ascent and were fortunate in securing a fine series of

Brandt’s Mountain Finch (Montifringilla brandti hematopyga).

They appear to be birds of the extreme altitudes and are met with

usually on the fringe of the snows, upto 18,000 feet.

Before we crawl over the pass, I must dip my flag to Col.

Meinertzhagen, who, with the tenacity with which leaders are made,

got us over the pass when things looked their worst.

A relay of coolies were engaged to prevent any unnecessary

delay on the pass, for what with the height and the thawing of the

snow progress must be slow. There is an added danger after

sunset on such passes. A caravan caught after sundown at 18,000

feet, would find it difficult to get through without losing a large

part of its ‘cattle’ and men. Sucha catastrophe cannot be pre-

vented in view of the sudden drop in the temperature after sunset.

When tackling a high pass, you must, like Felix, ‘keep on

walking’. It is preferable, tobecoming a ruddy icicle, and helps

the circulation. Your progress may resemble the gait of a beetle

over the ridges and furrows of a ploughed field, but there is always

the consoling thought that all passes have a summit.

As much as I would like to forget this one instance of the effects of

high altitude, it may not come amiss to give first hand experience.

At altitudes over 16,000 feet, or at times 15,000 feet, it depends on

one’s physical condition, the traveller begins to feel the oppressive-

ness of the atmosphere. The mere act of turning over in bed isa

respiratory exertion; while ordinarily the respiration resembles

the effects of a second hand bicycle pump.

A generai listlessness is first observed, followed by a splitting

headache, as if a smack has been taken at the skull with an axe—

and the iron left in. Follows, if you have got it bad, a violent

desire to be ‘ sick.’

I doubt if there is any preventive for these effects, though

‘ Crystallized Ginger’ may be recommended.

There is also atendency to knock off ‘ food stuffs, ’—particularly

meat, though the craving for ‘ sweet stuffs ’, such as sugar and jam,

increases.

If on the other hand you are one of those who are blessed with

the innards of a Tibetan—the symptoms will be noticeable in your

camp. Your cook, if you haven’t left him to die on one of the

passes, usually finds he has a shocking grievance against the

Shikari or vice versa. This being appeased, he develops a com-

plication of disorders and a desire to peg out.

We crossed over the Changla pass and eleven miles beyond

camped in a willow garden at 14,500 feet. Just beyond the

pass we secured a Goosander (Merganser castor) which occurs

sparingly on large sized rivers above 10,000 feet. Later on (July)

we found the young in down on the Indus River below Leh.

514 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XX

The Brahminy Duck (Casarca furruginea) was first met at about

16,000 feet though they became commoner as we approached the

more isolated watered valleys.

We now entered the higher uplands or the ‘ Changlung ’—a name

given to all that region north of the Ladak Range, and the floors

of whose valleys rose from 14,500 feet to over 16,000 feet in the

Chang-chen-mo. ‘The mountainous chain that cuts across from

northwest to southeast is a continuation of the mighty Kara

Koram Range, which can be a real nuisance in its quiet

way.

The pass over this range, the Marsimik-la Pass, topped the scale

at 18,500 feet, and the ascent from 15,000 to the summit, in less

than two miles, is a steady pull.

We had left Phobrung, which is the most easterly limit of ‘ civiliza-

tion,’ in its broadest sense, on the 28th May and getting over the

pass in fine style camped at 17,700 feet on the site of a Tartar camp.

Our transport consisted entirely of yaks, or to be more correct

the hybrid known as ‘zhoe.’

Wild yaks occur on the Chinese-Tibetan border at extremely high

altitudes. Pocock mentions them as occurring in the Chang-chen-

mo valley at 20,000 feet in summer, descending toless snow covered

country at 15,000 in winter. According to local intelligence the

wild yak breeds between 20,000 and Say feet, and the young are

captured soon after birth.

The method of capture, and we give it for what it is worth, is for

a party to rush down on the parent yak, with tom-toms and cat-calls

thus driving it off. Itis hard to believe anybody ‘ rushing’ about

at these altitudes, burdened with tom-toms to say nothing of great

demands on the respiratory organs without cat-calls! The Tibetan

is a wonderful fellow, and if, as some affirm, his pig-tail is used as an

appendage by which Bhudda hauls up the ‘ failful’—to Nirvana, we

should think that even without it, his sheertoughness ought to get

him there.

At our camp at 17,700 feet it had snowed heavily all night and we

had become anxious for our yakmen. But any anxiety was unneces-

sary. These hardy mountaineers had bunched together and allowed

the snow to pile up over them and though not quite so comfortable

and hygienic were decidedly warmer than we in our flapping tents !

‘The ‘ Zhoe’ will be found the best mode of transport over heavy

snow and high passes. The novice will find he has not many

lengthy intervals of rest once the animals get amoveon. The

‘older beasts appear to be ever thinking of a point ahead which they

would rather have behind them.

On the 30th May we entered Chang-chen-mo valley. If there be

any colder bleaker spot in this world, let me not know it.

When I look at my diary written at these altitudes, the general

tone shares the pessimism of our cook. North, East or West was

an unbroken panorama of bleakness and desolation, devoid of vege-

tation or any sign of human habitation.

Then, as if not satisfied with her effects, Nature let loose a pierc-

ing wind down the narrow valley, which very nearly froze the

marrow in one’s bones.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ty,

CAMP AT CHANG-CHEN-MO VALLEY, 14.5JU FT

BREEDING GROUND OF BRAHMINY DUCK

A COLLECTING TRIP TO LADAK 515

However we seemed amply repaid for these discomfitures, from

a natural history point of view of course.

The Tibetan Snow-Cock ( 7etvaogallus tibetanus tibelanus,) replaced

the Himalayan species but were harder to obtain owing to the high

altitudes (17,000 to 20,000 feet) which this bird frequents. In

habits they do not differ from the other bird and appear not quite

so shy.

The semblance of the track we had followed now disappeared

entirely.

We observed a herd of Wild Asses that stood and took stock of

our party, while we stumbled over the boulders. It may not do

your temper much good to have a Wild Ass with his ears cocked,

looking down on you as you worry your way along, but you soon

get used to him and the ridiculous capers he cuts around the lag-

ging transport.

The sight of aman seems to excite his curiosity immensely, and

he will at times approach to within 25 yards for a thorough in-

spection of the biped.

I was able to observe a fine specimen at close quarters. After

semaphoring with his ears he decided to take a walk round and

then for no apparent reason, spun around and fled as if the furies

were behind him. One could understand this behaviour if he had

had a Tibetan to windward.

At the time I had put it down to my Kashmiri-cured posteen—but

sportsmen have commented on this behaviour and its disturbing

effects on other game—particularly Ovzs ammon and the Tibetan

Antelope.

The Tibetan Antelope, we find from ‘ Al Khanzir’s’ narrative in

one of Blackwood’s numbers to be the ‘ original’ unicorn of Tibet.

The horns of this animal are so placed that in profile they resemble

a single horn.

The Tibetans most naturally do not admit this and ‘ Al Khanzir ’

gives us the legend ‘that should a unicorn espy a virgin he will

instantly lay his head in her lap and look up into her eyes like a love

sick swain’.

Such an incident has never occurred and though maidens are not

plentiful in Tibet, they certainly do exist !

We shifted camp the next day, and ‘ discovered’ a delightful spot

on the lee ofa high cliff. A clear stream flowed past our camp,

while all around were bushes and a grassy lawn.

The Brahminy Duck had its young here, allin down. Theegegs

are laid in a hole on the hillside and the young as soon as hatched

are carried down to the water by the parent birds. A brood con-

sists of six to eight eggs.

A common bird. and one which turned out to be a new race,

was the Ladak Twite. Col. Meinertzhagen has named this Acanth?s

Hlavtrostris ladacensts and gives the following description :—

‘ Ladak birds are thick-billed as in rafosirigata, but differ from

that race in fresh plumage in having the upper plumage not so red.

In worn plumage Ladak birds are scarcely distinguishable from

rutostrigata. They differ from montanella in having a richer and

redder tone on the upper parts.

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAYINATOCRAL ‘HIST. SOGETY, Vol. X27

‘ A series of ten birds were obtained at Chimre (11,900 feet, May),

Tankse (12,900 feet, May), Chanchenmo (14,800 feet, June), Pang-

kong Lake (13,900 feet, June), and Moulbekh (10,350 feet, August),

Wings of five males 80-81 mm. and of five females 73-81 mm.

‘The Ladak Twite is common wherever met. It is apparently

confined to Eastern Ladak (my Moulbekh specimen being a soli-

tary bird andprobably a straggler from elsewhere). Observed at

Zingral, Tankse, Pamzal, Pangkong Lake, Shushal, Puga, Tso Kar,

Debring, and at Khardung. In summer they seldom come below

12,000 feet or over 15,000 feet.

‘Nests with eggs were found at Tankse on May 21, on the

Pangkong Lake on June 8, and on the Tso Kar on June 23,

Clutches numbered three eggs in three cases and four eggs in

three cases. Nests in low bushes (once 7 feet from the ground

in a willow-tree), with thick lining of yak-hair.’

We left Chang-chen-mo Valley on June 4 and retracing our

steps topped the Marsimik-la pass and descended to Phobrong ina

single day. This may not sound anything like a feat, but the

reader should bear in mind the rapid descent from 18,500 feet to

14,500 and the sudden change in the atmospheric conditions. If

there in anything worse than a never ending track that zigzags sky-

wards, it is arapid descent of more than five miles over boulders

and loose gravel.

We pitched our camp at Phobrong on a grassy lawn that sloped

down to the Pang-Kong Lake whence it rose again to the great

heights of the Ladak Range, now wreathed in fleecy clouds.

Evening finds contentment everywhere; the yaks quietly chew-

ing the cud, the men huddled together over their ‘ All steel’ pipes,

and floating on the evening air the soothing sounds of the hubble-

bubble from the kitchen tent. Forgotten are the grievances, a

bond of friendship such as never could have existed in the higher

altitudes, has brought together the cook, the ‘pot walluper’, the

shikari and one or two parasites, ‘‘‘ The Burra Saheb’ is quite

a descent stick, and not what we thought him at 17,000 feet; the

‘Chota Sahib’ uses some vile language but we know he doesn’t

mean it. Anyhow we are going back’’’.

The cook firmly makes up his mind to give us a real change from

the eternal ‘estew’. Alas! these resolutions vanish with the last

pull off the hookah.

Our road now skirted the west shore of the Pangkong Salt Lake

that lay between the outer ranges of the Ladak and Kara Koram

Mountains. The Lake is the largest in these regions being nearly

thirty miles in length and about five miles in breadth. Such is the

intensity of the cold during winter in these parts, that villagers are

able to drive herds of yaks and ponies across its frozen surface to

the hill ranges opposite.

The Brown-headed Gull (Lavus brunneicephala), a familiar bird in

the Bombay Harbour and along the west coast of India, crosses over

the Himalayas and breeds on such lakes. On our visit (June 8) the

Gulls had attained their breeding plumage and by the size of their

organs we concluded that the shingle banks were used as nesting

sites.

A COLLECTING TRIP TO LADAK 317

About midway down the shore of the lake, we pitched camp in

open bush-covered country and were fortunate in securing a series of

the Tibetan Partridge, which have proved a new species and named

by Col. Meinertzhagen as Perdix hodgsonie caraganae.

‘Ladak birds,’ he writes, ‘are generally paler above, especially

the chestnut nuchal collar. The dark brown markings on the upper

parts of P. 4. hodgsonie are replaced by chestnut markings in Ladak

birds, though this is not invariable. In size they do not differ from

P. h. hodgsonie.

Type in the Tring Museum: <, Shushal, 15,000 feet, Eastern

Ladak, June 13, 1925.

Distributig. Shores of Pangkong Lake to Rupshu and Hanle.

Is confined to the valleys where the Tibetan Gorse (Cargan)

grows.’

(Zo be continued)

A LIST OF ORCHIDS, WITH SOME NEW SPECIES FROM THE

HIGH WAVY MOUNTAIN (MADURA DISTRICT)

BE. BLATTER, S.J., Ph.D., Fels.

(With a plate)

The following is a list of Orchids which were collected in the month of May

1917 by the late Prof. F. Hallberg and myself on the High Wavy Mountain at

an altitude of 4,500 to 5,500 ft. The area examined measures about 12 square

miles, covered with dense evergreen forest and some smaller patches of grass-

land, apparently forest-clearings.*

Before publishing this paper I sent my MS. and specimens to Mr. C. E. C.

Fischer of the Kew Herbarium who is just engaged in writing the continuation

of the unfinished work of the late Mr. Gamble’s Flora of the Presidency of

Madras. As the next issue of the Flora contains the Orchidacez and as Mr.

Fischer knows the Madras Flora by many years’ practical experience in that

Presidency, I could scarcely find anybody better qualified to criticize my list.

Though I cannot agree on every point with Mr. Fischer’s views, I am greatly

obliged to him for pointing out a number of mistakes I had made. He even

discovered a new species amongst my material whichI had failed to recognize

as such.

1. OBERONIA, Lindl.

1. Oberonia Brunoniana, Wight Ic. t. 1622.—Nos. 329, 330, ? 26551.

Distribution: W. Peninsula: Konkan, N. and S. Kanara, Nilgiris, Pulneys,

mountains of Malabar and Travancore.

2. Oberonia verticillata, Wight Ic. t. 1626.—Nos. 26549, 26554.

Distribution : WN. Kanara, Nilgiris, Pulneys, Travancore.

3. Oberonia iridifolia) Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. 15, var. denticulata,

Hook. f. in Hooker FI. Brit. Ind. v, 676.—O. denticulata, Wight Ic. t. 1625.—

Nos. 331, 26550.

Distribution: Of variety: Nilgiris, Pulneys.

4, OQberonia Lindleyana, Wight Ic. t. 1624.—No. 26552.

Distribution: Nilgiris, Travancore Mts.

2. LIPARIS, Rich.

1. Liparis viridiflora, Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. 31.—No. 26546.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalaya, Upper Assam, Khasia Hills, Nilgiris.

2. Liparis Wightiana, Thwaites Enum. 295.—No. 26547.

Distribution: Pulneys, Travancore, Ceylon.

3, Liparis sp.—No. 26545.

Only one specimen in fruit.

3. DENDROBIUM, Swartz.

1. Dendrobium nutans, Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. 90 (including D. Jerdoni-

anum, Wight Ic. t. 1644), var. rubrolabris, Blatter var. nov.—Sepala necnon

petala alba, labium rubrum maculis purpureis.

* See this Journal, vol. xxv (Sept. 1917), p. 290.

NEW SPECIES FROM HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 519

The lip has 3 very high, close, crisped lamellae. Margin of midlobe very

strongly crisped. Nos. 335, 25808.

Distribution of type: Coorg, Nilgiris, Ceylon.

2. Dendrobium nanum, Hook. f. Ic. Pl. t. 1583.—Nos. 26523, 25810.—Flowers

pale pink, except lip which has a purple spot on each side.

Distribution: Malabar.

3. Dendrobium sp. near nanum, Hook. f.— Too young for proper identification.

—No. 25811.

4, BULBOPHYLLUM, Thouars.

Bulbophyllum nilgherrense, Wight Ic. t. 1650.

The leaves are subacute, not retuse as shown in Wight’s figure.—No. 340.

Distribution : Nilgiris, Malabar.

5. CIRRHOPETALUM, Lindl.

Cirrhopetalum Gamblei, Hook.f.in Hook. ¢. Fl. Brit. Ind. v, 778.—C. Thomsont,

Hook.f. l.c.—No. 332.

I intended to transfer this species to Bulbophyllum, following Smith ; Bulbo-

phyllum Thou., sect. Cirrhopetalum, in Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenz., ser. 2, viii

(Oct. 1912), 19-29. But Fischer tells me that Kranzlin,Schlechter and Rolfe have

accepted Cirrhopetalum as a good genus, and he thinks that the unequal sepals

make a good character to separate it from Bulbophyllum.

Distribution : Nilgris, Pulneys, Bababoodan Hills.

6. CHRYSOGLOSSUM, Blume.

1. Chrysogiossum Hallbergii, Blatter, sp. nov. (Orchidacew— HKpidendree—

Dendrobie@). Similis Chrysoglosso maculato, Hook.f. sed recedit ab eo habitu

epiphytico, mento saccato, disco labii 3 lamellis predito, bracteis multo

longioribus.

Epiphytic. Pseudobulb 1-leaved, leaf with 5 large and very numerous close

finer veins. Scape lateral, about 12-flowered, with 3 sheaths. Bracts longer

than pedicel and ovary. Flowers pedicellate. Perianth-segments all 9 mm.

long. Sepais and petals obovate-lanceolate to lanceolate-acute, the latter

broader, all 3-nerved. ‘The lateral sepals united to the upper half of the spur of

the lip, forming asmall saccate mentum, below which the proper spur may be

distinguished, which is subcylindrical, slightly incurved and not quite 1 mm.

long. Lip clawed, 3-lobed, midlobe much longer than the side-lobes, suborbi-

cular, obtuse, with a very broad claw, base of claw minutely auricled, side-lobes

subrectangular, obtuse. Disk with 3 very distinct lamellee. Column slender,

bent forward, winged in front, the wings becoming broader and thicker down-

wards, forming a long foot, each wing having a large auricle about half-way

down. Anthers small, terminal, opercular, with a fiontal cusp, 2-celled, cells

distinct, hemispherical. Pollinia 2, free, subglobuse, waxy.—No. 26488.

2. Chrysoglussum sp. Probably aform of C. maculatum WHook.f.—Epiphy-

tic, notin flower. Found together with the new species, but the finer nerves

are not so close, and the leaves are in tufts, not solitary on the pseudobulb.—

No. 26487.

3. ? Chrysoglossum sp.--No. 26487,

7. Erta, Lindl. .

1. Eria braccata, Lindl. Journ. Linn. Soc. iii, 46.—4. reticosa, Wight Ic. t.

1637.—No. 338.

Distribution : W. Ghats, Konkan, Nilgiris, Ceylon.

2. Eria pauciflera, Wight Ic.t. 1639.—No. 337.

Distribution » Nilgiris.

3. Eria nana, A. Rich. ?, but too incomplete for certainty.—No. 25809.

4. Eria pseudociavicaulis, Blatter, sp. nov. (Orchidace—Epidendree—Eriee,

Sect. Hymeneriz). Distinguitur ab Eria clavicauli, Wall. foliis longioribus

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

non acuminatis, internodiis longioribus, racemo unifloro, bracteis oblongis

acutis haud nervosis, sepalo dorsali elliptico-oblongo obtuso, petalis subobtusis.

Epiphytic. Stems tufted, clavate, terete, with numerous longitudinal

fissures above, 20 cm. long ; last internode 7 by 1'5 cm., swollen in the middle,

Slightly oblique; next internode 7 cm., thickest on top, the following 5 by 3

cm., cylindrical. Sheaths 0. Leaves 3, 16-17 by 4-4°5 cm., oblong-lanceolate,

acute, coriaceous ; nerves numerous, stronger ones regularly distributed, bet-

ween which there are a number of very fine close ones. Peduncle opposite the

middle leaf, 22 mm. long, terete, pedicel solitary, strongly ribbed upwards, both

thinly brown-pubescent ; at base of peduncle a small sheath ; at junction of

peduncle and pedicel two large bracts which are olive coloured, oblong, acute,

half-amplexicaul, glabrous, hardly nerved, one lower than the other ; opposite

the upper is asmall upcurved awn,possiblv a reduced second pedicel. Flowers

faintly fragrant, glabrous, mainly white, mentum tinged with pink. Dorsal

sepal 15 by 6 mm., elliptic-oblong, obtuse ; lateral sepais very broad at base, 15

mm. long, triangular, falcate, subacute, reflexed, mentum 8 mm. long. Petals

falcately oblong, 14 by 5 mm., subobtuse. Lip sessile at the base of the

column, incumbent, much shorter than the lateral sepals, broadly obovate,

subequally 3-lobed with the margins light-purplish fading inwards, all lobes

slighly crisped, lateral lobes bent inwards, midlobe minutely white-puberu-

lous. Disk with a white pubescent ridge, 2 mm. broad in the lower half, which

portion has in front 2 small lateral calli, the upper half much narrower,

yellowish, hardly reaching the subacute tip of the midlobe. Column white, bent

nearly at aright angle to the axis of the flower below the stigma and produced

into along foot forming the broad mentum together with the lateral sepals,

foot broadest at the bend, marked further out with a few faint buff spots.

Stigmatic cavity broad, below the horizontal rostellum. Anther opercular,

embraced by the flaps of the column, 2-celled, cells approximate at base behind.

Pollinia 3 in each cell, connected by their bases, 2 much larger than the third,

compressd, pyriform, pale cream-coloured.

Described from onespecimen which was brought to Bombay where it flowered

in the beginning of September 1917.—No. 554, kept in formalin at St. Xavier’s

College, Boinbay.

8. JOSEPHIA, Wight

Josephia lanceolata, Wight Ic. t. 1742.—No. 333.

Pistribution - Central Provinces, W. Ghats from the Konkan to Travancore,

Ceylon.

9, Ca@LOGYNE, Lindl.

Coelogyne nervosa, A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. ser. 2, xv, 16.—C. corrugata,

Wight.

Side lobes of lip much veined inside with orange-yellow. The 3 raised ridges

of the disk yellow in front ; rest of corolla white. Pollinia pale yellow. Wings

of column orange.

Our specimen flowered in Bombay in September 1917.—No. 339.

Distribution « Nilgiris, Pulneys, Travancore hills.

10. AFRIDES, Lour.

Aerides cylindricum, Lindl. in Wall. Cat. 7317.—Nos. 122, 25801, 25806, 25807.

Sepals and petals of No. 122 white, lip pale pink.—Not common.

Distribution - From the Coorg Hills to Travancore.

11. SACCOLABIUM, BI.

1. Saccolabium pulchellum, C.E.C. Fischer.—S. nz/agiricum, Hook. f. in

Hook. Fl. Brit. Ind. vi, 60.—Vanda pulchella, Wight Ic. t. 1671.—No. 342,

Distribution : Nilgiris.

2. Saccolabium filiforme, Lindl. in Journ. Jinn. Soc. iii, 36. The colour of the

flower seems to vary a good deal. In Wight’s plant they are rose-coloured, in

ange eee be 4

eee

seine,

DO da cmc 7

a §

Yow “

;

ha =

’

Py? ie -

an. dean. &

Ais

wee

*‘[]99 JO ssa9001g =°2 ‘9ATIDBUUOD °*g9 “TIA ‘Dv

tdoyjuy ‘¢ ‘oesepuedde ossoyidegq ‘s ‘dijjomelgQ ‘y ‘di[ Jo soqoy, [ei9}e7] ‘2 ‘pue[s YM UNII[Aa}]sOl jo sssd0lg “p wuss ‘2

‘UIN]JaJSOl jO SAIOUPIUI yNO}G *g ‘UINT[AISOyY “Vv *Z “ANdG *2 ‘SOaqOT-9ePIS “Gg ‘“OqOTPIW “VP ‘LT ‘“WSIMW ‘S7suassaysjiau siaagdsigd “q

‘joRuiq ‘§ ‘AleAQ “f ‘“9ATIOUTOD “g ‘“BIUT[Og “VY ‘IeyJUYy ‘9

‘diy ‘S ‘uuinyjoo jo ssadoid Jo SulaA [elayey “sf ‘“SULIB IRT[eIsoOy “fy ‘WnIpurayog ‘3 ‘eyyUB jo sATjODUUOD “p ‘saY4IUe Jo aseg ‘2

“TWD °g «‘uuIN[OD Jo ssoo0lg ‘YP ‘Pp ‘syeiaqg “Eg ‘Tedas [vlsjeT “Z ‘[edas [esioq ‘[ ‘Aou ‘dS ‘1aq\eT_ ‘Sm270JIpunjor Snj1yI0]U0CPQO “VY

i age UHr

Wut “

\\ oj GL

"90G “ISIE “(VeNY Aequiog “uanor

eS aeewep wi eeee ele i

NEW SPECIES FROM HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS 521

Ceylon plants orange with red stripes. Our flowers are bright brick-red, lip

orange, midrib of petals very prominent, ending in a point short of margin,

lateral veins very obscure, close to midrib.

Hook.f. (Fl. Brit. Ind. vi, 54) mentions expressly that the sac of Saccolabium

is ‘ without a large scale or callus within under the column’ except in S.

longifolium. There is one, however, in our specimens as well as in Fyson’s t.

250 illustrating S. filiforme, Lindl. See also Wight Ic. 1685, text.

Fischer who examined some flowers of the same specimen could not find a

trace of acallus. I presume that itis sometimes present and sometimes not.

In any case Hooker’s general statement about the presence of the callus will

have to be slightly modified. No. 189.

3. Saccolabium gracile, Lind]. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. 225.—No. 26531.

Distribution ; Ceylon.

12. CLErsosToMA, BI.

Cleisostoma tenerum, Hook. f. in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind., vi, 73.

Sepals and petals green with purplish longitudinal markings. Lip white, side-

lobes yellowish with purple markings. The whole flower, except the midlobe,

sometimes assuming an orange hue in the same plant. leaves /7-nerved.

Rostellum 2-lobed at base, each lobe with a horizontal linear appendage ; in the

space thus formed rests the gland.—Nos. 30, 25805, 25803, 25804.

Distribution : Nilgiris, Ceylon.

13. ANAECTOCHILUS, BI.

Aneectochilus elatior, Lind]. in Journ. Linn. Soc. i, 178..—No. 834.

Distribution ; Nilgiris.

14. ODONTOCHILUS, Bl.

Odontochilus rotundifolius, Blatter, sp. nov. (Orthidacee-—-Neottie—Spiran-

thee) Caulis terrestris nanus procumbens; folia pauca, parva, rotundo-

mucronata. Flores albi; sepalum dorsale necnon petala apice brunnea.

Sepala erecta, dorsale quidem 2 cm. attingens, 5-nervosum, lateralia autem

16mm.longa, oblonga, 5-nervosa. Petala 15 mm. longa oblongo-acuminata

subfaleata, 3-nervosa. Labium 14mm. iongum apice 2 lobis elongatis fere

horizontalibus ornatum. Columna brevis appendice frontali praedita. Rostelli

brachia longa, unoquoque brachio lobulo unico ventrali munito. Forma

foliorum necnon sepala 5-nervosa hanc speciem a ceteris speciebus affinibus

distinguunt.

Terrestrial. Stem nodose, procumbent, creeping below, bulbous-based-hairy,

15 cm. high. Leaves few, almost orbicular, mucronate, the largest seen 2 cm.

diam., glabrous, midrib distinct on lower surface, stalk about as long as blade,

bulbous-based-hairy, amplexicaul. Flower terminal, solitary, nodding ; bract

broadly ovate-acuminate, as long as the ovary. Sepals erect (not spreading),

green at base, rest whitish; dorsal sepal 19 mm. long, concave-hooded, 5-

nerved, tip reflexed, brown ; lateral sepals 16 mm. long, oblong, subobtuse,

5-nerved, connate at the base and concealing the minute spur of the lip. Petals

15 mm. long, oblong-acuminate, subfalcate, 3-nerved, white, tips brown. Lip

white, adnate to the base of the column, base with a minute subsaccate spur ;

claw broad, entire,4 mm. long, with a few long hairs, then the lip is bulging

out into 2 rounded lobes for a distance of 5mm. and again contracting, after

that narrow-linear for 5 mm. with 2 short elongate obtuse lobes spreading

almost horizontally at the apex. Column short, white, frontal appendage ot

column cup-shaped, lanceolate-acuminate when seen from the side, lying in

the folded claw of the lip; calli small. Rostellar arms long, slender, each

with a minute lobe on the ventral side. Anther lanceolate-acuminate, curved ;

pollinia broadly lanceolate in outline ; caudicles long, slender. Ovary 5 by

2mm., slighly broader upwards, densely pubescent.—Plate 1, A.

Described from one specimen which we found in damp evergreen forest.

Seems to be very rare —No. 25802.

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

15. SPIRANTHES, Rich.

1. Spiranthes australis. Lindl. in Bot. Reg. t. 823.

Fischer thinks this must be asport of S. austvalis, Lindl. = S. sinensis, Ames,

Orchid. ii (1908), 53.

The flowers are polymorphous. The top flower is larger, sepals and petals

obtuse, sepals minutely serrulate. Rostellum mucronate at tip. Rostellum of

lower flowers smaller, minutely bifid at apex.—Flowers white, tinged with

pink.

Found near top of plateau.--No. 26528.

Distribution: Throughout India, Afghanistan, N. Asia, China, Java,

Australia, N. Zealand.

16. ZEUXINE, Lindl.

1. Zeuxine longilabris, Benth. in Gen. PI. iii, 600.

Differs from other known specimens in the colour of the flower: Sepals olive

with white margins. Lateral petals and lip white with olive base. Column

orange. Bractpinkish. Ovary olive with 3 lighter stripes. No. 26530.

2. Zeuxine Biatteri, C. E. C. Fischer in Kew Bull, 1927.

Sepals greenish with pale tips. Petals pale-pink. Sac orange. Limb

white.

Found in damp evergreen forest.—No. 343.

17. “PERISTYLUS; Bi:

1. Perristylus stenostachyus, Krzl.—Habenaria stenostachya, Benth. FI.

Hongk. 362.— Habenaria peristyloides, Wight Ic. t. 1702.—No. 26507.

Distribution: Sikkim Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Tenasserim;, Deccan

Peninsula, from the Konkan southward, China.

18. SATYvRIUM, Swartz.

1. Satyrium nepalense, Don Prodr. 26.

We found only one dry specimen in bare patches of the hill-top.—No. 344.

Distribution : Temperate Himalaya, from Kashmir to Sikkim, Khasia

Hills, Deccan Peninsuia, from the Konkan to Travancore, Ceylon.

19. DISPERIS, Swartz.

1. Disperis neilgherrensis, Wight Ic. t. 1719.—D. zeylanica, Trin. Cat. Pl.

Ceyl. 91.

ne many points in the morphology of this species are not, or only partially,

known, I give a full description of our specimen :

A small plant, 7-11 cm. high, all glabrous. Tuber entire,2 by lcm. Stem

rather stout, fleshy. Leaf solitary, very rarely 2, situated about 3 up thestem,

broadly ovate, acute, sessile, cordate, subentire, 5-7-nerved, amplexicaul.

Flowers few, subsessile, each with a leaf-like bract. Pedicel and ovary up to

15 mm. long. Dorsal sepal narowly lanceolate, 3-nerved, rather obtuse, forming

together with the petals a concave hood lcm. long and as broad, only glued

together, not united. Lateral sepals spreading, broadly falcately ovate, united

for about 3mm., 10 by5mm., subacute, with 5 nerves from the base 1, the

central one more prominent, each with asmallsaccate spur about 3mm. from

the base. Petals broadly semilunate, subobtuse, with several anastomosing

nerves and an oblique band marking the position of the dorsal sepal, margin

minutely papillose, slightly waved, Sepals and petals white at base, rest

greenish, veins purple. Lip : midlobe S-lobed. Claw erect, confluent with

column. Midlobe pendulous, resting on the claw, subacute, in the centre with

a short, laterally compressed, obtuse, oblong spur which is slightly tomentose.

The lip is folded along the side-lobes which, therefore, are channelled below,

they are strongly curved downwards and papillose and yellow-tomentose above,

united with the pendulous portion for some distance; the lower part of

midlobe (before meeting its side-lobes) lies along the large rostellum, but is

NEW SPECIES FROM HIGH WAVY MOUNTAINS O73

not united withit; the side-lobes surmount the column. Lateral lobes of lip

very short, spreading. Column resting on and united with claw of lip.

horizontal and having 2 papillose appendages at the base. Stigma consisting

of 2 small fleshy processes just above the place where the lateral lobes of the lip

are situated. Anther posticous, erect, attached below to the conniving

column and claw ; cells close together above, but distinct, with a short process

below, appear to be open trom the beginning. In front of anther and en-

closing its margins lies the large rostellum ; itis emarginate at the tip,

withering downwards with recurved margins and has at the base Z hyaline

flat appendages along which the caudicles of the pollinia rest and with a large

flat deltoid exposed gland at its apex. Caudicles not twisted, bright yellow ;

pollen-grains olive: green, 2-seriate, secund on the twisted axis, cuneiform, com-

pressed. Ovary up tol4mm. long, 6-ribbed, slightly twisted.—Plate 1. B.

Found among damp leaves in evergreen forest, not common. No. 345,

All the specimens mentioned in this paper are at Kew.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF TUTICORIN

MARCH AND APRIL 1927

P.eRe AWATI, 1.4:S,

Professor of Zoology,

Royal Institute of Science, Bombay

(With four plates)

This pearl fishery was held, under the directorship of Dr. B. Sundara Raj,

M.A., Ph.D., Director of Fisheries to the Government of Madras, in the months

of March and April, 1927. The Government of Bombay had permitted me to go

to Tuticorin to observe and study the different processes involved in carrying out

a pearl fishery.

There have been many fisheries in previous years but never beiore was a fishery

held on such a grand scale as the present one as regards the extent and the

excellent organization of the camp and magnificent operatious at sea.

The story of the pearl fishery will be best understood if it is described under

three different aspects, the first of them dealing in outline with the life history

and the habits of the pear! oyster, the second with the formation of pearls and the

last describing in minute details the different operations of the fishery.

I. Pearl Oyster.—The celebrated pear! oyster of ‘Tuticorin, known as

Margaritifera vulgaris, belongs to the family of Aziculide having close

affinities with Scallops (/Pecten) and Mussels. It differs from Edibie oysters in

the possession of bundles of tough threads (byssus) by means of which it anchors

itself to the substratum.

Some of the general characters of the family areas follows :—

‘ The shell is usually inequivalve; the dorsal margin straight, often very

long and forming anterior and posterior wings or ears; the lateral teeth of the

hinge line are much prolonged and may be inconspicuous ; the mantle lobes are

not fused ; siphons are absent; the foot is moderately long, tongue-shaped with

a well developed byssus gland ; the posterior adductor muscle is very large and

nearly central, the anterior adductor muscle absent.’

The internal characters need not be mentioned here.

Life History and Habits.—The Pearl oyster is unisexual and remains so till

the end of. its life unlike what has been observed in the edible oyster which

changes its sex after each spawning period. It becomes sexually mature within

the first two years of its life and spawns twice a year in the beginning of the

South-west and North-east Monsoons. Its fecundity is enormous. Eggs are

extruded direct from the oviducts by means of the suprabranchial passage

to the sea and are fertilized in the open sea by spermatozoa emitted by ripe

males.

Eges undergoing development after fertilization become swimming embryos

within a very short time. The latter pass through different stages such as

trochosphere, veliger, etc., and are transformed within a week into spats, 1.e.,

very tiny oysters with syimnmetrical shells and delicate byssus threads. Before

the spat formation, the larvae orembryos are at the mercy of ocean drifts and

currents which carry them in all directions. As soon as the spat is

formed, it gets itself attached by means of the delicate byssus threads to any

floating or rooted algze. It seeks the shady under side of the branches and

sooner or later drops off and sinks to the bottom being dislodged by shaking or

by the disintegration of the floating weed. Once it is on the bottom it begins to

grow in size, all the time being anchored firmly to the substratum by means of

those byssus threads.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF TUTICORIN 525

Though the anchorage is firm, the Pearl oyster is by no means a sedentary and

helpless animal. It creeps slowly along thesurface by means of its long and

tongue-shaped foot when the byssus threads are damaged or uprooted. This

oyster has got the power .of forming over and over again byssus threads which

are secreted by a certain gland situated in the foot.

The shell of this oyster continues to grow in length till the third or the fourth

year of its life. After this period it thickens. greatly by the deposit of nacreous

material in its interior and especially in the neighbourhood of the hinge at the

dorsal edge. This is the time of rapid pearl formation. The oyster tissues are

then in the condition which lends to the secretion and deposition of limy material

either externally by addition to the thickness of the shell or internally as

successive coats deposited on any particle, such as a dead parasite, sand grain,

diatom, a fragment of nacre, ova or excreta, which has given rise to the necessary

stimulation. At about this time or a little later the oyster becomes fishable when

it measures about 4 by 3 inches. If it is not fished at the proper time (which is a

mysterious period) the oyster has got a tendency to disappear. Causes of its

disappearance are not yet discovered.

Longevity of the oyster is not definitely known but it appears that it does not

I've beyond six or seven years.

Banks or Paars.—The grounds on which these oysters are found aggregated

close together are known as Pearl oyster banks or paars (meaning rock or any

form of hard bottom in distinction to ‘manul’ which indicates loose or soft

sand). ‘‘ The Pearl bank plateau is bounded for the most part by 10 or 12

fathom line. Outside the paars, the ground shelves away rapidly to 20 to 30

fathoms which marks the top of the steep slope down to the mud-floored abyss

forming the central portion of the Gulf of Manaar. Along the line of this slope,

soundiness in some places jump in short distances to anything between 100 and

1,000 fathoms. Within 10 or 12 fathom line, onthe other hand, the ground is

for the most part very level.’’ At Tuticorin a distance of 10 to 12 miles is run

from shore before a depth of 10 fathoms is reached.

The surface of these plateaus is either sandy diversified here and there by

outcrops of so-called rocks generally in the form of flat or slightly inelined

ledges or low terraces, or entirely rocky with a mount of sand in crevices. The

rock in the latter case may sometime be covered by a thin layer of sand which

shifts from time to time with the currents.

The rock of the plateau inay be grit stone formed of yellow tinted quartz sand

cemented by carbonate of lime or it may be largely dead, worn and altered coral

or it may be a shelly mass, an agglomerate of dead valves of pearl oysters and

other molluscs.

‘A certain amount of sandy bottom interspersed with harder tracts and with

plenty of cultch, natural or artificiali.e., fragments of dead coral and of

calcretes, broken shells lying on the sand is probably the most favourable ground.

The cultch gives foothold for new broods of oysters and at the same time helps

to stiffen the shifting sand and prevents in some degree the wash out and

turnover of the surface which is caused by a heavy swell.’

These banks abound in rich flora and fauna besides the pearl oysters. The

microscopic spores and embryos of these plants and animals form the substantial

food of these oysters.

Enemies of the Pearl Oyster.—The Pearl oyster is a very delicate animal. Though

it is found in shallow waters up to 10 to 12 fathom line within as inany miles

from the shore, the sea water in which it is found must be clean i.e., free from

any sandy suspensions and also free from any dilutations of fresh water from the

land. These two factors alone will kill the oyster.

Besides the above there are other causes of death of these oysters ;

(1) Shifting of Sand.—This shifting which buries oysters and kills them is

caused by strong currents set up by the South-west monsoons and other storms.

(2) Predacious Fish.—Sharks, Rays and File fishes devour these oysters.

Though enemies, they form a necessary link in formation of pearls in oysters.

This connection will be explained later on.

(3) Boring Animals.—Boring sponges and boring molluscs, bore holes

into the shells. The former allow parasites and sand grains to enter through the

holes, into the soft body of the oyster and thus kill it indirectly, while the latter

suck the soft parts through these holes and swallow them.

(4) Miscellaneous causes such as overcrowding, over-fishing and epidemic

due to Protozoan or other parasites,

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Il. Pearls.—In India there is a popular belief that pearls are formed by

drops of rain falling at a particular period known as Swa/i. At this time it is

supposed that pearl oysters come up to the surface of the sea water, open their

shells and wait for the drops. As soon as these drops have fallen into them, the

shells are closed and the animals go to the bottom. ‘These drops become

afterwards pearls. Such and similar beliefs are still held by different communi-

ties all over the world.

Scientifically speaking, there are three important methods in the formation of

pearls ;

(1) Grains of sand, minute fragments of nacre, etc.

(2) Pathological secretions.

(3) Cestode embryos.

any one of the above entering into the body of the oyster causes irritation and

then stimulation to deposit pearly nacre around the source of irritation.

This nacre is deposited by an epithelial layer derived from the ectoderm (skin).

Almost all the fine pearls found free in the body are formed by deposition of

nacre around the cestode embryos which find entrance into the oyster. It will

be very interesting reading if a complete life cycle of this pearl-stimulating

cestode is described here.

‘The adult worm (7etrarhynchus untontfactor) from the body of a Shark or

Ray sets free its nunierous young embryos into the sea. Such free swimming

embryos gain entrance with food currents into the body of the oyster. They are

found in the mantle, in the gills, in the liver and also in the connective tissue of

the body wall in an encysted or encapsuled condition. If these infested oysters

are eaten by File fish (Balistes) Sharks or Rays, the cestode larve are transierred

to the body of the new host where they begin to grow. These cestodes are then

in arecognizable stage of Zetrarhynchus but they are not yet adult nor have they

reproductive organs. It is not yet definitely determined whether these immature

cestode forms reach their maturity in the same fish or in another new host, i.e.,

Shark or Ray which preys on the File fish.’

‘In those oysters which do not become the prey of the File fish, the cestode

larvae have no chance of completing their life cycle. They die and become

encapsuled in the layers of pearl nacre deposited by the living tissues of the

oyster upon the source of irritation caused by the cestode embryo which ulti-

mately becomes the centre of a brilliant and costly pearl.’

Thus it will be seen from the above that the predaceous fish form a neceSsary

link in formation of pearls. ‘ No rays, no pearls ; abundance of rays no oysters,

as the latter are destroyed by the former. But Nature has somehow restored

the balance between the oysters and the predaceous fish.’?

Different views as to pearl-formation can be best summed up in Prof.

Herdman’s words:—

(1) Majority of pearly excrescences on the interior of the shell are due to

the irritation caused by boring animals. In exceptional cases a free pearl may

be formed in this way. ‘There is a device by means of which these blisters or

excrescences are cut and filed into pearls of very low order. These pearls are

then known as Vottu or Blister pearl.

(2) Minute grains of sand or inorganic particles form the nucleus of pearls

under exceptional circumstances. When the shell is damaged, these sand

grains get into the interior and supply the irritation that gives rise to pearl

formation. ‘These are known as Ampullar pearls.

(3) Many pearls are found in the muscles close to surface. These are formed

around minute calcareous concretions, the Calcosperules, which are produced

in the tissues and form centres of irritation. These are known as Muscle pearls.

(4) Most of the fine pearls found free in the body contain the remains of

the cestode parasites (embryos). ‘They supply the requisite irritation for pearl

formation. ‘These are known as Cyst pearls.

Valuation of Pearls.—Valuation of pearls is a very complicated affair. The

principle underlying this valuation is to pass pearls through different sieves.

Each sieve is round about 6 to 8 inches in diameter and 2 to 3 inches high with

sized holes in the bottom. The size of the holes in each basket (sieve) is

different. The pearls that do not pass through the holes of any particular

sieve have a different value and different name. In this manner different pearls

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist Soc.

ROO ame

POLICE

PEARL BAZAAR GUARDED BY

ARL FY

)

E GENERAL BAZAAR

NER OF TH

A CoR

14s

Journ., Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc.

5. DIVERS’ ENCAMPMENT.

4, DIVERS AT WORK.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF TUTICORIN Sei

Names of pearls depending on valuation, size, shape and lustre are different

in different parts of India. If mentioned here, it will cause more confusion and

will serve little or no purpose at all in this narration.*

III, Pear! Fishery.x—A pearl fishery involves many operations, some at sea

and others on land, but long before it actually begins, the banks or paars have

been surveyed many times in order to investigate spatfalls as well as numbers

of fishable oysters. If the survey results as to the quantity of fishable oysters,

and if the valuation reports of pearls contained therein are satisfactory, it is

then and then only decided to hold a fishery. In order to make it known to all

concerned, it is thoroughly advertised in Burma, Ceylon and other parts of India

and the world through various newspapers, so that rich pearl merchants will be

attracted to the place. In the meanwhile divers are being recruited, fishing

boats are being brought to the place and the camp is being constructed on the

spot where the fishery will be held.

Fishery Camp at Silavathurat and tts Admintstration.—The site of this

pearl fishery camp known as Silavathurai lies at a distance of nearly two and

half miles to the north of the town of Tuticorin. ‘It is the time-honoured spot

where fisheries from ancient Hindu and Portuguese days have been held.’?

The camp covers an area of more than 100 acres. The front i.e. the eastern

portion of the camp extends up to the open beach, while the rear (western)

portion lies amidst Palmyra trees. On the south side it is bounded by a serics

of small lagoons which separate the town from the camp, while tothe north lies

a piece of uncultivated land full of thorny bushes and cactus, a small back-

water channel and a salt factory, a mile orso away from the camp.

On the beach are built huts or quarters for officers, visitors and the staff. A

little towards tte south, but facing the beach, are constructed offices including

an auction hall in front of the old beacon. In the same line parallel with the

beach but far away towards the south is built a Kottu (store) for Government

shells, and still further away on the beach itself for nearly a mile are located

series of huts known as Thotties for rotting oysters.

. Just behind the offices is reserved an area for retail selling and cutting open

oysters by retail buyers. The area known as Sales Ground is fenced with wire

all round except at two opposite ends which are kept open for admission into

and exit from it.

The pear] bazaar extends on both sides of the road which runs east to west

from the Sales Ground. This bazaar consists of pear} shops opened by pearl

merchants coming here from different places but mostly from Bombay. These

shops are rented out to them and Government receive a good income out of it.

A road which runs at right angles to the west end of the pearl bazaar accom-

modates shops of green grocers and eating houses for various kinds of people

who frequent the camp. ‘There are also some cloth shops. These shops are

also rented out.

There are twoor three roads running east to west at right angles to the mid

portion ot the general bazaar on either side of which are built huts for divers,

different sects occupying different areas. These huts are given free to these divers.

Rehind all the above roads but along way off towards the west are sunk

e'ght tube wells which supply water to the whole camp. ‘They are worked

with a hand pump. Water is supplied in a bullock cart to the officers and the

staff, but other people have to take water from the pump which is worked by

Government coolies. A guard is placed at each tube well to see that no bathing,

washing or polluting the water in any way is done. The water arrangements are

in charge of a mechanic lent for the purpose by the Industrial Department of

Madras.

In the north-west corner, but away from the tube wells and also from the

camp, there are bathing places for divers and others. A contractor who is in

charge of these places collects a small fee for every bath. One can see a crowd

of bathers every evening when divers have returned ashore all tired and

wanting a cold bath to refresh themselves.

The whole camp is well guarded by constables who are in charge of one

Inspector of Police and his two assistants. Its health is also well looked after

1 The above account of the pearl oyster and the formation of pearls is

mainly based on Prof. Herdman’s Reports to the Government of Ceylon,

2 Report of the Pearl Fishery, Tuticorin, Madras, 1926-27,

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

by Medical and Sanitary authorities. There is a small hospital with an out-

door dispensary attached to it. .

One Additional Superintendent who is recruited from the Revenue Depart-

ment looks after administration of the camp. He goes round the whole camp

twice a day morning and evening, supervising the general comfort.

The lighting is done by the department itself and it is in charge of the above

officer. The roads are well lit with Kitson lights.

Peaceful and harmonious working of the whole camp reflects a great capacity

for organization and tact on the part of the Director of Fisheries.

Operations up to Diving.—Nearly one thousand skin divers took part in

this fishery. There were Christian divers, mostly local i.e., from Tuticorin,

there were Mohamadan divers from a place called Kilakarai, now famous for

efficient divers, and there was also in addition to the above, a sprinkling of Arab

divers once famous for diving. These divers not possessing a boat of their

own, had to hire a fishing boat to take them out tothe pearl banks and bring

them back ashore after the day’s work. Every boat taking part in a fishery

has to obtain first a pass from the Customs Department which (pass) is handed

back to the same authorities after the fishery is over. These divers have also

to hire men for lowering them into the sea and haul them and their baskets up

during the period of diving. These men, known as mandacks, are really the

crew of the boats doing additional work and earning extra money.

Nearly seventy-eight boats were engaged in this fishery.

Before the actual start from the shore which was at about four o’clock in the

morning, the tindal of every fishing boat had to obtain a fresh permit every night

from the Beach Master as to the number of divers and mandacks his boat was

carrying to the place of fishing. The permits were made in different colours and

boats were accordingly divided into several groups, those of each group having a

permit of the same colour. ‘The purpose of this device will be clearly understood

when a certain operation i.e., the division of oysters at sea, is described

later on.

Every night in the camp a gun was fired at 11 p.mi., a second gun at 3a.m.

and the last at 4 a.m. when boats and divers were supposed to be ready for

departure from the shore. When everything was ready, the boats weighed anchor

and set sail for the place of fishing. If the winds were unfavourable, these boats

were generally towed either by the Government Trawler Lady Goschen or a

hired tug, for a distance of 10 or 12 miles to the places on the pearl banks already

marked out for fishing by the Superintendent in charge of the Pearl Banks. Once

the fishing boats arrived on the spot, they cast their anchors and the divers got

ready for diving. By this time there was sufficient light for diving purposes.

OPERATIONS FROM DIVING TO RETURNING OF DIVERS ASHORE

Complement of each boat.--In each beat there were two classes of men directly

concerned with diving, one of them being divers 10 to 12in number and the

other, as many mandacks. Besides,the above, there was the tindal of the boat

with six to twelve men as the crew according to the size of the boat. Sometimes

the mandacks themselves constitute in number the crew.

Methods of Diving.—There appeared to be no standardized method of diving.

‘The Arab divers had poles projecting over the sides of their boats by means of

which they hoisted themselves out of the water by an acrobatic movement. They

usually used horn clips on the nose and it was their custom to come to the

surface hanging on to the rope with the left hand and not letting it go in mid

water until they reached the surface.

‘ Most of the Tamil boats have temporary outriggers fitted to the sides of the

boats from which the divers are suspended. The Tamil divers do not wear

horn clips on their nose, but instead the nose is held between the thumb and

the fore finger during the rapid descent to the bottom. They let go the rope

in mid water after they have received an initial pull sufficient to bring them to

the surface. ‘The disadvantage of this method is that these divers reach the

surface some yards away from their boats and also spend more energy in

coming up.

‘ With rare exceptions both kinds of divers go down feet first with their feet

resting on the stone sinker. A few of them are seen to hold the sinker near

the chest and dive in head first. ’?

z Report of the Ci eylon “Pearl Fishery, 1 925-26.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SPOILS AT SEA

DIVISION OF

BAGS OF Oy

(Each bag contains 500 oysters.)

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

7. THE RETURN OF THE DIVERS.

8. WASHING THE PEARL OYSTERS.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF TUTICORIN 329

Every diver carries two ropes with him to the bottom one of them attached to

the stone sinker and the other to the basket in which oysters picked from the

bottom are raised to the surface.

Both these ropes are hauled by the mandack. As soon as the diver reaches

the bottom, the stone sinker is let loose which is immediately hauled up

to the surface. In the meanwhile the diver is feverishly busy in picking up the

oysters or whatever comes to his hands and collecting them in the basket. He

pulls at the basket rope whenever he wishes to rise to the surface for fresh air.

Immediately the mandack begins to haul up the basket with the diver and

within a few seconds both of them are brought to the surtace.

After some rest the diver commences his work again.

Diving was done till a signal was given in the shape of firing of a gun ora

shrill siren from a trawler when diving from all the boats had to cease at once.

This took place at about 1 p.m.

In the meanwhile the Superintendent of the Pearl Banks was very busy in

supervising the fishing boats. If the latter had strayed out of their places, they

were towed back to their former or sometimes to new places. It is an advantage

that all boats should work together on a particular spot. He also saw to it that

diving ceased at once after the signal was given and that there was no illegal

cutting of oysters before the division was made.

Division of Oysters at Sea.—As soon as diving ceased, boats began to app-

roach, one by one, the Government schooners which were anchored on the fishing

ground. Each side of the deck of these schooners flew a flag of a particular

colour. Only those fishing boats approached that particular side which had

permits of the colour of the flag fying on thatside. This device saves a lot of

worry and labour and provides a check on the boats and the divers.

On each side of the deck were placed two officers one for making divisions of

the oysters brought by the divers and the other for checking and sealing the

divers’ shares in gunny bags. ‘There were nearly half a dozen menials to help

these officers.

As the boat came alongside the schooner, every diver, one after another,

handed his collection to the officer who madethree equal divisions, giving

one to the diver and appropriating the remaining twoon behalf of Govern-

ment. In the meanwhile the checker put the diver’s sharein a gunny bag,

sealed it and handed it over to the particular diver who went back to his boat.

When all the divers got back their shares and the tindal received his old permit

filled in with new details and countersigned by these officers, that boat was ready

to go back toshore. Other boats were dealt within a similar way. They were

all ready now to go back, ‘They reached the shore from two to three hours in

fair weather from the time they got back their permits.

Sometimes it was very difficult to make divisions at sea owing to the high

winds and choppyseas. Under these circumstances divisions were made on

land after the boats had gone back under escort and deposited their collections

in the Government Kottu or store.

The fishing boats arrived ashore in groups or one by one as the case may

be and there was usually a huge crowd on the beach to welcome them.

The staff of the Beach Master was very busy on the beach when the boats

arrived. ‘They were scrutinizing the sealed bags of divers, getting back the

permits already issued to them overnight and searching the boats for any mis-

appropriated oysters. When they were satisfied, they allowed the divers, the

mandacks, the crew and the tindal to go ashore.

Retail Selling and Retail Buying .—As already stated above, every diver has

to pay the tindal and the mandack, the former for the hire of the boat and the

latter for the services rendered at sea. He paid both the people in kind. He

made six equal divisions of his share, retaining four of them and giving the

remaining two to the tindal and the mandacks respectively.

These people now retired to the sales ground to sell their oysters. Retail

buyers could buy them from one oyster upwards. The average retail price

varied from twenty to forty oysters toa rupee. Onan average a diver made

about ten to twenty rupees a day.

A retail buyer cut open his oysters in another part of the same ground,

anxious to see what his oysters contained.

In the meanwhile the Government transport boats arrived with the

(sovernment share which was handed over tothe Kottu manager. These oysters

had been already counted and bagged, five hundred in each bag, at sea. They

530 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XXXII

remained inthe Kottu till they were delivered next day to those who had

bought them at the public auction.

Public Auction.—A public auction was held every night at 8 or 9 p.m. in the

auction hall. Half an hour or so before the auction began, a gun was fired

to apprise prospective bidders of the event.

The auction hall was built on the central portion of a raised platform. Inside

the hall were seated the Director and his staff, while in the open the public

waited for the auction to begin.

The Director sat by himself on a raised platform, while his staff consisting

of voucher makers, checkers and treasury clerks satin front of him facing the

public. There was a bamboo railing separating the public from the staff.

Atthe appointed hour the auction began, nobody was allowed to bid for

Jess than one thousand or more than twenty-five thousands oysters. One

of the peons standing in front of the staff, facing the public, announced the

numbers of the oysters Government had for sale that particular day. Onan

average it amounted to one Jakh and fifty thousand oysters daily.

Bidding per thousand went on till a certian price became stable for some

time when some bids were accepted at that price. The price usually ranged

between rupees thirty to fifty per thousand. Those whose bids were accepted

at that price were admitted one after another into the hall where every one of

them was required to get a voucher containing his name and the number of

oysters he had bought. He presented this voucher to a treasury clerk who wrote

the same details in his ledger and received a deposit, generally 1/10 of the whole

amount of the purchase and gave a receipt for the same.

Bidding went on in the manner described above, till all the oysters of that

day were sold out. :

Next day the buyers presented their deposit receipts to the cashier in the

treasury and got receipts for full payments which they presented to the Kottu

manager. The latter gave them delivery of their goods.

On an average Government got a net income of Rs. 5,000 to Rs. 6,000 per

day. But this income depended on various factors. Fair weather, calm sea,

favourable winds, no under currents, warm day so that divers found it comforta-

ble to dive, presence of efficient divers, place for fishing on the banks rightly

located, pearls properly valued, presence of bidders and pearl merchants, good

sanitation in the camp, absence of strikes, etc., all these conditions, indi-

vidually as well as collectively increased the income or decreased it if any of them

was adverse. Presence or absence ofthese conditions makes or mars pear] fisheries.

Rotting of Oysters in Thotties.—After the delivery of the goods, the buyers

took their loads of oysters to their respective Thotties. Use of these Thotties

was auctioned and Government got a good income out of it.

These hotties were located on the beach far away from the camp, since they

might become the source of an epidemic like Cholera as the oysters were being

rotted in them. ‘The four walls of each thotty were constructed of bamboo

thatties with asmall entrance but it wasopen tothe sky. Each hut or thotty

measured about 30 X 30 X 8 ft.

In these thotties then, the oysters were dumped in heaps for rotting purposes.

Various agencies worked together for macerating or rotting the soft parts of these

oysters. Heat engendered by the heap produces the optimum conditions under

which various kinds of flies, mostly Calliphora, Lucilia and Sarcophaga, lay

their eggs or larvee. The latter which are voracious feeders of offal complete,

with the help of bacteria, the maceration within four or five days. The soft

parts are now turned into homogeneously pulpy material which emits vicious

and repulsive odour.

After the fifth day these oysters or whatever remains of them were washed ina

small dug-out or a tin bath or in a still smaller vessel according to the number of

the oysters to be washed. After stirring or churning thecontents and throwing

away empty shells, the container was filled to the brim with sea water and kept

over night. The next morning the superboyant liquid was slowly decanted and

the contents again washed. This process was repeated so many times that

a fine powered stuff was left behind. It was then spread out on a black piece of

cloth and left there for drying. After it was thoroughly dried,.a vigorous

search for pearls was made on the spot or the whole stuff was taken home or to

a shop where thorough search was made at leisure.

Pearl Bazaar,—There were sixty to seventy pearl shops or huts located on

both sides of the main road.» ‘These shops were rented out to pearl merchants.

AN ACCOUNT OF THE PEARL FISHERIES OF TUTICORIN 531

In these shops pearls were sold or bought or merely exhibited for show. In

some of the shops fine holes were driiled into pearls which were then sewn into

threads and were exhibited for sale. There were also people in this bazaar who

bought blisters of the pearl shells and made cheap pearls out of them by

careful filing.

Lastly my cordial thanks are due to the Director of Fisheries and his whole

staff of the Pearl Fishery for the courtesy shown to me and for the trouble they

underwent in taking me over all the operations involved in this Fishery.

[ also thank the Government of Bombay which allowed me to study this

Fishery on the spot.

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS

S. dle) PRATER, C.M:Z.S.

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

Part |

(With six plates and five text figures)

Since one of the main objects for which a Museum is established

is the ‘ diffusion of instruction and rational entertainment among

the mass of the people’, it follows that, apart from the purely

scientific research and investigation which it carries out, the collec-

tions which are open to the public in its galleries, however rich,

important and complete they may be, are only of real value to the

extent to which they are made use of by the public and to the extent

to which the public is able to benefit by the instruction and enter-

tainment they are intended to afford.

Now the attitude of the public to the museum might often be ex-

pressed in the words of a certain New England farmer who, after

enumerating the many virtues of his deceased wife, concluded by

saying ‘somehow I never liked the woman’. The public realizes

more or less that the museum is an institution intended for its

benefit but somehow does not like it. May not the reason for this

attitude be explained by the fact that many museums are de-

humanized institutions, completely lacking in attractiveness because

of their unsympathetic treatment of the public and their unsym-

pathetic methods of presenting their treasures ?

Shortly after arriving in New York, I read an article in one of the

Sunday papers dealing mainly with the work the Museums were

doing for the people of the country. ‘ In America to-day,’ the writer

pointed out, ‘ the Museum fills the role of educator, entertainer and

nursery companion ; it has ceased to be a dusty warehouse of

antiquities and has become a bright and cheerful instruction centre

for the community.’ After a few months spent working in and

visiting many of the Museums in the country I realized more clearly

the truth of his contention. Like everything else in American life,

the Museum has developed into an institution with the motto

‘service to the public’. The national spirit is expressing itself in

these rapidly growing institutions—-efficiency, gaiety, and democracy

—these characteristics already differentiate the museums of America

from those of other lands. One finds efficiency in their careful study

of the comfort of the visitor while in the museum galleries and in

their almost perfect methods of charting, casing, and labelling. One

finds vividness and charm in their methods of exhibition, and

democracy in the wide appeal they make to the public at large. Art

and Science are learning to work together. The Science Museum

calls on the artist for ‘atmospheric effects of nature’ and the Art

Museum looks to the scientist to arrange its treasures in some in-

telligible progression. The result is the creation of museums which

are really attractive to the masses, of museums which look to and

receive public support. The impression one receives is that these

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 533

museums are unique in their history, progress and purpose; they

cannot be compared with kindred institutions in the old world.

Their appeal is not so much to the advanced technician or craftsman

as to the man in the street. Except in the case where qualified

guides conduct parties of visitors over its galleries, the teaching of

the museum is silent teaching, and to be successful this teaching

demands aneffort on the part of the visitor. How far is this effort

forthcoming? Now one might say that 90 per cent. of the people who

visit a museum visit it mainly for pleasure and with the majority

the message, the museum has to offer, loses much of its

meaning unless it can provide something which arouses and holds

interest. To deluge people with facts and to offer too much to

their attention results in getting very little of it. The story of the

monkey who was unable to get his handful of nuts out ofa jar

until he had dropped some of them has its application here. The

neck of the jar is as large as the public interest, no larger—to grab

too much attention is to lose it. To get the public to look at and

absorb what you offer you must drop some of the nuts. One cannot

teach people by marshalling whole series of facts before them. It

is the principles that matter ; facts will soon be forgotten while the

principles remain. In offering the visitor principles which are new

and unknown to him it is necessary to commence with something

that is familiar and known to him. Our understanding and accept-

ance of a thing depends much on what we already have in our con-

sciousness. Introduce something which has no connection with our

past experience and we are not interested. To hold our interest

there must be a large ingredient of the familiar with the unfamiliar.

Edward Fisher in speaking of museums and their work said, ‘ The

great purpose of Museums is to stimulate the observant powers into

action. ‘The educational value of museums will be in exact pro-

portion to their powers of creating new thoughts in the mind’.

The object of the museums is therefore to lead the people to

better ideals and to offer them new view-points in a way which

they can understand and appreciate. The appeal is made more to

the senses than to the intellect but it is made in such a manner that

in addition to mere attractiveness it offers food for thought which

is the first step to a higher and more intellectual ideal.

There are many ways of telling the story of nature. Why not

choose the beautiful way ? The way which leads from an apprecia-

tion of its interest and its beauty to an understanding of its mean-

ing. It is the method which will make the widest appeal. A second

reason is the obtaining of public support. By giving the public

something which it can understand and appreciate and something

which it wants, the museums succeed in rousing its interest and

ultimately its support. And in this the American Museums have

been completely successful.

A study of the methods adopted by museums in the United States

in serving their public would perhaps repay the Museums of other

countries. The stress and strain of modern life, and the demand

that it makes on the time and attention of the average wage-earner,

does not leave much time for such side issues as Art and Natural His-

tory. It is a condition that is becoming increasingly prevalent not

934. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 2a,

only in America but also in the older countries. Dr. Van Straelen,

the Director of the Natural History Museum, Brussels, with whom

I discussed this aspect of the question believed that the democratic

spirit of modern times necessitated a change inthe attitude of

museums. The old museums were aristocratic, their show galleries

were merely in the nature of a concession, but modern conditions

necessitated a change in this policy. The museums were becoming

more and more dependent on public support, on money voted for

them by the people’s representatives, and unless museums did some-

thing for the people the money would not be forthcoming.

‘Applied science will find its votaries and its supporters ’ continued

the Doctor, ‘but for pure science we will have increasing difficulty

in finding money. We arrange our galleries on the plan of a text

book where specimens, models and explanatory labels trace in out-

line the various classes of the animal kingdom. This type of -

exhibition was necessary and useful for the more serious students, but

the great majority of our visitors are not serious students and for

them we want something else. There must be some ‘ light houses’

in a gallery to draw their attention and rouse their interest.’

At the Natural History Museum, Berlin, radical changes are being

made in the character and nature of the exhibits. There, too, the

museum is making a bid for popular interest and support by the

introduction of methods of exhibition which appeal to the lay visi-

tor. For if the institutions which stand for the cultural develop-

ment of the people are to succeed in their mission, it has become

necessary for them to alter their standards, to break down their

aloofness and restraint—that attitude of mind which looks on the

visiting public as something in the nature of a nuisance, and come

down to a more sympathetic consideration of the people’s wants.

Some may object. Why appeaito peoples’ wants? ‘Their wants

may be stupid, childish or even positively mischievous. What we

must appeal to is their reason. Professor Overstreet in his interest-

ing series of lectures on ‘ The Influencing of Human Behaviour’

gives us the answer ‘No appeal to reason can ever be successful

if it is not also an appeal to awant’. An understanding and

appreciation of the truth of this axiom will save much time in

argument. If one of the main motives of a Museum is education

not of the few Lut of the mass, and if this education is to be effective,

it requires the rousing of the popular interest in its activities as a

first step, and it is the duty of the Museum Director to make his

museum worth being interested in, to give his museum such vitality

and pertinence that people will want to be interested in it, will want

to visit it, and will realize the necessity of supporting it, and though

the people may want something quite inferior, his problem is to get

them to want something worthwhile, and to give them the opportu-

nity for these more worthwhile wants to multiply and grow.

I will now pass to a consideration of the methods adopted by

Museums in the United States and on the Continent to attract and

maintain public interest and support. The subject may be divided

under two headings :

1. The Museum Galleries as a whole.

2, The nature and methods of arrangement of the exhibits.

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 535

1. GENERAL TREATMENT OF GALLERIES

The principal factors which react on the mind of the visitor on

entering a gallery are—

1. The architecture and colour of the walls and the show cases,

2. The show cases themselves and their general arrangement,

3. The exhibits.

The third factor being the most important, it necessarily follows

that the first and second factor should be subordinate to the most

effective presentation of the third.

We will leave the question of architecture aside for the present.

The museum curator is rarely ina position to decide the architec-

tural requirements of the building he is to use. The question

of the colour of its walls is a matter which might easily come

within his province to decide. It is not difficult to realize the

importance of colour asa means of attraction. Even as chiidren

we were attracted rather by colour than by form. We retain this

impulse throughout life, only we temper it by a new desire fora

pleasing arrangement or harmony of colours. Our objective should

therefore be a pleasing colour scheme, that harmonious blending of

show cases and walls which will be most effective in the presentation

of the exhibits shown in the gallery.

Colour Schemes.—AS a general rule quiet colours should be

utilized. The choice of colour will depend largely on the lighting of

the room and the objects to be displayed, but the rule in its selec-

tion should be the avoidance of an obtrusive scheme which will

draw to itself the attention of the visitor. At the Brooklyn Museum,

the show cases and walls in the hall of Invertebrates were painteda

bluish-grey ; the effect produced was restfui and pleasing. In the

Mammal Gallery at the Natural History Museum, Altona, Hamburg,

the colouring of the walls and show cases was very harmoniously

conceived. In the main Mammal Hall the walls had a 6’ 6” dado of

dusky slate blue relieved with a faint grey stripe, the upper portion

of the wall was carried out in Rejane green‘! and the contrasting

areas of colour were divided by narrow black lines, the pedestals

of the show cases corresponded in colour to the dado, their upper

{framework was in biack, while the backgrounds were grey stippled

with green. In the Bird Gallery in the same museum the dado

of the hall was in nickel green, the upper surface of the wall

cream buff with a white area where the wall joined the ceiling. The

pedestals of the show cases were treated in a similar tone of green

as the dado, while their frames were black.

The selection of a colour scheme should be governed by the type

of exhibit shown in the gallery. Certain exhibits require quiet

tones, others more brilliant ones to give them their full significance,

particularly where colour in the exhibits themselves is wanting.

A rather daring and original colour scheme is to be seen in the

Ethnological Gallery at the Brooklyn Museum. This hall is divided

by its architecture into three sections, the columns supporting the

ceiling forming the divisions. Each section is confined to illustrat-

ing the arts and crafts of a distinct race. In the first section the

* Ridgeway’s Colour Standards, pl. xxxtii,

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCTETY, Vol. Os

show cases were green, in the second royal blue and in the third

rose pink. The plinths of the adjoining pillars were coloured to

correspond with the show cases. Thus in the same hall one had

three aisles of show cases paintedin different colours. After passing

through several galleries where drab or neutral tones predominated,

this origina: colour scheme had the effect of renewing and tre-arous-

ing one’s attention. The eye was greeted by something fresh and

colourful and the effect was not unpleasing. Rejane green makes

an excellent background for animals and birds. It is used in the

galleries of the Munich Museum and is perhaps the most successful

colour tone I have seen used in any Museum in connection with

these types of exhibits.

Atmosphere.—The colouring of the walls and the show cases to

produce a desired ‘ atmosphere’ is another point which deserves

consideration. Inthe Invertebrate hall at the Brooklyn Museum,

where the majority of the exhibits were illustrative of life in the

sea, the blue grey colouring of the walls gave a marine note to the

gallery which was further accentuated by mural paintings depicting

seascapes in various quarters of the globe. Inthe new Fish Hall

at the American Museum, the colour of the walls is grey witha

stippling of waved blue lines giving them a watery effect; the back-

grounds of the cases against which the fishes are shown, had the

same colour motif in a slightly darker tone, the whole object being

to give a ‘marine atmosphere’ to the gailery. Artificial light

through lanterns of greenish glass increased this effect. The whole

question of the colour in a museum gallery is a phase of museum

work which requires study, it is now in the experimental stage.

It marks an advance in museum methods. Its object is to please

and attract the visitor by creating an atmosphere which will produce

a subtle reaction on his mind and in any way prepare him to enjoy

and appreciate what he sees.

Mural Paintings.—A further development is the decoration of the

walls with appropriate mural paintings. Many museums are now

adopting this method of decorating their galleries. We find

galleries of Art, Archeology, Geology, Ethnology, Zoology and

Botany decorated in this manner. Apart from their purely decora-

tive effect, murals have a distinct educational value. ‘They are a

clear and simple means of transmitting ideas—they are tools for

communicating thoughts, stimulating interest and arousing feeling

and emotions. Where arange of exhibits is shown which requires

a mental effort on the part of the visitor to clothe them with the

interest they merit, these pictures will supply the required stimulus

—will supply vividness and drama to what might otherwise have

been a barrentheme. In the hall of the Age of Man in the American

Museum, where the exhibits illustrate successive stages in the history

of man, the dry bone atmosphere was to a large extent relieved by

the beautiful murals adorning the walls of the gallery. The flesh-

less skull of the Cro-magnon man springs into life in the mural

painting depicting the Cro-magnon artist at work painting his pro-

cession of mammoths in the cavern of Font-du Gaume in France.

At Altona, Hamburg, the walls of the Bird Gallery were ornament-

ed with paintings of individual birds or groups of birds ; such subjects

‘MMOA MAN ‘AMOLSIET TVYALVN JO WARSAW NVOIAWY ‘AUATIVYS AuIg AO ONITINO GAWOG JO Luvd

*YyAOX MAINT **4S2FT *JVAT “SHY *49Ut ASaq4nor LF

- * [ aivig | | "00 ‘3sIH{ ‘WeN Aequiog “uanor

"aHUOA MAN ‘Olvadang ‘SHONHIOS IVANIVN AO WOESAP, MUN HHL BOA GCHNOISHA TIVA NOILIGInxXyY AO Iado

a WwW

°$29u92IS *JOAT JO ‘20S o[vJ Ing Assz4noo Ag

i es es.

eee

ihe ister eee eae

eee

"20 ‘}sIP] ‘ey Aequiog “uanor

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 03/

as geese in flight ora soaring eagle gave a charming and appropriate

setting to the exhibits. The vaulted ceiling of the Bird Gallery at

the American Museum of Natural History is painted to represent

a sunset sky against which we see various birds in flight— actual

specimens are used and as these recede further into the distance

they are substituted with painted birds, the gradation in size and

the perspective is cleverly maintained and ihe effect altogether is

realistic and charming. (Vl7de Plate 1).

There are certain points to be remembered in decorating the wails

of a gallery with murals. Firstly, a mural must preserve the flatness

of the wall it decorates. It should not mar the architectural lines

or destroy the even level of the wall’s surface by giving it an effect

of contours. Mr. Charles Knight, one of the most successful animal

painters in America told me that he preserved the desired flatness

in his murals and yet gave them an effect of roundness by painting

them always with the light coming up from behind, so that the objects

were more or less silhouetted against the background and yet had

a feeling of depth.

Then again as regards colouy tones, these should always be ruied

by the type of exhitit in the gallery. Where one is exhibiting

skeletons or fossils and such like colourless material, a certain lati-

tude in colouring is permissible but in a gallerv where the exhibits

are themselves colourful, restraint is necessary in the colour of the

murals so that a harmonious effect might be obtained. In every

case the murals should be a subordinate feature and should not

become the centre of attraction. In the old African hall at the

American Museum the murals illustrating scenes of African life were

done completely in sepia. In the new Reptile Gallery which

contaiis many beautiful and vividly coloured groups, the murals are

being painted in quiet shades. Small colour sketches of these

murals were first done to scale, subsequently a full sized copy was

done on cheap muslin, this painting was fitted to the walls to see

whether it harmonized or clashed with the exhibits ; certain colours

were then reduced and other heightened till the desired effect was

achieved. I have written at some length on this subject because I

believe that our museum offers an excellent field to our school of

mural painters in Bombay, it will afford them the opportunity of

showing their skill to the people of their own city and of having

their work exhibited where it will be seen by thousands. Natural

History offers them an endless range of subjects while the Archzolo-

gical and Art sections could also be made a venue for their skill.

Arrangement of Show Cases.—The second factor which draws the

attention of the visitor on entering a gallery are the show cases and

their arrangement. A gallery crowded with tall show cases whose

massive wood work and external finish makes them unduly conspicu-

ous carries with it a decidedly forbidding aspect—it creates a feeling

of heaviness and artificiality which can be thoroughly depressing, and

its effect upon the visitor is to repel rather than attract. The over-

crowding of the gallery with show cases and the cases with exhibits

appals the visitor who quickly realizes that he will never be able to

absorb a tenth part of what is offered him.

The arrangement of the show cases and the type of show cases

5388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

to be used in a particular gallery will depend largely on the

architectural features of the room, its lighting and the nature of the

exhibits to be displayed, but the general attractiveness of the room

and the effect of its arrangement upon the visitor is a point always

to be seriously considered. The accompanying photograph

(Plate II) illustrates a model exhibition hall designed for the new

Buffalo Museum. It will be seen that the cases are Jet into the walls

of the room—they are of the ‘ built in’ type, their breadth varies

according to the nature of the exhibits to be displayed. In the

present instance the cases along the sides are 18’’ deep, those at

the head of the gallery which are intended for groups are 6 feet

deep. This is one method of arrangement which is very successful

and very attractive. It gives an air of spaciousness even to a small

room and is adaptable to any type of exhibit.

A second method of arrangement is seen in the new Reptile Hail

in the American Museum. The floor of the gallery is occupied by a

series of small metal-framed box cases none of them exceeding 4

feetin height, the walls on one side have a series of ‘built in’ groups

(vide Plate II1) while the opposite wall has a series of vertical cases

arranged in the form of alcoves. The use of only low cases

for the floor gallery is an advantage in that, there is nothing

to obstruct the view of the visitor from the gallery as a whole and

that atmosphere of cumbersomeness and artificiality produced by

an assemblage of tall show cases is largely obviated. The use of

the centre of the gallery for some artistic and dominating exhibit is

an effective method of adding to itsattractiveness. This is seen to

good effect in the design for the new hall of African Mammals at

the American Museum of Natural History, New York, where the

central exhibit will take the form of a magnificent group of African

Elephants mounted as a memorial to the late President Roosevelt.

In the Mammal! Gallery at the Altona Museum, the centre of the floor

is occupied by the skeleton of a horse mounted ona high pedestal,

the walls are lined with ‘ built in’ cases, while the main floor space

is occupied by low box cases illustrating life histories of mammals.

It has been shown that by introducing the ‘built in’ type of show

case, the necessity for large cases on the floor of a gallery, is largely

obviated. High show cases on the floor of the gallery obtrude on

the visitor and obstruct the view, while the use of the floor space for

low cases only gives airiness and spaciousness to the hall and

facilitates guarding. The arrangement of cases as alcoves while it is

effective in focussing the attention of the visitor on one part of the

gallery at a time, has the disadvantage of making the policing of a

gallery difficult. The use of a prominent central exhibit actsas a

‘light house’ to attract the visitor.

Show Cases.—In addition to the problem of attractiveness the

Museum Curator has another problem—a very important problem

—and that is the prevention of fatigue. The visitor sees the

museum galleries not only with his eyes but also with his protest-

ing feet. Visiting a museum takes time and while the visitor takes

his time it will be more difficult for his brain to take in new im-

pressions, if the rest of his bodily organism is crying out for atten-

tion. Benches with restful backs are a great necessity in a museum.

‘SdNOUD , NI-LIING , ODNIMOHS ‘HNOK MAN ‘AUMOLSIH TVAALVN 40 WAXSO NVOTHaNy ‘TIVE] AIWLday MAN

ty40X MAaNT “ISLET “ION “SN * 4aUyy fsaz4no? AG

- y 4 4

SOE:

ROO

TT BtV1d 20g ase aN Aequiog, “unos

‘"MUOA MUN ‘AMOLSI

*ysoq many “ISLEY “JON “SN]Y “40up

AI SivV1dg

"20 ‘1SIF] ‘WeN Aequiog “usnor

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 539

The supply of seating is a necessity which is quite often made

conditional on available space, but if the comfort of the visitor is to

be seriously considered, then the provision of seating accommoda-

tion must be made an essential feature in the planning of a gallery.

At the Altona Museum, Hamburg, I saw a space beneath a

window between two show cases effectively used for a_ seat.

The second source of fatigue is eye strain, caused firstly because

the objects shown are placed either too high above or too low

below the Jevel of the eyes, secondly because the exhibits are

placed too far from the eyes and thirdly because objects are placed

in long monotonous rows.

The structure and design of museum show cases in which

museum exhibits are shown are an important factor in helping to

remove many of these disadvantages.

The older type of show cases were characterized by their heavy

Fic. 1. WINDOW SEAT FOR VISITORS, ALTONA MUSEUM.

wooden frames, their ornate dust-catching design, abnormal length,

height and depth, low bases, horizontal sashes obstructing the

view and hinged or sliding doors. All of these features were a dis-

advantage from the visitors’ view point. The modern museum

case is distinguished by its narrow framework, reduced length,

depth and height, its relatively high base which does away with

the necessity for stooping, its large area of plate glass, no obstruct-

ing sashes and easily removable knock-down sides instead of

hinged or sliding doors.

All museum cases may be classed under two headings, i.e., cases

in which the exhibits are shown on a horizontal surface (horizontal

or desk or table cases) and cases in which the exhibits are shown

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL HIST. SOCGIZEDY, Vo Lee

on a vertical surface (vertical or wall cases) a comparison of the

advantages of the two types yields the following results :—

Vertical case. Horizontal case.

Maximum of exhibition space with Maximum floor space with

minimum or floor area. minimum exhibition area.

Clean glass (vertical glass is rarely Soiled glass (horizontal glass

touched by the visitor). is leaned upon and touched

by every visitor).

Comfort for the visitor. Discomfort, the body must be

bent at a fatiguing angle to

see the exhibits.

Well and evenly lighted objects, Visitor obstructs the light as

absence of eye-strain. he leans over the case.

Adaptable for any kind of object. Can only be used for small

objects.

iG, 2. TYPE OF DESK CASE IN USE IN THE GEOLOGICAL GALLERY,

SOUTH KENSINGTON,

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 541

Owing to its many disadvantages the tendency to use the horizon-

tal or desk case is steadily decreasing, as exhibition cases of the

vertical type appear to be the most practical and economical for use

ina museum gallery. A very practical substitute for the ordinary

type of horizontal or desk case is the type of case illustrated in the

accompanying diagram; by increasing the height of the case and

subsequently the angle of the slope a larger exhibition area is made

available without the occupation of additional floor space. The

exhibits are thrown into better relief and the objects more evenly

lighted, the glass is not leaned upon and the necessity for stooping

is obviated. This type of case is in use in the Geological gallery at

South Kensington, London. The case has a solid base which

provides storage accommodation. The solid base has been much

in use in museum show cases as it provides storage accommodation

for exhibits not on display. Where a sufficiency of storage

accommodation is not available, this is imperative though not

always convenient, the disadvantage of the use of the high solid

base for horizontal cages is that it detracts from the appearance of the

case, is more expensive and makes policing of the gallery

more difficult. On horizontal cases of the desk and table type, where

the base is 32” from the ground, the use of a leg base is preferable.

In arriving at the most suitable height for the base of a

case the comfort of the visitor should always be taken into

consideration. The placing of small objects a few inches from the

floor level, as is often done in museums, is perfectly useless as the

visitor would either have to go onhands and knees or bend down

at anuncomfortable angle to see them, and this he is usually

unprepared to do with the result that the exhibits so placed are

rarely looked at. It would be better to sacrifice this space and

limit the area available for exhibition to a suitable height from the

ground wherethe exhibits would have a _ better chance of being

looked at. Theeyes of the average person are 60” from the

ground, the most comfortable visual distance averages 1 foot, the

body may be lowered 15° without stooping. To prevent eye

Strain on the part of the visitor andthe necessity for excessive

stooping the bases of aildesk and table cases should not be lower

than 32” from the ground and the objects within these cases should

not be further than 2-4” from the glass. In wall cases, the height

of the base should not be lower than 24” and the depth of these

cases should not be in ordinary circumstances exceed 18” while

the height at which objects are shown should not exceed 62”.

The modern museum group requires a special type of case.

The most effective case forthe purpose is the type which is

‘builtin’ and shows none or very little framework, the group

being viewed as through a window in the wall of the gallery.

This type of case is particularly suitable for large habitat or

zonal groups, but the possibility of its use will depend onthe

architecture of the hall, and in the construction of the modern

museum galleries special provision is made for the installation of

these built-in cases. The accompanying photo (Plate IV) shows

series of built-in groups in the design for the Hall of African

Mammals of the American Museum of Natural History, New York.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SCCIETY, Vol, oa

Lacking requisite architectural facilities, group cases may be instal-

led on the floor of a gallery and built in the alcoves formed between

large floor cases. One such group was recently installed in our

Museum. It is built between two large floor cases. Itis 14 ft. in

length, 7 ft. deep and 11 ft. high—the window measures 6 ft. & 4 ft.

Fic. 4. Ground Plan of Group Case

showing curve of Background.

Fic. 3. Front view of Group Case.

The panels on each side may be used

for photographs or transparencies.

As regards dimensions of these cases the most satisfactory ruie

is to have the length double the depth. As regards the background

its main portion is flat but where it approaches the sides of the case

it takes a gradual curve. ‘The sides of the case should not be too

long as it is difficult to avoid a ‘strained’ angle in the objects .

painted on it.

The ceiling or top of the case should be made as high as

possible so that on looking at the group the visitor does not see

the line where the painted background meets the top of the case.

Reflections from outside the case generally mar the effect of many

museum groups. To avoid reflections, the volume of light within the

case must be greater than the volume without, and in groups of this

type artificial illumination from within is nearly always necessary.

By its use any desired lighting effect may be achieved. The

lights are generally placed behind the upper portion of the front

panel of the case. To avoid shadows and to shed a diffused light

within the case, the reflectors of the lamps are directed towards the

top of the case from which the light is deflected on to the objects

below, or the light may be thrown on to a white painted board

attached on hinges and placed immediately in front of the lights.

By fixing this board at any required angle the volume of light

reflected into the case can be controlled.

Reflections may be further reduced by fixing the front glass of

the case at an angle, the degree of the slope being one inch to

every foot of height.

As regards the construction of the curved background this may

be done as follows. A form with the required curve is built by

running up 2” & 4” joists which are held together with cross

bracings (Plate V). This form is then covered over with pieces of

}

PLATE V

Amer. Mus, of Nat. Hist., New York.

ND IN COURSE OF PREPARATION FOR A GROUP AT THE AMERICAN MUSEUM

}

CURVED BACKGROU

By courtesy

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

OF NATURAL HISTORY, NEw YORK.

“OSvIIYD ‘wnasnyy Pjaut

IA ALVIg

‘NOILISIHXY AO

GOHLAW SSHITIGHS AHL ONIMOHS saulg 4Ao

aASVO VW

"205 °3S1ff

Asaqanoo Ag

‘yeN) Aequiog “uaAnor

Painted Backgrourmda.

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 543

plaster board which are screwed into it. The plaster board is made

by running plaster into flat or curved moulds as required and intro-

ducing layers of fibre and burlap into the plaster before it has set.

Fic. 5. Side view of Group Case.

When the whole form has been covered with plaster board the

joints between the boards are filled with plaster, the whole surface

is then sand papered and coated with shellac and when dry painted

with two to three coats of white zinc. An alternative method is to

cover the form with wire mesh, mache is then forced into the mesh

and spread evenly over it. It is then shellacked and allowed to

dry—when dry a second layer of wire mesh and mache’ is laid on

and then a third, each layer being shellacked and allowed to dry

before the next one is added. It is then white leaded and covered

with muslin as previously described. The photograph illustrates

a group case in construction at the American Museum of Natural

History, New York. A third method is to cover the curved form

with strips of 4” & 4” wood, then coat the whole surface with

shellac. When dry, mix varnish and white lead to a syrupy solution,

strain it through close-meshed wire netting and brush it over the

surface doing one section at a time, covering each section as it is

brushed with a layer of muslin which must be rolled on quite

smooth. When dry the whole surface is coated with white lead—-a

good quality of white lead must be used—the poorer qualities turn

yeliow after a time and have a bad effect on the painting.

Smaller groups are constructed on the same principle and will

often be found more practicable where conditions of space make

the installation of large groups impossible—a consecutive series of

sf. JOURNAL, BOMBAY WATURAL AIST. SOGKETY, Vol. SX0GTr

small groups illustrating the life histories of small mammals, birds,

reptiles, fishes or insects can be effectively arranged along the walls

of a gallery.

For the small museum one can do much more with small groups

and show much more than with large groups. ‘The background of

these groups, if curved, can be made of cork lino screwed to a curved

form, or of card board. At the Colorado Museum the backgrounds

of the cases consist of coloured photographic transparencies on

ground glass—the photograph illustrating the actual environment

of the species forming the subject of the group.

Shelves. —In many museums the use of shelves within the cases is

being done away with because they tend to produce a monotonous

lineal form of arrangement. ‘The shelf is being replaced by the

individual bracket which supports the specimen against the back-

grotind of the case. Most objects shown in museums lend theim-

selves to this style of exhibition. The accompanying photograph

(Plate VI) shows a case of birds in the Field Museum, Chicago,

where the customary shelf has been substituted by the bracket.

The Shrosbree bracket, a simple and efficient contrivance, which can

be accommodated to both small and large objects will be found most

useful for the purpose. It is supplied by the Public Museum and

Library, Milwaukee, Wisc. The use of the bracket offers greater

freedom of arrangement and better use of available space—the

objects are brought into sharp relief against the background and an

even distribution of lighting is assured. The labels are either fixed

to the pedestal supporting the specimen or are placed in metal

holders screwed into the back of the case.

We are adopting the shelfless method of arrangement in our Bird -

Gallery to very good effect.

For the background of our case we have used a screen made a 2

thicknesses of 3 ply wood fitted into a frame within the case so

that the screen with the exhibits on it is removable.

In arranging the birds ona screen it is first necessary to atte

how many birds are to be shown on the screen and the amount of

space each specimen will occupy—space being left if necessary for

subsequent additions—for this purpose rough sketches are made on

the screen indicating the position of the bird. In arranging the

» Specimens a lineal or monotonous arrangement should be avoided

and an attempt should be made to arrive at a free and harmonious

picture of the screen as a whole. When its genera design has been

completed the mounted birds are fixed to the screen so that changes

in arrangement if necessary may be made. When this is completed

the specimens are removed and the whole screen is wellsand paper-

ed and then painted with three coats of flat oil paint. The colour

is applied with an air brush—petrol is used as amedium. ‘This

ensures a fine even flat coat of colour. Divisions between families

are indicated by fine strips of beading. Variety may be given to

the exhibits by introducing individual painted backgrounds showing

the environment of a particular species and by the introduction of

nests, foliage, etc. The labels are held in metal holders screwed on

to the screen and coloured in a tone similar to the background.

(Lo be continued.)

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY’S MAMMAL SURVEY OF

INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON

REPORT No. 46

ON A COLLECTION FROM TOUNGOO, BURMA

To Ey PRY;

South Kensington Museum :

COLLECTION ess if VINO. 46.

LOCALITY srl .+ - Soungoo District.

DATE: ... sii ... November 1926-February 1927.

COLLECTED BY Se .. Mr. J.M.D. Mackenzie, 1.F.s.

The collection made by Mr. Mackenzie in the District of Toungoo is valuable

in that it supplements those made by him in Proine and Pegu, and serves to il-

lustrate fairly well the fauna of the country north of those districts and adjoining

the Shan States; in fact the work done by him in these three districts covers a

considerable area which was left untouched by the MamimalSurvey. Although

a good many animals known, or supposed to exist in Burma, as noted by

Mrs. Lindsay when reviewing the survey work, have so far eluded capture, yet

the general fauna of this country is fairly well known, and to this knowledge

Mr. Mackenzie has contributed in no simail measure.

The present collection represents 14 genera and 18 species none of which are

actually new, but there are many specimens which were much wanted, notably

Tomeuies ph.. phayret.

MACACA MULATTA, Zimm.

The Rhesus

: (Synonymy in No. 16.)

Toungoo, 2 1. |

Specimens of this inonkey were included in the collections made in Prome

and the Shan States respectively, by Messrs. Mackenzie and Shortridge, so that

its existence in the intervening district of ‘Toungoo was more than probable,

still it is satisfactory that this has been proved. Blanford stated that this species

was known throughout Upper Burma and as far south as Bombay in India proper.

On the one hand no specimens were found in Tenasserim, Burmah, nor on the

other in Dharwar, Kanara, etc., S. India, during the Mammal Survey operations

consequently it inay be inferred that this macaque has not wandered further

south than about 18° N. latitude, and the mits of its habitat have now been

fairly well established.

CYNOPTERUS BRACHYOTIS ANGULATUS, Mill.

The Malay Short-nosed Fruit Bat

(Synonymy in No. 17)

Toungoo, 9 1.

Corresponds in all respects with specimens from Tenasserim and the Mergut

Archipelago.

SCOTOPHILUS CASTANEUS, Horsf.

The Chesnut Scotophil

(Synonymy in No. 17)

Mounsoo, ¢ 2,9. 5:

Hitherto recorded only from the Malay Peninsula, Tenasserim and the Meregui

Archipelago ; it is therefore noteworthy that it occurs so much further north.

546 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXT/

‘TAPHOZOUS LONGIMANUS, Hardw.

The Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat.

(Synonymy in No. 6)

Toungoo,g 1, 22.

The male specimen differs considerably from the two females in colour being

red instead of dark brown, but not in other respects. A similar variation has

been observed in specimens from the Central Provinces.

TUPAIA BELANGERI BELANGERI, Wagn.

The Burmese Tree Shrew

Toungoo, gl.

Specimens from Pegu and Prome were identified by Mr. Thomas as true

T. belangeri, and this one tallies with them in fur and size of skull. It would

appear that this species is confined to the above mentioned area since

Mr. Thomas has separated into sub-species the animals found north and south

of it, naming them respectively 7. del. siccata and T. bel. tenaster.

VIVERRA ZIBETHA, Lin.

The Large Indian Civet

ae specimen appears to be a true zz6etha. Mr. Wroughton gave the names

picta and V. 2. pruinosa to specimens from: Chindwin and the Shan

oe respectively, but they differ so slightly from zz6etha that it is doubtful if

they will ultimately be accepted as subspecies.

PARADOXURUS BIRMANICUS, Wr.

The Burmese Palm Civet

(Synonymy in No. 16)

Toungoo, fl.

A young specimen, but the black lines on the back by which it is distinguished

from P. niger, are clearly marked.

PETAURISTA CINERACEUS, Blyth.

The Tenasserim Brown Flying Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 29)

Toungoo, Jl.

Blanford considered this Burmese Flying Squirrel to be identical with the

very similar, though rather larger, animal P. philippensis, but this name is now

held to apply to a southern Indian form. ‘There are considerable differences in

colour notably in the tails which are grey in cineraceus and black in philip-

pensis. ‘The Society is indebted to Mr. Mackenzie for three other specimens

from Pegu and Prome, no others having been obtained by the Survey.

RATUFA GIGANTEA, McCl.

The Assam Giant Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 14)

20 miles N. of Toungoo, J 1, $ 2.

CALLOSCIURUS FERRUGINEUS, F. Cuv.

The Burmese Bay Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 16)

25 miles N. of Toungoo, #1, 21.

TOMEUTES PHAYREI PHAYREI, Blyth.

Phayre’s Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 14)

2 miles E. of Toungoo, ¢ 1, <2 2;

oe) 9) rel

40 99 97 3

30 re) om) 3

15 - Jo

11 3

>? 9?

MAMMAL SURVEY OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON 547

No true specimens of 7. ph. phayret were obtained by the Survey ; those

recorded in Report No. 14, being subsequently recognized as 7. ph. bdlanfordt.

The former are more highly coloured above and below, while the dark stripes

on the under sides are absent or much less accentuated in the latter.

TOMEUTES PYGERYTHRUS, Geoff.

The Irrawady Squtrret

(Synonymy in No. 29)

30 miles west of Toungoo, ¢ 2, @ 2.

20 re re orl.

40 3 ae Cn Gee os

Variations in colour, from a bright olivaceous to a dull grey, are very notice-

able in these specimens ; this is due no doubt to slight local differences in en-

vironment (such as thick or open forest), as they were all taken within a com-

paratively few miles of each other.

TAMIOPS MACCLELLANDI, Blyth.

The Striped Burmese Squirrel

(Synonymy in No. 14)

5 and 7 miles E. of Toungoo—@ 1 and ¢ 3.

Tamiops m. barbei was obtained from the Shan States, Prome, Mergui

Archipelago and Tenasserim, thus indicating that Toungoo is probably about

the southern limit to which macclellandi proper extends.

GUNOMYS VARIUS, Thos.

The Malay Mole Rat

(Synonymy in No. 17)

Toungoo, #1,Q 1.

It may perhaps be worth while to point out that Toungoo is the most north-

erly district from which G. varius has been recorded ; but as this rodent may

easily have been carried northward by river-boats, etc., up-country correspon-

dents of the Society (if there are any) might be asked to keep a look out

for it.

RATTUS CONCOLOR, Blyth.

The Little Burmese Rat

(Synonymy in No. 16)

20 miles north-west of ‘Toungoo, ¢ ].

Pounsoo,) 4-7; 23.

RATTUS RATTUS KHYENSIS, Hinton.

The Shan Tree Bat

(Synonymy in No. 1)

20 miles north-west of Toungoo, 2 1.

In the earlier reports all the common house-rats received from Burmah were

recorded as &. r. rufescens variety white under parts.

RATTUS RATTUS RUFESCENS, Gray.

The Common Indian Rat

(Synonymy in No. })

Toungoo, @ 2.

CANNOMYS PATER, THOS.

The Bay Bamboo Rat

(Synonymy in No. 20)

25 miles N. of Toungoo, ¢ 2, @ 4.

These specimen are undoubtedly C. pater. Geographically they should belong

to one or the other of the subspecies C.c. plumbescens or C. pater, made by

Thomas, and the general colour clearly indicates that they should be classed

as the latter.

A PRELIMINARY REPORT ON THE ANATOMY AND

LIFE HISTORY OF THE COMMON EDIBLE BACKWATER

OYSTER, OSTREA\ MADKASENSTS

(4 paper read betore the Indian Science Congress, Lakore, January,

1927). |

So. TD. MOSES, M.A.,.B.2:S«, FR: Asl

(With 2 plates)

This backwater oyster, common in Madras Presidency in all

estuaries and favoured spots along the coast, owes its widespread

presence to its being generally unaffected by a long range of varia-

tion in the salinity of the water it lives in; a sudden onset of fresh

water, as during floods, however kills thousands annually. Being

commoner than the fresh water mussel, it may with advantage be

used as a type for dissection in the class room.

The anatomy of the Tuticorin backwater oyster was one of the

earliest items of research I did for Mr. Hornell, and later I had

opportunities to examine oysters from Pulicat, Ennur, Cochin,

Cannanore and Calicut. Inthe plankton collections of these places

I found occasionally the trochophore and veliger stages of the oyster.

These notes are presented in this form not because they are

complete but that others with greater facilities may fill up the gaps.

in them, e.g., among others, trace in the laboratory the complete life-

history from the egg to the spat.

Mr. Hornell in 1909 believed this species to be identical with the

Ceylon oyster identified as Ostvea cucullata and said it was closely

akin to the American O. virginica and stated that the two seemed to

be geographical races of one species. O. cucullata is, however, the

rock oyster which is characterized by the deep ridges of the shell

ending in dentate edges which interlocked tightly when the valves

came together. In 1910, however, Mr. Hornell differentiated the

Sind species with a white muscular scar, from ours which has a

purplish-black scar, but said that both appeared to be related to the

Portugese mud oyster O. angulata.

The Chiika Lake oyster once named O. gryphoides var cuttackensts

is now called O. virginiana by Vredenburg who says all our back-

water oysters present no difference to the American species. Hor-

nell agreed with Vrendenburg in 1917. H.B. Preston, the expert

in charge of the publication of the volumes on Mollusca in the

‘Fauna of India’ series, declared in 1916 the extremely variable

backwater oyster of the East and West Coasts as O. madrasensis. The

close similarity of our species. with the American in its anatomy

and life history may justify its being named O. virginiana var

madrasensts.

External appearance.—Nothing can be seen externally except the

hard shell the sharp ends of which cut the feet of coolies and others.

THE COMMON EDIBLE BACKWATER OYSTER 549

wading on oyster beds. The shell, white and flinty in appearance,

is covered by a thin cuticle which when fresh is slimy to the touch

on account of its being encrusted with muddy algal felting. Though

slipper is the typical shape, variation is the rule, as oysters are of

irregular growth habit the shape depending on age, overcrowding

and other conditions of life.

The shell as in all Pseudo-lamellibranchs is inequivalve. The

valves are united anteriorly by a dorsal hinge ligament which being

elastic keeps the shell agape. The attached valve, the left, is

bigger and more convex and gives lodgment to the whole body

while the free right valve being flat functions as a lid.

The thickness of the shell also varies. Laminations and roughly

concentric lines of growth are seen externally. The latter start

from a swollen knob, the umbo, which as in other bivalves is the

early shell. It is recognizable by its dark color. The left valve

grows faster than the right.

The interior of the shell is like porcelain and white in color

except for the muscle scar and some patches along the margins

where it is purplish or purplish-black, with a touch of red.

When a piece of shell is broken off and the fracture examined

there are seen the three usual layers, a thin outer horny cuticle, a

thick—the thickness varies according to the varying number of strata

forming it at different places in the same shell—layer composed of

small columns of calcium carbonate set close together and a third

thin layer containing purplish and brown pigments in some parts.

It is the thick middle layer which is responsible for the reputation

of oyster shell grit to cure hens of laying soft eggs.

Soft parts —To examine the soft parts, the oyster should be

opened gently taking care not to damage the delicate organs. To

get specimens in a completely relaxed condition, they should be

killed overnight in a weak solution of Chloral hydrate. Soaking in

alcohol facilitates the dissection of nervous and other systems.

To open an oyster insert the point of a stout knife in the posterior

margin at a point about midway in the length. Then gradually

push the knife in helping this by slightly rocking the blade sideways.

Then when the knife is far enough pushed in cut through the muscle

and separate the free valve from the other.

The body thus exposed is seen to conform to the shape of the

valve. It is coated by a mantle which as in all bivalves is divided

into two flaps which enclose all the internal organs as if in a curtain.

It secretes the shell. Its free edges, purplish or dirty brown in

color, are fimbriated and bear two rows of very highly sensitive

short tentacles. Healthy oysters, when gaping, respond at once to

the slightest touch of the mantle edge with a needle by at once

tightening the valves.

Anterior to the muscle lies the visceral mass made up mainly

of the light colored reproductive organs and the dark digestive

glands. The visceral mass of spent oysters is dark colored, which

prejudices some, but wrongly, against using such oysters as

food.

Digestive system :—Anterior to the gills and between them and

the hinge are the two pairs of fleshy palps which enclose the oval

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOGETY Wel. XOCaT

mouth. Food particles are brought in currents set by the action of

the ciliated gills and palps. The direction is easily seen by sprink-

ling powdered carmine in the gills of a freshly opened oyster. The

mouth leads through a short cesophagus into a stomach with thick

but translucent walls. The dark green liver around the stomach

sends many ducts to it. From the stomach leads the intestine which

bends on itself when at the end of the muscle on its ventral side and

coming back near its starting point describes a circle round the

stomach and goes out as the rectum to the dorsal side of the muscle,

to open out bya funnel-shaped anus. The rectum does not as in

the fresh water mussel, traverse the ventricle and so the way to the

heart is not through the stomach here. A crystalline style—absent

in spirit specimens—is seen in the first (pyloric) arm of the intes-

tines. The walls of the intestine and rectum are double indupli-

cated, as may also be seen from the imprimature on the feces.

The food of the oyster is mainly diatomic and is found in the

plankton of the water where it lives. About half the stomach

contents consists of unrecognizable vegetable debris but the follow-

ing were recognized :—Biddulphia, Rhizosolenia, Cheetoceras, Cos-

cinodiscus, Pleurosigma, Navicula, Ceratium, Foraminifera, Peridi--

nians, Dinophysis, sponge spicules, setee of Polychet larve and

Daphnids.

The enemies of the oyster are legion and they are active at all

stages of its life. Apart from some, e.g., other molluscs, barnacles

and aquatic flora, which crowd its beds to its disadvantage, there

are active enemies like crabs (Scylla serraia), starfishes (Luzdia

maculata and Astropectim), shellfish (AZurex tenuispina) and the boring:

sponge (Clione vastifica).

The oyster is edible, but Europeans who take it raw and in

its natural juice should see that the source is not a sewage

contaminated bed. The danger, though real, especiaily in a

country where washing after evacuation is done anywhere, is

exaggerated as oysters digest and kill injurious bacilli. Oysters

however muddy their original habitat, become clean if placed for

some days in a wholesome current and in factin the Madras

Aquarium clumps of live oysters when placed in tanks rendered

the water less turbid and more crystal-clear. Once a dozen oysters

from a suspected source as well as adozen clean ones were sent to

the King Institute, Guindy, for bacterial examination and both were

declared free.

Vascular system.—Anterior to the muscle and between it and the

visceral massis a transparent thin-walled sac, the pericardium,

containing the heart. There are two auricles and one ventricle.

The ventricle does not, as in Lamellidens, embrace the rectum. To

make out all the vessels, sections of hardened specimens are more

satisfactory than dissection or even injection. The aorta after

leaving the ventricle divides into two, one to supply the muscle

and the other to the visceral mass. The blood from these organs

go to the gills and after aeration flow into the auricles. The blood

is colorless.

The gills—Hanging down into the space between the two lobes

of the mantle are two pairs of gills. Their ventral edges are free,

PLATE I

ourn., Bombay Nat, Hist. Soe.

muscle

-SCaV

_SSaSSSSS—S——

— ——SSS>=—>

YS\

))))

ANATOMY OF Ostvea madrasensis

—

‘

Sry teey ee WRAY

On«taea wm AML cSenscey

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ve Codcimodisennrrs

2. Midditphid (qrewtate)

Noviwla

&. Rhwzesobowe

S. Biddutphia

6 +» Shrartoeercre ( Corwin)

Ae Ricesetiees

UC geron Oren iy

9. Pescsdintrnww

lo. KR i 2 < ; |

Ne Gece teh pole {onaetat) i

2. Gerotinn, Lmeatenu) | |

13. Gen ati, (ts »

I'S

ASS

14. Gerotinne (Grete eres) a

D wseckiow shoud

Ame Vasenlow & Rewol syste:

Se iS

ys,

Sh opern~ ola Loom

4 4

it,

LAM AYIA

pec

f ©

| ce

ANATOMY OF Ostrea madrasensis

THE COMMON EDIBLE BACKWATER OYSTER 551

They are plaited and consist of a multitude of filaments closely cover-

ed with cilia. These cilia by their concerted action set the currents

going; the stream of water aerates the blood as well as supplies

food. The cilia also strain the food particles. The gills do not

serve as a broodpouch unlike in the freshwater mussel though it

does in another species O. edulis of Europe.

Muscular system.—The only muscle presentin the adult is the

posterior adductor, roughly rectangular with the dorsal side concave

and stretching transversely across the body from valve to valve.

The anterior of the two muscles present in the embryo atrophies

later. The mantle has avradiating bundle of muscular fibres which

withdraw the edge of the mantle from the margin of the shell anda

set of fibres distributed lengthwise along the edge, which by con-

traction make it crinkled. The muscle fibres as in all bivalves are

unstriped.

Excretory system.—The renal organs which are rudimentary,

consist of a pair of simple tubes lined by secretory cells. One open-

ing is into the pericardium while the other is into the mantle cavity,

as in other Pelecypods.

Nervous system.—lIt is very simple consisting of two pairs of gang-

lia (aggregations of nerve-cells). The anterior pair have two com-

misures one on each side uniting them to the posterior pair lying

below the muscle. ‘The anterior pair innervate the internal organs

while the mantle and muscles receive their nerve supply from the

posterior.

The two rows oi tentacles fringing the mantle are very sensitive

and function as tactile organs. Eyes are absent though their

function seems to be attended to by the marginal sense organs

which react quickly evento a shadow fiitting across the gape.

Neither otocysts noi osphradia are seen but oysters do hear and

detect changes in the salinity of the water. The veliger possesses

an otocyst.

Reproductive system.—The fatness of an oyster lies in the fulness

of the gonad which is found enveloping the visceral mass. The

sexes are separate. If the milky fluid from the gonad be examined

with a hand lens, that with particles present is the male’s and the

one without is the female’s. The gonads are large paired glands

and open out by ducts into the mantle cavity above the gills.

When well developed they are swollen and enwrap the dark diges-

tive glands—oysters are then very tasty to eat—the least pressure

making the cream colored fiuid exude. The ova and sperms pass

out into the water through the mantle cavity and fertilization is ex-

ternal and accidental. The oyster spawns all the year round though

two maximal seasons may be recognized, April to June and

September to November. Sexual activity is stimulated usually by

a reduction in the salinity and this depends on rainfall and sunshine.

The oyster passes through trochophore and veliger stages in its

life-history. The veliger possesses a foot which is functional till

the spat settles down to a fixed life. There is also an otocyst.

The growth after fixation is rapid, the oyster attaining a market-

able size in 1 years. The size attained within four months is

remarkable but the shell is thin. The thickness and weight of the

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

shell connote the age of the oyster better than its length and

breadth. The largest examined was from the Pulicat Lake and

the right valve measured 17” by 7”.

Among curious places where spat settled down, were the two

eyestalks of athus blinded crab Scylla serrata from Pulicat Lake.

The unfortunate crab had onits carapace many barnacies and on

its gills Lepads identified as Dichelaspts cor.

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE

an LATE ETr.eCou.€.E. Luarp

Ah, the land of the rustling of wings,

Which ts beyond the rivers of Ethiopia.

Before turning to the passages dealing with birds, a brief glance

at the geography of the region involved will be useful. ‘The area

with which we are concerned is roughly Palestine, that is Cannaan

and Syria and the neighbouring lands of Arabia, the Sinai Peninsula

and more distant Egypt.

Dean Stanley in his charming Szzaz and Palestine points out

how the Peninsula of Sinai is remarkable for possessing the three

grand features of earthly scenery, the sea, the desert and the moun-

tains. The great desert area is, however, cut into by three great

clefts, the Nile on the west, the Gulf of Suez in the centre and the

Gulf of Akaba on the east, which last merges into the deep valley of

the Arabah and yet deeper Jordan valley, further on. Palestine

forms a high level tract lying between the plains of Assyria and the

Mediterranean. Long before the war made ita reality, it was

familiar to all of us of the older generation from very early days,

as a land intimately connected with the absorption of tiresome

chronological and historical minutiz concerning an apparently very

overrated people. From north to south a great limestone ridge,

which splits into two parallel chains, traverses the whole country,

while four rivers the Orontes, Litani(or Leontes), the Barada (Abana

of the O.T.) and the Jordon flow through it. The last is the most

important and is the main artery of Palestine. On either side of it

run chains of mountains linking up with those of Sinai. Palestine

is thus curiously isolated. On the east is a desert, in the centre

the deep Jordon valley, a formidable trench, on the west the sea, on

the south desert again and on the north the Lebanon range. So

this small area, only some one hundred and forty miles long and

sixty wide, offers variations in climate, soil and vegetation which

make it an ideal place for animal life of all kinds. While the Jordon

valley falls to 2,300 feet below sea-level, the mountains of Lebanon

rise to over 2,000 feet above it, with snow-capped peaks. Thus

snow-covered hills, deep and fertile valleys, dry hot winds from the

deserts and cool sea breezes, offer unusual opportunities for bird

life, through the various plant and insect life the area produces.

Palestine lies in the Holarctic region of Newton or Palaearctic of

Sclater above the Ethiopian and Indian, and many bird forms

common in India are met with, such as bulbuls, the white-breasted

kingfisher, sun-birds, and many birds of prey.

The birds Moses encountered were probably much the same as

those met with in this region to-day.

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The birds mentioned in the Bibie are not of course all those seen

by the writers but only those which entered most into their daily

lives either as beneficent or unkindly visitants, and those which

were striking and useful in metaphor.

To the Israelites lying out on the slopes of Mount Hermon or

watching their flocks and herds in the fertile plains, the birds of

prey were of peculiar interest, and but too familiar and dreaded

visitors. How often must the youthful David have watched

‘* the eagle that swoopeth on the prey.”’

We may, therefore, take the birds of prey together as a conspicuous

group. This is the more useful in that it 1s not always easy to say

if an eagle, kite or vulture is referred to. But is this surprising ?

Take any five of your friends out and see how many birds they can

distinguish even when not so closely connected as the birds of prey

or so similar in habits and appearance, that save in their size and

idiosyncracies of flight they offer no very distinctive signs.

I would here note that throughout this account the Revised

Version (R.V.) is referred to unless the Authorized Version (A.V.)

is especially noted.

The birds of prey mentioned are, egies the glede, falcons, gier-

eagle, the kite, hawk, osprey, ossifrage and vulture. The owls may

be dealt with separately,

The A.V. and the R.V. differ in the translation of the principal

passage which mentions these birds. I may add that throughout

this article I have quoted somewhat fully as many members of the

Society may be unfamiliar with our Bible, while my own experience

has proved how seldom my countrymen’s houses contain a copy of

the Revised Version.

The two passages lie in Leviticus and Deuteronomy and enume-

rate birds which were unclean and therefore not fit for food.

se. IV:

Lev. 11-13, 17:

And these ye shall have in abomination among fowls ; they shall not

be eaten, they are an abomination ; the eagle, and the gier-eagle, and

the osprey ; and the kite, and the faclon after its kind ; every raven after

its kind and the ostrich, and the night-hawk, and the sea-mew, and the

hawk after its kind ; and the little owl, and the cormorant, and the great

owl; and the horned owl, and the pelican, and the vulture ; and the

stork, the heron after its kind, and the hoopoe and the bat.

A.V. (as given)

Eagle, and the ossifrage, and the osprey and the vulture, and the kite

after his kind ; every raven after his kind ; and the owl, and the night-

hawk, and the cuckow, and the hawk after his kind, and the little owl,

and the cormorant, and the great owl, and the swan, and the pelican,

and the gier-eagle, and the stork, the heron after her kind, and the lap-

wing and the bat.

The changes are those of gier-eagle for ossifrage, kite for vulture,

falcon for kite, ostrich for owl, sea-mew for cuckow, horned owl for

swan, vulture for gier-eagle and hoopoe for lapwing. The bat seems

to have been looked upon as a bird.

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 555

In the corresponding passage in Deuteronomy (14-11) the lists

run thus:

Eagle, gier-eagle, osprey, glede, falcon, kite, raven, ostrich, night-

hawk, little owl, great owl, horned owl, pelican, vulture, cormorant,

stork, heron and hoopoe.

Eagle, ossifrage, osprey, glede, kite, vulture, raven, owl, night-hawk,

cuckow, hawk, little owl, great ow!, swan, pelican, vier-eagle, cor-

morant, stork, heron and lapwing.

It should be borne in mind that the Hebrew word is of course the

same in the A.V. and R.V., only the interpretation is new.

BIRDS OF PREY

In his solitude and grief, and, be it added, the lecturing of his

prosy but well-meaning friends, Job seems to have turned instinc-

tively to nature.

Job 12-1:

No doubt ye are the people,

And wisdom shall die with you.

I have understanding as well as you

if But ask now the beasts, and they shall teach thee ;

And the fowls of the air, and they shall teach thee ;

Or speak to the earth, and it shall teach thee.

Some of the finest passages on birds are his. In chapters 36 and 37

Elihu pours out his long-winded discourse naively commencing with

Suffer me a little and I wili shew thee

For I have yet somewhat to say on God’s behalf.

Until God, losing patience, speaks from the storm which has

gathered as Elihu discoursed, and exciaims,

Who is he that darkeneth counsel by words without knowledge ?

and then asks Job who he is and of what account :

39-27. -

Doth the hawk soar by thy wisdom,

And stretch her wings toward the south ?

Doth the eagle mount up at thy command ?

And make her nest on high?

She dwelleth on the rock, and hath her lodging there,

Upon the crag of the rock and the stronghold.

From thence she spieth out the prey :

Her eyes behold it afar off.

Her young ones also suck up blood:

And where the slain is, there is she.

Possibly here some confusion has arisen with kites or vultures

but many eagles do eat carrion, at times. I have myself seen the

Indian tawny eagle (Aguzla vindhtana) sharing a dead cow with

kites, vultures and dogs.

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAUTRAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The passage 1s an astonishing summary of eagle life. The

strength, swiftness and savage nature of these birds are constantly

used in metaphor:

Job 9-25 :

Now my days are swifter than a post :

They flee away, they see no good

They are passed away as the swift ships :

As the eagle that swoopeth on the prey.

The post is the ‘ harkara’ of India, each man doing his section

of ayjoumey =

Jev@ 51-31 :

One post shal] run to meet another.

Solomon used the eagle in metaphor:

Prov. 30-18 :

There be three things which are too wonderful for ime,

Yea, four which I know not:

The way of an eagle in the air,

The way of aserpent on a rock,

The way of a ship in the midst of the sea,

And the way of a man with a maid.

Then there is that fine passage in Jeremiah, in chapter 4, where

in verse 13 the swiftness of the eagle is referred to; it is dramatic

in form and for proper appreciation the speakers should be indicated:

Jer. 4-11:

10. Prophet.

Ah, Lord God! Surely thou hast greatly deceived this people and ©

Jerusalem, saying, ‘ Ye shall have peace’; whereas the sword reacheth

unto the soul. And at that time shall it be said to this people and to

Jerusalem.

A Cry +

A hot wind from the bare heights in the wilderness toward the daughter

of my people, not to fan, nor to cleanse.

The Lord :

A full wind from these shall come for me: now will I also utter judg-

ments against them. Behold, he shall come up as clouds and his chante

shall be as the whirlwind ; his horses swifter than eagles.

The People :

Woe unto us for we are spoiled :

Here whirlwind, horse and swooping eagle are brought together

as the swiftest things the writer knew.

In Habbakuk, which is really written throughout in dramatic form,

though this isnot brought out in our Bible, he refers to the approa-

ching Chaldean attack. The Prophet cries to the Lord in verses 1-4

and in verses 5-10; the Lord replies :

Vii10.3 7 HE. Ov 0-3

For, lo, I raise up the Chaldeans that bitter and hasty nation, which

march through the breadth of the earth to possess dwelling places which

are not theirs. They are terribleand dreadful: their judgment and their

dignity proceed from themselves. ‘Their horses also are swifter than leo-

pards, and are more fierce than evening wolves; and their horsemen

spread themselves: yea their horsemen come from far; they fly asan

eagle that hasteth to devour,

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 557

In some passages confusion between vultures and eagles can be

clearly detected. Thus:

Micah. 8-16:

Make thee bald, and poll thee for the children of thy delight,

Enlarge thy baldness as the eagle:

For they are gone into captivity from thee.

No eagles are bald, whereas vultures often are. Probably the

well-known passage in Matthew is another instance :

24-28 :

Wheresoever the carcase is there will the eagles be gathered together.

In both cases the marginal reading is ‘ vultures.’

In the wonderful song sung by Moses inthe 32nd chapter of

Deuteronomy the eagle is used in metaphor :

Went. 32-10, 11:

He found him in a desert land,

And in the waste howling wilderness ;

He compassed him about, he cared for him,

He kept him asthe apple of his eye:

As an eagle that stirreth up her nest,

That fluttereth over her young,

He spread abroad his wings, he took them,

He bare them on his pinions:

The A.V. has for the last line:

taketh them, beareth them on his wings

apparently with the idea that an eagle carried its young inthis way.

In that most wonderful of laments (quoted at the end of this article)

David compares Saul and Jonathan to eagles (II Sam. 8-17).

Like Moses, Isaiah uses eagles in referring to God’s care for

Israel: and the freeing of God’s servants :

Ts. 40-28 :

a % the everlasting God, the Lord, the Creator of the ends of

the earth, fainteth not neither is weary. ... Butthey that wait

upon the Lord shall renew their strength: they shall mount up with

wings as eagles : they shall run and not be weary, they shall walk and

not faint,

There are many other passages, which will be found inthe index

of references, but these are perhaps the most important.

Vultures are specifically referred toin certain passages, besides

the marginal alternative readings mentioned.

The vulture is one of the unclean birds, but the R.V. has gier-

eagle where the A.V. has vulture, and a marginal reading ‘ great

vulture’ against ‘eagle’. Inthe corresponding passage in Deute-

ronomy the R.V. has ‘ gier-eagle’ where the A.V. has ‘ ossifrage ’.

The vulture was of course as familiar an object to the Israelite as

it is to us in India.

The vulture occurs in no passages exceptin these lists, in the

R. V. as inthe two passages in the A. V. viz., Job 28-7 and Is.

34-15 we now have ‘bird of prey’ in the first and‘ kite’ inthe

second.

Without going into the question too closely it will be interésting

to consider the basis on which these translations are founded,

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SCCVETY, Vol. 72ers

Generally the R.V. has accepted the premise that resemblance

between the modern Arabic name and the early Hebrew word is a

sure guide to identification of the bird.

The Hebrew word translated ‘eagle’ is ‘nesher’ from a root

meaning ‘to tear with the beak’. This corresponds with the

Arabic word ‘nasr’ (1) with an identical meaning which though

also used as a generic term, with qual:fying adjectives for eagles,

vultures, and ospreys, is usually appliedto the Gryphon vultures

(Gyps fulvus) and this is no doubt the bird meant. The passage in

Mich. 1-16 where the word‘ nesher’ is used alsoshews this while

the passages in Job 39-27, 30, Jer. 49-16 describe it well.

The Assyrian vulture god, Nisroch, morever, was the Gryphon

vulture, the marginal reading actually giving ‘ great vulture’. The

Hebrew word ‘ racham’ (Lev. 11-18; Deut. 14-17) is the same as

the Arabic ‘rakham’ and ‘rakhma ’(4*«+,) which the R.V. trans-

lates ‘ vulture” in place of the “gier-eagle’- of the AvV. ane

Arabic word designates the White Scavenger Vulture (Meophron

percnopterus) a near relative of the ‘ Pharaoh’s chicken’ of our

cantonments. The word ‘ vulture’ is a translation of three Hebrew

terms in the A. V., ‘da-ah’ (Lev. 11-14) and ‘ dayyah’ or ‘ dayyoth’

(Deut. 14-13; Is. 34-15). But in the R. V., it is rendered kite im

these places. The third term is ‘ ayyah’ (Lev. 11-14; Deut. 14-13;

Job 28-7) which the R. V. renders ‘falcon’. The latter certainly

means a small bird of prey and hence falcon is better ‘ hidayah’ in

Arabic is used of a kite. Possibly the ‘daah’ was the Red Kite

(Milvus regalts) and ‘ayyah’ the black (JZ. ater). |

The Gier-eagle or Ossifrage translates ‘peres (Lev. 11-13%

Deut. 14-12) or ‘the breaker’. The Lammageier or Bearded

Vulture (Gypetus barbatus) was said to throw tortoises, etc., down

from a height to break them, hence its name of ‘ bone-breaker ’,

The ‘ glede’ (Deut. 14-13) may be a kite or hawk. The word is

according to the Mew Oxford Dictionary used locally for buzzards,

the osprey, and the peregrine, but more properly for the kite

(47. regalis). The word is derived from a root meaning to ‘ glide’.

The Hebrew word so translated is ‘ raah’.

The word ‘hawk’ translates the Hebrew ‘nes’ (Gen. 40-10;

Lev. 11-16; Deut. 14-15; Job 39-26) and probably refers to the

Kestrils, of which 7. chenchrisis commonest: but it may refer to

the sparrow-hawk. But the termis generic for the smaller kinds

of bird of prey. Some eighteen species of hawk have been record-

ed from Palestine.

A few passages deal with these birds:

Job 39-26:

Doth the hawk soar by thy wisdom ?

And stretch her wings toward the south ?

Ts, 34-15:

There shall the kites be gathered, every one with her mate.

It is thus clear that it is no easy matter to distinguish the different

species from the words used.

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 559

In the New Testament in Matthew 24-28 and Luke 17-37 the word

translated eagle is ‘tos’ (aeros), though vultures are certainly

meant. In Revelations 4-7, 12-14 eagles may be intended.

Falcons besides being in the lists of the unclean are mentioned in

Job 28-7 where the A.V. has vulture. This last passage is very

obscure in the A. V., whereas the R.V. clearly shows that a mine is

being described, and well described :

Job 28, 1-11:

Surely there is a mine for silver,

And a place for gold which they refine.

Iron is taken out of the earth,

And brass is molten out of the stone.

Man setteth an end to darkness,

And searcheth out to the furthest bound

The stones of thick darkness and of the shadow of death.

He breaketh open a shaft away from where men sojourn ;

_ They are torgotten of the foot that passeth by ;

They hang afar from men, they swing to and fro.

As for the earth out of it cometh bread ;

And underneath it is turned up as it were by fire.

The stones thereof are the place of sapphires,

And it hath dust of gold.

That path no bird of prey knoweth,

Neither hath the falcon’s eye seen it :

The proud beasts have nof trodden it,

Nor hath the fierce lion passed thereby.

He putteth forth his hand upon the flinty rock ;

His eye seeth every precious thing.

He bindeth the streams that they trickle not ;

And the thing that is hid bringeth he forth to light.

One is apt to regret that the keen-sighted ‘vulture,’ as in the

A.V., was not retained where we now have falcon.

Game Birds.—The only game birds mentioned are the partridge

and the quail. It is curious that ducks are nowhere mentioned,

although they must have been common enough even if they did not

enter much into the life of the Jewish shepherd, and were perhaps

not eaten. It has been suggested that the ‘‘ fatted fowl,” of I Kings

4-23, may be a duck or a goose, as the latter were fattened by the

Egyptians.

Partridge is a translation of the Hebrew word ‘ qore,’ which

occurs twice only, in I Sam. 26-20, Jer. 17-11. The Hebrew name

iS OnOMmatopeic from the bird's call.

The ‘ partridge of the mountains’

(I Sam. 26-20) is probably Ammoperdix heyt which is very common

near the Dead Sea. It should, however, be noted that the Septua-

gint has, ‘is come out to seek my life’ where our Bible has ‘a

flea’. When hunted this bird conceals itself easily owing to its

protective colouring. The other partridge met with is the Red-

legged Chukor (Caccabis chukor) well known in India. Its cry 1s

heard everywhere. The Arabic name for this bird is ‘ karia’

(42,18). ae

The sandgrouse has been also suggested. In Eccus. 11-30 it is

mentioned as being used as a decoy ; or possibly for fighting :

Like as a partridge taken and kept in a cage so is the heart of the proud.

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Partridges are still used as decoys to catch Chukor.

The passage in Jeremiah has caused much comment: Jer. 17-11:

As the partridge that gathereth young which she hath not brought forth, so

is he that getteth riches, and not by right ; in the midst of his days they shall

leave him, and at his end he shall be a fool.

The words are spoken in a series of remarks not unlike proverbs.

The passage may be corrupt as there is nothing known of this bird

to lead one to suppose that partridge broods get mixed up.

Quail are first mentioned in Exodus 16-13:

And it came to pass at even that the quails came up, and covered the camp:

and in the morning the dew lay round about the camp.

Num. 13- 31:

And there went forth a wind from the Lord, and brought quails from the sea,

and let them fall by thecamp, about a day’s journey on this side, and a day’s

journey on the other side, round about the camp, and about two cubits above

the face of the earth. And the people rose up all that day, and all the night

and all the next day, and gathered the quails.

The same event is alluded to in Psalms 78-25 and 105-39:

The birds were migrating and driven by the high wind to rest

after crossing the sea. They come in March ordinarily in vast quan-

tities. The Hebrew for quail (Coturnix communis) is ‘ selav’ con-

nected with a root meaning ‘tobe plump’. The Arabic word is

similar, ‘salwa’ (Sglw)s Sandgrouse have been suggested here

also but so strong a flier would scarcely become exhausted in this

way. .

‘We may now pass on to birds of other classes. The words tran-

slated ‘ bird’ are in the Old Testament four in number (i) ‘ off,’

rendered by bird or fowl, the latter generally described as ‘ of

héaven’ or “of ‘the air’ (Gen. 1-21, 30;:Lev. 1-14; Jobia2-76

Ps.00-11etces)

(ii) ‘ayzt’, rendered ‘fowls’ or. ‘ birds.of prey’ in thetAi=V2

and R.V. respectively (Gen. 15-11, 13; Job. 28-7; Is. 46-11; Ez.

39-4; etc.) ;

(ill) * Zszppor’; > Atabie *-astun = (520!) is used of all small

twittering birds (Gen. 7-14; Lev. 14-4; Ps. 102-8; etc.);

(iv) ‘baal kanaph’ or ‘possessor of a wing’ (Pro. 1-17; Is.

10-14); -etc.):

In the New Testament two words are used ‘ ta petaina’ (ra

meterva) see Mt. 13-4; Lk. 13-19; and ornea (opvea) for ‘ birds of

prey’ (Rev. 18-2; 19-17, 21).

Birds were not unsympathetically noted as we find their salient

habits recorded. Migration is referred to, thus Isaiah evidently

takes this metaphor from large migrating flocks, when he says:

) eee oe

As birds flying so will the Lord of hosts protect Jerusalem.

Jer. 8-7 :

Yea, the storkin the heaven knoweth her appointed times, and the

turtle and the swallow and the crane observe the time of their coming ;

but my people know not the ordinance of the Lord (cf. Cant. 2-12.)

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 561

Care of their young (Deut. 32-11; Mic. 23-37; etc.) their helpless-

ness (Ps. 104-12). They were also tamed (James 3-7). Birds were

used as food when clean and not in the prohibited list, quail, par-

tridge, pigeons and doves are mentioned as eaten, hie the Tal-

mud gives a good deal of information on keeping birds for this pur-

pose. The very poor eat sparrows (Mt. 10-29), while the eggs of

clean birds were also used as food (Deut. 22-6; Is. 10-14; Lk. 11-12)

The verse in Job is doubtful :

Job 6-6:

Can that which hath no savour be eaten without salt ?

Or is there any taste in the white of an egg?

The marginal] reading ‘purslain’ for the white of an egg is ap-

parently correct and not asin the text.

Bittern.—-This is one of those cases, not many, in which the

Revisers seem to have gone astray. Where the A.V. has bittern

the R. V. has porcupine. As will be seen below it endows the

porcupine with vocal powers and an agility it certainly never

possessed.

Is. 14-23:

For Iwill also make it (Babylon) a possession for the bittern and

pools of water: and I will sweep it with the bosom of destruction.

A.V.

Zeph. 2-13:

And the flocks shall he down inthe midst of her (Nineveh), all the

beasts of the nations both the cormorant and the bittern shall eee in

the upper lintels of it ; their voice shall singin the windows.

ls, 34-11 :

But the cormorant and the bittern shall possess it; the owl and the

raven shal] dwell in it.

Whereas bitterns with their mysterious ‘booming’ call, cormo-

rants, ravens, and even the pelican, who takes the cormorant’s place

in the R.V., are suited to ruined places and pools of water and some

of them can also perch, no porcupine ever climbed on to a ‘ chapiter ’,

as the R.V. has it, or sang ina window! The Revisers took the

Hebrew word ‘ quippod’ as porcupine owing to its resemblance to

the Arabic ‘ kunfud’ (ai8).

Cocks and hens.—Domestic fowls came into use. it appears, about

4 ».c. since all earlier representations are of wild fowl, as the

drooping tail shows. The Old Testament nowhere mentions them

but we meet with them in the New Testament (Lk. 13-34). The

crowing of the cock is dramatically used in the well-known scene

with Peter (Mt. 14-30): this cock-crow was the third watch just

before dawn.

Cormorant and Pelican.—The word ‘qaath’ in Hebrew is tran-

slated cormorant in the A.V. but Pelican in the R.V. so that the

cormorant in the. R. V. is only mentioned in the lists of prohibited

birds. The root of the Hebrew word means ‘to vomit’ (Zeph.

2-t4;55 Is; 22-11;. 102-6). Actually the Pelician is not.‘ of the

wilderness’ in the sense of desert as it is a water haunting bird.

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Two species are common P. onocrotalus and P. crispus, the latter

having curled feathers on its head.

The word translated cormorant in the R.V. 1s ‘ shalakh’ that is

a ‘diver’ (Lev. 11-17; Deut. 14-17). Its harsh cry is well known:

There are two species Phalacrocorax carbo and P. pygmeus.

Crane and Swallow.—Translation has associated these very differ-

ent birds, and the swift. The word ‘ sus’ or ‘ sis (Is. 38-14; Jer. 8-6;

Zac. 10-3; Ps. 32-9))is inthe A: V. rendered by crane butinghe

R.V. by swallow. It should actually be swift. In the same pass-

ages the A.V. translates ‘ agur’ swallow and the R.V. crane.

ls. 38-14:

Like a swallow or a crane so did I chatter,

I did mourn as a dove.

Jer. 8-7.

and the swallow and the crane observe the time of their

coming.

In Psalm 84-3; 26-2: it is the word ‘deror’ that is transiated

rightly swallow : 84-3:

Yea, the sparrow hath found her an house,

And the swallow a nest for herself, where she may lay her young, -

Even thine altars, O Lord of hosts, my King and my God.

These references are generally appropriate except that the term

chatter is not very clear as though swallows might perhaps be said

to chatter, cranes utter a more sonorous and trumpet-like note.

Cranes (Grus communis) are met with in Winter in enormous .-

numbers. Dean Stanley recounts how near Wadi Haderah the sky

was literally darkened by a vast flight of red-legged cranes, with

black and white wings. In the case of swifts and swallows in India

one is familiar with their hordes building in temples and mosques.

Crow.—Not perhaps really distinguished from the raven. But it

is only mentioned in the Apocrypha, in Baruch 6-54.

Cuckow and Sea-mew.—The Cuckoo (Lev. 11-16: Deut. 14-15) has

vanished from the R.V. giving place to the Sea-mew. The Hebrew

word is ‘shahaph.’ It was a water bird and may have been a gull.

It is rightly placed in the list of the unclean which a cuckoo would

not be.

Dove and Turtle-dove.—Words used in the Hebrew are three, and

are not clearly distinguished as between doves and pigeons, which

is not surprising seeing that modern ornithology cannot successfully

differentiate between the two. The three words used in Hebrew for

these birds are :—(i) ‘ yonah’ (Lev. 5-7) which come from a root

meaning to mourn and refers more to pigeons; (ii) ‘Zor’ meaning

a turtle-dove (Lev. 12-6; Can. 2-12), an onomatopzic word repre-

senting its cry, and (iii) ‘ gozal’ really the young of any bird, a

‘ cheeper * (Deut. 22-11) but also used for young pigeon (Gen. 15-9).

The first mention of the dove is in the story of the Flood

(Gen. 8-8). Doves were evidently domesticated in early days.

They were used for sacrifice as were also young pigeons (Gen.15-9).

The brilliance of its colouring (Ps. 68-13), its harmlessness (Mt.

10-16), its helplessness (Ps. 74-19) are all referred to. It was used

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 563

as a common name and as a term of affection (Cant. 1-15; 4-1;

Se eli 6-9) ht ise alsou used as a type of. the Holy Spirit

(Mt. 3-16).

Dean Stanley describes how at Askalon the doves formerly sacred

to Venus still inhabited the haunts of their ancestors, though the

temple with its rites had long passed away. Ina siege the dung of

doves was eaten (I K 6-25).

Blue rock pigeons are met with in large flocks in the ‘ wadis’ or

gorges: read pigeons for doves below :

Ts. 60-8 :

Who are these that fly as a cloud,

And as the doves to their windows.

In Ps. 55-6 it should read (yonah) pigeons:

And I said, Oh had I wings like a dove

Then would I fly away and be at rest.

Lo, then would I wander far off,

I would lodge in the wilderness.

I would haste me to a shelter

From the storm, wind and tempest.

The arrival of these birds is referred to also (Jer. 8-7; Can. 2-11,

2);

ae of the turtle doves (7. communis) comes in April, another

(7. senegalensis) roams the streets of towns half tame.

Fowl.—The word ‘ayyit’ is translated ‘fowl’ in the A.V. in

certain places in which the R.V. has ‘ birds of prey’ (Gen. 15-11;

Job 28-7 ; Ez. 39-17-——birds) elsewhere fowl is retained.

Hoopoe and Lapwing.—The Lapwing of the A.V. has become

Ioopoe (Upwpa .epops) in the R.V. The Hebrew word. is

‘dukipath ’’ (Lev. 11-19; Deut. 14-18). It is only mentioned among

the unclean birds. The Hoopoe is a common spring visitor.

Heron.—This bird is only in the prohibited list (Lev. 9-19; Deut.

14-18). The R.V. has ‘ ibis’ as a marginal reading. Herons

are abundant (A. cinerea and A. purpurea). The ibis consorts with

herons.

Hunting.— It will not be out of place to make some reference to

hunting. Hunting for sport is a product of comparatively advanced

civilization. -Man could not afford to hunt for sport so long as his

food supply had to be obtained in the chase. Nimrod was not a

hunter for sport, but a mighty slayer of noxious wild animals.

The hunter is noted as uncouth (Gen. 10-9) but cunning. Birds

were hunted (Sam. 26-20) as the partridge, and according to the

law they had to be bled, similarly to the ‘ halal’ of the Musalman:

Lev, 17-13:

And whatsoever man there be of the house of Israel, or of the

strangers that sojourn among them, which taketh in hunting any beast

or fowl that may be eaten; he shall pour out the blood thereof, and

cover it with dust. (See Deut. 12-16).

Bows and arrows were used (Gen. 27-3; etc.) and these were at

times of bronze or bronze mounted (Ps. 18-34; Job 20-24) the arrows

were tipped with flints or iron. Slings were in common use, the

tribe of Benjamin excelling in their use (Jud. 20-16; 1 Chr. 12-2),

564 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Nets (vesbeth-—Prov. 1-17; Hos. 5-1) and snares or nooses (moquesh—

Amos 3-5) are mentioned and clubs (Jer. 41-39).

Ants 3-5:

Can a bird fall in a snare upon the earth, where no gin is set for

him?

Ps. 69-20:

Let their table before them become a snare;

And when they are in peace, let it become a trap

Job 18-9 :

A gin shall take him by the heel,

And a snare shall lay hold on him.

The A.V. has ‘robber ’ for snare.

The noose was used as also traps (Job 18-10). The fowler used

such devices (Hos. 9-8). The word ‘cage’ in Jer. 5-27 should

be ‘trap’. Pits were used (Ez. 19-8). Decoys are mentioned

(Eccus. 11-30).

Nests.—Many reference are made to nests, and a warning is given

as to letting the parent birds go free (Deut. 22-6). Job refers to his

house as his nest (Job 29-18). The Hebrew words is ‘ gen’ (Gen.

6-14; Deut. 32-11; Nu. 24-21 ; Jer. 14-16 > elab. 2-9: Job 39-27).

Night-hawk.—The word rendered night-hawk is in Hebrew

‘techmas’ which merely means a bird of prey being connected

with a root‘to tear’. The night jar is in no sense a bird of prey

and identification is, therefore, uncertain. The Septuagint and

Vulgate translate it by owl (Lev. 11-16; Deut. 14-15).

Osprey.—The Osprey is only given in the prohibited lists in

Leviticus and Deuteronomy, and is a translation of the Hebrew

‘ozniyyah’. It is unlikely to have been the osprey as there were

no hunting grounds for it and probably it is another eagle ora

harrier. The word osprey (Fr. osfraze) is itself merely a corruption

of ossifraga, the name of the lammageier.

Ossifrage.—See birds of prey above.

Ostrich.—In the A.V. the Hebrew words ‘bath yaanah’ (Lev.

11-16 ; Deut. 14-15; Job 30-29; Is. 13-21 ; 34-13; 43-20 ; Jer. 50-39 ;

Mic. 1-8) are translated ‘owl’. But the word means ‘ daughter of

greed’. Two other words ‘yeenim’ (Lam. 4-3) and ‘reanim’

(Job 39-13) are translated ow] and peacock in the A.V., but should

be ostrich (Stvuthzo camelus) which is met with in Barbary, Syria,

Arabia and even Mesopotamia, while formerly it inhabited Egypt.

The ostrich has a very weird cty not, it is said, unlike a loue

groan.

Mic. 1-8:

For this I will wail and howl ;

I will go stripped and naked:

I will make a wailing like the jackals,

And a mourning like the ostriches,

Its preference for lonely spots is noted :

Job 30-29:

I am a brother to jackals

And a companion to ostriches

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 565

Then Isaiah in describing the destruction of Edom cries :

Ts. 34-13 :

And thorns shall come up in her places, nettles and thistles in the fort-

resses thereof; and it shall be an habitation of jackals, a court for

ostriches.

In that great lecture on natural history which comes in the 29th

Chapter of Job there is a dissertation on the ostrich :

Job 39-13:

The wing of the ostrich rejoiceth ;

But are her pinions and feather kindly ?

For she leaveth her eggs on the earth,

And warmeth them in the dust,

And forgetteth that the foot may crush them,

Or that the wild beast may trample them.

She is hardened against her young ones, as if they were not hers,

Though her labour be in vain, she is without fear ;

Because God hath deprived her of wisdom.

Neither hath he imparted to her understanding.

What time she lifteth up herself on high,

She scorneth the horse and his rider.

The ostrich is too curious an instance of bird life not to attract

attention, for a bird eight feet high which defends itself by kicking

like ahorse, has long eyelashes, only two toes and no wings to

speak of, except ornamental plumes is an anomaly. The ostrich is

polygamous, one cock having three or fourhens. ‘They lay ina

common nest, a shallow pit scraped by their feet in the sand, which

is heaped upon the sides asa _ protective wall. The cock begins

the brooding as soon as a dozen eggs orso are laid, especially at

night, by day their attendance is for watch and ward rather than

hatching which is done by the sun’srays. The recognition of

individual offspring by the mothers was thus not possible.

Owls.—The correction of owl to ostrich is given above. The

words rendered owl are ‘ yanstiph ’ (Lev. 11-17 ; Deut. 14-16 ; Is. 34-

11), the ‘great owl’ but the Septuagint reads ibis: ‘kos’ (ib. and

Ps. 102-6) little ‘owl’ and ow] ; ‘tinshemeth’ (Lev. 11-18 ; Deut. 14-

16; Is. 34-11) is translated ‘horned owl’ in the R.V. but swan in

the A.V. ‘qippoz’ (Is. 34-15) ‘great owl’ in A.V. and ‘arrow-

snake’ in R.V. but as obviously a bird is meantthe R.V. seems

inerror here; ‘lilith’ (Is. 34-14) in A.V. ‘ screech-owl’ becomes

‘nightmonster’ in R.V. asin margin of A.V. Lilith is a fabulous

monster, hairy and very fond of attacking infants, often appearing

in female shape. Owls are very common in Palestine. <Athene glaux,

the ‘bomeh’, is very tame and a great favourite, Otus ascalaphus,

étec.

Peacocks. —Mentioned in I. K. 10-22, 2 Chr. 9-21.

Once every year came the navy of Tarshish bringing gold and silver,

ivory and apes and peacocks.

The word is ‘ tukkiyyim ’ and as the bird was not indigenous but

imported the name is considered to be a corruption of the Tamil

word for this bird, ‘tokei’. The passage in Job 39-13 has ostrich

in R.V. for the peacock of A.V., the 'Hebrew word being

‘renanim ’.

Pelican.—See Cormorant.

tats

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY WNATUCRAL HIST). SOCIETY. Vols2eodn

Porcupine.—See Bittern.

Raven.—It was an unclean bird (Lev. 11-15; Deut. 14-14) and no

doubt is not always distinguished from crows inthe Bible. They

are common in Palestine. The Hebrew word ‘oreb’ (Ar. Ghurab)

comes from a root meaning ‘tobe black’, and hence includes all

corvidae.

Sea-mew.—See Cuckow.

Speckled bird of prey.—This occurs in Jer. 12-9. The passage is:

Is mine heritage unto meas a speckled bird of prey?

Are the birds of prey against her round about ?

It is not very clear what is meant except that birds of prey are

inimical.

Stork.—The stork is among the unclean birds, but the crane is

not (Lev. 11-19; Deut. 14-18, Job 39-13; Ps. 104-17; Jer. 8-7; Zac.

5-9). The Hebrew word is‘ chasidah’ meaning ‘loving kindness.

It is a useful bird in clearing caterpillars and locusts off the field ’,

and is much prized in consequence, and nicknamed by the Arabs

‘Am Said’ or the ‘ Father of goodluck’. It was hence sacred and

is perhaps, therefore, mentioned to preserve it. The white stork

(Cicona alba) is the commonest though the black variety (C. x¢gra)

occurs.

Sparrow.—The word translated sparrow is‘tsippor’ (Ps. 84-3 ;

102-7—fow] in A. V.) which means only a small twittering bird (Ar.

asfar ( j)20!)). Small birds are not really distinguished and it is not

possible to say what bird is actually intended. The ‘sparrow on

the house top’ (Ps. 102-7) is possibly the Petrocossyphus cyanea,

which is very common, its monotonous note being heard everywhere. |

Swallow.—The Hebrew word ‘deror’ is rightly translated

swallow. See Crane. Many varieties are met with, A. rustica,

C. urbica, Cotyle rupestris, etc. Bee-eaters are possibly indicated by

the same word.

Swan.—This bird has vanished from the R.V. in Lev. 11-18 and

Deut. 14-16, and becomes ‘horned owl’ (‘tinshemeth’). But

probably the Ibis is meant or a coot ; the vulgate has ‘porphyrio’.

Before we leave the birds I wouid draw the attention of readers

to the great beauty of many of the passages in which the birds occur.

But it is essential, if their real beauty is to be seen, that they should

be read in the R. V., or better still in Professor Moulton’s ‘ Modern

Readers Bible’.

It is probable that no worse edited book ever issued from a press

than our Authorized Version, and itis a remarkable proof of our

unquestioning acceptance of the established, that for some three

hundred years we made no attempt to improve the form in which

the greatest treasure of the English language was placed before us.

As has been remarked, if Shakespeare, Bacon, Milton, Hallam, and

Tennyson were issued under one cover, no distinction being made

between prose and poetry, all tities being excised, the names of all

speakers omitted, speeches divided in the middle and sentences cut

up into a convenient length for a certain width of column, and the

chapters formed of an equal number of obtrusively numbered

verses, irrespective of sense or subject, such a work would scarcely

be an exaggeration of our Authorized Version, The Revised

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 567

Version, much as it leaves to be desired, is a great improvement ;

especially in the distinction made between prose and verse. But to

continue our subject.

These nomad open-air dwelling authors could scarcely have failed

to be influenced by the poetry of bird life, and so we find it.

In that wonderful song of Moses in the 32nd Chapter of Deutero-

nomy which begins :

Give ear, ye heavens, and I will speak ;

And let the earth hear the words of my mouth ;

My doctrine shall drop as the rain,

My speech shall distil as the dew,

As the small rain upon the tender grass,

And as the showers upon the herb.

and then he continues

For the Lord’s portion is his people ;

Jacob is the rock of his inheritance ;

He found him in a desert land,

And in the waste howling wilderness ;

He compassed him about, he cared for him,

He kept him as the apple of his eye ;

As the eagle that stirreth up her nest,

That fluttereth over her young,

He spread abroad his wings, he took them,

He bare them on his pinions ;

In the Song of Songs, that greatest of epithalamia, bird passages

are frequent; but to get the full sense of this dramatic poem the

speakers need to be indicated: the Bridegroom, the Bride, the King

and the Choruses. In the second phase, in which the Bride is recit-

ing the joys of courtship, we get a lovely spring song.

The Bride :

The voice of my beloved! Behold he cometh

Leaping upon the mountains

Skipping upon the hills.

My beloved is like a roe or a young hart

Behold he standeth behind our wall,

He looketh in at the windows

He sheweth himself through the lattice.

My beloved spake, and said unto me:

‘Rise up, my love, my fair one,

And come away.

For, lo, the winter is passed

The rain is over and gone

The flowers appear on the earth

The time of the singing birds is come,

And the voice of the turtle is heard in our land ;

The fig tree ripeneth her green figs,

And the vines are in blossom

They give forth their fragrance

Arise, my love, my fair one

And come away.

Oh my dove that art in the clefts of the rock,

In the covert of the steep place,

Let me see thy countenance,

Let me hear thy voice

For sweet is thy voice,

And thy countenance is comely.

One is tempted to quote for ever and it should all be read, but iead

intelligently.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXL

In the Psalms, bird passages are many. We may take one instance ;

Ps. 91:

For he shall deliver thee from the snare of the fowler,

And from the noisome pestilence,

He shall cover thee with his pinions

And under his wings shalt thou take refuge :

and again in Isaiah, who often uses bird metaphors:

75. S*

Ah! theland of the rustling of wings

Which is beyond the rivers of Ethiopia ;

That sendeth ambassadors by the sea,

Even in vessels of papyrus upon the waters.

In Jeremiah. 4-23-26; in describing his vision of the destruction

of the earth, he cries :

I beheld the earth, and, lo, it was waste and void ; and the heavens and

they had no light. I beheld the mountains, and, lo, they trembled, and

all the hills moved to and fro. I beheld, and, lo, there was no man, and

all the birds of the heaven were fled. I beheld, and, lo, the fruitful field

was a wilderness, and all the cities thereof were broken down at the

presence of the Lord, and before his fierce anger.

One more passage and I must leave itto my readers to search for

themselves.

I will end with David’s lament for Saul and Jonathan:

1 Sam. 31-19:

Thy glory, O, Israel.

Is slain upon thy high eet 9

How are the mighty.

Fallen !

Tell it not in Gath,

Publish it not in the streets of Ashkelon ;

Lest the daughters of the Philistines rejoice,

Lest the daughters of the uncircumcized triumph.

Ye mountains of Gilboa, let there be no dew nor rain upon you,

Neither fields of offerings :

For the shield of the mighty was vilely cast away.

The shield of Saul, as of one not anointed with oils.

From the blood of the slain

From the feet of the mighty,

The bow of Jonathan turned not back,

And the sword of Saul returned not empty.

Saul and Jonathan were lovely and pleasant in their lives,

And in their death they were not divided

They were swifter than eagles

They were stronger than lions,

Ye daughters of Israel :

Weep over Saul,

Who clothed you in scarlet delicately

Who put ornaments of gold upon your apparel

How are the mighty.

Fallen in the midst of the battle

O, Jonathan,

Slain upon thy high places

Iam distressed for thee, my brother Jonathan

Very pleasant hast thou been unto me

Thy love tome was wonderful,

Passing the love of women.

How are the mighty.

Fallen !

And the weapons of war

Perished.

ORNITHOLOGY IN THE BIBLE 569

So whatever the technical imperfections of the translation we

should be thankful to the good fortune that gave us our Bible in the

age of Shakespeare and remember the words of Jesus, the son of

Sirach :—

‘Ye are entreated therefore to read with favour and attention, and

to pardon us if in any part of what wehave laboured to interpret we

may seem to have failed in some of the phrases. For things originally

spoken in the Hebrew have not the same force in them when they are

translated into another tongue.’

REFERENCES (REVISED VERSION)

GENERAL.—Watural History of the Bible. H. B. Tristram. Hebrew,

CoNCORDANCE—By G.M. Wigram. Dictzonary of the Bible.

BIRD, off : Gen. 1-21; 7-8, 14, etc.; Lev. 17-13; 20-25, etc.; Ps.

50-11, etc. (in general use).

ayit: Gen. 15-11; Is. 18-6; Job 28-7; Ez. 39-4.

UStppor 4 rene, ile y to=107; Wz, 17-23; Ps. 8-8; 11-1 (and

many other places).

baal kanaph: Gen. 1-21; 7-14; Ps. 78-27; 148-10; Job 39-13

(and many other places).

BITTERN (See: Porcupine): Is. 14-23; 34-11; Zep. 2-14. [so in

ALY. Only, |

CaGE: Jer. 5-27 (better ‘ trap ’).

Cocks (N. T. only): Mt. 26-34, 74,75; Mk. 13-35; 14-30, 68, 72;

Lk. 12-34, 60,61; Job 13-38, 18-27.

CORMORANT, shala@kh: Lev. 11-17; Deut. 14-17; Is. 34-11; Zep.

2-14 (see Pelican).

CRANE, agur: Is. 38-14; Jer. 8-7.

Crow (See Raven): Baruch 6-54.

Cuckow (See Sea-mew).

DovE AND TURTLE-DOVE, youdh: tor: gozal: Gen. 8-8, 9, 11;

Oa Slos9 eves I-i4 = 75-7, 11 < 12-6;, 8+ 14-22:, 30):

15-14, 29; 12-6; 14-22; Num. 6-10; Ps. 55-6; 68-13;

44-19'> Cant.” 1-15); 2-12) 14 ;-4-1 ; 5-2::12; 6-9: Ts.

38-14 ; 59-1] ;-60-8; Ez. 7-16; Nah. 2-7; Jer. 8-7;

48-28; Kos. 7-11; 11-11; Mat. 3-16; 10-16; 21-12;

Mack. 1-10) 2-24 + 3-22 In, Se 42-148 16;

EAGLE, nesher: Ex, 19-4; Lev. 11-13; Deut. 14-12; 28-49;

b2-4ks 2 Sam, 1-23 Job,)..9:26; 39-27 > Ps. .103-5:

Prov. 23-5; 30-17, 19; Is. 40-31; Jer. 4-13; 48-40 ;

49-16, 22; Lam. 4-19; Ez. 1-10; 10-14; 17-3, 7; Dan.

4-33; 7-4; Kos. 8-1; Obads 4; Mic. 1-16; Hab. 1-8;

Mat. 24-28; Lk. 17-37: Rev. 4-7; 12-14.

FALCON, ayyah (kite in A.V.): Lev. 11-14; Deut. 14-13; Job 28-17

(Vulture in A.V.)

Patrnp Fow. (Goose or Duck): 1. K. 22.

Fowc (See Birds).

HOWEER : Ps: 91-3; 124-7; . Prov. 6-5; Jer. 5-26; Hos. 9-8.

GIER-EAGLE, feres (Ossifrage in A. V.): Lev. 11-13; Deut. 14-12.

GLEDE, vahah: Deut. 14-13.

Hawk, Lev. 11-16; Deut. 14-15.

Hen: Mt. 23-37; Lk. 13-34.

570 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

HERON, anaphah: Lev. 11-19; Deut. 14-18.

Hoopok (Lapwing in A.V.): Lev. 11-19; Deut. 14-18.

HUNTING (See article): Lev. 11-19; Deut. 14-18: 1 Sam. 26-20,

Isis (See Owl).

KiTE, da-ah: Lev. 11-14; dayyah: Deut. 14-13.

Lapwinc: (A. V.) (See Hoopoe).

Nest: Gen. 6-143 Num. 24-21; Deut. 22:6 7732-19; Job i29-tee

32-27; Ps. 84-3; 104-175 Prov. 27-8. eleo) 101A

16-2; 34-15; Jer. 22-25; 42-28; 49-16; Ez. 31-6,

10-9.; (Ob.-4 : Hab. 2-9; Mat. 78220 -k 29°58:

Net (See Snares and Hunting).

NIGHT-HAWK, tachmas» Lev. 11-16; Deut. 14-15.

OSPREY, dzniyyah: Lev. 11-13; Deut. 14-12.

OSSIFRAGE (See Gier-eagle).

OstricH, bathya-anadh: Lev. 11-16; Deut. 14-15; Job 30-29; Is.

13-21; 34-13; 43-21; Jer. 50-39 ;° Micah 1-8; a-Aae

has owl.) ye-entm; La. 4-3; veanim: Job 39-13) A.

V. has peacock).

OwL, 4os: Lev. 11-17; Deut. 14-16; Ps. 102-6.

guippoz: Is. 34-15. [Great Owl in A.V.] Arrow-snake of

R.V. must be a bird.

tinshemeth : Lev. 11-18; Deut. 14-16. [Swanin A.V., horned

owl in R.V.]

liltih. is. 34-14 | Screech owl vot “AsV. |. an RV ice ndcann

Tonster.

gansuph: Lev. 11-17;. Deut. 14-16. In Is: 34-11 is) prez

bably the Ibis.

PEACOCK, 7Zkeiyy77- 1s Ke L022 47 AG. 29-2 15

PARTRIDGE, gove: Is. 26-20; Jer. 17-11; Sam. 26-20; Eccus.. 11-30;

PELICAN, gd-ath: Lev. 11-18; Deut. 14-17; Ps. 102-6; Is. 34-11]

Zep. 2-14.

PORCUPINE, gzppod (Bittern of A.V.): Is. 14-23; 24-11; Zep. 2-14.

QuallL, selar: Ex. 16-13; Num. 11-31; Ps. 106-409.

RAVEN, oveb: Gen. 8-7; Lev. 11-15; Deut. 14-14; I K. 17-4, 6;

Job 38-41; Ps. 147-9" Prov. 30-17 ;:°Cant. 5-10eaaise

34-11; Lk. 12-24.

SEA-MEW, shachaph: Lev. 11-18; Deut. 14-15.

SNARES (See Hunting): Ps. 91-3 ; 124-7; Prov. 7-23; Eccus. 9-12;

Hos. 9-8; Amos 3-5.

SPARROW, ¢észppor (any twittering bird): Lev. 14-4; Ps. 84-3;

102-7. > Mat? 1029:; Wks 12-6;

SPECKLED FOWL: Gen. 12-9.

STORK, chasidah: Lev. 11-19; Deut. 14-18; Job 39-13.

light of Ps, MOIA Ss wer. (38-7 | Zac. oes}

SWALLOW, devor: Ps. 84-3; Prov. 262: Is. 38-14; Jer. 8-7; "see

Crane).

SWAN, ¢znshemeth (See Ow] and Ibis): Lev. 11-18; Deut. 14-16.

TURTLEDOVE, tor: Gen. 15-9, Lev. 1-14; 5-7; 11; 12-6, 8; 14-22,

30;- 15-14, 29; Num. 6-10; Ps. 74-19: Cant; (2202s

Jer, 8-7; Lk. 2-24.

VULTURE, vacham: Lev. 11-18; Deut. 14-17.

REVIEWS

1. ‘STALKING BIG GAME WITH A CAMERA IN EQUATORIAL AFRICA

with a Monograph on the African Elephant.’ By Marius Maxwell. Royal

quarto, 200 pp., 113 plates—London: William Heinemann, Ltd. 1925., Price,

ozs. 62. net.

Mr. Maxwell has done yeoman service in the cause of the Natural History of

our larger game animals, and his book is virtually a plea for the protection

of wild life from ruthless and wanton destruction and from the complete exter-

mination with which a number of interesting forms are threatened in many

parts of the African continent.

The modern camera as a weapon for hunting game is fast gaining in popu-

larity with sportsmen all the world over, and this form of sport is one which

certainly deserves all possible encouragement. We hope the day is not far off

when it may supersede and completely replace the destructive rifle.

As the author points out, big game photography is an exhilerating sport and

provides just as much healthy recreation—and we may add, after a perusal of

his experiences, EXCITEMENT-—-somewhat more than the average sportsman

bargains for—as the hunting of game with a rifles Endless opportunities are at

the same time presented to the observer who wishes to study at first hand the

peculiarities of the larger creatures of the wilds commonly classed as dangerous,

Much useful knowledge may be gleaned by the naturalist regarding the ways

and habits of animals from photographs taken in their native surroundings and

under perfectly natural conditions, and to the modern artist, sculptor and

taxidermist such representations are invaluable for an accurate and truthful

portrayal of his subject.

The major part of the book deals in a facile and lucid manner with the

African elephant,—his ways, habits, gait, temperament and idiosyncracies.

Chapter V on the Senses of the African Elephant is particularly thorough and

illuminating and speaks much forthe care and attention bestowed by the

observer on the behaviour of his subject under varying conditions and circum-

stances, often extremely trying and tncomfortable. Supported as _ these

observations are by aseries of the finest photographs ever obtained of the

pachyderm, they supply the most valuable first-hand knowledge we possess

of these fast disappearing giants.

Excellent as have been the efforts of previous big game photographers, it

is significant that neither Carl Schillings nor Radclyffe Dugmore appear to

have been fortunate enough to succeed in photographing the African Elephant,

probably on account of the nature of the country the animal frequents. Schill-

ings with his telephoto outfit fully appreciated the difficulties involved, and

indeed it is only the modern photographic apparatus equipped with the

fastest of lenses that makes success possible in the gloomy ill-lit recesses of the

bush country which is their home in daytime. Dugmore, moreover, chiefly

employed fairly high power telephoto lenses which are wholly unsuited for

instantaneous work in indifferent light. It is interesting to note that Mr.

Maxwell advocates ordinary 3°5 to 4°5 (or faster) lenses with a focal length of

6 to 10 inches, such as he himself used, his plan being to stalk up carefully

as close to his sitters as possible. He believes that real success with elephants

lies only in the use of ordinary lenses at short range, as under the prevailing

conditions these give more detailed and faithtul results that can be obtained

from even telephoto lenses of low power. Maxwell’s views as regards a

suitable camera are apparently very different from Dugmore’s who fourteen years

ago (Camera Adventures in the African Wilds), considered that ‘ The ordinary

little hand camera with its short focus lens is practically useless. Only once

in a great while can one approach near enough to use it.’ According to

Dugmore the sort of camera necessary for the work is one of the long focus

reflex type ‘equipped with a convertible lens of high speed and a telephoto

lens of the greatest speed. The camera must be rigid enough to allow the

telephoto lens being used without danger of shaking.’

While acknowledging that both Schilling’s and Dugmore’s photographs are

unique in their own way, and the latter’s especially, as a whole, much

sharper and better as photographs, it must be remembered that Maxwell’s

object in making his pictures was of a more specific nature. He deplored the

$72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 2g

absence of photogiaphic illustrations in the epoch-making works of Selous and

Neumann, and set himself out to fillthe gap in the photographic records of the

larger game animals of Africa by securing a series of photographs illustrating

the life and habits of the African elephant in his native haunts, zot by using

such devices as camera-shelters, perches, flashlight or any other artificial means,

but by stalking the animals and portraying them exactly as they are seen by

the hunter of big game. The measure of his success can be readily gauged by

any one who glances over his wonderful array of photographs.

The photographer’s intrepidity leaves one agape. His experiences are

recorded in a simple matter-of-fact manner and without garnish or exaggeration

of the danger involved. In fact; the whole trend of Mr. Maxwell’s writings is

towards proving that the ferocity and truculence usually ascribed to even such

admittedly dangerous creatures as the African buffalo are often much overdone,

and that the natural tendency of wild animals is to leave man severely alone.

His opinion about the disposition of the African elephant is that as a general

rule, when not under severe provocation, heisa patient, retiring and even-

tempered beast and by no means as savage as heis usually depicted. He

admits however that ‘ Face to face meetings are at all times nasty incidents and

particularly speculative at close quarters.’ We like Mr. Maxwell’s prescription

of how to avoid the fury of a stampeding herd, and the advice is simple enough ;

it would appear that the elephant accommodatingly possesses an instinctive

aptitude for avoiding obstacles even in astampede. Well, the thing to do the

next time you find aherd bearing down on you isto stand behind the first

thorn tree of average size you come across, restrain your natura! inclination to

bolt, quietly watch the rampaging monsters brushing past with intermittent

deafening shrieks and shrill trumpetings, and safety is yours! Unfortunately,

however, ‘ There are of course exceptions to every rule’ !

One of the most remarkable pictures in the book, plate 5, Chapter III,.is of a

magnificent Masai bul! elephant taken at a distance of approximately eight yards

and under conditions that call forspecial mention. A face to face encounter

with the African elephant growing in size at each advancing stride must be one

of the finest and most impressive sights in nature, and, as the author says, ‘ To

watch for the first time the reflected image of an advancing elephant with ears

extended growing larger and larger on the focussing glass of a reflex camera is

perhaps the strangest of possible experiences, and one that is not easily forgot-

ten by the enthusiastic photographer.’ This particular bull, on detecting the

presence of the cameraman, deliberately moved forward towards him and

when some eight yards from the lens suddenly stopped. Life and death hung in

the balance. Suspense followed the click of the shutter. An eddy in the

wind-currents might have changed the course of events and sent the animal

either thundering down onthe intruder orcrashing through the bushin his

haste to get away !

The chapters on Giraffe, Rhinoceros and Hippopotamus are excellent, and

supported by a number of wonderful] photographs. [t is obvious that skilful

tactics are required to stalk long-sighted giraffes in the open bush country

which forms their usual habitat. The author has been able to secure a unique

series depicting the gait of the animal over whichthere has been some contro-

versy. His modus operandi wasto pursue the animals in a Ford Car and to

photograph them at close range with a short focus lens. Incidentally it is

interesting to learn that fora distance of a couple of miles or so when driven

to his utmost, 2 giraffe will keep up a speed of between 28 to 30 miles per hour

and that even at this speed they appear to glide along without effort.

The most remarkable achievement with rhino, in our opinion, was when the

author obtained four snapshcts in succession of a charging rhino in various

stages of the assault. The charge commenced at a distance of thirty yards,

when the first picture was taken. Three others were subsequently obtained as

the animal came on and was turned by a head shot from his companion’s rifle,

which covered the entire proceedings, and as the animal turned again and again

to repeat the attack on its aggressors. Any one who has used a reflex camera

will realize what a difficult proposition it is to change films, reset the shutter

and make exposures in the face of such an onslaught and in circumstances

which cannot but be exceedingly critical and trying.

The only grouse we have against Mr. Maxwell is that he omits to tell us what

make of film packs he was using. In view of the excellent results he has

obtained we think it was in fairness due to the makers of the film and to other

REVIEWS 573

enthusiastic photographers, whom the book may tempt to follow his lead, to

divulge this very important secret of his success.

We cannot too strongly recommend every sportsman and naturalist to

possess a copy of this book which will, we confidently believe, stand in a class

by itself for many a long day.

Sisters

2. POPULAR ZOOLOGY (in Marathi). By Vishnu Narayan Gokhale, B.ag.

B.Sc. (Lecturer, Agricultural College, Poona) and Vasude, Ganesh Desh-

pande, B.Ag. (Lecturer, Agricultural College, Poona).

Teachers of Nature Study in the Marathi-speaking areas of the Bombay

Presidency will welcome this volume. It deals thoroughly with animals of

various types in language easily understood by schoolchildren. The printing is

good. The drawings are numerous and excellent, and the size and price of the

book are moderate. The authors are two of the junior staff of the Poona

College of Agriculture and are to be congratulated on their very useful con-

tribution to vernacular scientific literature. We trust that the book will have

a large sale in the Marathi-speaking areas.

WB:

3. ‘A BIRD BOOK FOR THE POCKET.’ By Edmund Sandars. (Oxford

University Press. 7s. 6d. net.)

The little book that lies before us is of no importance from the point of view of

scientific ornithology. The author in his preface admits the fact and expressly

states that he does net claim to have added to existing knowledge. Hehas

merely tried to make a handy pocket book in which a resumé of the chief facts in

the life history of the ordinary British Birds is accompanied by ‘a just picture of

their beutiful forms and colouring’. We have therefore to judge the author's

book merely in the light of the success with which he has attained his own

objective. The illustrations are certainly no just picture of beauty of form or

colouring. With scarcely an exception theshape, attitude and drawing of the

birds is faulty while the colouring is crude and poorly reproduced.

The text is rather better. The short space of halfa page allotted to most

species is used to the best advantage with short crisp word pictures of the salient

features of the bird’s life, habits and characteristics. ‘hese are well expressed

and accurate, though they tend to become mechanical] and do not rise to special

cases. For instance neither illustration nor text would help a beginner to diffe:

rentiate between Willow-Wren and Chiffchaff except by their songs. Ten pages

are given to a general introduction which describes briefly the leading

characteristics of birds. This is helpful though it is dishgured by mistakes. For

instance under the head of moult, curriency is given to the mistaken belief in

change of colour without a moult by a change of pigment in feathers ; while the

statement that a stock-dove usually makes a hole in which to build its nest, and

that the ‘ the Bearded Tit and the Game Birds are scratchers of the grcund’ are

samples of inaccuracies that spoil the introduction.

Finally there isa general chapter ov eggs with indifferent coloured illustrations

of a few general types. The index omits the scientific names but gives English

and local names and a glossary of such words as seem to need explanation.

~The idea and design of the book are very useful, but the execution might well

have been improved upon.

H.W.

4. ‘TIGER AND OTHER GAME’ By Cot. A. E, STEWART. London:

Longmans, Green & Co. Ltd., 1927.

An excellent book. This and Dunbar Brander’s are the two best books I

have read. The wav in which the book has been written and the variety

of information and advice given by the author makes the work one of the

most useful a novice on shikar could have. Col. Stewart devotes Chapter

I to what he calls ‘ Preliminaries’ and in this very sound advice is given

on points of etiquette and politeness in correspondence with Government

Officials on the proposed shoot and in dealings with the local Forest Officers

and village Headmen, etc. The first portion of Chapter II also deals with

this, and excellent advice is given on the proper way of treating a jungle

574 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

native, and the author is quite correct in saying that it is here that

many soldier shikaries fail badly. The author has taken great pains

to explain the whole procedure and methods to be adopted in beating for tiger

and in sitting up for them. I notice that Col. Stewart takes an opposite view to

Geveral Wardrop with regard to following up wounded tiger. Col. Stewart

considers that atracker or two should go in front covered by the sportsman

with his rifle at the ready; General Wardrop holds that the sportsman should

be the one to goin front. I entirely side with Col. Stewart in this matter and

agree with his methods. In his chapter on sitting up for tiger the author writes

that a tiger when hit, if not knocked out, will usually charge in the direction he

is facing and that a sportsman must have a clear view and steady aim if firing

at a tiger facing him. As the book has been written, I take it, principally as

a guide to inexperienced shikaries I think perhaps that the author might have

said that on no account should a young shikari fire at a tiger facing him, but

that he should get his sight on to him and wait till he starts to move off before

firing. \tis hardly likely that a novice ona tiger shoot would be absolutely

steady in his aim, perhaps seeing his first tiger facing him, and a frontal shot in

this case might be disastrous. I am glad that Col. Stewart is not one of those

who absolutely ban the use of electric light when sitting up at night over a kill.

In many parts of India, especially in the South, and where beating is impracti-

cable, the use of artificial light is absolutely necessary.

Referring to the Sloth Bear the author remarks that it isa poor climber.

Though I have never heard of a man being dragged out of atree by a Sloth

Bear I should hardly describe it as a poorclimber. On the contrary I should

say that the Sloth Bear is an exceedingly good climber and the height they

will climb up a tree for figs and fruit is amazing.

Dealing with Bison the author writes that a tiger will think twice before he

will tackle a Bison. I should say Au/l Bison for | have known several cases of

cows being killed, and three cases of Solitary Bulls being killed by Tiger, but

I must admit that atiger that can tackle and kill a Solitary Bull must bea

large and powerful specimen.

I read the author’s paragraph on sitting up over a wallow for observation with

interest and pleasure, for this is what I enjoy doing exceedingly myself. If one

has a permanent machan erected on a tree over aswamp or wallow the game

get used to it and it attracts no attention whatever,

Writing on Grey Jungle Fowl the author remarks that he has never heard

them calling on the ground and that he does not think they do. He is however

quite mistaken here. Jungle Cock very often call on the ground during the

dayti:me. :

In his para on Taxidermists I think that the author’s advice would have

been better if he had said that heads and skins should be sent to the Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay, who undertake taxidermy work for its

members, the standard of this work being equal to that produced anywhere,

or to Messrs. Van Ingen and Van Ingen, or Messrs. Theobald Bros., both of

Mysore. The Bombay Natural History Society employ the very latest methods

and pay great attention to details. Living in Sontkern India I personally deal

with Messrs. Van Ingen and Van Ingen and have always found them satisfactory,

they are a most up-to-date and skilled firm, and it can be truthfuily said that

the Bombay Natural History Society and this firm turn out work equal to, if

not better than taxidermists at home. This being so I see no reason for sports-

men to send their trophies home, especially as the author admits that duty has

to be paid on the trophies if they are brought out again.

There is one excellent preservative which I see the author does not mention

for preserving skins and that is Atlas ‘S’. Ithink there is nothing like it for

putting on skins if the animal is freshly skinned, to keep them in good condition

in hot jungles. This preservative is now used by the chief taxidermists and

tanneries in India.

The author’s advice on rifles and ammunition is very sound indeed, as alsois

his advice always to have a medicine chest in camp.

The Autobiography of Skaitan Bhalu and the illustrated interviews are very

good indeed and ferm a happily thought-out ending to a book which is full of

sound advice, useful information, and interesting anecdotes written in a plain

convincing style from start to fiaish. as

_.This book should be in the library of every sportsman. ;

Re Godh ont

EDITORIAL

EAieseh ye

In- the last issue of the Journal we published the proposed new constitution

of the Society and we invited criticism and in fact printed at the end of the

Bye-laws a slip which would enable members with very little trouble to themselves

to advise the Honorary Secretary what their opinion on the subject is.

Members will no doubt be anxious to know what the general opinion is—we

are sorry to say the general op:nion of members is “You can govern the Society

as you like, personally we do not care the value of the smallest Turkish co.n.’

Apathy—is it a tribute to the Committee? There has not been a s.ngle

objection. All who have sent in their forms have approved, but ‘all 1s

unfortunately not a word here which is an embracing one. It certainly does not

embrace ‘all’ the members of the Society but embraces a minute number. The

vast majority do not care.

If this attitude of the members towards the future constitution of the Society

be an expression of confidence in the Committee, the Committee accept it. but

hardly with gratitude. They would be more grateful if members took an interest

in what was going on; without interest being taken the Society is hardly lkely

to flourish.

Anyhow the response is sufficient to enable the Committee to go forward with

the scheme and we hope by the time the next Journal is issued, to be able to

announce that the Society is a registered Society and able to hold property

and Government Paper in its own name.

The new constitution necessitates a close investigation of our invested

securities—Do our investments equal the amount paid by living life members

or are they too small or are they in excess? The Treasurer's Statement of

Accounts should be in the next Journal, and will explain the actual financial

situation of the Society better than ever before. The monies invested in,

and derived from, the publications of the Society other than the Journal, and

the income and expenditure of the Taxidermy Department will be separated

from the regular income and expenditure of the Society under which head, as

regards expenditure, will be taken expenditure which refers to every member

of the Society—the issue of the Journal and the maintenance of the Society’s

Office staff, office and library. Without wishing to anticipate the Treasurer

we can state here that our investments more than equal the amount contri-

buted by living life members.

A question arises—if there be a surplus can that surplus be applied to any

object the furtherance of which lies within the constitution of the Society, and

if so, what would be the most pressing needs of the Society?

The most pressing need is a better illustrated Journal and perhaps the

encouragement by a modest honorarium of those who write about Natural

History subjects in a manner which appeals to the general member. The

Journal must be our main recruiter and our binding link, but we want something

more and we want a good museum—a museum for the student and research

worker as well as a museum for the general public.

The arrangement the Society entered into, now several years ago, with

the Bombay Government and the Trustees of the Prince of Wales’ Museum,

Bombay, has given members of the Society vastly improved conditions on

those of old—though it was the personal care bestowed on the old museum

that laid the foundaticns and enabled the superstructure to be erected. But

no one will pretend that the existing building is suitable for a Natural History

Museum nor that the accommodation provided is anything like sufficient for

present needs. Members will be glad to know therefore that there is a

possibility of the Trustees of the Prince of Wales’ Museum being able to

provide a new building for the needs of the Natural History Museum, and

that the building, while in keeping with the noble architectural design of the

late Mr. G. Whittett, will be one designed solely for the purpose for which

it is intended to be used, namely a museum for the instruction of the public

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXil

by the display of Natural History subjects in scenery characteristic of that in

which the fauna exhibited lives and has its being. For this we shall have

to thank not only the Trustees and the Architect, but the man who went to

America and Europe and learnt what a revolution in museum methods had

taken place, and having digested what he had learnt, proceeded, after the

manner of many good mothers, to give of the digested learning to the young

around him.

The Trustees of the Prince of Wales’ Museum will however experience

difficulty in finding the money for the actual building, and the whole scheme

may be held up unless some wealthy citizen of Bombay or resident in India

comes forward with a generous donation to the building fund as did the

first Sir Currimbhoy Ebrahim, Bart., for the existing museum. The fitting

up of the museum when built must, however, be the work of the Society and

here we may find the best use for surplus investments—always provided

of course that the membership is sufficiently large to enable us to carry

on the ordinary work of the Society without needing the interest derived

from surplus investments.

Whatever this surplus may be, it will be but a drop in the ocean compared

with what we need and we record therefore with great pleasure the appointment

of Sir David Ezra, Kt., as a Vice-Patron of our Society. Sir David is a citizen

of Calcutta who has done much for the Calcutta Zoo and for the Zoological

Gardens at Regents Park. It was Sir David who provided the funds for the

despatch to Bombay of the Elephant for the London Zoo which the British

India Steam Navigation Company so kindly took home free, and Sir Ezra’s

donation of Rs. 5,000 towards the furtherance of the Society’s work is not

only opportune and needed but of good omen.

We cannot say when this new building will be available but we are already

planning habitat groups—-groups which will enable the observer to realize

what the animal, bird, insect or. reptile is like in its natural surroundings,

and we are already in possession of promises of support from members who

are able to get us suitable trophies.

We welcome, and we aid, in the cause of Natural History those who come

to India and Burma on behalf of Museums situated in countries outside the

Empire; we realize that we shall benefit by studying their methods but why— ©

why—should the British Empire be left out of it? Are we to rest content

with the fact that if we want to see a good and representative exhibit of the

fauna of the Indian Empire we must go to America to see it? It rather looks

like it. The wild fauna of a country under modern conditions has no certainty

of continual existence. In what museums are there specimens of the almost

extinct Smaller One-horned Rhinoceros (Rhinoceros sondaicus) of the

Sundarbands, Tenasserim, and the Malay Peninsula? We know of none where

mounted specimens exist but there soon will be in America, thanks to the forth-

coming expedition of Col. Faunthorpe and Mr. Vernay. We hope that someone

connected with our Museum will be able to accompany these gentlemen or

their Artist Assistants, and if so, we look forward to the publication of an

interesting account of modern methods in the collecting field.

Our editorial in the last number of the Journal on Game Preservation nee

produced a certain amount of criticism—-not as much as we should have liked

in view of the great importance of the subject. Some of the criticism has

been adverse owing to the non-realization of the fact that in making out

a case for Game Preservation it was necessary to look at the question from

all sides, and an article such as we have written would have been incomplete

without some reference to the economic or, as we said, more ‘material motives’

for the protection of Game. The plea for protection of Big Game per se would

not necessarily carry the same weight with all classes of people.

The word ‘Game’ as considered in the framing of laws does not limit itself

to the class of animals usually sought after by the shikari but includes wild

life as a whole and would include the smaller carnivora which are hunted

and trapped for furs and which would equally require protection if they are

at all to be considered as an economic asset and they are seriously so considered

in other parts of the world but always in regions where they do not clash with

agricultural interests. We have stressed this point in our article where we

definitely state that the plea for protection cannot carry weight in urban lands

and cultivated areas. Our whole plea for protection is concentrated on waste

lands and in forest areas, where the interests of man are not brought into

See POOL LE DLO IAL. . 7 877

conflict with the wild species and there are sufficiently large areas in India

where these conditions prevail, which areas provide for the present the

strongest guarantee against the extermination of wild life. The article was

based mainly on correspondence received from members of the Society and

was hence restricted in the main to such provinces from which information was

available. We do not for a moment claim that it covers the question

completely or is free from defects, but its purpose is to rouse interest and

draw attention to a question which should be the concern of a Society such

as ours. .

We welcome all sane efforts to preserve the wild fauna of a country and in

our next issue we shall refer once more to the work of the Society for the

Preservation of the Fauna of the Empire with whom we intend affiliating.

In the present issue of the Journal we publish a review of Marius Maxwell’s

Book Stalking Big Game with a Camera in Equatorial Africa. A prospectus

of Mr. Maxwell’s book was forwarded to members with the October issue

of the Journal and in the present number we have the pleasure of giving

our readers a closer acquaintance with the author through the medium of

his very interesting paper on ‘The Home of the Eastern Gorilla’. Those who

have seen Mr. Maxwell!’s book or have the good fortune to possess a copy, will

realize that his magnificent series of portraits of African animal life require

no commendation from us. The astonishing success achieved by the author

led us to hope that someone would write the story of the Indian jungle as it

never has been written before, in pictures of equal beauty and merit. Mr. F.

W. Champion’s book With a Camera in Tiger-Land fulfils this hope.

Mr. Champion has done for India what Marius Maxwell, Dugmore, Schillin,ss

and others have done for Africa. He gives us intimate pictures of Indian

animals in a setting which carries with it the spirit of the Indian jungle more

effectively than pages of the printed word could have done. To those who love

the Indan jungles—be they those to whom its sights and sounds are now but

a happy memory or be they those who can still answer its call—we~ most

heartily commend Mr. Maxwell’s book and to the lucky latter we would-add

‘Go thou and do likewise’. The camera is increasingly becoming a

competitor to the rifle in the hunting of game. Hunting with a camera

has been rightly described as the expression of sport in its highest form.

It requires all the qualities of hardihood, of daring and resourcefulness, of

patient endurance and unflinching determination which are demanded from

the ordinary hunter. Five years of continuous effort, Mr. Champion admits,

have failed to produce for him a satisfactory picture of so common an animal

as the Indian Sambhar although he has stalked to within a few yards of these

magnificent creatures and could have shot a score of them in the same time.

Hunting with the camera does not have destruction as its aim; it offers instead

endless opportunities for the study, and enjoyable observation of wild life. It

is no part of the camera hunter’s business to frighten and disturb his quarry,

and the trophies he obtains are far more interesting than any that could have

fallen to his gun. The value and importance of his work in the faithful

portraiture of animal life in its natural setting must increase as the inexorable

march of civilization threatens, and will increasingly continue to threaten, wild

life even in its uttermost retreat.

It is but too readily apparent, even to one only casually interested in the

bird life of this country, how infinitismal is our present knowledge of

Bird migration in India and how negligible have been our endeavours so far

to further it, as compared with the efforts being made and the results achieved

in Europe and America. No systematic effort has so far been made towards

acquiring first-hand information regarding the movements of the hundreds of

species that visit us year after year, the influx commencing about September-

October and the exodus in March-April.

Individual observation is solely responsible for what little has been attained.

Such observation deserves every encouragement and, in spite of the difficulties

and shortcomings it presents, it is a mistake to underrate the value of such

information obtained by careful study. An accurate record of the appearance

and disappearance of a given species in any particular locality is manifestly

of great value especially if the records for that locality extended over a number

of seasons. By a systematic co-ordination of frequent and accurate notes of

this nature it is often possible to learn something of the movements of

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX1]

migratory birds even though it is but very occasionally possible to see anything

of the migration in progress, and, unless it be on some isolated island on the

route taken by birds, preferably with a lighthouse, as for instance Heligoland

er Fair Isle (between the Orkney and Shetland group) it is extremely difficult

for individual observation to obtain direct evidence of migration; on the main

land, with its large and varied native population of birds, such a method can

at best yield very patchy results.

_ As distinct from the purely observational methods of study, which can clearly

be pursued only by a very few observers who are fortunate enough to be

stationed in favourable localities, there is the modern method of bird-marking.

The ‘ringing’ of birds consists of the fastening of a light aluminium ring of

appropriate size bearing a stamped number and address, on the instep region

or ‘shanks’ of trapped or netted birds. The birds are then released.

A small percentage of these ‘ringed’ birds are afterwards shot or recaptured

in distant parts of the globe and the rings are returned to the marking station

with data as to the exact locality and date of capture. When a _ large

number of such records have been collected and correlated, it is poss: ‘ble

gradually to build up knowledge of the routes followed in migration, and a

number of other important facts also which could not have been ascertained by

other means.

As an instance it may be cited that rings put on Storks in North Germany

have been returned from Damascus, Alexandria, the Blue Nine, the Kalahari

Desert, Basutoland and elsewhere, so that Dr. Thienemann, the Director of

the German Ornithological Society’ s* observation station at Rossitten on the

Baltic Coast (E. Prussia), was able to conclude definitely that there is an

autumnal migration of Storks from the shores of the Baltic to South Africa.

Some of the main problems whose solution we in India may in course of

time look for to this method of marking are :—

(1) To what extent do our migrants return to their birthplaces to breed

and under what circumstances are new areas colonized?

(2) Do birds take up definite quarters when visiting this country, and

if so, do they seek the same year after year?

(3) To what extent do the birds of a single species occupying the same

area during their winter visit, seek the same area for breeding in the northern

part of thelr range?

(4) Are definite routes followed by birds, and if so what are they, and

what is the nature of such routes (i.e. course of a river, etc.).

There are besides a great many other questions that need answering, and little

can be achieved unless there is a general realization of the fact that our knowledge

on any of the above heads is “practically nil, and unless a properly organized

and systematic effort is made on an extensive scale for the capture, marking

and release of our migrants throughout the country. It will be recalled that

possibly the only experiment of this kind in India was carried out early

in 1926 by the late Maharaja of Dhar, an ardent sportsman and naturalist.

The results of this experiment were published in the Journal (p. 1034 of

vol. xxxi) and a further recovery—the most interesting of the lot—was

recorded on p. 222 of vol. xxxii. The results must be regarded as highly

gratifying and indicate the scope and utility of the ringing method.

The Society proposes shortly (provided sufficient encouragement is forth-

coming) to launch on a campaign of bird marking, and we trust that all bird

lovers and members who have opportunities will come forward and co-operate

with us whole-heartedly. We propose to issue to members on request at a

nominal cost, aluminium stamped rings bearing a number and the Society’s

address, to be fastened round the legs of birds. Perhaps a beginning could

conveniently be made. with waterfowl.

Along with the rings, a schedule will be supplied to the member on which

data about all birds marked will have to be filled in by him such as (1) number

on ring, (2) species of bird, (3) date of marking and release, (4) locality of

marking and release and (5) sex and other remarks.

The completed schedules when returned to us will be posted up in a

special ledger. Any recoveries recorded will be entered up, and the marker

immediately informed.

We look to our sporting princes, District Officers and other members who

may be favourably stationed to co-operate in building up the much-needed

knowledge regarding the movements of our birds. All interested in the scheme

EDITORIAL 579

are cordially invited to communicate with the Honorary Secretary. Though

the time is short let us hope a few thousand birds will have been ringed before

the exodus commences in March and April.

We hope the present issue of the Journal will be appreciated but we have

misgivings as to the future. We have very little reserve matter beyond a

continuation of the interesting papers on Kashmir contributed by that veteran

naturalist Col. Ward. Members have never let us down in the past and we

appeal to them not to do so now.

We must congratulate our printers on the settlement of the industrial

troubles they have been going through, and we hope that the year 1928 will

witness the Journal issued with more regularity than it has been in 1927,

OBITUARY

CHARLES ECKFORD LUARD

With deep regret we record the death of Lt.-Col. C. E. Luard,

C.I.E., at his residence, ‘ Woodsend ’, Boars Hill, Oxford.

Lt.-Col. Luard, a son of the late Col. C. H. Luard, R.E., was educat-

ed at Marlborough and Christ Church, Oxford. Hecame out to India

in 1892 and after six years of service with the 8th Gurkhas was trans-

ferred to the Political Department as an assistant to the Agent to the

Governor-General in Central India. The major portion of his service

was spent in the Central Indian States and his long official connection

and close study of these States made him perhaps the foremost

authority of our times on this important group of Indian States.

Although more of a‘ Savant’ thana ‘ Political’ Col. Luard was

esteemed and respected by all those he came in contact with both in

his official and private capacity. He gained the warm regard of the

ruling princes and was quite as popular with his European colleagues.

Col. Luard wrote the Azstory of the States in Central India and

also compiled a valuable bibliography of that history. ‘The poriion

of the J/uzperial Gazetteer dealing with Central India was prepared

by him ; while his recognized intimacy with the history, people and

rulers of Central India led him to be deputed on three successive ~

occasions, viz., 1901, 1911 and 1921 to prepare the decennial census

reports. Col. Luard joined the Society in 1905 and was a frequent

contributor to the pages of its journal. In the present issue of the

Journal we publish the last of the contributions received from his

pen—‘ The Ornithology of the Bible’. Cther articles by him of a

Similar nature, ‘Deer Hunting in Shakespeare’s Day’ and

‘Shakespeare onthe Noble Art of Hawking ’ reveal his leaning

towards this rather fascinating line of research.

Col. Luard, who was made a C.1.E. in 1923, married in 1903

Alice Margaret, daughter of Mr. James Todd of Aberdeen and

leaves two sons and a daughter.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—READERS’ VIEWS ON ‘GAME PRESERVATION

IN INDIA’

You have started a discussion in vol. xxxi of the Journal, Nos. 3

and 4, and have invited others to give their views on ‘ Game preser-

vation’. There can be no doubt that the preservation of Indian

Fauna is a question requiring immediate attention.

In your article in No. 3, you go straight to the root of the trouble

when you point out that it is the fact that game trophies, whether

hides or horns, are allowed to be sold by law, which is mainly

responsible for the heavy decrease of game in most districts.

There are two points I should like to touch on. You sum up as

follows :—

‘The impression gained from the letters read is that what is

principally needed is a law forbidding the sale of any part of a big

game animal.’ So farso good. I heartily agree with this ; dut¢ you

go on to say ‘ carnivora excepted ’.

Point No. 1. Why should Carnivora be excepted? I may say

without fear of much contradiction that carnivora, i.e., tiger, panther,

bear, afford just about ¢ke most exciting sport of any. Why then

should they be excepted from alaw which it is proposed to introduce

in order to preserve big game for sporting as well as for Naturai

History purposes ?

Another potent argument in favour of not excepting them from

sale is this: Big game sportsmen do not (at any rate the true sports-

men certainly would not) ever sell any of their trophies, least of all

tiger, panther or bear. It therefore follows that carnivora skins

soid must be those killed either by poachers or by people who are

not sportsmen at all but who merely shoot carnivora as matter of

business, when they have the luck to be placed in the middle of

the tiger and panther jungles, and are thereby selfishly depriving

real sportsmen, who have probably spent a lot of money in getting

to their blocks, of a chance of enjoying well-earned sport.

I therefore strongly urge that if any law is agitated for to be passed,

it should be made to include carnivora, or at any rate, tiger.

Point No. 2. You go onto say ‘Save by a Forest Officer in the

public interest.’ This requiries, I think, some elucidation. Per-

sonally, I would not leave any sort of loophole if the Jaw is to be

really effective. So many good laws have been rendered ineffective

by some such weak clause.

Let us examine this second exception. In what exact public interest

would it be to sell skins of any game animal, or horns? If it refers to

shed horns, I fear that it would be only too easy for forest guards

and coolies or othersto shoot animals for food and produce their

horns as picked up shed ones. I have not come across or heard of

any district where horns and hides lie about in such profusion that

it would be worth while collecting, advertising and selling them,

982° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Volos

The amount realized I should say would not be commensurate

with the labour and time of the forest guards wasted in searching

the country for them.

I have recently been in one of the best districts in India for chital,

hog and barking deer. Though of course they had shed their horns

long ago, Chital were to be counted in herds of 200, swamp Deer I

saw in herds of 50 and 60, hogdeer in herds of 20(I counted 23 in one

herd, which must be very unusual) and Barking Deer 5 and 4 together.

Although I was moving all over the block for fifteen days all day

and every day, | picked up 1 chital head and 1 horn of a hog deer.

I should be very glad if you can:let me know what steps are being

taken to get Government to pass legislation on this important

subject.

Turning now to Mr. Brayne’s suggestion, in No. 4 of vol. xxxi,

page 1020. I certainly think something of the sort should be started.

The syndicate idea, Mr. Brayne says, has already been turned down

by the Forest Department, so I need not refer to it, except that

one should like to know their reasons ? As regards his second sugges-

tion, I think that a Game Preservation Society would be a first-rate

scheme ; a definite organization like this would be of immense value

in many ways.

For one thing, here you would have a big body of big game

sportsmen which would, by fear of public opinion, greatiy

curtail the present shooting of wretched immature sambur,

chital bucks, etc., etc. if it did not actually get legislation

passed on the subject. It has always been a matter of astonishment

to me that there are such excellent rules and penalties in the -

Kashmir Game Preservation Department and yet there are none in

British India. The most that forest shooting-block passes do is to

limit the number of heads one may shoot Nothing is said as to

size, an equally important point if not moreso. I have met young

sportsmen in blocks who had not the vaguest idea as to what size

a shootable sambur or chital was. The Kashmir Game Laws are

to my mind the model of what Game Laws should be.

The Game Preservation Society, again, would in time be able to

place the best material as watchers in the forests, with heavy

penalties (such as loss of pay and dismissal) in case of bribery by

poachers, etc.

Again, the Society would be able to assist its members in the

many ways which a sportsman requires and which are now denied

to him, unless he be a highly placed officiai such as the Governor of

a Province, or unless he be a Policeman, Commissioner or Forest

Officer. This particularly applies to the U.P., as only the above-

named people can obiain elephants or beaters and other assistance.

The ordinary sportsman (military or business man) is tremendously

handicapped if ke has to deal with a wounded tiger or panther. In

fact, it is 100 to 1 against his getting it. Recently J had to leave a

wounded panther (a very big one too) in my block, as I could not

secure the services of any men, elephants or buffaloes to follow it

up. I followed it up alone for hours, a most hazardous game, as

one had to force one’s way through thick long grass (over one’s

head) as quietly as possible, an very exhausting and dangerous

“VUdaZ V ONINOVLILVY NOIIT ONNOA

‘009 ‘LSIF] ‘LVN AVaWOg ‘Nanor

WISCHELANEOOS NOTES : 583

business. I had to give upin the end, leaving the panther as a potential

source of danger to any forest people or others in the neighbourhood.

Had I had an elephant, I could have followed the panther all day if

necessary and of course with vastly increased chances of seeing

it, looking down as one could have done into the grass. I may say

here that I tried my best to get even one elephant before entering

. my block, but neither the civil authorities, nor the Forest Department

could (or would) assist.

AJMER, W.M. LOGAN HOME,

July 11, 1927. Major,

4th Bombay Grenadiers.

[Although the extinction of the big carnivora would mean an

increase in those animals which, when in large numbers, area

curse to the agriculturist, we do not think the prohibition of tiger

shooting altogether by non-license holders or by any except sports-

men would be practical politics. It might be necessary—we can

imagine several instances when it would be in the public interest—

for the Forest Officer to shoot tigers and it would certainly be in

the public interest for him to seize tiger shot contrary to law.

Possessing the trophies, would it not be in the public interest for

him to sell them for the benefit of the public? Eps.]

Il.—A UNIQUE LION PHOTOGRAPH

(With a plate)

The accompanying plate of a young lion attacking a zebra is

perhaps the most unique photograph ever obtained of a lion in his

native environment. The photograph came into my possession

through the late Mr. C. A. Latif, a prominent citizen of Bombay,

who had resided in Zanzibar for a considerable number of years

towards the end of the last century.

From the particulars furnished by this gentleman it would appear

that the photo was taken by an engine driver on the then newiy

opened Uganda Railway, which as is well known, even now runs

through some of the finest game country in the world. The engine

driver got his camera ready to photograph a herd of zebras as they

stood a short distance from the line, gazing in wonderment at the

weird and unfamiliar object that had invaded their territory and rattl-

ed so glibly along the iron rails. The instant he pressed the shutter a

young lion sprang from the surrounding scrub on one of the zebras,

and this was the resultant exposure! If I have understood

correctly, Mr. Latif was a passenger on this very train, but even if

he were not, the driver was known to him personally and it was he

that presented Mr. Latif with a copy of this remarkable photograph.

The coincidence and the circumstances sound positively mira-

culous and I should hardly have credited the account had it come

from a less reliable source.

The photo was in Mr. Latif’s wonderful private collection of

curios collected all over the world and to my mind there appears no

reason to doubt its authenticity and genuineness

584 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

Strangeiy enough | find the identical photograph considerabiy

touched up and reproduced in Hutchinson’s ‘ Animals of all Coun-

tries’ (part iv, p. 173). All that is there mentioned about it is ‘ By

permission of E. N. A.’ ;

It would be very interesting to learn who ‘E.N.A.’ is, how the

photograph came into his possession and if he has another version

as to how it was secured by the camera-man.

BoMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY, SALIM A. ALI.

6 APOLLO STREFT,

September 5, 1927.

IIl.—WHITE TIGERS

(With a photograph)

I have recently had the luck to shoot a white tigress and would

like to know if any other members of the Society have ever done

so. I may mention that, not long after, a lady, Mrs. Murphy, wife of

Mr. P. W. Murphy of the I.C.S. of this Province, also had the good

fortune, when out with me to bag another one, also a tigress, and

very much the same colour asthe one I got. ‘The animal I shot

was pure white with black stripes on her body and russet brown

ones on the tail. Both were well grown beasts, thick set, and taping

respectively, 8’-54” and 8’-2” between uprights. They were shot in

the same jungles, but about twenty miles apart, in the district of

Bhagalpur.

I enclose a photo of the animal I shot for publication in your

journal if you iike. The taxidermists to whom the trophy was sent

report that during the year 1926 they received three white tiger

skins including mine (mine was shot on December 6, 1926), but

my skin is the only pure white one, the other two being cream

coloured. |

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

The animal! was not an albino, as it did not have pink eyes, but the

ordinary coloured eyes of a tiger, and so did Mrs. Murphy’s. Is it

possible that there is a distinct breed of white tigers, or are they

only freaks? I have for years past been told by my shikaries that

there was a white tiger inthe jungles near here, quite twelve years

ago. Herders who saw the animal, described it as ek dum gatke

mitik satéd (white like acow). Inever believed them till I shot

the tigress which must be a descendant of the white one seen by

the herders years ago. Both the tigresses were young animals,

about three or four years old. I once did see a white animal pass a

little distance from a kill which I was sitting up over, and at the

time thought it must have been a hyzena. It was bad moonlight and

in thickish jungle, but I was rather suspicious at its making no noise

in the leaves, which a hyzena usually does with its clumsy tread. I

now think it must have been a white tiger. Both the above

tigresses were shot in a beat, and took a good deal of lead. I hit

my tigress from about twenty yards away through the right shoulder,

bowling her over; she however managed to scramble away, and I

missed with the second barrel. I followed her up soon after for

about 100 yards, but did not find much blood, and had to give up

for that day as it was getting late. The next day I found her

fully 1000 yards away from where I originally hit her and

polished her off with a shot through the neck. On skinning her I

found that my first shot had gone through the shoulder and the

bullet or rather parts of it were found under the skin on the opposite

side, her liver being in shreds. Surely it is exceptional for a

wounded tiger with such a fatal shot to go so far. The bullet used

was a Contractile from a smooth bore (12-bore).

I shall be much interested to hear what information you can give

me in regard to white tiger.

F. B. ROBINSON,

SAGRAMPUR,

BIHAR AND ORISSA,

January 28, 1927.

[Mr. Robinson’s tigress is yet another of the many examples of

complete or partial albinism recorded among tigers in recent years.

Partial albinism is defined as a condition in which certain areas of the

body remain marked by more or less well defined areas of colour

owing to the presence of more or less pigment. It is believed that

a pigmented animal owes its colour to the power that certain tissues

of its body possess to secrete tyrosinases (oxydizing ferments) and

chromogenic substances—the colouration being the result of the

action of the ferments upon one or more of the chromogens and the

theory is therefore put forward that an albino is an individual

whose skin lacks the power to secrete either the ferment or

the chromogens—it may hold one of these substances, never

both.

But the presence of both these colour determinants are not alone

sufficient to explain the development of colour which is arranged in

animals in a definite pattern, either self, spotted, striped, etc., and it

586 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

is believed that colour is correlated with some other factor which

determines the pattern—each speciai pattern having its own deter-

minant and it has been shown that, while an albino may not possess

the factors which determine colour, it may still possess factors which

determine pattern, both visibly in the body tissues or as a gametic

character ; when its presence will oniy be detected in subsequent

generations.

The frequent records of white tigers in recent years has been

remarkable. On looking through our Journals we find no tess

than seventeen distinct records of white tigers shot in India

during the last twenty years—a period during which certainly less

tigers were shot than formerly if we are to credit the records of the

old Sporting Magazines. The question arises as to whether these

frequent records can be looked upon as instances of variation tending

to the formation of a new variety orrace. If there is anything in the

theory of protective coiouration in reference to the tiger, then the

white colouring would be an obvious disadvantage militating

against the establishment of such a race, and yet these tigers appear

to thrive quite as well as the normal coloured animals from the fact

that their records are becoming more and more frequent.

Do white tigers breed white tigers is a question on which natura-

lists and sportsmen are, as in the case of black panthers, inclined to

differ. The white tigers of the Rewah State would appear to

belong to the same family and to have bred white for several

generations. Mr. Robinson assumes his tigress to be the offspri-

ing of white parents. The black panthers in the Kolhapur Zoo have

bred black panthers for several generations. EDs. ]|

IV.—A TUSSLE BETWEEN TIGER AND BUFFALO

BAIT

Whilst shooting in the Central Provinces in February this year,

a buffalo calf, tied up for a tiger bait, showed signs of a struggle

with a tiger when visited inthe morning. Unfortunately, having

injured my leg, I was unable to go and see that calf but several

independent witnesses and a reliable shikari were all questioned and

no discrepancies occurred in their answers.

The calf bore marks of claws and teeth all over its back and,

though it had subsequently to be destroyed, was still alive. Its

horns were covered with blood and tiger’s hair and it must have

given nearly as good as it took.

A tussle between a 24 year old tethered calf, and a tiger strikes

me as rare; the tiger may have been frightened off by passers by,

but even so the tussle lasted sufficiently long for the tiger to inflict

a large number of wounds and the incident is an example of the

stubborn courage of the domestic buffalo.

UNITED SERVICE CLUB,

Par MAtt, S.W., J. Wc. CCE IVE

June: 7.1927. Captain, M.C,

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc,

A TIGRESS AND ITs KILL.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587

V.—UNUSUAL BEHAVIOUR OF A TIGRESS WITH LIVE

BAIT

(With a plate)

I have recently been shooting in the C. P. with Capt. Graham of

this Regiment. We found we had to deal with a tigress which

would not return to her kills, so we took it in turns to sit up over a

live bait. On the third night the tigress attacked the bait at about

12:30 a.m. Capt. Graham saw the tigress standing firmly with all

four feet on the ground and holding the side of the buffalo calf’s

throat in her jaws. In this position she pinned the animal’s head to

the ground.

It was in this position that Capt. Graham shot the tigress, which

fell dead on the spot.

In the morning I went out and photographed it, and I now enclose

the prints, which may possibly interest you or some of the readers

of your Journal.

THE RIFLE BRIGADE,

LANDIKOTAL, INDIA, : F. O. CAVE,

Sune Ss. 1927. Captain.

VI.—WHAT IS THE RECORD PANTHER?

I read a remarkable statement which I expect a good many other

members of the Society will also have read, in the issue of the

Sporting and Dramatic for July 6, 1927, as follows :— Rowland

Ward’s Records gives the length of a leopard killed in S. Nigeria

before skinning as 9 ft. 3 in. while the record Indian specimen

is one from Kashmir measuring 9 ft. lin. The average of a good

Indian panther, before being skinned ranges from 7 ft. 9 in. to

8 ft. 6 in.’ Now this statement is absolutely contradictory to

all previous records, observations and articles appearing in any of

the Society’s Journals and also in any standard work on Big Game

Shooting. I refer readers particularly to Col. A. E. Ward’s able

and authoritative articies in vol. xxix, No.1, page 25 and vol. xxxi,

Now) pace 3.

As I have quoted the Storting and Dramatic article, I propose

to do the same with Col. Ward’s observations.

‘There is no doubt that an animal 8 ft. length measured between

‘pegs, or even by taping from the nose between the ear and then

‘straight to the tip of tail, is very rare.’

Col. A. E. Ward then gives a table of record leopards the biggest

of which is 7 ft. 54 in.

Again ‘A full grown male leopard may be from 6 ft. 9 in. to

‘8 ft.; an eight-foot leopard measured between pegs is very un-

‘common. In Rowland Ward’s Records of Big Game a measure-

‘ment of 8 ft. 3 in. is given and 8 ft. is recorded of two specimens

‘at least; and then we have 7 ft. 6in., 7 ft. 54 inches.’

With all the above I most emphatically agree and all sportsmen to

whom I have spoken on the subject have the same opinion. It is

therefore most difficult to understand the statement made in the

Sporting and Dramatic and I suggest the Society might collect

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

further opinions on it and at the same time ask the Editor of the

Sporting and Dramatic to give further particulars, such as

(1) Who gave the information regarding these gigantic brutes

of leopards (bigger than any tigress ever known and

equalling most average tigers !)?

(2) Who actually measured them and how ?

(3) What other witnesses were present ?

(4) The date and place where shot or otherwise killed ?

5) Where are the skins now and what do they now measure?

(6) Will the owners very kindly allow two or three well-known

big game hunters to view the skins?

In this connection I might observe that the dressed skins would

normally measure, for the 9 ft. 3 in. one = 10 ft. 10 in. and the

Y ft. 1 in. = 10 ft. 8 inch. As regards the Kashmir one it is

difficult to understand how Col. Ward did not see or even hear of

it. Is itin the Kashmir Game Records ? This point could be verified

easily. If not, why was the owner so very retiring and modest

after shooting almost the world’s record panther ? !!!

As regards the statement that the ‘ average of a good Indian

panther before being skinned, ranges from 7 ft. 9 in. to 8 ft. 6 in.’,

this is frankly incredible and gives a totally erroneous idea which

I am sure the majority of big game sportsmen will not agree with.

AJMER, W. M. LOGAN HOME,

August 2, 1927. Major.

VII.—A PANTHER AND FLASHLIGHT

(With a plate)

This photograph of a panther was obtained in the foothills of

Garhwal. The panther was fired at from a machan when it was just

too dark to aim properly and within half an hour came back to its

‘kill’ in the open river-bed,!00 yards from the machan. It set off the

flashlight, which makes a noise like a grenade, and yet returned and

ate most of the ‘kill’ during the night.

Panthers in this part of Garhwal always return when they are fired

at and missed. If, however, on their first approach they see anyone

in a machan they will remain close by for an hour or so and then go

away and do not return even when the shzkarz has gone home.

BA. S.- BRUNSKiGE,

Major.

VIII.—BOLDNESS OF PANTHERS

I was out one morning alone after a Chital and was returning

at 7.30 a.m. along the edge of the jungle. To my right was

a vast expanse of open grassy plain known locally as a Chauri.

I saw some animal a long way off moving from left to right

out into the plain, when I got the glasses on to it, I saw to my

surprise it was a fine panther, its coat glistening in the bright sun.

I at once sat down and watched. It continued to walk along quite

unconcernedly getting further and further out into the open plain.

I guessed that it was making for a kill and this proved to be the

(‘stoqrenb-pulg s,aeyyueg oyy caoqe ysn{ savedde asou s,Mog oy)

;« TTIM,, MOO V GNVY AAHINVd V

‘009 ‘LSIFT ‘LVN AVaNWog ‘Nunor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589

case. It disappeared into some rather higher grass and then

started returning with an animal in its jaws. I then commenced

running, crouching through the grass, which was only knee-deep and

managed to get within 300 yds. without the panther taking any notice

though I was in full view more or less the whole time. I then saw

that he would soon reach the edge of this jungle and so I took my

chance and fired, and missed (the bullet went high and behind him).

He dropped the kill and bounded off into the jungle. I got up and

walked about 50 yds. when I saw him coming stealing back. I at once

got into a sitting position again and fired when he had stopped to

pick up his kill; but again missed. This time I ran crouching as

hard as I could and made about 80 yds. and then sat down and

hardly got into position when he again came stalking tack out

into the open, picked up the kill and walked unconcernedly off.

I fired and this time hit him. He staggered off and when I reached

the spot, I found it was a full grown Kakur he had been carrying.

I went back to the bungalow and got three men and tracked the

animal. I think this is a remarkable case of boldness and fearless-

ness on the part of this panther.

On another occasion, a few days later, I sat over a fresh kill (a cow)

which had been dragged over 400 yards. I wasin position at 6 p.m.

and my manleft me at that time. At 6.10 a magnificent panther

arrived, quietly walked up to the kill, never looking to right or left,

and at once seized it in his powerful jaws and began dragging it off

backwards. I got him through the back of the neck and he died

then and there, biting his left fore arm in his jaws. My man had

only gone about 4 mile and in fact was still walking away when he

heard-the shot. The panther must have been sitting waiting within

earshot and close indeed.

While on the subject of panthers, I should like to protest

against a statement I read ina big game book recently that ‘ the

panther looks what he is, a perfect swine, while a tiger always looks

agentieman!’ I think that is a remarkable statement, and person-

ally I (and a great number of sportsmen agree with me) have

exactly the opposite opinion. In view of my recent experience

in the Terai, I consider a panther is a most sporting animal and

gives one a very good chance, whereas a tiger is a skulking

nocturnal beast, who has to be driven out to the guns ; he very rarely

ever comes to a kill in daylight, and curiously enough the book

I mentioned brings out this very point.

A tiger more often than not will not return to its kill even when

not tampered with, whereas the sporting panther comes back to his

kill even when one has dragged it 100 yards and often to only a

head and a few bones. Such is my experience and it is the

experience of a great many more experienced shikaris than myself.

Take again the case of man-eaters; far more tigers become man-

eaters than ever panthers do. I wonder if the author of that

statement considers man-eating tigers as gentlemen! !

AJMERE, W. M. LOGAN HOME,

July 8, 1927. Major,

4th Bombay Grenadiers,

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

[X.—CIRCUMSTANTIAL ACCOUNT OF A PANTHER

ATTACKED BY WILD DOGS

The following may be of interest to members :— |

Whilst shooting in the Central Provinces a few years ago a friend

of mine found a panther in a dying condition. When dead, the

panther was brought into camp and examined and skinned. The

animal had been emasculated, the wound thus formed including the

anus, no other wounds being found.

On removing the skin it was found that practically the whole of

the entrails had been drawn out through the wound.

The only possible explanation was that this was the work of

Cuon; both my friend and his brother, who was present, are ex-

perienced shikaris and their veracity cannot be questioned.

The panther may, of course, have been in a feeble condition

when attacked but even so the occurrence is remarkable.

I cannot think of any other possible explanation. My informant

emphasized the fact that the panther was alive when found.

UNITED SERVICE CLUB, J: Me. C. CLIVE, mics

PArTAMALL, oO. Wels Captain.

June 16, 1927.

[In vol. v, p. 191 of the Journal, there is an account of a pair

of panthers being treed by wild dogs. The two panthers were in a

‘ Sallai’ tree, one above the other with a large pack of ten or twelve

couple of wild dogs moving about below. A similar instance is

recorded in vol. xviii, p. 194 of the Journal, in which a pack of wild

dogs was seen in pursuit of a female panther. R. C. Morris in a

note on wild dogs, vol. xxx, page 691, says he saw the remains of a

panther that had been killed by wild dogs. It seems well establish-

ed that panthers are occasionally attacked and killed by wild dogs—

bears have also been attacked—while the belief is current that even

tigers are not free from attack from these vermin—but the cases so

far recorded in reference to tigers are based mainly on hearsay

evidence. As regards the dogs having emasculated the panther,

see Note No. XI on the opposite page. Eps. |

X.—WILD DOGS

‘here has been some correspondence about wild dogs lately.

It has been alleged that there are two species (which I do not

believe) and mention has been made of the colour of the tip of the

tail. I have just received from the American Museum of Natural

History, New York, three specimens, about two-thirds grown which

were shot from the same small pack by Kunwar Dillipat Shah of

Khairigarh. One of these has a black tip to the tail, another has

a few white hairs, and the third has a distinct white tip to the tail

like that of the silver fox. These three dogs were presumably of

the same litter of puppies.

ORIENTAL CLUB, J.C. FAUNTHORPE,

LONDON, Colonel,

September 3, 1927.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 591

[Only two species of wild dog have hitherto been recognized :

Cuon dukhunensis, the wild dog of the whole of India and Cuox

rutilans, the wild dog of Burma andthe Malay countries. There is

however a belief prevalent in India from Kashmir to Cape Comorin

that there are more than two species and that in addition to the

‘Jangli Kuta’ of the plains there are two hill kinds, one larger and

the other smaller—the small breed is said to limit its range to the

low ravines and to restrict its attacks to sheep and goat while the

larger breed hunts in the higher mountains. It has been suggested

that the smaller breed is really a pack of females and cubs, the

mother training the young idea in the arts of hunting and naturally

blooding them on easily killed quarry, while the full-grown packs

roam the forest attacking what they may. Ebps.]

No. XI.--HOW WILD DOGS KILL THEIR PREY

A recent issue of the Journal, vol. xxxi, page 813, contained an

account of a sambhar stag in Burmah having been emasculated by

wild dogs and the affirmation of the local shikaries was that this was

their invariable practice. As the article implied a contradiction of

my remarks on the subject in ‘ Wild Animals in Central India’

which was referred to, perhaps you will be good enough to publish

what I believe to be the explanation of this widespread belief.

Anyone familiar with the East knows of the exaggerated impor-

tance attached to anything connected with the organs of

reproduction. The very idea of emasculation is horrific ! Occasional

and isolated instances of this having taken place are discussed with

bated breath, possibly dwelt upon with a lascivious satisfaction.

That emasculation ‘may’ take place immediately becomes that it

‘does’ take place. The mind of the jungli native construes

this as a dreadful and purposeful action on the part of the wild

dog.

Now for the fact that emasculation occasionally takes place and

the explanation thereof. When an animal is attacked at bay the

dogs launch themselves on the head and seize it clustered like ticks

on every conceivable place. If the pack happens to be a large one

there is no room on the head for those diffident in attack and so these

immediately attack the hind quarters. This is the normal procedure

generally of a pack of dogs. It constantly happens when a bobbery

pack attacks a jackal or a pie dog. The victim is seized at both

ends and stretched.

It would be surprising if under such circumstances some dog did

not find the scrotum and testicles of any stag a most convenient

mouthhold and that before the struggle ceased these did not

occasionaliy become detached. That emasculation is either a

common or a deliberate act I can deny from a wide personal

experience of the wild dog and its habits.

I have now explained how this operation is sometimes performed

fortuitously and I have suggested how an ‘occasional occurrence ’

has been converted into an ‘invariable practice’ in the natives’

mind.

592 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Anyone reading Wzld Animals in Central india will see that I

state as follows :—

‘The story to the effect that they (wild dogs) are in the habit of

emasculating the animals they attack can be discarded’’. This

sentence was purposely worded so as to make it clear that although

emasculation might sometimes take place it was not habitual. The

habit is denied, the act is not.

‘ Ivy Bank, ELGIn, A. A. DUNBAR BRANDER.

SCOTLAND,

August 14, 1927.

[The belief that the wild dog emasculates its quarry is very

prevalent in India, as also is the belief that they sprinkle bushes with

urine and drive their prey through them and then rush upon their

quarry which is blinded by the acid fluid! Emasculation does occur

but is, as pointed out by Mr. Dunbar Brander, the result of chance

and not of deliberate effort. Eps.]

No. XII.—THE RECORD FOUR-HORNED

ANTELOPE (7TETRACEROS QUADRICORNIS.)

(With a photo)

In February of this year we received avery fine head of this

animal for mounting, shot by Col. E. Conway-Gordon in the Central

Provinces. On examination the rear horns proved to be far above

the known record and the fore-horns also exceeded those of the best

head.

BERD. E

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ABNORMAL BLACKBUCK SHOT IN BIKANER.

woe aS

oS OS a

A Goop CHINKARA HEAD FROM BIKANER. HORNS, 143”.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 593

The measurements were taken when the head arrived and then

again at the time of writing, when the head was completed and

thoroughly dry. It will be seen from the table given below that

there has been a considerable amount of shrinkage.

| Length of | Length of fore Circ terenge.

| rear horns. horns.

pean ane Lae

| R. | i | R. aes (o Rear. Fore.

® 34 1” 3m 4

On arrival tale fe gen Te 23 3 . a

On September 9, 1927 ee Oe aly OFS 1h 247 26 | 28" Je"

| |

The right rear horn is broken as will be seen from the accom.

panying photograph. The core of this horn travels right up its

length and measures 34 inches. The core of the left rear horn on

the other hand is very short being only 1# inches.

The rear horns spread outwards and owing to their being broken

the tip to tip measurements cannot be taken. The front horns

converge inwards and the tip to tip measurement between them

is one inch.

The best head in Rowland Ward’s ‘ Records of Big Game’ (1914)

measures: rear horn 44” : fore horn 23”,

BoMBAY, C. McCANN.

September 9, 1927.

XIII.—ABNORMAL BLACKBUCK AND A GOOD

CHINKARA HEAD FROM BIKANIR

(With a plate)

I am enclosing two photographs which I trust will be of interest

to you. The blackbuck carries an abnormal head, as is clearly seen

from the photograph, and was shot by His Highness the Maharajah

of Bikaner in the north of the Bikaner State at Hanumangarh. The

chinkara, which measured 144”, was shot in the north of the State

near Ganganagar by the Maharaj Kumar Sahib. It is practically a

record for Bikaner ; only one bigger head measuring 144” is known

to have been shot in the State so far.

BIKANIR, SURAJMAL SINGH,

RAJPUTANA, Secretary to

August 31, 1927. Svt Maharaj Kumar Sahib.

XIV.—CLICKING NOISE MADE BY MUNTJAC

I remember having read in some of your Journals different articles

attributing the curious clicking sound made by the Barking Deer to

various causes. While at the local Zoo sometime ago Iwas watch-

ing the Muntajc in the enclosure, when I suddenly heard the buck

making this peculiar noise. The little animal was on the other side

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL AIST. SOCIETY, VolVXXxods

of the railing to me andnot more than about a yard away. It was

moving to and fro parallel with the railing and clicking away merrily.

I sat down and watched it most carefully for along timeand found

that the noise was distinctly produced by the animal’s mouth. The

clicking noise was made with the tongue and the lips at the same

time, much like aclucking hen. The mouth was not open but every

time the tongue clicked the ends of the lips were drawn back. I

asked the keeper, and he informed me that this often occurred and

was a sign of pleasure. Recently Mr. C. Raitt of Faith Estate,

Kutta P.O., S. Coorg, was with me at the Zoo and he also heard the

same noise and said it was made by the mouth.

I have seen it stated by some that the noise was made by moving

the tushes in their sockets. This is a physical impossibility, because

the tushes, although set loosely in their socket are yet imbedded ina

cushion of muscles and flesh; which excludes all possibility of any

clicking sound being produced, though the tushes could be moved

about to a certain extent by external means and not by its own

power. Whether the doe also makes this clicking sound I am

unable to state, but I do not see why she should not be able to.

I have also read that the clicking noise was made by the hoofs

but I do not think this is correct.

MyYSsoRE, CHARLES THEOBALD,

5S. INpDIA, | esas)

September 2, 1927.

XV.—THE BRAY OF THE CHITAL STAG

My attention has been drawn to Miscellaneous Note No. III, page

694 of vol. xxx, No. 3 (which I have somehow missed seeing

before). I refer to the note on the Chital.

Mr. Morris says, ‘I would not describe the call (szc) as in the

nature of a whistle at all.’ I presume he refers to the rutting season

‘roaring’ of the stags; personally, I quite agree with him. ‘The

chital stag’s voav in the rutting season is, at any rate, from the

Siwaliks to the Terai, very much the same as any other stag’s roar,

and certainly the Terai and Siwalik stags’ roar could not be called a

whistle, whereas their alarm note zs distinctly a kind of whistling

cry, which the does also utter. To my mind the chital stag’s roar

resembles the Kashmir Stag’s and Scottish Stag’s roar only it is

not so loud.

AJMER, W. M. LOGAN HOME,

August 25, 1927. Major,

¢th Bombay Grenadiers.

XVI.—MUSTH IN ELEPHANT

Col. G. H. Evans in his well-known book Elephants and their

Diseases opens his paragraph on musth with the words ‘ Male

elephants and very rarely females, on attaining maturity, are subject

to peculiar periodical paroxysms of excitement .. . to which the

name of musth is applied. .. .’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 595

In view of the above statement by such a well-known authority, it

may be of interest to your readers to know that during the Depart-

mental Kheddah Operations conducted by the Forest Department

in the Goalpara-Bhutan Mahal, Assam, 1925-26-27, two female

elephants exhibiting unmistakeable signs of musth have been caught.

The cases are as follows:

No. 1. A very large female elephant of the Kumeraband type

was caught in November 1925. This elephant had very large

tushes, and at first, from her size and build, might have been taken

foramakhana. Although full grown she had never had a calf, and

there is no doubt that she was barren. While in the stockade she

gave a good deal of trouble and attacked her fellows and the

koonkies, and eventually broke both of her tushes on a tree inside

the stockade.

This paroxysm of fury while in the stockade was succeeded at the

depot by an impassivity and ‘ don’t care’ attitude which was quite

as remarkable. The temporal glands were greatly swollen and

gave forth a profuse oily discharge. Her training proceeded with

remarkable rapidity and she was able to go out without koonkies ten

days after her capture. Shortly afterwards, however, symptoms of

blood poisoning were observed, due to the severe wounds the

broken-off ends of the tushes had caused in the mouth and the

animal was released in an effort to save her life.

No. 2. A very large female elephant of the Kumeraband type

caught in November 1926. This elephant was not of such fine’

build as the former and in addition had had a calf. Her temporal

glands were swollen and gave forth a copious discharge. She

seemed very drowsy while at the depot but her training proceeded

without incident and she left for her owner’s home about a month

after capture.

The question as to what causes the condition of masth in

elephants can be ascribed, is one that has not been Satisfactorily

answered. It is true that some bulls when in this condition court

the society of females, but it is by no means an invariable rule and

it cannot be dogmatically asserted that this condition is due to a

lack of sexual gratification.

As regards both of the cases cited above they did not show any

perceptible desire for male company at the time nor did tuskers or

maknas at the depot exhibit any interest in them.

One cannot lay down conclusions from two cases oniy, but it

seems clear that the symptoms of the condition in the male and

female is exactly the same. First the violent stage in which all

animals are attacked and pain does not seem to be felt. This is

succeeded by a drowsy stage in which the animal takes its fodder as

usual but seems oblivious of its surroundings, and the attack then

appears to gradually wear off. In both stages the temporal glands

are swollen and give out a characteristic discharge.

The first case apparently was captured in the earliest stages and

the second in the latter stages.

Both these animals were caught in the month of November

and in stockades which are a few miles off from one another.

All the other numbers of the respective herds were normal.

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Some years ago an Assamese gentleman, Rai Sahib Rajant

Kanta Chowdhury of Sorbhog owned a female elephant which was

locally known by a term which was the equivalent of ‘ female

tusker.’ This was a North Cachar elephant and owed its sobriquet

to the fact that it had longish tusks and went musth regularly each

year until its death recently.

Elephant attendants have told me that male elephants go musth

up to an advanced age, in fact none of them could recall an

elephant that had not gone musth even in its old age.

We shall not probably get an explanation of why female

elephants sometimes exhibit these secondary sexual characteristics

of the male until some anatomical light is shed upon the question.

The above lines are written in the hope that they may catch the

eye of those interested in the problem and that some information

leading to its elucidation may enlarge.

KOCHUGAON, INA eb OR:

ASSAM, Imperial Forest Service.

TARUATV 9-1 927;

XVII.—A LARGE TUSKER ELEPHANT

The following are the measurements of the tusker elephant I

wrote you about :—

Height at shoulder 10ft. 44”.

Length Girth Weight

Richtinsk..6 24 21% 85 lbs.

Left SER Go 6 ZEY 86 lbs.

Total pec WR elo:

The above were taken in the presence of witnesses and certified

measurements were sent to Rowland Ward. What struck me about

the tusks was their girth and symetry—a perfect pair! As regards

height, this is of course difficult to get accurately, but it was taken

between uprights, and the least I could makeit was 10’ 45”; taken

at the highest point of shoulder, I made it 10’ 9”, but did not

think this possible after all Sanderson says about their being no

such thing as a 10’ elephant. Hewas 65” round the forefoot.

I think there can be no doubt of his being a record for South India.

Apparently the Senior Ranee of Travancore thinks so too, for all

my offers to purchase the tusks have been refused !

CHITTAVURRAI, A. W. JOHN.

ELLAPATTI P.O., via PERIAKULAM,

SouTH [NpDIA,

July 27 1927.

(There is anote in our Journal, vol. xi, p. 335, by Lieut. 5.8. Flower

giving measurements of tusks of Indian Klephants in the posses-

sion of the King of Siam. The largest of these measured 9’ and

9’ 104” respectively ; they belonged to an elephant whichis said

to have been ninety years old when it died at Bangkok and are easily

the record pair for the Asiatic elephant. Eps. ]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 597

XVIII.—A GOOD NILGIRI TAHR (HAMITRAGUS

FINAEOC FEI OS)

The following measurements of a Nilgiri Tahr, or Ibex, may

interest you as they constitute a record for this district (High

Range, Travancore). He was shot in May 1899 by myself :—

Length 164” (163” when shot)

Girth at base 82”

CHITTAVURRAI, A. W. JOHN,

ELLAPATTI P.O., Via PERIAKULAM,

SoutTH INDIA,

July 26 1IZT.

[A fine head ofa Nilgiri Tahr was recently presented to the

Society by Capt. H. R. Irwin. It was shot in the Nelliampathy Hills,

South India, and measured 164”, girth 94” (vzde Journal, vol. xxxi,

page 520. Eps. |

XIX.—BIRTH OF FREAK CALF AT INDORE

(With a photo)

With reference to a paragraph which appeared in the Current

Topics column of the Zzmes of India last month, the following

30 HOURS AFTER BIRTH,

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

notes and enclosed photographs may be of interest to readers of

‘Miscellaneous Notes’ in the Society’s Journal.

Early in the morning of August 19 last, at the house of

Baddrudin in the Palassia Mohalla, Indore, a calf was born with a

bifurcated head, having two separate muzzles each with mouth and

nostrils complete. The head had four eyes, two of which, one on

each side, appeared to be normal, while the other two, joined to-

gether in the middle of the forehead, were sightless and ‘ dead’

looking.

The calf had to be hand fed as its head was too heavy for it to

lift. It sucked with both mouths.

Its birth, on Krishna’s Day (/anma Ashtamz), caused great ex-

citement at Indore, and thousands of people from the city and the

surrounding country came to see it and make offerings—much to the

joy of the lucky owner.

Of the three photos enclosed, one was taken when the animal

was about thirty hours old, and the other two (one of which is a side

view in which the head appears to be quite normal), when it was

eight days old. The calf died on the twelfth day.

LAL BaGH, INDORE, C. E. D. MEARS.

September 19, 1927.

[We are unfortunately able to reproduce only one of the photo-

graphs. Eps. ]

XX.—AN EXAMPLE OF AN ASSISTED PASSAGE

On April 26, 1926, I sailed from Bombay in the S.S. City of

Exeter which left about midday. About 3.30 p.m. I discovered

that we had on board a singie House-Crow (Corvus splendens) which

had apparently failed to notice our departure in time. It looked

rather bewildered at finding itself at sea, and grew more and more

uneasy as dusk approached, launching out over the sea and then

regaining the ship with difficulty. It was a dark dusky looking bird

obviously of the typical race from Bombay, and not the pale

zugmayert which is the form at Karachi whence the Czty of Exeter

had come.

The crow stayed with the ship for the next few days roosting on

the rigging and receiving food and water by the good offices of the

crew. We did not putin at Aden. We passed Perim on May 2

about 7-8 a.m. and after that I watched the bird making several

attempts to fly towards the mainland which was visible. Its

courage always failed however and it returned to the ship. By

evening however it had disappeared and I was told that it

had apparently flown on to another ship. Unfortunately this

ship was steaming in the same direction as ourselves, or I might

have told a good story about corvine sagacity intaking a ship back

to India! As an observed example of how stragglers leave their

habitat, this seems worth recording.

BATTLE, SUSSEx,

August 8, 1927, HUGH WHISTLER,

VR Al. Sa0 ahez-S

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ba Fiat wh 599

XXIL_EXTRAORDINARY PUGNACITY OF THE RUSTY-

CHEEKED SCIMITAR BABBLER (POMATORHINUS

ERYTHROGENYS)

Last Sunday I went with a couple of friends for a jaunt in the car

on the cart road in the direction of Tara-Devi. As it was a

beautiful evening in the monsoons, we pulled the car up at the

seventh milestone to admire the wonderful scenery, and above all

the wonderful cloud effects that are only to be seen at this particular

time of the year. .

The country in the immediate vicinity is scrub oak. I happened

to glance up the khud side, when I noticed two of the above-men-

tioned birds settle in a small oak tree about 90 feet above us:

Keeping my eyes fixed on them, | noticed they were engaged in

fighting. In afew seconds they both overblanced, and fell to the

ground, and owing to the gradient of the steep hillside, they com-

menced rolling down the khud in our direction. So busily engaged

were they in their fight, that they paid no attention to the car they

were fast approaching. My friend Mr. Neville Cotton realizing he

stood a chance of catching the birds, jumped out of the car, and

stood with his hands ready open. On they came until they reached

a stone wall about 10 feet high, which separates the road from the

hillside. As they arrived at this point, they actually fell into the

hands of my friend. On examining them I found that they still had

no intention of giving up their fight, for one bird held the other’s leg

between his beak, while the other had a firm grip of his opponent’s

throat. It was no easy matter to separate them, anyhow after a

little careful handling I managed to accomplish this, when both birds

gave vent to their feelings by jabbing at my fingers. After their

wrath appeared to have cooled down somewhat, I released them both,

only to find they still had no intention of making friends, for all the

trouble commenced afresh on a bush, about 100 feet down the

khudside. A heavy mist soon obscured them from my view. Both

birds were in deep moult. It would be interesting to know what

all the trouble was about, and as I write this I wonder if they

are still atit?

THE MALL, SIMLA, ARTHUR H. BERRIFF..- -

July 25, 2927.

[As arule, the best of good fellowship prevails among the babbler

fraternity, though its members are susceptible to occasional

paroxysms of violent rage when two or more members of a ‘ sister-

hood’ will go for one another with the utmost zestand fury. We

have witnessed a somewhat similar incident to the one described by

Mr. Berriff, the belligerents in this case being a couple of Bombay

Babblers (7usdoides somervillec). An individual was seen furiously

pursuing another on the ground over strewn foliage, stones and

other impediments. They subsequently hopped on to a branch about

6 feet high whence they dropped in a tangle on the ground below

lying on their backs and continuing to grapple fiercely with each

other using bill and claws. We were able to approach near enough

to cover the birds up with a sola topee without attracting notice.

600 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

They made good their escape, however, but no sooner were Ane

out than the chase recommenced in all earnest.

A third bird here joined the fray and after the original opponents

had come to grips and fallen to the ground a second time, the new-

comer dropped perpendicularly on them and also got knotted up!

EDs. |

XXII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE WOOD SNIPE IN THE

CENTRAL PROVINCES

In February last, while shooting in the Mandla District of the

Central Province;, about five miles trom Amarkantak, I saw a Wood

Snipe (Gallinago nemoricola). Forsyth mentions having seen one

once in the same district, otherwise I have never heard of the

occurrence of this kind in the Central Provinces.

I should be interested to hear whether any other members of the

Society have observed the species in the Provinces.

UNITED SERVICE CLUB, JeMCAC aC ink:

PALI MATEO. Wa, Captain, M.C.

June 7 J1e2%.

XXIII.—NOTES ON DUCK SHOOTING IN THE ROORKEE

DISTRICT, UseP., IN THE VBARSe1I03 Oe o27,

(With a graph)

1. The record extends over 21 seasons from 1903 to 1927, with

three gaps of single years, in 1909-10, 1915-16 and 1923-24. The

bags were ali made in the jheels formed by the Solani R., close to

its confluence with the Ganges R., about ]5 miles S.E. of Roorkee,

in the extreme N.W. of the plains of the U.P. (and some 35 miles

S.E. of Saharanpur). In the great floods of September 1924, both the

Solani R. and the Ganges R., were in exceptionally high flood, and

as a result almost all the jheels were completely blotted out by

being silted up by sand from the Solani R.; so that where there

used to be 6 ft. and 8 ft. of water in a jheel there is now dry land with

grass growing: this area wiil therefore never again be attractive to

duck, unless indeed another cataclysm occurs similar to 1924. The

duck shooting in this district is therefore now entirely ruined, and a

thing of the past, as proved by the figures of the years since 1924:

I have therefore thought that it may be valuable to record the figures

now before it is too late (especially as a record extending over 21

seasons in the same district is not frequently obtainable), as they

may be of value in the study of the distribution and migration of

the various species of duck in India. For the past three seasons 1924

to 1927, I estimate there have never been more than some 500

duck in all the area of the former jheels, where prior to 1924

there used to be from 6,000 to 10,000 at least all through a

season.

2. The figures given in my Table are taken from my game-

book, written up in ink at the time. I have always been in the

habit of vetting the bag carefully on return to camp each evening

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 601

and morning, and recording the numbers of each species separately

in the game-book. Capt. E. EB. Searight, r.E.,has very kindly veri-

fied the figures in the Table with my original game-book.

The figures in the Table have been plotted as three curves on the

Chart shown, for easier analysis. The bags were all made by

‘flight shooting ’, i.e., on birds moving naturally to and from their

feeding grounds at evening and morning, and without any driving,

etc. ‘The duck shooting ‘season’ has been taken as from Sep-

tember 15 to April 15, but as arule very little good is done before

November 1 or after March 1 as the main body of the

migratory duck arrive in the Roorkee District between November

1 and 15 usually, and leave again by end of February. ‘The first

species to arrive in any numbers are the White-eyed Pochard,

Gadwall and the Common Teal, and the last are Wigeon and the

Red-Crested Pochard; the latter are often not ‘in’ till middle of

December, and they are also the first to leave. The last species to

leave are the Garganey Teal (who moreover do not arrive in this

district in numbers till February, presumably on their way back from

further south ; they do not seem to come to the Roorkee district on

their arrival in India): also the White-eye and Gadwall stay late,

some few even tiil April sometimes.

The ‘ evening flight’ for record purposes has been taken as from

3.30 p.m., till dark (about 6 p.m.); and the ‘ morning flight’ as

from dawn till 8.30 a.m. or 9a.m.; though on misty mornings the

birds will flight tili as late as 10 a.m. Shooting inthe middle of the

day merely spoils the evening flighting, and never leads to anything

ofa bag. There is usually a big afternoon flight which goes on

spasmodically between 3.30 p.m. and about 5p.m., apparently birds

stretching their wings after their mid-day siesta. And the real

‘evening flight’ lasts from about after 5 p.m., till well after dark,

these being duck going to feed.

3. The figures in the Table present several points of interest ;

the years 1906-7, 1907-8, 1908-9 were all exceptionally good

years ; and so were 1918-19 and 1919-20; also 1914-15 was good:

in these years unusual numbers of duck arriving in this district.

This is well! shown onthe chart: the red curve of ‘ Total Bag’

showing ‘peaks’ for these years, corroborated by the blue curve

showing the average bag per ‘flight’: from the green curve it

appears that big bags of over 50 per flight are more numerous in

the years when duck are more plentiful, as one might perhaps

expect. The years 1907, 1908 and again 1918 were exceptionally

dry years, when the monsoon practically failed in the Roorkee area;

so it seems as if in a dry year more duck come to India; though

another explanation may be that in a dry year the smaller outlying

jheels are dried up and so all the duck are concentrated in the larger

and deeper places, such as the Roorkee jheels used to be prior to

1924.

The 27th column of the Table, giving the average bag per

‘flight’ in a season, shows that one’s average expectation in the

Roorkee District was about 29°68, say 30 birds, and cutting out the

last three years, 1924-27, when the conditions had radically altered

for the worse, it would be about 40 per flight. And the last line of

602 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the Table, showing the average numbers of each species, shows that

in any bag one might expect to get 37 per cent. Gadwall, 13 per

cent. Mallard, 11 per cent. White-eyes, 11 per cent. Common Teal

and 7 per cent. of Red-crested Pochard: though of course any

particular bag, owing to the nature of the place chosen as a stand,

might consist almost entirely of one species, e.g., all Mallard with a

few Common Teal if the place was in shallow water ; and all Red-

crested Pochards if the water were very deep, with perhaps a few

Gadwall.

4. Some points noted in my game-book that are not shown in

the Table, are of interest as regards the dates the duck arrive and

leave ; thus taking the different years :

1902-3: On October 18 (i.e., early in season), a morning bag

consisted of 12 White-eyes, 2 Common Teal, and 5

Cotton Teal.

1904-5: On October 22 there were no duck ‘in’ at all: on Nov-

ember 19 a bag of 43, showing the duck came in

between those dates: on March 5 (late in season)

a DAG OL. O1:

1906-7; Was an exceptionally good season: between April 8

and 11 (very late). 4Gadwall, 1 Red-crest Pochard,

2 White-eyes, and 13 Garganeys were got.

1907-8: On November 8 birds were few, only 20 bagged: on

January 27, 1908, all the Red-crests had left; (very

early). This was a very good season, anda very

dry year.

1908-9: On October 31 a bag of 24: while 69 were got on Nov-

ember 1, so the birds came in early this year: this

also was a very good season, and very dry.

1911-12: On March 9 a bag of 40: the duck were leaving, and

the weather very hot.

1912-13: A poor season: the Soilani R. altered its course owing

to big floods in 1912 monsoon.

1913-14: A good season: on November 8 abag of 19 only, birds

not yet ‘in’ properly ; on March 1 bag of 20, birds

leaving fast.

1914-15: On March 2 (full moon) three consecutive flights of 40,

41, 33: In monsoon of 1914 the Solani R. altered

its course radically and formed several new jheels:

a good season.

1917-18: On November 17 a bag of only 7: birds not yet

arrived; this was very late: on March 23 only

3, birds having left: a very poor season with few

duck. |

1918-19: A very good season with exceptional numbers of duck.

1918 was a very dry year with no monsoon: on

November Y a bag of 55, the birds being well -

fan. : a Z

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 603

1919-20: On November 15 a bag of 101. A very dry year, with

very little water in jheels.

1920-21: On November 27 a bag of 91, this was also a very dry

year with no rain after August 20, 1920.

1922-23: -On March 9 a bag of 92, very late in season fora

big bag. Heavy monsoon in 1922, and heavy rain

in February 1923.

1924-25: A very bad year: In September 1924 exceptional floods

in Solani and Ganges R., nearly all the Solani jheels

were silted up solid, and no longer existed after

the floods.

1925-26 and 1926-27: Both very bad seasons: there were

hardly any birds throughout both seasons, owing

to there being no water area for them to settle

on.

5. Numbers of the ditterent spectes.—The last line of the Table (in

bold type), gives the percentage of each species shot, on the average

of the whole period of 21 seasons; it is interesting to compare

these figures given for the U.P., east (district not stated), in the

Table on page 59 of D. Dewar’s book The Ducks of India

(1925 edn.) ; his figures are the number of each species occurring per

1000 birds shot. It may be here noted that Roorkee is in the

extreme west of the U,P., and there seems to bea considerable

difference in the numbers of some of the species occurring in the

east and in the west of the U.P.: most notably in the case of the

Red-headed (or Common) Pochard, and the White-eyed Pochard

and Garganey Teal, and to a less extent with Gadwall, Pintail, Spot-

bill, and Common Teal.

U.P. West U.P. East REMARKS

Species | (Roorkee) (Dewar) Roorkee Nos. compared to

_ per 1000 per 1000 U.P. East Nos. are

Mallard aaa 130 110 Rather more.

Gadwall eeeu|? 3/3 150 23 times as many.

Red-crested Pochard ... 74 80 About the same.

Red-headed (Common) 56 ils) Nearly four times as many.

Pochard.

White-eyed Pochard ... 116 270 _Much less than half the num-

| bers.

Pintail he | 22 | 40 | Half as many.

Skoveller teal 37 | 30 _ About the same.

Spotbil! ete. 14 6 Twice as many.

Wigeon a 21 16 _About the same,

Common Teal ue | 119 200 , About half as many.

Garganey Teal ee | 8 | 50 Less than 1/6 the Nos.

In the Roorkee District, the Gadwall (37:3 per cent) are the most

numerous species, being three times as many as any other kind. Next

come Mallard (13 per cent), the White-eyed Pochard (11:6 per cent),

Common Teal (11:9 per cent), Red-crested Pochard (7:4 per cent),

Common Pochard (5°6 per cent)—then the Shoveller only 3°75 per

604 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

cent; while, Wigeon, Pintail, are only about 2 per cent each, and

Tufted Pochard and Spotbill only 1:45 per cent each.

In some years exceptional numbers of particular species seem to

have occurred in the Roorkee District e.g.

Mallard (normal 13 per cent). In 1906-07, 17 per cent; and in

19¢38-9,17 per cent were bagged.

Gadwall (normal 37:3 per cent). In 1906-7, 43:4 per cent; in

1919-20, 43 per cent: in 1920-21, 47 per cent; in 1921-22, 60 per

cent ; and in 1922-23, 47 per cent were bagged.

Pintati (normal 2:2 per cent). In 1907-8, 4:4 per cent; and

1918-19, 5 per cent.

Wigeon (normal 2:1 per cent) In 1911-12, 4:2 per cent; and

in 1918-19, 4°3 per cent.

Red-crested Pochard (normal 7°4 per cent). In 1920-21, 15-3 per

cent.

Red-headed (Common) Pochard (normal 5:6 per cent). In 1906-7,

8:5 per cent; in 1918-19, 9 per cent; and in 1920-21, 9:4 per cent.

White-eyed Pochard (normal 11:6 per cent). In 1908-9, 13:9 per

cent.

Tutted Pochard (normal 1:45 per cent). In 1913-14 an exceptional

increase of 10°4 per cent.

Common Teal (normal 11°88 per cent). In 1907-08, 20°3 per cent;

and in 1918-19, 16°6 per cent.

Apparently in the exceptionally good (and dry) years, such as

1906-7, 1907-8, 1908-9, 1918-19 the Maliard, Pintail, Wigeon,

Common and White-eyed Pochards, and the Common Teal, formed a

bigger percentage of the bags thanin morenormal vears: while the .

commonest duck, the Gadwall, formed an exceptionally large part

of the bags in only twoof the exceptionally good years (1406-7,

and 1919-20), and then again in three consecutive seasons (1920

to 1923) that were not remarkable for large numbers of duck.

6. Some further notes on the commoner species in the Roorkee

District.

Spotbill. There are always in every year a good many small

parties (two to six) about during the whole season, and they

probably remain all the hot weather. All I have shot were the

common form (Anas p. pecilorhynca).

Comb Duck. These are uncommon, but one saw one or two about

in most years, early in the season only ; though I shot a pair on

January Livd9i5.

Cotton Teal. These are not common, but early in November ; a

few are seen about in most years; these appear to leave the

district after November, presumably for the south.

Lesser Whistling Teal. Nearly every year Isaw a few flocks

about; which disappeared after end of November, presumably to

go east or south. I never happened to bag any in the Roorkee

District, but other guns bag a few most seasons, always early in

the season.

Pintail. ‘These are not numerous, but every year there are a few

flocks all through the season.

Wigeon. Also not numerous, but occur every season; they come

late (in December) and leave early (February).

| \ \ I | | a .

p } | I | | | | i | 1 I ae Ee L b Sal oan ee ec tee . ‘Suosvas

Ba = >

pe OSES" se tel 8 2 2 2 B@ PeeWee sss esa gs ae zy

eS ~ ~ S N nv Be ~~ 3S ) N 3 \ % ® Gq :

ys 8 rs * “ nd S 8 = =

S ! (4)

00L

FAT; f

64 002

eze

~SF2 ~ ™ 192

ae = = SS yy 00F

a 8c \ g0e

re & LOE," eve we

Ny XN =

Ss s S 00v

ae “ue &. >

uv NY

8 “ = & F005

x ver > NS

y u » |

255" =

ols 5 = 009 0

oy 3

oO Ne 0597 >

see se Ly OOL

5 LS G

65. = 8 l

‘\ 5 “ $ Loog

Ne & & Sie 2 “els 3 00. SS

Pye ~ ~ 6Le €-6l_.. 4“ 8

= = N 261, omen w Red x Foz

“xe ra 6-81" BS j p= WY a a 006 SS

9-6 & mes \ 9:02 iS ; %

Ly ! 4 w / 9 o

8 x = ! a / = i 8

3 \ ei a s ! oor S Foe

SI \ =: %

| \ x

oy oO OS

8 \ S

' < bor

ich s

ov]

Na Z

nx l ene aes!

! =

* | <e

“*eserecnccceerMee remo, Fe Sie) \ ! y 9 =

4 o is the \ yg =

yO, Sw : 2

By $19 : =

or t r

796, : °

4 .

“eae Bay, | 3

" Bees eat 5

9 o

Mate cesscscccesie ‘uosoas ous og 420 szybyf big Jo‘ou 70;01 F

ee = = = WS:095 19d ry bf our Hw on abosaay $

OS DOLAD, uu p2bbogq yonp 7979

burjooys yybyf 4g epou yonp Jo shvog Jo pioray

‘WoOYbUIUUuNnD HY JOD 49 Zz6s 0f C06L mos suosvas {Z Ut YN ‘aayd400y AoaU

: ISAO pue jo i ret

j Gosves Ul S}YysIp [eloy : : : : :

*IIAO

pue 0g jo s}ysIp : a? Sm c 00 ur

UOSvdS Url [BIOL ° .

"Yoel Uy

‘Alenuer uy : : 4 on et

; ae Uy oa a is

‘Iequls0aqy uy : : 5 ie N i) <

Big flights of 50 and over.

fan

—

—_

T=)

‘ced

TABLE SHOWING DETAILS OF BAGS OF DUCK MADE BETWEEN 1903 & 1927 IN THE ROURKE DISTRICT, U.P.

SURFACE FEEDING Duck. | | | Ba a a Big flights of 50 and over. 8 REMARKS.

= —___—__—— wane —— = co < ——____ —_______-—_—_|] @ = =

= a

k shoot | 5 bo a OR a we lags a Ey av 2

De eH | & | g |sa] 3 Shee | | Bs fle le | a8 |. 8 Dates of

September g.- | a | ay laa ¢ | 9» 2] : Cis Ea st Gl|oen Ieee eee 25 uncommon ( m= Morning ‘ flight’, dawn (6 a.m.) till 9 a.m.

So April AR] Ss i |= | phy ia B® ) oa i sl Sh ect ail Qa i) Sole, F! ./ es mes >. || SBeeiss of i e= Evening ‘ flight ’, from 3.30 p.m. till dark

b = - : Hy : an D $ oe = . 9 S| 8 s/s |" = aK ik. 6 p.

ees) ils le lS) ee leg Sf yg Woes SB eh GES Cee) eral ae es | 2 Sea se oe Cy

a z Fingered et yy a iS 2 = = $ |} 33/25] ae] 25 |] 3 | ess EI ® |/as|/ 81s = | ana | oe S12 \a12\/3| ams) ee es

season 2 = | oe = c} rel] tS a ae 6a }ag|o5] £8 5 |ot&| o CE lich 3 = a |6g4)]53 ale | es ce | eno] 25 Bo

Sas & 1016 eye |) eae I eS ES = 16 | 6 ols Sh ol) tepell ea. iene Mika NEL: cet Ale eee) eye fe ca

1894-1895 43 2 %.|| 69 90 61 | eel | 278 21 a os INCLUDED IN TOTALS BELOW.

| ! = —t— ———— ———

a = pe = = _—_—— i 7 sale ] | | ee |

ya13-1904 je 2) a 1] |) G35 8 37 1 3 2 12 | Sh oe Wc 17094 ed 3103337 se bane4 | Parse [Rca eset eons en 28 612-03 fae

| | |

icop-1905 61, 1 emo 51 6 128 Sle 18| 34 80 P|) ats 32 | Ipmergoga] martes e2d:IMiee. |x liecet petal sseilll az | 49 pI98-04{ tees

| | nA | 30

195-1906. 3 85 1 6 11 | 3 Oe) « cexrs 29 | 46 Bl | 64 | | | 261 12, | 21-7 1 1] 2 | GEARS rere ES

| | | | | | | 29-12-06

AI ~~ | i} e *12- 1-07 e}

1906-1907 Zk gl] 2) w2) a} 62) 6| 423) 6 | eevallie 72))) 4934 | 107K 9 | m2] 15 | 1) | 43] 1,095] 27] 405 2) sil cali 6 | 78 | ea A very good season.

| | |

| | | | | | | |

| | | | | | | \ | | | | f A very good season—a very dry year.

= 3 | | 4 4 | 33 | | 7 | | | 53:51] 5| 2 P| ee 8 1 §1562 | cecsee § Local record flight till 1919—made on evening of

1907-1908 7| 42 7\ 60 45 | 442 133 |tee 39 53 Gs SEU os 207 |... esate i v | 1,017 19 | 53°5 1 | 3 November 15, 1907.

| | | | | | | | | | |

| | | ap §| §$29-12-081| 65.00

g-1909 ... | 23| 2 {emer 79)| Sy |ec43i |e o5ylennesa7i|| Sileesailiey72)| os2)|iee nail rail) 116) (nea | ere yee tS LAH ie taiye 1,013)]| <273)| 37: SMe AN ceepl| sl <- Saale 704) ha 3-09 §\Spectes|not xecorded-Wes. very ig ooulyears

I } | | 3 | "

hart | | | Ft a 53 {| $20- 2-111) Only 18 days in December, J: d Feb

1910-1916 5| 22) | ee 1 | 132 TAN ess 65| 10 25ullyen 91 CO Sat rs Il eae lheccs ti] 347] 18] 19°3))...| 1 Pa UW ore 63 {| SaRsOt| nly 18 days in December, January and February.

| | | | | | H | F 7

1g]1-1912 | 7 56 | 2) 14 1 171 PSU! eco} EA) 20 63 i4 0 47 | Sh les oA a a 494 24] 20:6}... | 2 2 73 gk eos -= 2 | esse

| | |

| | | | | ( Heavy floods in February, 1913, and Solani R.—

n | | 7 aR 4 } MARI ~ 9: Pal hern as CO | eareo attend its course.

‘912-1913 ey | op |) He te 57 Ol om a 10S u os 14 | a). ae = sca | 308 BN) SEE ces || cp | er ae | Only } season after January 1, 1913.

| | | \

| } | |

9131914 4 | 3] 93} 9] 49] 26] 209] 19] | 51 79)\\) 37M\| ee 65| 3 esa | 22] 29-7]... | 3] | 3 85 : | ic:

| ee) | 1 ea | | ell ell | ag |g phl-1-1 5)

19-1915...) 1 ¢2| 8] 34 23| 28) 3| 284 22 67} 7) 113} 32 Z| TSS ili eee ace sci 779 23 | 33:9\| .-. | 1) 1) 3 | ” me || oe | a i 311-15

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | |

| | | | | | |

| | | | | | | | | | | | § €28-1-17 1| onty } sez f

1916-1917 | 7 | 56} 1 | Gi er SIG ey es 625 eng Co} SU 3197] Samet | aes 19 | eter |e tl] 4a} 10] 4b) |] 3) | 3 | | 65 |) S071. (aly } season, after January 1, 1917.

| | | | | | |

97-1918. 2) 59) 2h as 1 90| 10] ... 2} 2 134 er24 re 15 | 2 | | vel econ lal 227/|| 12] 18:O\ peal |) U))-- |] 2. Wess BP eee

| | | | | | 135¢ | ( Very dry year, no monsoon, exceptionally good

"4 | @ | nae 9 5 let qecwet Wo | season.

1918-1919 1} 81 17)\|| 23) 28 202 235| (ers: 5 50 27 5 tee 923 ese ees oo =n eon 554 9| 61:5'| 4] 2)... | -- | ‘ { 100e | Only shot 4 season, up to December 7, 1918.

| | | mga ! Avenged Year aryyine monsoon hardly.

4 | 5 . p > se 7 5 -11- record up to 1927— di i f

1915-1900... 5) us 3] 18] 13 CN PSU) es 6| 26 74 ES re 53) eee ieee a0 sceyall ees 657) 12) 54:7] 4|..| 1]... ie Gi) <2 { joie; 1 16-11-1915 t st pe ekg ECO WES TEEC

(920-1921. ) 5) Gr Si) Bi) Ay Sea) FEI 33) | ese 25 | ea ea eel (tes es 570!| 16 |) s56f/) | | 3] 2)... | 5 | x ‘SUS | eee =-= |

| | | | | | | | | Ws

1921-1922 xO 5; 19 9 8 14 173 3 7 2 1 mm | 41 2 | 284 8 | 35°-5¢] \ 2 | 1 2 | Lee eros =

| | | | | | | | | | | ks

1922-1923... as | 4 60 10; 14 3 115 Li 3 | 2 | 10 | 4 | oy | 18 | 1| a Ih te Wee) seco 245 | 13 | 8B). | Lie. | | | 1 | + 85 sees Exceptional floods in Ganges and Solani R. in Sept-

| | | | | | | | | | | | | ember 1924 and most jheels silted up altogether.

| | | | | | | | | | | | | | | | IP) 4

| | | | | | | | | |

Wels... | | | 9) 17 | 18 | cco |) ea am Nees | | S| @ A) 2 [2 |e | | | | 275| 14] 196 | | 1} | a | ac2 ees A bad season with few birds.

1925-1926.) | | oy | 2 | 3 4 2| 3 47 All es 13 1 27 3 ono 2 WW coer |) eco od ch 112 8) 140 cL) ecsillieemaltireee 1 el 53. | seen Very bad season—only shot 4 season up to Decem-

| | H | | | | ber 28, 1925.

| | |

1926-1927 # | a Filla 1 2 6 2a ee 13 1 32 4 | 6 4 83| 14] 5-9 | | | 21 | tees | Exceptionally bad season—no birds at all.

a i ee eee] | Sj Ef = - — — — ! | =) | — — ESSE

T% | | I e 2 | =r _ , a'|| Ik ral ory | N.B.—Geese are not counted in Total bag of season

Totals | 56] 2)...] 4 | 83/}1,295| 144! 371] 222) 3.696) 211] ... | 738'| 555] 1,154] 140 1} 1,177; 80, 2| 6; 2] 6) 9,888 | 333 | 29-68] 15 | 19 | 16 Vea Oy eH oad Vek ej in Col. 25 opposite—not in the percentages.

| ae

ia } | — | —|-—— ae ak bea | =| |e 3 |) | = | —s —_ —= —<

Average al | | | eo | | | | | |

Precentage | ue | on | oe | 104) 84/1308 | 145 3°75 2:24 | 3734 213 TAB SON) 1165 | 44 Ol} 11°88 | +808 | -02 | -06 | -O1| 06} 10000] ... | .. | .- |---|. | | we | a ns ap || ax see

Species, | | } | | |

| | | | | | | | | ] i |

" ; d are not included in the totals at

Notes,—All the Spotbill shot were the common one (Anus pipoccilorhynca). Notes.—The figures for the year 1894-1895 are only given for comparison, and i b

All the White-eyed Pochard were the western form (Nyroca n. nyroca). ae bottoin of Le Ge in the average of species, as the year was distant from the series of twenty.

TNA Sa ee eee pie eae cere aa 2 no “er fedjby ithe: Bombay Mnsiboares are taken from my Game Book, kept in ink, and written up daily—I have always vetted

b fatlini raat i i i yeni’ d mornings.

Though no Lesser Whistling Teal were actually bagged, one or two flocks were generally seen each year the species bagged immediately on reaching camp, evenings an F if

in November (caving for the south at end of November)—and a few bagged each year by other All the duck were shot by ‘ flight shooting,’ as the birds flighted naturally to their feeding grounds

guns, morning and evening.

Specimens of following species were bagged near Roorkee between 1892 and 1905 by other guns to my

knowledge—Stiff-tailed Duck (O+yura leucocephala)—Marbled Duck (Marmaronetta angustirostris).

The scamp (Vyroca m. morila).

Compared with Col, Cunningham’s original Game Book,

E. E. G, SEARIGH'T,

Capl., R.E.,

Bee PEMeelaie ‘A. CUNNINGHAM,

Colonel,

April 20, 1927,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 605

Shoveller. These are fairly nutmerous in the jheels every

season, occurring in scattered parties.

Red-crested Pochard. These occur every season, the big flocks

arrive late (in December) and leave early. Owing to their occurring

in big flocks, a big bag is often largely of this species.

Red-headed (Common) Pochard. Some come every year; but they

are variable in numbers from season to season, much more so than

the Red-crests.

White-eyed Pocharyd. Is common every year and ubiquitous

in the jheels: they come earliest of the migratory duck, and

leave late: all I have shot have been the western form (Vyroca

N.NYVOCA).

Tufted Pochard (Nyroca fuligula). These are never numerous ;

but a few small flocks come every season.

Brahminy. Quite a few of these are always about in the jheels,

though they are much more numerous in rivers such as the Ganges.

Common Teal. ‘These are ubiquitous and common every year ; this

year however, 1926-27, it was noticeable that there were hardly any.

Garganey Teal. Very few of these appear till February ; pre-

sumably on their return migration from the east; they are then

fairly common ; and stay last of the duck.

The Smew. A few scattered individuals occur most years.

The Goosander. 1 have never seen these in the jheels, but have

shot them in the Ganges R. near Hardwar, where they are fairly

common.

Geese. Both the Grey-lag, and the Bar-headed Geese occur in small

numbers in the jheels in most years: the former being far more

common than the latter.

7. The following duck are very rare in the Roorkee district :—

Golden Eye (Glaucionetta clangula). 1 shot one on February

20, 1911, and sent it to the Bombay Natural History Society for

verification.

Falcated Teal (Eunetta falcata). I shot one on January 31, 1915,

and one on January 28, 1917, both were sent to the Bombay

Natural History Society for verification.

Common Sheldrake (Tadorna cornuta). Isaw two of these birds

flying with and leading four Brahminies, unfortunately my shot

brought down the third bird in the line, a Brahminy !! so I was

unable the make certain: but I am certain they were Common

Sheldrake (of which I have shot several in Sindh), as the birds

were well in shot and the light was bright, about 8 a.m.

Marbled Teal (Marmaronetta angusttrostris).

Stitt-tatled Duck (Oxyura leucocephala).

The Scaup (Nyroca m. maria).

Specimens of these last three have to my knowledge been shot

in the Roorkee jheels by other guns between the years 1892 and

1905.

RoorKEE, U.P., A. H. CUNNINGHAM,

April 20, 1927. Colonel,

608... JOCORNAL, BOMBAY NATORAY, WIST. SOCKET Vo Wool. XO]

XXIV.—SNIPE AND WOODCOCK IN S. INDIA.

The following extracts from my Game Registers of the last four

seasons, showing the different varieties of Snipe, and the number

of Woodcock shot, may be of interest :—

a Cooma! g 2. ;?

ls! 8 £\Elx/2

Locality Year | Month! z 2 he a ols Remarks.

o— = Co eal

eee llama

ae Se ae | || | is

| | |

Ootacamund ase 1923-4 aa | Ly 97s aia e eitst ShotOcotpens!o:

7 pe PG0GE S| «As SB eel elsleaet nor February 22.

2 VIO 26-6) Secs. | ae Slien, Deol eae First shot September 28.

| Last shot February 19.

| | Wood Snipe January 2.

Pf ... (1926-7)... |...| Q7|...| 2)...|...] First shot September, 28.

| Wood Snipe January 29.

Cannanore seat 1925 Dec: 18 IN] Pees ba

P are 1926 |e) ops UO} ae 22 Fs ern IR

} 1926] Nov.|23| 130] 1\...! 21 2

. 1927, Jan.j38) 134)... 3|21

S. Mysore a 1926 Jan. 23 SO) het et

* i 1986) sce Ite] asl elenlel

. 111926-7) Dec.-|15] Bkastecs| dass

| | Feb. |

75 Dy

S S

Locality Year |3| Ist shot | Last shot = Remarks.

g Es

Ootacamund _... |1923-4.14) Nov. 5 { Jan. 26 | 3) Stopped shooting on

January 26.

a .. |1924-5/27; Dec. 12 | March9 | 5 se

+ .-» |1925-6/14, Dec. 16 | Feb. 19 | 7| A poor year.

of . |1926-7 24; Dec. 11 | March 2 a ae

NOTES

Ootacamund.—Fantails are distinctly rare on the Plateau ; in fact,

the one shot in 1923 is the only one I have heard of for some time.

Wood Snipe are commoner in the Wynaad than up here, where only

four or five are shot each season. I send for reference the wing of

one shot last January.

Cannanore.—Pintails largely predominate ; occasionally one of the

larger variety is noticed, e.g. six during 1927. I send for reference

the tail of the last Swinhoe shot.

S. Mysore.—The Fantails included several more or less typical

specimens of Radde’s snipe, but unfortunately no record of them

was made at the time.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 607

Woodcock.—These seem to come in later than formerly, possibly

visiting the Anamalais before arriving here. February is the best

month and nearly all are gone by March 15, or earlier if heavy

rain falls. I think 25 to 30 may be considered a good average

season’s bag, it being remembered that smalJl game shooting on

the Plateau is limited to two days a week. Three woodcock weighed

on January 5, i.e. well in the season, were 10, 11 and 11 oz.

respectively.

LOVEDALE, E.G. PHYTHIAN ADAMS,

NILGIRIS, Major, 1.A., (Retd.)

Fane 1, 1927,

XXV.—A CORRECTION TO Mr. B. B. OSMASTON’S

‘NOTES ON THE BIRDS OF KASHMIR’

In Vol. xxxi, part 4 of our Journal, Mr. B. B. Osmaston has com-

menced a series of very valuable and interesting notes on the birds

of Kashmir. He will perhaps forgive me for venturing to correct

two of his identifications, as mistakes quickly gain currency and are

endlessly repeated.

No. 75, Acrocephalus concinens concinens.—'The Chinese Paddy-field

Warbler.

A Paddy-field Warbler has been known to breed in Cashmere ever

since Brooks first found an empty nest at Shupyion on June 13, 1871,

and shot the male bird which is still in the British Museum. Yet

though we have for some years known it to be common and Rattray,

Wilson, Davidson, Bates and others have collected numbers of the

nests and eggs, we cannot get its name right. In the last edition

of the Fauna we find it shown under two species Acrocephalus agrt-

colus (which may nest in Turkestan or the plains of India but cer-

tainly does zof nest in Cashmere), and A. concinens concinens (which

in my opinion does not occur anywhere in Indian limits). It re-

mained however for Mr. Osmaston to collect a proper series of skins

though owing to his departure for Africa he was unable to examine

them critically and merely accepted the identification given in the

Fauna. I have seen his series and also various other birds collect-

ed in the Cashmere jheels in the breeding season, 17 inali. I

have no hesitation in saying that these birds agree with Harington

and Whitehead’s series inthe British Museum from the Kaghan

Valley, the type locality for Acrocephalus conctnens haringtonz, which

is therefore the correct name for the Paddy-field Warbler which

breeds so commonly in Cashmere.

No. 77. Sylvia curruca affinis. Indian Lesser White-throat.

Both Dr. C. B. Ticehurst and myself have endeavoured for some

years past to dissipate the legend that this species breeds within

Indian limits, but it is repeated again and again like the mistakes

over the Paddy-field Warbler. Mr. Osmaston kindly gave me two

White-throats coliected by him inthe Suru Valley to identify his

eggs. These are both specimens of Sy/vza althea, Hume’s White-

throat which is really the breeding Whitethroat of Cashmere. It

608 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

will be noticed in Colonel Meinertzhagen’s account of his trip to

Ladakh (/ézs., 1927, p. 421) that he found S. althwa to be the com-

mon breeding bird of the Indus, Shyok and Nubra Valleys. Mr.

Osmaston’s mistake was of course due to his hurried departure for

Africa before he could make a fresh examination of his skins, but I

can only end by urging that for the present no egg collector in India,

Cashmere or Baluchistan will name any Whitethroat’s eggs without

a skin from the nest to support his identification.

CALDBEC HOUSE, HUGH WHISTLER.

BATTLE,

August 30, 1927.

XXVI.—AN ALBINO TURTLE

On June 25, I secured a specimen oi the Common Mud Turtle of

these parts, Amyda granosa intermedius, Annandale, which is appar-

ently an albino. It was a half-grown specimen and was bright

yellow throughout with the exception of the limbs and neck which

were chrome yellow. The plastron had the usual colourless appear-

ance. It was taken in the Ambajheri Tank at Nagpur and is depo-

sited in the Nagpur Museum. (Reptile No. 274.)

NAGPUR, “C. P.,; BO AVD ABREU. Fz.s

August 17, 1927.

XXVII.—NOTES ON THE DESERT MONITOR

(VARANUS GAISEUS) AND THE SPINY TAILED

LIZARD (CROMASTIX MICGROLEPTS)

The following field notes may be of interest: they have been

compiled from observation and the experience of Bedouin hunters.

Most of the facts were obtained from Nahaita, an Araif tribesman,

who has spent most of his thirty years or so of life hunting the wild

animals of the Shamiyah Desert, and Radam, who has had a similar

career. For their truth I cannot vouch, but both men are now in

the Camel Police and are models of reliability when reporting, and

of observation and knowledge when anything relating to the local

stretches of Iraq and Najd is under discussion.

The Desert Monitor (V. griseus) locally known as the harwhal,

ranges in adults from twelve to twenty inches in length. It is so

called because it is never seen travelling at any other pace but that

of a fast wriggling run. I have myself, however, seen them travel-

ling at what could only be termed a slow stumbling crawl but this

was in about twelve square feet of confinement.

They are easily overtaken by a running man. When neared, they

stop, turning their heads with mouths wide open in the direction of

their pursuers. They then lash their tails furiously from side to

side and shoot their tongues in and out at the same time hissing

loudly. If foot or stick is approached more closely to them, they

will make sudden darts snapping fiercely at the offending object,

and. although the only result is bleeding and broken teeth, they

persist in doing the same thing repeatedly.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 609

I have found that the best way to catch them is by a sharp kick

under the belly which bowls them over, a foot placed quickly on the

head then enables one to pick them up by the tail when a noose may

be easily passed over the head and up to the waist. I have never

seen them biting the line that holds them captive.

These reptiles are found in the Shamiyah Desert ana aiso in the

Gizerah region between the Tigris and Euphrates. ‘They prefer

sandy places especially with mounds or undulations, and it is only

when these are present that they are found in Subakha, a salt mud

of treacherous consistency found in patches of varying size in the

local desert.

Though they sometimes dig their own burrows, they more usually

adopt the disused holes of other animals such as rats and jerboas.

When its own excavation, the shaft is driven in at an angle of about

forty-five degrees to a distance of roughly eighteen inches, the

sunken end being expanded into a chamber. The outlet remains

single.

They are said to feed on the surface only, never taking food below

ground. No vegetation is eaten and they dislike water. Their

food consists of crickets, small lizards and local desert snakes.

Of the pairing of the harwha/l nothing is known, they are always

seen single. ‘The female is similarly coloured to the male, that is

with straw coloured belly, and back of a greenish-grey ground with

darker mottling. The belly ofthe male [ have noticed has a pinkish

tinge in early summer. The female is slightly smaller.

It is said not to hibernate, and as a fact is seen much more fre-

quently in winter all day long than in summer when it is seen in

early morning and late evening only. It apparently objects to more

than moderate heat and thisis borne out by its behaviour in capti-

vity. At night and when not directly under the sun’s rays it lay

contentedly inthe centre of its cage, but when the sun shone directly

upon it, great unrest was evinced and it was not happy until a

crack or cranny had been found into which at least its head might

be pushed.

It is not venomous. Ihave been bitten and so has my spaniel.

There was a very small puncture, little blood and no subsequent re-

action of any sort. It is not eaten by the Arab.

The eggs are laid in the burrow chamber and number fifteen to

thirty. They are described as being of the size of a pigeon’s egg

and are white spotted with brown. ‘The young are similar in colour

and appearance to the adult.

Both belly and throat swell when the animal hisses, the maximum

of hiss and swelling occur together.

The only folklore obtainable was, that the tribes say that if the

teats of goats and ewes are found swollen, the recent pastures are

searched anda harwhal is invariably found in the vicinity. They

say that ithangs on to theteats and drinks the milk. ‘The tribes

admit that no teeth marks are ever found. In captivity they do not

touch milk.

The ‘thub’ or Spiny-tailed Lizard (UW. microlepis) has the head

of the ordinary lizard to the eye of the lay observer, but its body is

almost as broadas itis long. The tail is relatively short but

610 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

tremendously thick and carries fifteen to twenty horny spikes which

project backwards and slightly outwards from the main stem. I

cannot appreciate its utility; asa weapon itis absurd, and asa

boring instrument if it is true that the ‘ thub’ burrows head first, it

is at the wrong end of the machine.

My informants say that it gets its name from its never moving

from the one place. It is found all over the Shamiyah Desert but

only where stony cutcrops occur and is not found at all in the

Gizerah.

Its burrow descends vertically in a medium spiral to a depth of

about four feet, a horizontal off-shoot near the surface in the

female burrow containing the eggs. The burrows are occupied

singly and have one outlet.

Unlike the harwhal the ‘thub’ eats vegetation but of no

particular sort. It also eats crickets and it is generally averred that

the female thub watches her eggs hatch not from maternal

solicitude but in order to eat them.

They hibernate in December and January and are much slighter

in February.

They breed in April and May. The female is said at this season

to protrude her rear half from her burrow at the same time slowly

waving her tail. This attracts passing males who signify their

presence by hissing. Hunters often catch a female thub by

approaching gently while she is thus employed and imitating the

hiss of the male. The female leaves her hole and is then an easy

capture. Coitus is by ventral apposition; the pair do not associate

for a time longer than is necessary for the act. Most males are

darkly coloured similar to the harwhal but there are some much

lighter. All females are light.

The eggs which are white are thirty to forty in number and are

compared in size and shape to small dates. They are laid in the

female’s burrow and as stated previously are hatched for the

table. Whether she eats only a proportion or all that cannot

escape 1s unknown. Both reptiles and eggs are eaten by the

Arab.

They are not venomous, and ripe old age, longer than man, is

said to be their destiny if they escape the desert hunters. The

commonest method of catching them is to pour water down their

hoies when they promptly emerge.

Their throats and bellies distend when they hiss asin the har-

whals.

NASIRIYAH, NORMAN L. CORKILL.

IRAQ,

September 9, 1927.

XXVITIL.—HAMADRYADS IN THE KUMAON TERAI

I saw two hamadryads in my shooting block. Neither of them

seriously showed much fight. The first one made off through

jungle ; I was within 10 yards of it when first seen.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 611

The second was inmy back verandah. I heard a curious swishing

noise while having tea at 4.30 p.m. and on looking out of the

window saw a huge hamadryad slowly moving along the back

verandah. I called up the servants and we threatened it with

sticks and it made off rapidly. We threw big stones and one caught

it on the back, drawing blood. It reared up about 3 feet or more,

expanding its hood, but did not drive home its attack and finaliy

went up a bushy tree 15 feet off the ground. Meanwhile my man

brought a shot-gun and I shot it through the head. It measured

13 feet.

I may say that I saw two hamadryads last year in a block in the

Siwaliks and neither of them showed fight. One we killed, the

other was lying beside a stream when I came on it in the early

morning while out after achital. It swam the stream like greased

lightning and disappeared.

AJMER, W. M. LOGAN HOME,

Silty S 1927. Major,

4th Bombay Grenadiers.

[While the belief that the Hamadryad wiil attack human beings

with or without provocation is widely current, authentic records of

its doing so are extremely rare. In the majority of instances this

snake, like others of his kind, seeks safety in flight. Eps.]

XXIX.-MR. SLATER’S DEATH BY SNAKE BITE

Some months back you published in your Journal my letter

regarding the above, in which I stated that it was a well-known fact

in these parts that the snake which bit Mr. Slater of the Geological

Department was a King Cobra or Hamadryad. I gave the facts as

stated to me by the Range Forest Officer who was at that time in

charge of the Thirthahalli Range in the Shimoga District where

this incident took place. In alater issue of the Journal Mr. R. C.

Morris of Attikan Estate, Mysore District, contradicted my statement,

and said that it was not a King Cobra but a Russel’s Viper which

bit Mr. Slater and caused his death. Iam sorry I was not able to

reply to this contradiction earlier as I have only now been able to

get authentic confirmation of my previous statement.

Mysore, S. INDIA,

September 27, 1927. CHARLES THEOBALD.

[Mr. Theobald forwards us letters received by him from the

District Magistrate, Shimoga, the Director, Mysore Geological

Department, and the District Forest Officer, Shimoga. Though

none of these officials were present at the time of the occurrence

they conclude from the reports gathered at the time that the snake

which caused Mr. Slater’s death was a ‘ Kalinaga’ which according

to Mr. Theobald is the local name for Hamadryad. Enps.]

65128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST? SOGIE TY, Vol, 2Oea?

XXX.—A NOTE ON THE GREEN WHIP SNAKE

(DRYOPHIS MYCTERIZANS) AND YOUNG

(With a photo)

A short while ago we received in the Society’s office two

consignments of this beautiful and perhaps the most graceful of our

Indian snakes. Among them were a few gravid females. About

two weeks after their arrival one of them presented us with fourteen

young, twelve of which are alive and vigorous, one was born dead

while the last was expelled still enveloped in the fcvetal membrane.

They were born during the night of September 5 and were discovered

the next morning.

The mother taped 1262°5 mm. and the average length of the

young, taken approximately twelve hours after birth, was 345 mm.,

the longest was 368 mm. and the shortest was 339 mm.

In general colouring they are like the parent except that the

longitudinal line on either flank is white instead of yellow. There

is a distinct white line over the upperside of the orbit which travels

forward along the angle of the snout to the tip. This is apparently a

juvenile character as it is not present in the adult specimens. The

only yellow marking is a short line running backwards from the

base of the orbit to the point where the head is differentiated from

the body,

The first slough as is customary with snakes took place soon after

birth.

: . :

: ;

. -

a : .

Bed ntadim nome saw mee Pe Re Uhdet Meal isis Sasa pilar SEtiy

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE RECORD CUBBANY MAHSEER.

ht 105 lbs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 613

The specimens were measured four days after and though they had

had no food, showed an average length of 361 mm.—an average

increase of 16 mm. Thelongest measured 379 mm. and the shortest

342 mm.

On a former occasion a specimen which |! had in captivity gave

birth to twenty-three young, seventeen of which were alive and the

others born dead. On this occasion also they were born during the

night.

It is unfortunate that these snakes cannot be kept for any great

length of time in captivity as feeding them is a very difficult matter,

and though they endure a long time without food they soon begin

to look miserable and emaciated. They would perhaps live if they

could be kept in a large cage and given a supply of small birds and

mice from time to time.

The accompanying photograph shows a number of these creatures

in one of our cages.

BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

6, APOLLO STREET, C. McCANN.

September 13, 1927.

{The mass of snakes shown in the photo were part of two

consignments of snakes sent from Hyderabad, (Deccan), to Delhi and

intercepted en voute by the postal authorities who, though they

tolerate most things, draw the line at live snakes. The sender

collected about 280 of these snakes for despatch through the post

from which we may conclude that the green Whip Snake is very

common in the neighbourhood of Hyderabad. Eps.]

XXXIL—THE RECORD CUBBANY MASHEER

(With a plate)

The mighty Masheer shown in the accompanying plate was taken

from the Cubbany River, South India (for which it is a record), on

November 6, 1926. It was landed in about 40 minutes using a Hardy

16 ft. split cane Hi-Regain rod, cutty-bunk line of 40 lbs. breaking

strain and Alcock’s special single hook.

Weight “ie ie ee, 105 Ibs.

Length ee: oe oa) 5 ft. 4 in.

Girth a a os oO ite Zi,

KIRKEE, G. A. HARE,

eawoust 1, 1927. Lt.-Col.

[Col. Hare has very kindly presented the skin of this magnificent

fish to the Museum of the Bombay Natural History Sociory. Eps.]

614. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIS TASOCIE TV AVGl eos

XXXIT.—AQUATIC RHYNCHOTA IN THE COLLECTION

OF THE AGRICULTURAL COLLEGE, COIMBATORE.

5, INDTA

(Published wrth the permission ot the Director of Museums,

Sao aid LA..S.)

Rao Sahib Y. Ramachandra Rao, Acting Government Entomo-

logist, Coimbatore, has very kindly entrusted the collection of

aquatic Rhynchota in his care to me for identification. Though

there is nothing of outstanding interest among this material, the

foliowing list of the species contained in it seems to be worth

publishing, as it adds considerably to our knowledge of their geo-

graphical distribution. All these species, with the exception of the

first, are described by Distant in his volumes in the Fauna of

British India series.

Family HyDROMETRIDA

1. Hydrometra greeni, Kirk. Coimbatore, ‘at light’. (Coll. V.&.

December 11, 1914).

According to Bergroth (Zool. Med.; i, 2, p. 118, 1915). As oxeenz,

Kirk. is quite distinct from A. lzxeatus, Esch. (described by Distant

as AZ. vittala, Stal.), though Distant and others have regarded it as

a synonym, his opinion being based chiefly on the male genital

segments. A conspicuous character, however, is that the whitish

hemelytral vitta is broadly fuscously interrupted about four to six

times, while in A. /zneatus it is only narrowly interrupted behind the

middle by two transverse veinlets. As the examples before me are

females, I have based my identification mainly onthis character.

J. R. Ja Torre-Bueno (Sfolia Zeylanica, xiii, 2, p. 226, 1925), who

does not appear to have noticed Bergroth’s work, also regards

Hl. greent as a distinct species, though he does not give very

definite reasons for his opinion. WA. greenz is a common Ceylonese

insect.

2. Gerris anadyomene, Kirk. College Farm, Coimbatore. (Coll.

Sius./., October 11,1916).

This is another common Ceylonese species, which may be

expected to occur in §. India.

3. Gerris adelaidis, Dohrn. Pulney Hill, 5,000-6,000 feet. (Coll.

P. S. Nathan, May 10, 1917).

The specimen before me agrees exactly with the description

given by Distant, the semi lunate basal marking on the head being

very characteristic. This species is related to G. paludum and G.

spinole and would come in Distant’s generic section C. It seems to

be a little known form of which further material would be useful.

4. Onychotrechus vadda, Dist. Pulney Hill, 5,000-6,000 feet. Coll.

(9, 7Vathanz,.May.10. 1917)

5. Cylindrostethus productus, Spin. Cauvery Bed, ‘Trichinopoly.

(Coll. PS: Nathan, Mareh 20,4918).

6. Ptilomera laticaudata, Hardw. Coimbatore.

7. Metrocoris stali, Dohrn. Dodabetta, Nilgiri Hills, 8,000 feet.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 615

Family NEPID&

8. Laccotrephes ruber, Linn. Wynad, Malabar ; Ponanosat, Tanjore

District.

9. Laccotrephes griseus, Fabr. Guindy, Madras (Coll. Fletcher,

Aueuste 17, 1913) ; Coimbatore (Coll. fletcher, May 13, 1913 and

November 27, 1913°(Colk. C. A. S., March 27, 1915); Yemmiganur,

Bellary = Wistricts (Coll... C.°V. December 24,. 1912); Sirugappa,

Bellary District (Coll. D. 2., November 28, 1912).

10. Ranatra elongata, Fabr. Peermade, Travancore (Coll. R. S. V.

April2i-23; 1913); Combatore( (Coll. Y. #., May 18, 1913).

Family, BELOSTOMATIDA

11. Spherodema rusticum, Fabr. Mathimudongudem, Kistna Dis-

trict ; Coimbatore; Sewage Farm, Madras (Coll. flefcher, August

1913).

12. Belostoma indicum, Lep. and Serv. Kinavallore, S. Malabar

(Coll. P. S. Nathan, June 15, 1918); College Farm, Coimbatore.

Family NOTONECTIDA

13. Enithares indica, Fabr. Coimbatore.

14. Enithares triungularis, Guer. Peermade, Travancore (Coll. /saac,

April 21-28, 1918).

15. Anisops sardea, Herr. Schaff. Coimbatore, ‘ at light’.

16. Anisops niveus, Fabr. Peermade, Travancore (Coll. /saac,

April 21-28, 1918).

c/o F.M.S. MuSEuM, CEDRIC DOVER.

KUALA LUMPUR,

PROCEEDINGS

Proceedings of the Meeting held on September 27, 1927.

A meeting of Members of the Bombay Natural History Society and their

friends tock place on Tuesday, September 27, at 6.30 p.m., at the Prince of

Wales Museum. Mr. H. A, W. Brent presiding.

NEw MEMBERS

The following 51 members were elected since the last meeting :—Mr.

I. C. Petit, Bombay ; Mr. Ishwardas Lukhmidas, Bombay; Mr. Lakhmidas

G. G. Tejpal, Vile Parle, Bombay; Mr. A. P:Neatham, Bombay ; Mr:

Hooseinbhoy A. Lalljee, Bombay; Sir R. N. Mookerjee, K.c.1.E., K.C.V.O.,

Calcutta; Mr. A. W. John, Chittavarrai, S.I.; Mr. S. C. Petit, Bombay: Myr.

S.C. Barooah, Assam ; The Principal, Deccan College, Poona; Mr. Sultanbhoy

Bajeebhoy, Bombay ; Mr. A. K. Kothare, Bombay; Mr. H. B. Guzdar, Bombay;

Mr. C. H.. Phillips, Assam; Mr. E.R. Gfant, Washington, U.S.A. ; Mua:

P. M. Dalal, Bombay ; Mr. J. Burke, Bombay ; Mr. E. C. Benthall, Calcutta ;

Sir Onkar Mull Jatia, Kt., 0.8.z., Calcutta; The Principal, Maharfaja’s

College, Ernaculam, 8.1.; Mr. J. N. R. Mehta, Karachi; Mr. R.G. J. Crisp,

Itarsi, C.P.3 Mrs. A. J. Leech, Madras; Sir Cowasjee Jehangir (Jr.)) mt

K.C.S.1., C.1.E., Poona; Mr. B.S. N. Cooper, Bombay ; .- Phe. Ytvarail on

Limbdi, Limbdi, Kathinwar; Mr. Kaikhosru N. Chandabhoy, B A., F.A.A.,

Bombay; Major E.A. Breithaupt, Hyderabad, Déccani ; Dr. F: E. Davar,

L.D.s., R.C.S., L. M. &S.,J.P., Bombay ; Mr. Ebrahim Dawood Kazi, Bombay ;

Mr. C. E. Hewetson, I.F.Ss., Bombay; The Principal, Mrs. A. V.N. College,

Vizagapatam ; Mr. A.G.C. Elliott, Kishtwar, Jammu; The Librarian, Osmania

University College Library, Hyderabad, Deccan; Mr. D. N. Bahadurji,

Bombay; Mr. T. T. Kothavala, Dhulia; Mr. Hoshang N. E. Dinshaw,

Karachi; Mr. Fakirjee Cowasjee, Karachi; Mr. A, R. Hughes, Bombay ; The

Honorary Secretary, Ranikhet Club, Ranikhet, U.P.; Mr. Wm. Harper,

Bombay; Mr. Rustomjee D. Dalal, Bombay ; Khan Bahadur D. B. Cooper,

Satara; The Librarian, Lucknow Military Prison & Detention Barracks

Library, Lucknow, U.P.; Raja Sardar Singh Bahadur, Khetri, Rajputana; Mr.

Muhumud Faiyuz Khan, F.R.G.S., B.Z.S., Agra. U. P:; Mr. C. E.Atwoodr

Bombay; Mr. C. P. Gouldsbury, Mattupatti,. S.d.; Mr:C. P. Wallace

Bombay; Mr. B. P. Patel, Bombay; Mr. K. C. Dinshaw, J.p., Bombay.

The first case of a series to illustrate the classification of Indian Birds was

exhibited before the gathering.

Sir Reginald Spence read a paper on ‘Game Preservation in India’

compiled from an enormous amount of material received from members,

Forest Officers, Sportsmen and others competent to write on the subject from

all over the country.

The paper (since published in the Journal) dealt with the existing methods of

preserving game from destruction and suggested ways and means which might

be eraployed with advantage in future. Game animals should, on the whole, be

looked upon as the living assets of the country and therefore their develop-

ment, and preservation should be encouraged by every legitimate means. In

the paper attention was drawn to the various parts of the country which were

gradually but steadily being depleted of game and where more stringent

methods of control were called for.

This of course cannot be entirely left to the forest officials, generally

speaking are more concerned with increasing their forest produce revenue than

preserving game which is often injurious to the forest plantations.

After the paper was over, the Chairman introduced Mr. J. E. Barton, OF the

G.I. P. Railway, who very kindly prefaced the film ‘ Sport in India’ which

was subsequently shown, with his experiences with the cameramen and the

beasts depicted.

The film was kindly lent by the G. I. P. Railway Publicity Department and

was made at Betul, onthe G.I. P. line in the C. P. The object was te—show

the public of Bombay what possibilities there were in the way of Big Game

shooting within a twenty-four hours’ journey from the City.

The pictures were much appreciated and the Chairman moved a vote of thanks

both to the Publicity Department of the G. I. P. Railway and to Mr. Barton for

his prefatory remarks.

Printed by George Kenneth at the Diocesan Press, Madras and published by

R. A. Spence for the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

PPSOURNAL’ (7 s)

Geter foo ee

te ae *

4 a

ao - a _ ree - ».

EDITED BY a

Mc. De SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. H. P:

| & SALIM A. Al, M.B,

"Date of Publication, 31st May, 1928. ce

-” Non-Members _.. ss Rs, 16-0-0 s eS a

as | : Or Be Fe

For terms of membership see inside front cover.

Honorary Secretary’ 8 ea: :

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY ~——-

S 6, eis Street, Peneey:

_ LONDON AGENTS:

DULAU & Go., Lta.,

32, old Bond Street, W. 1.

AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

a OS < : ee y : =

eae a Fiend: Liat” ae Cel Gea: yee gf | Pirds of the

; &E Cc. Stuart Bagne,: O.B.B., M. B. SO FE ZS ss ids

Gy Wine . (Price. to Members Rs

“ Came Birds of India, Burma & Ceylon. : Vol. 1. foe B eae and

: gone Edition. Ne era

odian Pipisaak and ae wick Solna illustratioas by

0.B E., M.B.O. Uk ZS; ete 0 ge ie

Fea os ie Ck ee ee ae ey Members Rs, ;

ie Sie oe = nae ae 7 Rares 2 fe ee

te Cee of cee ce = ZY: ee op Z roe re aoe

a ae Sig Hanging Wall Chart, 30”%x 40”. = ay Su Ho ee ves

Peas: _ Folding Pocket Chart. rape Sa (ga rte abs

| Snakes: of f Botathey Hatand and Salsette, by Ss. He PkareR,

: et | ‘Miscellaneous. ae

an “Wood- Destroying White Ants ‘of the Rombar Preridency, by Rev. aS A

* teiclovie of the Society's. Libiary: SSE a See ae que

a> 6 List of-Indian Butterflies, by Lr.-Cov. W. ‘HL Bvans, R. E. Gee RN a Ae

oe Wall Chart to distinguish a Wild Dog from a “Domestic Dae or Jackal. -R

ae la ontification Ay Indian a Bottorilics, by. Cor. _W. H. Evans, R. E. Koa

ea ee TERMS OF MEMBERSHIP. ae

ie caer 2 a8 “Life Members pay an entrance fee of Rs. 20 and a Life! Memiporstitp ee

: a _ Rs, 350. : Be ae ta Sake ee

sie gee . - ~ Ordinary. Meonibexk pay an entrance foe. of Rs. ; 20,5 and. an. a ana

eo we (iis “ gubscription of Rs. 25. Ae SR ES AEAE, Ren ns

Re se "The subscription of members discted’ in Oumine Novela: and - :

er ia -. covers: the period | ae oe date. of. as ‘election up till the end ©

ee pollowas BCR ps ae in ae ae eee

3 tee _ MEMBERS RESIDING OUTSIDE INDIA. at

| pe eee ee ‘The terms are ‘the same for members living outside India. © Such m

eo should pay their subscriptions by. means of orders on their Bankers to pa

-. amount of the subscription, plus postage—in all Rs. 26- 8-9 to, the Socie!

Bombay on the Ist January in each year. “If this. can Db tf!

of £2-0-6 should be paid annually to the Society’ sb

National Bank of India, oe ere Aes E

CONMENT SCOR VOL. XX XIT, No. 4

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. (With a coloured plate.)

Bye © Stuart, baker, "E.Z.S., B.lsS.,:M,B,0.Ui., HoF.A.OLUs ilocsekee

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY, Part VI.

Eee ater Sd y bil: Deyuikis ly. Go he ccese. ves dbeien sehisescacd seas icievsccaesseeee?

A CoLLectTiInG Trip TO LApDAK. Part II. (With two plates.) By

Sete CESOIMI Careers ctse ch ccs tay vabuicaceiantess oie vies sVaslbigietecsoesichecshoaedtoeteck

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA. Part II.

(With two plates and three text-figures.) By R. 1. Pocock, F.R.S.

THE Bic BULL OF SEMBUTOLLAVU. (With a plate.) By C. P,

CE COMM SID Uy eterna acta esc veastsinds «aside Stelios ues ssiewess alleles pee veuwelceccess es

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. Part XXX. (With three plates.) By Lt.-Col.

RCO ol HASSE ac PMG. 14s He PCSip sacesccet Secon veledos sc uats cues Vege vicoateceeasedns ced

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE. Partl. (With two plates and five text-

UOTE) ML ESV Ae MATES NLCC AMIN, Hoi ped ncedy eee dace cies osegdorcasiboseediseeseedss

NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FISHES FROM CEYLON. (With two

DUGLESe\ mY. ELCU TY. Wi, POWER” iistsosesceecetiaccn cstoatesdsccehovesee ree

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE ADJACENT HILL

PROVINCES woceant, Ville sby Col. As He Warten oitescsctiissecccieceecec ase

FoRAGING TERMITES. (utermes biformis, Wasm.) (With a plate.)

yen Wis Gren EMIMOStOM Mal OF, I MeSc: «ges csclaetedeidh + oat Seta ves dbase edness

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS ABOUT SIMLA. By Hugh Whistler, F.L.s.,

ZS nee a eee ae se atinne seo ctnc eae erddncs talon siovabiaad eedcebourdemn cus sees sgesceastauee

SomME NEw SPECIES OF PLANTS FROM THE WESTERN GHATS. (With a

lale.). By Ey Blatter and, Cs McCantt =): Jics.csccssteasdesskeceecastessee ce os

BIRDS OF PREY AND THEIR USES. ( With four blates.) By C. H. Donald,

AES NTO: U Serer ies Serac at oibe tical ae lsil aca cle weeeceea sot e toivebblngelccedebcooesuwasasys

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR District. (Witha map.)

By Rev. F. S. Briggs and B. B. Osmaston, M.B.O.U., I.F.S.,

WING) by aprdepeactdes sacle ts Rotiesierenwe ic easdhes Memes nee mau cenceags Nucvecrtaca zene

MoDERN MusEuM MetHops. Part Il. (With two plates.) By S. H.

PERUANO (Cp MisZ Soo ocsipccchcsesstiegse PAs cdiotinaacs cee mae ties tgece orm eseetes Ce Neeuee ss ary

REVIEWS—

A HANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA. Part IV _........,

THE LITTORAL FAUNA OF KRUSADAI ISLAND IN THE GULF OF MANAAR

WITH APPENDICES ON THE VERTEBRATES AND PLANTS .,....ccccccceeees

RUE meAt G@ ANTE R Av EN “DIGHRe MAND) 9.32. 2ccdestsanccerdsecds ceeatrecccetcensasvossce

Hecate IES Me INR EEG g TWIN GIO EO © mucins tire as sui ci ge tess sale abecndcsesaecideletiesensaveevesnies

io BET ORIUAILA AiseenGCoeercReeeE rn ee eer eer Pe Oerere een acne ae ce aust ta Veet s ehcmainhe outs wes ues

SES IOILA SOIC VMMEN MR PIC ONE io sialic iuic> Fea sie oi Yale: ica dials bre Sais a Ceva:bsia sinsia yn cledisinte cy a'n'e ole ydeeledieesb'ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I.—‘ A Unique Lion Photograph.’ By F.W. Champion, I.F,S.

ANGEL PLYMON SII. As oANLT acdc: ceireal antels sects dns, ¥unesenet cecesmen

II.—A Clouded Leopard (Felzs nebulosa) eee Man. (Witha

pia By A. Brownlow; Jndian: iPONCEe |. f..0..0 di tecscase seas

PAGE

660

il CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXII, No. 4

Ill -—Noosine Tigers." By tet OAs) Scssncancteccceessesnes devahcastaer

IV.—Reply to Mr. Phillips’ Note on P. 371, Vol. XXXII ve Colour

of the Long-armed Sheath-tailed Bat (Zuphozous, longi-

Manus J .By C,-MeCanneaines. scc-.scecceceesees Secsaeseche <teceeinc cae ;

V.—Habits of the Porcupine. By Ralph C. Morris

VI.—An Elephant with Extraordinary ‘Glands’. (Witha plate.)

By MAC Sis AUT GS terse cc eeetenciesdoces sci dasieleaatestaeceeseseeteec nesses

VII.—On ‘ Natural Deaths’ in Wild Elephants. By Ralph C.

Morris

ee ee ee ee ee ee ee eee ee ee ee ee ee

VIII.—Clicking Noise made by Muntjac. By B. B. Osmaston,

Indian Forest Service (Retd.)

Cee ceo eoeseet¥secarce eer seseca'*® seerersees

IX.—Crows and Koels. By E. A. Andrews, Entomologist, Indian

Tea Association

HEC COSCO ESET F OOHOHEE LETHE EEE HESS ORE OH EE LOCH L EC EERECEOEE CEE

X.—The Rufous-Breasted Blue Flycatcher. (Cyornis hyperythra)

at High Levels. By C. Boden Kloss

COCO cee eseseteeoseorerccegsecese

XI.—The Nidification of the Sind Hill Warbler (Suya crinigera

styviatula). ‘By. El. W.) Waite, F.Z:S;, M.B.0,0.. “indian

Police

eeeerece SeaDoo ET ES SET ELT EHEC HET EOH LOOT ELSES ESET COCO ECC ECOL OE EEE

XI1.—On the Unusual Food-habits of Hornbills. By Satya Churn

Law, M.A., BoL., Ph: D.;f.Z.S.., M8 <O.U.

XIUI.—The Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata) in the Dar-

bhanga District, Bihar. By Chas. M. Inglis, F.z.s., F.4.S.,

M.B.O.U.

CROKE COCO LERSERL EE EEEE BOT EEEEOES Bs BEOEES CEE TEe Leer eeEEEC TEE Seo eEOtE® eos

XIV.—A Quail’s Queer Retreat. Reprinted from the Sunday Times,

Johannesburg, Transvaal, November 13, 1927 .oc.c.cccccecee ce

XV.—-Occurrence of the Sheldrake ( Zadorna tadorna) in the Dar-

bhanga District, Bihar. By Chas. M. Inglis, F.z.s., F.E.S.,

M.B.O.U.

COO Fee eee Ber ee sect seeee Seterccerccceeseesos SSC Cee cereccccceeeecereD

XVI.—Occurrence of the Sheldrake (Zadorna tadorna) in the United

Provinces, “By f). Wo) Searight Capt as ee

XVII.—Recovery from the Bite of a Phoorsa (Echis carinata). By

A, A. Meaden, Lieut.-Col., R.A.M.c.

ee eS ee ee

XVIII.—The Mogul Emperors of India as Naturalists and Sportsmen.

By Sunder Lal Hora, D.Sc., F.L.S., F.z.S., Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta

210 O 000 1010 BS, O.0 018 Bis 0 Bee 6: 0) 10/818 074 eee ,0)0)0010:0,4\0) 0.001010 vee plaice ecaisie in

XIX.—The Effects of Bee Venom. Reprinted from Zhe Indian

Medical Gazette, Vol. LXII, No. 5, May 1927, By A. Bayley

de Castro, Junior Medical Officer

XX.—Plants and Insects. By H. Jouguet

XXI.—Weeds of the Indian Wayside. By H. J ouguet

PROCEEDINGS AND STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS

fOr eee rea reese c sens tec ceecccres see

794

795

796

797

798

800

802

805

807

810

813

es ‘EN iy

Spoodlusiu siusojesayy

BSNVYUD GAWDSN-WMOVIG SAHL

“OOS “LSIP “IVND 4 VUNOT

qo?

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Naturai History Society

May, 1928 VoL. XXXII No. 4

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE

a CaS TUART sbAKER, B.Z.S.,. EF. S., M:B-O:U., H.F.A.0.U.

VOIE., = W

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS

EAR iy I

(With a coloured plate)

(Continued from page #07 of this Volume)

MEGALORNIS NIGRICOLLIS

The Black-necked Crane

Grus nigricollis Przewalski, Mongd. Tang., li, p. 135 (1876),

(Koko Nur.)

Vernacular names.—Tung-du, Trung-dung. (Tibet).

Description.—Lores and crown dull red bare skin, sparsely

covered with coarse black hairs: a patch of feathers below and

behind the eye white, sometimes extending in a narrow line over

the eye; rest of head and neck black ; wing-guills dull black ; the

innermost prolonged secondaries black; inner webs of outer

secondaries black or mottled with black and many of the greater

coverts over the secondaries more or less black on the inner webs ;

scapulars sometimes with a little black mottling on their terminal

quarters ; remainder of plumage pale ashy-grey, the shafts of the

feathers of the upper plumage showing as fine darker brown lines ;

tail dark blackish-grey, tipped and edged paler grey.

Colours of sott parts.x—‘‘ Iris yellow; bill horny-grey or horny-

green, more yellow towards the tip ; legs and feet black ’’ (Ludlow. )

Measurements.—Wing 625 to 668 mm.; tail 234 to 947 mm.; tarsus

223 to 252 mm.; culmen 124 to 137 mm.

Distribution.—Ladak, Tibet, Setchuan and Yunnan, where it was

procured by Forest,

618 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIST. SOGIETY, Vol eon

Niditication.—The Black-necked Cranes’ nest and eggs were

first discovered by Capt. R. Steen in 1905-6 at the Hramtso Lake

in Tibet at an altitude of about 14,700 ft. Later Capt. J. Kennedy,

Major F. M. Bailey and others found it breeding in some numbers

about various Tibetan lakes and Osmaston also found it breeding

in the Ladak Lakes.

The nest varies considerably. Often it is a mere scratching in

the ground with a pretence of lining, just afew reeds and rushes

forming a bed for the eggs tolie on. At other times amore

pretentious nest is made and quite a pile of grass, rushes and other

weeds is accumulated having a good depression in the centre for the

eggs. The bird breeds on the same ground as the Bar-headed Goose

and sometimes its own nest is surrounded by the large down-

covered nests of these birds. The eggs are two in number and closely

resemble those of the Common Crane except in being much bigger.

Most of those I have seen arerather dingy olive-brown or olive-

green eggs scantily blotched with dull reddish-brown or _ purplish-

brown with secondary, or underlying, markings of purple grey or

reddish-grey. TTweive eggs average 101:2 & 64:1mm.; maxima 105-0

xX 63°4mm. and 103:2 & 69:1 mm.; minima 96:4 « 64:1 and 39-3

xX 59°6 mm.

The breeding season is from the end of May to the first week in

July, most eggs being laid between May 25 and June 15.

Habits.—Walton found this crane: very wild and difficult to

approach in the Gyantse plateau but much more tame round about

Lhasa, though it seems equally common in either place. During

the breeding season it is constantly found in company with Bar-

headed Geese and looks very curious as it stalks about, its black

head and neck towering above the very white geese. It keeps

entirely to the shores and islands ofthe lakes and to the wide open

plateaus, feeding both on vegetable shoots and on all kinds of

insects, smallreptiles, etc. Ludlow describes its call as very like —

that of the Common Craneand its flight is said to be powerful and

graceful.

MEGALORNIS LEUCOGERANUS

The Great White or Stberian Crane

Grus leucogeranus Pallas, Reise Reich. Rus., ii, p. 714 (1773);

(Irtin and Ob Rivers.) ; Blanf. and Oates, iti, p. 187.

Vernacular names.—Kare Khar. (N.W.P.), Tunki(Oudh), Chin

Kulang (Hansi, Hind.) ; Burmuch (Behar).

Description.—W inglet, primary coverts and primaries black ; fore-

head, fore-crown, face and sides of head bare except for a few white

bristles ; remaining plumage pure white.

Colours of soft parts.—Naked skin of head reddish; iris bright

pale yellow; bill umber brown; legs and feet pale reddish-pink.

(Hume).

Measurements.—Wing § 635 to 645 mm.; & 538 to 620 mm. ; tail

205 to 218 mm. ; tarsus 275 to 285 mm. ; culmen 185 to 197 mu

Young birds have the whole head clothed with white feathers and,

according to Hume, have the white plumage tinged with buff,

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 619

Distribution.—South-eastern Europe, Asia Minor, through Siberia

to Japan. In winter migrating to India and North China.

Niditication.—There is very little known of the breeding of this

fine crane. It is said by Godlewski to bethe most wary and shy

of all cranes, inhabiting the steppes near the large yivers, arriving

at its breeding haunts in April and leaving again in September.

Dresser gives the tollowing as known breeding places. Russia on

the lower Ural and in the Perm Government (both uncommon) ; in

the Tolol and Targai Governments, not uncommon; in the northern

parts of Turkestan ; Dauria on the Vilnui River ; in the delta of the

Kolzma; Amur, Ussurito N. E. Mongolia. As regards its nest

the only note I have is from Kuschel who in sending a pair of eggs,

writes, ‘‘ I have another pair, both taken by a Russian collector from

nests of rushes and reeds on the ground by a lake.’’ Thetwo eggs

Kent me measure 98:9 « 54-6. and 95:0 x 62:0 m. In colour

these have a rather bright reddish-olive ground, well blotched with

dark brown primary and purple-grey secondary markings. They

can be matched by many eggs of the Common Crane. An egg

received by Dresser from Bianchi was paler than most eggs of that

bird, but unusually heavily blotched, whilst another laid in Lord

Lilford’s grounds was a darker colour than most. These two eggs

measured 92°7 X 61:7 and 101°3 XK 63:2 mm. Other eggs laid in

the aviaries of Mr. St. Quentin seem to closely resemble these.

Finally, a pair of these eggs from Bianchi was also once exhibited

by Dresser ata meeting of the B.O.C.! but not described or

measured.

June seems to be the month when most eggs are laid, whilst two

seems to be the normal clutch. As, however, with many other

cranes, often only one young survives and Hume noted that the

old birds on arrival in India usually had only oze young one with

them.

Flabtts.—The Siberian Crane arrives in North-west India about

the middle of October, sometimes a little earlier, sometimes not

until the third week of that month. Further south they appear still

later, not reaching their extreme southern limits until the last week

in October or even early November. It regularly visits most parts

of North-west India and spreads in lessening numbers as far as

the Najatgurh Swamp near Delhi on the south to Jainagar in Be-

har on the east (where it was seen by Inglis) and to Kohee, twenty

miles south-east of Kamptee near Nagpur. Nowhere does it

arrive in vast multitudes like the Common and Demoiselle Cranes

but only in small flocks seldom numbering more than twenty

individuals and often consisting of one or two pairs and their young

ones.

This Crane is said to be the most elegant and graceful of all our

cranes. Hume says of it, ‘‘ It is the lily of birds and stand in what

position it may, the entire outline of its form presents the most

graceful and harmonious curves.’’

It is exceedingly wary and shy and the utmost patience and care

are required for a successful stalk. Moreover the birds keep

LUBULL: BO. Ce, VOL, =X1, pixod:

620 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

entirely, or almost so, to places where there are no facilities for

stalking. They stand or wade all day long in shallow swamps or

lakes well away from cover and if there are beds of tall reeds and

rushes round the edge of these same pieces of water, be sure the

birds will be nowhere near them. Hume, who tried all kinds of

ways to get within shot says there is but one way of doing so.

‘“ You obtain from one of the local fowlers a trained buffalo, and enter

the water a good quarter of a mile away from the bird, under cover

of this quadruped. It has, as usual, a string run through the nos-

trils and tied lightly together behind the horns. You hold this

string where it lies across the cheek with the left hand; your ex-

tended left arm is hidden behind the neck: your whole body is

bent, so that your head and shoulders are covered by the buffalo’s

shoulders, your body and the greater part of your legs, by its body.

Only your legs to a little above the knees show close to the hind

legs; and, as far as possible, you always keep the beast up to his

belly in water. Thus covered you slowly sidle up to the Cranes,

making the buffalo, now put hisnose up, head in air, now stop and

lower his head to the water, and generally dawdle and meander

about without apparently any fixed idea in his head, accordingly to

the natural manner and customs of a free and independant buffalo.

With a little practice it is easy thus to get within shot. You softly

let the cheek strings go and at once fire below the buffalo’s neck.

Before your gun is well off, your sporting companion, who has a

marked distrust of Europeans and white faces, and has been inces-

santly endeavouring to kick you throughout your whole promenade,

knocks you head over heels, and rushes off towards his dusky

owner, bellowing as if he, and not you, wete the injured party.”’

When not kiiled outright it defends itself stoutly with legs, wings

and bill,but chiefly with the latter, against either human or other foes.

They feed principally on aquatic plants and seldom resort to

cultivated dry plains, at all events during their stay in India, nor

have the remains of any animals or insects been found in their sto-

machs. Hume remarks on the remarkable number of small pebbles

often found in the stomachs of these birds. Out of an old male he

took enough to nearly fill a wine glass, the pebbies being mostly

quartz or green stone ranging in size from a pin’s head to an ordi-

nary pea.

Their flight is similar to that of the ordinary crane and though

they seldom soar, they do so occasionally with ease and grace.

Apparently they have no trumpet call like most cranes and their

cry has been likened to a repetition of the syllables kayekhur rapidly

repeated whilst their usual note when feeding and undisturbed is a

feeble chirrup.

MEGALORNIS MONACHUS

The Hooded Crane

Grus monacha Temm., Pl. Col., pl. 555 (1835) (Yesso and

Korea).

Vernacular nanes.—None recorded.

Description.—Lores, forehead and fore crown covered with black

bristles ; remainder of head and neck pure white; all the rest of the

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 621

plumage dark slaty-grey, more or less tinged with brown, especially

on the upper parts; edges of the feathers both above and below

fringed with grey, these almost disappearing in abraded plumage ;

quills, the decomposed ends of the drooping secondaries and the

tail blackish-brown.

Colours of soft parts.—‘* Iris yellow ; bill greenish tinged with red

towards the base ; feet dull reddish ’’ (Blyth).

Measurements.—Wing 510 to 545 mm. ; tail 155 to 180 mm. ; tarsus

208 to 220 mm.; culmen 92 to 110 mm.

Young birds appear to be a much paler grey; the head is well

covered with bristly feathers, grey with black shafts on the crown,

whiter on the forehead and black on the lores and in a patch on

either side of the forehead.

Distvibution.— Breeding in Japan and Eastern Siberia, migrating

south to China in winter. The only quite certain record of this

crane’s occurrence in India is that of a young bird shot by me in

North Cachar in December, 1899, but I saw several of these cranes

on two occasions in the lower reaches of the Subansiri in N.

Lakhimpur. Hume saw a small flock of cranes in Manipur which

must have been this species and other probable occurrences are

recorded by Anderson at Ponsee, west of Bhamo, and by Couchman

near Myothil in Upper Burma.

Nidttication.—I can find nothing on record beyond the statement

that it undoubtedly breeds in Dauria, Amur and in Eastern Siberia

and that it arrives in its breeding haunts in April and leaves again

in August.

Habits.—This crane is said to haunt open plains and marshes

but to be nowhere very numerous, whilst even when migrating it

collects in small parties only. According to David and Oustalet it

migrates in pairs or in flocks of half a dozen to a dozen. The flock

I saw in Cachar numbered seven, and those I saw on the Subansiri

were in two flocks of seven and eight respectively. In each of

these instances the birds were on the move and though I shot one

in Cachar I could get nowhere near those on the Subansiri, though

I spent a whole day trying to get at one flock which kept moving

down stream and settling every half mile or so. The other flock

rose when first disturbed and went right away at once, flying very

high in a line and loudly trumpeting at the start. The flock I saw

in Cachar seemed very tired as if they had flownfar. They pitched

very headlong on the banks of the stream I was boating down and

Stood still as if exhausted. Even after I had shot and secured one,

the remaining six kept pitching among the short reeds on the river

side, though they would not allow me to get within a hundred yards.

Their call seemed to me much like that of the Common Crane and

their flight also very similar. They rose with perfect ease from the

ground and at once rose to a considerable height.

David and Oustalet comment on the affection shown by a pair of

these birds, the one for the other, and narrate how the male of one

pair being shot, the female descended to the ground and attempted

to assist him to rise.

(To be continued.)

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY

Ey BLATTER, S:J.; PhSD., at--s.

PART VI

GRAMINEAt

E. BLATTER and C. McCann

(Continued from p. 435 of this Volume)

38. HETEROPOGON, Pers. ; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 410.

Perennial or annual grasses, with simple or more often upwards branched

culms ; branches few to many, mostly flowering and gathered into a spatheate

panicle; racemes conspicuously dorsiventral, the bases of the male (or neuter)

spikelets subimbricate on the back of the raceme, their upper parts bending

forward around the sides, forming a hollow in which the fertile spikelets are

enclosed, with their awns exserted anticously and often intertwisted. Spikelets

2-nate, those of the lower (1 to many) pairs alike in sex and shape, male or

neuter, of the upper pairs differing in sex and shape, one of each pair sessile,

the other pedicelled on the many-jointed rhachis of solitary racemes, terminat-

ing the culms and their upper branches; rhachis, tough or upwards tardily

disarticulating and glabrous between the homogamous pairs, readily disarticulat-

ing above them; homogamous pairs long-persistent, the spikelets of the

heteroyamous pairs falling separately, the pedicelled with the pedicel, the

sessile with the adjacent joint and the adjacent pedicel or its base. Sessile

spikelets subcylindric, awned ; callus long, pungent, densely bearded upwards.

Involucral glumes equal, the lower coriaceous rarely chartaceous, more or less

tightly involute, quite keelless, nerves obscure, often connected by few trans-

verse nerves in the upper part ; upper with a deep longitudinal groove on each

side, coriaceous, rarely chartaceous, between them, thinner towards the margins,

membranous at the tips, 3-nerved. Lower floral glume hyaline, nerveless, upper

stipitiform from a hyaline very slender base, cartilaginous upwards and passing

into a usually stout geniculate awn. Pale small or absent. Lodicules large or more

or less reduced, to very minute. Stamens 3, often rudimentary or absent. Stigmas

exserted terminally or laterally. Grain more or less linear in outline, subterete,

slightly dorsally compressed ; embryo somewhat exceeding the middle of the

grain. Pedicelled spikelets male or neuter, dorsally flattened, usually slightly

asymmetric, and often somewhat twisted, muticous, imbricate. Lower involu-

cral glume herbaceous, many-nerved, winged upwards from one or both keels ;

upper membranous, lanceolate-oblong, acute, 3-nerved. Floral glumes

hyaline, 1-nerved, well developed or more or less reduced. Stamens 3 or 0.

Species about 6, in the tropical and subtropical regions of the whole world.

Cke. describes four species under Andropogon, viz. A. polystachyos, Roxb.,

A. triticeus, R. Br., A. Ritchiet, Hook. f., and A. contortus, Linn. We trans-

fer these to Heleropogon and add Heteropogon oliganthus, Blatter & McCann.

A. Not more than 30 cm. high

I. Upper involucral glume of pedicelled

spikelet 1-3-nerved es a. 1-37. f0licaniiins:

Il. Upper involucra! glume of pedicelled

spikelet 5-nerved ee .. 2 H. polystachyos.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 623

B. More than 40 cm. high

I. Lower involucral glume dorsally deeply

grooved ‘ HT. insignis.

II. Lower involucral glume not dorsally

grooved

1. Ligule of several narrow membranous

segments sc 50 set 4s EL Rechter.

2 Juigule trineate; ciliolate .... ua Oa fle CONLOTIUS.

1. Heteropogon oliganthus, Blatter & McCann, nov. comb.— Andropogon

oliganthus, Hochst. ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 368; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 201.

Description: A dwarf annual. Stems 7-15 cm. high, tufted, slender, some-

times creeping below, geniculate. Leaves 5-7°5 cm. long, quite flat, subensi-

form, acuminate, softly hairy, margins thickened, cartilaginous, sheaths

compressed ; ligule very short, membranous. Spikes usually very shortly

exserted from the long, narrow, glabrous spathes ; peduncle curved, puberulous.

Spikes 8-16 mm. long, with 3-6 pairs of glumes, lower spikelets neuter. Joints

and pedicels about half as long as the sessile spikelet, long-ciliate. Sessile

spikelet 5mm. long, oblong; callus short, obtuse. Lower involucral glume

obtuse, chartaceous, dorsally villous toward the base, not dorsally channelled,

shining, faintly nerved, with narrowly involute margins, ciliolate towards the

truncate tip, callus bearded, upper involucral glume obtuse, apiculate. Lower

floral glume very short, broadly oblong, ciliate, upper with a shining awn 3-4 cm.

long, column of awn glabrous. Pale very small. Anthers 1mm. long. Pedi-

celled spikelet, neuter, larger than the sessile, ovate-oblong. Lower involucral

glume herbaceous, obovate-oblong, truncate, distinctly 9-13-nerved, subemargi-

nate, keels scabrous, imargins ciliolate, hard!y incurved, upper shorter by },

membranous, oblong, obtuse, 1-3-nerved, ciliate. Pale of upper floral glume

very small.

Hackel, l.c., is of opinion that this species is intermediate between Dichan-

thium and Hetercpogon, but comes nearer the Hleleropogons, because the

sessile spikelets differ from the pedicelled ones in shape, nervation and the dorsal

furrow.

Locality: Deccan: Kalsubai (Patwardhan!); Mahableshwar, open edge

above the precipices looking from Dhobi’s Waterfall path to Elphinstone Point,

elevation 4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4608!) ; Panchgani

(Blatter & Hallberg B1221!, McCann!).

Distribution : Nilgiris.

2. Heteropogon polystachyos, Blatter & McCann. comb. nov.—Andropegon

polystachyos, Roxb. Fl. Ind. i (1832), 261; Steud. Syn. Gram. 367; Hook. f.

in F.B.I. vii, 989; Dalz. and Gibs. 301; Cke. ii, 989.—A. pumtlus, Roxb. Ic.

ined. t. 2021 (ex Hook. f.).

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality: Deccan: Khandala (Woodrow) ; Mahableshwar, western side of hill

(Dalzell & Gibson). We have not seen this species,

Distribution : Peninsular India.

3. Heteropogon insignis, Thw. Enuin. Pl. Zeyl. 437; Benth. Fl. Austral. vii.

517.—Andropogon triticeus, R. Br. Prodr. (1810), 201 ; Hack. Monogr. Androp,

588; Steud. Syn. Gram. 368; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 200; Cke. ii, 989.—A.

ischynanthus et liananthus, Steud. 1|.c. 367.

Description : Cke. luc.

Locality : Konkan : Above Kenery Caves (McCann 9634 !).— Deccan : Around

Vital Hills, Poona (Bhide 782!) ; Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel!) ;

Khandala, very common on open hillside composed of rock fragments (McCann

9425!) ; Igatpuri (McCann 4338!) ; Mawal, Poona District (Woodrow).—S. J7/.

Country: Manoli (Talbot 3978 !).—Aanara: Anmod, bare hillsides, elevation

2,000 ft., rainfall 200 inches (Sedgwick 3324 !).

Distribution: India (Burma, C. Provinces, W. Peninsula), Ceylon, Malaya,

Australia.

4. Heteropogon Ritchiei, Blatter & McCann, comb. nov.-Andropogon Ritchiei,

meek. f. in f:B.1. vii, 201; Cke. ii, 990,

Description : Cke. 1. ¢,

624° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATOCRAL AIST SOCEITY Vol ees

Locality : Deccan : Katraj Ghat, eleven miies S.E. of Poona (Gammie 1037 !) ;

hills near Poona (Woodrow).—S. M7. Country: Belgaum (Ritchie teste

Hook. f.).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, apparently endemic.

5. Heteropogon contortus, Roem. & Schult. Syst. Veg. ii, 836; Stapf in Prain ;

Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 411.—Azndropogon contortus, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753), 1045 ;

Hack. Monogr. Androp. 585 (excl. A. polystachyus, Roxb.) ; Hook. f. in F.B.I.

vii, 199 ; Cke. ii, 990. For other synonyms see Hook. f. and Stapf 11, cc.

Vern. Names :—Sunkhali, Nani Sunkhali (Dohad); Survalu (Charodi) ;

Kursali (Poona) ; Kusal, Sukhli kursali, Ganjali hullu (Belgaum) (ex Burns).

Known to Anglo-Indians as Spear grass.

Description : Cke.1.c.

Locality : Gujarat: Sevalia (Chibber!); road to Lasandra (Chibber !) ;

Sungiri (Gammie 15586!) ; Junagad Kathiawar (Blatter 3789!).— Khandesh :

Bhusawal (Gammie!) ; Toranmal (McCann 9640!).—Konkan: Dahe forests

(Ryan 717!) ; Osarvira forest, Mokhada range (Ryan 190!); Malabar hill

(McCann 3620!) ; Mulgaum (McCann 4245!) ; Parsik, railway line (McCann

9655!) ; above Kenery Caves (McCann 9662!).—JDeccan: Katraj Ghat,

11 miles S. E. of ‘Poona (Shevade!) ; Trimbak (Chibber!); Khandala, very

common all over the hills (McCann 9422!); Bairawadi, Purandhar (McCann

5059!) ; Rahuri (Nana A264!) ; Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel !); Manmad,

river bed (Blatter A269!) ; Igatpuri (McCann 4328!); Panchgani (Blatter &

Hallberg B1246!, B1296!, B1308!).—S.1/.Country: Dharwar, elevation

2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 1820!) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15686!) ;

Badami (Talbot 2925!).—Aanara: Yellapore (Talbot 734!).

Distribution : Mediterranean region and tropics and subtropics generally.

Uses: For an interesting account of this grass see W. Burns, L. B. Kulkarni

and S. R. Godbole: A study of some Indian Grasses and Grasslands, in Wem.

Dept. Agr. India xiv (1925), 28-44.

Varieties : Hackel (1.c.)distinguishes two varieties and,excluding polystachyus,

5 subvarieties. His first variety genwznus is characterized by the male spikelets

being more or less covered on the back or at least above or towards the margins

with white, patent tubercle-based bristles. This character together with the

degree of ramification of the culms forms the foundation of four subvarieties :

typicus, Roxburghii, hispidissimus and secundus.

The second variety glaber has the male spikelets glabrous. Both varieties

are represented in India, and all the subvarieties except secundus.

To Hooker f. (1. c.) these varieties and subvarieties appear ‘ to be too in-

constant for definition’, and, according to Stapf (l.c.) the inconstancy of those

characters ‘is so evident that it is not worth while to discriminate between the

forms corresponding to them.’ Haines, too, has abstained from distinguishing

varieties and forms.

Burns and others in the paper quoted above (p. 40) wrote in 1925: ‘In our

observations at Kalas and elsewhere we noticed variability within the species,

and early came to the conclusion that there must be definite varieties of Andro-

pogon contortus. We can say with confidence that there are at least two

varieties, differing markedly in size, habit, longevity, and in morphological

characters. Oneis small and annual, the other large and perennial.’ Since

then Patwardhan and Hedge have published a paper? in which they describe in

detail the morphology, anatomy, physiology and ecology of the two varieties.

As the authors themselves identify their perennial variety with Hackel’s

subvariety ¢ypzcws, and their annual variety with Hackel’s hispidissimus, we

shall refer to them in the following under Hackel’s names. The description is

taken entirely from the paper just mentioned.

Key to the varieties.

1. Lower involucral glume of pediceiled

spikelet sparsely hairy with long tuber-

cle-based deciduous hairs on the back,

in the upper part and towards the

margins ; lower part glabrous .. (a) var genuinus, subv.

ty picus.

1G. B. Patwardhan and G. R. Hedge, Two varieties of Andropogon contor-

des, Linn. In Journ, Ind, Bot. Soc, vi (1927)).213;

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 625

2. Lower involucral glume of pedicelled

spikelet densely hairy with tubercle-

based persistent hairs all over the back ;

hairs in lower part shorter than in

upper bis sae . (0) var. genuinus, subv.

his pidissinius.

(a) var. genuinus, suby. typicus, Patwardhan and Hedge 1.c.; Hack. in

Monogr. Androp. 586 (swb Androp.).

Description: Perennial. Stems densely tufted, 45cm.to 1:2 m., suberect

or decumbent, about 3 mm. thick at the base and much flattened, glabrous,

simple or subfastigiately branched from the nodes of the upper half; inter-

nodes not much longer than the leaf-sheaths. Leaves crowded at the base;

sheaths smooth, compressed, keeled, shortly auricled at the mouth; ligule

short, truncate, ciliolate; lamina 5-35 cm. long, acuminate or abruptly so, at

first folded inward, afterwards flat, rigid, suberect, ciliolate or sparingly hairy

on the upper surface, with tubercle-based hairs towards the base, rough to

the touch on both surfaces. In semi-dry or dry specimens the leaves may be

vinaceous to deep vinaceous in colour. Spike solitary, terminal, 2°5-7'5 cm.

long excluding the awn, with closely imbricating pairs of sessile and pedicelled .

spikelets. Spikelets subsecund, pedicelled ones all male or neuter ; of the ses-

sile spikelets the lower 2 to 8 male or neuter awnless, the upper awned, female ;

the lower awnless spikelets persistent, the upper awned ones. deciduous.

Sessile spikelet: Lower involucral glume narrow, linear-oblong, truncate

or rounded, brownish, many-nerved, hispid with short sparse hairs,

margin incurved, tip membranous; upper involucral glume linear, obtuse,

coriaceous, dark brown, hispidulous, 3-nervec, margins incurved. Lower

floral glume oblong, hyaline, thin, nerveless, short, truncate, paleate; upper

empty, reduced to an awn about 7‘5cm. long, column slightly hairy, callus

long, pointed, with atuft of reddish brown hairs. Ovary linear, stigmatic

branches from 6-8 mm. long, with thick-set hairs, carmine in colour, fading

towards the tips. Pedicelled spikelet: Lower involucra! glume lanceolate,

obliquely twisted, sparsely hairy with long, tubercle-based, deciduous hairs on

the back in the upper part and towards the margins, lower part glabrous, mar-

gins unequally winged ; upper involucral glume oblong-lanceolate, acuminate,

o-nerved, ciliate towards the tip, margins hyaline. Lower floral glume oblong-

hyaline, l-nerved, ciliate, epaleate, containing stamens ; upper empty, obovate,

lanceolate, hyaline, ciliate, nerveless. Stamens 3, filaments 3mm. long; anthers

oblong-lanceolate, cordate at base, pale yellow when young, light purplish

vinaceous; pollen grains round, not sculptured, dull grey. The sessile male

spikelets in the lower part are similar to the pedicelled spikelets above. Fruit

9-8 mm. long, thinly hispid, dark brown with 2 deep furrows on the ventral

side, armed with a pointed callus below and a long lash-like awn above.

Locality: ‘'Tegur (ex Burns and others).

Distribution: Tropics and subtropics generally, N. W. Himalaya, Afgha-

nistan (ex Hackel).

(6) var. genuinus, subv. hispidissimus. Patwardhan and Hedge l.c.; Hack.

in Monogr. Androp. 587 (swb Androp.).—Andropogon hispidissimus, Hochstett.

in Schimper Pl. Abyss. un. it. no. 1219.—A. desukiensis, Steud. in Zoll.

Syst. Verz. 59.

Description: Annual. Stems little tufted, 15-60 cm. high, erect or slightly

decumbent below, slender and slightly compressed near the base, glabrous,

simple or subfastigiately branched from the upper 2 or 3 nodes; internodes

much longer than the leaf-sheaths. Leaves little crowded atthe base ; sheaths

smooth, slightly keeled, shortly auricled at the mouth ; ligule short, truncate

and ciliolate ; lamina 2°5-20 cm. by 2°5-5 mm. wide, linear, acuminate or

abruptly so, ciliate or hairy onthe uprer surface up to nearly half its length

from the base with tubercle-based hairs, rough to the touch on both surfaces,

in semi-dry or dry specimens straw to very light purple in colour. Spike solitary,

terminal, 1-5 cm. long excluding the awns, with closely imbricating pairs of

sessile (lower) and pedicelled spikelets. Spikelets subsecund, pedicelled, all

male or neuter ; of sessile the lower 2-5 male or neuter, awnless, upper 4-12

female, awned. Those which are male or neuter persistent, the upper 4-12

pairs which include both males and females deciduous. Sessile spikelet :

Lower involucral glume narrow, linear-oblong, truncate or rounded, brownish,

626 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. aH

many-nerved, densely hairy with whitish long hairs, margins incurved, tips

membranous ; upper involucral glume linear, obtuse, coriaceous, dark brown,

hispiduious, 3-nerved with incurved margins. Lower floral glume oblong,

hyaline, thin, nerveless, short, truncate, epaleate, upper empty, reduced to an

awn, 3S'1 cm. long, columu densely hairy with whitish hairs, callus long,

pointed, bearded with light brown hairs. Ovary linear, stigmatic branches

4-5 mm. long with thinly set ox-blood red hairs. Pedicelled spikelet : Lower

involucral glume lanceolate, obliquely twisted, densely hairy with tubercle-

based, persistent hairs all over the back, hairs on lower part shorter than in

upper; upper involucral glume oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, 5-nerved,

ciliate, tip hairy, margins hyaline. Lower floral glume oblong, hyaline,

l-nerved, ciliate, upper oblong or obovate-lanceolate, hyaline, nerveless.

Stamens 3, filaments 4mm. long; anthers oblong, sagitate, pale yellow when

young, sulphur yellow when mature; pollen grains round, smooth, dull grey.

The sessile spikelets in the lower part are similar to the pedicelled spikelets

above. Fruit 5-8 mm. long, densely hairy with whitish soft hairs, light brown

with two deep furrows on the ventral side, armed with a pointed callus below

and a long, lash-like awn above.

Locality: ‘ Usually found on the very shallow parts of Deccan soils’ (ex

Burns and others, l.c.).

Distribution : Malabar, tropical Africa, Madagascar, Java, Phillippines.

39. IskiLEMA, Hack. ; Cke. ii, 995.

Cke. has described two species: /. Wightiz, Anders. and J. daxum, Hack.

We adda third one, /. anthephoroides, Hack.

The following key is after Hole? :—

A. Lower involucral glume of hermaphrodite

spikelet dorsally appressed, hairy at base and

ciliate on margins in basal } .. Ll. L. anthephoroides,

B. Lower involucral glume of hermaphrodite

spikelet glabrous dorsally at base and on

margins in basal 4.

I. Spathe and upper floral leaf not tubercled on

keel RE CI BOR AIL

II. Spathe and upper floral leaf tubercled on

keel ee AL AN

1. Iseilema anthephoroides, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 683; Hook. f. in. F.B.I.

vii, 219 ; Haines Bot. Bihar & Orissa, 1054.

Description: A much tufted annual grass, very leafy below, with many

stems 30-80 cm. high, Sometimes pink, nodes glabrous. Leaves mostly short,

the longer ones about 13 cm. by 5 mm., subobtuse, ciliate at base and tip of

sheaths, cilia with small tubercle-bases, blades with scabrid margins, nerves

usually fine and uniform; ligule of short fine hairs. Panicles long, rather

strict, but some of the spatheoles divergent, lower spathes foliaceous, upper

with shorter blades, base of blade and top of sheath with very long cilia ;

spathes often with many tubercles on the margins. Spatheoles cymbiform,

not acuminate, smooth and glabrous or minutely tubercled and scaberulous,

margins scarious, several spatheoles from each spathe or leaf-sheath. Peduncle

of cluster very short, 2°5-5 mm. long. Cluster scantily bearded at the base.

Involucral spikelets broadly oblong, 4 mm. long, rounded at tip, not or very

sparsely ciliate, their pediceis about 1mm. long and nearly as broad at top,

compressed, bearded. Glumes 2 only. Lower involucral glume with narrowly

inflexed margins, strongly 2-nerved on the back and almost sulcate on either

side of midrib, 2 other partial nerves between the strong ones, upper involucral

glume nearly as long, flat, oblong, obtuse, 1-nerved; floral glume absent.

Anthers yellow. Sessile spikelet 5-6 mm. long, suddeniy tapering part or

beak rather longer than the lower broader part. Lower involucral glume

2-cuspidate at tip, 4-nerved between keels, hispid-hairy on the back on the

wider portion, the beak scabrid or scabrellous ; upper involucral glume as long,

1R. S. Hole, The Indian Species of J/sezlema, Agric. Journ. of India,

Special Ind. Sc. Congress Number (1917), 125-131. See also A. Camus, Le

genre /sezlema, in Bull. Soc. Bot. France, series 4, xxiii (1923), 493,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 627

narrowly lanceolate with prominent ciliate keel on lower third, scabrellous

above, margin inflexed. J.ower floral glume very narrow, 2-nerved, ciliate,

upper reduced to the membranous base of the awn, awn 12-i4 mm. long,

very slender, nearly smooth.

Locality: Khandesh: Near Naradana (Blatter & Hallberg 5206!) —

Deccan: Katraj Ghat (Gammie 929!) ; Deolali (Blatter & Hallberg A316!) ;

Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel!) ; Pashan (Gammie!).—S. WW. Country :

a fields EH. of Hubli (Sedgwick & Bell 5295!) ; VYelvigi (Sedgwick

2085 !).

Distribution: W. India and Deccan.

Uses: Asmaller yielder and an inferior fodder piant than /. laxum. See

W. Burns Bull. 78, Dept. Agric. Bombay, p. 11.

2. Iseilema laxum, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 682; Hook. f. F.B.I. vii, 218;

Cke. ii, 996. For synonyms see Hook. f.1.c

Description: Cke. 1. c.

Locality: Gujarat: Red upland near Talod (Sedgwick !).—handesh :

Bor, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 4429!) ; Toner, Tapti bank (Blatter &

Hallberg 5167!); Dadgaum (McCann A322!).--Konkan: Sion (McCann

3668 !); Thana (McCann 8728!); Parsik Hill (McCann A321!) ; Bhandup,

rice field (McCann A323!) ; Trombay {McCann A324 !).—Deccan : Grasslands

between Mahableshwar and Panchgani (Sedgwick & Bell 4742!) ; Nasik

(Bourke!) ; Lohagad, half way up (McCann A320!) ; Poona (Jacquemont

439).—S. M. Country: Dastikop (Sedgwick 2059!) ; Dharwar (Sedgwick

1826!) ; Belgaum (Ritchie 799).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2087!) ; Sirsi

(Kulkarni!).

Distribution : Upper Gangetic Plain, Orissa, Deccan, W. Peninsula.

Uses : Considered to be the best fodder grass in Central and S. India.

3. Iseilema Wightii, Anders. in Nov. Act. Soc. Sc. Upsala ser. 3, 2 (1858), 251;

Iliack. Monogr. Androp. 679; Hook. f. F. B. I. vii, 218; Cke. ii, 996. For

synonyms see Hackel and Hook. f. 11. ce.

Vern, Names: Mabid (Dohad), Moshi (Surat), Gandhi (Charodi), Gandheli

(Panch Mahals), Sona, Tambrut, Tambit, Gondval, Gamsi, Mussau (ex Burns).

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality: Gujarat: Kharaghoda (Saxton 503C! ); in a very marshy valley

between Wastrapur and Thaltij (Sede wick 322!); Morvi, Kathiawar (Woodrow). —

Khandesh : Antroli, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 5150 !).—Deccan : Panch-

gani (Blatter & Hallberg B1294!); Poona (Woodrow).—S. MW. Country :

Kunnur (Sedgwick & Bell 4922!) ; Rhanibennur (Bhide!) ; Haveri (Talbot

2254!); Dharwar (Nana A325!); Belgaum (Wecodrow).—Kanara: Halyal

(Talbot 2143 !).

Distribution : Throughout India.

Uses: A fair fodder.

40. TiumMeEpbA, Forsk.; Cke. ii, 992.

Species about 16, in the tropical and subtropical regions of the Old World,

chiefly Indo-Malayan.

Cooke describes 4 species: 7. tmberbis, T. Cooke, 7. ciliata, Hack.,

T. cymbaria, Hack., and 7. tremula, Hack. Following the laws of priority we

have to substitute for the first two: 7. ¢rzandra, Forsk. and 7. guadrivalvis,

©; Kuntze.

I. Involucral spikelets truly verticillate

1. Involucral spikelets glabrous or more or

less irregularly beset with tubercle-based

hairs 1. 7. triandra.

2. Involucral spikelets. ‘always with a row of

stiff bristles along the flexures near the

tips, the bristles arising from coarse pale

tubercles 2. T. guadrivalvts,

Il. Involucral spikelets in closely. superposed

pairs

1. Inflorescence a decompound thyrsiform

panicle. Lower involucral glume of

bisexual! spikelets not channelled tah ae 3 Ls CYMOaTIG

628 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol2 XG

2. Inflorescence a racemiform prance:

Lower involucral glume of bisexual

spikelets deeply channelled ... ee the atvemulan

1. Themeda triandra, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt. Arab. cxxiii ef 178; Schweinf. in

Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, Append. ii, 16,95; K. Schum. in Engl. Pfl. Ost.—Afr.

A. 51; Rendle in Cat. Afr. Pl. Welw. ii, 161; Pilg. in Engl. Pflanzenw. Afr. ii,

151, fig. 114; Pilg. in Mildbr. Wiss. Ergebn. Deutsch. Zentr.—Afr. Exped. ii, 45 ;

Eyles in Trans. Roy. Soc. S. Afr. v. 298; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 416,

partem tantum nostre speciei amplectens.-—-Themeda Forskalit, Hack. in Monogr.

Androp. 659, excl. syn. Anthistiria hispida, Thunb. gue est Tristachya

leucothrix, Trin. see. Stapf.; Duthie Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 43; Durand &

S@hinz Consp. Fl. Afr. v. 731; K.Schum. 1.c. A. 23, 56, 79); Enel. Hlochee-

birgsfl. Trop. Afr. 115; Batt. & Trab. Fl. Anal) Algér. et Tunigis55. Stapn

in Kew Bull. (1907), 212; Pilg. in Engl. Pllanzenw. Afr. ii, 119.— Anthistiria

imberbis, Retz. Obs. iii, 11: Desf. in Journ. de Phys. x1, 293, t. 1; Thunb. FI.

Cap. i, 402, ed. Schult., 107 ; Kunth Enum. i, 481; Steud. Syn. Pl]. Glum. i, 401;

Stapf in Dyer Fl. Cap. vii, 366; Wood Natal Pl. ii, t. 133; Burtt Davy in

Transvaal Agric, Journ. 111, -287, t. 02%; Hook. 1. in EBT viiy (21 iri eee

Ceyl. v, 248; Prain Beng. Pl. 1207,.—A. glauca, Desf. Fl. Atlant. ii, 380, t. 254

excl. syn.— Stipa paleacea, Vahl; Coss, & Durieu Expl. Scient. Algér. ii, 52.—

A. Desfontainet, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 161.—A. czliata, Retz. 1.c.(om Linn. f.);

Lamk. lll. t. 841, £. 2; Cav. Ic. 5, t. 459; Nees in Linnaea vii, 284 ezin Fl; Ate

Austr. 121; Anders. in Peters Reise Mossamb. Bot. 562; Oliv. in Trans. Linn.

Soc., xxix, 176% Roxb. Fl. Ind., 71,2475 Grab. Cat) BombiePl\ 23973 Dalz

Gibs. Bomb. Fl: 304; Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl’366; Trim. Cat. Ceyl, Pienose

Benth. FI. Austr. vii, 542.—4. Forskahliz, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 162, Enum. Pl.

481.—A. vulgaris, Hack. in Engl. & Prantl. Nattrl. Pflanzenfam. ii, pars 2,

29.—A. punctata, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 448.—A. paleacea,

Ball. in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xvi, 734.--A4. australis, R. Br. Prodr. 200.—

A. cuspidata, Anders.in Nov. Act. Upsal. 2 (1856), 229.—A. cespiteosa, Anders.

l.c. 241.--A. argentea, Nees Fl. Afr: Austr. 124.--Ad. depauperata, Anders, 1.c.

243.—A. syriaca, Boiss. Diagn. Pl. Or. ser. i, fasc. 13, 72.—Themeda polygama,

Gmel. Syst. 149.—Stzpa.arguens, Thunb. Prodr. 20 (zon Linn.).—Calamina

imberbis, Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 810.—Zhemeda imberbis, T. Cooke in

Cke. ii, 993.--Z. tmberbis, Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa, 1049.

Hooker f. who deals with thisspecies under Anthistiria, Linn., says ina

preliminary remark (F.B.I., vii, 211): ‘ Thespecies of this genus are most

difficult of discrimination, of which the best proof isthe irreconcilable conclu-

sions of two excellent botanists, both experts in the order of Graminec,

He then criticizes Hackel for having restored Forskahl’s name of 7Themeda

‘ because of its having four years of priority, and of Linnaeus’ description of

Anthistiria being very inaccurate.’ He admits the claim of priority, but as to

the other reason he rightly adds that if inaccurate description has to be consi-

dered, a host of the genera of old authors would haveto be invalidated. Hooker

finally decides in favour of Anthistiria because this genus ‘ had for upwards of

a century been adopted by all botanical writers.’ This reason, however, does

not hold good in view of the present rules of nomenclature. Hackel restored

Themeda in i889 and since then most systematists have followed his example.

It was easy to settle this point, but the real difficuity comes in when we have to

define and give aname toall the material gathered by Hackel (1. c. 659-664)

under his 7hemeda Forskalit, and by Hooker f. under Axthistiria tmberbis,

Retz. (F.B.1. vii, 211).

A glance at Hackel’s synonymy and localities shows that he has included all

the forms of this highly variable grass which are found in the tropical, sub-

tropical and sometimes in the temperate regions of the Old World. The same

applies to Hooker’s A. zmberbis, except that he separated Hackel’s var. dubia

/axa and restored it to its former specific rank of A. Jara, Anders. But this is

of minor importance in this connection. It does not change the fact that both

Hackel and Hooker describe the same material and of the same area though

under different names.

Hacke! justifies the adoption of the specific name 7hemeda Forskalii in this

way: ‘ Themeda triandra, Forsk. Fl. Aeg.-arab. p. 178, Anthist. Forskalii

Kunth Revis. Gram. 1, p. 162, generis typus, a Forskalio prope Bulgose in

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 629

Arabia felici lecta, probabiliter etiam varietas est Th. Forskalii meae; sed

descriptio rem dubiam relinquit, specimina authentica desiderantur. Nec

hucusque ullam hujus generis speciem in Arabia felici lectam vidi, etsi proba-

bile est, Th. Forskalii varietates in Syria Abyssiniaque crescentes etiam in Arabia

inveniri. Itaque nomen specificum ‘‘ triandra’’ tamquam dubium et rem indi-

cans qtiae in hoc et plerisque Graminearum generibus nullius est momenti,

seposui, ‘‘ Forskalii’’ a Kunthie datum non minus quidem dubium, sed generis

auctorem commemorans recepi.’

Hooker does notagree with Hackel, ‘ The earliest names of this plant are

Themeda triandra, Forsk., aud Aunthistiria imberbis, Retz. Hackel has abandon-

ed both, substituting first duthistiria vulgaris, and then Themeda Forskalit,

on the ground that A. zmberbis was perhaps not Forskahl’s 7. triandra (why

then call it Forskaliz?) of which no type specimen exists, and because ¢rzandra

indicates a character of noindividual value in grasses. In so doing he over-

looked Gmelin’s name of T. polygama (Syst. 149). Having regard to the wide

range of A. zmberbis, from Australiato Africa, its presence in Arabia might

well be anticipated ; and that itis anative ofthat country is now proved by

Schweinfurth’s finding Hackel’s var. glaucain that country. This makes the

var, (which is local, and not Indian) the type of the species, and if Forskahl’s

naime of 7henzeda is to be retained, necessitates a re-arrangement of the varieties.

To meit appears most expedient to retain Retz.’s name which applies to the

prevalent form over the area of distribution as the specific one. ’

Hooker’s reasons against Hackel’s view are certainly valid, but his own

Anthistiria imberbis does not restona firmer foundation. The fact that the

var. is local and not Indian should not prevent us from making it the type of

the species, and the other circumstance that a re-arrangement of the varieties

will become necessary if the name 7vemeda is retained, can only be a reason of

expediency.

So far we come to the conclusion that Hackel and Hooker deal with the same

material, but that neither name is satisfactory.

We come now to the latest publication affecting our question. Stapf l.c. has

adopted the name Zhemeda triandra, Forsk. (1775) instead of 7. Forskalii

(1889), ‘ as there is no doubt that the type of Forskal’s species, which apparently

has been lost, was one of the forms covered by the description given by Stapf’

(see Schweinfurth in Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, App. IJ, 16).

But here Stapf creates a new difficulty. His description applies only to the

‘ African share of Hackel’s 7. Horskaliz’. In order not to be open to misstate-

ments we quote the whole passage in which Stapf explains his position: ‘ The

species, as defined here, is, however, taken in a sense somewhat narrower than

Hackel’s ; this restriction requires a short explanation. Hackel in his mono-

graph of the dAxdropogonee distinguishes eleven varieties and as many sub-

varieties or forms within his 7. Forskaliz, whilst other authors have at various

times described more than a dozen species, all of which come within the com-

pass. There can beno doubt as to the close affinity of these forms and the

question of their status is mainly one of expediency. A careful examination of

the large amount of materia! at Kew and the British Museum bas led to the

conclusion that for the present it will be most useful to detach, firstly, those

forms that are fairly uniform, and at the same time exclusive, over a large area ;

and secondly, those that, though of alimited range, stand out from the remain-

der by some character or characters. This leaves a residuum much less homo-

geneous than any of the segregates just referredto. It consists apparently of

more or less fixed races, mutants, hybrids and edaphic forms which from her-

berium material are the less separable because they are toa high degree inde-

pendent of geographical areas. At the same time, however, they aree all

African with an extension into Arabia, Syria andthe south-eastern corner of

Asia Minor, and, taken as a whole, represent practically the African share of

Hackel’s 7. Forskali. It isto this aggregate that the description and synonymy

given above apply.’

From the above it is evident that Stapf’s 7. ¢rizandra, Forsk. is not identical

with Hackel’s 7. Forskalii and Hooker’s A. imberbis, Retz., as it comprises

only the African element including ‘an extension into Arabia, Syria, and the

south-eastern corner of Asia Minor.’ Stapf’s synonymy !eads to the same con-

clusion, except for the inclusion of 7. zaberbis, T. Cooke (FI. Bombay ii, 993).

The Australian element Anthistiria australis, R. Br. has been separated by the

same author as Themeda australis, Stapf. It seems to us that Stapf’s treatment

630° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vel Xoo

of 7. Triandra is somewhat arbitrary. We quite agree that the name should

remain and that itis the only correct name, but we cannot agree to its being

restricted to the African element only, and it is difficult to understand why the

Indian specimen should not go by thesame name. If we could distinguish

groups of varieties or forms that are confined to more or less definable geogra-

phical areas, it would be admissible to speak, e.g. of an African group and

call it 7. ¢riandra, because Arabia exhibits one of those African forms, or of an

Indian or Australian group, and name them accordingly. But experience

shows that with regard to the material under review there are.no such geogra-

phical areas which contain a group of varieties or forms that are peculiar to one

area exclusively. A glance at the localities given by Hackel under the different

varieties and sub-varieties will confirm our statement.

We are, therefore, of opinion that the name 7%emeda triandra, Forsk. should

embrace all the material that was described by Hackel under 7. Forskalii, by

Hooker under A. imzberbis, and by Cooke under 7. zmberbis.

Haines describes the material from Bihar and Orissa under the name of

T. imberbis, T. Cooke, and adds in brackets ‘partly’. His species, therefore,

is not Cooke’s 7. zmberbis, but must be given some other specific name as long

as Cooke’s namie stands. But if botanists adopt our 7. tviandra, Forsk. Haines’

name will be merged in it, and his material may be treated as a form or group

of forms under that species.

Description : See Hackel, Hook. f. and Cooke 11. cc.

Locality: Gujarat: Ahmedabad (Gammie 16391 !).—Khandesh: Toranmal

(McCann 9813 !).—Konkan : Mokhada range (Ryan 2626!) ; Mahaluxmi (Sabnis

A297!); Bhandup (McCann 9810!); Bassein (McCann 4475!).—Deccan :

Ganeshkhind Botanic Gardens (Garade!); Panchgani (Blatter 3806!. Blatter

& Hallberg B1326!); Khandala, common (McCann A291!); Bairawadi,

Purandhar (McCann 5069!); Igatpuri (McCann 4322!); Poondra (Talbot

4307 !).--S. M7. Country: Devaranji, elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall 90 inches,

(Sedgewick & Bell 4427!) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15728!) ; Dudsagar Falls

(McCann A298!) ; Dharwar (Nana A289!).

Distribution : Africa, indo-Malaya, Australia.

2. Themeda quadrivalvis, O. Kuntze Rev. Gen. Pl. [I, 794; Stapf in Prain

Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 420; Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1050.—Andropogon

guadrivalva, err. typog., Linn. Syst. ed. 13, 758.—Themeda ciliata, Hack. in

Monogr. Androp. 664; Cke. ii, 994.—Anthistiria ciliata, Linn. f. Suppl. 113;

Geertn. Fruct. ii, 465. t. 175 ; Lam. Til: t. 841, fie. 1; Beauv. Acrostst323/et. gee

Kunth Enum. i, 481; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.1, 401; Baker Fl. Maunit, 4437

Balf. f. Bot. Socotra 317. (partim) ; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 42; Hook. f. in

F B.I.. vii; 213; Stapf in Dyer Fl. Cap. vii, 368:—4: scandens, Roxbe Pin Ing

i, 248; Duthie Fodd. Gr. N. W. Ind. t.61.—A. semiberbis, Nees. Fl. Afr.

Austr. 125.—Andropogon nutans, Linn. Mant. ii, 303.

Vern. Names: Bongrut (Sholapur); Bhathu (Surat); Bhati, Zini bathi,

Mothi bathi (Dohad) ; Bhatharu (Broach) (ex Burns).

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Gujarat: Ahmedabad (Gammie 16391!).—Kkandesh : Toranmal

(McCann 9817!).—Konkan: Parsik, railway line (McCann 9808!) ; Alibag,

water-works (Ezekiel!); S. Konkan (Stocks deste Cooke, Law); Salsette

(Jacquemont 717 feste Cooke).--Deccan: Pashan, near Poona (Gammie!) ;

road, Mahableshwar to Pratapgad (Bhide 1170!) ; Purandhar (McCann 5571!) ;

Bairwadi, Purandhar (McCann 507A!); Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg

B1311!, B1325!).—S. W. Country: Konankeri, elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 40

inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4943!) ; Dharwar. elevation 2,400 ft., rainfall 34

inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4486!); Dastikop elevation 2,500 ft., rainfall 35

inches (Sedgwick & Bell 2060!) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15729!) ; Belgaum

(Ritchie 886 Zeste Cooke).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2115!).

Distribution: N. W. India, Bengal, C. Provinces, W. Peninsula, Tenasserim.

Introduced in tropical and 8. Africa.

3. Themeda cymbaria, Hack. in Monogr. Androp. 668; Cke. ii, 994.—

Anthistiria cymbaria, Roxb. Hert. Beng. (1814), 6, e¢ Fl. Ind. i, 251 (excl.

syn.) ; Kunth Enum. Pl. i, 482 (excl. syn.) ; Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. 219; Daiz

& Gibs. Bomb, PF). 3043) Hook.f. inch Bos wit, 215% Trim. si Ceyliin, 225)

Description : Cke.1. c.

meyESION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 631

Locality: Khandesh: Dadgaum (McCann 9815!); Toranmal (McCann

9818! ).—Konkan: common (Cooke); I am doubtful (McCann).—Deccan :

Lonavla (Garade!).—.S. 7. Country : Castle Rock (Gammie 15634 !).—Kunara :

Mirjan (Hallberg & McCann A295!).

Distribution : W. Peninsula, Ceylon.

4, Themeda tremula, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 667; Cke. ii, 995.-- Anthistiria

tremula, Nees ex Steud. Syn. Gram. 401 ; Hook. f.in F.B.I. vii, 214.—Andros-

cepia tremula, Anders. in Nov. Act. Upsal. ser. iii, ij (1856), 247.

Description : Cke. 1. c.

Locality: Konkan: Trombay (McCann A293 !); Ghatkoper, Horse-shoe

Valley (McCann A327!).—Deccan: Khandala (McCann 5359!) ; Igatpuri

(Blatter & Hallberg 5484!) ; Purandhar, northern foot (McCann 5041!) ;

Poona (Woodrow feste Cooke).—S. M7. Country : Devaranji, elevation 1,800 ft.,

rainfall 90 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4428!) ; Castle Rock (Gammie 15687 !).—

Kanara: Devimani Ghat (Kulkarni!) ; Jugglepet (Talbot 1568!) ; Tinai Ghat

(Sedgwick & Bell 3196!) ; Sirsi to Siddhapur (Hallberg & McCann A294!).

Distribution: From the Central Provinces and the Konkan southwards,

Ceylon.

41, PSEUDANTHISTIRIA, Hook. f. ; Cke. ii, 992.

Species 4.—Indian.

Cooke has described one species: P. hispida, Hook. f. Weadd two others :

P. umbellata, Hook. f. and P. heteroclita, Hook. f.

I. Ligule exauriculate

1. Ligule atruncate glabrous membrane, much

divided to the base, the tips minutely ciliolate.

Sessile spikelets glabrous ees peed n Lod (LES DTCs

2. Ligule short, membranous. Sessile spikelets

not glabrous oe 2 is we. Ce We heterocizia.

II. Ligule auricled wae < aes .. 3. PF. umbellata.

J, Pseudanthistiria hispida, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 219; Cke. ii, 992.

Description : Cke. 1.e.

Locality : Gujarat: Surat (Garade !).—Konkan : Dahe Forest (Ryan 705 !) ;

Matheran (D’ Almeida A329!) ; Ghatkoper, Horse-shoe Valley (McCann A326 !);

Sion (McCann 5247!) ; St. Xavier’s College compound, Bombay (McCann

4524!) ; Kalyan (Woodrow).—Deccan : Lonavla (Gammie!) ; Purandhar Fort

(Gammie 1010!); Igatpuri Ghats (McCann 4343!) ; Khandala, common,

railway line (McCann A331!) ; Panchgani (Woodrow) .—S. J7. Country : Castle

Rock (Gammie 15634, McCann A328!); Derikop (Sedgwick: 2061!) ; Londa

(Gammie 15863! , Woodrow).—Kanara: Birchy (Talbot 2096!) ; Yellapore

(Talbot 1522!) ; Devimani Ghat (Kulkarni!).

Distribution : C. Provinces, W. Peninsula.

2. Pseudanthistiria heteroclita, Hook. f. in F. B.I. vii, 219.—Andropogon

heteroclitus, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. 115; Steud. Syn. Gram. 389; Hack. in

Monogr. Androp. 400.—A4. monomeros, Hochst. in Hvuhen. Pl. Ind. Or. no.

183.-—Anthistiria heteroclita, Roxb. FI. Ind. i. 249.

Description : Stems 30-80 cm. high, geniculate, slender, terete, smooth, sub-

simple or branched. Leaves linear, 15-30 cm. long, 3-5 mm. broad, glabrous

or more or less ciliate on both surfaces, nerves distinct, margins with long,

tubercle-based hairs or nearly glabrous; sheaths much shorter than the

internodes, quite glabrous; ligule short, membranous, exauriculate. Panicles

20-30 cm. long, leafy, compound, with many shortly peduncled fascicles,

fascicles of spikes about 12 mm. broad, proper Spathes 7-10 mm. long, hardly

longer than the spikes, towards the margin with long, tubercle-based bristles ;

spikes 6-8 mm. long. Sessile spikelets 3-4 mm. long, linear-oblong, hispidu-

lous all over. Lower involucral glume furrowed. Upper floral giume awned,

awn 18-24 min. long, thin. Pedicelled spikelets lanceolate, with a few long,

tubercle-based bristles, keel ciliate.

Locality : Konkan (Law ex Hook. f.).

Distribution : Bengal, Konkan, S. Kanara.

3. Pseudanthistiria umbellata, Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 220. — dndropogon

umbellatus, Hack. Monogr. Androp. 401.

632. JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. X2Cg

Description: A very slender, glabrous plant with filiform, prostrate, creeping

branched stems, rooting at the nodes, stems 30-60 cm. long, compressed.

Blade 2-5 cm. long, distant, linear-oblong, acute, rounded at base, sessile or

short-petioled, nerves distinct, very slender, with a few scattered cilia on both

surfaces, nearly smooth; sheaths shorter than the blade, often with tubercle-

based hairs above, rarely glabrous; ligule passing at the sides into 2 short,

herbaceous, fimbriate auricles of the sheath. Panicle leafy, very lax, interrupted,

12-20 cm. long ; fascicles of spikelets few, axillary, 6-12 mm. broad, glabrous

or with a few tubercle-based cilia on simple, rarely branched capillary pedun-

cles shorter than the leaves ; lower peduncles sometimes elongate, 2°5-7°5 cm.

long and bearing several fascicles ; outer spathes 8-25 mm. long; spikes 3-6 in

a fascicle, proper spathe 10-12 mm. long, rather longer than the spikes,

glabrous or towards the margin with a few bulbous-based hairs. Sessile

spikelets 3-4°5 mm. long, linear, scaberulous. Lower involucral glume

dorsally concave; awn of upper floral glume 12-14 mm. long, very thin.

Pedicelled spikelets linear-lanceolate, naked, awn 12-18 mm. long.

Locality: S. M. Country: Londa (Gammie 15869!).—Kanara: Birchy

(Talbot 2073 !).

Distribution : Deccan and W. Peninsula, Ceylon.

42. Di1GiTARtIA, Hall. Hist. Stirp. ii (1768), 244; Stapfin Prain Fl.

Wrop. Atrix; 422,

Species more than 100, in the warm parts of the whole world, but chiefly in

the Old World.

Cke. (ii, 940-942) describes 6 species. All are retained in this place, but the

name of Digitaria sanguinalis will be replaced by VD. marginata.

Key as in Cke.

1. Digitaria ternata, Stapf in Dyer FI. Cap. vii, 376, e¢ in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr,

ix, 452; Cke. ii, 940.—Paspalum ternatum, Hook. f.in F.B.I1. vii, 17.—

Panicum ternatum, Hochst. in Flora xxiv (1841), 1, Intell. 19; Hack. in OUest.

Bot. Zeitschr. (1901), 331.—P.. phe@nocarpum, var. gracile, Nees Fi. Afr. Austr.

23.—Cynodon ternatum, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 405.

Description: Cke. 1. c. Occasionally long fine hairs are found on the

peduncles.

Locality: Deccan: Purandhar Fort (Bhide!).—S. M4. Country: Belgaum

(Herb. Bot. Gard. Cal.).

Distribution : India (Khasia Hills, Burma, W. Peninsula), Yunnan, tropical

and ‘S$. Africa.

2. Digitaria marginata, Link Hort. Berol.i, 229; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop.

Afr. ix, 439.

Description: Annual, 30cm. tolm. high. Stems tufted, usually ascend-

ing from a geniculate or prostrate base, simple or branched from the lower

nodes, glabrous, few to many-noded. Leaves 5-15 cm. by 4-8 mm., linear or

linear-lanceolate from a slightly contracted and rounded base, acute, flat,

flaccid, glabrous or sparingly hairy particularly towards the mouth, margins

finely cartilaginous, rough and often crisp, midrib very slender, whitish ;

sheaths thin, subherbaceous, loose, glabrous, or more or less beset with

spreading tubercle-based hairs often forming a loose beard at the base ; ligules

truncate, membranous, up tooverl]mm.long. Spikes mostly 4-9, sessile,

subdigitate, solitary or 2-3—nate on a short, scaberulous common axis, erect or

spreading, rather slender, strict or slightly flexuous 5-15 cm long, often finely

pubescent at the base; rhachis almost straight, triquetrous, lateral angles

winged, herbaceous, scabrid, internodes up to more than 2mm. long. Pedicels

2-nate, onevery short, the other up to 15 mm. long, angular, scabrid.

Spikelets appressed, lanceolate, acutely acuminate, 2-4 mm. long, pale

greenish, rarely tinged with purple, variously hairy, rarely quite glabrous.

Lower involucral glume an ovate, obtuse to subacute membranous scale,

usually not over 0°3 mm. long, sometimes obsolete or quite suppressed ; upper

ovate-lanceolate, acute, equalling or considerably exceeding half of the upper

floral glume, rarely distinctly shorter, 3-nerved, with fine lines of hairs between

the nerves and along the margins, rarely quite glabrous. Lower floral glume

corresponding in outline and size to the spikelet, firmly membranous, 7-nerved,

rarely quite glabrous, usually with fine lines of hairs between the inner side-

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 633

nerves (of each half) and along the margins; upper floral glume oblong-

lanceolate, acutely acuminate, almost as long as the spikelet, thinly

chartaceous, pale or slightly purplish, brownish when ripe. Grain oblong,

plano-convex, whitish, scutellum Jess than half the length of the

rain. ‘

° This species is not identical with Paspalum sanguinale, Lamk. of the F.

B.I. or with Digitaria sanguinalts, Scop., in Cooke’s Flora or in Haines’

Bot. of bihar & Orissa. DD. sanguinalis, Scop. (sensu stricio) isa plant of

S. Europe and has not been found either in India or tropical Africa, as was

pointed out by Pilger (in Engl. Jahrb. xxx, 118) and Stapf. Most of the

numerous synonyms given by Hook. f. in the F. B. I. would have to be men-

tioned underthe different varieties. Here we have to deal only with one

variety which was described by Cooke as var. cz/7aris, Prain and which was

called var. fzmbérzata by Stapf.

var. fimbriata, Stapf, 1. c. 440.—Dzgitaria fimbriata, Link Hort. Berol. 1. c¢.

226.—D. commutata, Schult, Mant. ii, 262.—D. chrysoblephoru, Fig. & De

Not. in Mem. Acc. Tor. ser ii, xiv, 364.—D7gi/arta ciliaris, var. guadristachya,

Wight.--D. sanguinalts, var. ciliaris, Rendle in Cat. Afr. Pl. Welw. ii, 163,

and in Journ. Linn. Soc. Bot. xl, 228.—Digitoria sanguinalis, var. ciliaris,

Prain Beng. Pl. 1181; Cke. ii, 940—Panicum ciliare, Retz. Obs. iv, 16; Kunth

Faia. 1, 62; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 290 ; A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 360; Dalz. &

Gibs. Fl. Bomb. 290; Duthie Indig. Fodd. Grass. t.9.—P. fimbriatum, Pres}

Rel. Haenk. i, 298; Kunth Enum. i, 81.—FP. sanguinale var. ciliarve, Franch.

Contr. Fl. Congo Franc. 46.—P. sanguinale var. blepharanthum, Hack. in

Durand & Schintz Consp. Fl. Afr. v, 762.—P sarguinale, var. macrostachyum,

Hack. 1. c. 763.—FPaspalum sanguinale var, ciliare, Hook. f. in F.B. I.

wil, 15;

Description: Upper involucral glume usually much exceeding the middle

of the fertile floret and frequently equalling ¢ of its length. Indumentum of

spikelets uniform or more often more or less varied in the same inflorescence ;

hairs of the upper involucra] glume and lower floret partly in fine lines, all of

one kind, very fine, thin-walled, o-tuse-tipped, partly more thick-walled with

slightly clavate tips, and up tol mm. long, spreading out at maturity and

forming a rigid double fringe on each side of the spikelet, the inner fringe

often mixed witha varying number of tubercle-based acute yellow bristles

which ultimately also spread out at right angles.

It is well to remember what Stapf says ina note, ].c. 441: ‘ The peculiar

indumentum of the spikelets, which in the mature state leads to the formation

of spreading fringes, inay extend to all spikelets alike or it may be, at least in

its perfect development, confined to the long-pedicelled member of each pair

of spikelets or only to some of them, in which case the indumentum of the

fringeless spikelets approaches more or less that of var. Linkiz.’? Var. Linki2,

Stapfis Hooker f’s var. commutatum of Paspalum sanguinale in F.B. I.

vat. 15.

Vern. Names: Tara (Surat); Shikaol or Arotaro (Dohad); Chansarieu

(Broach) ; Taro, Modhan (Sind) ; Fakri, Fakria, Kurad, Suka, Revga, Dinohi,

Shikar koli, Kalam hullu (Bijapur) ; Shimpigyan hullu (Belgaum) (ex Burns).

Locality: Sind: Sanghar (Sabnis B903!) ; Mirpurkhas, in cultivated fields

(Sabnis B1209!) ; Bughar, Indus River (Blatter & McCann D686!) ; Ghula-

malla, garden (Blatter & McCann D687 !).—Guzarat: Cutch (Blatter 8742 !) ;

Ahinedabad (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!).—Khandesh: N. slope of Chanseli

(McCann 9535!) ; Bor, TaptilIsland, on sand and mud (Blatter & Hallberg

0463!) ; Muravat, Tapti Bank (Blatter & Hallberg 3839!) ; Umalla (Blatter

& Hallberg 5178!); Amalner (Blatter & Hallberg 4443!); Sumit (Blatter

& Hallberg 5158!) ; Bor, Bori River (Blatter & Hallberg 5213!) ; Dadgaum

(McCann 9531!)—Konkan: Victoria Gardens, Bombay (McCann 9831!) ;

Versova, Salsette (McCann 4308!); Malabar Hill (McCann 4300 !); very

common through the Islands of Bombay and Salsette (McCann !) ; Parsik,

railway line (McCann 9530!) ; Bassein (McCann 4485!) ; Alibag, sandy shore

(Ezekiel !).— Deccan: Khandala (McCann 3650!) ; Igatpuri (McCann $833!) ;

Purandhar (McCann 5606!) ; Chattarshinji (Ezekiel!) ; Pashan (Gammie!) ;

Deolali (Blatter & Hallberg 4556!) ; Gangapur (Blatter & Hallberg 4581!) ;

Panchgani, Maratha Well (Blatter & Hallberg B1233!).—S. 7. Country:

Haveri, dry ground, compound of P. W.D. (Talbot 2228!) ; Dharwar (Sedg-

634 JOURNAL, BROMBAY._NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

wick!); Belgaum (Herb. Bot. Gard. Cal. !)—Xanara: Karwar (Talbot

1294!) ; Haiyal (Talbot 2153 !) ; Kulgi (Talbot 2279 !).

Distribution: Tropics of both hemispheres, rarely found beyond the tropics.

3. Digitaria pennata, Chiov. in Result. Scient. Miss. Stefanini—Paoli i, 183 ;

Cke. ii, 941, ervonee ascribens nomen Hookerof.; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop.

Afr. ix, 472.—Panicum pennatum, Hochst. in Flora xxxviii (1855), 197;

Schweinf. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, App. ii, 18.—FPaspalum pennatum, Hook. f.

in PeB.leviil, 1G.

Description: Cke.l.c.

Locality: Sind: Karachi (Stocks feste Hook. f.); Jemadar ka Landa,

near Karachi (Stocks); Tatta, Kullan Kote (Blatter & McCann D684 !) ;

Tatta (Blatter & McCann D685!).—Guwjarat: Porbandar (Bhide !) ; Morvi,

Kathiawar (Woodrow).

Distribution : Baluchistan, tropical Arabia and Africa.

4. Digitaria pedicellaris, Prain Beng. Pl. ,(1903), 1181; Cke. ii, 941; Haines

in Bot Bihar & Orissa 1009.—Paspalam pedicellare, Trin. ex Steud. Nom.

ed. 2 (1841), 272; Hook. f. in F.B.I., vii, 19.--P. pedzcellatum, Nees & Arn. in

Wight Cat. 2310; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 1.—Milium sanguinale, Roxb. FI.

Indsl.. 30> (evel. Si 77, biti.)

Description: Cke.1.c.

Locality: Konkan: ~Thana (McCann 8725!) ; Sion, (Herb. SS. xX. (Calis

Mulyaum (McCann 3663 !).—Deccan : Chattarshinji Hill, Poona (Ezekiel !).—

S. M. Country: Hubli, elevation 2,000 ft.. rainfall 30 inches (Sedgwick &

Bell 4229 !).

Distribution: Throughout India.

5. Digitaria longiflora, Pers. Syn. i (1805), 85 (zon Trin.); Cke. ii, 941;

Stapf in Prain F). Trop. Afr. ix, 469; Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1008.—

Digitaria Pseudo-Durva, Schlechtend. in Linnea, xxvi, 458.—D. linearis,

Schult. f. Mant. ii, 264 (zom Roem. and Schult.).—D. tenuiflora, Stapfin Dyer

Fl. Cap. vii, 380 (zoz P. Beauv.).—Puaspalum longiflorum, Retz. Obs. iv, 15

(non Trin.) ; Baker Fl. Maurit. 431; Hook.f. in F.B.I. vii, 17 (partim).—P.

brevifolium, Fluegge Gram. Monogr. 150.—P. Pseudo-Durva, Nees Fl. Afr.

Austr. 21.—P. filiculme. Nees ex Thw. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. 358.—Panicum longi-

florum, Gmel. Syst. 158.—P. parvulum, Trin. Pan. Gen. 117.—P. argyrot-

richum, Durand & Schintz Consp. Fl. Afr. vy, 741 (mon Anders.).—-Milium

filiforme, Roxb, FI. Ind. i, 314.

Digitaria tenuiflora, P. Beauv. given as asynonym by Cke. seems to be a

different species. It is apparently a perennial of erect habit and with long

narrow leaves.

Description :. Cke. lic;

Locality: Deccan: Deolali (Blatter & Hallberg 9835 !).—S. 47. Country :

Dry uplands, Dharwar, elevation 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2653 !) ;

Belgaum (Herb. Bot. Gard. Cal.).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2310!) ; Londa

(Bhide!).

Distribution: Throughout India, Ceylon, tropical and S. Africa, Mada-

gascar, Mascarenes, Malaya.

6. Digitaria Royleana, Prain Beng. Pl. (1903), 1181; Cke. ii, 942; Haines in

Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1008.—Faspalum Royleanum, Nees ex Thw. Enum.

(1864), 358; Hook. fin BT. vai; 18% rin). Ceyl. v.25.

Description: Cke.1.c.

Locality: Konkan: St. Xavier’s: College compound (McCann 4533!) ;

Mulgaum, Salsette (McCann 9523 !).—Deccan: Khandala (McCann 3651!) ;

Lonavla (Herb. Econ. Bot.. Poona!) ; Purandhar Fort (Bhide!) ; Lina Hill,

Nasik District (Blatter & Hallberg 4542!); Lohagad, way up (McCann 9512 !);

Katraj Ghat, 11 miles S.E. of Poona (Bhide!); Panchgani, slopes below

Third Tableland (Blatter & Hallberg B1229!); Panchgani, Maratha Well

(Blatter & Hallberg B1224 !, B1281!) ; Mahableshwar, in a garden, elevation.

4,500 ft., rainfall 270 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4584 !); Suvasni Ghat

(Woodrow).--S. JZ. Country : Dharwar, elevation 1,600 ft., rainfall 34 inches

(Sedgwick 2843!) ; Belgaum (Herb. Bot. Gard. Cal.!).—Kanara: (Talbot!)

Distribution: Hilly districts throughout India, Ceylon ; apparently not in

tropical Africa. . . ie

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 635

43. MALLOTEROPSIS, Presl, emend. Hitchc, in Contrib. U. S. Nat.

Herb. xii, 210; Pigpe in Prain Ef, Trop. Attsix, 462, ee eee

Chew il Jeo).

Stapf (1. c. 483) explains why he adopts Alloteropsis, Presl, as emended by

Hitchcock. ‘ As Hitchcock (Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. xii, 210) has pointed

out, Presl’s description and analyses of Alloteropsis are based on a composition

of a Panicoid and an Andropogonoid grass, whilst the original in Presl’s

herbarium is undoubtedly the plant described here as A. semzalata, and so is

also the habit figure (1) in Presl’s plate. The genus is therefore accepted here

with Hitchcock’s emendation.’

‘Another member of this genus, A. cimicina, was included by Palisot de

Beauvois (Agrost. 12) in his genus Avonopus under its earliest synonym

Milium cimicinum and as ‘‘ A Ccimicinus?’”’ on p. 154, and this led J. D.

Hooker (Fl. Brit. Ind. vii, 64) to use the name Axonopus in preference to

Alloteropsis, a view which was adopted by myself in F.. Cap. vii, 418. From

P. Beauvois’ diagnosis however, and from the fact that he quotes in the first

place Milium compressum as example for Axonopus, there can be no doubt

that he had primarily (/2lzum compressum in view when establishing his genus

Axonopus, and it is in that sense that the genus is understood in this work.

A. cimicina also forms the basis of another genus, Corzdochloa, Nees in Edinb.

News Phil Journ, xv, 381. A. Chase (in Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington, xxiv,

157) maintains this genus as distinct from <A//oteropsis, and I followed her

when drawing up the key of the genera of Tropical African grasses (p. 13) ;

but I have since come to the conclusion that the species referable to these

two group. are so similar in the peculiar structure of their spikelets that they

are better merged into one genus for which Al/oteropsis has priority over

Cordtochtoa.’

We have, therefore, to add the characteristics of the genus asgiven by

Stapf:

Perennial or annual. Jleaf-blades flat or more or less convolute; ligules

membranous, ciliate or ciliolate, short or reduced to amere rim. Racemes

sessile or pedune led, often more or less compound towards the base, digitate

or subdigitate on a more or less elongated common axis. Spikelets ovate or

elliptic to lanceolate-oblong ; acute or acuminate, mostly awned, slightly or

conspicuously compressed from the back, falling entire from the pedicels,

2-nate or fascicled, subsecund and abaxial on the triquetrous rhachis of more

or less spiciform racemes. Lower floret usually male, upper hermaphrodite.

Involucral glumes unequal, lower smaller, membranous to hyaline, 3-1-nerved,

very. acute, often inucronulate, upper equal or subequal to the spikelet,

membranous to chartaceous, 5-nerved, with the outer nerves submarginal,

densely ciliate along them. Lower floral glume resembling the upper involucral

glume, but ciliate, pale short, deeply 2-fid with conspicuously auricled flaps,

upper floral glume chartaceous, glabrous, delicately ciliolate upwards,

o-nerved, produced into a straight awn or mucronate, pale equal to the glume,

2-keeled, with broadly auricled flaps. Lodicules 2, broadly cuneate. Stamens

3. Styles distinct, stigmas laterally exserted. Grain enclosed by the glume

and pale, elliptic-oblong, dorsally much compressed ; scutellum about half the

length of the grain ; hilum basal, punctiform.

Species about 5.—In the tropics anc the warm temperate zone of the Old

World, 2 in India.

In the Bombay Presidency there is only one species :

1, Alloteropsis cimicina, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 487; Haines in Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 1009.—MWilium cimicinum, Linn. Mant. Alt. 184.— Panicum

cimicinum, Retz. Obs. ili, 9; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 295; Steud. Syn. PJ. Glum..i,

43.—P conjugatum, Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 291.—Axonopus cimicinus (?),

ibeanv. Acrost. 154; Hook. f. in F. B. 1. vii, 64; Hook. f.in Trim..Fl. Ceyl.

v, 166; Cke. ii, 925.—Uvochloa cimicina, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 31, t. 103;

Dalz. & Gibs. 1. c 289.—Cordiochloa cimicina, Nees in Edinb. N. Phil.

Journ. xv (1833),.381; A. Chase in Proc. Biol. Soc. Wash. xxiv, .158.—C.

fimbriata, Nees ex Wight Cat. no. 16562 Aitehis. Cat. Panvab,, Pi, 158.

Description : Cke, lsc.

Locality : Konkan: Sewri (McCann 3586!) ; Mulgaum (McCann 3654 !).—

Deccan: Sinhagad forests (Rhide!); Lina Hill, Nasik District (Blatter &

636 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

Hallberg 4583!) ; Panchgani (Hallberg !).—S. 7. Country: Dharwar (Sedg-

wick 2032!, Woodrow) ; Gokak (Shevade!); Badami (Woodrow).—-Kanara :

Halyal (Talbot 2294!) ; Kulgi (Talbot 2434 !).

Distribution : Tropical Africa, Madagascar, throughout India to Java.

44. ERIOCHLOA, H. B. & K.; Cke. ii, 944.

Species about 25.—In the warm parts of the whole world.

Cooke describes one species: &. polystachya, H. B. & K. which name has

to cede to &. ramosa, O. Kuntze.

1. Eriochloa ramosa, O. Kuntze Rev, Gen. Pl. ii, 775; Hack. in Bull. Acad.

Int. Bot. xvi; 19; Merrill in Philipp. Journ. Sc. i, Suppl: 348sestapiin Pra

Fl. Trop. Afr.ix, 498; Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1006.—Z. annulata,

Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 30, and Enum. i, 73; Duthie List Grass. N. W. Ind. 2;

Benth FI. Hongk. 409 ; Hack. in Engl. Jahrb. vi, 233.—£. polystachya, Duthie,

fll. Indig. Fodd. Grass. Ind. t. 41; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 2; Hook. f: in F-Ba:

vii, 20; Cke. ii, 944; ‘Rendle in Journ: Linn. Soc, Bot. xxxvi, 320 (vow H.R:

& K.!).—Milium ramosum, Retz. Obs. vi (1791), 22; Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 317;

Griff. Notul. iii, 15; Ic. Pl. Asiat. t. 139, f. 60.—Agvostis ramosa, Poir. Encycl.

Suppl. i, 257.—Paspalum annulatum, Fluegge Monogr. Pasp. 133; Trin Sp.

Gram. Ic. t. 133.—Helopus levis, Trin. ex Spreng. Neue Entdeck. ii, 49, fig.

4.—H. annulatus, Steud. Syn. Glum. i, 99 (zou Nees) .-—~Pipatherum annulatum,

Presl, Rel. Haenk i, 221 (xom Raddi).

Note.—Masaja Honda in his Revisio Graminum Japonie (Bot. Mag. Tokyo

37 (1923), 113-124) is of opinion that Avzochloa ramosa, O. Kuntze, has to be ©

partly emended and changed to the new species Eriochloa Hackelit. Details

are wanting to form an opinion on this point.

Description : Cke. 1. c.

Localily: Sind: Umerkot, in a garden (Sabnis B718!) ; Jamesabad, on

banks of a watercourse (Sabnis B967!); Bughar, Indus River (Blatter &

McCann D691!); Tatta, Kullan Kote Lake (Blatter & McCann D692!) ; Tatta

(Blatter & McCann D693!).—Gujarat: Ahmedabad (Gammie 16408!).—

Konkan: Bassein (Bhide!) ; Antop Hill (McCann 3613!) ; Alibag, rice field

(Ezekiel, !) ; Bandra, on walls and in ditches (McCann !) ; Bombay (Hallberg

Al41!); Bombay, near Mahim (Woodrow, Lisboa); Bhandup, in an old

distillery compound, ina ditch (Hallberg A19!).—S. M/. Country: Shiggaon,

elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2356!) ; Kunnur, elevation

2,000 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick & Rell 4937!) ; Ranibenur (Bhide!) ;

Dharwar (Sedgwick !).—Kanara: Halyal (Talbot !).

Distribution : Tropics of the Old World, introduced into Ascension Island,

St. Helena, Cuba.

45. BRACHIARIA Griseb. in Ledeb. Fl. Ross. iv, 469; Stapf in Prain FI.

Trop. Air. 1x,-000;

(Sect. Brachiaria and part of sect. Paspaloidee of Panicum of the F.B.1.).

Perennial or annual. Leaf-blades linear to lanceolate, usually flat ;

ligules reduced to a narrow ciliate or ciliolate rim. Racemes usually subsessile

and sclitary on a common axis, sometimes bare at the base owing to the

arrest of spikelets, rarely truly peduncled and panicled, simple or compound

near the base, rarely to or beyoud the middle; rhachis filiform, triquetrous

or more or less flattened and herbaceous with a wavy or zig-zag midrib,

which projects as a mostly acute keel on the face; pedicels solitary or in

pairs, alternately to the right and the left of the facial angle or the midrib, if

solitary all short or very short, if paired, the primary slightly to very much

longer ; spikelets closely appressed, always biseriate in the plane, but frequent-

ly becoming 1-seriate by the dovetailing of the alternate spikelets of the closely

approximate ranks, more or less contiguous with their sides or imbricate, form-

ing dense, spike-like racemes, or distant by almost their own length or more,

glabrous or hairy. Spikelets more or less elliptic or oblong, more or less flat-

tened or slightly depressed, convex on the base, falling entire from the pedicels,

1-2-, rarely more-nate, secund and adaxial (with lower involucral glume towards

the axis and the convex side of the upper floral glume away from the axis),

closely appressed to and 2-seriate on the triquetrous or flat rhachis of spiciform

racemes ; lower floret male or barren witha usually well-developed pale, very

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 637

rarely the latter suppressed. Involucral glumes dissiniilar and mostly very

unequal in length. Lower involucral glume shortest ; upper resembling and

more or less equalling the lower floral glume, 5-7- (rarely 9-) nerved. Lower

floral glume 5-, rarely 7-nerved, the lateral nerves placed towards the margins

and distant from the middle nerve; pale usually only slightly shorter than the

valve with well-developed inflexed flaps, or the latter vanishing above the middle;

upper floral glume oblong to elliptic in outline, emucronate, though sometimes

contracted into an apiculus, crustaceous or subcoriaceous with firm involute

margins, faintly 5-nerved ; pale almost as long as the glume, 2-keeled, its

sides tightly embraced by the valve. Lodicules 2, small, broadly cuneate.

Stamens 3. Styles distinct ; stigmas plumose, laterally exserted from the upper

part of the spikelet. Grain tightly enclosed by the glume and pale, more or

less flattened on both faces ; hilum subbasal, punctiform ; embryo half to over

? the length of the grain.

Species about 80. In the warm parts of the whole world, but chiefly in

Africa.

Cooke mentions 3 species which belong to this genus: Panicum TIsachne,

P. ramosum and P, muticum. 'To these we add Brachiaria distachya (Panicum

distachyum) .

A. Spikelets 0°5 mm. long orslightly more ... 1. &B. lsachne.

B. Spikelets 2°5-4 mm. long

E90 chito 1:8 pa hich ves aot Es ULI.

II. Less than 80 cm. high

1. Spikes S-many ... aise ee Os Oe POOSC,

2. Spikes 2-4 ste aes .. 4. B. distachya.

1. Brachiaria Isachne, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 552; Haines in Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 1004 (habet Roth per errorem).—B. cruciformis, Griseb. in

Ledeb. Fl. Ross. iv, 469.— Panicum /sachne, Roth ex Roem. & Schult. Syst.

ii, 458; Roth Nov. Pl. Sp. 54; Schult. Mant. ii, 252; Steud. Syn. Pl. G1. i, 57;

Hook. f, in F.B.I. vii, 28; Stapf in Dycr FI. Cap. vii, 390; Cke. ii, 931.—

P. cruciforme, Sibth. & Sm. Fl. Greca i, t. 59; Baker Fl. Maurit. 434;

Schweinf. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, App. ii, 19; Duthie Grass. N.W. Ind. 3,

Indig. Fodd. Grass. t. 43, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 6; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 437.—

P. caucasicum, Trin. Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 262.—P. Wightiz, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. 29.—

P. pubinode, Hochst. ex. A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 363.—chinochloa cruci-

forms, Koch in Linnea, xxi, 437; Reichb. Ic. Fl. Germ. i, t. 29, fig. 1413.

Description : Cke. ii, 931.

Locality : Sind: (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!).—Gujarat: Surat (Chibber !,

Dalzell teste Cooke).—Khandesh: Sungiri (Gammie 16552!) ; Dhulia Farm

(Chibber !) ; Chanseli (McCann A92!) ; Nimb, Tapti Bank (Blatter & Hall-

berg 9571!) ; Dadgaum (McCann 9562!) ; Tapti, Bhusawal (Blatter & Hall-

berg 5156!) ; Umalla village (Blatter & Hallberg 5159!) ; Bor, Bori River

(Blatter & Hallberg 4424!).—Konkan: Clerk Rd., Bombay, along brackish

water (Sabnis 9565 !); very common in Bombay and Salsette Islands (McCann !).

—Deccan: Yeola (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Mangiri, 8 miles E. of Poona

(Gammie!) ; Sholapur (D’Almeida A91!); Deolali (Blatter 9570!, 9569!) ;

Khandala, common (McCann 9566!) ; Purandhar, N. foot (McCann 9568 !) ;

Panchgani, below Sidney Point (Blatter & Hallberg 1271!).—S. M. Country :

Nelogi, elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall 30 inches (Sedgwick 2134!) ; Haveri (Talbot

2150 !).—Kanara : Halyal (Talbot 2150 !).

Distribution : Throughout the plains of India in damp places, Ceylon, west-

wards to Italy and tropical and S. Africa.

*2. Brachiaria mutica, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 526.—Panicum

muticum, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 20; Link Hort. Berol. I, 206 ; Hook. f. in

F, B. I. vii, 34, and in Trim: Fl. Ceyl. V, 140.— P. numidianum, Lam. I11.I,

172; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 438.— P. purpurascens, Raddi ex Opiz in Flora (1822),

266.—P. barbinode, Trin. Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 318; Duthie List Grass. N. W. Ind.

2.— P. sarmentosum, Benth. in Hook. Niger Fl. 561 (70m Roxb.).— P. equinus,

Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 73.— P. molle, Griseb. Fl. Brit. West Ind. 547 (excl.

syn.); Baker Fl. Maurit. 436.

In adopting Forskal’s name ‘ muticuim’ for this species Stapf, according to

his own words, -has relied on Ascherson’s indentification (Asch. & Schweinf,

Ill, Fl. Egypt 160) of the type with the Algerian P. numidianum.

638 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIEIY, Vole axa

Popular Names : Water Grass, Mauritius Grass, Para Grass, Scotch Grass,

Buffalo Grass.

Descripiion ;: Perennial 1-2°5 m. high. Stems ascending from a sometimes

prostrate and copiously rooting base, stout, terete, usually many-noded and

sheathed high up, simple or sparingly branched, glabrous, often waxy, pruinose

below the nodes. Leaf-blades linear, up to 30cm. long, 6-10 mm. broad

glabrous or rarely more or less hirsute, margins scabrid. Panicle oblong to

ovate-oblong in outline subsecund or almost quaquaversal, 6-20 cm. long;

common rhachis terete to semiterete, more or less deeply channelled or triquet-

rous upwards, scabrid along the angles, glabrous. Racemes numerous,

solitary or irregularly approximate, sometimes paired or in false whorls, shortly

peduncied or subsessile, obliquely spreading, 7 (rarely 12) to 2°5 cim. long,

mostly compound, glabrous, greenish or tinged with purple ; rhachis flat, with a

slender, raised midribuptoimm. wide, villosulous atthe base, otherwise

vlabrous; secondary racemes usually very short, and 6-3-spiculate ; pedicels

solitary or paired, very short, or if paired then the longer up tol mm. long,

frequently with a few setules. Spikelets laterally contiguous or discontiguous,

those of the secondary racemes often imbricate, oblong or lanceolate-oblong,

acute, 3-3°5 mm. long, glabrous. Involucral glumes dissimilar, lower broad-

ovate, acute to subacute, from lessthan 3 to not quite$ the length of the

spikelet, faintly 3-5-nerved, often tinged with purple; upper corresponding in

outline and size to the spikelet, 5-7-nerved. Lower floral glume as long as the

upper involucral glume and similar to it; pale narrowly oblong, subacute,

almost as long as the glume, with narrow flaps; anthers 2mm. long; upper

floral glume slightly shorter than the spikelet, mostly 3mm. long, oblong,

subacute or minutely apiculate, pale yellowish, glume and pale crustaceous,

very finely transversely wrinkled or almost smooth. Stigmas blackish-purple,

very conspicuous.

Locality : Cultivated at Kirkee and Surat (Woodrow) and very likely in other

places.

Distribution: A native of S. America and W. Africa, but introduced else-

where (Stapf).

Uses: A fodder grass. See Kew Bull. (1894), 384.

3. Brachiaria ramosa, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 542; Haines Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 1005.—Panicum ramosum, Linn. Mant. (1767), 29; Steud.

syn. Pl. Glum.1, 97 ; Hook. tin. FB. yil,.36)( part) 3, Prim. el Ceyie aves

140; Prain Beng. Pl. 1175; Cke. ii, 932.—P. arvense,-Kunth Rev. Gram.

i, 391, t. 109.—/.. Petiveri, Dis. ii, 144. (parvtim); Baker Fl. Maurit. 434 ;

Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 160; Duthie Grass: N. W. Ind. 6;-Fodd. tGrase

N. Ind. 11; Boiss. Fl. Or. v, 439.—P. brachylachnum, Steud. lc. 62.—P.

cognatissimum, Steud. 1.c.69.—P. patens, Boj. Hort. Maurit. 365 (zom Linn.).—

P. pygmaéum, Boj. 1.c.—P. Helopus, Watt. Dict. Econ. Prod. vi, part 1, 10

(partim).—P. umbrosum, Retz. Obs. 4 (1786), 16; Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 297.

Description : Cke. ii, 932.—Stapf points out that this species occurs in a glab-

rous and apubescent state, and that the original specimen in Linneeus’ herbarium

represents the former. . ‘ The pubescence,’ he says, ‘ if present, extends gener-

ally to the culms, the leaves, the axes of the inflorescence and the spikelets, the

upper glume [upper involucral glume] and lower valve [lower floral glume].

On the blades it may be scanty and disappear with age. It does not seem to be

correlated with any other character, and the area of the glabrous and pubescent

states overlap completely, in fact both have been taken in the same collecting.’

He mentions another curious modification in which the lower floral glume is

more firmly membranous to crustaceous and faintly transversely rugose and

thus more or less resembles the upper floral glume (not the upper involucral

glume as is normally the case). It has been collected in India and W. Africa.

Locality : Sind: Chachtra (Mamlatdar of Chachra!) ; Shahabander (Karachi

P.O.C. of Shahabander!); Sangarh (Sabnis BY01!, B887!); Nasarpur,

clayey soil (Sabnis B1057!).—Gujarat: Ahmedabad (Herb. S.X.C. 2165!);

Mausari (Mamlatdar of Mausari!); Sumrasar, Cutch (Blatter 3756!).—

Khandesh:: Tamer, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5172!) ; Antroli, Bori

River (Blatter & Hallberg 5149!); Toranmal (McCann A142!).—Konkan :

Malabar Hill (McCann !) ; Versova (McCann 9588!) ; Byculla (McCann 9586!) ;

Sion (McCann 8689!) ; Bandra Hill, in fallow fields (Vakil A115!).— Deccan :

Khandala (Sedgwick 2631!) ; Poona (Woodrow!): Lina Hill, Nasik District

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY _ 639

(Blatter & Hallberg A145 ').—S. AZ. Country: Dharwar, garden weed

(Sedgwick 2651!) ; Haveri (Talbot 2231!) ; Badami (Woodrow Zeste Cooke).

Distribution : Throughout India, Ceylon, Afghanistan, tropical Africa (Upper

Guinea, Cape Verd Islands).

4. Brachiaria distachya, Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1004 (per errorem

distachyum).—-Panicum distachyum, Linn. Mant. i, 138; Retz. Obs. iii, 17;

Damk. Ill. t. 43, f.2; Steud. Syn. Gram. 41; Aitchis, Cat. Panjab, Pl: 159;

Duthie Grass N. W. Ind. 3; Indig. Fodd. Grass. t. 42, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 6;

Benth. Fl. Austral. vii, 478; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 37.— P. subguadriparum ,

Trin. Gram. Panic. 145, Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 186.—Dzigzitaria distachya, Pers. Syn.

1,:35.

Description: A slender, creeping grass, glabrous or panicle sparsely hairy.

Stems 30-60 cm. high. Leaves linear or lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, acu-

minate, 5-15 cm. by 3-6 mm., widest at the rounded or amplexicaul base, flat ;

sheaths ciliate or noton the margins, mouth hairy. Spikes 2-4, distant, 2 5-6°5

cm. long, rarely morethan 10 cm., erect, at last spreading ; rhachis slender,

glabrous. Spikelets variable in size, pale green, 3-4 mm. Jong, solitary, subses-

sile, spikately arranged in 2 (-1) series, ellipsoid, glabrous. Lower involucral

glume embracing the spikelet and margins overlapping below, § to nearly 4 the

spikelet, 5-7-nerved, obtuse or subacute ; upper involucral glume ovate, acute,

7-nerved, paleate or not, pale if present narrow, neuter. Lower floral glume

5-nerved, upper ellipsoid, obtuse or rounded, 2mm. long, brown and minutely

transversely lineolate or obscurely rugulose when ripe.

Locality : Gujarat : Ahmedabad, banksand margins of fields around Ahmeda-

bad (Sedgwick 239!).—S.M/. Country : Dharwar (Sedgwick 2840 !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, China, Malaya, Australia.

46. PaspaLum, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 855; Cke. ii, 943.

Species over 200, chiefly in tropical America, only a few in the Old World.

Cooke describes 3 species: P. scrobiculatum, Linn., P. compactum, Roth.

and P. distichum, Linn., to which we add Paspalum dilatatum, Poir. P.

distichum has to be replaced by P. vaginatum, Sw., for reasons detailed below.

I. Leaves over 14 cm. long

1. Plant 60-90 cm. high oe .. Ll. P. serobiculatum.

2. Plant 1-1 San. high ane 2 2 L Atlatalium.

II. Leaves less than 11 cm. long

1. Leaves 2°5-7'5 cm long, 8-12 mm.

broad ee ad .. 3. FP. compactum.

2. Leaves 5-10 cm. long, 1:2-4 mm.

broad : ee 4. P. vaginatum.

1, Paspalum scrobiculatum, Linn. Mantiss. (1767), 29; Hook. f.in F. B. J. vii

10; Cke. ii, 943; Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1000.—P/. scrobiculatum,

Lion. var. Commersoniz, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 573.—P. scrobicu-

latum, Linn. var. frumentaceum, Stapfl.c. 575.—P. scrobiculatum, Linn. var.

polystachyum, Stapf 1. c. 576.—For further synonyms see Hook. f. and Stapf

ll. cc. Hook f. gives P. orbiculare, Forst. Prodr. 7 as a synonym, but Stapf

considers it as a distinct species of the Polynesian and Indo-Malayan regions

with an extension into New Zealand and Australia. Of Hook. f. syn. in the

F. B. I. we wish to enclose only those which apply to spontaneous forms of the

Old World.

As can be seen from tle above synonymy we are not following Stapf in

distinguishing several varieties or rather forms. He takes the cultivated forms

of India to be the original P. scrobiculatum of Linnueeus and calls it P. scrobicu-

latum var. frumeniaceum. All the spontaneous forms of P. scrobiculatum as

understood by most post-Linnzean authors are put by Stapf under P. scrobtcu-

latum, Linn. var. Commersonii, the type for this combination being P.

Commersonit, Lam. 111. i, 175, t. 43, fig. 1. The third form var. polvstachyum

does not seem to occur in India.

Description: Cke. 1. c.

Locality: Sind: Jamesabad, in bed of watercourse (Sabnis B979!) ; Bohara

(Blatter & McCann D689!).—Kowukan : Victoria Gardens, Bombay (McCann

4297!) ; Mulgaum, Salsette (McCann 3607 !) ; Parsik, between stones of railway

tract (McCann 9516!); Vihar Lake, Salsette (McCann 9517!).—Deccan :

(40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

Khandala, in watercourse, on sandy soil (McCann 9824!).—S. WZ. Country:

Konankeri, Dharwar District, elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall 40 inches (Sedgwick

& Bell 4966!) ; W. of Dharwar, elevation 2,000 ft. rainfall 40 inches (Sedg-

wick & Bell 4452!) ; Dastikop, elevation 2,500 ft., rainfall 35 inches (Sedgwick

2109!) ; Dharwar (Garade!) ; Belgaum (Herb. Bot. Gard. Cal.!).—Kanare :

Halyal (Talbot 2297!) ; Karwar (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona 2297 !, 618!) ; Castle

Rock (Gammie!).

Distribution : Tropics of the Old World.

*2. Paspalum dilatatum,* Poir. Encycl. v, 35; New South Wales Agric:

Gaz. x (1899), 32, with plate; Trin. Diss. 11, 113, with plates; Agric. Grass.

U.S. 31-32; H. H. Mann in Dept. Agric. Bomb. Bull. 77, 68.—P. ovatum,

Nees ex ‘Trin. Gram. Panic. 113.-- P. pratense, Spreng Syst. i, 247.—P. Selloz,

Spreng. ex Nees Agrost. Bras. 43.

Popular Names: Golden Crown Grass, Hairy-flowered Paspalum.

Description: A tall, erect grass, about 1-1'5 m. high. Culm developing

from a thick rootstock with 3-5 leaves; leaf at base of culm often about 30 cm.

long, 8-12 mm. broad, smooth on both sides, rugose along the margins.

Raceme 12-3) cm. long, having 5-10 somewhat spreading spikes, which are

7 cm. or more in length, 2°5-5 cm. apart, upper ones gradually shorter.

Spikelets closely arranged in 4 rows, two on each side of the narrow and nearly

straight axis in alternate pairs, 15-2 mm. wide, and 3-4 mm. long, ovate,

acutely pointed, crowded and overlapping each other, compressed, margins

clothed in silky hairs. Involucral glumes ovate, acute, 5-nerved, nearly smooth

except the fringe of white hairs on the margin. Floral glumes thick, hard, and

firm, very minutely punctate. Pale fitting inside the flowering glume and

enclosing the stigmas and styles. Anthers linear. Styles 2; stigmas blackish-

purple, plumose.

Locality : Cultivated. See Mann, 1. c.

Distribution : Virginia, Mississippi, Louisiana, ‘lexas, S. America, especially

Brazil.

Uses: One of the best fodder grasses in N. America and is extensively

cultivated there. For a ful! account see Kew Bull. (1602), 1-4.

3. Paspalum compactum, Roth Nov. Pl. Sp. (1821), 36; Kunth Enum. PI. i, 61 ;

Steud. Syn. Gram. 31; Hook. f. in F. B. I. vii, 12; Cke. ii, $43.—P.. militaria,

C. Muell. in Bot. Zeit. xix (1861), 325.—P. Canare, Steud. 1. c. 58.—P. tmper-

fectum, Roxb. ex Kunth l.c.

Description : Cke. 1.c.

Locality : Konkan : Tiwari-Pada, Bassein (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona 1€90!) ;

Matheran, to Louisa Point (D’Almeida A243!).—Deccan : Khandala, growing

in gravelly soil, very common (McCann 9823!); Igatpuri, very common

(McCann 4587 !); Panchgani, First Tableland (McCann B1300! B1265!), Second

Tableland (McCann B1242!, B1292!); Mahableshwar (Cooke, Woodrow).—

S. M. Country: Londa (Bhide!); Belgaum (Hole 15!).—Kanara: Yellapore

(Talbot 657!) ; Tinai (Talbot 2566!) ; Castle Rock, elevation 1,900 ft., rainfall

250 inches (Sedgwick 2752!) ; Karwar, Bingy Ghat (a very villious form,

McCann) (Talbot 1529!) ; Devimani, elevation 1,300 ft. (McCann A17!).

Distribution : W. Peninsula of India.

4. Paspalum vaginatum, Sw. Prodr. Veg. Ind. Occ. 21, Fl. Ind. Occ. i, 135;

Trin, Gram. Pan. 94; Panic. Gen. $3, Sp. Grams Ic. €/1120); Kunth enunier

52; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 20.: Hitchcock & Chase in Contrib. U:.S. Nat

Herb. xviii, 307 (zon P. Beauv. FJ. Owar.) ; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix,

570.—P. vaginatum, forma longipes, Lange in Vidensk. Medd. Naturh. Foren.

Kjébenh. (1854), 42, Pug. Pl. Hisp. i, 28.—P. dzstichum, N. L. Burm, FI, Ind.

23; Gaertn. Fruct. 11,2, t. 80°; Kunth 1. c.j) Steud. lic. 29; Baker th Maurie

431; Benth. Fl. Austr. vii, 460; Hack. in Forschungsr. S. M.S. ‘ Gazelle’ iv,

6 ; Hook. f. in F. B. Lb vii, 12;" Rendle. in Journ. Linn. Soc:.Bot. xxxviny 319k

Cke. ii, 943 ; Ridley Mat. Fl. Mal. Pen. iii, 124 ; Stapf in Dyer F1. Cap. vii, 371;

Merrill in Philipp. Journ. Sc. i, Suppl. i, 346 (zou Linn.).—P. dztstichum, var.

vaginatum, Griseb. Fl. Brit- W. Ind. 541.—P. Jittorale, R. Br. Prodr. 188; Trin.

1 We have to thank Mr. K. Biswas, the Curator of the Herbarium of the

Sibpur Botanic Garden, for most of the information contained under this

species.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 641

Gram. Pan. 95, Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 112.—P. longitlorum, P. Beauv. Fl. Owar. ii,

46, t. 85, fig. 2; Grah. Cat. Bomb. 234 (zon Retz.).—P. bvachiatum, Trin. ex

Nees Agrost. Bras. 62.—P. foliosum, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 25.—P. sgvamatum,

Steud. 1. c.. 21-—FP. inflatum. A. Rich.in Ram. de Sagra Fl. Cub. iii, 298.—

P. kleintanum, Pres] Rel. Haenk. i, 209.—P. Boryanum, Presl i. c—Ligitaria

foltosa, Lag. Gen. ef Sp. Nov. 4.—Y. vaginata, Philippe FI]. d. Pyren. ii, 415.—

D. paspaloides var. longipes, Lange ex Willk & Lange Prodr. Fi. Hisp. i,

45.—Sanguinaria vaginata, Bub. Fl. Pyren. iv, 258.

To explain the change of name from P. distichum, Linn. to P. vaginaium,

Sw., and to elucidate certain points of the above synonyiny taken from Stapf, it

will suffice to quote the short explanation given in the Fl. Trop. Afr. p. 572:

‘Frequently confused with Paspalum distichum, Linn. (Herb. Linn. !) which

has broader and flatter leaves, mostly sessile or subsessile lateral spikes and

spikelets with firmer sides and a more convex upper glume, which is appressedly

and silky pubescent.’

Description: Cke. ii, 943.

Locality: Gujarat: Marshy edge of the Bokh, Prantij (Herb. Econ. Bot.

Poona!).—AKonkan: Marine Lines, Bombay (Hallberg 9514!) ; sea-shore,

Bombay (Woodrow) ; Malabar Hill, Bombay (McCann 3609!) ; St. Xavier’s

College compound (McCann 9830!) ; Alibag, sandy shore (Ezekiel!) ; Malwan

(Woodrow).

Distribution. ‘Tropics of the whole world, mostly on the sea-shore ; intro-

duced into Galicia (Spain) and the Western and Centra! Pyrenees.

47, PASPALIDIUM, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix (1917), 15 clavi et 1. c.

(1920), 582.

(Sect. Paspaloidee in F. B. 1. partim).

Perenniai, semiaquatic or terrestrial. Leaves linear, flat or involute. Ligule

a ciliolate rim. Racemes sessile or sub-Sessile and secund on the alternate

notches of a triquetrous common axis of a false compound spike, more or less

appressed to the more or less hollowed-out flanges of the latter. Rhachis ending

in a subulate point. Spikelets mostly conspicuously 2-seriate, nearly always

quite glabrous, ovate to ovate-oblong or ovate-lanceolate (when seen in front

view), awnless, falling entire from the pedicels, solitary, secund and abaxial on

the rhachis. Involucral glumes mostly dissimilar and very unequal in length ;

lower reduced toa small scale or upto, rarely over, half the length ofthe

spikelet, upper mostly almost equalling the spikelet, 5-7-nerved with the

nerves evenly distributed, rarely both glumes much reduced. Lower floral glume

similar to the upper involucral glume with the inner side-nerves more distant,

pale if present only slizitly shorter than its glume with well developed inflexed

flaps; upper floral glume oblong to elliptic in outline, acute to apiculate ;

emucronate, crustaceous with firm involute margins, faintly 5-nerved, pale

almost as long asits glume, 2-keeled, its sides tightly embraced by the glume

allalong. lLodicules 2, small, broadly cuneate. Stamens 3. Styles distinct ;

stigmas p!umose, laterally exserted from the upper part of the spikelet. Grain —

tightly enclosed by the more or less hardened glume and paie.

Species about 12.—In the warm countries of the whole world. Six are con-

fined to Australia and New Caledonia.

Ccoke (ii, 929) describes 3 species belonging to this genus: Panicum

flavidum, Retz., P. punctatum, Burm., and P. fluztans, Retz. We retain all, but

substitute the older name geminatum for fluitans.

I. Lower spikes shorter than the internodes. Upper

involucrai glume shorter than the upper floral

glume eas ey ans re 1. P. flavidum.,

II. Lower spikes as long as or longer than the internodes.

Upper involucral glume about 3 the upper floral

glume aes a sae Fi oe see

III. Lower spikes as long as or shorter than the internodes.

Upper involucral glume mostly as long as the

upper floral glume ibe st ‘at ae 3. P. geminatum.

1. Paspalidium flavidum—A. Camus in Lecomte Fl. l’Indo-Chine, vii 1, 419 ;

Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1001 (erronee attribuens combitnationem

Staptio). —Panicum flavidum, Retz. Obs. iv (1786), 15; Griff. Notul. iii, 33 ; Ic.

Pi As. t. 139; fis. 67; Duthie Grass, N. W. Ind. 3, Indig. Fodd.:' Grass; t: vi;

2. P. punctatum.,

642 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 7; Benth. Fl. Austr. vii, 474; Hook. f. in F.B-I. vii, 28 ;

Cke. ii, 929.—P.. brizoides, Jacq. Eclog. Gram. (1813), 2, t. 2; Roxb. Fl. Ind.

i, 293; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 290; Duthie Grass. _N. W. Ind. 2; Aitchis.

Cat. Panjab Pl. 159; Baker Fl. Maurit 433.—P. floridum Royle Ill. Bot.

Himal. 420.

Description : Cke. ii, 929.

Locality : Sind : Sanghar (Sabnis B762!).—Gujarat: Near Surat (Dalzell &

Gibson teste Cooke); Morvi, Kathiawar (Woodrow feste Cooke) ; Porbandar,

Kathiawar (Woodrow teste Cooke).— Konkan: Mulgaum (McCann 9579!);

Thana (McCann 8726!); N. & S. Konkan (Iuaws_ teste Cooke).— Deccan :

Poona (Bhide!) ; Mr. Gammie’s compound, Kirkee (Bhide 894!) ; Khandala

(Woodrow teste Cooke!).— S. WM. Country: Konankeri, in a small tank,

elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall 40 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4964!); Belgaum

(Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!).—Kanara: Yellapore (Talbot!) ; Halyal (Talbot

2095 !).

Distribution : Plains of India, Ceylon, tropical Asia (not in tropical Africa as

reported by Hook. f. and Cooke).

2. Paspalidium punctatum, A. Camus in Lecomte Fl. ]’Indo-Chine, vii, 419:

Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1001 (erronee attribuens combinationem

Staptio).—Panicum punctatum, Burm. Fl. Ind. (1768), 26; Hook. f. in

BeBe) Wil, 20 ICke. 11020,

Description : Uke. 1.c. .

Locality : Deccan: Poona (Woodrow, Lisboa) ; Ahmednagar (Woodrow).

Distribution : Throughout India in marshes, Ceylon, Malaya (not in tropical

Africa).

3. Paspalidium geminatum, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix (1920), 583;

Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1002.— Panicum geminatum, Forsk. FI.

Aegypt.—Arab. 18; Schweinf. in Bull Herb. Boiss. ii, App. ii, 19; Hack. in

Bull Herb. Boiss. iv, App. iii, 14; Hitchcock & Chase in Contrib. U.S. Herb.

xv, 30.—P. fluitans, Retz. Obs. iti, 8e¢ v, 18; Willd. Sp. Pl. i, 338; Kunth Enum.

i, 78; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum. i, 59; Miq. Fl. Ind: Bat: iii, 455; Baker Fl; Maumit:

433 ; Cke. ii, 929.—P. brizoides, Lam. IIl., 1, 170 (om Retz.).—P. paspaloides,

Pers. Syn. i, 81; Kunth Enum. i, 77; Steud. i.c. 60; Boiss. FI. Or. v, 436%

Balfour f. Fl. Socotra 310; Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 30, in Trim. Fl. Ceyl. v, 135.—

P. beckmannieforme, Mikan ex Trin. in Spreng. Neue Entdeck. ii, 83;

Spreng. Syst. i, 309.—P. truncatum, Trin. Diss. ti. 130, ef Sp. Gram. Ic. t. 168.

—P.affine, Nees Agrost. Bras. 113.—P. drizaeforme, Pres] Rel. Haenk. 302 ;

Steud. l.c. 60.—P. numtdianum, Sieb. ex Schult. Mant. ii, 267 (zom Lam.).

P. carnosum, Salzm. ex Steud. l.c.—P. appressum, Doell. in Mart. FI. Bras. ii,

ii, 184.—P. glomeraium, Buckl. Prel. Rep. Geol. Agr. Surv. Tex. app. 3 (zon

Moench.).—P. turgidum, Cheval Sudania 25.— Paspalum appressum, Lam. Ill.

i, 176.—Dzigitaria appressa. Pers. 1.c. 85.--D. affinis, Roem. & Schult. Syst.

ii, 470.

Description : Cke. ii, 929.

Locality: Sind: Munchar Lake (Stocks deste Cooke); Tatta (Blatter &

McCann D611!, D612!).—Gujarat : Porbandar (Bhide!) ; Lasundra (Chibber!);

Ahmedabad, canal baaks (Sedgwick !) ; Cutch, Anjar, tank (Blatter 3745 !).—

Khandesh: Dhulia (Chibber!) ; Borod, growing in water, partly submerged

(McCann A97 !).—Kunkan: Mahaluxmi (Sabnis 5449!) ; opposite Kantwadi,

sandy shore, Bandra ( Vakil A99!) ; Victoria Gardens (McCann A100!) ; common

in Bombay Isl. (McCann !).—Deccan: Bund Gardens, Poona (Garade 343!) ;

sides of stream Dangar Guy, Ahmednagar (T. Cooke 6!) ; Manmad, river bed

(Blatter A94!); Sholapur Tank, in water (D’Almeida A95!); Pashan

(Gammie!); Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5492!).—S. 47. Country : Dharwar

(Sedgwick 3692!) ; Shiggaon (Sedgwick 2081!).—axara: Halyal (Talbot

2149!).

Distribution : More or less throughout India, Ceylon, Afghanistan, Arabia,

tropical Africa and America.

48, UROCHLOA, Beauv. Agrost. 52, t. xi, fig.1; Stapf in Prain Fly Drep:

Afr. 1x,,°586.

Perennial or annual. Leaves linear to lanceolate, flat; ligules a ciliate rim.

Racemes sessile or subsessile on a common axis, simple or nearly so; rhachis

more or less triquetrous with a low almost straight or zigzag facial angle or keel,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 643

rarely strap-shaped ; pedicels solitary or in pairs, alternately to the right and

the left of the facial angle, usually reduced to short disc-tipped stumps, or if

binate the primary slightly longer. Spikelets close, coutiguous or slightly dis-

contiguous, 2 or irregularly piuri-seriate, glabrous or hairy, broad-ovate to

elliptic or lanceolate-oblong, awaless, usually more or less flattened or slightly

depressed abaxially, convex on the back, falling entire from the pedicels, soli-

tary or binate or in fascicles of 3-4, secund and abaxial on the rhachis involucral

glumes similar and subequalor more often dissimilar and very unequal in length,

the ower being the shorter, upper resembling and more or less equalling the

lower floral glume, 5-11 (mostly 7-) nerved. Lower floral glume &-7-, rarely

more-nerved the inner lateral nerves somewhat distant from the midnerve, pale

subequal to the glume, with well-developed inflexed flaps and sharp sometimes

marginate keels ; upper floral glume elliptic to rotundate-elliptic in outline,

very obtuse, with usually scabrid or barbellate mucro, narrowly involute, 5-7-

nerved, pale almost as long as the glume, 2-keeled, the sides tightly embraced

by the valve all along. Lodicules 2, small, broadly cuneate. Starrens 3;

styles distinct ; stigma plumose, laterally exserted upwards. Grain tightly

enclosed by the glume and pale, broadly to rotundate-elliptic, dorsally com-

pressed.

‘* Very similar to Brechiaria, but with the orientation of the spikelets inverted

and a short fine mucro from the very obtuse apex of the fertile valve. Although

very similar in general appearance, none of the species of Urochloa can be said

to approach closely members of the genus Brachiaria. Their affinities are

clearly inter se, suggesting a distinct line of evolution. The occurrence of

parallel states, one with glabrous, the other with pubescent spikelets, but other-

wise indistinguishable, runs almost through the whole genus. To this may be

added the presence of a submarginal fringe in the lower floret, almost normal

in some and very rare in other species, and apparently in no case correlated

with other characters.’’ (Stapf l.c.).

Species about 18.—Hot parts of the Old World, one in America, but perhaps

introduced.

Cooke describes 3 species of Panicum which belong here: Panicum prostra-

tum, Lamk., P. settgerum, Retz., and P. Javanicum, Poir., to which we add

Urochloa marathensis, Henrard.

A. Spikelets up to 2 mm. long ne ae lO. veplans,

B. Spikelets 2°5-5 mm. long

I. Spikelets lanceolate, acuminate see ea "OSCE Sera.

II. Spikelets ovate to elliptic-oblong

1. Leaves about 3cm. long. Racemes 2 cm.

U. marathensts.

lone 2s wat . a an

2. Leaves 3°5-15 cm. long. Racemes 2°5-5 cm.

long 34. wee i .. 4 UO. Helopus.

1. Urochloareptans, Stapfin Prain FJ. Trop. Afr. ix, 601; Haines in Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 1003.—FPanicum reptans, Linn. Syst. Nat. ed. x, 870; Hitchc.

& Chase in Contrib. U.S. Nat. Herb. xv, 36, fig. 17, excl. P. grossarium.

—Fivepens, N. i, Burm. Fl. Ind. 26, t. 11, f. 1; Rottl. in Neue Schrift. iv, 182 ;

Roxb. Fl. Ind. i. 302; Boj. Hort. Maur. 364 (zow Linn.).—P. prostratum,

Lam. Ill. i, 171; Mig. Fl. Ind. Bat. iti, 446; Griseb. Fl. Brit. W. Ind. 546;

Schweinf. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, App.ii, 20; Baker Fl. Maur. 435; Duthie

List: Grass. N. W. Ind. 6; Ill. Indig. Fodd. Grass. t. 45; Fodd. Grass. N. Ind.

Reem boss, El Or, v, 438; Dalz. & Gibs. 290; Hook.f. in F.B.1. vii, 33;

Cke. ii, 932; Merrill in Philipp. Journ. Se. i, 355.—P. darbatum, Lam. 1..c.

—P. cespitosum, Sw. Fl. Ind. Occ. i, 146. —P. Szederz, Link. Hort. Berc!. i, 207.

—P. procumbens, var. Nees Agrost. Bras.109.—P. crispum, Lianos, Fragm. 42.

~— P. insularum, Steud. Syr. Pl. Glum.i, 61.—P. calacczense, Steud.. l.c. 65.

—P. aurelianum, Halein Wood Classb. ed. iii, 787.—-P. viaticum, Salzm. ex Doell

in Mart. Fl. Bras. ii, ii, 155.—P. mareginatum, Vahlex. Hook. f. 1. c.—&4racht-

aria prostrata, Griseb. in Abh. Ges. Wiss. Goett. vii, 263.

Description: Cke. ii, 932, under Panicum prostratum.

Locality : Gujarat: Ahmedabad, famine grass plot, Redar (Herb. Gujarat

College!) ; Ghad, on black soil (Sedgwick 1124!).—Khandesh : Nandurbar,

(Mamlatdar of Nandurbar!) ; Umalla, Tapti bank (Blatter & Hallberg 5229 !);

Bor, Tapti (Blatter & Hallberg 4417!).—Konkan: Vasco da Gama (Bhide !):

Matunga, salt pans (Sabnis 9572!) ; Byculla (McCann 9577!).—Deccan : Kirkee

644 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

(Bhide!); Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!); Deolali (Blatter A107!) ;

Sholapur (D’Almeida Al08!, A109!).—S. M7. Country: S.W. of Dharwar,

elevation 1,800 ft., rainfall 90 inches (Sedgwick & Bell 4437!) ; Dharwar,

under trees on black soil, elevation 2,400 ft., rainfall 34 inches (Sedgwick 2882 !).

Distribution: Plains of India, Ceylon, Tropics generally, subtropical

America, also tropical Arabia and the Mascarenes.

2. Urochloa setigera, Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 598; Haines in Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 1003.—FPanicum setigerum, Retz. Obs. iv, 15; Roxb. Fl. Ind.

i;.299 ; KunthsEnum.i, 90 @xcl. syn. nonnuliis) > Hookt: in 3. Br. il, of.

Trim: Fl. Ceyl..v, (41; Cke. 11, 933.--7. affine, ‘Poir. Eneycl: “Suppl. in, 278

(ex Kunth).

Description: Cke. ii, 933, under Panicum setigerum.

Locality : Sind: Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCaun D609!); Gharo (Blatter

& McCann D610!).-Gujarat: Rajkot, Kathiawar (Woodrow 45 deste Cuoke! ).—

Khandesh: Dhulia (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!).—Aonkan : Bassein (Paranjpe !).

—Deccazx : Ganeshkhind Bot. Gardens (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!) ; Mangiri

Farm, 11 miles S. E. of Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona !).

Distribution : India, Ceylon, Mauritius, tropica! and 8. Africa.

Note: We donotthink there is any good reason for retaining Hook. f.’s

var. tomentosa which was also mentioned by Cke. 1.c. We refer to the note

given above after the general characteristics of the genus and add what Stapf

says with regard to this species in particular: ‘The African specimens have

glabrous spikelets. In India, however, the pubescent form appears to be pre-

valent.’

3. Urochloa marathensis, Henr. in Mededeel. Rijks Herb. 43 (1922), 1-3, pl. 1.

— Panicum marathense, Henr. in Herb. Lugd. Bat.

Distribution: Annual, dwarf and robust, glaucous, branching from the

lower geniculations. Stems low, striate, quite glabrous, few-noded, nodes

pubescent. Leaf-sheaths terete or slightly compressed, striate, lower ones gap-

ing, upper ones tight, shorter than the internodes, hirsute with bulbous-based

hairs. Ligule very short, covered with long hairs. Blade cordate at the base,

linear-lanceolate, gradually acutate, more or less 3cm. long, 5-7 mm. broad,

flat, on both sides but especially on the upper sparingly covered with spreading

bulbous-based hairs, margin thickened, distinctly undulate, fimbriate with iong

tubercular hairs. Racemes 2-3, distant from each other more or less 1 cm.,

2 cm. long, stout, erect-patulous or finally reflexed ; rhachis subtrigcnous,

pilose at the base, more than twice as narrow as the spikelets slightly undulate,

the angles scaberulous, otherwise glabrous, giving off solitary pedicels. Spike-

lets biseriate, broadly elliptic, very acute, 4 mm. long, anteriorly almost flat,

posteriorly very convex, green, glabrous. Involucral glumes very unequal.

Lower almost 3 of the spikelet, subobtuse, 5-nerved, upper as long as the

spikelet, very acute, distinctly 7-9-nerved. Lower floral glume equal in

shape to the upper involucral glume, flat, 5-nerved, glabrous on the back,

tubercular-echinulate near the margin, except near the tip and base, paleate,

Upper floral glume shorter than the preceding glumes, elliptic with a

rounded tip, rigid, opaque, brown-straw-coloured, rugulose, long caudate, 5-

nerved, bullate below.

Locality: S.M. Country and N. Kanara (A. P. Young ex Henrard). We

have not seen the specimen.

Distribution : So far endemic.

Note: Henrard hasa variety from the same localities : var. Velutina which

differs from the type by the densely pubescent spikelets. What we saidina

note uuder the previous species can be applied here.

4. Urochloa Helopus, Stapfin Prain Fl. Trop. Afr. ix, 595; Haines in Bot.

Bihar & Orissa 1002.—U. pubescens, Kunth Rev. Gram.i, 31, Enum. Pl. i,

74.—U. panicoides, Schult. Mant. ii, 595 (zou Beauv.).—FPanicum Helopus,

Trin. in Sprene. Neue Hntdeck:*11, $4" Panic. (Gen. 150; -e7 “Gram le.wser

Descr. ii, t. 183; Nees Agrost. Bras. 117; Steud. Syn. Pl. Glum.i, 57; Duthie

List Grass. N. W. Ind. 4, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 8.—P. Helopus var. glabrescens,

K: Schum. in Engl. Pll. Ost.—Afr. C. 101; Stapf in Dyer Fl. Cap. vii, 392.—

P. hirsutum, Koen. ex Roxb. Fl. Ind, i, 300.—P. Kenigi, Spreng. Syst. i,

311.-—-P. hochstetterianum, A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 369.—P. geminatum,

Hochst. ex A. Rich. l.c. (zon Forsk.).—P. controversum, Steud. Syn. Pl.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 645

Glum.i, 60; Schweinf. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. II, ii, 19.—Setaria? hirsuta,

Kunth Rev. Grain. i, 47, Enum. Pl. i, 157.—S. pzlifera, Spreng. Syst. iv, Cur.

Post. 33.—Panicum javanicum, Hook. f. in F.B.I. vii, 35 (wom Poir, partim) ;

Cke. ii, 933 (partz12).

This is the species which was described by Hook. f. and many others,

amongst them by Cooke, under the name of Panicum javanicum, Poir.

According to Stapf P. javanicum, frequently confused with U. Helopus, is U.

panicoides, Beauv., a distinct species. A numberof synonyms and references

have, according to the same authority, to be excluded from the F.B I. under

Panicum javanicum : Bentham’s Flora of Australia (vii, 476) mentions Panicum

Flelopus, but itis partly Brachiaria notochtona, Stapf (Panicum notochtonum,

Domin) and partly Arachiaria ramosa, Stapf. T. 7 in Duthie’s Fodd. Grass.

does not represent Panicum Helopus, but Brachiaria ramosa, Stapf. Urochloa

panicotdes, Beauv. isasynonym of Panicum javanicum, Poir. P. trichopus,

Hochst. is Uvochloa trichopus, Stapf.

As a number of foreign elements have crept into the usual descriptions of our

species we give Stapf’s description of P. Helopus.

Annual. Stems tufted, 30-60 cm. high, erect or geniculately ascending from

a short sometimes rooting base, frequently sparingly branched from the lower

nodes, 4-10-noded, intermediate internodes like the uppermost (peduncle) very

sparingly pubescent or almost glabrous. Leaf-blades lanceolate to linear-

lanceolate from a wider and semi-amplexicaul base, 3°5-15 cm. by 8-12 mm.

rarely up to 25cm. and then linear and narrowed towards the base, soft, flat,

pale or yellowish-green, loosely and often finely hirsute with tubercle-based

hairs, rarely almost glabrous, margins usually crisped or wavy and more or less

ciliate. Sheaths somewhat loose, pale, striate, densely ciliate upwards, more or

less shortly hirsute with the hairs tubercle-based, nodes pubescent to subvillous.

Ligules a densely ciliate rim. Inflorescence of mostly 4-7 erect or at length

more or less spreading stiff or slightly flexuous sessile or subsessile spiciform

secund racemes ; common axis 1:2-5 (rarely 75 cm.) long, subsemiterete below,

inuch flattened upwards, pubescent. Racemes moderately dense, 2-seriate,

simple, 25-5 cm. long, solitary or here and there approximate and then

unevenly distributed ; rhachis straight or slightly wavy, flat on the back, about

1mm. wide, villous atthe base, glabrous upwards, rarely sparingly hairy,

angles scabrid ; internodes up to 1 mm. long ; pedicels solitary, reduced to short

stout stumps with discoid tips, frequently bearing some long spreading hairs.

Spikelets laterally contiguous or subcontiguous ovate to elliptic-oblong, very

acute, 4-5 mm. long, greenish, glabrous or pubescent. Involucral glumes

dissimilar ; lower broad-ovate, subobtuse to acute, clasping at the base, 15-2

mm. long, glabrous or sparingly and minutely pubescent, 5-nerved upper one

corresponding in size and outline to the spikelet, prominently 7-11-(mostly 9-)

nerved, glabrous or pubescent. Lower floral glume very similar to the upper

involucral glume, but flat or slightly depressed, 5-7-nerved with the inner side-

nerves distant, glabrous or pubescent, pale oblong, acute, slightly shorter than

its glume. Anthers 2 mim. long. Upper floral glume rotundate-elliptic,

greenish to pale brown, 2°5-3 mm. long, pale finely transversely rugose or

granular, mucro up tol mm. long, sparingly barbellate. Grain rotundate-

elliptic on outline, much compressed, about 2 mm. long, yellowish or greenish.

Locality: Gujarat: Baroda (Cooke deste Cooke).—Deccan: Katraj Ghat,

11 miles S. E. of Poona (Shevade!); Poona (Woodrow!) ; Deolali (Blatter

A110!) ; Ganeshkhind Bot. Gardens (Patwardhan !) ; Chattarshinji (Bhide!) ;

Mangiri, near Poona (Gammie 15344!); Akola (Mamlatdar of Akola!) ;

Dapuri near Poona (Jacquemont 482!).—S. W/. Country: Dharwar, elevation

2,500 ft., rainfall 35inches (Sedgwick 2157!); Kilgerry (Talbot 2419 !) ;

Haveri (Talbot 2284!) ; Bijapur (Meebold 11201!) ; Badami (Woodrow feste

Cooke).— Kanara: Kulgi, elevation 2.000 ft. (Talbot 2283!) ; Nundgod (Mam-

ratdar of Nundgod).

Distribution: Plains of India, Ceylon, tropical and S. Africa, Mauritius.

49, Ecuinocuioa, Beauv. Agrost. 53, t. 11, fig. 2; Stapf in Prain

Bl Trop. Aire ix, 604;

Annualor perennial. Leaf-blades from a slightly constricted or equally wide

rarely much attenuated base. Ligules 0 or represented by a transverse fringe of

hairs. Panicles of crowded or loosely arranged secund speciform branches

646 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

mostly bearing spikelets from the base or near it. Spikelets ovate to elliptic- or

lanceolate-oblong, usually cuspidate or awned, very convex on the back, flat or

slightly depressed in front, falling entire from the pedicels, 2-nate or clustered,

secund and abaxial on the triquetrous rhachis of racemosely arranged false

spikes Involucral glumes unequal, membranous, the lower much shorter,

more or less ovate from a clasping base, 3-5-nerved, often mucronate, the upper

corresponding in length and outline to the spikelet (as seen from the back),

very concave, 5-7-nerved, acute, cuspidulate or cuspidate, rarely produced into

a short awn. Lower floret equalling the upper glume (excluding cusps or,

awns) ; lower floral glume very similar to the upper involucral glume, but flat

or depressed on the back and often with a more pronounced cusp or an awn ;

pale equal tothe body of the valve, or in barren florets more or less reduced,

hyaline, finely 2-keeled. Upper floral glume ovate to elliptic-oblong, apiculate

or obtuse, very convex on the back, subcoriaceous or crustaceous, polished,

faintly 5-nerved, margins firm, involute up to near the tip, then flat, not emb-

racing the tip of the pale, pale sub-equal to. the glume and similar in substance,

with rounded keels and flaps which thin out towards the flat slightly recurved

tips. Lodicules 2, cuneate, fleshy. Stamens 3. Styles distinct; stigmas

plumose, exserted from near the tips. Grain broad-elliptic dorsally flat,

ventrally convex ; hilum punctiform, subbasal.

Species about 20-25.—The warm regions of both hemispheres.

Note: Jt will be useful to remember what Stapf says regarding this genus

l.c.605: ‘ The segregation of the numerous fornis which make up the genus

Echinochloa and their reduction to more or less well definable species is still

unsatisfactory, mainly owing to their apparently endless variability and the

difficuity, if not impossibility, of discriminating between stable and unstable

modifications and the effects of hybridization. Here, as in other cases, observa-

tion in the field and experiment will have to decide.’

Cooke describes under Panicum 2 species which have to be referred to

Echinochloa: P.colonum and P. stagninum. We add &. Crus-Galli which

Cooke thought did not occur anywhere in the Bombay Presidency.

I. Lower involucral glume and upper floral glume

equally acute or cuspidate 1. &. Colona.

If. Lower involucral glume and upper floral glume

cuspidate or produced into an awn, the latter

more than the former.

1. Ligule 0 .... . 2: &. Crus-Gallt,

2. Ligule a fringe of stiff hairs or absent in the

uppermost leaves . a sac oe, ofl. Sta Gultga:

1. Echinochica colona, Link Hort. Berol. ii, 209; Parl. Pl. Nov. 40; Hitchc.

in Gray Man. Bot.ed..7,.138.,efin-Contrib..U; Si. Nats Herb: oxi 7135 evan

256, xvili, 345; Stapf in. Prain Fl. Drop. Airs 1x, 2607 ; Hainesminuebor

Bihar & Orissa 997.—Z. zonalis, Parl. Pl. Panorm. i, 119.— Panicum colonum,

Lion, Syst. Veg..ed. 10 (1759), 870, Sp. Pl. ed..u, 84; Jacq. Eclog,Gramiat:

32; Roxb. Fl. Ind, i, 299; Nees Agrost. Bras. 119; Steud Syn. Pl. Glum. ij,

46; Benth. Fl. Hongk. 411, et Fl. Austral. vii, 478; Griseb. Fl. Brit. W. Ind.

545 ; Baker Fl. Maurit, 438; Duthie List Grass, N. W. Ind. 3, Indig. Fodd,

Grass. t..4, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 4; Boiss. Fl. Or. v-435: Balfst. Botssocotra

310; Hack. in Bol. Soc. Brot. vi, 140 ; Schweinf. in Bull. Herb. Boiss. ii, App.

ii, 20,95; Hook. f.in F.B.I. vii, 32; Cke. ii, 931.—P. arabicum, Nees ex

Steud. Nomencl. ed. ii, 252, ef Syn, Pl. Glum. i, 63 (Jartim).—P. brizotdes,

Linn. Mant. ii, 184.—P. fetrastichon, Forsk. Fl. Aegypt.—Arab. 19.—P.

cuspidatum, Roxb. FI. Ind. i, 301; Duthie Grass. N. W. Ind. 3; Steud. 1. c.

47.—P. pseudocolonum, Roth. Nov. Sp. 47; Steud. l.c. 46.—P. zonale, Guss. Ind.

Sem. H.R. Bocc. 1825, e¢ Fl. Sic. Prodr. i, 82.—P. numidianum, Presl. Cyp. &

Gram. Sic. 19 (zom Lam.).—P. Daltoni, Parl. ex Webb in Hooker Niger FI.

185.— P. eguitans, Hochst. ex A. Rich. Tent. Fl. Abyss. ii, 365.—P. Crus-Galli

var. colonus, Coss. Glum. Expl. Alger. 28.—P. Peliveri, Kotsch. ex Griseb.

lsc. (707 rin...)

Description: Cke. ii, 931.

Locality : Sind: Karachi (Nankad !); Mirpurkhas (Bhide!, Sabnis B1176!) ;

Sind (Blatter!) ; Larkana, barren plains (Sabnis b93!, B95!, B457!) ; Sanghar

(Sabnis B899!, B894!) ; Nasarpur, clayey soil (Sabnis B1048!) ; Mirva Canal,

Khairpur Mirs (Sabnis B263!); Khairpur Mirs (Sabnis B337!) ; Sehwan to

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 647

Laki (Sabnis B63!) ; Hyderabad (Sabnis B49!) ; Pad-Idan (Sabnis B516 !} ;

Chuar Ch. (Blatter & McCann D616!, D621!) ; Baghar (Blatter & McCann

D617!); Mirpur Sakro (Blatter & McCann D618!, D620!); Ghulamalla

(Blatter & McCann D619); Shikarpur (Woodrow).—Guwjarat: Lasundra

(Chibber!); Anjor (Cutch), brackish water (Blatter 3743!) ; Ahmedabad

(Cowper!) ; Morvi, Kathiawar (Wcodrow).—Khandesh: Muravad, Tapti

bank (Blatter &- Hallberg 4435!); Bor, -Tapti Island (Blatter &

Hallberg 4439!); Dadgaum (McCann Al104!); N. slope of Chanseli

(McCann <Al105!).— Konkan: Bombay, Salt swamps (Woodrow J) ;

Vetora (Sabnis 33589!) ; Charni- Road, Bombay (Sabnis 4292!) ;

Bombay, very common (McCann!); Alibag, rice fields (Ezekiel!).— Deccan :

Purandhar Fort (Bhide!, McCann 5520!); Nira Canal, Poona District (Chib-

ber!); Khbandala, very common (McCann A101!); Sholapur (D’Almeida

Al02!); Igatpuri (Blatter & Hallberg 5487! ; McCann 4331!); Deolali (Blatter

A103!); Poona, canal (Ezekiel !).—S. 47. Country : Dharwar (Sedgwick 2655!) ;

Castle Rock (McCann Al106!); Londa (Woodrow).—Kanara: Dongi Nallah

(Talbot !); Karwar (Talbot 614!).

Distribution : Throughout the plains of India, Ceylon, all over the tropics and

the warm-temperate regions of the world. Probably of African and Indian

origin according to Stapf.

The sameauthor is of opinion that Panicum frumentaceum, Roxb. which

is grown in India asa grain crop, is evidently descended from “chinochloa

colona. Roxburgh’s species may, therefore, be treatea as a variety :

var. frumentacea, Blatter & McCann.—AFchinochloa frumentacea, Link. Hort.

Berol. i, 204; Aitchis. Cat. Panjab Pl. 161.— Panicum frumentaceum, Roxb.

iiads i; 304:;Schult. Mant. it, 230;.Trin. Sp.. Gram. Ic.,t. 164; Duthie

Grass. N. W. Ind. 4, Field & Gard. Crops 3. t. 24, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 8.—

P. Crus-Galli, var. frumentaceum, Trim. Cat. Ceyl. Pl. (1885), 104.—

Echinochloa Crus-Galli, var. frumentacea, Haines in Bot. Bihar & Orissa

998.—Panicum stagninum, Retz. var. frumentacea, Cooke in Cke. ii, 931.—

Oplismenus frumentaceus, Kunth Rev. Gram.i, 45, Enum. Pl. i, 146; Daiz.

& Gibs. Bomb. Fl. Suppl. 98.

Description : Tall, robust. Stems erect, from 60 to 120cm. high. Panicle

often nodding. Spikes secund, incurved, crowded. Spikelets mostly 3-nate,

unequally pedicelled, one at least sessile, varying from hispidulous to almost

glabrous, and from acute to cuspidulate or rarely distinctly cuspidate.

Locality : Cultivated in and near the Ghat districts.

2. Echinochloa Crus-Galli, P. Beauv. Agrost. 161; T. Nees Gen. FI. Gerin.

Monocot. i, t. 21; Reichenb:. Ic. Fl. Germ. i, t. 29, fig: 1411, 1412; Hitche. in

Contr. U.S. Nat. Herb. xii, 213 ; Stapf in Prain F]. Trop. Afr. ix, 610; Haines

in Bot. Bihar & Orissa, 998.—&. commututa, Schult. Mant. ii, 267.—

E.. hispidula, Nees in Royle il. Bot. Himal. 416; Dalz. & Gibs. Fl. Bomb.

Suppl. 98.—FPanicum Crus-Galli, Linn. Sp. Pl. ed.i, 56; Fl. Dan. t. 1564;

migsts Gram. Austr. ii, 15, t. 19; Knapp Gram... Brit. «i,. Trin.’ Sp. Gram:

faeet. 4161; 1625 Nees FI. “Afr. Austr. 58 3 Steud. Syn. Pl:: Glum,: 1; - 47:

Benth. Fl.. Austr. vii, 479 (partim); Duthie List. Grass. N.W. Ind. .3

Wwagecmy ts. A. fig: 1;) Boiss, .Pl- Ors v, 435; .Hook. f. in F:B.1. vit; 3

(partim) ; Stapf in Dyer Fl. Cap. vii, 397.—P. Aispidum, Forst. Prodr.

7; Nees Agrost. Bras. 257.—P. Aispidulum, Retz. Obs. v, 18; Lam. Ill. i, 171;

Roxb. Fl. Ind. i, 306; Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. 57; Royle J. c. 420; Stend. Syn.

Pl. Glum. i, 47.—-P. oryzinum, Gmel. Syst. i, 157.—P. stagninum. Host. Gram.

Austr. iii, t. 51 (zon Retz.).—P. Hostii, Marsch. Bieberst. Fl. Tauro-Cauc. iii,

5/7.—P. limosum, Presl ex Nees Agrost. Bras. 257.—Milium Crus-Galli, Moench

Meth. 202.—-Ofplismenus Crus-Galli, Dumort. Agrost. Belg. ; Kunth Rev.

Gram. i, 44, e¢ Enum. i, 143 (excl. syn. P. zonale).—O. limosus, Presl., Rel.

Haenk. i, 321: Kunth Enum. i, 144.—Orthopogon Crus-Galli, Spreng. Syst. i,

307.—O. Retzi1, Spreng. l.c.

Description: Annual, up to 1 m. high. Stems geniculately ascending,

branched below, compressed towards the base, glabrous and smooth, inter-

nodes enclosed or exserted. Leaf-blades linear, base scarcely narrowed,

narrowed to an acute point, 7-25 cm. by 6- over 12 mm., flat, subflaccid,

glabrous, more or less dull greyish-green, smooth or scaberuious below,

particularly towards the tip, margins finely cartilaginous, scabrid to almost

smooth, Sheaths somewhat loose, the lower often compressed, whitish and

648 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

thin, the upper subherbaceous, all smooth, glabrous and striate except the

basal which are pubescent above their insertion. Ligules 0, junction of blade

aud sheath glabrous inside marked by a brown zone. Panicles erect, strict or

flexuous, at length exserted, 7°5-20 cm. long; axis triquetrous, scabrid ;

branches few to about 15, solitary or 2-nate, suberect or spreading, distant

except the uppermost or all more or less approximate forming a ‘ lobed’

panicle, the lower 2°5-6°2 cm. long, forming rather stout dense mostly

many-ranked simple or subcomposite subsecund sessile false spikes ;

rhachis triquetrous, scabrid, coarsely bristly, particularly near the nodes;

pedicels fascicled or 2-nate, very short, up to 1 mm. long,.scabrid, bristly at

the base, tips subdiscoid. Spikelets crowded, ovate-eiliptic in outline, acute,

cuspidate or awned 2°5-3 mm. long, greenish or tinged with purple. Lower

involucral glume membranous, very broadly ovate, clasping at the base, obtuse

to subcuspidate, 1 mm. long, 5-nerved scaberulous; upper herbaceous-mem-

branous, very broadly ovate-oblong, concave, acute, cuspidate, as long as the

spikelet, 5- or (near the tip) 7-nerved, rigidly pubescent between the scabrid

and spinulose nerves. Lower floral glume similar to the upper involucral glume,

but flat or depressed on the back, cuspidate or produced into a scabrid often

long flexuous awn, 7-nerved (at least at the tip), pale elliptic, shorter by 4 than

its glume, keels scaberulous upwards; upper floret hermaphrodite, elliptic-

ovate in outline, cuspidate, over 2mm. !ong, whitish or yellowish, polished,

glume and pale subcoriaceous. Anthers oblong. Grain broad-elliptic in outline,

15mm. Jong:

Locality: Sind: Mirpurkhas (Bhide!); Ghulamalla (Blatter & McCann

D613!); Keti (Blatter & McCann D614!).—Gujarat: Stream near Prantij

(Sedgwick !) ; the Bokh, Prantij Taluka (Sedgwick 1144!).—Deccan: Poona

(Woodrow !).—S. M7. Country: Aluarar, elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 35 inches

(Sed¢wick 3096 !) ; Bidi, elevation 2,500 ft., rainfall 50 inches (Sedgwick 3076 !).

— Kanara: Halyal (Talbot 2167 !).

Distribution : Common through the greater part of India and Malaya; as a

weed throughout the warm temperate countries of the northern hemisphere,

rather rare in the tropics of Africa and the New World and south of the Tropic of

Capricorn (Stapf).

Uses: See Duthie, Fodd. Grass. N. Ind. 6; Vasey Agric. Grass. Unit. States

ed. ii, 27; Maiden Man. Grass. N. 8. Wales, 38-41; Yearbook U. S. Dept.

Agric. (1902), 580-582.

3. Echinochloa stagnina, P. Beauv. Agrost. 161; Stapf in Prain Fl. Trop. Afr.

617 —E£. scabra, Roem. & Schult. Syst. ii, 479.—Panicum stagninum, Retz.

Obs.-v, 173 ‘Roxb. Fi. Ind:1;295:; (Grah:iCatal.c 2374Necs, “Actost. Brace: 26e

Trin. Pan. Gen. 128, ef in Mém. Acad. Pétersb. 6me sér. iii, 216; Steud. Syn.

Pl. Glum. i, 47; Stapf in Dyer Fl. Cap. vii, 394; Cke. ii, 930.—P. scabrum,

Lam. fll.i, 171,¢2 Bocyel.iv. 7445 Nees 7. ic/5 Steud, 1: ¢-—PGall7,- Thunb,

Prodr. 18, e¢ Fl. Cap. ed. i, 389, ed. Schult. 103.—P. Crus-Galli, Woodrow in

Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xiit (1901), 433 (vom Linn.).—P Crus-Galli, var.

stagninum, Fenzl. in-Ind. Sem. Hort. Berol. 1850; Hook. f. in Trim. Fl.. Ceyl

v, 1385; Prain Beng. Pl. 1174.—P. Crus-Galli, vars maximum, submuticum et

leiostachyum, Franch. Contr. Fl. Congo Franc. in Bull. Soc. Hist. Nat. Autun.

viii, 347.—P. pictum, Nees Fl. Afr. Austr. 59 (mon Agrost Bras.).—P. Burgi,

A. Cheval. in Rev. Cult. Colon. vii, 513-520.—P. Lelievrez, A. Cheval. l.c.

516.—P. oryzetorum, A. Cheval. l.c.—Orthopogon stagninus, Spreng. Syst. i,

307.—Oplismenus stagninus, Kunth Rev. Gram. i, 44, e¢ Enum. i, 144 (partzm) ;

Dalz. & Gibs. Fl. Bomb. 292.—O. scaber, Kunth Rev. Gram l.c. 44, Enum.

lc. 145.

Description: Cke. ii, 930, under Panicum stagninum.

Locality: Sind: Ghulamalla (Blatter & McCann D615!).—Konkan : Virar,

on bank of a tank (McCann 9585!, 9584!).—Deccan: Igatpuri (Blatter &

Hallberg 5473!) ; Khandala, in water in the smaller village tank (McCann

27441!) ; Panchgani (Blatter & Hallberg B1241!).—S. WM. Country: Hulkop,

elevation 2,000 ft., rainfall 50 inches (Sedgwick 3175!) ; Chikkerur, Taluka

Kod, water hole by road (Sedgwick 1969!) ; Bomigatti tank (Sedgwick 3830!) ;

common in the Carnatic (Sedgwick).— Kanara : Pardhani (Talbot 3136!).

Distribution: More or less throughout India, Ceylon, tropica] and S. Africa.

Uses : Considering tropical African conditions Stapf observes (l.c 619):

‘ This grass deserves every attention on account of its locally abundant supply

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 649

and high sugar-content. Chevalier states that itis the most useful of all the

plants growing in a wild state in the neighbourhcod of Timbuctu. Every part

of it is utilized. It yields excellent fudder, material for thatching and caulking,

is burned to produce a salt used inthe manufacture of soap and indigo, the

grains are eaten and the canes are gathered for extracting sugar or preparing

vingigre or a beverage resembling cider. Sir John Kirk also describes it as one

of the richest of fodder grasses. Although typically a perennial with long

rhizomes creeping in the mud of swam gs, lakes and rivers, it seems on tempor-

arily flooded land to flower frequently the first year and then to behave as an

annual.’

(Fo be continued).

A COLLECTING Rie TOL ADAK

V. S. LAPERSONNE

Assistant Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

Parr II

(With two Plates)

(Continued trom page 517 ot this Volume)

Shushal (14,500 feet) our next halt, is a delightful spot. We had

camped in a willow garden, with the ever-present ‘Gompa’

(monastery) perched on a hillock. We were ‘ pleasantly’ surprised

to find next morning, that a heavy fall of snow had blotted out the

landscape, which was not usual for the time of the year at those

altitudes, unless something was radically wrong somewhere.

Half a mile behind our camp, the Bar-headed Geese (Anser indicus)

were breeding on a shallow ‘jheel’ and appeared to lay their eggs

on little grass-topped islands. On our arrival there were quantities

of egg-shells scattered about and only one young in down, which

was secured.

It is probable that the young are preyed upon by birds of prey.

The Tibetan, for a certainty will not molest these birds, believing

that with the hatching out of successful broods, the year’s harvest

is as good as assured. They even go sofar as to appoint a ‘ watch-

man’, who does not seem very enthusiastic over a job that keeps

him out all day, and will no doubt give any naturalist the necessary

help, for a consideration, and be glad to see the last of the ‘ darned

things’.

A suitable tip in the right quarter often got us much invaluable

information on the breeding sites of Owls, Partridges and Snow-

cocks, though some of the local sportsmen drew on their imagination

freely and appeared quite content merely with having strolled out

with a Sahib. Others again ssemed overjoyed with the prospect of

a morning with the guns and felt quite hurt if their lively chatter was

cut into by the interpreter, with the remark ‘ that they should keep

their reminiscences for their great-grandchildren on long winter

nights’.

The Large Eagle Owl breeds among bare rocky hills, usually on

the precipitous sides, in huge ‘rifts’. At Shushal we secured a

parent bird with two young in down. The Brahminy was aiso seen

leaving the hillside, and in among the reeds the Mallard had changed

the plumage by which we know him so well, for one quite insignifi-

cant.

Brandt’s Snow Finch (1/7. brandti hematopyga) appeared in large

flocks and as Col. Meinertzhagen observed, these were all females.

The males seemed to keep to the higher altitudes, and even as

late as June neither sex showed any signs of genitai development,

A COLLECTING TRIP TO. LADAK 651

Among the Rose Finches, Zrythrina rubicilla scvertzovi appeared

the commonest along the Pangkong Lake, frequenting the most

desolate regions.

Another species of Rose Finch, which roosted in hundreds on the

willow trees around our camp, has been identified as a new race.

Col. Meinertzhagen has named this A7ythrina rubicillotdes lapersonnet

and gives the following :—

‘Ladak specimens are generally paler above and below, the

upper parts not washed with such a deep crimson and the under

parts of a paler and more delicate rose-colour than occurs among

Kansu specimens. Females are also generally paler.

‘ A single female was obtained at Leh on May 7 and they occurred

in large numbers at Shushal in June, where many hundreds used to

roost in a willow grove in which I was camped. Birds seen at

Chumathang at 13,U50 feet above Leh on the Indus were also

believed to be of this species. ‘They are not soshyas &. 7”. severi-

zov7 and seem to prefer a Jess desolate type of country. They were

busy building at Shushal in June, many incomplete nests being

found in willow-trees and furze (Cavagana) from one to twelve feet

from the ground.

‘Birds recorded under Evythrina rhodochlamys by Hume and

Henderson (‘‘ Lahore to Yarkand,’’ p. 259) and by Sharpe (Second

Yarkand Mission, p. 42), are withcut doubt &. rubictlloides laper-

sonnet. The birds observed by Henderson at Tutyalak (13,000 feet)

and recorded as severtzovz were more likly to be Pyrrhospiza, which

is common there. It is not suitable country for Arythrina rubicilla

or rubicillordes.’

Leaving Shushal onthe 22nd June we cut across to the Indus over

a mountainous pile of rocks, which leaves one with the impression

that this particular part of the globe has been left unfinished by the

Great Architect and the material strewn about.

We follow the hot dantesque gorges of the Indus as they wind in

and out amidst the silent rocky mountains whose peaks cut a jagged

line against an azure sky. Flat-topped hamlets punctuate the mono-

tony of sun-baked rock and muddy water where the gorges open

out; but such openings are few. The general aspect is that of the

protracted neck of a bottle, so narrow in eels that it would not

be a feat to kick one’s hat across.

While on the theme, a brief aoe aA account of the

upper reaches of the Indus which of recent years, political move-

ments have made accessible, would not bore the reader more than

we have done already.

The remarkable phenomena of the upper reaches of the Indus

Valley are the clearness and transparency of the atmosphere and

the great difference between the sun’s temperature 72 vacuo and the

air temperature in the shade. This difference as recorded at Leh

occasionally exceeds 90°.

The sources of the Indus have been traced to the glaciers of the

Kailas group of peaks and except for the remarkable instance of

transverse drainage, pursues an even north-westerly course amidst

an array of mountain scenery which for its majesty of sheer altitude

is unmatched by any in the world.

652 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

At Leh the river has already pursued an even course of 300 miles

from its source and except for the divergence which occurs about

100 miles above Leh, continues on a comparatively gentle placid

course over its sandy bed, when it captures the Shyok River (a

tributary almost as large as itself) and fed by the monster glaciers

of the Kara-Koram Range. ‘The combined streams still hold on a

north-westerly trend for another 1C0 miles deep hidden under the

shadows of the vast array of snow-capped mountains of -Baltistan

until they arrive a few miles below Gilgit. Here the great change

of direction to the south-west occurs, which is thereafter maintained

till the Indus reaches the ocean.

The Indus of to-day isthe Indus of myth and legend but swept

clean of mystery and the hidden strongholds of the fanatics along

its banks—a’ hindrance from all time to the progress of this world.

Many important points are bridged by the suspension system,

though there still exists the ‘Cantilever’ and the rope-bridge which

sways uneasily over the roaring waters.

We dipped into Puga in Rupshu and continued up the sandy

vailey to the shores of the Polokonka Lake (14,000’), where we

found the Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus cristatus) breeding,

as well as a large colony of Brown-headed Gulls in an advanced

stage of genital development.

The eggs of the Crested Grebe are placed on a floating mass of

reeds and the eggs, 4 to 6, in number appear to take on the colour

of the decaying matter in the nest.

Several lakes in the east districts at 14,000 feet above sea level

have been of much greater extent and connected to the drainage

system ofthe country, but they are now mostly without outlet,

saline, and in process of desiccation.

The highest visible water mark of the Polokoncha Lake is quite

150 feet above its present level, and recent years seem to show a

much more rapid process towards drying.

We shifted camp to the northern end of the lake and pitched our

tents on the lawn-like banks of a mountain torrent, while all around

the Poppies and Primulas grew in wild profusion.

There was comparatively little of bird or animal life. Gulden-

stadt’s Redstart (Phenicurus erythrogastra grandis) seemed in sole

possession of the stream. The surrounding hills offered nothing

but bareness and desolation.

Small parties of Wild Asses, or Kiang'ss as they are more commonly

known, visited the shores of the lake in the early mornings and late

evenings, the dead stillness being occasionally broken by their

‘shrieking bray.’ There seems a good bit of discrepancy between

the accounts of the Kiang’s cry given by different sportsmen. We

could safely leave it as intermediate between the neigh of a horse

and the bray of an ass—-almost alike to the vocal efforts of a mule,

which at its very best sounds like nothing on earth.

Whether in the rarified atmosphere the Kiang 1s as fleet of foot

as the species from Sind, it is difficult to say. The former can

‘move’ on occasions taking 18,000 and 19,000 feet hills in grand

style.

Besides its dreariness, the shores of the Polokoncha hold for the

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Our Camp AT 15,500 FT. IN THE

KARAKORAM

bem ne

”

kore

A COLLECTING TRIP TO LADAK 653

traveller a certain sadness. It was here that the wife of a young

Englishman met a tragic end, by inadvertently lighting a fire in her

tent with the very obvious result, when the very first rule in camp-

ing is broken.

~ On the 28th June we left the Polokoncha Lake and crossing the

Taklung Pass (17,600 feet) which rises sheer from the shores of the

lake, descended rather abruptly into the Gya Gorge.

While on the Taklung Pass the writer brought off a record bag of

Snow-cock ( 7etraogallus tibetanus) obtaining six birds in a single shot!

The possibility of such a feat may be enhanced when it is known

that two adult birds had their heads together, while four young

squatted on the mother bird’s back.

Following the Gya Gorge, which with rare determination pierces

an arm of the I.adak range, we swing off to right angles and enter

once again the Indus Valley which still keeps its boulder-strewn

nature. You wonder if the track lost itself or from fright and loneli-

ness ran up a frightfully untidy glen to Hemis, or that Hemis

huddled itself among the bare rocky crags in trying to escape from

the encroachments of ‘ western civilization’, for even here the

missionary offers a very very old dog a new collar, expecting him

to do new tricks.

We wind up the frightfully untidy glen into the heart of the

mountains, where amid forbidding rocky hills, Hemis, the Mecca

of one of the noblest of religious faiths and simple philosophies

yet unfolded by man, stands gaunt and silent.

True to this land of contradictions and surprises, a delightful

garden of stately poplars and wild roses, whose delicate perfume

scented the balmy air, was cradled among the barren hills and set

like a first-water jewel in a cheaptrinket. A multi-coloured crowd

of Ladakis thronged the massive gates that led into the monastery ;

while taking his joys less seriously, that hardy son of desolate

wind-swept steppes, the Tibetan, could easily be picked out by his

easy swinging walk and his fine example of full-blooded manhocd.

From the babble of voices it seemed that all Ladak and his wife

had turned up to witness the annual Devil-dancing and Festival

held at Hemis. And so the sun set on this strange scene, casting

grotesque figures among the crags, until night shrouded the narrow

glen in a sombre mantle, the darkness punctuated with innumerable

camp fires.

It might have been a scene from the Arabian Nights, if such a

scene did not date back to 500 B.c., for Hemis is almost as old as

the hills, even older some say.

The religious displays or ‘ Devil-dances ’ enacted annually among

the Bhuddists are familiar sights anywhere between Ladak and

Bhutan.

Much has been written on the various conceptions of this mystic

religion. Mystic, perhaps from the theologist point of view but to

the weary traveller it appears a bewildering agglomeration of

superstitions pieced together into an amazing farce, in which the

‘ Sons of Belial have a glorious time’.

Still one is really impressed by the rhythmic dancing, the

gorgeous dresses and the grotesque masks worn by the dancers,

654 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXX/1

which vie with each other in diabolic hideousness. Then, too, there

is tae perfect symphony produced by the treble and bass trumpets.

The latter are ten feet in length and emit a volume of sound not

unlike the amplified drone of a giant beetle in flight.

We left Hemis and arrived at Leh, by two easy stages on

July 5th. As yet the status of many of the migrants had not been

cleared up and the few days spent at Leh in preparations for our

journey to the Karakoram were helpful in clearing up one or two

problems. The Blue-throats (Luscinza svecica ssp.) which seem

fairly well distributed along the Indus and Shyok Rivers, wherever

suitable country is found, have for a considerable time confused

naturalists by their variable colourings on the throat.

Thanks to Col. Meinertzhagen’s systematic methods of collecting,

we obtained a remarkable fine series ot the Blue-throat which

breeds in Ladak. This has been identified as Luscinia svecica

abbottz, and is characterized by avariable colouring of red, some-

times reddish-white and white stars. Among our specimens of

Luscinta suecica abbotti there were five males and one female with

pure white stars, four males with pure red stars and four males and

two females a mixed red and white.

A red ‘starred’ male would have a white ‘ starred ’ female or

vice versa. ‘The type is a white-starred bird, and is known as the

‘ White-spotted Blue-throat.’ ;

Next we have Luscinia suecica pallidogularis (the Red-spotted

Blue-throat) which oftener than not is mistaken for the preceding

bird. Of pallidogularis Col. Meinertzhagen says, ‘ Whereas in

abbotti the “‘ star’’ is very variable, in this race it is always pure red,

sometimes a few white feathers are apparent. Underparts paler

than in addot¢ti and with seldom much black at the lower end of the

blue chest. Blue much paler. This is the only Blue-throat met

with in Kashmir in spring. First arrivals (all males) were noted on

March 23. This race does not breed (nor does any Blue-throat)

inthe Vale of Kashmir, though in Northern Kashmir, on the Gilgit

Road at 11,300 feet I found two pairs feeding young. The adults

are typical of this race.’

Thus we have Luscinia (Cyanosylvia) suecica abbotti breeding

throughout the Indus and Nubra Valleys—but not in Baltistan ; and

L.s. pallidogularis breeding in Baltistan (Western ‘Turkestan to

East Trans-caspia—Hartert).

These observations are clearenough and backed with specimens,

and should eliminate the difficulty in identifying the Blue-threats.

With the advent of spring the dreariness of winter seems never to

have existed. It is a country of sunshine and rivers and rich

fertile valleys ; and far away the great mountains hang inthe serene

sky, peaks, crests, and ridges of inaccessible and eternal snow.

The little hamlets in the sweep of the Indus Valley peep through

a smothering foliage of poplar and willow; while the cheerful

chatter of the House Sparrows adds liveliness to the drowsy

air.

It is surprising that the Jackdaw (Corvus monedula semmeringiz),

so abundant in the Vale of Kashmir, should not find its way up here

(Leh). Beyond a couple seen in Leh in May we never came across

A COLLECTING TRIP TO: LADAK 655

these birds anywhere in Ladak. Surely there is some mistake in

Baker’s statement ! that these birds breed in Ladak !

Nor does the Jungle Crow (Corvus coronotdes intermedius) extend

for any great distance into Ladak, though this bird has been recorded

as breeding in Ladak. What may have been mistaken for the

preceding bird is the Carrion Crow (Corvus corone orientalis), which

we found quite plentiful at Kargil in April and took several clutches

of eggs from nests in willow trees at Moulbeck (11,000 ft).

Elsewhere I have mentioned the House Crow (C. s. zugmeyerz) as

occurring in the Vale of Kashmir, and then only being isolated to

a few colonies, which Osmaston observes do not leave the valley

but brave the winter. Perhaps it may yet be discovered that the

Sind House Crow and the one in Kashmir may not belong to the

same race.

If there is a paradox among birds it is the scavenger of

Ladak—the Tibetan Raven (Corvus corax t7befanus). To see him

studiously peer into the bowels of a dead horse or walk gingerly in

the refuse of a village is to heartily dislike the fellow ; but to see

him at ‘ play’ is truly amazing. They wanton about in a thousand

different manners and postures, sometimes pursuing each other,

and making a mock fight; sometimes rising; sometimes falling

with closed wings; sometimes floating awhile in the air on their

backs; sometimes flying edgewise; sometimes whirling round

the monastery with vast rapidity; and all with an eagerness

and joyousness of motions and cries and screams that shcwed

the overflowings of happy sensations too plainly to be mistaken.

Besides these attractions, C.c. fébefanus has a‘most peculiar and

extraordinary metallic call wondrously like the tones of bells which

emitted from ahill-top has the resemblance to ‘‘ vesper belis’”’

heard at a distance.’

He also possesses a sense of humour. Observe his comical

imitations of an eagle missing its prey. He willsit calmly by and

‘ watch the fruitless efforts of an eagle or buzzard, and then with

twirls and turns and screams will show you how it shouldn’t be

done. But wedigress. Our preparations are almost complete for

the trip to the Karakoram. A slight change has occurred in our

dramatis persone. The shikari’s abhorrence for the cook and

his ancestors finds a head and he gives vent to his pent-up feelings.

Feelings which, he confidesin me, be has fostered ever since he

clapped eyes on the son of Sheitan. And, like all true Muslims

who at least a dozen times a day ‘seek refuge in Allah from

Sheitan the stoned’, he had no alternative but to resign.

Unfortunately this ‘ dafailleroyale’ took place on a plateau at

16,600 feet, where the only Tibetan Grouse (Syrrhaptes izbelanus) we

had seen, was secured. Ourskinning after the day’s march prevent-

ed either of us from a thorough search for more specimens. The

incident will prove the effects of high altitude on the equanimity of

the mind, of even those of little orno imagination.

The vacancy was soon filled up by a Yarkandi—a fellow who could

go over a pass without a sob and be game for some more! His is

2S, voli, pare 3G;

656 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the type one meets along a line drawn from Yarkand, through

Afghanistan and Baluchistan, along the highlands of Persia, into

Kurdistan and soto Turkey; and like the soldier of that cuuntry,

he will fight or freeze, march and starve not only without a mutiny

but even without a sense of grievance against anybody. He is a

gentleman, and anyone acquainted with Muslim countries knows

that a Moslem gentieman is unsurpassed in any country. .

We left Leh on July 12, and camped that evening just below

the Kardong Pass at 15,000 feet. Next morning a diligent search

was made tor that beautiful Rose-finch (Pyrrospiza punicea humzz)

of which Col. Meinertzhagen secured one the evening we arrived.

I had marched up a side valley to the foot of a glacier and drawna

blank and then up a rugged hill to about 16,000 feet, where, pausing

from the effects of an oppressive atmosphere I looked back to where

Leh lay basking in the noonday sur, and then for no apparent reason

an unmitigated siab of dreariness came over me and I wished Leh,

Ladak, the snowy mountains and all naturalists in the nether

regions. High altitude again! If such feelings are allowed to run

riot anything may happen; but I had an employer who understood

better than I then thought and shall always feel grateful to him for

his tolerant attitude towards my misgivings. It is but human nature

that we consider our own experiences in travel and adventure as

unique (with special stress on the hardships), and completely ignore

the fact that others have been before us and others will follow.

If you have crossed the Great Himalayas in winter and wandered

through barren Ladak ; if you have crossed the Changla Pass at

18,500 feet and found another pass still higher, and your goalisa

desolate region which is called Chang-chen-mo ;—if these trifling

hardships damp your enthusiasm there is a quiet garden in Leh

among the tall silent poplars, with the wild roses rambling over

the swelling sod, that marks the trend of those pioneers who

have ‘ gone before ;’ it will make you ‘ gird up your loins’ for yet

another try.

Here among the lone graves, an obelisk israised by a thankful

Government as a small mark of its appreciation to the memory of

Ferdinand Stoliczka, that brilliant young scientist who gave of his

best in that bloodless field of Natural History.

‘ Ferdinand Stoliczka,’ so the inscriptionruns, ‘the eminent young

Geologist and Natural Historian accompanied the second Yar-

kand Mission in 1873 under Sir Douglas Forsyth. His health,

severely affected by his previous work, gave way under the strain

of strenuous work, he died at Shyok, in June 1874, ‘ while returning

loaded with the spoils and notes of nearly a year’s research in the

least known parts of Central Asia.’

‘The scientific results of this research,’ writes Allen Hume,

‘constitute an imperfect record of one single year’s work of our dear

friend and comrade Ferdinand Stoliczka. Imperfect,—because we

had only his collections anda very brief diary—a mere azde memoire

to work upon and so are able to present only the dry bones, as it

were, of the results of his labours ; which had he survived to deal

with them himself, would have risen up a living entity, vivified by

his genius. 7 i 3 oar

Imperfect,—but yet the best memorial that, under the circum-

BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOc

JOURN.

Leh

zka’s ‘Tomb,

Stoli

A COLLECTING TRIP TO 'LADAK 657

stances, we survivors could raise to him, untimely hidden in that

lone Tibetan grave.

Imperfect,—but for all that, affording every here and there

glimpses of the perseverance and self-devotion which, informed

by wide scientific knowledge, and sanctified by a pure and

generous heart, constituted Stoliczka’s irresistible claims to respect

the admiration and the love of ali who ever came closely in contact

with hii.’

To those who are acquainted with the Palaearctic, that cruel relent-

less region, Stoliczka’s name shall go down as one of those heroes

whose bloodless blameless triumphs remain for ever the inheritance

and the blessing of mankind.

The road after crossing the Kardong Pass at 17,600 feet descends

abruptly into the sandy valley of the Nubra River. So abrupt was

the snow-covered descent that we expressed a wish we would never

have to assault this particular pass again. Fruitless wish!

The Nubra Valley, unlike the Indus, is fairly well cultivated—its

entire length being more orless planted with large gardens and the

gaps filled up with tamarisk bushes.

Panamik, 10,400 feet is the last village below the Karakoram.

From here the road turns into the Nubra Gorge and follows the roar-

ing river along its precipitous banks till an altitude of 13,000 feet is

reached and then takes one onto a meadow, surrounded by stupen-

dous mountains, with gigantic glaciers between the peaks.

The Karakoram Range forms the great water divide which

separates the Indus drainage from that of the Yarkand and other

Chinese-Tibetan rivers.

It is buttressed by K? (Godwin-Austen) 28,650 feet at its conver-

gence with the undulating elevated plateau of Yarkand. The

accompanying photograph gives some idea of the mountainous

regions and two enormous glaciers are clearly seen on either side

of the conical hill.

The pass over this range is crossed over a ten-mile glacier at

19,000 feet and lets one into Yarkand.

The snow had melted, only the very highest peaks retained their

winter mantle, and the glaciers sparkled in the bright sunshine, and

as the ice thaws huge boulders clatter down. ‘The pass itself winds

up the debris brought down by the melting of snow and ice, and, taken

all round is the most savage bit of primeval chaos in all the

mountain ranges we encountered.

Perhaps our protracted stay at high altitudes had weakened us

physically or perhaps this was our Pisgah, but after a‘ trial’ up the

slippery moraine, Col. Meinertzhagen decided to turn back and

we began the return journey as eagerly as horses heading for

Stables.

It was Col. Meinertzhagen’s intention to work the Shyok Valley

up to its junction with the Indus and crossing over thence to reach

Skardu. But this project had to be abandoned owing to the floods

in some of the rivers.

We wili not weary the reader with a description of the return

journey to Leh.

Let it suffice that as we confronted the steep ascent to the

658 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL, HIST. SOCIZATY, Volz XOOd7

Kardong Pass, nothing in the vocabulary could express my feelings.

It was the first pass wherein I lay hold of a Yak’s tail as a means

of locomotion and was hauled, much against my wil], at a pace

which caused alarming palpitations.

Skardu, which will be found upon the map, is the capital of

Baltistan (or Little Tibet as itis called), and rests amidst a fine array

of rugged mountains with the Indus sweeping past in a great horse-

shoe bend. We arrived here on August 13 after a hot trip

through the Indus Gorge, to find Skardu among one of the dirtiest

towns in the Himalayas. ‘The inhabitants, originally Bhuddists, are

now extremely bad imitations of Moslems, and like all proselytes are

heartily disliked by both sides. However, Baltistan amply repays

a visit. Its bird-life will settle many a knotty problem, being a

sort of half-way house between Kashmir and the desolate regions

that lie beyond Baltistan.

Most of the migrants were undergoing their autumn moult prior

to setting forth on their winter passage, during our visit.

Conspicuous among these was that familiar little fellow, the

Kashmir Red-start (Phenicurus ochrurus phenicurotdes), who seem-

ed to be fairly weii distributed throughout Ladak also. The

Eastern Red-spotted Bluethroat (Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis)

were busy feeding young, as were the Pied Chats (Cenanthe

picata).

The Hoopoes (Upupa epops) were in fresh plumage and ready to

take off. These are distributed throughout Ladak and are found

always near villages. The regularity of their arrival from the

plains to their breeding haunts in Ladak has fixed the date for the

commencement of spring ploughing in that country.

Cholera had been raging on Skardu on our arrival and we were

gladto geta moveon. On August 19 we left Skardu for the Deosai

Plateau by way of the Satpur Lake, which is cradled between two

rugged hills, quite 5,000 feet above Skardu, and worried our way up

to 11,500 feet when we sat down for tiffin.

Up to this stage Col. Meinertzhagen had shown no sign of the

catastrophe which befell him. We had even secured a new sub-

species of the Twite (Acanthis flavirostris baltistanicus), as distinct

from Acanthis tlavirostris ladacensts, which is also a new sub-species.

That same afternoon, while we camped at about 13,000 feet, Col.

Meinertzhagen had an attack of cholera and to add to this misfor-

tune a snow storm swept down the hill.

Next morning we crossed over at 14,000 feet and the Deosai

Plateau stretched away from our feet to the lilac hills, over an even

grassy meadow, strewn with flowers. It was a relief being able

to see such an expanse of open country after months of confined

valleys and dreadful gorges. Toseethe sun set without intervening

mountains or the golden orb of the moon rise over the rim of the

world.

Even though the cholera still gripped him, Col. Meinertzhagen

kept the same cheerfulness and keen interest he had always

shown.

The plateau for the most part was well stocked with higher alti-

tude birds. The Horned Larks were abundant and Col. Meinertzhagen

A COLLECTING TRIP TO LADAK 659

has separated these from Olocorzs alpestris longtrostris and named

them Octocris (Evemophila) alpestris deosat. In the /bzs (1927, p. 402)

he says: ‘A series of nine birds were obtained on the Deosai

Plateau at the end of August. They are mostly infull moult, only

three birds having completed their wing moult, (wings of three

127-131, culmens of six males 18-20 m.)

These birds run as large as /ongirostis but are both darker and

browner in fresh plumage. ‘They have the white gap between the

black of the throat and that of the cheeks.

Apparently confined to the Deosai plateau between 12,000 and

14,000 feet.’

The Robin Hedge-Sparrow (Prunella rubeculotdes) which was

commonly met with between 12,000 and 14,000 feet over the greater

part of Ladak was abundant on the plateau, and several nests were

seen with fresh eggs on July 8. Col. Meinertzhagen has sepa-

rated this form under P. ~. muraria. We crossed the plateau

in three inarching days; owing to Col. Meinertzhagen’s condition

matters had to be rushed a bit and on August 27 wedescended to

Burzil Chowki on the Gilgit Road. We put in four days here and

with Col. Meinertzhagen on his feet again, commenced the final

stages to the Vale of Kashmir.

It was a late autumn evening when we crossed the Razdhanangan

Pass and looked down on a sea of gardens and fields, and, sparkling

through the gathering mists, the gem-like lakes that make the Vale

of Kashmir ‘ a paradise on earth. ’

(Zhe end)

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA

R; 1. POcocKF.-R: Ss;

Part. 3h

( With two plates and three text-figures.)

(Continued from page 504 of Vol. XXXT11)

II, The PyRRHUS-group.?

Distinguishable from the Entellus-group by tke uniform golden-red hue

which in the newly-born young pervades the whole of the body, limbs and tail

above and below. In cranial characters the species more resemble Pithecus

senex than Pithecus entellus.

Distribution. From Assam and Upper Burma southwards through Laos,

Siam and the Malay Peninsula to Sumatra, Java and Borneo.

The actual number of species is doubtful; but within the area of British

India I admit only two, which may be briefly contrasted as follows :—

(a) Alittle larger; hairon the crown directed backwards

from the brow and forming athick mat overhang-

ing the occiput and marked off from the short hair

clothing the cheeks; face entirely black Le

(at) Smaller; hair on crown variable but never forming

a mat as described above; eye-lids and usually the

lips flesh-tinted (in British Indian forms) .. pyrrhus,

pileatus.

Pithecus pileatus, Blyth.

Semnopithecus pileatus, Blyth., Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xii, p. 174, 1843,

and xiii, p. 467, 1844.

Semnopithecus, Presbytis, Pygathkrix or Pithecus pileatus of Anderson,

Blanford, Forbes, Elliot and other authors.

Atolerably large langur characterized by the presence on the crown of the

head of a thick continuous mat of backwardly directed or nearly erect hairs

extending from the brow in front to the occiput behind and across the head

between the temples and ears. Laterally this matis defined by the shorter

hair clothing the temple behind the eye and by the more or less, often greatly,

elongated hairs of the cheek, and behind it overlaps the shorter hairs of the fore

part of the nape.

The colour is variable but the prevailing tint of the upper side is grey, some-

times suffused more or less with black, especially on the crown ; the lower side

is whitish, buff orsuffused with orange red, rarely grey like the upper side.

The face is entirely black as in the Entellus-group, neither the eyelids nor the

lips showing any trace of the flesh colour seen in all the British Indian repre-

sentatives of the following species, P. pyrrhis.

Distribution. Assam, north and south of the Brahmaputra and Upper

Chindwin to Tipperah, and Chittagong.

The evidence that this species belongs to the group with golden red newly

born young was suppiied by the birth of young of that colour from a pair kept

for many years in the Zoological Society’s Gardens, London.

Elliot classified P. pzleatus with P. entellus, stating the two to be allied.

‘They are certainly not closely allied. As living animals they havea very

different facial expression. P. evfellus has a narrow compressed nose, whereas

1 In the first part of this paper (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. XXXII, p. 474),

this group was called the Auratus-group. But since the identity of Pzthecus

auratus in a matter of dispute, I think it advisableto change the name to the

Pyrrhus-group.

TEE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 661

in P. pileatus the nose is flat from side to side. The difference may be aptly

compared to the difference between a European and a Negro.

This is borne out by the shape of the facial portion of the skulls. In

P. pileatus the brow ridge is not prominent, the plane of the orbit is inclined

upwards and backwards and the nasal bones are wide. In those respects the

skull much more closely resembles the skull of P. sénex than the skull of

P. entellus.

In his paper, quoted below, on the langurs of this group, Hinton suggested

that the different forms, some of which were regarded as distinct species, would

very likely prove to be merely subspecies of a single species. Believing this

view to be quite correct, I have adopted it in this paper.

Key TO THE SUBSPECIES OF P. pileatus

(2) Whiskers shorter, grey, not noticeably lighter in tint

than the crown ... “se wes .. Shortridget,

(a1) Whiskers longer, whitish or reddish and rather

sharply contrasted with the darker tint of the

crown.

(6) Nosharp contrast in colour between the upper and

lower sides of the body and the outer and inner

surfaces of the limbs; throat and breast whiter

than the belly .. wee) «Ovahma.

(6+) Asharp contrast between the areas mentioned

above ; throat and breast not paler than the

belly. ve

on whiskers, throat and breast . ptleatus.

(c1) At least the whiskers, throat and breast

bright rusty red.

(d) General colour paler above, head and

nape nearly uniform slaty grey, red

suffusing underside at least to the

groins .. durga

(d+) General colour darker above,

head blackish with grey patch

on nape; red of the under side

fading away on the abdomen. ... /enebricus.

Subspecies p2leatus, Blyth.

Semnopithecus pileatus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xii, p. 174, 1843.

Pithecus pileatus pileatus, Hinton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soe , xxix, No. 1,

pp. 79-80, 1923.

Semnopithecus argentatus Worsfield, Cat. Manm. East Ind. Co., p. 7, 1851.

Distinguished by the pale colour of the whiskers, throat, underside of the

body and inner side of the limbs which are sharply contrasted with the grey

hue of the upper parts but are white or whitish and at most faintly tinged with

buff or pale red.

Distribution. Assam from the Naga to the Garo Hills.

It is needless to repeat the history of this local race of Pzthecus pileatus which

was fully told by Hinton in 1923 when, on the evidence supplied by Blyth’s

original description based upon a langur of which the locality was unknown, he

restricted the subspecific title pzleatus to the Capped Langurs with pale under

parts.

The colour, however, varies in different individuals assigned to this race. For

example, a half- -grown female shot by H. W. Wells at Mokokchung in the

Naga Hills (5,000 feet) is pale slaty or smoky grey above and on tlhe outside of

the limbs and on the tail, with the head and hands a little darker. The

whiskers, the whole of the lower side and the inside of the limbs are white and

the white extends some distance up the flanks behind the arm-pit. On the hand

the white of the inner side passes above the thumb and the fingers are patched

with white. The feet are not darker above than the outside of the leg, and the

inner edge of the foot and the toes are white. This specimen appears to be

662 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

whiter below than Blyth’s type of pz/eatus, the under side of which he described

as ‘dull fulvous white’. This was also an immature female.

An adult male from Mokokchung differs from the female in having the areas

which in the female are white, tinged with butf or very pale red ; the hands and

feet are darker and there is no white on the fingers or toes, but the extension of

the white of the inner side of the leg along the margin of the foot above the

great toe is retained.

An adult male from Tura in the Garo Hills, 1,400 feet (H.W. Wells)

generally resembles the last-described but is paler on the legs and arms, the

outside of the legs below the knees and the top of the feet being much greyer.

—

ME See

—— Gg

py gS)

Fic. 1—A and B. Front and side views of skull of adult male Pithecus

pileatus pileatus from Tura in the Garo Hills.

An immature male from Lait Kynsao in the Kasi Hills, 2,000 feet (H. W.

Wells) is very like the adult male from Tura; and an immature male from

Konshong in the Jaintia Hills, 3,000 feet, has the outer side of the legs below the

JOURN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate III.

THE CAPPED LANGUR AND YOUNG

(Pithecus pileatus)

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA _ 663

knee greyer than in the older specimen from Lait Kynsao, and, as Hinton

pointed out, the terminal portion of the tail is buff instead of blackish.

The redder hue of the under side of these young males from the Khasi and

Jaintia Hills distinguishes them markedly from the immature but older female

from the Naga Hills. They serve toconnect the typical form of pzleatus with

the intensely red-bellied form recorded below as Pithecus pileatus durga. So

also in a measure does the type of argenfatus so faras can be judged froma

specimen in a very poor state of preservation. This langur, an immature

specimen, came from Sythet, and the hair that remains on its under side sug-

gests that, when freshly killed, the monkey was redder on the chest than are

the adult males from the Garo and Naga Hills described above. It is also

browner on the dorsal area. Since, nevertheless, the skin is not nearly so red

beneath as in the typical red-bellied Capped Langur described below, I follow

Wroughton in assigning argentatus to the synonymy of pzleatws proper, at all

events until fresh material of this langur from Sylhet shows that opinion to be

wrong, It may be proved that the type of argentatus is an immature specimen

of the red-bellied form which has lost its redness by fading.

The photograph of the Capped Langur Pithecus pileatus reproduced on PI.

III of this paper was taken from a specimen from Assam living in the Zoological

Gaardens, London.

‘Subspecies durga, Wroughton.

Presbytis pileatus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xvi, p. 735, pl. xxvi, fig. 3,

1847.

Presbytis durga, Wroughton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiv, No. 4,

Da Gs55).1916.

Pithecus durga, Hinton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxix, No.1, p. 79,

1923.

Pithecus pileatus saturatus, Hinton, fom. cit., p. 81.

Distinguished from P. p. pileatus by the intensity of the redness of the areas

which in the typical form are at most faintly tinged with that colour.

Distribution. Assam, north of the Brahmaputra from Lakhimpur to the

Naga Hills and Cachar ; thence southwards into Tipperah and Chittagong.

From the evidence supplied by collectors it appears that this erythristic form

occurs at lower levels than the typical form with the paler under side. For

example, in the Naga Hills typical pzleatus was taken at Mokokchung at an

altitude of 5,000 feet and durga at Lakhuni at 2,000 feet.

In his tabular classification of the langurs of the pz/eatus group, Hinton,

following Wroughton, described the colour of the whiskers and under surface

of P. durgaas ‘ ochraceous’. ‘They are, on the contrary, markedly red, as red

to all intents and purposes as in the form henamed FP. pzleatus saturatus. The

general colour of the upper side of both forms he described as dusky brown.

As a matter of fact the type of durga is somewhat browner and dirtier looking

than the comparatively recently killed langurs referred to saturatus ; but ic

must be remembered it is a specimen that belonged to Dr. Reid and has been

many years in the British Museum and the difference may I think, be assigned

to that cause or to discoloration due to the original method of preservations,

such as that which gave rise to the difference between the skins of typical

Pithecus pileatus shortridget and those that Wroughton distinguished a

P. shortridgei belliger. Also, I think, that soiling, orthe make up, of the

skin of durga explains the apparent difference Hinton noticed between it and

saturatus in the width of the dusky brown dorsal area and the less sharp con-

trast when the skin is viewed from above, between it and the red hue of the

flanks. The teeth of the type of durga are, itis true, a little larger than in

saturatus ; but I feel tolerably sure that this will break down as a difference

when more specimens come to hand.

Now the label on the type of durga bears the locality Upper Assam, Cachar.

No doubt, however, as Wroughton decided, ‘Upper’ was a mistake for

‘Lower’. Taking, then the locality as probably Cachar, it is significant in

view of the claimed identity between durga and saturatus that examples

assigned to saturatus by Hinton were collected by the Mammal Survey at

Lanka and Lamsahkang in North Cachar. It does not seem probable that two

oo of P. pileatus, both intensely red below, occur in that district of

\ssam. :

664 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII

Although I have not seen examples of this form from Tipperah and Chitta-

gong, I have added those countries to its distributional area because Blyth’s

description and coloured figure of specimens therein collected agree in all

essentials, as Hinton also thought, with those to which he gave the name

_—saturatus.

Blyth regarded these red langurs as identical with his typical pzleatus of

which he had previously seen a single specimen which was whitish below and

came from an unknown locality;and from the material in his hands he

inferred that the redness of the under side was characteristic of the male. In

this he was mistaken because in a pair collected by H. W. Wells at Golaghat

at 400 feet the male is not redder than the female.

This pair is also interesting in other ways. The male, although not redder

than the female, is darker grey above and onthe outside of the limbs and

blacker on the hands, feet and tail, the feet being quite black, whereasin the

female they are grey. Moreover, the female, apart from being brighter red,

especially upon the sides of the neck and upper part of the flanks, is very like

the adult male from Turain the Garo Hills, 1,400 feet, which has been re-

ferred above to the typical form pzleatus pileatus. Nevertheless, it is not so

deep ared as an adult male from Lanka, 400 feet, in North Cachar. It may

indeed, be described as intermediate between the male pz/eatus from Tura

and the male durga (saturatus) from Lanka.

Individual variation in redness is attested by other specimens. For instance

a female from Lamsahkang, 800 feet, in the Cachar Hills, has the red more

diffused than in the male from the same spot. It invades the outer side of the

leg replacing the normal grey of the limb which is retained in the male.

Subspecies fenebvicus, Hinton.

Pithecus ptleatus tenebricus, Winton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxix,

No, 1) peal, 1923.

Distinguishable from the two preceding local races by the darker tint of the

upper surface. The head, back, outer surface of the arm and hand, and the

base of the tail are ashy black; the leg is somewhat greyer and there isa _ half-

collar of grey tipped hairs defining the cap on the back of the head. The base

of the whiskers, the throat, chest and shoulders are almost as deep a red as in

P. pileatus durga, but the whiskers are especially grey as in P. pileatus brahma

and it is noticeable that the redness of the under side is much less pronounced

on the abdomen and inguinal region, which in the male are whitish and in the

female pale red.

A young specimen is darkisn grey above and on the outside of the /limbs, but

is whitish below with a yellow tinge on the cheeks and chest. It is darker

above than a young male of P. pzleatus pileatus of about the same age from

Konshnong in the Jaintia Hills.

Distribution. Assam, north of the Brahmaputra; North Kamrup on the

Matunga River, 1,200 feet and Bogra Nadi, 2,000-3,000 feet.

Subspecies 6vahma, Wroughton.

Presbytis brahma, Wroughton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiv, No. 4,

p. 654, 1916 and xxv, No. 4, p. 559, 1918.

Pithecus brahma, Hinton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxix, No.1, p. 79, 1923.

Tolerably uniformly slate-grey on the summit of the head, the back and the

outside of the limbs and on the tail, but the limbs and tail darkening towards

their extremities. The inside of the limbs paler grey but not sharply distin-

guished from the tint of the outer surface, with no pale line, involving the

hallux on the inner side of the foot. Whiskers white and sharply contrasted

close tothe face as in the typical fcrm of the species, but ashy at the tips as in

tenebricus. The throat and chest whitish ; abdomen the same but tinged with

reddish buff especially on the flanks.

Distriéution. Seajuliin the Dafla Hills, Lakhimpur, Assam, north of the

Brahmaputra.

A single example only of this fine langur is known. Although regarded by

Wroughton and Hinton as representing a distinct species, its characters are, in

my opinion, of subspecific value ; and I do not doubt that intermediates between

it and the other races will be discovered.

‘THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH [NDIA 665

The peculiarities in colour to be noted are the absence of sharp contrast in

tint between the outer and inner surfaces of the limbs such as is seen in pz/eatus,

durga and éenebricus, and the slight suffusion of the flanks and abdomen with

pale red, the throat, whiskers and chest being white. In the other races which

exhibit more or less pronounced erythrism, that tint is, at all events as a rule,

more pronounced upon the whiskers, throat and chest than on the abdomen,

- Subspecies shoriridget, Wroughton. ese

Presbytis shortridgei, Wroughton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist, Soc., xxiv, No. 1,,

pz 06, 1915:

P: shortridgei belliger, id. loc. cit., p. 57.

Pithecus shortridgei, Hinton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxix, No.1, p. 79,

1923.

General colour very much as in bvahma, uniformly slate-grey all over the

dorsal surface and on the head, but the ventral surface grey and the whiskers

wholly grey and not appreciably differentiated in tint from thecrown. No trace

of erythrism anywhere in the pelage.

Skull as in the other races of P. pzleatus.

Distribution. Upper Chindwin: Homalin (400 feet), Minrin (450 feet) and

Hkamti (500 feet). .

This fine langur is at once distinguishable from the other known forms of the

species by the greyness of the whiskers which gives it a very different appearance.

Apart from that, however, and the absence of the rufescence of the ventral

surface, the colour is very like that of P. pzleatus brahma. But in the latter, as

in P. pileatus tenebricus, the tips of the whisker hairs are grey. Although no

intermediates between drahma and shortridgei are known, there is 10 doubt, in

my opinion, that they will be found, because the cclour-differences between

them are comparatively slight. Hence I regard shortridget merely as a local

race of P. pileatus.

The examples from Hkamti to which Wroughton gave the name éelliger are

browner in hue than the others; but this difference, as he afterwards learnt

from the collector, G. C. Shortridge, is due to discoloration from smoke in the

preparation of the skins.

Since the subspecies of Pithecus pileatus, above discussed, are to al] intents

and purposes alike in size, the approximate dimensions in inches of a few

representative examples may be conveniently set forth in one table :—

Locality and Sex oe Tail ae Kar | Weight

| |

pileatus— | |

Garo Hills, ¢ sol 28 41 73 1} ks

Jaintia Hills, 2 ve | 23 Bye ayes | 1} 213 Ibs.

durga—

Lakhimpur, ret Ee 27s 39 = 13 5

N. Cachar, g ae 23 41 a) 13 Z/ libs:

+] ’ coo | 20 eoe ae0 | ae0 -

tenebricus— |

N. Kamrup, ¢ 223 363 | 7 1z 193 Ibs.

3 ae 20 oO te sf 1} ‘a

ae 2 we 225 34 fi 13

5 2) se 18 | 283) 6% li

shortridgei— | |

Upper Chindwin, ¢ oe || 283 41 8—| 13 30 lbs

» ) 3 see 2h 40 8—| 1+. oot

’ om) e) ae 26 38 73 13 213 lbs

Sa ae

666 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The dimensions of the skulls in milimetres are as follows :—

pileatus—

Naga Hills, ¢.., 118 35 29 75

Garo Hills, ¢... 115| 35] 28; 70] 89

Garo Hills, 2... | 102) 30; 28] 65). 75

durga— | |

N.Cachar, ¢ UCM ieee Neer ee faery

Cachar(*), gs] Z| 3 30 | 74} 86 | type of durga.

Lakhimpur, ale oi) 26 76 87 | type of saturatus.

Naga Hills, 9 111 | 35| , 30 | 6s | 79

tenebricus—

IN. Kamrup,; ¢ se) “21S }) 3532 28 66 SO" types. not. tull

| grown.

Peis fs 98 29 28 63 77

brahma— | | | |

Lakhimpur, ¢ . 110; 34 Ze 70

shortridgei — | |

Chindwin, -@ «: ie “OSH b SON SEZ9 91 | type of shortridg.

7 Gt AAS Ge Hale ueSl Fa 85 | .

55 fii) 711d fe SOM 29h NewS 92 | type of delliger.

- @ of 1047], : BBUl 28 Ia Blain agg |

The body-measurements taken from freshly killed animals show that the

males are larger than the females and that there isno great difference in size

between the adults of all the races. An apparent exception to this is supplied

by fenebricus in which an adult female is as large as the larger of the two males;

but examination of the skull of this male, the type, shows that the basioccipital

suture is still open, indicating that growth kad not ceased.

Of drahma unfortunately no measurements in the flesh were taken. The skull

which is that of an adult is decidedly small.

With regard tothe tooth-measurements it will be noted that there is con-

siderable difference between the types of durga and saturatus in that respect.

But the teeth in the type of satwratus are old and worn and have probably lost

a little in total lengtn. Another male belonging to Mr. Hinton’s series of

saturatus is intermediate between the two and a female of the same set from

Lakuniin the Naga Hills has the tooth-row as long as in the type of durga

although the teeth are a little narrower.

Note.—The langur now known as Pithecus potenziani, Bonaparte (= chry-

sogaster, Lichtenstein), which was quoted as a synonym of pzleatus by Ander-

son and was sceptically included by Blanford as a member of the fauna of

British India on the erroneous record ot the occurrence of the species in Tenas-

serim, is in reality an inhabitant of the Mentawei Islands off the west coast

of Sumatra.

It is a very interesting species related, in my opinion, to pzleatus. Its pre-

vailing colour is jet black above, with a considerable amount of rusty red hairs

on the ventral surface. The th: oat and cheeks are white, as in pz/eatus, and a

white band extends from the temples over the brow, as in immature examples

of P. pileatus, and, as in that species, the whiteness of the whiskers spreads

over the base of the ear. The newly-born young too is golden.

One would be almost inclined to regard this langur asa small, insular

melanistic race of pzleaius were it not that the whiskers are shorter and more

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 667

bushy and the crown of the head has no mat-like cap, but a compressed crest or

tuft as in some forms of Pithecus pyrrhus. The species serves in a measure to

link P. pileatus and P. pyrrhus.

Pithecus pyrrhus, Horst.

Semnopithecus pyrrhus, Horsfield, Zool. Res., Java, 1820, and of many subse-

quent authors, including Thomas and Wroughton, Proc. Zool. Soc.

London, 1909, p. 372. (Presbytis).

Semnopithecus or Presbytis maurus, E. Geoffroy, 1812, and of many subse-

queat autaors ; but not Sz#za maura of Schreber.

Resembling PP. pzleatus in the uniform golden or golden red colour of the

newly-born young but differing in being smaller and in the mode of growth of

the hair on the crown which never forms a mat or cap as described under that

species. Its arrangement is very variable. Occasionally there is a whorl on

the forehead and not infrequently there is an erect tuft or crest on the summit

of the head to which a good deal of importance has been attached, althoughin

certain cases there seems no doubt that its occurrence is individually variable.

Sometimes, again, the hair lies smoothly back from the brow to the nape of the

neck, at others it is upstanding and roughly arranged likeamane. The

whiskers are typically long and blend with the hairs of the crown. The colour

varies from subspecies to subspecies, but is ia some cases subject to individual

variation to a pronounced degree, but the inside of the thighs never shows the

whiteness so characteristic of the species of the following group, which Pyrrhus

overlaps in range.

Distribution. From Upper Burma southwards and eastwards into Annam,

Siam, the Malay Peninsula, the Sunda Islands and Borneo.

For the typical Javan form of this species Elliot (Rev. Primates, iii,

p. 75, 1913) adopted the name auratus Geoffrvy (1812), which has priority over

pyrrhus. But his statement that the type of auratus, which he saw in Paris,

is indistinguishable from examples of pyrrhus in the British Museum, is shown

by the description of awraius to be untrue. And since, in my opinion, all the

available evidence suggests that auratus belongs to the Aygula-group of

Langurs, I do not propose to discuss it further here,

In Java P. pyrrhus is commonly either red or jet black, being addicted

to erythrism or melanism. Buta third variety is blackish, grizzled to a varying

extent with buff or grey; and this variety passes into the Sumatran form

known as ¢ristatus or pruinosus which also occurs in the Malay Peninsula and

isin my opinion only subspecifically distinguishable froma form from Siam

and Cochiu China named by M. Edwardes germant but usually quoted as

germaint ; and througha form from Annam, named margharita by Elliot,

germani passes into the typically Siamese Langur assigned in this paper to

crepusculus which is closely akin to the Burmese phayrez. On the other hand,

in the Malay Peninsula cristaius passes into the Tenasserim form described

below as atrior which is very similar to another Burmese form, 6aréez, and to

the Malayan form odscurus and has been identified under both those

names.

This brief epitome of the evidence of intergradation between the Javan

Langur pyrrius and others occurring in more northern countries of tropical

Asia is the explanation of my adoption of the name fyrrhus as the specific

title for all those forms.

A few words inay be said about the Langur known as oéscurus, because

that name figures largely in the literature relating to the Langurs of British

Burma. As stated below, it wasapplied by Blyth, Thomas and Blantord to

Langurs as widely separated geoyraphically as Bhamo and Teaasserim and

this is eloqueat testimony of the closeness of the affinity between these

monkeys. Nowthenamne Semunopithccus obscurus was given by Reid in 1837

(Proc. Zool. Soc., p. 14) toa menagerie specimen of which the locality was

unknown. Fortunately Martin in 1838 saw the specimen aad identifiably

described it (Wag. Nat. Hist., ii, p. 440). Tue hair on the back of the head

formed a crest and was ashy intint, thus contrasting with the blackish-

brown or brownish-black hue of the rest of the head and body. The middle

line of the back was apparently browner, the outside of the thighs greyish

brown, the hands and teet black and the tail dark ashy grey.

668 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

This description applies tolerably closely to many examples in the British

Museum from various places in the Malay Peninsula, but the crest on the

head is not usually present. This race of Puithecus pyrrhus does not

apparently enter the British Indian area; but two closely related subspecies

occur in its southern portion.

A photograph of the Dusky Langur Pithecus pyrrhus obscurus that was

living in the ZOO Se Gardens, Lundon is reproduced on Pl. LV of this paper.

KkY TO THE BRITISH INDIAN RACES OF P. byrrhus

(2) A whorl or parting on the forehead behind the

brow . ; shanicus.

e(a*) No definite hair- whorl on forehead.

(6) No distinct cap of pale hair on the back of the

head and nape.

grey, buff or brown in reflected light ; lips

flesh-coloured.

(dq) Grey, buff or greyish brown above, grey to

white below ; base of tail grey.

(e) White or nearly white below ; typically a

tuft on the head . phayret.

(e+) Grey below ; tuft on the head present or

absent crepusculus.

(d+) -Colour darker, brown above, deeper grey

below ; base of tail brown ; no tuft . . barbei,

(c1) “General colour deep brown to nearly black a

sometimes varied with grey Bakers hair

.. <.. less lustrous ; lips biack atrior.

-(6+): A sharply contrasted pale grey or butt cap on.

: the back of the head and nape.

(f). Body.and arms blacker, legs not sharply

nee. contrasted with loins fe sanctorum.

é _(f7).. Body and arms browner, legs grey and

sharply contrasted with loins ... flavicauda.

rae Subspecies darbei, Blyth. :

:- Pyesbytis barbei, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xvi, p. 734, 18; id. Cat.

Mamm. Mus. As. Soc., p. 14, 1863; id. Mamm. Birds, Burma, p. 11, 1875...

- Semnopithecus barbet, Anders., Ann. Zool. Res., Yunnan, p. 12, 1878 -and

Cat. Mamm. Ind. Mus. Be 1, Be 48-49, 1881] (in pale Blanford, Mamm.- Brit.

India; p. 39, 1891.

-- Presbytis ‘melamera, Elliot, re Mag. Nat: jet (8 3), iv, p 267, maea and

Rev. Primates, p. 47, 1912.

With no whorl or parting inthe hairs of the forehead and no crest on the

erown of the head. Lips and eyelids flesh coloured and contrasting with the

blackish hue of the rest of the face. General colour dark brown above with a

pale buffsheen especially noticeable on the head and shoulders. The hind

limbs and tail only slightly paler than the back. ‘The underside dark grey.

Hands, feet and brow black.

Distribution. Interior of the Tipperah Hills and from the Kakhyen Hills as

far south as Bhamo.

- ‘There has been considerable doubt about the identity and geographical distri-

bution of thislangur. In his original description Blyth stated that the skins

came from the Ye Province of Tenasserim; but later, from information re-

ceived from the collector, he corrected this to the interior of the Tipperah

Hills. This alteration was accepted by Anderson and Blanford, although in

his description of the monkey Anderson cited Tenasserim as one of its areas.

He probably had in his hands specimens of the dark race from Northern

Tenasserim, described below, which is very like Jbardez. However that may

be, it appears to me that Blyth’s correction of the locality must be accepted,

especially as the Rev. J. Barbe, after whom this langur was named, is known

to have collected in Chittagong and the Tipperah Hills because he secured there

examples of Pithecus pileatus, a species which certainly is not found in Tenas-

JOURN. BomBay Nat, Hist. Soc. PuatTeE LV.

THE Dusky LANGUR

(Pithecus obscurus)

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 669

serim. I cannot, therefore, agree with Wroughton’s decision to take Tenasserim

as the locality of baréez.

The acceptance of the interior of the Tipperah Hills as the locality of the

type of durbez renders probable, on geographical grounds, the correctness of

Anderson’s identification as darbez of specimens which he collected in the

Kakhyen Hills and on the Irawaddy above Mandalay. Until evidence tothe

contrary is forthcoming, I shall assume he meant the state of Mandalay which

is just tothe northof Bhamo. Now ata place called Cadu Ciaung, Bhamo, L.

Fea long ago secured aspecies of langur, and one of his specimens, presented

to the British Museum aud identified by Thomas as véscurus, was subsequently

described by Elliot as representing a new species to which ke gave the name

melamerus; and this specimen agrees sufficiently closely with Anderson’s

description of the specimens he identified as dar6ez as to leave little Goubt that

it is the same kind of langur. Acting, therefore, on the assumption that

Anderson’s Kakhyen examples were correctly named édarbez, I have added

melamerus to the synonymy of davbez and have taken my diagnosis of barbei

from the type of melamerus, the only available specimen.

‘This specimen agrees with Blyth’s original, but brief, description of barber

in the absence of the crest, in having the face and the under side coloured as in

obscurus, inthe whiteness of the ‘interior base of the thigh’, and in the tail

being only slightly paler than the body ; the shoulders and outside of.the arms

cannot be described as silvered, but other subspecies of P. obscurus vary in the

grey or buff sheen of the upper side.

Anderson, whohad access tothe typical example of darbez in Calcutta an

presumably identified the langurs he procured in the Kakhyen Hills by compa-

rison with it, described the colouras blackish brown above with the sides and

back of the head, the shoulders, fore-limbs, the lower parts of the hind limbs

and the tailas greyish brown, the hands, feet, eyebrows and whiskers being

black and the under parts nearly thesame. But from his citation of Mount

Mooleyit in Tenasserim asa locality for darbez, it may be presumed that his

description applied also to examples from. that area- which, as stated below,

appear to me to represent a distinct local race. - ae ee

Blanford, to whom this langur was unknown, added to the. difficulty. of

identifying--it by placing it in his synopsisin atotally different section from

phayret. : . :

ne Subspecies piayrez, Blyth.

Presbytis obséurus, Biyth., Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xiii, p. 466, 1844 (not

typical obscurius of Reid).

Presbytis phayret, Blyth., Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, xvi, p. 733, pl. xxxvil, fig.

3, 1847 ; also of Anderson and Blanford (in part).

Presbytis: phayrei, Wroughton, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiii, Na. F,

_p. 464, 1915 and of. cit., xxiv, p. 297, 1916. ae

Semnopithecus holotephreus, Anders., Zool. Kes., Yunnan, p. 27, 1877.

“Accrest or tuft on the crown of the head but no parting on the forehead ;

lips flesh coloured and eyes partly or wholly encircled by the same tint. The

general colour is variable, being lighter or darker brown above with a varying

extent of greyish sheen over the back and the outside of the limbs, the tail is

dark like the back but sometimes paler at the base or throughout. The under

side is distinctly white or whitish and contrasted strongly or moderately with

the colour of the flanks.

Although closely related to dur6e1, this race may be distinguished from it by

the whiteness of the under side and by the presence of the erect crest on the

crown of the head. oe

Distribution. Arakan; the Bassein district of Pegu ; Prome ; Mount Popa.

Under the name Presbytis, obscurus, Blyth gave a very good description of

this langur, having skins of adults and young collected in Arakan by Capt,

Phayre; and Blanford shot specimens in the Bassein district of Pegu west of

the Bassein river; but the specimens from Moulmein he referred to phayret

belong, I think, to another local race, crepusculus.

In the British Museum there is a half grown specimen from Arakan which

was received long ago fromthe Asiatic Society of Bengal and was for many

years exhibited in the public gallery. It may be regarded as topotypical,

since Blyth gave no definite spot in that district for his type specimen. It is

670 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

dull, lustreless and dark brown above and white below, the white contrasting

with the dark hue of the flanks; thus it agrees closely with Blyth’s coloured

figure of the type of phayreiz. An adult from the S. Zmayi Reserve, 500 feet

(J. M. D. Mackenzie) is also like Blytn’s type in those respects, beiag dark

brown above with the white of the ventral surface strongly pronounced and

sharply contrasted. It hasalso a considerable amount of white on the inner

side and back of the thighs. Also an immature individual from a spot 30

miles S.E. of Prome, 300 feet (J. M. D. Mackenzie) presents the same style

of coloration as the example from Arakan ; but an adult from the same

locality is not so white below and is greyer above. Individual variation

between specimens from the same place is aiso shown by two from Yin on

the Lower Chindwin collected by Mr. Macmillan. One is dark brown above

and on the outside of the thighs, but is not so white below as in the speci-

mens mentioned above; the other is greyer on the back and legs. This

specimen and the greyer of two examples taken 30 miles S.E. of Prome

link the typical darker forms with a good series collected by G.C. Short-

ridge at 4,961 and 4,981 feet on Mount Popa, and the one from Yin on the

Lower Chindwin (G. W. Dawson) mentioned above. These are brown with

a distinct grey sheen all over the upper side, the amount of the grey sheeu

varying individually ; the under side is white or whitish but not very strongly

contrasted with the flanks.

These Mount Popa langurs, as originally pointed out by Wroughton and

Shortridge, differ from the langurs from the Shan States to the north for which

I retain Wroughton’s name shanicus, in having no whorl of radiating hairs on

the forehead and in exhibiting the upstanding crest on the crown. They are

also somewhat paler above and whiter below. ‘They also differ from daréei, as

here understood, in being greyer above, whiter below, and in possessing the

crest. They come nearest to the form described below as Crepusculus, differing

from it appareatly only in having the under side whitish instead of ashy grey.

I have.added holotephreus to the synonymy of phayrez to eliminate it from the

list of so-called species of Pzthecus. The following considerations justify, in

my opinion, this course. (1) The description mentions no character by which

it can be definitely separated from phayret. (2) The locality of the specimen

was unknown. (3) According to Elliot the type was not found in the Calcu:ta

Museum where it was supposed to be preserved. Elliot suggested that it might

be a synonym of barézz ; but the ‘ pale yellowish grey’ tint of the under side

agrees better with phayrez. The type, moreover, hada crest on the crown of

the head which is present in pxayvez but was not recorded in the case of barbei.

Subspecies shanicus, Wroughton,

Presbytis barbei, Wroughton, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxiii, p.

465, 1915.

Presbytis shanicus,;Wroughton, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxv, p. 47, 1917.

Pithecus melamerus, Wroughton, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xxvii, p. 552,

1921. (Not melamerus, Elliot).

A dark brownish form closely resembling darbei, as represented by the type

of selamerus, in colour, but distinguished from it and from all the other British

Indian races of Pithecus pyrrhus by possessing on the forehead a naked spot

whence the hair radiates in al! directions as in the evzellus langurs.

Distribution. North Shan States in Upper Burma.

The example of this race which first came to hand and was identified as

barbet by Wroughton was collected by G. C. Shortridge at Ngapyinin opposite

Kyonk Myoung to the east of the lrawaddy. Shortridge noticed that it differ-

ed from langurs he collected on Mount Popa, which were identified as phayret,

in possessing the frontal whorl, in having no upstanding crest on the crown,

and less pallid skin round the eye, the area being reduced to half circles on the

inner side of those organs. Nevertheless, in his description of phkayrez, Blyth

stated very definitely that the eyes were surrounded on the inner side by flesh-

coloured skin.

When Shortridge subsequently secured similar specimens in the North Shan

States, at Séen, Gokteik (2,133 feet) and Pyaung yaung, Wroughton decided

to give a new name to the series because he ascertained from the late Dr.

Annandale that the type of darbez in the Calcutta Museum has no frontal

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 671

parting in the hairs. He therefore named them Presbytis shanicus, selecting

a Séen specimen as the type of the species,

aa,

iit ANI

Wy,

Fic. 2.—Front view of skull of adult male Pithecus pyrrhus shanicus

from Gokteik in the North Shan States, two-thirds natural size.

B.—The same of Pithecus pyrrhus atrior from the Ye Forest, Tennasserim.

Later, however, he came to the conclusion that these North Shan langurs

were identical with the form from Cadu Ciaung, Bhamo, which Elliot had des-

cribed as Presbytis melamerus; and in Wroughton’s summary melamerus

appears in the table amongst the enfellus group which present the frontal

whorl. But asI have stated above, the type of smelamerus, which is in the

British Museum, has no parting on the forehead at all comparable to that

shown by adults and young from the North Shan States.

672 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

It must be admitted that this difference between langurs so alike in colour

and so close to one another in geographical distribution is very singular; but

on the available evidence, I do not think it would be justifiable to ignore the

character. I have, therefore, decided to admit shanicus as a subspecies of

Pithecus pyrrhus.

Subspecies crepusculus, Elliot.

Presbytis phayrei, Tickell, Journ., As. Soc., Bengal, xxviii, p. 428, 1859.

Presbvtis crepuscula and crepuscula wroughtoni, Elliot, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.,

(8), iv, pp. 271-272, 1909; and Rev. Primates, ii, pp. 84-85, 1912 (under

Pygathrix).

Intergrading with phayrez , but on the average paler and greyer above and

not so white below, the ventral surface being grey and sometimes hardly paler

than the dorsal.

Distribution. Northern Tenasserim and adjacent areas of Siam and Laos.

Two examples of this race preserved in the British Museum and collected by

Davison at an altitude of 5,000 feet on Mount Mooleyit, to the west of Moulmein,

were identified by Blanford as phayrez and reasonably considered by him to be

the same as the langur from near Moulmein referred to phayrez bv Tickell.

These specimens were named Presbytis crepuscula by Elliot. ‘The two differ

in tint being in different stages of pelage, as Elliot pointed out. One is toler-

ably uniformy brown all over the upper surface, and on the arms, hands and

feet some rusty brown hairs are retained, so that the extremities are not black

as is typically the case in P. pyrrhus. The other, in fresh pelage, is greyer,

with black hands and feet, and scarcely differs from Mount Popa examples of

pbhayrei except that the belly is greyer and the base of the tail the same tint as

the loins. There is also no upstanding crest on the head. Another example

collected by A. S. Vernay at an altitude of 1,000 feet at Lampha in Tenasserim

is almost identical with the greyer of the two Mount Mooleyit specimens.

This race also spreads into Siam. From this country the British Museum has

a large number of specimens, exhibiting considerable range in the tint of the

upper side from various localities. A brownish specimen from Pacheburi was

named crepuscula wroughtoni by Elliot, but J can find no evidence to justify

itsseparation from crepusculus. In aseries of three examples collected by

A.S. Vernay on the Mewong River 40 and 53 miles east of Um Pang at 800 and

1,000 feet, and one 28 miles sortheast of Um Pang at 1,750feet,no two are

quite alike, the tints of the back varving in greyness and brownness and sheen

and of the arms in darkness according apparently to the age of the pelage.

Another obtained by Mr. Vernay at Kempenpet on the Klong Klung River is

characterized by a marked buffy sheen over the neck and shoulders. Others

obtained by K. G. Gairdner in Seeswad at about 2,000 to 3,000 feet are dull,

dirty-looking skins, their tint being due probably either to the method of pre-

servation or to oldness of the pelage.

The only other specimen I need refer to is a beautiful skin wtth lone greyish

hair obtained by Messrs. J. Delacour and W. Lowe at Xien Quang Koa in

Laos. This has recently been identified by Thomas as Pithecus phayrei.

It may be added that the tuft on the head usually regarded as characteristic

of phayret mav be present or absent in these specimens Ic may be always

present and erect in the living animals, but it is not always preserved in dried

skins.

Subspecies flavicauda, Elliot.

Semnopithecus obscurus, Blanford, Mamm., Brit. India, p.4?, 1888 (in part).

Pygathrix tlavicauda, Elliot, Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus. xxxviii, p. 352, 1910,

and fev. Primates, ii, p. $0, 1912.

Closely related to typical obscurus and sanctorum, with a similar pale grey

or gieyish buff patch on the back of the head but differing in the very sharp

contrast between the grey or greyish buff tint of the tail and of the onter side

of the hind legsand the blackish loins. The sides of the back are blackish

brown, but the centre is browner and this tint, only somewhat paler, pervades

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA _ 673

the shoulders and arms, The head, apart from the back of the crown, is black,

as also are the hands and feet, and the under side is greyish brown.

Distribution. Southern Tenasserim, Mergui Archipelago and parts of

Peninsular Siam.

The British Museum possesses many examples of this race. One collected

by Davison at Bankasun (Bankachon) in S. Tenasserim was ascribed by

Blanford to obscurus. Others from the same locality were collected by G. C.

Shortridge who also got one in Tenasserim Town and another at Banlaw on

the Great Tenasserim River. These specimens exhibit variation in the dis-

tinctness of the pale areas, There is also an example from King Island,

Mergui, collected by Mr. C. Primrose; and Elliot records the race from Sir

William James Islands, Mergui. ‘The type of his f/avicauda came from Trong

in Lower Siam,

Subspecies sanctorum, Elliot.

Presbytis sanctorum, Elliot, Proc, U. S. Nat. Mus., xxxviii, p. 351, 1910 ;

REO, EP VINaies, Ds do, 1913.

Mostly blackish above with soine brown on the middle of the back behind the

shoulders and the outside of the limbs at most a little paler than the upper side

of the body, the hands and feet being, as usual, black. But the tail is pale

buffy grey and the patch on the head whitish. The lower side is uniformly

brownish grey.

Distribution. St. Matthew Island in the Mergui Archipelago.

I have not seen an example of this Langur, my description being adapted

from the remarks of Elliot who declared that in colour sanctorum is very like a

race inhabiting Terautau and Langkawi Island in the Straits of Malacca,

named by Thomas Presbytis obscurus carbo, except that the nuchal crest is

creamy white and the tail pale buffy grey. The specimens of caro in the British

Museum represent a dark insular race closely akin to the mainland race obscurus,

and, in view of Elliot’s statements, I have been compelled to judge of the

colour of sanctorum from them.

Subspecies atrior, nov.

A very dark form nearly uniformly coloured deep, dusky brown all over the

upper parts and the outside of the legs, with less sheen on the hairs; but the

outer side of the arms, especially about the elbows, is paler than the shoulders

and back. ‘The under side is dark, dusky greyish brown. ‘The tail is at most

only slightly paler than the body.

Distribution. Northern parts of Tenasserim and adjoining areas of Siam.

Type. Ye Forest, 500 feet, in the island of Moulmein in the Ataran Division

of Tenasserim. (G. F. R. B. Thurling. B. M.).

This langur may be the same form as the specimen, or specimens, from

Mount Mooleyit referred by Anderson to Semnopithecus barbei. In the dark-

ness of its tint it is very like the example from Bhamo described by Elliot as

melamerus, which I identify with darbez ; but it is somewhat darker above and

below, has little or no white on the back of the thigh, and the skin of the lips

and chin is black in all the examples seen and not flesh-coloured as in darbez,

phayret and other races described above.

In addition to the type above mentioned the British Museum has an example

collected by Davison at the foot of Mount Nwalabo, Tavoy, Tenasserim, which

is a little greyer on the tail and under side than in the type; alsoa specimen

from N. Lat. 14° 25’ and E. Long. 98° 45’, to the east of Tavoy, in Siam ; and

one from Maw to Maw Lai in Siam, both collected by K. G. Gairdner, and

another without locality obtained by the same collector. The example from

Nwalabo in Tavoy shows acertain amount of grizzling on the head, tail and

elsewhere and is of special interest as a connecting form between the type of

atriov and Malayan examples of cristatus.

The above described British Indian subspecies of P. pyrrhus are all

very similar in size. The dimensions in inches of a few of the largest

674 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

specimens measured in the flesh may beconveniently set forth in one

table 2

Locality and Sex “Body Tail | Hind foot| Ear | Weight

CURRIES PACU SN em,

shanicus | |

Gokteik, N. Shan States, ¢ 2a re oh 65 13 19 lbs

is - Q Zo Sle sal 63 iP ee Pic

phayret | |

Mt. Popa, Upper Burma, ¢ | 24 52 7 le eee

* 3 4 21s yr Sol 6 1 IS3e ts

crepusculus | | |

Lampha Tenasserim, 22 | aoe 6 pene Ge ull 5

tlavicauda | | | |

Bankachon, Tenasserim, ¢ 25 31 7 ie

i Ma oF 21) eecOe 63 Wee

The recorded measurements of other specimens of these subspecies agree so

closely with those quoted that it is needless to insert them in the table. Unfor-

tunately the only available specimen assigned to darbez was not measured in the

flesh, but the size and proportions of the skin are similar to those selected for

record.

The dimensions in millimeters of some of the skulls are as follows :—

ec TTD wi

Pee: | ze

| ety BSS 1 Se) ae SS ee ae |

St | tea | S8a)20 / s4 | Height and

Locality and Sex | S . a Ay bo" ae | a ‘Width of Orbit

es = | He | oPs | On | Br

yee ik Lew PRRs ae Be Mua b se

shanicus

Gokteik Oa, OL oo 14 65 79% CBE are aD?

- fe) 94 | 28 26 52 eal 24 <> 90

phayret |

S. Zamayi, ae AOS: Nn =35 29 62 81 7 eae aah /4) |

Chindwin, rs4 100 | 33 25 | 64 80 POV RDG Ya

flavicauda | | |

Tenasserim Town, ¢ | 105 33 27. 60 1S AN 26 area!

Bankachon, a 102 ope 26 |= 65 SO Mil: 2 See ee

" Si M0082 Dy Bair leaz5 OL CRO

iP 3 98 38 OS Hass} 74 21 ate oil

- Q 96 28 27 | ~«58 71 25 noe OT

- Q 92 | 30 269 Sore De eS

atyvior |

Ye Forest, Ge) 102 ee 28) ge5ra ars | 26 x 24

Nwalabo, a re ey Ame tia | 61 76 25. xoeZe,

These skull measurements attest general similarity in size between ali the

subspecies. An additional column showing the dimensions of the orbit has

been added because variation in the size of the orbits has been considered to be

a character ot systematic importance. The orbits, for example. are larger in

atrior than in shanicus or phayret. In the skull of atrzor from the Ye Forest,

Tenasserim, the orbit is 3mm. higher and 3mm. wider than in the skull of

phayret from the Southern Zamayi Reserve, although the general dimensions of

the skull of the latter exceed those of the former, except in the width acrossthe

orbits. And this difference in the size of the orbits gives avery different look

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 675

to the full face view of the skull, the skull with the large orbits being not only

wider across the orbits but narrower between them as well, and has more

prominent brow-ridges. These characters, however, like other cranial characters,

are individually variable, as is clearly shown by the records of the specimens of

flavicauda from Tenasserim. These skulls also indicate that other characters

which have been relied upon are unreliable. For example, the second on the

list, from Bankachon, has the palate wider and the tooth-rows more arched

than the first from Tenasserim Town, whereas the fourth on the list, a younger

animal, from Bankachon, reserables in these particulars the one from -

Tenasserim Town.

III. The AyGuLA-group

Differing from the Axfellws-group and the Pyrrhus-group in the colour of the

newly-born young which exhibits a definite pattern of white and black or brown,

extending as a median spinal stripe from the back of the head on to the upper

side of the tail and generally, perhaps always, passing on to the outer surface

of the arms, to a greater or less extent, forming a cross-shaped mark. In the

adults of most of the langurs of this group the white above and below is more

or less obliterated by the extension of the black or brown pigment, but the

inner side of the thigh is almost always white and sharply contrasted with the

tint of the outer side. Usually there is an erect tuft of hair on the back of the

head and a median whorl or a pair of whorls on the forehead. When there isa

pair of whorls the hair typically rises into a crest between them. The skull is

generally distinguisbable from that of the Axtellus- and Pyrrhus-groups by a

marked convex swelling on the base of the nasal bones.

Distribution. Indo-china and the Malay Peninsula through Sumatra, Java

and Borneo.

This group does not extend so far to the north asthe Pyrrhus-group but

overlaps its range in the countries above mentioned.

The name of the group is taken from a Javan species, Pithecus aygula,

described as Szmza aygula by Linnzeus in 1758.

The precise status of the many species and subspecies of this group has not

yet been ascertained. But since only one species the correct name of which

appears to be femoralis, occurs within the area of British India, the characters

of the other representatives of the group need not be considered here.

Pithecus femoralts (Horsfield), Martin.

Semnopithecus femoratis, Martin, in Charlesworth’s Mag. Nat. Hist., ii, p. 436,

1838 (first description of the langur named femovalis, but not described,

by Horsfield, Appendix, Life of Sir T. S. Raffles, p. 642, 1830).

Semnopithecus or Presbytis temoralis of Anderson, Blanford and other authors,

at least in part.

Semnoptithecus neglectus, Schlegei, Mus. Pays-Bas., Simi, p. 47, 1876.

The whole of the upper side is dark blackish brown becoming biack on the

extremities of the limbs and tail ; the face is black with the lips flesh-coloured

and clothed with white hair, and the eyelids also are to a certain extent pallid.

The under side is also mostly blackish brown, or deep brownish grey, frequent-

ly with a white stripe extending down the chest on to the belly which tends to

become lighter and may be quite white where it merges with the pubic region.

The inner side of the arms is frequently pale from the axilla to the elbow and

the inner side of the thighs is always clean white and this white may extend asa

narrow stripe down the inner side of the leg between the knee and the heel,

and on the thigh the white does not blend with the dark tint of the outer side

but is sharply marked off from it by a straight white line. The under side of

the tail is dark throughout like the upper.

The coat is shaggy. There is a thick erect tuft on the crown of the head and

a pair of whorls on the forehead, the hair rising into a median crest between

them.

Distribution. Southern Tenasserim, the Malay Peninsula, Peninsular Siam,

and possibly Sumatra.

Horsfield’s type of this species, an immature animal, isin the British Museum.

It is labelled Sumatra but very likely came from the Malay Peninsula. At all

events it very closely resembles examples from Perak, Selangore, Trang and

other places in Malaya.

G76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXH

In addition to the typical form there are other subspecies in the Malay

Peninsula and closely related species og subspecies occur in Sumatra, Borneo

and the smaller adjoining islands.

Subspecies £eatiz, Rob. and Kloss.

Presbylis neglecta keatit, Robinson and Kloss, Journ., Fed. Malay States Mus.,

iv; pe 174, 1001,

Pithecus femoralis keatitt, Wroughton, Journ., Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., May

: TOUS: a7 02:

Very closely resembling the typical form, but with the lower side more pig-

mented, there being no white on the inner side of the arm between the axilla

and the elbow, no white line on the chest and hardly any white on the belly

which is pigmented backwards to the public region where its dark tint is

strongly contrasted with the white on the inner side of the thighs.

Distribution. 'Tenasserim : Malewoon and Bankachon ; also Kao Wang Hip

in Peninsular Siam.

In the British Museum there are examples of this subspecies, which is of

doubtful value, from the above-mentioned localities.

ESSE

~ es

‘ \

’

eS 2s5e2=

Ka a

i ori

ESS 19g

Fic. 3 A and B.—Front and side view of skull of adult inale Pithecus

femoralis keatit from Bankachon in Tenasserim.

THE LANGURS, OR LEAF MONKEYS, OF BRITISH INDIA 677

The approximate dimensions in inches of two examples are as follows :—

Locality and Sex. shell vite! Tail Hindfoot) Ear | Weight

Body |

—a _ —_ ‘y : — —

Malewoon, of 22+- Ve ol | 7 li 154 Ib

Bankachon, eo 222 33 | 7 14 143. 45

Locality and Sex

Bankachon,

Kao Wang Hip,

| Total

| length

)

The measurements in millimetres of two skulls are :—

Length of} “Length of Orbital 'Zygomatic

Palate | Upper Molars| Width | Width

13 | 25 ees ee ae

2B 25 — 62 | 70

(The end)

THE BIG BULL OF SEMBUTOLLAVU

C. P. GoOULDSBURY

: (With a plate)

Short green grass in the swamps, with elephant grass—over six

feet high as a rule—on the adjoining slopes, intersected here and

there by small patches of jungle, the latter taken into cardamom

cultivation by the neighbouring ryots—a tiny river running all along

the valley—-such was the home for many a year of the bull of this

story.

During the dry months ail the grass that would burn was set

alight, but the swamps always kept their cover of green and the

adjoining patches of cardamom jungle with the undergrowth alone

cleared—-afforded welcome shade for bison and incidentally elephant,

during the scorching midday heat.

The valley in which the bison roamed was roughly five miles in

length, and some two miles broad, broken up by numerous smali

orassland re-entrants.

From a ‘spotting’ point of view the country ijeft a lot to be

desired, as a herd of elephants might be, and very often was, in

close proximity, to the blissful ignorance of the stalker, who would

in all probability only discover it as the light was failing, and a

return to camp was contemplated. On several occasions a long

and tedious detour was therefore unavoidable, and with the short

Indian twilight closing down suddenly into darkness, with a herd

of cow elephants in the vicinity, with small calves at heel, or possibly

a solitary young tusker anxious to throw his weight about, the

return to camp was not always without incident.

Similarly it was inadvisable to leave camp in the mornings before

the light was sufficiently strong to allow one to see at least 100

yards all round. Failure to observe this rule, resulted ina friend

walking practically on to a round grey object which he took, in the

early morning light, to be a rock, and which suddenly turned itself

into a solitary bull elephant, and one too with an unsavoury reputa-

tion. M’s retirement from the scene was rapid, and not altogether

noiseless, but a nasty accident might very easily have occurred, had

he actually stumbled on the animal in the half light.

Bison, of sorts, were always in the vailey, but master bulls,.

although frequenting the entire length of it, were difficult to pick

up, unless they were with the cows during the rutting season—April

and May, and even during these months they would seldom lie up

during the hot hours in the midst of the herd, but usually cleared off

to an isolated patch of jungle soon after dawn, joining up with the

cows again about dusk. At other times of the year the master bull

was somewhere in the valley but, with the elephant grass, well over

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE BiG BULL OF SEMBUTOLLAVU

Tip to tip across forehead we. AO

Widest spread (outside) weer AEC

Girth eae aae PYy) 20%.

See ese raeegmcar arias te

“* We Pe cn 7 \

: Ri

. “ ; fs ' 7 z,

i oF

‘ .

al B af , ; “ s

“ i Fi 7 :

we ;

an ee y ts rae :

- 7 Li i

‘ :

: 7 + f

. : = ‘ r

7 "

- '

' i ye ee ' 4a}

: 7 : 44

ES aati :

4 - — : : : c

i : : ae .

HOD

oad

THE BIG BOLE OF SEMBUTOLLAVU 679

ones head it was more by luck than judgment that he was ever

spotted, and if he was, it was usually at dusk in the failing light,

and the presence of elephants necessitated the greatest care ina

stalk, even if the latter was at all possible before the light went, the

almost inevitable result being that the bull was left alone that night,

in the hope that he would be in the vicinity at early dawn next

morning—a hope which never materialized in the many attempts

I made during the hot weather months.

It was, to say the least of it, very tantalizing to get reports in

from my shikaris regarding the size of one old bull bison in particular

—solitary at the time—on three occasions when my men had been

down they had sat on a small rocky hill looking down on the old

bull who, as luck would have it, had come out to feed in a large

swamp, known as Sembutollavu, at five o’clock in the afternoon.

The following two week-ends, my only chance of getting away,

were spent fruitlessly in trying to get in touch with him. On one

occasion he was heard moving about in cardamom jungle near the

swamp, but did not come out before dark, and on the next, a

solitary tusker was near the ground usually frequented by the bull,

and it meant getting in between the elephant and the swamp, thereby

giving my wind to what we knew was an elephant with a decided

‘penchant ’ for chasing human beings, although at that time he

had not actually been proscribed by Government as a rouge.

The close season for big game in the district of which I write,

begins on May 3], and the bull being again reported near the Sembu-

tollavu swamp, in company with eight or nine cows, my shikaris

went down for four days to see if they could locate him, in which

case two were to keep in touch with him, the third returning to

me on the Friday. As luck would have it, the week-end fell on the

last two days of the month, which would enable me if necessary to

get in three stalks, Saturday afternoon, Sunday morning and

evening.

At Friday midday, along came the third shikari, and his expan-

sive grin was the forerunner to the welcome news that the bull had

been seen with his cows, on the Wednesday afternoon, in Sembu-

tollavu.

The grass on the ridge above the swamp was long, and the herd

had apparently been lying out for some hours, before it actually

came to the stream to drink. The men had again seen the bull on

Thursday evening but this time he had evidently left the cows

during the previous night, as he rejoined them from a cardamom

jungle some distance away, and some time after they themselves

had been out. On this particular evening the men had heard a

tiger, and sent word to me that with a tiger about, it was probable

that the big bull would now stay with the herd, and not leave the

cows by themselves. Chances therefore of at any rate seeing him

appeared good, and all arrangements were made for tents and kit

to be sent down on Saturday morning.

I started for camp early that afternoon, and reached it about

3.30 p.m. after a stiff climb up one ridge, and a steep descent down

another, the journey taking three hours, and the going as rough

as it could be. It wasa relief to eventually see the tents nestling

680 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOGIETY, Vol. XXX

under a small bluff, well out of elephant country, on the edge of a

stream, and a greater relief to meet Velandy, my head shikari,

with the news that he had again marked down the bull, with his

cows, in Sembutollavu, the previous evening.

He was very reticent regarding the size of the head, merely

remarking that through the telescope it looked a good one.

A hurried tea, the heavy rifle, a double barrelled -577 by Jeffery

pulled through, and its cartridges collected, the lantern tested, and

various odds and ends such as glasses, the telescope, and raincoat

distributed amongst the shikaris, a move was made to the swamp,

some two miles from camp.

Taking up my position with Velandy on a ridge commanding the

swamp, the second shikari was posted on a small hill to my rear,

to warn us in the event of elephants, which at the time were

numerous in the valley, feeding out of some oi the cardamom

jungles and thus cutting off our return to camp at dusk.

Hardly had Velandy and I settled down when the glasses revealed

seven or eight cow bison lying in high elephant grass, under some

stunted thorn trees. Fora long time it was difficult to pick out the

bull, but Velandy at last spotted him with the telescope, lying out

somewhat to our right. He was under a small tree, and beyond the

colour of his hide proving him a bull, it was impossible to get a

satisfactory view of his head. For over an hour we lay and watched

swung his head at a tormenting fly, but before the glasses were on

him, the horn would sink back again.

At last the cows appeared to be inclined to feed. One by one

they got up, and moved slowly down the hill opposite us to the

swamp, through which ran asmall stream. Even now the high

grass gave me only occasional glimpses of them, as they moved

from clump to clump.

A glance at the bull, who was still lying down, and I turned

back to the cows, trying to make out exactly how many there were.

Whilst watching them through the glasses I felt Velandy’s hand

on my knee, and the telescope was pushed towards me.

‘Heis up, Dorai. Look at his head.’ Bringing the telescope on

to the bull, I gave a gasp, and whispered to Velandy ‘ He is well

‘over 40 inches. Why didn’t youtell me when I asked you in camp.’

‘IT knew he was, Dorai, but if I had said so, before you actually

‘gaw him yourself, you would have called mea liar,’ and Velandy

grinned broadly at me.

The bull stood for a moment rubbing his horns against the tree

under which he had been lying, and then sauntered down hill to-

wards his cows. Even though he towered above them, it was only

possible to see the ridge of his back over the elephant grass, but

as he was head on, I got a very fine view of his horns through the

telescope, and, in addition to their spread, the width between tips

struck me as being exceptional.

The cows, seemed in no hurry to come down to me, and as it was

much too far to risk a shot at the bull, covered as he was by the

elephant grass, there was nothing for it but to possess my soul in

patience.

THI BIG BULIVOR SEMBULOLELAVES Ss 0s. 681

As the bull closed up with the cows, the latter started grazing

quietly down towards me, evidently making for a small opening in

the grass at the edge of the stream, which the glasses showed me to

be a ford, from the numerous tracks, and mud on the blades of

grass. If they actualiy came down to the ford, they would be

within seventy yards of my position, but from their rate of pro-

gress, this would take a considerable time, and the wind was none

too steady. Above the ford and on the line they were taking was

a smail tree, near which the grass seemed shorter.

This I estimated to be about 120 yards from me, and after

searching it carefully through the telescope, I decided to take the

bull, if, and when, he got as far, and also if he turned broadside

tO. Mme.

The cows were zigzagging about grazing, ard I hoped, provided

the wind kept steady, that the bull would give me the chance I

wanted.

In the meantime I made myself as comfortable as possible, and

explaining the position to Velandy, told him to watch the result of

my shot when I did fire, and to be ready with spare cartridges.

After what seemed an interminable age the cows one by one,

crossed the shorter strip of grass, and the bull gradually approached

it. Onreaching the small tree, he lay downunder it. This was a

Shock, as I had ne idea how long he proposed remaining in this

position. It was quite impossible attempting to shoot as the grass

though much shorter here than where I had first seen him, was still

too long to enable me to get aclear sight on him, in addition to

which the target had now been considerably reduced in height.

Velandy suggested whistling to get him on to his feet, but in this

event I was certain he would face towards me—a difficult shot to

make certain of at the distance. As he lay be was broadside on,

and my only hope was to cover him, and wait. ‘The wind was

fairly steady, and I got Velandy to watch him with the telescope,

and tell me if he made any movement to getup. In the meantime

I got ready to cover him as soon as he showed any signs of moving.

The cows were by now gradually feeding away from him, which

evidently prevented him from settling down, and it was not long

before Velandy whispered that he was on his knees. As his back

heaved up I covered what I thought was his shoulder—-the grass

made things a bit difficult and holding my breath, let go at him. I

felt as I pulled the trigger that I had held a little low, and let him

have the second barrel as he swung round away from me, but this

was a palpable miss.

The buil went up the hill, keeping the small tree between us, and

Showing so little the effect of the first shot that Velandy declared I

had missed him. Two more barrels failed to hit him. and amidst

wails from Velandy that he was arecord bull, that I was wasting

ammunition on him, etc., etc., I put ina last despairing shot as he

was going uphill away from me, aiming between his horns, with

the 200 yards leaf up, and avery full sight. He bucked to this

shot, swayed, and then came rolling down the hill. There seemed

no life in him through the glasses, so letting the cows—which had

lumbered up the hill after the bull when I started shooting—clear

682 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

off, we went up to look athim. ‘The grass when we got into it, was

so long that we had to make a detour to the top of the ridge and then

come down on the tracks made by the buil when rolling. On reach-

ing him, a few sticks thrown at him elicited no response, but on

trying to get at his head, I found this tucked under him, and

impossible to move.

As the shikaris caste would no permit of their handling him, I

sent the second man, who had joined us when I started shooting, to

the nearest jungle for a length of green cane, which on arrival I

knotted round a hind leg, telling the mento heave at the other end.

This was almost too successful, as the slope of the ground very

nearly brought the bull ontop of us. However it had the desired

effect of releasing his head, and I gave another gasp when I put the

tape onit. The widest spread outside showed 431 inches. Girth 20

inches, tip to tip between horns 34inches, tip to tip of horns across

the forehead 75 inches, and length on outside curve of longer horn

302 inches.

My first shot was low down behind the shoulder, and my exceed-

ingly lucky last one had caught him near the spine, forward of the

rump, and as we discovered later, had travelled, and set up in the

lungs.

In addition I cut a spherical 12-bore bullet out from just under the

skin of the flank --a bullet evidently fired into him from a shot gun,

by a cardamom ryot, most of whom own guns, ostensibly to

protect themselves from wild elephants.

As it was then getting dark, and elephants were about, we left the

bull where he lay, to return and secure the head and mask early

next morning.

My return to camp was with mingled feelings. Joy at having

outwitted the old bull predominated, but at the same time there was

the inevitable feeling of sorrow that he would roam his territories

no more. Inthis particular case, not a vestige of his enormous body

was to be wasted, as a pencilled chit from camp to a friend on a

neighbouring estate, early the following morning, produced an

incredible number of pariah coolies, and the head and mask being

removed, I leit for my bungalow knowing that it would not be long

before every particle of meat, including the intestines, would be on

its way to gladden the hearts, and soothe the insides, of numerous

coolies, and provide them with at least one square meai.

The accompanying photograph gives a good idea of the bull’s

head and also of the flies that discovered him, though these proved

no deterrent to the swarms of coolies that later got down to work on

him.

A curious feature was the presence of raw red spots each the size

of half a crown on all four legs of the bull from ‘ stocking ’ to fet-

lock. These were denuded of hair and were raw though not

actually bleeding.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES

Lt.-CoL, F, C. FRASER, I.M.S., F.E.S.

Part XXX

(With three plates)

(Continued trom page 459 of this Volume.)

Genus—MICROMERUS, Ramb.

Micromerus, Ramb. Ins. Nevrop. p. 238. (1842) ;—Selys., Syn. Cal., p. 64

(1853) ;—Id. Mon. Cal. p. 233 (1858) ;—Walk. List. Neur. B. M. iv, p. 652

(1853) ;—Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 115 (1880) ;—Will. Proc. U. S. Nat. Mus.

vol. xxviii, p. 172 (1904) ;—Ris. Ent. Mitteil. V. Nr. 9/12 (1916).

_ Characters as for the subfamily, the epistome however, much more developed

than in Rhinocypha, much more projected, so that a deep fissure intervenes

between the frons and nasus. Fore and hind-wings similarly shaped, very long

and narrow, reticulation moderately open ; fore-wings of male, in most species,

tipped with black, otherwise all wings of both sexes completely hyaline (except

in suellemani and bisignatus, both ex-Indian species, in which the wings are

marked with broad blackish brown fasciz as found in many species of Ahkinocy-

pha) ; antenodal nervures 4 to 7 in number; sectors of are arising from a

common point, where the arc is strongly angulated at alittle above its middle ;

ZA undulated from its origin ; petiolation ends proximad of the first antenodal

nervure ; intercalated nervures few in number and found only near apices of

wings ; A777 arising widely distad of node; pterostigma absent in forewings of

male except in those species where the apices are not tipped with black, present

and very elongate in the hind, and in all wings of the female.

Mesothoracic triangle absent or reduced, uncoloured ; legs long and slim,

usually all femora and tibiz pruinosed white on the flexor surfaces. Abdomen

short and stout, much shorter than wings, fusiform, depressed, narrowing very

gradually towards the 10th segment. Anal appendages very similar to those of

Rhinocypha, superiors twice the length of segment 10, pincer-like, cylindrical

and pojnted at apices ; inferiors obtuse, less than half the length of superiors.

Vulvar scale very robust, shaped as for Rhinocypha.

Larva very similar to that of Ahkinocypha (vide Plate III.)

Distribution. Southern Asia from Western India to Borneo and New Guinea.

Most Indian species appear to have origin from /ineatus, which is only found

typically from Lower Burma within Indian limits. Elsewhere it comes from

Java and Siam, several subspecies or races occurring throughout Burma,

Continental India and Ceylon. In the latter island, due to insulation, we find

asurprising development of the genus, the species found there not being

apparently closely related to lineutus.

Their habits do not differ in any respects from those of Rhinocypha, and they

are found in similar habitats.

Genotype—Microm-rus lineatus Burm.

_The present position of the nomenclature of MWicromerus and Litellago is

uncertain. The first mention of the latter genus is found in Selys, Mon. Lib.

Eur. p. 200 (1840), wherein he gives a short description of the genus and cites

Agrion lineata as the genotype, but also gives fenestrata and fulgipennis (now

classed as Rhinocypha. but at that time as Agrion.) as belonging to the same

genus. Lzneata had however been described by Burmeister as a Calopleryx

and Selys committed anerror in assigning it to Agrion. That he did so is

perfectly clear, from the fact that he refers to the Won. Lib. Eur., when des-

cribing genus Wicromerus in the Mon. Cal., p. 233. It seems perfectly clear

therefore that /ineafa as referred to inthe Mon. Lib. Hur. was Burmeister’s

Calopteryx lineata (Micromerus lineatus), and equally clear that it was given

684 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXIi

as the genotype for Lzdellago, and this being the case, Wicromerus becomes a

mere synonym for Zzdellago, and the latter name, for what it now stands, is

therefore preoccupied, AsI have already committed myself, in the present

Monograph, to the present use of the names, a change of seats in midstream

might cause endless confusion and I have therefore decided to let things stand

as they are. In a future revision however, it will beeome necessary to rectify

these errors. (/icromerus becoming Libellago and a new name being chosen for

the latter, for which I would suggest Chlorocypha.

Key to Indian species of Wicromerus.

1, Abdomen marked with bright orange or brick-red... 2

Abdomen marked with bright citron yellow or

greenish i ey ae, bes 3

2. Greater part of abdomen bright orange; middorsal

carina of abdominal segments not marked with

black. (Burma.) Mik AIS lace? .. JW. aurantiacus.

Abdominal segments bearing large spots of brick-

red ; dorsal carina of all segments black. (Ceylon.) MM. greent.

3. Male with 6 antenodal nervures to all wings ae ee

Male with 5 antenodal nervures. (Burma, N.

India. ) ae Pee an M. lineatus lineatius.

4. Black tip to forewings of male 4.to $ mm. in length. o)

Black tip to forewings of male only 3 mm in length, ae ac

.5. Humeral stripe present at its middle ; posterior lobe

with a large dorsal spot; thoracic markings

orange. (Nicobars.) pad re a

Humeral stripe absent ; posterior lobe of prothorax

unmarked ; thoracic markings citron yellow or iat

green. (Andamans) — sis ... MW. andamanensis.

M, blandus.

6. Small insects, hindwing less than 18mm. in length ;

linear spot-on hinder border of occiput with a

inedian anterior prolongation ; abdominal mark- =a

ings citron yellow (Continental India and Ceylon.) WV. lineatus indica.

Larger insects with hindwing more than 20 mm. in ~ :

length ; linear spot on hinder border of- occiput

without median. prolongation ; abdominal -mark- er

-- - . ings bluish or bluish-green, -(Ceylon.) - 5S M. finalts.

... Micromerus lineatus lineatus, Burm. (Calopteryx lineata Burm.) Handb, Ent.

ii, p. 826 (1839),—Selys. (Agrion lineata) Mon. Lib. d?Europe, p..200

(1840), —Ramb: (MWicromerus lineatus) Ins. Nevrop., p. 238 (1842),—

' Selys. Syn. Cal., p. 65 (1853),—Id. Mon. Cal., p. 237 (1858) ,-—-Id. Bull.

Acad. Belg. (2), xxvii, p. 665 (1869).—Walk. (Lzbellago lineata) List.

Neur. Ins. B. M., p. 653 (1853), —Ramb. 1. c. (A/icromerus uxor) p. 239

(1842),—Kirby Cat. Odon. p. 115 (1890),--Selys. Ann. Mus, Civ.

Genov. (2) x (xxx), p. 62 (1891),—Laid. Fascic. Malay. (Zool), pt. 1,

p. 197 (1903), —Will. Proc. U.S; Nat. Mus., vol. xxviii, p. 171, figs. 5.and

6 (1904),—Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xiii, p. 39 (1917),—F ras. ldzd., vol.

xxvi, p. 483 (1924).--Micromerus obscurus, Kirby Proc. Zool. Soc.

Lond., p. 328t. 33, f. 1(1886).—Id. Cat. Odon., p. 115 (1890).

Male. Abdomen 15mm. Hindwing 17 mm.

Head. Labium dull brownish yellow to blackish ; labrum blackish brown,

the anterior border finely yellow ; epistome black, the anterior facet blue black

metallic, above velvety black ; frons and vertex velvety black—with 2 transverse

oval citron yellow spots on former near middle line and a large oval spot on

outer side of each posterior ocellus ; occiput black with a large postocular <pot

subtriangular in shape, on each side separated from, more or less narrowly, a

median crown-shaped spot. The latter spot rather variable, in the type, trans-

versely elongate witha median spot in front of its middle, but in others, con-

fluent with this spot and with additional triangular points on either side.

Prothorax black marked with citron yellow as follows :—The border of the

posterior lobe very finely except below where itis expanded into a pyriform

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES . — 685

spot ; a large transversely oval spot on dorsum of posterior lobe, this part being

raised into an oval boss coated with fine hairs ; a narrow anterior collar, anda

large subtriangular spot on each side of middle lobe.

Thorax black marked with citron or greenish yellow as follows :—The whole

of antealar sinus, the middorsal carina finely, a narrow ragged antehumeral

stripe incomplete above, a small upper antehumeral spot, a norrow curved post-

humeral stripe incomplete below, Laterally nearly the whole cf the mesepi-

meron which shows a narrow wedge of black at its middle and a hook- -shaped

or triangular-shaped invasion of black above ; lastly the whole of metepimeron

except the anterior sutural line and the ventral border narrowly. Beneath

yellow.

Legs black, flexor surfaces of tibie and of the anterior pair of. femora prui-

nosed white.

Wings hyaline, the bases of all, nearly to level of node, palely tinted with

amber ; the apices of forewings (except i in tenerals where no marking is visible)

tipped with black as far proximad as inner end of pterostigma of hindwing but

falling short of hinder border of wing. Pterostigina absent in forewing, black

tumid and elongate in hindwing where it covers from 2 to 24 cells. Costa of

forewing gradually thickened towards the site where pterostigma would

ordinarily be; discoidal cell traversed once ; nodal index, 5 antenodal nervures,

8 to 10 postnodals.

Abdomen black and bright greenish or golden yellow, the latter colour pre-

vailing on the anterior segments, the former on the hinder. Segment 1 with

the apical border narrowly and the sides broadly yellow, segments 2 to 5 with

the latero-ventral borders and the intersegmental sutures narrowly black, the

carina also finely black from segment 2 to 4, orin tenerals from 2 to 6, but

arrested short of apical border where the black expands or is connected to two

wing-like projections, so that this together with the carinal stripe form inverted

capital ‘Ts’ (in some specimens, the armsof the‘ T”’ are slightly separated

from the stem, but this is rare). Segments 5 and 6 with two large dorsal vellow

spots tapering apicad, enclosed by an expansion and confluence of the carina!

T-spot with the apical ring and latero-ventra] black ; segments 7 and $ may

show smaller similar spots, but adults have these unmarked, as also 9 and 10.

Anal appendages black, superiors twice the length of segment 10, separated

widely at base, converging at apices which are turned slightly in, cylindrical

and very slightly tapered... Inferior appendages only half the length of supe-

riors, closely. apposed at bases and. again at.apices so as to enclose a minute

foramen, blunt, broad at base, narrowed thereafter.

Female. Abdomen 13to16 mm. Hindwing 18 to 22 mm.

A stouter, more robust insect than the male, marked very similarly but the

yellow more extensive.

Head with the same markings as for male but with the. following additional

spots :—The labrum and labium, the former with a small basal median-tongue

of black:; the anterior surface of epistome (which in the male is metallic blue) ;

the bases of mandibles, cheeks, basal joints of antennae, a large spot on either

side of epistome and two large diamond-shaped spots on front of frons, narrow-

ly separated from the smaller hinder pair.

Prothorax, thorax and legs as for male.

Abdomen black marked with yellow as follows :—The apical border and sides

of segment 1; the dorsal carina on segments 2to7; a longitudinal stripe on

dorsum of 8 and 9, whilst that of 10is unmarked. Laterally the seginents

yellow with a large apical spot notched infront on segments 2 to 7, bifid on

segment 8, and present only as asmall yellow spot on sides of 9 and 10.

(Briefly the abdomen may be said to be yellow with two longitudinal bands of

black and black articular rings at the intersegmental nodes.)

Anal appendages black, twice as longas segment 10, pointed, widely sepa-

rated throughout. Legs black, the flexor surfaces. of femora and tibiz yellow.

Wings entirely hyaline, the basal area, especially along the costa slightly

tinted with amber ; pterostigma, present in all wings, elongate, black or yellow

framed in black according to age, covering 2 or 3 cells ; 6 antenodal nervures,

9 to 10 postnodals.

Distribution. Throughout the Sondaic Archipelago and the adjacent main-

land, Java, Sumatra, Siam, Annam, Burma and North India. Kirby’s oéscurus,

described from a teneral specimen, from northern India, is identical to speci-

mens which I have received from Dehra Dun, Cachar and Upper Burma. It

686 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

differs only in the limitation of black markings due to tenerality and is

undoubtedly dzweatus. In Peninsular and Southern India we find a distinct

subspecies replacing typical Jzweatws, which I have named indica. ‘The two

Ceylon forms show sufficient differences as to deserve specific rank.

Micromerus lineatus indica, subsp. nov. (A/zcromerus lineatus) Fras. Rec. Ind.

Mus.. vol. xxvi, p. 483 and pl. xxiv, fig. 4 (1924),—Laid. Spolia zey-

lanica (M. lineatus, Burm.), vol. xii, part 47, pp. 354, 355 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 14to16mm. Hindwing 15 to 18 mm.

Head very similar to that of Zzmeatus, labium ochreous, labrum dark brown-

ish yellow, black at base; a more or less obscure spot on either side of

epistome, the anterior facet of which is metallic blue as in d¢meatus ; eyes brown

but with a bluish metallic lustre in certain lights; bases of mandibles and

cheeks narrowly yellow ; the oval spots on frons reniform in shape and often a

second pair of smaller rounded spots behind them ; crown-shaped mark on

occiput with an elongate median point, but no lateral points, or if present then

very short, usually connected to the postocular spots.

Prothorax, thorax and legs as for type /zmeatus, the femora pulverulent white

at basal halves only.

Wings as for /zneatus but the apical black spot of forewings distinctly longer

(absent in tenerals) ; nodal index differing slightly, in Kanara specimens 6

antenodals in the forewings, 7 in the hind, less commonly 5 to 6in the hind ;

in Deccani specimens, almost always 6 in ‘both wings and 10 to 14 postnodals.

The amber tinting at base usually very marked, upto or even beyond node ; dis-

coidal triangles traversed once ; pterostigma as in deneatus.

Abdomen. (As in Lidellago, so in Micromerus specialization seems to have

confined itself almost entirely to the colouring and markings of the abdomen.)

Segment 1 bright golden yellow with the base narrowly and asmall quadrate

black spot; segments 2 to6 bright citron yellow, the dorsum golden green;

often very green, 2 with a thick middorsal dumb-bell-shaped black marking

confluent with a narrow basal ring, the ends of which are prolonged along the

sides nearly to apical border, and separated very narrowly from the ventral

border, segrnents 3 to 5 with broad middorsal stripes confluent with narrow

basal rings and expanded somewhat apically, whilst laterally near the apical

border, asmall ventro-lateral spot of black is seen; segments 6and7 with

basal subdorsal wedge-shaped yellow spots enclosed by a fusion of the mid-

dorsal black with an elongated lateral spot, segments 8 to 10 black. Insome

specimens the middorsal marking of segment 2 is narrowly bisected with

yellow, and there is nearly always an indication of the beginning of such a line

apicad.

Anal appendages not differing from /zneatus.

Female. Abdomen13to17 mm. Hindwing 17 to 20 mm.

Head. Labium yellow ; labrum yellow with a small median basal point or

tongue of black; epistome entirely yellow in front, similarly coloured abcve

but here edged with black anteriorly and laterally, its dorsum clouded with

light brown andthe base narrowly dark brown witha tongue of the same

colour running obliquely forwards and outwards; frons with two large

quadrate citron yellow spots, separated narrowly by a black median stripe which

is confluent anteriorly and posteriorly with an equally narrow black stripe, the

whole thus forming a black anchor-like mark, accentuated by the outer corners

of the hinder portion angulated forwards like the flukes of an anchor ; markings

of rest of head similar to those of male but an additional pair of spots situated

between ocelli. Eyes brown,

Prothorax entirely similar to the male. Thorax similar but lateral markings

rather more extensive. Legs yellow, the femora lined externally with dark

brown.

Abdomen largely yellow with black markings as follows :—Segment 1 with a

large quadrate spot on dorsum, the base narrowly and the apical border

laterally; segment 2 to & with the dorsum very broadly but bisected by a

narrow middorsal carinal yellow line which runs as far as segment 9, but on the

last two segments is fusiform, tapering apically and basad ; laterally a stripe

more or less defined, broadening abruptly subapicad and not quite reaching

the base of segments. On segment 9 this line expands basad and becomes con-

fluent with the dorsal black to enclose a large rounded subdorsal yellow spot,

segment 10 black with two transversely elongate subdorsal yellow spots.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, PLATE I,

7 8 oe eds il 12

» Micromerus greent, Laid. (Ceylon.)

Fic. 1

An Da aurantiacus, Selys. (Burma.)

3h andamanensis, Fras. (Andamans. )

4, finalis, Selys. (Ceylon.)

5. lineatus indica, subsp. nov. (Kanara.)

6. lineatus, Burm. (Dehra Dun.)

he (Cachar. )

8. (Java.)

9. ” ”” ” av’ (Siam.)

10. Calocypha laidlawi (Fras.) (Kanara.)

ll. Libellago astatica, Selys. (Burma.)

curta, Selys. (Uganda.)

- 1 .

. var :

te yee eS

. - ya cel ee

tas oe i SS

‘

‘ EAS

: a we : pe ele

Cae ao Con. ney ry os .

. 7 at :

. 1 i

‘ 7 4 rag ,

Be . + ‘

= i :

; : - : ‘ j ¢

ee = 4: a

7 = = ihe J ote

= ia, a r . ‘

? - ] ‘ , nO

; : 7 f : , -

? . :

5 - nm :

: $i :

4 ae ar

: :

’ Pay 7 <

> - ' . ae :

; 2 \

; - ‘ : .

‘ Ps : rs

me — .

. : -

= ‘ :

: : "Ds a ake ’ —— ee eee kee - *

. “ im Jigs ae 5 5 ‘ ;

7 tas Wee . a ones nae 11% : - ;

4 ar 7 s aa “3

o-: A doa < 2 8 ee ee : es

x 7 .

FStear ” « aos “ , 1 do ase wi ae 4a e. 6 oT

o ‘ - : . :

bet ina = ee ay ee ee ae: & é

tesa tate 2 oe 2 : . i ao

. 1%

ve, at Yaa i we

3 7” ae at

“ - + ‘

: ; : ‘ f

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 687

Wings hyaline palely amber tinted ; pterostigma present in all wing, creamy

white in a black frame which expands somewhat proximad, over 2 cells; nodal

index,—6 to 7 antenodals, 9 to 10 postnodals ; discoidal cell traversed once in all

wings.

nee appendages blackish brown, pointed, tapered, widely divaricate, rather

longer than segment 10.

Vulvar scale robust, with a large spot of yellow laterally.

Distribution. Avery common insect throughout South India especially in the

Western Ghats and Deccan. It is common on the river banks at Poona and

Khandala, less common in Coorg, Kanara and Malabar.

Laidlaw reports it from Ceylon, Haragama, July, and remarks on its difference

from type Jineatus lineatus Burm., from Burma and Siam.

It appears to be double-brooded, as it may be found pretty well throughout

the year. The abdominal markings will easily distinguish it from typical

lineatus. Type and co-type in B. M. from Poona.

Micromerus lineatus blandus Selys, Syn. Cal., p. 64 (1853) ;—Id. Mon. Cal.,

p. 254 (1854) ; Walk. (Lzbellago blandus) List. Neur. Ins. B. M. iv,

p. 652 (1853) ;—Laid. Rec. Ind Mus., vol. xiii. p. 39 (1917).

Male. Abdomen 17-18 mm. Hindwing 20-21 mm.

Female. Abdomen 12-15mm. Hindwing 19-21 mm.

I have not seen this species, which in the Selysian description is said to

closely resemble /zmeatus, a fact which leads me to describe it as a subspecies

of the typical form from Java.

It is a more robust insect and differs from dzneatus as follows :—

The yellow stripe on the cheeks bordering the eyes absent ; prothorax black,

its middle lobe unmarked but the large dorsal tumid spot on the posterior lobe

extending forwards as a point; thoracic markings more orange than yellow ;

the humeral stripe incomplete above and below, present in its middle third only;

the anterior of the two broad lateral fasciz broken up into three large spots,

the upper very minute ; dorsal markings of abdomen broader; apical black

spot of forewings longer than broad, about 4 mm. in length; pterostigma

longer, covers about 5 cells in the hindwings; 6 antenodal nervures in all

wings.

Female very similar to that of /zmeatus. ‘The yellow markings more restricted

the humeral stripe absent, the anterior of the two lateral fascize divided up into

two spots ; the dorsal black of segments 3 to 6 narrower, nearly interrupted on

some, ground colour orange ; nodal index higher, 14 postnodal to hindwings,

12 to the fore ; pterostigma yellow, black, proximad, broader, over 3 to 5 cells.

Distribution. Confined to the Nicobars. Type in the Selvsian coll.

Micromerus andamanensis, Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxvi, p. 410 (1924),

Male. (Female unknown,) Abdomen16mm. Hindwing 20 mm.

Head. Eyes bluish grey; labium and labrum black ; rest of head jet black

with the following citron yellow markings ;—two narrow oval spots at base of

epistome above, a large ovalspot on the outer side of each posterior ccellus, a

similar postocular spot on each side, and a linear spot on the hinder border of

occiput.

ee black with a large yellow spot on each side.

Thorax black marked with golden greenish yellow as follows, two small spots

on the antealar sinus, a fine carinal dorsal line, two fine antehumeral stripes

incomplete above, an oblique linear spot on each side of the antealar sinus.

Laterally two irregular spots lying between the lateral sutures, the anterior

golden yellow, the posterior distinctly greenish, and a broad stripe occupying

the upper anterior three-fourths on the metepimeron.

Legs black, the hinder tibiz pulverulent white on the flexor surface. Wings

hyaline, faintly amber tinted at bases, forewings broadly tipped with black to 4

mm. in extent and metallic blue by reflected light ; hindwings enfumed at

apices ; pterostigma black, only present in hind wings; 5to 6 antenodal

nervures in all wings.

Abdomen golden yellow marked with black as follows :—Segment 1 narrowly

black at base, more broadly at sides; segment 2 with a broad dorsal stripe

expanded at basal and apical ends of segment, also a broad black stripe low

down on sides not extending as far as apical border of segment ; segments 3 to

6 with broad _middorsal stripes expanded only at apical border of segments

688 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

where it forms a narrow ring; segment 7 similar but on the sides, the apical

black extending forwards nearly as far as base of segment; segments 8 to 10

entirely black.

Anal appendages black, similar to those of /zweatus.

Distribution, Andamans, the type, a male, isin the Indian Museum, and

was taken by the late Dr. Annandale on the Western slopes of Mt. Harriet, No-

vember 30, 1923(fluttering over the surface of a pool below a waterfall). Altitude

500 ft. This very beautiful insect is easily distinguished by the broad metallic blue

tip to its wings, as wellas the extreme grade of melanism as compared to other

species of the genus, it is to be hoped that some collector on the spot will find

the female for us. Itshould not be difficult to secure a fine series as most spe-

cies are usually abundant where taken. The femaleis probably very similar

to dineatus and without a black tip to her wings.

Micromerus finalis Selys, Ball. Acad. Belg. (2) xxvii, p. 665 (1869) ,—Id.

lbid., XXxvi, p. 616 (1873),—Kirb,. Cat. Odon. 115 (1890),—Id. Journ.

Linn. Soc. (Zool) vol. xxiv, p. 556 (1894),—Laid., Spolia zeylanica

vol. xii, parl 47, pp. 351-352 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 16mm. Hindwing 21mm.

Head. Labium yellow, lobes tipped with black ; labrum glossy black, un-

marked ; epistome metallic blue or violety blue ; cheeks with a narrow yellow

stripe against the eyes ; frons black with a pair of large rectangular spots of

citron yellow ; vertex black with an oval citron yellow spot on the outer side of

each posterior ocellus ; occiput black with a rounded postocular spot on each

side and a linear spot along the hinder border, narrowly separated from the

former.

Prothorax black marked exactly asin dineatus, but the anterior of the two

lateral fascize with a large black spot below. Beneath black marked obscurely

with dark yellow areas.

Lees black, all tibia pulverulent white on flexor surfaces and all femora

pulverulent on same surfaces except for a short distance at the distal

extremities.

Wings hyaline palely amber tinted, especially the hinder ; forewings tipped

with black for about 3mm., pterostigma absent; hindwing with well-formed

elongate pterostigma, covering 3 cells ; 6 antenodal nervures in all wings, 10

postnodals in the hind ; discoidal cell traversed once in all wings.

Abdomen black marked with bright citron yellow laterally, changing to

green or bluish-green on dorsum. Segment 1 with the base narrowly and the

sides broadly black ; segment 2 with a large angulated subdorsal spot on either

side, the black forming a large T-shaped mark on dorsum, base, and sides

where the arms of the T turn back ; segments 3 to 4 very similar but the head

of the T-shaped mark very narrow, as also its lateral prolongations back, and

on the sides of the latter segment, the beginnings of a narrow lateral stripe

apicad ; segment 5 to 7 with subdorsal elongated spots divided, except on seg-

ment 5, by a narrow lateral black stripe; segments 8 to 10 unmarked.

Anal appendages black, similar in structure to those of /zneatus.

(The female has not hitherto been described.)

Female. Abdomen 16mm. Hindwing 25mm.

Head black marked with bright yellow ochre as follows —the labium except

for the tips of lobes ; the labrum except for the base which is narrowly black

and the border which is broadly black, and also a triangular prolongation from

the middle of the basal black which may be confluent with that of the fore-

border. (In very adult specimens, the yellow reduced to two minute points) ; a

pyriform spot on the dorsum of epistome, reduced in adult specimens to a tiny

linear mark. (The aiuterior facet of epistome metallic blue, but more dully so

than in male) ; the bases of mandibles broadly yellow, the basal segments of

antenne, the cheeks, two pairs of spots on frons in front of ocelli, an oval spot

on outer side of each hinder ocellus and similar spots on occiput as in male. (In

very adult specimens, these spots reduced to mere points, and the median

linear spot on hinder border of occiput entirely absent.)

Prothorax black with a linear or top-shaped spot on middorsum of posterior

lobe and a large spot on the sides of mid-lobe.

Thorax black marked very much as in the male but the markings more res-

tricted. ‘The antealar sinus with two small yellow spots, the middorsal carina

very finely, the humeral stripe either absent or represented by a chain of small

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat Hist. Soc. PieATe ul

Two views of the River Cauvery, Coorg-Mysore Frontier; favourite

haunts of Micromerus lineatus indica and Rhinocypha bisignata. Other

species taken here include Mesogomphus lineatus, Macromia cingulata

and indica, Macromidia donaldi, Onychothemis testacea, Zygonyz torrida

| isis. Chloroneura apicalis and quadrimaculata were found here also,

| the former lurking under the bigger trees, the latter perched on bare

rocks in mid-stream.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 689

spots, or a tiny linear upper spot ; the lateral fascize similar or the anterior one

bisected below and completely cut in two at its middle, the upper portion more

or less obsolete. Beneath brownish yellow with the sutures diffusely black.

Legs yellowish, black externally, the hinder pair of femora bright yellow

except at the distal ends.

Wings palely tinted and enfumed, the hinder pair occasionally tipped narrowly

and diffusely with blackish brown ; pterostigma creamy white framed in black

and clouded with black proximad ; discoidal cells traversed once or twice; 7

antenodal nervures to al] wings, 11 to 13 postnodals.

Abdomen black marked with bright citron yellow or greenish yellow as

follows,—the middorsal carina narrowly from segment 2 to 8; segment 1 as for

male, segments 2 to 8 with broad lateral stripes constricted subapicad, markedly

on segments 2 and 3, less so on 4 to 6, tapered apicad on segment 7 and_broad-

ening apicad on segment 8; alarge round spot replacing this stripe on seg-

ment 9, and a smaller spot on segment 10, absent in very adult specimens. A

chain of broad yellow spots on ventrum. Vulvar scale robust, shaped as for

lineatus.

Anal, appendages black, conical, pointed at apices, twice the length of

segment 10.

Distribution. Confined to the montane and submontane districts of Ceylon.

Col. F. Wall took a fine series at Banderawela and Nalande, the former 5,000 ft.,

during October, but it probably has a succession of broods throughout the

monsoons. I took this species in August at Dyatalava, and Col. Wall and Mr.

E. Green at Kandy, 2,000 ft. October-November.

Micromerus greeni, Laid. Spolza Zeylanica, vol. xii, part 47, pp. 352-354

(1924).

Male. Abdomen 14mm. Hindwing 17-19 mm.

Head black marked with bright ochre as follows :— Labium entirely black ;

labrum glossy black, unmarked ; epistome black, its anterior facet bluish-violet

metallic; frons with a single pair of spots, less commonly a second pair of very

minute points posterior to anterior pair; an oval spot on the outer side of each

hinder ocellus, a rounded postocular spot on each side of occiput and a linear

spot along its hinder border, which in some, has a tiny medial point anteriorly ;

the cheeks with a narrow yellow bordering against the eyes.

Prothorax black marked with citron yellow as follows :—a narrow anterior

collar followed Iaterally by asmall spot and then a large medio-lateral subtrian-

gular spot. A large spot on the dorsum of posterior lobe shaped like the ace-

of-clubs, and two smaller spots low down on its sides.

Thorax black marked as for /ineatus but the markings more reduced as

follows,—the humeral stripe present only as a tiny upper linear spot, the antealar

sinus with two small rounded spots, the upper part of the anterior lateral

fascia tapered away above and shaped like a sickle, the second or hinder fascia

framed heavily in black. Beneath black.

Legs black, all tibiae pulverulent white on flexor surfaces, all femora pulveru-

lent creamy yellow on distal halves of flexor surface.

Wings hyaline palely tinted with yellow, the hind palely enfumed, the apices

of forewings tipped with black for about 3 mm. and with a more or less marked

metallic lustre at this part ; the hinder with apices clouded with black at extreme

border. Pterostigma present only in hindwings, covers 3 to 33 cells, black.

Costa proximad to node, and the nervures behind it, bright blood-red, this

colour less marked in the hindwing and darkening proximad. Discoidal cells

with one traversing nervure ; 6 antenodal nervures in all wings, 10 to 12 post-

nodals in hindwings.

Abdomen black marked with bright citron yellow and blood-red as follows, —

segment 1 with an apical ring of citron yellow broadening laterally ; segment 2

with a large subdorsal spot not reaching the basal extremity and constricted

near its apical end, citron yellow ; segment 3 witha broader spot citron yellow

tinged with reddish, extending from base to apex of segment and abruptly

narrowed subapicad and, partially divided by a narrow longitudinal black

stripe running from its apical end ; segments 4 to 10 with the markings blood-

or brick-red, broad paired spots separated by the black dorsal carina, constricted

at the apical end and not quite reaching the apex of segments, thus forming

rather narrow inverted black capital T-like markings on each segment,

Segments 9 and 10 with only a small round apical spot on each side.

6909 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOCIETY, Vol. SOC,

Anal appendages black, rather slenderer than in other species, twice as long

as segment 10.

(The female has not hitherto been described.)

Female. Abdomen 12to13 mm. Hindwing 19 to 20 min.

Head marked very similarly to the male, differs as follows:—Labrum with a

pair of large triangular yellow spots ; epistome with a metallic colouring poorly

developed ; two small linear spots on dorsum of epistome, obsolete in very

adult specimens ; bordering medial spot on occiput absent.

Prothorax black with a narrow linear medial stripe on dorsum of posterior

lobe, a large spot low down on its sides, a large spot on each side of medial

lobe and, rarely, a fine anterior collar.

Thorax black marked exactly as for male, but in very adult specimens,

with the antero-lateral fascia cut in to two spots at its middle.

Legs black, some slight pruinescence on the flexor surface of femora, and

the same surface on anterior pair of tibiae pulverulent creamy white except at

distal ends.

Abdomen black marked with citron yellow, with a greenish tinge on the

anterior segments as follows:—Segment 1 with a lateral quadrate spot ;

segments 2 to 8 with the middorsal carina finely yellow and with lateral

stripes, which are constricted apicad on segments 2 to 5, tappered on 6 and/7,

reduced to a spot on the others or, in very adult speciinens absent on segments

9 and 19, less often on segment 8 and rarely present on segment 10.

Anal appendages and vulvar scale as for /zneatus.

Wings hyaline, not enfumed or tinted ; 5 to 6 antenodal nervures, 10 to 12

postncdals in all wings; discoidal cell traversed once; pterostigma white

framed in black and clouded at its proximal end.

Distribution. Col. F. Wall took a number of these insects at Nalande,

Ceylon, during September and October, whilst Mr. E. Green took specimens at

Haragama, Peradeniva and Kandy from June to December, so that it appears

to have a long season like most species of the genus. It closely resembles JZ.

aurantiacus, but the black markings are more extensive. Easily distinguished

from all other species by its red abdomen, strongly reminescent of the African

Libellagos.

Micromerus aurantiacus, Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), xvii, p. 448 (1859), —Id.

Ibid., (2), xlvii, p. 397 (1879),—Kirby, Cat. Odon., p. 115 (1890) ,—Laid.

Proc. Zool. Soc. Lond., p. 331 Sept. (1920),—Will. Proc. U. S. Nat.

Mus.; vol. xxvili; p.172,’fig. 7 (1904).

Male. Abdomen 12-15mm. Hindwing 15-16 mm.

Head black spotted with citron yellow as follows:—A lateral spot on each

side of epistome, which latter is metallic blue at its anterior extremity ; two

pairs of squarish spots on frons, a rounded spot on the outer side of each hinder

ocellus, a postocular rounded spot on each side of occiput anda linear spot on

its hinder border. In very adult specimens the latter spot and the hinder pair

of the frontal spot absent.

Prothorax black with a small geminate spot on the middorsum of posterior

lobe and a large spot on each side of mid-lobe, yellow.

Thorax black marked with citron yellow as follows,—the middorsal carina

finely, an antehumeral stripe broadening below, a fine humeral stripe incom-

plete below or almost obsolete, two small spots on antealar sinus, and two

broad fascize on the sides of thorax, the anterior of which is bifid below and

narrowed and sickle-shaped above.

Wings hyaline, tinted palely with amber at bases, the forewings tipped with

black for about 3mm. and without pterostigma. Costa reddish immediately

proximad of node ; hindwing with well-formed pterostigma, black, covers 2 to 3

cells ; discoidal cell traversed once in all wings; 5 antenedal nervures, 10

postnodal to. all wings. .

Abdomen bright orange, the articulations narrowly black, as also the ventra

border of segments. Segment 2 with an irregular black apical marking, not

meeting over dorsum but prolonged obliquely forwards on the sides to fuse with

black of ventral border. On segments 3 to 8a pair of minute black dorsal

subapical points; segment 9 with the latero-ventral border extending on to

dorsum especially apicad where it indents the orange ground colour ; segment

10 with its sides and apical border black,

‘TIJ ALV TY

*sATaS ‘vyvudisig vyddz0ulyY yy -

‘AOU “dsqns*nzzput Sn{vaUul] SNAMNUOAILYT i

*SALOS ‘Stunagiust DYgAIOULYM JO VAIV'T

WAAVT ANIOVTIAAI |

°S

cé

‘O14

‘29 "SIFT ‘Feyy Aequiog ‘*uanor

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 691

Anal appendages black, shaped as for green1, twice the length of segmeuit 10.

Inferiors only half the length.

Female unknown.

Distribution. Only a single specimen of this insect has been taken within

India limits, this in Mergui, Lower Burma, a male by Mr. Elton Bott, now in

the Pusa Museum. It is not uncommon however in Malaysia and thence

throughout Southern Asia. Williamson reports it from Trong, Lower Siem,

Martin from Tonkin, Laidlaw from Borneo. The markings of the abdomen are

very reduced in the Burmese example. The Siamese example has the base and

sides of segment 1 black, as also a lateral black stripe on segments 3 to 8,

enclosing a basal spot of the ground colour on segments 3to 5 and incomplete

basad on segments 6to 8. There is also an interrupted black stripe on the sides

of segments 2 to 8 in the type from Singapore. Type in Selysian collection.

LIBELLAGINE. LARVAE.

Only three larve of the Lzbellagine, two Khinocypha and one of Microme-

rus, are known. All three agree in everything except minor details so that we

may say for certain that those of Lzdel/ago are not dissimilar.

Very sluggish in habits and cryptic in colouring, they are difficult creatures to

find. They cling to roots or broken-up debris in slow-running streams or at the

bottoms of pools in swifter running ones. 1 have found the easiest way to take

them is to dredge out a quantity of such debris and spread it on the foreshore of

the stream, exposed to the sun. So soon asit has drained and the creatures

have begun to feel the heat of their new environment, will they begin to stir from

their lethargy, and as a consequence, are at once easily detected.

They possess three spine-like caudal gills, which are undeveloped in the

earlier instars. All appear to have banded limbs and most, some cryptic brown

markings on the head, thorax and abdomen. ‘The mask is deeply fissured, the

edges of the fissure overlapping ; the lateral lobes are cheliform and furnished

with along movable hook. The whole mask is of remarkable length, extending

back, when in repose, to the hinder legs.

The gizzard has numerous folds, usually 16 in number, each bearing a row of

4to5teeth. The antenne long and 8-jointed, the basal one very short, the

penultimate of great length.

Autotomy of the caudal gills isaccomplished with the greatest ease, so that it

is difficult to obtain one with all intact; probably these are more for defence

than for respiratory use, and they certainly carry on quite weil without them.

For details of the respective larve, the reader is referred to Plate III.

(To be continued)

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE

CHARLES McCann,

Asst. Curator, Bombay Natural History Society

Part fh.

(With lwo Plates and 5 text tigures)

The study of plant life, otherwise known as Botany, is very often

believed to be one of those ‘ dry-as-dust’ subjects which hold

no, or little, interest for the average man and one that is best left to

those cynics who find no pleasure in life; in tact, a botanist is very

often considered a ‘ dry-as-dust gentleman. ’

Just as we meet different types of people, so there are also differ-

ent types of botanists for, like other subjects, Botany is divided into

many different branches. First comes the Systematist who splits

the Vegetable Kingdom up into classes, orders and families and

ultimately into genera and species. To this type of Botanist we

owe the scientific names, and without him it would be almost impos-

sible to carry on, as classification and the fixing of the species must

necessarily form the basis for other phases of botanical work. ‘The

Systematist, while he is able to give us the names, may know

little of the functions and life of the plants he has examined ; this

is the department of the Physiologist who endeavours to explain

the functions of various plants and their organs in the light of

researches made by the Systematist. There are then the Specia-

lists who have an exhaustive knowledge of a single group or genus.

Their knowledge is very deep but often narrowed to the limits of

their special subjects. Lastly we may refer to the all-round botanist

who, although his knowledge may not go so deep as that of the

Specialists, in all likelihood gets more pleasure out of the subject

as a whole, and is better able to see the wonder and infinite variety

of the Vegetable Kingdom and to approach its true position in the

general scheme of lifeon our planet. He will have more ample

opportunity of studying plants in their natural environment, noticing

their habits, likes or disiikes and their special peculiarities which

are as infinitely varied as those manifested in animal life.

The Animal Kingdom, including man with all his achievements,

is almost entirely dependent on the Vegetable World for existence.

The existence of plants does not strike us so forcibly as does that

of animals, perhaps on account of the absence of locomotion

(though locomotion zs present in the lower microscopic forms of

plant life} and other activities similar to those of the Animal

World.

LAL STODY OR PLANS LIFE, 693

From the layman’s point of view, one of the drawbacks to the

study of botany in India is perhaps that the majority of books

available require a fore knowledge of the subject before they can be

used to any advantage. It is this drawback that is mainly respon-

sible for the fact that many in search of a hobby set aside botany

as a subject without vital interest.

This and the following articles are being written with a view to

awaken the interest of my readers to the ‘ little world’ within ours

to which we are so deeply indebted, and to lay before them as far

as possible, the Little Book of Nature from the reading of which so

much interest and pleasure may be derived.

THE CYCLE oF PLANT LIFE.

What is this cycle of plant life and how may we study it?

Some regard the Vegetable Kingdom as a dead domain from which

we learn but little ; but in reality it is a very living one from which

an infinite amount of knowledge may be gathered. Each little

plant has its own little story to tell of its place in nature. The

whole of the Animal Kingdom is dependent on plants either direct-

ly or indirectly for its food and to a great extent for the fresh air

which is so necessary for its existence. We could go on indefinitely

forging the links in that wonderful chain knownas the ‘ Economy of

Life’, but this would take us beyond the scope of the present article

and so only brief reference to these links wiil be made. In the course

of our story I will endeavour to cover the cycle of plant life from the

seed to the mature plant and back to the seed, and to reveal the

sequence of the life history.

To commence this cycle and to read the wordless story which

plants tell us every day of our lives, it would perhaps be best to

start from the seed and follow the development of the plant which

springs theretrom to the stage where the seed is returned by the

plant to earth again. The unanswerable question ‘Which came

first the egg or the hen’ ? or in our case, ‘ the seed or the tree ?’

might perhaps arise in the mind of my readers, but as this question

is just a matter of opinion and conjecture, I leave it to the reader to

decide which he would prefer to have first. For my purpose I

propose to start from the seed.

THE SEED.

What is a seed? To put it bluntly, a seed is that apparently

dead object which when given the requisite amount of moisture, deve-

lops and gradualiy begins to show signs of life—it grows! Where

does the life come from ? The so called seeds of plants contain

the germ (life) which after varied periods of rest (for this they

must have) and under favourable conditions spring into life as it

were, develop into new individuals, thus carrying on the growth of

the species—‘ pay the debt to their ancestors ’ as our Hindu friends

would say. The periods of rest vary, as I have said, sometimes

for many years. Barley and Oats (seeds) last over ten years. Seeds

containing oil lose their power of germination very soon because the

oil becomes rancid; in Willows, e.g., already after a few days.

Some seeds germinate in the fruit, i.e., in some Mangroves

694 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI/

(Rhizophora). In the soil some seeds are preserved for one

hundred and fifty years. Heldreich has shown that seeds of Silene

(Campion) have retained their power of germination from 1500-

2000 years.

If we examine a seed carefully either with the unaided eye or

preferably with a hand lens, we shall find that it is composed of (1)

an outer skin, the testa or seed coat: (2) the seed leaf or leaves or

cotyledons, which compose the two halves of a seed (taking a pea

seed for example); (3) the germ or embryo which is carefuily

PLUMULE

/ RADICLE

MICROPYLE

SECTION OF DICOTYLEDONOUS SEED.

packed away and protected by the seed leaves. All plants are not

entirely dependent on this mode of reproduction, but it is the

general one among the flowering plants. It might be mentioned

here that the Vegetable Kingdom is divided into two large classes

(a) the Flowering Plants technically known as the Phanerogams ; (6)

the Non-flowering plants the Cryptogams. The last mentioned

TESTA

; an SS eee = - \

ae Sa SEED -~-LEAF

RADICLE '

PLUMULE

SECTION OF MONOCOTYLEDONOUS SEED.

contain the ferns, mosses, etc. The Flowering Plants are again

divided into two, the Dcotyledons, those possessing two seed leaves,

LILLE SLOLDY OFF PLAN ELE Ee 695

such as peas, beans and most of the large trees; this class possesses

perhaps the largest number of orders; and the Monocotyledons, those

which have only one seed leaf, such as the Orchids, Lilies, Grasses,

etc. Having seen the great divisions into which the plant world

is divided, which is not altogether out of place here, we shall return

to our story.

As I have said, the production of seed is the general rule but

there are some which propagate their species by a process known as

‘budding’. The Pine Apple, for instance, propagates its species by

producing top and lateral buds which themselves develop into new

plants. These buds are fostered by the parent plant till they drop

off and are then able to look after themseives. There are other

plants again which may be grown from parts of the leaves and

cuttings, such as Begonias. ‘The rose is a familiar example of plants

derived from cuttings, as the cultivated roses rarely seed. In some

plants as soon as apart of the stem or branch reaches the soil, it

develops adventitious roots (of which we shall see more when we

consider the roots of plants) and sooner or later severs all connection

with the parent plant to lead an independent life. The violet isa

good example of this.

Ferns have no visible ‘seeds’, but their place is taken by struc-

tures known as ‘spores’ which are developed in special organs

known as sforang7a on the under surface of the leaves or fronds or

have specially composed organs which bear them. The spores may

be easily seen if one examines the underside of the fronds, they form

little brown, black or yellowish masses distributed over the under-

side. In some cases the masses of sporangia are arranged in

definite patterns. Mosses develop little pin-head like organs, known

as capsules, which contain the spores. It will suffice to say that

most of the lower forms of plants bear spores and that there are

various types or spore-bearing structures to be met with amongst

them.

Having studied the different means of reproduction and propa-

gation to be met with in the Vegetable Kingdom, we shall now

consider the development or germination as it is called of a seed

and follow up its growth step by step until we reach it again at the

top of the tree. Let us suppose that our seed has reached a favour-

able locality and has received a sufficient supply of moisture. If we

watch it closely it will be noticed that it gradually begins to swell

up—the first signs of growth in cases of seeds with a thin seed coat

—till it bursts. The thin testa or seed coat which has up to now

enveloped the cotyledon (seed leaves) casket enclosing the embryo

can no longer contain the growing embryo, so it naturally splits at a

particular spot (of this spot we shall see more later on). The first

evidence of the plant which is emerging from the seed is a tiny white

conical structure—the first root, from which the elaborate root

system will be developed in the future. It immediately begins to

take a downward curve irrespective of the position of the seed before

or after germination. One may prove this by a simple experiment

with a few beans which have been kept in water overnight or until

they germinate. Should the reader however wish to pursue the

experiment further, all he need do is to get an empty cigar box

696 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

and remove one side and substitute a piece of glass sloping from

the top inwards (fig. 1). Fill the box with damp saw dust and place

a few of the beans in it near the top of the glass in different positions.

Through this glass screen the reader will be able to see the root

system as it develops from the germinating seeds, to observe what

are known as the root hairs (the functions of which I will explain

presently) and also how the roots invariably take a directly downward

direction irrespective of the position of their point of emergence

from the seed. The tendency of growing vertically downwards is

known as Geotropism, 1.€., growing towards the centre of the earth.

In many instances soon after the root has appeared and attached

itself to the substratum, the seed lifts itseif above the surface of

the soil, casts the testa and unfolds the two halves of which the seed

was composed, i.e., the seed leaves or cotyledons. Between them

will be seen a minute pair or more of other leaves, beautifully

folded, which will develop in course of time. In some cases the

seed-leaves remain thick and fleshy, while in others they expand and

take the form and colour of ordinary leaves, though generally very

different in shape to the leaves that follow. When they first appear

above the surface of the soilthey are white but as aresult of the action

of light they become green. The cause of this will be explained

when we take up the subject of the leaves. Seed-leaves are heavily

charged with reserve food for the young plant and act in the same

way as the yolk of an egg. After the leaves have appeared and

taken on the duties of supplying part of the necessary food, the seed-

leaves shrivel up and fade away, their duties being ended. The

vegetative part or shoot always grows upwards or towards the

source of light. This tendency which is just the opposite to that of

the root, for roots grow away from light, is known as Heliotropism,

i.e., growing towards the light or sun. A very simple experiment

will prove this :—Place a few developed seedlings in an absolutely

dark box with a small hole bored somewhere low down on one side

to let in light. After a day or two open the box and examine the

seedlings and it will be noticed that the plants have changed their

direction of growth from the upright towards the source of

ligt; ion .23

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 697

As breathing is common to all living things when in an active

state (for breathing is almost at a standstill during hibernation),

it might be asked, do seeds |

breathe? The answer is not

diffcult—though in the case

of the seed it may not be

considered as breathing in

the strict sense of the word.

Breathing as is generally

understood is an interchange

of gases, usually through

organs specially adapted for

the purpose. Animals give

off carbon dioxide (Co,) and

inhale oxygen by day as well

as by night, plants on the

other hand, while they follow

the same process by night,

reverse it by day breathing

in carbon dioxide and exhal-

ing oxygen. Seeds give off Fic. 2.

Co, especially at the time of

germination. There isa tiny aperture at one end of the seed, known

as the micropyle through which this breathing, soto speak is carried

on. Itis here that the radicle or first root breaks through the testa.

The prompt extinguishing of a lighted taper inserted into a

bottle in which germinating seeds have been enclused, indicates

that the seeds have exhausted or breathed in the oxygen contained

in the bottle. Similarly the heat, the oppressiveness ard the

tendency to suffocation on entering a closed room in which grain is

stored is due to the breathing of the seed and the accumulation of

gases in the room.

The seeds of Monocotyledons, as has been said before, possess

only one seed-leaf and this does not as a rule appear above the sur-

face of the soil but nourishes the young plant from where it lies.

Now that we have seen the chief parts of whicha seed is compos-

ed, viz.: the testa, the seed-leaves and the germ or embryo, and

superficially studied its development, we shall proceed to follow up

its growth from the root and gradually climb up the tree till we

return to itand complete the cycle. The development of the lower

types of plants from the spores, we shall consider in a future

article.

Tam AINKoOon.

To go on with our story, we commence by carefully examining

the first root or radicle which, as I have already indicated, shows

itself first and appears as a white or creamy thread-like process

which descends into the earth. On appearance it is smooth but it

soon develops fine hair-like structures known as the voot-hairs. Root-

hairs do not grow all over the root, but are confined to the growing

end. As the root elongates the upper hairs are lost and are re-

placed by new ones near the growing tip. From the radicle

698 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

the great root systems of large trees are developed. As the root

branches in various directions, the growing extremities of each branch

are also clothed with root-hairs. The older parts of the roots become

darker in colour and

thicker in proportion,

assuming acorky cover-

ing to protect them. It

LEAVES may be asked, what are

; the root-hairs and what

useful purpose do they

serve ? Root-hairs are

unicellular prolongations

which are very essential

STEM to the life of every plant:

they are the ‘ procura-

tors,’ as it were, of a

great quantity of the

SEED-LEAF mineral food and

moisture thatis neces-

Sary to the plant. They

go into the microscopic

crevices between’ the

ROOT particles of soil and take

up the available moisture

and the particular salts

in solution in the soil

that are necessary to

RCOOT-HAIRS their growth. They do

not! sabsorb = Salleesthe

mineral salts which are

present inthe soil, but

A SEEDLING OF A BEAN SHOWING THE PARTS HENS ake Pe oO Sele:

Ge ears acc tion. An acid secretion

which exudes from the.

root-hairs is powerful enough to dissolve such salts as are not

soluble in water and to absorb them. At the same time this acid

secretion also helps the roots to push their way through hard soil

and even rock by disintegrating it, though: as arule the roots foliow

the line of least resistance.

The root tip which is the growing part is very delicate and tender

and is covered by a special structure the Roof-cap which protects the

growing end onits way through the soil. The root-cap consists of

layers of celis which are thickened to form this protecting cover.

As the outer layers of this root-cap are destroyed, new layers are

being formed on the inside. This root-cap is best displayed by the

Palms and especiaily in the case of the roots of the Screw-pine or

Pandanus which is fairly common along our shores, from the flower

of which the Keora scent is extracted. The part of the root which

is protected by the root-cap is devoid of root hairs. The region

which is covered by root-hairs is known as the ‘ root-hair region.’

As I have said before the root-hairs secrete an acid. Ifa piece of

polished marble was placed at the bottom of a box in which some

THE STODY (OF PLANT: LIFE . 699

beans were allowed to germinate in a covering layer of saw dust, it

will be seen after a suitable lapse of time that the growing roots on

encountering the resistance of the marble in the downwaid course

have not only spread all over its surface but have left as a result of

the acids given out by them, a distinct impression of their outline

upon its polished surface.

Not the whole of the root is capable of elongation but the growing

part is restricted to about j;th of an inch from the tip. Theroot tip

is sensitive to various stimuli and will react accordingly. Water is

the chief attraction and roots may go many yards to obtain it. When

water is deep below the surface of the soil, roots will go down deep

but when it is near the surtace they spread out near the -surface.

The root systems in plants vary according to the amount of mois-

ture required and are very often governed by the position of the

leaves. In some plants the leaves are so arranged that when the

rain water or dew falls on them it is directed towards the stem ard

thence to the roots. In such cases the root system is restricted toa

very small area and very often consists of only a taproot or main

root. Good examples of these plants are Cannas, Lilies, etc., which

require a good supply of water at their particular seasons. In others

the branches are spread out and the moisture falls to the ground

from the tips of the leaves; the moisture is thus spread over a

greater area. Naturally the root system of these plants is in pro-

portion tothe crown. Most of the large trees are good examples of

this type of root system.

We have examined the root hairs and root cap; let us now have

a glance at the older portions of the root which were left behind by

the growing ends and have had time to enlarge. These parts have

long since lost their root hairs and thus no longer have the power

of absorption. Nevertheless they still continue to grow but not in

length. At first they become discoloured and put on an outer layer

of protective armour—cork—which is secreted by the outer cells and

which gradually bscomes thickerin order to protect the internal

‘channels’ which convey the sap* from the root hairs throughthe stem

to the leaves. They also increase in girth and become more and more

rigid to be able to support the tree. What purpose do roots serve?

Besides being the ducts through which the soluble food and moisture

is passed on to the stem and leaves they serve the purpose of ancho-

rage—of keeping the tree upright and preventing itfrom being blown

down by winds and storms to which it will be subject in the future.

These are the two main functions of the root, but they are not all.

They are also used as ‘ store-houses’ for surplus food and moisture

which is accumulated during a favourable season and enables the

plant to endure through the long periods of draught or to serve it

through its periods of rest—that is to say that they come up during

One season, flower, fruit and accumulate reserve material and then

die down again to the surface, of the ground only to reappear next

season. Accordingiy plants are classifed into different groups.

Plants which develop very rapidly during a favourable season from

seed and die down completely after producing seed are known as

1 The word ‘sap ’ is used here in its generally accepted meaning.

700 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

Annuals—living but one season. Plants whose life is prolonged be-

yond a single year or over an indefinite number of years are called

Perennials. We know now that roots perform the chief functions, (1)

of procurators of food, (2) of anchorage, (3) of store-houses and

reservoirs. <A brief survey of different types of roots to be met

with and the varied shapes they assume according to the require-

ments of a particular species, will not be out of place here.

Among plants belonging to the Dicotyledons, the radicle or tap

root grows and gives off branches and these branch again in turn;

with the Monocotyledons, on the other hand, the radicle is short-

lived. Roots that appear from other parts of tne plant and are known

as adventitious roots. These are slender and thread like and are

spoken of as fzbrvous roots.

We find this type of root most common among all the Monocoty-

ledons, such as Grasses, Lilies, etc. Adventitious roots are also to

be met with among the Dicotyledons of which the Banyan (/icus

bengalensis) and others are good instances.

As we have seen, roots may act as a store-house and in conse-

quence assume enormous proportions and various shapes. ‘Thus we

have roots whose names are descriptive of their shape. The Carrot

is a good example of a conical root serving the purpose of storage,

the Beet assumes a spindle shape, while the NKRaddish is either

conical or globulur. Dahlias have swollen or tuberous roots. These

are a few examples among many which might be indicated here.

All these queer shapes originate from fibrous roots. Care must be

exercised however not to confound tuberous roots with a tuber, for

example the common potato, which is a fleshy underground stem

ana MOt a Tootat all.

An iodine test will show that such roots contain a high percentage

of starch, as iodine stains starch a bluish-purple. Beet contains

cane-sugar, while the roots of the Dahlia containinulin. The value

of these roots to the Animal Kingdom and man in particular is

readily apparent. .

As a protection against the depredations of field-mice, insect

larve and other underground animals, many food-storing roots

develop poisonous and nasty substances in their tissues, in the way

of noxious alkaloids, foetid gum, resins and other products well

known to druggists; it has been observed that such roots are very

seldom attacked.

Frequently plants produce more than one type of root, serving

different purposes, some being fibrous, absorbing roots, others

swollen and charged with reserve food. Some roots after greatly

elongating, contract and pull the stem lower down into the soil, such

as the Lilies and other familiar plants which have no apparent

stem but grow with their leaves in rosettes adpressed to the

ground.

Roots often go to avery great depth into the soil, much deeper

than people imagine, especially in hard and dry subsoil, in the quest

for water. Evenin rich garden soil the roots of wheat have been

traced to a perpendicular depth of five or six feet. This is however

trifling when compared with the depth to which the tap-root of a

Baobab-tree (Adansonia digitata) descends. Anderson in his account

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ce 2

DIFFERENT TYPES OF ROOTS

Testicular root. 6.

Napiform root. he

Nodulose root. or

Moniliform root. oh

Globular root. 10.

Fibrous roots.

Tuberous facicular root.

Thickened Tap-root.

Annulated roots.

Fusiform root.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ANOTHER TYPE OF ADVENTITIOUS Root.

THE

‘Screw PINE’ (Pandanus Sp.)

THE STUDY OF PLANT LIFE 701

of Senegal, records the root of one of these trees to have reached a

depth of one hundred and ten feet.

Then there are what are known as aerial roots. These are

exemplified by most of the epzphytic orchids, i.e., growing on trees

but not obtaining their nourishment from them. There are other

plants which have aerial roots such as the Banyan, already referred

to and also the Pandanus, but these answer mainly the purpose of

support.

The roots of many orchids are feed/ng aerial roots. They are

modified for absorption of nutriment from the surrounding atmos-

phere ; in some cases the orchids have no leaves, the roots obtaining

for the plant all that is requisite for its nourishment and support.

The roots hang downwards like white-threads or cords, the whiteness

being due to a papery membrane which covers the green chlorophyll-

containing cells of the true root. The envelope consists of

perforated cells and acts like a sponge. When they come into

contact with water they absorb it immediately until they fil out.

The inner living green cells are thus surrounded by a fluid envelope

and are able to obtain from it as much moisture as they need.

Besides, this sponge tissue has the power of condensing aqueous

vapours and other gases, so that the plant is entirely indepencent

of its host for nourishment. Trees growing in marshy ground also

send up aerial roots in order to obtain oxygen which is absent in the

water-logged soil. Familiar examples ot these roots are to be met

with in the different species of mangroves which are so common

along the marshy shores of the Islands of Bombay and Salsette.

Some large trees develop large root-expansions as additional]

supports and these are known as duttvess roots. These roots stand

out like great wings round the base of the tree and their develop-

ment is so enormous at times that a man standing between two of

these buttresses would be effectively screened.

The roots of some aquatic plants dangle in the water from which

they derive their nourishment, while others contain large air-spaces

which aid the plant to float.

Roots possess one almost constant character and that is, that they

produce members like themselves, i.e. root-branches, while the

stems produce dissimilar members—leaves. However, it frequently

occurs that roots giverise to leafy shoots—at times a boon to garden-

ers and at others acurse, especially in the case of weeds. It often

happens that the seemingly complete eradication of weeds in a

garden is followed after a few days by fresh outcrops and the area

that was apparently cleared is covered with weeds again much to

the disgust of the gardener. The reason for this is that part of the

roots were left behind in the soil and having the power to send up

shoots have covered the ground once more. ‘These shoots are

known as adventitious shoots or suckers.

There still remains one type of root, i.e., the roots of parasitic

planis. These plants are entirely dependent on their host for their

nourishment and send their roots into the food-canals of the branches

or roots of their host and suck them dry. A good example of this

is the Loranthus, a near relative of the Mistletoe (Viscum album )

which is commonly to be seen in great clusters on mango trees

702 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATORAL HIST, SOGIETV. Vali2eods

and others. This plant supplies us with an extremely interest-

ing example of the motility of young roots. The fruit contains

birdlime—-a peculiar viscous, tenacious and elastic substance—and

when the berry falls away it adheres to whatever it falls upon. The

seed is embedded in the viscid pulp and germinates commencing in

the following way. ‘ The radicle, ’ says Mr. N. 5. Brown, “at first

grows out, and when it has grown to about an inch in length, it

develops upon its extremity a flattened disc; the radicle then curves

about until the disc is applied to any object that is near at hand.

If the spot to which the disclias fastened is suitable, the germination

continues and no locomotion takes place ; but if the spot should not

be a favourable one, the germinating embryo has the power of

changing its position. This is accomplished by the adhesive

radicie raising the seed and advancing it to another spot, or to make

the purpose plainer, the disc at the end of the radicle adheres very

tightly to whatever it is applied to; the radicle itself straightens

and tears away the viscid berry from whatever it has adhered to and

raises it inthe air. ‘The radicle then again curves and the berry is

carried by it to another spot, where it adheres again. This disc

then releases itself, and by the curving about of the radicle is

advanced to another spot, where it again fixes itself. This,

Dr. Watt says, has been repeated several times, so that to a certain

extent the young embryo, still within the seed, moves about. It

seems to select certain places in preference to others, particularly

leaves. The berries on falling are almost certain to alight upon

leaves, and although many germinate there : they have been observed

to move from the leaves to the stem, and finally fasten there.

(Gardener’s Chronicle, 1881).

It might have been better perhaps if we had considered the sap

of plants at an earlier stage, but before we leave the roots we must

elaborate a little more on their functions as procurators of part of

the food of plants. Sap is the fluid which the roots absorb from the

soil or the leaves from the air and which contains in solution the true

nutritive principles. Water is the main substance of the sap. It has

been estimated that for every two hundred grains of water absorbed

and exhaled by a plant only one grain of inorganic matter has been

taken up and for every 2000 grains of water consumed one grain of

inorganic substance has been appropriated. Young and growing

parts of plants are well supplied with sap which fills up every avail-

able space in the plant-tissues which is not already occupied by

other substances. It is conveyed into the plant by the root hairs,

and does not undergo any marked change till it reaches the leaves.

Sap may be acid or sweet, clear or turbid, nutritious or otherwise so

that its value from an economic point of view is considerable. The

acid taste of most unripe fruit is due to the sap. Citric acid, the

most common form is found in the juice of lemons, oranges and

many of the commonest fruits, and it often exists together with other

acids, such as malic acid in the gooseberry, currant and several others.

The latter acid is found alone in apples and pears. It is due to the

action of these acids that knives are stained when used on various

fruit. Itis perhaps due to the presence of these acids that young

fruit are protected from the attacks of birds and animals which feed

LAE SLTODY OF LELAND LLRE 703

on the ripe fruit which is one of the factors in seed dispersal. Birds

and animals which eat the ripe fruit containing the fully developed

seeds often pass them out in their excreta sometimes miles from the

place where they were eaten. The seeds are usually undigested

and thus help nature in the dispersal of seed and the propagation of

the species in other localities.

In some cases the acid juices of plants destroy or deadenone’s sense

of taste if masticated, and this state may often last for hours accord-

ing to the quantity eaten. In some cases sugar tastes like sand in

the mouth after taking some of these plant acids by chewing the

leaves, flowers or seeds. A sweet orange under the same conditions

will taste sour ; the citric acid alone remains distinguishable ; sweet

and bitter tastes being destroyed. After a good dose of the leaf of

a tropical Asclepiad known as Gymanema sylvestre, quinine tastes like

chalk.

The sweetness of the sap of the Beet-root is due to the presence

of canose or cane-sugar dissolved init. It was first discovered by a

Prussian chemist named Margraff (about 1747), butit was not till

1809 when Napoleon forbade the importation of cane-sugar into

France from the West Indies, that the discovery was turned to prac-

tical account. An Imperial sugar factory was then established at

Rambouillet ; pupils were instructed in the process, premiums were

offered for the best samples of the sweetener, and in the course ofa

few years the manufacture of beet-sugar was prosperously set on

foot.

Cane-sugar is abundantly found in sugar-cane and the sugar-

maple. Itis also found in the nectaries or honey-secreting glands of

flowers where it furnishes the substance from which the bees gather

their honey.

It is secreted by the nectaries and the quantity is at its fullest

during the emission of the pollen but stops soon after fertilization of

the flower.

A careful distinction must be made between cane-sugar and

grape-sugar or glucose. These are differently produced by the

plant and when treated with the reagent known as Fehling’s solution

react differently—glucose gives a bulky yellow deposit which canose

does not.

Besides these juices there are the milky ones exuded by many

plants especially the milkworts (Euphorbias). These milky juices

are known as latex. Strange though it may seem, this milky juice

is clear while in the uninjured tissues but instantly becomes turbid

on exposure to the air. The colour of latex is generally white, but

yeilow, red and in rare. cases blue milk-saps are met with. The

microscope shows that it consists of a colourless fluid in which float

myriads of minute globules which give the sap its opaque appear-

ance. The common Euphorbia (often erroneously called Cactus)

frequently used as a hedging, is a good example of this type of

plant. India rubber which is obtained from a tropical American

tree (Hevea brasiliensis) and other trees, and opium from the opium

Poppy (Papaver somniterum) are dried juices of such plants.

(To be continued. )

NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FISHES FROM CEYLON

HENRY W. FOWLER

OF THE ACADEMY OF NATURAL SCIENCES OF PHILADELPHIA

(With 2 Plates)

The collection reported below was purchased by the Academy of Natural

Sciences of Philadelphia in 1924 fron Dr. F. Hallberg, of Géteborg, Sweden.

All were obtained at Colombo. Several of the species are of special interest

and one appears to be new to science.

ENGRAULIDZ®

Engraulis commersontit (Lacépéde)

Depth 42 ; head 4, width 24. Snout 43 in head ; eye 3$, covered with adipose

membrane, greater than snout or interurbital ; maxillary reaches gill opening,

x in head; row of fine teeth on each maxillary and narrow bands on vomer

and palatines ; interorbital 4, slightly convex. Gill rakers 19+ 21, lanceolate,

greater than gill filaments or 1? in eye. Scales very caducous, mostly fallen,

33 (pockets) in lateral series from shoulder to caudal base, 9 transversely, 21?

predorsal : vertical strize 7 ; pectoral axillary scale 3 of fin, ventral scale § ; no

abdominal scutes ; venulose area at shoulder moderate. Dorsal 111, I, I insert-

ed little nearer caudal base than front eye edge, third simple ray 12 in head ;

Analtti, 17, I, inserted opposite last 2 in length of depressed dorsai, first

branched ray 1,%; caudal 32 1n combined head and body, forked; least depth

of caudal peduncle half its length or 2g in head; pectoral 14; ventral 2.

Largely pale brown. Faint silvery lateral band, less than eye in width, widest

on caudal peduncle. Iris pale slate. Dorsal and caudal gray, other fins

whitish.

One 110 tam

TACHYVSURIDZ

Hemipimelodus dussumtert (Valenciennes).

Depth 53; head4, width 1g. Snout 34 in head ; eye 4, 1} in snout, 1% in inter-

orbital ; mouth width 2,, in head ; band of villiform teeth in each jaw, palate

and tongue edentulous; maxillary barbel reaches # in pectoral spine, outer

mental 4 in pectoral spine, inner mental barbel not quite to pectoral spine ;

internasal space slightly less than interorbital, nostrils large, front one close to

edge of snout and posterior about midway in snout as seen in profile; inter-

orbital 22 in head, slightly convex ; occipital fontanel broad, reaches tu base of

occipital bony plate, which about over gill opening; occipital buckler with

median ridge, wide as long, long as snout. Gill opening with slight median

notch, free from isthmus. Dorsal I, 6, spine adipose like for greater portion

terminally, equals head ; adipose fin large, slightly over half of head length ;

Anal vy, II, first branched ray 12; caudal 1, forked; least depth of caudal

peduncle 2z in its iength or 3; in head; pectoral 1%, spine slightly over half

length of fin; ventral]. Back and head above pale gray brown, beiow

whitish. Snout, occipital fontanel and under surface of head whitish. Iris

leaden gray. Barbels dusky, pale basally. Fins all pale or whitish, upper

front edge of spinous dorsal or dorsal spine dusky. Caudal with gray terinin-

ally.

One 47mm. Evidently the young of this species, which changes considera-

bly in proportions with age.

NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FISHES FROM CEYLON 705

HEMIRAMPHIDZ

Hemiramphus neglectus Bleeker

Depth 83 from upper jaw tip, body subcylindrical ; head 42, width3. Snout

2 in rest of head, free portion little broader than long, width in snout to eye 14;

eye 3in head from snout tip, 1; in snout, slightly greater than interorbital ;

mouth cleft 2 to eye, lower jaw before snout tip 4 to caudal base ; maxillary # to

eye, vertical expansion slightly less than pupii, length 3? in head from upper

jaw tip ; interorbital 33, slightly depressed ; postorbital 2 of eye. Gill rakers

9-+ 19, lanceolate, equal gill filaments or 3 in eye. Scales 47 from above gill

opening to caudal base and 3? more on latter, predorsal 40 ?; all little adherent,

most having fallen ; basal radiating striz 3, circulimoderately small. Dorsalt,

13, first branched ray 24 in head from snout tip; Anal1, 13, first branched ray

3; caudal I, moderately forked or emarginate, lower lobe longer; least depth

of caudal peduncle 14 its length or 44 in head ; pectoral 14 ; ventral 2}, inserted

little nearer head than caudal base. Faded pale brownish, largely uniform.

Predorsal with 3 median close set parallel dusky lines. Narrow dusky band

from over gill opening to caudal base, nearly wide as pupil on tail aboveanal,

its lower edge with darker bordering line. Snout above and occiput with close

set dusky to blackish dots. Beak blackish-brown, continued back along each

side of mandible as blackish brown streak nearly to eye. Iris slaty. Fins all

pale. Dorsal and anal tinted with gray brown.

One 135mm. Also one for comparison from Padang, Sumatra, 136mm. It

differs in Depth 83; head 41; snout 23; eye 3, ; interorbital 4; gill rakers

6-+11; Dorsal 11, 13; Anal 1, 15.

Certainly very close to Hemiramphus unifasciatus (Ranzani) from the

Tropical Atlantic. Comparison with examples of this latter from Porto Rico

shows the American form with a shorter preorbital, which also a little wider

than long.

Zenarchopterus dispar (Valenciennes)

Depth 74 from upper jaw tip, body slightly compressed ; head 3g, width 2%.

Snout 1,% in rest of head, free upper portion broader than long, width in snout

to eye 12; eye 4 in head from snout tip, 13 in snout, 1§ in interorbital ; mouth

cleft 2 to eye, lower jaw before snout tip 23 to caudal base; maxillary largely

concealed, # to eye, nearly vertical, expansion ? of pupil, length 3 in head from

snout tip; interorbital 3, level. Gill rakers 6-+ 12, lanceolate, long as gill

filaments or 32 in eye. Scales 42 in lateral series from above gill opening to

caudal base and 3 more on latter, 4 above lateral line, 2 below, 38 predorsal ;

few basal scales at front of anal; 5 or 6 basal radiating strie marginally and

circuli fine. Dorsal 12, first ray 3} in head from upper jaw tip; anal I, 8,

first branched ray 2}; caudal 13, truncate; least depth of caudal peduncle 1§

in its length or 4 in head from snout tip; pectoral 12 ; ventral 33. Back brown,

with median dusky line on predorsal. Underlaid gray brown line from

shoulder to caudal, greatest width about 2 of pupil along side of tail. Beak

blackish. Snout dusky. Iris slate. Vertical fins grayish, more or less dusky

terminally. Paired fins pale.

One 150 mm.

Cypselurus hallbergi, new species

y. s

(Plate 1)

Depth 57; head 44, width 12. Snout 34 in head from snout tip; eye 33,

with free lids, 1} in interorbital ; maxillary concealed, # to eye, equals snout ;

teeth minute, sparse, form slight band in each jaw, none on palate or tongue ;

interorbital 2; in head, very slightly concave. Gill rakers 7 + 21, lanceolate,

equals gill filaments or 1$ in eye. Scales slightlv adherent, rather well

exposed ; 47 between gill opening above and caudal base and 3 more on

latter ; 8 above lateral line, 3 below to anal origin ; predorsal 30, extending

forward little before nostril; 5 or 6 basal radiating stria, edge lobate and

circuli finely concentric. Lateral line not reaching caudal or not extending

beyond tip of last anal ray ; tubes slender, simple. Dorsal1, II, 1, first ray

4 in total head length; Anal 1, 9, I, first branched ray 3%, fin inserted

opposite base of second branched dorsal ray ; caudal widely forked, upper

lobe 13 in that of lower which 34 in combined head and body ; least depth of

706 JOURNAL; BOMBAY NATORAL AIST. SOGIETY, Vol Xed7

caudal peduncle 12 or 3 in head ; pectoral not quite reaching caudal base, 13

in combined head and body, rays Iv, 13; ventral I, 5, spine nearly third of fin

which reaches back far as pectoral (right fin shorter), length 2¢ in combined

head and body, its insertion midway between hind eye edge and caudal base.

Back deep brown, lower sides and under surface whitish. Iris slate. Lower

jaw pale. Dorsal and caudal pale brown. Anal whitish. Pectoral neutral

brown medially, terminally dusky, pale basally and lower basal margin

whitish. Ventral neutral brown medially and terminally, with broad inner

whitish border, base and spine also pale.

One example, the type, 195 mm. (lower caudal tip damaged so estimated

at 207 mm.). Differs from all the species of the genus I have examined in the

increased rudimentary or simple rays in the pectoral and also in the increased

gill rakers. Apparently resembles Cypselurus simus (Valenciennes), but

unlike any I have seen in the above respects. It is also suggestive or

Cypselurus oxycephalus (Bleeker), but that species falls within the subgenus

Exonautes as the anal origin is opposite that of the dorsal.

I take pleasure in dedicating this species to Dr. F. Hallberg who collected

the type.

ANABANTIDZ

Anabas testudineus (Bloch)

One 70mm. Small dark spot on opercular flap, less than pupil. Caudal

base with small vertical brown bar.

ATHERINIDZ

Atherina duodecimalis, Valenciennes

(Plate I)

Depth 5%; head 3%, width 1$. Snout 3% in head from snout tip; eye 23,

greater than snout or interorbital ; maxillary reaches first fifth in eye, 23 in

head ; teeth small, conic, in bands in jaws, on vomer and palatines ; mandi-

bular rami moderately elevated inside mouth ; interorbital broadly concave,

2} in head. Gill rakers 5 + 21, lanceolate, slender, 23 in eye. Scales 38 from

above gill opening to caudal base and 4 more on latter, 7 transversely, 16

predorsal, 5 behind depressed spinous dorsal ; single row of scales on cheek ;

large scale below pectoral base nearly large as eye; scales with 3 basal

marginal points and 30 basal, vertical, parallel strie, apical region smooth

and with 18 small inconspicuous marginal lobes. Dorsal V—i, 10, 1, second

spine 2; in total head length, first branched ray 12 and spine of soft fin short

or 4 of first ray ; spinous dorsal origin midway between eye center and caudal

base; anal base about equals its distance from caudal; Anal I, 12, first

branched ray 12 and spine fits length; caudal equals head, well forked,

lower lobe little longer; least depth of caudal peduncle 33; pectoral 1¢;

ventral 1{. Uniformly pale brownish, with more or less whitish or silvery.

Top of head, end of mandible and snout dusted with dusky brown. Patch

of dusky dots on middle of opercle. Each scale of back above with submiargi-

nal are of dusky brown dots. Narrow band of dusky dots along scales at

base of anal. Gray band from pectoral axil to caudai base medially, little

less in width than pupil at greatest expansion which opposite soft dorsal

and anal. Fins all pale, with arc of dusky dots at pectoral base.

One 70 mm. Interest attaches to this specimen as the species was originally

described from Ceylon and that it does not appear to have been obtained there

since. ‘The type is very briefly described with Dorsal V—I, 9 and Anal I, 12, its

length 76 mm. Bleeker’s materials, as given by Weber and Beaufort are

apparently the same. It is nota Hepsetza, however, as catalogued by Jordan

and Hubbs. No previous writer has yet described it completely and as it has

not been figured the accompanying drawing is offered. The large infrapectoral

scale, the position of the vent at the first 2 of the ventral fins and black in color,

will serve to distinguish it from allied species as Atherina forskali, Riippell and

Atherina lacunosa, Schneider. Ogilby has indicated a large infrapectoral

scale for the last named, .

PLATE |

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Journ.,

Cypselurus hallbergi, New Species.

Henry W. Fowler del.

PLATE II.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Valenciennes.

Atherina duodecimalits,

Henry W. Fowler del.

NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FISHES FROM CEYLON 107

MUGILIDA

Mugil longimanus, Gunther

Depth 32; head 33, width 13. Snout 4; eye 3%, greater than snout, 1¢ in

interorbital ; maxillary concealed, reaches eye, 33 in head; mandibular angle

forms broadly obtuse; lower preorbital edge finely serrate. Scales 31 from

above gill opening to caudal base, 12 transversely at soft dorsal, 25 predorsal, 5

behind depressed spinous dorsal; soft dorsal and anal covered with fine scales ;

axillary pectoral scale 3 of fin; scales with 6 or 7 basal radiating strie, no

apical points. Dorsa! VI—I, 8, I, first spine 1} in head, first branched ray lf ;

Anal Ill, 9, 1, first branched ray 12 with third spine 2 its length ; caudal lI,

deeply emarginate; caudal peduncle depth 23 ; pectoral 1;4,, reaches little beyond

dorsal origin ; ventral 13. Gray brown above, silvery white below. Dorsals,

caudal and pectorals with gray brown, last with small diffuse dusky spot at

origin. Hind caudal edge dusky. Lower fins whitish. Iris slaty.

One 91 mm.

CARANGIDA

Caranx tgnobilis (Forskal)

Depth 22; head 2,%, width 24. Snout 32 in head from snout tip; eye 374,

with narrow adipose lid behind, subequal with snout or interorbita] ; maxillary

reaches eye center, length 24 in head; interorbital 4, convex. Gill rakers

§ + 15, lanceolate. Scales 43 + 31, arch 12 in straight section of lateral line,

14 above, 22 below, scute depth 1¢ in eye; breast naked below to ventral,

except small patch of small scales posteromedially. Dorsal I, VIli, I, 19, 1,

third spine 22 in total head length, first branched ray 2, ; Anal fl—I, 16,

I, second spine 1} in eye, first branched ray 24, in head; caudal 13,

strongly forked; least depth of caudal peduncle 1#; pectoral 1,, reaches

fourth scute of lateral line; ventral 22. Back brownish, below silvery white.

Iris slate. Spinous dorsal dusted dusky. Soft dorsal and caudal with pale

brownish, other fins whitish.

One 94 mm.

Caranx sexfasciatus. (Quoy and Gaimard)

Depth 23 ; head 3, width 2g. Snout 33 in head from snout tip ; eye 4, adipose

lid covers last sixth of eye, subequal with snout or interorbital; maxillary

reaches opposite eye center, expansion l?in eye, length 2,4, in head ; row of

short conic teeth in each jaw and narrow inner band with same, also narrow

bands of very small teeth on vomer and palatines and tongue ; interorbital 4,

convexly elevated; preopercle flange with radiating and marginal venules.

Gill rakers 7+15, lanceolate. Scales 43-++-31, arch 12 in straight section of

lateral line ; scute depth 1§ in eye; breast densely scaled. Dorsal I, Vili, I, 20,

1, fourth spine 23 in total head length, first branched ray 1,9, ; Anal H—I, 16, 1,

second spine 5}, first branched ray 234, ; caudal 1}, strongly forked ; least depth

of caudal peduncle 6g; pectoral 1,4, reaches fourth scute of lateral line ;

ventral 2}. Back brown, below whitish. Back and sides with 6 or 7 broad

obscure darker vertical bands, broader than interspaces. Iris slate. End of

mandible brownish. Spinous dorsal neutral dusky. Soft dorsal and caudal

with pale dusky marginally, otherwise pale or whitish like other fins.

One 105 mm.

LEIOGNATHID

Letognathus splendens (Cuvier)

Three 41to 51mm. These agree with Day’s figure, though as they are

young the back is with Jarge diffuse dull brown blotches. Black blotch inclu-

ding 3 highest membranes of spinous dorsal terminally greatly contrasted. All

show a neutral dusky basal line along dorsals. Lower half of body sprinkled

with dusky or blackish dots. Iris slate.

708 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII

CHEILODIPTERIDZ

Amia endeketenia (Bleeker)

Depth 3; head 3, width 25. Snout 4 in head from snout tip; eye 3}, greater

than snout or interorbital ; maxillary reaches opposite eye center, expansion

4 in eye, length 24 in head; bands of minute teeth in jaws, on vomer and

palatines ; interorbital 4¢ in head, nearly level; preopercle ridge entire, edge

finely serrate. Gill rakers 5 -+ 15, lanceolate, 24 in eye. Scales 21 in lateral

line to caudal base and 2 more on latter, 2 above, 6 below, 6 predorsal to

occiput, 2 rows on cheek ; 10 to 13 basal radiating striz, apical denticles 30 to

32, weak, small, in 3 transverse series and circuli moderate, Dorsal VI — I, 9,

second spine 1# in total head length, first ray 1§ with spine of soft dorsal 13

in first ray ; Anal II, 8, second spine 2%, first ray 12; caudal 14, forked; least

depth of caudal peduncle 23; pectoral 1%; ventral 1. Faded pale brown

generally. Traces of 4 dusky longitudinal narrow bands; second begins on

side of snout, crosses eye and postoctlar, where most distinct. Iris slate. Back

and head above with dull brown shades. Fins all more or less pale. Spinous

dorsal dusky terminally. Soft dorsal and anal each with diffuse dusky

subbasal longitudinal band. Round blackish spot little smaller than pupil at

caudal base medianly. Caudal margined above and below with pale dusky.

One 54mm. It differs a little from Day’s figure in that he shows the second

dorsal spine but half length of third, whereas in mine the second and third

spines are subequal.

AMBASSIDZ

Amobassis satgha (Forskal)

Depth 23; head 23, width 24. Snout 42 in head from snout tip; eye 3,

greater than snout or interorbital ; maxillary reaches opposite front pupil edge,

expansion 3 in eye, length 2} in head: interorbital 5, very slightly convex ;

preorbital edge entire, lower edge with 7 serre ; lower ridge and edge of

preopercle serrate. Gill rakers 9 + 17, lanceolate, slender, 1¢ in eye. Scales

30 in incomplete lateral line to caudal base and 3 more on latter, 4 above, 7

below, 22 predorsal, 3 rows on cheek ; 1 to 3 basal radiating striz, no apical

denticles and circuli moderate. Dorsal VII, 1,9, 1, second spine 13 in total

head length, first ray 24; Anal III, 9, 1, third spine 23, first ray 1, ; caudal

1,4,, deeply forked, lobes slender and pointed ; least depth of caudal peduncle

33; pectoral 14; ventral 123. Uniform pale brown, scales along edge of

predorsal and about back posteriorly above with deeper brown dustings.

Mandible and upper jaw brownish. Iris slate. Lateral gray line along tail

and caudal peduncle medially faint. End of second membrane of spinous

dorsal dusky, fins otherwise all pale.

One 88 mm.

Ambassis gymnocephalus (Lacépéde)

Depth 2#; head 23, width 22. Snout 4 in head from snout tip ; eye 33,

greater than snout or interorbital; maxillary reaches first fourth of eye,

expansion 32 in eye, length 2% in head ; interorbital 43, very slightly convex ;

preorbital ridge and edge, also lower ridge and edge of preopercle serrate.

Gill rakers 8 + 21, lanceolate, slender, 12 in eye. Scales 11 + 10 in interrupted

lateral line to caudal base and 2 more on latter, break below front of soft

dorsal, 3 scales above, 6 below, 17 predorsal, 2 rows on cheek; 5 basal

radiating strize, no apical denticles and circuli moderate. Dorsal Vil, I, 9, 1,

second spine 12 in total head length, second and third spines subequal, first

ray 2; Anal Ill, 9,1, third spine 14, first ray 1; caudal I, deeply forked, lobes

slender; least depth of caudal peduncle 23; pectoral 14; ventral 13.

Iniform pale brownish, scales along edge of back dusted with deeper brown,

also jaws dusted brown. Distinct dusky slate line along caudal peduncle and

tail medianly each side. Second dorsal membrane blackish. Fine pale. Iris

slate.

One 60 mm. Ambassis urotenia, described from Delagoa Bay by Fowler’ is

not Bleeker’s species, but a younger stage of the present, as it is described with

2 rows of scales on the cheek.

1 Proc. Acad Nat. Sci: Phita., 1925; p..220.

NOTES AND DESCRIPTIONS OF FISHES FROM CEYLON 709

LUTJANIDA

Lutjanus kasmira (Forskal)

Depth 23 ; head 22, width 2g. Snout 34; eye 34, 1,4, in snout, greater than

interorbital ; maxillary reaches 3 in eye, expansion 24 in eye, length 23 in

head ; interorbital 42, little convex ; preopercle edge not gashed behind, finely

denticulated and denticles larger around angle. Gill rakers 7+ 15, lanceolate.

Scales 43 in lateral line to caudal base and 7 more on latter, 7 above, 12 below,

16 predorsal, 5 rows on cheek ; 7 or 8 basal radiating striz, apical denticles 40

to 58, with 6 or 7 series of transverse basal elements and circuli fine. Dorsal

X, 13,1, fourth spine 22 in head, first ray 22; Anal Ill, 8,1, second spine 23,

second ray 23; caudal 14, slightly emarginate; least depth of caudal peduncle

374 ; pectoral 12; ventral 1%. Back brown, sides below and under surface paler

to whitish. Each row of scales with obscure pale median stripe. Diffuse dusky

stripe from snout tip through eye across postorbital. Diffuse blackish blotch

size of eye on lateral line below front of soft dorsal. Vertical fins pale brownish,

paired fins paler or whitish. Iris slate.

One 84 mm.

‘THERAPONIDZ

Therapon jarbua (Forskal)

One 100 mm.

-SPARIDZX

Sparus berda Forskal

One 80 mm. Molars in 3 rather irregular series in each jaw posteriorly.

Preorbital with its least width 12 in eye. Dark blotch at shoulder but little

distinct. Dorsal with more or less dusky on membranes terminally.

LETHRINIDZ

Lethrinus reticulatus, Valenciennes

Depth 22 to 2g; head 22 to 22, width 23 to 22. Snout 23; eye 3, 1f in snout,

greater than interorbital; maxillary not quite or to eye front, 3 in head ;

interorbital 4 to 4g, slightly convex. Gill rakers4-+ 7, short tubercles. Scales

45 in lateral! line to caudal base and 2 more on latter, 6 above, 13 below, 9

predorsal. Dorsal X,9,1, fourth spine 22 to 2¢ in head, first ray 22 to 23 ;

Anal Ill, 8, second spine 23 to 24, second ray 22; caudal 14 to 1g, emarginate ;

least depth of caudal peduncle 3 to 334,; pectoral 13 to 1g; ventral 14. Pale

olive gray, slightly paler on under surface. Sides and back with darker and

rather large reticulations, mostly with meshes deeper vertically. Iris slate.

Postocular more or less dark olive. Variably diffuse dark blotch above pectorai

base and another vertically at caudal base. Dorsals and caudal with grayish

tints, fins otherwise pale.

Two 68 to72mm. These appear to be the young of this species, originally

described from an example 102 mm. long obtained in New Guinea. Valencien-

nes says the head is reddish with 2 or 3 brown bands below the eye. Opercular

border yellow. Body paler than head, irregularly blotched with blackish.

Soft dorsal, anal and caudal finely streaked with dusky. Bleeker’s figure’

appears to be the same, though it is less variegated than my examples, or

without the dark suprapectoral blotch or the basal caudal bar. Lethrinus

meensit Bleeker also appears to be the adult stage. The species ranges from the

Seychelles to Oceania.

GERRIDZ

Gerres lucitdus Cuvier

One 70 mm. Snout short, 13 in large eye, which 23in head. Third dorsal

spine 13 in head, second spine but little shorter Though spinous dorsal dusky

terminally on 3 highest membranes the usual spots subbasal on membranes

above edge of basal scaly sheath are little evident.

SILLAGINIDZ

Sillago sthama (Forskal)

One 140 mm.

1 Atlas Ichth., 8, 1877-78, Pl. 320 (52), Fig. 1.

710 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

MONODACTYLIDZ

Monodactylus argenteus (Linneus)

One 64mm. Brown ocular band and narrower brown band from befo1e

spinous dorsal down on opercle.

SIGANIDZ

Siganus javus (Linnzus)

One 62 mm.

Siganus virgatus (Valenciennes)

One 85mm. This differs largely from Day’s figure in that the dark ocular

band from the spinous dorsal to the chin is very obsolete, though it has

traces of several dark interorbital lines. The head and body are rather coarsely

spotted, blotched or vermiculated with deeper brown. Spinous dorsal and

anal clouded with deeper brown, though on soft dorsal 3 rows of dusky spots

largely on each ray and most distinct basally on fin. On anal largely as 2 dark

basal bars. Caudal transversely and diffusely barred with dusky. Pectoral

pale. Ventral dusted with dusky.

GOBIIDZ

Glossogobius biocellatus (Valenciennes. )

Depth 52 ; head 23, width 2. Snout 33 in head from snout tip; eye 4g, 14 in

snout ; maxillary reaches nearly opposite hind eye edge, 2 in head; teeth

moderately large, well spaced, in bands in jaws, none on palate; tongue with

deep median notch in front ; interorbital narrow bony frenum, 24 in eye. Gill

rakers 2+ 7, short low rounded tubercles. Scales 30 from over gill opening

to caudal base and 3 more on latter; 8 scales transversely from soft dorsal

origin ; 14 predorsal ; 14 to 17 basal radiating striz, apical denticles 31+ 41 to

32+ 36 and circuli fine. Dorsal VI—I, 9, 1, fourth spine 23 in total head length,

eighth ray 13; Anall, 8, seventh ray 1;; caudal 1g, pointed; least depth of

caudal peduncle 3$; pectoral 13; ventral 13. Brown above, under surface

paler though more or less soiled ; back and sides mottled and marbled with

dusky. Iris slate. Spinous dorsal gray, clouded with dusky, leaving some

small white spots and rather large conspicuous black blotch on penultimate

membrane medially. Soft dorsal gray with dusky reticulations. Caudal pale

above lower portions gray with rather broad blackish transverse bars. Anal

blackish, with scattered small spot basally. Pectoral with scattered dusky

and blackish dots. Ventral neutral dusky termiually, outer borders pale or

gray.

One 93 nim.

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR AND THE

ADJACENT HILL PROVINCES

BEING

NATURAL History NOTES

Cot. A. E. WARD

PART VII

(Continued trom page 11 of Vol. XX X71)

Family—AHyenide

Genus—Hyana

This group is in India represented by

The Striped Hyzeena—AHyena striata

Vernacular names.—' Lakha-bagh, or bagha Lakva’—and most

commonly ‘ Chirak and Jhirak ’.

Colour.—Darkish grey, sometimes of a brownish hue, traversed

with tawny stripes, these are often of a blackish-brown colour, and

are on the body and limbs.

Dimensions. —Head and body about 34 feet, tail with hair under

14 feet. Skuli of a large male 8” basal length, zygomatic measure-

ments6:1%. Weight63lbs. This specimen was shot nearthe Jumna

bridge at Kalsi in the Western Dun.

It is not often that a hyzena can be weighed as the carcase is left

as a rule when shot.

Distribution.—Very rare in Kashmir but has been found on the

Murree road and in Hammel. It is fairly common in some of the

hill districts with which we are concerned, and practically throughout

India.

Hlabits.—-It is not uncommon to turn hyzenas out of short grass

whilst beating with elephants in the Terai; on more than one occasion

I have shot hyznas within a few feet of the elephant’s trunk,

killing dead with a charge of large shot. A big hyana was very

troublesome in a cattle-breeding farm. I campedin the farm and

spent two days looking for the animal and eventually got close to it.

It was eating the body of a calf within a few yards of the sheds, and

to my intense surprise I killed it dead with a charge of No. 5.

Whilst staying with a regiment in a Musketry Camp in the hills,

there was a good deal of trouble with the very disagreeable cries of

hyeenas at night. We used to turn out with guns, but although we

saw the animals we were unable to shoot owing to the tents being so

712 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol- Fea,

close together. They occupied any small and convenient patch of

ground nearby inspite of the fact that in camp were several dogs

which the men used to loose after barking deer or jackals.

We were sitting in the mess tent after our meal, when we heard

the men urging ontheirdogs. The sides of the tents were up and we

were iust turning outto see what was afoot, whenahyzena rushed

under the table and bolted out at the other side! Beyond a chair

being broken no harm was done. The hygna ran down a ravine

followed by the dogs, but apparently they did not care to face it.

- Dogs, unless very wary, are apt to be greatly mutilated by

hyzenas ; with their powerful jaws they can crush the leg of any

dog.

Hyzenas can be ridden down on a fast pony which is handy at

turning.

The fossils in the Siwalik Hills and elsewhere in the vicinity oie

to there having been other species of the Hyzenide in India, and it is

believed that H. crgata was amongst these. Besides these above,

fossils have been found in Madras. Incertain parts of the submontane .

districts, a class of hyenas exists which are small, and are far less

striped than those of the lower Punjab hills—these are only a local

variety of strzata, the only species now found in India.

OrRDER—C YNOJ/DEA.

Family—Canid@: Dogs, Wolves, Jackals, Foxes.

The differences in the footprint of a dog and a cat consist in the

two central toe pads in the former being in advance of the side pads,

making the footprint longer, and in the presence always of blunt

nail prints, owing to the claws being non-retractile. The dentition

consists amongst other teeth of four upper and iower premolars

respectively whilst the cat has three ee tale cus in the upper jaw and

two in the lower jaw.

The genera are known as Canzs, Cyon and Vulpes.

Cants includes the wolves, Cyon the wild dogs, Valdes the foxes.

The Wolf-—Canzs lupus

Vernacular names.—Ratnakin in Kashmir—Chanku in Tibetan—

Baglura in many jungles, where this name is given to both the

Panther and Wolf.

Colour._-Wolf skins are not as variable in colouration as is

generally supposed to be the case. Nearly all Tibetan wolves are

grey or greyish-white with slaty under fur; some show a brownish

tinge mixed with white hairs. The tailis tipped with black. A

few wolves are black due to melanism. Brownish-biack wolves

of the colour sometimes shown by a wild cat as far as I know are

rarely seen.

I have seen a black and agrey wolf with the same mother. Doubt-

less as was the case with the wolves which have been brought home

to England, black cubs have been born from a black parent.

Alsatian hounds have been bred with wolves ; the cubs are apt to

fight amongst themselves, but are quite tame and affectionate to

their owners. These cross-bred hounds are often difficult to rear,

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR Bk)

they are great feeders, and are very delicate during the first year of

their lives in India.

Distribution.—The species C. laniger is from Tibet and Ladak ;

the pelts sold in Srinagar are those of this class.

Habtts.—_Wolves are by no means nocturnal although they rest

during the heat of the day. I have seen a she-wolf stand for hours

in the scorching sun of Ladak, with her cubs secreted in the hills

behind her, she was doing sentry-go between her offspring and the

intruders.

Wolves carry portions of their prey to their caves; I doubt the

wolf being much of a carrion feeder for the simple reason that they

hunt in small packs and eat all the flesh of the animals they have’

killed, and leave the bones to be picked by carrion-eating birds.

I cannot say much regarding the habits of Canzs lupus; they are

rarely seen except when travelling.

Dimensions of a very large Tibetan wolf: Head and Body 3’

10”, height 2’ 5”, weight 60 lbs. Blanford gives alarge skull as

8:7”, basal length and 5-5” in zygomatic breadth. I tried in vain

to shoot wolves in the hills between the Saseer Pass and the Shyok

but could never getnear them. Three wolves stood on a bare hill

and watched ; directly I moved they were off and when I followed

them over a low hill, they watched me from the slopes of the main

hill, and as soon as I showed myself, although I was lying prone on

the ground, they galloped away. ‘This occurred on the southern

slopes of the Karakoram where probably the wolves had rarely

seen a man.

The Indian Wolf.—Canzs pallipes

Vernacular names—PSheriya, Bagyar and Landga.

Probably the best known name is Bheriya whilst Langda is the

name in Gondwana.

Colour.—Grey with a very decided brownish hue; dark onthe back

—much browner than is C. lupus.

Dinvensions.— Much smaller than C. /ufus rarely exceeding 3 feet

apud Blanford skull has 6°85” basal length, and 4:4” broad—weight

from 40 to 45 lbs.

Distribution.—The plains of India, not ascending high into the

Himalayas; at one time common in Abbottabad and Hazara, rare

in the Punjab ranges, very rare in the Vale of Kashmir.

Flabits.—Gregarious to a limited extent, possibly they would be

more so, were they not continually being hunted down. Govern-

ment is always on the watch to destroy wolves as they are very

destructive and kill horses. cattle, sheep, goats or any live

domestic animals they come across. Antelopes are systematically

hunted by three or more wolves working in unison, whilst wolves

which take to killing women and children are much to be dreaded.

The largest wolves I have seen dwelt in the open ground in

front of the old Fort at Fatehgarh.

The Jackal.—Canzs aureus

In vernacular—Gzdar, Shial are probably the commonest names

—Shal in Kashmir—AHokol in Gondwana—J/higal according to

714, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIE IP. Vol. ood7

Blanford in Persia but this name is often used by Mahomedans.

There are many names besides these. In parts of the C.P. ‘ Chota-

Bagh’ is often the name.

Near Rewah territory I was taken on an elephant for miles, in

order to shoot a Chota-Bagh, which I naturally thought was a young

tiger or a Jeopard. On arriving at a small village I knew that I

had been sold; I was taken to a thorn bush and there was the

‘Jack’. This was in May! However the information was correct ;

the headman said the Bagh eat their ‘murghis’. I could not

help laughing, much to the disgust of the mahout.

Colour.—Pale rufuous—sometimes reddish. Albinos are very

rare. Blanford mentions ‘ coal black ’—often brown hairs on the

back tipped with black.

Dimensions.— Jackals are often very large in Kashmir, where they

are very destructive to sheep.

Head and body of a Jarge jackal 31” —weight up to 25 lbs. a fine

female weighed 19 ibs.—a male weighed 22 lbs.—both were killed

in the winter.

Distribution.—Throughout India, ascending the hills to about

5,000’ or more. A few days ago jackals were calling at 7,500’ and I

have known them to ascend to much higher elevations.

Jackals eat certain fruits notably Zzzyphus (ber) also Indian corn.

The vernacular name Pfzal is usually applied to the Jackal

when frightened. The name Phzaow is aiso used, it is a mistake

to think that these terms only apply toa‘ Jack ’ which is frightened

by atiger or leopard as they will Phzaow even when pigs or bears

or wild dogs are on the move.

Genus—Cyon

The Indian Wild Dog —Cyon dukhunensts

The only Vernacular names I know are Ram-Hun (Kashmiri)

and Jungli Kutta—Ban Kutta-—Bhansa. Bhansa in the Eastern

Himalayas.

Colour.—Red. I cannot call to mind ever seeing rufuous grey

or light brownish-grey (Blanford), but I have seen brownish-red

wild dogs; there are sometimes dark tips to the hairs on the back.

Lighter red below. The pups are sooty brown.

Dimensions. —Head and body 38”, tail with hair 14”—weight

28 lbs.—heaviest known weight 32 Ibs.

The habitat extends throughout India in forest land, ranging high

up in the Himalayas. In parts of the upper Indus Valley it is fairly

common, but is gradually being reduced in numbers. The wild dog

is very rare in the Vale of Kashmir, I have not seen one for many

years past, nor have I seen the skins in the shops except one or two

from Baltistan.

Habits.—Gregarious and predatory, living on any animal killed.

They hunt in packs and take Sambhar, Nilgai and all sorts of

deer, while cattle, sheep, goats and ponies fall, easy victims to

their rapacity. Even leopards are persecuted by wild dogs and

compelled to take to trees for safety. They are often heard whilst

THE MAMMALS AND BIRDS OF KASHMIR 715

hunting at night and over and over again have I listened to them

whilst lying awake in the jungles.

That wild dogs call when hunting is true as I have watched them

at afew yards whilst doing so. When running by scent they only

whimper, but when the prey is in sight and at hand, they often

break into an undescribable howl.

Cyon dukhunensts breed in colonies in burrows in soft ground, also

in caves or holes amongst rocks, hunting the surrounding jungles.

Having once found a colony, it is as well to set to work delibera-

tely and smoke them all out. ‘The young are probably smothered ;

those able to run about get into the surrounding grass and can be

beaten out by a line of elephants. They are hard to hit with a

bullet whilst dodging through the grass, and unless close, are still

more difficult to kill with shot.

A colony was breeding within about a mile of a jungle where

there were tigers. Strangely enough no foot prints of the dogs

were to be seen in the vicinity and it was evident that they gave the

big cats a wide berth and both refrained from interfering with each

other.

The breeding season is in the winter months as a rule, but 1 have

seen quite small pups in May.

The period of gestation is probably nine weeks.

The Indian Fox—Vulpes bengalensis

Vernacular names: Lomri—Lom in Hindustani, Lomrz and some-

times Lhal in Jammu, Kokrz and Khakvyi are names which are

sometimes heard in Northern India; I have heard the name Kokrz

in the Punjab.

Colour.—From light to reddish-grey. Jerdon remarks, ‘ The fur

just after it has assumed its winter coat Is very beautiful, a pure grey

in the body contrasting with the rufous limbs.’

I have often watched various foxes during the morning and even-

ing hours and invariably remarked that early in the morning V2/fes

bengalensts does not seem to be in the least hurry when moving off

to the burrows. It is seldom that it is to be seen carrying food,

homewards, but when so doing it proceeds very warily.

Dimensions.—V ary a good deal. Length, head and body 19 to 22”

generally about 22”; tail 12” weight of a full-grown specimen

6 to 7 lbs.

Distribution. —According to Jerdon ‘found throughout India’

rare in forest countries. Blanford and others put the limit at ‘ not

recorded west of Sind and the Punjab.’ Personally the extreme

west I have seen it is inthe Jammu Province, Sialkote and adjacent

localities.

The Common Fox—Vulfes alopex

Vernacular names: Lomrz. Laash is not the Kashmiri name for

the common fox, it is the name usually for any kind of cat. It is

quite impossible to give any standard of colour to the Himalayan

variety ; go to any furriers shop and you will find pelts of almost

any colouring. On the other hand V. flavescens is a superb fox of

almost a universal yellow, often witha tinge of golden-rufous. The

716 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

weight given by Jerdon as 14 ibs. is fairly correct, but 18 lbs. has

been recorded. The average weight of six maie foxes is 12 lbs.

The price of a pelt is about Rs. 25.

Turning to the Himalayan form. The colouring on the back

varies from red and yellow, to dark grey and very rarely to black.

The sides are pale. Ears are jet black outside. This portion of the

skin is stitched together and made into collarets, fetching of course

very high prices. The ears inside are generally buff. ‘The face

is rufuous, there is a large black spot in front of the eye and the

cheeks are white’ (Blanford). Tail nearly always grey; the tip of

the tail is white.

Hlabits:—These foxes dwell in burrows or amongst rocks at an

elevation of 5,000’ to about 8,000’. In the summer the cubs come out

inthe afternoon and play about on the swards of green turf; the

vixen generally rests half hidden by some bushes and at the

slightest sign of danger she utters a shrill bark repeating it at short

intervals, finally if any of the cubs are too keen at their play, the

mother races across the grass, the whoie family following and they

are soon lost to view. Probably none of them will be seen for

some days. I have never seen the mother and cubs dart into their

homes when frightened. Cubs wiil often play at the entrance ofa

cleft in rocks whilst the mother lies secreted under cover. Seldom

more than five are produced ata birth and by August they are

sufficiently well grown to be able to escape from most terriers.

The Small Tibetan Fox—Vulges ferrtlatus

Vernacular Names: J/gar (Tibetan) according to Blanford. I

have heard that name in Little Tibet. Lokrz is the common name.

Dimensions: Head and. body 197” to. 20” ;\ tall with*hait22:

Habitat.—Tibet, with a considerable distribution from the Northern

Sutlej to the East.

Colour.—-Reddish-yellow, tail plain grey, tip of the tail pure white,

breast and stomach pure white.

The pelts of this fox are not common in the furriers shops, but

from time to time a certain number can be selected which are so

much of one size, and approximately of the same colour, as to

justify the placing them as belonging to a race of foxes which come

from the same locality. The traders who bring down skins give but

little help. I think V. ferrz/atus comes from nearer to our borders

than do other varieties of V. alopex.

(Lo be continued.)

FORAGING TERMITES

(AUTERMES BIFORMTS, WASM)

R. W. G. Hineston, MAJor, I.M.S.

(With a plate)

The place of investigation is Central India, the district of the

Bundelkhand gneiss. Here we stand on the primitive floor of the

Peninsula, those crystalline rocks on which have been deposited all

the later sedimentary beds. Itis atract of undulating uplands,

wide flat spaces, rocky ridges, crumbling granite hills. Vast areas

of it are bare, stony and neglected; other tracts are clcthed pro-

fusely in forest or thorny scrub.

Eutermes bitormis, a species of White Ant, is particularly partial

to this kind of soil. Inplaces I find it in great abundance, colonies

under almost every stone. Here we have a species of peculiar

interest. It raises no mounds, builds no elaborate nor conspicuous

city, possesses none of that architectural capacity so commonly met

with amongst the white ants. As an artificer it has notthe slightest

merit. Its interest lies in its absence of seclusion. The mound-

building termites hide beneath the soil. Whenthey move about

they always do so beneath tunnels. Rarely, if ever, do they come

into view. All their work takes placein the strictest seclusion,

which makes them particularly difficult to observe. We must disturb

them before seeing them at work. It is otherwise with FAutermes

btformis. This venturesome species has open-air habits, excavating,

foraging, guarding the termitarium in the full light of day. From

it we will learn some facts about termites which otherwise we would

never know.

As in all the species, we find workers and soldiers. The workers

are pale yellow, with shining heads that show not a trace of eyes.

The soldiers are of two distinct sizes, smallones that scarcely exceed

one-tenth of an inch, and large ones that are almost one-fifth of an

inch long. Inone point they differ remarkably from the workers.

Their mouth parts are very peculiar. They have no trace of jaws

or any type of biting organ; in their place is a conical pointed spear,

akind of tubular beak. Obviously their work is altogether different

from that which falls to the workerclass. In addition the community

has its males and females, very much larger than the workers, and

provided with eyes and wings.

THE NEST

Nothing special marks the Autermes nest, no mound, no heap, no

citadel of spires. All it doesis to make a superficial excavation

scarcely more than afew inches indepth. It seldom goes down

718. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

beyond afoot. Ifthe insect has any preference in the matter, it

likes to establish itself underneath a stone. :

The nest consists ofa ramification of passages, a reticulated

system of galleries and chambers, their width being equal to about

that of a lead pencil. They appear to have no particular arrange-

ment, but just ramify and communicate in ail directions. The patch

of ground is literally honeycombed withthe network. When ex-

ploring it we seem to be cutting intoa sponge. Thewalls of the

passages are a little roughened and usually lined with a black

material. This pigment, at first sight, looks like some fungus; but

more probably it is the excreta of the termites which they smear

over the walls.

The galleries are always perfectly clean. What do we findin

them ? First of all, nurseries. Special chambers appear to be

reserved for this purpose. In them we find young of all ages and

sizes heaped together in a scrambling mass. Hundreds may be

kept in the largest of the nurseries. Others are met with scattered

through the galleries. Less often we come across sexual forms,

perhaps only afew inches beneath the soil. The only other stuff

I have recorded from these galleries are fragments of half-chewed

orass.

Il have said that these termites emerge into the open, so let us

try and catch them at nest-building work. How do they excavate

their network of galleries? It is not a sight that we can see at any

time. But, if fortunate, the following spectacle presents itself. A

stream of termites issues from the nest. All belong to the worker

class. Each carries a load of excavated material, a small damp

pellet of earth, whichit casts away on the rubbish heap. The

stream moves slowly, carefully, methodically. ‘Though all its

members are completely blind, yet they advance with the same

certainty as if they had perfect sight. It is obvious that their

antenne feel out the way. The load deposited, they return for

more. . In fact their manner of excavation is identical with that of

the ordinary ant.

But where are the soldiers in this important business? These

diggers and carriers are all workers. Not a single soldier takes

part in the toil. What is their function? Have they no part in the

making of the nest? They have a part, and a very remarkable one.

Look along the edge of the excavated earth, the material which the

workers are heaping into amound. There the soldiers have taken

their stand. They have formed a ring, a martial circle, a defensive

barrier around the heap. Within the circle is the stream of workers

carrying and casting down their loads. Both types of soldiers join

in this rampart, the large ones are twice the size of the small ones,

yet their duties appear to be the same.

Here is a social system most elaborately organized, the peaceful

toilers, the martial ring, the military machinery ready forwar. It

is worth looking at in closer detail. The martial ring isa circle of

sentinels. They are fairly evenly distributed: there may be fifty or

a hundred of them: they do not run about, but stand stationary in

the circle, each keeping to its allotted place. All face outward, their

dagger-shaped beaks away from the nest opening, their headsa

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

q Q

i "

"i y

: 3

) : 4 £

“Dy 4 X ¢ :

44 oti

oes ‘f 4

SAT rary

Leutermes biformis, WASM, WORKER.

ral

Etutermes biformis, WASM, SOLDIER.

: i

. = ad ~

= :

: .

’

;

4 ew

toe

7 =

- ;

: t

FORAGING TERMITES 719

little elevated, antennze held erect, and trembling as though feeling

for danger inthe air. It may be only an insect spectacle, a vision

of little and unimportant things. But little things are big things

when viewed in proportion. And here we see termites with that

organized machinery which brutalizes civilized life.

Clearly this is a military system. Let us watch the barbarous

machinery at work. I disturb the excavators, the worthy toilers

that are carrying out the earth. Instantaneously a retreat is

sounded. Thelabourers make no attempt at resistance. Inhalfa

minute all are in the nest. Nota worker is visible; the martial

element holds the field. The soldiers, to aman, remain outside.

A mad excited frenzy seizes them. They rush about on the heap

of debris. Eager for battle, they seek out the enemy. The martial

ring disintegrates for fight.

This is the first lesson taught by Autermes. How highly developed

is the military machinery amongst creatures so low in the scale. It

reminds us of Hymenopteron society with their labourers, their

soldiers and their defensive methods. But the militarism of

Futermesis more impressive than that of ants. In Autermes the

castes, both in structure and strategy, are far more strikingly

distinct. Nevertheless ants have sometimes been observed making

the same kind of martial ring. But never, I feel sure, with the

perfection of Zutermes. Moggridge saw Atta barbara making rings

around its queens to protect them from lizards which would not

pass through the ring. Miss Cheesman in the Society Islands saw

something similar with Phezdole. She gave food to the ants. Their

soldiers made aring around it, kept back all other competitors while

the smaller workers took it piecemeal away.

In the higher forms of termites the military organization is well

displayed at the nuptial flight. Take Odoniotermes tee for example.

Workers first break openthe galleries. ‘hen the winged forms

squeeze their way out, hundreds emerging one after another and

ascending into the air. In an hour or more the eruption ceases.

Then the breaches have to be repaired. Workers come forward to

seal these openings. And now for the first time soldiers appear.

They donot come out completely from the galleries. ‘Their method

is to remain within the passage and from there line the breach. We

see their heads protruding above the margin, clearly keeping a

strict guard while the workers seal the opening with clay.

FORAGING EXPEDITIONS

We leave for a moment these military adventures and turn to

more productive manifestations of life. Hzlermes despatches

foraging columns, mainly for the purpose of collecting grass. The

expeditions take place in the monsoon evenings, an hour or two

before the sun sets. A sharp eye is needed to detect them; for the

column of pale flesh-coloured workers 1s almost invisible against the

soil. A course is made for the harvesting area, some suitable patch

of grass usually about three or four feet from the nest. A pathway

is formed on which the insects move. Their method is like that of

harvesting ants. Those facing outward are empty-handed; those

720 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL- AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXT7/

returning are Jaden with grass. The marchis orderly. In coming

and going they pass one another, and move without confusion along

the path. Hach individual with its leafy loadreminds us of the leaf-

cutting ants of America that advance beneath a Birnam wood. I

have seen many thousands on these foraging expeditions; the

whole nest seemed to have been abroad. On such occasions they

are extremely timid. ‘The slightest interference alarms the mass

which turns about and hastens indoors. In the harvesting area we

see quiet activity. Some individuals mount the blades, cut off the

tips of the vegetation and allow themselves to fall with the separat-

ed ends. Others find suitable fragments on the ground, either green

cuttings that have dropped from above, or pieces of dried stalks. In

the business of transport they are individualistic. Each sticks to

its own load. They cannot combine to shift alarge mass. Here

again they resemble the harvesters and certain of the insect-hunting

ants.

Now for the part taken by the soldiers. It is only the workers

that cut and carry grass. The soldiers are unfitted for transporting

operations, even if they had the instinct to work. Their mouth-parts,

as I have said, are shaped into a spear, an implement that could

never grip a load. But the soldiers are not absent from these

harvesting operations. As in excavating, so in foraging, the

warriors have important duties to fulfil. Soldiers mix themselves

in the harvesting column. It reminds one of social hymenoptera on

the march. Others stand along the foraging track, others scatter

around the collecting area, some ascend the blades of grass. Wher-

ever the toilers extend their enterprise, there the soldiers also appear.

Their business is to protect the foragers, in the same way as they

did the excavators, though the irregular nature of the ground does

not lend itself to the martial ring. Interfere with the steady stream

of industry. Immediately the soldiers are up in arms ready to

attack anything that comes. When alarmed, the foragers set about

retirement ; the stream of labourers pours back to the nest. But

the soldiers remain out until all have disappeared ; then the warriors

themselves withdraw, forming, as it were, a rearguard to the mass.

Another small experiment shows their military instinct. I kill a

worker while it is engaged in foraging. Another worker finds it,

drags it towards the termitarium. Soldiers assemble, close around

it; a martial ring, or is it a ring of mourners, is formed round the

moving corpse. The procession advances, afunereal spectacle,

the bier, the corpse, the military assemblage all go steadily into the

nest.

Why does Autermes require all this soldiering ? What is the

particular enemy they fear? I have little doubt that ants are the

danger. How often have we seen the ravager, Lobopelia, breaking

through the earthworks of a termites’ nest.

So dangerous to Autermes are insect-hunting ants that the species

often builds covered roadways along the surface of the soil. They

are nothing like the extensive ramifications of other termites, but

are just low tunnels fashioned out of earth. As arule they are short

and project from the nest opening ; seldom are they more than an

inch or two in length. Such a scanty surface architecture does little

FORAGING TERMITES 721

more than guard the entrance to the termitarium. It is all that

remains to the foraging species of other termites’ pyramids and

domes. ‘lhe building of these roadways is done in daylight ; in fact

building and provisioning may go on simultaneously. Division of

labour exists amongst termites with the same efficiency as in

ordinary ants. Wesee some workers carrying clay from the termi-

tarium, others moulding it to the roof of the passages, while others

at the same time collect grass. The foragers keep close to the end

of the tunnel, scarcely going farther than half an inch from it. They

get hold of the nearest blade of grass, gnaw it off, drag it into the

tube. The work is done with apparent timidity. The object of

the tunnel is to permit the workers to get without exposure to

the nearest patch of grass.

DUTIES OF SOLDIERS

This is clearly the most interesting point. The soldiers possess

two important functions, different from those of the ordinary worker.

(1) The function of their antenne. (2) The function of the pointed

beak.

First let us see the function of the antenne. J uproot a stone,

one beneath which a nest is established, and, in doing so, I break

through the reticnlated walls. Termites burst forth, a violent

eruption, which very quickly subsides. Then the work of repair

begins. The soldiers seek out the broken galleries; they gather

along the edge of the breaches. The ordinary workers for the

moment disappear, withdrawing themselves into the labyrinth of

tubes. Soon the workers reappear, bringing with them whatever

fragments of material they can find, pellets of earth, nodules of grit,

pieces of dry grass. A moistening with saliva makes these frag-

ments viscid. Then they are glued into the breach. ‘They are

not merely laid in position. The workers with an oscillating

movement of the head screw them forcibly into place.

Now let us watch the behaviour of the soldiers. In this work of

building they clearly have duties other than those of defence.

Collecting along the edge of the rupture, heads turned outward,

antennz expanded, they stand apart at fairly even distances so that

the antennz of each soldier just touches those of its companion on

either side. Jn this we have the strategical ring. But when we

watch the soldiers’ antennze we see that they do something more.

We notice that they are all the time swaying and touching ; they

give the impression of estimating distance and in some way measur-

ing the work. I little doubt that they are being used as calculating

organs, measuring out the extent of the damage and determining

the progress of repair. The soldiers in this way act as supervisors

while the workers apply the bricks. The breach now rapidly con-

tracts. Soon the antenne of the supervising soldiers can touch

from opposite sides of the rent. They now know that repair is

nearing completion. Hence they withdraw into the gallery; only

their heads appear in the breach. Their antennz still project,

gently swaying, and gauging how much remains to be done.

Brick after brick is brought by the workers ; in the end the soldiers

722 “JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOGETY, Vol Zee

all but disappear. Only the tips of their antennz are visible when

the last few bricks are moulded to the wall.

Here we have a clear division of labour. Measuring and

calculating falls to the soldiers; labourers do the ordinary toil.

Now for the purpose of the pointed beak. Of course this is the

organ of defence. While the swarm is engaged at harvesting I

place an injured cricket near the nest. This to the termites is a

terrible invasion. All the workers rushfor the entrance. Soldiers

dash in and surround the invader. Some of them shoot jets of

poison from their beaks. All their military tactics are called forth.

When the workers withdraw the soldiers follow them. As soon as

all are safely housed the soldiers take up a position at the gate. A

martial group occupies the entrance, their bodies are kept in the

interior, their heads appear at the open door. In fact the gate is

lined with soldiers, and bristles with antennary threads. Now

comes the final act of defence. While the soldiers hold the entrance

the workers build a rampart across it. Loads of earth are carried

up until the door is firmly sealed. How human-like are these

military tactics. First an attack, then a rearguard action, then a

picket holding the last defences while a suitable rampart is thrown

up. Again we see how like they are to ordinary ants. J/essor

barbarus, for example, under similar circumstances defends the open

gate of its formicary by placing across it a barricade of stones.

I have said that, when attacking, they shoot out poison. This

brings me to the soldier’s spear. The weapon is not particularly

sharp, being really a cylindrical tube intended for ejecting spray.

When the soldier is annoyed it shoots out from the spear a jet of

clear sticky fluid, liquid on emergence, but hardening on exposure.

It oozes out like a rope of viscid treacle and then falls in glutinous

coils. It has no effect on litmus. Its smell is distinct. Sometimes it

comes out in a series of spurts as if driven with definite force.

Thus is the spear a defensive weapon, not, however, a penetrating

dagger; it is more in the nature of a poison syringe. It must be of

great value against natural enemies, of which the carnivorous ants

are chief. A rearguard of soldiers standing at a gateway or swarm-

ing on the breach of a broken gallery, with their poison spears all

directed outward, offer an impregnable front to attack. Woe betide

the enemy smeared with their discharge. Its joints, mouth-parts,

legs become clogged; gravel, leaves, everything sticks to it. If it

does not escape it gets glued to the ground.

SPECIAL SENSES

Touch.—The antennz, of course, are the tactile organs. Thrust

out in front, they touch every object and carefully explore the way.

For the soldiers they seem to serve aS measuring implements on

those occasions when the passages are under repair.

Smell.—Like ants, they possess a good sense of smell. In one

place the stream of foragers led over a smooth stone. I rubbed my

finger a number of times across their path. This disturbed them,

but only slightly. The line became broken where I had interfered.

New arrivals hesitated to cross. My rubbing had done something

FORAGING TERMITES 723

which checked their course. Soon, however, they regained

confidence. The stream continued as before. Ants, like JZessor,

would have been much more inconvenienced. Yet this incident

clearly shows that Autermes has some sense of smell.

When the foraging army was returning to the termitarium, I

placed a nodule of camphor in their path. They were instantly

aware of it, clearly disliked it. Before ever their antennze touched it

they halted and turned aside. Very soon the whole army was

deflected and had to reach the nest by a circuitous route.

Around the nest entrance I made aring of camphor. The army

was abroad. News of the interference quickly reached them.

Much alarmed, they called a retirement. But the camphor blocked

them. They would not approach it. Though madly determined to

reach the next aperture, yet they were utterly cut off. They were

as isolated from the termitarium as if it were surrounded by a

watery moat.

These simple experiments indicate clearly that termite activities

are mainly guided by their keen sense of smell.

Hearing .—Eutermes has a peculiar habit which suggests an auditory

sense. When alarmed, they erect themselves, shake their bodies,

rapidly and forcibly oscillate their antennz. Both soldiers and

workers adopt this manoeuvre. It is very evident when a nest is

disturbed, or when a soldier is irritated with a straw. The act isa

plan of communicating danger. When one termite erects itself, its

neighbours become alarined. Others at a distance catch the infec-

tion; if the army is abroad the news quickly spreads and in a few

moments all are racing for the nest. The communication is not

visual. Lutermesis blind. Can it have an auditory significance?

Certainly it is very like that of the Red Ant. Odcecophylla erects

itself, jerks its body, hammers the surface of a leaf with its abdomen.

A tapping noise is produced in this way, a trumpet that spreads

alarm. The vibrations of Autermes give no audible sound, at least

nothing that we can hear. Perhaps it is beyond the range of human

hearing. For we might anticipate auditory powers in insects

deprived of sight.

The suspicion of an auditory sense is strengthened by the fact

that Smeathman observed a marching Termite in Africa which

emitted a distinct noise. He saw columns of workers issuing from

ahole, marching under the direction of enormous soldiers which

climbed up the plants and made audible signals to the marching

column who responded with a hissing noise. Also Bristowe detected

two kinds of noises made by a Brazilian species of termite. He

refers to the soldiers of Conztermes similis. Some of them jerked

their bodies up and down and made a tapping noise by a movement

of the chin. Others by sharply crossing their mandibles produced a

noise like the snapping of thin glass. More than.likely Autermes

bzformits can emit some sound inaudible to us.

Sight.—A word disposes of this faculty. Both soldiers and

workers are totally blind.

Recognition of one another.—Ants, as is well known, are friendly

to their comrades, but hostile to members of another community

though belonging to the same species. Furthermore we have

724 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

reason to believe that each ant can distinguish every other ant

within the confines of its own nest. Is there anything of this kind

in the termite community ?

I take a worker from one nest and transfer it toa gang of the

same species employedat collecting grass. The gang refuses to

accept the worker. Indeed they show it every mark of hostility.

A soldier meets it. The alarm is sounded. Other soldiers arrive,

shoot their poison at it, and soon have it helpless onthe ground

smeared in viscid juice. Thus Aulermes like ants shows communal

independence. The members, though all in harmony with one

another, are hostile to the members of other nests.

COMPARISON WITH HYMENOPTERA

The chief point that strikes us in this record of behaviour is the

close resemblance in small details between Azutermes and the

Hymenoptera. A termite and an ant are as different in structure as

are a dragon-fly andabee. Yet see their detailed resemblance in

behaviour. I do not refer to their social organization, a resemblance

that has frequently been pointed out. JI am concerned only with

details of behaviour as exemplified in this daylight haunting species.

Their mode of excavation is exactly like that of ants, the gang of

porters carrying out the loads and pitching them down on the

rubbish heap. The protective ring of stalwart soldiers calls to

mind a nest of Camponotus compressus where idle monsters move

about the rubbish heap and smaller labourers eject the earth. We

have also seen that Atta and Pheidole do occasionally manufacture

aring. Disturb Autermes, andthe soldiers show fight; so do the

Camponotus monsters while the busy toilers hasten underground.’

How very like are their foraging expeditions to the seed-collecting

habits of WZessor barbarus. We have the common path, the harvest-

ing area, the coming and going with individual loads. Their cut-

ting of the vegetation is like the leaf-collecting Oecodoma where each

reaps its leafy fragment and bearsit away tothenest. Their march

is on the plan of the foraging Ecitons, the stream of workers, the

scattered soldiers, each with its duty to perform. The building of

arcades is done by &. vastator which spreads along the grounda

covered roadway underneath which the workers advance.

Ants are renowned for their division of labour. With Autermes we

have excavators, builders, provisioners, each toits owntask. Their

rampart of defence is the plan of MWessor barbarus which keeps out

the enemy witha barricade of stones. Ants are particular in dis-

posing of their dead. Weare even given an instance of a funeral

procession where a iong and organized stream of workers followed

the corpse to a special grave. Such a story might be thought to be

purely imaginary. Yet what have we seen in Hutermes biformts ?;

a funeral ring encircling the corpse and retiring with it into the nest.

Their sensory capacities are in many ways like those of ants. Their

sense of smell seems identical with that of Messor barbarus which

+ The habits of these Indian species of ants have been described in A

Naturalist in Himalaya and A Naturalist in Hindustan,

FORAGING TERMITES 725

camphor distracts in exactly the same way. They communicate

danger by shakings and jerkings, not at all unlike the plan that

Ocecophylla adopts. Lastly we see that recognition characteristic of

ants in which the members of a community are friendly to one

another but hostile to the members of other nests.

I conclude with a quotation from Professor Wheeler. He is

referring to termite communities far more highly organized than

mine. ‘When we reflect that ants and termites have been able,

through slow physiological and instinctive processes, independently

to evolve such strikingly analogous peculiarities as those I have

described, we can scarcely doubt that different human communities,

belonging to the same species and endowed with some intelligence,

may frequently have hit upon the same inventions.’

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS ABOUT SIMLA

HuUGH WHISTLER, F.L.S., F.ZS.

In Vol. xxvi of the Journal, pages 770-775, I recorded a series of observatiots

made about Fagoo near Simlain 1918 and followed it upin Vol. xxvii, pages

94-111, with a further series of notes made in 1919 in Simla. As it was my good

fortune to be posted as Superintendent of Police, Simla, for the season of 1925

and as there is no liklihood that I shall ever visit the Simla Hilis again, I take this

opportunity of setting on record the more interesting of my notes made in that

year. I arrived at Simla on February 6, 1925 and left it again on October 23

of the same year. Before the season started I was able to make short tours to

Sabathu, Dagshai and Solon from February 27 to March 4 and to Narkunda,

Koteghar and Kotekhai in the second half of March. For the rest of the time I

was confined to Simla or localities within reach of a day’s expedition.

Nucifraga hemispila, Vigors. The Himalayan Nutcracker.

Common from about 6,000-9,000’ in the hills behind Simla as near as Masho-

bra and Mahasoo but not observed in Simla itself. I found it very common and

in pairs about Narkundah from March 13 to 16 and found a nest on March 16

built in the branches of a pine close to the trunk at no great height from the

ground. One bird was sitting in the nest and both made a great fuss when I

examined it, so I was surprised to find that it contained a single dead chick.

Both sexes apparently take part in incubation.

The flight is very similar to that of a Jay—very flapping with rounded wings

and the same rather hesitating manner combined with fair speed.

Stachyridopsis pyrrhops (Blyth). The Red-billed Babbler.

A few pairs were seen at Sabathu when I was there from February 23

to 27, One was seen at Kotekhai on March 20, a pair were seen at 7,000’

in the Chirot Nala, Mahasoo on June 14.

Cephalopyrus flammiceps flammiceps (Burton). The Fire Cap.

On March 21, two flocks were met with in some willows in the Giri Valley

above Parala; they were singing a low twittering song rather like a feeble

version of the song of the Goldfronted Serin (Serinus pusillus).

It was reported as first seen in Simla on March 27 and on April 1 a pair

were found building near Snowdon. ‘This nest contained four rather incubated

eggs on April 21.

On May 8 I found a pair feeding well-grown young in 7,500’ on Jakko. The

nest was in a hole in an Oaktree trunk about 20’ from the ground.

Horeites pallidus pallidus, Brooks. The Pale-bush Warbler.

Several were observed about Kotekhai in the Giri Valley on March 20-21

and the song was also heard there once.

This species breeds in fair numbers about 8,000’ at Mahasoo and Kufri and

from May to August the characteristic song may be freely heard in the thick

undergrowth that clothes the hillsides wherever the larger forest trees have been

cut. Itis probably double brooded as on August 9 I found a brood of newly

fledged young clicking and skulking in arough patch of cover in the cultivation

above the Kufri bazaar.

Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskyi. Finsch. Finsch’s Starling.

A solitary female of this species was found about three miles below Kotekhai in

the Giri Valley on March 19, It was in poor plumage and was consorting with

Common Mynahs.

Acridotheres tristis (L.). ‘The Mynah.

Common at Dagshai 5,000’ and Sabathu in February, at 7,200’ at Koteghar

in March and at Kotekhai in March.

Tarsiger chryseus whistleri, Ticehurst. The Golden Bush-Robin.

A female was found at about 6,500’ in the Chirot Nala on March 29.

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS ABOUT SIMLA 727

Oreocincla mollissima simlaiensis, S-B. The Plain-backed Mountain-Thrush.

I shot a maleon Jakko at 8,000’ on February 14 ; another Mountain-Thrush

seen the same day and on February 11 also on Jakko was probably of the same

species.

Carpodacus thurus blythi (Piddulph). The White-browed Rose- Finch.

I shot an immature male (in the plumage resembling that of the female) at

8,000’ Kufri on February 22, 1925. It was a solitary bird and was feeding on

the ground in a light sallow thicket on the top of the Kufri ridge. This appears

to be the first record of this species in the Punjab Province.

Callacanthis burtoni (Gould). The Red-browed Finch.

Isaw a male on February 17 and two females on February 18, in both cases

feeding on the bank above the mall close toGorton Castle. A flock of about

thirty were seen by a friend on March 1, feeding by the side of the cartroad

below the Cecil Hotel. These birds are very tame and have the movements on

the ground of a heavy sparrow.

Serinus pusillus (Pallas). The Gold-fronted Serin.

On February 27, I found a flock on the cartroad about a mile from Sabathu.

From March 19 to 21,1 met withsome parties in the Giri Valley between

Parala and Kotkhai. A single bird was heard at 6,000’ on the southern face of

Tara Devi by the cartroad on April 10.

Fringilla montifringilla, L. The Brambling.

I have now to recant the former opinion expressed by me in the Journal

(Vol. xxx, p. 410) that there must be some mistake about Jerdon’s record that

the Brambling occurred at Simla.

On December 13, 1924, Mr. A. E. Jones obtained a female in his garden at

Marston Grange (7,000’).

Then on February 15 and 22,1 met personally with several in the culti-

vation at 8,000’ above Kufri bazaar. They were in company with the flocks

of Stoliczka’s Mountain-Finch that were common on the hillside amongst the

snow and owing to the restless behaviour of the latter species were hard to

obtain when with them. However, the Bramblings at times liked to rest quietly

in the leafy boughs of the Mountain Oaks and were then easy to approach.

When I visited the same place on March 10, I could only find a single female

in a huge flock of the Mountain Finches.

In all I obtained five specimens.

Athopyga gouldie (Vigors). Mrs. Gould’s Sunbird.

On April 5, I saw a brilliant adult male in the Chirot Nala at about

6,500’ ; it was hovering in the undergrowth apparently collecting spiders

threads for its nest and then dashed away intothe forest out of sight.

The call is a note likethe rapid opening and closing of a paur of

scissors asin the case of “. siparaja. Near the same spot on July 12, I

shot two young males. They were moving about some parasitic plants at the

top of a lofty oak tree, turning incessantly from side to side and uttering the

same scissor’s note.

Diceum ignipectum (Hodgson). The Fire-breasted Flowerpecker.

On February 24-25, 1 found several of these little birds about Sabathu

Cantonment.

Dryobates hyperythrus (Vigors). The Rufous-bellied Pied Woodpecker.

A male was seen in the pine woods of Narkundah at 9,000’ on March 16.

Apus melba (L). The Alpine Swift.

_ A few Alpine Swifts were noted in the vicinity of Simla on various dates from

April 11 to May 17.

On the autumn migration however they were observed in much larger numbers

than is usual about Simla, and for a longer period; the first birds were seen

on August 21 and the last on September 24; between those two dates I have

records of flocks seen on sixteen different days, on some days in very large num-

bers.

Cacomantis merulinus passerinus (Vahl.) The Indian Plaintive Cuckoo.

I heard this little Cuckoo on July 15 calling in a valley about 5,500’, below

Kasumpti.

728 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Strix aluco nivicola (Blyth). The Himalayan Wood-Owl.

On April 4 I found one of these delightful birds sitting in a holly oak bush

near the ground and it allowed me to look at it from a distance of about 4 feet.

It then flew off and settled near the ground in another tree. This was at 7,800’

on Jakko where the species may be heard calling at nights.

On July 12 I found two adults sitting in the undergrowth of wattle bushes at

7,300’ by the private road in the Chirot Nullah.

Strix indranee indranee (Sykes). The Brown Wood-Owl.

Only observed on one occasion (Apri! 16) in a nullah just above Annandale in

the late afternoon.

Otus spilocephaius (Blyth). The Spotted Himalayan Scops-Owl.

The characteristic call of this little owl was heard in the grounds of Vice-

regal Lodge on October 21.

Glaucidium brodiei (Burton). The Collared Pigmy Owlet.

This Pigmy Owlet must be quite common in and about Simla and the neigh-

bouring hills as | heard it calling on various dates from February 20 to May 17

after which the call was not heard. A female was shot at Dagshai 5,700’ on

March 2 and I observed it up to 9,000’ at Narkunda. It calls both by day and

night, and is active by daylight.

Torgos calvus (Scop). The King-Vulture.

Observed as follows :— February 27 Dharmpore, March 2 Dagshai, March 3

Solon, March 8 over Tara Devi and Simla W., March 10 beyond Sanjouli,

March 18, Theog, April 5 by the Tollbar. After that it was not seen.

Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gm.) The White-backed Vulture.

Observed as follows : -March 2 Dagshai, March 8 two or three on Tara Devi,

May 10 about Naldera.

Giypaetus barbatus hemachalanus, Hutton. The Lammergayer.

On September 24 an adult Lammergayer was brought in to Mr. A. E. Jones

by some hill men, who declared that they had caught it in some telegraph wires.

Although we could detect no sign of injury it was very quiet in demeanour

sitting passively on the floor, a little inclined to bite if molested but otherwise

still and silent ; it kept the head rather lowered and the mouth a little open.

If uninjured it may have felt conscious of the hopelessness of opening its huge

wings for flight in the restricted area of the room. Mr. Jones kindly allowed

me to present this bird to the Society and its portrait appears in our Journal

(Vol, xxxi, 198).

Hieraetus fasciatus (Vieill). Bonelli’s Eagle.

Bonelli’s Eagle was seen from the railway between Solon and Tara Devi

on March 2. Single birds, apparently of this species, were seen soaring over

the Hotel Cecil on March 9 and by Parala in the Giri Valley on March 21.

Spilornis cheela (Latham). The Crested Serpent Eagle.

Occasionally observed about the catchment area from April to July.

Ictinaetus maiayensis perniger (Hodgson). The Black Eagle.

As there is little on record regarding this fine Eagle in the Western Himalayas

it seems worth while recording my experience of it in detail.

On March 14and 16 I saw an Eagle, which was almost certainly of this_

species, soaring about Sidhpur 8,500’-9,000’ between Koteghar and Narkunda,

and on the latter date it also flew over Narkunda.

What was perhaps another was seen on May 10 near the Retreat, Mashobra.

On June 28 I had a splendid view of one hunting in the bottom of the Chirot

Nala (catchment area) at about 7,000’. It was very dark in appearance, save

for a light area in the primaries and the marked bars on the tail. The yellow

at the base of the beak was very noticeable. It was a wonderful flier covering

the sides of the nullah in circular beats, practically without flapping the wings.

The wings and tail looked very broad and rounded, the primaries spreading out

like the fingers of a hand.

On August 16 I secured a fine maleat Kufri 8,000’. This was in complete

moult with the organs very indistinct. In the crop was a naked nestling of

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS ABOUT SIMLA 729

some passerine bird, apparently Zrochalopieron lineatum and in the stomach

incubated eggs of a Laughing Thrusheither 7. vartegatum or T. erythrocepha-

lum. It seems fair therefore to assume that the marvellous powers of flight are

devoted in the summer months chiefly to bird nesting and that as the Eagle

quarters the hillsides it isscanning the bushes for nests. This is the only

specimen of the Black Eagle I have ever secured personally and the thrill that

the incident afforded will perhaps excuse the inclusion of the following extract

from my diary :—

‘* We emerged out of the forest on to a bare spur and looked down into the

head of the nullah which lay below us a thousand feet, breaking up into numerous

side ravines, partly clothed in forest,and partly bare or clothed with undergrowth,

in places almost precipitous. There, far below us was aBlack Eagle which

was hunting over the trees and undergrowth in regular beats, backwards and

forwards, sailing in and out of the nullahs and contours with the utmost ease

and grace. This he was doing in the head of the main nullah, and then he

started to beat up the side towards where we were resting, after one false

alarm in which he started towards our side and then returned to the main

nullah. I told my companions to remain absolutely still without moving hand or

foot as we were out inthe open as the Eagle worked along the sides of the

nullah, quartering the ground backwards and forwards but all the while

gradually advancing in our direction, I saw that his course was steadily

ascending and would probably bring him into the gap between some trees on my ~

left. Fora moment he went out of sight in a nullah soJ hastily shifted a yard

or two to cover that gap and waited with my 410 collecting gun (No. 8shot)

ready and cocked. In my new position I could no longer see the hillside and

watch the progress of the bird but a minute or two later it suddenly sailed into

the gap in front of me, and seeing me steered off to drift down hill. I fired and

hit the bird which staggered and again recovered, and turning made off in the

direction in which it had come; but it was obvious that it had been hard hit.

We watched it keenly as it went, and it disappeared into the deodars that

clothed a side nullah ; however it did not reappear on the far side of the nuilah,

nor could we see it elsewhere. Obviously it had stopped in the nullah, so

leaving Major C. to watch from our spur I made off down the hillside with my

orderly Tulsi Ram as fast as might be consistent with caution.

I entered the deodars very quietly with gun ready loaded and every nerve on

the gut vive to detect the wounded Eagle resting in a tree, or to hear the sound

of small birds mobbing it. The sunlight and the shadow were very peaceful

and quiet, and the only calls came from a large party of Grosbeaks in the trees

and some Variegated Laughing Thrushes—but these all were obviously concern-

ed only with their own affairs. There wasnosign of my quarry. I passed

through the nullah and emerged on to the ridge beyond and then signalled and

shouted to Major C. perched on the spur above, with his handkerchief fluttering

in the breeze to show his position. He replied that there was still no sign of the

bird. TulsiRam and I then worked back into the nullah, taking different

lines, and a welcome shout soon announced that Tulsi Ram had found the

Eagle lying dead in a tree.”’

Accipiter virgatus affinis, J. E. Gray. The Besra Sparrow-Hawk.

The late Mr. Basil-Edwards kindly allowed me to examine a beautiful adult

male Besra that he shot at Simla 6,000’, on June 28, 1925.

On June 18I1 founda nest of the Chestnut-bellied Rock-Thrush at 8,000

on a pineclad slope of the Chirot Nala. It contained two well-feathered chicks

which as I looked at them dashed out of the nest and down the hillside. At

once there was an agitated skirmish which resolved itself into the parent Rock-

Thrushes trying to save the chicks from a tiny hawk, which dashed at them in

a most determined manner regardless of my presence and successfully carried

one of them off. This Hawk could only have been the adult male of this spe-

cies, and I saw what was probably the same bird at the bottom ofthe nullah

on July 12.

Falco peregrinator, Sund. The Shahin Falcon.

In March I found a pair of Shahins frequenting the face of a mountain close

to Simla and on April 10 I discovered what was evidently the site of their

eyrie ip a precipice ; it was however quite inaccessible. The same birds or others

were seen over Simla occasionally in June and July.

730 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXTI

Falco subbuteo, L. The Hobby.

During the summer months the Hobby is distincly scarce in the neighbour-

hood of Simla and I did not hear of it until May 7, when one was reported as

seen flying over the Ridge. It does however breed inthe vicinity, as will be

seen from the following account taken from my diary :—

‘*On the evening of June 17, 1925, I went out to examine a certain ridge near

Simla, on which the [fobby Falcon has been known to breed for at least 10 or

12 years. The upper slopes of this ridge, looking towards the S. W. are

broken by small nullahs, and covered with a fairly thick growth of Deodar

forest, of no great age.

I started towards the top of the hill and commenced to work downwards in

hopes of finding the whereabouts of the Hobbies. I had not gone far before I

heard the screaming of a Falcon below me and was able to track it intoa

small nullah filled with Deodars. I accordingly took upa position on the

ridge at one side of the nullah and settled to watch. It was not long before I

made out a Hobby sitting in a Deodar tree where it was calling and after a short

time the other bird also appeared. Both Hobbies were very noisy screaming

at intervals the plaintive rising fee—tee—tee—tee which is common to most of

the Falcons, and varying it occasionally with a harsh single note pz¢t p7¢ or

chip chip chip uttered two or three times in succession. They kept on flying

. about in circles, sometimes over the trees, sometimes amongst them and often

low over the ground, settling here and there on different trees.

One of the Hobbies was carrying something in its talons—apparently a

small bird—which it eventually ate on a Deodar.

This behaviour went on for sometime and I then left the place without dis-

turbing the birds.

There was no doubt from their excitement that they were preparing to

breed, and I noticed a crow’s nest in very good condition which seemed a likely

nest for them to use, though they did not directly approach it while I was

there. It was about 40’ from the ground against the trunk of one of the

Deodars overhanging a mule road that wound through the nullah. This spot

is at an elevation of about 6,500’.

On June 24, 1925, I returned to the spot about 5p.m. walking along the mule

road and as I approached the site of the Crow’s nest the little male Hobby

was visible sitting on the topmost shoot of a tall Deodar about 20 yards away.

He paid no attention tome andthe female was not visible anywhere so I

climbed up on to the ridge, where [ had sat before, and made myself com-

fortable to watch.

The little Falcon was sitting there on his lofty perch in complete ease,

looking over the wide valley that stretched before him with portions of Simla

visible on the ridges across the other side. It was cool and pleasant with a

bright sun and though he was sitting quite very much at his ease he was all the

time on the alert, his head turning from side to side incessantly. After atime

he started to stretch himself and show systems of preparing to move, then he

flew off circled once in the air and disappeared over the ridge for his evening’s

hunting and I did not see him again.

I waited there for sometime longer but the female did not appear and

nothing happened. Then I climbed along the hillside to a spot whence I could

see onto the top of the crow’s nest noted at my previous visit, and there was

the female sitting in the nest, where she had obviously been all the time.

So without disturbing her I went away determined to allow ample time for the

eggs to be laid.

On June 27 I returned to take the eggs. As we arrived at the spot there

was complete silence andthe male could not be seen on any of the trees, nor

from below could we distinguish any bird in the nest. I hada sinking feeling

that something was wrong and that the prize was not to be mine : however I

told Tulsi Ram, my orderly, to go up the tree and he divested himself of his

haversack and coat and started : he was not more than a quarter of the way upto

the nest when the female Hobby flew out of the nest screaming once or twice

and settled on a bough of a Deodar some 30 yards away. There she sat more

or less unconcerned and took but little notice of the climber.

He reached the nest and reported three eggs and said that the nest was

quite small and that there was no food lying aboutit. I told him to take the eggs

and substitute for them a couple of hen’s eggs, slightly smeared with mud to

darken them, which we had brought forthe purpose. ‘This he did and des-

FURTHER NOTES ON BIRDS ABOUT SIMLA 431

cended again. Wethen stayed on the road below the nest examining and

packing the eggs but almost as soon as the climber was down the Hobby took

to wing and flying in a circle round the nest tree settled ina neighbouring

Deodar. This she repeated again, flying close to the hillside, and after one or

two more short flights she returned to the nest and settled herself down in it on

the hen’s eggs.

We then climbed up to the usual knoll and settled there to watch ; the female

Hobby was visible through the glasses sitting very deep in the nest cavity, her

back below the line of the sides of the nest; her head was a little higher but

hardly able to see over the side, her tail projecting rather upwards over one

side.

For a time nothing happened : then in the distance I heard the screaming

calland the male Hobby appeared from out over the valley flying rapidly

towards the site of the nest: as he approached it was evident that there was

food in his talons and he circled once past the nest calling, while the female

answered, and after that he settled on a neighbouring Deodar. Here he sat on

a horizontal bough and I could see he was carrying the partially plumed

body of a small bird. The female slipped off the nest and settled in another

neighbouring Deodar. The male kept on calling sometimes a sharp p7t p7t pit,

sometimes the familiar screaming call, while the female answered in the same

way and flew from perch to perch. Then the male took the bird in his beak

and the female flew on to the bough beside him, took it in her beak, transferred

it to her claws and flew away and settled in the Deodars further up the nullah

where we could not see her. The male relieved of his burden cleaned his beak

against the bough, preened his feathers, and then settled himself to sit patiently

on the bough.

In a comparatively short space of time the female re-appeared having eaten

the bird; she then took some exercise circling in the air and settling in the

various trees, calling a good deal in the process while the male sat quietly in

his place ; finally she flew down tothe nest and settled on the edge of it

where she stood looking about her; then she stepped down into the egg cavity

and stood there, and gradually settled down sometimes putting her head down

to look at or move the eggs ; and before she finally was satisfied she changed

her position in the nest by a half circle.

When she was definitely settled on the eggs, I went down and had the male

flushed and shot him, as the specimen was required. His crop was empty but

there were a few fragments of flesh and feather in the stomach probably eaten

while pluming the bird he had brought for the female. The report of the gun

brought the female off the nest calling but she settled at once in a neighbouring

tree and ultimately returned to the nest in which we left her sitting. Two days

later I sent the orderly to remove the hen’s eggs and he reported that the

female Hobby was not at the nest, so she probably had deserted it on finding

that the male had vanished.

In October there was a most marked migration of Hobbies in the Simla

Hills. On October 3 three were visible high over the Ridge at dusk. On

October 9 one was reported to meand I saw asecond bird that had been

shot.

On October 11 Hobbies were visible in the Chirot Nullah all day on the wing

most of the time, There were at least 5and probably more. I noticed that while

the bird was soaring the primaries slanted slightly downwards, almost below

the level of the back, while the bird moved in curves and circles climbing and

sinking at will in the air with scarcely an effort—an occasionally shifting of the

angles of the wings and two or three rapid strokes of the wings now and again

being all the effort involved. Thus the Hobby soared fora space, then there

would be a burst of activity and the bird flew straight with regular rapid wing

beats ; next followed a swift downward stoop of a hundred feet, and again the

bird was rising swiftly without effort. Thus were the Hobbies feeding or

playing ail day long, backwards and forwards, up and down, over the steep

bare hillsides and the deep cut ravines. I shot an adult and an immature bird ;

both were exceedingly fat and the former had its crop stuffed with remains of

insects, apparently cicadas.

After returning to Simla I saw two more Hobbies by the Grand Hotel in the

evening.

On October 13 I saw one— or perhaps more—at dusk soaring high over Gorton

Castle. On October 15 I saw two at dusk high over Snowdon. The same

732, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

evening there were said to be about a dozen over Mashobra and one was shot

and sent to me to substantiate the record.

These birds must have moved on immediately as on October 181 saw none in

the course of along day overtowards Kufri, though the next evening at dusk

saw a single bird over the Ridge.

Arboricola torqueola millardi, Stuart Baker. The Hill-Partridge.

I attribute to this species a characteristic call of the Simla hills, a very gentle

melancholy poor or pheaw, wnich at closer quarters sounds more like guaaw ; it

is uttered singly at short intervals and the sound carries for a long distance, being

audible throughout a whole nullah. This call may be heard from 6,000 to 8,000’

in the Simla hills throughout May and June and the first half of July and occa-

sionally at other times. If my attribution is correct the Hill-Partridge must be

fairly common, though I only occasionally flushed a pair on forest-clad hill-

sides.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Barleria Gibsontotdes, BLATTER, SP. NOV.

Del. Norah Coady.

SOME NEW SPECIES OF PLANTS FROM THE WESTERN GHATS

EK. BLATTER AND C. McCann

(With a Plate)

Barleria Gibsonioides, Blatter, sf. zov. [Acanthacea sectionis Eubarlerie,

similis Barleriz Gibsoni, Dalz. a qua tamen recedit bracteis basi semper late

rotundis, sepalis interioribus glabris exceptis marginibus ciliolatis, corolla

minime glabra, seminibus discoideis, colore corollae].

A tufted undershrub, up tol m. high, very leafy. Stems quadrangular,

very obscurely winged, stiff, erect, light green ; internodes thickened above the

leaves. Leaves glabrous, except the margin which is finely spinous-hairy,

leathery or papery, somewhat rigid, lowest broadly ovate or almost rounded,

obtuse at the tip, lamina up to 14cm. by up to 10 cm., the rest ovate-oblong or

ob ong, acuminate, up to 20 cm. by 8 cm., very variable in size and shape,

shining-green above, glaucous beneath, base rounded or tapering, main

nerves up to 7 pairs, depressed and whitish above, prominent beneath ; stalks

of lowest leaves up to 4 cm. long, getting shorter upwards. Flowers in dense,

imbricate, terminal spikes, rarely solitary, axillary ; spikes more or less 10 cm.

long in flower. Bracts foliaceous, the lowest 1 or 2 pairs resembling the leaves

and up tol0 cm. long, the rest getting rapidly shorter upwards and shorter

than the calyx, broadly elliptic-lanceolate, acute, broadly rotund at the base,

pale-green. Bracteoles at base of stalkless flower, linear, boat-shaped, subacute,

glabrous on both surfaces, margin ciliolate, up to2 cm. by 2mm. Outer sepals

2, ellipsoid, rounded at base, up to 5cm. long and 2-23 cm. broad, often

exactly alike as to size and shape, but one generally slightly shorter and sub-

acute at the apex, the other acute, both distinctly nerved, quite glabrous, glau-

cous on the lower surface, pale green and shining on the upper; inner sepals

2, narrowly linear-lanceolate, acuminate, boat-shaped, up to 15 mm.’ long,

2-3 mm. broad, glabrous, with ciliolate margin. Corolla 6-10 cm. long, minute-

ly glandular-hairy on the margin and tube, sparingly so on the surface of the

lobes ; tube 4-5 cm. long, enlarged upwards, dark purple inside and outside,

lobes obovate or ellipsoid, rounded at the apex, delicately veined, mauve (light

and dark), the 2upper lobes each with a large elongated dark purple blotch

beginning at base of lobe and extending 15-20 mm., blotches sometimes faint

or absent. Stamens 2; filaments white in the lower part, mauve in the upper ;

anthers violet ; pollen globose, white. Staminodes 3, without anthers. Base of

stamens and staminodes minutely glandular-hairy. Style filamentous, white in

the lower part, mauve above. Stigina bifid. Unripe capsule oblong, tip conical,

shining, smooth. Seeds 4, disc-shaped, glabrous. [PLATE I.]

Very variable as to size and shape of leaves even on the same plant. In open

Situations the leaves are shorter, thicker, stiffer, and darker green on the

upper surface, whilst when growing amongst other vegetation, they are longer,

narrower, thinner and lighter green. In the latter surroundings the internodes

of the stem are considerably thinner and longer. ‘The flowers, too, vary a

good deal as to size and shape of the coroila-lobes. On drying the upper

side of the leaves turns black, the lower bluish-grey.

Locality : Below Godowli,3 miles from Panchgani, W. Ghats of Bombay

Presidency (Blatter Nos. 1, 2, 3, 5, 7 type, 4, 6, co-type). Wasin flower during

the first half of October 1927.

Crinum Eleonorae, Blatter & McCann, spf. nov. [Amaryllidacea Sectionis

Brachynematis, similis Crino brachyneniati, Herbert, a quo tamen differt collo

robusto longo, staminum filamentis longioribus, antheris duplo longioribus,

stylo quam filamentis multo longioribus].

Bulb ovoid or almost spherical, up to20 by 13cm., narrowed into a stout

, heck about 8 cm. long, clothed with old pale leaf-sheaths. Leaves appearing

734 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOGIETY, Vol eed?

after the flowers, ensiform, with obtuse apex up to 60cm. long and 5 cm. broad,

not very firm, fairly thin, dark green, glabrous, with the margins entire.

Scape lateral, up to 50 cm. long, reaching 2°5 cm. diam., cylindrical, but

slightly compressed, green, tinged with purple. Flowers white, strongly scented

upto 20 in an umbel, nodding. Bracts 2, broadly lanceolate, obtuse or acute,

with broadly inflexed and thickened margin, 9 by 3:3cm., green, tinged with

purple outside, pale inside. Bracteoles linear, up to9cm. lony, green, tinged

with purple. Pedicels up tolcm. long, stout. Perianth funnel-shaped, tube

green, tinged with purple, or greenish and becoming paler towards tip, up to

6°5 cm. long, cylindric at base, then becoming 4-sided with rounded angles ;

lobes up to 7'5 cm. long and 22cm. broad, lanceolate, the inner ones some-

times oblanceolate, cuspidate, reflexed and slightly concave at the tip, with a

longer cusp in bud, pure white, sometimes tinged with purple along the median

line on the back ; the buds are cream-coloured and the purple tinge is more

pronounced. Filaments on the throat of the perianth-tube, free, filiform,

ourple, 1 cm. long ; anthers in young buds yellow, then (whilst still in the bud)

zetting black and only yellow along the open slits, dorsifixed, up to 15 mm.

Jong, oblong, twisted when dry. Style filiform, included in the tube, up to

5 cm. long, white in the lower part, purple above. Fruit not seen.

The anthers open in the bud.

Locality : Lingmala near Mahableshwar, open hill-sides and on both sides of

the river above the Yenna Falls, also half-way between Panchgani and Maha-

bleshwar (McCann Nos. 7, 8, 9, 10, type).

Forma purpurea.—McCann found specimens in the same localities with the

perigone-segments oblanceolate, deeply tinged with purple on the dorsal side,

and the perigone-tube with the bracts uniformly brown-purple. (McCann No.

Ii; type.)

In flower: End of April and beginning of May.

iphigenia stellata, Blatter, sf. zov. [Liliacea, similis Iphigeniw, indice A. Gray,

differt tamen ab ea floribus duplo maijoribus, petalis minime unguiculatis, oblongis

vel oblongo-lanceolatis, vel oblongo-obovatis, non lineari-subulatis, mucronatis

vel acuminatis].

Corm subglobose, 10-18 min.in diam., narrowed into a short hypogezal neck,

tunicate with light-brown membranous sheaths. Stem up tol0 cm. high, rigid

to flexuous. Leaves alternate, 2-4, grass-like, sessile, the lower up to 12 by

1cm., all about the same size, linear or linear-lanceolate, tip acute-mucronate,

coriaceous, rigid, keeled, shining on both surfaces, base long-sheathing ; midrib

depressed on upper surface, nerves many, upto about 12, obscure above, very

prominent beneath. Flowers various hues from pale to dark mauve, cream-

coloured in bud, up to 7in aterminal short raceme. Bracts linear cr linear-

lanceolate, resembling theleaves, upto6 cm. long. Pedicels 12-20 mm. long,

stout, thickened below the flower, deeply 6-grooved, each ridge supporting a

petal. Perianth-segments up to 15 mm. long, up to 4 mm. broad in the middle,

oblong or oblong-lanceolate, or oblong-obovate, mucronate or acuminate, not

clawed, spreading. Stamens up to5 mm. long, purple; filaments rigid,

straight, slightly fattened on inner surface ; anthers 1-1°5 mm. long, versatile,

purple ; pollen yellow. Ovary green, slightly shorter than the stamens, oblong-

trigonous, 6-sulcate; styles 3, 2 mm. long, united atthe base for about % their

length, recurved, dark purple, stigmatic surface beginning with the curve of

the styles; ovules ovoid-oblong. Capsule almost globose, or obovate or oblong-

obovate, loculicidal, up to8 mm. long, deep grooves between the carpels,

shallow grooves on back of carpels, styles and stigmas persistent. Seeds subglo-

bose or ovoid, 2 mm. long, slightly irregular, flattened on one side, umbonate,

yellow testa very thin.

Like J. indica very variable and resembling it at first sight. Can always

be distinguished by the much larger flowers and by the shape of the clawless

petals. _

Locality : Tableland of Panchgani, W. Ghats of Bombay Presidency, fairly

common (Blatter Pl type), also found on Second and Third Tableland, on

Tableland near Mahomedan School.

Was found in flower about the middle of June, 1925. There had been some

heavy showers at the end of May and beginning of June.

Fruit noted about the middle of August.

NEW SPECIES OF PLANTS FROM THE WESTERN GHATS 735

Urginea polyantha, Blatter & McCann, sf. nov. [Liliacea similis Ureinece

indicee, Kunth, sed recedit ab ea pedicellis brevibus nunquam deflexis, racemo

denso multifloro, perianthio rotato, perianthii segmentis omnibus apice barbatis,

staminibus brevioribus, stylo cylindrico, capsula apice truncata].

Bulb globose-ovoid, tunicate, pale, up to 5 by 4°5 cm., neck 3°5 cm. long,

conical. Leaves appearing after the flowers, not observed. Scape up tc 60 cm.

high, up to 4mm. diam. at the base, slender, rigid, slightly bent at tip, wreenish

to “purple, dense-flowered. Flowers many, up to 50, about 1 cm. and less apart

on the raceme up to 25 cm. long. Pedicels filiform, up to 6 mm. long, spreading

in flower, ascending or appressed and almost double the length in fruit. Bracts

deltoid, about 1 mm. long, often still visible in fruit. Flower-buds brownish-

purple, obovate when very young, gradually becoming clavate. Perianth

rotate, pale yellowish-green inside, with a broad brownish band along the

centre outside ; segments oblong, 5-6mm. long, bearded at tip, outer ones

3 mm. broad, inner 2-2°5 mm. broad, obtuse. Stamens whitish, 2°5 mm. long ;

filainents flattened, getting very thin upwards; anthers versatile, cordate at

base. Ovary oblong, 6-grooved. Style short, stout, uniformly thick through-

out, 3-grooved. Stigma trigonous. Capsule up to 10 by 5 mm., broadly

ovoid-oblong or broadly ellipsoid, truncate at tip, coriaceous, triquetrous, each

carpel with an elevated groove in centre and with a slightly higher rib on

margin. Cells 2-10-seeded. Seeds broadly ellipsoid, sometimes irregularly

toothed at upper end, broadly winged, up to 6 by 5 mm., flat, shining black,

seed without wing pear-shaped, flat.

Tetramerous ovaries have been observed. The flowers open before dawn and

remain open till about noon. The perianth encloses the fruit till the latter

reaches half the final size and then falls away.

Can be distinguished from U. Wightiana, Hook. f. by the much denser

raceines, the shorter pedicels, the shorter and broader perianth-segments, the

flowers not drooping, the seeds not being orbicular, and by the deltoid bracts.

In U. coromandeliana, Hook. f. the flowers are drooping and have longer

pedicels, only the inner perianth-segments are bearded at the tip, and the style

is obconic.

Locality : Amongst short grass on Tableland of Panchgani, W. Ghats of

Bombay Presidency, 4,400 ft., very common in some patches, less common on

slope of Tableland (Blatter and McCann No. 101, type).

Flowered from the middle of March toend of April, 1926.

Dipcadi Ursulae, Blatter, sf. mov. [Pertinet ad familiam Liliacearum ;

accedit ad Dipcadi montanum, Baker, a quotamen recedit foliis latioribus,

scapo tereti, bracteis ovatis longe-acuminatis quain pedicelli multo longioribus,

pedicellis in vivo robustis minime filiformibus, perianthii lobis exterioribus

quam tubus multo longioribus. }.

Bulb globose, small, about 20 mm.in diam., tunicate, with many white

fibres from the base. Leaves 4-5, leathery, 15-30 cm. long, up to 7mm. broad,

linear, plicate, grass-green, sheathing at the underground base. Scape green,

terete, 15-30 cm. long, smooth, naked. Flowerswhen in bud in dense racemes

of 6-12 flowers, ultimately the raceme becoming lax and reaching up to 12 cm.

long. Bracts caducous, ovate, long-acuminate, 10-26 mm. long, reaching 2-3

mm. beyond the bud, centre green, margin in the lower part or the whole

scarious. Pedicels 6-9 mm. long, stout, not filiform. Flower-buds dark pink-

brown. Perianth 15 mm.long, 18mm. across, slightly fragrant, the 3 outer

lobes 9 by 3-4 mm., reaching 3-4 mm. beyond the tube, oblong, obtuse,

recurved from about the middle and bent downwards, with 5 close, parallel

nerves in the middle and with an indurated minutely hairy apex, lower surface

pink-brown or greenish along the centre with the margin whitish, upper surface

greenish or whitish or dirty-white, along the centre darker ; the 3 inner perianth-

lobes connate to about the middle, lower part oblong, 5mm. long, tip 3-4 mm.

long and as broad, recurved at right angle to tube, with an indurated apex

which bears a few very minute hairs, lower surface whitish, along midnerve

green or pink-brown, upper side white, or slightly tinged with green or pink-

brown. Stamens attached to the perianth tube; filaments in their free part

linear-lanceolate, flattened, 3 mm. long, white, bent twice ata right angle just

below the anther. Anthers 2 mm. long, oblong, flat, thin, green, reaching the

mouth of the tube, dehiscing longitudinally, introrsely. Ovary narrowly

obovoid, trigonous, 5 mm. long, 2-2°5 mm. broad in the upper part, green,

736 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXII

stalk 1mm.long. Style 5-6 mm. long, stout, slightly thickened at both ends,

papillose, especially in the upper half. Stigma indistinctly 3-lobed, 1:5 mm.

in diam., not thicker than the style. Young capsule much longer than broad.

Locality: In grass on Tableland of Panchgani, W. Ghats of Bombay

Presidency, 4,400 ft. (Blatter No. P74, type).

Flowered about the middle of August 1925.

Dipcadi saxorum, Blatter, sf. mwov. [Pertinens ad familiam Liliacearum

accedit ad Dipcadi concanense, Baker, differet tamen ab ea specie scapo necnon

racemo multo longioribus, racemo ca 20-floro, bracteis late ovatis et longe

acuminatis basi laciniolatis, perianthio parvo, segmentis ovato-obtusis,

staminum filamentis brevissimis, stylo multo breviore, seminibus paullisper

ellipticis vel fere orbicularibus].

Bulb tunicate. Scape about 50 cm. long, terete, smooth. Racemes up to 20

cm. long, rather lax, about 20-flowered. Bracts broadly ovate, long-acumi-

nate, scarious, slightly fringed near the base about 7 mm. long. Pedicels stout,

by zlonger than the bracts. Perianth 12-14 mm. long, tubular, slightly

trigonous, the 3 outer lobes connate for 3 their length, linear-oblong, obtuse,

recurved from about the middle with athick, glandular tip, the 3 inner

connate for almost § their length, 3mm. broad, ovate-obtuse, with a recurved

and slightly thickened tip, all lobes whitish with an olive-coloured central band.

Filaments about 1 mm. long, slightly flattened ; anthers 3 mm. long, versatile,

yellow. Pistill0 mm. long. Ovary5 mm. long, trigonous, clavate, shortly

but distinctly stipitate ; style very stout, 5 mm. long, minutely granular

upwards; stigma slightly thicker than style, 3-lobed. Capsule broader than

long, deeply 3-sulcate, loculicidally 3-valved, membranous, stipitate, stalk

stout, about 2°5 mm. long; cells 5-seeded, seeds slightly elliptical to nearly

orbicular in outline, reaching 5 mm. diam., compressed, with a raised margin,

the lowest and topmost in each cell plano-convex.

Locality : Rocky places above the Kanheri Caves in Saisette, about 1,000 ft.,

Bombay Presidency (Blatter and Hallberg No. 8S], type)

Flowered in August 1917.

BIRDS OF PREY AND THEIR USES

C,H. DONALD), F.Z.S., MiB.0.U;

(With # plates)

From time immemorial the Raptores, as aclass, have been looked

upon as ‘ vermin’ to be destroyed at sight. The gamekeeper has

no use for them whatsoever, the poultry farmer (particularly in this

country), wages continual war on them, and even the Memsahib,

and her cook, chiefly the latter, have given of their best mutton-

chops or beef ‘i-stakes’ to satisfy the hunger of some marauding

kite.

In England, even the little kestrel is persecuted by the game-

keeper as a destroyer of pheasant chicks and partridges, and in this

country, asin parts of Ireland, ‘the HAWK’ is anathema to all

who have anything to do with the preservation of game.

Yet, there is another side to the story, andif we go into the

subject a little deeper than what appears onthe surface, and con-

sider the habits of the various species, one begins to wonder what

we should do without them ?

It, of course, must be thoroughly understood from the first that

no bird of prey will ever refuse a good opportunity of taking an

easy prey, such as a wounded or sick bird, or one in which the

flight is defective from an injury to the wing or otherwise. A

White-eyed Buzzard (Butastur teesa) who has spent his life catching

rats, frogs and insects, will immediately bestir himself should a

maimed partridge appear in the open within the range of his vision,

whereas normally, a whole covey might feed with impunity ina field

within fifty yards of his perch without his taking any notice of them

or the partridges of him.

Let us now try and see to what extent the birds of prey, asa

class, deserve this unenviable reputation.

From Mr. Stuart Baker’s Hand List of the Birds of India we

find there are 105 varieties of diurnal birds of prey. This

represents almost one-sixth of the world’s total number, so India

is well supplied.

Of this number many are winter visitors which arrive in the

autumn and disappear in the spring. Some are to be found in the

hills and not in the plains, and vice versa, whereas many which are

found in the north are wanting in the south, and southern birds are

very often unknown in the north.

From this it is pretty evident that no hard-and-fast rule can be

laid down for any particular locality, or even Province, and if we

are to discover to what extent the Raptores are injurious to our

738 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCERAL FIST. SOGETY, Vol. Cod?

game preserves, we must first find out what species are normally

found in that area.

To begin with let us make a list of the genera to be found in the

whole of India, from which we must eliminate those which are

harmless, and I have no doubt that many of our members will

probably be surprised at the result.

The Order Accipitres is divided into three families, viz.

Pandionide, Gypide and Falconide, the last being again

subdivided into two sub-families, Gypaétinze and Falconine. It is

unnecessary here to go into details regarding every species or

variety, but we can enumerate the genera and state how many

species each is comprised of, and these genera are :—

1. Pandion (Osprey), one; Vultures (4 gypius, Torgos, Gyps,

Pseudogyps, and Neophron) in all ten species: The Lammergeier

(Gypetus), one; True Eagles (Aguzla), six ; Hawk-eagles (Hzeraétus,

Lophetriorchis, Ictinaétus, Spizaétus), eleven; Serpent Eagles,

Buzzards, Fishing Eagles, Kites, Harriers, Honey-Buzzards, Bazas

and Falconets, in all forty-five species and varieties, beginning

with No. 1621 Czrcaétus gallicus to No. 1654, Buteo b. japonicus ;

No. 1670 to 1675 and again from 1692 to 1695.

This then leaves us with the hawks and falcons, i.e. As/ur,

Acctpiler and Falco, which between them account for thirty-one

species and subspecies.

Now out of this lot the following might safely be eliminated

without further consideration as not coming within the range of

game destroyers, viz. Osprey one, Vultures ten, the miscellaneous

assortment from Serpent Eagles to Faiconets forty-five, and the

Lammergeier one.

That is fifty-seven species, or over one half of the birds of prey

of India.

From this it must not be assumed that none of them ever catch a

game bird, as harriers catch quail or even a very occasional

partridge, and a fishing-eagle might often be seen flying off with

a duck (though probably never one that has not been in some way

maimed), but as a normal thing none of these birds are game

killers and the majority are absolutely incapable of catching any

game bird in full possession of its power of flight.

To this list we can add several others. The genus Aguila

contains six species of big powerful birds, but of these six only one,

the Golden Eagle (4. c. daphane) is a hunter, or capable of catching

any game bird. The remaining five might safely join the list of

the ‘harmless’. The hawk-eagles must all remain in the list of

suspects, and in fact are more or less, rather move than less all

distinctly injurious, with the possible exception of Wieraétus pennatus

and Jctinaélus m. perniger.

Among the hawks and falcons we have a number of keen

hunters, but how many would normally take a bird as big asa

partridge if smaller fry is available? Very few among the hawks,

at any rate. From the falcons we can ignore the merlins, hobbies

and kestrels as being too small to worry about, which leaves us

with six falcons which are all capable of doing considerable

damage,

"JOJUTLAA PUR ULUNINY UI sWeS [[IY O} 9ATIONISIq ‘awed 0} JDALIONIWSOp AIOA

(a~auvydnp snjavsdiys vjinby) (sujo10sv0f snj90419177)

ATOVA NAdIOO FHL ATOVA S.VUTANOd

‘DOS ‘LSIH “LVN AVEWOG NANO

‘AypROO] JepNosed ev UT sAT|ONAJSap 9WIODEq IYSTI] aoe

‘s[[Iy oy} UT dATONAYsap Ato

(uasFnl 0910.7)

(2mopaayas s1z4juagy 4njsy)

NOOIvVaA uU VI a

OOTVA YOOVWT AHL SMMVHSOD NUALSVa AHL

BIRDS OF PREY AND THEIR USES 739

This reduces the list to one eagle, nine hawk-eagles, six falcons

and perhaps as many hawks, say a little over a score of birds in all,

out of a total of 105.

Having arrived at the number that should be watched as provable

destroyers, the next question for the game preserver to consider is

how many of these ever visit, or are ever likely to visit his parti-

cular preserves. For this purpose we can divide them into two

classes, those that will be found in the plains, and those that live in

the higher ranges of the Himalayas. Of course, the list will vary

with each province, but if for the sake of argument we take the

Punjab, which I happen to know best, we should arrive at approxi-

mately the following conclusion. I say approximately because

stragglers and wanderers might turn up anywhere.

Variettes fiills Plains

Golden Eagle i| nil

Bonelli’s Eagle 1 1 (up to 8000’)

Changeable Hawk-Hagle (rare) nil (low hills) 1

Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle if nil

Goshawk 1 nil

Shikras and Sparrow Hawks 5 h)

Falcons 4 6

13 G8)

The above then is a rough list of what might reasonably be

expected to appear in either the hills or the plains of any district in

the Punjab. It includes such birds as the Shanghar and Red-capped

falcons, which are rare at best, whereas many species are restricted

to particular tracts and are by no means universally met with

throughout the Province.

This means, that in a province like the Punjab we need only

bother about some thirteen species of the Raptores as being J/zkely

to destroy our game in any particular locality, and if each province

was taken separately, the result would be more or less similar.

Having arrived at the above conclusion for the province, let us

see how the thirteen birds effect our particular area, be it in the

plains or in the hills, so let us start with a game preserve in the

plains ; what do we find :—

(a) Bonelli’'s Eagle. They hunt in pairs and are undoubtedly

destructive.

(6) Booted Hagle. Rare at best and will seldom take a bird

as quick on the wing as a partridge.

but very destructive where found.

(d) Shtkras and Sparrow Hawks. Not normally destructive

to birds the size and strength of a partridge, but will take young

chicks and cheepers.

(e) Falcons. Wf near water, the Siberian Peregrine will be a

constant visitor in the winter, but partridges are only in danger

when feeding far from cover.

(f) The Indian Peregrine Falcon. Not very common and birds

only in danger when away from cover.

740 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

(g) The Laggar falcon. Wunts in pairs and a pair may

become attached to a preserve and do considerable damage when

cheepers are about. ,

(h) The Saker Falcon. Is not likely to be found over scrub

jungle, and prefers open plains and sandy tracts. Can be ignored.

(2) Lhe Red-capped and Shanghar Falcons. Too rare to matter.

It will thus be seen that an intelligent interest in the doings of

the Raptores which frequent any area is all that is necessary to

find out the real culprits that are doing, or apt to do, damage but

to call the whole family ‘ vermin’ and try to exterminate -them is

the surest way of ruining any game preserve, as I shall endeavour

to show.

Real enemies of ground game.

The next question is, when does ground game need most pro-

tection? Obviously in the nesting season.

During the nesting season what is its worst enemy? Here we

have a number of things to contend with such as rats, mongooses,

the larger snakes, monitor lizards, and to a smaller extent foxes,

cats and perhaps jackals. Of these, again, which are the worst ?

Monitor lizards, rats (because of their numbers), snakes and mon-

gooses. The last, however, might be allowed considerable

latitude because of the good they do in keeping down snakes and

rats. Snakes also eat rats, but the actual number of rats killed

by snakes in the year must be, at best, comparatively small and

almost negligible.

Any of the above-mentioned will wipe out an entire clutch of

eggs in a few moments. It would take a hawk or a falcon, even

if it took to a game diet and ate nothing else, a week or ten days

to accomplish such a result.

On the other hand what keeps down rats and snakes, besides a

mongoose, cats and foxes? The birds of prey. There is nota

single bird of prey (except vultures), that will not catch and eat a

rat, given the chance; not even the noble Peregrine or the mighty

Goiden Eagle, will refuse the tit-bit, whereas the majority of them

practically live on them. Remove this host from any area and the

result will probably spell disaster.

I have recently been through the best partridge preserves in the

province, during the gun dog trials in Patiala and Jind, and the

fact was very noticeable that we came upon patch of jungle where

the birds were extremely plentiful, in fact. too plentiful for the

peace of mind of the working dogs, whereas we also came upon

patches where tor half an hour at a time, nota bird was flushed.

This fact led me to keep an eye on the nature of the ground and

I noticed that many of these barren beats were infested with rat

holes, and the mounds of the mole-rat were much in evidence.

Was this a coincidence, or does it bear out my theory that rats

are one of the biggest enemies that ground game has?

Throughout the six days, four in Jind and two in Patiala, that I

was there, I also kept a close eye on the birds of prey we en-

countered, and these are the species I saw :—Shikras, in plenty.

One chased a partridge that had been very slightly wounded for

"20J ULY) PUSTIJ DIOJ| JaT[EY eI JUsT[IOxe UY

(snzouuad snjav1a1F7) (sisuazvdiu sisuajvdiu vzinby)

ATOVA GaLOOd HHLL ATOVA- Adda LS NYALSVA AHL

“DOS LSIH (LVN AVEWOgG ‘NYnor

"prlg & SI[Ey

‘ajduns pure aind Jonel Vy :

: A[[euotseo90 AOA {$}D9SUT PUB JOT ‘S}eI UO SOAI'T

psaa} 4njspjn

( } 4njspojng) (snynounuu2) 09]04)

GUVZZNdA GHAT-ALIHM FHL TAWLLSAM AHL

BIRDS OF PREY AND THEIR USES 741

quite a long way, but failed to catchit. I mnever saw another one

attempt to chase, though I twice saw partridges fly into the open

and pass a tree, into which a shikra had gone a few minutes before,

Without the latter taking any notice. One pair of Red-headed

Merlins, two pairs of Laggar Falcons, several White-eyed Buzzards,

a couple of Long-legged Buzzards, and a larger number of Tawny

and Steppe Eagles, and one Imperial Eagle. A Steppe Eagle carried

off a partridge that had been shot and was, in turn, pursued by no

less than four others and an Imperial, but which eventually got

the booty I did not discover. I noticed harriers on several occa-

sions, and a very fine adult Spotted Eagle took up a commanding

position over the water on which the water test took place, but

‘moved on’ as soon as the first shot was fired. I saw no sign of

any of the ‘nobler’ falcons and was somewhat surprised not to see

a single Bonelli’s Eagle.

The presence of eagles and buzzards is a fairly good indication

that rats are numerous and hunting (of rats) good.

In the hills, what is the worst enemy game birds have to contend

with in the breeding season? The Jungle Crow first and foremost,

and the Indian Marten. Then possibly foxes, cats and such like.

During the autumn and winter the Golden Eagle takes considerable

toll, and the Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle and the Goshawk at all times,

but the Goshawk is by no means as common as it used to be, and

the Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle is curiously given to certain localities

and completely wanting in others. It is very common, for instance,

in Bhadarwar and parts of Chamba and very rare in Kangra. Yet

itis very common again in parts of the Simla Hills such as the

Jubal and Taroach States, but rare on the Sutlej watershed. This

species is particularly destructive to pheasants of all kinds and his

method of hunting does not give them the smallest chance of

escape.

The Golden Eagle, on the other hand, does not appear to touch

game during the breeding season and every nest I have examined

(and I have taken four youngsters from their nests, as far apart as

one in Kashmir, two in Bushahr State (Simla Hills) and one in Tehri

Garhwal), has contained more remains of crows than anything else.

The reason for this is not hard to seek. He is a typical falcon in

his way of hunting, and prefers the open. His long wings are all

against his hunting among trees, and unless pheasants can be

flushed for him and rise above the trees, he is powerless. During

the summer months most pheasants keep to thick cover, except

Snow-cock and a few Monal which go out on to the Alpine pastures

to feed. At this period the Golden Eagle has his work cut out

providing food for a shrieking youngster in the nest, and it is not

quality he seeks but quantity, and there is no lack of crows.

Crows, with dozens of youngsters, go in large flocks to roost

among the oaks at high levels in the evening and come down in the

morning, and the eagle has no difficulty in getting as many as he

wants. In this respect he does a great deal of good, but there is

no denying the fact that any and every pheasant which has the

temerity to feed out in the open, in the autumn when the young

eagle accompanies its parents, is looking for trouble.

742 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Bonelli’s Eagle, though unlike the other hawk-eagles in his

method of hunting, does considerable damage, particularly among

Chukor. They always hunt in pairs and are very persistent in their

attack. oS

Though we have already reduced the possibie destroyers of game to

thirteen, it must be remembered that this number is the maximum

of what might reasonably be expected to be seen over any particular

locality, and it can be very considerably reduced for really practical

purposes. For instance, in the plains, the possibility of five species

of shikras and sparrow-hawks appearing in any one locality is very

remote. Then again, during the most important period of game

preservation, viz. the breeding season, at most two species of

falcons will be found, the rest having left the country.

Thus the game preserver need only trouble himself with a very

small percentage of the total number, and then only if he finds that

some particular individuais have regularly attached themselves to

the vicinity and taken to a game diet. Rather than shoot the wrong

birds it would perhaps be better to shoot none at all.

After all if we look at it in another way we find that the

commonest hawk inthe plains of India, and the hills too for that

matter, is perhaps the Shikra. It takes considerable toll of the

smaller birds, and so do Red-headed Merlins, and yet do we find any

diminution in babblers, sparrows and our host of little garden birds ?

Most of us can probably name various places where game was

plentiful twenty or thirty years ago, inspite of the birds of prey,

which had been there with the game from time immemorial. Ican

even now find my way to places in the Himalayas where Monal and

all the other pheasants are extremely numerous, and appear to

thrive inspite of the presence of Golden Eagles, Goshawks and the

other birds of prey. But these are places where there is not a

village within twenty miles and the people in those villages have

not yet aspired to gun licenses.

It is man, with his guns, nets and nooses who does most of the

damage. Before he came on the scene as a destructive agent,

Nature preserved her balance. Now since man has upset the

balance it behoves him to remedy the evil that he has brought about,

if we would preserve our game, and to do that it is necessary to

consider the whole position intelligently, and discover the real

agents of destruction and wage war on them, and not seek to destroy

an entire family simply because one member has proved a game-

destroyer.

Is it not time that the Society took up the question of not only

game preservation but the preservation of our fauna generally ?

India is dependent on its agriculture, and the thousands of birds, of

which the zamindar knows nothing and cares less, are one of the

main factors which protect his crops. Out of over 2,000 odd species

to be found inthe Indian Empire,a good sixty per centum are

insectivorous and therefore the zamindar’s staunch allies. There

are only avery small percentage that are actively destructive.

Under the Arms Act we have numbers of would-be shikaries who

are out to shoot something for the sake of shooting, in season and

out of season.

BIRDS OF PREY AND THEIR USES 743

Under the Wild Birds and Animals Protection Act, Government

can stop the shooting of any particular species, but cannot declare

a general close season. Is this of any use? You cannot do

anything toa man unless you actually catch him in the act of

shooting a protected bird, and what isto prevent him shooting a

dozen protected birds when no one is near, and producing an

‘unprotected’ bird when questioned ?.

A general close season when the carrying of a shot gun is an

offence under the Act is essential, except in the vicinity of crops.

Crop protection licenses might be issued free of charge, but the

moment the man is found using his gun outside his crops the license

should be cancelled and the arm forfeited.

Something on these lines will have a very beneficial effect but the

present system spells extermination of game within the next two

decades or so.

The rules and regulations of the Forest Acts can only apply to

protected forests, but what about the rest of the country where

the ‘ would-be’ shikari, to say nothing of the many criminal tribes

with their nets and nooses, can destroy what they like with

impunity ?

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT

Rev. F.S. BRIGGS AND B. B. OSMASTON, M.B.O.U., 1.F.S. (RETD.)

(With a map.)

The following notes on the birds of the Peshawar District have been combined

from the observations of the Rev. F.S. Briggs and Mr. B. B. Osmaston by

Mr. Hugh Whistler. The former spent six years at Peshawar, from 1920 to 1926.

The latter was there merely for a single cold weather from October 27, 1925

to March 27, 1926, but the sliortness of his stay was compensated for by the care

with which he made a collection of skins to identify the cold weather avifauna.

These skins have been enumerated under their respective species, and the

identification of the various racial forms is largely due to them. It is, however,

realized that this list of Peshawar birds cannot be considered complete. It is

proffered both as a record of the notes made by these two observers, and as a

groundwork for a fuller investigation of the avifauna of what, from its position,

will undoubtedly prove to be one of the most interesting and prolific districts of

India to the students of the palaearctic area.

Peshawar is situated in the notth-west corner of British India, N. Lat. 34°,

E. Long. 713°, in a wide plain traversed by the Kabul River, and surrounded by

hills.

This valley or plain measures some forty-eight miles from east to west, and

about thirty from north to south. Itis roughly level, at an altitude of about

1,100 feet above the sea.

For six or seven miles in all directions from Peshawar the valley is very

fertile owing to a verv complete system of irrigation by canals from the Kabul

and Bara Rivers, and magnificent crops of wheat, barley, maize, rice and

sugar-cane are produced.

Outside the irrigated area the country is virtually a desert, owing to the short-

ness of the rainfall, Peshawar being outside the area served by the South-west

Monsoon.

These dry desert areas bear little or nothing in the way of trees, vegetation

being restricted to a sparse growth of thorny shrubs. Woods and tree-growth

are restricted to the irrigated tract, including Peshawar Cantonment, which is

well wooded with a variety of trees. Elsewhere in the irrigated tract we find

extensive orchards of pears, quinces, peaches, oranges and pomegranates, and

along streams willows and mulberries, with roadside avenues of tamarisk and

sheesham.

The climate is one of extremes. The winter months, from October to March,

are cold, with regular night frosts fron: December to February, but with plenty

of warin sunshine in the day. The summer heat is severe and prolonged, and

frequently the temperatures registered at Peshawar are as high as, or even higher

than those in any other part of India.

The country round Peshawar falls naturally into three classes :—

1. Theirrigated tract, including Peshawar itself and its immediate sur-

roundings, characterized by field crops and aconsiderable quantity of tree

growth.

2. Thedry, desert country, surrounding the first, and extending to the

hills.

3. The swamp areas, found scattered in (1), and also including very large

beds of bulrushes, reeds and tall grass in the neighbourhood of the Kabul

River and its branches and backwaters. Unfortunately, from the point of view

of the ornithologist, a very large proportion of the reeds are cut and dried for

fuel and other purposes just at the time when they would provide nesting-sites

for several species of birds.

The birds which affect these three types of country are mostly quite distinct.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

aay 066 O9LE 36 SOIT dL = Your [ 9[¥og

{ SIDATY

090)

wrwsm = SInOU0D aH speurd

co ON YAN

pif sof wey

ci 008%

HOzZ01'Q>

-A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 745

1. Corvus corax (L). The Raven,

Although rarely seenin Peshawar itself the Raven is found in winter throug-

out the Peshawar Valley, being common a few miles out, for instance in the

more open stretches round Nowshera and Risalpur, near Jamrud, and along

the Khaibar Pass and Kohat Roads. During the hot weather it is only to be

seen in the valley on occasional cool days following rain, but it is at this season

very numerous at Cherat, and a few may be seen in the Khaibar Pass. A pair

build regularly on the cliffs on the Marble Rocks, between Nowshera and

Risalpur. The nest contained four newly hatched young and two infertile eggs

on March 6,1923, and three fresh eggs on February 8,1925. The birds which

laid in this nest were certainly C. c. /aurencit, but some of the Ravens seen in

the valley and more especially in the Khaibar Pass are very rusty in appearance,

and it is possible that C. c. ruficollis either breeds in the Pass, or wanders into

the valley. No specimens were, however, procured.

2. Corvus coronoides intermedius (Adams). The Himalayan Jungle Crow.

3o January 2, 1926, ¢ February 7, 1926, Peshawar. A single bird was shot by

Osmaston at Peshawar on February 7, feeding on the carcase of a buffalo.

There is some doubt as to whether it is this species or the Carrion Crow (Corvus

corone) which Briggs noticed as a regular but never numerous winter visitor to

the Peshawar Valley. He records it as always commoner in March and April

than at any other time, and then apparently migrating in a westerly direction

as small parties may be seen making their way up the Khaibar Pass.

3. Cervus frugilegus (L). The Rook.

3o & February 5, 1926, Peshawar. Abundant winter visitor, arriving towards

the end of October (earliest date October 23), and gradually becoming more

numerous ; practically all are gone by the end of March ; latest date observed

April 5. During the daytime the Rooks feed in the irrigated fields, and are

then rarely seen in Cantonments or villages. They collect, however, in vast

flocks at night to roost in the avenue trees in the Cantonments of Peshawar and

Mardan, though none seem to sleep in Nowshera or Risalpur.

4. Corvus cornix sharpii. (Oates). The Eastern Hooded Crow.

& December 21, 1926, 2 January 21, 1926. Peshawar; ¢ December 29, 1925,

Pabbi. A regular winter visitor ; earliest date October 23, latest date March 23.

It is found in pairs, or rarely in small parties, often associated with Rooks,

and keeps almost entirely to the wilder, more open, and barren parts of the valley

specially in the vicinity of swamps or the river. It is the wildest and most

wary of all the local crows.

5. Corvus splendens zugmayeri (Laubm.) The Sind House-Crow.

& December 29, 1925, Peshawar. Exceedingly common and resident in and

around Peshawar. It roosts separately from the Rooks. Eggs are mostly laid

in the first week of July. In February, 1921 there appeared to be an epidemic

among the species, and considerable numbers fell dead from their sleeping-

perches.

6. Corvus monedula semmeringii (Fischer). The Eastern Jackdaw.

@ February 5, 1926, Peshawar. A winter visitor from November to early

March, varying in numbers greatly from year to year. In the winter of 1920-21

they were numerous, and very numerous again in the winter of 1925-26,

whereas in the winter of 1921-22 Briggs only saw them once, namely on

January 1. They feed in the fields with the Rooks, and also roost with them.

7. Nucifraga multipunctata (Gould). The Larger Spotted Nutcracker.

A straggler, probably of this species, which is the form found on the Sufed

Koh to the west and in Hazara to the north, was seen by Briggs in Peshawar

on April 23, 1920. The previous night had been very stormy.

8. Parus major kaschmiriensis (Hartert). "The Kashmir Grey Tit.

winter visitor to the Peshawar Valley; earliest date October 21, latest date

March 30. It keeps chiefly to the wooded areas.

9. Parus monticolus (Vigors). ‘The Green-backed Tit.

A winter visitor, less numerous than the last species. Earliest date October

13, latest date March 14.

745 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

10. A€githaliscus concinnus (Gould). The Red-headed Tit.

A party of about six were seen by Briggs at Cherat about 4,500 on Angust

22, 1920,

Il. Argya earlii (Blyth). The Striated Babbler,

Rather rare, but probably a resident. Anest with fresh eggs was taken by

Briggs in swampy ground at Rashkai near Mardan, on May 29, 1922.

12. Argya caudata. The Common Babbler.

& 2 November 16, 1925. ¢ Q@ November 18, 1925. @ December 14, 1925,

Peshawar.

A common resident, numerous in the tong grass and tamarisk near streams,

and, as elsewhere, found in loose parties. In winter it is more numerous in

gardens than in summer. While breeding it shows a preference for ever-

greens. Fresh eggs found between March 21 and August 19 but mainly in

April.

13. Molpastes hemorrhous intermedius(Jerdon). The Punjab Red-vented Bulbul.

3 2 November 16, 1925. Common in Peshawar and in the surrounding

woods. Doubtless resident, but Briggs notes :—‘ In the unusually dry and hot

summer of 1920, Red-vented Bulbuls became scarce about the middle of July

and remained so till the evening of September 29. On that evening, about

seven o’clock, a large flock of white termites appeared in Peshawar, with

numbers of Bulbuls in pursuit of them. For about twenty minutes not less

than thirty Bulbuls were busily employed in my garden feeding on the termites

which they caught in the air afterthe manner of Flycatchers. The next day

Bulbuls seemed to be about the same numbers as they had been the previous

winter, and I noticed no great fluctuation in numbers afterwards.’ Fresh eggs

found between March 13 and July 12.

14. Molpastes leucogenys leucogenys (Gray). The White-cheeked Bulbul.

& 6 November 13, 1925. 2 November 18, 1925. 4 December 7, 1925. ¢

December 13, 1925.

15. Molpastes leucogenys humii (Oates). Hume’s White-eared Bulbul.

3 2° January 11, 1926. Twenty miles south-east of Peshawar.

Osmaston collected a nice series of ten of these Bulbuls in the winter of

1925-26, and states that they are common, and found to some extent inthe dry

tracts, though mainly in the irrigated area. He suspects that they may be a

winter visitor. Briggs’ longer observations enable him to amplify this as

follows :—‘ Very numerous in winter, especially in the latter part. In the

summer this bird retires from the lower parts of the valley to the hills

surrounding it. I have found them breeding at Attock at about 1,000 feet,

below Cherat at about 2,000 feet and near Ali Musjid at about 2,500 feet. It is

surprising that the White-cheeked Bulbul of the Peshawar Valley should be

leucogenys and not Aum.’ He further adds that he saw two Bulbuls outside

Peshawar on the Jamrud road on January 18, 1920, which he identified as J/. Z.

loucotis.

An examination of Osmaston’s series shows that all the specimens from

Peshawar are clearly J/. /. leucogenys, and we are justified in describing that

form asa regular and common winter visitor to Peshawar. ‘Three birds, how-

ever, obtained in the dry foot-hills 20 miles to the south-east of Peshawar are

closer to 17. l. humit, and doubtless represent the resident form. We have been

compelled for the identification of these birds to examine the British Museum

series as well as thirty birds in Mr. Whistler’s collection, as the account of

these forms in the second edition of the Fauna is not very satisfactory, and

superficially they are difficult to understand owing to the amount of variation

in the individual. It may be as well, therefore, to explain the position.

The Yellow-vented Bulbuls of North-west India form an excellent example

of a species, divided into subspecies, and connected by intermediate forms.

Gray in 1830 described the hill bird from Darjeeling and in this species,

curiously enough, although the bird is so variable in the north-west generally,

birds from the Eastern Himalayas are precisely similar to birds from the

Western Himalayas as leucogenys, while Gould in 1836 described the plains

bird as deucotis; its type locality has since been restricted to Karachi,

Sind, .

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 747

If Sind and Himalayan birds alone are contrasted, we have two. very

distinct birds, which might well rank as full species, with no danger of

confusion between them.

Leucogenys is a large bird with a long, comparatively slender bill, compared

with the smaller /ewcotis and its short bill.

Leucogenys : Bill from skull ¢ 18-20 mm. ; 2 17°5-19'5.

Wing ¢ 88°5-98 ; 2 88-96°5

Leucotis. Bill from skull J 17 mm. ; Q 16°5-17:

Wing 87-88 ; 2 81°5-85

In leucogenys the crest is so long and so curved forward over the beak that

it resembles a fool’s cap in shape—a peculiarity most marked in life ; the colour

is hair brown, each feather being narrowly edged with greyish white. ‘here is

a white line above the lores. The upper plumage is earth-brown tinged with

olive-brown and even olive green. ‘he under tail coverts are bright sulphur

yellow.

In Jeucotis the crest is so short as to be almost non-existent ; it is entirely

black, and there is no white line above the lores. The white cheek-patch is

twice as large as in the other bird, and the black on the throat is more sharply

defined, contrasting with the whitish lower plumage. The upper plumage is

plain fawn brown. ‘The under tail coverts are rich saffron yellow.

But between these forms a regular gradation may be found in the triangle

of country which extends north-west of the Salt Kange to the Afghan ranges

and to the Himalayas. The elevation here runs between 1,000 and 3,000 feet

and the Bulbuls from this area approximate more closely to /ewcogenys than to

leucotis, in that all have the under tail coverts bright sulphur yellow, and in

their size. Thecrest and loral line are variable, as is also the colour of the

upper parts.

It so chances that in 1889 Oates picked out a single bird from this intermediate

area, from Jalalpur, Jhelum District, on the southern border of the triangle,

and made it the type of his Wolpastes humit, so this name is available for the

intermediate forms. It must be remembered, however, that this race 17. 1. humiz

being a true ‘intermediate is variable, approximating on either side to the two

races which it connects. This approximation follows fairly definite lines.

Birds from the Jhelum Salt Range agree fairly closely with Oates’ type, which

in its shorter black crest without pale edging and with practically no trace of

the white loral line, in the size of the white cheek-patch, and in the fawn colour-

ed upper plumage, is very close totrue /eucotis. Birds from Kohat and Bannu

are in turn closer to Aumiz as are Osmaston’s three birdsfrom the dry foothills

about Peshawar. At Attock, Campbellpur, and Rawalpindi, however, we

find, as might be expected, that the birds are much closer to the true

leucogenys, which also probably in winter descends from the Himalayas and

mixes with them. Indeed they areas close to dewcogenys as Oates’ type is to

leucotis, and a determined ‘splitter’ might name them so as to make two

groups of races merging into one another.

This explains the situation at Peshawar. The resident bird belongs to the

drier areas aud low ranges, and is of the intermediate race Aum7z ; itis, how-

ever, obscured in winter by a regular immigration to the fertile irrigated area

of the Himalayan race, leucogenys.

16. Certhia himalayana (L). The Tree-Creeper.

& November 20, 1925. 2 November 24, 1925, Peshawar. A fairly common

winter visitor, found in avenues, woods, and gardens, Earliest date seen

October 17, 1925, latest date March 14, 1925. Briggs found one caught in a

spider’s web and entirely unable to free itself,

17. Tichodroma muraria (L) The Wall-Creeper,

A numerous winter visitor to the sandy nullahs and rocky gorges that surround

the Peshawar Valley, such as the Khaibar at Ali Musjid, Attock and the

Kalapani River at Risalpur. Peshawar itself is not suitable to its requirements.

18. Saxicola caprata bicolor (Sykes). The Pied Busn-Chat.

& December 30, 1925,,Peshawar. Mainly a summer visitor, though a few birds

Winter in the valley. ‘The earliest and latest dates for the mass are February 28

and October 1, In the valley eggs may be found commonly between April 7

and May 17, but Briggs found two nests with eggs on the point of hatching

on July 11, 1922, The majority of the birds of this species appear, after breeding

748 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11-

in the valley, to take their young, as soon as they can fly, to the lower hills

round the Peshawar Valley.

19. Saxicola torquata indica. (Blyth). The Indian Stone-chat.

@ November 9, 1925, 2 November 20, 1925, g November 26, 1925, Peshawar.

Mainly a spring and passage migrant, noted by Briggs as passing in spring

between March 17 and May 24, and in autumn between September 24 and

October 10. A few however, remain in winter.

20. Saxicola torquata leucura (Blyth). The White-tailed Stone-chat.

3 December 12, 1925, Peshawar. Osmaston collected a pair at Peshawar on

December 9, 1925, and his statement that a Stone-chat is not uncommon through-

out the winter, especially in grassy areas near swamps probably refers partly to

this race.

21. (Enanthe picata (Blyth). The Pied Wheatear.

According to Briggs a regular winter visitor to the Valley, keeping mainly

to barren country : earliest and latest dates seen are September 8 and March 8.

It breeds in the Khaibar Pass, where Briggs on several occasions’ saw it carrying

nesting material, but never had the opportunity of examining a nest.

22. (Enanthe capistrata (Gould). The White-headed Wheatear.

& November 15, 1925, ¢ December 6, 1925. According to Briggs, breeds in all

the hills round the Peshawar Valley down to about 2,000 ft. A pair were watched

at work on a nest in the Manki Pass, a few miles S. of Nowshera, on March 21,

1923. Thenest was then almost complete. It is much commoner as a winter

visitor to the Peshawar Valley than the last species. Briggs notes that ‘ Indivi-

duals of this species seem to be much attached to limited localities in their

winter area. Forexample, onthe road between Nowshera and Risalpur I

could be certain of seeing four birds of this species any day in the cold weather.

Near a lime kiln there was always a pair of them, male and female, and within

fifty yards of a certain tree there was always asingle male. There was always

another single male in the compound of the house at Risalpur where I usually

stayed. I always looked for him on the telegraph wires outside the house on

my arrival, and nearly always saw him there.’ Briggs’ earliest date for the

species is September 18. He, like other observers in other areas, remarks on the

preponderance of males in winter both in @. pzcata and @. capistrata.

23. (Enanthe opistholeuca (Strickland). Strickland’s Wheatear.

& December 21, 1925, § December 11, 1925. Not recorded by Briggs, but said

by Osmaston to occur in the dry country in winter, though not so commonly

as the last species.

24. (Enanthe isabellina (Cretsz). The Isabelline Wheatear.

2 November 15,.1925, Peshawar. gJanuary 25, 1926, Risalpur. Fairly common

locally in winter, generally in the neighbourhood of cultivation, in the dry,

desert land at the foot of the hills.

25. (CEnanthe xanthoprymna chrysopygia (De Filippi). The Red-tailed Wheatear.

Q2 December 17, 1925, Bara Fort, five miles. south-west of Peshawar. Fairly

common in the Khaibar, and probably breeds there. In the winter it is not rare

in the dry, desert country below the foothills.

It is noteworthy that neither Osmaston nor Briggs record the desert Wheater,

CE. desertt, which is so common a winter visitor to the Punjab.

26. Phoenicurus erythronotus (Evesrm.) Eversman’s Redstart.

3d January 22, 1926, Dilazak, 9 December 7, 1925, 2 December 10, 1925, Pesh-

awar. Stated by Osmaston to be seen occasionally throughout the winter in the

irrigated area.

27. Pheenicurus ochrurus pheenicuroides (Moore). The Kashmir Redstart.

A common winter visitor, but for some reason less numerous than usual in

the winters of 1924-25 and 1925-26. Earliest date seen September 24, latest

date April 17. It occurs both in the wet and dry areas, but, according to

Briggs, shows a strong preference for the neighbourhood of Tamarisk trees.

28. Chaimarrhornis leucocephala (Vigors). The White-capped Redstart.

One was seen by Briggs in the Khaibar Pass on December 12, 1924.

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 749

29. Rhyacornis fulginosa (Vigors). The Plumbeous Redstart.

Recorded by Briggs as fairly common on the Khaibar Stream during tHe cold

weather.

he Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis (Sarudny). The Eastern Red-spotted Blue-

throat.

3 October 31, 1925, ¢ November 18, 1925, ¢¢ November 28, 1925, ¢ December

Oy 1925; Peshawar, 6 January 22, 1926, 2 December 29, 1925, Pabbi. Very

numerous on passage, passing’ through the valley between ‘April 10 and May 10,

in spring, and between September 14 and October 14in autumn. During the

spring migration they seem to pass through almost entirely in pairs, and may

frequently be seen courting. In autumn they are less numerous, and seem as a

rule to make a shorter stay. In the winter they are not uncommon in the

irrigated country in dense cover such as sugar-cane, and grass and bulrushes

especially near swamps.

31. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Leth.). ‘Che indian Robin.

& November 15, 1925, Peshawar. A resident, but more numerous in summer

than in winter. In this area (asat Kohat), it avoids the neighbourhood of

houses, and prefers barren country, especially the stony Mahomedan

graveyards. Eggs found by Briggs between April 18 and May 24.

32. Turdus atrogularis (Temm.). The Black-throated Thrush.

& November 10, 1925, ¢ December 3, 1925, ¢ Q December 8, 1925, Peshawar.

A very common winter visitor, found chiefly in and around the station area and in

orchards. It is most numerous in February, and the latest date on which it is

recorded is March 28.

33. Turdus viscivorus (L). The Missel Thrush.

One was seen by Briggs at Peshawar on February 2, 1921.

34. Oreocincla dauma (Lath.). The Small-billed Mountain Thrush.

One was noted by Briggs on February 9, 1924.

35. Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). The Blue Rock Thrush.

Not found in Peshawar according to Osmaston, but observed in the neigh-

bouring rocky hills, Khaibar, etc.

36. Myiophoneus temminckii (Vigors). The Himalayan Whistling Thrush.

Not found in Peshawar according to Osmaston, but seen on the streams in the

neighbouring foothills.

37. Prunella atrogularis (Brandt). The Black-throated Accentor.

¢ January 1, 1926, Peshawar. Not uncommon, according to Osmaston, in

January and February in Pirbala and other woods.

38. Musicapa striata neumanci (Poche). The Spotted Flycatcher.

Briggs records that he saw a flock of these Flycatchers (and was certain that

they were not Alseonax latirostris) feeding in his compound at Peshawar on

April 19, 1921, and again from October 6 to 16, 1921, and on April 4, 1922.

39. Musicapa hypoleuca (Pallas). The Pied Flycatcher.

Briggs writes :—‘ A few birds indistinguishable from the British species pass

through Peshawar almost every spring. Earliest and latest dates seen February

18 and March 30. The only year that I have seen the species in the autumn was

1925, when a pair fed in my compound almost every day from October 31, till I

left Peshawar on January 11.’ The species has not yet been included in the

Indian list, so future observers at Peshawar should make every effort to verify

this occurrence by obtaining specimens. The species does not appear to have

been recorded nearer than Tehran.*

40. Siphia parva parva (Bechst.). The Red-breasted Flycatcher.

3b October 29, 1925, {November 8, 1925, 2 December 1, 1925, Peshawar. Chiefly

a passage migrant, the majority passing through in spring between March 24.

and April 21. First noted on the autumn migration on October 21. After the

first rush their numbers gradually decrease until only a few remain for the

tS. BON AS., vol. xxvi1, ps 114,

750 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI/

winter. They are found in the orchards and station area, and along all roads

bordered with Tamarisks. Red-breasted males are very rare amongst the winter

birds.

41. Culicicapa ceylonensis. The Grey-headed Flycatcher.

Q November 7, 1925, Peshawar. The above specimen was obtained by

Osmaston.

42. Terpsiphone paradisi (I.). The Paradise Flycatcher.

A few breed in the valley, as Briggs founda female feeding three young in

the trees overhanging the Grand Trunk Road, eight miles east of Peshawar on

June 20, 1923. it is, however, a passage migrant in spring and autumn.

Briggs states that they pass through in large numbers, but appear to stop only

one day. That day falls, as far as his observations go, between April 23 and

29, in thespring, and between September 19 and 29, in the autumn. The

race has not been identified.

43. Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes). The Indian Grey Shrike.

o ? January 13, 1926. Not common, but appears to be resident. It is confined

to barren stretches of country near the foot of the hills, showing a preference for

ground studded with stunted Ber trees.

44. Lanius vittatus (Valenc.). The Bay-backed Shrike.

Asummer visitor, very common in cultivated ground. Earliest date seen

March 23, latest date September 19. It has two broods, building a fresh nest

foreach. Eggs found between April 7 and July 7. Stragglers were seen by

Briggs near Taru Jabba on February 20, 1923 and January 25, 1924.

45. Lanius schach erythronotus (Vigors). The Rufous-backed Shrike.

& November 13, 1925, Peshawar. Resident, but much more common in

summer than in winter and a bird of the irrigated tract. A male of this species

was observed by Briggs to feed in his garden almost daily for the whole of the

six years he was in Peshawar. Forthe greater part of the year this bird was

alone, but, in the spring he was joined by a female, generally about the middle

of March. Each year they built either in his garden or the one next to it, and

usually succeeded in bringing offtwo broods of young. Once or twice they

used the same nest for both broods. The young of the first brood always dis-

appeared before the second brood had left the nest, and as soon as the second

brood was able to fly at all strongly. generally some time in August, they and the

hen disappeared. It is, of course, unsafe to generalize from a single case of

this sort, but it might be worth while to shoot a few Rufous-backed Shrikes in

winter with a view to discovering whether the decrease in their numbers each

winter is due to the migration of thefemales. It is to be noted that the one

specimen obtained by Osmaston, in November, was a male.

Osmaston remarks that the bird is a wonderful mimic ; he heard it giving in

quick succession an accurate imitation of the notes of the following :—House

Sparrow, Swallow, Indian Swift, Parrakeet, Mynah, Sandpiper, Bulbul and

Common Babbler. Eggs found between April 10 and July 1.

46. Lanius cristatus isabellinus (Hemp. and Ehr.). The Isabelline Shrike.

3 November 30, 1925, ¢ January 26, 1926, Peshawar. The above two

examples, procured by Osmaston, are the only records.

47. Tephrodornis pondiceriana (Gmel.). ‘The Common Woodshrike.

One was seen by Briggs on the outskirts of Peshawar on March 7, 1921.

48. Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris (Vigors). ‘The Short-billed Minivet.

visitor, appearing for aday or two at atimein small flocks, never more than

ten strong.

49. Dicrurus macrocercus ( Vieill.). ‘The King Crow.

A common summer visitor, laying in the first half of May. Earliest date

seen March 22, latest date October 1.

50. Dicrurus'leucocephalus longicaudatus (A. Hay). ‘The Ashy Drongo.

A pair was seen by Briggs in the Khaibar, May 28, 1925.

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 751

51. Acrocephaius stentoreus brunnescens (Jerdon). The Indian Great Reed

Warbler.

3d November 5, 1925. The above specimen shot by Osmaston was alone ina

swamp. Hedid not meet the species again till March 15, when he saw and

heard others, doubtless on migration.

52. Lusciniola melanopogon mimica (Madrasz). The Moustached Sedge

Warbler.

d November 5, 1925, 0? January 22,1926, Peshawar, 2 December 29, 1925,

Pabbi. Obtained by Osmaston, who found it common and noisy, though

difficult to observe in the swamps, especially in borrow-pits by the railway.

53. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Frankl.). The Fantail Warbler.

3g November 12, 1925, Q December 4, 1925, Peshawar. Found by Osmaston

in some of the grassy swamps, but stated to be not very common.

54. Franklinia buchanani (Blyth). The Rufous-fronted Wren Warbler.

G November 15, 1925, Peshawar. The above specimen obtained by Osmaston

in the dry country supplies the only record.

55. Sylvia curruca affinis (Blyth). The Indian Lesser Whitethroat.

3 November 5, 1925, 2 November 6, 1925, ¢ December 11, 1925, Peshawar.

A fairly common winter visitor.

56. Sylvia curruca minula (Hume). The Small Whitethroat.

& December 11, 1925, Peshawar. The above specimen was obtained by

Osmaston.

Briggs reports that individuals of one or other of the above races of S. curruca

spend the summer in the Tamarisk scrub on the banks of the Kalapani River.

Presumably they are non-breeders.

57. Phylloscopus collybita tristis (Blyth). The Siberian Chiff-chaff.

& October 29, 1925, 2 November 3, 1925, 4 November 8, 1925, 9 December

11, 1925, Peshawar. A very common winter visitor, especially in the wet

country. It is to be found in every clump of trees, also in road-avenues of Shi-

sham and Tamarisk, and often feeding by streams. Thesong may be heard

in April before the birds leave for their summer quartters.

58. Phylloscopus subviridis (Brooks). Brooks’ Willow Warbler.

& November 11, 1925, Peshawar. A winter visitor, and probably not

uncommon.

59. Scotocerca inquieta striata (Brooks). The Streaked Scrub Warbler.

A resident and fairly numerous on the dry, rocky hill sides on the spur which

separates Kohat from Peshawar, also on dry ground in the vicinity of Risalpur.

Osmaston found a nest with six eggs in the former place on March 12, 1926, and

Briggs found a nest containing one young bird on the point of leaving the nest

near Risalpur on April 15, 1925.

60. Horornis pallidus (Brooks). ‘The Pale Bush Warbler.

Observed by Osmaston towards the end of February in the Pirbala woods, its

note being quite unmistakeable.

61. Cettia cetti cettioides (Hume). The Eastern Cetti’s Warbler.

do October 31, 1925, 4 November 23, 1925, ¢ January 9, 1926, ¢ January 12,

1926, ¢ January 25, 1926, ¢ January 26, 1926, Peshawar. Fairly common,

and widely distributed in every swampy patch, provided there is ample cover

of bulrushes, reeds, or long grass. They are rarely seen, being extremely shy

and careful not to expose themselves. Their presence is, however, revealed by a

rather loud ‘ click’ repeated at intervals from dense cover. The above series

was only obtained by the exercise of much patience and preseverance

62. Prinia gracilis lepida (Blyth). The Streaked Wren Warbler.

Q@ November 26, 1925, ¢Q November 30, 1925, Peshawar, ¢ January 28,

1926, Risalpur. Generally distributed in and around grassy swamps as well

asin cultivated fields.

752 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

63. Prinia inornata inornata (Sykes). The Indian Wren Warbler.

@ November 5, 1925, 9 November 10, 1925, 9 November 11, 1925, ¢ 2 Novem-

ber 16, 1925, § November 26, 1925, ¢ December 26, 1925. A common bird in

long grass in moist localities, occurring in the winter in small parties.

64. Oriolus oriolus kundoo (Sykes). The Indian Oriole.

Status uncertain. Briggs says :—‘ Common in April and May. A few pairs

may breed in the valley. One young bird seen on the outskirt of Peshawar,

August 31, 1921.’

65. Pastor roseus (L). The Rosy Starling.

& November 7, 1925, Peshawar. ‘ Passes through in large flocks in the

late summer and early autumn. The earliest flocks to arrive are composed

almost entirely of adult males. Inthe later flocks young birds and females

predominate. They appear tofeed mainly on the fruits of various species of

Ficus. Inspring they appear either to gototheir breeding area by another

route, or to pass through the valley without halting. I have only seen them

in the spring twice; on April 13, 1924, when a small flock left a group of

trees at dawn and flew steadily westward ; and in April 1925, when large flocks

passed through between the 21st and 25th of the month. Earliest date seen

on the southward migration July 14; latest date October 21.’—(Briggs). In

1925, however, Osmaston saw small flocks early in November.

66. Sturnus vulgaris porphyronotus (Sharpe). The Central Asian Starling.

3&3 November 18, 1925, { November 21, 1925, ¢ December 2, 1925. Peshawar.

67. Sturnus vulgaris poltaratzskyi (Finsch). Finsch’s Starling.

3 November 7, 1925, # November 21, 1925, 4 November 24, 1925, ¢ Decem-

ber 2, 1925, Peshawar.

68. Sturnus vulgaris humii (Brooks). Hume’s Starling.

Under the heading Sturnus humii the following appears in Vests and Eggs

of Indian Sirds, Hume and Oates, vol. i, p. 369 :—This Starling lays towards

the end of April at Peshawar, where I found it nesting in willow-trees in the

Cantonment compounds. (See also /6zs, 1870, p. 529.)

Both S. v. dorphyronotus and S. v. poltaratzskyi are numerous as winter visi-

tors, and they flock together. The earliest date on which Briggs saw Starlings

was October 12, and the latest date April 13, but most years all have left before

the end of March. Neither Osmaston nor Briggs identified S.v. humiz, and the

latter found no Starlings breeding in the valley, though after reading the above

quotation from Hume he looked for them for six successive seasons.

69. Acridotheres tristis tristis (L). The Common Mynah.

Exceedingly common and aresident. Eggs were found froin the middle of

April to the end of August, there being at least two broods. .

70. Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham). The Bank Mynah.

@ November 7, 1925, Peshawar. A summer visitor. Breeds in very large

colonies in the sand-cliffs near Risalpur. Fresh eggs found in great numbers

on May 9, 1922, and May 15, 1923. In the autumn mixes in small flocks with

A. tristis before departing. Earliest date seen March 22, latest date October

12 (Briggs). Osmaston, however, saw small parties about on his first arrival

in 1925, but not after the middle of November.

71. Uroloncha malabarica (L). The White-throated Munia.

@ November 6, 1925, Peshawar. A resident, but not very numerous.

Rarely seen near houses.

72. Amandava amandava(L). The Red Avadavat.

&% 2 November 14, 1925, Peshawar. ‘ Not common, but small parties seen

on grasslands on two or thee occasions.’ (Osmaston). Many are sold in the

bazaars at Peshawar, and Briggs remarks on the ease with which they escape

from their cages.

73. Caropdacus erythrinus (Pall). The Common Rosefinch.

‘Pass through Peshawar in flocks, staying for a few days in spring. I have

never seen them on their autumn journey. They seem to time their arrival at

Peshawar to coincide with the ripening of the mulberries, on which they feed.

Their numbers vary greatly from year to year. In 1924 the mulberry crop was

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 753

good, and the Rosefinches numerous: in 1925 the mulberry crop was poor,

and Rosefinches far less numerous. Earliest date seen April 18, latest date

April 30. (Briggs).

74. Metaponla pusilla (Pall.). The Gold-fronted Serin.

& November 25, 1925, Peshawar. The above young bird, secured by

Osmaston, was a solitary straggler.

75. Hypacanthis spinoides. (Vigors). ‘The Himalayan Greenfinch.

Q November 25, 1925. Osmaston secured the above specimen from a small

flock, the only lot seen.

76. Gymnorhis xanthocollis (Burton). The Yellow-throated Sparrow.

A common summer visitor, first observed on April 10. Numerous nests found

between May 16 and 23, all in holes in Tamarisk trees.

77. Passer domesticus (L). The House Sparrow.

@ December 6, 1925, ¢ @ December 13, 1925, fg ¢ 2Q January 4, 1926,

Peshawar. Avery numerous resident, breeding from the middle of March to

the end of september or beginning of October. Although commonly building

in houses, it frequently builds in trees in the Peshawar Valley, a trait shared by

the sparrows of the Quetta Valley, but not usual in the plains of India. Ber

trees are preferred. In winter large flocks are found far out froni the station in

the irrigated land.

78. Passer hispaniolensis (Tschusi). Tschusi’s Sparrow.

Recorded by Hume (/dzs., 1870) as being in breeding condition in the

Peshawar Valley in April. It was not observed by Osmaston or Briggs.

79. Emberiza leucocephala (Gmelin). The Pine Bunting.

& November 29, 1925, ¢ § December 30, 1925, ¢ ¢ January 4, 1925,

Peshawar. A fairly common winter visitor, in November December, and

January, occurring in rather large flocks both in swampy ground and _ in fields

in the cultivated tract.

80. Emberiza scheeniclus pallidior (Hartert). The Reed Bunting.

¢ January 9,1926, ¢ February 8, 1926, Peshawar. Found by Osmaston to

be locally common in winter occurring in small flocks in the wet country.

8!. Emberiza cia par (Hartert). The Meadow Bunting.

Q November 14, 1925, ¢ November 15, 1925. A fairly common winter visitor

both to the irrigated tract and tothe uncultivated country, especially up the

Khaibar and at Attock.

82. Emberiza melanocephala (Scop.) The Black-headed Bunting.

Briggs notes that a small flock fed daily in the barley fields outside Peshawar

from May 7 to May 20, 1920.

83. Emberizaicterica (Eversm). The Red-headed Bunting.

Passes through in large numbers in the spring, earliest and latest dates

April 23, and May 10. Not seen in the autumn, except fora single bird on

the outskirts of Peshawar Cantonment on August 13, 1923.

84. Riparia riparia indica (Ticehurst and Whistler). The Small Sand-Martin.

o? December 9, 1925, o? January 1, 1926, Peshawar. Omaston found this

form common along the Kabul River and its branches and canals in December,

when it was ‘singing’. Briggs says that itis a resident and numerous, but

subject to local movement within the Valley in relation to the supply of

insects. Eggs found February 14 to March4. They breed in suitable spots

in the banks of the Kabul River, and in large colonies in the same _ sand cliffs

near Risalpur which are later occupied by Bank Mynahs. He believes that

the Bank Mynhas enlarge and use the hole of the Sand Martins frequently.

85. Ptyonoprogne rupestris (Scop.). The Crag Martin.

A few were seen by Osmaston in November, 1925.

86. Hirundo rustica rustica (L). TheSwallow. .

3 b&b 2 December 6, 1925. Peshawar. Osmaston states that he found it

common tbroughout the winter months. The above five specimens were

secured at asingle shot as they sat ona telegraph wire. Briggs says :—Pass

through in large flocks in spring and autumn, the autumn flocks. frequently

754 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIAL] Vi Volyeexd 1

arriving after rain on the hills to the north west. Some are to be seen

throughout the year. Those which remain through the summer are probably

non-breeders, as I have never seen or heard of anest, though I once saw one

picking up mud from the side of a pool as though to build. It is also

possible, however, that some, if not all, of those seen in the summer breed in

the hilis, and come downto the valley during the day forfood. In summer

they always appear to be more numerous after rain.

87. Hirundo smithii filifera (Stephens). The Wire-tailed Swallow.

A fairly numerous summer visitor ; earliest date seen April 21. Eggs found

from May !, onward, and young seen in the nest as late as September 27. This

species sometimes uses the same nest for more than one season, if it is not

destroyed by floods. Briggs notes that every nest of this species that he

examined was in a position where it was liable to be flooded out, in low

culverts. In the summer of 1925, when an unusual number of heavy thunder-

storms visited the Peshawar Valley no nest escaped destruction before the

young were ready to fly with the exception of one found containing young on

September 27.

88. Hirundo daurica (L). The Striated Swallow.

A small flock of Striated Swallows (subsp. ?) was seen by Briggs hawking

for insects over the Mall at Nowshera on April 13, 1923.

89. Motacilla alba dukhunensis (Sykes). The Indian White Wagtail.

o? November 10, 1925, ¢ November 11, 1925, ¢ 2 December 15, 1925,

Peshawar. A very common winter visitor found in the irrigated area. Earliest

date seen September 10, latest date May 4.

90. Motacilla alba personata (Gould). The Masked Wagtail.

A fairly numerous winter visitor. Earliest date seen August 21, latest date

May. 11.

91. Motacilla cinerea caspica. (Gmelin). The Grey Wagtail,

A fairly numerous winter visitor. Earliest date seen September 22, latest

date May 9.

92. Motacilla flava thunbergi (Billberg). The Grey-headed Wagtail.

Large flocks pass through in the spring and autumn. and a few stay for the

winter. Earliest date seen September 6, latest date May13. In the autumn

all the flocks appear to be composed of both young and old.

93. Motacilla citreola calcarata. Hodgson’s Yellow-headed Wagtail.

& Deow2l,.1925:2 Dec. 21; A925:

Occasionally seen throughout the winter ; most numerous in March and

April. A few, probably non-breeders, stay all the year round by the Kalapani

River.

94. Authusrichardi rufulus (Vieill.). ‘The Indian Pipit.

o ? November 27, 1925, Peshawar. Not very common, but occasionally

seen in grasslands near cultivation. Briggs found a nest with two partially

incubated eggs on April 12, 1921.

95. Anthus campestris (L). The Tawny Pipit.

3d December 11, 1925, Peshawar. Osmaston says that it is not common, but

that he sawit occasionally near the meeting place of the wet and the dry

country.

96. Anthus spinoletta blakistoni (Swinhoe). The Water Pipit.

& November 2, 1925, ¢ November 11, 1925, c ? November 14, 1925, ¢ 2 De-

cember 15, 1925, ¢ December 31, 1925: Peshawar. An exceedingly common

winter visitor, found about swamps, and in moist irrigated fields.

97. Alauda gulgula (Frankl.). The Smaller Skylark.

Apparently breeds in the district as ou April 16. Briggs found a clutch

of five partly incubated eggs at Pajaggi which he attributes to this species.

98. Alauda arvensis dulcivox (Brooks). The Eastern Skylark.

. § December 12, 1925, Peshawar. A common winter visitor, found in flocks.

in the ffelds. -

“at MOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 755

99, Calandrella raytal adamsi (Hume). The Indus Sand Lark.

3d 2 December 21, 1925. . Pabbi ; February 25, 1926. Peshawar. Found by

Osmaston in flocks in December, feeding near swampy ground.

100. Calandreila rufescens persica (Sharpe). Sharpe’s Short-toed Lark.

. o-January 28, 1926, Risalpur. The above specimen was.obtained by

‘Osmastan from a small flock which was very wild.

101. Galerida cristata chendoola (Frankl.). Franklin’s Crested-Lark.

& November 3, 1925, ¢ 2 December 3, 1925, Peshawar. Osmaston says that

itis widely distributed though not common. Briggs says that it is resident and

numerous, but that a great number appear to move to the higher ground sur-

rounding the valley after bringing off their young. Eggs found throughout

April.

102. Galerida cristata magna (Hume). Hume’s Crested Lark.

Briggs says :—‘ A winter visitor, most numerous in spring and autumn when

on passage.’

103. Ammomanes deserti phoenicuroides (Blyth). ‘The Desert Finch-Lark.

-A resident, and fairly numerous on barren ground. Eggs found between

‘May 29 and July 4,

104. Zosterops palebrosa occidentaiis (Ticehurst). The White-eye.

‘--9 November 8, 1925. Fairly common in the wooded areas in winter. Briggs

remarks that it appears spasmodically in large flocks, especially after rain.

105. Cinnyris asiatica (Latham). The Purple Sunbird.

A common summer visitor. Earliest date seen March 17 (apart from a

straggler, a male in breeding plumage, seen by Briggs inthe Khaibar on

February 22, 1921). Latest date seen September 11. Briggs found fresh eggs

from April 29toJunel, and heard of earlier and later occurrences. He

notes that this species, if undisturbed, appears to use the same nest fora

second brood. ,

106. Picus squamatus (Vigors). The Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker.

.Seen on two occasions by Osmaston in Pirbala wood in January 1926.

107. Dryobates scindianus (Horsf. and Moore). The Sind Pied Woodpecker.

re November 25, 1925, & & December 26, 1925, Peshawar. A common resi-

dent in all wooded areas in the irrigated tract. The nest-holes are commenced

in March.

108. Liopicus mahrattensis aurocristatus (Tickell), The Mahratta Woodpecker.

¢ January 1, 1926, Peshawar. A common resident, found in the same area as

the last species.

109. lynx torquilla (L). The Wryneck.

& November 13, 1925, 2 Novem be 20p dd2o, 2 January fs 1926, 2 January 22,

1926, Peshawar. A fairly common winter visitor, and rather more numerous on

passage according to Briggs.

- 110. Coracias benghaiensis benghaiensis (L). The Blue Jay.

A resident in small numbers ; its numbers are greatly augmented in summer

by an immigration about March. Eggs found between April 21 and May 25.

On May 15, 1923, Briggs found a Roller sitting on four of its own eggs and one

Bank Mynah’s egg, in a colony of the latter species.

W121. Coracias garrula semenowi (Loud. and Tsc). The Kashmir Roller.

Passes through in large numbers in spring and autumn. A few stay to breed

usually keeping well away from towns and villages. Eggs found May 10, 1923,

and May 15, 1923.

112. Merops orientalis (Latham). ‘The Bee-Eater.

A very numerous summer visitor, first observed by Osmaston on March 1¢.

Briggs gives his earliest date as Match 8, and latest date October ll. Eggs ate

. laid at the end of April or beginning of May.

113. Merops superciliosus javanicus (Horsf). ‘The Blue-tailed Bee-eater.

A summer visitor, less numerous than the last species. It avoids the neighk-

bourhood of houses. Earliest date seen April 2, latest date September 6.

756 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

114. Merops persicus persicus (Pall). The Blue-cheeked Bee-eater.

Briggs says :—‘ Only once seen, and then in large numbers, of which a

considerable proportion were young birds : September 6, 1925.’

115. Ceryle rudis leucomelanura (Reich). The Pied Kingfisher.

‘2 Decembe.y 17, 1925. A resident species, common on the Kabul River and

its branches. Breeding commences in March, and Briggs found eggs op

April 1, 1924. :

116. Alcedo atthis. The Common Kingfisher.

g November 20, 1925. Fairly common along streams and canals, and

apparently resident.

117. Halcyon smyrnensis smyrnensis (1.). The White-breasted Kingfisher.

3S November 8, 1925. A resident, and common throughout the irrigated

country and near swamps. Lays at the end of April and the beginning of

May.

118. Upupa epops epops. The European Hoopoe.

but the individuals which spend the winter in and about Peshawar do not

seem to be the same as those which breed, asin the autumn and spring there

is a period of a few days in which in some years there appear to be no Hoopoes

at all, while in other years they appear to be far more numerous than at normal

times. The explanation of this would seem to be that the Hoopoes which

winter in Peshawar go further north or east to breed, and that their place is

taken by birds of the same subspecies from the south. Sometimes those from

the south arrive before, and sometimes after the departure of the others.

Eggs are laid in the second half of April. Osmaston remarks that Hoopoes

were not common throughout the winter, but that they became more num-

erous ia February and March, and that breeding commences in late March.

These notes both suggest the marked spring passage which one would expect

in the Peshawar Valley.

119. Micropus affinis (Gray). The Common Indian Swiit.

Numerous and resident. It breeds chiefly in April, May and September, but

occasionally in almost every month.

120. Caprimulgus sp. The Night jar.

Briggs notes that some species is not uncommon in the summer, and that he

picked up a fledgling in May 1923.

‘121. Cuculus canorus (L). The Cuckoo.

One was seen by Briggs on April 23, 1921.

122. Eudynamis scolopaceus scolopaceus. (L). The Koel.

A summer visitor less common inthe Peshawar District than further down

country. Earliest date heard May 12. Not heard after the end of August.

123. Palgornis nipalensis eupatria (Hodg.). The'Large Indian Parrakeet.

Common and resident. Osmaston obtained fresh eggs on March 2, from a

hole in a mosque in Peshawar City.

124. Palzornis torquatus (Bodd.). The Rose-ringed Parrakeet.

Resident and numerous.

125. Asio flammeus (Pont.). The Short-eared Owl.

November 17, 1925, Peshawar. Not uncommon throughout the winter in

grasslands.

126. Strix aluco biddulphi. The Wood-Owl.

A single bird was seen and shot by Osmaston on November 18, 1925.

127. Bubo bubo bengalensis (Frankl.). The Indian Great Horned Owl.

December 2, 1925, resident. Briggs found two young, not quite able to fly,

near the Kalapani River on May 17, 1922. At the same place on another

oceasion he watched an adult bird of the species being mobbed by two Kashmir

Rollers. The Owl was sitting in full sunlight at about 10.0 a.m. on a boulder

on top of the cliff above the river, and the two Rollers kept swooping at its

head. For about a quarter of an hour it took no notice of these demonstrations

_ A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 757

beyond bowing its head slightly as the Rollers came near, after which it flew

away. Osmaston notes that it is fairly common wherever there are woods of

any extent.

128. Carine brama The Spotted Owlet.

January 6, 1926. The Peshawar Resident. Common around Peshawar

wherever there are trees. Eggs found April ] to 14.

129. Pandion haliaetus (L). The Osprey.

Seen on the Kabul River by Osmaston.

130. Gyps fulvus (Habl.) The Griffon Vulture.

Said by Osmaston to be common near Peshawar, but the exact form requires

verification.

131. Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmel.). The White-backed Vuiture.

Appears spasmodically at all seasons though it is not known to breed in

the Valley.

132. Neophron percnopterus (L). The Neophron Vulture.

Fairly common and resident.

133. Gypaetus barbatus. The Lammergeyer.

Rarely seen near Peshawar. Common inthe neighbouring hills and in the

Khaibar Pass.

134. Aquila heliaca (Savigny). The Imperial Eagle.

One was seen by Osmaston and Briggs on December 21, 1925, near the Pabbi

Swamp.

135. Aquila nepalensis (Hodgs.) -The Steppe Eagle.

Not uncommon near Peshawar Cantonments in winter. (Osmaston).

136. Aquilarapax vindhiana (Frankl.) The Indian Tawny Eagle.

A resident and fairly common.

137. Butastur teesa (Frankl.). The White-eyed Buzzard.

One was seen by Osmaston in March 1926.

138. Cuncuma leucorypha (Pallas). Pallas’ Fishing Eagle.

One was noted by Osmaston in January 1926 feeding on a dead animal by

the Kabul River.

139. Haliastur indus (Bodd). The Brahminy Kite.

Occasionally seen, most frequently after rain towards the end of the summer.

(Briggs).

140. Milvus migrans govinda (Sykes). The Pariah Kite.

Very common and resident. Eggs nearly all laid in the first week of March,

This Species has a curious habit of picking up sticks as if to commence build-

ing operations about the middle of September, and continues to do this till the

weather turns colder in October, when it seems to do no more till nest-building

begins in earnest towards the end of January or beginning of February.

141. Circus eruginosus (L.). The Marsh Harrier.

Common near extensive swamps in winter.

142. Circus macrurus(S.G. Gmel.). The Pale Harrier.

Seen occasionally in winter. (Osmaston).

143. Circus cyaneus (L). The Hen Harrier.

Seen occasionally in winter. (Osmaston).

144. Buteo ferox (S. G. Gmel.). The Long-legged Buzzard.

d December 21, 1925, Pabbi. 2 December 30, 1925, Peshawar. A common

winter visitor to the irrigated country. Inthe dry foothills it may be resident

in small numbers, as Cock records having taken the eggs of this species about

three miles from Nowshera in 1872. (Nests and Eggs, vol. iii, p. 126).

145. Accipiter nisus nisosimilis. The Sparrow Hawk.

¢ November 23, 1925, Peshawar. A fairly common winter visitor,

758 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI11

146. Faico jugger (Gray). The Lugger Falcon.

Said by Briggs to be resident, but apparently commoner in March and

April than at other times of the year.

147. Falco chiquera chiquera (Daudin). The Red-headed Merlin.

& December 22,1925, Peshawar. A fairly common resident, generally seen

in pairs. Eggs taken at Risalpur, March 2, 1925.

148. Falco tinnunculus (l.). The Kestrel.

A bird in juvenile plumage was shot by Osmaston on December 21, 1925,

near Pabbi. The species is fairly common in the valley in winter, keeping

mainly to desert and swampy country.

149. Columba livia subsp ? The Blue Rock Pigeon.

Fairly numerous at Attock, on the cliffs by the Kalapani River, and on rocks

near Warsak.

150. Paiumbus palumbus casiotis (Bonap.). The Eastern Wood Pigeon.

A few were seen by Osmaston in a large orchard on February 23, 1926.

151. Streptopelia senegalensis cambaiensis (Gmel.). The Little Brown Dove.

A resident, but more numerous in summer than in winter. Breeds throughout

the hot weather.

152. Streptopelia decaocto decaocto (Frival). The Indian Ring-Dove.

A very common resident in the irrigated tract. Breeds from the beginning of

April to the end of the hot weather.

153. (Enopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Herm.). The Red Turtle Dove.

A regular but not very numerous summer visitor, Earliest date seen

March 14.

154. Pterocies indicus (Gmel.) The Painted Sandgrouse.

This species is apparently resident in small numbers at Rustom, some twenty

miles from Mardan, in the Buner foothills. As it has also been procured in the

Orakzai, about half way batween Bannu and Peshawar, and Mr. Donald pro-

cured it west of Shinwari, it is probably more generally distributed in the foot-

hills than is generally known.?

155. Pterocles coronatus atratus (Hartert). The Coronetted Sandgrouse.

This species is said to occur near Jamrud.°*

156. Pteroclurus alchatus caudacutus (S.G. Gmel.). The Large Pintail Sand-

grouse.

A few pairs are said to breed in the vicinity of Mardan in June.*

157. Pteroclurus senegalensis (Licht.). The Common Sandgrouse.

Capt. Cock’s notes on the breeding of the Common Sandgrouse will be found

in Hume’s ests and Eggs, second edition, vol iii, p. 362.

A few are shot between Nowshera and Attock every year.

158. Coturnix coturnix coturnix (L). The Common Quail.

Passes through in large numbers in April and September. A few stay on in

the autumn until well into December, and may, perhaps, if they escape being

netted, spend the whole winter in the valley.

159. Coturnix coromandelica (Gmel.) The Rain-Quail.

Said by Osmaston to be conimon in the fields in November.

160. Ammeoperdix griseogularis griseogularis (Brandt). ‘The See-see.

Resident in the low hills surrounding the valley. It may sometimes be found

on the outcrops of limestone which rise in the middle of the valley.

161. Ortygornis pondicerianus (Gmel.). The Grey Partridge.

Fairly numerous in the low hills surrounding the valley.

———-—_____-—_--— — ——— — a —-—— — — $$ $e

* Stuart Baker, Game Birds of India, vol. ii, p. 256. ? loc. cit., p. 268.

® loc. cit., p. 283,

A: NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT. 759

162. Rallus aquaticus korejewi (Sarudny). The Turkestan Water-Rail.

@ November 24, 1925, ¢ January 26, 1926, Peshawar. Common in almost

every swamp throughout the winter months. Very shy, and flushed with great

difficulty. The call, heard at dawn and after sunset, is peculiar, somewhat

resembling the noise made by a small pig in trouble. (Osmaston).

163. Fulica atra(L). The Coot.

Briggs says that itis very numerous in all suitable localities at all seasons,

but repeated search failed to discover a nest. Osmaston, on the other hand,

considers it not common,

164. Gallinula chloropus (L). The Water-hen.

Fairly common in winter according to Osmaston.

105. Otis tarda (L). The Great Bustard.

Of the six examples of the Great Bustard which have been obtained in India

four can be claimed by the Peshawar District.

The first specimen, a female, was obtained on December 23, 1873, at

Hastnagur near Mardan and just north of the Kabul River; a party were

found in some fields of mustard and giant millet, and they were so shy that,

though they remained in the neighbourhood for some weeks, no other specimen

could be obtained. (Hume, /6zs, 1871, p. 404.)

Two other females were shot in the same locality on January 6, or 8, 1911.

There were about twenty-five of them, and they were observed from roughly

December 20, 1910, to the beginning of February. (Fzeld, February 11, 1911.)

Finally Sir George Roos-Keppel recorded, in a letter dated December 1, 1917,

to the B.N.H.S. (Journal, vol. xxv, p. 745) that one had just been brought in to

him from the neighbourhood of Peshawar.

166. Chlamydotis undulata macqueeni (Gray and Hardw). ‘The Houbara.

An account of Houbara hawking on the Jamrud Plain will be found in

Game Birds of India, vol. ii, p. 195. (Stuart-Baker.) They are commonly

hawked abeut Mardan by officers of the Guides.

167. Lobivanellus indicus (Bodd.). The Red-wattled Lapwing.

A common summer visitor, first observed by Osmaston on February 24, 1926,

Briggs observed it occasionally in the winter.

168. Vanellus vanellus (L). The Peewit.

& December 19, 1925, Peshawar. Common in flocks in winter on open and

wet land. Osmaston first observed on November 12, but found it most

abundant in December and January.

169. Charadrius dubius (Scop.). The Little Ring-Plover.

Common on sandbanks of the Kabul River and on the margins of swampy

pools in winter.

170. Tringa hypoleuca (L). The Common Sandpiper.

A fairly common winter visitor to the banks of sluggish streams or near pools

and marshy ground.

171. Tringa glareola (L). The Wood Sandpiper.

_A winter visitor, but not very common.

172. Tringa ochropus (L). The Green Sandpiper.

o? November 11, 1925, 2 November 25, 1925, Peshawar.

173. Tringa totanus (L). The Common Redshank.

Numerous in winter.

174. Erolia minuta (Leister). The Little Stint.

A winter visitor, never very numerous.

175. Scolopax rusticola (L). The Woodcock.

Not common, but occasionally seen in woods in Jantiary.

176. Capella gallinago gallinago (L). The Common Snipe.

Q December 4, 1925. A common winter visitor.

177. Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis (L). The Painted Snipe.

‘My collection contains two specimens shot at Peshawar, and sent to mein

the flesh under the impression that they were Woodcock.’ (Whistler).

760 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

178. Chlidonias leacopareius (Temm.). The Whiskered Tern.

Numerous in winter, and possibly a resident.

179. Gelochetidon nilotica. (Gmel.). The Gull-billed Tern.

One which had been captured by villagers just outside Peshawar was seen by

Briggs on September 1, 1921.

180. Sterna seena (Sykes). The Indian River Tern.

Resident on the Kabul River.

181. Sterna melanogaster (Temm.). The Black-bellied Tern.

Resident on the Kabul River.

182. Rhynchops aibicollis (Swains). The Scissor-bill.

Found by Briggs in large numbers ona sandbank in the Indus opposite

Attock on April 24, 1923. From the behaviour of the birdsit appeared that

they had eggs, but a prolonged search failed to discover any.

183. Ardea cinerea (L). The Common Heron.

Fairly numerous on the Kakul River at all seasons.

184. Egretta alba (L). The Large White Egret.

Occasionally seen on the Kabul River.

185. Ardeola grayi (Sykes). The Indian Pond Heron.

2 December 8, 1925. Common and apparently resident.

186. Nycticorax nycticorax (L). The Night Hercn.

Commoner in summer than in winter, but noted at all times of the year.

187. Ixobrychus minutus (L). The Little Bittern.

One was seen by Briggs on July 26, 1920.

188. Botaurus stellaris (L). The Bittern.

Occurs in most of the swamps in tall bulrushes.

189. Cygnus cygaus (L). The Whooper Swan.

Of the five specimens of this species which have been obtained in India two

were shot by Mr. M. Donlea out of a herd of seven, on December 12, 1910, near

Dera Momin, on the Kabul River. (Stuart-Baker, Game Birds of India, vol. i,

p.1G.)

199. Cygnus bewicki (Yarrell). The Bewick’s Swan.

Of the two specimens obtained in India one was shot by Major P. C. Elliott-

Lockhart near Mardan, on December 30, 1910 (loc. cit. p. 21.)

191. Cygnus olor (Gmel.). The Mute Swan.

One was shot about the end of March, 1910, by Capt. H O’Brien at Now-

shera. Itis of interest to note that all the above-mentioned specimens of Swans

obtained in the Peshawar District were obtained in the same year. (loc. cit.

p. 26).

192. Amser anser (L). The Grey Lag Goose.

Fly over in very large skeins in autumn, In spring they appear to collect on

the Kabul River previous to going north. Briggs notesthat the two occasions

on which Geese flying south seemed to be most plentiful were after rain. He

says:—‘On August 25, 1922, there was thunder and rainin the hills in the

evening. From 9p.m.to10p.m. Geese in large numbers were passing over

in a southerly direction almost continuously. The following year rain fell on

August 22 and 23, from 9pm.on the latter night tillI went to sleep large

numbers of Geese were passing overhead. Each of these entries represent the

first record of Geese for the year. In none ofthe other four years for which

I have records are Geese noted earlier than September 4.’

193. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.). The Lesser Whistling Teal.

Briggs records that he saw asmall flock on October 12, 1922.

194. Casarca ferruginea (Pall.). The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck.

Fairly numerous in winter.

195. Anas platyrhyncha (L). The Mallard.

Numerous in winter on the Kabul River.

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS OF THE PESHAWAR DISTRICT 761

196. Mareca penelope (L). The Wigeon.

Not numerous, but a few are shot every winter.

197. Nettion crecca crecca (L). The Teal.

Common in the winter on the larger jhils and streams.

198. Marmaronetta angustirosiris (Ménétries). The Marbled Duck.

This species was obtained by Logan-Home near Nowshera. (loc. cit. p. 243.)

199. Nyroca rufa (L). The White-eye.

A winter visitor to the Peshawar Valley, but never very numerous.

200. Oxyura leucocephaia (Hartert). The White-headed Duck.

Four specimens of this species have been obtained in the Peshawar Valley.

(loc.-cit. pp. 304; 305. )

201. Merganser merganser orientalis (Oates). Tho Eastern Goosander.

.. [have received them or known for certain of their having been

obtained from the Peshawar Valley.* (Hume, quoted in loc. cit. p. 319.)

262. Podiceps ruficollis capensis (Salvad.). The Little Grebe.

Fairly common in the Peshawar Valley.

There can be little doubt that other ducks besides those included in this last

occur in the Peshawar Valley, but, beside those observed by Osinaston and

Briggs, only such species as are specifically mentioned in Stuart Baker’s Game

Birds as having been obtained in the district have been included.

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS

5. H,. PRATER, .C.M.Z.S:

Curator, Bombay Natural History Society.

Par? II

(With two plates.)

(Continued trom page 544 of this Volume.)

CHARACTER AND ARRANGEMENT OF EXHIBITS

The more generally accepted method of exhibiting Natural History

specimens is to arrange them in cases in accordance with their

respective orders, families and genera, classification being the basic

principle which governed the arrangement. ‘The system adopted is

an heirloom of the days when no distinct line of demarcation was

recognized between the reference or study collections of a Museum

and its show collections. The attainment of a clearer concept of the

aims and purpose of a Museum as an institution for research and

popular education necessitated a change in the treatment of its

collections. Such exhibits from the collection as were suitable for

purposes of display were installed in the Puolic Galleries while the

main portion of the collection was closely reserved in rooms

accessible only on application by students and research workers.

At the same time the exhibits shown in the public galleries conti-

nued to be arranged and.divided in much the same manner as those

stored in the study collection, i.e. they were shown for the most

part as individual exhibits arranged according to their réspective

orders, familiesand genera. This classified series was usually supple-

mented with additional material illustrating various phases such as

structure, modification, habits, etc., which formed an index or intro-

duction to the study of the main exhibit. To sumup, the specimens

with their labels formed an illustrated text book or guide to the

study of Natural History and revealed the extent to which science

had progressed in the study of these subjects, and the principles on

which this study was based.

The exhibits in the public galleries of a Museum arranged as

above indicated, are intended for the layman. Their arrangement

is based on principles which are the outcome of knowledge gained

by men who have made a special study of the subject and are

endeavouring to hand down to the public at large the knowledge so

gained.

The exhibits as planned have a powerful teaching value; their

effectiveness for the purpose, however, depends largely on how the

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 763

visitor uses the material the Museum has to offer. The teaching

of the Museum is silent teaching—a teaching which demands an

effort on the part of the visitor for whom it is intended. How far

is this effort on the part of the visitor forthcoming and how far is

the influence of the Museum’s teaching carried to the general body

of visitors ? We might liken the visitor to a Museum to a traveller

in a strange country. The traveller who has previously acquainted

himself with the traditions, manners and customs of the country he

is visiting has his mind prepared to benefit by the impressions he

gains by his visit—-he might be likened to that class of visitor who,

by his knowledge of the principles and motives which underlie the

arrangement of the collections in the galleries, is able to understand

and appreciate them and to benefit by the lesson they convey. For

this quite small class of visitor a collection so arranged is sufficient

to provide what is required. A second class of traveller who

arrives in a country without any knowledge concerning it, but yet

makes an effort during his stay to acquaint himself with the fresh

view-points it offers, may be likened to that still smaller class of

visitor who, realizing there is something to be gained by a visit to

the Museum, makes an effort to absorb somewhat of its teaching: to

this class the Museum has still something to offer. Lastly there is

that large class of people who travel mainly for pleasure or amuse-

ment. They may be likened to ninety per cent. of the visitors to a

Museum who visit it mainly from the same motive, quite often

because there is nothing better to do, or to keep out of the wet, or for

some such reason: people who not only lack knowledge but also

the inclination to acquire it, and who form undoubtedly the largest

proportion of visitors to a Museum. For them the teaching the

Museum has to offer loses most of its force unless that teaching

provides something which can arouse and hold their interest and

lead them to absorb, unconsciously perhaps, somewhat of the

message it intends to convey. A Visitor of this type passing

through galleries of named and classified animals comes away at

the most with the impression that there are a great number of

different animals in the world. The special, laboriously prepared

cases illustrating particular phases of animal life, labelled in terms

he cannot possibly hope to understand, hardly bother him at all, as

conscious of his shortcomings, he probably does not even look at

them. It follows therefore that the teaching value of the exhibits

in such a Museum is lost on the majority of its visitors.

One of the main objects of a Museum being the diffusion of

knowledge, the measure of its success will depend largely on the

ability of the Museum to drive its message home to the largest

number. We are teachers not as aright but only when that which

we teach is effective in influencing those whom we teach. If we

are invariably confronted by indifference, boredom or even hostility,

then we have failed in our objective. If we are eager to capture

the interest and enthusiasm of people, to get them to think and

work along with us, and are able only to capture indifference, it

is obviously necessary for us to address ourselves correctly to the

problem before us, not by taiking vaguely about goals and ideals

but by finding out quite specifically which methods are to be

764. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

employed if we are to ‘get across’ to capture attention, to win

regard and induce people to think and act along with us.

The classes of visitors for whom.the Museum must provide are ;

(1); The-Research: Worker.

(2) Thecsstudent:

(3) Those who visit the Museum without any definite object.

The Research Worker.—The needs of the research worker do not

enter into the present discussion which concerns. itself exclusively

with that part of the Museum collections which are accessible to

the general public. The research or study collections of a Museum

which are intended for professional or advanced students are ins-

talled in rooms to which the general body of visitors are not

admitted, and their installation and preservation present problems

distinct from those which arise in the treatment of the exhibits in

the public galleries.

Students.—As regards the student visitors, one might divide them

roughly into three classes: (a) University Students, (6) Primary and

High School Students, (¢) Members of the general public who

are interested in Natural History.

University Students—The needs of the University student. are

particular and distinct from those of the general body of visitors.

He is entering upon an academic study of Zoology which cannot be

followed on the broad lines in which Natural History as a whole is

treated in the galleries of the Museum. -A_ practical. course of

Zoology as prescribed for University students implies the detailed

study of particular types of animals which are representative of a

given group—this study of a particular animal in the totality of

its organization enables the student to compare its parts and organs

with those of kindred species and helps him to arrive at an under-

standing of the distinctive characters of the group as a whole

and the characters special to the example itself. He thereby

obtains an idea of the connection between comparative anatomy.

and classification, the significance of family, of generic and specific

characters.

- The. students’ “needs could therefore be met by a specially

selected collection of representative types, the details of whose

internal and external anatomy are illustrated by actual specimens,

models, diagrams and then labels. These types could be arranged

in their correct relationship so as to furnish the student with

material necessary for the study of a particular group, and at the

same time afford him a synopsis of the animal or the vegetable

kingdom as a whole. As a supplement to the main exhibit he

would require a series of exhibits whose object would be to explain

and illustrate by actual specimens, diagrams, etc., the various

technical terms used in Zoological description. A collection of

this character while it is invaluable to the student entering upon the

serious study of a complex subject, goes considerably beyond the

needs of the general body of visitors, for the majority of whom it

would hold little interest. Such a collection would therefore best

serve its purpose by being kept in a room or rooms which are out-

side the main stream of circulation of the general body of visitors.

For the greater convenience of students and for obtaining the

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 765

seclusion and quiet that is necessary, admission to these rooms

should preferably be by ticket. For greater facility, students should

be able to obtain admission cards from the teaching staff of their

colleges, while members of the visiting public, desirous of doing

so should te able to obtain them from the check rooms at the

entrance-to the Museum building.

- The students’ room at the Edinburgh Natural History Museum

might be taken as an example of how a collection of this nature

should be arranged. A series of vertical cases lining the walls of

the room contains carefully selected representative types, classi-

fied according to: correct sequence, affording a conspectus of the

various phyla of the animal kingdom from Protozoato Man. The

exhibits consist of actua] specimens, where necessary of enlarged

models and of diagrams and labels which are arranged to illustrate

the bearing of comparative anatomy on classification. A series of

supplementary cases with carefully labelled specimens and diagrams

serve as an index to the technical terms used in the description and

labels of the main exhibit. The very careful and attractive manner

in which the material in this room has been prepared and presented

is not the least part of its value as an educative exhibit. The

methods adopted in the treatment of a collection of this nature, the

design and fixtures of the show cases, the colour used for back-

grounds, mounts and labels, the care bestowed in the preparation

of the specimens and the methods of labelling, all have a powerful

influence for repulsion or attraction... The response obtained from

the visitor in examining the exhibits in a museum gallery is similar

to the effect produced on the on-looker at a shop window: he may

be repelled by a crude display or attracted by an arrangement

carefully conceived with the purpose to please. In fact, in the

presentation of their treasures, Museums can learn much from

the persuasive methods of the window display artist.

Primary and High School Students—To meet the needs of

primary and high school students, many Museums in America,

both of Natural History and Art, have adopted the idea of the

Children’s Museum—a series of rooms in the building, or perhaps

an annexe to the building itself, which is devoted primarily for the

use of the children. Miss Anna Billings Gallup, Curator-in-Chief

of the Brooklyn Children’s Museum, the pioneer and perhaps the

most successfully conducted institution of its kind, has defined for

me the policy and ideals of her Museum. She said that its purpose

was to give the children experience with real things, objects of

beauty and scientific interest. An atmosphere of friendly hospita-

lity and of understanding of a child’s point of view was the basis

of all its activities. Through its door children are invited to enter

freely and enjoy the story-telling exhibits prepared especially for

them. Objects are put into their hands to be handled, admired and

compared, arranged, discussed and rediscussed. Games played

with objects on display enter into every-day’s programme and help

to bring into action new ideas in Museum experience which are

helpful both to the children and to those who guide the Museum’s

activities. In providing for children’s needs there is wisdom in

learning from children what these needs actually are. A trained

766 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

guide presides over these activities, whether they be in relation to

a group or an individual, and endeavours to bring his instruction

into concord with the school life, the home life and other

recreational interests of the child. The child learns to look

upon the Museum as a pleasure resort and centre of informa-

tion. He is even provided with a library organized especially

for him.

Briefly the aim and purpose of the Children’s Museum is to afford

intellectual entertainment and instruction of a better type for

children. It aims at arousing their observant powers and offering

them new fields, interests, study, new hobbies and teaching them

in a way children like to be taught, arousing their interest and

putting them into the way of finding things out for themselves

with just that little help and encouragement that is needed. The

feeling about the institution is that it is regarded by its visitors as

something of their very own—-something with which grown-ups have

very little to do. They are welcomed within its walls and are en-

couraged to use and handle and study its collections, read in its

library such books as especially appeal to them, play its games and

enter into its out-door activities. ‘That feeling of awe and restraint

which inspires the child during a visit to a Museum is not en-

countered here.

The staff indirect control of this section of the Museum

is chosen with care, the selection being governed as much

by. the capacity of the candidate to ‘handle’ children as by

his or her own knowledge and ability. ‘We find out so much

about the child here,’ said Miss Gallup to me, ‘ we find out the

observant children—tbe child with a penchant for independent

enquiry and the child who is careless at observation. Such

a one, given a series of questions, will come back with only

half of them answered. He or she is encouraged to go back

and study the objects until the whole is reveaied. Sometimes

we find that a child has no colour sense at all—cannot distinguish

between reds and blues. The child’s needs are two-fold, mental

and physical. The Children’s Museum tries to provide for both

of them.

During the past year, in the Prince of Wales’ Museum we have

had for the first time the fortunate experience of handling some

6,000 children and have come to realize something of the interest

and enthusiasm which can be engendered in them by an effort

directed to meet their speciai needs.

To come to the more practical side of the question and to illus-

trate how a Museum may serve its younger student visitors, also

those among the general public whose interest is not merely super-

ficial, I do not think that I can do better than by taking the

Children’s Museum at Brooklyn as an example of how the work

may be carried out. The Children’s Museum at Brooklyn has

served and assisted in the founding of Children’s Museums in many

foreign countries or in adding them as real departments to already

existing institutions. It has been a source of inspiration in the

work we are attempting to do here in Bombay, and I gladly pay

this tribute to Miss Gallup, its genial Curator-in-Chief for the

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS 767

help and encouragement I received at her hands during my visit to

her institution.

The Children’s Museum at Brooklyn is situated in what was once

a residential building in a small public park. Its collections are

arranged to meet the following purpose :—

(A) To provide a general outline of the animal kingdom by a

especially arranged collection of types illustrative of various

classes of the animal kingdom, in order to supply a foundation for

the study of the subject by making the visitor familiar with the

appearance and characteristics of the principal animal classes.

(B) To encourage an interest in Natural History and provide

material for its study by the exhibition of a series of exhibits

representative of the local fauna and flora.

providing exhibits illustrative of the various minerals of which it is

composed.

(D) To co-ordinate its teaching more helpfully with instruction

the child is given in the schools by the inclusion of exhibits illus-

trative of History and Geography.

To sum up briefly the collections are divided into a Zoological

and Botanical Section, a Mineral Section and Historical and

Geographical Sections.

THE TyPE CoLLECTION

Zoology is set forth in a type room of ample dimensions located

on the first floor. The various ciasses of the animal kingdom are

presented in specimens, drawings, pictures and models, assembled

in cases that line the wall and occupy the central floor space.

Beginning at one side, the sequence of development is carried

around the room and down and up the central cases so that the

skeieton of man, the highest unit, faces the opening study of the

amoeba. Oiue large label for each sub-phylum or sub-kingdom is

fastened onthe glass front of the case and similar labels of uniform,

smaller size are provided for each class. Strips of moulding carried

down the back wal] of the case and across its base separate the phyla;

black cords cutline the minor divisions thus, by size of label and

width of outline the observer will know at a glance which groups

are co-ordinate. Another distinguishing feature is the color of

the bases or pedestals of the exhibit for all the lower forms, for

creatures whose habitat is the water or the sandy shore, they are

grey—for the mammals they are black or:very dark. The labels and

their frames are similarly distinguished. In the whole arrange-

ment the display is restricted only to such specimens as will show

in clear outline the important successive stages in the develop-

ment of the subject. Excessive detail is avoided as this is confusing

to the youthful mind. Pictures are used to show tiny forms many

times magnified, and to explain a label further or to represent

some form absent from the sequence, some form which must be

listed because children are interested in it, such as the elephant

among the Ungulates, an order sufficiently represented in the

exkibit by two specimens,

768 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The labels are mostly couched in popular language but as is

generally unavoidable in labelling a type collection scientific nomen-

clature will sometimes predominate and the direct appeal of the

label to the child will consequently be lessened. ‘This is where the

work of a docent or guide is most welcome. While the Zoology

collection as a whole is for pupils of the higher grades, the teacher

of any lower grade may feel sure that her pupils will receive much

benefit from a visit to the museum. For very young children the

description specializes in well-known animals and calls attention to

colour, beauty of form, and other striking characters. The guide

thus finds something to interest and instruct the child what-

ever its age or grade may be till the story of the Ascent of

Man is almost unconsciously learned. The lecturer makes a point

of taiking about just such exhibits as the child himself has recog-

nized, taiking about these first and then going onto other familiar

animals, he is able to give the child a desire for more ‘ stories’.

The child asks questions and learns more about the exhibits, and

gradually acquires knowledge of many animal forms, knows some-

thing of classification, and story of the Evolution of Man. ‘The

important point in the arrangement of a systematic collection on

the above lines, is that the collection should be kept as small as

possible. The inclusion of an excessive number of exhibits only

tends to confuse the issue; it should be limited to the inclusion of

such well-marked forms as will suffice to indicate the limit of varia-

tion in a particular class of animals and illustrate the inter-relation-

ship of the animals included in that class. One should always

bear in mind that one is providing for the amateur and not for the

professional.

LOCAE- BIRD ‘LiFe

A second series of exhibits illustrates the bird life of the local

park. The birds are attractively mounted, shelves are not used as

they tend to produce a monotonous line in this form of exhibition.

The birds are fixed to the walls of the case on brackets and are

arranged in cases according to the season during which these birds

can be seen in the park. Thus you have cases of permanent

residents, of winter residents, occasional visitants, summer birds,

Spring and autumn migrants. The series gives a graphic idea of

local bird life as it illustrates species which can be actually seen in

the child’s neighbourhood. ‘The importance and the value of an

exhibit illustrative of the local fauna, is too obvious to be stressed.

An interest in nature and later in natural history commences or

arises from an interest in the animal or plant life of ones immediate

neighbourhood, and a collection of this description will not only

supply the stimulus to this interest but will also help in its develop-

ment. In addition, such a collection will meet the requirements

of those whose main object in visiting the museum is to identify

some animal or bird they have seen in their vicinity.

THE INSECT ROOM

This room contains an attractively mounted and displayed series

of insects in wall cases which illustrate various features of insect

‘UAJYOOAT ‘MHNaSN]T S,UdsppLYy) "Asaganos Ag

"ACN ‘uA[yoorg ‘umes Ss, uerpllyg

SIVUANIPF NI Nossa’]T V

"20G ‘}sIH] ‘FeN Aequiog ‘uanor

é E SS =

' _ . rr S _ - --

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

THE CHILDREN’S MUSEUM

THE VIVARIUM 1S A GREaT CENTRE OF ATTRACTION TO YOUNG VISITORS.

A CORNER OF THE WELL-USED LIBRARY.

By courtesy. Children’s Museum, Brooklyn.

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS ; 769

life. The collection being intended for children, color and beauty

of shape have influenced the selection of specimens for illustrating

the various studies, but at the same time the exhibits are arranged

on scientific lines so that their full educational value is maintained.

The child can here become familiar with local moths, butterflies and

beetles. A silk worm and silk exhibit, a hive of living bees and

many species of insects that do harm to local trees and crops are

included in the series.

THE MINERAL ROoM

The Mineral Room of the Museum is one of its most popular

features. It is divided into two sections—a series of students’

trays containing labelled examples of minerals which the child can

examine and handle in a way that children like to do, and a corres-

ponding series of finer specimens which are included in the main

exhibition. The object here is to give the child a good working

knowledge of minerals. Mineralogy would usually be considered

a dry as dust subject for the child, but when attractively presented

young people quickly become quite enthusiastic over the science

and few types of lone material are more 1n demand at the Children’s

Museum than the trays of rocks and crystals, while the mineral and

volcano room swarm with little folk. Mineral study seems to have

become a tradition with the Museum, ard it has developed a

department which numbers now among its alumnia mining engi-

neer, a mine operator in Mexico, and the late Curator of Mineralogy

at the Public Museum at Milwaukee. All these found their first

interest in minerals in the rooms of the Children’s Museum at

Brooklyn. Although the function of a Children’s Museum involves

cultural rather than professional training, it augurs well for the

subject concerned when such results are obtained.

Tur BOTANICAL SECTION

This section includes cases which form an introduction to the

study of Botany, the various parts of flowers and leaves, etc., are

explained in models and pictures.

THE HIsTORICAL SECTION

American History occupies five sections, European sovereigns

and navigators, American, Indians, settlement and colonial period,

the Wars, New York State and City, outlining significant events

in national development, all these are set forth in charmingly

realistic miniature groups or paintings.

THE GEOGRAPHY ROOM

Outlines primitive life in all parts of the world, polar scenes,

jungle and desert, illustrated in minature groups.

THE LIBRARY

The Library in the Children’s Museum contains 7,500 carefully

graded and selected books. It is open during the same hours as

the Museum, i.e. 9 a.m. to 5.30 p.m. weekdays, 2.30 to 5.30 p.m.

Sundays. It is a pioneer library inits own field and has a share in

770 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol: XXX//

all the activities of the Museum. It is one of the best and most

complete nature libraries in the country, and its books cover a wide

range of additionai topics, such as travel, history, biography,

mechanics and inventions which appeal to the interests of the

child. The number of readers exceed 60,000 each year, and quite

frequently there are from 400 to 600 children visiting the library in

aday. At such time, of course, the children come in relays. The

library occupies two rooms, a home-like cheery room for children,

and an adjoining reference room for teachers and older students.

As far as possible individual attention is given to the readers, first

assisting them in the selection of books and leading them to a love

of good reading, and second teaching them to get reliable inform-

ation from books. Information is offered about all the exhibits

found in the Museum, and pictures, collections of poems and plays

and other data are provided in connection with school studies. The

boys and girls who have been working industriously for a certificate

of credit from the Museum in animal study, history, geography, or

Some such subject, come to the library in search of informa-

tion on a variety of subjects such as protozoa and amphibia, animals

found in the South Sea Islands, trees and vines of Brazil, and the

Berbers of the Sahara Desert. Again the librarians get inquiries

from children about their own city. On such topics as the different

types of bridges in New York and their construction, and how

the subways and tunnels are built. To showhow the library is

being used by the cbildren I might say that a girl composed a little

play entitled: ‘Christmas in Mother Goose Land,’ which her

classmates supplemented with poems found in the library. Needless .

to say, the library offers considerable attraction to Boy Scouts and

Girl Guides. They come in to identify flowers, birds’ nests, mush-

rooms and shells, and to inquire about aquaria, snakes, and a

number of things which interest them.

Among the library’s activities is the holding of exhibitions of

paintings and pictures appropriate to time and season, thus the

birthdays of Washington and Lincoln were the occasion for the dis-

play of pictures relative to the life of these men, and attendance at

these exhibitions is always very large. In this way books and

periodicals were used by hundreds of boys and girls, quite a large

number of whom wanted books and stories about these national

heroes. These patriotic pictures attract the children and even the

adults, while reproductions in colour of paintings representing scenes

in the history of the country give them an idea of the story of their

land and what it means. In connection with these pictures the

library posts up lists of plays and pageants, flag drills, etc., appro-

priate to the celebration of America in the making. There is also

a list of stories of countries, comprising titles of books about

eighteen European countries which had some share in the growth of

America. I have written at length on the activities of this library

because it is not usual to find work of this nature in institutions such

as these. The policy adopted by the Children’s Museum Library

shows just how very active and helpful a library can be and to how

many different fields of interest and endeavour it can lead ;its

users,

MODERN MUSEUM METHODS ri

EDUCATIONAL WORK

Musuem Courses

Opportunity is given to the children to work at the Museum in

eight different subjects represented by its collections. A student

may begin to work at his convenicnce and spend as much time as he

pleases on any ccurse. The whole thing is left to the will of the

child and no blame whatsoever attaches to him if he stops off and

fails to complete a course, ‘ We leave them to develop their ideas

by themselves,’ said Miss Gallup. ‘ Sometimes they tire of a thing,

and leave off; but mostly they come back again.’ The completion of

each course entitles each child to a certificate of credit which counts

towards a medal. Abronze medal is awarded for fifty credits and a

silver medal tor a hundred credits. Courses may be chosen in any

order. The courses and amount of credits against them areas follows:

A child desiring to takea course in Minerals applies fora leaflet

giving the requirements for a certificate in mineral study. He then

asks for a ‘model notebook’ on mineral study which gives him

directions how his own notebook is to be kept. In answering the

questions he records his description in pencil in his own notebook.

He gets from the library a book on minerals and from the docent a

streak plate for testing minerals, a box of minerals giving the scale of

hardness of various minerals, and the first student’s tray of minerals

containing twenty named important minerals in compartments. Each

compartment bears aletter and a number which corresponds to those

on the specimen and in addition the name of the mineral and its chemi-

cal composition is attached to the compartment, i.e., the first tray is

_A, the first compartment would be Al and below it is a iabel marked

‘‘Aliron pyrites, Fe S82.’’ Withthis equipment the child commences

the study, his note book must be the record of his own observation.

He must not crib from a text-book and the value of the work to him

will depend upon his own independent action. The book is only to

be used as a reference—if he cannot find the answer to any question

at once about any particular specimen he is recommended to leave

a blank, for in some later tray he will probably find a specimen

which will give him the information he is after. It necessarily

follows that the first specimen and the first tray take quite a long

time to do, but once he gets into the way of working, things become

easier for him. After completing A! he takes up A? and so on,

then he goes on to the B series, where he will find some new

minerals and also some duplicates, which will add to the information

of those he examined first. After studying the first three trays it is

suggested to him that he should mix up the minerals of the next

tray and see how many he can identify at sight. I have taken

mineral study as an example, but it is obvious that the methods used

here can be applied to every other phase of life. The whole objective

of the courses isto help the child, firstly, by giving him an incentive

to work in the shape of a prize, secondly, permitting him to work inde-

pendently, to allow him to handle exhibits and find out things for

himself, with the least possible assistance. Naturally, these methods

give the child an interest in the work by putting him ‘ on his mettle,’

as it were.

772 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Museum Gantes

Among the features of the museum are the games it organizes

for its visitors, games which are both interesting and educational. A

child wishing to play the ‘ bird game’ is given pictures of twenty-five

birds exhibited in the gallery and he is asked to go out and pick these

out. The next stage is to give to him twenty-five names and tell him

to find these birds in the colJection; in this way he becomes familiar

with quite a number of birds and is able to tell them at sight. There

are various games of this type covering various phases of animal

life adapted for children of various grades. A child who can iden-

tify twenty-five birds is allowed to take a stuffed specimen in a

small glass case home for a few weeks. He has learned everything

about this specimen and tells his people about it, and takes it to

school and tel!s his classmates about it. They in their turn get

interested and want to have a bird of their own and so the interest

in the museum spreads.

Stereoscopic Views

Every afternoon during the week a crowd of from twenty to fifty

children congregate in the History Room where a dozen stereos-

copes and a store of views are brought out under direction of the

museum attendants and placed at their disposal. Geographical

views, pictures of wild birds and flowers, prove particularly popular,

and more than six hundred children enjoy the use of these stereos-

copes each month.

(To be continued)

REVIEWS

1. AHANDBOOK OF THE BIRDS OF EASTERN CHINA,

(Part 1V)., By, J. D. D..La Touche (Taylor and Francis, London ;

75. 0d. net.)

We have already had the pleasure of noticing the publication of

the first three parts of Mr. La Touche’s Handbook of the Birds of

Eastern China, and now have to welcome the appearance of Part IV,

dated August 1927. This deals with the families Ploceide, Fring il-

lidze, Bombycillidee and Hirundinidz which are well represented in

India; indeed many forms described by Mr. La Touche are identical

with our Indian birds, whilst others are closely allied to them.

Two new races are described in this part, Amdberiza ctotdes vagans

(type locality Amur Bay) and &. c. fohkienensis (type locality

Foochow). It is interesting to note also that the author accepts

Dr. Sushkin’s opinion that Amberiza godlewskiz should be treated

not asa race of Emberiza cia but as a separate species with races of

its Own.

A new feature in the present part is that under’various species

the author includes a brief resume of the races, including extra

limited forms: this is undoubtedly useful. Itisa pity however

that theplumage descriptions are somewhat irregular in method

of treatment. Some are very diffuse and tend to become. almost a

catalogue of specimens inthe author’s collection; others err by

incompleteness, mentioning only asingle sex. Allthe same we are

able to congratulate the author on the completion of this further

instalment of his book, which will beof the greatest possible value

to all who are interested in Chinese ornithology and especially to

those who look forward to the resumption of active fieldwork in

China when her present troubles subside.

Indian ornithologists should note that in treating of the Red-

rumped swallows (Hzrundo daurica) Mr. La Touche does not agree

with certain details of the distribution east of India of the subspecies

striolata and nipalenszs given in the new edition of the Fauna;

the study of these swallows in India is very perplexing and a

correct estimate of their distribution remains to be written.

Mr. La Touche’s remarks should therefore be consulted by students

of the group.

This part contains a map to be substituted for that already issued

in Part III in which an error has been discovered. It also contains

four halttone plates to illustrate types of country, and it is interest-

ing how similar much of the country appears to that of India.

2. THE LITTORAL FAUNA OF KRUSADAI ISLAND IN

THE GULF OF MANAAR WITH APPENDICES ON THE

VERTEBRATES AND PLANTS. By Various Authors.

This interesting publication marks the revival of a serial publi-

cation—Bulletin of the Madras Government Museum—which, as is

stated in the editor’s foreword, has been in abeyance since 1907,

774. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The series will hereafter be issued in two sections, the Natural

History and General Sections, and the number under review forms

No. I of vol. iof the Natural History Section of the Mew Series of

this publication. As the general title of the work indicates it deals

with the Littoral Fauna of Krusadai Islandin the Gulf of Manaar,

and is a systematic account of practically all groups of Invertebrates

excluding Protozoa, Porifera, flatworms and some of the smaller

groups. From amongst the Chordates only the Urochordates have

been dealt with, while a list of the Vertebrates generally is included

in an appendix. An account of the Flora of the area is published as

a second appendix.

The volume has been prepared primarily for the use of the

students who will be working inthe Biological Station which is

proposed to be established on Krusadai Island and should serve as

a very valuable handbook. The visits of the students, as is pointed

out in the introduction can as a rule only be of short duration, and

if full value is to be obtained from them some ready means, by

which at least the cornmoner organisms that will be met with can

be identified, must be provided. In Europe this can to a great

extent be done with the aid of the many excellent monographs that

have been published on various groups. Butin India, few such

monographs have yet been written. To preparea complete and

self-sufficient monograph ofthe fauna and flora even of so small an

area as that under consideration, witha full account of the classifi-

cation of every group, would swell the work to aninordinate size

with matter which would be largely a repetition of the work of

others already published elsewhere. And, however convenient it

might be, it would be undesirable; in as much as it would help to

confirm the impression which students so often get that all know-

ledge is to be found between the covers of their text-books. On

the other hand, to write an account which could only be foilowed

by specialists or with the aid of books that cannot, for some time at

least, be available on the island, would be to defeat the object of

the work. We have therefore followed as far as possible the

classification set forth in some standard text-book such as the

Oxford and Cambridge Natural Histories. The particular book

followed has been mentioned under each group and should be con-

sulted for details. As, however, only the broad outlines of

classification are dealt with in such books, reference is given to

other works that have been found helpful in connexion with more

detailed classification, and it has usually been necessary to insert a

brief account of the distinctive characters of such of the smaller

subdivisions as are represented in the collections. These have

been kept as short and clear as possible, only the most useful

characters being included. But keys have as a rule been avoided

on account of the sense of completeness and finality which they are

apt, often falsely, to convey. Descriptions of species have also

been kept as brief as possible, especially in the case of those already

described in the publications of the Indian Museum, in Alcock’s

‘Materials for a Carcinological Fauna of India’ (1895-1900), in

1 Journ., Asiatic Soc., Bengal, 1895-1900.

REVIEWS 775

Stanley Gardiner’s ‘Fauna and Geography of the Maldive and

Laccadive Archipelagoes’, inthe reports of the Percy Sladen Trust

Expedition to the Indian Ocean! and in Herdman’s ‘Report

on the Pearl Oyster Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar’, works

bearing in so definite a manner on the fauna under considera-

tion that they must obviously be available for reference along with

the standard text-books already mentioned in the library of the

Krusadai biological station.

The different chapters dealing with the various groups have been

written by different authors, but the greater part of the volume is

the work of Dr. F. H. Gravely, Superintendent of the Madras

Museum, who has also acted as the editor for the remaining contri-

butions, and Dr. B. Sundara Raj, Director of Fisheries, Madras.

In each case the commoner forms met with have been dealt with in

sufficient detail for identification and very instructive line and dot

drawings of the species have been published. Fairly extensive

literature references have been included at the end of each chapter

and these with the work under review should enable students to

identify most of the commoner forms, which are found in the region.

A general description of the island and other collecting grounds

in this region together with maps of the different parts is also

included.

The work is by no means the last word on the subject and as the

editor remarks wilj need revision after the various groups have been

revised by specialists.

The editors and the authors, however, deserve the thanks of

students and incidentally of others interested in Marine Biology on

producing a really useful handbook on the littoral fauna of the

isJand and the adjacent parts, and it is sincerely hoped that it will

stimulate more detailed research on Indian marine fauna of the

region.

The printing and general get up of the work is really excellent

and the price (Rs. 8) for a work of its size with 26 plates, is by no

means exorbitant.

Bulk.

3. WITH A CAMERA IN TIGERLAND. By F. W. Champion,

M.A. (Oxon) F.z.s.. Imperial Forest Service of India. [Chatto &

Windus, London, 1927. Price 30s. 228 pages, 73 illustrations. ]

Books dealing with sport and the natural history of the fauna of

India have hitherto almost without exception, been conceived and

written with the object of describing the methods and adventures

which lead to the destruction of animals.

In his book Wild Animals in Central India, reviewed in this

Journal (volume xxix, page,1032) Mr. Dunbar Branderrightly remarks

that when not bent on slaughter, one sees and observes far more of

the animals of the forest. Mr. Champion advances us much further

than that, and in the book before us, which he correctly claims to be

‘the first book ever published which is illustrated throughout with

+ Trans. Linn. Soc, London_1907 onwards.

7744 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

photographs of wild animals just as they live their every-day lives in

the great Indian jungles’, does a real service to the wiid animals he

loves so well, for we venture to predict that an increasing number

of sportsmen will endeavour to live up to his teaching and example.

‘Tt is better’ we have recently read somewhere ‘to hold the

hand of Nature and to look into her eyes than to alienate and

slaughter her.’ That is the spirit in which this book has been

conceived and written.

The first three chapters give us charmingly written pictures of

‘A Day in the Jungle’, ‘ A Night inthe Jungle’, and an account of

what is truly described as ‘ An Extraordinary Experience’. Those of

his readers wno have had the fortune to wanderon elephant back

through the submontane forests of the Himalayas, must vividly

recail to mind days similar in a general way to that so faithfuily

presented to us. The coming upon the tiger and his kill has

happened to some of us, but to few of us has been vouchsafed the

sight of the wild elephant: and it is quite certain that no one of us

has photographed him in his natural surroundings as has our

persevering author.

The extraordinary experience related in Chapter iii must be quite

unique, and such photographs as plates xv, xvi, xvii, are unlikely to

be again obtained.

We take the volume in the order in which it is arranged, but keep

the elephant to the last. With the chapter on monkeys there are

seven excellent photographs depicting the common Brown or Ben-

gal Monkey and the Langoor, these being the two species of pri-

mates found in the forests of the United Provinces. With the

remarks of the author as to the ‘cruel iron bars’ of the cage of

capitivity most of us must be wholly in accord, and we hope that

the time will come when such things will be condemned by public

Opinion.

Mr. Champion expresses himself as absolutely convinced that a

langoor, if he calls four or five times, does so because he can actually

see a tiger or a leopard. Onthis point we would remark that we

have seen langoors give the alarm call at sight of a yellow dog-

and this not once only but on several occasions—while the smaller

monkey never took any notice of it. Otherwise also, in our experi-

ence, the langoor is less reliable than his smaller relative, who never

deceives the sportsman. ‘The aboriginal tribes of India recognize

that the langoor is not always to ke relied upon and wiil give the

alarm when rhesus would not. Both species provide excellent training

for the would-be photographer of animal life in the forests.

Of tiger in general the author writes with the knowledge born of

careful observance, and has much that is interesting to relate. He

rightly concludes that the sense of smell possessed by tigers is weak :

‘practically non-existent’ in his opinion; but we would not put it

so low as that, and would say that itis not more highly developed

than that of man.

As to the ‘ twelve-foot tiger’ the ‘ probability ’ that many of these

lengths were taken from skins after they had been removed from the

carcasses was amusingly confirmed to us only three years ago. A

sportsman who shot three tigers in one beat reported the fact to the

REVIEWS 777

civil officer of the District, stating in all seriousness in his letter

that the animals he had shot measured 13 ft. 6in., 12 ft. 9in., and

11 ft. 7 in., respectively. It was ascertained that these lengths

were obtained by taping the fresh skins, pulled out serpent-wise to

their fullest extent! That method of measurement is no doubt the

orgin of the ‘ twelve-foot’ tiger.

The sport of photographing tiger is fully described. The author,

having fixed for himseif the high standard of obtaining photographs

of animals under strictly natural conditions, and ‘not where he is

the pursuer or pursued’, rules out the employment of beating for

the production of photographs of tigers ; and explaining that he has

never yet had a tiger come near a machan in daylight, in a light

good enough for a picture to be produced, he proceeds to describe

two other methods.

One is ‘ ghooming ’ (not ‘ ghumming ’) an anglicized colloquialism

of a Hindustani word, or wandering about in hopes of a‘ subject’; and |

the other the stalking of a tiger on his kill. A well-trained elephant,

with an equally well-trained mahawat (we like that spelling of the

word) is essential to either method. But the experience of the

author, after years of continuous effort, is that but few pictures are

obtained in proportion to the amount of energy expended; and

he comes to the conclusion, which is borne out by the vivid

‘action’ of his flashlight photographs, that this is the best method

of all.

Success, however, the author remarks, is only to be obtained by

dint of perseverance and determination to succeed in spite of repeat-

ed failures andthe risk of contracting severe attacks of malarial

fever. In some other paris of India the fever risks would not be so

great. Justly, however, can the author claim that automatic flash-

light photography is ‘ not too easy to be sporting ’.

In the enlarged copy of the head of the tiger of plate xiv, xxi

which forms the frontispiece of the book, we see the size to which

the pupil expands in the dark and can realize how it is that, however

fine the trip-wire may be, it will most likely be detected, as is shown

at plate xxx. Also we realize the delight of the author when he

developed this plate !

We are given an interesting chapter on tigers and their prey, the

author coming to sound and right conclusions on this as on other

matters he discusses. Tigers do not always seize their prey in the

same manner. ‘Circumstances alter cases’ and, as indicated by a

photograph on p. 587 of Vol. xxxii of this Journal and witnessed by

the present writer under electric light, a tiger, when the prey is easily

within his power, does not necessarily break the animal’s neck, but

seizes it in a vice-like grip until life is extinct.

In these days of modern photography the aim of all enthusiasts

is to obtain a photograph of tiger in the act of killing his prey. Mr.

Champion has not yet succeeded in obtaining such a picture and it

can be fairly safely asserted that only by cinema photography, car-

ried out by daylight under previously prepared conditions, will

such a photograph be obtained. Nevertheless we hope that our

persevering author’s efforts in this direction will be crowned with

suCCeSS.

778 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Of leopards and the smaller cats we are given some excellent

pictures and interesting reading. It is remarked that in the detec-

tion of the trip-wire, however fine it may be, the leopard is even

superior to the tiger. That is an instance of knowledge coming tous

through the photographing of animals in their natural surroundings.

The author might, with accuracy, have asserted more positively

that the leopard cat is less common than the jungle cat (Felis chaus).

The photograph at plate xxxiv is that of the Small Indian Civet

(Viverricula malaccensts) and not of the Large Indian Civet (Viverra

zibetha) as it is without the distinctive Vzverva crest along the

spine.

Under the heading ‘ Hyzenas and Others’ we see pictures of

hyzenas and jackals only. The absence of a photograph of the

animal popularly known as the wild dog is to be regretted ; but, as

the author says, it would take many, many years successfully to por-

tray photographically all the interesting creatures of the jungles.

Mr. Champion is correct in stating that there are large numbers

of hyzenas in the forests. They are very common animals. We

are at one with the author in doubting that a leopard will abandon

his kill to a hyzena, also we agree that the hyzena of the forests is a

particularly silent animal. The killing of tethered goats by

hyzenas is within our experience, also we have personal knowledge

of a hyzena having killed and eaten a woman and a boy and attacked

another woman.

Of the rodents, photographs of the Indian Palm Squirrel and of

the porcupine are given. In view of the certain knowledge we

have that leopards frequently kill porcupines for food it is not

probable, as the author remarks, that they often inhabit the same

dwelling.

Of the deer tribe we have good photographs of the stag and hind

chital, but none of the noble sambur stag, or of the ubiquitous

barking deer. ‘Theabsence of pictures of these animals, so common

in the forests known to the author, emphasizes the difficulties in the

way of successful animal photography under natural conditions.

Of-‘ Antelopes and Others’ there are pictures of blue bull, and a

silhouette of a distant gural; also a photograph of two wild boars

in a characteristic attitude. Mr. Champion is correct in stating that

the serow is to be found at elevations considerably below 6,UCO feet.

The wild elephant has, perforce, to be photographed by day, and

in doing this Mr. Champion has been eminently successful. He

gives us much interesting information as to the manners and habits

of both tame and wildelephants. Both the chapters are exceedingly

interesting, and the photographs among the most striking in the

book.

In justice to the author we must touch but lightly on all he tells

us and leave the reader to his certain enjoyment of it. He will

learn much of what the author terms the fascinating pursuit of

photographing wild elephants, will read of some highly exciting

incidents, and generally learn much that he did not know before.

The final chapter of the book is on photography. Willing and

helpful-expert advice on cameras, lenses, plates, etc., is given; also

especially valuable practical instruction as to the flashlight

REVIEWS 779

photography by means of which the author has been able to secure,

and produce for our instruction and enjoyment, so many excellent

pictures.

However, he makes one statement which calls for comment.

his. issn regard to Marius Maxwell’s ‘ Big Game Hunting with a

Camera in Equatorial Africa’. According to Mr. Champion ‘ nearly

all his (Maxwell’s) pictures were produced with an ordinary 8 in.

lens, and strange to say, without a reflex camera’’. We cannot under-

stand how Mr. Champion can have derived the imipression that

Maxwell did not employ a reflex camera in face of what that author

Says at the very commencement of the book, in his lucid and

instructive chapter on ‘ A Camera Huntsman’s Equipment’ (page 3,

para 3;. Plate I of this chapter, moreover, depicts the camera

chiefly used by Maxwell, which is manifestly a short focus reflex.

We do not know what Mr. Champion’s sources of information

may be for stating that Maxwell’s method of photographing big

game was ‘to stalk up to his subject and then to expose piates at

close range, often by holding the camera over his head and centering

the animal by means of a direct vision view finder’’. From a perusal

of Maxwell’s book one certainly does not gain the impression that

this method was often adopted. It may perhaps have been only in

a very exceptional instance that it had to be resorted to.

Or the game animals of India the author has photographed seven

in their natural surroundings and at close range. In the mountains,

plains, and forests of India and Burma there are more than thirty-

seven! So there is plenty of room for those sportsmen who will

abandon the rifle in favour of the camera and preserve pictures

instead of horns, and hides, and hoofs, of the game animals of this

country. Through animal photography such as isput before us by

Mr. Champion, the sportsman will obtain records more permanent

than perishable trophies ; the naturalist, the sculptor, and the painter

will all have pleasure in and profit by his labours.

The duty of a reviewer is to criticize, withholding nothing

adverse if such be found; but we close this book with no note of

dissent, and feel sure that a wide circle of readers will enjoy it

with very deep interest. More especially will it be appreciated by

those who themselves know and love the vast jungles of India and

have at heart the preservation of their wild inhabitants from useless

destruction.

4. DWELLERS IN THE JUNGLE. By Lieut.-Col. Gordon

Casserly. [Ward Lock & Co., Ltd., London and Melbourne, 1925.

255 pages, 16 full-page illustrations by Warwick Reynolds. 5s. net.]

5. IN THE GREEN JUNGLE. By Lieut.-Col. Gordon

Casserly. [Ward Lock & Co., Ltd., London and Melbourne. 255

pages, 16 full-page illustrations by Warwick Reynolds. 5s. net.]-

The stories of animal and bird life in ‘ Dwellers in the Jungle’,

given to us by Lieut.-Col. Gordon Casserly, are exceedingly

well told and hold the attention of the reader from cover to cover,

The word painting of the scenery of the great forests of India is

780 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

good, the style easy and attractive, and the natural history in the

main quite accurate.

We are told of the baby wild elephant and how his mother saved

him from the murderous onslaught ofatiger : andof a tame elephant

(this being a story built upon an actual occurrence) roaming wild for

the best part of a year and returning to her bondage. The use of

the word ‘ galloping ’ to express the utmost pace of an elephant is

misleading to those readers who have not seen this animal moving

out of a walk. The two stories of wild and tame langoors are

natural to life and realistically told, as also that of the jungle cock

and of the weaver bird, and in ‘ The Warden of the Ford’ the way

of the man-eating crocodile is faithfully presented to the reader.

In ‘The Hated Horde’ the story of the wild dog of the Indian

jungles is well depicted. The author describes these animals as

hunting in full cry, and mostly, though not always, at night. We

believe it is a fact that Cxon dukhunensis hunts entirely by day, and on

the several occasions on which we have actually seen them in pursuit

of their quarry they have been running quite mute. No doubt there

would be some eager whimpering when the climax of the hunt is

reached.

Of the many other natural history incidents, and the like, related

to us, we doubt the king cobra attaining a length of 18 feet; and

have not before known that the python, or any other snake, first

secures its prey by flinging a coil after the manner of a lasso. The

hyzena does not wear a perpetual snarl, but, like all other animals,

bares his teeth only when he has reason to do so. Theterm ‘ buck’

we would reserve for the male of the goat species and think it a

misnomer for the deer tribe.

With these few criticisms in mind we commend the book whole-

heartedly to all lovers of nature study, and the glamour of the great

forests of India and their denizens will be with them as they read.

‘In the Green Jungle’ is not a wholly accurate title as the open-

ing story is that of a camel of the Great Sahara Desert, and a very

good one it is. The life of the ubiquitous jackal is excellently

well related. The ‘ Law of the Jungle’ is the story of a man-eating

tiger. His fitting end is doubltess based upon an actual incident of

the kind. Throughout the forests of India are many ancient ruins

and what the wild life may be amid some of these is vividly

described.

Of the gallant wild boar, the ruthless python, the swift hunting-

leopard, we are given absorbing tales. The story of the white ant

is good, and in ‘ The Mockers’ the langoor again provides interést-

ing material.

There is but little room for criticism. We would not call the

‘ Did-he-do-it ?’ which is a lapwing, a long-legged fowl.

The book is of merit equal to that of the former volume, and we

close it with similar commendation to the readers old and young

alike.

R.B.

EDITORIAL

We have recently welcomed—and very warmly—another expedition sent out

to India to obtain further material for the Natural History Museum in New

York, and by careful o bservation by trained artists in the actual haunts of our

big game to learn how best to exhibit the denizens of our jungles to the public

of America.

The expedition was organised some years ago by Mr. Arthur S. Vernay, a

business man of London and New York and incidentally an enthusiastic big

game hunter and naturalist, in collaboration with Col. J. C. Faunthorpe, late

Commissioner of the Lucknow Division, United Provinces. Its object was to

secure a representative collection of the game animals of the Indian Empire

for the American Museum of Natural History, New York. Through the

active support of the Government of India the expedition received exceptional

facilities for achieving its purpose, with the result that a series of very beautiful

groups illustrating the game animals of this country are now being prepared

for the Hall of Asiatic Maminals at the New York Museum. To complete the

work and in order that the groups of animals exhibited might be shown in their

natural setting, Mr. Vernay arranged in December last year for two experts

from the staff of the American Museum, Mr. Albert Butler and Mr. C. C. Rosenk-

ranz, anoted landscape painter, to visit India with a view to studying the actual

areas where the animals were obtained, collecting forms of plant life typical

of these areas and painting pictures and taking sketches of the country in which

the animals lived. Mr. Vernay considered that the Museums in India should

also benefit by this work and he accordingly very generously invited Mr. S. H.

Prater, the Society’s Curator, to accompany this expedition and also provided

the funds for Mr. K. B. Savardekar our Museum artist, who has painted some

excellent backgrounds for groups in the Museum at Bombay, te be a member of

the party. Mr. Vernay’s generosity has not only enabled the staff to acquire

first hand knowledge of up-to-date methods in the field but has also enabled

our Museum to secure a very beautiful series of paintings and photographs

taken in the forests of India and Burma which will serve as studies for realistic

settings for groups which the Curator is now preparing.

In addition to the above Mr. Vernay has presented the Society with a copy of

a remarkable film recording the work the Vernay-Faunthorpe expedition in

India. Taken at a cost of nearly £6,000, the film records scenes of animal life

taken from Nature in the forests of Nepal, Burma, Central and Southern India.

Rhinos, Wild Elephants, Tigers, various forms of Deer and even some of the

smaller and less known animals of the Indian Jungle play the leading role in

this film which is the finest record of aninial life ever made in this country.

It is remarkable that a man who has had but a remote connection with this

city has seen fit to do so much for one of its public institutions. Museums have

been ever dependent for their origin, their growth and development, on private

enterprise and on the support of citizens, who take a pride in their city and its

institutions. Ifa stranger can do so much, surely there must be many in this

city who would cone forward in the same way to help their own Museum if

they realised how rapidly it was taking its place as one of the finest institutions

of its kind in the East, and how increasingly it was fulfilling its mission as a

centre of culture, of popular education and entertainment,

Mr. Prater was away about two months and was accompanied by our artist

whom, thanks also to the generosity of Mr. F. V. Evans—one of our Vice-

Patrons—we have been ableto send on the journey. We say thanks to Mr.

Evans as he is providing the salary for a second artist to prepare models of the

fish of our coasts and rivers and at the moment this permitted of our sending

Mr. Savardekar with Mr. Prater, When in Mysore the party was looked

after by one of our members— Mr. R. C. Morris of Mysore to whoin our thanks

are due.

Weare very glad that we were able at the present time to give Mr. Prater and

our artist this opportunity, as our hopes of being able shortly to erect a modern

782 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

Natural History Museum are steadily increasing. In our last editorial we had

the pleasure of thanking Sir David Ezra for his donation of Rs, 5,000. Now

we have asimilar pleasure in recording a donation of £500 from Mr. Vernay

towards the cost of equipping the New Museum. Mr. Vernay thus not only

gives our Curator the opportunity of learning how to do it, but provides us with

the means to enable the Curator to follow the teaching of Mr. Squeers and

having learnt the meaning to carry out the job.

Mr. F. V. Evans who gave us the beautiful model of a fly, enlarged twenty-

eight times has followed up his gift by presenting us with similar models of the

Anopheles and Stegomia mosquitoes, both the work, as with the fly, of the two

sisters the Misses Edwardes. As in the former case, so now, we have to thank

the P. & O. Steam Navigation Company for bringing these models out free of

freight charges. Possibly because the P. & O. did this in the case of the fly,

Messrs. Mackinnon Mackenzie & Co., not to be outdone, took home for ws for

the London Zoo a live elephant free of freight, only charging for the carriage

of Homo sapiens who went in attendance. We wonder if any one will present

the Zoo with a pair of Rhinos so that we can say to them ‘ You brought out

two mosquitoes free, surely it is not too much to ask you should take back free

also two Rhinoceroses !’

Our NEw CONSTITUTION

A Special General Meeting of Members of the Society was held on January

31, 1928, when the following resolutions were passed :—

1. That it is expedient that the Society be registered as a Society under

Act XXI of 1860.

2. That the draft Memorandum of Association and Rules now laid before

the Meeting and which were published in the Society’s Journal of October

20, 1927, be hereby approved as the Memorandum of Association and Rules

of the Society.

3. That the Members of the Executive Committee and Advisory one

mittee therein named be approved.

4..~That Sir Reginald ‘Spence, .Mr.H2 A. OW. Brent and Mire) 375

Greaves or any two of them, be hereby empowered to take all necessary steps

to effect the registration of the Society and to transfer to it all the property

and assets including securities and cash belonging to the unregistered Society

and for that purpose to execute on behalf of all the members of the unregistered

Society all deeds, transfers and other documents which may be SSSA or

expedient.

The Rules and Regulations as published on pages 385-393 of vol. xxxii were

passed with the following slight amendments. Rule 7 was altered to read :

. ‘The capital obtained from life-membership contributions and compounded

‘subscriptions shall not be used as revenue Eut shall be invested in Govern-

“ment securities and the interest thereon only utilized as revenue. PROVIDED

‘ALwAys. that if and whenever the market value of the investments shall

‘equal or exceed the amount of the contributions and compounded subscrip-

‘tions paid by the existing life-members and the members who have coin-

‘pounded their subscriptions then and in such case it shall not be cbligatory

‘to invest any further sums received by way of contributions from life-members

‘ or compounded subscriptions but the same may be used as revenue.’

At the present time our investments in Government paper exceed the amount

paid by life-members now on the roll and we wish to be at liberty to use any

surplus as members may, through the Committee, consider to be in the best

interests of the Society. For instance it might be in the best interests of the

Society to spend some of the surplus life-membership contributions on the

equipment of the new Museum.

The other alteration was to Rule 54 and was to the effect that

‘No payment shall be made by the Honorary Treasurer without the

‘ authorization of the Honorary Secretary, or in his absence, a mein ber of the

‘ Committee.’

THe Socrety’s ASSETS

The registration of the Society necessitated the statement of the property

handed over by the old unregistered Society to the new and registered

EDITORIAL 783

Society and members may be interested in the valuations which were given,

namely :—

Securities as on December 31, 1927 (Face value) Rs. 90,000.

Fixed Deposits, Bank Balances and Cash toa ay 19 5156-12-85;

Research Collections ... eee oat pe 09,0007)

Library Books sae “es me », 20,000 |

Publications ses oe ae 5, 17,500 }}Nominal value

Journals of the Society nie me ,, 15,000 | for Insurance.

Furniture awe 3 ado: |

THE SOCIETY’S PROPOSED ‘ BOOK OF BIRDS’

In 1926 we started work on the painting of the plates for the Society’s popular

illustrated book on the Common Birds of the Plains of India. We are glad

to record that our artist has now finished the illustrations in colour of 200

species which completes our programme. Capt. Pates has provided us with

several very interesting photographs of Bird Life and a chapter on Bird Photo-

graphy. The work is therefore nearly ready for the Press and would be so now

but that our staff, having so little to do!, have only completed the letterpress

for notes and descriptions of about forty species. However, we hope to be able

to make a definite announcement as regards price in our next issue,

THE GAME BOOKS

Writing of price reminds us that the reduction in the price to members of

vols. i and ii of the Game Girds has caused a revival in demand and has evidently

impressed on several the advantages of membership, but we must ask

members, who are keen on the publication of another volume, to continue

their efforts to induce other members, who have not done so, to buy and those

who are not members to become so in order that they should be able to buy

cheaply also.

GAME PRESERVATION

In No. 2 of this volume we gave our views on Game Preservation in India

and in the editorial which appeared in No. 3 we referred toacertain amount

of criticism which we had received. We give below in full acriticism by

Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley, a Member of our Advisory Committee who would

like to see the sale of game or of the skins or heads of gaine prohibited. Col.

Stockley writes under date January 19, 1928 :—

‘My idea on Game Preservation is that concentration on the sale question

is essential, as other questions involve dispensal of force and are open to

attack: the sale question is unassailable on the crop destruction plea, as the

cultivator still retains the right to kill marauding beasts. It is so-called ‘‘waste’’

lands which attract the poacher. It is there he makes his biggest profits and

actually unites in small bands witha regular supply system. Witness the

results in the Northern Circars and any accessible ‘‘ waste’’ lands. Nowhere

in India does the so-called ‘‘ Zemindari ’’ jungle hold any game but a few scat-

tered remnants. I shot all over the country near Nowgong twenty-five years

ago and got grand sport I have just been out for ten days and the country is

almost bare of mammalian life. I confess to being almost fanatical on the

‘‘sale’’ question, as I have lately seen some of the results and heard more.

The elephant question is one that ruins much of our efforts tosave game. I had

the figures of the Kheddah sales and outgoings, but have lost them. The

damage done to crops alone is immense compared with the small results of the

sales, particularly in S. India; while the Forest Department in Kanara in 1922

temporarily offered a reward for the destruction of elephants, but had to dis-

continue it for want of funds. The Canara elephants were constantly being

reinforced by protected elephants from Mysore and possibly even further south

I have seen a herd of over eighty elephants within a couple of miles of a

railway station in the Coimbatore District, while the rice fields of a Burmese

village after the visit of quite a small herd in the rains, have been a really dis

tressing sight, considering how poor the jungle folk usually are. ‘The Kashmir

game is doing well, except Markhor. These are rapidly decreasing everywhere

they exist, and are vanishing from the Pir Panjal and Kaj-i-Nag. Astor is bad,

Chitral worse, and the N. W. Frontier Province will soon lose the last of the

straight-horned race.’

784 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX

GAME PRESERVATION AND OTHER KINDRED SOCIETIES

We referred to the ‘Society for the Preservation of the Fauna of the

Empire’ in the last editorial and stated we intended affiliating our Society

to the one at home. We gave a resumé of the objects of the Society in

No 1, volo xxxil:

We now have pleasure in referring to the work done by the Nilgiri Game

Association during the year ending June 30, 1927. We notice that as from

October 1, 1926, Government transferred the management of the plateau fishery

to the Association subject to the following conditions :—

(1) The Association shall regulate fishing in the plateau waters in accor-

dance with the rules and regulations which the Government may prescribe from

time to time.

(2) The Association will be at liberty to appropriate all receipts from

licenses which they may issue for fishing in these waters, but shall be responsi-

ble for the efficient management of the fisheries and the working of these fish-

erties shall not be a charge on the provincial revenues except to the extent

indicated in condition (4) below.

(3) In the event of mismanagement or of infringement of any of the condi-

tions mentioned above, the Governinent shall be at liberty to resume the control]

of the fisheries without payment of any compensation ; the decision of Govern-

ment as to whether there has been any mismanagement or infringement shall be

finai.

(4) The Government will provide for the supervision of fisheries as

well as the game protection work of the Association free of charge thereby

also relieving the association of the payment of Rs. 50 per mensem which

it has been making to the Inspector of Fisheries the Nilgiris for the latter

work.

The question of continuing the payment of rewards for the destruction

of wild dogs was discussed and it was decided that the payment of the

rewards should continue, although in July 1926 the Government declined

to grant to the Association fines levied under Rule 6 of the Nilgiri Game

Rules :=—

The following were the principal alterations made in the shooting rules :—

(1) Small game shooting shall open with pigeon shooting on September 1,

for the sake of uniformity.

(2) That the killing of all monkeys be prohibited.

(3) That the shooting of all Ibex except bucks possessing a well-defined

saddle mark be prohibited.

(4) That only one sambhur stag be allowed on season license. On the

monthly license one shall still be allowed subject to the condition that it shall

not be shot on the plateau.

One of the principal changes in the fishing rules was :—

Permitting the killing of trout of 8 inches or less, such trout not to count

against the limit allowed under the license.

We quote the following notes by members of the Association. Major

E. G. Phythian Adams (a member of our Society) wrote :—

‘ The present condition of the big game in the area continues to be satisfac-

tory, but more effective steps require to be taken to stop poaching which is on the

increase. The fact that the Nilgiri Game Association has set aside a sum for

reporting cases of poaching should be made known to all watchers and Forest

Guards and also to the Police whose assistance is needed in checking the sale of

game during the close season.

Wild dogs are still too numerous to allow the reward to be discontinued.

There was a large pack at Mudumalai in May, while others were working Masi-

nigudy and Anaikatty as usual. A small pack was reported several times on

the plateau towards Mukerty.

The small Game season appears to have been an average one.

The Peermund and Bangitappal streams need restocking ; there appear to be

no fish at all in the latter. There are several other good streams in the Kundahs

which might be stocked with advantage against the time when the Pykara

Hydro-Electric scheme will ruin the trout fishing in the Mukerty River. I do

not think that any appreciable improvement in the fishing can be expected till

steps are taken to reduce the present Jarge number of otters which infest all

the streams. Their food certainly consists largely of crabs, but the latter

BIRDS OF KASHMIR—-AN APPEAL

See

For some years past I have been collecting records and notes

with a view to writing a detailed avifauna of Kashmir. This work

I now hope to take in hand at the end of the summer on the con-

clusion of a final visit to Kashmir. May I ask any of our members

who have any notes and observations on Kashmir birds if they would

be kind enough to contribute towards the completeness of such a

book, either by sending such to the Journal for publication these

under their own name in the very immediate future or by sending

them to me? I should of course be careful to acknowledge my

indebtedness to any one willing to help in this manner.

By Kashmir I mean any of the territories under His Highness

the Maharajah of Kashmir and Jammu following the ordinary

political boundary and including therefore not only Kashmir proper

and Jammu, but also Ladakh, Baltistan, Astor and Gilgit. Notes

referring to any area will be most acceptable, as will be readily

understood when [ explain that some of the lowest and ornithologi-

cally least interesting areas are less represented in my notes than

the valleys most difficult of access. For instance, there is less on

record about the plains of Jammu and the Jhelum valley cart road

than about Gilgit or the Nubra Valley.

Detailed lists and observations or isolated records of a single

species will be equally acceptable, and in particular 1 should be glad

of notes on the various game birds, especially those of interest to

the sportsman as well as to the ornithologist.

If any one can help me with information I shall be very grateful.

CALDBEC HOUSE,

BATTLE,

SUSSEX, HUGH WHISTLER.

April 1, 1928.

EDITORIAL 785

form part of the fishes’ food supply and at the same time keep the number of

fish down by destroying ova also those fish which the otters do take are the

largest.’

Mr. J.B. Vernede, wrote :—-

‘All game is decreasing in the Kotagiri District and on the North,

east slopes. Sambhur have decreased very markedly and as far as 1 am

aware not a single shootable stag was seen during the season. Small

game has also decreased largely, jungle fowl and hares in particular being

very scarce.

I cannot ascribe any particular reasons for this decrease though poaching

which is rife, may be a contributory cause, also some increase in vermin.

Writing of the year under review in general the Committee record—

(a) Shooting—

The year has been on the wholean average one and there is little of in-

terest to record. In accordance with a resolution of the Committee at its

meeting held on December 13, 1926 the services of allGame watchers were

dispensed with from January 1927 as it was considered that they were of little

if any use in checking poaching or for any other purpose.

(b) Fishing —

There appears to be a distinct falling off in the quality of the fishing both

as regards numbers and size of fish though perhaps not in the average size of

the fish in the streams.’

The following amounts were spent in destruction of Vermin—,

RS:

Wild Dogs aes ... 360

21 Otters eee a tO

Other Vermin ... w.. 7/4

CENTRAL PROVINCES ANGLING ASSOCIATION

We welcome the publication of the Ist Annual Report of the Central Provin-

ces Angling Association from which we take the following extracts as regards

the birth and activities of the Association.—

Early in 1927 a small number of enthusiastic anglers met togetherin Jubbul-

pore and discussed the advantages of forrning an Association. It was decided

to call a meeting of all those interested in angling, and, if the necessary

support was forthcoming, to formally consider the question of forming an

angling association.

This meeting was held at the Nurbudda Club, Jubbuipore, on March 1927,

at which 13 gentlemen were present.

It was decided that the main objects of the Association should be to collect

and maintain all records relating to Fishes and Fishing and generally to con-

sider the adoption of any course or methods which might further the advance-

ment of or improve the sport of Angling in the Central Provinces.

As regards progress the report states—

Rivers.— Owing to the fact that the Association only commenced to function

practically at the close of the fishing season, it was not found possible to

arrange any Association ‘ baiting’. This will, however, start as soon as it is

practicable after the monsoon waters have sufficiently subsided. The number

of ‘runs’ to be baited will, of course, depend on the number of ‘ baiting’

subscribers.

Tanks.—Iit is to be regretted that, up to the present, it has not been possible

to make any satisfactory arrangement with the irrigation authorities for the

preferential recognition of the Association in respect of the tanks under their

charge.

With regard to identification. It is interesting to note that allthe larger carp

caught in the water-works area during the period for which this water was

open to the Association have been proved to be Barbus hexastichus (Day’s

Fishes of India, p. 565, plate cxxxvi, fig. 4), and not ‘ Barbus tor’ (the

ordinary Mahseer). Day records these fish as growing up to 3 feet in length.

The only other fish that have so far been formally submitted for identifica-

tion proved to be two Macrones seenghala (one ot the Tengara or cat-fish

group), which were caught with asmall spoon ina pool inthe R. Gaur, up-

stream of the village of Kosamghat lying about a mile north of Jubbulpore-

Mandla road between the seventh and eighth mile-stones. The two specimens

recorded measured 144 and 133 inches respectively.

OBITUARY

JOHN WILLIAM YERBURY

We regret to record the death on November 10 last as the

result of being knocked down by a motor car, of Lieut.-Col.

J. W. Yerbury, late R.A. Col. Yerbury who was aged eighty at the

time of his death, was born on March 30, 1847, at Serampore in

Bengal, and was the son of Lieut.-Col. John William Yerbury, of

the 3rd King’s Own Light Dragoons and afterwards of Belcombe,

Bradford-on-Avon. He obtained his commission in the Royal

Artillery in 1868 and up to his retirement in 1892, served in various

parts of the world. He was for many years stationed at Aden, and

from his papers on the Birds of this settlement (which appeared

in the /dzs for 1886 and the Society’s Journal for 1897) he was well-

known to ornithologists.

Col. Yerbury was one of the earliest members of the Bombay

Natural History Society, being on the rolls in 1886 when the

Society issued its first Journal. Besides ornithology, he was keenly

interested in Mammals, Reptiles, Lepidoptera and Diptera, of all of

which he made considerable collections, especially of the last named

which he eventually presented to the British Museum. He also

collected shells at Aden, several of which were described by the late

E. A. Smith (Proc. Zool. Soc. London, June 16, 1891) as new species

and named after him. After his retirement his chief interest appears

to have been confined to Diptera on which group of insects he

wrote several valuable papers.

His most important contributions to the Journal of this Society

are as follows :—

‘The Butterflies of Aden and Neighbourhood, with Some

Notes on Their Habits, Food Plants, etc.,’ vol. vii, p. 207.

‘ A List-of the Birds of Aden,’ vol. x1, 1p. 7/5.

His appeal for assistance in collecting Gad Flies, Bot Flies and

Warble Flies (vol. xiii, p. 683) contains some very useful instruc-

tions for collecting these insects.

Officers quartered at, and residents residing in Aden have cause

to be indebted to the late Col. Yerbury for leaving behind for their

use withthe Political Resident at Aden, a set of valuable pamphlets

on the Flora and Fauna of the settlement ‘as complete as I have

been able to make it.’

EUGEN M. VAN INGEN

The death occurred at Mysore on February 27 of Eugen M.

Van Ingen the well known sportsman and taxidermist, after a

severe operation. Mr. Van Ingen joined the Bombay Natural

History Society in 1913 and was known among a very wide circle of

OBITOCARY 787

friends, as the very best of good fellows. Mr. Van Ingen’s fame

as an artist in taxidermy was only equalled by his keenness and

proficiency as a shikari and fisherman. Some of the biggest known

records in jungle and stream were annexed by him and his advice

and assistance were freely sought in big game expeditions

organized in the State on the occasion of the visit of distinguished

guests, notably the Prince of Wales, the Earl of Reading and H. E.

Lord Irwin. His death, which creates a great gap in the personnel

of Indian shikar, will be deeply deplored by hosts of sportsmen

throughout the country.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

I.—THE TRUTH ABOUT ‘A UNIQUE LION PHOTOGRAPH’

We are glad to notice that the photograph of a young Lion

attacking a Zebra, published on page 583 of this Volume has

aroused such considerable interest amongst our readers.

Writing on the 20th of March, Mr. F. W. Champion, the well-known

wild animal photographer and author of W7zth a Camera in Tiger-

land, puts forward a number of well-considered and cogent

reasons for his belief that the photograph is one of those ingenious

fakes which are unfortunately much too common with Natural

History subjects. Quite naturally, however, he could not be alto-

gether certain that it was a ‘ triumph of the faker’s art’, and admit-

ted that if genuine, it must in his opinion be ‘by far the finest

natural history photograph ever taken by anyone or likely to be

taken.’

Sometime back we had written to Messrs. Hutchinson & Co.,

the publishers of Azzmals of all Countries, for information regarding

the same photograph reproduced in their book, and referred to in

the note which accompanied our plate. To this we recently heard

from Mr. Wm. Martin-Hurst, Managing Editor of the Exclusive

News Agency, London, (‘ E.N.A.’) who kindly wrote to say that he

could give us no particulars beyond the fact that their original photo-

graph was a very old copy, having been in their possession for at

least 25 years; that as far as he knew it came _ originally

from an American source and was said to have been taken by a

well-known American Big Game Hunter; and that various people

more or less qualified to speak had cast considerable doubt on the

authenticity of the picture.

Still more interesting are the cuttings from Zhe Camera for April

and June 1927 received by the last mail through the kindness of one

of our members, Mr. A. J. Page, which help conclusively to run the

photograph to earth. The April (1927) number of Zhe Camera

in noticing a monthly Magazine of photography issued by the

Soviet from Moscow entitled ‘ Sovietskoe Foto’, reproduced from

its pages the same Lion-Zebra photo with the following graphic and

soul-stirring account: ‘One of the pictures which we endeavour to

reproduce is without exception the most dramatic and tragic nature

picture that we have yet seen. It is said to have been taken by a

hunter on the plains (or steppes) of Africa. It shows the triumphal

ride of a lioness on the back of a Zebra, terror depicted on the

unfortunate animal’s features as in vain he flies to escape from the

fate that awaits him. It reminds onein its wild way of the triumphal

march of an emperor through the streets of Rome celebrating his

victory. Nothing was spared to display the barbaric glory of the

victor, even to the march of his conquered victim, barefooted and in

chains. Here is the Queen of the jungle, emblem of ferocity and

cruelty, and it requires no imagination to realize that in an instant

(II ON 230N snosuelpasstf, 99g) “(vsojnqau sya) predoay papno[y eq,

‘DOS 'LSIH “LYN AVENOG ‘Naenor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 789

the Zebra must collapse and that the Lioness’s fangs will be in its

throat.’

The publication of the Soviet photograph in 7he Camera promptly

elicited the following letter to the editor from a good lady in Bake-

well, Derbyshire, whose name is not given as the gentleman she

refers to (whom we by no means envy!) has quite wisely preferred

to remain silent in spite of being addressed on the subject-

‘Dear Sir—It may be of interest to you to know that the actual

photographer of the incident you reproduce of the Lioness and

Zebra, resides here in Bakewell. Having had in my possession a

copy of this, I was more than astonished to find it on the front of

your magazine when in a Sheffield photo shop last month. I was

in conversation with the gentleman only yesterday and he assures

me that the incident did really happen as depicted, and that he was

a member of the hunting party. It certainly did not happen recent-

ly, as he has left South Africa since 1916. How it has got to Soviet

Russia has yet to be explained.’

While these amusing and amazing claims and counterclaims were

in progress, the matter seems to have been brought to the notice of

the ‘iconoclastic’ Dr. G. Arnold, the Curator and Zoologist of the

Natural History Museum, Bulawayo, whose conclusive letter on the

subject expresses our sentiments admirably. Dr. Arnold writes

under date 29th April 1927:

‘Dear Sir—It is quite correct that the photograph on the cover

of Zhe Camera is taken from part of a group in this Museum.

Some years ago a photo was taken of this group, and, with a

faked background added, was published in the United States with

the information that it was a snapshot taken by an intrepid hunter.

‘Liar’ would perhaps have been a more correct description of the

intrepid gentleman. The photo on the cover is not new to me,

as it was published elsewhere some years ago, and broughr to my

notice.’

Our thanks are due to those members who have communicated to

us their views on the photograph, and helped towards the final

elucidation of the mystery.

EDITORS.

Il.—A CLOUDED LEOPARD (#EL/S NEBULOSA)

ATTACKING MAN

(With a_ plate)

I enclose a photograph of an animal which was brought in by a

Karen boy who stated that while cutting wood near his village he

saw the animal approaching him and when it saw him it crouched

and approached him cautiously ‘pushing bundles of branches and

leaves in front ofit.’ It sprang at the boy who split its skull with a

dah (knife). I find on inquiry that this is generally believed to be the

usual method this animal adopts when approaching its prey whether

as a means of concealment or to puzzle its prey I amunable to say.

Perhaps you could enlighten me on this point.

790 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

The animal is a species I have never seen or heard of before ; it

is known locally as ‘ In Cha.’ .

This particular individual is known to have taken several head of

cattle in the vicinity.

Tavoy, BuRMA, A. BROWNLOW,

December 10, 1927. L[ndian Police.

|The identity of the animalin Mr. Brownlow’s note and photo-

graph as the Clouded Lecpard (felis nebulosa) is confirmed by the

skin sent us for examination. This beautiful and somewhat rare

cat inhabits the hilly portions of Burma, Siam, Malay Peninsula,

Sumatra, Java and Borneo and also occurs in Assam, Sikkim,

Bhutan and the Nepal Himalayas. It attains a length of from 6 to

63 feet of which 23 to 3 feet is taken up by thelong and thickly

furred tail.

Our knowledge of the habits of this animal is very scanty and

Mr. Browniow’s note forms an interesting addition. Itis believed

principally to be an arboreal species feeding on small mammals

and birds which it captures among the branches. Eps. ]

IlI.—NOOSING TIGERS

Among the coolies on these hills there has been a custom

(which I have strenuously tried to stop) of setting traps and wire

nooses for the catching of Sambur, Barking Deer and Pig.

I was informed one day last month that a tiger was heard

‘Making plenty big noise’ at aplace about four miles from my bunga-

low. On arriving at the scene [found him to be about 98 per cent

dead and proceeded to put him out of his misery.

On examination I found that the tiger had been caught around

the neck by a wire noose, presumably placed for the unwary

sambur. The wire had been placed acrossa well-trodden sambur

track.

The wire in question had a total length of 10 ft. 7 in. was 5 ply of

approximately 20 gauge. The far end was affixed to small sapling,

at a height of about 3 ft. from the ground.

The beast was a full grown male, in healthy condition, measuring

9 ft. 8 in.— ‘ fair do’s’ --between pegs.

Last year a similar case occurred on a neighbouring estate, the

wire in this instance was ordinary telegraph wire. The beast, I

am told, measured, 9 ft. 7 in.

Yet another case occurred last year in which a tigress was

noosed, of the particulars of which I am afraid I am ignorant.

How is it that a noose, presumably placed for snaring sambur,

will catch a tiger which usually walks, and even stalks with his

head down?

PALAGAPANDY,

NELLIAMPATHIES, H. A. BOAS.

November 22, 1927.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 791

IV.—REPLY TO MR. PHILLIPS’ NOTE ON P. 371,

VoL. XXXIT RA-COLOUR OF THE LONG-ARMED SHEATH-

TAILED BAT (TAarAOCZOUS LONGIMANTGS)

Iam quite in agreement with Mr. Phillips that the young of

T. longimanus are coloured like the females (and vo/ like the males)

as is the general rule with all juvenile animals.

It is very apparent that he has confused the statement of Blanford

with mine, as will be clearly seen from the paras which I reproduce

below :—

Mr. Phillips writes, ‘Ido not, however, agree with the sugges-

tion that the young of this bat are pale fulvescent and become

gradually black with age. I am convinced from my experience

(soam I.,C. McC.) with species in Ceylon, that the opposite is in

reality the truth, that is to say, that the young are darker in the first

coat and become gradually lighter and more brightly coloured with

age, the adult male becoming light reddish (almost cinnamon) brown

eventually.’

The following is an extract from my note in the Journal vol. xxxi

p. 1030 :—

‘All the three males were much lighter in colour than the

females, being a yellowish-brown: the females on the other hand

were dark blackish-brown, almost black. Blanford, inthe Fauna of

British India, mentions that Blyth observed the young individuals

to be pale fulvescent and that they become gradually darker with

age. Whether these paler ones were males or females he does not

say, for they might have all been males. One male taken by me the

day before was even paler than those secured in the Museum, being

a very pale fulvescent tint.

On looking throughthe materialin the Society’s collection I found

this difference to be the general rule, only a few being like the

females which are probably young specimens. One at least is very

young and coloured like the female. In almost all cases I could

pick out the males from the females by the difference of colour

alone.’

With regard to the question, ‘Whether these paler ones

for they might have all been males?’ I doubted Blyth’s statement

regarding the age of the bats. I did not mean to suggest for a

moment that the young were coloured like the males! It is quite

clear from my statements in the second para‘... only a few

being like the females which are probably young specimens,’

and ‘one atleast is very young and is coloured like the female,’

that I was of Mr. Phillips’ opinion that the young were coloured

like the females and not like the males.

BoMBAY, C. MCCANN.

January 10, 1928.

V.—HABITS OF THE PORCUPINE

Mr. C. McCann’s note on the Habits of the Porcupine in

vol. xxxil, No. 1, has somewhat surprised me. Porcupine exist

in large numbers on these hills (the Billigirirangans) and it is

792, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

very noticeable that not only their little paths, on the hill-sides, but

also paths formed by deer and other game are strewn with their

droppings but I have never noticed cone-shaped accumulations of

their excreta. The little Four-horned Antelope, which has only two

horns in these parts, and is known as the Pokey, is addicted to this

habit and the above is a good description of the little mounds of

excreta formed. by them: but similar formations in the case of

porcupines are not seen here.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, RALPH C. MORRIS.

ATTIKAN-P2@:

via Mysore,

December 11, 1927.

VIL—AN ELEPHANT WITH EXTRAORDINARY ‘GLANDS’

(With a plate.)

In answer to your letter of December 29, regarding the

Bellagalla Rogue Eiephant which I shot and sent you the snap of,

which had two extraordinary glands on the neck, which I thought

might be of interest to you, I will briefly give you some particulars

which may be of further interest.

This elephant used to frequent the forests between Coimbatore

District and Mysore State, adjoining the Billigirirangan Hills. I

shot it in the valley about half-way between Attikan and Kollegal.

During the past two years or more, it had become a great menace

to the people living in the wilds round about and it took to destroy-

ing their crops and no one dared to go anywhere near to drive it

away without being chased by it. It made short work of a few

unfortunates whom it got hold of and from all accounts it simply

trampled them out flat. It was proscribed a rogue about two years

back and though many set out after it, they did not have the

fortune to meet it. Mr. Ralph Morris of Attikan who I believe is

well known to you, promised to send me a wire if any reliable

khubber reached him about rogue elephants, of which there were

many, making their appearance off and on round about Attikan, and

as luck would have it he wired to me on October 24, and I

managed to get to him on October 26. We got into touch

with the rogue on 29th and after much tracking we came upon

him in an opening in the thick jungle, quite suddenly. I feel sure

he had his eye on us. He stood quite still about 40 yards off

giving usa broadside shot. Morris let me have the shot and I got

in a well placed shot between the eye and ear which stunned him

and Morris followed up with another shot immediately after and he

swung round falling on his side on the slope of the hill as the

picture shows and I placed another good shot at the base of the

skull which ended his career. It was all over in a minute or so.

On going up to him I noticed the two glands (I call them glands

but may be I am wrong).

The one you see on the upper side (right) was about 3 to 4inches

long, whereas the one on the underside was quite, 9 inches long.

They were both very slimy in appearance and to feel. They were

‘yisue] ul sayout 6 ynoqe JaMoyT pue sayour + saddy

‘(X) yoou uo syIMoIs dyT][-puR[s selpNded oy SuIMOYsS JOYsNy, s,atneyT “So YW ‘ATW

‘90S ‘“LSIH ‘LYN AVEWog ‘Nunor

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 793

coated with a whitish fluid (slime) and seemed to be merely two

bags or envelopes, which you could distend, being very elastic.

They were black in colour. The lower one looks white due to the

sun shining down on it and probably the reflection from the slime

causes it to look white in the photo.

The light was very difficult being about 8.45 a.m. and the sun

was just peeping over the hiil through the thick growth. The

photo I send (reproduced herewith) was the best cf three snapshots.

By the way I know Mr. Ralph Morris cut off the lower gland with

the idea of sending it to you. Ido not knowif he actually did so

for I had to leave hurriedly.

The people of the forests who accompanied us told us that they

had never seen any elephani with this extraordinary formation

under the neck and I have made enquiries of others who have had a

lot to do with elephants and they say the same. It will be interest-

ing to learn if possible what function they could possibly perform.

COIMBATORE, A. 5. LAURIE.

S. INDIA,

January 4, 1928.

[Regarding, the above tusker and the extraordinary ‘ glands’

Mr. Ralph C. Morris writes us as follows :—

‘Iwas with Mr. Laurie at the time he shot the elephant and

we were both amazed to see, when we went up to the fallen

tusker, thatit carried a most extraordinary pair of appendages

on its neck, one on either side behind the lower jaw-bone as can

be clearly seenfrom the photograph. The appendages were inthe

shape of sausages, the upper one being about 5 inches long, and

the lower a good 9 or 10 inches. ‘To the touch they were tender

and appeared to be covered with a skin of unusual thinness, the

skin being of a raw appearance, mottled grey-pink in colour and

moist. Apart from the fact that the elephant was clearly in ‘‘ Musth’’,

there being a flow from the ‘“‘ Musth”’ gland orifices, I cannot

think what was the cause of these extraordinary growths, nor can

I assign any reason for them. I referred the question to Mr.

Saunders, Principal of the Veterinary College in Madras, but

Mr. Saunders couid advance no theory on the matter. He had seen

nothing of the kind before, and although I have been in at the death

of eleven or twelve proscribed elephants I have never seen a similar

case before, nor have I seen growths of this kind mentioned in any

work on elephants. I had the larger of the two appendages cut off

and gave instructions for it to be pickled preparatory to sending

it to the Madras Veterinary College for examination. Unfortunately

my instructions were misunderstood by my skinner who, instead of

preserving the whole appendage, skinned it, threw away tlie inside,

and pickled the skin! Can you ascribe any possible reason for these

growths, and have you heard of a similar case before ?’

Mr. A. J. W. Milroy, 1.F.S., of Assam, who has had considerable

experience of elephants, both tame and wild, writes to say that he

has never come across any glands of this sort.

7941 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

Mr. N.L. Bor, 1.F.s., of Goalpara District, Assam, another authority

on elephants writes in this connection as follows :—

‘As far as my experience goes I have never seen growths of the type

mentioned by your correspondent. Tumours of a fatty or serous

nature are not uncommon and | have seen them both in tame and

wild elephants. These tumours which are soft and elastic are not

infrequently found on the folds of the skin on the neck. Those

which are serous in type contain a fluid which is rather slimy and of

a barley-water colour.

It seems to me that the growths in question, I do not think they

can be glands, are of a similar nature which may have possibly

become chronic or malignant.’

It is extremely regrettable that owing to a misunderstanding the

contents of the ‘ glands’ should have been lost. It would be interes-

ting to hear what Zoologists have to say about these growths or

appendages. Eps. ]

VIL—ON ‘NATURAL DEATHS’ IN WILD ELEPHANTS

With regard to Mr. F. W. Champion’s interesting article on

‘Wild Elephants in the United Provinces’ in vol. xxxii, No. 1, in

which he quotes instances of elephants having been found dead,

the case of the elephant found dead inthe Lansdowne Division

certainly seems to be one of death from old age. Is there not just

a possibility however that it had been poisoned by villagers ?

Mr. Champion mentions that the graziers had known the elephant

for a year, and that it was too old and weak to run away with the

other wild elephants when driven from the crops of the netghtouring

villagers. This may be so: but I have known of elephants

frequently refusing to be driven off from villagers’ crops, remain-

ing in cover close to the fields when the rest of the herd had retreated

back into the jungles. I once came upon the decomposed carcases

of three cow elephants at the foot of these hills. The iocal forest

subordinate informed me that he thought the elephants had proba-

bly died of anthrax—though he could advance no evidence in support

of his theory: no other elephants had been reported sick or died:

nor did I hear of any other deaths. The elephants were lying dead

within a few yards of each other. Ido not think that the anthrax

theory was possible, nor do I consider it at all likely that the

elephants had died of natural causes. I was assured later by my

trackers, that the ryots in the fields these eiephants had been in the

habit of visiting and causing considerable damage to, kad put out

a number of poisoned pumpkins, etc., which these elephants had

eaten. Here there was the possible cause of their death. Mr.

Champion speaks of the elephant having been moved from its first

position. This is quite possible. I have seen a wild elephant

trying tomove a tusker (a proscribed rogue) I had shot: and in

the case of a herd tusker shot by the late Mr. R. H. Morris the carcass

was actually shifted a few yards by other elephants of the herd

which returned to the spot Jater. Atuskershot by Mr. A. L. Laurie

of Coimbatore in November 1927, when Iwas with him, ona slope

above a stream was moved a few yards down to the edge of the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 795

stream by elephants in a herd which visited the place a day or two

later. This elephant was clearly in ‘ Musth’, there being a discharge

from the ‘ Musth’ gland orifice between the eye and the ear on

either side of the head. Itis remarkable how quickly the skeleton

of an elephant will disappear, and Mr. Champion in no way

exaggerates when he says that ‘a single season may easily remove

the entire body and much of the skeleton of an animal even as large

as an elephant.’ A couple of years is sufficient to remove all

traces of a dead elephant—except perhaps the skuil which may

be found hidden away in long grass and dense undergrowth for a

year ortwo longer. Protection has undoubtedly contributed to the

increase of elephants in South India. Probably the Kheddas held

by the Mysore Government do more than anything else to keep

their numbers down in these parts, but even then I consider that

elephants are rapidly increasing. When I was in camp last March

there were at one time four separate and distinct herds of elephants

near our camp and three or four solitaries besides.

I have just received Mr. Champion’s book Wzuth a Camera in

Tiger Land. Vhe photos shown of Tiger, Panther, Biephant,

Deer, etc., in their natural state are wonderful and the reading

enthralling. Mr. Champion writes as only a keen naturalist and

lover of jungle and its denizens could write. The photographs are

superb, and one can imagine the trouble and painstaking care

involved in the achieving of such thrilling results.:

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, RALPH C.-MORRIS,

ATTIKAN (P;O.,

Via Mysore,

December 11, 1927.

VIII.—CLICKING NOISE MADE BY MUNTJAC

In your issue of August 1, 1927 ‘ Miscellaneous Notes ’ I have read

a note with the above title by Mr. Randolph C. Morris.

I am surprised to learn that Col. Burton has never heard the

Muntjac (the Khakar or Barking Deer of Northern India) emit this

clicking noise. I spent many years inthe forests of the United

Provinces, between 1889 and 1918, and very frequently heard the

noise described, especially when the Khakar was disturbed at cluse

quarters.

The noise is, as stated by Mr. Morris, only produced as the

animal bounds off. I believe it to be restricted to the male only

but I cannot be absolutely certain of this.

The noise is a rapidly repeated cluck—cluck—cluck. ... Generally

only six to eight repetitions, and I have always believed to be pro-

duced in some way by impact of the animals’ teeth. It is far too

rapid (about three to the second) to be produced by the feet andas a

matter of fact a very similar sound may be produced by striking

two pieces of bone together.

Ba Bb, OSMASTON;

indian forest Service (Retd.)

796 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

IxX.—CROWS AND KOELS

M. Jouguet’s letter in the number of the Journal published on

October 20 last reminds me of an occurrence which came to

my notice some three months ago, which may be worthy of

note.

Crows having become an insufferable nuisance round the bun-

galow, | had taken to shooting them, in the forlorn hope of driving

them away. Asis the way with crows, they had become sufficiently

knowing to keep just out of range, and we had reached the stage

when, by careful stalking, I occasionally got one which was either

too daring or too slow.

One evening, shortly before sundown, this game was in progress,

all the birds being between me and the sun, when suddenly there

was a loud ‘caa’ from the far side of a Derrts robusta tree near by.

Looking up, I could just make out a black body through the

feathery foliage, and shot it.

On picking up the bird, I was astonished to find that it was a

female koel (Audynamzs scolopaceus malayana?). It had appeared

to be black from being against the sun, and its ‘caa’ was sucha

perfect imitation of the real thing that, although I could not

make out the shape of the bird, I had had no doubt that it was a

crow.

Has this occurrence been recorded before ? If so, is the object

of itknown? Had it been a different time of year one might have

supposed that the koel was endeavouring to mix with the crowd to

accompany the crows to the roosting place. There was no sign of

a male koel, though I watched until the birds began to clear away.

Moreover, it is the only time in six years of residence in the

bungalow that I have known of a koel anywhere near the

compound.

TocKLAI EXPERIMENTAL STATION, E. A. ANDREWS,

CINNAMARA P. O. & T.O. Entomologist,

ASSAM, Indian Tea Association.

December 19, 1927.

X.—THE RUFOUS-BREASTED BLUE FLYCATCHER

(CYORNIS AY PERYTARA) AY HIGH LEVELS

While examining recently the series of Cyornis hyperythra (Blyth)

belonging to the Bombay Natural History Society’s Museum

I found two specimens differing markedly from the rest which were

in agreement with authors’ descriptions: Oates, Baker, etc.

The two skins are generally paler greyer-blue above; much less

rufous below and perhaps have more white on the tail than in

examples representing the typical race which has Darjiling for type

locality. They are also paler and greyer than the south-eastern

forms.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 797

One of the birds was taken at 6,000 ft. on Mt. Victoria, Burma, and

the other at Dakuri, 10,200 ft., on the Pindar R., north of Almora in

Kumaon.

These localities are practically at the extremities of the range of

C.h. hyperythra so it seems out of the question to regard them as

representatives of a distinct race unless that should be a high-level

form.

This note is written to suggest that those possessing other high-

level specimens should compare them with more _ topotypical

examples.

SINGAPORE, C. BODEN KLOSS.

December 20, 1927.

XI.—THE NIDIFICATION OF THE SIND HILL WARBLER

(SUYA CRINIGERA STRIATULA).

In the Fauna of British India, Birds, Revised Edition, vol. ii,

p. 520, the nidification of the Sind Hill Warbler (Suya crinigera

striatula) is shown as not recorded, and the following note may

therefore be of interest.

During the last week of July of this year I found the bird com-

mon on the hill of Sakesar, some thirty miles east of the Indus and

at the extreme west of the Punjab Salt Range, of which it forms

the highest point (4,992 feet).

Its favourite haunts appeared to be steep slopes covered with

long grass and well supplied with bushes of various kinds. Nest-

ing operations were in progress and several nests were found,

mostly in course of construction.

In one nest a bird was sitting on two eggs on July 24, and

again on 28th, when the eggs were taken and the male parent

secured. The eggs, which were slightly incubated, have a ground

colour of very pale pink and are marked with pale reddish blotches

scattered over the whole surface and most numerous at the broader

end, where they form an ill-defined ring. The nest was situated,

barely twelve inches from the ground, ina‘ Sanatha’ (Dodonea

viscosa) bush, through which some tufts of grass were growing. It

was an oval-domed structure, made of strips of grass, and the lower

portion was matted with seed-down. The inner lining was of fine

grass, and the entrance faced north.

Another nest, similarly built and situated, contained three half-

fledged young on July 28.

A small series of the birds was collected and sent to Mr. H.

Whistler who kindly identified them.

I have not met with this Warbler in any other part of the Salt

Range.

SARGODA, H. W. WAITE, F.z.s., M.B.0.U.,

PUNJAB, Indian Police.

October 15, 1927.

798 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

XII.—ON THE UNUSUAL FOOD-HABITS OF HORNBILLS

Apropos the subject of the unusual food-habit of Dzchoceros

bicornis, Linn., as recorded by Mr. W. S. Wood in J.B.N.4.S. (vol.

XXXVii, page 374) it is worthwhile to cite an instance of the

piscivorous habit of Lophoceros birostris (Scop.) which came under

my personal observation. It was in 1926 when at Hazaribagh I

bagged alive a specimen, very slightly injured by my gun-shots.

Anxious as | was to keep it in captivity, 1 was confronted with a

vexed problem as to itsdiet. Knowing it to bea frugivorous bird I

tried all sorts of fruits and berries, which I found it, to my amaze-

ment, to avoid studiously. It was literally starving itself for a

couple of days and would touch nothing except water. When I tried

to force a piece of ripe banana down its throat it would simply dis-

gorge the whole thing out. At last when some small fish were

presented before it, it readily paid attention to the fry, and after

throwing these up one by one in the air, it would catch them in its

bill and gulp down. The fact of this bird having any greed for fish

has never been recorded anywhere. In this case aiso the question

arises whether it is a practice commonly indulged in by these birds

in their wild state or merely a case of individual idiosyncrasy

noticeable in captivity. The fish-eating habit has only been

observed in the case of Azthracoceros m. malabaricus (Gmelin). The

other members of the Bucerolide appear to be largely frugivorous,

although a varied menu consisting of smaller reptiles and rodents,

snails and various insects is also more or less induiged in.

R.B. Sanyal, a former Superintendent of the Calcutta Zoo, prescribed

for the captive Hornbills a carnivorous dietary, within which small

birds were included (vzde his Handbook of the management of

animals in captivity in Lower Bengal). It is, therefore, easy to

realize that with a hungry Hornbill nothing goes amiss provided its

size falls within manageable limits. I have even seen Lophoceros

btrostris (Scop.) devouring the petals of Lauhinia flowers, which

appear to form a major part of the bird’s diet in places where there

is a comparative dearth of fruit trees and berries. The omnivorous

habits of the Hornbills are no doubt responsible for their occasional

outbursts of criminality (which finds a full play in captivity when

weaker companions are housed with them) but how far the predatory

instinct is let loose so as to play its part in Nature’s economy is a

point which cannot be answered until all the data are available as to

the food habits of each species.

CALCUTTA. SATYA CHURN LAW,

M.A., B-L.; PH.D., F/Z.S., M.D.0.U,

XII].—THE BLACK-CAPPED KINGFISHER (HALCYON

PILEATA) IN THE DARBHANGA

DISTRICT Bin AR

I have on several occasions recorded the occurrence of this bird in

Bihar in these pages, most of them being got in February. It is

rare but not asrare as | at first took it tobe. I now record another

which I shot in September.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 799

On the afternoon of September 17, 1922, while out in boat

fishing with my brother on the Bhagmati River near Bunhar factory

we got within five yards of one of these birds. The river is an

Open one running through cultivation and the Kingfisher was ona

bush overhanging the water. It took absolutely no notice of the

many small fish which came to the surface nor of us in the boat till

we got within that distance of it; even then it only flew across to

the other side of the river. We disturbed it on severai occasions

and what I noticed most was that it flew off silently on each occa-

sion quite unlike an Indian White-breasied Kingfisher (Alalcyon

smyrnensts fusca) which went off uttering its loud, harshcry. We

came across it again on the 19th, this time seated on the

bank and finally I shot it onthe 20th. It was silent on all three days

so [have never heard its cry. Itis easily recognized on the wing by

the buffy lower plumage, the upper plumage looks black except

when the sun shines on it, then it glistens. The contents of the

stomach consisted of a small crab; other specimens examined had

fed on fish and beetles. The local Aftrshzkars consider it only an

albino of the white breasted species and call it Ad/ak Tankz.

DARIJILING,

September 28, 1927. CHAS. M. INGLIS, F.z.s., F.E.S., M.B.O.U.

XIV.—A QUAIL’S QUEER RETREAT

(Reprinted trom the Sunday Times, Johannesburg, Transvaal,

November 13, 1927.)

A singuiar case is reported from Somerset East, C. P. A shearer

working at Hope Vale, a farm in the district, was busy on a heavy

woolled ram of Messrs. W. G. Jordaan and Sons, when he felt a

hard lump in the wool on the belly.

On opening up the fleece he found a live, fully-grown quail !

It is supposed that the bird had crept for shelter into the long

wool while the ram was lying down, and had remained there when

it was driven to the shearing shed. It is stated that there were

several witnesses of the find.

Has anything like this been found elsewhere ?

XV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SHELDRAKE (TADORNA

LADORNA) IN THE DARBHANGA

Dist RICl BIAAK

There have been notes in late Journals of the occurrence of this

duck in various parts of Bihar, so it may perhaps be interesting to

gather together data of those got by me; some of these have

already been noted by me in this Journal, my first record being in

Vole exXV.. Ds ooo Of 1905, During that year I got one from

Mr. Edgell and another was snared not far from Baghownie. In

1905 I got four specimens, two drakes from the Benoa chaur on

May 1, and June 5, and two ducks, one on November 6, near

Baghownie and the other on the 30th of that month from the Maiser

chaur. {don’t appear to have got any more til 1915 when one was

800 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

brought in alive by a Wirshtkar on July 28. It was in good condi-

tion and didn’t appear to have been wounded at any time. During

the following year I got a fine drake near Baghownie on May

12, with a well developed knob on its bill. It was on a small] patch

of mud and water, more mud than water. ‘The last record I

have is of a duck got at the Benoa chaury on June 24, 1923 another

late date for it to be found. After that I left the district but have

no doubt that had I remained there I would have been able to add

to these records. Besides these nine specimens I have also heard

of one or two others being shot.

DARJILING,

September 28, 1927. CHAS. M. INGLIS, F.z.s., F.z.s., M.B.O.U.

XVI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SHELDRAKE (7TADORNA

TADORNA) IN THE UNITED PROVINCES.

On December 25, 1927 at Saman Jal, Mainpuri District, United

Provinces, there were shot two specimens of the Sheldrake

(Tadorna tadorna).

ROORKEE,

January 4, 1928. BE. E. L. SEARIGHT, CaZi.,

R.E.

XVIL—RECOVERY FROM THE BITE OF A PHOORSA

(ECHIS CARINATA.)

No. 4179383. Fslr. Brannar, lst Royal Welch Fusiliers, had been

employed on fatigue, with other men, in knocking down a wall.

The wall had been knocked down and the men were carrying away

the stones. Brannar lifted up a large stone and was bitten by the

snake, which was underneath. This was at 5.10 p.m. on October 4,

19-7. He reached hospital about 5.30. There were two well-

defined punctures on the dorsum of the terminal phalanx of the

right middle finger, which were slightly oozing. The orderly assis-

tant surgeon incised them and rubbed in permanganate crystals.

He ‘vas seen by the orderly officer about twenty minutes later and

was given 40 c. c. of antivenin serum, subcutaneously, in the flank.

He did not show the faintest trace of constitutional disturbance.

He showed us a small gland in his right axilla, and said that he

felt a slight tingling running up from the finger to the gland, and

added that the tingling was not painful. He was detained for 36

hours, and then discharged to ‘ attend’. I saw him, this morning.

He assured me that he had not felt the slightest ill-effects, at any

time, and he is an intelligent man. There was slight thickening

over the incisions, and one was oozing a trace of serum. The

finger was not painful,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 801

The stone had already been disturbed with a crow-bar, before

Brannar picked it up. It seems to me that the absence’ of all signs

of poisoning may be due tothe snake having struck at the crow-bar

and emptied its poison sacs, before Brannar lifted the stone.

BRITISH MILITARY HOSPITAL,

NASIRABAD, A. A. MEADEN,

October 9, 1927. Lt.-Col., R.A.M.C.

[The snake that bit Fslr. Brannar has since been sent to us and

identified as the Phoorsa (Echts carinata). We append a note

on the subject of Indian snake venoms by Lt.-Col. F. P. Mackie,

LM.S., Director of the Haffkine Institute, Bombay, which is of great

interest. He writes :—

‘The mortality from snake bite in India is due in the large

majority of cases to one of four species. The cobraand the krait

which are known as colubrine snakes, and the Russell’s viper and the

Echis (or phoorsa) which are viperine.

The poison of colubrine snakes affects chiefly the nervous system

and produces paralysis of various muscles, staggering gait or incoor-

dination of speech followed by respiratory paralysis, convulsions

and death by respiratory failure. The symptoms of viperine poison

are severe and persistent pain at the position of the bite and oozing

of blood from the punctures. Death may take place from paralysis

of the heart or from clotting of blood in the vessels if the dose is

large or is injected into a vein but if life is prolonged hemorrhages -

take place from the mouth, nose or intestines or in various part of

the body. Mortification and gangrene occur at the site of the fang

marks and the finger or hand may be lost in this way even after the

general symptoms have passed off.

The minimum fatal dose'of cobra venom is about 15 maul tani

(about 1/5th grain) and the snake gives from 5-10 lethal doses at

one bite. The krait can deliver five times the lethal dose and the

Russell’s viper and Echis about twice the lethal dose at one bite.

The Echis however rarely gives a sufficient dose to kill an adult

man.

Death from a cobra bite has occurred in as short a time as 20

minutes, but may be delayed as long as 30 hours.

The antivenine produced at Kasauliis made from the venoms of

cobras and Russell’s vipers which are collected at the Haffkine

Institute and as these poisons are absolutely specific in their action

the antivenine is quite useless against the bites of kraits and

phoorsas.

Antivenine should always be given into the veins and not under

the skin and if given in the following doses will be instrumental in

saving many lives especially if given within a short time of the

bite :—

Russell’s viper bites 80-160 cc. of antivenine

Cobra bites 100-400 cc. ,,

(Acton & Knowles)

Permanganate of potash has little or no effect if rubbed into the

bite but generally increases the amount of necrosis and tissue

destruction.’ Eps. ]

802 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

XVIII.—THE MOGUL EMPERORS OF INDIA AS

NATURALISTS AND SPORTSMEN.

(Published with the permission of the Director,

Zoological Survey ot India).

Mr. Salim A. Ali has done a great service to science in bringing

together all references to animals contained in the works of the

Mogul Emperors of India and in arranging them in a systematic way.

No. 2 of volume xxxii of the Journal of the Bombay Natural History

Society recently published, contains an account of fishes (pp. 268, 269)

as described by these emperors. The descriptions are in almost all

cases sufficient to enable the animals to be identified fairly closely.

Mr. Ali has, however, not been able to do full justice to these des-

criptions in his interpretations and I therefore propose to add a few

comments to the various passages quoted by Mr. Ali.

Babur refers to the fish of India as follows: ‘ Their flesh is

delicate and they have few small bones. They are surprisingly

active. On one occasicn a net was laid in the river from side to side.

Each side of the net was then raised a gaz (23 feet) above the water,

yet many of the fish leaped one after the other a full gaz over the

net and escaped. There are besides in many rivers of Hindustan

small fishes which if they hear a harsh sound or the treading of a

foot instantly leap a gaz or a gaz and a half out of the water.’

There is no doubt that in the description of the flesh a reference

is made to our larger marketable fish such as Ladbeo rohita, Catla

catla, Cirrhina mrigala, Barbus tor, etc. The active species referred

to as leaping is probably Catla catla (Ham. Buch.). Buchanan

Hamilton writes about this fish as follows: ‘It is a very strong

active animal, and often leaps over the seine of the fishermen, on

which account, when fishing for the catla, they usually follow the net

in canoes, and make a noise by shouting and splashing with their

paddles.’! I watched big specimens of cat/a leaping over nets at

Niazbeg near Lahore in 1919. It is a common sight in Bengal

(probably in other parts of India also) to see small fish leaping about

on the surface of the water during a heavy rainfall, probably they

react to the noise or disturbance produced by the falling rain. These

small fish are usually the young of the species enumerated above.

Another reference in Babur’s account runs as follows: ‘ One fish

is the kakeh. On a line with its two ears issue two bones, three

fingers-breadth in length. When caught it shakes these two bones

which return a singular sound, whence they have given this fish its

name of kakeh.’ About the identity of this fish Mr. Ali remarks,

‘The identity of a fish described by Babur in the following terms

isa mystery. Sir Lucas King has made no comment on it, and it is

surprising that such a singular animal, if it exists, should not be

generally known. I can find no reference to anything like it in

Annandale’s paper either.’ I have, however, no hesitation in stat-

ing that this mysterious creature is A7zta rzta (Ham. Buch.), which

1 Day, Fishes of India, p. 553 (1878).

— v

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ~~ 803

is a common fish at Lahore in winter and is called Ahagga. One

often hears hawkers in the streets selling Navi dé Khagge (Khagga

fish of the Ravi River). Ina collection of drawings by Sir Alexan-

der Burnes made during his expedition to Cabul in 1837-38 and

recently described by me in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal

I‘ find that this fish is called Aagdé at Hyderabad and there seems

to be no doubt that Kakeh is the same as Kagd. Moreover, the

structure and the habit described by Babur exactly tally with those

of Rita rita. In this species the pectorai fins are provided with very

strong spines which are denticulated at both edges. They corres-

pond to the two bones described by Babur and their length would

depend on the size of the fish examined. These pectoral spines

along with the powerful dorsal spine are used as organs of offence

and defence and it is well known that the jagged spines of some of

our Siluroids (cat-fishes) occasion intense inflammation and some-

times inflict dangerous wounds. During the winter season the

individuals of this species hide themselves among pebbles and rocks

in crevices and lie in such situations more or less in a state of tor-

por. At this season they are usually caught in great numbers by

hand by diving to their places of retreat and holding them, when

caught, in such a position that they are unable to move their spines.

This is accomplished by holding the fish between the fingers in such

a way that all the three spines stand erect. The spines of the cat-

fishes are very much feared and they are broken off as soon as the

fish are caught. ,

At Lahore Aita rita is sometimes called 7y7zkanda, in which

reference is made to the three spines of the fish and in the vernacular

name Khagga | believe reference is made to the jagged condition

of the spine, because the thorny budding leaf of the date-palm tree

is also called Ahagga, at ieast in the Gujranwaia District of the

Punjab. The dialect changes from district to district in the Punjab

and I know that in this part of India the fishermen are often unable

to explain the meanings of the vernacular names of fish.

_ The pectoral spines of Azta rita are provided with a set of very

strong muscles and their proximal ends are specially modified to form

a movable joint with the pectoral girdle.» When the fish vigorously

shakes its pectoral spines, on being annoyed, a peculiar noise is

produced by the movements of the condyles of the spines in the

articular grooves. ‘These facts are closely in accord with Babur’s

description of Kakeh.

The Pulwah of Sind is now called Ailsa tlisha and not Clupea

tlisha. Mr. Ali observes that this species ‘ regularly ascends the

Indus in February and March in enormous swarms for the purpose

of spawning.’ While travelling in the Punjab in 1926 I was informed

by a reliable authority that these fish do not ascend in the Indus to

the distance and in the quantities which are referred to in earlier

records, and he actually feared that this highly-prized fish of Sind

was in the process of abandoning the Indus altogether. Exact

information on this point will be of immense economic importance.

- 1 Hora, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal (n.s.) voi. xxii, p. 123 (1927). .

® Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxii, p. 30 (1921). : a

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

Jehangir’s reference to the blind fishes of Andha Nag in Kashmir

is very interesting. I donot knowof blind fish from the freshwaters

of India and it is to be hoped that any one who finds them in Kash-

mir or elsewhere in India will send them to the Indian Museum,

Calcutta, for determination.

Jehangir mentions that, ‘ The best fish in Hindustan is the Rohu

and after that the Barin. Both have scales and in appearance and

shape are like each other. Everyone cannot at once distinguish

between them. The difference in their flesh also is very small but

the connoiseur discovers that the flesh of Rohu is rather more agree-

able of the two.’ Mr. Ali identifies Rohu as Labeo calbasu and

suggests that the other may be the Indian Trout (Barilius bola).

-Rohu is a name which is sometimes indiscriminately applied to the

larger species of carp inhabiting our rivers, these may be Ladeo or

Barbus. Ifind (Hora, 1927, p. 124) that at Peshawar Rohoo is applied

to a species of Ladeo probably dyocheilus (McClell.) and at Hasan

Abdal Rahu is used for a species of Barbus, probably tor. Else-

where in northern India and in the provinces of Bengal, Assam and

Bihar and Orissa Rohz is used for Labeo vohita and to the best of my

knowledge is never used for Labeo calbasu, which on account of its

characteristic black colour is known as AKalabasu in Bengal. In the

Punjab and Sind it is called Dz and Di-hee respectively. Roh (Labeo

rohita) is considered to be a great delicacy and the Emperor Jehangir

in all probability refers to this fish.

The vernacular name arin is new to me andit is only by a process

of elimination that I can identify it as Civrhina mrigala. There are

four scaly fishes in the Indian rivers that are highly prized for the

flavour of their flesh and which grow to a fairly large size e.g.,

Labeo rohita, Catla catla, Cirrhina mrigala and Barbus tor. Caitla

can be readily distinguished by its characteristic upturned mouth.

Connoiseurs always find that the flesh of Barbus tor is much better

than of any other fresh water fish of India and moreover the form

of Barbus tor is not as deep as that of Ladeo rohita and the two can

also be distinguished by the form of their heads. Cirrhina mrigala

is very much like a Ladeo and one is likely to be confused by the

two forms; so it is probable that Barzz refers to Cirrhina mrigala.

It could have no reference to the Indian Trout (Barz/ius bola) which

in its characteristic shape, markings and the position of the fins, etc.,

is quite distinct from any species of Ladeo or the other carp named

above.

There is no doubt that the Mogul Emperors of India (Babur and

Jehangir) were careful students of nature and the descriptions of the

animals that they have left behind them, though meagre, fully testify

to this. I hope students interested in other groups of animals will

further elucidate the facts so ably brought to light by Mr. Salim

A. Ali.

ZOOLOGICAL DEPARTMENT, SUNDER LAL HORA,

UNIVERSITY OF EDINBURGH, D:Sc., F-L:S.,. B.Z.Ss

December 24, 1927. Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 805

XIX.—THE EFFECTS OF BEE VENOM

Reprinted trom ‘ The Indian Medical Gazette,’ Vol. LXIT

No. 5, May 1927

Under the abovetitle Dr. A. R. D’Abreau has an article in the

Indian Medical Gazette for November 1926, and as a few very strik-

ing cases have come under my personal observation, I am publish-

ing this note.

The species generally credited with evil effects is Apis mellifica.

L. Brant and Ratzeburg were the first to study bee venom in

1833. Paul Bertin 1865 and Carlet in 1884 also studied it, but it

was not till 1897 that the chemical nature of the poison was carefully

studied by Langer.

This poison when freshly extracted is a transparent acid fluid

with a bitter taste and an aromatic smell. The acid reaction is

believed to be due to formic acid.

Langer’s experiments show ihat the active principle is not an

albuminous but an organic base.

The poison is destroyed, or its activity lessened by the action of

oxidizing agents.

Castellani and Chalmers (2nd edition) write ‘Intravenous injec-

tions into dogs produce convulsions, trismus, nystagmus, emprost-

hotonus, death from respiratory failure. This action is believed by

some authors to be due to a neuro toxin, but the blood after death

is very fluid, and the red corpuscles are destroyed, indicating a

marked hemolysis, while all the organs except the spleen show

heemorrhage and hyperemia, so that the effect may not be due so

much to the action on the nervous system, as to that on the blood.

With regard to the hemolytic action Morgenroth and Capri have

Shown that there is a similarity between this poison and cobra

venom.’

The constituents of this poison are :—

1. An inflammatory poison, said to be derived from the acid

gland.

2. Neurotoxins ; (a2) convulsive, (said to be derived from the

alkaline gland); (6) narcotic (secreted by the acid gland).

3. Heemolysins.

Let us now for a moment study the poison apparatus of a bee.

From the posterior endof the abdominal segment projects a

chitinous sheath which contains two barbed darts which form the

sting. Into this sheath and connected with the darts two (sometimes

three) ducts from glands open. The principal duct belongs to the

acid gland and opens anteriorly into a sac which is a reservoir for

the poison and which Jeads to a slender coiled tubular gland which

may be bifid or even divided into three. Thisis a very long gland

ramifying amongst the contents of the abdomen. The second open-

ing belongsto a small irregular tubular gland called the alkaline

gland, or gland of Dufour.

Now bearing in mind that different trains of symptoms are caused

as the result of stings, I think it is safe to infer that the two darts

can be used independently of one another. When on the other

hand a bee is very angry and attacks with force, both darts are used

806 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX11

and the full amount of poison possible for ejection is injected. It

should also be remembered (at least this is my idea), that ail the

bees which apparently attack one do not sting, but the majority

generally settle for a second or so and then fly off.

The following cases will I hope illustrate my points :—

Case 1.—In September last an elderly woman in the female ward was

stung by a bee at the external canthus of the left eye one afternoon. The Sub-

Assistant Surgeon who happened to be in the ward at the time reported that the

bee deliberately attacked this patient and would not be driven away until it had

stung her. In about an hour’s time there was a considerable amount of swel-

ling and ecchymosis over the forehead, left temple, left side of the face, and

both eyelids were puffy. At first sight the patient presented the appearance of

erysipelas. There was a great deal of pain, a rise of temperature to 101°F. and

pulse of 112 per minute. By next morning all the physical signs had greatly

diminished and by evening there was no need to consider this part of the

patient’s illness.

Case 2.—A few days after this occurrence, my wife, son and myself were

sitting in the garden, when my son was stung on the back of the neck; but all

that happened in his case was the formation ofa little lump (nodule) anda

slight red blush about 2 inches in circumference, and this all disappeared in a

couple of hours.

This bee did not make a determined attack.

Case 3.—In December 1917 when we were encamped on the Rouvouma

River in Portuguese East Africa, aswarm of bees one morning attacked the

camp, and ‘ M’, a young chemist who had only recently joined us as a dispenser

from Scotland, was most furiously set upon. Some hundreds of bees at a time

settled on his head, face, neck, andhands. He became frantic in his endea-

vours to drive them off and in fact, fright and pain were soon followed by ex-

haustion, and later on by a good deal of collapse.

~ In about 3 or 4 minutes the bees had all flown away, and then we extracted

about 40 or 50 stings from ‘M’ mostly from the back of the neck. The face,

neck and scalp soon became very red and swollen, and later on a slight cedema

was noticed.

This stinging had taken place at 9a.m.and by 2 p.m. ‘M’ had tempera-

ture of 102°F. and complained of a constricted feeling in the head. During the

day he had one or two loose stools, which I attributed to fright as he was a very

nervous man. Next morning he felt a ‘ bitcheap’, the neck still showed a

slight swelling, but by evening this had gone and he felt quite fit.

Judging from the number cf bees that settled on this man, the number of

broken stings we found, his method of knocking them off and, finally, the symp-

toms of poisoning he exhibited, Ido not believe that less than one-eighth or

more of the bees that settled on him, stung him.

I had often been told that if a swarm of bees are around and you happen to

be their line of fight just stand perfectly still and quiet and they will-not attack,

while the moment you start driving them off by swinging your arms about,-the

stinging begins, and this was amply proved in this instance. I was not more

than four yards away from ‘ M ’ when the bees were flying past and I just shout-

ed out to him to keep still and then remained quiet and motionless. Innumer-

able bees came around me and some actually settled on meand though the

temptation to drive them off was great, I did not do so but waited for them to

go off on their own, while ‘M ’ on the other hand completely lost his head, with

the result that the bees soon concentrated all their energies on him.

Case 4.— Another instance occurred one afternoon under the Kosi Bridge, a

few miles out of Kursala in the Bhagalpore District in January 1919. A

party of us were in butts scattered along a wide strip of sand awaiting the re-

turn of demoiselle cranes from the fields. No one had informed us that there

was a huge beehive under the bridge, and‘ K’ of the Police had his butt not

more than 30 yards away from this. As the cranes came sailing past a regular-

feu dé joe started but very soon gave place to most awful yells from‘K’. He

was soon racing across the strip of sand to the river with a thick swarm of bees

about, around, and behind him. Seeing his plight, one of the party to divert

the attention of the bees fired a charge of small shot into them and at the same

time got his gun boy to throw as much sand as possible into the air about 10 or

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES - 807.

15 yards away from him. Ido not know the virtue of this procedure but it

certainly had the desired effect, for almost immediately the bees left him and

flew back to the hive.

Now comes the interesting point. ‘K’ had one sting on the forehead but

from the back of the neck to over the occipital region he must have had fifty or

more (I am writing from memory).

The back of the neck is for some reason a specially selected site for stinging.

It may be that when attacked one ‘ ducks’ one’s head to protect the face and

eyes, but this by no means affords a full explanation.

‘The tsetse fly also selects the back of the neck and the popliteal space.

‘K’ complained of a burning sensation and a certain degree of vertigo. In

a short time the affected area was swollen, red and hot, but ‘ K’ was as hard as

nails and no further symptoms developed.

Port BLairr, A. BAYLEY bE CASTRO,

May 5, 1927. Juntor Medical Officer.

XX.—PLANTS AND INSECTS

Jane Austen in one of her novels released a simple but effective

thought by making one of the characters exclaim: ‘And now you

love a hyacinth, so much the better, you have gained a new

source of enjoyment, and it is as well to have as many holds

upon happiness as possible.’ In other words the observation of

the symbiosis or close relationship between insects and plants and

the place of a plant in its natural classification may sometimes be at

once inferred by the insects who areits guests. Thus a beautiful

golden green shield bug (Chrysocoris) in Southern India is fre-

quently seen on the leaves of Jatropha curchas and in Calcutta a

brilliantly coloured bug of the same genus is found onthe leaves of

Acalypha indica also a plant of the Euphorbiaciz. Sometimes an

interesting phenemenon of insect life is witnessed and related by a

lucky observer in vivid, impressionistic prose leaving his readers

in the dark as to the true identity of the objects described unless

gifted with the powers of observation of a Sherlock Holmes.

Extracts in illustration will be quoted in full from their excep-

tional interest for the guidance of others in the future who have the

opportunity of observing similar phenomena in Indian insect life in

the localities referred to by the writers quoted. Mark Thornhill in

Haunts and Hobbies of an Indian Offictal remarks, ‘ There are in

India many varieties of insects that when they place themselves in

certain positions on plants or shrubs appear to be part of the vege-

tation. Many of them have been described but to realize their

wonder they must be seen—one moment a twig, a leaf, or a flower

the next moment a moth ora grasshopper. The most marvellous of

these transformations that I ever beheld was at the commencement

of the ascent from the valley of the Dunto Mussoorie. The lowest

part of the road is exceedingly bare, hot and dusty. Along its outer

edge there grew a row of extremely sma! ‘shrubs hardly much more

than half a yard in height. The shrubs were always covered with

a profusion of white flowers much resembling ‘immortelles’. In

appearance they seemed as hard and dry as the road itself. I had

often noticed these flowers and one day I enquired of my servant

what was the name of these flowers and where else they grew for I

had never seen any exactly like them before. The man looked sur-

prised at my question and enquired what flowers I referred to, for

808 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

he added there were none there. I pointed to the shrubs. He

smiled, walked to one of them and touched it with his stick.

Instantly the flowers vanished. I saw a tuft of bare twigs, and the

air was filled with a perfect cloud of small white moths. They

flitted about for atime and gradually alighted and the twigs were

covered with white flowers as before.’ No doubt Thornhill when

he wrote these lines fancied what he saw to be a case of protective

insect mimicry but it is a characteristic of some members ofthe

order Rhynchota (which includes the cicadas, lantern-flies, the quaint

little-horned monsters known as Membracids, and other small

moth-like forms) to collect in gregarious patches on the surface of

the epidermis of the plant selected as a host and whose life juice -

they are tapping and the insects seen by Thornhill were not moths

but Lawana conspursa. 'The specific scientific name a ‘ scattering

together’ is very apt from the simultaneous fight of the insects

when suddenly disturbed. The familiar brown mango-hopper has

a similar habit of sudden dispersion when rudely disturbed on

mango leaves. The host plant was probably Plectranthus ternt-

folius or rugosus, a small shrub of the order Labiata common on

base hill sides. The ieafless condition of the twigs indicated the

sapping of the plants by their insect guests. Tragicindeed was the

drama of insect life on a species of wild caper (either Capparis

aphylla or spinosa) witnessed by the eyes of Phil Robinson in the

vicinity of Delhi and graphically described by him in the following

words: ‘Everyone has read of the great flights of butterflies that

have astonished travellers. Great flights that cloud the sun as they

pass overhead, that drive their way even against the wind and do

not hesitate at the ocean itself. Right out in the ocean these

flights of suicides are sometimes met with, but whence and whither

they come and go men of science cannot tell. Now at the foot of

the gate-way near the Kutab-Minar, elevenmiles from Delhi grows

in profusion a thorny shrub, the same that amuses the camels and

goats among the ruins of the Futtehpur Sikri Hill, and on the parti-

cular morning we were there the whole thicket was alive with white

butterflies. I went down to examine it, and such a sight I never

saw before. Each bush was alive with the insect in every stage,

the chrysalides were so thick in places that they touched each other,

and while I watched they hatched by scores and hundreds. I picked

a spray of them, and in half an hour the wings were strong and the

butterflies were own. Inmy hands there remained a twig witha

dozen empty shells. This multiplication of life was simply awful.

Every other leaf had a caterpillar feeding on it, and among the cater-

pillars the mothers of the next generation were busy laying their

eggs. The bushes were literally alive. And nota butterfly left the

place of its birth. As soon as its wings were strong enough to

carry it, it hovered about the shell it had just left, and in a minute

or two found its mate and thus all on one inch of a twig the life was

lived from egg to caterpillar, from caterpillar to chrysalid, and from

chrysalid to butterfly. Death was all prepared for them by the side

of their cradles. Noticing that in very many cases the butterflies

did not move when I came near I picked up one with my hand from

the spot on whichit seemed to be resting, and then I discovered

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 809

the horrible secret of its apathy. A spider was holding it to the

branch—a beautiful pale green spider—and my eyes opened. I soon

became aware of the multitudes of the same kind that swarmed

among the butterflies. _I waved my hand over a bush. A hundred

butterflies might rise from a branch but a hundred would remain

motionless. A spider had hold of each. To give you an idea of

the enormous creation and destruction that was going on in this

patch of scrub that morning I saw what I mistook for a birds’ nest,

a globular mass of web pendant from atwig. On taking it off I

found it was only the web of acommon spider and that it weighed

as nearly as possible half a pound. It was all dust and spider’s web

and dead butterflies. And you may calculate if you like how many

dead and sucked-up butterflies go to make up half a pound. Again

in a corner just as you have seen dried leaves drifted together by

the wind, I saw and sifted with my hands a thick drift of butter-

flies’ wings. ‘There were the remains of tens of thousands.’ The

butterfly observed by Robinson was Anapheis mesentina or a closely

allied pierid. In Western India it is partial to fluttering among the

showy white and canary yellow flowers of Capparts zeylanica, a

habit of which the tree lizard, popularly known as a blood-sucker, is

aware. This lizard Calotes versicolor lies in wait on the leafy twigs

of the plant on the look-out for unwary insects. The lower surface

of the hind wings of Anapheis are sometimes of a yellow tinge.

It is perhaps noteworthy that the two lower petals of Cappfaris

zeylanica flowers are also yellow and this blending of colours in

flower and butterfly must be of a protective nature to an insect

poised with closed wings onthe corolla of a flower. The green

crab-spiders of the genus Thamisus are perhaps far more deadly

enemies to lepidopterine life than lizards or birds. From their

cryptic colouring they are difficult to discern either on or in the

axils of leaves and sometimes mixed up with the bracts or involucre

surrounding a cluster of flowers. On one occasion a beautiful day-

flying humming bird moth (Cephanodes hylas) was observed hanging

by its long haustellum (proboscis) from the leaf bracts surrrounding

the flower head of a common garden Zinnea. Closer examination

revealed the anterior end of the moth’s proboscis in the clutches of

a green crab-spider snugly ensconced within the flowery receptacle.

Humming bird moths are fond of hovering over the blue flowers of

Duranta plumieri and it was decidedly unusual for one to have

fallen a victim at the shrine of a Zinnea. There is also a pale sickly

white form of the crab-spider just referred to whose get-up must

assimilate with the leaves of the white floretted Zinnea and thus

render it just as deadly as the green form just referred to. These

Spiders are in fact good instances of what is known as ‘ aggressive

protective mimicry.’ Their colouring likewise protects them from

the attacks of their deadly enemies the graceful restless wasps of

the family Pompilide who are perpetually on the look-out for

spiders and penetrate the inmost recesses of plants in eager quest

for their juicy fat-bodied victims.

Y,M.C.A., H. JOUGUET.

WODEHOUSE ROAp.

810 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXII

XXI.—WEEDS OF THE INDIAN WAYSIDE

To most minds the vegetable organism known as a weed is like

the scientific definition of dirt—‘ matter in the wrong place’ when it

obtains a footing in some garden and then over-runs the surround-

ing country, which it may or may not beautify according to a human

standard of esthetics. Butitis in the nature of a weed to grow

where it is not wanted. Each of the three great sea-port towns of

India has imported its own particular weed. In the swampy

country of Calcutta, Assam, and Eastern Bengal it is the lovely

flowered water-hyacinth (Zicharnia crasstpies), that has obtained a

firm footing, in Madras Gamphrena decumbens is dominant, and in

Bombay a species of mallow (Malachra rotundifolia). The first

named, the water hyacinth, has been met with in Madras growing in

Sparse patches in pools of stagnant water in the Spur Tank ard at Per-

ambur near the large local workshops of that town. On one occasion

it choked up the waters of a small tank in the suburb of Royapettah.

The water hyacinth grows profusely along the banks of the beauti-

ful Ulsoor Lake in Bangalore where however it is being eradicated,

and as regards Bombay it has been seen flourishing in the waters of

an old tank on the right hand side of the road from Mora to Uran

also in another tank behind the southern slope of the lesser

Karanja Hill across the harbour of Bombay. On the whole it does

best in Bengal although itis one of those weeds which would spread

anywhere where there is a sufficiency of shallow water to enable it

to thrive and propagate. So far as is known the only insects that

visit the thick clustering flowers are flies'and small bees. Butterflies

however sometimes visit the blue florets of Monocharia hastefolia

but none have so far been seen settling on the far more conspicuous

flowers of the water hyacinth. Florets or minute flowers are more

to the taste of butterflies, and it must be assumed in the case of the

water hyacinth that fertilization is effected through the agency of

flies and small tees. Aithough so frequently referred to in the

papers as the pest known as the lilac devil and in measures proposed

for its eradication on the waters of districts where it has become a

rampant weed, there is strange to say no descriptive account of the

plant in any of the older hand-books on Indian botany, a sure indica-

tion of its recent introduction into India by some enthusiastic horti-

culturist who imported the plant on account of the beauty of its

flowers (and in Calcutta the water hyacinth is sometimes sold as an

orchid by wily Indian plant vendors to those who are not acquainted

with its history !) Once seen it is an easy plant to identify. Great

rosettes of leaves, growing thickly in shallow water shaped like the

heads of rampant green cobras from which is thrown out a flower-

ing stem of about a foot in height enveloped in light lilac blue

flowers each flower bearing on the inner side of one of the petals a

pollen-yellow hieroglyphic in shape not unlike the head of a spear,

can be none other but the famous water hyacinth. The buoyant

freely floating bladder-like central root-stalk of the plant fixes itself

to the muddy bottom of a tank by numerous hair-like roots which

when dried look not unlike dense and clotted masses of course human

hair intermixed with the remains of this weed when uprooted and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 81i

carelessly thrown on the bank of a tank whose surface is being

cleared of the pest. It does not appear so far to have been recorded

from Northern India.

On alighting at the railway Central Station at Madras and taking

a walk in the grounds of the adjoining Peonles’ Park, it is at

once noticed that large spaces of waste ground are overrun by an

insignificant weed of about from 6 inches to a foot in height. The

leaves of the piant are of a narrow elliptical contour and of a downy

or cottony whiteness on the lower surface, the inflorescence being

a terminal white cone-shaped tuft of minute florets. This is

Gomphrena decumbens, a member of the same genus as the showy

purplish-red flowering G. globosa, the globe amaranth of gardens.

It is pretty evident that the former must have been accidentally

introduced into India from its native land Mexico. It is said that

the little weed came to India in a round about way from Australia

through being included in the fodder grasses loaded on boats con-

veying horses from some Australian port to India and that it has

only established itself at Madras within the last forty years. Nobody

seems to know much about it and it is undoubtedly of recent intro-

duction as it has not yet found its way into the pages of Indian

botanical handbooks. It occurs but sparingly in Bangalore, where

on the other hand another South American weed may be noticed

named Alternanthera echinata. Creeping along some of the road-

sides with leaves of a rounded oval shape and throwing out a spiny

inflorescence between the axils which gives it its specific hedge-hog

name. De Candolle pithily includes it in his Prodromus under a

list of species ‘non satisnotez’, but one would like to know some-

thing about a plant whose native home is the Argentine Republic

that is found straggling about roadsides in Bangalore and Madras.

It is of course undoubtedly of accidental introduction having been

shipped along with more showy consignments of foreign plants.

Malachra rotundifolia is presumably the large rough-leaved

mallow bearing conspicuous yellow flowers growing in dense gre-

- garious patches on low waste Jands in and around Bombay. Some-

times white flowers are seen amongst those of normal yellow but

the latter it may be added are invariably white inside the base of the

corolla of the flower which probably in an unsatisfactory way

accounts for the tendency towards albinism in some of the flowers

of the plant; Nairne in his flowering plants of Western India

gives the impression that the flowers grow in dense heads. It is

true that the involucre of three reniform leaves surround a capi-

tulum of five or six sessile flower heads, but of these only one or

at most two burst into bloom within the same involucre. In favour-

able situations this plant if not too crowded will attain a height

of four feet, but if growing closely together in dense patches

it seldom exceeds a stature of more than two feet. The flowers are

visited by butterflies and blue carpenter bees, of the former the

species noticed were the Suiphur Yellow, Zerzas hecabe, small blues

(family Lyczenida), the cosmopolitan Painted Lady (Vanessa

cardut), the green Swallow Tail (Papilio agamemnon), and examples

of Papilio aristolochie were observed flying over waste lands where

Malachra rotundifolia was growing profusely.

812 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXI1

The weedy shrubs known as Lanitanas (family Verbenacee), now

growing wild in most parts of India are also of South American

origin. They are easily recognizable from their small white, pink,

red and orange coloured florets which grow in dense clusters and

which are so attractive to butterflies. There was a spot on the

Cooum River at Madras where its banks were over-run with a white

and pink flowering Lantana camara and on fine mornings these

shrubs were visited by scores.of fine Trojan butterflies (Papzlio

hector). It was noticed that these insects were flying in a due

north to south direction during the months of September and

October and some assisted by a favourable following wind must

have travelled a good way following the contour of the east coast.

The larvee of this butterfly have been procured at Sivachellum, one

of the high peaks overlooking Waltair about 400 miles to the north

of Madras. When crossing over from Ceylon to India, this butterfly

was extremely common in the adjacent country beyond Dhunoshkodi

and Paumbaum. It is also a common Ceylon butterfly. In

Bombay the common Lantana is the orange and yellow flowering

variety which does not attract as many butterflies as the white and

pink flowering form at Madras. Have then butterflies a colour

preference sense? It is hard to say. Fritz Muller noticed in South

America a Lantana with florets of changeable colour which was

attractive to butterflies. He observed that each kind of butterfly

was very partial to a particular colour shade in the florets which

changed from yellow to orange and from orange to purple in all

three stages of colouring. Ofcourse it must be borne in mind that

he observed insects and plants intheir original naturalhome. In

India the Lantana has been introduced and it can only be asserted

with doubtful certainty that butterflies prefer the white and pink

flowering form.

j H. JOUGUET.

VMC.As

WODEHOUSE ROAD.

PROCEEDINGS

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

The Annual Generai Meeting of the members of the Bombay Natural His-

tory Society was held on Wednesday, February 29, at6p.m., in the Prince

of Wales Museum with Mr. H. A. W. Brent in the chair.

The Honorary Secretary announced thirty-one new members since the last

meeting.

~The appointment of officers for the ensuing year was as follows :—

President: H.E. The Right Hon’ble Lt.-Col. Sir Leslie Wilson, P.C.,

Geers. M.G. 1955.0:

Vice-Presidents:; H.H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.C.S.I., G.C.I.E. ;

Coel-O.B. ,,.:Cis:

Executive Committee—Bombay: Mr.R. D. Bell, C.1.E., 1.C.S.; Mr. A.M.

Clarke; Sir Currimbhoy Ebrahim, Bart.; Mr. Alwyn Ezra, - F.R.G.S.,

PRE Gls hoes, Lot. V.N. plate, Bsc. > Lt.-Colo Far. Mackie, 1.M.S. ;

Mr. P. M.D. Sanderson, F.Z.S.; Mr. A. Todd; Mr. J. B. Greaves (Honorary

Treasurer) and Sir Reginald A. Spence, Kt. (Hfonorary Secretary).

Advisory Committee—Moffusil.—Mr. T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, F.E.S.

(Pusa); Mr. TY. R. Bell, C.1.E,, 1-F.S. (Retd.) (Sarwar); Col, W- H. Evans,

C.r. Bi, kh. (Peshawar); Lt.-Col: F.C, Fraser, M.S. (Waltair) ; Dr F. H.

Gravely, D. Sc. (Madras); Mr. C. M. Inglis, M.B.O.U., C.M.Z.S. (Darjee-

lino) Lt.-Col. C,, MH. Stockley,.D.S.0., M.C., O:B.E. (Jhansi) ; Lt.-Col. RvB.

Seymour-Sewell, I.M.S. (Calcutta).

THE HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT

- The Honorary Treasurer, Mr. J. B. Greaves, presented the audited accounts

for the past year for the approval of members andin a brief explanation

stated :—

‘You will notice that this year in addition to the usual statement of receipts

and payments, the auditors have prepared a Balance Sheet showing the liabi-

lities and assets of the Society as on December 31, 1927.

With your permission I should like to take the Balance Sheet first.

peas first of all with the assets side of the Balance Sheet, Furniture stands

at Rs. 2,500, a conservative figure when one takes into account that this figure

includes the show cases containing the reference collection and the book cases

containing the library.

Game Books Account.—The Game Books have been separated from the

ordinary publications of the Society, because the Society in this case is an equal

partner with the author with regard to any profit which may be made on the

sale of the Game Books,

During the year under review Rs. 2,000 worth of Game Books have been sold

and this year we hope to do better. We have, as you will observe, created a

reserve equal to the balance of the total stock. There is however still a sum

of Rs. 5,310 due on account of Game Books. Notwithstanding this if the sales

continue at their present rate it is to be hoped that a large portion of this

reserve will ultimately be unnecessary.

Other publications.—The figure of Rs. 400 represents only those publications

which have been in stock for less than two years. The remaining publications

have all been written off although small sums of money continue to come in

from these sources.

Expenses on preparation of Bird Charts.—As you are aware, the Society

proposes during the current year to publish a series of Bird Charts and Books

and the figure of Rs. 697-13-0 represents preliminary expenses in connection

with the preparation of these publications.

San ces to staff and on account of Members.—Rs, 78-7-3, A nominal

amount,

814 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXIi

Investments. —Stand at the very satisfactory figure of Rs. 78,362-8-0 and this

figure is considerably below today’s market value.

Cash Balanéces.—A satisfactory figure of Rs. 19,156-12-8.

This concludes the asset side of our Balance Sheet making our total assets

RS.) 01495-8-117

You will notice that we have not taken into account our very complete

Research collection, or our stock of old Journals, 01 our very valuable library.

Liabilities.—Consist of Printing charges. Ks 6,000 is due on account of the

current year’s Journal and will be paid early in 1928. At the beginning of 1927

we paid Rs. 2907/11 on account of Journals publisned ‘n 1926. ‘The remaining

liabilities are all on account of publications.

Donations for Specific Objects Unexpended.—This is a sum which the

Society is holding as a trustee.

Life (embership Fees.—Rs. 42,600 which we have not spent and which

represents the whole of the capital sum paid by life members who are still alive,

and alsothe.... . of institutions, clubs, etc., compounded subscriptions.

We are left with surplus assets of Ks. 38,116-14-4.

I think you will agree that the Balance Sheet shows that the Society is in a

very sound position.

Dealing now with the receipts and expenditure account. This year we have

split this up under separate headings.

General Account.—In this has been included all the main activities of the

Society in connection with the Journal, etc. As you will notice we have finished

up the year with a statisfactory surplus on this head of Rs. 1,663-7-3.

Publication Account.— Here we have a smail deficit of Rs. sue 8-10.

Special Expenditure in connection with Prince of Wales Museum and Nature

Study.— The whole of the expenditure under tnis head has been met by special

donations including during the year, very handsome donations of Rs. 5,000 each

from H. H. The Maharaja of Jodhpur and Sir David Ezra, Kt., towards show

cases, models, etc., and we finish up the year with a satisfactory surplus of

Rs. 7,968-10-7, the sum shown in the balance sheet as being held in trust by

the Society.

Cash Account.—This account is merely a summary of the other account with

the addition of Entrance fees and Life Membership Fees received during the

year with approximately the same amount invested on the other side, and of

course the summary of our cash position.

In corclusion 1 would mention that the Society now consists of 188 Life

Members, 1,123 Ordinary Members who have paid their subscriptions and 62

Ordinary Members who have not paid their subscriptions, making a total of

1,373 members in all. Wuring the year we enrolled 12 Life Members, | old

member rejoined, and 146 new Ordinary Members were elected. There was a

net increase in membership of 35 during the year as I regret to state we lost 76

members through resignation.’

It was proposed by Chairman and seconded by Honorary Secretary that the

audited accounts of the Society for the past year be approved—Carried

unanimously.

On the motion of Mr. H. A. W. Brent a hearty vote of thanks for his services

was passed to Mr. J. B. Greaves.

815

PROCEEDINGS AND STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS

*“ADANS DIA LF LOOT,

‘SHAVAUD 'A'L CPS)

-B[dx9 9} PUB DOT}EMIIOJUL SY} JO ySAq 9 OF SuIpiocoe silepe

“S4O]LPNP “SJUDIUNOIIP PadsajAévy 7D

“OO % NOSNOUAA “a °V (PS)

‘82o/ “GT t4vNAQgaAT *AVAWOG

"sn 0} USATS SUOTEU

S$ A19190G dy} JO 9}¥}S 9} JO MOIA JD9IIOO pUe ONI} & sJUBSOIdaI JOOYS souv]eg Yons uoluldo Jno uy

"sjisodeq pue S]U9UTISOAU | au peyyiss oacy pue * sn 0} WdA]s woHeUtIO;Uy wos pue yooq ysvo aq} WoIy 20S aoueleq SAoge ou} poivdeid aaey OM

II 8 S6I°I0'T

8 ZL OSt'6I SS Se

0 0 OST

Cuz OCl 2

£70..928'T

0 6 000‘ST

0 8 z9¢'8Z —_——_—__ ——

0 0 Sz9°2r

0 0 O£6‘TL

0 0 000°8

0 0 000'ST

0 8 LEr6

° 0 082'02

6 LZ |

0 SI 269 i

0 0 00F

8 OT 2Z2‘F1

Q OL 2ZZ'tT

0 0 grZ‘os

8 OL ozs's9

0 0 00S‘'z Diseey S enema

0 0 000'S

0 0 O0S‘Z

d Vv sa da Vv sa

TeI0L

°JO9UG soUR[v_ aq} jo

apis Jessy 94} UO UNOS OJUI UayHe}

useq JOU dAVY SOWWINIOA 'E'Z JO Aleuq

-I[ pUB UOIOa[JOO YOIvssel a[qen[Va

oY} puke s[euinol plo NVO'ZT Jo YOoIs W—"970NT

as a as oe puey uo yseg

9/T 8 2-OT-60T F

eee uopuo’y] oe ae 66

a Avquiog ‘’pyJ ‘elpuy jo

yoed [euonNeN UyIM JUNOIOY JUVIIND UO

siayueg UYjIM }ISOdeqd poexly uO

—SIIUDIVE YSVD

eee eon ene ese eee 8/F8 12

000’ST “SY spuod “1, “I Avquiog jo a %P

8/68 3® 000° FT ‘sy spuog "38UN \L"d “d SP

(00°83 SU

‘SCf6l UVOT JUusUIdoTeAdq Avqmog % 29

se 000°: T “SA (SS-SF61) GeV “JAOD ES

re — -9/b6

ye 000'OT “SY Uvo’'T uoIsisAu0g "JAUH aa

“- -/9 3 000'8Z “SU JOSSION ‘d *4) BFE

—AIMOT St Asa

-YILY AL ANID J9Y LDUL AO ANIVD2 IID) IDS JUIWM IS IQUE

So aa AIQUIM PUD JJVIS 07 SaauUvAappy

a ae hes “~ PIVPMIOJ PIllsed

—SJAVYD Pllg JOUuUdLvAVGIAG Uo Sasuagay

"yo

Ud}IIM Ud9dq VAY SIVIA OM} JOAO PUBY

uo Ud9q DABY YOIYM suolzBOL[qnd AUW—'a70A7

iy SOO JE 7D NOL BUIPNJIXGY °SUo1zVIIIGUT

sioyyny 0} pred aq 0} s}yoid Aue Jo %yg—"asonz

°9J8 ‘YOO}S 9[QVO[eSUN IOj DAIOSAY SST

“" QJEP 0} PozIjeroy ssa7

Sn ce we suvulj}¥O![qud Jo sod

—IUNOIIP SYOOT IUMDH

ee + e}ep 0} UOTVIDIIdeq ssaT

a 3 ySO0 P2}BULIISY —A4NjlUAM

SLUSSV

IT 8 S6I'I0'T

bP FT SITS

0 0 609°¢h

L OT 896°2

0 0 OLS‘2r

0 0 000°9

0 0 002'T

0 0 OIg's

[eIOL

a ste SJassp SNIGANS

ne Saay Glysaaqueaut aj27

sae papusgxaun $39alQ0 I1J1Iags AO] SUOLIDUOT

uel pay

eee yeuinor a6 “6

AUS SOIps9}jud

vDoIyeoyljuepy = =“ 4

,S300g sWey , Jo S19}UlIg

—s40]1paay AAPUNG

“SGILIIIAVIT

ecco

Wor LE JIASUIWAIFG SV SY LALHS HINV AY a

“ALAHIOOS AYUOLSIH TVYNALVN AVANO’

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE AIS. SOCIETY, Vol XXXII

816

9 OT 298'¢

— = ee

or 8 TIL

8 I IsZ¢

sua

0 FP

adv

LNDOIDVesNOTLEOTTI Id

9 0 conics oe Pe 12104,

9 OF 298°¢ —

0 SI 269 "Se sce SHBYD Pilg Jo uoljesedaig ‘*

OL 9 861 hg ‘pIT §°0D BP AQqIOUUM * “

8 9 996°2 ‘py] ‘Woss[olueq pueSsuOS 9Z[¥g ‘SIssoyT AG

qd Vv su ad Vv su AYNLIGNYdXa

cf bes" oe a [BOL

age [—

0 0 OOF ae ‘ a “* g0uBvINSU o1IW ‘*

0 6 0&2 ES s = ei seq pny *

0 0 Ser ne sa “a 2 einjjoimyy *

€ VI 6¢8 es aa ie . Areiqry ‘*

9 ¢ £9e'T x aes i rs aseysog ‘*

OL 2 £26 a eo AJauUOI}eV}IS pue Suljullg *

0 0 oEP'z Ps a ues sae ~ quay

6 € LS2e'T 1 he ‘OJ9 ‘YSVD A}od ‘sesleyD [eisuay ‘*

0 6 9F6°6T we He rg an = Sorrpiue 4°

£8 29'L i ": “ junoooy [vuinor Ag

qd Vv su dv. su SLNAWAVd

2 € Pes 9

——

2 € bes'9E

LNQODIDIV TVAYNAD

doe €

6 ©

dE¢

0 0

19 i &

0 0

Or 8

d WV

LIS

686" I

ace

£02'F

£02

Ayiej}Ng ULIpUT Jo UO!JeOyIWUOPy] **

soe

TROL

aoueleg

$19}}eU poJlid 1eq1O

ee ee

see eee

syoog oyxvus **

ee oe

ee 6

“ sajeld Dilg eurey *

vuney beJy‘‘

-< soe

sjivyg oyeug ** °°

syoog sWey jo sales OL

SLd1lqOda

1e}07,

“- -*2949 ‘SJUOTIISSAT] UO 4JSos9}OT

eee soe com

*- solIpuny

e6¢

‘Suljanowm 1ojJ sioqmoy Aq JuomACY

“- - FUDMMOSTIIOAPL WOIJ S}A1IOIY

eee ou.

s[vusnor Jo Seles

UOl}eAYSISOyY [vJsog **

oer soe eee

SUOTIAIIOSqHS OF

SLdTGORa

817

PROCEEDINGS AND STATEMENTS OF ACCOUNTS

"LILAMSDILT LLDLOUOL]

8 8 EP8'ZE

8 8 E£P8'2E

9 0 2éP'OT

L_ OT 896°4

IL § €96'8

“SHAVED “A

8 20 OST’6I

| ITS ¢9P's

ls 4 ¢2

| 0tg TIT

0 9 g€0'S

}

IL 8 98'S

10 $L SZs'>

dive. SH

INF WAASDW

‘'f£CPS)

" [BOL

8 2LI OST‘6L --- [BIOL

(S$ 20 Of1'2 “° 9/138 2-91-6S1% Uopuoy ‘pe

-}JUI'T ‘e{puy jo yueg [vuoljen

QM {AHOS9B JUSTIN UO aoueleg

0:0 06. “y res “" puey uo yseD

€¢ 0 948°T " ABQUIOg ‘pa

-j{Wly ‘ eipuy jo yueg [BeuoleN

GVM JUNOINB JUdIING UO soUBleg

0 0 000'S. —-——-——

d ¥v Su 0 0 0000'S ™ Aequiog

‘py Jepoleg jo yueg

0 0 000°S Aequiog

H1IOK *N Jo

yqueg AWD [euoneNn

0 0 000°S ‘Aequiog *diog

| Suryueg leysueys pue Zuo0ysuopY sy

> WJM }ISsodeq pexy uo *

one 35 ae “" Q00e8[eg SUISO[D ‘*

ie ees sesoding [Belseds

10} suol}jeu0qd Wolj pepuedxs junoury ‘‘

Jaquiayy PUB Yejs 0} souvapy ‘*

| se rt S$uo1}89

| -HIqng Uo s}d}9001 Jao S}usMIAe SS9Oxq **

002°9 *Sa jo

S9]0N-O1g JUDTIUIOAON % %E—s1udUT}SaAuT AG

SLNAWAVd

8 8 Eh8'2e

8 8 EF8'ce

“SLOJIPHE’ ‘*SJUDIUNOIIP PasajaDy 7

“OO ¥» NOSONDOAAA ‘A “WV ('PS)

*3094100 panoj pue psulMmexy”

"S261 ‘OT tAvnAgay ‘AVAWOYG

2") on! op a)

Sonn om

ie.2)

Cama

LNNQOIOIV HSV) CASTAVWWAS

“* pepuadxe oq 0} ddueleg

+s ete sase9 MOYS UO sesuadxy *

x tee 7 : Apnys dinjen Ag

SLNAWA Vd

9 0 cEerort

9 0 2EF'OT

0 0 000‘0T

9 0 7gP9

d VW su

AGALS ATONLVN

SHTFM AO YINTXd HALIM NOILIANNOD NI FANLIGCNAdAXYA TRIDTdS

[BJO L

aes ea “" SUOI}BUOG 19UIO **

“- Sesodind [ev1deds Joj suoljvuo0g ‘*

Jano IDV [e1suey UO sniding *

em aoe cae ss0ut[eg sulusedg “

L26T UB! PSATOID9I S9ay diysiaqwmseq sjI7T **

“- — « 26 UL POALBOOI Say 90UeIIUq O,

—

SLdIHOaa

_suo}jBu0d ou

Le6T

ceo eee

| Acenneee ysqT uo se papuddxsua aduvl¥g oy,

SLd IGOR a

. Madras and published by

R.A. Spence for the Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay,

Printed by George Kenneth at the Diocesan Press