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THE (aR

JOURNA AUG 30 1932 m)

SAT ONAL cases

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

OF THE

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XXXV

NOS. 1 & 2

Pyrtce ois Rs. 2-4-0.

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1932

506.54

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following order when they are being bound :—

Title page oe ath, the

Contents of Nos. 3 and 4 of Vol. XXXV

List of Contributors

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Index to Illustrations

Errata

Index of Species oo .- To goat the end of

_ two numbers.

To follow § frontis-

piece in this order.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

SIR REGINALD SPENCE, kKt., & S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.

VOL. XXXV

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 6 Coloured Plates, 45 Black and White Plates,

42 Text-figures, and 19 Diagrams

Dates of Publication

Part I. (Pages 1to240) ... 15th June, 1931.

I. ( ,, 241 t0 474) ... 15th October, 1931.

LONDON AGENTS

DULAU & CO., Ltd., 32, Old Bond Street, London, W.I.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1932

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV.

No- 1

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. By ot2.. CG;

Sttiant. Baker, J.P., O.B-E., F.Z.Ss, F.L.Ss; M:8.0.U., H.F.A.O.U.

Part XIV. (With ee PIAL ins cee

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE Bomiay DHse BENGE

By Rev: E. Blatter, S:3:, pip; rts. Patt XV. (Wath

SOU Cag PUCL ICS 30) carta ibenay ino ete ict act eet TeR creamer ot Wie wegied eiatinn

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT OF LOWER BURMA.

Part Til; By.J: K. Stanford; mic; 1.¢:s;; and’ Dr. Claud

B. Ticehurst, M.D., M.A., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S..

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN Gira1s— Repo

ON: THE Monkeys. By R. I. Pocock, F.R.s..

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By Rev. E. Bitten, Sede,

Ph.pD., F.L.S. and W.S. Millard, F.z.s. Part VI. (With

two coloured plates, two black and white plates and five

diagvams.)... RE een ac creteeten SRC at ae Ne Monae ea Petar

INDIAN DRACONEEING: "By Col. F.C. Fraser; 1.M.S:, F.E:S.

Part XXXVII. (Wath a plate and two text-figures.)........

THE FISH SUPPLY OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA. By Sir

Reginald Spence, KT., M.L.C., F.Z.S., and S. H. Prater,

M.L.C., C.M.z.S.° Part Il.. (Wth five plates)...

THE STUDY OF INDIAN Birbs. By Hugh Whistler, E75.

IAB OR Wa 9 deveutate Wilts) pda err tae « eecaredemael eed aadianaseesbreeccae acces

THE BUTTERFLIES OF CoorG. By J. A. Yates. Part II.

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION. By Lt.-Col. R:. B. Seymour

Sewell; -M.A.,D:SC.,-F.Z.S., F.L.S.5 B.A.S.B., I-M.S..cccec ene ece

A SPIDER THAT CAN CHANGE THE COLOUR OF ITS EYES AT

Wil. (By. 2. Mathew, M.A. (With four plates and

four text-figures.)... : stone

THE ROLE OF Seaaiepss AND Risen ages an

PROPAGATION AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE TREE PARASITE

Loranthus longiflorus in the Konkan (West India). By

Salini A, Ali. (Wzth two plates and four diagrams.).......

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIONOMICS OF THE LAc INSECT. By

Pi... Neos; M..Ps: Misracand-S.- N. Gupta.sjgeisdi ac cisise ss.

InN A BURMESE JUNGLF. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton.............

PAGE

104

ILS)

132

144

150

156

iv CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV

PAGE

ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER,

SoutH InpiA. By D. D. Mukerji, m.sc. (With three

text-figures.)... Siltion Beano: vontioguh ee tcc tent RamaeO

THE Berenice OF THE Sahn ce is Gin Wee

DeRhe-Philipe,-Fmsie “Part: Eee oye. ees ee ae eee eS

OBITUARY: John ‘CZ Anderson si. yc.coee eee ee LOL

REVIEWS :—

1. THe GAmE-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON.

(Pheasants and Bustard-Quail.) Vol. U1 es Oo

2. THE FORMENKREIS THEORY AND THE PROGRESS OF

THE ORGANIC WORLD _ ... oe , eens! (eG)

3. AN INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY ... et Ss

AN OPEN LETTER TO THE Epirors, By Hugh

Whistler, F.z.S., M.B.O.U.. ey ee LOO

THE FOUNDFRS OF THE BOMBAY eee URAL ehenonet

SOCIETY sae ee, we se OG

MiscELLANEOUS NotEs—

I. A Case of Hybridization between the Wild-Dog and

Jackal. By Sadeg Z. Shah. (With a photo.).... ° 198

II. Large Head of Malay Sambhar. By Aes

a Brownlow sccieiciee hes eee eee eee 199

Hil. fhe Gayal, or. Mithan.~ By Dok: Teiveeee (With

| a plate.).... BS ere ane eee 199

LV.. A:.Note on Go occurrence of ine qhagkeceen

Penduline Tit (Remzz coronatus) in the Punjab.

By ob Bo JOmeSseesercercdiessesdecee dass co schisee se recat: 202

V. Notes on the Whisiling School Boy or Malabar —

Whistling Thrush. By C. McCann; £.i.s..1..2- ->202

VI. Note on the Nidification and Habits: of the

Travancore Laue niag ee By cane R. Se:

‘ Bates. (With a plate.)... is 204

VII.-.-The - Occurrence -of.- the. “Gold. Bronted Gren \

(Metaponia pusilla) at Sukker,-’Sind. By ores

Cole... Be a = aZOF

VIII. The Neste hy: fie Malabar ‘Heart: Saetied Wood:

‘pecker. (Hemicircus canente cordatus) in Travan-

core. By Chas. M. Inglis, F.z.S., F.E.S.,M.BO.U. 207

IX. The Nesting of the Besra Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter- |

-virgatus attinis) at Simla. By-A, E. Jones....... 208

X. Further Record of the Mallard. (Anas platyryncha)

occurring in Burma. By G. M. Turnetr.. :

XI. Occurrence of the Spotbill or Grey Dace ie

becilorhyncha) in Upper Chindwin, Burma. By

eV MUR yeti Sane BAe tect M ene tee tn ae teats, dis oe cen ce

XII. ‘The Occurrence of the Tufted Pochard (Myroca fult-

oe and the Eastern White-eye (Vyroca baer?)

am ‘ournma: «by Gs Mi Turner As icnctasccs cen. t ceed.

XIII. The Occurrence of the Clucking or Beara Teal

(Nettion formosum) near Hardoi, U.P. By H.

: Scot MacDougall........ PER Pre Me ei Ae Wie Senianpnans eye

XIV. Notes on the White-headed Duck or Stiff-tail

(Erismatura leucocephala). By Capt. W. A.

WWI CAGE a trtt cease. anccvn eects tated dott hae iwes

XV. Some Races of the Red-billed Chough [Pyrrho-

covax pyrrhocorax (Linn)], By Satya Churn Law,

M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.. : shhtes

XVI. Notes on ae Fauna of Bacon aches eras

chiefly with reference to the Central Provinces.

Bye Ae, DON DRCUR E76 svar ancee ce citar kon ce cee

XVIi.-- A ‘Flying’ Frog. By K. Kearanekaran Nayar,

: (VZULIE. C8 DIATE, Voneces BRAD otic rs ty old ne Soe momar ERE

XVIII. Encounter with a Peas deyad Bee ise

By, Pole We lowe:

XIX. Weighing Fish with eMore or more iscuee: a A.

MacDonald.. Saks tua eben ae E eee

XX. Cannibalism among ae eS. a K. Karunakaran

Nayar... é

XXI. Extension BE fie Ruaee of H ce eee ane

nias pealtt and Bhima undulosa. By D. G.

Crawford, I.F.S..

XXII. Curious Behaviour oO Bute wea in ie imeriog aa

Extremely Dense Evergreen Forest. By K.

Mohan Lal, I.F.s,. RP rae catenin meme cen te

XXIII.::‘Notes on the Coftec: eacuer _ [Auilapches miliaris

(Linn.)| By Charles McCann, F.L.S.. ie

XXIV. Occurrence of Phrynichus phipsont, Beare in Beall

Sette island. By C. McCann 8.0.5. 0.56 5.65 cevcas os

PROCEEDINGS..

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV

Annual Rete A ‘hie Bonn eet History Soe for

the year ees December 31, 1930.. Bir cetiva suis oa nousteaeuh sa

209

out.

Zit

rade

217

220

225

226

Cad |

228

239

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV

No. 2.

THE GAWE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE. By E. C. Stuart .

Baker, J.P.,. F.Z.S.,..M-B.O.Us, HF AO. hath a en (Qhiaeeye

DB COLOUPER PIGLE. \ oan etencins abe (oe Deseo ey Cee

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By

Rev. ©. Blatter, s4., Pip, F.L.S.. atta Xe alirn

eight plates and six text-tligures.)... a

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MonkKEvs (Manon, padeaia. ane

MM. sinica) OF SOUTHERN INDIA AND CEYLON. By R.I.

POCOCK ee Ris. “Riise otek Sepia harem nern Soce eee

SOME BEAUTIFUL apie es ae iE. Blatter, S..9Ph sp;

F.L.S., and W. S. Mallard; F:z:s., Part VL. «Wah: Zwo

coloured plates, and three black and white plates and

SCUCH MIA LVANUSS 5c cess s acto ek eee ee a ee

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES es es tna). Ay WR I,

Pocock, i. Ris: Re ese

THE STUDY OF CREAN Bree oy are aWihisiien: F.Z.S.,

M.B.0.U. Part. VII. (W2th a plate.),..

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. By Lt.-Col. F.C. eee I.M.S., F.E.S.

Part XXXVIII. (Withtwo platesand text figures.)......

INDIAN NET-VEINED MipGes or BLEPHAROCERIDZ:.

Dr? S. LL. Hora, psc. (Wath a plate aid noun tex:

EEL UV CSD vai icscdon Paieitela CURA ae Wad AB re ee De

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION. By Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour

pewell, 1.0.S. Part ll. (Wethia. platen © ereenr eee

ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE STREAMS IN

THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN HI.is (8S. Inp1ia). By D. D.

Mukerji, -MiSC.ck Si tcacss olchon cececeeh es aot ee ee rin eertoee. Dipsscas

Notes ON INDIAN HAwKmoTus. By Lt.-Col. F. B. Scott,

LA., F.E.S. (With three plates and nine text-figures.)... e000

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHow.

By Reve FS. Broosse ce ci. accent teeeg ton acey eee ere

A-TALE OF FIVE Tiger. By RoC. Morris; 11755 78oR- Gs,

(WIth @ PhOLO) we aeeise <tr tasea he cect eoaie an ae aes a8. 3

ANOTHER NEW CEROPEGI/A FROM THE eee GHATS.

By E. Blatter, s.3., Ph.p.,. F.L.S< andC: McCann, #1.s.

(With a plate.)... ess aS Sh BE ne IRL. cee ee en

SEA-FISHING ON THE . Bompay Cole 7 H. C. Mueller,

DISC hcg das sle eed So cae ee ates sat aes Beraa- Pee eee a

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA Hityts. By G. W. V. de

Rhe-Philipe, F.E.S, Part Tiles cit ke

PAGE

241

254

276

289

297

S2ZS

342

347

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV

THE CicADA: Lethama locusta, Walk. By C. McCann,

TENS) 1 4U/ i OCLC ATE IMELLVES View cos efratseslede st cls Wels cniviriss «eis Se o\n

REVIEWS.—

es Sue Maat, © NADIA arn ete cit a, @ eagiceiias conan sien’ wnge.ees waehic

2. DIFFICULTIES OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY..........:...

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES.—

III.

IV.

VI.

VIL.

Wall.

IX,

dae

EERE

XV.

Locai Migration of the Flying-Fox (Pteropus

giganteus) in the Punjab. By G. Breadon......

Vitality of a Cow Mauled by a Tiger. By R. C.

Morris, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. (With two text-figures.)...

A Panther’s strange Behaviour. By R. C. Morris,

Canginancn in a eines a Lt.-Col. R. W.

PSI TGCO My edisa tate eee a ee oor Restart 9 nein oie veel eects at

Some suggestions on Panther Shooting. By the

Maharaja of Surguyja... sake

The number of pups in a “Wild Don S eiuitier ‘Be

TeteaC Olney Ws BUT EO Mans ceals cas feemanees toe. Ve stoantees

An Incident with a Wild Deg in Nimar. By

R. M. Simmors.. ; Sarees

The Mithun. By J. ao. En cens 1 C. S. PM eyeet it

The Shwe-u-Daung Game Sanctuary, Upper

Burma, with a note on the Asiatic Two-horned

Rhinoceros (A. sumatrensis). By E.H. Peacock

UE ae DIGI O) Seine iee Ss tance woes te Poences saeete dene:

Bird Migration notes from Port Plair. By Lt.-

Cole M. UL: Ferrar.. Sous Re aah eee

The Indian Great Reed aeaniee s edevodeBalus

stentoreus brunnescens) (Jerdon). By H. Whistler.

Comment on-the occurrence of the Grey Hippo-

colius (f/ypocolius ampelinus) in India. By

PELC Vane ee a ines ie tnt ins cw och ads os enter areas

The Magpie Robin (Copsychus saularts. Linn.) in

North Gujarat. By Hari Narayan Acharya......

The Migration of the Rosy Pastor esas FOSEUS,

jee by salma Ay Alt: ec

Occurrence of the Sind Red- Gincedt Geet ark

(Miratra erythroptera sindianus) in the Rawal-

pindi District of the Punjab. By H. W. Waite..

Vii -

PAGE

430

458

Vili

XVI.

XVII.

OVALE

XTX.

DOXT::

POGUE

XXIII.

XIV.

XXV.

RXV I.

XXVIT.

XXVIII.

XXIX.,

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV

Eleven Koel Eggs in a Crow’s Nest.

yun Abdulali..

By Huma-

The Occurrence i Pied Caaied Recto \ (Claqaiee

jacobinus Boddaert) in North Gujarat.

Acharya...

The Nioration 5, Te White ‘Sioa: (Gin cceoutD)

By So. . Prater eM ze

Occurrence sof the i need Teal OBiitn alniay

in the Jhelum District. By Captain M. C. Frye.

The White-fronted Goose (A. alb7frons) in Manipur.

By J. C: Aivoins sG7S.. oe

On the Distribution of fines apace Gres ack

(Aduas zonorhyncha). By J. C. Higgins, I.C.S.

Notes on the Migration of Birds in the North-

West Frontier Province. By Lt.-Col. G. dela

P. Berestord.2i.G,

By H. N.

Congenital Aes of : a oe fang in a Bull eee

(Rana tigrina). By G.M. Kurulkar and D. 8.

Deshpande-(W727h Two PROS?) w. at itose eee

The Colouration of the Tail of the Common Skink

(Lygosoma punctatum). By Beni Charan

Mahendra: (W/7t)isid DHOlO.) sven. s-chcedentesneet

Number of Ventral Scales in Aas spacer

Dhaman (Zaments fasciolatus). By Lt.-Col. K.G.

Gharpurey le MiSieaenucM ts eee asec eens ee

Determining the age of Indian Fishes from their

scales:. By Dr. S.-B. Setna, M.Scs, Phips. ss...

Notes on the Beetle. (Platypfria echidna, Guer.)

By C. McCann, F.L.S..

On the Fertilization of fhe Bigeee ea che Sanente

Tree (Kigelia pinnata DC.) by Bats. By C.

McCann, F.L.Ss. (With three diagrams.).........-.

Occurrence of /soétes in the Bombay Presidency.

By ©. McCann ran Secni so oe ee eee

PROCEEDINGS oerccscseeed ohse8 cs oss SO aE es ee ee eee

PAGE

458

459

460

461

462

463

471

472

ALPHABETICAL LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

VOLUME XXXV

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

ABDULALI, HUMAYUN ; Eleven plerum jerdont fatrbankt)

Koel eggs in a Crow's nest... 458 (With a plate)

ACHARYA, HARI NARAYAN; BERESFORD, LT.-COL. G. De

The Magpie Robin (Cofsy- La P.; Notes on the Migra-

chus saularis, Linn. in North tion of Birds in the North-

Gujarat 455 West Frontier Province

—$— — —___- —__—_- : BLATTER Wa. Sida, Pa. Ds,

The: Occurrence of Pied Bal S.4 and. McCann,..©.,

Crested Cuckoo (Clamator F.L.S.: Revision of the Flora

jacobinus Boddaert) in North of the Bombay Presidency

Gujarat sia we = 458 Part XV. ARACE.Z (With

Ait, SAnIM A.; The Role of seven plates.) is ee

sunbirds and Flower-peckers —— - Part XVI.

in the propagation and ORCHIDACE A: (With eight

distribution of the Tree- plates and six text-figures) ...

Parasite (Loranthus longt- —— - —__-_—_- 3

tlorus, Dest) in the Konkan Another new Ceropegia from

(W. India). (With two plates the Western Ghats (With a

and four diagrams.) 144 plate.)

— —- eA bioKe Meee aoe

tion of the Rosy Pastor and MILLARD, W.S., F.Z.S.;

(Pastor roseus, I..)... 457 Some Beautiful Indian ‘l'rees

ANDERSON, JOHN C.; Obitua- Pt. VI (With two coloured

rial notice of Ri : 184 plates, two black and white

BAKER, B.3C.. SLUART, J. i plates and five diagranis.)

O° BE. F-Z.5., F.L:9., M.B. - - _ -—— ;

O2U.,0 Ht. KoA. On. Phe Some Beautiful Indian Trees

Game Birds of the Indian Pt. VIL. (With two coloured

Empire, vol. v., Part XIV plates, three black and white

(With a coloured plate of The | plates and seven diagrams)...

Eastern Golden Plover, BREADON, G. ; Local Migration

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus of the Flying-Fox (Pteropus

and The Lapwing Vanellus giganteus) in the Punjab

vanellus.) .. a 1 | Briccs, Rev. F.S.; A note on

een eS the Birds in the neighbour-

Viol. V. Part XV (W71h- a hood of Mhow a

coloured plate) of The BROWNLow, A. Lx, D. S. P. :

Indian Red-Wattled Large Head of Nealay ol

Lapwing (Lodtvanellus bhar (Cervus unico U or

indicus indicus) and the equinus)

Yellow-Wattled Lapwing BURTON, Ligwt- Cae R. W..

(Lobipluvia malabarica) 241 F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. ; Ceepat

BATES, Capt. R.S.P; A no‘e

onthe Nidification and

Habits of the ‘i'ravancore

Laughing-Thrush. ( Z7rochalo-

ism in Biers

The number of Pupsina Wild

Dog’s litter aA oe

PAGE

204

461

254

409

289

439

199

440

44?

x LIST. OF CONTRIBOLORS

3URTON, LirutT-CoL. R. W.,

T Ack. O} (REerp:) 3, ina

Burmese Jungle ‘

COLE, FE. His;* “Phe Occutrence

of the Gold fronted Finch.

(Metaponta ery at Suk-

ker, Sind :

CRA W FEO RD, DIG; .. EF. S.

Extension of the range a

Hidari bhawant, FElymntas

pealtt and Bhima undulosa.

DAS Ru; UE. As VEZ

Notes on the Fauna cf British

India: Birds, chiefly with

reference to the Central

Provinces ... : ue

DERHE-PHILIPE, ew,

F.E.S. ; The Butterflies of the

Sina, Halls Part, Te:

——.- - Pant 1),

DESHPANDE, D. S.; See

KURULKAR, G. M.

Epirors; The Founde:s cf the

Bombay Natural Hiscory

Society ; a note on.

-—-— ; Jackal HEU TYS Hs

Wild oe 8 es

——-—; Record measuie-

ments of head of ae

Sambhtr ...

—-—; Gecuienes of t * e

Spotbill or Grey Duck (das

p. pecilorhyncha) in Upper

Chindwin, Burma

——-—-; A Flying Fiog

——-—— ; The Indian Great

Reed-Warbler (Acrocephalus

stentoreus brunnescens)

—-——; Comment on the

occurrence of the Grey

Hypocolius (Wypocolius

ampelinus) in India

—-—; The colovration of

the tail of skinks

FERRAR, LIEUT.-Cor.

Bird-Migration notes

Port Blair .

FRASER, ee ‘oom F. C.,

IOMeS.,, Pall.c; + Indian bee

gonflies Patt XXXVI. (With

one plate and two text-figures)

Mies

from

PAGE

207

228

217,

172

415

196

199

210

225

453

455

465

448

FRA oe Ro EIeuTr.-Cor, bac.

Tes. ER Bes. | Indian Dra-

Pantie: Part X XXVIII, (With

two plates anda text-figure).

FRYE, Capr. M.C.’; Occurrence

of the Falcated Teal (Hunetta

falcata}in the Jhelum District

GHARPUREY, LIEUT.-COL. K G.,

I.M.S.; Number of Ventral

scales in the Fasciolated

Dhaman (Z. fasciolatus)

GUPTA, S.N.; See NeGRi, Pe Ss

HIDE, PERCY ; Comment on the

OCCULLEN Ce Aol sehhicesG er es.

Hypocolius (AHypocolius aim-

pelinus) in India

ER GG INiSe Je.

Mithua

eee

ICs. the

; The

White-fronted Goose (4. aldz-

frons) in Mavipur

Distribution — of

Grey

zonorhyncha) —

HORA, pSUNDER lesa Scr

BRS es | SE Abe eee

Indian Net-veined Midges or

Blepharoceride (With one

plate and four text-figures)...

Howe, P.A.W.; Encounter

the

Duck (Azas

the

Fas‘ern

with a Hamadryad (Naa

bungarus) ... 2 a

LN GL us)-CHas.-M., EUZ.S,,

foe Me Oo. hike

nesting of the Malabar Heart-

spotted Woodpecker (Hevv7-

circus canante ae in

Travancore ;

JONES, A.E.; A cate on tie

occurrence of the Turkestan

Pen dulinie Pit (heme

coronatus) in the Punjab

; The resting of the

Besra Sparrow-Hawk. (Aeci-

piter virgatus atfinis)at Simla

KURULKAR, G. M. acd DESH-

PANDE, D. S.; Congenital

absence of a forelimb in a

Bull-Frog. (Rana tigzina)

(With two photos)

PacE

325

465

469

460

342

225

207

202

208

462

TASL OF CONTRIBCTORS.

[pane 8 Ke MomAN. = 12H IS.;

Curicus behaviour of Butter-

flies in the interior of extreme-

ly dense evergreen forest.

LAw, SATYA CHURN; M.A., PH:

De hei Se Mais OnUy > Sone

Races of the Red-billed

Cho ue th. eis

pyrrhocorax Linn.)

LivESEY, T. R.; The Gayal, or

Mithan (Bos on inies) (With

a plate) ... a oT

MacponaLtpD, A.; Weighing

Fish with two or more scales.

MACDOUGALL, CAPT. ale

Scott; Occurrence of the

“Clucking or Baikal ‘Teal

(Nettion formosum) near

‘Hiardoi, U. P. ace ae

MCCANN, C., F.L.S.; Notes

on the Whistling School Boy

or Malabar Whistling Thrush

(Mytophoneus horstieldt,

Vigors) ... oo

otes

on the Coffee Locust (Awlar-

ches miliaris Linn.) if

— ;Occur-

rence of Phrynichus phipsonti,

Pocock, in Salsette Jsland

———_— — ———__——— The

Cicada Lethama locusta Wal-

ker. (With five text-figures)

—_-———. ; Notes

on the Beetle (Platypria

echidna, Guer.) :

— ; On hts

-Fertiliz: ation of the Hlowers of

the Sausage Tree (A7zgelia

pinnata DC.) by Bats

——___—_—- —_-——— ;; Occ ur-

rence of Iso étes in the

Bombay Presidency

McCann, C.; See BLATTER, FP

MAHENDRA, BENE CHARAN j;—

The colouration of the tail of

the common Skink (Lygusona

punctatum) (With a photo-

graph) ; Sas Be

NMiACni Wie ON. Pig!) MOA. oA.

spider that can change the

PAGE

tah’)

226

valet

aioe)

230

430

467

471

colour of its eyes at will

(Myrmarachne plataleoides

Camb.) (With four plates and

four text-figures) me

MILLARD, W. 8.3; Obituarial

notice of John C. Anderson.

-——-. —_—-The founders

of the Bombay Natural

History Society i

MILLARD, W.S. alee EG sie,

MILNER, E.; The Occurrence

of the Spotbill or Grey Duck

(Anas p. pactlorhyncha) in

Upper Chindwin, Burma

Misra, M.P. ; See NEGRI, P.S.

MoRR ES, Re Cis bicZ. Si,

F.R.G.S. A Tale of Five

Tiger (With a photo)... Sis

Vitality of acow

mauled by a Tiger ( With two

text-figures)

A Panther’s

strange behaviour ia

MvuKERJI, D. D., M.Sc.;

On a _ small collection of

Fish from the Bhavani River

(S. India) (With three text-

figures) Ff

——--——-——— ; Ona

small collection of Fish from

the streams in the Billigiri-

rangan Hills (S. India)

Pace

196

209

405

439

440

359

410

MUELLER, H.C., D.Sc.; Sea

fishing on the Bombay ‘

Coast. a ne

NAVAR, K. KARUNAKARAN ;}

A Flying Frog. (With a

plate.) is wee

Cannibalism among Fishes.

Neer, PsS.; MIsRA; M2. P.,;

and Gupta. S. N. Some

aspects of the Bionomics of

the Lac Insect

PEACOCK, E.H.

daung

: The Shwe-u-

Game Sanctuary,

220

227

150

Upper Burma, with anoteon ~

the Asiatic Two-horned

Rhinoceros (4. sazmatrensts)

( With a plate) ...

446

xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

IPOCOCK; 1 IRh1i.< (HR. Sk ea me

Mammal Survey of the

Eastern Ghats. Report on

the Monkeys : £2

—_—— ———- : The

Long-tailed Macaque Mon-

keys Macaca radiata and JZ.

sinica of Southern India and

Ceylon ;

———_ ; The

Pig-tailed Macaques Cea

nemestrina) S

PRATER, S.H., C.M.Z. S. salvia

Migration of ie White Stonk

(Ciconia ciconia) : =

PRATER, S.H., See SPENCE, om

REGINALD.

Proceedings.... ae Sey Bool

REVIEWS :—

i. The Game Birds of India,

Burma and _ Ceylon

(Pheasants and Bustard

Quail) vol. iii. :

ii. The Wor ie wise es

Theory and the Pro-

gress of the organic

world ;

iii. An Introduction to eo

logy

REVIEWS :—

Bird Life in India :

Difficulties of the Evaro

‘Theory : oe Abt

Scop. t-Con. 2H .B.,. leas,

F.E.S.; Notes on Indian

Hawkmoths. (With three

plates and nine text-figures.)

SHINA, 9. 5., Nie SC, Jeb. De:

Determining the age of

Indian Fishes from _ their

scales

SEWELL, Lt. “Cor. R. B., M. iN

D. Sc. (Cantab), 27 S.,

BeLo:; “Aco. Be vee:

The Problem of Evolution.

Part I wae des Nee

———_; Part Il (Witha plate)

SHAH, SADEG Z.; A case of

Hybridization between the

Wild-Dog and the Jackal

(With a photo)...

PAGE

297

45)

472

185

466

247

198 |

StmMons, R.M.; an _ Incident

with Wild-Dog in Nimar

SPENCE, SIR REGINALD, Kt.,

M las EZ 2 and

PRATER.) Oe wile) Mile Oee

C.M.Z.S.; The Fish supply

of the West Coast of

India. Part. 11 (With fzve

plates) ace

STANFORD, J. K. ee Cue:

ihe: sBirds of the Prome

District of Lower Burma with

notes on the collection by

CLAuD B TicEHuURST, M.D.,

M°As M-BsOlU EAR G-se

Part Ill .

SURGIYA, The Maharaja of :

Some er of Pantlier

shooting : ‘ise a

TICEHURST. C.B. See STAN-

FOR Dyess.

TURNER, G.M.; Further record

of the Mallard (Anas

platyryncha) occurring in

Burma

—_ —-- —-—_- Odcurréiice of

the Tufted Pechiea (Nyroca

fuligula) and the Eastern

White-eye (yvoca baert) in

Burma

WAITE, H. W.; Oéctixaitee of

the Sind Red. winged Bush-

Lark (MMirafra_ erythroptera

sindianus) in the Rawalpindi

District of the Punjab

WHISTLER, HuGuy; The Study

of Indian Birds. Parts VII &

VIII. The Reproduction of

411

209

Zit

458

Birds. 7.2 a See Ooe Sle

—————; An open

Letter to the Editors

—_—; The indian

Great Reed- Warbler [ Acro-

cephalus stentoreus brunnes-

cens (Jerdon)}... ; —

WHITEHEAD CAPT, “Wien:

Notes on the White-headed

Duck or Stiff-tail (7zs-

amatura leucocephala)

YatEs, J.A.; The Butterflies

of Coorg, Part II

189

450

104

LIST OF PLATES

VOLUME XXXV

No. 1

PAGE

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

Plate. (A) The Eastern Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominicus

fulvus).

(B) The Lapwing (Vanellus vanellus) aie sae 1

Revision of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency—

Plate I. Cryptocoryne tcrtuosa ... sh eee sie 16

Plate II. Cvryptocoryne cognatoides ae a3 ae 17

Plate III. (1) Cryptocoryne tortuosa nee Sat ae 20

(2) Arisema longecaudatuin af ae nos 20

Plate IV. Zyphonium incurvatum .. ac oie 22

Plate V. (1) Amorphophallus caribaea bes. Open Flower x 26

(2) " ‘y Open Flower se 26

Plate VI. (1) Amorphophallus campanulatus. Bud of .. a os

(2) ” ” Spadix of alate 27

Plate VI1. Amorphophallus commutatus tA ne a 29

Some Beautiful Indian ‘Trees—

Plate 11. Indian Laburnam (Cassza fistula) ... oe ahs 60

Plate XI. (A) Indian Laburnam (Cassza fistula) sei ses 62

(£) Flowering Branch of the Indian Laburnam (Cassia

TUSIUIQ) 0 ses ses 62

Plate 12. Burmese Pink Cassia Geiss eae) z 64

Plate XII. Burmese Cassia (Cass7a renigera) Ae vering in WaCtonie

Gardens, Bombay aie se a AG 65

Indian Dragonflies—

Plate, Anal appendages of Ps ofosticta spp. Se a 68

The Fish supply of the West Coast of India—

Plate IV. Black Pomfret (S. zzger) - Silver Pomfret (.S. cinereus) :

White Pomfret (.S. szzensis) : Pala (Clupea ilisha) ... 77

Plate V. Rosy Perch (Lufzanus argentimaculatus) : Black Bream

(Chrysophrys berda) ; Cock-Up (Lates calcarifer) ;

Rock-Perch (.Sevvravus sp.) - Speckled Perch (Lutianus

rivulatus). ee so it 78

Plate VI. Cat-fish Ans LSS Ne Bombay Duck (Harpodon

nehereus) » Indian Haddock (Scienoides brunneus) ... 80

Plate VII. Falai (Chorinemus toloo) : Lady Fish (S7llago sihana) :

Tunny (Zhynus thunina): Seer (Cybium khulit) :

Sakala (Hlacate nigra) i ie = 82

Plate VIII. Hilsa (Mugil dussumier’): Boi (Mugil oeur) ; Sole

(Synaptura cinerascens): Indian Halibut (Psetlodes

erumel) ... oe Ses ah - 84

XIV LASTS FERIA ES:

Change of colour in Spider’s Eyes—

Plate I. Diagrams and Dissections

Plate II. i 5

Plate ILI. ” ”

Plate IV. ” 93

Propagation and Distribution of the Tree-Parasite ay ES nae es,

Dest. :

Plate I. (A) Loranthus longiflorus in bloom BY: re

(B) A sunbird (Leptocoma zeylonica) probing into ZL.

longiftlorus flowers for nectar

Plate’ -II.. (4) Seed of ZL. longiflorus on a branch, mhotosnaninee

immediately on being excreted by Diceum

_ erythrorhynchum ...

(B) A Thick-billed Flowerpecker. UaM EE Ronn aD) with

_aberry of ZL. longiflorus in bill

Gayal or Mithan (Bos. frontalis)— |

Plate. (4) A Fine Bull of the Mithan (Az6os frontalis)

(2) Mithan, showing dewlap and dorsal ridge

Nidification and Habits of the Travancore Laughing-Thrush (aie

lopteron jerdoni fairbank1)—

(4) 2XCaiest

(B) Nest oe

Flying Frog. (Rhacophorus a ee Jerd.)—

Plate. (A) Dorsal view a

(#£) Ventral view me

| . No. 2

The Game Birds of the Indian Empire—

Plate. ° (4) Indian Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobzvanellus indicus

Indaicus).

(B) Yellow-Wattled Lapwing (Lobipluvia malabarica)...

Revision ‘of the Flora of the Bombay Presidency—

Plate I. Oberonia bellii

Plate II. Oberonta brachyphylla

Plate III. Obderonzia brunoniana

Plate IV. Obderonia lindleyana

Plate V. Liparis nervosa

Plate VI. Liparis flavo-viridis

Plate VII. (A) Dendrobium microbulbon

~(B) Dendrobium crepidatum

Plate VILI.- Ariaminima ...

Some Beautiful Indian Trees—

Plate. Java Cassia (Cassia javanica) we

Plate. Java Cassia (Cassza javanica) trees in flower ...

Plate. (A) Flowers-and leaves of Cassia javanica

Plate. (B). Flowers and leaves of Cassia nodosa

late, Sacred Barna (Crat@va nurvala)

Plates (A) Flowers of Sacred Barna (Crate@va Popol)

(2) Wkree ” ’ ”

PaGE

134

136

138

140

144

148

199

205

220

241

254

255

256

257

260

261

262

274

289

290

230

293

294

LIS OF PLALES

The Study of Indian Birds—

Plate. Pendant Nest of the Thick-billed Flower-Pecker (Piprz-

soma squalidunt) 25 -

Indian Dragonflies—

Plate I. Anal appendages of—Ceylonosticla, Platysticta and

Drepanosticta atehe eee

Plate II. Anal appendages Say ie Vor ee and

Ceylonosticta

Indian Net-veined Midges or Biesngy ose ee

Plate. (1) Fall in the course of a small stream below Shillong—

Cherrapunji Road, Khasia Hills, Assam.

(2) Stream below Umdong Fall near Dumpep, Khasia

Hills, Assam om, :

The Problem of Evolution—

Chart of Zones

Notes on Indian Hawkmoths : Imagos of—

Plate I. 1. Oxvambulyx sericetpennts, 2. Rhagastis albomarginatius,

3. Marumba sperchius, 4. Theretra nessus, 5. Rhopalop-

syche nycterts, 6. Langia zenzerotdes, 7. Clants phaiarts.

Plate II. Caterpillars of—1. Acherontia styx, 2. Psilugramma mene-_.

phron, 3. Cephonodes hylas, 4. Pseudodolbina fo, 5. Ma-

vumba sperchius, 6. Clanis phalaris, 7. Rhagastis ee:

marginatus ..

Plate III. Caterpillars a 1. ort Contase, Z. Popa

khastana, 3. Theretra clotho, 4. Degmaptera mirabilis,

5. Hippotion celerio, 6. Theretra alecto,7. Macroglossum

pyrrhosticta A she

Plate. Ceropegia hispida

The Shwe-u-Daung Game Sanctuary, Upper Burma—

Plate. (A) The Shwe-u-Daung Game Sanctuary.

(8) The Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros (2. szmatrensis)

shot in the sanctuary

PAGE

o27,

325

342

364

373

409

446

INDEX TOTELUSTRATTONS

VOLUME XXXV

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

Acherontia styx, (Caterpillar)

Pl., fig. 1 oF . 364

A ar oe phallus camp me aahish

Pl. Vo ties. 1 22) lO

figs. 1 & 2 eee a sos 20, 27

Amorphophallus commutatus,

Pl. VIL 29

Ampelophaga pia aaa owen

pillar). Pl., fig. 2 ee = 373

Aviswema Veneicgudavinn, P}. ll,

fer a 20

Arius Letina “Pl, Vi, fig. i 80

Barbus micropogon, fig. 2 La-

tera] view of anterior portion. 167

--var. mySso-

rensis, fig. 1. Lateral view of

anterior portion me > «= 166

Bibos frontalis, Pl, fig. 1. A

fine bull of the Mithan.

Fig. 2 showing dew-lap and

dorsal ridge ... ae ee i OD

Bulbophyllum neilgherrense,

fig. Boe ae see er cy,

Cassia fistula.

Plea sae bet Bt 60

Pig. of leat is es ae 61

Fig. of flower ... ee age 61

Pl. XI. (A) Tree ey ae 62

(B) Flowering

branch ee 62

Cassia nodosa, Flowers and

leaves. Pl. fig. 2 ae sar B2o0

renigera.

Pi xl a are re 64

Pl. XII. Flowering in the

Victoria Gardens, Bombay. 65

Figs. of bud and flower ah 65

Cassia javanica, P). eo See) aeOO

— - Flowers and

leaves. blo fig Se habe = uu)

——- in flower at the

Bombay Yacht Club, Pl. ... 290

Cephnodes hylas, ee

Ply, fens ae & %

Gerobenr hispida, Pl,

Ceylonosticta digna, Anal ap-

pendages, Pl., figs. 8 & 9

—— filaris, fig. b.

Penile organ A

—— Anal a0

pendages. Pl., figs. 5 & 6

—— lankanensis, Anal

appendages. Pl,, figs. 11 &12.

montana, Anal

appendage PI., fig. 11

= neitnert. Anal

appendages. Pl. figs. 7&8

tropica, Anal ap-

pendages. Pl., figs.1& 2...

Chorinemus toloo.

Pi, Vil., fiz: 2

Chrysophrys berda.

PIL ., fed |.

Clanis hn ae Pl. Ag. 7

—-—-- eee,

; ie. 6 a :

Pit tlisha.

Pl. IV., figs. 4&5

Cow mauled by a Tiger.

Fig. (A) Two neck bones.

Fig. (B) The same, dislocated.

Crateva nurvala, Pl.

— flowers of, Pl.,

fio 2. “Tree

Cryptocoryne PES. Pi. I.

tortuosa, Pl. I.,

figs. 1—6 : sae ane

-—-—— Pl. III.

PRIUS aaa

Cybium khulit, Pl, ‘VIL., tie. 3.

Degmaptera mirabilis (Cater-

pillar). Pl., fig. 4 a

Dendrobium crepidatum, P.,

fig. 2

PAGE

364

409

327

328

327

328

327

362

364

439

293

294

373

262

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Dendrobium microbulbon, P|.

figs.

Drepanosticta Wanna: AGA

appendage. PIl., fig. 4

carmichaelt,

fig. d. Penile organ..

—'

— Anal

ee 3&4

virials. Anal

Pl. fig. 10

Anal ap-

_pendages, Pl. figs.9 & 10

Filacate nigra, Fl. Vil,

fig. 5

Eria minima, PI.

—.- rupestris, fig.

Eryx johnti, fig.

Euliponeura assamensis,

fig.

——_-_ ———————

appendages. PI.

es =? =

appendage.

Male

horat, Dorsal and

Ventral views of Pupa, figs.

a &b : oe aed Kae

Evolution, The Problem of,

Chart of zones. PI.

Harpodeon nehereus, Pl.

fig. 2

Hawkmoth :

Caterpillar

oar

Chrysalis of, fig. 3

- with tongue-case

VI,

or "Larva,

fig. 4 Mes are

— - free tongue-

case, fig.5 ... Zea

Head of aad fig. eee

Pupa of, ig. 3.

Hippotion lero.

Caterpillar, Pl. fig. 5

Horatia, Larve, figs. 1 & 2

Indian Net-veined Midges.

Habitat of, Pl. figs. 1 & 2

Kigelia pinnata.

Fig. 1. Position of flower ...

Fig. 2. Longitudinal Sec-

tion oe wal ae

Fig.3. Position of bat in

| flower

Lates calcarifer.

PLN 3) Ss 2

Langta zenzerotdes.

Piz, fig. 6 ee?

PAGE

Boz

Leptocoma zeyvlonica.

Pl. J., fig. 2: Probire into

Loranthns longitlorus

Lethama locusta.

Fig. 1. Position of, in copu-

lation

Fig. 2. Tymbal of the left

side with both

opercula se

Fig. 3. A single Tymbal

showing Chitinous

ribs and plates

Fig. 4. Longitudinal section

showing the mus-

cles er

Fig. 5. Section showing

both tymbal mus-

cles

Liparis flavo-viridis, Pl.

—- nervosa, Pl.

Lobipluvia matlabarica, Pl.,

Hee 2A, ok ay a ane

Lobivanellus indicus indicus,

Pl ie. i

Dette Dn

Pl. I., fig. 1.—in bloom

Fig, 1. Diagram of

opened bud of.

Diagram of flower

of.

un-

iigerg 2

Fig, 3.

pecker (Lepto-

coma zeylonica)

feeding from. flow-

ers of.

Seed of, with adhe-

sive filaments

Loranthus longiflorus.

Pl. II., fig. 1. Seed of, on a

branch photographed im-

mediately on being excreted

by Diceum . erythrorhyn-

chum.

Fig. II: : A’

Fig. 4.

Thick-billed

Flowerpecker (/P7prisoma

agile), with a-berry in bill.

Lutianus argentimaculatus.

Pla Vij hiec

—--— rivulatus.

Pi. Vv. ie.9

Diagram of a Flower ,

Xvi

PAGE

144

431

433

434

435

261

260

24)

241

144

145

148

KViii

PAGE

Macroglossum pyrrhosticta.

Caterpillar, Pl., fig. 7 373

‘Marumba sperchius.

Pl. fio23 362

(Caterpillar). Pl., fig. 5 364

Mugil dussumtert.

Pl. ‘VEH., fig. 84

oeur.

Pl.-VIII., fig. 2 84

Myrmarachne plataleoides.

Pls. I-IV and text-figs. I-IV.

Diagrams and dissections. 134-143

Oberontia bellii, Pl. 254

——-— brachyphylla, Pl. 259

——-—— brunoniana, Pl. 256

— —-- lindleyana, Pl. 257,

Oxyambulyx sericetpennis.

Pl., fig. 1. 362

joa zmbricata, fies 267

Phrynichus phipsont.

Fig. 230

Piprisoma jeden,

Nest of ... S21

Platysticta apicabes.

Anal appendages, Pl., figs. 5

&6 ... ; Se $27

Platysticta Necedn en ie

Fig. a. Penile organ... 67

wings of, fig. 325

Platysticta deccanensts.

Anal appendages, Pl., figs. 3

& 7 327

—_— — maculata.

Fig.c. Penile organ 67

Anal appendages, Pl., figs.1&

2 ae be e 328

Pluvialis dominicus fulvus.

Pl: fed . 1

Phe jerdoniana, Bie ee 0269

~- papillosa, Fig. ... sae«S 209)

Protosticta davenporti.

Pl., figs. 9& 10. Anal appen-

dages aes a wie 68

—-- —_ gravelyi.

Fig.e. Penile organ 67

Protosticta gravelyt.

Pl., figs. 7&8. Anal appen-

dages ... 68

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS

Protosticta hearseyt.

Pl., figs. 1 & 2. . Anal.appen-

dages... . a

-—— himalaica.

Fig. wings of ...

Pl, figs.. 1&2. “Anal ap-

pendages

-—- mortont.

Pl., figs. 3&4. Anal appen-

aac <a

Sea EP NEE.

Pl. Figs.5 & 6. Anal appen-

dages aa

Psetlodes erumet.

Pl. VIL. --fig. 4

Pseudodolbina fo.

(Caterpillar). PIl., fig. 4

Psilogramma menephron.

(Caterpillar). Pl, fig. 2

Rana tigrina.

Fig. A. -Lateral view

Fig. B. Dorsal view

Rhacophorus malabaricus.

Pl. Fig.1. Dorsal view.

Fig. 2. Ventral view

Rhagastis albomarginatus.

Pl.s fie.

(Caterpillar), Pl., fig. 7

contusa.

(Caterpillar), Pl., fig. 1

Rhopalopsyche nycterts.

Pl; fig: 5 fet 56

Scaphiodon nashit.

Fig. 3. Ventral view of

Sci@noides brunneus.

P1EVI., fie.3

Serranus, sp.

PIOV 2 fi@t3 i ase

Shwe-u-Daung game sanctuary,

Upper Burma.

Plate (A) The Sanctuary.

(B) Asiatic ‘T'wo-horned

Rhinoceros (A. sama-

trensis) shot in the

Sanctuary ...

Sillago sithana.

PIAWVi., fod

Stromateus cinereus.

PJ Vs, phe 2a ee ae Soc

PAGE

' 68

364

462

463

446

INDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS xix

Stromateus niger.

|e Ltd Os et eae Lara

-—— SiHenNSIS.

OPIN, 2 Ses,

Synaptura cinerascens.

PleVINT.;, fie.c3

Theretra alecto.

Caterpillar, Pl., fig. 6

——_—--- clotho.

Caterpillar, Pl., fig. 3

—_-— nessus.

Pr, fic. 4

PAGE

Thynus thunina.

Pei Vile pine eZ ‘x wee 82

Tiger, A Tale of five, Photo... 405

Trias stocksit, fig. des 267

Trochalopterumyjerdoni fairbankz.

Pi tot 1. “At nest,

Fig.2. Nest of Oe O8

Typhonium incurvatum.

Pl. IV., figs. 1-5 ae es Zz

Vanellus vanellus.

Pele to se2 oe ius

Wild-Dog. xJackal, Photo... 189

ERRATA

Vol. XXXV, Nos. 1 & 2

Page 34 line 16 from bottom for Corryllis vead Coryllis,

37a Se for ambigus 7ead ambiguus,

156 in the heading: delete letters R. O.

158 line 28. for sports vead sport.

158 line 30. for Ridowing vead Pidoung.

162 In penultimate line of second paragraph

for Telugu read Tamil:

185 iine 29 from bottom for Tarmix vead Turnix.

207 <3 Oia Rs for canante vead canente.

320 e 45 7 for micropterum vead micropternus.

Soc. 9 from bottom for maclolophus 7cad macholophus.

383: .; 7 ens * tor Agithinia read AEgithina,

384 ,, 18 ,, _ for Saxicolor read Saxicola,

384 lines 4 & 10 es tov (Enathe vead (Enanthe.

386 line 23 toy Rhidipura vead Rhipidura.

383 4,).. 3 for juncidas vead juncidis.

400 ,, 2 from bottom for Cotunnix ead Coturnix.

402 ,, 16 for Sarciornis “ead Sarciophorus.

403 _,, 8 from bottom for Xenorynchus ead Xenorhynchus.

{NDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Abisara echerius suffusa ae ... 429 | Amoeba ... an .. «= «125

Accipiter virgatus or ats ... 399 | Amorphophallus Tanaris: a. ahs 27

— — affinis St ee) 208 campanulatus ... ais 26

Acherontia styx ... Pe ae ... 964 | ————— commutatus _... 27,

Acridotheres ginginianus _... 317, 390 | —_—-———_ hohenackeri_... al20y 29

tristis es - Ss 99 | —————— silvaticus... - ae 28

tristis, .. ... 389 - zey lanicus peel 28

Acrocephalus ... te ae ... 387 | Ampelophaga khasiana ae LOST

- agricola.., = ... 453 | Ampittia dioscorides _... ass ee lal

en stentoreus see .. 450 | Anabas scandens us aa ee eee

————_— ——_ —_——_ —— amyaeé .. 450 | Anas platyrhyncha as : 209, 404

———_—--——__—_—__-____ brunnescens 320, 450 | ——--—— -—— Henin ionie ». 210

——-——-_ meridionalis 450 | ————-—-—_———- peecilorhyncha 49, 209

Actinophrys ee eee i 117: | ————————— zonorhyncha_ ...210, 460

Aigithina tiphia ... a i a 97 | Anastomus oscitans ... es . 403

-——_——. hu mei... eae .. 383 | Anhinga melanogaster .. sa 47, 403

igypius monachus... oes .. 398 | Anogeissus acuminata ... aoe we 228

Aeromachus pygmzus pygmeus ... 111 | Anser albifrons ... ne oi .. 460

Aggeianthus marchantioides ... ore COS anser oe one vats se 210

——__——- reticulatum ie .. 268 :| ——indicus ... re ... 49, 210, 404

Agrion digna ... hi a ... 333 | Anthracoceros m, leucogaster oe 36

-hilare oe oe eee ... 330 | Anthropoides virgo... a 100, 461

Agrobates brunnescens... ee ... 450 | Anthuscampestris griseus... a ods

Alcedo athis a © a ea os - richardi richardi eae veh a O93

-_— Benealencis ae <r 35 | ———— rufulus... whe stem 2 393

-megala ... sae a AE 35 -sordidus decaptus ... io) ©2593

Alseonax latirostris ... ae Spe ele) - trivialis trivialis sae eee, 2392

Alsocomus puniceus ... we 3 40 | Aoria punctatus ... fo see sae pe 262

Amandava amandava ... sis .. 390 | Apatura ambica ambica tee wigan S423

Amaurornis akool va a .. 401 | Apharitis lilacinus se oe .. 107

-——-— phoenicura ioe .. 401 | Apistomyia aoe 5 ae 344, 346

——-= phoenicurus chinensis ... 42 | Aporia agathon aueyeer we 08 g/g

Amblypodia abseus indicus ... ae 207 leucodice soracte ote meet he,

amantes amantes va © LOZ nabellica nabellica... ine 279

ee bazaloides ae .. 107 | Aquila rapax vindhiana ee .. 398

-_— canarica ... se . 107 | Arborophila rufogularis intermedia... 42

centaurus pirama - 107 | Arcella dentata ... ae ay we 7

mackwoodi 350 ee, 07 - discoides bag aa ot gly,

Amblystoma punctatum bie .. 123 | Ardeacinerea ... Sa ser .. 403

Ambrosinia ciliata oy aes a 17 -- rectirostris ee a (47

-—— retrospiralis eis ie 17 purpurea .. is oT a « 403

—__—--——- spiralis “ae ee wes 15 | ————- cisnilensis a a 47

——- unilocularis ee us 15 | Ardeola bacchus ... ne a se 48

Ammomanes pheenicura phoenicura.,. 393 | ——~—=-grayii ... ... we 48, 404

XXii

Argya

——- caudata Sie

—__——_-—— caudata ...

——- malcolmi

Argynnis adippe jainadeva

—— hyperbius hyperbius

—_—— kamala... : wa

= lathonia isscca

—— —— pales sipora

Atiopsis peltata ...

———— protanthera

Arisceema caudatum

liforme

——-—— huegelii

——.-——. leschenaullii

—_——_- murrayi...

——_———- neglectum

————-- papillosum

— ——-- tortuosum

—_——- wightii

————- longecaudata

—_—__-——-- longecaudatum

Arisarum amboinense ...

Arius dussumieri

—- falcarius

ee eee cat taiiat

Arnetta binghami

- vindhiana ae cee

Arum angulatum

—- bulbiferum

-——-- crenatum

——-- cuspidatum

——-- divaricattum

——-- esculentum

—-- flagelliforme

—--- guttatum

== (Minvtam .... wee See

——-- ovatum

——-- ptychiurum

—-- roxburghii AOC

-—-- silvaticus ...

——-- spirale Hs

—-- tortuosum

——-- trilobatum...

——-- viviparum...

Asarcornis scutulatus

Asio f. flammeus nae

Astictopterus jama olivascens

Astur badius dussumieri

= poliopsis

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

— 383

383

427

414

eae

tall

eee 39

Pacgé

Atella phalanta .. ina cae ta 427

Athene brama, =... sae a en RNs)

brama pulchra ... one Ate 37

Aularches miliaris ae ba IN 87274}

Aulocera brahminus prananinite wat ALS

— -- padma padma don .. 418

———--- saraswati... coe vs 418

—-- swaha swaha a « 418

Azanus jesous gamra ... ae co LUO

= Wbaldus: ss mae eve me Lb

= UTANWs cee ahs wae cog LOO

Badamia exclamationis Bes ee

Bacarus carelli .... Bo. =n eee,

Bagrus punctatus a ak). eget Oe

Baltia butleri butleri ... ss eo Le

Baoris bevani bevani ... ae sce ele

canaraica erie ze 113, 114

- - conjuncta one woe LA

--—— narooa sc anoles

COnUSHac. (A en eee

guttatus bada ... fa venues iLL

- kumara kumara... tee me oN ks)

_ mathias agna .. -| .. se ewes

—_—_——_-—— mathias... oan Be yn Peg le GS:

~——~ oceia farri.. we Pi secigee eLeS

--——— philippina sink oe ey cls}

sinensis subochracca ... 113, 114

zelleri colaca A AO .. 114

Barbus arulius- <., . Bc Bee wees)

- carnaticus a a, wal, ed

‘dorsalis ... a a vee COU

-————-- micropogon <.. Ai 166, 167

—___—_—__-_—-——- var. mysorensis... 166

—-nashii ... Res ie Seen tbo

Barilius gatensis ae 5a 1C9) oe

Barucus hampsoni ap: ae sen) ela

Baza leuphotes burmana as Hee 39

Belenois mesentina mesentina io M80

Bellone strongylurus ... af ot 78

Bhima undolosa... Rs Ais wen 228

Bibasis senasena ie oe ee OM)

Bibos banteng we «= 446

—-frontalis ... vas Perea Ace 444

— gaurus Se ie 580 » 444

Bindahara phocides moorei ... ee US

Blepharocera... Fe cio, Peery (O40

Boleopthalmus ... oe Sane, UEC!

Bombax malabaricum ... F 144, 157

Bos frontalis ees)

Brachypternus bengalensis Aen Bs) eS!

Brachyspatha zeylanica co he eee

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Bubo .coromandus coromandus 398

Bubulcusibis ... see 404

—-—i. eon ands 48

Bucia athertoni ... : 2)

Bulbophyllum Aeipelatun 265

—— -- neilgherrense ... 266

Burhinus cedicnemus 401

— indicus ... 43

Butastur liventer 38

oe 399

Butoridés striatus javanicus A8

Byasa aristolochic aristolochiz 176

——-- dasarada ravana 176

——-- philoxenus philoxenus ... 176

Cacomantis merulinus queruius 33

-—— sonneratii sonneratii 33

Cajanus indicus ... 150

Caladium esculentum 2g

——--—— ovatum ; 18

—--——-_ viviparum 30

Calamodyta meridionalis 450

Calendrella brachydactylalongipennis 393

Calinaga buddha budha 422

Callichrous bimaculatus 162

Campanularia 124

Capella celestis ... : 102

—- gallinago gallinago 47, 403

- stenura 403

Caprimulgus x 322

asiaticus .. 37,390

bimaculatus of

—_—— — macrourus ambiguus ... 37

eee ——- nipalensis ... 37

--—~— monticolus 3/

= : - monticolus... 398

Caprona ransonnetti potiphera gel

Caranx auricoronee wo «6. 414

————— djedaba 414

Caranx gallus 414

--- nigripennis 73

Carcharias laticaudus 414

Carpodacus erythrinus ... os, 390

Casarca ferruginea 49, 92, 404

Cassia fistula 60, 290

grandis seer OR

javanica .... 289, 291

- marginata 291

multijuga oo5 293

nodosa perereeer 4° 0)

renigera 64, 290

o——— roxburghii

291 |

XXiii

PAGE

Castalius caleta decidia 104

————- ethion ethion 104

——--———- rosimon rosimon 104

Casuarina equisetifolia ... 144

Catachrysops strabo 2 105

Catapoecilma elegans myositina 108

Catopsilia crocale 180

Se florella gnoma 180

————-—- pomona 180

a 180

—— pyranthe 180

Celaenorriinus ambareesa 2 110

—-leucocera leucocera... 110

—_—__-—_ -——_ rufficornis area 110

——-——-- spilothyrus 110

Centropus b. bengalensis 34

—_—___-- sinensis : 396

—— infenmieanne 34

Cephonodes hylas : 364

Cerchneis tinnuculus saiutatae 38

Cercomela fusca 385

Ceropegia hispida 409

Cervus unicolor equinus 199

Ceryle rudis rr teas “OOF

- -- fetlenasenne 35, 316

Ceylonosticta digna 533

- hilaris 330

—_—— - lankanensis 335

--——_—__————-- montana 331

neers - nietneri 334

——_ - tropica 332

- walli 335

Ceyx t. tridactylus e 35

Chairnarrhornis leuocephala ... 94

Chalcophaps indica indica 40, 219

Charadrius alexandrinus 399

——- apricarius b, 2

-—_——-———-- dominicus ... 4

———_ ——_ —_——_ du bius oe 45

——_--——_——-—— jerdoni, 45, 96, 322, 402

——_—_—_-——— duvaucelii ... - ... 24)

——_—_——-- fulvus 4

——_—-——-- gregarius 9

——- ~ leucurus Ue

——_—_-——_- malabaricus 249

-———-——-- mongolus atrifrons 95

—_— —---- pluvialis 2

———-———- spinosus 24]

——. ventralis 241

Charaxes fabius fabius ... 421

Chaulelasmus streperus 49, 404

XXiv

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Cheritra freja jaffra 108

Chettusia gregaria 9, 402

——_——--leucura aes 11, 402

Chilades laius laius 105

Chilaria othona.. 108

Chilasa agestor Pagina 176, 422

- clytia clytia 177

- dissimilis M77

Chilodon cucullus 129

—- uncinatus 129

Chirocentrus dorab 414

Chlidonias leucopareia 44

Chloropsis aurifrons aurifrons 192

- davidsoni 192

—Jjerdoni 384

Chorinemus toloo he 82

Choriotes nigriceps AA 97

Chrysocolaptes festivus oe) Soe

— guttacristatus gutta-

cristatus OZ

Chrysophrys perae 78

——-- datnia 77

Ciconia alba oe 9 10

- ciconia 403, 459

Cinclus a aa wee Ol

Cinnyris asiatica eanca iss WO, OL, oO4.

Circus eruginosus 39; 399

macrourus ne 399, 449

melanoleuca melanoleuca 39

Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum 265

-- wallichii 265

Cisticola juncidis 388

Clamator coromandus ... xe oat 34

-—jacobinus 193, 395, 458

-taprobanus 193

Clanis phalaris 362, 364, 373

Clupea atricauda 414

-ilisha 77

——- lile aes 79

- sp. 414

Cobitis thermalis 359

Cocho.a purpurea cas 218

Coilia dussumieri 414

Coladenia dan dan 110

—- indrani indra 110

a - tissa ae 110

Colias croceus edusina 182

hyale erate 18]

— hyale Se on

—— pallida core ALS

ladakensis 181

PaGE

Collocalia coe 323

Colocasia antiquorum ... ue 29

——_——-- esculenta 29

————- vivipara 30

Colotis amata amata ... 182

- etrida etrida wee 182

Columba livia 40, 97, 400

Conophallus commuetes a 27

Copsychus saularis aoe 385, 455

Coracias benghalensis ... a ne Ob

- affinis ... 34

— garrula semenowi Bs a)

Corvus corax 91, 189, 382, 461

laurencei ... ace 189

aa tibetanus .. 189

- coronoides ses oes Siete

- splendens . 92, 382, 458

Coryllis vernalis vernalis and 34

Corymorpha 122

palma 122

Coturnix oF ae LOO

———— Koromiandelice 42, 400

——— coturnix 400

Crataeva nurvala 293

Cratera religiosa ae eae sect wucoo

Crescentia alata see 471

—— ciyete ace cae 471

Crocopus phoenicopterus aan PAB) ee)

——-- viridifrons... 40

Cryptochilus reticulatus 268

Cryptocoryne ciliata 17

- cognata .. Abe 17

- cognatoides tay a W/

oe - dalzellii ... SHO 18

—— - elata en ane 17

—. - huegelii ... 14

—— - retrospiralis 17

—_—— - roxburghii 15

— - spiralis 500 15

- tortuosa ... 16

- unilocularis 15

Cryptoplectron erythrorhynchum 401

Cuculus canorus ... vw 395

————--- subsp ... 33

— telephonus ... 395

————- micropterus ... a 395

Cupitha purreea ... ado 112

Curetis acuta dentata 106

-gesopus ... see 106

- thetis 106

Cursorius coremandeler

401

INDIEX OF “SPECIES

XXV

PAGE PAGE

Cyaniris vardhana ses aa - 181 | Dendrocitta rufa pallida 192

Cyanops asiatica asiatica eo a 33 —-—-— vagabunda ... 192

Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis .... 385 | —————___—__ yernayi 192

Cybium commersonii ... tes fae ANSE vagabunda 320

eo MUMMY "See ice a oF 82 |) Dendrocygna 318

Cymbidium imbricatum ae Sos, (209 fulva 49

—- ovatum me Sa en ae lOe - javanica ... om .. 404

Cynoglossus macrolepidotus ... .« 414 | Dendrophasa pompadoura phayrei ... 40

Cynopterus sphinx ee bass .. 469 | Desmotrichum binnendijkii 265

Cyornis tickellii ... oo oi on OOD ——-— fimbriatum 265

Cyprinus anjana... a me oy oyoOl. ye a Aabellurn 265

——-—— daniconius ... vai ee SO | se insulare... 265

Cyrestis thyodamus ganescha en 424 | , banctleri 265

Dafila acuta acuta sie ote ae 50) macraei ... 265

Daimio bhagava bhagava wg . 110 | —————____ nodosum 265

Danais aglea melanoides ve ee S25 | ae pardalinum 265

- chrysippus 7p ae Cesc ORME tetera ete, plicatile... 265

——- limniace mutina Pes ee 8S. leona ees Palas = 265

——- melissa septentrionis .., teat 0 GS? |i ete ee rhipidilobum ... 265

- plexippus oe = -» 183 | Deudoryx epijarbus epijarbus... 108

- tytia Sitges. AAS sie’ at 183 Diczeum —_ ee abe —_ 321

Danio (Danio) equipinnatus ... .. 168 | ——-—— erythrorhynchum 146, 147

Daphnia pulex ... *: e34 ..- 126 | Dichoceros bicornis 36

Dasybatus zugei... oe oa ... 414 | Dichorragia nesimachus 422

Degmaptera mirabilis ... = = 2373 4) Dicrurus ae ae 320

Delias belladonna belladonna .. 180 —— cerulescens... 387

-eucharis: 2. a: Ras --- 180 | ————— leucophaeus ... Pe OOs

sanaca sanaca ..,, nes Soe het —— macrocercus 94, 387

Demiegretta sacra oe aise .. 404 | Dilipa morgiana ... 421

Dendrobium actinomorphum ... .. 264 | Disparoneura digna 333

album sat a .. 264 - hilaris 330

—_— aqueum %.. id v. 264 - maculata... io O20

— barbatulum Sis ... 262 | Dissoura episcopa episcopa 47, 403

= barbautulum _... .. 262 ! Dodona dipoea nostia 429

—— chlorops ... ae PASH -- durga 428

_—-— crepidatum ats ta. «209 -- eugenes eugenes 429

—— crispum ... tee ... e261 | Dophla patala patala 422

——_——— filiforme ... Fas ... 2/3 | Drepanosticta annandalei 340

——- fim briatum er ZOO eA - carmichaeli 337

—— herbaceum ian hee 7203) - digna 333

—————- humile ... sf .. 261 | —— - hilaris 330

— lawanum ... =... a = 263 |): ——— - montana ... 331

—-—-— mabele ... ae a - polychromatica .. 338

—__——- macraei ... ei ee 261) |) quadrata, 339

—_——_—_——— macrostachyum ... P20 oh - tropica 332

————— microbulbon ... .. 261 | —— - viridis 339

—————— microchilos — ir es "SP... 330

—_—_——— ovatum ... su ... 262 | Dromas ardeola .. 316

———-———- ramosissimum ... ... 263 | Drosophita melanogaster 127

roseum _.... ae ... 263 | Dryobates analis 32

Dendrocitta rufa ... a oi ... 382 | ————-- h, canicapillus 32

XXVi

PaGE

Dryobates longipennis ... ate a 32

——-——_— - mahrattensis eirocmeratte 32

-_—— — blanfordi ... 32

————--- sindianus ... ase ae UE

Ducula insignis griseicapilla ... oe 40

Dumetia hyperythra ae Sip elers)

Dupetor f. flavicollis ... dec Ae 42

Echinus... a ay ee ee lee

Edwardsina 344

Eeretta alba a a .. 404

Eeretta g. garzetta = an 47, 404

Elacate nigra ee aa ote tes 82

Elanus coeruleus .. sie 39, 399

Elymnias unermneces unaiene 420

Klymnias pealii ... 228

Emarginula aoe a8 a ae OSS

Emberiza buchanani cms ool

— - cia stracheyi... : 192, 194

—__——_- ——-- par aa af 192, 194

————- fucata... en ee ie ele

————~ icterica Pe 391

————- melanocephala ace cae? \ 28

—— ——- stewarti 218

Engraulis haniltoni 414

—————- mystax Be whe ae 78

————-taty... rae A 78

Entomothera coromanda Sorometaas 36

Eonycteris spelewa 470

Ephippus orbis... 414

Equula brevirostris es ae sis 78

Erebia annada ceca 419

hyagriva ... cee os we «=6.: 419

hybrida . 419

——— nirmala nirmala... 418

scanda 419

shallada 418

Ergolis merione tapestrina se 28

Eria braccata Zhe fe

— dalzellii Bec 273

— var. fimbriata oe eee sO

—— exilis ... aa ot oe a A

— extinctoria ... ae eae aco ape dal

—— filiformis ... a ee a) eA

—— lichenora 269

— microchilos.., 2/3

—— microphyton ase ace ce ee

— minima ree are aon see owed

—— mysorensis ... ba, aes seit seers

— polystachya ia =. ey i ele

— dicta ... nee ne 275

—— pubescens 274, 275

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGcE

Eria reticosa Uifslep dates

———= retictlatans es 268

——rupestris.... 560 eee vor 20

— uniflora... i ail i5 oc one.

Eriboea athamas athamas sis ate. ed

-dolon do!on 421

Erismatura leucocephala a eri

Erolia m. minuta 46, 403

subminuta i aa MS 46

temmincki 46, 403

Eerythrina indica ... 466

Eryx johnii ae 464

Esacus recurvirostris ... ac oe 43

Euchrysops cnejus a ee sce aneLOS

-——- contracta contracta is EZ

——- pandava pandava... a 05

Eudendrium carneum ... act aes

Kudynainis malayana ... . 448

—- scolopaceus ... 100, 396, 458

—_——__—__ ——_-—- malayana ... 34

——__————_——— scolopaceus... 34

Eugenia jambolana cae ous) elas

Euliponeura eae 342, 346

——-- assamensis 345

Eunetta falcata.. ne) 2409

Euploea core core oe os eet Wid ke)

— véermiculata noe, eaten OS

-- mulciber mulciber ... sce 1 183

Eupodotis edwardsi__.... : ree 98

Eurystomus orientalis erent ee 34

Euthalia garuda anagama 422

————. lubentina indica 422

Everes parrhasius parrhasius ... seo) 105

Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis 42, 409

Falco chiquera 399

——- jugger - a5 91, 399

——- peregrinus cali aus age oe 38

309

——- peregrinator sae Aes a 94

——- tinnunculus oes We BEN

Ficus bengalensis ae S60 .. 144

—- relegiosa ... ee ae .. 149

Fissurella ... =A ae oe de OLE

Francolinus pictus ane 401

——-- pintadeanus phayrei_... 42

--—— pondicerianus 401

Franklinia... Ps aie 321

——buchanani ... aa 320, 388

-—-— ——gracilis ae aes sos a OOO

Fratercula arctica nae 316

Fregata ~ =.. eee oes tte one 98

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Fregetta tropica melanogastra w. 449

Fulica atra atra ... mes cue 42, 401

Galemdasdeva | «4 Mat |) os | es. 393

Gallicrex cinereus a ay. ee 42

Gallinago solitaria ae ss se 460

——-—— stenura eee eis oe 47

Gallinula chloropus _... a ve, “AOL

é - indicus ... ange > (FD

Galloperdix Res ae ees ane 99

, Spadicea ... io ... 400

—_—_—_—_-——- calrrina... va. 249

Gallus 4 ee me a3: ie 99

: bankiva robinsoni a aoe 4]

Gammarus chevreuxi ... i an a4

Gangara thyrsis thyrsis... 68 jose

Garra sp. ... ane ee Sed see 00

lamta Re oe ae ... 360

Gennzeus horsfieldi sexe £05 Br 41

- —- lineatus f8 See aa 4]

—— -—— cuvieri the en 4]

—— -—— oatesi a ‘ve 4]

—- nycthemerus... eee moe 4]

Geocichla citrina cyanotis ane ee ass!

Gerres lucidus _... wa ee Se 78

Gerydus biggsii ... ve ae .. 104

Glareola lactea ... ok ane see 43

== tmaldivarum, 2. _... ee

Glaucidium cuculoides... Pop oy 37

——_—_—__—-——_ rufescens ... oF

Glaucoma scintillans... ih Se ite:

Gloriosa superba A 24 ee 230

Glottis nebularia ane ae wee 46

Gobius giurus ... a ar with Vd,

macrostoma ot oe ae 77

—— masoni ... eae sis rT 77

—— ocellatus... Pe sis on Th

—— ornatus ... “ite cas ee 77

-——— striatus... one See Sista 77

—- viridipunctatus ... ... ... 77

Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka ... en elo

: rhamni nepalensis ... 181

Gorsachius m. melanolophus == 48

Graucalus macei skis sis ae. POOL

Grewia sp. seh eis sii .. 144

Grus ti. a be ao ae) Oa

—-antigone ... ue om

Gymnuoris xanthocollis Se rnnceil oe oll)

Gyps indicus tes a as ae 7 598

Halcyon pileata .. ee es bis 36

—smyrnensis .., oe cee or

ee - fUSCAN sise3 oe 36

Haliastur indus indus

Halpe astigmata

homolea ceylonica

——honorei

moorei

sitala

Harpodon nehereus

Hasora alexis alexis

- badra badra

-chabrona

- vitta

Heliopais personata

Hemicircus canente canente ...

——_ ————_ -——__- ——_ cordatus...

Hemidactylus flavivirides

Hemiprocne coronatus

Hemirhamphus xanthopterus...

Herodias alba modesta

Hesperia galba

Heterophragma roxburghii

Heterostalis flagelliformis

Hidari bhawani

Hierococcyx varius

Hilsa ilisha

——- toli es

Himantopus h. himantopus

Hippolais scita

Hippotion celerio

Hirundo daurica nepalensis

———— fluvicola

———— rustica

——_—— smithii .

filifera...

Homo heidelbergensis ...

— neanderthalensis

- sapiens te

Hoplopterus Aiea

ventralis

Horaga anyx cingalensis

- viola

Horaia ae

Horsfieldia anita...

anita ...

Huphina nerissa phryne

Hyarotis adrastus adrastus

———— basiflava

Hydra ‘

Hydrophasianus Sntireus

Hydrosine hohenackeri..

Hypocolius ampelinus .

- taminatus taminatus ...

45, 100, 241

XXVii

PaGE

TebZ

112

Seen wee ueliZ:

80, 414

109

207

... 464

37, 398

414

ba 111

229, 468

aM 4/40)

100, 395

414

. 414

45, 402

we «= O80

373

392

391

354

wee «= Go

wee «= 354

241

108

ae 108

342, 346

114

106

180

jg!

111

43, “100, 401

454

RVI

Hypolimnas bolina

—_--——- missippus...

Hypoteenidia striata gularis

Iambrix salsala luteipalpus

Ichthyophaga humilis plumbeus

Idiocerus clypealis ep

-- niveosparsus

Inachus

-- Aoreetene

Iraota timoleon timoleon

Ismene fergussoni

—- gomata kanara...

Isoétes capsularis

coromandeliana

Itys microstictum

Ixias marianne marianne

—— pyrene satadra

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus

—— sinensis siner sis

Iynx torquilla

--——— japonica

Jamides bochus bochus

celeno celeno

—————elpis curysaces

Josephia lanceolata

Junonia hierta hierta

Kallima inackus huegeli

Kiambam kitsii

Kigelia ethiopica

- africana

- pinnata

Kinetta microstictum

Koddapail

Lacatirus lactarius

Lagenandra ovata

toxicaria

Lampides beeticus

Langia zenzeroides

Lanius caniceps

cristatus

erythronotus

excubitor lahtora

schach ~...

vittatus

Lantana camara. Ae

Larus argentatus cach aa di,

brunneicephalus...

ridibundus

Lates calcarifer

Leiopicus

——.

| |

- icthyaétus icthyaétus ...

PAGE

425

111

219

peat 4s)

218

124

ie 206

109, E12

109

471

182

394

106

268

425

ste ye L0

we 470

467

414

oo. eel OS

302973

386

Se oeehela)

194, 386

386

147

219

“43, 219

s«. - 403

ns MA Ths

A 32

INDEX OF SPECIES

Leiopicus mahrattensis

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis

Leptocoma asiatica

—-lotenia :

ZEVIONICA LS) ware aoe

Leptoptilos dubius

——.- javanicus ...

Lethama locusta wes

Lethe confusa confusa ...

goalpara narkanda

insanainsana ...

jalaurida jalaurida

maitrya

nicetas

pulaha pulaha

rohria dyrta

sidonis vaivarta ...

verma verma

yama yama

Leuciscus gatensis

Pace

102,

169,

Leucopolius alexandrinus digeenanare

Libythea lepita lepita

————- myrrha myrrha

————-- myrrha sanguinalis...

Lichenora jerdoniana

Liminitis danava -

procris procris eos

————-- trivena trivena

Limosa limosa

Liparis dalzellii

———- flavo-viridis

- nervosa

———- odorata

- paradoxa

Lobipluvia malabarica...

Lobivanellus indicus aigneri ...

———_—_—__.-—_---— atronuchalis

-——--——___-_—___——_ indicus

Locustella certhiola

Lophoceros birostris

Loranthus dregei

—— kraussi

—longiflorus ...

Loxura atymnus surya...

Lutianus argentimaculatus

—— -——_ johnii ...

— — rivulatus

Lyczenestes emolus emolus

——— lyceenina lyceenina

Lyceonopsis akasa mavisa

—-—— lilacea... iar

259;

394

359

146

219

430

416

417

416

417

416

417

361

428

270

4.22

423

259

206

209

259

260

249

247

248

247

388

397

146

144

107

106

105

—eS SS eS Ul

INDEX OF SPECIES Xxix

PaGE PaGE

Lyceenestes puspa gisca ae ... 105 | Melanitis leda ismene ... ae .. 420

Lygosoma punctatum ... aye ... 463 | Meliteea arcesia sindura sai ee 427

Lyncornis cerviniceps cerviniceps... 37 | Melittophagus e.erythrocephalus _... 35

Lyrurus.... hes oe . ae 99 | Melophus melanicterus ee sia, > OOM

Mabuiacarinata... ... =F: ... 465 | Meropsapiaster... .. ... «. 396

Macaca adusta ... a an 298, 303 - javanicus me age ios BOLT

—andamanensis ... i 298, 302 - orientalis see — ». 396

- arctoides... ee . .. 297 | —— = DUP US: es sae 30

~ eyomolgus eee ae ... 297 | -~——- superciliosus javanicus 35, 397

-indochinensis ... ees 298, 299 | Metaponia pussilla aa ae ce 20

- insulana ae wee 298, 303 | Metopidius ia ae site -. 100

- irus ihe ai bee 2 297 -——— indicus bets ae nee 43

os mulatta... er rn ... 300 | Microciona prolifera... . 123

- nemestrina ham 2 297, 298 | Microhierax coerulescens Gictianiece: 38

oe andamanensis ... 305 | Micropternus oe oer ae iter 4320

— blythii i oF 305 brachyura burmanicus... 32

a —— indochinensis .... 393 | ———— —— phaioceps Le ahs 32

———-radiata ... ae cad 51, 276 | Micropus affinis ... sa ee sve 0 397

——— diluta, 4. a .. 278 | ———- subfurcatus ... ies ey)

——-silenus ... ae ade ... 297 | ——--—— melba... me ae a8 poor

-=———- sinica... AS ee 276, 281 | ——--—— pacificus cooki a er ee 30

—_———--— _ aurifrons... ea ... 286 | Microsarcops cinereus ... oi 45, 252

——_- inaurea ... e ... 286 | Microstylis rheedei ne oe ee ZOO

——-—- speciosa ... oe : 297 | ——— versicolor... oer sap - 200

Macacus leoninus At. “297, 299, 303, | Miglyptes jugularis = as — 33

304, 305 | Milvus migrans govinda ee 38, 399

-sinicus ... a ae 51 | ————-—-—— lineatus... ve es 39

Machlolophus ee bi ... 9382 | Mirafra erythroptera erythroptera ... 393

Macroglossum pyrrhosticta ... =. of/o | ——————— sindianus ». 458

Macrones punctatus, ... Lm ... 162 | Molpastes heemorrhous pallidus . 384

—- vittatus a oe oye 2277) NLOMIeZia, ys. ae a 7

Macropygia unchall tusalia_... ny 41 | Monticola eee PETdOD ses ee *385

Macrosiphum solarifolia aye ... 127 | Motacilla alba dukhunensis ... seen Ue

Maia nae a a .. 124 | -————--—— personata ee ... = 392

Malaxis BRdnOniana ee Lng .. 257 | ———— cinerea ... is ie ane, | CUE

———— lindleyana ie oe = «40208 — citreola veree ree ne ove

— odorata ols ae wee «= 299 | -—- caspica eh, "392

————- platycaulon ... sei ... 257 | ——-——- flava beema ... in se ue

——_—— recurva... bef a ae OF --—— madeéraspatensis ... a +392,

-———-—— rheedei ... ay Le ... 259 | Mugil beorneensis ties aie os Li

—-— setifera... ee eae ee). COL: dussumieri aah ae ... Jf, 84

———-verticillata.... re .. 255 | ——— kelaartii ... oe er .. 414

Maniola davendra davendra ... fo ALS oeur re ex A ... 7/7, 84

- lupinus cheena re .. 417 | ——- poicilus ... ve ee fe Vd

- pulchra . obs Raa, ah? waigiensis ae a oe 77

Mareca penelope as oe ae 50'| Mulleripicus pulverulentus netterd sits 33

Marumba sperchius _..., a 362, 364 | Muscadivora zenea sylvatica ... 40, 219

Matapa aria sa woe ace .. 111 | Mycalesis francisca sanatana ... ree eS

Megalornis antigone hi .. 401 | ——-—— lepcha lepcha ats ae LG

Megapodius nicobariensis ae ... 313 | ——-—— mineus mineus oe sve 15

Megisba malaya thwaitesi_... .. 104 | ——-—— perseus blasius ose ce 45

EXX

Mycalesis perseus typhlus

———-——-_ visala visala

Myiophoneus horsfieldi

Myrmarachne plataleoides

Nacaduba akaba gythion

————--- atrata euplea

——_——--- dana .

———--- dubiosa jadi

———---- hermus nabo

————--- nora ...

——-—--- noreia erate nt

——--—— pactolus continentalis

——--—— viola viola

Naia bungarus

Namouna ambica

Nelenshena major

minor

Nemachilus evezardi

--—— striatus ...

Neocurupira

Neohierax insignis icuienic

Neophron perenopterus

Neopithecops zalmora

Neptis ananta ananta

hylas astola

hylas varmona ,,,

—— mahendra

narayana Narayana

sankara sankara

yerburyii yerburyii

zaida aes

Nettapus coromandelianus

Nettion crecca

- formosum

Nicevillea concinna

————--- gola

Notocrypta curvifascia ...

- paralysos alysia

Numenius arquata lineatus

Nycticorax n. nycticorax

Nyroca fuligula...

-———— fuliodlas

—--—- rufa

—_——_—--—— beri

Nytha mniszechii baldiva

— parisatis parsis ..

Oberonia arnottiana

——--—— belli ae sia

_———-- brachyphylla re

—— ——- brunoniana

=—=--——- falconeri

PAGE

415

202

132

105

106

105

106

105

-105

49,

50,

48,

225

421

360

344

398

104

424

423

424

404

211

112

IRL

UG!

404

211

210

418

258 .

256

207

257

2956

INDEX OF SPECIES

——=- polytes romulus oe

Pact

-Oberonia lindleyana 258

——_——-- lingmalensis ... 255

————- platycaulon ... 257

—-——-- recurva 257

———- sedgwickii 257

————-- setifera 257

—_- Spirals 256

——_——-- umbonata 259°

——_——- verticillata Fe e259

———__-——_--——- var aliquibus ... 255

ee -—— var longibract-

eata 255

——-—— wightiana 258

Odontoptilum angulata 110

CEcophylla smaragdina 140

CEnanthe deserti atrogularis ... 384

——- cenanthe cenanthe ... 384

—_——- picata .. 384

(Enopopelia tranquebarica pamilie 500 4]

——_—— tranque-

barica ... 400

Ophicephalus gachua doa OL

Ophiocephalus gachua ... 158, 361

Stratus: vic. aia}

Orinoma damaris 417

Oriolus... wee eae 320

- chinensis indicus 389

-oriolus kundoo 389

Oroxylum indicum 468

Orsotrieena medus medus 420

Orthotomus 321

——- sutorius 388

Otis tarda.. 98

Orocomined emeria igecieaudata 217

Otolithus argentius 414

Oxyambulyx sericeipennis 362

Oxytricha ... Aa 118

Padraona dara pseudomaesa ae 113

——-_— sunias tropica 113

—————_-———_ var. palnia ... 113

Palemon carcinus ee ane nr WS

Pandion haliaétus haliaétus 38, 398

Pantoporia asura asura 423

—— opalina opalina 423

————— perius : 423

—— selenephora erienephora ce W420

Papilio arcturus arius 177

- demoleus demoleus 177

———- machaon sphyrus 177

——=— polyctor polyctor sae Pee aala7)

iene Vis

INDEX OF SPECIES

XXxi

PAGE PaGE

Papilio protenor protenor 177 | Phalacrocorax fuscicollis 403

Paracurupira 344 -- javanicus 403

Paramoecium site ae 17 — niger 47

caudatum 126 | Phasianus elegans 185

Pararge meoerula ... 417 | Philomachus pugnax .. 96, 98

-- (=Rhaphicera) moorei 417 | Phoeniconaias minor 219

-- (=Satyrus) schakra .. 417 | Phcenicopterus 321

Pareba vesta anomala 428 — ruber 219, 404

Pareronia valeria hippia 182 | Phoenicurus ochrurus phoenicuroides. 385

Parhestina nicevillei 422 | Pholidota imbricata 267

_—— persimilis zella 421 | Phrynichus phipsoni 230

Parnara conjuncta 113 | Phyllanthus reticulatus ... 147

-- plebeia ... 113 | Phylloscopus ee ae 322

-- prominens bs collybita tristis .. 386, 389

-- toona Le Ss indicus : 389

Parnassius epaphus bbaphus eee 178 nitidus viridans! 389

a hardwickei hardwickei 178 | Picus chlorolophus chlorophoides 32

jacquemontiijacquemontii 178 | ——-- vittatus myrmecophaneus 219

Parra goensis 244 | Pieris brassice ... Na 179

Parus atriceps 191 | ——-- calidice kalora 179

——-- major mahrattarum .. 382 | —-—-- canidia canidia 179

Passer domesticus domesticus... 99, 100, 187 | ——-- napi ajaka 179

eee dics 187, 390 | Piprisoma a. agile 147, 148

——__-—__ +—___-- nigricolis ... 187 | ——--—— squalidum equaliren 321, 394

pe INS he parkini 187 | Pistia crispata 14

hispaniolensis a. 187 | ——- Stratiotes fa these 14

Pastor roseus .. 989, 457, 461 a - var, cuneata ... — 14

Pathysa eurous kashmirensis ... 178 | Pithecus andamanensis 304, 305

Pavo cristatus 400 |. ————- entellus _ e 52

Pedestes sala ot VI — achates 53

Pelecanus philippensis ... a ee ISes 53

Pellona filigera 414 | ——-———_-——_ iulus... .% 53

Pennaria tiarelia... 20 ee eS Poor Oo

Penthoceryx 33 | —-———_—— priamellus ... 53

Perdicula argoondah 401 —— thersites 55

-— asiatica 401 | Pitta brachyura... ; : 394

Pericrocotus ae 1 - 319 | Plastingia submaculata abate 112

: brevirostris brevirostris. 218 | Platalea leucorodia 101, 403

—-~ erythropygius 387 | Platycephalus scaber 78

ee peregrinus 387 | Platypria andrewsi 466

roseus roseus 213: |-———-_— echidna 466

speciosus speciosus 218 | ——-—— hystrix 466

Perilampus cequipinnatus 168 | Platysticta 66

- Periopthalmus WE —— apicalis 327

Periplaneta australis 120 | ————— deccanensis... 325, 328

Peritheates 344 | —— digna 333

Pernis apivorus 219 | -———_—— greeni 326

——-— Grientalis ey: 39 | ———— hilaris 330

——-— ptilorhynchus ; .. 38, 89 | ————— maculata 326

ptilorhynchus Huficollis 39, 219 | ———-—— montana 331, 335

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis .,. 47 | ———-——- quadrata Sec is)

XXXii

Plarysticta tropica

Ploceus

- SAI EEEE

Plotosus canius

Pluvialis apricarius apricarius

—-—-—— dominicus

——_———- fulvus

Pluvianus cinerea

Podiceps cristatus

—_—_——-- ruficollis

—-——_—-——-— capensis ...

Polynemus heptadactylus

——- indicus 555

—_—_—_——-- plebius

——-—— sextarius

——- tetradactylus

Porpax jerdoniana

- papillosa...

——-— reticulata

Porphyrio poliocephalus

Porzana pusilla...

Pothos decipiens

exiguiflorus

—— fallax

—— pertusus ...

— roxburghii

Scancdens =... :

Pratapa blanka sudica ...

-- cleobis ..

———-—- deva deva

Precis almana almana ...

——-- almana asterie ...

——-- hierta hierta Ase

——-- iphita ae

- lemonias persicaria

— -- orithya swinheei ...

Presbytis entellus anchises

——-——— priamus

Prinia

gracilis ;

—— inornata inornata

socialis ea

———- stewarti...

Procellaria pelagica

Protosticta at

— carmicheli ...

cerinostigma

————— davenporti ...

————- gravelyi

—————- hearseyi

——sa——— himalaica

.o2l, 322,000

,. 66, 74

PAGE

332

321

4, 45, 219

251, 252

100

404

78, 414

414

269

268

ofl

oil

Sil

108

425

321

389

328

389

315

337

tO ,6/2

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Protosticta lindgreni 74

—— mortoni a2

——-————- sanguinostigma 71

———— stevensi 69

—— uncatus 75

Psettodes erumei... +e 84

Pseudergolis wedah 424

Pseudodolbina fo save Oe

Pseudogyps bengalensis 38, 389

Pseudomesa dara 13

Pseudorhombus javanicus 78

Psidium guava ‘ 144

Psilogramma Pere pnran 364

Psittacula cyanocephala 396

——-—— eupatria a 396

—-—_—_——— iadomerannee ane 34

——-—— krameri Me Ske

(ee borealis 34, 219

——-——-—_——-—— manillensis 219

—- schisticeps finschi 34

Pterocles coronatus atratus 400

400

——-——-- indicus 400

Pterocletes 322

Pteroplatea micrura 414

Pteropus giganteus 439

Pteruthius erythronotus 320

Ptilocnema imbricatum... 268

Ptyonoprocne concolor ... 391

Pycnonoitus luteolus 217

Pyctorhis sinensis 383

Pyrotrogon e. Siroceeteine: 36

-—— oreskios 36

Pythoniuim bulbiferum . 27

Pyrrhocorax Deine corse 213

ee —_— beacoapeees 216

—_——__-—_- ——— centralis ... 215

—————_—_—_-——__- ——_ himalaiya-

nus 216

-____———__ -——_ pontifex 2413

Pyrrhulauda grisea siccatta me ous

Querquedula querquedula 50, 404

Ramphalcyon capensis .. ss oon

-—_—__——__-——- burmanica ... 36

Rana tigrina 462

Rapala lankana ... 109

- melampus 109

——-— schistacea 109

- varuna lazulina... 109

Raphiophallus hohenackeri ... 27, 29

Rasbora daniconius % -», 36}

Rathinda amor

Remiz coronatus...

Remusatia vivipara

Rhacophorus malabaricus

-——--- nigropalmatus ...

Rhagastis albomarginatus

-—- confusa

Rhapidophora lacera

, = Dercusa —...

Rhinoceros sondaicus ...

-—— sumatrensis

Rhipidura aureola aureola

albicollis ...

——-——- pectoralis

Rhopalocampta benjamini benjamini.

Rhopalopsyche nycteris

Rhopodytes tristis longicaudatus

Rhyacornis fuliginosa ...

Rhynchops albicollis

Rhyticeros undulatus

Riparia riparia..

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

108

202

220

ws . 225

362, 364

373

447

446

ASF oe Meetsle

218

109

362

317, oot

Rostratula Benen alensis: emer leasts 43,

93, 101, 403

Saccobranchus fossilis ... Z2i,

Salpornis spilonotus 384

Sancus pulligo subfasciatus qa

Sarangesa dasahara davisoni ... 110

—— purendra 110

Sarcidiornis melanotus ... sit 48

Sarciophorus malabaricus 249, 402

Sarcogrammus atronuchalis 248

--——--—- indicus... 244 , 247

Sarcogyps calvus 38, 398

Satrupa bhagava 110

Sauromatum guttatum ... 20

simlense ... ee 25

Saxicola coprata ... 95, 384

leucuroides 384

——-—— torquata 384

—__——_--—_- leuccura 354

Saxicoloides fulicata a 324

————— -——_——-- cam baiensis 385

Scaphiodon brevidorsalis 169

-—— nashii 169

Scattophagus argus 78

Scizena semiluctuosa . 414

- sina 78, 414

- vogleri : 414

Scizenoides brunueus 80, 414

—=-———— pama 414

Scindapsus peepla 3

ee ee eee

Scindapsus pertusus

Scolopax rusticola rusticola

Semiplotus brevidorsalis

Semnopithecus pallipes

Priam, %,.

Semnopithecus priamus

sephisa dichroa

Serranus sp.

Sesbania grandiflora

Sillago sihana

Silurus bimaculatus

Siphia parva parva

Sitta castaneiventris

Spalgis epius epius

Spatula clypeata

Spheerozoum

Sphenocercus a. aereanae

- §. Sphenurus

Spilornis cheela burmanica

Spindasis abnormis

——- lohita lazularia

——_——-- ictis ictis

—————- schistacea sontetieca:

——-——— yulcanus vulcanus

Spirogyra bellis

Stentor coeruleus

Stereospermum xylocarpum

Sterna aurantia ;

-_—-——_— pusilla...

— sinensis

melanogaster

seena *

Stibochiana nicea nicea

Stictospiza formosa

Stoparola melanops

Streptopelia chinensis ... .

- tigrina...

decaocto a4

orientalis agricola

orientalis meena...

—_————_—___—_ -

senegalensis

Strix ;

Stromateus cinereus

-—— niger

-———. sinensis

Stylotella e

Suastus gremius gremius

-- raina bipunctus

Surendra quercetorum quercetorum...

- todara todara

Sylvia althaea

XX¥Ili

77, 82, 414

...00, 404

44, 403

PLFA?

XXXIV

Sylvia nana

curruca affinis =

Symbrenthia hippoclus lucina

hypselis brabira

niphandra hysudra

Synaptura cinerascens

Synatherias silvatica

Synchloe ausonia daphalis

Syntarucus plinius

Sypheotides indica

Syrmaticus

Systomus arulius

——- -— carnaticus

- dorsalis =

Taccocua leschenaulti sirkee ...

Tachornis batassiensis infumatus

Tagiades atticus me Bae

————-- litigiosa vajuna

————-- obscurus athos

Tajuria cippus cippus ...

— jalindra macarita

— jehana af

Talicada nyseus nyseus

Tapena thwaitesi

hampsoni

Tapinocarpus dalzellii ...

— indicus :

Taractrocera ceramas ceramas

meevius flaccus ..

Tarucus ananda

——-—— theophrastus nara

Tectona grandis

Telchinia violze at

Telicota augias augias ...

———— pythias bambusae

Temenuchus pagodarum

INDEX OF SPECIES

PaGE

388

426

93, 401]

Tephrodornis pondiceriana ROnGICen:

ana eee

Terias hecake i

fimbriata

——- laeta

libythea

venata venata

Terpsiphone paradisi

Tetrodon lunaris

Thaduka multicaudata eanare

Therapon jarbua

—_———-. quadrilineatus

theraps ee

Thereiceryx lineatus hodgsoni...

——_——__- ——__-— intermedius

———

Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps

Theretra alecto

—-— clotho

—————. nessus :

Theriophonum crena tum

———— dalzellii

———-—_——_ indicum

oe kleinii

———_——_ —- minutum see

SSS Var heynei-s

——-—. uniseriatum

Thespesea populnea Ss

Threskiornis Paelanoce piailag)

Thriponax javanensis feddeni

Thynus thunina :

Totanus totanus subsp..

Trachynotus russelli

Tragopan

Trebolium confusum

Trias stocksii

Trichiurus

———_——- haumela

—— savala

Tringa erythropus

glareola

hypoleuca

indica

—— nebularia

— ochropus

—— stagnatilis

—— totanus

vanellus ab

Trochalopterum eochinnane

Troglodytes Sa He eee

Turdoides

——_——_-- terricolor BA

sindianus

Turdus obscurus ne

Turnix maculatus maculatus ...

- sylvatica ss

- tanki blanfordi... ee

- spp. eA

Typhonium Arai oinence

--——— bulbiferum

——-——-- crenatum alee

——_——-- cuspidatum

—_—_-——-- divaricatum

-——_—_——_- flagelliforme

——-——- hastiferum

——-—- incurvatum

jerdoni fairbanki ...

PaGE

394

373

362

114

.. 47, 403°

42, 185

Typhonium minutum

—_-——-- roxburghii

—_——-- trilobatum

——- javanicum

Tyto alba javanica

Uca ve

Udaspes folus vee

Upupa epops aor she

——-— longirostris

saturata

Uroleptus mobilis

Uroloncha malabarica

—— striata striata

Vanellus vanellus

-— vulgaris

Vanessa canace himalaya

——-——- cardui -

———- c-album cognata

———— indica indica

—-— xanthomelas fervescens

Virachola isocrates

——-———- perse ghela

Viscum articulatum

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1932,

—- reinwardtianum ...

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

a 23

37, 398

124

111

397

Xantholeema hzmacephala indica

_ -—— lutea

Xenorhynchus asiaticus

Ypthima asterope mahratta

———— avanta avanta

— baldus baldus

— hubneri kasmira

— hyagriva

— indecora

— nareda nareda

— sakra nikoea

Zamenis fasciolatus _...

Zeltus etolus

Zesius chrysomallus

Zetides cloanthus oe

———- sarpedon sarpedon ..,,

Zizera gaika

lysimon

maha ossa

otis decreta

trochilus putli

Zizyphus jujuba

-—— sp. A

Zosterops palpebrosa

C4142

XXXV

PaGE

394

403

419

420

419

420

419

420

465

108

107

178

105

.- 105

150, 466

144, 147

393

ere, irae Eis bye

Ss ae i

: a ie 4 ~ i 5 g Pare eae nt ‘ees

A ae ude vee Crs r) ore F x : a) or. a2

i< ae wee

. win wee, SES ae Serie Mele NB Sie reco mer mS REN Pe a

me i 7

ba “3 - ©

bate

4 F os ;

ay fs A

* o>

: '

= ; ;

7 ‘

ad e oT = =

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—_— 14

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=i ha

OF THE

EDITED BY

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CONTENTS OF VOLUME XXXV, No. 1

PAGE

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN Empire. By E.C. Stuart Baker,

F.Z.S.,, eL.S., M.B.0.U., H.F,A.O.U. Part XIV. .(Wztkh a coloured

BUGLE? oer. carte ae eee meee Na ta ea Ghshoko eae A ae Reet ae ne pa

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By Rev.

Bee blair ssa Phe Me, Belson antec Vis «(W227 PLOLES s)) “ne oo e= ee 13

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT OF LOWER BuRMA. Part III.

Bye Ke stantord, M.C,1.c.S.. and Drs Claud Bi. Ticehurst, m.p.,

IeNee Nor EEO) Li cigs EIR CS Seatac sits ciaciatore-cisealsalae’s <p cleosd gas veelu hoe teiee oar ao Mesa o ss alae wes 32:

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS—REPORT ON THE

ANI RAHNAS eto Re wile, “POCOCK (ERS sis acto cc esseinesick iad, oc teebcawiee neues a mete bal

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES. By Rev. E. Blatter, s.J., Ph.p.,

Hess, ang. oWaso. Millard, °F.z.S.°.Part VI. (With 2. coloured

plates, two black and white plates and 5 diagrams). ....cceccccccccese 69

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. By. Golm fa. fraser, I.M.S.; Hoss: Part

DONO VIL DUALENRIO2 LEXE-1IOUSES.), oo hisnsecsacsecuovecsoovceas 66.

THE FisH SUPPLY OF THE West Coast oF INDIA. By Sir Reginald

Specs, ih, Mek .C., bh 2.9,, ana, Fl. Prater, M.L.C,, CM.Z.S:;. Part

E71 PLALES. Jes 3 Pe ee ae ich acter oNe a Nees Cbinrnate See tay oooh he Td

THE StuDy OF INDIAN Brirpbs. By Hugh Whistler, F.z.s., M.B.O.U.,

Tiga Ge lep ON LY AG Came Ge Grae cad oes oueadeuceaedovnabbtcncseeceelseeediaevSeaues 89

THE BUTTERFLIES OE SOORG.. by); A. Yates. Patt Waive. tessccocesens- 104

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION. By Lt.-Col. R.B. Seymour Sewell,

ie Aen SC. EZ Sen hr SLR A SoBe yl TMD: awcesevestrssccsneseas tse oereee oot lab:

A SPIDER THAT CAN CHANGE THE COLOUR OF ITS EvES AT WILL. By

A. P. Mathew, M.A. (With 4 plates and 4 text-figures.) — -s.cccecscoe 132;

THE ROLE OF SUNBIRDS AND FLOWER-PECKERS IN THE PROPAGATION

AND DISTRIBUTION OF THE TREE PARASITE Loranthus longiflorus

in the Konkan (West India.) By Salim A. Ali. (Wzth 2 plates

OO MTR ROL OS) bee OE SP EEE Anetes Me oene Scar eh cate Ales eMC nen 144

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIONOMICS oF THE Lac INSECT. By P. S. Negi,

Meer revista sa Gish: GUPta. | blervessecciseossiicmene ss itis Leeeen sieetens cemta 150°

IN A BURMESE JUNGLE. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. _.......... eek ste oes 156.

ON a SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER, SOUTH

Inpra. By D. D. Mukerji, M.sc. (With 3 text-figures.) .......00.5- 162

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMTA HiILts. By G. W. V. DeRhe-Philipe,

a ee em eM eae cat cane eae pc tonsecin at Ueto epinn Sacdecadees odds vieGecovsbincervevees 172

OEM NOUN Oa CUNTIIER SON c | coicec:aividacvtnss cotiwalssesdegeos dcduceccoccteccca voce 184

il CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXV, No. 1

REVIEWS-—

1. THkE GAME-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON. (Pheasants

and Bustard-Quail.) Vol. III. CEE ARREARS ORT Eb ono cncoheacir

2, THE FORMENKREIS THEORY AND THE PROGRESS OF THE

ORGANIC WORLD wes Jertin of ot See te ees See oan re 5

3, AN INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY. — ...ie.ccsseeee BA oe ak AAR nA

AN OPEN LETTER TO THE Epitors. By Hugh Whistler, f.z,s.,

M.B.O.U.

‘THE FOUNDERS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY. —..-......

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES—

»— ].—A Case of Hybridization between the Wild-Dog and the

Jackal. By Sadeg Z. Shah. (With a photo.) «...0....0000

2— JI.—Large Head of Malay Sambhar. By A. L. Brownlow. ......

—1l1.—The Gayal, or Mithan. By T. R. Livesey. (With a

PLATES) © < saevpens szctne Chisinct covsontlecsa Piers caecl coe neeeace aeons

J}V.—A Note on the Occurrence of the Turkestan Penduline Tit

(Remiz coronatus) inthe Punjab. By A. E. Jones. ......

V.—Notes on the Whistling School Boy or Malabar Whistling

Thrush. 7By CeMcCann sre Si oe wens eee

VI.—A Note on the Nidification and Habits of the Travancore

' Laughing-Thrush. By Capt. R. S. P. Bates. (With a

DLOLE RY Nise Baaae os cei ON ene Soon Cee ae eee shacks seen sceccennces

VII.—The Occurrence of the Gold-Fronted Finch (Metaponia

pusilla) at Sukker, Sind = By Fi Coles .-.s.. eee

Vill.—The Nesting of the Malabar Heart-spotted Woodpecker

(flemicircus canante cordatus) in Travancore. By Chas,

M- Inglis, F5Z:S.4F.E-S GoM BLOnUs aa feo tenceset cose eee eine

IX.—The Nesting of the Besra Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter virga-

tus atfints) at Simla, “By A. EH, JOmesa 7) sey... cesses este:

X.—Further Record of the Mallard (Anas platyryncha) occur-

fing-.in Burma, <By7G. Me Purmenr we. sca setae ee

XI.—The Occurrence of the Spotbill or Grey Duck (Anas peci-

lorhyncha) in Upper Chindwin, Burma, By E. Milner.

XII.—The Occurrence of the Tufted Pochard (Wyroca fuligula)

and the Eastern White- Eye (NWyroca bert) in Burma.

By «Ge OM. * Parmer soe seve cas nce ts cae wepen ec lmatee tener:

XIII.--The Occurrence of the Clucking or Baikal Teal (/Vettzon

formesum) near Hardoi, U.P. By H. Scott MacDougall.

XIV.—Notes on the White-Headed Duck or Stiff-Tail (Avrissatura

_leucocephala). By “Capt. WA. W hiteheaduawessneees

XV.—Some Races of the Red-billed’ Chough [Pyrrhocorax

pyrrhocorax (Linn.)] Satya Churn Law, M.A., Ph.D.,

FZ S., M.B.O.U. secrecccecee ce cesseererercreree esses ee eee aren teneeeeens

PAGE

202

204

207

208

209

210

213

CONTENTS OF Vol. XXXV, No. 1

XVI.—Notes on the Fauna of British India: Birds, chiefly with

reference to the Central Provinces. By E. A. D’Abreu,

EIS ZASia Mapes Sateen «has CTD ich aan ray Sec en ee ee Se

XVIIL—A ‘Flying’ Frog. By K. Karunakaran Nayar, (With a

DUGLON ae yok een cnr cl Wate OA Maas oO Wat eet oa cise etme sha vale o 6

XVIJI.—Encounter with a pees (Nata bungarus). By

GN VV EROW Ge oo ca vue sshactuceadst Saaitia th hae alte een - Maer alate ai

XIX.— Weighing Fish with two or more Scales. By A. MacDonald.

XX.—Cannibalism among Fishes. By K. Karunakaran Nayar.

XXI.—Extension of the Range of Hidari bhawant, Elymntias pealii,

and Bhima undulosa. By D. G. Crawford, 1.F.s. .........

XXII.—Curious Behaviour of Butterflies in the Interior of Extre-

mely Dense Evergreen Forest. By K. Mohan Lal, I.F-.s.

XXIII.--Notes on the Coffee.Locust [Aularches miliaris, (Linn.)]

Dye CharlesMvic Catia EeSiit Ce. asks teenecees sane nk ccbo sane cldte sete

XXIV.—Occurrence of Phrynichus phipsoni, Pocock, in Salsette

island? By +. MeCanny <BiieSi. o\iie re esse tan ase tenes

PROCEEDINGS.

Annual Report of the Bombay Natural History oye oe for the

Venmencdine. December: SiGe 19380 ie0s 6. vsae sess. secoy stacey Sone Sars ee

ili

PAGE

232

SR Georns aial slat vad Com erat eee as ee

i vi

‘3 - Tuts, a

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7 1

“ an et

i i by i

Al i Tire

Bey

Paar

7 r i ¥

ia ey

in :

a oo ft

Foul 8 he is |

i ow’

° ny

“SNJJAULA SNjjaueA “SNAINZE SNotuIWwOoOp SITBIAN|d

‘Sh “ONIMdV] FH] ‘Sf WAAOId NJQIOO NwaLSVy BHY

UOpUOT py] Uossjarued SUOS FIPg UYoP

‘00S ‘LSIP{ AVE AVEWOG “Nano;/:

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society

JUNE, 1931 VoL. XXXV INGA

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

i. Cy OTUART BAKER. F.Z.S., F.L.S., M.B.0.U., H.F.A.0.U.

WOE: Vv.

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS.

PART XIV

(With a colour plate)

(Continued from page 876 ot Vol. XXXTV.)

GENUS : PLUVIALIS.

Pluvialis Brisson, Orn. i, p. 46; Vol. v, p. 42, 1760.

Type by taut. Charadrius apricartus Linn.

Superficially very like the genus Sguwataro/a, without a hind toe.

In this genus the bill is slender and short, with the dertrum but

slightly swollen ; the nostrils are linear and are placed in a groove

which extends about two-thirds the length of the upper mandible ;

the wings are pointed, the first primary longest, the outer secondaries

short and inner long and pointed; tail short and rounded ; tarsi

reticulated all round with hexagonal scales; outer and middle toes

connected by a short web at their bases; the sexes are alike and

there is a distinct breeding plumage.

Key to Species.

A. Axiilaries pure white ie eles GDFICATLUS.

B. Axillaries greyish-brown ee ... P. dominieus.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

PLUVIALIS APRICARIUS.

In October, 1921, Mrs. A. C. Meinertzhagen separated the bird

breeding in the British Isles under the name of C. a. oveophilus on

account of certain minor differences in the breeding plumage. As

all our Indian specimens in the British Museum are in non-breeding

plumage, it is impossible to say to which race they belong, until more

material is available. Under the circuinstances I only include the

more Eastern form, which is the one we should expect to see.

PLUVIALIS APRICARIUS APRICARIUS.

The Golden Plover.

Charadrius apricartus—Linn., Syst. Nat. 10th ed., i, p. 150 (1758)

(Oeland, Sweden).

Charadrius pluvialis.—Blanf. and Oates. iv, 235.

Vernacular Names.—Chota Battan (Hind.)

Description: Breeding Plumage.—Forehead and lores yellowish-

white, spotted with brown ; short supercilia yellowish; whole upper

plumage blackish-brown, each feather with a golden tip and spots

along the edges, giving the whole a spangled gold appearance;

primaries blackish, the shafts brown with a white patch near the tip,

this white extending on to the inner webs in the innermost; in

freshly-moulted birds there is a fine edging of white to the tips;

sides of the head mottled white, brown and gold; chin white ; throat,

fore-neck and vent black, surrounded by a narrow broken white band ;

flanks like the back ; axillaries and under tail-coverts white, the iatter

spangled with gold and brown except in the centre.

Colours of sott parts.—Iris brown; bill, legs and feet black.

Measurements.—-Wing 181 to 194 mm.; tail 60 to 75 min. ; tarsus

37 to 42 mm. ; culmen 21 to 26) mm,

In Winter the upper parts are sometimes rather duller ; the chin

and throat are white, faintly streaked darker, the breast is mottled

gold and brown, the gold disappearing on the lower breast, which

with the flanks are white with brown bars; centre of abdomen, vent

and under tail-coverts white, the latter tipped and barred on the

lateral feathers with gold and brown.

In many specimens the gold on the breast is replaced by brown-

erey.

Young birds are like the acult in non-breeding dress but have the

underparts darker, the breast more marked with brown and the

posterior flanks and abdomen barred with brown and marked faintly

with pale gold.

Nestling in down.—Mottled goid and black above, except on the

hind-neck, which is white or nearly so; below dull white.

Distribuiion.— Europe, Northern Africa, Western Asia to Lake

Baikal, migrating South to Tropical Africa and India East to Assam.

To India the Golden Plover is only a rare visitor, occurring

occasionally between October and March. Specimens have been

shot at Quador and Baluchistan, Karachi, Lehwan and, again near

Lucknow, a single specimen was obtained by Capt. Hanna, whilst,

finally, I myself shot two specimens in Dibrugarh in Assam. This

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 3

is the only occasion it has been found so far East, practically all the

other records of its occurrence being confined to the North-West of

India. ,

Niditication.—This Plover breeds over the greater part of Northern

Europe as far East as Western Siberia, the Yennessei and Lake

Baikal where throughout the extreme eastern portion of its habitat,

particularly to the east of the Ural Mountains, it may be found

breeding in company with the next bird, the Eastern Golden Plover,

many of the so-called eggs of the latter bird offered for sale being

really those of the former. In the southern portions of its breeding

range the Golden Plover commences to jay about the 20th of April

and on into the middle of May, whilst in the northern portions fresh

eggs may be found up to the third week in June. The nest is either

a natural hollow or one scraped out by the birds themselves and is

well-lined with grass, heather or whatever vegetable material may

be obtainable in the iminediate vicinity. Rarely the nest is placed in

no hoilow but merely consists of beaten herbage matted together and

lined with a few leaves and a little grass. It is almost invariably

well concealed and extremely difficult to find, for it is almost

impossibie to catch the bird on the nest unless the eggs are

nearly on the point of being hatched. I have, however, on more

than one occasion, found them by making a man walk across

a likely area, keeping my field-glasses fixed about a hundred

yards ahead of him, when sometimes I was lucky enough to

spot the bird as she sneaked off, running quietly through the grass

for a considerable distance before she flew away. I then kept

perfectly quiet until the man had passed well beyond the site of the

nest after which the hen bird would run back and squat on her eggs.

Approaching her very quietly, I sometimes found her so intent on

keeping the other man in viewthat I was ableto get within about 10

yards before she rose from her nest and feli flopping about on the

eround as if with a broken wing, trving to draw me away from her

eggs. These antics are not often induiged in by the bird when she

has eggs 1n the nest, but if an intruder stands over the nest for any

length of time, or if she has chicks hidden in the grass nearby, both

cock and hen birds will return to the nest, flying round and round,

uttering their sad little call, whilst the female will frequently alight

on the ground and try to draw the intruder away by feigning illness

or injury.. The site selected for the nest is almost invariably wet

upland, and even in Norway, Swedenand Finland, the nest is nearly

always placed on a rise or high ground but, unlike so many other

birds in these countries, they prefer entirely open country to that

which is more or less covered with stunted tree growth.

The tull clutch of eggs is four, and they are in shape the usual

broad pyriform conimon to the family. They are extremely hand-

some, varying in ground colour from a pale fawn, cream or alinost

white, to a rich buff, whilst the markings consist of large bold

‘blotches and spots of deep Vandyke brown, chocolate brown, black

or deep blood colour. Ina few eggs, there is a chestnut tinge both in

eround colour and markings. The blotches are generally more

numerous and ijargest on the larger half of the egg, where they

sometimes form more or less of acap. Asthis bird has only recently

4. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Volt XXXV

been separated from the British form, nearly all the measurements

which have been given so far are those of both races, but Rey gives

the average of 26 continentai eggs as 51:4 x 34:1 mm.

Hlabits.—In India, the Golden Plover is only found either

singly or in very smali flocks, though it may associate occasionally

with other waders, indeed the two birds which I obtained in

Dibrugarh were shot out of very large flocks of the Eastern

Golden Plover, three of these birds falling to my first shot and

five to my second. Fortunately it was as the birds were just

leaving for the North and the majority were in full breeding plumage

though the difference in the colour of the axillaries always makes

determination of the species very easy. Inthe Winter in countries

where it is more numerous, the Golden Plover often associates in

flocks of many hundreds, whilst during migration, both North and

South, it collects in great numbers ; though almost immediately it

arrives at its breeding grounds, the flocks break up and the birds are

only to be seen in pairs. Nesting operations commence almost

directly the birds arrive in the North and they do not assemble again

in flocks until just prior to their leaving again for the South. This

bird is essentially a game bird, for it is amongst the hardest of birds

to approach, flies very strongly and, when shot, forms a quite first

class dish for the table. |

The ordinary call is a shrill but very pleasant /zz//-tuz// constantly

repeated when on the wing. ‘The warning cry, which is uttered by

the bird upon soine little eminence not far from the nest, is a sad,

rather drawn-out Zu-ce, tu-ee repeated at short intervals until he

thinks the intruder has come too near the nest to be safe, when the

note is sharpened and quickened and the hen bird at once sneaks

away. The Golden Plovers’ food consists of all kinds of insects,

beetles, berries and shoots of many plants and, when feeding by

the sea, of small mollusca, crustaceans and sea-worms.

PLUVIALIS DOMINICUS.

Charadrius dominicus Muller, Natur. System. Suppl., p. 116 (1776)

Type-locality ; St. Domingo. |

The typical form differs from the Eastern in having the upper

parts more golden and also in having a longer and stouter bill.

PLUVIALIS DOMINICUS FULVUS.

The Eastern Golden Plover.

Charadrius fulvus Gmelin, Syst. Nat., 1, (2) p. 687 (1789) Tahiti ;

Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 234.

Vernacular Names.—Chota-batian (Hind.); Kotan (Tam., (Ceylon) ;

Rana Watuva, Oliya, Maha Oliya (Sing.)

Description : Breeding Plumage.—Forehead broadly white running

back as a broad white supercilium and down the sides of the neck

and breast ; lores black ; axillaries greyish-brown edged and tipped

with white and centered darker. Otherwise similar to the preceding

bird but with less gold spangling, especially on the wings.

Colour of sott parts as in the Golden Plover.

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 5

Measurements.—Wing 160 to 165 mm. ; tail 60 to 64 mm. ; tarsus

about 40 to 44 mm. ; culmen 22 to 27 mm.

In Winter differs from the Golden Plover in being a little duller

above and in always having grey axillaries.

Distribution.—Breeding in Siberia from the Kara Sea to West

Alaska and south to the Amoor River. In Winter south to India,

Burma, and Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, the Indo-Chinese

countries and South China to Australia. In India it occurs as far

south as Ceylon, where Wait records it as common throughout the

Low Country. In Burina itis common from North to South.

Niditication.—The Eastern Golden Plover breeds practically

throughout Siberia, in its western part sharing its breeding grounds

with the European Golden Plover. In its nesting habits, it apparently

differs but little from the previous bird, selecting similar sites for

the nest and being just as difficult to approach. Seebohm records

it as being about the most common bird at Golchika but he was never

able to disturb the bird on its nest. or to obtain eggs, though he

obtained the chicks in down. The nest is the usual shallow

depression well lined with whatever grass, weed or lichen may

happen to be growing near, and weil hidden. The bird appears to

breed principally on the flats bordering rivers and on higher ground,

further from them. ‘The number of eggs laid is the usual four in a

clutch, though McFarlane once obtained five. They differ from

those of the European Golden Plover in being decidedly smaller and

almost always more dull and paier. Judging also from the small

number of eggs I have been able to examine, the markings are less

bold and handsome.

Three clutches, each of four eggs, in my own collection were taken

at the end of June or in the first week in July. ‘Twenty-one eggs,

including seven measured by Jourdain, average 47:6 33°4 mm.,

maxima 50-0 x 32°7 mm. and 48°3 x 35°6 min., minima 45:0 x 318

mm. The breeding season seems to be from the first week in June

to at least the second week in July and I have seen no eggs that are

absolutely authentic, taken before the second week in June.

There is nothing to prove that the Eastern Golden Plover has

ever bred within our limits or even within the limits of the

Himalayas, but I have twice had eggs sent me from the Gyantse

Plain which seemed to be undoubtedly those of a Golden Plover of

some sort. Unfortunately in neither case were the birds shot and,

so far as I could ascertain, the layers were either not seen at all, or

were not seen sufficiently near to give any chance of identification.

The eggs were taken at an elevation of about 13,000 feet and it is

just possible that a few Eastern Golden Plover may remain on these

lofty plains throughout the summer.

Habits —In India this plover is comparatively common in the

North-East, often occurring in very iarge numbers in Assain and

Bengal, becoming more rare towards the West, though it is

found as far as Sind and the North-Western Provinces. It

extends south to Ceylon, whilst throughout Burma and further east

itis common. The first few birds of this species used to arrive in

Assam in early September and I have records of its being shot as

early as the last week in August, these latter being nearly always

6. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATOCRAL FTSTASOCIETY Vol. XO

birds of the year with no signs of breeding plumage on them, whereas

the birds which arrived later occasionally had the remains of the black

breast still visible. The birds soon lose this and begin to acquire it

again in March and by the time they leave in April have often acquir-

ed the full breeding dress, in fact it was often noticeable that when

feeding, the flocks often broke up into pairs, though these at once

mixed with the main flock directly they were disturbed. In Assam

and Burma, where it was probably more common than anywhere

else during the Winter, it was often found in flocks of several

hundreds and the larger the flocks the more difficult it was to approach.

As a rule if we wanted to circumvent such a flock, our plan was for

one of our party to detach himseif from the rest who hid in any cover

available, whilst he made a big circle round to the other side of the

flock. In this way two or more guns often got a number of shots,

whilst even the man deputed first to disturb thein, provided he

dropped to the ground quickly and hid himself, often obtained a

right and left after the birds wheeled round on being first shot at.

I do not know whether it is really so, but these birds always give me

the impression of flying in very much more compact flocks than the

European birds do and in consequence it was often possible to drop

several birds in one shot without indiscriminate ‘ browning’. I have

often myself obtained more than one bird in a single shot whilst

Dr. Moore told me that once he had shot eleven, and on another

occasion I saw Mr. C. Holder drop seven birds out of a flock which

by chance crossed him when he was shooting Green Pigeon. The

food of this Plover is the saine as that of P. a. apricarzus but those I

examined had fed very largely on small grass-hoppers and tiny

coleoptera. Its note is said to be more like that of the Grey Plover

than the Golden Plover. Seebohm and others describe its note as a

plaintive Ko, sometimes prolonged into a mournful Ko-ce. The

only note which I know is that uttered during the winter when the

bird is in flocks and this is a very charming double whistle, sounding

like a soft though high pitched 7w-ce, tu-ee, uttered constantly by

the bird both as the flocks take to wing and again before they pitch,

or less often, as they start on their flight.

GENUS: VANELLUS.

Vanellus Brisson, Orn. i, p. 48 (1760).

Type by taut., 77zvga vanellus Linn.

This genus is distinguished from all other generain the Vanelline

by the presence of a large recurved crest and by the absence of either

lappet or wing-spur.

The bill is short and slender, with a flattened culmen and slightly

swollen dertrum ; the linear nostril is placed in a groove which extends

over more than half the upper mandible; the wings are very

rounded. In the male, the third primary is longest and the second

equals the fourth; in the female, the second and third are longest and

the first equals the fourth; the tarsus is moderate and reticulated all

round ; there is a small hind toe.

The genus contains but one species, which extends over the

ereater part of the Teniperate Old World.

Dr se rc ae ai le

Harty wnt;

DAS Ge I Cy ees

ene ee te

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 7

VANELLUS VANELLUS.

The Lapwing, Peewtt, or Green Plover.

Fyinga vanclius Linn., Syst. Nat., 10th. ed., i, p. 148 (1758)

(Sweden).

Vanellus vulgaris.—Blanford and Oates, iv, p. 130.

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Descriplion: Breeding Plumage.—Face, forehead, crown and long

crest of narrow feathers black, glossed with green; feathers round

the eye, lower ear-coverts, sides of the head and neck white; a black

patch from the black face to the upper ear-coverts; back, rump,

scapulars and innermost secondaries bronze-green, highly glossed ;

the scapulars marked with violet-purple ; upper tail-coverts cinnamon ;

tail white with a very broad black subapical band glossed

ereen; wing-coverts glossed deep blue, purplish in some lights;

primaries and outer secondaries black with pale brown tips to the

first four primaries; throat, fore-neck and breast black, the black

running up to the back on the anterior neck ; under tail-coverts cinna-

mon; under wing-coverts black; remaining lower plumage and

axillaries white.

Colours of soft parts.--Iris brown; bill black; legs and feet

orange-brown.

Measurements.—Wing 220 to 236 mni.; tail 108 to 119 mm.;

tarsus 44 to 48 mm.; culmen 23-0 to 26°5 min. (Hartert).

In non-breeding plumage the crown is brown rather than black;

_ the face, chin, throat and fore-neck are white, more or less speckled

or marked with brown or black; the scapulars, inner wing-coverts

and innermost secondaries are edged with fulvous as are the black

feathers of the breast.

Young birds have the upper parts brown, each feather edged with

fulvous; the back is slightly glossed with purple-bronze and the

wings with green; lower plumage like the adult in Winter.

Nestling in down.—Hind-neck dull white, remaining upper parts

fulyvous-brown, mottled with black; a black line from eye to eye

round the back of the crown; a broad, but broken median black line

down the back and a fairly well-defined black line from wing to wing

bordering the back and round the tail; a black line from the side

down the thighs; upper fore-neck blackish; remaining underparts

white or dull fulvous-white.

Distribution.—The whole of Europe and North Asia. In Winter

South to North Africa, India, Burma, the Indo-Chinese countries and

South China. In India it is comparatively conimon in the Punjab

and North-West. It is a regular, though not common, visitor to

Assam and Eastern Bengal and has also been shot in Burma.

Nidification.—The Lapwing is one of the earliest of breeding

birds and in the southern parts of its breeding areas eggs may be taken

at the end of March and sometimes as early as the last week in

February. The majority of eggs will, however, be found in early

April or, in the further North,in May. Likeall Plovers, the Lapwing

deposits its four eggs in a natural hollow in the ground, sometimes,

however, scraping out one for itself. The hollow may be absolutely

unlined, or it may be so well jined with grass, bracken, or other

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HIST. SOCIELY, Val. 2 AXV

material that it can almost be said to form a good nest. When

breeding, as it so often does, in fallow fields on rising ground, the

bird usually selects the crest of a rise and to those who know its

habits well, it is often easy to go straight to the portion of the field

where its eggs are most likely to be found. On the other hand it

often breeds in the flat sea-side marshes and low-lying river lands.

The eggs vary most extraodinarily in colour, the ground colour may

be anything from a pale yellowish stone, pale olive brown or greyish

-brown to a warm buff or stone colour, whilst the markings differ in

various eggs from tiny specks to bold blotches. They are generally

distributed fairly numerousily over the whole surface of the egg but

in some cases, especially where the markings are bold, they are less

profuse, leaving the ground colour visible in big patches. Occasion-

ally erythristic eggs are obtained and more often eggs almost entirely

of a pale blue-grey, showing a complete absence of superior or more

superficial colouring. In shape the eggs are broad peg-top, whilst a

hundred eggs average 47:0 x 33:7 mm., maxima 58:0 xX 32°5 mm. and

47-4 37°2 mm., minima 42:3 x 33:5 and 44:7 x 37:2 mm.

It would be difficult to find any bird more shy or difficult to

approach when nesting and itis practically impossible to approach with-

in sight of a sitting bird. The male bird is invariably onthe guz vive

against all intruders giving warning to his mate long before their

approach becomes dangerous. When the young are hatched, however,

their great anxiety often conveys a clue to where these are lying hid.

Habits.—In India, the Lapwing is fairly common during the cold

weather from October to March, in the North-West extending as far

as the United Provinces. East of this it extends in fast decreasing

numbers as far as Cachar and Lakhimpur, south and east of the Brah-

mapootra, in both of which districts I have personally shot specimens.

In Europe it often collects in flocks of immense size before migtra-

ting ; but in India, even in the North-West, only small flocks are seen

and very often only pairs or single birds, whilst when one gets to

Assam, the latter only are met with. It extends south on the West

to the Boinbay Presidency but in the East, not, I think, further south

than Bengal whilst even there it is extremely rare. It is capable of

eareat speed in flight when necessary but for the most part it saunters

along at a very leisurely pace, whilst in the breeding season, it indul-

ges in most extraordinary evolutions in the air, emulating the most

modern stunts of our aviators. Its well-known call has been syllabi-

fied into the name of Pee-wzt but its cry is really more of a mew

than this word expresses. It isa plaintive, wild note and once heard,

is alone almost sufficient to identify the bird for a certainty. It feeds

on all kinds of insects, worms and beetles and isa great destroyer |

of wire-worms on ploughed land, where, because of this, it is

of the greatest value to farmers. On the other hand many of its

former haunts have now been rendered uninhabitable by the use of

slag manure which destroys its food and drives the bird away to

other quarters. Its eggs are famous all over Europe as an article of

food but in England their sale has now been made illegal, a well-

meant measure which may, however, act more against than in the

interests of the bird, as with such early breeders, many of the first

eggs laid are destroyed by frost and cold and again, many of the

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 9

young first hatched are starved because of the insufficiency of food

generally available. A more effective measure would probably have

been to restrict the taking of their eggs up to some date such as the

first or tenth of April.

GENUS: CHETTUSIA.

Chettusia Bonaparte, Icon. Faun. Ital. Livre 23, (1838) Type by

mon:, Charadrius gregarius Pallas.

When writing the Fauna of India, I retained, with some doubt,

the two species included in this genus by Blanford. Thetwo differ

both in colour and in structure rather definitely and Che/tusta leucura

should perhaps be separated under the generic name Eurypterus of

Sharpe.

This genus differs from Vanellus in having no crest and in having

much white on the wing; in C. gregaria the tarsus is reticulated but

in C. /eucura the reticulations become small scutellations.

Key to Species.

A. Some black onthe tail; a broad white

supercilium ... cae en C. gregaria

B. Tail all white ; no superciliu Boe C. leucura

CHETTUSIA GREGARIA.

The Sociable Lapwing.

Charadrius gregarius Pallas, Reise Reichs. Russ. i, p. 456 (1771)

(Volga).

Chetiusta gregaria.—Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 231.

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Description ; Breeding Plumage.—Forehead and broad supercilium

white ; crown, lores and aline behind the eye black; hind neck

narrowly white, meeting the supercilia ; chin white; upper plumage,

throat and breast light ashy-grey ; upper tail-coverts white; tail

white, the central feathers suffused with grey; wing-coverts ashy-

grey, the greater secondary-coverts broadly edged white; primary-

coverts and primaries black; the latter with concealed black bases

and the innermost one or two with white tips and edges to the inner

webs; outer secondaries pure white, inner like the back; lower

breast black, the longest anterior feathers chestnut; vent, posterior

flanks, abdomen and under tail-coverts white ; tail white with a broad

black band on all but the two outermost pairs of feathers and with

only a black patch on the inner webs of the third outer pair.

Colours of sott parts,—Iris brown; bill, legs and feet black.

Measurements.— Wing 196 to 204 mim.; tail 34 to 91 mm.; tarsus

59 to 62 mm.; culmen 29 to 31 mim.

In non-breeding plumage, the crown is brown, the feathers some-

times showing black centres; the forehead and crown more or less

buffy-white ; chin and throat white ; breast smoky-grey, mottled with

brown ; abdomen, vent and posterior flanks smoky-white,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL- AIST. “SOGETS Wool. exe:

Young birds like the adult in non-breeding plumage, the feathers

of the upper parts edged with light rufous.

Distribution.—South-Eastern Russia and Asia as far as Central

Siberia, migrating south to North Africa and India and west to

Western Europe.

It occurs as far south as Ceylon and has been obtained on several

occasions in that island.

Niditication.--The breeding of the Sociable Lapwing very closely

resembles that of the Common Lapwing. Its breeding area extends

from South Central and Central Russia, through Asia Minor to

Eastern Turkestan and South-West Siberia, and—rarely—to South

Central Siberia as far Tomsk. The bird almost invariably selects

wide open spaces of uncultivated or semi-cultivated country but

occasionally aiso breeds in cultivated fields before the crops have

attained any height. In the Crimea it is said sometimes to

breed® in potato’ fields. The» néstis “merely a sscrapinow ain

the ground like that of our Lapwing, often quite unlined except

for a small amount of fallen rubbish, but at other times is

a comparatively well-made nest of grass and weeds. ‘This is

more especially the case when the site chosen is one in wet bog-

land or on the muddy shores of lakes “and rivers. There

are a few birds who breed in Southern Russia as early as the

middle of April and I havea clutch taken in Turkestan on the

26th of March. A favourite time, however, seems to be from the

middle of May to the middle of June. A few birds lay, possibly

second clutches, as late as July. The eggs may, in almost every

instance, be duplicated by those of our English Lapwing but, taking

them as a whole, the pale grey or cyanic type of egg is much more

common and, at the other extreme, very dark eggs with a greenish

ground colour are not rare. I have seen no erythristic eggs of this

bird but I believe there are such in existence, as for instance, in

the Museum in Leningrad. In shape the eggs are the normal

blunt ~pyritorim (of =the tamaly. Highty-five eggs average

46°2x 33:5 mm.; maxima 49:4x 31:9 mm. and 47:1x 34:2 mm.;

minima ¢3'2 by 32°3 mm.; 44:9 by 37°? mm.

The bird is said to be shy and to leave its nest long before any

intruder approaches within sight, sneaking quietly away for some

distance before it rises. When, however, the young are hatched, the

old birds always give away their vicinity by circling round over them

uttering their loud complaining call. At the same time it is far less

shy than our English bird, so much so that some observers have said

that with reasonable precaution it is possible to approach within

quite a short distance of the sitting hen.

Incubation is said to take about 24 days.

Habits.—In flight, food and manners generally, the Sociable Lapwing

is very much like our Lapwing but 1n India, at all events during the

non-breeding season, it is very much less shy. In India it is not

uncommon in the North-West, ranging south as far as the Southern

Bombay Presidency and east to the United Provinces, Behar and

Western Bengal. Within our limits it is found either in smali parties

or in pairs, or single individuals mixed with other Plover. Before

migrating from its breeding habitat it is said to assemble in vast

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 11

multitudes, whilst even in Mesopotamia and parts of Persia it occurs

in very great numbers.

One of my correspondents speaks of seeing ‘many hundreds’ in

Persia.

The call is a single harsh wailing note, frequently uttered both on

the wing and when the bird is on the ground, whilst its alarm note is

a quick loud single call. Its flight, although like that of the Lapwing,

is quicker, more direct and consists of a rather more rapid beating of

the wings, at the same time it often indulges in aerial revolutions,

very similar to the Lapwing’s courting flight.

CHETTUSIA LEUCURA.

The White-tailed Plover.

Charadrius leucurus Licht., in Eversm., Reise, av. Orenb. nach

Buchara, p. 137 (1823) (Kuwan).

Chettusta leucura.—Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 233.

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Description—Upper piumage light brown, suffused with a

purple pink, except on the head and _ hind-neck; forehead and

indistinct supercilia pale greyish-white ; upper tail-coverts and tail

pure white ; median and greater wing-coverts with broad black bars

and white tips forming four wing-bars; primaries black; outer

secondaries white, with broad black bars gradually decreasing in

width until the central feathers are all white and thence grading into

the innermost, which are like the back; chin, throat and fore-neck

ashy-grey ; breast purer grey ; abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts

rosy-white or rosy-buff ; axillaries white.

Colours of soft paris——Iris brown or blood-red; bill black; legs

pale yellow.

Measurements —Wing 169 to 179 mm.; tail 73 to 78 mm. ; tarsus

about 72 to 77 mm.; culmen 28 to 31 mm,

Young birds have the upper parts very dark brown, the feathers

with broad fulvous edges; the underparts like the adult but pale

and looking very washed out.

Distribution._—Breeding throughcut Mesopotamia, Persia, Turkes-

tan.and Transcaspia. In winter South India and North Africa.

Nidification.—Pitman found this Plover breeding in large colonies

in Mesopotamia from the middle of May to the end of June, whilst

Cox and Cheeseman took eggs, probably second layings, in July.

The birds nest on the shores and higher pieces of ground in and

around swamps or by lakes. At Meseyib, Pitman found a colony of

several hundred pairs breeding on a part of the great swamp, laying

their eggs wherever there were a few feet of mud or dry land above

the surrounding water. So numerous were the birds that on some

patches of island only a few feet across, four or five pairs of birds

were breeding together. The nests were just the usual scratchings

in the earth, lined with grass and weeds, ina few cases with shells

or, occasionally, quite unlined. There appeared to be no attempt at

concealment, for though in some cases the eggs were partially hidden

by tufts of grass, in others they lay in the open nest quite exposed.

The eggs numbered three or four, the latter as often as the former

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

and, in appearance, are very much like small dull-coloured Pee-wits’

eggs, rather more oval and narrow and less peg-top-shaped than

most Plovers’ eggs. In the majority of the eggs the ground-colour

is a pale dull clay, ina few eggs tinged with olive. The markings

consist of fairly bold blotches, spots and smudgy dots of blackish or

reddish-brown distributed freely over the whole surface. The

secondary markings consist of pale grey or lavender blotches, always

few in number and sometimes absent altogether.

Eighty eggs average 39:5 x 28:3 mm. ; maxima 43:2 x 29:0 mm.

and 41°3x 29:2 mm., minima 37:5 23°) mm, ;) and. 36:6 .<370

mm.

Pitman says that, though shy, he often saw birds sitting on their

nests until he was quite close to them and that when disturbed the

birds were quickly back again as soon as he left the place. Logan

Home says that the birds inthe colonies he found at Abu Aran on

June 8, were very shy and that, unlike the Pratincoles and Little

Terns which were also nesting there, the Plovers were very wary

and would not go onto their nests so long as he stayed on the

island. Bird observers describe them as very noisy at their breeding

grounds, constantly wheeling round uttering loud cries. In parts of

the Euphrates Valley these birds -reed in company with Stilts but

make less of a nest and generally select drier ground on which to

make it.

Habits.—The White-tailed Plover is found much more commonly

in India than the preceding bird, occurring mostly in the Punjab and

North-west India, and extending South to Mysore and East to

Calcutta and Dacca, from both of which places I have seen

specimens. Unlike more of our Plovers, this bird is essentially a

swamp lover and is seldom to be found at any distance from marshes

and lakes, though occasionally it may be found feeding on cultivated

land, especially wet ploughed land. It assembles in flocks of con-

siderable size in Sind and the Punjab, but to the East and the South

it occurs only in small parties or as single stragglers. When in

flocks, it is very shy and difficult to approach but single birds seem

to be much less wild and, when in company with other waders and

plovers, can often be approached within shot. It feeds very largely

on water insects, worms, grubs and tiny freshwater shrimps and

mollusca. Its flight is.very similar to that of the Sociable Plover,

as is its voice, and it is said to be quite as noisy as that bird

especially in the breeding season.

(To be continued).

REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

Bs BUATIER:: .S.J,,P0.D., F.L.S.

PART XV

(Continued from p. 900, Vol. XXXIV.)

(With 7 plates).

ARACE& (Cke. ii, 816).

Ey, BEATTER'S.J.,Ph .D:, F.L.S. & C. McCANN, F.L-.S.

Genera 107. Species 1000.—’Tropical and temperate.

Cooke mentions 11 indigenous genera. We add Rhaphidophora as new to

the Presidency and treat Colocasia as an indigenous genus. We are not con-

sidering the cultivated species.

Key, partly after Cooke :

A. Flowers l-sexual, moncecious (often dice-

cious in Arise).

I. Water or marsh plants. Spadix without a

barren appendix.

1, Floating stemless herbs ; leaves eee

a rosette-like tuft... Nosed. ek eStids

2. Submerged aquatic or marsh herbs

(a) Ovaries in one whorl a, ens 2s . Cry ptocoryne.

(6) Ovaries spirally arranged ... ate Os, LQSENaNnara.

Il. ‘Yerrestrial tuberous herbs.

1, Spadix with a barren terminal appendix

(a) Ovules not parietal

i. Male flowers stipitate; flowers often

dicecious 4, Arisema.

ii, Male flowers sessile or nearly so ;

flowers always monoecious

(1) Flowers and leaves present ee

(i) Ovules 1-2, basal 58 5. Lyphoniune.

(ii) Ovules many, basal and apical. 6. Theriophonum.

(2) Flowers appearing before the leaves

(i) Ovules orthotropous; males

and females remote; neuters

present ae 7. Sauromatuimn,

(11) Ovules anatropous ; ‘males and

females contiguous; neuters0. 8. Amorphophallus,

(6) Ovules many, parietal te eeu) Ose. COLOCASIC:

2. Spadix without a barren appendix;

ovules parietal

(z) Female inflorescence adnate to

base of spathe, stigma stellate. 10. driopszs,

(6) Spadix free from the Eevee

stigma discoid =e ~ 11. ALemusatia.,

14. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. SOCIET Ve Vole ey

B. Flowers hermaphrodite, a few rarely uni-

sexual. Perianth 0.

Spadix without an appendix, sessile ;

ovary 1—2-celled; berries confluent... 12. &haphidophora.

C. Flowers hermaphrodite. Perianth of 4-6

segments, Spadix without an appendix,

flowering upwards. ovary 1-3-celled ; stem

scandent, leaves distichous er sae hose LOLHOS.

1. ° Prsrra; inn:

Species 1.—Tropics and subtropics, with the exception of Polynesia and

Macronesia, sometimes ascending up to 5,000 or 5,800 ft., mostly in the

plains, sometimes also in somewhat brackish water.

The Bombay plants all belong to the following variety :

Pistia stratiotes, Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 963, var. cuneata Engl. in Fl. Bras. III,

2 (1879) 214.—P. stratiotes Linn. ; Roxb. Corom. Pl. III (1819) 63, t. 269; FI.

Ind. III (1832) 131.—P. crispata Bl. in Rumphia I (1835) 78.—Kodduapail

Rheede Hort. Malab. XI (1692) 63, t. 32.—Azambam k&itsii Rumph. Herb.

Amb. VI, 177.

Leaves almost obtriangular, tip rotundate, slightly emarginate, the upper

margin slightly crisped or not crisped.

2. CRYPPTOCORYNE, Fisch.

Species 40.—Indo-Malayan., Marsh plants.

Cooke mentions 3 species: C. vretrospiralis, C. spiralis, C. cognata We

add 4 more not known from the Presidency before and describe 2 new ones.

A. Upper tube of spathe almost absent or much

shorter than the lower tube

I. Leaf-blade broadly lanceolate. Blade of

spathe spirally twisted from the base... 1. C. Huegelit.

II, Leaf-blade linear-lanceolate or linear-

oblanceolate. Blade of spathe more or

less spirally twisted from the base

1. Blade of spathe with the margin entire... 2. C. untlocularis.

2. Bladeof spathe with the margin denti-

culate .

(a) Leaves up to 20 cm. long a Bit MBE ESP CULES

(6) Leaves up to 85 cm. long re jag dn eG. LOeTOSas

B. Lower tube of spathe slightly wider, below

the upper tube more or less constricted

1. Leaf- blade lanceolate to linear-lanceolate,

acute at the base, gradually narrowed

into the petiole

1. Blade of the spathe long, _ linear-

lanceolate, spirally twisted along the

whole length a He wt oOan Gl ELLOS DIMALES

2. Blade of spathe ovate-lanceolate, con-

tracted into along subulate tail. Tube

of spathe shorter than the long caudate

lamina Me ae te abn © acOsvar ar

II. Leaf-blade broadly !anceolate-acuminate... 7. C. cognatoides.

C. Lower tube of spathe narrower than the

upper tube and several times shorter ;

blade broadly ovate-lanceolate, fim briate-

ciliate’. Sa am ee Be Oar IMC RO LOUOLIC.

Imperfectly known species: Leaf-blade

elliptic-lanceolate, acute at bothends ... 9. C. Dalzellit.

|. Cryptocoryne Huegelii, Schott Aroid. (1853) 8, t. 12; Prodr. (1860) 18;

Hook f. F.B.I. vi, (1893) 494; Engler in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 23F (1920) 236.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY | 15

Description : Petioles 15-20 cm. long, vaginate beyond the middle. Leaf-

blade oblong-elliptic, narrowed into the petiole, acute at the apex, 15-18

cm. long, in the middle 3-4 cm. broad, primary lateral nerves several on either

side, diverging at an acute angle from the midnerve. Peduncle 2-3 cm. long.

Tube of spathe 20 cm. long, lower tube narrowly cylindric, 2°5 cm. long,

0-6-1 cm. wide, upper tube scarcely any, passing over into the blade.

Blade linear-lanceolate, long acuminate, about 17 cm. long, 1:5 cm. broad

below, inside with transverse, parallel, erose lamellae, spirally twisted along

its whole length. Female inflorescence 4-5-gynous, male 4 mm. long, thinly

cylindrical, the interval between the two inflorescences about 1°2 cm. long;

appendix short, stout. Ovary oblong, narrowed into a thin style; stigma

oblong-oval.

Locality : Savantvadi (Dalgado in Herb. Calc.).

Distribution : The only other specimen is Huegel’s No. 2446 in the Hof-

museum Herb. Vienna, collected in the East Indies, but no definite locality is

given.

2. Cryptocoryne unilocularis, (Roxb.) Kunth Enum. iii, (1841) 13; Wight Ic.

iii, (1843) t. 774 (zon Schott)—Ambrosinia unilocularis Roxb. FI. Ind. iii,

(1832) 493.—Cryptocoryne Roxburghit Schott Prodr. (1860) 18; Dalz. & Gibs.

Bombay FI. (1861) 257 ; Hook. f. F’B.I.vi, (1893) 494.—<Arum spirale Grah.

Cat. Bomb. Pl. (1839) 228.

Description: Caudicle about 5 mm. thick; internodes short. Petiole

scarcely distinct, broadly vaginate, vagina passing into the blade, blade

narrowly linear-acuminate, 20-30 cm. long, 0°5-1 cm. broad, lateral nerves sub-

parallel with the midrib. Peduncle very short ; lower tube of spathe oblong

almost cylindrical, about 15 cm. long, 35-4 mm. wide, inside purple-spotted,

upper tube narrower, 2 mm. wide and scarcely 1cm.long; blade purple,

narrowly linear-lanceolate, spirally twisted. Femlae inflorescence 4-gynous,

male about 3 mm. long, separated from the female by a naked interval of

about 1 cm.; appendix shortly conical. Ovary elongate-oblong; ovules

biseriate. Style short, stigma oval. Capsule unilocular. ;

Locality : Konkan (Herb. Kew ex Engler).

Distribution : N. Cirears, Konkan.

We have not seen any specimens. Roxburgh was the first to mention the

plant from India, giving as locality ‘Coromandel.’ Graham mentions it in

his Cat. Bombay Pl., but there is no specimen to confirm his identification.

In Dalzell and Gibson’s Bombay Fl. the species is mentioned as being

common. Thisstatement induces Cooke (Fl. Bomb. II, 819) to doubt its

occurrence in the Presidency. It is certainly strange that a plant which is said

to be common, should not have been seen during a period of 70 years.

Cooke says that Dalzell has supplied no specimen of this species and Haines

has not found any at Kew. Engler mentions the same localities as Hook. f. in

the F.B.I., viz., ‘the Northern Circars and the Konkan’, adding a mistake by

including the N. Circars in the W. Ghats of the Malabar Coast. In addition,

he gives as source for his information regarding the two localities the ‘ Herb.

Kew.’ If he relied on the F.B.I. the next question would arise whetner Hook.

f. has seen any specimens, and if he has not, why he included Graham’s Ari

spirale and Dalzell and Gibson’s Cryptocoryne Roxburghit under Schott’s

C. Roxburghit? Their descriptions are certainly not such as to lead unmistak-

ably up to C. Roxburghit Schott.

3. Cryptecoryne spiralis Fisch. ex Wydler in Linnzea v, (1830) 438; BI. in

Rumphia i, (1835) 84, t. 36 C.; Wight Ic. iii, t. 773; Schott Melet. (1832) 6;

Aroidh. (1653), t. 13 Schnitzl.. leonog. fase. iv, (1846). €. 72 ; Hook: f..F. B.

I. vi, (1893) 494 ; Cke. ji, 818; Engler Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F (1920) 237.—Aruim

spirale Retz. i, (1779) 30 ; Bot. Mag. t. 2220; Lodd. Bot. Cab. t. 525.—Amdérost-

nia Spiralis Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 65; FI. Ind. iii, (1832) 492,

Description : Caudicle 10-20 cm. long or longer, about 4-5 mm. thick,

stoloniferous ; internodes 1-1'2 cm. long. Petiole scarcely distinct, broadly

vaginate, vagina passing over into the blade; blade linear-lanceolate, i0-15

cm. long, 8-12 mm. broad, long-narrowed from the middle to the base;

lateral rerves ascending towards the apex. Peduncle very short, included

together with the tube in a sheath. Lower tube of the spathe, including the

inflorescence, obconical, about 2 cm, long, almost 1 cm. wice above, 7-8 mm.

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

below ; upper tube scarcely any ; blade purple, linear-lanceolate, 10 cm. long

or longer, below more than 1 cm. broad, within strongiy transversely lamellate,

with a denticulate margin, purple, at first twisted, finally straight. Female

inflorescence 5-gynous, male one 3-4 mm. long, separated from each other by

a naked interval of about 8 mm. ; appendix shortly conical, 1:5 mm. long.

eet oblong, narrowed into a short, outward-bent style; stigma broadly

elliptic.

Locality : Khandesh : Bhusawal (Gammie!).— Konkan (Dalzell, Stocks) .—

Deccan : Poona (Herb. Econ. Bot.!).—N. Kanara: Santgul (Talb. 860 !

Herb. Calc.) ; Siddhapur in rice fields, 1,500 ft., rainfall 100in. (Sedgwick

7066 !, 7066b !).—It grows on the margins of ditches and ponds and in rice

fields, submerged during the rains.

Distribution : From Khandesh to N. Kanara, Calicut, Coromandel Coast,

Pondicherry, Bengal, E. Bengal, Ceylon.

Flowers : Nov. (Poona) ; Dec. (Bhusawal).

4, Cyrptocoryne tortuosa, Blatter & McCann sf. nov. [FPertinet ad sectionem

Unitubulosarum Engl. Accedit ad C. Huegelii Schott sed differt lamina

foliorum lineari-lanceolata vel lineari-oblanceolata, foliis duplo longioribus

pedunculo longiore, spaiha multo longiore, spathe lamina coriacea margine

denticulata inferne 85 cm. lata intus rugosisstma, intlorescentia mascula

longiore, interstitio inter inflorescentiam femineam et masculaim mtatore,

stigmate discoideo wargine Sinuato, appendice minime truncata. |

A tall tufted herb. Rhizome 1'5 cm. thick, descending perpendicularly and

getting thinner, with very long vermiform roots. Leaves including petioles up

to 85cm. long, upright, upper part of lamina slightly recurved. Petioles

vaginate at base for about 20 cm., then deeply channelled with sharp edges

for about 25 cm., fleshy, spongy, striate, 8mm. diam. from dorsal to ventral

side, 1‘5 cm. from side to side, purple or pale green tinged with purple.

Lamina slightly inequilateral, up to 40 cm. long and 6°5cm. broad where

broadest, dark green above, paler beneath, linear-lanceolate or linear-oblan-

ceolate, apex acute or acuminate or subobtuse, sometimes apiculate, margin

entire, very narrowly hyaline, undulate; midrib very stout, semicylindrical,

5-7 mm. diam., striate, slightly depressed above, very prominent below, light

green and striate with purple below; lateral nerves 3 at base on either side

running up for $ the length of the blade and disappearing into the margin,

besides 3-7 on either side starting at different heights and running into the tip,

all depressed above, prominent beneath, and communicating by transverse

veins. Peduncle up to8 cm. long, 8 mm. Cciam., cylindrical, slightly com-

pressed, slightly thicker upwards, enclosed by acataphyll and the vagina of a

leaf. Cataphyll linear, membranous, 12cm. long, 1 cm. broad, margins slightly

incurved, tip rounded. ‘Tube of spathe underground. Spathe up to 27 cm.

long. Tube white or tinged with red purple, trigonous-cylindrical, flattened

on the ventral side, convex on the dorsal 4 cm.long, 15 cm. broad trans-

versely. Lamina thickly fleshy-coriaceous, stiff, brittle, lanceolate, long

acuminate-caudate, 23 cm. long, up to 8°5 cm. Proad at base, dark purple on

both sides, spirally twisted from the base either to the left or the right (in bud

the spathe is not twisted, then the lower part becomes twisted and in flower

the whole blade, and finally it uncoils without spreading out entirely), lower

part of blade very strongly rugose inside, diminishing upwards, the ridges in

the lower part 2-3 mm. high, transverse, more or less parallel, purple, except

sometimes for the lowest cm. yellowish ; margins of blade before opening out

kept together by a row of teeth on each margin which are about 2-4 mm. long.

Spadix 3:3 cm. long. Female inflorescence 6 mm. !ong, at base 7 mm. diam.;

ovaries 6, verticillate, connate; stigmas irregularly discoid, cream-coloured,

very minutely papillose, with the margins undulate and tinged with purple.

Nude part of spadix between male and female inflorescences 2 cm. long,

filamentous cream-coloured. Male inflorescence 7 mm. long, 3°5 mm. diam.,

cylindrical, yellow. Flowers diandrous. Stamens very short. Tip of spadix

adnate to the septum of the spathe. Appendix white, truncate, about 15 mm.

broad, scarcely 1 mm. long.

Locality: W. Ghats: Edge of a ditch at Lingmala near Mahableshwar, alt.

4,000 ft. (McCann 33314! type, 3335!, 3336!, 3340!, co-types).

Flowers ; 24th September 1930.

PLATE I

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

(fog

SNS

Cryptocoryne tortuosa Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

Plant with open flower, 4. Section of flower.

Leaf, 5. T. S. showing septum with

valve in tube.

Bud, 6. Spadix.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE Tt

Cryptocoryne cognatoides, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 17

5. Cryptocoryne retrospiralis (Roxb.) Fisch. ex Wydler in Linnza v, (1830)

498: Kunth Enum. iii, (1841) 12; Wight Ic. iii, t. 772; Cke. ii, 818.—

Anibrosinia retrospiralis Roxb, FI. Ind. iii, (1832) 492.

Description ; Cke. i, 818.

Locality : Konkan : Bombay (Law) ; banks of the Pen River (Law) ; beds

of rivers (Gibson) ; river-bed near Mira (Gibson 151).—Deccan - Poona, on

river-banks (Perrotet, Ranade! Herb. Econ. Bot.!) ; Ganeshkhind Bot.

Gard. (Patwardhan!).—N. Kanara: Nugi (Talbot 1583!, Herb. Calc.) ;

Arbail (Talbot !).

Distribution ; Konkan, Deccan, N. Kanara, Mysore, Travancore, Carnatic, |

Godavari District, Chota Nagpur, E. Bengal, Assam, Burma,

Flowers : Jan,(N. Kanara).

6. Cryptocoryne cognata Schott in Bonplandia, v, (1857) 222; Hook.f. F. B, 1.

vi, (1879) 494 ; Cke. ii, 819; Engler Pflanzenr. iv, 23F (1920) 247.

Description : Cke. ii, 819.

Locality : Konkan (Stocks). So far endemic.

7. Cryptocoryne cognatoides Blatter & McCann sf. nov.

| Pertinet ad sectionem Bitubulosarum Engler. Accedit ad C. cognatam

Schott a gua tamen diftert radice non tuberosa, foliorum laminis late

lanceolato-acuminatis, bast acutis, vel cuneatts, vel rotundis vel subcordatis,

nervatione, pedunculis multo longioribus. |

Herba rhizomate predita 0:7 cm. crasso (non bulboso). Foliorum petioli

20 cm. attingentes vaginati ; lamina late lanceolato-acuminata 20 cut. attin-

gens, medio 2-3 cm. lata bast acuta, vel cuneatu, vel rotundata vel subcordata,

margine undulata, nervi 3 centrales a bast foliorum usque apicem currentes,

laterales utringue 3 udscendentes deinde in apicent exeuntes. Pedunculus 5-5°5

cm. longus. Spathe tubus 5 cuz. longus, interne 7 min., superne 5 mm.

amplus, lamina late elongato-lanceolata, 5°2 cm. longa, minime tortuosa,

intus transversaliter rugosula. Spadicis inflorescentia teminea 5°5 mum. longa,

mascula vero ca. 4 mm. longa, ambe interstitio 2:2 cm. separate ; appendix

CONICUS, OYEVISSIINUS.

Locality: N. Kanara: In running water (T. R. D. Bell 3091! type,

3091a ! 3091b! co-types).

Flowered in October 1917.

8. Cryptocoryne ciliata (Roxb.) Fisch. ex Wydler in Linnea v, (1830) 428 ;

Schott Melet. i, (1832) 26; BI. in Rumphia i, (1835) 85 ; Wight Ic. iii, (1840-

56) t. 775 ; Hook. f. F. B. I. vi, (1&93) 492.— Ambrosinia ciliata Roxb. Corom.

Pl. vii, (1819) 90, t. 294; FI. Ind. iii, (1832) 491.—Cryptocoryne elata Griff.

Not. 1) (1851) 434 ; te: Pl, As.(1851) t..170,7 171. (alata).

Description ; Caudicle 1-2 cm. thick, stoloniferous ; internodes very short,

roots numerous, sometimes a longer internode between a series of shorter ones.

Petioles 10-30 cm. and longer, 4-6 mm. thick, glabrous or papillulose, broadly

(up to 2°5 cm.) sheathing. Blade above deep green (except the midrib),

oblong-lanceolate or linear-lanceolate, inequilateral, 15-35 cm. long, 2-9 cm.

broad, oblique at the base, acute or acuminate at the apex, midrib 3-5 mm.

thick, very prominent on both sides, primary lateral nerves several on each

side, scarcely prominent, passing away from the midrib at an acute angle.

Peduncle very short, in fruit sometimes 5-6 cm. long ; lower tube of spathe

1°5-2 cm. long, scarcely 1 cm. wide, upper tube 15-30 cm. long, 5-6 mm. wide,

split at the apex, outside glabrous and. dirty greenish, inside almost white,

granulate towards the blade with many reddish papilli ; blade ovate-oblong,

5-6 cm. long, 1°5-3 cm. broad, cuspidate, densely fimbriate with laciniz 5-6

mm. long and slightly crisped, at the throat with a yellowish ovate spot about

-2cm. long, otherwise purple. Female inflorescence about 5-7-gynous, 1 cm.

long, covered by an ovate process of the spathe and separated by an interval

of almost 1cm.; appendix shortly broad-conical, about 3 mm. long, 4 mm.

thick below. Ovary 8 mm, Jong, several-seeded ; ovules biseriate, narrowed

into ashort outward-bent style; stigma linear-oblong. Syncarpium ovoid-

globose, 3-4 cm. wide, 5-7-sulcate and crowded with 5-7 remnants of the

se 5-7-locular, valvately dehiscing; cells 3-8-seeded, germinating in the

ruit,

Locality : Western Ghats (T. Cooke! Herb. Calc.),

18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Distribution : Mysore, Coromandel, Carnatic, Calcutta, Sunderbunds, Malay

Peninsula and Archipelago.

9. Cryptocoryne Dalzellii Schott in Bonplandia v, (1857) 221 ; Engl. Pflanzenr.

iv, 23F (1920) 248 ; Cke. ii, 819 (sub shecie dubia).

‘Description 2 Imperfectly known: Blade of leaf lanceolate, epetiolate,

apparently amplexicaul, the margin transparent and finally crenated ; veins

parallel; surface woolly asif covered densely with cobweb (Dalzell). Fruit

ovoid, about 12 by 8 mm., on asolitary stalk; seeds biseriate, oblong, subtri-

_ gonous.

Locgiity. “Bombay? (Dalzell, Herb. Kew).

3. LAGENANDRA Dailzell.

Species 5.—India, Ceylon.

1. Lagenandra ovata (Linn.) Thwait. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. (1864) 334; Engler

Pflanzenr. iv, 23F (1920) 228, fig. 57, 58.—Arum ovatum Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753)

967, ed. 2 (1763) 1371. —Caladium ovatum Vent. in Roemer Arch. ii, (1801)

357.— Cryptocoryne ovata Schott Melet. i (1832) 6.—Lagenandra toxicaria

Dalz. in > Hook. Journ. Bot: iv, (1852) °289; -v,(1853)st. 4. Dalz. and’ Gibs.

~ Bomb FL(1891) 0257; Ckes 11; 2819:

Description : Cke. 1c.

Note: \eaves black in the shade, appressed to the ground (Sedgwick).

Locality : Konkan : ta marshes (Dalzell) ; Bombay (Dalzell ! Herb. Calc.) ;

Niwendi river bank, Ratnagiri Dist. {Garade! Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona).—

S M Country: Belgaum (Dalzell). MW. Kanara: Yellapore (Talbot 1813!

Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona) ; in streams and marshy places (Talbot 1012! Herb.

Econ. Bot. Poona); ina stream above Malamani. Ghat (Sedgwick and Bell

7201!) ; Anmod, in nala (Sedgwick 3314 !) ; Arbail Ghat (Sedgwick 3459!).

Distribution : From the Konkan to N. Kanara, Mysore, Coorg, Cochin,

Travancore, Ceylon.

Flowers: Jan. and March (N. Kanara); May (Ratnagiri).

Fruit : Oct., Nov., Dec. (N Kanara).

4. ARIS&ZMA Mart.

Species 105.—Asia, Abyssinia, America.

Cooke has 4 species. Weadd 1 new tothe Presidency: A neglectum, and

describe a new species: A. longecaudatum.

A. Appendix of spadix not exserted beyond the

spathe

I. Leaflets sessile.

(a) Appendix of spadix tapering from the

base to thetip . we le GA MUPr Oye.

(6) Appendix of spadix narrowly clavate gas eed CSC CNGULLEE.

Il. Leaflets petiolulate with thread-like tips. |

Spathe with a caudate tip.

(a) Appendix 15cm. long ts oer | Sep Ads COMAALINIE.

(6) Appendix 4 cm. long ae 4. <A. longecaudatum,

B. Appendix of spadix far exserted beyond the

spathe

I. Leaves pedatisect ... ise ify ste Os 1 4. LOVLUOSIIIL.

IJ. Leaves radiatisect... se 6. A. neglectum.

1. Arisema Murrayi (Graham) Hook. in Bot. Maes (1848) t. 4388 ; Cke. ii,

821.

Description « We give a more complete description of this species from live

material: ‘Tubers hemispheric, up to5 cm. diam., root-fidres crowded, arising

from the upper side of the tuber, fleshy, white, rather tough. Sheaths broadly

linear-oblong, or oblong-lanceolate, mucronate, lowest white, tipped purple,

the others pale or dark purplish, the uppermost up to 30 cm. long, the lower

much shorter. Leaf one, coming up shortly after the peduncle, but co-

existent with the flower and finally reaching higher than the flower, peltate,

glossy dark green on the upper surface, paler and shining beneath, divided to

the base into 5-11 segments. Segments sessile, ovate- lanceolate- -acuminate

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 19

or oblong-lanceolate-acuminate or obovate-lanceolate, cuneate at base, with 2

intramarginal nerves, the outer faint, the inner distinct and about 1 cm.

from the outer, otherwise penninerved, the nerves from the midrib meeting

the inner intramarginal nerve, all the nerves depressed on the upper surface

and very prominent on the lower, the central one very pale green, margin

either entire or dentate-sinuate and wavy, length from 6-15-45 cm., breadth

4-§6-15 cm., acumen 1'5 cm. Petiole 30-90 cm. long, 2 cm. diam. below, lcm.

near lamina (in a specimen 60 cm. high), cylindrical, striate, stout green or

purplish-red or greenish-purple or green streaked with purple, sheathed for

one half or less. Peduncle 30-90 cm., green or purple, cylindrical, thinner than

the petiole, and slightly thinner towards the apex, shorter orlonger than the

peduncle. Spathe striate, up to14 cm. long, tube cylindrical, 2°5-6 cm. long,

1-3 cm. wide, grass-green inside and outside with white striae, especially

upwards, slightly constricted at top and there broadening into a broadly ovate-

acute or ovate-acuminate, somewhat cucullate limb, limb upto 11 cm., incur-

ved, sometimes at a right angle, at other times at 45° to the axis, pure white or

sometimes with a green band or blotches along the centre, purple inside and

outside where it meets the tube, the purple sometimes very faint or absent,

especially outside, veins many, parallel, very distinct outside, faint inside,

acumen mostly tinged with a bright green. Spadix narrowed from the base

upwards, conical; appendage very variable 3-7 cm. long, greenish at base,

becoming deep purple above and lighter in colour at the tip, exserted. (We

have nct seen it included in the tube), following more or less the bend of the

limb, tapering to a fine point. Spadix androgynous or unisexual. Androgy-

nous spadix: Female flowers below, crowded, covering about 2-3 cm. of the

conical axis; ovaries arranged in many parallel spirals, sessile, style very

short, stout, stigma disk-shaped, white; then follows an empty space of 3-4

mm. or the male flowers follow iinmediately, covering 1-2°5 cm. of the spadix,

consisting of groups of 3-8, mostly 6 anther-lobes on a common very short

stalk, sometimes a few subulate neuters above the anthers. Male spadix:

Anther-bearing part up to 3 cm. long, 2--7, mostly 4 anther-lobes on a common

stalk about 2 mm, long, globose or shortly ovoid, opening by a slit on

top. Female spadix never seen. Ovaries when ripe, bright red, variously

compressed. .

Fruiting specimens showed the following measurements :

ee cm. diam., whitish inside, producing young tubers from the upper

side.

Petioles 80 cm. long; leaflets 27 by 13 cm.

Fruiting inflorescence first green, then yellow and finally red, up to 8:5 cm.

long, 3°5 cm. wide. Styles persistent.

' There is usually 1 leaf to a plant, 2 are not uncommon, 3 are rare.

The anthers are faintly scented.—The plants with male spadices are generally

only half the size of those with androgynous spadices.

Locality - Gujarat: Bandsa Hill S. W. of Surat (Law).—Konkan (Stocks);

Ambenali (McCann !) Matheran (Cooke!).—W. Ghats : Khandala (McCann !,

Sedgwick 2616!, Bhiva !) ; Panchgani, very common (Blatter and McCann!) ;

Mahableshwar, fairly common (Cooke!, Blatter!) ; Sinhagad (Woodrow) ;

Igatpuri (McCann!) Purandhar (Bhiva!).—Deccan : Satara (Talbot 3385!).

Distribution > Gujarat, Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats, Nilgiris.

_ Flowers : July 1917 (Khandala), 7th July 1925 (Panchgani), lst July 1925

(Panchgani), after first rains 1925 (Panchgani), Aug. 1894 (Satara)

Fruit : 25th Oct. 1917 (Igatpuri), Sept. 1917 (Igatpuri).

2. Arisema Leschenaultii Bl. in Rumphia i, (1835) 93; Cke. ii, 821.—

A. Huegelit Schott. Syn. 27; Prodr. 44.—A papillosum Steud. ex Schott Prodr.

(1860) 46; Hook. in Bot. Mag. t. 5496, excl. syn. erubescens.

Description : Cke. ii, 821.

Locality : Cooke mentions the W. Ghats and the S. M. Country between

Ramghat and Belgaum. He has not seen any specimens. We doubt the

occurrence of this species in the Presidency.

Distribution : Nilgiris, Travancore, Ceylon.

3. Arisema caudatum Engl. in. DC. Mon. Phan. ii, (1879) 559; PAanzenr iv,

23 F. (1920) 183; Hook. f. F.B.1. vi, (1893) 508; Cke. ii, 822.

This is a species only partly known. Hooker f. (F.B.I. vi, 508) had seen no

specimen and described it from a drawing by Stocks who had seen the plant in

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

the Konkan. Engler described the species, as he says himself, from a badly

dried specimen. We reproduce Engler’s description which is more complete

than either Hooker’s or Cooke’s. It may help future botanists to identify the

plant in the field.

Description: Leaf solitary. Dioecious (Hooker and Cooke speak of the

spadix as androgyncus). Petiole stout, narrowly sheathed ; blade radiatisect ;

segments 7, oblong-elliptic, long and very narrowly acuminate, ending in an

aristiform 1-1°5 cm. long tip, shortly cuneate at the base, 15- 17 cm. long, the

middle segment 5 cm. broad, the lateral ones narrower, lateral nerves

archingly ascending at an acute angle, 7-9 mm. distant from each other,

united into an intramarginal nerve 2-3 mm. insidethe margin, Peduncle much

‘shorter than the petiole. Tube of spathe long-infundibuliform, 6-7 cm. long,

above 2 cm. diam., margin of the throat slightly recurved, blade erect, oblong-

lanceolate, about 8cm. long, 3 cm. broad below, contracted into a narrow

linear tail 8 cm. long. Inflorescence of spadix about 5 cm. long ; appendix

‘ stipitate, thickened at the base; only l‘5 cm. long.

This plant has not been observed since Stock’s time.

4. Arisema longecaudatum Blatter in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. (1930) 362 (per

evrrorem langecaudatu).

Description: Whole plant reaching 1 m. and more, as a rule dioecious.

Tuber depressed-globose ; root-fibres numerous, from the upper side of the

tuber, less tough than in A. Murrayt. Leaf solitary, peltate ; petiole stout,

straight, up to 60 cm. long, cylindric, smooth, shining, green and purple-

marbled ; leaflets generally 6, whorled, petiolulate with petiolules 5 mm. long,

very variable even in the same leaf, obovate- cuneate or broadly lanceolate or

oblong-lanceolate, all caudate-acuminate, with acumination up to 4 cm. and

capillary towards end, dark green above, paler beneath, shining, up to 22 cm.

by 9cm., intramarginal veins 2, nerves depressed above, prominent beneath.

Peduncle up to 40 cm. cylindric, thinner than petiole, of the same colour, but

green near top. Male spathe upto 30 cm. long, grass-green throughout,

striped externally with white ; tube elongate-cylindric, up to 8 cm. long, 2 cm.

diam., widening into an ovate-lanceolate, long caudate-acuminate limb, 7 cm.

long (without acumen) and 4 cm. broad, slightly reflexed near the tube,

acumen 13 cm. long; limb deflexed, pendulous. Male spadix up to 9 cm. long,

exserted from the tube for 1 cm., conical in the flower-bearing part which is

about 5em: long, appendix about 4 cm. long, straight, slightly thickened at

the base, then more or less uniformly cylindric, blunt at tip. Stamens white ;

filaments stout, about 2 mm. long, usually 3 united carrying 6, sometimes 7-8

anther-lobes which are shortly ovoid or globular. Female spathe up to 45cm.,.

tube 10 by 2°5 cm., limb (without acumen) 13 by 6 cm., acumen 22 cm.

Female spadix : Flower-bearing part about 5°5 cm. long, above female flower

some -neuters for 5mm., appendix 4-cm. Jong, like male. Female flowers

arranged in many parallel dense spirals. Ovaries spherical or shortly oblong,

green, unilocular. 1-3-ovuled ; style very short, stout, green, stigma disk-like,

white, covered with crystalline protuberances. Neuters above the female

flowers up to about 17, subulate.

Here are a few measurements of a plant in fruit taken towards the end of

August 1930 at Mahableshwar.

Leaflets (including tail) 43cm. by125cm. Fruiting spadix up to 14cm.

long, 4:5 cm. diam. below, conical, some neuters persisting at top of cone.

From the upper side of the tuber several young tubers arise. Tuber whitish

green inside. Some fruiting specimens growing in rock-crevices at Panchgani

had the petioles 1:2 m. in length, and peduncles 95 cm. long.

Abnormalities > Inafemale spadix (call it incipient or atavistic androgy-

nous spadix) were noticed above the female flowers 2 male flowers, each con-

-sisting of 2 filaments united below and free above, each filament with 2 distinct

white anther-lobes separated from each other by a broad green connective.

‘Mixed with the neuters of a female spadix the following were observed :

(a) One bisexual flower on 2 pedicels united at the base: one pedicel

bearing an undeveloped ovary and well-developed style, the other pedicel one

complete anther.

(6) Some male flowers: 1 filament with an anther-lobe.

RIVE! es ;

Journ., Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PrAre Li

1. Cryptocoryne tortuosa, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

: (In foreground near water ).

2. Arisema longecaudatum, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

( Photos by C, McCann.)

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 21

Flowers and leaves seen at the same time. Spathe usually reaching to up

below the leaf, the leaf thus protecting the flower ; the spathe is never higher

than the leaf. The spathes turn pale and then yellow.

Locality : Mahableshwar, very Common (Blatter P.10!, P. 10u-e!, McCann!);

Panchgani, very rare, only found in a few rock crevices (Blatter!, McCann},

May Langham !).

5. Arisema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott Melet. i, (1832) 17; Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, (1893) 502; Cke. ii, 820.—Arum tortuosum Pl. As. Rar. ii, (1830) 10.

Description : Cke. ii, 820.

This is a most variable plant regarding the size, number and breadth of the

segments. The inflorescence of the spadix may be monoecious or dioecious.

The proportion of the male and female inflorescences, too, varies a good deal

in the androgynous spadices. The length of the appendix and the colour of

the spathe are not constant either.

Locality ; Konkan (Stocks).—W. Ghats: Khandala (Chibber!).—S. 1,

Country : Tavargatti (Sedgwick 2632!, 2643!).—V. Kanara: Karwar (Talbot

514!, Bell 6107 !).

Distribution ; Chamba, Garhwal, Nepal, Sikkim, Khasia Hills, Burma,

Central Provinces, Nilgiris.

Flowers : June 1883 (Karwar), June 1907 (Khandala), July (S. M. Country).

Fruit : Oct. (Karwar).

6. Arisema neglectum Schott in Bonplandia vii, (1859) 26; Hook. f. F.B.I.

vi, (1893) 504; Engler Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F. (1920) 192, fig. 43.—A. filiforme

Thw. Enum, (1864) 334 (zon Blume).—A. Wightii Bot. Mag. (1865) t. 5507

(zon Schott).

Description : Leaves 2 or 1. Monoecious or dioecious. Tuber globose,

young plants budding off from it. Cataphylls tubular below, above broadly

linear, obtuse, obscurely spotted like the sheaths of the petioles, the uppermost

about 15cm. long. Petioles 20-40 cm. long, sheathed up to the middle or far

beyond it; lamina 5- (sometimes 4-) to 7-radiatisect, segments elliptic or

lanceolate-elliptic or lanceolate, shortly cuspidate-acuminate, cuneate at the

base, sessile, with undulate margin, the intermediate one up to 10 cm. long or

slightly longer, inthe middle 4cm. broad, the lateral ones slightly smaller,

lateral nerves 5-7 mm. distant from each other and united into an intramargi-

nal nerve 3-4 mm. away from the margin. Peduncle longer than the petioles,

30-40 cm.; tube of spathe pale green, cylindrical, 2-3 cm. long, throat

slightly constricted with the margins subrevolute, lamina green, with lighter

longitudinal stripes, ovate- or oblong-lanceolate, 5-6 cm. long, 2 cm. broad,

long acuminate. Spadix of unisexual or androgynous inflorescence about 2cm.

long, green or dark purple, conical; appendix as thick below as the axis of the

inflorescence, getting thinner upwards, sigmoidally curved, Male flowers sub-

sessile, with 2-3.stamens ; anther-lobes ovoid, dehiscing by a longitudinal slit.

Locality ; Konkan; Hills N.-W. of Mulland, Salsette, in deciduous forests

(McCann 1643!, 1644!, 1615!, 1646!, 1647!, 1648!, 1649!).—N. Kanara

(Talbot 514!, 1258 !).

Distribution: Konkan, N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Ceylon.

5. TypHoniuMm Schott (Cke. ii, 822).

Species 25.—Indo-Malayan.

Cooke mentions 2 species: 7. bulbiferum and 7. cuspidatwiu. Weadd

T. ambotnense and 7. trilobatum andidescribe a new species. 7. cuspidatum

has to cede to 7. flagelliforme.

I. Lower rudiments of sterile flowers clavate, upper

ones subulate or only verruciform ... os

1. Spathe more or less straight and upright

2. Spathe bent downwards above the tube

Ii. Rudiments of sterile flowers never clavate.

1. Leaves bulbiferous at the apex of the petiole. 3, 7. dulbiferum.

2, Leaves not bulbiferous ae be

(a) Appendix of spadix red or red-fulvous,

very shortly or scarcely stipitate ... 4. TZ. drilobatum.

(6) Appendix of spadix black-purple, longer

stipitate a 169 oe 3 LDL. amboinense,y

. LT. flagellitorme.

ZT. incurvatun,

rw ke

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV _

1. Typhonium flagelliforme (Lodd.) Bl. in Wall. Cat. (1832) 8931; Enel.

Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F (1920) 112, fig. 16.—Arum flagelliforme Lodd. Rot. Cab.

(1819) t. 396; Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii, (1832) 502; Wight. Ic. iii, (1843) t. 791.—

Heterostalis flagelliformis Schott in Osterr. bot. Wochenbl. vii, (1857) 261,

Gen. Ar. (1859) t. 18.—Avrum cuspidatuin Bl. Cat. Gew. Buitenz. (1823) 101.—

Typhonium cuspidatum (Bl.) Decaisne Herb. Timor in Ann. Hist. Nat. iii,

(1834) 39 BI-ORumphia 1, (1835) 133. t. 30; 3 took at las le wie (lsos)

511; Cke. ii, 823.—Nelenshena major Rheede Hort. Mal. ii, (1679) t. 20.—Arum

angulatum Griff. Notul. iii, (1831) 143.—A. plychiurum Zipp. ex Kunth

Enum. iii, (1841) 26.—Zyphonium hastiferum Miq. Fl. Iad. Bat. iii, (1855)

194.—7. Reinwardtianum de Vriese et Miquel Fl. Ind. Bat. iii, (1855) 195.

Description : Cke. ii, 823.—A correction is necessary. Cooke says that the

neuters above the male inflorescence are subulate. It should read below the

male inflorescence, as there are no neuters above it.

Hook. f. (F.B.I. vi, 512) calls the spathe ‘lurid red, papillose within.’

Hallberg notes that in the plant from Parel the spathe was green and not

papillose. Engler says that the tube of the spathe is green and the limb

white.

We found the ovaries whitish (Cooke greenish), the lower neuters pale green

with chocolate bifid tips (Cocke purple headed), the upper nenters whitish, the

stamens yellow, the appendix of the spathe olive green or yellowish.

Locality : Konkan: Parel in Bombay Isl. (Ranade!, Cooke!, Hallberg!) ;

Salsette (Hallberg !).

Distribution : Konkan, Travancore, Ceylon, Bengal, Burma, Malay Penin-

sula, Cochin-China, Laos, Cambodia, Tonkin, Java, Timor.

Flowers : Aug., Sept. 1892 (Parel).

2. Typhoniam incurvatum Blatter & McCann, sp. nov. | Aracee].

Tuber globosus, vix depressus,3 cin. diametiens. Foliorum petioli tenues,

canaliculati, ca. 20 cm. longi, bast equitantes ; lamina viridis supra, pallidior

infra et glauca, forma et magnitudine variabilis, sagittata vel hastato oblonga,

a basi cordata et trilobu, usque 10 cm. longa, medio 5 cm. lata, nervi depressi in

facie superiore, prontinentes in inferiore, lobi hasales valde variabilis, absentes

vel usque 25 cm. longi et 2cm. latt. Pedunculus 3 mm. crassus, 7 cm. longus;

spathae tubus viridis, ovoideus, superne profunde constrictus, 2 cin. longus ;

lamina dilute viridis, ovata, circa intlorescentiam masculam et appendicem

sursum tncurvata, transversaliter saccata, in flagellum 8 cm. longum et 4 mm.

datum prolongata, apice acuta, a bast 5-nervosa, nervo centrali in apicem

excurrente. Spadix ca. 5 cm. longa, tntlorescentia feminea 6 mm. longa,

cylindrica, ulba. florum sterilium inferiorum rudimenta Claviformia apice

depressa, purpurea, ca. 2mm longa, superiorum subulitormia, detlexa, albida;

feminea inflorescentia a mascula interstitio ca. 13 min. longo separata ;

intlorescentia mascula cylindrica, 5 mm. longa, 2°5 mm. diametiens, flava.

Spadicis appendix brevissime stipitata, inferne constricta, elongato conoidea

(minimem filiformis), 2°7 cm. longa, tlavescens. Pistilla ovoidea, apiculata.

Intlorescentia feminea in fructu elongato-ovoidea, cooperta spathae tubo per-

manente, guadrangularis. FPedunculus elongatus. Bacca oblongo-obovoidea,

monosperma. Semen oblongum, aliquantulum latius in parte superiore,

rugulosum, apice apiculatum,

Locality : Konkan: Sion in Bombay Isl., foot of W. slope of hill (McCann

998! type, 999! 1000!, 1001! co-types).

Flowers and Fruit: 25th Aug. 1929.

3. Typhoniam bulbiferum Dalzell in Kew Journ. Bot. iv, (1852) 113; Hook. f.

F.B.1. vi, (1893) S11 ; Cke. ii, 822; Engler Paanzenr. iv 23 (1920) 116) fe.

15 S-V.

Vern. name: Rantiri.

- Description : Cke. ii, 822.

Locality : Konkan: (Stocks) ; Kalyan (Garade!); Roha (Damle 539!).—

S. Konkan (Dalzell).—S. 47. Country: Tavargatti, in shade of trees (Sedgwick

2618 !).

Distribution : Apparently endemic.

Flowers + June 1902 (Koha) ; July 1905 (Kalyan) ; July 1917 (S.M. Country).

4, Typhonium trilobatum (Linn.) Schott in Wien. Zeitschr. iii, (1829) 72;

Aroid. i, (1853) 12, t. 16.—For synonyms, see Hook, f. F.B.I. yi, 509,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IV

Kanes

AS S

‘ WS

i a

ENS

i. Phang: 2. Spathe. 3. Spadix, 4. Fruit. 5. Bacca.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY _ 23

Description : Tuber subglobose, up to 4cm. diam. Petioles 25-30 cm. long,

often surrounded by a variegated sheath, pale green, irregularly mottled with

purple; lamina hastate-subtrisect, segments all acuminate, front-segment

ovate, 8-18 cm. long, 5-10 cm. broad, lateral ones obliquely ovate, shorter,

sub-bilobed at base. Peduncle thin, 5-7 cm. long; tube of spathe oblong,

2°5 cm. long, 1-1'5 cm. wide, lamina oblong-ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, 15

and more cm. long, 5-7 cm. broad, outside pale green, inside rose-purple.

Spadix nearly 15cm. long. Female inflorescence short-cylindric, about 7 mm,

long; rudiments of sterile flowers filiform, flexuose, almost 1 cm. long,

occupying a space of about 7 mm. long immediately above the female flowers.

Male inflorescence about 1°25-1'5 cm. long, 5 mm. diam., rose-pink, separated

from the female inflorescence by an interval of about2cm. Appendix very

shortly stipitate, broad at the base, 4-7 mm, diam., elongate-conical, about

5-12 cm. long.

Locality : Bombay Pres. (Graham).

Distribution ; W. Peninsula, Ceylon, Bengal, Burma, Assam, Chittagong,

Malay Peninsula, Siam, Cambodia, Tonkin, Java, Borneo,

5. Typhonium amboinense Blatter & McCaun, smov. comb.—Arisarum

anboinense Rumph. Herb. Amb. v, (1747) 320, t. 110, f. 2—<Arum Roaburghit

Thwait. Enum. Pl. Zeyl. (1864) 432.—7yphonium Roxburghiz Schott Aroid. i,

(1855) 12) (exel.-t.. 17) ;7Saunders Ret. *Botw(1571)/ ts 283) 5 Hook. f..F. Bi. 31,

(1893) 510; Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F. (1920) 119, fig. 17, C. D.i— Arum trilo-

batum Roxb. FI. Ind. iii, (1832) 505; Wight Ic. iii, (1843) t. 803 ; Bot. Mag.

t. 339.—T7yphoniuim javanicum Miq. Fl. Ind. Bat, iii, (1855) 193.—7. divaricatum

YY 22 os nel. in DC. Mon, Phan. 1, (1879) 612.

Description : Tuber subglobose. Petioles thin, 10-35 cm. long, lamina

hastate-3-lobed or hastate-subtrisect, segments shortly acuminate, middle

segment ovate, 5-9 cm. long, 3-4cm. broad, lateral ones obliquely ovate or

obliquely oblong-ovate, sometimes lobed-dilatate on the outer side below.

Peduncie thin, 2-9 cm. long; tube of spathe oblong, 2 cm. long, 1 cm. wide,

lamina ovate-lanceolate, acuminate, up to 15 cm. long, below 5 cm. broad,

outside pale, inside dark purple-violet. Female inflorescence of spadix

shortly cylindric, about 4 mm. long; rudiments, of sterjle flowers filiform,

flexuose, about 5-6 mm. long, deflexed, occupying 5mm. immediately above

the female inflorescence, about 1 cm. long, 5mm. wide, separated from the

female inflorescence by an interval of 1:2-1'5 cm. Appendix of spadix thinly

stipitate, at the base 3-4 mm. diam., elongate-myosuroid, 10-12 cm. long.

Stamens 2-3. Pistils obovoid ; stigma sessile.

Locality : Konkan: Bombay Isl., coconut groves at Dadar, especially in

sandy soil (Blatter!)—W. GAats: Panchgani, in rock crevices (McCann

13s).

Distribution ; Ceylon, Konkan, W. Ghats, Malay Peninsula, Borneo,

Philippines, Java.

Flowers : July (Bombay).

Species dubia,

Graham [Cat. Bomb. Pl. (1839) 228] mentions Arum divaricatum Linn.,

which had been included by Roxburgh in his FI], Ind. iii, (1832) 503. But

there is a difficulty about the identity of A. divaricatum Linn. Linné [Sp. Pl.

(1753) 967] refers under A. divaricatum to the Fl. Zeyl. no. 325. As, however

Typhonium divaricatum (Linn.) Decaisne has not been found in Ceylon,

Trimen (Handb. Fl. Ceyl. iv, 354) suspects that A. divaricatum Linn. belongs

either to Zyphoniun: Raxburghit (our T. ambotnense) or to T. cuspidatum

(now 7. flagelliforme). As there are no original specimens in Hermann’s

herbarium, it is impossible to say what Linné’s A. divaricatum really is.

6. THERIOPHONUM Bluine (Cke. ii, 823).

Species 6.—Indian.

Cooke has one species: 7. Dalzelliz Schott. We add 7. minutum Eng.

and describe a new one. JZ. Dalzellit has to be changed into 7. indicum

Engl.

A. Lower and upper rudiments of sterile flowers

near the male flowers ees Se, le foe ULTEIELUUL

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL TST. SOCIETY, Vol eee

B. Lower rudiments of sterile flowers near the

female flowers

I, Pistils sub-4-seriate on sos 2s 2 @HOQICHYD,

II. Pistils uniseriate ... ee .. 3. LZ. uniseriatum,

1. Theriophonum minutum (Willd.) Engl]. Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F. (1920) 105.—

Arum minutum Willd. Sp. Pl. iv, (1805) 484; Graham Cat. Bomb. PI. (1839)

228.

Description : Tuber small, depressed, i-2 cm. diam. Petioles 5-15cm. long,

narrowly sheathed up to the middle or beyond and pale rose coloured or fusco-

punctate, above the sheath green; lamina hastate-triangular, subtrilobous,

with the margin undulate, about 3-5 cm. long, front-lobe twice as long as the

lateral ones, 2'5cm. broad, all lobes sub-obtuse or shortly acuminate. Peduncle

3-10 cm. long ; spathe whitish ; tube about 1-2 cm. long, obtuse at the base or

subtruncate ; lamina oblong, subacute or shortly cuspidate, about 7-9 cm.

long, 3-3°5 cin. broad, red, with the margin crisped-crenulate. Female inflore-

scence few-flowered; pistils subbiseriate; male inflorescence thinly cylin-

drical, 1-1'5 cm. long, separated from the female inflorescence by a naked

interval of 2-4mm. Rudiments of sterile flowers thin, subulate, 2-4 mm. long,

occupying about 4 mm. at the base of the male inflorescence, others shorter,

1-2 mm. long, occupying 5-8 mm. above the male inflorescence, lilac like the

male flowers. Appendix subcylindrical, about 1°5-3'5 cm. long, stouter below

(3-4 mm. diam.), above slightly thinner, obtuse, black purple.

Var. Heynei, Engl. in DC. Mon. Phan. ii, (1879) 607; Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F

(1920) 105, fig. 2, R and 15 A.F.—dArum crenatum Wight in Hook. Bot. Misc.

ii, (1831) 100; Suppl. t.3; Graham Cat. Bomb. Pl. (1839) 228.—7yphoniuim

crenatum Schott Melet. i, (1832) 17.—Theriophonum crenatui Bl. in Rumphia

1,. (1835) 128; Schott Aroid.i, (1853) 15, t. 213; N/E. Brown in Joura, finn,

Soc. xviii, (1880) 259. excl. syn. T. Kleiniz Schott; Hook. f. F.B.I..vi, (1893)

512 excl. syn. T. Kleinit.

Description: A taller plant. Petioles up to 15 cm. long ; lamina about 5cm.

long. Tube of spathe subtruncate at the base, up to 2 cm. long; lamina

oblong, about 9cm. long. Lower rudiments of sterile Mowers forming a spike

as long as the female inflorescence, the upper rudiments together with the

fertile male Mowers forming a spike as long as the female inflorescence.

Connective of stamen shortly rostrate.

Locality: Bombay Pres. (Graham).

Distribution ; Madras, Coromandel coast.

Var. Kleinii, Engl. in DC. Mon. Phan. ii, (1879) 607.—Arum mniinutum Willd.

Sp. Pl. iv, (1805) 484 ; Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. (1839) 228 —Zyphonium minutum

Bl. in Rumphia i, (1835) 134.—7heriophonuim Kleinii Schott in Oesterr. bot.

Zeitschr. viit, (1858) 3.—7Z. crenatuzm Schott Aroid. i, (1855) 15, t. 21.—Velen-

schena minor Rheede Hort. Malab. xi, (1692) 33, t. 17.

Description: A smaller plant. Petioles 5 cm. long; lamina about 4 cm.

long. Tube of spathe ovate, about 1 cm. long; lamina abcut 7 cm. long.

Lower rudiments of sterile flowers forming a spike shorter than the female

inflorescence, the upper rudiments together with the fertile male fower forming

a spike about 6 times as long as the female inflorescence. Connective of

stamens shortly rostrate. :

Locality : Bombay Pres. (Graham).

Distribution : W. Peninsula of India. No definite locality.

2. Theriophonum indicum, (Dalz.) Engl. in Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F. (1920) 107.—

Tapinocar pus indicus Dalz. in Hook. Journ. Bot. iii, (1851) 346.— 7heriophonum

Dalzellit Schott Aroid. i, (1853) 15), Syn. (1856) 21; Engl. in DC. Monogr.

Phan. ii, (1879) 608; Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, (1893) 513 ; Cke. ii, 823.— Zapinocar-

pus Dalzellii Schott. Gen. Ar. (1859) t. 15.

Description : Tuber about 2cm. diam. Leaves appearing with the flowers

or a little in advance of them. Petiole 20-25 cm. long, vaginate for the third

or fourth part of itslength; lamina up to 20 cm. long, variable in breadth,

elliptic, oblong or linear, acute or subobtuse, smooth and shining above, dull

beneath, base rounded or hastate, or sagittate, front-lobe ovate-oblong to

oblong, 4-5 cm. broad, lateral lobes oblong, usually only 3 leaves. Peduncle

up to 20 cm. long, in fruit twisted and curved to the ground. Tube of spathe

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 25

subtruncate at the base, oblong, green when young, soon fading to white,

3 cm. long, 15 cm. wide; lamina lanceolate-oblong, long-acuminate, deep

purple, rapidly fading, 15 cm. long, 2°5 cm. broad. Female inflorescence short,

pistils sub-4 seriate, separated from the male inflorescence by an interval of

2°3-3cm. ; male inflorescence about 7 mm. long; rudiments of sterile flowers

near the pistils, thinly subulate, about 4 mm. long, greenish yellow, a few

short subulate rudiments above the male inflorescence and close to it. Anthers

rosy purple. Ovaries whitish, with greenish yellow hairs on top, stigma purple-

pink. Appendix of spadix deep crimson or purple, when young greenish

yellow above, thinly cylindrical, about 15 cm. long, !1'5 mm. thick. Ovules

4-6, of which 1-3 are pendulous from the top of the cell of the ovary, the

remaining ones basal, erect. Fruit angular, 4-5-seeded.

According to McCann the young leaves are entire, cordate, ovate or almost

round, acuminate.— The tuber produces a number of young tubers from the

upper side.

Locality: Konkan (Stocks, Dalzell); Vengurla (Dalzell) ; moist grassy

places in S. Konkan (Dalzell and Gibson) ; Kalyan (Woodrow !) ; hill N.-W. of

Bhandup, under shrubs and in open along aqueduct (McCann 694!, 695!) ;

Bhandup (Blatter and McCann 26381 !, 26384 !).—. Kanara: Karwar (Talbot

85 !, 1890 !).

Mistribution : Apparently endemic.

Flowers : June 1917, July 1929 (Bhandup) ; June 1883, Aug. 1889 (Karwar).

3. Theriophonum uniseriatum, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov. [ Aracea, accedens

ad T. indicum Engl., a guo tamen ditfert pistillis untseriatis, floruim

tertlium rudtmentis 1 cm. ab intlorescentia feminea vemotis, altis rudimen-

tis absentibus, intlorescentia mascula multo longiore].

Tuber circa 2 cm, diametiens. Folia cum floribus coaetanea. Foliorum

petiolus usque 25 cm. longus. Lainina usque 16 cm. longa et 15 cm, lata ubt

latissima, late ovata et irregulariter hastata vel oblongo-cordata. Pedunculus

crassus, usgue 13 cm. longus. Spatha usque 20 cm, longa; tubus pallide viridis

guando juvenis, bast convolutus; lamina oblongo-lanceolata, intus nigro-

purpurea, extus olivacea. Spadicis intlorescentia feminea brevis, ca. 5 mm.

longa, obovoidea, pallide viridis; pistilla uutseriata; Stigma latum pilis

gninutis crystallinis coopertum. Florunt sterilium rudimenta plura 1 cm. ab

intlorescentiu feminea venta, tenutter subulata, erecta vel ascendentia, 3-4imm,

longa, flavo-brunnea, alia rudimenta nulla. Inflorescentia mascula 2 cm.

altius in spadice posita, 12 mim.longa; antherae roseo-purpurascentes, thecis

poro apicali aperientibus. Axis inter flores fenitneos et steriles rubro-purpurea

inter steriles et masculas nigro-purpurea. Appendix teres, elongata, non

stipitata, versus apicem attenuata, 8 cm. longa, basi 3 mm. diametiens, flava

guamdiu inclusa in Spatha, deinde purpurea.

Locality: N. Kanara: Karwar (T. R. D. Bell 1666 !).

Flowers ; End of July 1924.

7. SAUROMATUM Schott (Cke. ii, 824).

Species 4.—Palzotropics.

1. Sauromatum guttatum (Wall.) Schott Melet. i, (1832) 17; Hook.f. F.B.I.

vi, (1893) 508 emend.; Cke. ii, 824; Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 23 F (1920) 123, fig.

18 A-L.—Arum guttatum Wall. Pl. As. Rar. ii, (1831) 10, t. 115.—Sauromatum

stmlense Schott in Osterr. bot. Zeitschr, viii, (1858) 263.— For further synonyms

see Hook. f. /.c.

Description : Tuber very large, globose, up to 15 cm. diam., producing buds

from the top and sides. Leaf solitary. Petiole up to 50 cm. long, very stout

at the base, up to 2cm. diam., attenuate upwards, spotted or not; lamina in

outline rotund-cordate, pedate-palmate to pedatifid or pedatisect ; sezments

oblong or oblong-lanceolate, acuminate, the intermediate one up to 25 cm.

long, 15 cm. broad, the lateral ones on each side 3-7, getting gradually smaller ;

primary lateral nerves about 5-6 on each side, distant from each other

1-1'5 cm., and secondary parallel nerves united into an intramarginal nerve

2-3 mm. from the margin. Peduncle measuring scarcely 5 cm. beyond the

cataphylls and 2 cm. diam., pale green, cataphylls few, soon withering,

5-10 mm. long, triangular, acute, broad at base. Spathe large, very variable in

size; tube 5-10 cm. long, slightly ventricose below, above subcylindric, about

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

2-2'5cm. wide; lamina in cstivation convolute into a purple-livid cylinder

which is tumid at the base, then straight-ascending and slender acuminate,

when expanded oblong-lanceolate, very large, 30-70 cm. long, 8-10 cm. broad,

lower margin irrezularly sinuate-repand, upwards gradually narrowed into an

acumen, purple below, light green in the middle and above, often with angular

dark purple spots or blotches, finally recurved from the middle, descending and

touching the ground. Spadix about 3 shorter than the spathe. Female

inflorescence cylindric, about 2-2°5 cm. long, 1°5 cm. diam.; rudiments of

sterile flowers stipitate-claviform, spreading, inserted immediately above the

female flowers; male inflorescence 1°5 cm. long, distant from the female

inflorescence by an interval of about 6 cm. which bears some scattered minute,

acute, aculeiform rudiments; appendix cylindric, obtuse, about 30cm. long,

lcm. diam., pale fuscous or purplish. Pistils very numerous, small, obovoid,

subtruncate at top, 2-ovulate. Stamens with very short filaments.

Note: Sometimes only the central leaflet develops.

Hallberg found a specimen at Bandra (July 1917) with two quite green

leaves, one sheathed by the other. The inner one was the larger and showed a

central channe! in which there was a thick laminar outgrowth, probably the

remains of the free basal margin of the leaf. Inside the channel there was a

leaf-embryo with a thick conical petiole and a minute bifid lamina which was

decomposing. The whole may have been due to the leafing of the peduncle,

the second leaf being the spathe and the third a carpel.

For some biological notes on this species and a good illustration of the leaf

we refer to C. McCann in this Journal, vol. xxxiv, (1930) 518, fig. 1.

Locality : Gujarat: Surat (Herb. R. E. P. Calcutta 20,332).— Konkan :

(Stocks); Versova (Blatter & McCann 26373!); Thana Dist. (Ryan); Bhandup

(Blatter & McCann 26383!) ; Sion Hill (McCann 995!) ; Uran (Hallberg and

McCann !) ; Salsette (McCann !). Deccan: Junnar (Paranjpye!). —W. Ghats:

Panchgani (Blatter P 22!); Lonavla (Woodrow!); Khandala (Blatter &

McCann !). S. M@. Country: Astoli (Sedgwick 2624 !).

Distribution: Punjab, Gangetic Plain, Himalaya from Simla to Nepal,

Chota Nagpur, Gujarat, Konkan, Deccan, W. Ghats, Burma, Sumatra. :

Flowers : Jan. 1917 (Uran) ; March 1911 (Junnar, Thana, Bhandup); June

1917 (Bhandup, Panchgani) ; July 1925 (Panchgani).

Fruit - Sept. 1917 (Versova).

8. AMORPHOPHALLUS Blume (Cke. ii, 825).

Species about 90. Tropical Asia and Africa.

Cooke gives 3 species: A. bulbifer, A. campanulatus, and A. commutatus.

We add A. silvaticus and A. Hohenackeri. ;

A. Leaves not bulbiferous

I. Spathe greenish pink, 15-25 cm. broad ;

appendix irregularly amorphous, dark

purple = eee 0 | de: A. Campamnitlatus.

II. Spathe brownish purple, 5-10 cm. broad,

appendix terete, smooth, cream-

coloured oie ees es 22 OY Ae COTIMOULOLIUS:

III. Spathe white. inside, outside green,

white-striate, towards the margin

white-spotted, 3cm. broad ; appendix

elongate-conical, pale straw-coloured,

flexuose ad a wee) A AL ASL UQLIOUS:.

IV. Spathe 3 cm. broad; appendix 3°5-4 cm.

long, 15 mm. diam., elongate, thin,

subulate, straight oe ce, Dae Ads, PLONENOCRENT.

B. Leaves bulbiferous ... oe a. Oo eA MOU OTICre.

PLATES V & VI.

1. Amorphophallus campanulatus, (Roxb.) Bl. in Decne in Nouv. Ann. Mus,

Par, iii. (1834) 366 excl. syn. praeter Roxb. ; Cke. ii, 825; Engler Pflanzenr. iv.

23C (1920) 76. For synonyms see Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, (1894) 513.

Description : Cke ii, 825. A more complete description by Khadilker in

Journ, Ind, Bot. ii, (1921) 55. j

(‘uuvgrny *Q Aq sojoyd ) "(I ‘STA ‘Id uvyi 4ajv] skop ¢ )

sung ‘snyynuvduws snpvydoydsomp jo tomog uadQ *z ‘oun ‘sagpjnuvdupvs snyvydoydsomp jo Jomoy usdQ °1

‘A ALVIg "90S ‘LSIH “LVN AVEWOg “Nanof

(‘uunjon ‘2 4q sojoyd )

‘ouinig ‘snyvynuvduvs snypydoydaomp yo xtpedg ‘z ‘oumntg ‘snzynuvdupva sniqoydoydsomp jo pug ‘1

‘TA FLvIdg ‘00S ‘“LSIH ‘LVN AVaWog “Nunof

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 27

For biological notes see McCann in this Journal, vol. xxxiv, (1930) 520.

Cataphylls usually 2, greenish, obovate, tip emarginate, apiculate, about

13 cm. long.

The bad smell is restricted to the appendix of the spadix (McCann),

Appendix of spadix crimson lake when fresh, turning purple and eventually

deep brown. Colour of spathe very variable, but usually has large whitish

blotches.

Locality : Konkan; Borivli to Kanari Caves (McCann 1638!) ; Jogeshwari in

Salsette (McCann !) ; common throughout Salsette (McCann). S.J, Country:

Londa (Sedgwick 2538!). Cultivated in gardens in Gujarat, Bombay and

Deccan.

Distribution: Tropical Himalaya, piains from the Punjab to Bengal and

down to Ceylon, Assam, Burma, Andamans, Malay Peninsula, Siam, Malaya,

New Guinea, Melanesia.

Flowers : May 1917 (Londa) ; 15th June 1930 (Kanari Caves); June 1930,

July 1928 (Jogeshwari) ; leafed in 1829.

2. Amorphophallus commutatus, Engl. in DC. Mon. Phan. ii, (1879) 319; Cke.

ii, 826. Conophallus commutatus Schott in Bonpl. (1859) 28.

Description : Cke. ii, 826. See also Lisboa in this Journal x, (1896) 527.

For biologioal notes see McCann in this Journal xxxiv, (1930) 520.

The following abnormalities were observed by Hallberg in specimens from

Mulgaum, Salsette: Leafy carpels, a pedunculate spadix, appendix branched

at base and on the same plant a number of cream tubercles amongst the green

ovaries. McCann found a specimen with the appendix branched at the tip.

Locality: Konkan :. (Stocks, Graham), ; Ambenali (McCann!) Borivli to

Kanari Caves (McCann 1244!, 1641!, 1642!) ; hills N.-W. of Bhandup (McCann

707!. 708!, 709!, 710!, 711!) ; Bhandup (Blatter 26382 !); in forest near foot of

Kanari Caves (McCann 616!, 617!) ; foot of hills W. of Mulland (McCann

878!) ; Vikroli (McCann!) ; S. Konkan (Dalzell and Gibson) ; Bombay (Hall-

berg!) ; Kurla (Gammie 15118 bis!); Marmagao (Woodrow !); Bassein

(Ryan 1687 !); Savantvadi (Dalgado) —W. Ghats: From Bombay to Kumpta

(Lisboa!) ; Matheran (Cooke!); Khandala (McCann!).—Deccan;: Ganesh-

khind Bot: Garden (Paranjpe !) ; Poona (Herb. Calc.).—S. MW. Country : Astoli

(Sedgewick 2615!) ; Sakharpa, Kolhapur Ratnagiri Road (Bhide!) ; Belgaum

(J. H. Burkill).—M. Kanara: Karwar (Bell 6140 bis!) ; in forests (Bell

6176!) ; Bellkerry (Talbot 492! in Herb. Sedgwick).

(The last mentioned sheet bears the name ARaphiophallus Hohenackeri

Schott. This is a synonym of <Amorphobhallus Hohenackeri Engl. The

specimen however is evidently 4. commutatus.

Engler mentions the same number by Talbot in the Calcutta Herbarium

under A. Hohenackeri, It is quite possible that two different species were

distributed under the same name).

Distribution ; Apparently endemic in the Bombay Pres.

Flowers: April 1901 (Savantvadi); May 1908 (Ganeshkhind, Matheran) ;

June 1883 (N. Kanara) ; June 1919 (Karwar) ; June 1917 (Bhandup) ; June 1930

(Borivli to Kanari Caves); June 1929 (Foot of Kanari Caves); July 1928

(Vikroli> ; July 1929;( Bhandup).

Fruit: Jane 1917 (Bhandup) ; Aug. 1929 (N.-W. of Mulland) ; Sept. 1903

(Bassein) ; Oct. (Ambenali) ; Nov. 1902 (Belgaum).

Uses : The unopened inflorescence is eaten as a vegetable.

3. Amorphophallus bulbifer, (Roxb.) Bl. in Rumphia i, (1835) 148; Cke. ii, 825.

— Arum bulbiferum Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii, (1832) 510 ; Bot. Mag, t. 2072, 2508 ; Engl.

Pflanzenr. iv, 23 C (1911) 98.—Pythontum bulbiferum Schott Melet. (1832) 18,

Description : Tuber about 5-8 cm. diam., subglobose. Petioles up to 1m.

long, 15-3 cm. diam., smooth, dirty or olivaceous green, with paler irregular or

linear spots; lamina 3-sect, bulbiferous at the branchings of the ribs and

nerves ; primary lateral segments 20-30 cm. long, dichotomous, secondary

segments pinnatisect, rarely bipinnatisect, few-jugate, lower segments 4-6 cm.

long, 3-4 cm. broad, ovate, upper ones 10-12 cm. long, 6-7 cm. broad, oblong-

lanceolate, all long-acuininate. Peduncle 20-30 cm. long, 1-1'5 cm. thick,

nearly quite cylindrical all the way up, quite smooth, dark olive green with

numerous narrowly oblong, sometimes crowded greyish blotches throughout its

length, these blotches having a pinkish shade below in fresh specimens and a

greenish shade towards the top of the peduncle, being about 2 cm. in length,

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

sometime coalescent, sometimes, especially upwards, shorter and roundish, ail

of them with irregular edges. Spathe 10-12 cm. long, 10 cm. broad when

expanded, sessile, long-conical before opening, with a small apiculus at top,

longitudinally many-veined, the veins towards the margins wider apart and

net-veined between, delicate olive green, very light in shade, with many

roundish nearly white blotches throughout which are not large, often coalescing

and with a pinkish shade towards the base in fresh specimens; inside the

spathe is a very delicate shell pink at the base, and in the middle gradually

passing into the light olive green of the outside upwards and towards the

margins; the veins in the green part always thinly darker. Spadix slightly

shorter than the space, about 12 cm. long, shortly stalked, (about 12 mm.), the

stalk very delicate dull olive green with somewhat obscure, round, whitish

blotches, followed by 5 or 6 rows of female flowers, occupying a space of 1:5-2

by 15 cm.; the rows not regular, the lower flowers more developed and more

separated from each other than those towards the top which are crowded

together forming a mass of stigmata, the former squat pear-shaped, deep red in

colour, surmounted by the shortly and thickly stalked stigmata which lean

upwards, are circular-convex or nearly disk-shaped, the surface often being

uneven ; stigma yellow when fresh and still in the spathe, changing to green

lateron. ‘The male flowers follow immediately after the females without an

interval of any kind and are crowded together, occupying a space of 2:5 by

1°5 cm., very delicately shell pink like the inside of the spathe ; anthers sessile,

generally 5-sided from being so crowded, otherwise globose where free (1 or 2

towards the base), free, with 2 parallel impressed pores on their upper surface.

Appendix 5-8 cm. long, 2-2°5 cm. diam., conical, the thickest part about

20 mm. above the base, extreme base about 18 mm. diam., the tip very bluntly

rounded, about 8 mm. diam., colour a smooth silky white with a pink tinge, the

surface dull but not at all uneven.

For morphological and biological notes see McCann in this Journal xxxiv,

(1930) 519.

Localities: Konkan: Ambenali (McCann!); Borivli to Kanari Caves

(McCann 1255!, 1252!); hills W. of Mulland (McCann 883 !, 884!); hills near

Ghorbunder, Salsette (McCann !).—.S. 47. Country : Devarayi (Sedgwick 4124 !,

4041!).—N. Kanara: Forests (Bell 6108!) ; Yellapur (Bell 6080!) ; Pattanpar

Bell !).

Distribution : Chota Nagpur, Bengal, Sikkim, Khasia Hills, Assam, Burma.

Flowers: June 1915 (Pattanpar) ; June 1918 (S. M. Country); June 1919

(Yellapur). |

Fruit : 15th Sept. 1929 (Kanari Caves) ; Oct. 1930 (Ambeaali).

4. Amorphophalius siivaticus, (Roxb.) Kunth Enum, iti, (1841) 34; Engler

Pflanzenr. iv, 23C (1911) 183, fig. 35 A-E. Arun silvaticum Roxb. FI. Ind, iii,

(1832) 511; Wight Ic. t. 802. Syzantherias silvatica Schott Gen. Ar. (1858) t.

28; Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 7190 e¢ F.B.I. vi, (1893) 518. Amorphophallus zey-

lanicus Bl, in Rumphia i, (1835) 148.—Brachyspatha zeylanica Schott Syn.

(1856) 36.

Description : Tuber 5-6 cm. diam., slightly depressed. Petioles long, smooth,

green ; lamina 3-sect, primary lateral segments dichotomous, secondary ones

pinnatisect, tertiary ones lanceolate or obovate, acuminate, decurrent with the

exception of the lowest. Peduncle about 20-25 cm. long, 1cm.diam. Spathe

about 5cm. long, 3 cm. broad, erect, ovate, in the middle convolute, inside

white, greenish at the apex, outside green, white striate, towards the margin

white-spotted. Spadix stipitate, up to 3 times as long as the spathe. Female

inflorescence 1'5 cm. long, interval bearing the neuter flowers 1‘5cm. long;

male inflorescence 2-2°5 cm. long, 4 mm. diam., appendix 10-15 cm. long, 5 mm.

thick below, elongate-conical, flexuose, above theinflorescence slightly thicken-

ed, longitudinally sulcate, pale straw-colour. Stamens short or disposed round

a naked disk, or irregularly scattered ; anthers subsessile, the thin connective

slightly raised above the lobes. Neuters uniseriate, oblong, depressed, rugose.

Ovary 15mm. long, globose, 2-locular, loculi l-ovuled, ovule attached to the

middle of the dissepiment ; style 0°5 mm. long ; stigma slightly 3-lobed.

Locality ;: N. Kanara: Bedoli (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona 1!).

Cooke (ii, 829) excludes this species, because Engler gives Bombay as locality

of a specimen which in reality refers to a plant originating from the Nilgiris and

Coorg. In the meantime a specimen has been gathered in N. Kanara,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

PLATE VII

: ~

A MMA :

Li. LEZ

LBS

Del C. McCann.

Leaf of Amorphophallus commutatus, Engl.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 29

Distribution : N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Malabar, Circars, Ceylon in dry regions.

Flowers : Sept. 1893.

5. Amorphophaltus Hohenackeri, (Schott) Engl. and Gehrm. in Engler

Pflanzenr. iv, 23C (1911) 103, fig. 35, f-m.—Raphiophallus Hohenackeri Schott

Gen, Ar. (1858) t. 27.—AHydrosme Hohenackeri Engl. in Engl. and Prantl

Pflanzenf. ii, 3 (1887) 128 zdz7d, Nachtr. i, (1897) 59.

Description : Tuber 2-3 cm.diam. Petiole 20-30 cm. long, 2 cm. diam.,

lamina 3-sect; primary segments 10-15 cm. long, dichotomous, secondary

segments scarcely 10 cm. long, pinnatisect, tertiary segments 2-6 cm. long,

15-3 cm. broad, oblong, acute, cuneately decurrent, lateral nerves numerous,

parallel, spreading, united into an intramarginal nerve not far removed from

the margin. Peduncle scarcely 30 cm. long, thin. Spathe about 8 cm. Jong,

3 cm. broad, tube convolute, open above; lamina erect, lanceolate, acute.

Spadix short-stipitate, slightly shorter than the spathe, or as long; female

inflorescence 1°5 cm. long; neuters gibbous, occupying the 5 mm. long space

between the female and male inflorescences; male inflorescence 1 cm. long.

Appendix 3°5-4 cm. long, 1 5 mm. thick, elongate, thin, subulate. Anther-lobes

obovoid, with 2 confluent pores at the apex forming a transverse small slit.

Pistil obpyramidal-tetragonous, 3-locular ; stigma sessile, broad, discoid, slightly

3-4-lobed.

Locality : N. Kanara (Talbot 492 ex Engler).

NMistribution ; Mangalore.

Flowers ; June 1883.

9, CoLocastaA Schott.

Tall herbs, tuberous or with a stout short caudex, flowering and leafing

together. Leaves with a stout petiole; lamina peltate, ovate-cordate or

sagittate-cordate. Spathe with a stout peduncle; tube ovoid or oblong,

convolute, accrescent in fruit, finally irregularly lacerate : lamina oblong or

narrowly lanceolate, deciduous. Spadix shorter than the spathe, stout or

s!ender ; female inflorescence short, male inflorescence long, cylindric, usually

interposed neuters between the two. Appendix erect, elongate-conical or

fusiform, subulate or abbreviate, mucroniform. Male flowers 3-6-androus.

Female flowers 3-4-gynous ; ovary ovoid or oblong, I-locular ; ovules several or

many, biseriate ; style 0 or short in the beginning, later on 0 ; stigma depressed-

capitate, very shortly 3-5-sulcate. Berries obconic or oblong, many-seeded.

Seeds oblong, sulcate. Albumen copious ; embryo axile.

Species 7.—Tropical Asia,

- Only one species grows in the Presidency, known in Indian Floras under the

name Colocasia antiquorui, which name has to be changed into:

- 1. Colocasia esculenta, (Linn.) Schott Melet. i, (1832) 18; Kunth Enum. iii,

(1841) 37.—Arum esculentum Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 965, ed. 2 (1763) 1369.

Caladium esculentum Vent. Hort, Cels. (1800) 30 —Colocasia antiguorum

Schott l.c, ; Hook f. F.B.I. vi, (1893), in Bot. Mag. (1894) t. 7364.—For synonyms

see Hook. f. l.c.

Description ; Stem above ground 90, or slightly swollen at the base of the

leaf-sheaths, arising from a hard tapering rhizome or in cultivated forms a

tuberous rhizome, suckers and stolons sometimes present. Petiole erect, up to

1°2 im. long ; lamina thinly coriaceous, peltate-ovate, cordate at the base, up to

50 cm. long, rarely longer, with a triangular sinus cut § to half way to petiole,

with a dull, not polished surface above, paler or coloured beneath, but rarely

very glaucous. Peduncle much shorter than the petiole ; spathe pale yellow,

15-35 cm. long; tube greenish, oblong ; lamina narrowly lanceolate, acuminate,

convolute, never widely open, curved slightly backwards in flower. Spadix

much shorter than the spathe, rather slender. Female inflorescence as long as

the sterile male inflorescence, Appendix much shorter than the inflorescence,

style very short. Stigma discoid.

Locality: Konkun: Mumbra (Sedgwick 7658!); Condita (Blatter and

McCann 26375!) ; Borivli to Kanari Caves (McCann 1250! 1251!) ; hills W. of

Muilund (McCann 880! 881!); hills N.-W. of Bhandup (McCann 702 !).— Deccan:

Satara (Herb. St. X. C. 26389!).—WV. Kanara. Nagayali (Sedgwick 2929!),

Widely spread throughout the heavy rainfall area (Sedgwick).

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV —

‘There is not the slightést doubt, that the plant is growing wild in many parts

of the Presidency, especially in N. Kanara Otherwise cultivated.

Distribution « Wild and cultivated throughout the hotter parts of India and

Ceylon. Cultivated in all hot countries.

Flowers ; July 1917 (Condita) ; Aug. 1929 (Mullund) ; Sept. 1917 (Nagayali,

Condita) ; Sept. 1920 (Mumbra).

Fruit: Aug. 1929 (Mullund) ; Sept. 1929 (Borivli to Kanari Caves).

10. ArRtopsis Nimmo (Cke. ii, 827).

. Species 1—India.

1. Ariopsis peltata Nimmo in J. Grah. Cat. Bomb. Pl. Addend. (1839) 252 ;

Hook.f: in. Bote Mag. t. 4222:¢ FB B:l- vi, @893) S19; Cker ii, 627 7 el.

Pflanzenr. iv, 23E. (1920) 130.—A. protanthera N.¥E. Br. in Rep. R. Gard.

Kew (1877) 57.—Remusatia vivipara Wight Ic. iii, (1847) t. 900.

Description : Cke. ii, 827. bi

The tubers are subglobose or ovoid, 2-4 cm. diam. The lamina of the leaf

up to 25 cm. across.

Vern. name in the Konkan ; Khadaktiri.

Locality : Konkan (Stocks) ; hills N.-W. of Bhandup in forests (McCann

696 !, 701!, 703!) ; Borivli to Kanari Caves (McCann 1203!); Bassein range,

Thana Dist. (Ryan !); Roha (Damle 542!).—W. Ghats: Khandala (Hallberg!);

Panchgani ({Blatter!); Ambe Ghat (Shevade!).—M. Kanara: Karwar (Bell

6106 !, 4076!, Talbot!); Karwar and Belekeri (Talbot 494 !).

Distribution : Subtropical Himalaya from Nepal to Sikkim, Assam, Burma,

Konkan, W. Ghats from Bombay to Travancore.

Flowers : May 1917 (N. Kanara) ; June (N. Kanara) ; 7th July (Porivli to

Kanari Caves).

_ Fruit: May 1917 (N. Kanara) ; June (N. Kanara); July 1929 (Borivli to

Kanari Caves).

11. RemusaTIA Schott.

- Species 2.—Tropical Africa and Indo-Malaya.

1. Remusatia vivipara (Lodd.) Schott Melet. i, (1832) 18 ; Gen. (1858) t. 36;

Cke. ii, 828; Krause in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv,23E(1920) 16, fig. 4,A-M.—Caladium

viviparum Lodd. Bot. Cab. (1820) t. 281.—Colocasia vivipara Thw. Enum.

(1864) 336.—Arum viviparum Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 65, Fl. Ind. iii, (1832)

496; Wight Ic. iii, (1844) t. 798.—Rheede Hort. Mal. xii, (1703) t. 9.

Description: Cke. ii, 828.

Locality : Konkan : Both Konkans (Nimmo) ; clefts of trees in Ghat jungles

(Dalzell and Gibson): Neral (Bhiva!); Bassein (Ryan 1544 bis!) Ambenali

(McCann !).--W. Ghats : Khandala (Hallberg !, Chibber 53!) ; Duke’s Nose

near Khandala, on trees (Meebold ex Engler) ; very common at Khandala

(McCann) ; Lonavla (Woodrow !) ; Koina Valley below Mahableshwar (Cooke!);

Panchgani, cliffs of Tableland (McCann 2867!, Blatter!).--S. MM. Country:

Astoli, on trees and evergreen (Sedgwick 2649 1), --N. Kanara: Sulgeri (Bell

4279) ; Goona (Talbot!), Yellapur (Talbot !).

Distribution » Subtropical Himalaya from - Kumaon to Sikkim, Khasia

Hills, Burma, Chota Nagpur Konkan, W. Ghats, N. Kanara, Mysore, Ceylon,

Cochin- China, Java, tropical Africa.

Flowers : Feb. 1890 (N. Kanara).

Fruit : July 1917 (S. M. Country).

12. RHAPHIDOPHORA Hassk. (not in Cke.).

Creeping or scandent, rooting on trees. Leaves distichous. Petiole geni-

culate, more or less vaginate. Lamina lanceolate or oblong, more or less

oblique, entire or pinnatipartite or pinnatisect, often very large; primary

nerves many, secondary branching. Spathe ovate, acuminate, deciduous.

Spadix stipitate, dense-flowered, shorter than the spathe. Flowers hermaphro-

dite or few female. Perianth 0. Stamens 4; filaments linear, suddenly

arrowed into a thin acuminate connective; anthers terminal. Ovary long, sub-

tetragonous- (or hexagonous-) prismatic, truncate, sub-bilocular, cells several-

ovuled, ovules many, parietal. Style almost absent or elongate-conical ;

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 31

stigma elliptic or oblong. Berries confluent and their tissue loaded with inter-

cellular needles. Seeds oblong, attached to a long funicle. Albumen

copious. Embryo axile, erect.

Species 60.--Indo-Malayan.

1. Rhaphidophora pertusa (Roxb.) Schott in Bonpl. v, (1857) 45; Hook. f.

F.BI. vi, (1893) 546; Engler Pflanzenr. iv, 23B (1908) 47.--Pouthos pertusus Roxb.

Fl. Ind. i, (1832) 455; Wight Ic: t. 781.-—Scindapsus pertusus Schott Melet.

i, (1832) 21.--Raphidophora lacera Hassk. Kat, Bog. (1844) 58; Pl. Jav. Rar.

(1848) 155.--Scindapsus peepla Thw. Enum. (1864) 336.—Rheede Hort. Mal.

Kile CeZOie ole .

Description: A tall climber ; stem stout, 2°5-3°5 cm. diam. ; internodes

5-8 cm. long. Petiole deeply channelled above, 15-30 cm. long, when young

with a membranous sheath 12-14 mm. wide below, narrower upwards; lamina

herbaceous, broadly ovate in outline, shortly cuspidate at the apex, at the

base slightly cordate or subtruncate, unequal-sided, 20-45 cm. long, 15-30 cm.

broad, on the narrower side entire or pertuse, holes mostly oblong, the other

side pinnatifid; segments 3-4, of equal length, inequilateral, broadened

towards the apex, truncate, upper margin obliquely and upwards falcate-

acuminate, confluent below; adult lamina pinnatipartite, on each side 5-11

linear, obliquely falcate-acuminate segments. Peduncle short, terete, 5-8 cm.

long. Spathe fleshy, yellow, ovate-oblong, 10 and more cm. long including

the acumen which is 2 cm. long. Spadix sessile, cylindrical, 8-9°5 cm. long

and about 15cm. diam. Pistils prismatic, 5-6 mm. long; style tetragonous,

very short; stigma subsessile.

Locality > N. Kanara: Goodehalli, in evergreen (Sedgwick 6810 !),

Distribution : N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Coromandel, Ceylon, Java.

13. PotHos Linn. (Cke. ii, 828).

_ Species about 60.—Indo-Malayan, Madagascar.

1. Pothos scandens Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 968; Bot. Reg. t. 133; Hook. Ic. Pl.

ii, t. 175. Cke. ii, 828 (parti) ; Engler Pflanzenr. iv, 23B (1905) 26.—P. exigui-

florus Schott Aroid. i, (1853) 21, t. 41.—P. fal/ax Schott Prodr. (1860) 560.—

P. decipiens Schott in Bonpl. (1859) 165.

We have followed Engler in separating P. scandens Roxb. and P.Roxburghii

De Vriese from PP. scandens as conceived by Hook. f. in F.B.I. vi, 551 and

Cooke Fl. Bomb. ii, 828. The description, therefore has to be changed.

Description; Internodes of branchlets 1:5-2 cm. long. Petiole more or less

cuneate, 4-5 cm. long, more than 7-9 mm. broad, with rotundate auricles,

more or less shorter than the lamina; lamina lanceolate obtuse at the base,

gradually narrowed towards the apex, acute, 6-8 cm. long, 1°5-2 cm. broad.

Peduncles short, together with the spadix scarcely reaching { of the petiole,

1°5-2°5 cm. long; upper cataphylls ovate, acute, about 0°5 cm. long. Spathée

ovate or ovate-oblong, apiculate, 7-8 mm. long. Spadix slightly longer than

the stipes, 6-7 mm. long about 4 mm. diam. Berries oblong-ovoid, almost

1 cm. long, 5-6 mm. diam.

Locatity : Konkan: (Stocks) ; in dense jungles (Graham) ; jungles of Goa

(Lush) ; Marmagao (Bhiva!).—W. Ghats: Ghat jungles (Dalzell a Gibson) ;

Amboli (Gammie. 15022!).—N. Kanara: (Chibber!); Devimani Ghat

(Kulkarni!); Castle Rock (Gammie 15552! Bhide!); Yellapur (Talbot

4433!) ; Sumpkhund (Talbot 3592!); Kadgal (Woodrow) ; Anmod (Sedgwick

3217!); Guddehalli, Karwar (Sedgwick 6785).—Very common in N. Kanara

(McCann). .

Distribution : Konkan, W. Ghats to Travancore and Ceylon, Sylhet, Assam;

Khasia Hills, Chittagong, Andamans, Nicobars, Malay Peninsula, Siam,

Cochin-China, Tonkin, Malay Archipelago to the Philippines.

Flowers : Feb. 1905 (N. Kanara) ; June 1902 (Castle Rock).

Fruit: May (N. Kanara) ; Nov. 1908 and 1910 (N. Kanara).

(To be continued)

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT OF LOWER BURMA.

J. K. STANFORD, M.C., I.C.S.

WITH NOTES ON THE COLLECTION

Dr. CLAuD B. TICEHURST, M.D., M.A., M.B.O.U., F.R.G.S.

Part III.

(Continued trom page 915 of Vol. XXXIV).

Burmese Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker (Picus chlorolophus chlorophoides). ¢ Q 341,

365.

I saw several, nearly all in pairs, between 1,800 ft. and 2,400 ft. near

Nyaunggyo in bamboo jungle, which were exceedingly tame. The nuchal

crest was frequently raised and very noticeable. I did not see it elsewhere.

Oates found it on the Thayetmyo-Toungoo border and not elsewhere in the

Pegu Division.

Spotted-breasted Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates analis). Q J 114, 307.

Oates described it as rather common near Thayetmyo. I only saw two

single birds one near Tarokmaw on 3rd February and one in bamboo jungle

on 28th March near Prome.

[I do not feel quite satisfied that the race /ongipennis is recognizable. All

that can be said is that some Burmese specimens attain a greater wing length

than Javan examples; the pectoral spotting is variable in character. |

Northern Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker (Dryobates mahrattensis aurocristatus).

5 2 136, 324,

Oates describes it as confined to Northern Pegu but abundant at Thayetmyo

‘for some distance down the river.’ I shot asingle female near Hmawza on

30th March, 1929, in zzdaivg jungle which uttered a shrill note quite unlike a

woodpecker’s. Another was obtained out of a small party near Tonbo on

7th February.

[These belong to the northern race with rather a longer wing and more white

on the upper parts than the South Indian bird. I do not consider them to be

different from Bengal birds and so they must be called aurucristatus instead of

btanfordi. I see no generic difference between Dryobates and Letopicus. |

Burmese Pigmy Woodpecker (Dryobates h. canicapillus). ¢ 152.

Oates got it in Pegu and recorded it from Arakan. I shot one out of a pair

in the Tonye Reserve on 11th February, the only ones seen.

Tickell’s Golden-hacked Weodpecker (Chrysocolaptes guttacristatus guttacristatus).

3 268.

I obtained this bird near Prome where it was about the commonest wood-

pecker. Presumably Stuart Baker’s reference to Hopwood taking eggs of

delesserti in Tharrawaddy in May should refer to this bird.

Northern Rufous Woodpecker (Micropternus brachyura burmanicus). © 23.

One was obtained on 18th January, 1929, near Paukkaung. I saw one or two

at other times, but it was nowhere common.

[This is a very difficult group of woodpeckers and I think possibly too many

races have been reccgnized. In the Fauna, Arakan is given as the type

locality of Akazoceps, but this is not correct as the type comes from the vicinity

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 33

of Calcutta. That being so, I should have hardly thought that another race

mesos would be found at Kuttak in Orissa. The single bird obtained, has a

wing of 135 mm.].

Black and Buff Woodpecker (Miglyptes jugularis).

It is probably confined to the hills. Oates obtained it on the Arakan

side and says it occurs in evergreen forest on the Peguside. I saw some

small woodpeckers in bamboo jungle near Nyaunggyo which I failed to

obtain. :

Burmese Heart-spotted Woodpecker (Hemicircus canente canente).

Oates (ii; 30) got one near Nyaunggyo. I am fairly certain I saw it there,

but failed to obtain any.

Indian Great Slaty Woodpecker (Mullerlpicus pulverulentus harterti).

Oates obtained it in dense forest on the Arakan Hills.

Burmese Great Black Woodpecker (Thriponax javanensis feddeni).

Oates found it‘ abundant’ at Thayetmyo and east tothe Pegu hills, and

says he had several specimens fromthe Arakan Hills. It is not common but

I have seen single birds in forest-reserves in the Arakan foot hills, and also one

in the Nawin reserves east of Paukkaung in February 1928.

Wryueck (lynx torquilla japonica) ?

Oates observed it yearly as a winter visitor near Thayetmyo. © All those I saw

were between October and April and allsingle birds. The latest seen by me

was one west of the Irrawaddy near Padaung on [Sth April, 1929;I alsosawa

single bird on the Inma lakeon 24th December, 1928.

Burmese Lineated Barbet (Thereiceryx lineatus hodgsoni).

Henricks shot one near Theme on 24th February, 1929. Itis doubtless com-

mon as described by Oates, but 1 collected very few barbets. It is certainly very

common further south in the Yomas of the Insein district.

|Z. 2. intermedius seems to be separated as a recognizable race on a wing

length averaging a few millimetres less than hodgsont. A series of hodgsoni

from Nepal, Bhutan and Buxa measure 119-139 mm. and a Series from Southern

Shan States and Tenasserim 120-135 mm. I am therefore unable to recognize

intermedius as distinct. If the birds from further south in the Peninsular of

Burma and Siam are really distinct, they will require another name. This

Prome bird has a wing of 132 mm.]

Blue-throated Barbet (Cyanops asiatica asiatica). .

Oates only found it in evergreen forest on the east side of the Pegu Hills.

The only barbets obtained by mein the Arakan Hills (where, judging by

their notes, they were exceedingly common) were of this species. In fact the

feature of the table-land on the ridge near Nyaunggyo in Apri! is the

enormous number of barbets which can be heard calling in every direction

throughout the day.

Burmese Crimson-breasted Barbet (Xantholama hemacephala indica). ¢ 245, 62. L

Very common in the plains.

Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus sub sp.?).

I have never seen it for certain, but Oates (ii. 103) obtained one at Prome in

November.

Burmese Plaintive Cuckoo (Cacomantis merulinus querulus). 102, 304.

Nearly all I saw were on or around the edges of the big jheels near Shwe-

daung. Oates notes its partiality for grassy plains and swamps.

Indian Banded Bay Cuckoo (Cacomantis sonneratii sonneratii). 2 20. 270.

One was obtained near Paukkaung on 18th January 1929, and I shot another

on 12th March, out of some bushes on the Nawin stream near Prome. Wardlaw

Ramsay got it at Thayetmyo, but it was apparently never seen by Oates.

[The very slight distinctions between Cacomantis and Penthoceryx do not

appear to me to be of a generic character. |

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Red-winged Crested Cuckoo (Clamator coromandus).

Isaw asingle specimen on 10th April, 1929, in long grass near the Taungup

Pass. lt was probably overlooked by me otherwise, though I have frequently

seen it in the Insein district.

Malay Koel (Eudynamis scolopaceus malayana). 2 2 ¢ 190, 234, 417.

Very common. The bird most frequently cuckolded is probably Corvus

znsolens.

[I agree with Mr. Baker that the Burmese birds cannot, by their larger bill

and more rufous underparts in the female, be united with the Indian Koel

scolopaceus. |

Large Malay Greea-billed Malkoha (Rhopodytes tristis longicaudatus). 182, 183,

184; 279.

Very common near Prome and probably throughout the whole district.

Common Crow-Pheasant (Centropus sinensis intermedius), 249. Local name: Bok.

Very common. Nearly always found close to water.

Lesser Coucal (Centropus. b. bengalensis), 214.

Oates described it as ‘Jocal’. I failed to observe it at all, but Henricks got

male at Ngaphaw on 25th February.

Large Burmese Paroquet (Psittacula eupatria indoburmanica). 413, 414.

I should say this paroquet was common, but I had little opportunity of col-

lecting them. Those snot were in a family party feeding on stubble near

Prome on 17th April.

Almost every evening at Prome flocks of paroquets, at an immense height,

used to cross the Irrawaddy from west to east. From the pace and height at

which they were travelling, they appeared to be coming from the Arakan Hills,

which at this point, were only about fifteen miles away. On several occasions

I found very large numbers of paroquets coming in to roost in the dense toddy-

palm groves along the railway line near Hmawza. I did not see this bird in the

Arakan Hills in April.

Eastern Rose-ringed Paroquet (Psittacula krameri borealis). 267, 278, 309, 415.

Very common and probably the most abundant of the family. It roosts in

large toddy-palms, and breeds there in January and February. I have also seen

flocks roosting in mango trees.

[Besides the red bill in both sexes these birds are duller in colour on the upper

and under parts than the Indian race. ]

Burmese Slaty-headed Paroquet (Psittacula schisticeps finschi), 313.

Oates apparently found it on the Pegu Hills. I shot one in scrub near Prome

on 30th March out ofa pair, and saw others in April, and afew near Nyaunggyo

on the Arakan side. I should say it was not common.

Indian Loriquet (Corryllis vernalis vernalis). 337.

This bird must be very local, as I do not think I can have overlooked it for

two years. The only ones seen were a party of 4 or 5 on 3rd April, 1929, which

sat clustered, as if stupefied, on a small tree above Nyaungeyo, and did not

move even when I shot one. I saw a single bird near the same place a few days

later.

Burmese Roller (Coracias benghalensis affinis). 71, 178, 285.

Very common all over the district, except that, on the Arakan side in April,

it was not found above 1,000 feet.

Broad-billed Roller (Eurystomus o. orientalis).

Oates describes it as comparatively rare and local. I shot one out of a party of

five or six at Nyaunggyo on 15th April, 1928, and though looking for it carefully

during the following year, failed to observe any. ‘lhese birds were hawking

from the top of an immense dead forest-tree, flying round at a considerable

height, but coming occasionally within gun-shot of the ground. They were

noticeably more alert and hawk-like than Coracias affinis.

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 35

Burmese Green Bee-Eater (Merops orientalis burmanus). 282.

Extremely common over the whole district, except in the hills, and apparent-

ly resident, as I have seen it throughout the year, the other bee-eaters being

certainly migratory. It is paired in its breeding haunts by mid-January. I

found a clutch of two fresh eggs on 23rd March, 1928, and caught the hen bird

in the hole at dusk. In another nest I found naked young at the mouth of the

nesting-hole on 16th April, 1928. From observations in the Insein District

during August 1928, I am certain this species is migratory there.

Blue-tailed Bee-Eater (Merops superciliosus iavanicus).

Oates considered this bird to be resident in Pegu. In Prome it is most

decidedly a migrant, arriving to breed in mid-March and departing again

probably in September or October. I could not get a specimen at all during

January or February 1929 though constantly on the look out for it, and saw none

up to 20th March. It breeds in considerable numbers in the banks of all the

larger streams, and is never seen far from water. The evening flight of this

species just before dusk when they are gathering to roost is a very memorable

sight. On 4th and llth April, 1929, I saw pairs and single birds at 3,000 feet in

the Arakan Yomas which were apparently passing migrants. These were the

only ones seen in these hills, This bird nestsin April. I have seen it up to

late November in the Insein district, but it seems to disappear in the cold

weather. sa

Chestnut-sheaded Bee-Eater (Melittophagus e. erythrocephalus). 209, 210.

Oates described it as found ‘ sparingly’ in forests and well-wooded parts in

small flocks and breeding in colonies. The only place where I found this bee-

eater was at Ngaphaw in the foot-hills of the Pegu Yoma, where I found

several pairs breeding within a few hundred yards of each other along the

Ngaphaw stream on 25th February, 1929. I watched at least two pairs excavat-

ing nest-holes which were not in sheer banks but in loose sand. Both birds sat

close together and assisted in the digging. It may be worth while recording

that in the Sunderbuns of the Khulna District (Bengal), Mr. L. R. Fawcus and

myself in April 1922 found a considerable number of these birds breeding in

little holes like mouse-holes on the flat sand-dunes near the sea. Appears to

be resident in the Insein district.

[I see no difference between these and specimens from Ceylon, the type

locality. ]

Blue-bearded Bee-Eater (Bucia athertoni). 399.

In Prome District it is probably confined to the summit of the Yomas on both

sides. Oates got it near Nyaunggyo where I saw ten or twelve between 2,400

and 3,000 feet in April 1929. They were exceedingly shy and kept to very tall

tree-jungle, with the exception of the bird I obtained which was seen two or

three times near the same place, and probably had a nest in the bank of the

Taunguproad. ‘The one I saw at alittle distance, appeared to be eating berries

in atree-top. They very rarely returned to the same spot when disturbed, as

other bee-eaters do.

Indian Pied King Fisher (Ceryle rudis leucomelanura).

Common on the jheels along the Irrawaddy valley. I did not notice it else-

where. Very tame and prone to hovering unlike other king fishers. I saw

what appeared to be recently-fledged young in January 1929.

Common Indian Kingfisher (Alcedo atthis bengalensis). 144.

Common all over the district and apparently resident.

Blyth’s Kingfisher. (Alcedo megala). 412.

Not recorded by Oates. I shot a female on the upper waters of the Nyaunggyo

stream on 14th April, 1929, in dense evergreen forest. 1 am fairly certain it

must have been breeding and I saw possible holes in the stream bank near by,

but had no time to investigate. ‘This bird does not appear to have been found

previously south of the Chin Hills.

Indian Three-toed Kingfisher (Ceyx t. tridactylus), 371.

Oates found this bird in evergreen forest on the Pegu Hills. On the Arakan

side Mr. Potter shot a male on the headwaters of the Mathon stream, west of

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Nyaunggyo on 6th April at about 1,000 feet and we subsequently observed one

on asmall stream near Nyaunggyo in dense bamboo jungle on 9th April. It

is probably easily overlooked.

Burmese Stork-billed Kingfisher (Ramphalcyon capensis burmanica). 14.

Quite common and widely distributed. I did not see it in the Arakan Hills.

Indian White-breasted Kingfisher (Halcyon smyrnensis fusca). 86.

Abundant everywhere. It feeds largely on insects. I watched a pair on

13th April, 1928, starting to excavate a hole in the Buyo stream. It is much

more a bird of the open country than any other.

Black-capped Kingfisher (Halcyon pileata).

Oates got it just outside the northern boundary of the Prome district at

Pyalo on the Irrawaddy. I have never seen it.

Indian Ruddy Kingfisher (Entomothera coromanda coromanda).

A kingfisher of this species few into my dining-room at Prome on 17th

April, 1929, and collided with the unkah, whilst three of us were at breakfast.

It then flew out of the window into a tree near by and gave me a brief but

quite clear view ; it was unfortunately disturbed before I could secure it.

Oates obtained this species near Pegu.

Great Pied Hornbill (Dichoceros bicornis).

I found it common between 2,000 ft. or 3,000 ft. in the Arakan Hills in April

and saw large gatherings, apparently of males, assembled on fruit trees on

more than one occasion, but failed to secure any.

Burmese Pied Hornbill (Anthracoceros malabaricus leucogaster). 229, 230.

This appears to be the common Hornbill of the district. Oates found it

breeding in March. I shot a male on 28th February at Ngapaw with very

enlarged ¢estes. This pair used to fly every morning across a wide valley at

dawn to feed on a myaung-tree. ‘The female would probably have laid within

a week, judging by her ovary.

[No specimens received. ]

Malayan Wreathed Hornbill (Ryhticeros undulatus).

This was found by Theobald (Oates. ii. 93.) in Sandoway and probably

occurs in the hills.

Burmese Hoopoe (Upupa epops longirostris). 5.

This bird is common from October to February all over the plains. I found

it breeding in the Arakan Hills from 2,000 ft. upwards and cannot recollect

seeing any in the plains in 1929 after mid-March. The only nest seen by me

was in a hole in a tall tree high up, which one bird constantly visited. While

collecting food for their young or sitting mates in these holes, individual birds

were exceedingly tame.

Tibetan Hoopoe (Upupa epops saturata). 3.

One out of a pair obtained near Prome on 13th March was of this race.

Red-headed Trogon (Pyrotrogon e, erythrocephalus). 372.

Common between 2,000 ft. and 3,000 ft. on the Arakan side. I observed

trogons at about 200-300 ft. in the foot-hills on the Pegu side, but obtained

none. FP. oveskios according to Oates occurs in Arakan and the ‘ Pegu hills

near the frontier’ but I did not see it.

Large White-Rumped Swift (Micropus pacificus cooki). 339.

Oates describes them as seen throughout the greater part of the year but

usually flying far out of gun-shot in large flocks. In April 1929 this swift

was exceedingly common round Nyaunggyo. I only managed to shoot one,

but a large flock daily about 9 a.m. used to hawk close over the roof of the

bungalow and I saw them also daily on the Taungup road. As it breeds in

the Gokteik gorge, it may be found breeding in the Arakan Hills.

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 37

Malay House-Swift (Micropus affinis subfurcatus).

Oates never found it for certain. I think this is the species which breeds

freely in the High Court at Rangoon. I never saw it in Prome.

Eastern Palm-Swift (Tachornis batassiensis infumatus). 65.

Breeds in toddy-palms. Common and probably resident.

Indian Crested Swift (Hemiprocne coronatus).

Not uncommon in the drier and more open forest. I failed to obtain any.

Burmese Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrourus ambigus). 410.

This was the only nightjar obtained by me in the Arakan Hills. I failed

to find it nesting. Its note I have heard alsoon the east side of the Irrawaddy.

It is the syllable ‘ tuk, tuk, tuk,’ repeated three or four times. 1 repeatedly

saw this bird hovering at night.

[This nightjar is quite distinct from the next one. It matches in colour

fairly well birds from Singapore (dzmaculatus) but is tov large for that race.

3 wing 207 mm. Kloss gives the wing measurement of dzmaculatus as

185-196 min. ]

Nepal Long-tailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus macrurus nipalensis), 225.

One shot by me on 27th February at Ngaphaw (200 ft.) was referable to this

species. It was in stubble near the Ngaphaw stream.

Common Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus asiaticus). 216.

Common and widely distributed. I did not find it breeding. Oates does not

record C. monticolus from anywhere in the Pegu Division except Toungoo.

The only one shot was near Ngaphaw on 26th February. The call of the

commonest nightjar heard at night east of the Irrawaddy was the (four-sylla-

bled) ‘ tuk, tuk, te tuk,’ unlike that of macrurus.

Burmese Great-eared Nightjar (Lyncornis c. cerviniceps).

Oates describes it as ‘very abundant at the foot of the Arakan Hills near

Prome’, and found it common on the Thayetmyo-Toungoo Yoma. I saw none

but have found it since in the Insein district further south. Stuart Baker’s

description of its breeding near ‘Myingyan on the Upper Chindwin’ must be

a mistake. The area described probably lies in the Upper Chindwin or

Mcnywa districts.

Indian Barn Owl (Tyto alba javanica).

I have seen this owl occasionally but never obtained it. Oates describes it as

‘abundant over the whole of Pegu’.

Short-eared Owl (Asio f. flammeus),

Oates had only one record at Toungoo. Isaw a single bird in long grass

on the Nawin marshes near Prome on 2nd December, 1928. I know this bird

well and there cannot have been any mistake as it wasclose to me. In Novem-

ber 1924, it may be worth recording, I flushed a number of Short-eared Owls

in elephant grass near Tamanthi on the Upper Chindwin.

Burmese Spotted Owlet (Athene brama pulchra). Local name :—Zzgwef,

Oates remarks its abundance in Prome within 15 miles of the Irrawaddy.

It is extremely common and far from shy even in daylight and found over most

of the district. I watched a pair copulating in December 1927 and again

on Ist May, 1928, on a branch immediately after leaving their hollow tree

at dusk, a process accompanied by a duet of shrill chattering notes. I have

frequently seen these owls hawking flying ants. This owl is one of those which,

like the long-eared owl and others, conducts a duet at night in the breeding

season. :

Jungle Owlet (Glaucidium cuculoides), Burmese:—Zigwet, 21, 82.

I saw what I think was a specimen of this owl near Paukkaung in

January, 1929, and one was brought to me from the same place on 18th January,

1929. I shot another at Kandin on 24th January ‘This bird has a short single

note.

[These owls are very puzzling. The race in Assam to Pegu is said to be

rufescens, arichly coloured bird of ageneral rufous brown tint. From a series

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

of such birds, these two birds from the Prome district stand out at once and are

as pale and grey above as cuculoides from N. W. Himalayas but are rather

more rufous on the under-parts than most. Wing ¢ 146 mm.; 92 148mm.

I must leave them as indeterminable till further specimens are to hand. ]

Osprey (Pandion haliaétus haliaetus).

I saw one several times in February 1929 on the Letpanbu jheel and on

the last occasion it had become entangled with one of the many fishhooks

which Burmans attach to lines fastened to rods in the shallower parts of the

jheel. I should not be surprised if it bred along the Irrawaddy valley in this

area.

Black Vulture (Sarcogyps calvus).

Not uncommon ; I have not been certain of its breeding but I think that odd

pairs do so in the large detpandin trees on the islands of the Irrawaddy.

Indian White-backed Vulture (Pseudogyps bengalensis).

Abundant. I did not collect any vultures and failed toidentify Gyps indicus.

Pseudogyps nests in some numbers in the cotton trees of the lower Irrawaddy

valley, the nests being largely made of leaves.

Eastern Peregrine Falcon (Falco peregrinus calidus).

Oates records obtaining it ‘ pretty often at Prome’. I failed to observe it.

Burmese Red-legged Falconet (Microhierax coerulescens burmanicus).

This bird is probably easily overiooked and I only procured one in two years,

at about 1,000 ft. in the Arakan Yoma foot-hills in April 1928.

Fielden’s Hawk (Neohierax insignis insignis).

Oates describes it as ‘abundant at Thayetmyo extending to the crest of the

Arakan Hills.’ The only one I saw was a female on 11th March, 1929, about 20

miles east of Prome on the Paukkaung road. This bird had a soft-shelled egg

in the oviduct and another in the ovary as big asa marble. Its flight was

curiously weak and much more resembled that of a young parrot than a falcon.

The gizzard contained a snake. I am very doubtful if this bird is common in

the Prome District, but I may have overlooked it.

Burmese Kestrel (Cerchneis tinnunculus saturatus). 2 103.

Fairly common. 1 saw no signs of it breeding and it was mainly observed

from Novemberto March. Oates considered it a winter visitor only.

Large Grey-headed Fishing Eagle (Ichthyophaga i. ichthyaetus).

I saw a bird two years running sitting on a nest in a large letpandbin (cotton)

tree at Gwema, in early February. As soon as she left the nest, House Crows

made repeated attempts to get at the eggs. As described in the Fauna, ed. ii,

the nest was in a huge tree close to the bank of the Irrawaddy.

Chestnut Buzzard-Eagle (Butastur liventer). 2 205.

Not uncommon. A female shot near Theme on 24th February, had an egg

in the ovary a little larger than a pea. I saw two pairs on 7th February near

‘Tonbo. A pair were seen constantly in open jungle near Prome from February

to April which were undoubtedly nesting, but they were extremely wary and

I failed to locate the nest. Oates twice found eggs in March.

Serpent Eagle (Spilornis cheela burmanicus). ¢ 129.

I shot a solitary male on 6th February near Nyaunggyo with much enlarged

testes. Otherwise I saw no signs of this bird breeding unless some of the birds

seen in the Arakan Hills were wrongly mistaken for Pernis ptilorhynchus.

[wing 451 mm.]

Brahminy Kite (Haliastur indus indus).

Common. About March this bird, like MZilvus govinda, almost entirely

disappears and is only seen in very small numbers if at all, until September.

Common Pariah Kite (Milvus migrans govinda).

Very common but seems to disappear almost completely by March. Oates

(ii 203) says ‘ from June to September.’ Nestsin January. In October large

gatherings once again become noticeable,

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 39

Large Indian Kite (Milvus migrans lineatus). 300.

I obtained one or two but should not describe it as common and I saw no

signs of its nesting. Oates apparently only observed it from October to

February and did not find it breeding (ii. 204).

Black-shouldered Kite (Elanus coeruleus).

I did not obtain this bird but saw several. Oates (ii. 205) only observed them

in the rains from June to mid-October, but my experience was exactly the

reverse. In 1928-29 I saw one on 9th October, a pair on the Letpanbu jheel on

Ist February, and a single bird on 20th March, 1929, all others being

invariably seen in the ‘open season.’ Its habit of hovering and its pale grey

colour distinguish it at once in the field.

Marsh-Harrier (Circus e2ruginosus). 89, 99, 269.

Only three were obtained. In the mature plumage (89 and 269), these birds

were exceedingly common. Ishot one outofapairon Ist February, both of

which had conspicuous pale heads, the only ones seen in this plumage. These

birds were frequently seen a considerable distance from water, hunting the low

scrub-hills near the Irrawaddy.

[An adult male on 27th January had just completed the moult of the wings ;a

female on Ist February is moulting the old whitish feathers of the crown and

the new ones in quill are rufous with fine dark central streaks. ]

Pied Harrier (Circus melanoleuca melanoleuca). ¢ ¢ 2 @ 32, 34, 246, 269.

Common from November to March. Inthe immature plumage (34 and 269)

it never seems to associate with adult males which I noticed were nearly always

seen in ones and twos. It is spread overthe whole district at this time of the

year,, and is the commonest of the Harriers.

Shikra (Astur badius poliopsis). + % Q 90, 189, 231.

I shot three ; one was a male of a pair which were in my garden on 30th

January ; the second was a single male in a tree in zzdaing jungle near Prome

and the last was a solitary female near Ngaphaw which was hawking insects

over a jungle fire in company with kites, swallows and cuckoo-shrikes. The

stomach contained two small lizards anda bundle which looked like the

remains of a spider. ;

[These birds are a trifle larger than dusswmiert, the proportions of wing to

tail are the same as in this race (cf. Fauna, ed. ii. ]

Crested Honey-Buzzard (Pernis p. ptilorhynchus?), ¢391.

The only one obtained was shot at 3,000 ft. near Nyaunggyo in April. A

buzzard which, | think, belonged to this species, was common here and

undoubtedly breeding, and I saw it also up the Mathon stream in April 1928,

It has a loud-ringing note of four syllables which can be heard a mile or more

away, and has a curious ‘ display’ flight in which the wings are moved rapidly

in short strokes. Oates mentions (ii, 203) that he obtained it at Prome and

Thayetmyo and apparently found it breeding.

[Longest crest feathers 32 mm. ; wg. 431mm. The crest is fairly well deve-

loped and the wing is large for the Indian race ruficollis. Forehead and lores

ashy grey ; under-parts white, barred on the flanks and streaked on the breast

with fulvous.]

Siberian Honey-Buzzard (Pernis apivorus orientalis)? ¢ 24.

One was obtained near Paukkaung by Mr. Williams on 18th January, 1929,

and I saw several about this time near the same place. Those I saw were in

pairs. They struck me as being very sluggish birds. Oates did not meet

them.

[The wing 40 mm. appears to be very small for orientalis. A very white

bird on the under-parts with heavy median brown streaks on the breast.]

Burmese Black-crested Baza (Baza leuphotes burmana).

Oates apparently never met it. I hada close view of one of a pair in high

tree-jungle at the Nyaunggyo stream sources on 14th April, 1929. From the

white breast and the fact that I noted both birds at the time to be ‘ as black as

crows ’, there is, I think, no doubt of the species. The crest of the bird I saw

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

was raised perpendicularly. The note was a whistle like a kite’s and I have

little doubt they were breeding.

Burmese Green Pigeon (Crocopus pheenicopterus viridifrons). Q 312.

Oates (BB ii. 307) says that it is ‘spread over the whole province alike in the

hills and plains’, whereas in Stray Feathers (vol. iii), he says, ‘I have never

received it from the Pegu Hills nor from those of Arakan. It is essentially a

bird of the plains.’

I did not see any in the Arakan Hills in April 1929. I have seen flocks near

Paukkaung as late as mid-May, and others at the foot of the Arakan Hills in

mid-April.

[This appears to be wviridifrons though the wing (sex Q) is 176 mm.;

Mr. Baker gives the range as 184-200 mm.]

Ashy-headed Green Pigeon (Dendrophasa pompadoura phayrei). ¢ 353.

Oates says it is confined to the denser forests on the hills. I saw a fair num-

ber at 3,000 ft. above Nyaunggyo in April 1929 in the company of Pin-tailed

Green Pigeons, where they were exceedingly tame and pairing.

Pin-tailed Green Pigeon (Sphenocercus a. apicauda). ¢ 338.

Oates did not meet with this bird at all in Pegu. I found it quite common

from 2,400 ft. to 3,000 ft. near Nyaunggyo in April 1929, many being paired and

others pairing, ‘They were exceedingly tame and I frequently flushed pairs

from the grass on the Padaung-Taungup road, and watched others feeding at

very close quarters. ‘They are very parrot-like when in trees. Probably in the

Pegu Division it is entirely a bird of the hills.

[This Pigeon has a broad, black band across the central tail, a character

omitted in the Fauna. Apicauda is surely substantive and cannot be altered

to apicaudus ||

Wedge-tailed Green Pigeon (Sphenocercus s. sphenurus). & 333.

Oates says: ‘ Found throughout the hill portions of Pegu.’ I got one, moreor

less by accident, on 2nd April, 1929. at Nyaunggyo. It was with a flock but I

thought the latter were mainly apicauda.

Green Imperial Pigeon (Muscadivora enea sylvatica).

Very common in thecold weather, especially just across the Irrawaddy,

near Prome. I have not seen any after February and saw none in the Arakan

Hills in April.

Indian Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica indica). 2 226.

Common in the denser portions of the district and occurs up to 3,000 ft. on

Arakan side, where I found a nest with young a few days old in bamboo en

llth April, 1929. The bird was extremely wary and difficult to observe enter-

ing and leaving the nest.

Blue Rock-Pigeon (Columba livia). ¢ 181.

Oates never met it though inthe Fauna (v. 221), Macdonald is quoted as

saying that it is ‘common in Myingyan.’ Large numbers exist ina semi-

domestic state round most pougyi-kyaungs. ‘The bird shot by me was drinking

at a pool of salt gaseous water.

On two occasions in April 1929, Isaw a very large Pigeon going down into

dense bamboo-jungle on the hill-side near Nyaunggyo bungalow, but failed to

obtain it. The general colour appeared to be dark vinous-brown on the upper

parts and its size made it doubtful if it was Alsocomus puniceus. This note is

placed on record in case Ducula insignis gviseicapilla is later found breeding

here.

Indian Rufous Turtle-Dove (Streptopelia orientalis meena). 403.

Isaw several pairs near Nyaunggyo in April 1929 where it was probably

breeding. I doubt if it occurs elsewhere in the district commonly except in

dense jungle, though it is found in evergeen jungle at a inuch lower elevation

in the Insein district.

[This specimen is meena of the Fauna, ed. ii ; agricola of Hartert.]

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 41

Burmese Spotted Dove (Streptopelia chinensis tigrina).

Very common and more or less resident. A nest found by me on 30th

January, 1929, in an isolated cane-brake in the Nawin marshes contained three

eggs, the only time I have ever seen a pigeon’s or a dove’s nest with sucha

number. Another nest found on 25th December, 1929, near Kyithe and

containing newly-hatched young, was made of grass in a bush only about three

feet from the ground.

Burmese Red Turtle-Dove (CEnopopelia tranquebarica humilis.) 2 255,

Oates never found this bird breeding, and my impression is that it is a winter

visitor to Prome only, arriving in November and the majority leaving in

March. During December and January, very large flocks can be seen.

Bar-tailed Cuckvo-Dove (Macropygia unchall tusalia).

As Oates did not apparently record it from anywhere west of the Sittang,

it may be worth nothing that I saw no signs of it in April 1928 or 1929 in the

Arakan Hills.

Burmese Jungle-Fowl (Gallus bankiva robinsoni).

Abundant. Ido not think that in any part of Burma in which I have been,

‘ the breeding months are November to March’. (S. B. v. 298.) I have how-

ever seen young in Prome on one cccasion with feathers beginning to sprout as

early as 27th February 1928. In April, 1929, very large numbers of young ones

were seen hetween Ist and 14th near Nyaunggyo. A few of these couid just flut-

ter ; others were newly hatched, the old hens being extremely tame. Nocock-

birds were seen accompanying broods. I haveseen young birds that could just

fly in mid-April 1925, at Thaton in the Tenasserim Division,

Burmese Silver Pheasant (Genneus lineatus). 244, 273.

Oates suspected that both this species and cuwzeri possibly occurred west of

the Irrawaddy valley. Both the Silver Pheasants obtained for me, came from

the low hills east of the Irrawaddy between Tarokmaw and the Inma swamp.

I saw very few and could not describe its distribution.

Oates’s Silver Pheasant (Gennzus lineatus cuvieri apd, Oates).

Oates remarks that it occurs ‘ over the whole of the Arakan Hills, extending,

I think, quite down to the Irrawaddy river’. He shot one at Nyaungchidauk

just where the Taungup road starts to ascend the Yoma. On 14th April, 1929,

at Nyaunggyo in evergeen forest 1 met a female with a single newly-hatched

chick. This bird had a pronounced crest and a dark chestnut tail with brown

bars. Itran all round me in great excitement clucking in a low tone and

ruffling out its feathers like a barn-door fowl. I saw one other hen bird come

down to drink a few days earlier at the same stream, but otherwise saw none.

[I have not attempted to work out these pheasants, which are practically

topotypes of G. /. oatesz, as the material in the British Museum is insufficient.

The genus Genneus is a very puzzling one and only carefully collected material

with full data together with field notes can throw light on the subject. I stress

this, as Mr. Stuart Baker has already stressed it (Fauna, ed. ii, V. p. 331),

in order to bring home to the ‘ men on the spot ’, the only people who can help,

the fact that, after all these years, not nearly enough of these Pheasants have

been preserved and sent home for a proper understanding to be arrived at,

though annually numbers must be killed.

The outline of the problem is as follows :—We have the Black-breasted Kalij

of Assam horsfieldi, with black predominating on the back, extending into

the north of Burma; then the Silver Pheasant, nycthemerus, with white

predominating on the back, extending from China into the east of Burma ;

and lastly the Silver Pheasant of the /zmeatus type, with the feathers on the

back silver-grey, due to the markings of black and white being about equal,

extending into South Burma from Malay. Thus, taking Burma as a whole,

we have, according to present ideas, one or more representatives of these three

species, but their distribution is by no means clear, and apparently in some cases

we have a representative of more than one species, side by side in the same

district. If we could be sure of this, then we should know for certain that

we have three species to deal with, each forming local races. If, however, no

two forms are ever found in the same area, then it seems much more likely

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

that in reality all three Kalij-Silver Pheasants are one species with numbers

of races grading from black in the Himalayas to white in China.

Yet a third alternative remains as regards Burma; have we a representative

of each of the supposed species which, where they meet, hybridize ?

What we want to know therefore is this :—Can one or more recognizable

forms be found in the same district? Ifso, can they be obtained in (a) the

same brood, (6) the same locality, (c) or is there an elevational difference

in their distribution? Are the same types of females always associated with

the same types of males, or are there different types. of females in the same

area? These are the sort of notes required with specimens, together with

precise data as regards date, locality, colour of soft parts, etc. ]

Blue-breasted Quail (Excalfactoria chinensis chinensis).

I saw a good many when shooting snipe in September and October 1928 in

wet grass land on the Nawin marshes, whereit probably bred. Not seen

elsewhere.

Black-breasted Quail-(Coturnix coromandelica).

Common ‘in Northern Pegu’ (Oates). I shot a good many especially in

September and October 1928, but did not find it actually breeding.

Arakan Hill-Partridge (Arborophila rufogularis intermedia).

Oates obtained a number, all between Nyaungchidauk and Nyaunggyo, I

should doubt it if it ever comes below 1,500 ft. on this side except in the rains,

as the few I saw were nearly all in or near evergreen jungle, and seemed very

partial to water. i

Phayre’s Burmese Francolin (Francolinus pintadeanus phayrei). ©. 72.

Oates described it as confined to that portion of the Irrawaddy valley ‘ above

Prome’. it was common 20 miles south of Prome and I got it near Padinbin

on the south-west border of the district. It will probably be found on the

forest outskirts down to Tharrawaddy. Itis not uncommon but difficult to

flush.

Burmese Button Quail (Turnix maculatus maculatus). 2 351, 393.

Common and probably resident. It was the only quail Isawin the Arakan

Hills where I saw several at 3,000 ft. in pairs and small parties.

Eastern Bailon’s Crake (Porzana pusilla). ¢ 2 143, 247.

I shot one at Letpanbu on 10th February and one at Prome on Sth March,

1929. These birds were very tame and running about close to me,

Oates only obtained one in many years.

Indian Blue-breasted Banded Rail (Hypotenidia striata gularis).

I did not meet this for certain, though Oates describes it as found over the whole

Province. When snipe-shooting I twice flushed rails which I failed to secure.

Chinese White-breasted Water-hen (Amaurornis phenicurus chinensis). ¢ 416.

Common : breeds.

Indian Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus indicus).

Oates apparently only got one, just outside the northern border of the Prome

District in’ Thayetmyo. It wascommon in the Nawin marshes at Prome and

I saw young ones late in September 1927.

The Water-Cock (Gallicrex cinerea).

I only saw one or two on the Nawin marshes at odd times. This is a bird

which I have never seen in Burma except singly, and usually in very unexpect-

ed places.

Indian Purple Moorhen (Porphyrio poliocephalus).

Common and resident on all the big /heels of the Irrawaddy valley.

Coot (Fulica atra atra).

Not seen by me. Oates did not apparently'find it west of the Pegu Yoma.

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 43

Masked Finfoot (Héliopais personata).

Oates says he saw one killed on Inma, which is 25 miles south of Prome.

In the Fauna he says ‘I believe I once killed one on the Irrawaddy

above Prome but did not preserve it.” As it was found very commonly in the

lower reaches of the Myitmaka in Tharrawaddy, it almost certainly occurs on

the upper reaches where the Myitmaka takes its source from the Inma Lake.

I think I flushed more than onein the Nawin marshes but failed to obtain any.

I also heard its note more than once,

Bronze-winged Jacana (Metopldius indicus).

Common on the big lakes of the Irrawaddy valley, and in other suitable

places ; it undoubtedly breeds on Letpanbu and the Kywedalin swamps,

Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus). Local name: 62-gya.

Oates considered this bird a permanent resident, but I got the impression

that the bulk of those Isaw on Letpanbu in December 1928 and January 1929

has passed on by March.

Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis benghalensis).

It is noteworthy that Oates considered it rare and only obtained it at the end

of the rains. Practically the only occasions on which I obtained it were in

August and September while snipe-shooting on the Nawin marshes. Some

seen then were distinctly immature and it almost certainly breedson the

Nawlin during the rains.

Indian Stone-Plover (Burhinus cedicnemus indicus).

I should not be surprised to find this bird breeding on the dry rolling hills on

the north-eastern border, thoughthe only one I ever saw was a single bird on

8th July, 1928, on the Nawin marshes, probably a passing migrant.

Great Stone-Plover (Esacus recurvirostris).

I looked for this bird carefully on the Irrawaddy and adjacent streams and

failed to find it.

Large Indian Pratincole (Glareola maldivarum), 261.

Oates notes its arrival in February and found eggs in March, Apriland May.

It breeds in several! places along the Irrawaddy valley and in Prome my earliest

records were early March. In 1928, there wasa fairly large colony breeding on

the Nawin marshes at Prome and I founda single incubated egg on 30th May,

1928. ‘This colony had entirely vanished from the ground on 8th July, and did

not return there in 1929 though I saw a single bird on 10th March, 1929, and a

pair later on. I also found three or four pairs breeding on burnt stubble near

Letpanbu and saw a nest with one incubated egg on 23rd March, 1929. In this

situation the egg was extremely difficult to see, even when I knew its exact

whereabouts. An unusual decoy trick practised by one sitting hen I watched

was to leave the eggs aud nestle some yards away, exactly as if she was on

her nest.

Small Indian Pratincole (Glareola lactea). 119, 200.

Breeds in very large numbers along the Irrawaddy valley. It appears to be,

at any rate, a local migrant arriving in February and is very rare from July

to January. Eggs can be found in some numbers from 20th March onwards,

though I saw a young one on 21st March, 1929; colonies probably suffer

severely from casualties, and I have found eggs as late as 16th May, shortly

before the river rose, On this date I also saw almost fully-grown young, which

can be distinguished in the field by the pale head and the absence of any

black on the forehead.

I attempted to take thermometric records of eggs at 4p.m. in March and

found that a thermometer placed between the eggs registered 105-110 degrees.

The usual clutch in this district is wo, and at least 50 per cent of the nests are

placed under isolated tufts of grass or other herbage for shade.

These birds have a very remarkable flight, occasionally seen when hawking

low over the water at dusk. They appear to slide just above the surface with

wings vibrating rapidly just above the back, the wings never seeming to be

brought into a horizontal position at all,

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Larus.

I saw no Gulls at all on the Irrawaddy in Prome District, though one might

well have expected them, except two on 16th March, 1928, which I only got a

distant view of. They may have been brunneicephalus.

Whiskered Tern (Chlidonias leucopareia). 295, 296.

Oates only observed it from November to May, and did not find it breeding. I

did not get achance to visit the big lakes in the rains and only saw three Whisker-

ed Ternsin two years. wo of these were shot on Letpanbu on 22nd March, 1929,

and were feeding ona backwater with S. aurantia. These birds did not agree

with the description in either Oates or Stuart Baker as regards their bill and

legs. The mandibles were vinous black and inside of the mouth very dark,

vinous red ; legs vinous red. The small size and mottled appearance of the

head and nape distinguished them from other Terns on the wing.

On Sth and 15th October, 1929, I saw small parties of Whiskered Terns

apparently migrating south across courtry near Tantabin in Insein District.

{Both are young birds in first winter plumage. Bills, exposed, 30-30°5 mm.;

moulting tail, wings and body plumage. ]

Indian River-Tern (Sterna aurantla).

The commonest Tern in the district and nests in very large colonies on

suitable sand-banks. My impression is that most of them leave the district

after the river rises in June, returning to their breeding haunts in January.

The commonest clutch is two, and I have found eggs in numbers by 22nd

March. The nesi is always in a deep hollow, unlined, in sandy mud.

I watched a male on 22nd March, 1928, ‘rolling’ infront of the female, with

tail vertically erect and wings shuffling, in a manner very similar to the

courtship of the Lapwing.

Black-bellied Tern (Sterna melanogaster).

This Tern is by no means uncommon and probably resident in small

numbers, but I failed to find it breeding. It was certainly not breeding in one

very large colony of Ahyncops, S. awrantta and S. sinensis in March, 1929.

It appeared to be breeding near Letpankaya in March, 1928, and I saw several

8-10 miles up the Thaledan stream in April, 1928, but again saw nothing to

prove that they were breeding. It is the only Tern which wanders far and

wide fishing over the smaller streams and road-side ditches of the paddy

plain.

White-shafted Ternlet (Sterna a, sinensis). 292.

I very much regret that I did not collect more Terns of this species. The

only one shot, on an island off Padaung on 21st March, 1929, was, I think,

undoubtedly breeding though it was just before dark and I had no time to

look for the eggs. This specimen was from a small colony, of which every

bird was flying round excitedly, exactly as if they had eggs. On 26th March,

1928, I saw one or two pairs on the same island which showed no signs of

breeding. On 16th May, 1928, I found two nests each with two eggs of a

Little Tern near Natmaw but did not identify the bird by shooting.

[This is no doubt Sterna a. sinensis. & wg. 173 mm.; billexposed 28°5 mm.;

shafts of the first three primaries white. In the Fauna, ed. ii, it is said that

this Tern breeds on the coast of Burma, whereas the Tern breeding on the

rivers of Burma is pusilla. Assuming that puszlla differs from sinensis, this

distribution cannot be correct. Robinson and Kloss give s7mensts as the

breeding bird in the Malay rivers. |

Indian Skimmer (Rhyncops albicollis). 293.

Oates says the normal clutch is four. The nests found by me never con-

tained more than three and J think incubation starts as soon as the first egg is

laid. I found three nests with birds sitting between 22nd and 26th March,

1928, and shot the male of a sitting hen on 21st March, 1929, finding two or

three nests on the same date. The nest is always an irregular hollow on the

bare sand far from other birds, and I noticed the hen constantly leaving the

nest to fly round with her mate. A flock was migrating south down the river

on 15th November, 1928.

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 45

Kentish Plover (Leucopolius alexandrinus alexandrinus). 115, 116, 314, 315, 316.

Oates never met it. I should say it was fairly common on the Irrawaddy

rom November to March. I came across a large flock near Tarokmaw on

4th February, all exceedingly tame and in very worn plumage, and another

large gathering on 24th March in all stages of plumage but with a number of

conspicuous chestnut-headed males. Saw nothing to suggest that they breed

in the district.

[Two from Tarokmaw on 4th February in worn plumage and three from

Thaledan on 24th March in very fresh dress. These I cannot separate from

the typicalrace. We. 108-114 mm.; bill exposed, 15°5-17°5 mm.]

Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius d. dubius).

Oates (ii. 371) says he never saw it in ‘ Northern Pegu.’ It is practically

impossible to distinguish this and the next race in the field.

Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover (Charadrius d. jerdoni) ¢ 2 ¢ 130, 248, 193.

Probably resident. All the Ringed Plovers obtained by me in February and

March were of this race. ‘They included one shot at dusk out of a party flying

south overland which appeared to be migrating on 5th March, 1929.

A Ringed Plover undoubtedly nests in the district, not only on the sand-banks

of the Irrawaddy, but on the big shingle banks of the Thaledan and other

streams, but I failed to find any nests or identify which race it was. Ata short

distance seen with glasses, this bird appears to have red eyes. One, which

appeared to have a nest close to me at Letpankaya, kept sinking down and pre-

tending to brood, shuffling its wings. This habit is noticeable in /zaticula

during courtship. It is noteworthy that Oates did not find either this bird or

dubius breeding.

Eastern Golden Plover (Pluvialis dominicus fulvus). 2 52, ¢ 242.

Oates remarks that there is one passage from September until November and

December but a considerable number remain till April or May. I saw newly-

arrived immigrants on 3rd October, 1928, and the earliest usually arrive in

mid-September. From then on to March it is common in suitable country,

a favourite haunt being the sandy Kazng-fields near Shwedaung.

[Two from Shwedaung on 22nd January and 2nd March. Both are young

birds moulting into summer plumage ; one of them retains a considerable amount

of juvenile plumage on the upper parts. ]

Spur-winged Plover (Hoplopterus ventralis).

Very common and resident. A considerable number breed up all the streams

running out of the Arakan Hills. Oates did not find its nest and I found it the

shyest and wariest bird to observe, unless a high bank or rise commanded the

nesting-ground. I found one clutch incubated on 29th April, 1928, and another

on 3rd March, 1929, both on open sand-flats : in neither case was there any

attempt ata nest. Judging from parties of 5 and 6 seen in mid-April up the

Thaledan and Mathon streams, the males either congregate in the breeding

season like Mallard, or there are still unpaired birds passing through.

The crouching of the male bird, when alarmed, is very similar to a habit I

noticed in the male Ringed-Plover in England in 1927.

Burmese Red-wattled Lapwing (Lobivanellus indicus atronuchalis).

Common and apparently resident, breeding mainly on paddy or fallow land.

Grey-headed Lapwing (Microsarcops cinereus) .

Common in small parties from October to March and seen usually on the

edges of fresh-water tanks. Oates records seeing large flocks at Inma.

Black-winged Stilt (Himantopus h. himantopus).

This bird is certainly not a ‘ resident’ over the greater part of Burma (S. B.

vi. 193). Oates considered it a winter immigrant only, and though I have seen

it in several districts, I have never seen any sign of its breeding, except a small

colony which I found in July 1921 near Kinu in the Shwebo district of Upper

Burma.

There were six or seven pairs breeding at Kinu on what the Burmans calla

‘soap bog’, of such a nature that no money would tempt them into it, and I

failed to obtain the eggs, though I saw with field-glasses from a distance at least

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

one hen bird sitting. In Prome the Stilt was by no means common, and I only

sawafew. One party of 12 which I saw in late September 1927 arriving over

the hill from the north on to the Nawin marshes were, I think, certainly on

passage.

Eastern Curlew (Numenius arquata lineatus).

I once heard a curlew passing down the Irrawaddy and Fielden got one

(as also Whimbrel) at Thayetmyo. Oates never saw it away from the sea-

coast neighbourhood.

Green Sandpiper (Tringa ochropus). 95.

Seen in small numbers from August to April. I think Oates’s remark that

he has generally found ‘ this Sandpiper in paddyfields in company with Snipe’

must refer to 7. glareola.

Marsh-Sandpiper (T. stagnatilis).

I do not think I can possibly have confused this bird with the Greenshank

which was common in Prome. Oates describes it as abundant in Pegu on the

mudbanks of the larger rivers,’ I never saw it for certain,

Common Sandpiper (T. hypoleucus),

This bird is probably observable from July to May. I have seen it from late

July to mid-April and it is common but rarely occurs except in ones or twos,

Wood Sandpiper (T. glareola) 2 96.

This is undoubtedly the common sandpiper of the district and is found

everywhere from July 20th to mid-April wherever there is water or marshy

ground. Snipe-shooting in this district and Henzadais nearly always complica-

ted in August and September by the cloud of Wood-Sandpipers rising

continually before one, out of which the rising Snipe has to be picked.

It is very widely distributed along the irrawaddy and even found on the

bigger hill-streams at low altitudes. I have seen it as late as April 29th.

Redshank (Totanus totanus sub-sp. ?)

I shot One or two on Inma, but it was nowhere common and I did not see

it along the Irrawaddy valley. [No specimens. ]

Greenshank (Glottis nebularia).

Very common from September to March along the Irrawaddy. I have

occasionally seen quite considerable flocks, and it is the commonest large wader.

Temminck’s Stint (Erolia temmincki) ¢ Q 91, 64.

Common in flocks in September and October and a few remain until!

mid-April. Oates described it as ‘comparatively rare’, but I think it will be

found to be at least as common as swbminuta which he thought the common

stint of the Pegu Division.

Little Stint (Erolia m. minuta).

Oates described it as ‘ by no means common’ and apparently procured it

only in South Pegu. I saw considerable numbers of Stints in flocks from

mid-August onwards, but all those obtained were temmincki or subminuta.

Long-toed Stint (Erclia subminuta) 2 ¢ 100, 109.

I shot several of these in February and March 1929 on Letpanbu and could

always distinguish them from the other stints they were with by the much

darker mottlings of the back. I shot it in mid-August in the Insein district

ineoZ0,

[These are darker on the upper parts than mznufa in similar winter dress

due to the dark centres of the feathers having a larger area; the tail feathers

are darker and there is a well-defined grey streaked pectoral gorget. ‘The toes

are of course noticeably long and slender. | |

Woodcock (Scolopax r. rusticola).

I can find no records of this bird in Prome, but it is probably overlooked. 1

had a report of some being seen two miles north of Inma in 1928 and thought I

saw one on the edge of the Inmaswamp. Mr. Claudius of the Burma Railways

shot 3 near Hmawza, a few miles east of Prome, in December 1928,

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 47

Common or Fantail Snipe (Capella g. gallinago). ¢ 142.

Common but probably does not arrive in any numbers before December

and is then confined to the mayin paddy on the Irrawaddy jheels. This bird’s

flight, note, reddish-brown appearance on the wing, and the places it frequents,

all distinguish it at once from the Pintail.

[One, February 10th ; I can match this exactly with British birds. |

Pintail Snipe (Gallinago stenura). ¢6.

Mr. C. E. Milner, 1. F.S., first brought to my notice the fact that a large

number of Pintail Snipe obtained in September or October, are moulting their

primaries and can barely fly. Jm ditt. he writes of a day’s shooting near

Moulmein on 3rd September, 1927. ‘A number of birds we killed with

primaries only just sprouting: somecould hardly flutter... As far as Ican

remember, these birds were all plump and all Pintail and showed 2, 3 or 4

bright blue quills in each wing.’ I noticed much the same thing in Prome

but did not preserve any. These birds sat very close and flew with difficulty

and possibly they moult several of their primaries at once.

In 1927 and 1928, Pintail Snipe had arrived in some numbers on the Nawin

marshes by 14th August and were abundant throughout September and October.

Later on, when the ground dries up except for the jheels along the Irrawaddy,

the bulk of those seen are Fantail. On the Inma lake I have shot this bird in

the hottest part of the day out of the shade of bushes on baked mud a

considerable distance from water. I noticed the same thing in the Upper

Chindwin where one often flushed snipe out of burnt Kazmg grass. The habit

of spending the middle of the day on dry sandy ground far from water is one

not uncommon with Snipe in Great Britain, especially in the eastern counties.

Spotted-billed Pelican (Pelecanus philippensis ?)

This bird must be rare in the district as I only saw one pelican in two years

and did not get near enough to identify the species for certain.

Indian Large Cormorant (Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis).

I did not see this bird, and do not think it can have been at all common.

Little Cormorant (Phalacrocorax niger). ¢ 291.

A fair number from November to March along theriver. This bird breeds in

some numbers in palm trees at Kyangin and Seikktha in the Henzada district, a

few miles south of the border in company with SB. coromandus in the rains. I

have not actually found it breeding in Prome.

Indian Darter (Anhinga melanogaster).

Common.

White Ibis (Threskiornis melanocephalus).

I saw a very large flock on Kywedalin south of Tarokmaw on Sth February,

1929, and should not be surprised to find it bred there.

White-necked Stork (Dissoura episcopa episcopa).

I saw a pair some way up the Mathon stream in mid-April 1928, which may

have been breeding.

Eastern Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea manillensis).

Found in small numbers all along the Irrawaddy valley, as a rule singly.

Very shy, though occasionally in high rushes birds will allow a very close

approach,

Eastern Grey Heron (Ardea cinerea rectirostris).

Oates says it probably breeds but he never met it in the rains. I think it ig

resident in small numbers.

Eastern Large Egret (Herodias alba modesta).

Not uncommon but nearly always solitary. (The local name ofall bitterns,

pond herons, and egrets is dyazng.)

Little Egret (Egretta g. garzetta).

In small numbers. Breeds.

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Cattle-Egret (Bubulcus ibis coromandus).

This bird feeds largely on refuse near trenching grounds and slaughter-houses.

It is the common egret of the district and nests in very large numbers in the

heart of Prome town and in suitable places elsewhere. Stuart Baker says it

starts to breed in July in Burma, but on 29th April, 1928, the Prome colony

started to nest, the material (mainly tamarind twigs) being brought over the

Irrawaddy. Pair after pair flew over my house on this errand. On 14th May

I saw others building at Paukkaung.

Indian Pond-Heron (Ardeola grayii).

Very common everywhere. Breeds in company with B. coromandus.

Chinese Pond-Heron (Ardeola bacchus).

Oates apparently never discovered this Heron in Pegu, and Iam inclined to

doubt if it occurs as more than a straggler.

Little Green Heron (Butorides striatus javanicus).

Common on the wooded streams such as the Thaledan and Mathon in the

Arakan foothills, where I saw it in April 1928.

Night Heron (Nycticorax n. nycticorax).

Common and probably resident. In the adjoining district of Henzada I

found it breeding in July and August in close company with daylight feeders

such as Cormorants and &. coromandus, so that the din of the colony never

ceased day and night.

Malay Tiger-Bittern (Gorsachius m. melanolophus).

I saw one of these on the Mathon stream in the Arakan foothills in April

1928. It was shy but perched for a while in a tree, and gave me a good view of

its chestnut-cinnamon back.

Yellow Bittern (Ixobrychus s. sinensis).

Not uncommon along the Irrawaddy valley. It is never seen except when

flushed from swampy ground. It seemed to disappear almost entirely after

October.

Chestnut Bittern (Ixobrychus cinnamomeus).

Oates describes it as ‘ nocturnal in its habits, shy, and very seldom seen.’

Stuart Baker describes it as ‘crepuscular and shy in its habits.’ Like the

Black Bittern, I consider this bird in Lower Burma is most conspicuous in the

breeding season and pairs may frequently beseen flying round in wide circles

in broad daylight, apparently ‘ displaying’. ‘They also travel considerable

distances from their feeding-grounds to their nests, and I have found it a

matter of extreme difficulty to mark them down in consequence. This bird

appears to be an immigrant in Prome from June to October and disappears as

its breeding-haunts dry up.

Black Bittern (Dupetor f. flavicollis).

Stuart Baker and Oates remark that this bird is mainly ‘ nocturnal in its

habits’. In the rains when it is presumably breeding, this is very far from

being the case and on Hlawga Lake near Rangoon, individuals can be observed

at all hours of the day flying strongly, at a considerable height, from their

feeding-grounds to places at such a distance that 1 have been unable with

powerful glasses to mark their destination. This bird is not uncommon in

Prome and I have reason to think it breeds.

Nukhta or Comb Duck (Sarcidiornis melanotus) Local name: J/auktin (not

Maukton. §.B. vi. 385).

Not very common as it falls an easy prey to every Burman with a gun.

(It may be noted that Stuart Baker in Judian Ducks does not specially

record this species from Upper Burma, but I have got it in Shwebo, Sagaing and

the Upper Chindwin Districts.) Oates comments on its abundance at Inma.

On 5th September, 1927, I saw a female with a brood of young ones at Prome

which were well grown but still unable to fly. In the non-breeding season

it resorts to sand-banks on the Irrawaddy,

THE BIRDS OF THE PROME DISTRICT, BURMA 4g

White-winged Wood-Duck (Asarcornis scutulatus),

I have seen this bird in the Upper Chindwin and the Insein Districts of

Burma. Ihave no reason to think it occurs in Prome and there is no water

in the forest areas suitable for it, but Mr. Milner, I.F.Ss., informs me it was

not uncommon in Tharrawaddy before the War. I saw a pair in Insein

District in December 1925 and have several other records of its occurrence there.

It may be worth recording that one which I had driven to mein the Upper

Chindwin, when shot, vaz at a great speed about 200 yards through dense

jungle pursued by a terrier and when I eventually forced my way to it, I found

it stretched out and feigning death, with the terrier standing over it.

The drake and duck of two pairs seen here had separate notes, like Shelduck

in the breeding season, the drake a low ‘cronk’, ‘cronk’, and the female

a whistle, when on the wing.

Cotton-Teal (Nettapus coromandelianus), Local name :—Kadagat.

Very common from November to March on the big 7/ee/s of the Irrawaddy

valley. I have not actually found it breeding, but in August 1927 saw two

adults and a number of young birds which kept flying round an immense

nyaungbin tree (ficus) in Paukkaung and settling on branches fifty or sixty

feet from the ground. I have no doubt they had bred there.

Grey Geese (? Anser indicus).

The only geese ever seen by me in Prome were a gaggle which was reported

in January, 1929, as frequenting the sand-banks and the pea-fields of the

Irrawaddy valley near Shwedaung in Januarv, 1929. 1 made more than one

attempt to find them and eventually a gaggle of 20-25 birds flew past me

about 100 yards distant on 3rd March, 1929. As I was trying to hide for a shot,

I did not get my glasses on to them but think they were zvdicus. It is note~

worthy that Oates had no record of geese in Lower Burma or Tenasserim at

all. A recent enquiry in the Press has failed to obtain any such records from

sportsmen,

Large Whistling-Teal (Dendrocygna fulva). Local name :—Sv7sa/z.

Oates notes that this was the only species he procured in Prome and

Thayetmyo and I never found javanica in two years though it may occur in

the south of the district. /ulva was common and-undoubtedly breeding near

Kyithe in the rains of 1928. Oates noted its abundance on the Inma Lake,

where I obtained it.

Ruddy Sheldrake (Casarca ferruginea), Local name :—Hintha.

Stuart Baker. (/udian Ducks, p. 141) says that itis ‘avery rare straggler ’

to Southern Burma, which presumably means Tenasserim. Jt is common

from November to March along the Irrawaddy valley throughout the district.

Four seen flying south down the river at Prome in mid-November, 1928, were

probably migrating.

It also occurs in some numbers on the Hlaing and Irrawaddy rivers on the

borders of the Insein and Matibin districts.

Spot-Bill (Anas poecilorhyyncha sub-sp. ? ).

I have never seen a Spot-bill in Prome and Oates never met with it in Pegu,

nor did I ever see any duck which bore any resemblance to it. It is of course

coinmon in Upper Burma, particularly so in Sagaing and Shwebo. Mr. Milner,

I.F.S., shot two on Kya-In just south of the Prome border in Tharrawaddy

Distric® on 8th January, 1910. He also saw two on the Ataran river,

Moulmein, in December 1924.

Gadwali (Chaulelasmus streperus).

Oates never met it in Pegu, nor have lin Prome or elsewhere south of Shwebo

District. Mr. E. B. Bloech informs me that he has never met it in many years,

shooting in the southern part of the Pegu Division. Mr. Milner says he

identified two small lots on the Ataran river (Moulmein) with glasses in

December 1924 ‘ without any possibility of dcubt’. A recent enquiry made

by me through the medium of the Press failed to elicit any other records of

Gadwallin Lower Burma.

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

Shoveler (Spatula clypeata).

Stuart Baker (Game Birds, vol. i, p. 236), says that it has ‘not yet been

recorded from Pegu or Tenasserim’. I shot one on the Inma Lake on 24th

December. 1928, and saw one or two on the Letpanbu jheel in January 1929.

It was certainly not common. Oates apparently never met it. Mr. Bloech,

who knows the bird well, informs me that he has shot it a few miles north of

Pegu town and also on the Hlaing river in the north ofthe Insein District.

Mr. Milner saw a small party of Shoveler in Ataran (Moulmein) in 1924 of

which he had a good view with field-glasses.

Wigeon (Mareca penelope).

Oates never met it and apparently disbelieved the statement that it occurred

in the Pegu Division. Mr. Bloech informs me that he has shot it on Pyinbongyi,

a few miles north of the town of Pegu, and also on the Hlaing river in the

Insein District, but these were only isolated occurrences.

Common Teal (Nettion crecca). @ 126, 162.

Fairly common from November to February along the Irrawaddy.

Pintail (Dafila acuta acuta).

Oates (ii. 280) found it in some numbers at Inma and considered it the

commonest of the larger migratory ducks. I saw considerable numbers on the

Letpanbu jheel and the Irrawaddy in January and February 1929 and shot

several.

Garganey (Querquedula querquedula). Localname: Zé.

As Oates remarks, it is the commonest duck in Lower Burina. The earliest

seen by me were four on 28th September, 1928, on the Nawin, and a party near

Shwedaung on 30th September of the same year. Very large numbers frequent

some jheels on the Irrawaddy. I have seen odd birds as late as March, in

which month it is sometimes very common in Upper Burma on migration.

Tufted Pochard (Nyroca fuligula fuligula), © 141.

Oates had no record of this bird in Pegu or Tenasserim and there were

apparently none up to 1921. [shot one out of a party on the Letpanbu jheel

on 29th December, 1928, and saw a fair number on the same water. I also

got another female on 10th February, 1929, in the same place.

Indian Little Grebe (Podiceps ruficollis capensis). 110, 111. Local name :—JSé,

A considerable number flocked on Letpanbu in January and February 1929.

Oates also got the species in Prome and considered it a resident.

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS.

REPORT ON THE MONKEYS.

Re 1) .POCOCK.- ERS;

The Bonnet Macaques (Macaca radiata) and the Langurs

(Pithecus entellus) recently obtained by Messrs. N. A. Baptista and

V.S. La Personne on the Mammal Survey of the Eastern Ghats

are sufficiently interesting to call for special notice. Their exami-

nation and compatison with examples previously secured by the

Survey and already recorded in this Journal have tncidentally

brought to light some new facts demanding a revision of these

monkeys in Southern India.

THE BONNET MACAQUE (Macaca radiata).'

The localities, dimensions and other particulars of the examples

of this monkey, supplied by the collector, N. A. Baptista, are as

follows :—

og 8 toes

ae vs} Ces ra

Locality and Sex OT br On: + dN O0 v

GB q og — as)

oY oO oO 8 D So

Wma} oe eA cae aa

Malakondapenta, Kurnool District | 1’ 88” | 1’ 103”| 3’ 74”|12 Ibs.|Mayl4

, a - J ses Tae 1’ : ga” BY 52” 10 mere,

om) i) ” 2 i 53” Ne 73” oF Tey 63 sy | yy 99

Shevaroy Hills, 4,500’ lake See 0271-3" 107 Wide | 19

Karumbapatti, Salem Gil lise. le ot Ou Ce omee eal ae Apr 21

_ As will be explained in a subsequent paper, these skins, collected

in April and May before the moult, are long and shaggy in the coat

and pallid from fading, the distal portion of the hairs being greyish

buff for along distance. So far as their dimensions and weights

1 By Blanford and many writers on Indian Monkeys this species was cited as

Macacus stnicus; but Hinton and Wroughton (Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.

27, pp. 813-815, 1921), have shown that the name szz7cus was given by Linnzeus

to its Ceylonese ally, the Toque Macaque, and that radiata is the earliest mame

that can be assigned to the Indian species. The correctness of this conclusion

does not admit of a doubt.

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

are concerned they agree tolerably closely with other examples

obtained by the Survey farther to the west and south in India; and

the particulars supplied show the average differences in size between

the sexes.

Some diinensions in millimetres of the skulis are as follows :—

Locality aud Sex | Total | Zygom.| Orbits oft pper| “ower

olars

Malakondapenta, Kurnool. ¢ ad. 116 73° 60 32 83

- yea subad: 110 13 58 31 76

i + ust ad: 95 65 sy 28 65

Shevaroy Hills. fo just ad. 120 76 61 33 86

Salem. © ad. 105 64 55 30 74

As may be seen, the Kurnool specimens are noticeably smaller

than those from the Shevaroy Hills. But afew millimetres ina

monkey’s skull, aithough on paper they suggest a considerable

difference, do not in reality amount to much. The Shevaroy

specimens, male and female, are as large as any obtained by the

Survey from other localities and preserved in the British Museum.

THE LANGURS

Pithecus entellus.

When I published the monographic revision of the Indian Langurs

assigned to Pithecus entellus (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., Vol. XXXII,

pp. 472-498, 1928), there were no available specimens of the species

from the south-eastern area of the peninsula to compare with the

large numbers of specimens obtained by the Mammal Survey in

the central, western and southern districts. As was to be expected

therefore, the examples of this species recently collected in the

Eastern Ghats prove to be of exceptional interest and in a great

measure bear out the opinion I expressed (p. 478) that ‘ further

collections in- areas not yet investigated, like the eastern parts of

India from Orissa to south of Madras, will almost certainly bring to

light new local races and will perhaps show that some of the forms

here nominally distinguished are based upon characters not deserv-

ing that distinction.’

The following examples were secured: four females of various

ages collected in April at Diguvametta in the Kurnool District, one

Sault female collected in November in the Nallamaiai Hills, 2,000’,

d. Kurnool, one adult female collected in June at Dasarladoddi, the

Palkonda Hillis, 1,600’, and one adult male collected in July at

Tirthamalai, Salem, 1,000’, in the Shevaroy Hills. Provisionally at

all events I assign the Kurnool specimens to /7thecus entellus

anchises and the Palkonda and Salem specimens to Pithecus entellus

pallipes.

—* *

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 53

Pithecus entellus anchises, Blyth

Presbytis anchises, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, Vols. XIII, p. 470,

1844, and XVI, p. 733, 1847.

Pithecus entellus anchtses, Pocock, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc.,

Vol. XXXII, p. 488, 1928.

Blyth gave the name azchises to the skin of alangur from an

unknown locality in the Deccan, describing it as like typical evzel/us,

which has jet black hands and feet strongly contrasted with the

paler arms and legs, but differing in having the hands mixed white

and blackish and the feet whitish with dusky black above the base

of the toes and on the terminal phalanges, the leg from the knee

whitish and the coat very long.

The length of the coat in this specimen probably indicates that it

was killed in mid-winter. But the chief interest of the skin lies in

its supplying an intermediate stage in the tint of the hands and feet

between typical ertel/us and typical pallzpes.

In my paper, above quoted, I provisionaily assigned to anchzses

some specimens obtained by the Survey, namely, a long-coated

form collected in November in Hewra in Nimar, 1,000’, and two

from Seone Malwa, C. P. (S. H. Prater). These monkeys, as was

pointed out, are not exactly alike, nor do they agree precisely with

the description of anchises; but the Nimar specimen is intermediate

between typical exze//ws and typical pallzpes (cf. infra) in the colora-

tion of the hands and feet; and one at all events of the examples

from Seone Malwa is intermediate between typical ezfellus and

achates in having the head somewhat paler than the shoulders, and

between these two black-handed and black-footed races and the

pale-handed and pale-footed pal/ipes in the partially pale hands and

feet.

_ In the specimens from Diguvametta in Kurnool the hands and feet

are paler than in the specimen from Seone Malwa, but the fingers

and toes are brown or black and sharply contrasted with the grey

tint of the arms and legs which spreads on to the top of the hands

and feet. In the oldest specimen the contrast is most marked, the

blackness of the digits extending along the inner edge of the hand

and foot almost to the wrist and ankle. This specimen, too, is

greyer and less buffy on the back than the others and has a decidedly

grey patch on the crown of the head, thus approaching the condition

seen in typical eztel/us and pallzfes in which the top of the head is

the same or almost the same tint as the shoulders and back. Inthe

others the crown shows scarcely a trace of grey and is slightly paler

than the tack and shoulders, thus approaching the condition seen in

achates, tulus, priamellus and other more western and southern forms

in which the buffy head is sharply contrasted with the dark

shoulders and back. In all these Kurnool specimens the cheeks,

ventral surface and inside of the limbs and buttocks are whitish

grey, or, at most, faintly tinged with buff, but there is a very

appreciable amount of buff on the chest, and only an inch or so of

the tip of the tail is pale.

- The example from the Nallamalai Range, 2,000’, shot in Novem-

ber, resembles those obtained in April at Diguyametta in the

04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

general hue of the upper side of the tail, the outside of the limbs;

the hands and feet, and the crown is slightly paler than the shoulder,

but the cheeks, buttocks, lower side and inside of the limbs are

much more deeply suffused with buff. This skin is hardly distin-

guishable from the one, referred to above, from Hewra in Nimar,

also procured in November, except that the coat is not so long.

But, as explained below, this Langur differs from the Hewra

specimen as well as from the other Kurnool examples in some

cranial characters.

With the conversion of millimetres into English inches, the

following table gives the weights and measurements taken in the

flesh of the Kurnool examples :—

Locality and Sex | fee Tail Total | Weight

Diguvametta, 9 old rool ae, ae 22 3 SSSR. 92:50 ae ee24 Ibs,

‘ 2 ad. mG EA hee CC he ale, Get,

e © yng, ad. trea ke OZ See alae or 404 2255

Nallamalai, @ ad. Sale eZee 2a 4’ 11”

These particulars agree very closely with those of the females of

pallipes and thersites given below,

The skull measurements in millimetres of the same specimens are

as follows :—

Length of

a Total Zygom. | Orbital

Locality and Sex : : Upper

Length Width Width Molars

Diguvametta, 9 old ... a 108 85 69 34

iG Quaid save. oe 105 81 66 35

; @ yng. ad. ‘s 105 82 67 34

Nallamalai, Qad. ... est 106 85 66 30

As may be seen by the difference in the length of the upper

molar series, these teeth are all smaller in the Nallamalai specimen,

the first upper molar, penultimate tooth, being nearly 1 mm. shorter

and narrower. The lower jaw too is different in shape owing to

the greater development of its ascending ramus which has the lower

and posterior edges more produced and the two rami are more

widely divergent behind. In other characters the skulls are very

similar: and on the evidence of one skull only from Nallamalai,

nothing at present can be done with the differences beyond record-

ing them, |

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 55

Pithecus entellus pallipes, Blyth.

Semnopithecus pallipes, Blyth, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., p. 312, 1844

April).

Be a odelicus priam, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XITI,

pp. 470 and 476, 1844 (after October).

Semnopithecus priamus, Blyth, Journ. As. Soc., Bengal, Vol. XVI,

pp. 732 and 1271, pl. 54, 1847 (in part); also Anderson and Blanford

(in part).

When I described this race of Pzthecus entlellus two years ago, I

followed Blyth, Anderson, Blanford and others in regarding the

big langur, with the tufted head, which is found in Ceylon, as

racially identical with the similar langur occurring in parts of

southern India. And this course was justified by the close simila-

rity in colour, size and other features between a number of examples

from Ceylon and the only two Indian examples in the British

Museum, namely, two adult males, one ticketed 50 miles S. of

Trivandrum, Travancore (Col. F. W. Dawson), the other Arambo,

at the foot of the Mahendragiri Range, Travancore (R. 5S. Pillay).

By the authors just quoted, and others, this Langur was called

Semnopithecus or Presbytis priamus, although the earliest name Blyth

gave to it was pallipes.

Now the typical examples, three in number, of pallies (priam )

came from the Coromandel Coast as stated by Blyth in 1843.

Comparing this langur with extellus (sensu stricto), he said it has

‘nought of the yellowish tinge and more of the /azt¢ in the chocolat

au lait’ tint of the body, the hands and the feet being pale and

resembling the rest of the limbs, and the whiskers and nape whitish.

In 1846 he extended the range to Ceylon and, on the authority of

Jerdon who told him the species was common at Tellicherry, to the

Malabar Coast.

In 1879 Anderson altered and amplified Blyth’s description of the -

Coromandel specimens declaring them to be pale ashy grey on the

top of the head, the back, the outside of the arm, the upper part of

the thigh and the tail, apart from its paler tip, whereas the sides of

the head, the nape, the lower half of the thigh, the hands, feet,

under side of the body and inside of the limbs are yellowish.

Anderson also pointed out that Ceylonese specimens are much

darker, being of a pale vinaceous brown on the back, the crown,

the outside of the limbs and the tail. Herein lies the interest of

the adult female collected by N. A. Baptista on June 29 at

Dasarladoddi, 1,600 feet in the Paikonda Hills in Cuddapah and

the adult male collected in July at Tirthamalai 1,000 feet in the

Shevaroy Hills in Salem.

In the male, the general colour of the upper side from the crown

of the head to the root of the tail is olive or brownish grey, the

nape being buffy and in conjunction with the white cheeks and

brow-band setting off the tufted crown. The outsides of the upper

arm and thigh are the same tint as the back, but below the elbow

and knee the limbs become gradually paler, the hand being pale

grey and blending with the wrist, whereas on the leg the grey dies

out at the ankle leaving the foot white with some darker hairs on

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

the knuckles. The tail apart from the tip is blacker grey than the

back ; and the under side, the inside of the limbs, like the whiskers,

are whitish.

This male does not seem to differ in any respect from Blyth’s

brief description cf pallzpes (priam) ; but the female, which resem-

bles it in the tint of the upper side, differs in having the brown of

the crown paler and blending more with the frontal band and

cheeks, which are not so white and the nape considerably paler, the

chest and belly decidedly washed with buff, some black hairs on the

fingers and more grey on thetoes. In the tint of the pale parts at

least it recalls the examples described by Anderson; and since the

Palkonda Range is midway between Kurnool to the north and

Salem to the south, it is interesting to note that but for the tuft on

the crown and the paler hands and feet in which it is more like the

male from Salem, it is not separable from the examples from

Kurnool assigned to azchises.

Both these specimens bear out Anderson’s statement that Siac

mandel Coast Langurs with the tufted crown and hands and feet

the same tint as the arms and legs are paler than Ceylonese

examples exhibiting the same features. Now that I have seen

Coromandel Coast examples, I think the two types represent

distinct local races. The Coromandel form carries the very

appropriate name pallzfes and the Ceylon form the name ¢herszies

given by Blyth in 1847 to an isolated example, secured near

Trincomalee, which he named because it had no tuft on the head.

This tuft, however, although present. in perhaps 95 per cent. of

Ceylonese examples, is not invariably present. In addition to

Blyth’s record of its absence in the type of thersztes, Kelaart record-

ed a second case and one of several specimens collected by

Major E. W. Mayor for the Survey at Mankeni, near Trincomalee,

constitutes a third.

As stated above, there are two examples of Langurs in the

British Museum, from Travancore, which seem to be inseparable in

colour from the Ceylon torm, /¢hersztes. ‘The question now arises:

to which of the two races, pallzpes or therstes, do the Langurs of

this type inhabiting the Nilgiri Hills belong ? I have seen no skins

from these hills, only two skulls certified by Blanford and Thomas |

as having been taken from head-skins referable to drzam, But this

opinion must be taken.cum g7vano and left as uncertain until skins

come to hand to settle the point.

When I discussed this Ceylonese Langur in 1928, [had only a few

specimens for examination. Since then Mr. T. Fry has shown

me a very large number of skins and skulls collected for the Survey

in various parts of the island by Major E. W. Mayor. Some notes

on this fine series may be useful.

Although the colour of these Langurs is subject to considerable

variation, I have been unable definitely to associate the variations

either with locality or season.

In a series collected at Mankeni in September and October the

general colour of the back and head is typically dark-brown with a

varying amount of paler buff-tipped hairs on the nape and a general

absence of long glistening hairs on the body. The arms above are

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS 57

like the back, but below they lose the brown hue, the tint, passing

into blackish grey on the hands. ‘The thigh, apart from the pale

buttock, is like the back, but below the knee the leg becomes paler

and greyer passing gradually into the pale whitish grey foot.

The tail also is like the back apart from its pale tip. The whiskers,

under side and inside of the limbs, are greyish white.

One female, however, collected on September 28, is a good deal

paler than the others, the hairs of the neck, shoulders and fore back

having long buffy tips as if the coat was.old and fading. This is

the example referred to above which has no definite crest on the

crown.

Several specimens collected at Cheddikulam in November and

December generally resemble the darker specimens from Mankeni.

But one adult male, shot on December 3, has more long glisten-

ing hairs on the shoulders and back. Another adult male has the

cheeks, throat, chest and abdomen tinged with buff, like one of the

specimens from Travancore. ‘Two females, collected on December -

2, are paler and shabbier looking in the coat.

A male from Kala Oya, shot on May 14, is dark brown like the

September Mankeni specimens; but a female from Tammanewa,

near Kala Oya, killed in the same month is paler than the Mankeni

set, but the coat is in no sense deteriorating. f

A female from Ranna (8. P.), collected on May 20, is also

palish brown but the streaky look of the pelage suggests the

imminence of the moult. A young female taken two days earlier

at the same place is buffy grey in hue, the palest Ceylonese

specimen observed.

An adult female, shot on June 10 at Kirinda (S. P.), has a

markedly faded washed-out appearance, being ‘straw coloured’

over the shoulders with an abundance of very long rather coarse

hairs with bleached glistening ends. Buta male from Welligatta,

shot on June 24, is in colour and texture of coat hardly distin-

cuishable from the male shot at Cheddikulam on December 3. A

female from Arucam Bay, shot on August 22, has a pale faded

appearance.

These contradictory details show the difficulties in the way of

understanding the changes in colour and coat.of this Ceylonese

Langur. The explanation of them will probably be reached only by

an intensive study of the monkeys by some naturalist resident in the

island.

The principal dimensions and weights, taken in the flesh, of some

of the langurs assigned to P. extellus pallipes and P. eniellus thersites

are as follows :—

Atambo; lravancore, “ad. 1” 114% | 2” 8% | 4°. +72”

Length of

eee. Length] Total a

Locality and Sex Eyre of Tail | Length Weight =

Salem, E. Ghats, gad. Die malea aor el: Oe ad Ibs.| pallipes.

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Length of

Locality and Sex Head and

Body

—<—————=— = =

Length] Total

of Tail | Length

Cheddikulam, Geylon,~ Guadeln2. 917 | 3) Cratos Talo oieles. wyicreiitcs.

ish his Gad VOTAS ZF 20 BG ana Saloons eins R

Mankeni, a had.| 2? 20? Pot ane a sop ‘

dads) 1” 108” | 2”, 8971 4 Zyl 24a, 2

Palkonda Hills,

Cuddapah, Ora). UO AA |S) eG lO eee ena iahes.

Cheddikulam, Ceylon, Qad.| 1’ 10” 2 ea St 1S ae hemsii ese

Mankeni, ‘, © adil. B 21880 p28 a A alee Set lose, im

»» ss PaCV Ola alk ekte Ce iran YAR ASIEN oo )

Arucam Bay, is O'ads) Lo 0S7 ik 2G te a ee ee a

From this table it will be seen that the male of fa//ipes from

Salem, although only slightly longer than the longest male of

ihersttes, is considerably heavier than the heaviest and about 10 lbs.

heavier than the average weight of the four males, the largest

recorded, of the Ceylon race entered in thetable. ‘The figures bear

out Blanford’s guess that ‘Madras specimens are probably larger

than Ceylonese’.

Some cranial measurements in millimetres of the Indian speci-

mens and a few of the Ceylonese are as follows :—

eT IY SE TE STS

aT La,

, : Length of

Salem, E. Ghats, dé ad. 127 102 80 26 pallipes.

Arambo, Travancore, (ad. 123 95 78 32 ? thersites .

Nilgiri Hills, Brad | 1a12 97 78 34 |? pallipes.

Valaichenai, Ceylon, ad. 119 87 71 29 | thersites.

Cheddikulam, J old. 118 91 76 39 -

Mankeni, é ad. 113 eho) Fikes Lay 32 Li

gad.| 109 87 72 30 3

Palkonda Hills, © ad. 106 81 67 33 pallipes.

Nilgiri Hills, Osad. 102 64 9 05 30 ? pallipes.

Mankeni, O-ad=}- 203 75 60 50 thersites.

Kala Oya, OvaGe 100 82 68 30 AP

Arucam Bay, Qad.; 100 id, 60 28 +

THE MAMMAL SURVEY OF THE EASTERN GHATS Sy)

The skull of the example pall/zfes from Salem is noticeably bigger

in all the dimensions recorded than the skulls of the males of

thersttes, the largest available for measurement. The skulls from

the Nilgiri Hills and Travancore are nearly intermediate between

the two. These two skulls differ extraordinarily in shape, as illus-

trated and described on p. 497 of my paper already quoted. The skull

from Salem serves to link in a measure the differences between

them. The forehead is flatter than in the Travancore skull, the

nose is intermediate in prominence between the two, the occiput is

not so uptilted and the mandible is not so massive and arcuate nor

is its symphysis so long as in the example from the Nilgiris.

The teeth of fallifes are also bigger than of thersi/es. This is

shown in the table by the greater length of the upper molar series

in the male from Salem and the female from the Palkonda Hiils as

compared with that of the examples from Ceylon, and the first true

molar, the penultimate tooth of the row, is nearly 1 mm. longer and

broader in the Coromandel than in the Ceylonese specimens. In

the Nilgiri Hill and Travancore specimens, the teeth are of the

larger kind.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.

E. Bir. S.J, PLD h.L.S. ANDO eg sae Vili ARI ieZes.

Part VI.

(With two coloured plates, two black and white plates and 5 diagrams. )

THE CASSIAS.

Cassia is an ancient Greek name for a genus which comprises

some 400 different trees, shrubs and herbs, some of them famed for

the beauty and profusion of their flowers, others for their medicinal

value. The genus is included in the family Cesalpiniacee which is

named after the Italian botanist Andreas Ceesalpinus who flourished

between 1519 and 1603. We propose to illustrate in colour 3 species

of this genus which are noted for their showy flowers and to refer

more briefly to a few others, which are as commonly cultivated.

THE INDIAN LABURNUM |

Popular names; Indian Laburnum, Golden Shower, Pudding Pipe

Tree, Purging Cassia (Engl.); Casse officinale, Casse Mondée

(French); Rohrenkassie, Fistelkassie (Germ.); Cana fistula

(Spanish) ; Amaltas, Girmalah (Hind., Duk.) ; Alash, Ali, Karangal,

Kiar, Kaniar (Pb.); Raj-briksk, Kitola (Kumaon); Raj Briksha

(Nepal); Chimkani (Sind); Sundali, Sonali, Amultas, Bandarlati

(Beng.) ; Nuruic (Santal) ; Sonawir (Mal.,S.P.) ; Hari(Kol.) ; Dunras

(Karwar); Rajbirij (Nepal); Sonalu (Garo); Bonurlate, Bonurlauri

(Palamow); Sunaru (Ass.); Bandolat (Cachar); Sandari or Sunari

(Uriya); Kitwali, Kitoli, Itola, Shimarra, Sim (N.W.F.P.); Warga

(Oudh); Jaggarwah, Raila, Hirojah, Karkacha (C.P.); Raella

(Baigas) ; Jaggra, Jagarua, Kambar, Rera (Gond) ; Banag, Bangru

(Kukru); Bahava, Bhawa, Baya, Bawa (Mar.); Garmal or Garmals

(Guj.) ; Konraih-kay, Skarak-konraih-kay, Kone (Tam.) ; Relu, Rela-

rala, Rela-kayalu, Suvarnam (Tel.); Konnak-kaya (Mal.) Kakee

(Kan.); Khiyar-shanbur, Katha-ul-Hind (Arab.); Khiyar-chanbar

(Pers.); Suvarnaka, Aragbadha, Rajataru (Sans.); Ahalla or Ahilla

(Sing.) ; Gnooshway, Gnoo-kyee (Burm.).

Cassia fistula Linn. Sp. Pi. (1753) 377. Cassia is the old Greek

name of Dioscorides, fzstu/a means a pipe alluding to the tubular

shape of the fruit.

Description: This beautiful tree is frequently planted on city

roads and avenues. Laburnum Road in Bombay derives its name

from the number of Laburnums planted there,

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. Pratr 17,

John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Lt London

THE INDIAN LABURNUM.

Cassia fistula, Linn.

(4 nat.size)

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 61

It is a more gracefully shaped tree than the English Laburnum.

The Indian Laburnum is asmali, upright tree which grows to

aplheiont of. 20 vor 30° Tt, Its

trunk is short, its branches

slender, upright and spreading ;

its foliage of the deepest green.

In young trees the bark is

smooth and ash-coloured. In

older trees it becomes rough

and dark brown. ‘The tree has

a compound leaf. The pubes-

cent or slightly downy main-

Stalk’? .0r 4 rachis! of the ‘leaf,

9 to 16 inches long, bears from

4to 8 pairs of leaflets. Those

erowing about the base of the

rachis are broadly ovate in

shape, while the leaflets nearer

its tip are more oblong and

blunt ended. The leaflets grow

opposite or nearly opposite one

another. They are from 2 to §

inches long and about 1} to 33

inches broad. They are smooth

above and covered with fine

veins, more conspicuous on the

under surface of the leaflet.

The tender leaves are bright

green and covered below witha

silvery down. ‘The erect bran-

ches and large leaves are distinctive

in the Indian Laburnum and quite

unlike the feathery, mimosa-like

foliage and drooping branches so

usual among the Cassia trees.

Few trees in India are more

beautiful when in flower. Draped

in streaming clusters of bright

yellow blossoms, which hang from

its branches in a golden shower, |

the tree suggests the English /—

Laburnum. But it is _ infinitely

more beautiful. Its drooping

clusters of flowers are longer and

the flowers themselves much larger.

Each raceme or cluster is from 12 to 18 inches long. The cluster

is made up of slender, thread-like stalks which hang downwards ard

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

bear a profusion of large, fragrant, yellow flowers. The stalk of a

flower is from 13 to 24 incheslong. It is slender, slightly hairy or

quite smooth. The calyx is made of 5 tender green sepals which fold

backwards on the stalk. There are 5 petals almost equal in size,

almost oval in shape and very distinctly veined. They enclose 10

thread-like stamens all crowned with anthers. The 3 longest

stamens are much curled and bear large, oblong anthers. There are

4 smaller median ones which are quite straight, the 3 remaining

stamens are quite short and erect. Their anthers do not bear pollen.

The pods of which there is always a great profusion are very con-

spicuous during leaf fall. They hang like so many straight pipes

and have given the tree its Latin name of féstuda. For a similar

reason the Dutch, an unromantic people, call our Laburnum the

Pudding-Pipe Tree while the Bengalee refers to the pods as ‘ Mon-

key Sticks’. The Pod isa straight cylinder. It is

from a foot to 3 feet in length, and about an inch

in thickness. It is quite smooth and dark green

when young, turning dark brown and then black with

age. Each podcontains from 40 to a 190 oval, shin-

ing, yellowish-brown seeds embedded in a dark

coloured, eweetish pulp.

Distribution: Common in deciduous forests

throughout the greater part of India and Burma,

ascending to 4,000 ft. in the Himalaya; also in

Ceylon. The tree is not gregarious, but is scattered

in mixed-deciduous forests, often of a somewhat

open type: it occurs fairly frequently in sal forest.

Sometimes it approaches gregariousness in localities

frequented by monkeys. It is found on a variety of

geological formations and will grow on poor shallow

soil, as on the dry outer slopes of the Himalaya. In

climatic requirements it shows a wide range. In its

natural habitat the absolute maximum shade tem-

perature varies from 100° to 120° F., the absolute

minimum from 25° to 65° F., and the normal rainfall

from 20 to 120 inches or more.

Leat-shedding Flowering and Fruiting: The tree is leafless for a

very short time, or hardly at all, between March and May, the new

leaves appearing in April-May; these are bright green or some-

times a beautiful rich copper colour. The long pendulous racemes

of large bright yellow flowers appear chiefly with the new leaves

from April to June, but it is no uncommon thing to find the tree in-

flower even as late as September, particularly in dry years. The

long cylindrical pods develop rapidly, reaching almost full length

but not full thickness by October, when they are still soft and

green. By November they are full-sized but still green and

unripe ; they commence ripening in December and continue ripen-

ing from January till March or April. The ripe pods hang for

some time on the tree, commencing to fall about April-May con-

tinuing to fall in the following months: old pods may often be found

on the trees in September or later along with the new half-grown

green pods.

‘(opnjsif pissy) WinTANGeT URIPpUr 949 JO Youvig SuLAeMOTA ‘(vynjsy visspg) WHuANqeT uUeIpUT uy,

uUungon ‘9 fig 010ud ‘UUosLagT DL'S +A iq 0104.

‘TX Sv g ‘009 “ESI “LVN AVaWog ‘Nunor

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 63

Like many other hard leguminous seeds, those of Cassia fistula

take some time to germinate, some lying a whole year in the ground

before doing so, even if regularly watered. Boiling the seeds for

about five minutes before sowing, has been found to give very good

results in stimulating germination. Tests carried out at Dehra

Dun showed that the seeds retain their vitality unimpaired for at

least 2 years. It was found that seed from pods one year old

germinated more quickly than that from fresh pods, though the

percentage of sound seeds in the former may be low owing to insect

attacks. (Ex Troup.)

Gardening : C. fistula stands a moderate amount of shade. It

is not frost-hardy, and suffered severely in the great frost of 1905

in Northern India. Inthe abnormal drought of 1907 and 1908,

which seriously affected the forests of Oudh, it proved to be

decidedly hardy. It is not readily browsed, even by goats. It

coppices vigorously and produces root-suckers from a root-system

which is partly superficial. As already stated, it is not exacting as

regards soil, and may be found on poor shallow soils.

Natural reproduction : The following facts have been established

regarding the natural reproduction of this tree from seed :

1. Reproduction is effected mainly, and perhaps entirely, through

the agency of animals (monkeys, jackals, bears, pigs, and possibly

others), which break open the pods to eat the pulp and thus scatter

the seeds or swallow and disseminate them.

2. The seed germinates during the rainy season, some lying

dormant until the second or even the third rains.

3. Germination is favoured if the seed becomes buried, and to

some extent if it is protected by a moderate growth of grass; if

the seed lies on the surface of the ground, much mortality takes

place during germination owing to the destruction of the radicle

by birds and insects, or to its drying up if exposed to the sun.

4. Many seedlings perish in heavy weed-growth owing to damp-

ing off during the rains.

Artificial reproduction : The seed germinates tardily, that kept

for a year germinating more readily than fresh seed. The seed

should be sown in seed-becs in drills about 10 inches apart in March

or April, and regularly watered; germination ordinarily takes place

early in the rains, though some of the seed may lie dormant until

the second year, germinating at different times from March on-

wards. Transplanting requires some care, but it can be carried out

satisfactorily while the plants are still comparatively small during

the first rains: basket-planting is the most satisfactory method, the

seedlings being transferred to the baskets in the first rains and

planted out in the second rains. (Troup.)

Uses » From the stem exudes ared juice which hardens into a

gummy substance. This is generally known as amarkas. Its

economic uses, if any, are at present unknown to authors on Indian

economic science, but it is stated to be astringent. The bark is

used in tanning, chiefly along with Terminalia.

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Medical Uses :. In Hindu medicine the pulp is usedas a cathartic ;

and the root is also described as a laxative, useful in fever, heart

disease, retained excretions, biliousness, etc. In the Makhzan-EI-

Adwiya, the pulp is described as lenitive, useful for relieving

thoracic obstructions and heat of blood, and is a safe aperient for

children and women. Externally, it is said to be a good application

for gout, rheumatism, etc. The flowers are made into a confection

known as Gul-kand and viewed as a febrifuge. From 5 to 7 of the

powdered seeds are prescribed as an emetic, and the shell of the pod

rubbed down with saffron, sugar and rose-water, in difficult

parturition. In the Konkan, the juice of the young leaves is used

to cure ringworm and allay the irritation caused by the application

of the marking-nut juice.

The root is given asa tonic and febrifuge. Dr. Irvine found the

root to act as a strong purgative.

It is officinal in the Indian and British Pharmacopceas.

A poultice made of the leaves is said to relieve the chilblains

which are common in Upper Sind. It has been beneficially used in

facial paralysis and rheumatism when rubbed into the affected parts.

Internally, it is given as a derivative in

paralysis and brain affections.

By steam-distilling the finely powdered

fruit of Cassta fistula, a dark yeliow volatile

oil, possessing a honey-like odour, is ob-

tained. The oil forms an amorphous mass

at ordinary temperatures, melts at 41°C.,

and has a faint acid reaction. The water

which distils over with the oil, contains

normal butyric acid.

Tur BURMESE PINK CASSIA

Popular Names: Burmese Pink Cassia

(Engl.); Ngushwe, Ngusat (Burm.).

Cassia renigera Wall., Cat. n. 5307. (Renigera

means ‘ kidney-bearing’ in allusion to the

kidney—shaped stipules. )

Description: A small, medium sized tree

growing about 18 to 20 ita height” = The

tree has a short trunk and a few upright

branches which bear numerous slender,

drooping branchlets. Clothed in feathery

leaves, they reach downwards like great

spreading plumes. The leaf is abruptly

pinnate; there is no terminal leaflet to its

main stalk. The young leaves spring from

large kidney-shaped stipules which are

quickly shed. The leaves grow from 4” to

a foot in length. A single leaf is com-

posed of from &-20 pairs of short-stalked leaflets. They are

oblong in shape, rounded at the apex, downy and soft to the

touch. Leaf-fall commences during December and by the end of

Journ. Bomaay Nat. Hist. Soc. Pratey ie.

John Bale, Sons & Danielsson,Lt4 London

THE BURMESE PINK CASSIA.

Cassia renigera, Wall.

(% nat. size)

JouRN. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE XII.

The Burmese Cassia (Cassia renigera) flowering in Victoria Gardens, Bombay.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 65

March the tree is practically bare except for a few ragged leaves

and the blackened pods which hang from its branches. In April the

first buds appear. These open and

in a few weeks the branches are

smothered in a gorgeous profusion

of pink and white blooms. Young

leaves commence to spring wp,

making an assemblage of tender

green leaves and masses of pink

flowers which is very striking and

beautiful. The flowers are large

and showy. The older blooms fade

from rose pink to white and give the

clusters a variegated appearance.

Each dense cluster of flowers is

borne upon a short sturdy stem.

The clusters arise singly or in

pairs above the scars of the fallen

leaves. Each flower-stalk springs from a drowny leaf-like bract.

These stalks are deep red in colour and covered with fine white

hairs. The sepals which make up the calyx of the flower are dull

red externally and tender green within. The petals are a deep

pink, oblong in shape and nearly an inch in length. As the flowers

commence to fade, the tips of the petals turn white, the pink gra-

dually receding and then fading out altogether leaving the flower

white. There are ten stamens. The largest 3 are swollen at the

centre and much curled and crowned with large tender, green anthers.

There are 4 smaller median stamens and 3 quite small erect ones.

All of these are capped with anthers. The style is long, thread like

and deep red in colour. The pods are very similar to those of the

Indian Laburnum. ‘They are quite smooth, cylindrical and grow to

1 foot or 2 feet in length.

Flowering season: The main flowering season is from May to

July: Leaf-fall commences during the cold weather and is comple-

ted by the end of March and the young leaves sprout in May, shortly

after the tree isin full flower. Prain notes that the Shan Hills

specimens have yellow flowers.

Distribution: Dry zone of Upper Burma, now introduced into

India and the Malay States.

Gardening: The Burma Cassia which is so common in the Bombay

City was first introduced by the Hon. Forbes Semphill who sent

three plants to Mr. Millard from Rangoon about 1902. When the

trees flowered, they were so beautiful that other specimens were

obtainéd and, as the tree seeds quite freely, it has become quite

common. The tree has not a long life but it grows rapidly. Trees

planted from seed in a garden in Salsette in 1923 bore flowers for

the first time in 1929 and in 1930 were about 18 feet in height. The

tree is cultivated for ornament. It grows and flowers well even in

moist climates like that of Rangoon, Singapore and Bombay

although in its natural habitat this Cassia is accustomed to a dry

climate and is capable of growing on comparatively poor soil.

(To be continued. )

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

F.C, FRASER, LtT.-COL., I,M.S., F.E.S.

Part XXXVII.

(With I plate and 2 text-figures.)

(Continued from page 738 of Volume XXXIV.)

Sub-family : PLATYSTICTINAE.

aes

Pear he So

falas eter oo

Fig. 1.

Wings of Profosticta himalaica Laid.

Genus Platysticta Selys..Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) x. p. 436 (1860) ; Id. ibid.

pp. 144, 145 (1886).

Legion Platysticta Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, p. 323 (1917).

Sub-family Platystictine Laid. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii, pp. 300, 301

(1924).

Dragonflies of small size, coloured black or brown with white markings, or

more rarely reddish marked with blue, rarely if ever metallic; resting with

wings folded over dorsum ; wings very narrow falcate at apex, hyaline or tip-

ped with black at apices; the nervure ac situated midway between the two

antenodal nervures ; an accessory basal postcostal nervure always present and

situated well proximad of ac ; petiolation beginning well distad of the nervure

ac; the nervure ad reduced or absent and when present, extending from ac or

the posterior border of wing to the posterior side of the discoidal cell; Jd

absent ; Cuzi markedly reduced, falliny wel! short of middle of wings ; discoidal

cell elongate, about four times as long as broad, the ends squared ; sectors of

are arising from the lower end of arc, separate or confluent for a short distance

at origin ; individual cells mostly four-sided, more rarely five-sided ; 272 aris-

ing well distad of node, nearer node than pterostigma; origin of R4#+ 5

variable, either slightly proximad, at, or slightly distal of the oblique nervure

descending from the subnode; pterostigma short and broad, its costal side

usually shorter than the posterior, its inner or proximal side oblique, its distal

straight or slightly rounded ; no intercalated sectors present except //77.

Abdomen of great length and very slender, in some genera twice or more than

twice the length of hindwing, the relative lengths of segments 8, 9 and 10

variable in individual species ; anal appendages of male complex, variable in

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 67

the species, the superiors usually forcipate and often chelate at the apices or

spatulate ; inferior appendages more simplified, usually tapering to a point but

spatulate in others. Vulvar scales very robust, extending beyond end of abdo-

men in most species and with a robust dorsal spine-like protuberance before the

apex. Penile organ variable, with or without a frill or ridge on the dorsum,

the end curling strongly over the stem which its terminal branches embrace.

_ Larve slender, cylindrical, furnished with three triquetral gills, mask flat,

subquadrate, Gomphine-like, without setae, middle lobe cleft, lateral lobe

robust, furnished with a long moveable hook, legs long and slim, breeding in

torrential montane streams or seepages on the sides of hills in dense virgin

jungle.

Distribution.-—Tropical and neotropical. Within our limits, from Ceylon,

Western Ghats, Northwestern India and Burma, in submontane and montane

tracts, rarely at sea-level. Species are found haunting the banks of mountain

' streams of small size, often a mere trickle over rocks or a chain of pools below

a spring on a steep jungly hillside in dense shade. Many species inhabit small

caves among boulders and rocks beside streams where they exist in a perpetual

twilight. In flight they are much given to hovering with the long attenuated

abdomen held stiffly and horizontally out, whilst the insect advances or retires

in a series of short jerky movements and, if approached head on, willretire back-

wards instead of reversing and heading off, this backward flying seeming to be

accomplished as easily as the forward movement. Owing to their dull colour-

ing, small size and dark surroundings, they are remarkably inconspicuous

during flight and would be invisible were it not for the chain of white and blue

spots on the abdomen seen to be moving stealthily about the dark recesses.

The vivid blue identification marks on the terminal segments of the abdomen

show up with remarkable conspicuousness even in the darkest retreats when

the insect is at rest.

Ceylon is remarkably rich in Platystictas, whilst Continental India and

Burma is equally rich in Protostictas and Drepanostictas.

c d e

Fig. 2. Penile organs of, —

~ a. Platysticta deccanensis (Laid).

6. Ceylonosticia hilaris (Selys).

¢. Platysticta maculata (Selys).

dad. Drepanosticta carmichaeli (Laid).

é. Protosticta gravelyi (Laid).

Figure a shows the dorsal frill in the dorso-lateral position ; figure 6 the

Same in profile, figure ¢ the penile organ viewed dorsally, whilst the two

remaining figures show the organs viewed from the side: note the absence of

the dorsal frill in these, :

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

The former group are sharply separated from the Indian forms by the penile

organ which possesses a ridge on its dorsum, absent in the two latter groups,

and I have employed this character as a means of classifying an otherwise

difficult group of insects. Selys classed the whole of the Ceylon species as

Platysticta and divided these into two subgenera from venational characters.

To the first subgenus a south Indian species has to be added, whilst the second

subgenus has been incorporated by Dr. Laidlaw in his genus Drepanosticta.

The penile organ of this subgenus, so far as the Ceylon forms goes, differs

from that of the Indian forms, which furnish the genotype and it is therefore

clear that the two groups are not congeneric, although venationally they agree.

This being the case I have here retained Laidlaw’s genus Drepanosticta for the

Indian species and have createda new genus Ceylonosticta for the Ceylon

forms which possess Drepanosticta venation. The chain of evolution is pro-

bably Profosticta, Drepanosticta, Ceylonosticta and finally Platysticta, or the

two latter genera may have evolved independently from /Pyvofosticfu and on

parallel lines to Drepanosticta.

The enormous length of the abdomen of these insects and the complex nature

of the anal appendages, admirably adapted as they are for obtaining an enor-

mous grip of the female prothorax, are probably coordinated with, the function

of oviposition, and I surmise that they enable the male to lower its mate into

the swiftly flowing current of the streams they frequent, without fear of it being

swept away. (See Fig. 2 Plate.)

Key to the Indian genera of Platystictine.

‘( Ceylon forms ; penis with ridge on dorsum simulating a

re dorsal spine as seen in profile... Peg Bee

‘Indian and Burmese forms; penis without ridge on

| dorsum

(Sectors of arc separate and divergent from origin ; the

9 | nervure / A777 zigzagged almost from origin ter LUQLVSLICLO.

| Sectors confluent at and for some distance from origin ;

| the nervure //A2z72 not zigzagged a ... Ceylonosticta.

o3 The nervure a/ entirely absent... ane Seve LY OLOSLLGLO:

| The nervure aé present a ae ... Drepanosticta.

Genus Protosticta Selys (1885)

Protosticta Selys, C. R. Soc. Ent. Belg. xxix. p. cxlv, (1835); Id. Mem. Cour.

xxxviii, p. 157 (1886); Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xi, p. 391

(1915); Id. ibid. vol. xiii, pp. 339, 342 (1917); Fras. ibid. vol.

xxiv, pp. 4 and 5 (1922); Id. ibid. vol. xxvi, p. 499 (1924).

Zygopterous dragonflies of small size and slender build with characters of the

subfamily, coloured steely black marked with white and turquoise blue; wings

hyaline, immaculate, long, narrow, falcate, cells mostly four-sided ; sectors of

arc fused for a short distance from origin, thus arising from a common stalk ;

IRiii straight, never zigzagged; A4-+5 arising at ora little proximad or

distad of the oblique nervure descending from the subnode ; ab entirely absent.

Abdomen of great length, especially in the male, double or more than double the

length of hindwing (excepting P. hearseyz), segments 3 to 7 very slim and very

long, segments 8 to 10 varying in length in the species and sexes, 9 sometimes as

long as 8, 10 very short. Anal appendages about twice the length of segment 10,

angulated downward and inwards at their middle and chelate at apices (except

in P. himulaica and P. wncatus which are spatulate), inferiors simple, broad at

base, tapering thereafter to a fine point, incurved or not. Vulvar scale as for

suh-family. Larvee as for sub-family but only those of P. gravelyi and

P. mortonit known).

Genotype.—Protosticta simplicnervis Selys.

Distribution.—The Western Ghats of India from sea-level to 4,000 ft. and

North-East India and Burma from 3,C00 to 6,000 ft. Habits those of the sub-

family; see also under species. aie

Species'of. this genus are remarkably local in distribution aud in some cases

have been found confined to one spot for years, streams close by, never render-

ing a single specimen ; this may be explained by their weak flight, although,

some at least, P. mortoni and P. gravelyt, do wander afar from their habitats.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

9 11

Explanation of Plate.

1. Analappendages of Protosticta hearseyi Fraser, dorsal view.

2. The same seen from the right side.

3. Thesame of Protosticta mortont Fraser, dorsal view.

4, The same seen from the right side.

5. Thesame of Profosticta sanguinostigima Fraser, dorsal view.

6. Thesame seen from the right side.

7. Thesame of Profosticta gravelyt Laidlaw, dorsal view.

8. The same seen from the right side.

9. Thesame of Protosticta davenporti sp. nov., dorsal view.

10. The same seen from the right side.

11. The same of Protosticta himalaica Laidlaw, dorsal view.

12. The same seen from the right side.

Camera lucida studies all drawn to the same scale.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES ie 69

Col. F. Wall has taken one species at light and I have on several occasions

found specimens hovering about the windscreen of my car or actually coming

inside. On one occasion I took a male in my bungalow, but this may have come

to light the night before. Asarule though, species form definite and lasting

colonies, restricted to small districts or even streams.

Key to species of genus Profosticta.

Small species with ground colouring cupreous and

abdomen of both sexes considerably less than 40 mm. in

leneth ; male and female of the same length P. hearseyt.

: Larger species with ground colouring steely black and

abdomen more than 40 mm. in length; male always

considerably longer than the female on a

. SANG UT-

Z nostigma.

Pterostigma in both sexes black

Superior anal appendages chelate at apex

Superior anal appendages spatulate at apex .

Basal half of segment 8 pale blue with the middorsal

carina finely black ; superior anal appendages with

CU amica citi elie

(

Pterostigma in both sexes blood red

4 the claw-like arms narrow and of subequal length -~.. PF. gravely.

{ Basal half of segment 8 pale blue, the middorsal carina

not marked with black; superior anal appendages

| varying as shown below 5.

pO Btcs fork of superior anal appendages thickened, obtuse

5 4 at apex and but slightly longer than the inner .». £. davanporii,

Outer fork of superior anal appendages very narrow, and

{ nearly four times the length of inner P. mortonie.

Inferior anal appendages with a long finger- like medial

6 spine directed inwards we hs himalaica.

Inferior anal appendages without an inner spine pelle UUCUEUS:

Protosticta gravelyi Laidlaw.

Protosticta gravelyt Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. xi, vol. pp. 389, 390, text- fig.

2.4 1915).,0 ids; ibidy vol... xiit;p,.342-( 1917) = Fras,

ibid. vol. xvi, p. 499 (1924).

Protosticta stevenst Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. Bae pp... / and’ 8. Pi. 1,

figs: 1,2 and 7 (1923); ibid. vol. xxvi, p. 499

_ (1924).

Male. Abdomen 46-49 mm. Hindwing 20-22 mm.

Head,-labium brownish black; labrum turquoise blue, rather broadly

bordered with black along its free margin; clypeus pale turquoise blue ;

frons, vertex and occiput glossy black ; eyes dark bottle green paling to pale

greenish beneath.

Prothorax creamy white marked dorsally with a broad black triangle with its

base occupying the greater part of posterior lobe and its apex tapering to the

middle of the mid lobe.

Thorax steely glossy black marked with a broad oblique creamy white stripe

on each side extending to the middle pair of legs, and a similar stripe on the

posterior part of metepimeron extending on to the hinder pair of legs. Beneath

marked with broad black stripes on each side which converge ard fuse

anteriorly.

Legs creamy white, the knees darker, Hind pair of femora occasionally

marked on the extensor surface with a brown stripe.

Wings hyaline ; 13-14 postnodal nervures to forewings, 12-13 in the hind :

pterostigma black, nearly half as long again as broad, the costal side shorter

than the posterior, outer border nearly straight, inner oblique ; R4- 5 arising’

slightly or well distad of the level of subnode.

Abdomen black marked with white and turquoise blue as follows,—segments

land 2white laterally, segment 3 with a narrow basal annule finely divided

with black on the dorsum, segments 4 to7 with broad basal annules gradually

broadening as faras 7 and partially divided on the middorsal carina by the

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

ground colour, segment 8 with nearly its basal half turquoise blue, this extend-

ing apicad on the sides and ventrally but divided along the middorsal carina by

a fine black line, segments 9 and 10 uamarked. Segment 9 double the length

of 10, and 8 double the length of 9.

Anal appendages black (figures 7 and 8 Pl.) Superiors forcipate, chelate,

half as long again as segment 10, broad at base where they are furnished with

an inner and dorsal blunt rounded tooth, then tapering, but again expanded at

the apical half into a ‘ finger-and-thumb’ like structure, the finger process

being alittle longer than the thumb. Inferior appendages about three-fourths

the length of superiors, broad and conical at base, then tapering rather rapidly

to apex, furnished with an inner stout spine at base.

Female. Abdomen 33-35mm. Hindwing 19-23 mm.

Very similar to the male but shorter and more robustly built, differs as

follows,-—-black bordering of labrum broader ; eyes, in the living state with a

diffuse white spot on the outer sides ; wings with 13-14 postnodal nervures to

all wings. Abdomen shorter and stouter, especially from segment 7 to the anal

end, the former segment nearly three times as long as 8, which is itself actually

shorter than segment 9, the latter segment being three times the length of seg-

ment 10. The basal annule on segment 7 occupying only about one-fifth the

length of segment and often interrupted on the dorsum, whilst 8 is unmarked

save for a large white spot situated at the base on each side ; seginents 9 and 10

immaculate but theformer sometimes with a large lateral white spot. Anal

appendages black, barely as long as segment 10, broad, conical, pointed at

apex.

Distribution.—This species is the most widely distributed of all the Protos-

tictas and occurs in many ravines from 2,000 to 4,000 ft. in many parts of

the Western Ghats. It occurs in the Nilgiri Hills on both sides of the plateau,

at Kallar, Burliyar and Gudalur, from Mayto June. In Malabar and Cochin it

occurs in the Vayitri, Nilambur and Kavalai Ghats from May to June and again

in September and October. It may be found lurking amongst rocks and ferns

or in the dark tunnels formed by trees and shrubs overhanging torrential beds.

In flight it holds its abdomen rigidly horizontal and advances in short jerks on

its objective or reverses and flies backwards with equal ease, and is visible in

the prevailing gloom only by the chain of white dots marking the bases of the

segments. ‘Type in Indian Museum, paratypes in British Museum, etc.

Some confusion has arisen over this species probably due to the fact that the

type is inmature and in very poor condition, with its abdomen crumpled up

and appendages distorted. ‘The marking on segment 8 has been given as that

for 7, and the length of the abdomen has been given as that for the body. It

was due to these excusable errors that P.stevensit was described by myself as a

separate species. Since then I have had an opportunity of examining the type

and female cotype and making new measurements. From this I find that

gravelyi and stevenst are conspecific, Dr. Laidlaw’s name having priority.

‘Lhe female IJ find is really that of P. sz0rtonz ; itis to be remembered that when

Dr. Laidlaw described these sexes, P.gravelyi represented the only Indian

Protosticta then known, so that it was but natural he should consider the

insects as the two sexes of one species, although taken in different localities.

Protosticta davenporti sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 43-45 mm. Hindwing 23-24 mm.

Very similar to P. grave/y7 from which it differs however by its much more

robust build, this character being very striking when the insects are confronted.

It is then seen that although the abdomen of P. gravely is longer, the head

and thorax are of much slighter build and the wings are correspondingly

shorter and narrower. The anal appendages although built on the same plan

as those of P.gravelyiz, have very marked differences.

Head, prothorax and thorax similar to P gravelyt but the markings more

definitely bluish and the black dorsal marking of the prothorax restricted to

the middle portion of the posterior lobe and ending as two points on the

dorsum of the mid lobe.

Wings broader and longer; pterostigma black, half as long again as broad,

14-15 postnodal nervures to forewings, 13-14 in the hind, (One specimen is

remarkable in possessing four postcostal neryures in one of its wings, instead

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 71

of the usual nervure ac and one additional postcostal) ; #4+5 arising opposite

the level of subnode.

Abdomen black with the sides of segments 1 and 2 and the base of 3 bluish

white ; segments 4 to 7 with narrow white basal annules which broaden apicad

on the sides ; segment 8 with its basal third or half pale turquoise blue, this

colour extending nearly to apex of segment laterally, but not divided on the

middorsum as in 7. gravelyi, The blue annule on this seyment separated

from the extreme base by a narrow triangle of black. Segments 9 and 10

immaculate and of the same relative lengths asin P. gravely.

Legs differing from the latter species by the femora black, the two hinder

pairs white on the extensor surfaces and the middle pair with a large white

distal spot at the distal ends on the outer side ; tibize dirty white, tarsus black.

Anal appendages black. (Pl. figs. 9and 10.) Superiors forcipate, chelate,

half aslong again as Sezyment i0, broad at base where they present a large

inner sub-basal pointed tooth or spine, then narrowing abruptly and expanding

again in the distal half to form a ‘ finger-and-thumb’ like structure which

differs from that of P. gravelyi by the finger process shorter and broader and

with its apex broadened and flexed inwards to almost meet the apex of the

thumb; outer border of this appendage very sinuous, not gradually curved as

in the last species. Inferior appendages broad at base, then tapered gradually

to apex, slightly sinuous as seen in profile but with a distinct angulation about

the middle as seen from above and with the apical fourth curled rather

abruptly inwards ; nearly as long as superior appendages.

Distribution.—Confined so far as known to the Annaimallai and Mudis Hills

at elevations of about 3,000 to 4,000 ft. and found in similar situations to the last

species. The shape of the anal appendages shown in Pl. figs. 9 and 10, will

serve to distinguish this fine insect from all other Protostictas. Type in British

Museum paratypes in author’s collection.

Protosticta sanguinostigma, Fraser.

Protosticta sanguinostigma, Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxiv, pp. 6 and 7, Pl.

1, figs. 5 and 6 (1922) ; Id ibid. vol. xxvi, p. 499 (1924).

Protosticta cerinostigma, Fras. (var.) lbid. vol. xxvi, pp. 499, 509 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 42-45 mm. Hindwing 22-26 mm.

Head,-—labium yellowish; labrum turquoise blue narrowly bordered with

black along the free margin ; clypeus turquoise blue; frons, vertex and ccciput

glossy black, the latter marked with a transverse coppery brown fascia; eyes

bottle green, pale greenish blue below, these two colours separated by an

equatorial band of blackish brown which crosses the head from above and

behind somewhat obliquely.

Prothorax black on dorsum, whitish laterally, the mid lobe marked with a

large oval blue spot on each side the middle line.

‘Thorax glossy steely or bronzed black, pale blue on the sides where a narrow

oblique stripe af black bordered with brown traverses the anterior border of the

metepimeron. Beneath immaculate, thus contrasting strongly with the two

former species.

Legs pale yellow, femora lined with black on extensor surface and witha

broad brown annule at the distal ends; tibiz clouded or stippled with brown ;

tarsi dark brown.

Wings hyaline ; pterostigma blood red, covers one cell, of similar shape to

the former species; 15-18 postnodal nervures to forewings, 14-15 in the hind ;

#4+5 arising slightly or well distad of the oblique nervure descending from

the subnode.

Abdomen blackish brown on dorsum, paler on the sides, marked with white

and pale turquoise blue ; segments 1 and 2 white laterally, segments 3 to 6 with

broad distal black annules, segment 3 with a very narrow obscure white annule

at the base, segments 4 to 7 with broader annules gradually increasing in depth

from 4 to 7, segment 8 turquoise blue, its apical border black, this colour

continued basad as a gradually narrowing tongue of black along the middorsal

Carina as far as the base of segment, segments 9 and 10 entirely black.

Segment 7 very long and broadening apicad, segment 8 only slightly longer

than 9, which is nearly three times the length of 10. ‘

Anal appendages black (Pl. figs. 5 and 6) ; superiors forcipate, chelate, seen

from above appearing only slightly longer than segment 10, but in profile

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAL AIST. SOGIETY, Vol. XXXV.

owing to the ends being bent strongly downward, seen to be nearly twice the

length of the segment, very broad at base, then tapering and inclined strongly

down and inward to end in the usual ‘ finger-and-thumb’ process, the finger

portion much broader and longer than the thumb and notched at its apex which

is broad and blunt; the thumb portion curled in to nearly meet the opposing

process; dorsally the basal portion continued horizontally back to endin a

robust pointed spine. Inferior appendages about three fourths the length of

superiors, broad at base, then rapidly tapering to a fine point, the apical fourth

angulated strongly inwards to meet or overlap its fellow on the opposite side.

Female. Abdomen 39mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Very similar to the male but of much shorter and stouter build, differs as

follows,—the equatorial belt of black encircling the eye much better defined ;

prothorax a dirty white laterally and without the middorsal blue spots. Wings

similar to the male, pterostigma blood red; 16-17 postnodal nervures to

forewings, 14-15 in the hind, A4+5 arising at the same level or nearer to the

subnode.

Abdomen black marked with white and turquoise blue as follows,—segment

1 with a blue spot on each side, 2 with a lateral blue spot at the base prolonged

laterally apicad and ventrad, segment 3 with its middle two-thirds laterally and

beneath brownish white, 4 similar and with a narrow whitish basal annule, 5

and 6 with well-marked white basal annules, the ventro-lateral markings more

obscure, segment 7 with its basal third turquoise blue, the black not

continued basad along the middorsal carina as in the male, remaining seg-

ments entirely black.

Anal appendages black, barely as long as segment 10, small, conical, trian-

gular processes. Vulvar scale robust, extending beyond end of abdomen.

“Distribution. —Nilgiri Hills, Coorg and Malabar Wynaad. Specimens from

the two latter districts are much smaller than those from the Nilgiris. In the

latter district it is moderately common in the Burliyar ravine, Mettupalayam

Ghat at 1,500 ft., but very rare on the opposite side of the plateau, where the

variety cerinogstigma was found. (Structurally this latter insect does not differ

from type so that I consider it to be merely a variety.) In Coorg it is located

to Hallery, whilst in the Wynaad, it appears to be restricted to the Vayitri and

Nilambur Ghats from May to October. The blood red pterostigma and the

shape of the anal appendages, relative lengths Of the terminal abdominal

segments, etc. will serve to differentiate this beautiful species from all other

Protostictas. Type in the British Museum.

Protosticta mortoni Fraser.

Protosticta mortont Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, pp. 500, 501 (1924).

_. Protosticta gravelyi Laid. (imorton: nec gravelyt) ibid, vol. xiii, p. 342

(Female) (1917).

wiMale. Abdomen 41-43 mm. Hindwing 20 mm.

-Head,-labium blackish brown ; labrum turquoise blue moderately broadly

bordered with black along its free margin ; clypeus turquoise blue ; vertex and

occiput glossy steely or bronzed black; frons black ; eyes ultramine blue

capped with black above, paler blue beneath.

Prothorax pale blue except the posterior lobe which is black.

Thorax steely black on dorsum, pale blue laterally, traversed along the

postero-laterai suture by a broad black stripe; beneath thorax yellowish

marked by two thick black stripes which converge and become confluent

anteriorly asin P. gravely. -

Legs white, the knees and femora sparcely stippled with black.

- Wings hyaline : pterostigma black framed narrowly in pale brown and this

again framed within thick black nervures; 13 postnodal nervures to fore-

wings, 12 in the hind; A4¢+5 arising distad the oblique nervure descending

from the subnode.

Abdomen black marked with turquoise blue and white as follows, —segment

1 blue laterally, segment 2 with the basal two-thirds of the sides white, 3 with a

narrow white basal annule prolonged for a short distance along the sides and

narrowly interrupted on the dorsum, segments 4-7 with broad white basal

annules occupying about one-sixth the length of segments and prolonged along

the sides and ventrum, segment 8 with the basal half turquoise blue but this

colour prolonged along the sides nearly as far as the apical end of segment

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES f3

and separated from the base by a narrow black annule; segments 9 and 10

eutirely black. Segment 7 very long, 8 about one-third the length of 7 (In

the original description, this segment was given in error as slightly more

than one-fourth the length of segment 7, whereas 9 was intended), segment

9 rather more than half the length of 8 and slightly more than twice the

length of 10.

Anal appendages black (PI. figs. 3 and 4); superiors forcipate, chelate, about

_twice the length of segment 10, broad at base, then constricted and curved

dowowards and again dilated in the first part of the apical half to form the

usual ‘ finger-and-thumb’ process, the finger thrice the length of the thumb

and wi-h its extreme end angulated inward, the thumb portion short and

stout ; dorsally the basal portion ending in a robust pointed tooth or spine

very much as seen in P. sauguinostigma. Inferior appendages very broad at

base, then abruptly narrowed, curled gently in and tapered toa fine point,

about three-fourths the length of superiors.

Female. Abdomen 32-33 mm. Hindwing 19-20 mm.

Very similar to the male but much shorter and more robust. Markings differ

only on the abdomen where segment 7 has a blue basal annule occupying from

one-third to one-fourth the length of se7~ment, and segment 8 has a large baso-

lateral whitish spot on each side, 9 and 10 entirely black. Segment 7 is rather

more than four times the length of segment 8, which is itself slightly shorter

than segment 9, the latter being nearly four times the length of 10.

Anal appendages very short, barely the length of segment 10, conical

pointed, black. Vulvar scale very robust, extending beyond end of abdomen.

tstribution.—Very local, usually found in isolated colonies. The original

colony in the Sampaji Ghat, Coorg, was restricted to one part of a tributary of

the Sampaji river. Since then I have found other colonies along the foot of

the Western Ghats in Malabar and a single female has been taken on Salsette

Island by Mr. Prater. The species thus differs from all others by being found

at or near sea-level. The colouring of the prothorax forms a ready means of

identification whilst the appendages will serve to separate it from all other

species. As mentioned above, the female described by Dr. Laidlaw as that of

P. gravelyt, and which was, taken at Talewadi, Castle Rock, Kanara (a locality

far removed from that wherein the type of grave/yi was found), is really the

female of P. wortont. Type in the British Museum.

Protosticta hearseyi Fraser.

Protosticta hearseyi Fras. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxiv, pp. 5 and 6, Pl. 1, figs.

3 and 4 (1922) ; Id. ibid. vol. xxvi, p. 499 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 30-35 mm. Hindwing 18-21 mm.

Head,—labium ashy white ; labrum turquoise blue narrowly bordered with

black along the free margin ; the two basal joints of antennz blue; clypeus

turquoise blue ; frons, vertex and occiput black ; eyes olivaceous above, paling

and changing to pale blue beneath.

Prothorax pale blue, immaculate (Fading to pale brown in the dry state.)

Thorax cupreous on the dorsum, pale: blue laterally, the middorsal carina

finely blue, whilst laterally a broad oblique black stripe traverses the length of

the postero-lateral suture and anterior part of metepimeron. Beneath whitish

marked with a round spot of black between the legs and a pair of short stripes

which converge and become nearly confluent with the anterior spot.

Legs bluish white, the two hind femora with narrow blackish transverse

lines on the extensor surface ; the knees black.

Wings hyaline, pterostigma black, shaped similarly to the rest of the genus,

covering one cell ; 10-14 postnodal nervures to forewings, 10-12 in the hind ;

Rk? + 5 arising opposite or distad the oblique nervure descending from the

subnode,

Abdomen enfumed brown or cupreous marked with pale blue, this colour

more in evidence on the final segments. Segments 1 and 2 with the sides

bluish white and with a diffuse longitudinal stripe on the middorsum, incom-

plete on the apical half of 2; segments 3 to 7 with narrow pale basal annules

extending more broadly along the sides and with broad black apical annules ;

segment 8 turquoise blue with a narrow black apical annule ; 9 and 10 black,

74. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCORAL AIST. SOGIZ TY, Vol. 2

the former with a bluish crescentic spot on each side. Segment 7 twice the

length of segment 8, 8 half as long again as 9 which is more than twice the

length of 10.

Anal appendages black (PI. figs. 1 and 2) about twice the length of segment

10, forcipate, chelate, broad at the base and furnished here with a robust

inwardly directed sub-basal spine, then constricted and sub-cylindrical but

again slightly expanded at the apical third to form a ‘ finger-and-thumb ’

process, the finger portion considerably longer than the thumb and squared at

its apex; the whole appendage curving gently in and downwards. Inferior

appendages about four-fifths the length of superiors, truncate, broad at base

and tapering to a slightly and gently upturned point, the base furnished with

a blunt inner tooth and one or two minute teeth thereafter.

Female. Abdomen 32-33 mm. Hindwing 22 mm.

Very similar to the male and approximately of the same length although

more robust in build. Differs as follows,—labrum more broadly bordered with

black ; eyes olivaceous brown above changing to pale green below ; middor-

sal carina of thorax obscurely white at its upper part only. Wings with 12-13

postnodal nervures to forewings, 12 in the hind; A4 +5 arising at or but

slightly distad of the subnode. Segment 7 with a broader basal annule, segment

8 brownish black marked only with a basolateral dirty white quadrate spot,

segment 9 paler brown, marked with a broad white spot on each side

confluent with a smaller subdorsal spot of the same colour.

Anal appendages black, very small, about equalin length to segment 10,

conical, pointed. Vulvar scale robust, extending beyond end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Nilgiri Hills and Annaimallais. The type was taken at

a small brook running through a coffee tote on the Gudalur Ghat, in June;

out of 17 specimens, only one wasa male. A single male was taken later

in the neighbouring Ochterlony valley. Recently I found the species in the

Mudis, Annaimallai Hills, 3,000 ft. in May, where about 18 males but no females

were taken. The locality was arocky hillside in virgin jungle where a seepage

not amounting to a brook found its way down through fern and moss to the

river below, and the whole of the specimens were found in an area not cover-

ing more than a quarter of an acre; search in neighbouring jungle revealed

none. Thesespecimens were in company with Heliogomphus promelas which

were equally restricted to the spot. Returning a few days later vza the

Nilgiris, I again found P. Aearseyi in the same spot on the Gudalur Ghat and

by acurious coincidence took anumberof females and only one male. This

curious incidence of the sexes is very difficult to explain. The small size of

the species and its cupreous colouring will serve to identify it from all others

ofthe genus. It is the only species in which the two sexes are approximately

of the same length.

Protosticta himalaica Laidlaw.

Protosticta himalaica Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, pp. 342, 343 (1917).

Protosticta lindgrenit Fras. Journ, Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxix, p. 741

(1923) ; 1d.Ibid.; vol: xxvii, pp, 150) (1920)

Male. Abdomen 40-43 mm. Hindwing 25-26 mm.

Head,—labium pale brown or brownish yellow; labrum turquoise blue

narrowly bordered with black along its free margin ; clypeus turquoise blue ;

frons, vertex and occiput steely bronzed black ; eyes black above changing to

dark olivaceous and finally pale bluish green beneath.

Prothorax black on dorsum and upper part of sides, marked with a broad

subdorsal longitudinal creamy yellow stripe on each side extending from the

posterior lobe to the anterior end, yellow low down on the sides.

Thorax bronzed black on dorsum, pale blue at the sides which are marked

with a moderately broad black oblique stripe extending along the posterolate-

ral suture. Pale blue beneath unmarked with black. Legs pale sandy yellow,

extensor surfaces of all femora black.

Wings hyaline, pterostigma dark reddish brown, almost black with a fine

frame of light yellow bordering the enclosing nervures within, about one-third

longer than broad, costal side only slightly longer than the posterior and the

outer side but slightly longer than the inner; A4 + 5 in the forewings arising

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 75

very slightly distad the oblique nervure descending from the subnode but

opposite that nervure in the hind; 14-16 postnodal nervures in forewings,

_ 13-15 in the hind.

Abdomen blackish brown marked with white and pale blue as follows,—

segment | bluish at the sides and with a white apical ring, 2 bluish laterally and

marked on the dorsum with a bluish longitudinal stripe not extending to the

apical border, segment 3 with a small white dorsal basal triangle and a broad

apical black annule, segments 4to 7 with narrow white basal annules, 4 to6

with broad black apical annules, segment 7 with its apical half, the whole of 8

and Y pale blue, segment 10 blue at its extreme base, black apicad. Segments

7 to 10 gradually decreasing in length towards the last segment.

Anal appendages about twice the length of segment 10, dark brown (PI.

figs. 11 and 12); superiors broad at base, compressed, with an angulation on

the inner side near the middle not amounting to a spine, after which the

appendages are curved downward and abruptly broadened into a scoop-like

expansion hollowed out on the inner side. Inferiors slightly longer than the

superiors, broad at base, then constricted and again broadened and with the

edges strongly curled like a drying leaf. A long inwardly directed narrow

spiue springing from the upper side of this expansion about the middle of

appendage.

Female. Abdomen 37 mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Very similar to the male, differs only in its shorter and more robust abdomen

and in some of the markings of this structure. The venro-lateral aspect of

segment 3 as well as 1 and 2 are definitely blue, segments 4 to 6 have broader

basal annules especially the latter segment, 8 has a large blue spot on each side,

whilst 9 and 10 ave reddish brown. (Possibly blue in the living state.) Anal

appendages small, rather shorter than segment 10, conical, pointed, blackish

brown. Vulvar scale robust, extending a little beyond the end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Northern Bengal, Assam and Sikkim at altitudes of 3,000 to

6,000 ft. I have examined specimens from Kalimpong and Pashok and have

taken the insect at Moungpoo, Darjeeling district in May and June. Although

so widely spread, it does not appear to be nearly as common as some of the

South Indian species. Its habits are entirely similar and it is found in similar

localities. Abdominal markings and the shape of the anal appendages which

are entirely different to the genotype will serve easily to distinguish it from all

others. A fresh comparison of the types of Azmalaica and lindgreni has con-

vinced me that they are conspecific, the former name having priority.

Protosticta uncatus, sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen42 mm. Hindwing 21 mm.

Head,—labium pale brown; labrum turquoise blue narrowly bordered with

black along the free margin; anteclypeus turquoise blue; postclypeus, frons,

vertex and occiput bronzed black ; eyes dark olivaceous green, paler below.

Prothorax pale yellow marked with a pair of ill-defined, longitudinal, sub-

dorsal dark brown stripes made up of a row of three spots, the largest of which

is Situated on the posterior lobe.

Thorax bronzed black on dorsum, pale blue laterally changing to pale

yellow beneath, which is unmarked. A narrow oblique black stripe on each

side mapping out the postero-lateral suture, and asmall upper posthumeral

blue spot.

Legs pale yellow, knees darker, hind femora with a black stripe along the

extensor surface.

Wings hyaline ; pterostigma as broad as long, costal side only slightly longer

than posterior, the inner side very oblique, blackish brown framed in black

nervures which are lined inwardly with pale yellow; 15-16 postnodal nervures

to forewings, 15in the hind ; R# + 5 well distad of the cblique nervure descend-

ing from the subnode.

Abdomen shaded with brown and ringed with blue, white and black as

follows,—segment ] with the sides blue dorsum blackish brown, 2 with the

apical half blackish brown, basal half on dorsum warm brown, the sides blue

for the basal three-fourths but this colour invaded by the brown of dorsum at

Its middle, segments 3 to 6 with broad basal pale bluish white annules and

equally broad apical black annules, the intervening part warm brown, 7 with

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

only the basal annule, the rest brown gradually deepening to black at apex, 8

black with a small baso-lateral spot on each side, 9 entirely turquoise blue, 10

entirely black. Segment 7 three times as long as 8, which is half as long again

as 9, the latter nearly fourtimes aslongas10. —~

Anal appendages black ; superiors as long as segment 10, broad at base, then

tapering as far as their middle at which point they are bent down rather

abruptly and terminate in an expansion shaped like a parrot’s beak. Inferior

appendages slightly longer, broad at base, spatulate, compressed and furnished

at the apex with a tuft of about 10 to 12 stout bristles.

Female. Abdomen 35mm. Hindwing 21 mm.

Closely similar to the male save for its sexual characters and the slightly

shorter and more robust abdomen. Markings of head, thorax and abdomen

not differing markedly from the male but segment 9 has a narrow basal black

annule and the sides low down dark brown. Wings similar, 15 to 16 postnodal

nervures in forewings, 15 in the hind.

Anal appendages very short, not quite as long as segment 10, conical,

pointed, blackish brown. Vulvar scale robust, extending beyond end of

abdomen. ;

Distribution.—Maymyo and Gokteik, South Shan States. One male and two

females collected by Col. F. Wall, I.M.S., during the early part of June. The

species is remarkable for its anal appendages, which like those of P. Aimalaica

differ markedly from those of the genotype. The situation of the ‘ recognition’

mark on segment 9 instead of 8 is also quite at variance with other species of

the genus. ‘These specimens were taken at light but should the habitat of the

insect be discovered, it will probably prove to be similar to that of other

species and the species itself equally common.

(Zo be continued.)

JOURN., BOMBAY NAT. HiST. SOC.

BOMBAY FOOD FISHES.

PLATE

POMERETS:

Black Pomfret (S. niger). Silver Pomfret (S. cinereus).

White Pomfret (S. sinensis).

SARDINES.

Pala (Clupea ilisha).

Pte hise: SUPPEY (OF THE WESoT-COAST OF INDIA,

Sir REGINALD SPENCE, Kt., M.L.C., F.Z.S. AND S, H. PRATER,

MeIeCs:-CiMZ.S. |

Part II

(With tive plates).

(Continued trom page 991 of Vol. XXXIV.)

ESTUARY AND ‘ INSHORE’ FISHING.

There are various other fishes commonly obtained in our creeks

and estuaries on the sustained supply of which the Industry, not to

say the consumer, is actually dependent. Our coastal waters hold

a number of resident and migratory fish which are of economic

value. Among the larger resident species are the Grey Rock

Perch (Chrysophrys datnia) known locally as the Aharwad, a Cat-Fish

(Arius falcarius), Grey Mullets(Mugil eur, beorneensts, waigiensts and

dussumiert). M. watgiensts is abundant in the creeks during the

tainy season. J. foicilus is abundant during the cold weather.

All of these are excellent table-fish. They visit quiet bays and

also our docks and wet basins where they are fished for by men and

boys from the dock-walls. The larger Mullet (Y%. foitcilus,

M. eur and M. waigiensts) known as Boz or Pilsa range from 3 lbs. to

100 lbs. in weight, their retail price varies from As. 12 to Rs. 1-4

each or As. 4 to As. 6 per lb. The season is July to November.

The Lady Fish (Szllago sihana) known locally as Jlurdi is common

in our creeks. Its flesh is recommended to ladies just in or just out

of an ‘interesting condition’! Small perch-like fish (Zherapon)

are also abundant. They live easily in fresh water and are often

placed in wells. Zherapon jarbua is very common. It is known

locally as the Ahargofa. Other species seen in the Bombay

market are 7. guadrilineatus and T. theraps. Gobies occur in

numbers. Amongst these Godbzus ocellatus, the Kharba, is the

commonest. Other species from the Society’s collection taken in

the Bombay market are Gobtus macrostoma, viridipunctatus, masont,

striatus, ornatus and gturus. Besides these resident species, there

are a number of migratory forms which visit the creeks and estuaries

in the season. In June, July and August the Cock-up (Lates

calcariter), known locally as the Aajura, is taken at the entrance of

creeks which they enter with the rising tide. They come up the

creeks in search of their favourite food, the Niwtas (Boleopthalmus

and Periopthalmus), which live in thousands on the mud banks where

their slippery movements can be watched when the tide has receded.

Many species of estuary fish come up the creeks not only for food

but also for spawning, the main season for which is during the

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

monsoon. Sea-fishing is then at its lowest and the energies of the

fishermen are concentrated upon these fishes to the great destruc-

tion of enormous numbers of fry.

Among the larger migratory fish are three species of Bhamin,

Polynemus tetvadactylus, known, according to Wallinger, to the

Kolaba fishermen as the Chola (young) and the Dara (aduit),

Polynemus plebius, known as the Rawas and P. heptadactylus

known as the Shexdwa, and a_ large Sctena, the Gholmasa

(Sczena sina). Examples of this fish quite 6 feet in length are

brought to the Bombay market.

The numerous creeks and inlets of the upper waters of

Bombay harbour and of the Konkan coast line are a particularly

good haunt for the various species of Polynemus. The creeks

are full of shrimps and prawns and the fry of several sorts

of estuary fish from which these voracious monsters take heavy

toll. Bhamin (P. telvadactylus) and Rawas (P. plebtus) work up the

creeks in shoals with the rising tide and rush back to sea as it

recedes. Inthe smaller creeks they are netted at high tide ; inthe

more open water of the harbour at ebb. In Bombay the best

months are June, July, August and September; the worse the

weather, the better the day. In the creeks, Rawas and Bhamin are

caught in drift or tramel nets called Ja/. A large Jal is about 165

feet in length by J]0 feet in depth. The top of the net has floats

hung 5 feet apart, the bottom is weighted. The weights vary

according to the nature of the fish which is intended to be caught

——for Lates calcariter (Cock-up), which are ground-feeders, the net

is heavily weighted so that the bottom touches the ground—for

Rawas less weight is used so that the net makes a floating wall

near to the surface. When used with a boat, the Ja/ acts as a drift

net but in creeks the two ends of the net are anchored. ‘Bhamin’

and Rawas when ascending a creek to spawn, take amore or less

definite path. It is not at the deepest part nor is it the shortest way

across. The path taken by the fish are known to fishermen who set

their nets accordingly.

Other species taken in the creeks are Lutzanus johnii (Tamb) anda

horse-mackerel (Cavanx nigripennts). Gar fish are abundant in

season, the commonest species is Bellone strongylurus (Toli, Tolka

and Tol). Gar fish are long pike-like fish with tapering, well-armed

jaws. They are surface feeders lying almost stationary about piles

of rocks or by the walls of piers in a good tideway and flashing out

at passing prey. The Cat-fishes are represented by Plotosus cantus

(Kalamb), the Crocodile fish by Platycephalus scaber (Shatira).

Other species which visit the creeks and estuaries in numbers are

Trachynotus russelli (Nalbi and Dangul) one of the Cavangide. A

sole (Pseudorhombus javanicus) known as the Rhepta or Shivra and

the Warra (Scat/tophagus argus) which is as flat as a pomfret and

heavily marked with black blotches. The smaller migratory forms

which are taken in large numbers along the coast are Anchovies

(Engraulis taty and mystax), known as Palkati and Taikati. Ribbon

fish (Zyrtchiurus savala) to which we have already referred; they are

known locally as Wakti. Silver-Bellies, mainly Gerres lucidus

(Muigan), Eguela brevirostris (Surgutta) which grow to a foot in

‘(snqvjnaIA SnuvYINT) YOIeg potyoeds ‘ppsaq Shay qdosday9g : (nog) wreoig vag yorig

"ds SNUDAAIS 3 (NAYAA) YOAIG-YOOY

‘Aaftavgqv9a savy : (vantvyy) AQ-yo09

‘SN INIVUMWIUASAD SNUBINT 3 (QuUYI) Yotag Asoy

SaHOdad

SHHSI4 GOOd AVAWOd

UNE IT :

90S ‘LSIH “LVN AVAUWOU “NANOL

THE FISH SUPPLY OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 79

length, and Sardines (Clupea /ile). Prawns and crabs are taken in

enormous numbers.

As stated previously no statistics of the quantities or the value of

the various species of fishes sold along the Bombay coast are

available. The Fishery Department of the Madras Government has

set an example to the rest of India as to what can be achieved in the

way of obtaining information about the quantities in which the

various marketable fishes are obtained and the economic value of

these species. We know nothing of the annual yield of the Bombay

Fisheries and we know still iess about the life histories of the food

fishes of our coastal waters. These are subjects which present an

enormously interesting and profitable field of enquiry and subjects

which come definitely within the province of a Department of

Fisheries which unfortunately does not exist in Bombay.

FISHING GROUNDS

As regards Fishing Grounds we learn from the Report that ‘the

Gulf of Kutch gave the highest catch per hour of all fish together

(145 Ibs.) and the conclusion may be drawn that this area, at leastin

the season when the samples were taken, holds a good stock of

trawl-fish. But the position of undesirable snags inthe form of

coral reefs requires investigation to ensure against the possibility of

the losses outweighing the gains.’

‘All the grounds except the inadequately sampled Southern

Grounds and the Gulf of Cambay (off Daman) show a catch per

hour of over 100 lbs. The genera] mean may be taken as not less

than 1 cwt. of fish per hour, as it should be borne in mind that the

data from which the figures are calculated are the weights of the

several sorts of fish as observed atsea which were in general below,

and in some cases considerably below, the actual weight of the total

fish caught.’

‘The Southern Grounds make a poor showing. Our work here

was very limited, and it is likely that the figures are in deficit of

average conditions, for we know from the coastal fishings that fish

are to be found in abundance on these coasts at certain times of the

year. The probability is that they move in shoals and shift their

grounds suddenly. Further trawling trails might throw sufficient

light on their movements to enable one to pursue the fishing with’

successful results.’

‘ Considering the more important individual species, the Sind and

Gulf of Kutch grounds give the highest figures for Goal. The

Kathiawar Grounds and the Gulf of Kutch show the best average

yield of Pomfret. The West Coast of Kathiawar, Gulf of Kutch

and Sind Grounds show a marked predominance of ‘‘Karel’’ and there

seems no doubt but that this species has its maximum density of

distribution to the northward. ‘‘Wam”’ are clearly most abundant

on the muddy grounds adjacent to Bombay, while ‘‘ Shingala ’ are

shown to be in general distribution though the highest rate of catch

is given by the four hauls in the Gulf of Kutch. Rays (wagli) appear

to be most abundant on the Bombay Grounds and off South

Kathiawar and are conspicuously less in evidence on the cleaner

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

grounds off Sind where also the Wam, which is a characteristic

inhabitant of muddy grounds, is similarly lacking. The shark-like

Base are shown in greatest abundance off Kathiawar (West) and

WeChes

The tables published in the Report point out, Mr. Hefford writes,

‘the distinct drop in the quantities of fish caught when the 30

fathoms line is crossed, except in the case of the post-monsoon

fishing when the catch of ‘“ goal’’ slightly exceeded and the catch of

pomfret and wam in the 30-40 fathom zone—the average depth was

however only 33 fathoms—approximately doubled the normal. It may

be noted however that these catches were derived from only 10 hauls

which are almost all made near the northern limits of the Bombay

Grounds. ‘There are not sufficient data forthis locality in other

seasons for comparison to enable one to judge whether this is a

purely seasonal feature or not. ‘There are indications, however,

that as one leaves the latitude of Bombay and proceeds towards the

Kathiawar coast, there is a tendency for the fish to be found ex-

tending further seaward than is the case further south. How far

this is connected with the effect of the large rivers Narbudda and

Tapti or whether it has to do with the strongly moving tides of the

Gulf of Cambay, are interesting questions which need not be further

pursued here. All that can be concluded from the data we have

been able to gather, is that in general the heaviest catches of fish

made by the trawler were made in the neighbourhood of the 20

fathoms line. Occasionally, unusually good catches were made near

or below 10 fathoms on the one hand and in the neighbourhood

of 30 fathoms onthe other hand. But for all-round fishing the

middle depth of 20 fathoms seems preferable. It may be mention-

ed too that near this contour the grounds appear to be most free

from obstructions liable to cause damage to the trawl. Near 10

fathoms there 1s more liability to meet with rocks, wreckage or

such snags as old fishing-stakes, and moreover foul hauls, through

the otter-boards overriding the wings of the trawl in shooting, are

especially liable to occur in shallow water. Beyond 30 fathoms

depth the risk of encountering coral is considerably increased.’

Mr. Hefford’s conclusions are that in the case of ‘Goal’ it would

appear their maximum density of distribution lies inside the 20

fathoms line, though at the end of December they were found in

abundance up to 36 fathoms about 60 miles NW1iW from Kundari.

In that same neighbourhood and at about the same time pomfrets

also appeared in more than normal abundance, in contrast with

their tendency during the Pre-monsoon and monsoon seasons to

show in greater abundance on the landward side of the 20th

fathoms line. The results indicate for ‘Karel’ an off-shore

tendency during the Pre-monsoon months and an in-shore concen-

tration in the monsoon and after. ‘ Ravas’ are clearly revealed as

shore-hugging fish except in the post-monsoon when Vfolynemus in-

dicus no less than ‘Goal’ and pomfret were found inthe northern half

of the stretch between Bombay and Diuto be distributed in depths

which were greater than those which afford their normal habitat

elsewhere. The same applies to ‘Wam’ which, however, show a

very distinct aggregation in the vicinity of the 20 fathom line—

OOO TE

JOURN., BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. PLATE VI.

BOMBAY FOOD FISHES.

Cat-Fish (Singhala) : Arius dussumiert.

Bombay Duck (Bombil) : Harpodon nehereus.

Indian Haddock (Dori): Scienoides brunneus.

THE FISH SUPPLY OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 81

more above than below that depth—in the pre-monsoon month of

February. The maximum figure for‘ Shingala’ is shown for the

20-30 fathom zone inthe monsoon season. In other seasons they

appear to be more abundant at less than 20 fathoms depth.

‘The data from the distant Sind grounds are comparatively

scanty and practically limited to the months of December, January

and February, but so far as they go they indicate for ‘‘Goal’’ an

in-shore concentration in the pre-monsoon month of February. In

April and May, one knows from the big local fishery that then takes

place, there is aremarkable immigration of ‘‘ Goal”’ to the coast in

the neighbourhood of Karachi. The figures for ‘‘Karel”’ also appear

to indicate a moment to the shallower waters in February.’

‘It is a noteworthy fact, though based on only 3 hauls, the

average depth of which was 32 fathoms, that the highest catch per

hour figures are shown for the 30 to 40 fathom zone in the post-

monsoon fishing. The predominant species are goal, pomfret and

karel. A comparison is suggested with the similar conditions

noted above for the northern Bombay grounds. In each case it

seems probable that the neighbourhood of large rivers tends to push

out the seaward Jimits of fish distribution.’

‘The data from the South Kathiawar grounds are perhaps too

scanty to allow of any very precise conclusions as to variations in

bathymetrical or seasonal distribution. It is significant, however,

that fairly good catches are shown here for the deeper zones just as

was shown by the hauls made in the adjacent grounds of the Bombay

area to which reference has been made above. Probably no signifi-

cance can be attached to the figures for the separate species for

comparative purposes, but the indication of a post-monsoon concen-

tration towards shallower water in the case of goal and the relatively

high catches of pomfret in the deeper zones at this season may be

noted, as well as the increased ‘‘ Shingala’’ catches from the 10~20

fathoms zone in the post-monsoon data (derived from the January

hauls).’

‘The haul which yielded the highest catch per hour of all (of 801

Ibs. per hour) was Haul No. 90, the first haul of voyage xi, made on

August 19, 1921, at adepth of 15 to 16 fathoms 9 miles west by

north from Kundari(Kenri) Island. It is of interest to note the

very close proximity of this spotto Bombay. The catch per hour

of the different sorts of fish taken in that haul was as follows

(expressed in lbs. to the nearest decimal figure) :—

Goal oa a -goa0 “Ibs;> per’ “hour

Karel eee soc 213°8 ” ) om)

Dori sie eee LOLS ” ” )

Rays oon coe 42°6 ” 9 )

Wam dete see 24:0 9 7) ”

Sharks atte iste Bee) ) 9 om)

Shingala see 6°6 ” ” ”

Ravas sae 4°8 ” Fi) om)

Palu eee vee 4°8 9”) ” ”

‘(anablasa <<. 2°] ” ” 9

Pomfret 1°3 ” ” ”

Chand 0°8

82 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

‘ Considering individual sorts of fish, the best catch per hour of

Goal was 280 lbs. in Haul No. 250 (Voyage xxv, Haul 6) made on

the Sind grounds on December 6, 1921, on the northern edge of

the Swatch, shooting in more than 50 fathoms and hauling in 17

fathoms at a distance of 52 miles SSE from Cape Monze. The

elusive movements or the local concentration of the off-shore shoals

of goal—a condition which is well described by the trawler-man’s

terms ‘‘ Spotty ’’—is exemplified by the fact that a second haul,

for which the trawl was towed as nearly as possible over the same

ground, produced not asingle Goal. The haul which produced the

second highest catch per hour (209 Ibs.) of Goal was also made on

the Sind ground, viz., Haul 376 which has been referred to above

as yielding the highest total catch of this species. It should be

noted that the depth here was 13 to 14 fathoms only. The third:

highest catch per hour of Goal was 142:9 lbs. made on February 26,

1922, sixty-seven miles SE1S from Diu Head (or about 100 miles

roughly NW from Bombay) in 20 fathoms. Four other hauls made

on the Bombay grounds yielded a catch per hour of over 109 Ibs.

of Goal. The catch-per-hour figures were 141, 114, 103 and

124 lbs. and the depths 16-15, 15-19, 21-17 and 22 fathoms

respectively. The practical conclusion to be drawn from these data

is that the best catches of Goal are generally to be made inside the

20 fathoms line.’

‘With regard to the catches of Pomfret, only 10 hauls show

catch-per-hour figures which exceed 20 lbs. ‘Two of the above

hauls were made on the South Kathiawar grounds and one in close

proximity to this region. One was made on the Sind grounds in

comparatively shallow water (16-15 fathoms). The optimum depth

for the Bombay grounds appears to be a little below 25 fathoms

though some good catches were made from tows which were taken

at greater depths. Where the depths at the beginning and ending of

the tow vary so much as from 24 or 27 fathoms to 40 fathoms, it is

of course impossible to say from what of the line the fish were

most derived and such hauls are, therefore, of little value as survey

data.”

‘The voyages which yielded the best catches of Pomfret were

Voyage xviii made in October on the grounds abreast of Bombay

Harbour, with an average catch-per-hour for the whole fishing time

of 20 lbs. of pomfret, Voyage xxii made in November to the

grounds in the vicinity of Diu Head (114 to 130 miles NW3W from

the Prongs Light covering the best of the fishing) with a catch-per- ©

hour of 12 lbs. of pomfret, and Voyage xxxiii made in February

on the Bombay grounds when the best catches were made in the

area lying between 20 and 25 milesroughly NW by W from Kundari

(catch-per-hour of pomfret for whole voyage, 15 lbs.).’

‘Regarding the catches of Karel, to sum up the indications as

concisely at the data will allow, it may be said that the best average

catches were made on the Sind grounds, where the depths above

20 fathoms showed a greater abundance of these fish in the month

of December and January, whereas in February the more shallow

water inside the 20 fathom gave the better results. On the Bombay

grounds there are indications of aconcentration of the-~species for

(DASLU ajvIDIT) eyexe

‘DUDYIS OSDING : (pany) ys ApeT

‘tuynyYyY Uniqdy : (WUANG) Iaas

‘purcuny, snudy yp :(vpddng) Auuny

“ :

“RSENS

‘(00J07 snumautsoyy) rvepey

‘STHUASMOVIN

“THUAMOVA ASYOH

SHHSIA GOOd AVAWOU

‘TIA FLVIdg ‘90S “LSIH ‘LVN AVAWOU “NYAOL

THE FISH SUPPLY OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 83

the monsoon months which seems to be associated with the incidence

of spawning.’

CONCLUSION

In 1918 when it was decided to acquire a Steam Trawler to

investigate the unknown fishery resources of our local waters, it

was resolved atthe same time to secure the services of a Marine

Biologist to investigate the resources to be exploited. Subse-

quently a change in the policy required the Marine Biologist to

subordinate exploratory work to a new objective—that of catch-

ing and landing fish for the Bombay market. The experi-

ment of placing trawl-caught fish on the Bombay market was

doubtless an interesting one, but it is obvious that making market-

ing a primary condition was a handicap to exploratory work at sea.

Putting exploitation before exploration was exactly putting the cart

before the horse. |

The operations of the trawler were not a commercial success ; as, at

no time did the proceeds from the sales of fish approach any-

where near working expenses. The working expenses averaged

Rs. 11,175 per mensem, the monthly receipts from the sales of fish

averaged Rs. 2,205. 33 per cent of the working expenses represent

wages and 29 per cent coal consumption. Mr. Hefford points out

that the pay of the European crew was fixed at atime when the

trawling industry was booming in England and wages were at a

very high level. ‘The same is tobe said about the initial outlay. A

Trawler like the William Carrick which cost £17,000 in 1920 could

have been bought for £7,000 in 1923. Again, expenditure was

greatly increased by lengthy, unproductive periods which the

trawler spent at sea or in docks. Thus the monthly receipts from

the sales of fish caught by the William Carrick cannot be taken as

a true indication of the commercial possibilities of trawling in our

coastal waters. The rate at which fish were caught both in the

average and in special seasons is a better guide. The average

catch per hour throughout the period of operations works out at

116 lbs. which in Mr. Hefford’s opinion could not only be equalled

but exceeded by a properly established commercial concern. A

commercial fishing trawler could put in at least 20 fishing days a

month. The William Carrick only approximated this in three out

of the 9} months she was at sea. She landed her catches four times

a month, whereas a commercial trawler, as Mr. Hefford indicates,

could make as many as ten landings bringing in supplies every

third day. Daily landings, although they involve the maintenance

of a fleet of 3 or 4 vessels, would provide a yet better chance of

commercial success. Mr. Hefford believes that 20 tons of fish is

not an excessive estimate of the possible catch of a trawler operat-

ing in local waters and he believes that it is safe to assume that a

commercial organization would be in a position to obtain 300 per

cent better prices than the William Carrick could command. He

writes: ‘ The real competition would be not with the local fishermen

but with the merchants and vendors in the Bombay markets. A

power fishery concern cannot carry on modern methods of produc-

tion if it is left to the mercy of the fish merchants at Crawford market

81 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. OCW

to fix the prices it will get for its fish. It must be ina position, at

least with a considerable proportion of its supplies, to side-track the

middle man and supply direct tothe consumer. To do this it must

be in a position to guarantee regular supplies. This is most

important and this is where a firm working three or four vessels,

would have a better chance than a single boat concern.’ A smaller

trawler than the W7lliam Carrick would diminish working expenses

and coal consumption. Two alternative types are suggested :—a

steam drifter equipped with a trawl, Danish seine and drift-nets, or

a fleet of fast motor-propelled cutters equipped with seine-nets, etc.

So far as Bombay is concerned, Mr. Hefford is of opinion that the

type of vessel which would pay best, could only be ascertained after

practical demonstration.

The publication ofthe details of the work carried out by the W2/liam

Carrick are of great practical value as they demonstrate the possi-

bilities of commercial trawling in Bombay waters and provide data

as regards the more important economic fishes. It is clear however

that a fishery survey of the seas of a Presidency with over 1,000

miles of coast line cannot have been carried out very far over a

short period of 9 months.

The present prospects of the continuance of fishery investiga-

lions are somewhat blank. The posts of Marine Biologist and

Assistant Marine Biologist have been abolished. The inconclusive

ending of a costly enterprise emphasizes the fact that experiments

in this field are fore-doomed to failure unless supported by the prac-

tical commercial marketing of fish on the one hand and by scientific

investigation onthe other. The direction should combine know-

ledge of local fishing conditions from both the practical and the

scientific standpoints.

Power-fishing—not necessarily Steam-Trawling—will some day

become one of the great industries of the Bombay Presidency and

the present set-back is we believe purely of a temporary nature

due to faults in the conception and carrying out of previous

schemes.

It is evident that wide local knowledge of the life history and

habits of our food fishes is essential to secure success. We must

know, at least, the salient facts about our fishes, their breeding

seasons, spawning grounds and the main factors controlling their

periodic migrations that are the outstanding characteristics of most

of our valuable marketable fishes. Knowledge of this description

will assuredly enable our sea-fishing industry to develop on modern

lines, and so obtain the largest possible quantities of fish in the

best condition upon an expenditure low enough to permit of sale at

reasonable prices. Successful marketing in Bombay implies low

working costs or, in the alternative, greatly increased supplies.

Perhaps in no other industry depending directly on the spontaneous

produce of Nature, can the possible results so amply repay the capi-

tal and labour expended upon it. But the practical Zoologist is

essential to success and it is also needful that any extensive steam

or motor fishery should have strong and patient financial backing

and should be run in conjunction with a_ well-thought-out and

extensive cold storage and distributing agency. It is probably

JOURN., BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. Prare Vill.

BOMBAY FOOD FISHES.

INDIAN MULLETS.

Hilsa (Mugil dussumieri.)

Boi (Mugil oeur.)

PAL FISHES.

PIL NY

OP AF ogy

Sole (Synaptura cinerascens.)

Indian Halibut (Bakhas) : Psettodes erumet.

oe i Lj

% 5 7 ad

. :

‘

i ae

PS ope

| hale

ia =

PAE OPISTE SOPPILY OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 85

easier to catch fish than to dispose of them at remunerative rates.

This is not work for a Government Department. Government

should confine itself to the investigations needful to supply data

essential to commercial success. It is not part of their province to

try directly and through their own organization to develop com-

mercially such capitalistic methods of fishing as Steam-trawling.

The Steam trawler. Lady Goschen operated by the Madras

Fishery Department is at present engaged purely in investigation

and survey. She is not worked with the idea of catching large

quantities of fish or landing them at quick intervals and at

suitable places for the market. In short, the Madras Fishery

Department are not competitors of the fishermen; they are working

to obtain information which will put the fishing industry on a better

basis.

Extensive cruises along the Malabar Coast have enabled Capt.

Cribb, the Skipper of the trawler Ledy Goschen to obtain a

general idea of the South-West Coast, a detailed survey of which

is now being undertaken.

An important point emerging from this survey was the dis-

covery that a region extending from the 15 to the 55-fathom line

opposite Calicut abounded during November and December with

the young of many varieties of food fishes. The area constituted

a vast nursery at this time of the year. Another discovery was

that S. W. and N. W. of Calicut between 21 and.29 fathoms the

sea bottom is subject to great change, apparently due to the depth

of the mud and sand. Trawling in this area in November and

December 1928 revealed the presence of a rocky bottom—while

fishing in the same grounds in April 1929 showed the complete

absence of rocks. It is suggested that the strong currents set up

by the monsoon, sweep the sea bottom of mud and sand and

leave the rocks exposed at the end of the monsoon. Changes of

this nature must have a definite effect on the type of fish which

inhabit the sea-bed at different seasons of the year. The investi-

gations and explorations now being conducted by the Madras

_ Fisheries Department are slowly building up a mosaic of knowledge

which will pave the way to the greater development of the fisheries

under its control.

The fish supply of Bombay City is at present much below its

needs. The iocal fisheries are not able to supply the demand and

our markets are largely dependent on imports from Karachi,

Broach, Damaun and the Kathiawar Ports. ,

The local fishing population on the caste basis numbers about

10,000 out of which about 6,000 work in the trade or are actually

employed on the boats. The local fleet roughly numbers 210 boats

of varying capacities. The smallest are worked by two persons.

They operate within a radius of 3 to 4 miles from the shore. The

larger boats or ‘ Muchwas’, manned by a crew of half a dozen, go

further afield to places like Bassein and Palghar where there are

probabilities of securing large catches. The local trade has

suffered considerably during recent years from various causes.

Firstly the profits of the Industry do not go to the fisherment

but into the pockets of contractors and middlemen. Owing

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

co the spread of education it has been suggested that there

is a tendency among children of fishermen to give up the work of

their forefathers and to seek their livelihood in Government service

or elsewhere. Again, the increased cost of living in Bombay is

reflected in the higher wages demanded by fishermen and by people

engaged in the transport of fish to the market, in the increased cost

of nets and fishing gear and the consequent increase in the price of

fish; factors which have caused many connected with the trade to

migrate to ports where labour is cheaper and where, as an addi-

tional advantage, taxes such as are levied in Bombay have not to be

paid.

There are 17 municipal markets and 17 private markets in Bombay

most of which handle fish which is brought from bunders such as

Back Bay, Chowpati, Colaba, Worli, Mazagaon and Dharavi. In

addition, fish is imported from various ports along the coast by

steamer and rail. Catches landed at the local bunders are carried

on the heads of coolies in open baskets to the markets where they

are exposed for sale in the stalls. Complaints have been received

from the public regarding this method of transport in open baskets

exposed to the attention of crows, but no action can be taken by the

municipality to remedy the existing state of affairs as there is no

provision in the Municipal Acts which would empower them to do

so. Besides the fishermen point out that covered baskets would

accelerate decomposition.

The introduction of refrigerating chambers for the cold storage

of fish has enabled local merchants to import iced fish from coastal

ports and to store it till it is wanted. Fish brought by steamers

from coastal ports are packed in air-proof ice boxes or ordinary

boxes and baskets. An insufficient supply of ice often leads to de-

composition of fish so transported. The railways do not provide,

at present, cold-storage trucks for the transport of fish.

Imported fish is brought to the markets for sale or storage. ‘The

Crawford market and the Erskine Road markets are the chief dis-

tributing centres from which the smaller markets in the city receive

their supply. In addition to cold storage at Crawford market there

are other refrigerating chambers started by private enterprise.

Among these are the plants maintained by the City Ice Supply Co.,

the Bombay Ice Manufacturing Co. and Dhunjibhoy Pestonji’s Ice

Factory. The storage capacity in Crawford market is about 100

tons of fish, frozen solid, at a temperature running down to 10

degrees above zero. ‘The fish merchants are now able to fill the

cold stores with fish when it is plentiful and cheap and sell it retail

when expensive and scarce. This, while it may benefit the fish

merchants and vendors, is of doubtful value to the fishermen or the

consumer but better organization and better facilities for cold

storage have enabled the city’s demand to be increasingly met

from outside sources.

To summarize :—

(1) The present fish supply of Bombay City is not equal to the

demand.

(2) The local trade cannot cope with the city’s needs which are

being increasingly met by imports from outside sources

THE FISH SUPPLY OF THE WEST COAST OF INDIA 87

made possible by the establishment of facilities for cold

storage.

(3) The local industry has been adversely affected in recent

; years by increase in operating charges, due to higher cost

of living in Bombay, taxes which have not to be paid at

other ports and other economic causes which have

influenced people connected with the trade to migrate to

ports where working costs are less high.

(4) The possibility of increasing the local supply of fish has

been demonstrated by the operations of the trawler

William Carrick.

(5) The loss sustained by this vessel was due to faults in the

conception and carrying out of the scheme.

(6) While a great disparity between working costs and the

returns from the sales of fish obtained is evidenced in

the operations of the Wzlliam Carrick, the experience

gained by its initial exploration of our coastal waters

indicates that power-fishing, not necessarily steam-trawl-

ing, in local waters is commercially possible.

The factors which should ensure commercial success are—

(1) The reduction of working cost by the use of a smaller

vessel with less coal consumption or as alternatives a

steam-drifter equipped with a trawl, Danish seine-nets

and drift-nets or :—

(2) Motor-propelled cutters with similar gear.

A larger number of working days at sea than was possible

with the William Carrick. This would ensure for com-

mercially controlled vessels a greater output.

(3) A fleet of 3 or 4 vessels which would enable daily landings

of fish and thus guarantee regular supplies.

(4) Power-fishing to be successful under local conditions must

be run in conjunction with a well-thought-out system of

cold storage and an efficient distributing agency.

(5) Successful marketing of trawl-caught fish depends largely

on the controlling concern being in a position to guarantee

regular supplies for sale direct to the consumer without

the intervention of middle-men.

Government co-operation is indicated in the investigation and the

supply of data essential to commercial success.

A department of fisheries under the control of a Marine Biologist

with practical experience of local conditions might with advantage

provide statistics and information relative to :—

(a) The various species of marketable fishes obtainable on one

coasts, the quantities in which they are obtained and the

value realized.

(6) The ports at which various species are abundant at different

seasons of the year and information as regards times of

fishing and weight and values of fish obtained.

portant economic fishes are taken at different ports at

different seasons,

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

(d) The life histories, habits and periodic migrations of our

more important economic fishes.

(€) The various types of nets used by local fishermen, the

destruction of fry in creeks, rivers and estuaries by the

use of particular types of nets or traps.

(f) Any conditions which are adversely affecting the local

industry in Bombay,

and finally :—Suggest measures for the utilization and develop-

ment of by-products of the industry. ;

Din

LITERATURE

Report on the Work of the Steam Trawler Walliam Carrick

May 1921—Feb. 1922. A. E. Hefford, M.Sc.

A Statistical Account of the Fish Supply of Madras. S. T.

Moses, Wadras Fisheries Bulletin, vol. xv, 1922.

Observations on the Shallow Water Fauna of the Bay of

Bengal made on the Bengal Fisheries Steam-Trawler

Golden Crown, 1908-1909. J. T. Jenkins, Rec. Ind. Mus.,

VOl. Vil, pe OE;

Estuary Fishing: Some remarks on its decadence as an

Industry in the Konkan, Western India. W. A. Wailinger,

Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xvii, p. 620, 1907.

Statistics, Madras Fisheries Department, 1926-1928.

Administration Reports, Madras Fisheries Department,

1925-1926.) 1926219274 1925) 1929:

Administration Report of the Marine Biologist, Ceylon,

1929:

Game Fishes of the Persian Gulf. Maj. H. W. Lane, Jozyz.

Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxiv, p. 722.

Fishes of India, Day. Faun. of Brit. /nd., vols. 1, and ii.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS.

HucGH WHISTLER, F.S.Z., M.B.O.U.

Part VII.

(Continued from page 735 of Vol. XXXIV)

THE REPRODUCTION OF BIRDS.

Preliminary Remarks,

This series of Articles started with an account of the origin of

birds and then went on to discuss some of their most striking

physical characteristics. Now I propose to treat of certain aspects

of their biology, that is, the study of their lives.

One of the most dominant motives of life is reproduction.

Throughout the whole gamut of Nature, we find that one of her chief

pre-occupations, one of her chief incentives to action, is the handing

on of the torch of life. The present is but a fleeting moment.

The life of the individual is all too short, a speck in the universe of

time. The presentand the individual alone are nothing and without

meaning. Their significance is only attained when invested with a

past and a future, when they take their places in the unending chain

of destiny. Hence, consciously and unconsciously, the individual

life finds one of its chief activities in reproduction; growth and

maturity lead up to the reproductive period. That great duty

accomplished, life descends to the common grave.

In the study of birds, in particular, we find that the many-sided

aspects of their reproduction evoke the greatest interest and produce

the most striking facts.

The Dialectician has often delighted to debate on whether the

hen or the egg came first. I propose to settle the question in a

summary way and say that the first item in the reproductive cycle

of birds is found under the heading of courtship, using the term

somewhat widely to embrace a number of points which lead up to

the production of the eggs from which emerge the young.

The first point to get clear in one’s mind with regard to the

reproduction of birds is that the season for breeding is, as a general

rule, a very sharply defined fact. The casual observer often draws

his knowledge of the subject from the poultry-run. He sees the

owner of a stock of poultry drawing a supply of eggs which

appears to go on more or less throughout the year with no regard

to season or anything else; and when he reads in the newspaper

that a hen or duck in an egg-laying test has won with the

extraordinary total of over 300 eggs in a single year, he is justified

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

in drawing the conclusion that a bird may be always in laying

condition. This is far from the case.

It may be laid down as a general rule that a bird whether male

or female, is only in breeding condition for a short and very definite

period in the year. There is no need here to discuss the subject in

detail. Those of us who are accustomed to collect birds and skin

them, have necessarily to ascertain their sex by dissection. In the

process one soon learns that the reproductive organs in both sexes

lie dormant throughout most of the year. Ata certain period they

develop and the bird breeds; after the eggs are laid, the organs

again diminish and become so small that they are difficult to

recognize. These facts remain true whatever the breeding habits

and whenever the breeding season. In the poultry-run, domestica-

tion has interfered with the normal cycles. The wild duck or the

Jungle Fowl has a defined breeding season, a normal waxing and

waning of the organs like any other bird.

In many books one may read apparent contradictions of my

statementabove. The House-sparrow and the various doves are said

to bring up a succession of broods, or a particular species is said to

breed throughout the year. Herelooseness of language and thought

are at fault. In Peninsular India it is quite true that nests of many

species are to be found throughout the year. The climate is not

one of extremes in many areas; food-supply is abundant; there is

no particular factor to make one month a better breeding season

than another. Thus it comes about that the eggs of a common

bird, as for instance the Common Babbler (Argya caudata), may be

found in a particular area in azy month in the year, whilst if the

bird is sufficiently numerous, nests may be found in every month.

Individual birds go through their reproductive cycle, some at one

time, some at another. The same birds do not breed all the time,

The number of broods reared by an individual, do not necessarily

differ from the numbers she would rear if exigencies of climate

and food-supply directed all the pairs to lay at one time as in more

temperate lands. A particular hole in a stable roof may hold a

succession of sparrow broods. It does not follow, however, that

each brood belongs to the same parents. Competition is severe

and suitable sites are often scarce. There is no doubt that the

normal brood for most species is a single one; many species

certainly bring up two broods, and a few three; but there can be

little doubt that the number of broods attributed to a species is

generally exaggerated, especially in India. Any one who has had

to collect birds in the breeding season, will probably bear out my

experience that it is very rare to shoot a bird building a nest

and find that it bears the unmistakable ‘incubation patch’ which

a recent brood would imply. A bird may build a nest and lay a

clutch of eggs. Some fatality attends the eggs—and such fatalities

are very numerous in a land of dust-storms, crows, lizards, snakes

squirrels and small herd-boys—and the bird immediately proceeds

to the production of a second nest and clutch, and sometimes a

third endeavour is necessary before a brood is reared. But such

second or third attempt does not mean that the bird is ‘ double-

brooded’ or ‘rears three broods’ in the meaning of the text books.

HH STODY OF INDIAN BIRDS 91

It is akin to that strange phenomenon by which some species can

be induced to lay double or treble the normal number of eggs if an

egg is daily removed from the nest so that the clutch does not

accumulate. ‘The ovary has some selective power of bringing to

maturity eggs that would not normally develop.

In my experience the organs of male birds develop for the

breeding season in advance of those of the females. From this

probably follows the fact that courtship is in most cases the work

of the male and also follows the acquisition of a ‘territory’ by the

male as explained below. But before dealing with those points it

is necessary to consider the various forms of union into which birds

enter. These follow different lines which recall the various usages

of mankind.

The normal union is that of one male with one female. ‘This

is so general amongst the birds not only of India but of the world,

that the point need not be laboured or illustrated, except as regards

the duration of suchunions. Somearecertainly for life ; others are

certainly only for a single breeding season. But the facts are not

easy to study : and we have little definite knowledge.

It is fairly safe to assume, for instance, that the Raven (Corvus

covax), the Sarus Crane (Grus antigone), and the Laggar Falcon

(Falco jugger) are species which pair for life. A pair of Sarus

Cranes will take up their abode in a particular jheel and there one

will find them for the whole year. They rest and for a time they

are accompanied by the young. Then the young vanish and the

original pair remain in the place where one has always seen them.

So marked is the devotion of the pair, one to the other, and so

definite their attachment to one particular area that we are justified

in considering it amounts virtually to proof that the union is one

for life. The oft-repeated legend in India that if one of a pair of

Sarus Cranes be shot, the survivor will die of a broken heart shows

how definitely and generally it is believed, as the result of uncon-

scious observation, that the birds pair for life.

So with the Raven and the Laggar. They are not birds which

catch the notice of every one like the Sarus. But any observant

naturalist soon learns certain salient facts in their life history. The

nesting place is used year after year ; the pair of birds are seen about

together the whole year round; the same pair appear to have the

same area of territory in which they hunt and live, and as acquain-

tance with them grows, a particular pairis found to have some little

trick or habit which helps to establish their identity.

With the Raven there is another item of circumstantial proof.

Wherever it is sufficiently numerous it has the habit of roosting

in congregations. Early in my service in India I was posted tothe

Jhelum district, then particularly noted for the number of murders

committed in the Chakwal Tehsil. As Assistant, I was usually

deputed to hasten out to the scenes of successive murders and this

involved a drive of about 40 miles by tonga from Mandra to

Chakwal as the railway had not then been built. About halfway

along the road there were some wayside trees which a large

number of Ravens had chosen as their roosting place. When my

journey took place by moonlight I used to see the Ravens, to the

92° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALSTST, SOGIETY, Vol. XXXV

number of 20 or 30 or more, sitting asleep up in the trees. When

I travelled earlier in the evening I saw the birds flying over the

country to the roosting place, and invariably they were in pairs.

There were never parties as in the roosting flight of the House-

Crow (Corvus splendens): there were never single birds. Always I

saw pair after pair flying fast over the plain, to join the common

roost. One can hardly avoid the conclusion from this that the pair

which nested together, lived together throughout the rest of the

year.

How far this is the case with smaller commoner birds is difficult

to teil. We know that a covey of partridges ora party of tits of

genus /gi/halus (such as the common Red-headed Tit of the

Himalayas), consists in its origin of the pair of old birds with their

young. We know that these family parties, if undisturbed, persist

together until the spring; and we may suspect that when the

breeding season comes again and the parties break up to breed the

old original pair probably remain together. We notice a tendency

also for many resident birds to be found about commonly in twos,

generally of opposite sexes, which suggest that the pair remain

together throughout the season. But our definite knowledge on

the point is very meagre. It is on points like this that we shall

ultimately hope to learn much from the activities of bird-ringers.

On the other hand there is no doubt that great numbers of birds

pair afresh each season. It could hardly be otherwise with most of

the migratory species. Though the fact that migration is not

necessarily a bar to birds pairing for life will probably be admitted

by all who have a full acquaintance with the Brahminy Duck

(Casarca ferruginea). The marked way in which these birds

remain in pairs during the winter on our Indian rivers, and the

close relation that subsists between the pairs even when a number

occasionally collect together, renders the conclusion irresistible that

these migratory birds pair for life. In most migratory species,

however, the chances are evidently against the same male and female

finding each other, season after season.

Monogamy and polyandry are not common amongst birds,

though of considerable interest in the cases where they occur. It

is difficult to Cefine their extent.

Some years ago it was generally believed that the majority of the

larger game birds (Galline) were polygamous. Now opinion has

swung the other way, and turning over the pages of the new -auwza,

one finds it asserted under most of the species that they are mono-

gamous. Idonot find that either opinion, so far as our Indian

species are concerned, has been based on very definite facts or

observation. The testimony of natives and the proportions between

the sexes appear to be the only facts on which the theory of

general polygamy was originally based; and it was confirmed to

those who believed in it by the readiness with which birds in

captivity fell in with arrangements based on the theory. ‘The

point 1s one which may be commended to observers in the field,

but it will not be settled without difficulty.

Polyandry is the name given to the system of one female mating

with several males. In India we are familiar with it in the case

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 93

of the Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) and the little Button-

Quails of the genus 7Zurnzx,

Now there are some very interesting points connected with this

reversal of the role of the sexes.

In both the Painted Snipe and the Button-Quails, the female bird

is very definitely the Jarger and the plumage of the sexes is

different. To human eyes at any rate the plumage of the. female

Painted Snipe is more beautiful and conspicuous, the male having

to some extent the duller plumage which is commonly associated

with the duties of incubation. The Painted Snipe is necessarily a

difficult bird to study in its natural habitat, but fortunately the

Button-quails are easy birds to keep in captivity ; and what we

know of their habits in the wild state has been supplemented and

confirmed by aviculturalists.

The following facts are believed to be well authenticated.

The females have a ioud booming call, generally described as a

purr, or across betweena purr and a coo. This call is used for

the same purposes as the call of the males of the game birds,

that is to say as a challenge to others of the same and an invita-

tion to those of the opposite sex. By the call the males are

attracted to the females and other females also come and desperate

contests ensue between them. Their pugnacity is so well known

that it is utilized by native bird-catchers, who according to Jerdon

in the Carnatic used to catch 15 to 20 females with a single female

call-bird as decoy.

Once paired, the female is accustomed to feed the male with

tit-bits from her bill, just as the males of gallinaceous birds are

accustomed to feed their mates.

- As soon as the eggs are laid the male begins to sit on them

and broods them throughout incubation. When the chicks are

hatched he feeds them and carefully brings them up, without any

assistance from the hen who in the meantime has usually called and

fought for and paired with another maie. ‘This male in his turn is

furnished with a clutch of eggs to incubate, while it is believed

that this succession of mates is often a fairly long one. The

female herself never incubates and probably pays no heed to the

young.

Promiscuity is not as a rule an avian habit. It is not certain

whether it occurs at all normally amongst Indian birds, but

I believe that the cuckoos of the genus Cuculus are promiscuous in

their mating, males and females pairing for the moment and not

uniting ina union of any duration. Something approaching this

is said to occur with the Likh Florican (Sypheotides indica). It

is believed that these birds do not pair but that the males have

each a particular territory and that the females wander about until

they succumb to the fascinations of a male and then they lay and

incubate their eggs and rear the young without his heip.

Very little is as yet known about the question of Territory, in

the sense of a particular area in which a single bird or a pair of

birds claim domination, so far as others of their own species are

concerned. The sense of Territory is far from general. In

many species it certainly does not exist at all. In a few it is

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

strongly marked; in the majority it is probably not very strong,

and in almost all cases it is confined to the breeding season.

Now the pugnacious habits of the common Black Drongo or

King-Crow (Dicrurus macrocercus) are known to every one in India.

A pair build their nest in a tree and until the young are fledged

and independent, the neighbourhood of that tree is the scene of

incessant commotion. The King-Crows attack every passing bird

of any size—Eagle, Kite, Crow and often far less dangerous birds—

suspecting them of evil designs upon their nest, and other gentler

species such as the Doves and Bulbuls often nest in the same

tree and doubtless benefit from their protection. Though the King-

Crows evidently define limits within which dangerous strangers are

not tolerated, this is not a Territory in the specialized sense. The

King-Crows are merely protecting their eggs or young from danger

and they are not intolerant of others of the same species; in fact

other pairs often come and fraternise with them. |

A Territory sensu vera is maintained with reference to others of

the same species. It is most easily understood by an illustration

from a Himalayan stream. Camp alongside a Himalayan stream in

summer and observe the White-capped Redstarts (Chaimarrhornis

leucocephala) and the Plumbeous Redstarts (AAyacornis fuliginosa)

which are certain to be nesting along it. At regular intervals along’

the stream you will find pairs of each species. If you watch there you

will soon discover two facts. Firstly, the pairs of each species parcel

the stream out amongst themselves, so that the stream is divided

into sections by the White-capped Redstarts and again into sections

by the Plumbeous Redstarts. The sections often coincide for the

two species so that each part of the stream lies within a section

belonging to each species. Secondly, you will find that in any

section the Plumbeous Redstarts and the White-capped Redstarts

are not intolerant of each other. Occasional bickerings there will

be between White-caps and their smaller relatives, but no more

than is usual amongst neighbours. But each pair is very definitely

intolerant of the presence of a stranger of their own species. If a

Plumbeous Redstart from another section arrives within the

territory of the local pair, itis immediately assailed and driven

away again, and so with the Whitecapped Redstarts.

Here we have definite Zerrzfories, easy to see and understand

because of their linear dimensions along the stream. In the fields

and jungles similar territories exist but they are difficult for human

perceptions to grasp without a great deal of careful observation.

It is easy to understand how the territory is started and main-

tained by resident birds which pair for life. I know a precipice in

the Simla Hills where year after year the Shahin Falcon (Falco

peregrinator) breeds. There are three nesting sites in that prect-

pice used in turn in different years. The birds live there all the

year round. They hunt in the neighbourhood, rest after hunting

on the face of the precipice and sleep there by night. When they

are nesting, woe betide the crow or eagle that ventures to fly

across the face of the cliff. With shrill screams the Falcons pursue

and buffet the bird till it is far enough away to please them,

and so too would they doubtless treat any stranger of their own

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 95

species. Under such circumstances it would be strange if the

Falcons did not come to regard this cliff and its neighbourhood as

their own special territory.'

With birds that pair for a single season, the importance of the

territory varies. For many it certainly does not exist at all. For

others its inception is probably delayed until after the nest is

actually started, and its origin is merely sexual jealousy.

In many cases however itis believed that the possession of a

territory by the male is a necessary antecedent to the obtaining of

amate. This subject has been carefully studied by Howard with

reference to the British Warblers, and he came to the conclusion

that with the little warblers of the genus Phylloscopus (so widely

represented as breeding birds in the Himalayas) this was what

happened. In the spring migration, the males were the first to

arrive. They poured over the country side and as they came, each

male in turn took up his abode in a particular group of trees until

the locality was filled with the number of males for which there were

suitable territories. The remainder passed on to other areas still

untenanted—wave passing over wave. Thenas the females arrived,

they paired with those males already in the possession of territories.

Unsettled males are not in a position to mate for they have no

territory within which to choose a nest site.

How far this is correct it is difficult to say, but something like it

undoubtedly occurs. I have noticed, for instance, how the Pied

Bush-chats (Saxicola caprata) arrive in spring in the Punjab where

they are mostly summer migrants. Fora few days there are evi-

dently only males about. ‘They are conspicuous everywhere and a

little observation suggests that individuals are stationary, each

with its particular area where it will invariably be found. Then the

females arrive and nest building begins at once. And so with the

Purple Sunbird (Cizznyris astatica) and other species.

Other birds certainly pair before they arrive in their breeding

quarters. The Lesser Sand-Plover (Charadrius mongolus atritrons)

for instance indulges in all the displays and antics of courtship on

the sands of Karachi before it leaves on its long non-stop flight to the

breeding grounds in Ladakh and Tibet. Here the birds presumably

arrive already paired and mutually select their nesting site.

Here a question immediately suggests itself. Do birds, other

than those which pair for life, remember their nesting site from

year to year and use it season after season? The question is very

difficult to answer, but it is another of those that we may hope

in time to answer through the ringing of birds.

It is evident of course that season after season the nests of certain

species may be found in the same place.? A particular hole, for

* Such a territory once started, is maintained for generations. See ‘ Ootheca

Wolleyana’, p. 98 in which Peregrine Falcons were discovered as occupying

the same eyrie in 1736, 1799 and 1853.

? See, for instance, the famous case quoted by Yarrell (British Birds) of Blue

Tits nesting in an earthenware bottle from 1779 (or 1785) to 1873 with the

exception (for special causes) of only 2 years,

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

instance, will contain the nest of a ‘Tit or a Magpie Robin for several

years in succession. Under a particular culvert there is always the

nest of a Wire-tailed Swallow (Hirundo smithii). A pair of Little

Ring Plovers (Charadrius dubitus jerdonz) aiways seem to nest on the

same shingle bed. But there is usually nothing to show that the

birds which nest there one year, are those that bred there the year

before. Itmay be that really desirable sites are scarce and that a

site is selected by one pair for the same reasons that influenced its

predecessors, or possibly one or both of the birds survive from

previous years, remember the site and return to it.

The probability would seem to be that all birds desire to nest

where they nested before, or where they were themselves brought

up; but innumerable chances iie in the way of fulfilment of this

desire. Where birds are strictly resident, there should be fewer

obstacles in the way, the destruction of the nesting site, its appro-

priation by a stronger individual or species, and the heavy chance

of casualties during the year. But in the case of migrants, the odds

are far heavier: for one bird that returns after an absence of

months and a journey of thousands of miles to the exact spot of its

desires there must be numbers which have fain to be satisfied with

a safe return to the general area. That some birds do actually

return successfully to the particular nest site has been proved by

ringing. That all desire to, is suggested by the following circum-

stantial evidence :—

It is a commonplace now of knowledge how hard it is to

induce migratory birds to return as breeding species to an area

from which they have been exterminated. The Ruff and Reeve

(Philomachus pugnax) and the Black-tailed Godwit (Limosa limosa)

for instance were once extremely common breeding species in the

eastern counties of England. They were exterminated as breeding

birds in the course of the last century by heavy destruction of the

birds and eggs in the breeding season. Suitable marshes for them

still exist where ample protection would be afforded to them; and

every spring quite a number of both species pass through on

migration, while colonies of both birds are still numerous in Holland

but a short flight away. Yet there is no more than an occasional

isolated attempt by any of these migrants to breed in their old

haunts. The explanation apparently is that all the migrants are

tied by unconscious memory—the homing-instinct—to breed where

they were bred or had bred before. The local strain whose ties

were with the English marshes is dead; and no fresh strain will

start there so long as the migrants find their own ancestral marshes

available. If by some means a number of pairs could be induced

to breed one summer in the English marshes, their descendants

would return there year after year and the species be reinstated

as a British breeding bird.

Courtship

With these preliminary observations we may turn to an exami-

nation of the courtship of birds in the stricter sense of the words.

It needs only a slight acquaintance with birds in the field to make

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 97

one realize that the period immediately antecedent to the building

of the nest and the laying of the eggs is one of great activity, more

especially on the part of the male. This activity expresses itself

in various ways, but in the main these ways fall under two heads.

Either the bird expresses its excitement by movement, or by

noise—the two most primitive methods in the world of nature.

Within the possibilities afforded by these two methods we find

an infinite variety of expression and it is customary to divide them

under two headings, display to attract the mate and force to drive

off the possible rival ; while together they are held to account for

the sexual dimorphism of most birds, acting through natural

selection.

Display has a wide range. Pycraft cites the case of the House-

Sparrow thus :—‘ The grotesque manner in which he struts with

drooping wings and outspread tail around his mate’; and rightly

points out that it is nothing more or less than the same type of

display which we see in birds like the Pheasants and the Peafowl

where the grotesqueness of the performance (in human eyes) are

lost sight of in the splendour of the plumage and its special

developments that the performance reveals. Between the strutting

and posturing of the sparrow and the display of the Peacock (‘ in his

pride’ as the old Heralds aptly emblazoned it) there is no difference

save of degree. There is no need to labour examples of the

display pure and simple; each can readily furnish them from his

own experience.

It may, however, be of interest to mention one or two examples

where for the purposes of display, feather ornament has been

reinforced by body structure or behaviour.

. A familiar example of the latter is furnished by the Common

fora (4lgithina ttphia), In the breading season the maie flies up

into the air and then spirals down to its perch again, with all the

feathers spread out, especially the long loose plumage of the rump,

until it looks almost like a ball; while descending it utters a

strange protracted sibilant sound, recalling the note of a frog or

cricket. Arrived on the perch it spreads and flirts the tail likea

aa Peacock, drooping its wings and still uttering the curious

note.

Reinforcement of plumage displays by bodily structure is most

familiar in the use of air sacs. The stock example is that of the

pigeons of the Rock-Dove (Columba livia) group with their domestic

derivatives. As the male turns and twists and cooes before his

mate, beak pointing to the ground, he inflates his neck both for the

purposes of the noise and to exhibit more completely the. lustrous

colours on the neck. Here the inflation is apparently merely of the

crop and gullet with no special structures in addition.

In the Bustards a special pouch or gular sack, opening under

the tongue, has been developed to carry this type of display still

further. I do not find that this pouch has been definitely dissected

and described for our Indian species! Choriotes nigriceps (= Eupodotis

* Can no sportsman who shoots a male bird preserve the head and neck in

spirit for the purpose ?

98° JOURNAL; BOMBAY, NATURAL PT SIESOCIL TY Vol, XO,

edwardst) though its structure is well known in the European Great

Bustard (O?zs tarda). That it exists is evident from Hume’s account:—

‘The way in which the male expands the throat at times during

the breeding season in most extraordinary. ... First the male

begins to strut about, holding his head up as high as if he wanted

to lift himself off his legs; then after a few turns, he puffs out the

upper part of the throat just under the jaws, then draws it in again,

then puffs it out again, and so on, two, three or four times, and

then suddenly, out goes the whole throat down to the breast, and

that part of it next the latter swells more and more; his tail, already

cocked, begins to turn right back, over the back, and the lower throat

bag gets. bigger and bigger, and longer and longer, till it looks to

be within six inches of the ground. All the feathers of the throat

stand out, and looked at in front, he seems to have a huge bag covered

with feathers hanging down between his legs, which wobbles about

as he struts here and there with wings partly unclosed, and occasional

sharp snappings of his bill. From time to time he utters a sort of

deep moan, and stands quite still.’ 3

The Adjutant Stork (Leptopidlos dubius) is provided with a

somewhat similar pouch. When deflated it is hardly visible and

appears merely as a conical swelling of bare skin in front of the

neck. It differs from that of the Bustard in the speed with which

it can be inflated and deflated. It suddenly shoots downward asa

large naked windbag of considerable size and as suddenly dis-

appears. It is filled from air sacs opening into the nose but the

display in which it is used does not appear to have been described

and an opportunity of placing most valuable information on record

here lies open to the hand of some member of the society.

How far the presence of these remarkable air pouches in the

Bustard and the Adjutant is seasonal appears to be unknown, but

in the Frigate-birds (/vegaia) the large scarlet pouch beneath the

throat which can be inflated until it equals the body of the bird in

size is evidently acquired in connection with the breeding season.

A variant of this type of reinforcement of plumage by structure

is found in the fleshy horns and bibs of the Tragopan Pheasants

(Tragopan), which are expanded during the display.

It is not strange that pugnacity amongst the males should be a

feature of the courtship period of birds; and such pugnacity often

merges with display. General displays at preconcerted meeting

places for numbers of birds of both sexes are well known amongst

birds. Though such may easily occur amongst our Indian birds

I do not recall to mind that any have been actually observed and

recorded. Although it is a well-known migrant to India we are

not privileged to see the Ruff (Phd/lomachus pugnax) either in his

tournaments or in his tourney-attire. As we see it in India the

Ruff and his consort the Reeve are plain looking brown waders

with nothing but size to distinguish the sexes. After they leave

India in the spring the male assumes a wonderful breeding dress.

The feathers of the face are shed and their place is taken by small

fleshy papille of bright yellow or pale pink. From each side of

the head sprouts a tuft of stiff curled feathers giving the appearance

of long ears, whitst below the throat appears a most remarkable

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 99

frill or ruff of stiff curled feathers over two inches long. The

ear-tufts and ruff are very variable in colour ranging from black or

white to chestnut, spangled, speckled and barred, and often glossed

with violet, blue or green. The ear-tufts and the ruff are very

dense and stiff in texture and they are capable of depression and

elevation so as to form a shield to the bird.

During courtship the Ruffs select as tiltyards certain eminences

in the marshes where they breed. ‘There at day-break the males

assemble and regular tournaments go on. To quote from a writer

on the subject :— ‘ The performers assemble at the favoured spot

and commence at once to disport themselves, now sparring one

with another, and now standing one in front of another with

outspread frill and head bent down till the beak rests upon the

ground, immovable, only to commence again to spar. Now and

again some display of temper is shown, one bird endeavouring to

seize another by the beak and administer a rain of blows with its

wings; or the two will rise in the air and strike at each other with

their feet. The more vigorous appear to take possession of certain

definite areas and to hold these against all comers. Sooner or

later the females appear on the scene, when they are courted

vigorously by the males, who display their frills assiduously.’

The Black Game (Lyrurus) of Europe is another species celebra-

ted for these concerted displays and it may be that some of our

lesser known Indian birds indulge in them.

Individual pugnacity is of course a common incident of courtship.

The disreputable scrimmages on the ground in which the House-

Sparrows (Passer domesticus), the Mynahs (Acridotheres tristis) or the

Babblers of the genera Argya and ZTurdoides grapple and struggle

with wings and beaks and legs afford the most obvious examples.

Such pugnacity is more developed in some species than in others.

The ordinary small passerine bird is not as arulea very determined

fighter. In fact I have always noticed that dash and initiative

always counts for more than actual pecks or blows. If one smail

bird flies at another, the latter almost always gives way without

resistance ; a mere dash by a small bird is sufficient to put a large

one to flight without their relative strengths being really tested.

Definite fighting is far more developed amongst non-passerine

birds; and in the group where it reaches its apex, the Galline

it is accompanied by the development of offensive weapons in the

form of spurs. The deadly weapon that a tarsial spur is capable

of becoming is known to all who have shot the males of the various

Jungle-Fowls (Gad/us) and the extreme pugnacity of this group is

evident from the intolerance of the chicken-run. Unless and until

one cock is master definitely of the poultry yard, there are incessant

conflicts ending perhaps in the death of a combatant.

The tarsial spurs are in all Indian Game birds in pairs, one on

each leg, except in the case of the Spurfowls (Galloperdix) where

the number is irregular and variable, as many as three spurs

occurring on a single leg. It does not appear, however, that the

extra number of spurs has any connection with a more pronounced

pugnacity and one can only conclude that Nature’s infinite tendeney

to variation has in this case become a generic characteristic.

100 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

That the presence or absence of spurs is not correlated with the

degree of pugnacity is evident from their absence in the true quails

(Coturnix), so esteemed in India as captive fighting birds.

Spurs are not confined to the legs. The Spur-winged Plover

(Hoplopterus ventralis) of the great rivers of the Indo-Gangetic plain

and the Pheasant-tailed Jacana (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) are well

known as possessing a similar spur on the carpal joint of each

wing. Weare commonly informed that both these species use the

spur for fighting at the breeding season, but I personally have never

seen either species make use of it and doubt the correctness of the

usual statement.

It should be remembered in this connection that the Bronze-

winged Jacana (Metcpidius) has the radius of the wing broadened

out from its middle onwards, in the from of a flat plate, and this

is considered by Pycraft to be also intended as a weapon, though

this also seems doubtful.

Akin to the ceremonial side of the tournaments held by some

birds must be considered the habit of dancing. Virtually nothing has

been recorded about this habit amongst Indian birds though it must

be practised by some species. ‘That delightful species, the Demoi-

selle Crane (Anthropoides virgo) owes its name not only to its grace-

ful figure but also to its habit of indulging in set dances though

these of course take place in its breeding quarters and not in India.

W. H. Hudson in his fascinating writings has recorded elaborate

dances by the Cayenne Lapwing, Ypecaka Rail and the Jacana of

South America, but there is no reason why we should not discover

that allied birds in India indulge in similar ceremonial. But

unfortunately Naturalists in India have devoted much time to

collecting specimens and paid little heed to the observations which

would reveal so much of interest in the life-histories of the birds

they collect.

Akin to the dance is the elaborate ritual of courtship recorded

at some length in England for the Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps

cristatus), another species that we know best as a winter visitor in

India. This ritual is said to culminate in a pose when male and

female rise high out of the water, breast to breast, each holding a

piece of water-weed in their bills.

As stated earlier, noise in some form or other is a very important

accompaniment to the courtship of birds. It may profitably be

considered under two divisions, vocal and instrumental. To deal

with vocal music first :-—

It is well-known that a very large proportion of birds signalize

the approach of the breeding season by breaking intosong. I here

use the word song in a liberal sense to include not only those bird-

song's which are really worthy of the name but also those monotonous

chirpings as of the House-Sparrow (Passer domesticus) or loud calls

as in the various Cuckoos (Cucwlide) which at the breeding season un-

doubtedly occupy the place of a true song. To the Koel (Audynamis

scolopaceus) and the Brain-fever Bird (fzerococcyx varius) the loud

incessant calls which drive some human beings to despair fulfil the

same function as the wondrous song of the Nightingale. Both are

an expression of the sexual excitement of the season; both are a

PAE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS 101

stimulation to that excitement; and both are a message tothe opposite

sex. Itis easy to see how song developed from the call note. We

see the first stages of the development inthe shrill and incessant

noise of the breeding cock-sparrow who possesses merely his single

harsh note as a call but works it with passion into the substitute

for a song.

It may not be out of place here to explain that a bird’s voice is

not produced in the same way as that of other animals. In mammals

the vocal chords are in the larynx, at the top of the windpipe ; in

birds they are situated in a special song-box, the syvzmx, at the foot

of the windpipe where it branches into the two bronchial tubes

leading tothelungs. Birds actually possess a larynx, like mammals

but in their case it has no connection with the production of the

voice.

Anatomically considered, the syrinx is rather an intricate organ

and there are many variations in its constituent or accessory parts.

In the Cranes (Grus) for instance the windpipe (fvachea) is greatly

elongated and the space for the extra length is found ina long

chamber formed by the keel of the breast-bone. In the Spoonbill

(Plaialea leucorodia) a figure-of-eight convolution provides for the

extra length of windpipe. In many of the ducks there isa special

hard resonating sac or ‘ Sound-box’ attached to the side of the

trachea. These modifications are by no means properly understood.

It does not appear possible to establish any exact correlation be-

tween the intricacy of the song and the complexity of the instrument

but the more complicated variations in birds are often only found in

the male of a species.

It is interesting to remember that in the female of the Painted

Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis), where as we have seen above the role

of the sexes is reversed, there is said to be a convolution of the

trachea confined to that sex (though I confess I have so far failed

to find it in either sex when I have dissected them).

I have said above that song is an expression, a stimulation and

a message of sex-impulses ; and that this is true, is clear from the

direct connection between song andthe hormones contributed to

the blood by the reproductive organs. These hormones prompt or

inhibit sexual characteristics. The ‘breaking’ of the voice in

young men, the crowing of hens whose ovaries are atrophied or in

whom there is development of testicular matter are examples of

the connection. But at the same time the fact must not be lost.

sight of that song is also based on something else than sex. The

Wren (Tvoglodytes) or the Dipper (Czmclus) that sings amidst the

Himalayan snows in the depth of winter is clearly at the moment

free from the impulse of sex. There is some metabolism of super-

abundant energy and excess of well-being that relieves itself in

song and it may be that there are vestiges of an esthetic sense

which sings for pure delight in the beauty and the sound of the

song. It certainly seems like it.

Whatever the full gamut of feelings to which vocal music

amongst the birds is due, it is supplemented by instrumental music.

The simplest form of percussion music, says Pycraft, is perhaps

that produced by the White Stork (Czconia alba). Throwing the head

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

backwards till the point of the beak almost touches the back, the

jaws are set rapidly in motion; clashing one against another and

producing a curious rattling sound, which has been compared to

castanets. As the sound is being produced the head is slowly turned

into its normal position ; but not until the beak has described a half-

circle and rests almost on the ground does the musiccease. I believe

that similar performances are indulged in by other Indian storks but

unfortunately there is little on record about them.

More curious is the deliberate drumming by Woodpeckers. Itis

a favourite habit of many species—In Jndia I have noted it in the

cases of Dryobates sindianus and Letopicus mahraitensis—to select a

rotten branch of a tree as adrum. This they repair to at intervals, I

believe only in the early breeding season, and drum on it with their

beaks, using the method and producing the effect of the ‘rolling’ of a

kettle-drum. The result is most striking and it is evident that the

action takes precisely the place of the song of other birds. It is

evident that the Woodpecker is precisely aware of what it is about.

Whether this is so in the case of a Drumming Snipe (Capella

célestis) is harder to understand. The drumming of the Snipe is one

of the most famous curiosities of natural history. Unfortunately it is

confined to the breeding season; so we in India are never privileged

to hear it. My first experience of it took place after my retirement

from service.

On these occasions a Snipe mounts high up into the air above the

marsh where it is breeding. There it wildly circles about and flies

arandom zigzag course until it suddenly shoots downwards and

aslant and then as abruptly mounts again to its former elevation

and this process it repeats again and again. During each descent a

sound is heard, variously described as drumming or bleating, but

which to my ears is best described as being like the sound of

the hoofs of a galloping horse. There seems no doubt that this

sound is produced by the passage of the air through tha two outer

tail feathers which acute observers may see held out separately well

in advance of the fan-spread tail. An equivalent noise is made by

some of the various other snipes and the possession of this faculty

is evidently correlated with the curious variations in the outer tail

feathers of the members of this genus.

In writing this chapter it has once more been brought home to

me how little we know of our Indian birds. Europe has in the past

been lucky in its observers who have set themselves to study and

record the extreme interest of the habits of all the more distinctive

birds. ‘The result is a mass of material from which other writers

have been able to select, and build up various studies and theories

of biological significance. The birds of India provide an assembly

of interesting and curious forms, the significance of which we are

still unable to estimate. For in India the naturalist has been little

more than a collector, a fault largely engendered by the fatal ease

with which shikaris can be engaged to bring in and preserve a

quantity of eggs and birds with little or no trouble to the collector

who often contributes little ‘but the labels. I fear that the richness

of the Indian avifauna will soon be a thing of the past; but while it

still remains in some abundance, there is still time to observe and

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS ; 103

record the ways and habits of our birds. If this is done, explanations

will be found for the amazing diversity of form and structure which

at present are known to us merely as isolated facts.

Biologists have long felt the need of accounting for sexual-

dimorphism, that is the fact that amongst birds (and in other groups

too) the male is so often larger or more vigorous than the female,

and that his plumage is so often more striking and conspicuous.

The assumption of special breeding plumages, more especially by

male birds, is also remarkable. Darwin thought that the court-

ship of birds had given him the clue to the explanation. He studied

the tournaments of the Ruffs and Black Cocks, the plumage displays

of the Peacock and the Bird-of-Paradise, the song of the Nightingale

and the other manifold forms of courtship which we have endea-

voured to outline above. He thought that behind it all he could find

a proof that the more vigorous malie—whether vigour were

expressed in terms of strength in the duel or beauty in the display

and concert—had the first choice of the females, whilst the least

vigorous males were left unmated. At the same time he thought

there was evidence of preferences shown by the females, that success

in the contest of males was accompanied by positive choice by the

females. Combining these two factors he arrived at the theory that

sexual dimorphism was the result of evolution working through this

sexual selection.

There are difficulties in the way of accepting the theory. But

although later writers have evolved other theories to account for

the facts, one and all have difficulties in the way of their acceptance.

In the meantime, there is work for all to do in observing and record-

ing the phenomena of courtship in the hope that a fuller knowledge

of the facts will lead to a correct understanding of the guiding

principles behind.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF COORG.

Jz AD YVATES.

PART sl

(Continued trom page 1014 of Vol. XXXIV.)

VILII.—Family. LyvC#NIDA.

H 5.4. Gerydus biggsii, Dist. On March 16, 1929, whileI was catching on the

Paiyaswani River, Sampaje ghat, one of my servants took an obvious Gerydus,

identified for me by Evans as Gerydus biggsit 2: another of my party told

me that he too had caught a very damaged specimen, but, not realizing its

rarity and novelty, had thrown it away. It was caught on a low branch of a

tree on an island in the middle of the river.

H 9. a. Spalgis epius epius, Wd. This insect, common round Bangalore in the

dry jungles where it haunts buushes and small trees, does not seem common

in Coorg, at least in the months I have spent in the province.

H 11. Neopithecops zalmora, But. Common throughout the province in the

intermediate and evergreen areas. Has a lazy flight; isa low flier round and

among trees and bushes. Comes to water.

H 12a. Megisba malaya thwaitesi, M. Have only seen it in any numbers in the

evergreen country ; and chiefly on damp patches on the roads and on damp sand

among stones and rocks by the rivers, notably on the ghats and below the

ehats.

H 13a. Talicada nyseus nyseus, Guer. Well distributed, and at certain spots

abundant. Flies late in the evening sun, untilvery nearly dark. Have noticed

it then settle gregariously along low twigs with closed wings, often on the

underside.

H 14. 1a. Castalius rosimon rosimon, F.

H 14.2. Castalius caleta decidia, Hew.

H 14.3 a. Castalius ethion ethion, Db. and Hew.

All three common in Coorg ; on the whole, at any rate in the intermediate

and evergreen country, the last two commoner than vosimon, which is the

usual Castalius in the dry country round Bangalore, where ca/eta is rare, and

ethion (so far as I know) does not occur.

All three are low fliers, C. ros¢mon seems to fly much more in the open sun,

round bushes, and over grass and low flowering plants. Caleta and ethion

are distinctly woodland butterflies.

H15.1. Tarucus ananda, De. N. This beautiful little fly, so far as my experi-

ence goes, is much more usual in Coorg than the next. It flies rather high (10’

to 15’) round certain trees, but comes down freely to damp patches. It is

found both in the dry forest (e. g., in October) and in the evergreen country,

above and below the ghats.

H 15. 2. Tarucus theophrastus nara, Koll. I have only seen this at Napoklu in

open grass land in March. It is uncommon also round Bangalore, where I

have only seen it after the monsoon breaks in June and July. A lower flier

than the last.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF COORG 105

EVlGat; Euchrysops cnejus, F.

H 16. 2 8. Euchrysops contracta contracta, But.

H 16.3 8. Euchrysops pandava pandava, Hors.

All three in Coorg ; £. contracta the least common there and round Banga-

lore. All low fliers in the open, round low plants, bushes and flowers. Settle

on damp ground.

H 17.30. Everes parrhasius parrhasius, F. Throughout Coorg but never

abundant ; at all elevations from near the summit to the foot of the hills. A

low flier in the open ; settles on damp ground.

H 20.5. Lycanopsis akasa mavisa, Fruh. Fairly common especially in the

evergreen areas and particularly on the ghats. Flies along banks and round

trees and bushes, at from 3 to 10 feet or so ; settles on flowers. Occasionally at

water.

H 20.15 6. L. puspa gisca, Fruh. Common everywhere. Comes freely to

damp earth.

H 20.16. L. lilacea, Hamp. This beautiful butterfly is well distributed in

Coorg. Go are gregarious in their habits at water on damp roads, etc. 99° are

rare, and taken singly near or in jungle. Appears to be annual, though more

abundant September-—October and March-May.

[I have not taken ZL. alétdisca and L. limbata in Coorg. ]

H 21. a. Chilades laius laius, Cr. Common in Coorg, both W.S.F. and

D.S.F., as elsewhere. A low flier.

H 22.1¢. Zizera trochilus putli, Koll.

H 22.24. Z. maha ossa, Swin.

eZ? 3. Z. lysimon, Hub.

H 22. 4. Z. gaika, Trimen.

H 22.5a. Z. otis decreta, But.

Throughout the province.

H 27. Syntarucus plinius, F. General and common.

H 28.1. Catachrysops strabo, F. Do.

H 29. Lampides beeticus, L. Very common.

H 30. 2 6. Nacaduba pactolus continentalis, Fruh. | took four ¢¢ in April 1929 on

the Sampaje ghat : identified by Evans, as conttnentalis. I thought they were

the first specimens caught in S. India, till recently I saw in Col. Winckworth’s

collection a Q taken at Urti in 1927. Those I took were all taken on

one short stretch of road near mile 13 from Mercara. Though I spent many

hours in looking for other specimens, I could see no more. NV. hersmus nabo

was fairly common at that place just then, and WV. puctolus continentalis settled

with hermus.

H. 30.3. N. hermus nabo, Fruh. By no means one of the commonest species

in Coorg? G9 aredistinctly rare. ¢% come down to damp earth.

H 30.7a. N. viola viola, M. I have found this attractive little insect in

varicus places from the edge of the dry area to the foot of the ghats in the ever-

green country. Sometimes it is almost abundant, e.g., in February 1929 on

stones and sand by the Paiyaswani River (Sampaje ghat).

H 30.88. N. atrata euplea, Fruh.

H 30.9. N. akaba gythion, Fruh.

Both these are common throughout. Like other Macadubas come freely to

damp earth.

H 30.14. N.nora,Fd. Abundant in most places.

H 30. 15a. N. dubiosa indica, Evans. Common, but not abundant like the

last.

1066 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

H 30.168 N. noreia hampsoni, De N. Rare, if not very rare.

H 30.178. N. dana, De N. Where it occurs is common, almost gregarious

on damp earth. Round Bangalore; I have found it common in places on the

flowers of Maddi ( Zerminalia tomentosa).

Hi 31. 1a. Jamides bochus bochus, Cr. Common or at any rate widely distri-

buted. More numerous in the rainy months (June and July) round Bargalore

than anywhere in Coorg! not seen at water. Flies round bushes.

H 31.68. J. celeno celeno, Cr. Common, but in the evergreen area less

common than the next.

H 31.78. J. elpiscurysaces, Fruh. Widespread. More of a woodland species

than the last.

All three Jamides occur throughout the year. J. celenoand J. elpis vary

considerably in colouring and markings according to the season.

H 32.1. [Azanus ubaldus, Cr. ]

[Azanus uranus, But].

[Azanus jesous gamra, Led. |

I have recorded only the first in Coorg. I did not trouble to look for them in

Coorg till too late for the purposes of this list. Obtained round Bangalore.

H 33. la. Lycanesthes emolus emolus, God. According to Evans common, but

in Coorg at any rate, it is not. I have only found it on the ghats, in October,

January, March, April and theu only sparsely : in October on the flowers of a

ceesalpina at other times chiefly on damp earth. It does not occur, so far as I

know, round Bangalore.

H 33. 2a. Lycanesthes lycenina lycenina, Fd. ‘Rare’ [Evans]. It is however

very comrion and universal in Coorg and in allthe jungles round Bangalore,

especially on sandal flowers. In Coorg it is plentiful near streams and on damp

roads.

H 45. land 2. Curetis esopus, F. and Curetis thetis, Dry. Both arecommon in

Coorg, as round Bangalore. I have seen a series drawn up in which the transi-

tion from the characteristics of the/zs to those aesopus (48) isso gradual that it

is difficult to tell where one begins and the other ends, or a break occurs which

would justify a differentiation into two species. There does not seem to be any

means of distinguishing 9 of one from @ of the other.

H 45.6. C. acutadentata, M. This species does not occur round Bangalore: it

favours larger jungle and particularly the neighbourhood of streams and rivers.

3 do are abundant in many places, e.g. on the Paiyaswani river, on the Nagar-

hole (eastern forests). The 2 are rare : at any rate hard to get ; they do not come

out into the open as do 99 of C. thetis.

[H 46.18. Iraota timoleon tlmoleon, Stoll. May occur ; on the eastern side are

many trees of the kind of banyan it favours round Bangalore, but I have no

record of it. Hannyngton does not mention it. ]

H 47.16. Horsfieldia anita anita, Hew. Hannyngton remarks, ‘ is rare in the

northern open country in June and November’. I have, however, found it in

the northern and eastern forests in January, April, May and September and

under the Brahmagiri range in October and again from January to May: nearly

always fresh specimens were to be had. It would appear to be annual.

Where it occurs it is fairly plentiful. Itseems to favour wooded streams, and

comes freely to water in sunny spots or at the debouchment of a stream into

open country, in paddy-fields, on flat rocks, etc. In April and May at two spots

in the northern and eastern country the specimens I took were underneath nearly

black with a purplish tinge. I have not seen it on the ghats.

H 48. qa. Thaduka multicaudata kanara, Evans. Hannyngton says: ‘ May be

looked for on the western slopes below 2,000 feet in May, August and September,

I have taken it at Irpu and Kakkotpole (3,000 feet) above the ghats. It isto be

had on the ghats certainly in October, and every month from January to May.

I have always taken it near streams or rivers, settled on bushes or trees, but not

on the ground at water.

LAM BOUDRPERKRLIES, OF COORG: . 107

H 50. 34. Amblypodia canarica, M. Distinctly rare. I have taken it at

Napoklu and Srimangala settled on Neale (Eugenia Jambolana). Alsoon the

Sampaje ghat on lantana and at Watercolli on another Eugenia (C. Eugenia

hemispherica?). I have seen it settle on a wet stone near the Paiyaswani River.

H 50 37. a. A.centaurus pirama, M. Occurs both above and below the ghats,

in intermediate and evergreen country. At Srimangala I found the pupa

of a female rolled in aleaf of Nerale (Hugenia jambolana), almost ready to

emerge.

H 50,40. A. amantes amantes Hew. I have taken this abundantly round

Bangalore on mango and nirale chiefly. Hannyngton records it in Coorg.

H 50.46. A. bazaloides, Hew. I have only seen and taken this on the ghats

on the evergreen forest on the lower parts of the Periambadi and Sampaje ghats.

Settled on leaves, e.g. Lantana. It is distinctly rare ; taken in October or

February.

H 50.728. Amblypodia abseus indicus, Riley. I took one specimen (2) ona

wet stone in the shade by tbe Paiyaswani R. February 1929. It was kindly

identified for me as indicus, Riley by Evans not mackwoodi as one might have

imagined from the nearness to Ceylon. Apparently the first recorded from

S. India.

H 51.18. Surendra quercetorum quercetorum, But. In the evergreen country,

chiefly on the ghats, flying on the edge of the forest by the roadside. In my

experience this is not so common in Coorg as the next.

H 51. 4a. Surendra todara todara, M. Hannyngton records it from Fraserpet or

Pollibetta in August, e.g. fromthe dry and intermediate areas, It is more fre-

quent in the evergreen country and occurs in other months, e.g., on the

Periambadi and Sampaje ghats in September and October, and again in March

and April; at Napoklu in February and March, and at Fraserpet in May not

seen at water. On trees and about bushes.

H 548. Loxura atymnus surya, M. Well distributed throughout the inter-

mediate and evergreen country. It occurs certainly from September to May

on the edge of woods or in woods.

H 57. 3. Apharitis lilacinus, M. Evans gives Bangalore as a locality: Ihave

not seen it there, but have taken it at several places in Coorg in evergreen

forest; e.g. at Appugala, Irpu road, close to Nalknad Palace and on the Sampaje

ghat. In each case it was very local, flying round one or two bushes or small

trees, settling on the leaves, darting off and returning. Taken only in February

and March.

H 58. 18. Spindasis vulcanus valcanus, F.

H 58.2. Spindasis schistacea schistacea, M.

Both common.

H 58.3. Spindasis abnormis, M. Recorded by Hannyngton.

H 58.5 6. Spindasis ictis ictis, Hew. Occasional but not common in Coorg,

whereas in places round Bangalore it is fairly plentiful, especially in July-

August.

H 58. 12. Spindasis lohita lazularia, M. This is perhaps the commonest

Spindasts in Coorg ; at any rate in the evergreen area. At times it is almost

abundant, e.g., in W.S.F. on the Periambadi ghat after the monsoon in

September-October. D.S.F. occurs from December to April, when W.S.F.

begins to appear again. It particularly favours, as do other Lyczenids, the

flowers of Clausena indica (?). It occurs also in the intermediate and dry

areas, e.g., at Fraserpet in May. Not seen on the ground, as S. schtstacea.

H 59. Zesius chrysomallus, Hub. I have taken only one bad specimen, (9),

in Coorg ; it had no blue on the upper wings. I have however taken it freely

round Bingalore in certain jungles, especially jungles where there are many

yellowtree ant nests, in which it has itslarval andpupal stages. There appear

to be clearly distinct W.S.F. and D.S.F. The former appears in June and con-

tinues till about November. In W.S.F. the copper red of #¢ is darker and has

108 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

a bluish tinge. In D.S.F. the red is paler without the blue tinge. In D.S.F.

also the underside is less distinctly marked, the red of the spots in extreme

D.S.F. (e.g., in April) almost disappearing. Similarly the blue of @Q in

W.S.F. is deeper and more metallic than the blue of D.S.F., which is slightly

chalky with a tint of brown underneath. The underside D.S.F. also is paler

than W.S.F. and the marks less pronounced than W.S.F. ; the red of the spots

tends almost to disappear.

H 61.3 a. Pratapa blanka sudica, Evans. Distinctly rare: I have taken only

dd, (1 on the way to Marinad from Hudikeri, (2) on the Sampaje ghat. One

was taken on a leaf by the way side; the rest were taken on the ground,

having come down from a high branch of a tree.

H 61.40. Pratapa deva deva, M. Norecord. It should be in Coorg.

H 61.7. Pratapa cleobis, God. Certainly rare in Coorg, but apparently more

widely distributed than P. dlanka sudica: I have it from Madapur (N. Coorg),

Bhagamandala (W. Coorg), and Urti (below the ghats). All were taken on

bushes or low trees.

H 65.15. Tajuria iehana, M. Only one record from Coorg. It may, how-

ever, be commoner in the dry forests. It occurs in many jungles round

Bangalore on a small white-flowered acacia.

H 65.168. Tajuria cippus cippus, F. I have only taken it in the intermediate

area. It is common in many jungles round Bangalore and occurs in most

months of the year.

[The probable reason for my getting so few of either of these Zajurias in

Coorg is that having got plenty round Bangalore I was not on the look out for

them. |

H 65. 21a. Tajuria jalindra macarita, Fr. I think this must be very rare in

Coorg ; I looked for it for two years, but only got one specimen (2) on wet

sand by the Paiyaswani river in deep shade.

H 758. Cheritra freja jaffra, But. Fairly common in all evergreen wood,

round bushes and trees and near the edge of jungle.

H 81. Rathinda amor, F. Not common in Coorg, where I have only seen

stray specimens: this is the case at least in the intermediate and evergreen

areas. Not asin some of the dry jungles round Bangalore at times, e.g., after

the rains break, in June and July, almost gregarious and abundant on Augenia

jambolana, etc.

H 82. la. Horaga anyx cingalensis, M. Rare, have only found it in the

evergreen country, e.g., at the top of the Periambadi ghat, at Madapur,

Napoklu and on the Paiyaswani River. Settles rather high on the leaves of

low trees.

H 82.4. Horaga viola, M. Ihave not taken it. Col. Winckworth took one

at Urti at the bottom of the Periambadi ghat. Very rare in Coorg.

H 83. 1a. Catapvecilma elegans myositina, Fruh. Throughout the evergreen

country, but not common. It often settles on the leafless twigs or on the

flowers of Eugenia hemispherica (?). Both above and below the ghats, and

in most months.

H 84. 1. Chliaria othona, Hew. Is certainly one of the rare /ycenid@ in

Coorg. It occurs sporadically both in the deciduous evergreen forests ; e.g., at

Fraserpet in January, and in the evergreen, Nalknad and the Paiyaswani River.

Generally on trees or on flowers ; but occasionally on damp earth.

H 86. Zeltus etolus, F. I first took this in December at Urti. Later at mile

155 on the.Periambadi ghat road. On the Sampaje., ghat, near the

Paiyaswani River, 13 miles from Mercara, ¢¢ were plentiful from February to

April. 99 are rare and seen to keep inside the jungle. Go settle frequently on

dampearth. It appears to be confined to the thick evergreen jungle and damp

heat,

H 88.1a. Deudoryx epijarbas epijarbas, M. Common in Coorg, as round

Bangalore, upon flowers.

THE BOTTERFLIES. OF COORG 109

H 89.1. Virachola isocrates, F. Common, but not so common as the last.

Taken on flowers.

H 89. 3a. Virachola perse ghela, Fruh. Appears to be rather uncommon in

Coorg, as it is round Bangalore, Occurs in dry, intermediate and evergreen

areas. Taken on trees (e.g., cinnamon) and on flowers (e.g., of a large Os-

beckia and a tall purple composite).

H 90.5. Rapala lankana, M. A rare, if not very rare, insect, I have only seen

it on the ghats or in the hot forest below the ghats. Taken on flowers (e.¢.,

Clausena indica (?), and a Cesalpina).

H 90. 10a. Rapala varuna lazulina, M. Fairlycommon throughout. Taken

on leaves and flowers.

H 90.11. R. schistacea, M. Common.

H 90.15. R. melampus, Cr. I took this very commonly near Bangalore ; and

regret that I did not note its frequency in Coorg. It is I think fairly common.

| Vote.—I have not seen any Aapala on the ground at water. They all

seem to affect trees and bushes—feed greedily at flowers. |

H 92a. Bindahara phocides moorei, Fruh. This beautiful insect can be had in

most months from September to May—the months of which I have experience

in Coorg—in the evergreen forest of the ghats, generally near streams or

rivers. It is an insect that seems partiai to a locality or a particular plant: if

found once on the flowers of a particular clausena indica it may be found there

at another season. Most frequent September-October and April-May.

VIII.—Family HESPERIIDZz

I1.68. Hasora badra badra, M. ‘Not common’ (Hannyngton). I have

looked in vain for this insect.

I1.12. Hasora alexis alexis, Fab. Common as elsewhere: throughout the

province.

I1.13a. Hasora taminatus taminatus, Hub. Both above the ghats and on the

ghats, in intermediate and evergreen country. It favours stones and sand by

the side of streams, especially in the forest and debouching from the forest,

springs by the roadside on the ghats and damp spots on the roadside. Also on

flowers especially early in the morning and late in the afternoon; e.g., on

lantana.

[ Vote.--Hannyngton in his list gives

263 Hasora chabrona, Plotz. Bhagamandala, January.

265 Hlasora badra, Mocre. Not common,

Now Hasora chabrona, Bl. = Hasora vitta, But, which is not S. Indian : it

is of the dadra group. Can it be that by Hasora chabrona, of which he got a

specimen or specimens only in January at one place he means Afasora badra ?

And that by Hasora badra, which he describes as not common he means

Hasora taminatus taminatus ? The latter is not common certainly, but it is

not rare: and in five years Hannyngton could not have failed to gather more

than one specimen or to have found it at only one place. |

12.50. Ismene fergussoni, DeN. ‘ Fairly common in the evergreen belt,

especially in the monsoon’ (Hannyngton). Also, after the monsoon in

September-October, and again in May. I have seen it in N. Coorg beyond

Somwarpet, in the intermediate area. Flies and feeds on lantana, verbena,

etc., early in the morning and towards dusk. Disappears in the day time.

12.130. Ismene gomata kanara, Evans. Recorded by Hannyngton as on the

ghats during the monsoon.

13. Bibasis sena sena, M. ‘ Eastern Forests. Annual’ (Hannyngton). I took

on a specimen at the foot of the ghats in evergreen country.

15.a. Rhopalocampta benjamini benjamini, Guer. ‘ Northern forests in June

and September’ (Hannyngton). Also evergreen country above the ghats ;

NO JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCORAL FISTS OGETYAVOL. A.

e.g., Heggala (October), Swamimale (February) and Kakkotpole (May).

By no means common. ‘Taken in shade on flowers and on the ground in the

morning and late afternoon. :

16. Badamia exclamationis, Fab. Common throughout the year.

116.1. Celaenorrhinus ambareesa, M. ‘On the ghats during the monsoon’

(Hannyngton). Alsoin May and September. Taken on flowers in the morn-

ing sun. Not common.

[I assume this is Hannyngton’s C. spzlothyrus, Felder : though I admit there

is resemblance. If, however, C. sfzlothyrus really occurs, of whichI have no

personal record, then C. ambareesa is additional to Hannyngton’s list. ]

116, 13a. C. leucocera leucocera, Koll. ‘Common from May to October on

the western slopes’ (Hannyngton). Also throughout the evergreen area above

theghats. Where found obtainable in other months of the year, but less com-

monly than in the rainy season.

116, 190. C. ruficornis area, Plotz. ‘ Not common on the Periambadi ghat in

September’ (Hannyngton). It is not so common as C. leucocera, but is not

‘uncommon ; also in October and more rarely in other months. On other ghats

also, and above the ghats in evergreen country.

All these Calaenorrhinus are rather shade-loving insects: flying into the open

in the morning to feed on flowers, and for the rest preferring half-shady glades

or openings into the forest.

I 20.48. Tagiades obscurus athos, Plotz. Throughout the intermediate and

evergreen country ‘annual’ (Hannyngton).

120.9 x. Tagiades liligiosa vajuna, Fruh. Throughout the intermediate and

evergreen areas. Annual. [Zagzades atticus : in the bamboo (South Coorg)

and ghats (Hannyngton)].

I 24.34. Daimio bhagava bhagava, M. I give this with hesitation. Hannyng-

ton includes Satarupa bhagava, Moore; Eastern forests; May to October. I

am unable to identify this. I have not taken it: Col. Winckworth has

Daimio bhagava from Kallar (Nilgiris).

I 25. la. Coladenia indrani indra, Evans. ‘ Coladenia tissa, Moore. Push-

pagiri, May : Fraserpet and Titimati, July and August (Hannynegton). Also

in the ghats and above the ghats in February, March, April and September. In

September 1928 a 9 taken has cilia Aw not white but brown and fawny. ‘his

insect is also found round Bangalore.

I 25.2a. Coladenia dan dan, Fab. Common throughout Coorg and at all

seasons. It does not occur, so far as I know,in thedry jungles round

Bangalore.

1 26.2. Sarangesa purendra, M. ‘ November to January’ (Hannyngton). I

have not taken it in Coorg and do not know its locality.

I 26.3 8. Sarangesa dasahara davidsoni, Swin. ‘June to September’ (Han-

nyngton). It certainly occurs after September, till May. Annual and common

in the evergreen area at least.

I 28.1 8. Tapena thwaitesi hampsoni, El. ‘One male on May 8, at Srimangala,

S. Coorg’ (Hannyngton). Rare but obtainable at several places, in evergreen

areas above and below the ghats. At Watecolli in September 1928 (g,Q) on

flowers of vamtulasi (verbena). February to March at Ajjemada stream, below

the Brahmagiri range; January to Aprilon Sampaje ghat (133 miles from

Mercara) and on Paiyaswani River; and May at Kakkotpole (Marinad

crossing). Like Odontoptilum angulata and Caprona ransonnetti favours

damp earth, on which it lies with spread wings, I have seen it, whether by

chance or by instinct for self-protection, several times settled on damp black

camp ashes, where bullock drivers had stopped.

LSkosls Odontoptilum angulata, Fd. ‘ Eastern forests, May to September ’

(Hannyngton). lt occurs also at many places in the intermediate and evergreen

THE BUTTERFLIES OF COORG 111

areas, and is widely distributed and even common ; obtainable every month

from September to May, probably annual. Settles with flat wings on damp

earth on roads and by streams.

I 32.1a. Caprona ransonnetti potiphera, Hew. ‘ May to October’ (Hannyng-

ton), It occurs throughout the province from the deciduous to the evergreen

area and is, so far as I have observed, to be hadin any month between October

and May. Likethe last two in its habits; Common in Coorg, Rare round

Bangalore.

I 34. 1. Hesperia galba, Fab. ‘Annual’ (Hannyngton). Common: low-flying

in the sun on grass and on low flowering plants.

154. 8 Astictopterus jama olivascens, M. Not given in Hannyngton’s list.

Occurs in both W.S.F. and D.S.F. the latterin January and February or prob-

ably earlier, at Mercara. I have not seen it outside the evergreen area. A

relatively weak flier: flies low along banks.

156. 2. Baracus hampsoni, El. ‘Annual’ (Hannyngton). Istherea D.S.F. ?

{ have taken fresh specimens in the drier months that are not bright ochreous

brown below, but an ochreous grey.

157. 1. Ampittia dioscorides, F. ‘Eastern forests, May to September’ (Han-

nyngton); also in the intermediate and evergreen country at other seasons, e.g.,

Somwarpet (intermediate) in January and Watecolli (evergreen) in May.

I. 55.5 a. Aeromachus pygmaeus pygmaeus, Fab. ‘Annual’ (Hannyngton).

It may be added very common and in all areas.

160.1. Arnetta vindhiana, M. ‘Annual’ (Hannynegton). It appears to be

found chiefly on the ghats, also at Mercara.

161.2. lambrix salsala luteipalpus, Plotz. ‘ Annual’ (Hannypgton). Univer-

sal, throughout the province; flies low in clearings, round bushes and under

trees ; settles on flowers.

-162.1a. Suwastus gremius gremius, F, ‘ Annual’ (Hannyngton) and common ;

well distributed.

I 62. 3 a. Suwastus rama bipunctus, Swin. ‘Annual but not common’

(Hannyngton). I have not taken it in Coorg.

I 67 a. Sancus pulligo subfasciatus, M. ‘ Western slopes in the Monsoon’

(Hannynegton). It is very common then and afterwards up to October, but

occurs less abundantly laterup to May. Annual. Frequents flowers, e.g.,

Ramtulast and lantana. A rather floppy flight on the edge of the jungle.

Belongs to the evergreen area.

I 73. 1. Udaspes folus, Cr. ‘ Annual’ (Hannyngton). Found in all areas.

Flies low, in and round bushes and under trees. Frequents flowers and comes

freely to water, on stones, etc., by the side of streams.

174.3 a. Notocrypta paralysos alysia, Evans. Abundant at times, e.g. after

the Monsoon, September and October. Chiefly in the evergreen area. ‘ Annual’

(Hannyngton).

I 74.5. N. curvifascia, Fd. Flies with the last, but is much less common.

I 75. 18. Gangarathyrsis thyrsis, F. ‘S. Coorg and the ghats in the

monsoon’ (Hannynegton). It occursagain towards the end of April. I have

taken it in October also.

180.1. Matapa aria, M. ‘ Not common, but widely distributed’ (Hannyng-

ton). Flies inside or on the edge of jungle; occasionally on flowers. Taken in

October, January, March and May; all in evergreen country.

I 82. 16. MHyarotis adrastus adrastus, Cr. ‘S. Coorg and the ghats in the

Monsoon ’ (Hannyngton). Also, immediately after the Monsoon, It is then

commonest, but occurs in other months, e.g., January to May. Generally on

flowers on the edge of jungle, and in the half shade..

I. 82. 2. Hyarotis basiflava, DeN. Hannyngton says he found this fairly

common in September 1913 on the flowers of Stvobtlanthes barbatus. ‘ As this

strobilanth is reputed to flower only once in7 years, possibly this butterfly will

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

escape observation till 1920’. In 1927 it was taken (onespecimen on Ram tulasiz

(verbena) at Watecolli.) In 1928. September I took a couple at Watecolli in

the early morning expanding their wings on the leaves of a cinnamon tree, and

several on the Periambadi ghat near mile 152 on Ram tulasi. Strobilanthes

grows near both spots, but was not in flower. The butterfly disappeared

afterwards. Ishould say it is very rare in Coorg.

I 83. 1. Itys microstictum, WM. ‘ Now Azmeta’, (Evans). 1 took two ¢¢ and

one 2, which Evans kindly identified forme. The 9 I took early one morning

in April 1929 sunning its wings near mile 13 from Mercara on the Sampaje

ghat; a ¢ flew away into the forest. Later on about 1 p.m. I took a @ feeding

on the flowers of clausena Indica ({?) in the shade. A few days later I took

another ¢ feeding also on the same flowers in a stream leading up from the old.

forest tramway to Solekolli from Urti (Periambadi ghat), also in the shade.

Evans writes in his note: ‘ Hitherto only recorded from Cachar, Burma, etc.

Always very rare and very variable, I have only a few specimens and I have

more than in any museum. The ¢ corresponds very well with one of my ¢¢

from the Ataran valley but the 2 is curious in having the spot over the middle

of the cell so strongly developed : in only one of my QQ is there any more than

a trace of it. However there is no doubt about the identification. Swinhoe

redescribed it as Arnetia binghamt. TItys is preoccupied and has recently been

replaced by ‘ &inetta’ I have given 2 and ¢ to the British Museum.

1 87.70. Plastingia submaculata kanara, Evans. I wonder if this is what

Hannyngton names Pedestes sala, Hew (Yes, Ed.). I am unable to trace

pedestes sala, whereas Plastingia submaculata kanara, Evans belongs to the

sala group of Plastingia. I took one specimen at Watecolli in May 1928;

Col. Winckworth has another specimen taken in October, I missed another at

Watecolli, It is evidently a rare butterfly: I made repeated efforts to get

another, but failed. The one I caught. flew out of an opening into dark forest

and was feeding on lantana after dusk, when J/smene fergussoni was also

feeding.

199.4. Halpe hyrtacus, DeN. ‘ Western ghats’ (Hannynegton). In September

and October (1927-28) it was fairly common at Watecolli on lantana and

ramtulast ; 1 fear I neglected opportunities, not realizing its rarity. I have

taken it on the Sampaje ghat (133 miles from Mercara) in January and again

at Watecolli in April.

I 99. 8. Halpe sitalaj DeN. ‘ Nagarhole, eastern forests in May: one

specimen’ (Hannyngton). I have not seen it.

199.15, Halpe astigmata, Swin. ‘ Western ghats in the monsoon’ (Hannyng-

ton). It is almost abundant on lantana, etc., after the monsoon in September

and October; and occurs also later in January and on till May ; in the last

month it becomes common again. Found also above the ghats in evergreen

country.

J 99, 22. Halpe honorei, DeN. Widely distributed from the eastern forests to

the evergreen ; occurs in North, Central and South Coorg. Hannyngton gives

only the Western ghats. I do not know about the monsoon months, but it is

to be had every other month, but is at no time common.

I 9Y. 26. Halpe moorei, Watson. ‘Annual’ (Hannyngton). I have one

specimen, taken in Malambi forest, N. Coorg in May.

I 99. 33 a. Halpe homolea ceylonica, M. ‘ Western ghats’ (Hannyngton). It

is widely distributed throughout the evergreen and intermediate areas, above

and below the ghats, and occurs throughout the year, It is, I think, the

commonest Aalpge in Coorg.

I. 103. Cupitha purreea, M. Not in Hannyngton’s list. It is one of the

rarities in Coorg. I have seen it only in evergreen woods, Madapur (N.

Coorg) : Watecolli, Makut (below the ghats) and Sampaje ghat. In each case

I took it on flowers.

I. 104.1. Nicevillea concinna, El. ‘I have only come across this on the

Western slopes in the monsoon’ (Hannyngton). My captures were in Sep-

tember and October just after the monsoon.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF COORG 113

1104.2. Nicevillea gola,M. ‘Annual’ (Hannyngton) and common: widely

distributed. Commonly taken on leaves, sunning itself; also on flowers.

1105.2. Taractrocera mevius flaccus, F. ‘ A single specimen near Fraserpet

in August’ (Hannyngton). It occurs in many places, in all areas, and in

other months—e.g., Watecolli in May. Fairly common.

1105.4 a. Taractrocera ceramas ceramas, Hew. Not in Hannyngton’s list:

obviously an oversight. It occurs commonly in open grass country, e.g., on the

grassy slopes of the hills, Tadiendamolu, etc: certainly from September

onwards.

1106. 7. Padraona dara pseudomaesa, M. ‘ Annual’ (Hannyngton) and very

common throughout year,

1106.8. Padraona sunias tropica, Plotz. Common and annua]. The variety

palnia (Evans) occurs. This and Pseudome@esa dara are everywhere; they

settle on leaves and spread their hind wings, keeping the fore wings more or

LeSSVEreCtE.

1108. 1. Telicota augias augias, L. ‘Annual’ (Hannyngton). Not nearly so

common as the next.

1108.2a. Telicota pythias bambusae, M@. Common in Coorg as elsewhere.

I 115. 1 @. Baoris oceia farri, M. Presumably Hannyngton’s ‘ Parnara

plebeia, DeN. Annual.’ Fairly well distributed through the evergreen

country, but not common. .

I 115. 5a. Baoris sinensis subochracea, M. (= Hannyngton’s ‘ Parnara

prominens, M. Western slopes, August.’) It also occurs above the ghats; I

have one damaged specimen from the Eastern forests, and several from

Aggemada stream. ‘This Baoris comes freely to water, and settles on stones.

It is rare in Coorg.

1115.67. Baoris mathias mathias, Fab. The larger dark form agua occurs

abundantly on lantana, etc., on the ghats after the monsoon and occasionally

later. Very common and annual.

1115.14 6. Bavris kumara kumara, M. ‘ Annual’ (Hannyngton). Occurs

throughout the province from dry to evergreen, but is commonest in the ever-

green country.

1115.15 6. Baoris philippina philippina, HS. Not in Hannyngton’s list. It

occurs in the evergreen country and occasionally in the intermediate. Is

undoubtedly rare: chiefly in September and October, in my experience; on

the ghats on flowers.

I, 115.180. Baoris conjuncta narooa, M. [Hannyngton’s ‘ Parnara conjuncta

HS. Western slopes, August ’] It occurs on the ghats also in September and

October; also December to February: and above the ghats at Irpu and

Ajjemada stream in February and March; at Mercara in May; Fraserpet,

May. Thus it is found in all areas. Comes out of the jungle early to feed

and then disappears inside. Comes out again in the late afternoon.

1115.23. Baoris cortigua, Mab. (= Hannyngton’s Parnara _ toona,

M. ‘Annual’). It is distinctly rare. I think, in Coorg. It occurs onthe ghats

and above the ghats, sofar as my experience goes, only in evergreen country.

Taken only on flowers.

1115. 288. Baoris guttatus bada, M. ‘ Annual’ (Hannyngton), and fairly

common ; thronghout the province.

1. 115. 29. Baoris canaraica, M. ‘ Western slopes, May~August’ (Hannyng-

ton). I have it from other areas and in other months. Abovethe ghats from

beyond Somwarpet in N. Coorg; from Irpu and Ajjemada stream (S. E.

Coorg) ; from Ponnampet in the intermediate area. The form which occurs

from January to March (early) differs from the monsoon or W.S.F. (See

Journal of B. N. H.S., vol. xxxiii, No.4, p. 1000, note by Evans on specimens

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

seat him from Coorg.) This butterfly does not fly much in the open after 10

a.m. It comes out of the forest on adewy morning, expands its wings on

leaves in the sun and flies back again; but feeds on flowers such as Ram tulasz.

I have, however, taken it when cloudy on the ghats in the middle of the day.

1 115. 30 8. Baoris zelleri colaca, M. ‘Annual ’ (Hannypgton) common as

elsewhere, e. g. round Bangalore.

1115. 31 8. Baoris bevani bevani, M. ‘ Annual’ (Hannyngton). But both

Col. Winckworth and myself failed to get it foralong time. For two years

I had been in hopes, but always failed. Eventually I got it without doubt

at Ajiemada Stream (under Brahmagiri Hills) in February and March: prob-

ably it is there in other months. It appears to be aretiring insect. It flitted up

and down a rocky and shady stream, settling on stones where there was a patch

of sun. Oneortwo came out into the open at the debouchment of the stream

from forest into cultivated land ; where also Baovis subochracea, Baoris con-

juncta, Baoris canaraica, Tapena thwaitesi and Horsfieldia anita—to mention

only a few of the more desirable species—emerged. In my experience

B. bevant is rare in Coorg, whatever it may be elsewhere.

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION

R. B. SEYMOUR SEWELL, M.A., D.Sc. (CANTAB),

F.2-S., H..Sus FAS. Bap lut-COL.. 1.MkS5,, DIRECTOR}

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA.

Presidential Address delivered before the Kighteenth Indian Sctence

Congress, January 1931.

ParT I

EXPERIMENTAL MODIFICATION OF BODILY STRUCTURE.

The problem of evolution is one that has, within recent years,

attracted the attention of numerous workers in very different

branches of scientific research. It is a problem that affects the

Chemist and Physicist equally as much as the Botanist or Zoologist or

even the Psychologist, and if ever the problem is to be solved, it will

require the combined efforts of all these workers.

What then is life? It does not usually require any very great

knowledge or ability to tell whether a thing is living or not; but

bound up in the act of living are a number of different and often

complicated processes. All the possibilities and potentialities of the

most complex animal or plant are inherent in and originate from the

smallest and most primitive member of the great biological kingdom.

A living organism, whether it be as smallas an ameba or as large

as a whale, is capable of carrying on such complicated changes as

are necessitated by—

(1) The ingestion or taking in of food ;

(2) The digestion or the preparation of food that has been

ingested, thus rendering it suitable for

(3) Assimilation or the building up of the materials derived

from the food into the tissues of the animal ;

(4) Respiration or the taking in of Oxygen and the giving out

of Carbon Dioxide gas;

(5) Irritability or the reception and transmission of impulses

and sensations ;

(6) Movement, either of the animal as a whole or of its integral

parts ;

(7) Excretion or the getting rid of waste products ; and

(8) Reproduction or the carrying on of the race.

All these functions are performed by the substance that we know

by the name ‘ Protoplasm’ and, so far as we know, each mass of

protoplasm, if it is to perform all these functions,. must contain a

small central body termed a nucleus. Now protoplasm is a highiy

complex chemical substance consisting of an aggregate of molecules

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

and these in turn are built up of atoms. Each atom consists of a

number of ions in a state of constant movement, and certain Physi-

cists! have reached the conciusion that life originates from a dual

system of these ions. As one of them describes it, ‘certain ions

assume an intra-atomic position, thus forming an immaterial

Z-system which is incapable of chemical combinations; the other

enveloping ions constitute the material Y-system, the development

of which is controlled by the immaterial Z-system which leaves the

material one at death. Living matter is invariably of dual constitu-

LION e were oes. In the living organism, life is an intra-atomic

quantity and itis this which determines the living state ........

The possibilities of the evolution of any forms that arise are strictly

limited. Most existing species would be only specific and fixed in

essentials, since the limit of their evolution was reached long ago,

because of the constitutional limitations of reactions possible to a

life form. When this limit is reached the species becomes fixed.’

That is a summary of the conclusion reached by a Physicist and

whether we understand it or not, there are but few Zoologists, I

imagine, who would be inclined to admit that the majority of species

have reached the limit of their evolution; let us, however, examine

such evidence as we possess regarding the possibility, or the reverse,

of such a statement being correct.

Commencing from the first living organism, there has been an

uninterrupted line of descent till we reach the present forms that are

inhabiting the world to-day. As has been pointed out, the son is not

merely ‘a chip of the old block’; he is a direct descendant not only

of his father and grandfather but of the very earliest forms of ani-

mal life. Species are zof discrete forms of life; they are, on the

contrary, portions of a continuous stream or flow that has been going

on through countless ages in the past and may continue to go on

through the future; from time to time the direction of the stream

has been changed and has split into two or more channels but there

has been no break in the continuity.

One of the first stages in the course of evolution was the change

from the nonscellular to the multi-cellular state and the consequent

formation of a body. Specialization of function, however, had

appeared in the animal kingdom long before this cell-formation, for

in the non-cellular organisms we get evidence of definite organs,

such as a mouth. motile organs, such as flagelle and cilia, excretory

organs, as the contracting vacuole, and a controlling centre, the

nucleus. What then was it that caused so fundamental a change as

that from the non-cellular state to the multi-cellular condition? These

non-cellular organisms, the Protozoa, normally undergo growth and

development and then by a process of fission give rise to two or

more daughter cells that separate and in their turn grow and divide ;

and one suspects that some change occurred either in the animal

itself or in its surroundings that led to the inability of the daughter

cells to separate and thus, with a loss of independence, gave rise

1*What is life?’ by Augusta Gaskell, with an introduction by Karl

T. Compton and Raymond Pearl. Published by Charles G. Thomas, Spring-

field, Illinois, 1928 :

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION TL

firstly to a multinucleate protoplasmic mass, or syncytium, and then

to a colony of cells, which is the first stage in body-formation. Such

a syncytial condition 1s actually met with in nature among the

Protozoa. In these, as in other higher animals, the control of the

functions of the cell rests ultimately with the nucleus and there is a

direct relationship between the nucleus and the celi mass. In the

more primitive forms we find a single nucleus in the animal. though

in more advanced forms we may get two or more nuclei in the

single protoplasmic mass; in other words these forms are syzctza.

As a rule the cell mass and the number of nuclei have a very definite

proportion ; though this porportion may change at different stages in

the life history or in different external conditions, such as variation

of temperature or increase of food. As evidence of this I may cite

the work of Popoff' on Paramecium and that of Looper? on Actino-

phrys. If now in such an animal the amount of nuclear material,

which may be in the form of one or more nuclei, be upset, the

amount of protoplasin in the animal, and hence its total size will, as

a rule, be altered in a corresponding ratio, though this ratio may for

a time be upset. Henger? has shown that in Arcella dentata, a

Protozoon with normally two nuclei, one nucleus can be removed.

On reproduction talking place, individuals with only one nucleus are

produced and the animal is of smaller size, and, furthermore, such

individuals appear for several generations. This result is parti-

cularly interesting for we appear to have here a definite temporary

transmission of an acquired traumatic character. The condition is

not, however, permanent, for ultimately the bi-nuclear form will be

restored by a process of aborted fission, the nucleus undergoing

division but not the protoplasmic mass itself, so that we again get

two nuclei in the one animal and now the size of the animal is found

to be larger than the original bi-nuclear ancestor, but this condition

also only persists for a time and ultimately the size becomes normai

again. Comparable results were also obtained in> Avcella discotdes.

A similar result has been obtained in one of the primitive plants,

Spirogyra bellis, under the influence of cold, some of the cells

becoming greatly increased in size and possessing enlarged nuclei;

and such cells have bred true for over a year.4 This change in the

relationship of nucleus and cell mass is however not universal, for it

has been found by Burnside® that biotypes of unequal size are not

produced by inequalities in the amount of nuclear material in Steztor

t Popott, M1909: ‘ Experimentelle Zellstudien, II Uber die Zellgrosse,

ihre Fixierung und Verebung.’ <Arch. f. Zellforsch., Vol. iii, p. 124.

2 Looper, J. B., 1928. ‘ Cytoplosmic fusion in Actinophrys sol. with

special reference to the Karyoplasmic rates.’ Journ, Exper. Zool., Vol. i,

gos

aig: Hegrer, R., 1920. ‘‘The Relations between Nuclear Number, Chro-

matin mass, Cytoplasmic mass, and shell characteristics in four species of the

genus Arcella.’ Journ. Lx pers LOLs N Ol. XEXy pl.

(A number of further references to this subject are given in the three

papers quoted above. F.B.S.S.)

* Gerassimoff, J. J., 1902. ‘ Die Abhangigkeit der Grosse der zelle von

der Menge ihrer Kernmasse.’ Zeztschr. f. allg. Phystiol., Vol. i, p. 220.

5 Burnside, L, H., 1929. ‘‘Relation of body-size to nuclear size in Sfenfor

ceruleus’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. liv, p. 473,

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

ceruleus. That atendency towards incomplete fission of a parent cell

and the consequent formation of a large or “monstrous” form, with

an increased cell mass and an excess of the normal number of

nuclei, exists in nature can be proved by traumatic injury of an

individual or by the effect of drugs, X-rays, or overcrowding on

cultures of these non-cellular animals; in such cases we get the

preduction of monstrous forms in which two individuals are partially

fused together in consequence of incomplete fission, or even of an

apparently normal single cell with double the normal number of

nuclei and a consequent increase in the bodily size. Even without

the direct application of any abnormal condition such individuals may

occur and it has been recorded that in a culture of a protozoan,

Urolepius mobilis, on one occasion two individuals came together in

the normal process of conjugation but after the usual interchange

of nuclear material, when, as a rule, the individuals again separate,

this separation did not take place and the result was the formation

of a double or monstrous torm. This double individual subse-

quently underwent division and bred true, the offspring also being

double, for as many as 367 generations.! Similar examples of

double organisms have been recorded in Glaucoma scintillans

by Chatton? and in an amicronucleate Oxytricha by Dawson.*

In this latter case twinning occurred in a normal culture and from

these twins a pedigree strain was bred for 162 generations before

the culture died out.

It thus seems probable that the first stage in the process of

evoluticn was that in which the nucleus of the cell undergoes

division but the protoplasm of the animal body is unable to form

isolated ceil masses. This syncytial condition is met with in the

ectodermal layer of the sponges and is found even as high in the

animal scale as the birds, in which the earliest formation of the

developing ovum is also a syncytium. Still later, the condition is

reached in which the body is composed of separaie and discrete cells,

and we get the formation of a colony.

Associated with the change from a syncytial condition to the

cellular state there was of necessity a radical change in the conditions

of life under which certain members of the colony live. Now the

first essential of any body is that it must have a definite shape and

structure. In the very lowest of the Metazoa this shape tends to be

a sphere. Commencing from a single cell, subsequent division into

numerous daughter and granddaughter cells, that may spread in any

direction unless restrained by contact with some foreign object, is

bound to give us this type. The first stage was thus in all probability

1 Calkins, Gray N., 1925. ‘ Uroleptus mobilis. V.The history of a double

organism.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xli, p. 191.

* Chatton, F.,1921. ‘ Réversion de la scission chez ciliés) Réalization d’

individus distomes et polyenergide de Glaucoma scintillans se multipliant

indefinitement par scissiparite.’ Cunts. ends. Acad. Sct., Vol. clxxiii,

y3399%

2 (I have not been able to refer to this paper 2.B.S.S.)

3 Dawson, J. A., 1920. ‘ An Experimental study of an amicronucleate

Oxytricha. 11. ‘The Formation of double animals. or twins.’ Journ. L£xper,

Zool,, Vol. Xxx, p. 129, eee

ea 2)

THE PROBIGM, OF EVOLUTION Givi wh. 20

the production of a more or iess spherical mass in which all the cells

were situated. on the periphery, | the interior of. the colony being

hollow. Such a condition is found to-day in the animal Spherozoum

and in Volvox, that is claimed by both Zoologists and Botanists. As

soon as a colony beconies solid there is of necessity a differentiation

of function. With the increasing organization of the animal body

certain parts take on definite functions and for the proper

performance of these it is necessary that the parts occupy certain

equally definite positions in the body. Clearly, those cells that are

situated on the outside are in a position to receive stimuli from the

surroundings or to capture food particles, take up the gases

necessary for life, etc., while those in the centre of the mass are

completely cut off from these functions. In accordance with this

change in conditions we find a differentiation of function in the

constituent parts of the body-mass; one group of cells, connected

with the exterior, takes on the function of receiving and transmitting

stimuli; another group of cells becomes adapted to the performance

of movement and are known as muscle-cells, others take on the

function of support, for a colony or body of any size must have some

supporting mechanism ; another group of cells takes over the process

of digestion, whiie others agaia serve the function of excretion.

Finally, we get one group of cells whose sole function is that of

reproduction and the maintenance of the race. With this formation

of a body there goes hand in hand the absolute necessity for the

formation of discrete cells, each having a definite surface area. The

ceils of the body continue to perform many of the functions that we

have seen to be inherent in Protoplasm, namely, assimilation,

response to stimuli, movement, and excretion. All this activity

necessitates the continual taking in of oxygen and the giving out of

carbonic acid gas, to wit, respiration, and this process, as well as the

taking in of food and the giving out of dissolved excreta, can only be

carried out through the surface of the cell. There must, therefore,

be a certain definite square area of surface for every Cine unit oe

cell-substance ; and we seem here to have an -explanation of the fact

that all such cells are of small size.

If, now, we compare the conditions of life of the various groups

of cells in the body with the primitive non-cellular animals, one

cannot fail to see that, associated with their specialization of

function, there has gone, not only a loss of independence, but a

gradual loss of certain powers; and it is this loss of function that I

wish to emphasise. The first power that most, if not all, of these

groups have lost is that of digestion ; originally digestion took place

within the cell, the food particles being. ingested and then digested,

but in the higher multicellular animals even.the stomach cells or

those of certain glands intimately connected with the process, such

as the salivary glands or the pancreas, only produce the digestive

ferments, the actual process of digestion being carried on outside

the cells themselves in the cavity of the stomach and intestine.

Again, with the exception of the genital cells, all the others have lost

the power of continuous reproduction, since this is, apparently,

dependent on occasional conjugation with a similar cell from another

colony, or in the higher animals with fertilization between the ovum

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

and spermatozoon. The result of this loss of function is that these

specialized cells can only reproduce their kind for a limited time.

As you are all doubtless aware, tissues can now be grown and

cultivated zz vztvo inthe same manner as bacteria, and it has been

shown that under such conditions the cells continue to reproduce by

what is known as the amutotic method.! The time during which

such a tissue culture may be continued may actually exceed in

duration the normal period of life of the animal itself, but whereas

the life of the animal can be transmitted to its offspring, that of the

culture must ultimately come to an end.

The essence of reproduction is the ability to initiate and

subsequently to direct the differentiation of the daughter cells

that result from the continued division of the parent cell.

This process, which in the highest inembers of the animal kingdom

resides solely in the genital cells and has been completely lost in ali

the others, was not lost suddenly. In inany of the lower animals we

still get the power of reproducing the whole animal from a small

part, and in such comparatively highly organized animals as the

Crustacea or even the lower Vectebrates we still find the capability

of reproducing lost narts.

During development in the higher animals, the ovum divides and

re-divides and these resulting daughter-cells have an ultimate

destiny that under normal conditions is definitely fixed. From the

cells of the ‘blastula’ stage arise the three primary layers,

Epiblast, Mesoblast, and Hypoblast, and each of these, as we know

from our observations, gives rise to definite parts of the body and

serves definite functions ; epiblast is essentially the layer from which

is derived the outer covering of the body and the organs of the

senses; mesoblast gives rise to the muscles of the body and the

supporting skeleton; and hypoblast forms the digestive organs.

Under normal conditions there is a definite polarity in the ovum

from which the body is developed, certain parts of the egg-cell

giving rise to definite structures; in certain cases this polarity

clearly depends on the position of the egg and is the result of the

interaction of a number of forces, conspicuous among which is

gravity. One very good example of this is to be found in the egg-

capsules of the common cockroach (Pertplaneta australis). In this

animal the female lays a capsule containing 16 eggs arranged in

two rows and as development proceeds these eggs all develop in

exactly the same way; the embryo is always situated from the very

first with the head towards the crenated ridge that runs along the

top of the capsule and the ventral aspect of the larva is turned

inwards towards that of the corresponding larva on the opposite

side of the capsule. It seems ciear that this fixed position is due to

the forces acting on the egg, for one can hardly suppose that the

nother cockroach invariably places all the separate eggs in exactly

the right position. It has further been shown that in the very early

stages of development out of the original four cells produced by the

division of the ovum two can be destroyed and yet the other two

+ Murray, Margaret R., 1927. ‘ Cultivation of Planarian Tissue.’ Jour

Exper. Zool., Vol. xlvii, p. 467

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 121

will give rise to a compiete and perfect animal, while in one of the

mammals, an Edentate, the nine-banded Armadillo, a female at

each litter produces four offspring, all identical and of the same sex,

each having arisen independently from one of these four cells.? It

is thus clear that even the polarity of the egg is not absolutely fixed

and this seems equally to be the case even in the highest forms, for

Newman? in his studies on Twins has shown that in the human

being the fixation of the body-form does not exist in the ovum but

is developed at some stage after the development of the egg has

begun. But it appears probable that this fixation occurs at an ever

earlier stage as we pass up the animal scale.

There can, I think, be little doubt that among lower animals the

developing body is influenced by its surroundings to an extent that

we, at the present time, but dimly appreciate, and this was probably

stili more the case in the past among the lower organisms, in which

the body was and is far more plastic than it is in higher animals.

Can anyone, who has studied the work of Loeb and his school, doubt

that the general shape of the body is zot a matter of haphazard

mutations, some of which proved to be favourable, while others

were unfavourable and so were ultimately destroyed by natural

selection, but is due to the action on the organism ot definite forces

and influences? I have already pointed out that differentiation of

the body into various organs is met with in the lowest animals,

such as the Protozoa. When such animals reproduce by fission

into two there is a differentiation of the protoplasm into such

organs as the animal possesses, so that each daughter-cell is

fully provided with mouth, nuclei, excretory organs, and the like,

put we also in these animals meet with the exact opposite phase for

a process of dedifferentiation is carried out both before conjugation

and also before encystment, and in this phase the gullet, the vibratile

membranelles, and other structures tend to disappear. Such

dedifferentiation may also occur spontaneously in a culture, to be

followed again by redifferentiation, the animal once more reforming

its lost parts. In somewhat higher animals this process becomes

even more striking. Let us take the case of the Hydroid Campanu-

lavia, if this animal be brought in contact with a solid substance it

shrinks up into a shapeless mass, but if it be then restored to its

natural surroundings it once again reforms itself into stalk, body,

tentacles, etc., and whichever way one turns the shapeless mass the

final product is the same, the stalk is at one end and the tentacles at

the other. We thus get a new Campanularia whose structure and

parts are not due simply to its internal organization but are so much

a direct reaction to external forces and conditions that the point

where the re-growth shail begin may be fixed at the will of the ex-

perimenter. The change is not a mere reversibility from a fully-

formed animal to a blastula or syncytium but is a completely new

process. Again in an animal such as Aydra, which normally has a

mouth at one end and a base at the other, we can by altering the

1 Pearce, A. S., 1929. General Zoology’ Revised Edition, p. 291, New

York.

2 Newman, H.H., 1928, ‘Studies of Human Twins,’ Azo/, Bull,, Vol. lv,

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

position of the animal reverse the formation or even produce a

double condition, there being a mouth at each end. Similar results

have been obtained in other members of the Hydrozoa, such as

Corymorpha. In this latter animal,a cut piece of the stalk will

normally regenerate a head and tail from opposite ends of the cut

piece with the head up and the tail down, so that there would at first

sight seem to be a definite polarity. Child,! however, has shown

that if a piece of the stalk be treated with certain chemical reagents

of a streneth sufficient to inhibit growth but not to kill the organism,

this polarity is upset and on being returned to normal conditions

heads and tails may appear in almost any direction and even from

the middle of the growing portion. Very similar effects have, again,

been produced by Julian Huxley? on the developing larve of certain

Echinoderms ; he has shown that the effect of transitory immersion

in weak solutions of certain poisons, suchas KCN, ZnSO,, Hg-salts,

ete., or even starvation, may produce dedifferentiation, the larva

losing its characteristic shape and degrading into an unmodified

mass of cells. If this mass be then removed from the harmful

solution before the process of poisoning has gone too far and is

again placed in sea water, redifferentiation into a normal larya with

its various structures is possible. This process of dedifferentiation

and redifferentiation of the body is in certain cases a norinal process

and has been brought to a high degree of perfection in the

Insecta, where we find that during the pupal stage such changes

take place in most of the different parts of the body, so that the

structure of the final aduit animal, the imago, is very different from

that of the larval stage, the caterpillar.

We can, however, carry matters further than this. The work of

Wilson? and others has shown that in the sponges the animal can

be broken up into its constituent cells, by first mincing finely and

then straining the resulting fragments through a fine sieve, and yet

these individual cells will subsequently come together again and will

actually unite to form a sponge once more. Similar experiments

performed on Hydroids, such as Pennaria tiarella and Eudendrium

carneum, show that the individual cells first unite to form an undif-

ferentiated mass and from this mass a complete regeneration of the

animal takes place, both ectoderm and endoderm being reformed. In

this re-formation of the animal it has been shown that the most

primitive type of cell, the amoebocyte, can reproduce most of the

other types of cells, whereas such specialized cells as the desmocytes

‘and choanocytes can only reproduce their own kind. In certain

cases, such as in Montezia, it has been shown by Child* that the de-

differentiated cells can actually become converted into germ cells.

* Child, C. M., 1927. ‘ Modification of Polarity and Symmetry in Cory-

morpha palina by means of inhibiting conditions and differential exposure. ;

Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xlvii, p. 243.

2 Huxley, J., 1922. : Dedifferentiation i in Achinus larvee and its relation to

Metamorphosis.’ Biol. Bulls Voleshiinpe 210:

SaWialson, els 3,219 ll ‘On the behaviour of the dissociated cells in

Hydroids, Alcyonaria and Asterias.’ Journ. Exper..Zool., Vol. xi, p..281.

* Child, C. M., 1906. ‘The development of germ cells from differentiated

somatic cells i in "Moniezia.’ Anat, Anzieger, Vol. Xxix. . :

> pw Pe gta

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION. 2 192;

Further research along such lines has shown that the regeneration

of the animal after dissociation is actually specific in character, thus

if the cells of two different species such as those of AWZicroctona and

Stylotella are mixed, the cells of each species will coalesce but not

those of different species, thus cells from AVzcroctona will unite with

other cells from AZicrociona but not with cells from .Stylolella.}

There would thus appear to be a definite attraction between cells of

the same species, so that they tend to unite together and under the

influence of the external surroundings this union must be carried

out in a perfectly definite manner. |

As we pass up the scale of the animal kingdom we find that this

power of dedifferentiation and redifferentiation and hence the power

of regeneration of parts of the body is gradually lost. For a full

account of this interesting phenomenon of regeneration I would

refer the reader to the exhaustive work of Korschelt.2. In many of

the higher invertebrates and even in the Amphibia and Reptilia of

the vertebrates there still resides the power to regenerate parts

that have been lost, though in the case of the more evolved forms

this seems to be limited to the external structures, such as the limbs

in certain Amphibia or the tail in some of the lizards, but when we

arrive at the highest vertebrates all that the animal is usually able

to do is to heal the damaged part by the formation of-scar tissue.

Yet even in these higher states of life we find that there still resides

in the developing embryo a certain power to form organs and parts

from cells that normally would not give rise tothem. It has been

shown that in the developing larva of Amblysioma punctalum, the

normal ear, as in all vertebrates, develops from an otic vesicle that

is budded off from the brain; if, however, this otic vesicle be re-

moved, the tissue round the site, that normally would take no part

in the formation of the ear, can to some extent take the place oi the

vesicle that has been removed and forms an ear of sorts, while if the

vesicle be transplanted to some other part of the body, it undergoes

much less development than in the normal situation, though it still

develops into an ear.* Again if the developing optic cup, which is

also an outgrowth of the brain be transplanted to the thorax or abdo-

men, the skin over it will form alens. ‘There is thus some reaction

between the various parts of the body that has a direct influence on

the development of the various organs, the presence of one organ

causing a characteristic development of the cells in the immediate

neighbourhood ; such a process is known by the name ‘ correlative

differentiation.’

As evolution proceeds there has been acquired a stability or

fixation of the bodily form so that the developing embryo is but

little, if at all, affected by gravity or other normal external condi-

tions: there is thus a definite arrangement of organs and structures,

+ Galtsoff, Paul S., 1925. ‘ Regeneration after dissociation, I, Behaviour, of

dissociated cells of MWicrociona prolifera under normal and altered conditions.’

Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xiii, p. 183.

? Korschelt, E., 1927. ‘Regeneration und Transplantation.’ Berlin.

* Kaan, Helen W., 1927. ‘Experiments on the Development of the ear of

Amblystoma punctatum,’ Journ, Exper, Zool., Vol. \xvi, p. 13,

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

so that in examples of any given species there is but little variation

and the organs do not encroach on one another. ‘The mechanism

that thus controls the character of the individual parts is generally

supposed to be the production within the developing body itself of

certain chemical substances, known as Hormones, that circulate in

the blood and control all the various developing masses. In the

Crustacea it has been shown that growth is not uniform throughout

the body but that certain parts grow more rapidly than others and

that the rate varies in the two sexes. These Crustacea, which

develop by a series of moults, are particularly suitable for a study of

this kind, involving the accurate measurement of the various parts of

the body and limbs and a mathematical analysis of the proportions

in each succeeding stage. In the Copepoda the most rapid growth

in the body occurs at a level of the 3rd segment of the abdomen and

from this point the rate of growth becomes less as we pass either

forwards to the cephalothorax or backwards to the furcal rami. In

certain appendages of the crabs Uca and Maza,'! we find similar

areas of rapid growth or, as they are termed, growth centres near

the tips of the thoracic appendages. Similar results have been

obtained in the crab Jvachus by Shaw ;? by Tazelaar? in the appen-

dages of the Indian prawn, Palemon carcinus, and by Kunkel and

Robertson? in the Amphipod Gammarus chevreuxi Sexton. In the

Copepoda again the main growth centre in the lst antenna is

situated at about one-third of the length of the appendage, namely

in the Yth or 10th segment. The increase in size, or ‘ heterogonic ’

growth, is found to differ in the two sexes and is associated with the

development of the secondary sexual characters and in such cases

Wwe appear to have two factors at work, the ordinary hormone that

controls development in both sexes and a sexual secretion that

modifies the degree of development in either sex.

From the evidence that I have put before you, and I may perhaps

here be permitted to point out that I have only given you a fraction

of all the evidence that has been accumulated during the past few

years, it would seem clear that the development of an animal is

dependent partly on external influences and partly on internal con-

ditions and the cases that we have been considering point to the

conclusion that in the lower animals it is the external conditions that

exhibit the greatest influence and, furthermore, that in the lower

forms of the Metazoa the whole animal, even when adult, can be

profoundly modified by changes in its environment, whereas, as we

pass up the animal kingdom this effect of the environment becomes

less and less and its place is taken by an internal regulating

mechanism, existing in the Jiving animal itself. If this be so, then

* Huxley, J. S., 1927. ‘Further work on Heterogonic growth.’ zol.

Zentvalb., Vol. slvii, p. Lol:

. Shaw, Meus, 1929. ‘A Contribution to the Study of relative growth of

parts in Inachus dorsettensis.’ British Journ. Exper...B20l:,,Volsxi, p: 145;

° Tazelaar, M. A., 1930. ‘ The relative growth of parts in Palaemon

carcinus.’ British Journ. Exper. Biol., Vol. vii, p. 165.

* Kunkel and Robertson, 1928, ‘Contribution to the Study of Relative

Growth in Gammarus chevreuxi.’ Journ. Mar. Biol. Station, Plymouth,

Vol, Xv, Di Goo;

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 125

by altering these external conditions we should be able to produce

changes in the development and structure of the lower animals and

but little, if any, in the higher. Numerous methods of affecting

such alteration wiil doubtless occur to many of you; during the past

years an enormous number of such experiinents have been carried

out and in the time that is left at my disposal I can mention only a

few. I have, therefore, for the inost part confined my attention to

those experiments in which such changes of environment have been

utilized as might reasonably be supposed to have occurred in nature,

or those similar to such changes. The various functions of proto-

plasm, as all will admit, are brought about by, or at any rate are

accompanied by changes in the constituent atoms and molecules.

It has been thoroughly well established that the characters of an

animal are transmitted from parent to offspring by minute particles,

known as ‘ genes’, that are connected together in the chromosomes

of the nucleus, and two workers, Przibram! and Morgan? have inde-

pendently put forward the view that these genes are individual

molecules. Any alteration in the ionic nrovement in or the atoniic

composition of these protoplasmic molecules must presumably result

in an alteration in the character or composition of the protoplasm

itself and so of the animal asa whole. A nerve-impulse, travelling

along a nerve, is accompanied by an electrical change that can be

demonstrated and similarly a contracting muscle also gives an

electric response, due apparently to a change in the physico-chemical

condition of the protoplasm at the moment of contraction. By the

activity of the protoplasm complex chemical substances are broken

down into more simple substances and energy is set free; such a

process is known as ‘katabolism’. On the cessation of activity, or

even during its continuance, simple substances are built up into

complex bodies, a process known as ‘ anabolism’, while other sub-

stances, the result of the breaking down of the energy-forming

compound, that are unsuitable for the future use of the body, are

got rid of by excretion ; and corresponding changes must have been

going on in all organisms, in whatever stage of development or

evolution, since life first appeared on the earth. These activities,

then, can be set in motion or varied by changes in the physico-

chemical conditions surrounding the organism or cell and, like all

chemical processes, can be slowed or accelerated by appropriate

changes in the surroundings. Changes in the viscosity of the pro-

toplasm of the non-ceilular crganism can be brought about by various

salts, some producing liquefaction, others causing a gelation and

solution, while the influence of certain chemical salts on the activity

of the cells of the body is well known to ail. students of physiology.

It is also well known thai a rise of temperature accelerates chemical

changes and the same holds good of living matter. In so-called

1 Przibram. Hans, 1929. ‘Quanta in Biology.’ Proc. Royal Soc. Edin-

burgh, Vol. xlix, p. 224.

2 Morgan, 1922. ‘On the Mechanism of Heredity.’ Proc. Royal Soc.

London, Series B, Vol. xciv.

* Brinley, Floyd John, 1928. ‘ The effect of chemicals on viscosity of pro-

toplasm of -4moeba as indicated by Brownian movement.’ Protoplasma

Nols ive. Da ifde

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

cold-blooded animals, in which the temperature of tiie body varies

with that of the surroundings, a rise of temperature is accompanied

by an increased velocity of movement" that is directly proportional.

On the other hand, a lowering of the temperature causes a slowing

of the frequency of the heart-beat in Daphnia.? If this lowering ot

the temperature is rapid there is a definite lag before the slowing of

the heart-beat reaches equilibrium ; and this lag possesses a time-

factor that corresponds with and appears to be due to the increase

in viscosity of protoplasm as a result of cooling. Again an altera-

tion in temperature will considerably affect the rate of development,

a higher temperature accelerating it and alower causing retarda-

tion. The rate of division (fission) in Paramecium can be increased or

retarded by corresponding changes in the temperature. Inthe case

of the eggs of certain Insecta (Orthoptera), the difference in rate of

development has been found to be strictly proportional within those

limits of temperature at which it 1s possible. So dependent on the

temperature is the rate of development that if one side of an egg

only be heated, then development on that side will be more rapid

than on the other and the embryo will become bilaterally asymmetri-

cal. But the changes brought about by alteration in temperature

may be much deeper seated than this and not only the rate but the

whole character of the developing animal may be changed.

Monstrous forms can be produced in a culture of Paramectum

caudatum> by reducing the temperature to 3°C. and then allowing it

to rise again to the normal temperature ofthe room. Every student

ot Zoology knows that changes in the season may so affect the

Water-flea, Daphnia pulex, that the femaic, which during the

summer months has been producing parthenogenetic eggs that

develop into females, will with the onset of autumn commence to

produce thick-sheiled eggs that develop into males and the

same is true of other Cladocera. Probably, this is to some extent

the result of a lowered temperature causing corresponding delay

in development, somewhat similar to the results obtained by

Hertwig, who has shown that delayed fertilization of frogs’ eggs

causes an increase in the number of males. ‘Temperature changes,

however, may in a similar manner even affect the animal after it has

left the egg stage; Witschi® has-shown that the effect of extreme

heat on tadpoles is to cause a change of sex from female to male.

1 Przibram, Hans, 1909. ‘ Aufzucht, Farbwechsel, und Regeneration der

Gcottesanbeterrinnen (Mantidae). III. Temperatur und Vererbungsversuche. '

Archiv tur Entwicklungsmechanik, Vol. xxviii, p. 561.

? Belehradek, Jan., 1928. La ralehtissement des réactions biologique par le

froid est causé par une augmentation de la viscosité du protoplasm.’ /Pvroto-

plasma, Vol.-lii, p. 317.

3 Mitchell, William H., 1929. ‘ The division rate of Paramectum in

relation. to temperature.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. liv, p. 383.

* Bodine, J. H , 1925. ‘ Effect of Temperature on rate of Embryonic deve-

lopment of certain Orthoptera.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xiii, p. 91.

*-de Garis,.C. Fz, 1927..>°A .cenetic study of Paramecium caudatum in

pure lines through an ‘interval of experimentally produced monster formations.’

Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xlix, p. 133.

_ © Witschi, 1928. ‘Studies on sex-differentiation and sex-determination in

Amphibians.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. lii, p. 267.

Lee

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 127

Normally, sex differentiation occurs inthe 4th week or after 28 days;

but in those tadpoles that had been exposed to a temperature of 32°C.

for varying periods, there was not a single female, though in the

control eggs Witschi obtained 26 of each sex. In those treated with

heat he found that 53 showed changes towards the male condition

and 62 were typical males. There can be no doubt that the effect of

the exposure was to so alter the genital organs that they changed from

female to inaie.

Goldschmidt has found that a temperature of 37°C. is able to

produce deep-seated effects on fruit flies and, finally, Plunkett! has

shown that an increase in temperature causes a change in certain

characters in Dyosophila melanogaster, one result, among others,

being the diminution in the numbers of hairs on the segments of the

body.

Mere alteration in the normal conditions of light and darkness

may set up deep-seated changes in the animal. As an example

I may cite the effect of absence of light on the Aphide. In con-

tinuous light wingless Aphids produce, almost exclusively, wingless

offspring. If, however, the exposure to light be reduced, then

winged offspring will commence to appear; the most effective

proportion of light and darkness in the production of winged forms

is 8 hours’ sunlight to 16 hours’ darkness and the effect on the

character of the offspring makes its appearance in two days. If,

however, darkness be combined with starvation, the effect is even

more marked and the production of winged forms begins after

only 16 hours.? It has recently been claimed that changes in the

amount of nutrition may of itself affect the ultimate sex of the

‘Flour beetle’ Zyebolium confusum Duval.? ‘The sex-ratio is in this

case not a simpie relation of the nutritional condition, for slight

starvation of the larvee (i.e., i day) causes an increase in males and

more prolonged starvation an increase in females. The author

suggests that a certain number of specimens of either sex may have

the sex changed to that of the opposite and that this is brought about

by the biochemical and biophysical state of the body fluids acting on

the germ cells. These effects, I would point out, however they be

produced, are not on the animal itself, but on the germ-cells within

the body of the animal, the effects being thus only visible in the next

generation. A condition of semi-starvation may, however, produce

’ changes in the individual if applied early enough. In the case of

Drosophila metanogaster, Plaunkett* has shown that, if applied in the

early.stages of life, it may cause the production cf forms with a

marked decrease in the number of hairs on the body, while Casteal5

1 Plunkett, Charles R., 1927. ‘The Interaction of genetic and environ -

mental factors in Deveiopment.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xlvi, p. 181.

2 Shull, Franklin A., 1928. ‘Duration of light and the wings of the

Aphid Macrosiphum solarifolit. Zeitschrift Wiss. Biol. (Abt. D.) Roux.

Arch. Entwicklungsmech. Organ, Vol. cxiii.

° Holdaway, F.G., 1930. ‘ Nutritional Status and sex determination.’

WUE DAISIES | | ,

* Plunkett, Charles R., 1927. ‘ The interaction of Genetic and Environ-

mental factors in Development.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xlvi, p..181.

“5 Casteal, Dana B.. 1929. ‘ Histology of the eyes of X-rayed. Drosvpihtla.’

Journ, Exper. Zool., Vol. liii, p. 373. .

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

by exposing embryos and larve has produced changes in the pigmen-

tation of the eyes: but both these effects are comparatively, trivial

and, indeed, may almost be termed pathological.

In certain of the insects, such as the bees, it is now recognized

that we get in nature a variety of forms, the production of which

appears to be due to differences in feeding in the early larval stage,

and it has been proved that the addition of a substance such as

Manganese salts to the food of one of the Butterflies will result in

the production of a melanotic mutation that breeds true.

In the case of Rotifers, Tinesinger has shown that when the

female parent was subjected to traces of alcohol, there was a marked

shortening of life and a reduction in the number of eggs that were

laid; and this latter character is transmitted to the offspring for two

generations and then disappears. A similar result was obtained by

Noyes. Stockard? has got results of the same nature in a mammal,

while Chaudhuri? has shown that injection of alcohol into the male

parent mouse very considerably alters the sex-ratio in the offspring,

the number of male offspring being increased ; in birds, however,

Pearl* only obtained a reduced fertility in the egg, and those which

were fertilized gave rise to perfectly normal offspring. Whitney®

has found in Rotifers that whereas a scanty diet produces in the

second generation only females, a copious diet causes the appearance

in the second generation of 95 per cent males, thus showing that

there is, as a result, a change in the eggs from which the daughters

develop and that this change affects the grandchildren. A similar

result has been obtained by Shull in his studies of the effect of

external conditions, such as a manure solution, on the sex-determi-

nation of the offspring ; he found that whether a female is to be a

male producer or a female producer, is irrevocably decided in the

growth period of the parthenogenetic egg from which that female

hatches, that is, before this egg is actually laid, the effect of the

external condition thus being on the grandparent.

If variation in the amount of sunlight or the amount or quality

of the food-supply can produce such effects, one would expect to

find that such agencies as ultra-violet radiation, radium-rays, and

X-rays were even more efficient, and such is undoubtedly the

case. Taking first the effect of ultra-violet radiation on the

noncellular Protozoa, it has been found that exposure to such rays

for periods as short as from two seconds tv two minutes, either every

day or on alternate days, is sufficient to produce well-marked results

1 Noyes, Bessil, 1922. ‘Experimental studies on the life history of a

Rotifer reproducing parthenogenetically.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. X&Xv,

p. 225.

2 Stockard, Charles R., 1918. ‘ Further studies on the modification of

germ cells in mammals; the effect of alcohol on treated guinea pigs and their

descendants.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xxvi, p. 119.

° Chaudhuri, A. C., 1928. ‘The effect of the injection of alcohol into the

male mouse upon the secondary sex ratio among the offspring.’ Brit. Journ.

LEixper. Biol., Vol. v, p. 185.

* Pearl, Raymond, 1917. ‘ The experimental modification of germ cells’

I, Ul, and ill. Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol! xxii, pp. leo, 165 and, 241;

5 Whitney, D. D., 1907. ‘Determination of sex in Mydatina senta.’

Journ, Exper. Zool., Vol v; p. 1.

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 129

in a culture of Chzlodon uncinatus,* a holotrichous ciliate of the famiiy

Chlamydodontide ; a number of modifications were produced among

which were (1) a race that closely resembled a different species,

Chilodon cucullus, and this modification continued for generation

after generation for months and even persisted after encystment and

(2) the production of a tailed form that bred true for 48 generations ;

other changes were the production of fused individuals or twins,

similar to those that I have already mentioned (vzde supra, pp. 4, 14).

The effects produced may be sttmmarized into the following

groups :—

(1) Mutations that continue after encystment and conjugation.

(2) Modifications that persist for some time and bred true,

but die out with encuctment or conjugation.

(3) Temporary variations which disappear after 3 gener-

ations, and

(4) Abnormalities that cause death.

It has been found in practice that the effects of these types of

radiation on developing higher animals are not produced uniformly

but that there is a much more marked effect in certain regions of the

animal body than in others, the effect apparently depending on the

activity of the part. ‘The work of Hyman and Bellamy? has shown

that the various organs of a body are not all equally active; thus in

sponges the region round the osculum, or the exhalent aperture, is

more active than the rest of the body; in Hydroids the tips of the

tentacles are more active than the body and this latter more than the

stem: in Meduse the tips of the tentacles and the margin of the

umbrella are most active, while in flat-worms the two ends are more

active metabolically than the central part. In a developing animal

there is a definite metabolic gradient; as a rule the head end is

metabolically the most active, but this may, at any rate in part, be due

to the complexity of this region for it has been found that the rate of

metabolism is definitely related to the complex character of the

organ, the more complex the greater the metabolic activity. Now

the higher the metabolic gradient the more susceptible is the part

to outside influences such as radiation or poisons.

Experiments on the developing hen’s egg? showed that if the

rays were directed against the shell, no results were obtained, but

if a window was made in the shell, so that the rays could pass

through, then a number of changes took place, among which were

the production of double monsters or the duplication of parts. One

result obtained showed that whereas there is normally a definite

polarity in the developing egg, certain parts giving rise to definite

organs, the effect of radiation is to stop the development of certain

organs and the growth takes on the characters of a neoplasm or

1 MacDougal, Mary Stuart, 1929. ‘ Modifications in Chilodon uncinatus

produced by utlra-violet radiation.’ Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. liv, p. 95.

2 Hyman and Bellamy, 1922. ‘Studies on the correlation. between

metabolic gradients, electric gradients, and galvanotaxis.’ A7ol. Bull.,

Vol. xliii, No. 5.

* Hinrichs, Marie A., 1927. ‘ Modification of development on the basis

of differential susceptibility to radiation.’ Journ, Exper. Zool., Vol. xlvii,

po oud;

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

tumour. ‘The parts most affected are those that have been shown?

to possess the greatest metabolic activity, such as the developing

Primitive streak, the special sense organs, limb buds, and those

regions where foldings or flexures are about to take place.

‘The effects of radium rays or X-rays are very similar to those

of ultra-violet radiation, but in the majority of instances the effects

produced are pathological in character; Muller has dealt with the

effects of radium and X-rays and Babcock and Collins have studied

the effects of emanations from radio-active rocks on fruit-flies.

There is thus ample evidence that it is possible to modify the

processes going on in an animal by changes in either its external or

internal environment. But in nearly all these cases that we have

been considering it is found that in the higher animals, changes in the

environment, if applied to the adult, produce as a rule little or no

direct modification and where any effect is produced, the result lies

in the direction of pathological or even lethal changes. Environ-

mental changes, if applied to the early larval stages or to the egg

itself, may be effective, though here again in the highest forms the

result is usually pathological. Changes applied to the adult, may,

however, affect the offspring, though not the parent. In such cases

the effect of the altered environment is to produce in the egg only a

coinparatively slight structural change, yet sufficient to affect the

actual constitution of the molecules of the chromosomes of the

nucleus and, if this can be done without causing the death of the

organism or a loss of the power of reproduction, the result is to

produce something new ana, if this change be transmitted to the

progeny, then the result is the production of a new species.

To sum up all the evidence that I have put before you, it would

appear that throughout the whole evolution of the animal kingdom,

with the attainment of each higher stage there has been a loss of

some power or function. The change froma non-cellular stage to

that of a multicellular organism caused the loss of at least one

function, namely, that of continuous reproduction, in all cells except

those of the genital organs...Later on, the actual -shape-of- the

organism becomes more and more fixed and less and less susceptible

to external changes, and development has to proceed along definite

lines, a head forming at one end and a tail at the other, regardless

of the position of the developing egg; and all that can be achieved

in the way of changes in the genital organs or the genital cells

themselves, which still retain, in some degree and possibly to a

considerable extent, the susceptibility to changes of environment

that existed in the lower organisms in times past, is the production

of comparatively insignificant variations in the more or less

superficial characters or else changes of a pathological nature.

There has thus been a gradual loss of plasticity. The lines along

1 Hyman, Libbie H., 1927. ‘The Metabolic Gradients of Vertebrate

Embryos... Til,‘ The Chick.’ 2470) 22717. Nol lit. aNOe

(This paper inciudes a large number of references to the work of previous

authors on the effects of abnormal conditions, such as X-rays, exposure to

electric current, action of chemical vapours, e.g., alcohol, ammonia, ether,

lack of oxygen, delayed incubation, and high or low temperatures, on the

normal process of development.)

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 131

which an animal must normally develop, become more and more

fixed and conversely the degree to which it can be affected gradually

becomes less and less as we pass up the scale, while the period of

existence in which an animal can be influenced is more and more

limited and this limit is reached at a progressively earlier stage in

its development. It would thus seem that, after all, the physicist

may be right and that in the higher forms of life, including

ourselves, we may be rapidly approaching the stage when further

evolution is becoming impossible. If that be the case, then we are

equally rapidly approaching the stage when, unless we have become

completely superior to our environment and can ignore any and

all changes in our external conditions, the existing higher animals

and especially the human race will disappear from off the face of the

earth to make way for some other form of life that has not as yet

become restricted in its power of response.

(To be continued.)

A SPIDER THAT CAN CHANGE THE COLOUR OF ITS EYES

JANG Bee A By Be

(MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES, Cams.)

A. P. MATHEW, M.A.,

Lecturer in Natural Science, H.H. The Maharajah’s College

for Women, Trivandrum.

(With 4 plates and 4 text-figures.)

INTRODUCTION

The following article is one of a series of studies I have been

making regarding some of the local ant-mimicking spiders. In

sending out these notes I have to acknowledge very gratefully the

great help and encouragement extended to me by the Hon.

Secretary, Bombay Natural History Society, and by the Director of

the Zoological Survey of India, by advice regarding identifications,

literature, etc. I also gratefully acknowledge the help given me

by Dr. F. H. Gravely of the Madras Museum who first drew my

attention to this interesting side of Spider life, and by my professor

at the Presidency College, Madras, Rao Bahadur K. Ramunni

Menon, under whom I learnt the pleasures of open air zoological

study. To many others also” Iam “deeply indebted: 210 1D.

Warburton, S. Kensington, who so kindly responded to certain

queries of mine and gave me some valuable suggestions, to

Miss E. C. Carrapiett, the lady Principal of this institution, who

in many ways helped and encouraged me in this work, and to

Mr. James Pryde, the Principal and Professor of Natural Science

in the local Science College, who so kindly permitted me to use

certain instruments in his laboratory.

Under the heading ‘On the change of Colour in the eyes of an

Attid Spider’ a note was published in Nature, vol. 68, 1908, by

Mr. T. Padmanabha Pillay, Trivandrum. He observed a small

Attid Spider which could change the colour of its eye at will. Since

then no further contribution on this peculiar phenomenon seems to

have been made. In the following notes the present writer gives

an account of his observation and studies on the eye peculiarity as

seen in the spider Myrmarachne plataleoides from Travancore.

In the description of M. plataleoides by Peckham in the Occasional

Papers of the Natural History Society of Wisconsin, 1889, where

specimens from Ceylon are described, the eyes are all referred to

CHANGE OF COLOUR IN SPIDER'’S EYES 133

as black. While this would be quite true to a casual observation of

dead specimens, scrutiny of living ones shows that the case is not

quite so. This was noticed while examining a number of these

spiders which were kept in captivity. In a living individual the

large anterior median eyes appear sometimes quite transparent or.

pearl-coloured and at other times quite black. The other eyes of

this spider are all quite black. If these anterior median eyes are

closely locked at for a few seconds the observer will be struck by

a change in their apparent colour. These eyes change from

dull whitish to black and from black to dull whitish. This change

may be brought about rapidly or slowly. Sometimes both the eyes

change colour alike; sometimes only one with the result that one

eye is black and the other white at the same time. See fic. 8,

plate III.

What can be the meaning of this white colouration for these eyes?

Simon has suggested that the white eyes are for use at night and

that the black ones may be diurnal. This, in this spider at any

Fate, ,cannot shold “true for these spiders de not seem to, be

nocturnal at all. For the night they weave tiny silken retreats in

which they rest. Even when disturbed they are very shy and quite

unwilling to move about, which, were they nocturnal, they would

not be.

A number of times, specimens of M. plataleoides have been

obsenved: at night, in their retreats: they do- not. recognize. the

intruder’s approach—in the day time it is almost impossible to

avoid their noticing the intruder. On taking a needle to the front

of the spider, and even on flourishing it in front of its eyes, it

remains unaffected. Only on touching it with the needle does it

‘awake’ and run about wildly.

A specimen was kept in a small cage and occasionally fed on tiny

insects. One night, after the spider had retreated into its nest, a

small insect was introduced into the cage to see if the spider would

attack it during the night, which could be expected if it were

nocturnal. But the next morning the insect was found alive and

the spider still at rest. An hour or so later the spider got out and

was seen holding the insect in its jaws!

These and other observations of a like nature show ccnclusively

that these spiders are not nocturnal at all. For an animal that is

quite diurnal, to have the most important eyes, situated in the

position of maximum efficiency and utility, adapted for vision at

night seems quite unintelligent.

Observation of these spiders as they move about among the tree

branches and leaves convinces cne that their power of sight is

quite keen. The slightest movement of anything in front, even

at a distance of two or three feet, seems to arrest their attention.

They immediately stop in their path and scrutinize. Often from

the edge of a leaf or side of a twig, they can be seen watching the

intruder with the forepart of their body raised high, to command

a wider view. Under all such circumstances it will be seen that

it is these frontal eyes that are always directed straight at the

object looked at. And if one looks closely into these anterior eyes

one will be able to observe the curious change in their colour which

has been already referred to.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

What does this change mean? Can it be that this spider

converts its eyes from diurnal to nocturnal and nocturnal to diurnal

at pleasure? But then, why this brisk transformation in clear

daylight?

The apparent iridescence of these eyes when they ‘show white’

reminds one of the phenomenon of ‘shining of the eyes’, so marked

1 the eyes of certain animals; (e.g. the cat). In such eyes, inside

the choroid there is a layer—the tapetum lucidum—which reflects

the rays of light that fall cn it and thus bring about the iridescent

gleam. In the spider M. plataleoides however, this phenomenon

does not appear to be brought about in this way.

As one observes the change of colour in the eyes of this spider

one is reminded of the phenomenon of the movement of pigment in

the compound eyes of the crustaceans in adjustment to the intensity

of light. There it is observed that in bright light the pigment

completely invests each ommatidium thus isolating it from its

neighbours, while, in darkness these pigment blinds are withdrawn.

No such.movement of pigments however can be observed in this

spider.

Examination of the top of the cephalothorax as the eyes are being

‘rolled’ as it were, by the spider shows two small black streaks, at

a little distance behind the eyes, moving to and fro. The

top of the cephalothorax in most specimens is opaque but occa-

sionally a few specimens—probably recently moulted ones—are seen,

in which this portion jis quite translucent. In these, the black

streaks in the front part of the cephalothorax behind the eyes can

be very distinctly noticed, being moved to and fro when the eyes

are changing colour. In fig. 1, pl. I is shown the cephalic part

of the spider, as seen from the dorsal side under a lens: the black

streaks that are moved to and fro when the apparent colour of the

eyes change, are seen distinctly. Recently hatched young of these

spiders were also examined: in them the cephalothorax was quite

translucent and movements of the black streaks were noted very

clearly. See fie-2, plate 1.

It was evident that these moving streaks inside the cephalothorax

had something to do with the observed change in the colour of the

eyes. On removing the cephalothoracic shield carefully, one finds

inside two elongated cone- we structures attached to the anterior

median eyes. | Vide figs. 3 (plate I) and 4 and 5, plate II.] The

hinder halves of these ‘cones’ are black or deep blue, while in front

they are white or translucent. These ‘cones’ are movable inside the

cephalothorax, the broad end being fixed. The black streaks that

are seen moving to and fro as the colour of the eye changes from

white to black or vice versa, are really the hinder halves of these

delicate cone-like structures, seen through the translucent cephalo-

thoracic shield. Evidently then, these spiders can move these ‘cones’

inside the cephalothorax: and as the ‘cones’ are thus moved, the

black or the translucent portion of the ‘cone’ may be brought in the

line of. sight of the observer, thus making the eyes appear black or

white as the case may be. The accompanying diagrams explain

the mode of working of these eyes. The first diagram shows

a ‘cone’ not waved to a side but held straight behind. In

this position, an observer who looks from the front straight into

ic gh ah CA SPR) Br ee eye, |

a ee ee ee ee eee ee eee

ete eee ae Se ee ee

PLate I

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Port Lat.

Ant.» ed. At Rak.

[nite rh uae

BL.Sh-

so CTR TAGTIEE:

OY a et

f/f ft ii JL,

Y, Ys Vi yi y, y, ie a

I ae i sr RS

A tert

Post. bat.

Change of Colour in the Eyes of the Spider J/. plataleotdes

(For Explanation of plate sce end of article).

‘ Wy is

al A Orr

x eel

: a : i) aad te

x7 * o De ian

“ a . Es “

q on : *

w \

ohie Hes

— :

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- '

. &

= ¥

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‘

> #.

CHANGE. OF COLOUR IN SPIDERS EVES 13

the eyes, so that the line of sight is at right angles to the plane of

the tens, will) look “into the depths of the ‘cones’ where they

dnewnet black whe. would: See.) the eyes.) black) (AA). “If) he

Seat

Sap:

B@ew-ess Sarece bad oe a eeee

A oe

Lema on

ees

cera

TExT, fico. l.

Diagram to show the action of the ‘cones’. For description see text.

Poy

shifted his position considerably to a side, his line of sight would

strike, out at the black region of the ‘cone’ but only its anterior

translucent portion: in consequence the eyes would appear whitish

(BB and B' B?). |

The second diagram represents the ‘cone’ as it is waved inwards.

In this position an observer from the front looking in such a way

that the line of sight from his eyes strikes the lens at right angles

to its plane, would be looking, not into the black part of the ‘cone’,

but at the translucent anterior region and hence he would see the

eye whitish (aa). If he shifts his position outwards to a certain

extent, he would be looking into the depths of the ‘cones’ and thus

the eyes would appear black (bb).

From what has been explained above it will be clear that when

an observer looks at the eyes from the front, they appear white

or black according as the ‘cones’ are, waved: or not :-and that

the apparent colour of the eye at any particular time depends

on the position of the cones and also on the position of the

observer.

The spider on which Mr. Padmanabha Pillay made similar

observations was not identified and the account he gives of its

appearance, while it does not give us any clue towards its identity,

makes it clear that it was not M. plataleoides. What he says about

the change of colour of the eyes in this spider may, however, be

quoted as it is essentially in agreement with what I have observed

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL THUISTYSOCIETY , Vol. 2eea7

in M. plataleoides. He says ‘ ... when the spectator faces the

eyes and the axes of the cones are parallel he sees into the depths

of the cones and the eyes necessarily appear jet black. When the

two tips of the cones converge the line of sight strikes the honey-

coloured outer portion of the cones and then the eyes in consequence

appear honey-coloured. Lastly, the spider has the power to cause

the tip of only one cone to converge inward and then only that eye

appears honey-coloured while the other remains black. ... It

must be well borne in mind that in all these cases the cornea of the

eye remains perfectly unchanged and immobile, the change of

colour being wholly and entirely due to the movement of the cones

behind it.’?

By gently removing the top of the cephalothorax and, the tissues

lying just beneath it, the two ‘cones’ can be exposed (vide figs. 3,

plate I and 4 and 5, plate II). The ‘cones’ then have the appearance

shown in figs. 6 and 7, plate II, and differ in certain details from the

cones described by Mr. Padmanabha Pillay. It would be seen that

the ‘cone’ is not strictly a perfect cone. Its anterior portion, which

is translucent, is widened forwards like a funnel and at the front

extremity where it is widest, it is closely attached to the cuticular

lens. This wide region passes behind into the black hinder part

which is strongly compressed from side to side so that the apex

of the ‘cone’ is not tapering but is distinctly flattened at the sides.

This is noted quite clearly when the ‘cones’ are examined under a

dissecting microscope. See side views, fig. 7A and B (Plate II).

Transverse sections of the ‘cones’ at different parts of its length

are shown in figs. 10 and 11, plate IV; the section through the

anterior region (fig. 10) is more or less circular while the section

through the hinder region (fig. 11) is elliptical due to the lateral

compression of this region. The translucent anterior region on

closer examination is found to be not quite translucent uniformly

all over but to have slight pigmentation dorsally—in some

specimens almost quite dark—while ventrally and on the sides it

remains quite clear. This dorsal pigmentation of the anterior

region of the ‘cone’ is cf considerable interest. It in a very simple

way explains why the eyes when looked at from below always appear

black and from above always whitish. In Mr. Pillay’s spider,

this behaviour is slightly different and he accounts for it in another

way. ‘When the line of sight from the observer’s eye to the cornea

is at right angles to the latter the eyes invariably appear honey-

coloured. The reason is obvious, namely, that the line of sight

strikes only the honey-coloured portion of the conical sac behind

the eyes. Hence it follows that the axes of the cones must be either

above or below the line of sight. But as a matter of fact, it is

above it. The proof of this is that if you look at the eyes a little

from below they appear black whereas if you look at them from

above they still remain honey-coloured. The accompanying

diagram demonstrates that this can only be the case if the cones

lie on an inclined plane with the apices a little above the plane

which divides the cornea horizontally into two equal halves.’

* Nature 68, 1908,

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. -Prate Il

Post.t at.

tae,

Post. Lab.

PAO), Wenn i ers Ve

Cae

ete

FIG. 6. FIG, 7 ae

Change of Colour in the Eyes of the Spider WZ. plutalcoides.

(For Explanation of plate see end of article.)

CHANGE OF COLOUR IN SPIDER’S EYES 137

In M. plataleoides, however, the eyes, when looked at straight,

horizontally, from the front, i.¢.,\ when the hne of sight from. the

observer’s eye to the cornea is at right angles to the latter’, show

roid

ore

Asp coped sitet 4s

Diagram given in Nature 68, 1908, by Mr. Padmanabha Pillay. For

explanation see the above quotation. ore

the characteristic change in colour from black to white and from

white to black. Hence it will be obvious that here the ‘cone’ is not

displaced above the horizontal plane as in the other spider. Even

if a slight displacement existed it would not in this case produce

the same effect, as the ‘cone’ here has the apex not tapering but

elongated dorso-ventrally. Actual dissection of these ‘cones’ fails

to show any appreciable displacement of these above the horizontal

plane such as would make the eye appear white when looked at

from the front. This would be evident from the diagram given

below and also from fig. 9, plate IV, which represents a longitudinal

section through the cephalothorax cutting parallel to the leng axis

of the anterior median eyes. The section is not de-pigmented so

that the dark and clear regions are seen distinctly.

EXD PIG. a:

’

As there is no upward displacement of the free end of the ‘cone

an observer looking at these eyes straight from the front look

into the depths of the ‘cones’ (see diagram above) when these are

not moved inwards, and so the eyes appear black (AA). If the

‘cones’ are converged the line of sight strikes the translucent

outer portion of the ‘cone’ and hence the eyes appear white.

But when looked at from below the eyes invariably appear dark.

This clearly is due to the dorsal pigmentation cf the anterior

part of the ‘cone’: for in this position the line of sight (BB)

would strike at this darkened region of the ‘cone’. When looked

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

at from above it appears white, for here the line of sight strikes

the clear under-part of the ‘cone’ only (CC).

According to a suggestion of Dr. Warburton an attempt was made

to discover ‘whether this change of colour of the eyes had any relation

to the distance of the objects looked at. But all observations

seem to show that there is no relation between these. It was

observed that this spider, whenever looking intently at any object

far cr near, or when disturbed, moves the cones of its eyes

continually. When surveying an intruder standing about two

or three feet away or admiring a lover at close proximity or in

fierce hatred scrutinizing the body of an antagonist approaching

it, under all these conditions, this spider was observed to ‘roll’

its eyes, sometimes very fast, sometimes quite slowly. When the

change of colour is taking place leisurely a white streak can be

observed traversing the cornea as the colour passes from one to

the other.) aWhis cer tainly must be due to a narrow pale band that

encircles the ‘cone’ in the region where it passes from the erated en:

to the dark.

A few stages in the gradual change of the colour of el eye, as

one observes it from the front, are shown in fig. 8, plate III. On

the left hand side a frontal view of the anterior median eyes is

shown while on the right side the probable position taken by the

‘cones’ is indicated. A study of these diagrams shows clearly

what happens in the anterior median eyes of these spiders. Figures

A—E indicate that the movement of the ‘cones’ is mainly

convergent i.e., the tips are brought together in the median line and

then separated again. But the remaining diagrams seem to show

that the movement is not so simple. Figs. F—G show that the

‘cones’ can be diverged to a certain extent while the last two

figures suggest that there may be a slight twisting movement also.

This last movement however has been observed only very rarely.

Though the structure of the anterior median eye with its ‘cone’

mechanism, appears quite strange, a comparison of this with a

typical spider’s eye shows that it is only an ordinary spider

eye modified in certain details. Typically an anterior median eye

of a spider’ has a cuticular lens outside (monomeniscous)* which

is continuous with the cuticle covering the body. Behind the lens

is situated the ommateum. The ommateum ts formed of two layers

of cells. The outer layer which lies immediately in contact with

the lens forms a mass of transparent cells—the vitreous body.

Behind this is the retinal layer composed of the nerve-end cells

having considerable pigment granules developed within them. The

spider-eye (at least the anterior median) seems to be ‘auto-chromic’

i.e., there is no intrusive connective tissue bearing the pigment but

it is all developed in the nerve-end cells themselves.

A glance at fig. 9, plate IV, will show that the plan of structure

of the anterior median eyes in M. plataleoides is essentially the

1%In details of structure there are certain marked differences between the

anterior median eyes and the other eyes of spiders.

2‘Unicorneal’ of some authors but as Lankester and Bourne have shown

‘monomeniscous’ is a better term. Vide Q.J.M.S., Vol. xxiii, 1883.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE III

att ’

Meets

Change of Colour in the Eyes of the Spider 17. p/ataleotdes.

(For Explanation of plate see end of article.)

CHANGE OF COLOUR IN SPIDER'S EVES | 139

same.! The chitinous cuticle is thickened, forming the lens. Behind

this are the clear enlarged hypodermis cells form the vitreous body.

This however instead of forming a closed cup, as is usually the case,

becomes elongated constituting the anterior translucent part of

the ‘cone’. The ‘cone’ «1 fact is only the ommateum which is

unusually elongated and made mobile. The pigmented region

formed of the retinal cells instead of forming a layer closely invest-

ing the vitreous body, gets elongated and withdrawn considerably

backwards constituting the distal region of the cone-like structure

extending behind the lens.

As the pigmented region is formed of the retina or the nerve-end

cells, it is evident that the sensitive part of the eye is confined

to the hinder black part of the ‘cone’ or ommateum. Hence,

when the ‘cone’ is moved the spider is actually bringing the

sensitive part of the eye in line with the different parts of the

field of vision, thus getting clearer view of them. The diagram

below demonstrates this :—

te,

Ss,

Sone

crn

Sey

Pion

aoe

--*

AYO

oo"

oo*

Text: Pie. 4:

In the position AA, i.e., when the ‘cones’ are not moved, the

spider will be seeing very clearly objects straight in front (aa) as

images of these would be directly failing on the retina. By con-

verging the ‘cones’ the range of vision can be considerably increased.

* No attempt is made in this article to describe the minute structure of the

eye. As the purpose of this paper is to investigate the observed change of

colour of the eyes and as this phenomenon is dependent on the distribution of

the pigment in the ommateum, the sections sketched are not completely de-

pigmented. However, a study of the anatomy of these eyes of this spider and

of others which show this same phenomenon would be quite interesting. It is

hoped that this may be undertaken in another paper,

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXV

Thus in the position B, the field of distinct vision becomes much

wider (bb), and the spider by moving the ‘cones’ to different extents

may concentrate its attention on any particular part of this wide

field. |

Thus, by moving the ‘cones’ the spider can command a wider

field of view. This particular phenomenon would then functionally

correspond to the rolling of the eyeball by the muscles attached to

it in the vertebrates and to the movements of the stalked eyes

in some of the arthropods. But, while in the former the eye ball

is moved and in the latter, the entire eye as a whole, in this spider

the lens remains fixed and immobile while it is the ommateum that

is moved directing the sensitive surface, the retina, at different

angles. :

Another probable significance of this phenomenon might be

suggested. M. plataleoides is a perfect mimic of the Red Ant

(Kcophylla smaragdina, in close company with whose colonies these

are met with. The body of the spider is elongated and constricted

in such a manner as to resemble the ant’s body very closely. The

front part of the spider’s cephalothorax is raised and rounded so as

to suggest the ant’s head. Of the four pairs of eyes on this cephalic

region of the spider, the posterior laterals are black and answer

to the large black compound eyes that are so conspicuous on the

sides of the ant’s head. As if the smaller size of the posterior lateral

eyes in this spider might be an imperfection in its mimicry, a small

region of the cuticle around these eyes is stained jet black. The

dorsal and the anterior lateral eyes of this spider are too small to

be conspicuous objects, but the anterior median eyes are very large

and as they occupy the whole frontal area of the cephalothorax,

ii they have the normal black colour, they would form in the spider

very conspicuous black marks which would have no counterparts

in the models. But this inevitable blackening of the frontal area

is avoided by having the black pigmented part of the eyes removed

a considerable distance behind the lens in the way that has been

explained above. By this arrangement these large eyes are made

to harmonize in colour with the general colour of the body and they

do not stand out as very conspicugus objects.

This view .of the matter gains further? interest; due to ithe

observation that this peculiarity of eye-structure is not confined to

this species of ant-like spider but is found in certain others also. A

number of species collected locally show this structure in their

anterior median eyes, though the actual change of colour has not

been observed in all of them. A dark brown and another quite

black species, however, have been observed performing this curious

feat. This is interesting. <In* the latter species), the: tspidenmuc

black and the eyes too looked all black. After a few hours’ patient

observation it was obvious that this spider also ‘rolled’ its eyes in

the same way as did M. plataleoides : but with this difference—

when the black part of the ‘cone’ is in the line of sight of the

observer the eyes are deep black as in the other type: but, when the

‘cone’ 1s moved a little so that the line of sight of the observer

meets the translucent portion of the ‘cone’ the eye appears not

honey-coloured as in M. plataleoides but dark, only not so deep

as before. In fact, detection of this phenomenon would have been

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTE IV.

nae: d

Fig.11,

Change of Colour in the Eyes of the Spider J/. plataleotdes.

(For Explanation of plate see end of article.)

on i

7 A Saat R

aan : \ i ine Is i

eon ta fi Ul ay

ee o Cay es

= : vee a

”

: *

CHANGE OF COLOUR IN SPIDER’S EYES 141

very difficult here, as no appreciable change in colour is produced

when the ‘cones’ are moved, but for the fact that as the ‘cone’ is

moved to and fro a clear streak can be observed crossing the lens.

It might appear a little strange that a completely black spider should

be provided with this mechanism: the whole spider is black and

where can be the necessity for withdrawing the black pigmented

part of the eye to the hinder:end of a ‘cone’? And why should

there be the elaborate mechanism for waving of the ‘cones’ when

this fails to produce any appreciable alteration in the colour of the

eyes? And if this change of colour is brought about, would it not be

meaningless here?

Confronted by this problem I was first inclined to suppose that

this might be the general plan of structure for the anterior median

eyes in ant-like Attide. Whatever be the colour of the mimic, the

translucent front portion of the ‘cone’ ensures the obscuring of the

otherwise too conspicuous biack frontal eyes by approximating the

colour of these to the colour of the body. This apparently would

be unnecessary in the dark species : but when we recollect that many

of these are lighter coloured and that the depth of colour is highly

variable among these, the value of this provision would be obvious.

While studying this phenomenon, however, I came across a few

other types of Attid spiders which showed this same mechanism in

their anterior median eyes. These spiders show no striking ant-like

features and cannot be referred to as ant-mimics. One of these is

yellowish with greenish legs and it seemed that probably this was

the spider on which Mr. Padmanabha Pillay made his observations

of this phenomenon. But we cannot be definite about this as the

description he gives is quite insufficient. These spiders show the

phenomenon of the change of colour of the eye to a remarkable

degree, the ‘cones’ being very well developed. I hope to give an

account of these spiders which possess this ‘cone’ mechanism in

their anterior median eyes in a subsequent paper. Here, however,

this observation is of considerable interest since it shows that this

phenomenon is not restricted to ant-like Attide but is found in

certain others also. Hence we cannot hold that this peculiarity of

the anterior median eyes is special to the ant-like Attide and that

it exists for the purpose of obscuring the frontal blackening that may

be caused by these eyes. At the same time we can safely maintain—

for it is a matter of observation—that where this type of eye exists

the inevitable frontal blackening is obscured. The withdrawing

of the pigmented part of the eye to the hinder end of the ‘cone’ is

not specially for the purpose of obscuring the otherwise too

conspicuous frontal eyes: but when this type of eye-structure

exists it produces this effect which may be of advantage under certain

conditions. Thus, this obscuring may be of no special benefit in the

non-ant-like spiders while in some of the ant-like forms it may be of

some distinct advantage as suggested above.

SUMMARY,

1. The anterior median eyes or the principal eyes of Attid spiders

are generally black while in certain species they have been observed

to be white. In some of these species, however, it has been found

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

that these eyes cannot be strictly described as either black or

white. Their colour has been observed to be always changing from

one to the other during life so that at one time they may appear

black, but the next instant they become white and then again black

and so on.

2. It does not seem likely that the white colour of these eyes

indicates their being nocturnal. The habits of some of the species

showing this feature as well as the nature of the phenomenon seem

to exclude any such possibility.

3. It is also not likely that this change of colour of the eyes has

any relation to the distance of the objects looked at or to the

intensity of the light.

4. The white colour is not produced by any movements of

pigments themselves, or through a reflecting tapetum, but is caused

by an internal mechanism. This consists of the ommateum which is

elongated, the anterior region formed entirely of the clear vitreous ©

body while the nerve-end cells containing the pigment granules are

arranged behind. This elongated ommateum is freely mobile at the

distal-end and when the spider moves it to different positions the

eye may appear white or black according as the white or the black

region of the ommateum is in the line of sight of the observer.

5. This movement of the ommateum may be of considerable

advantage to the spider inasmuch as it widens its field of vision and

enables it to concentrate its attention on any particular object.

6. In some of the ant-mimicking forms like M. plataleoides which

mimics the Indian Red Ant, this may serve a secondary part, viz., the

obscuring of the black patches in front (which might be dis-

advantageous in its successful mimicry) that would be caused by

these eyes.

Note.—Since sending the above account, I had been making some further

observations on this peculiar property of the -anterior median eyes of spiders. A

few more specimens of Attide@ were examined which showed this phenomenon.

In some it could be ascertained only with considerable difficuity. A few

specimens of Thomiside were also examined. In two species examined, the

pheriomenon could be distinguished quite clearly. In Amycicea, the small anterior

median- eyes- had- little ‘cones’ attached: to them -which were waved to and fro

very briskly making these little eyes shine with a pearly lustre now and then,

immediately returning to the darlx colour. Thus this phenomenon appears to

be not restricted to the Attide, but extending on to at least one more family.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Plate I (Figs. 1-3)

fig. 1. A dorsal view of the cephalic region of M. plataleoides showing the

position of the eyes and the black streaks behind the anterior

median eyes which are waved to and fro as the colour of the eyes

change. Mag. about 40 times.

Fig. 2. A dorsal view of the cephalic region of a young M. plataleoides,

recently hatched. The black streaks behind the anterior median

eyes are clearly visible.

Fig. 3. Dissections of the cephalic region of M. plataleoides so as to show

the ‘cones’ of the anterior median eyes. In Fig. 3, the cephalic

shield is removed showing the underlying fat body between the

ramifications of which. the black streaks may be made _ out.

Magnified about 40 times.

Ant. “oieds iii oc5. seeds oreeees Anterior median eyes.

Ant. lateccssreccitvesecusoeys Anterior lateral eyes. -

CHANGE OF COLOUR IN SPIDER’S EVES 143

Wie: ese ee ees The black streaks seen on a superficial view from above.

Be eae es The black hinder part of the ‘cone’ attached to the ant.

mied. eyes.

Serer ice mre naren The white anterior part of the ‘cone’ attached to the

ant. median eyes.

Pe es Sains Saves dn avin dye The dorsal eyes.

Rotate neato sures The Fat-body.

mors siicreeeeeee bes posterion lateral. feyes,

Plate II (Figs. 4, 5, 6 and 7).

Figs. 4 and 5. Dissection of the cephalic region of M. plataleoides so as to

show the ‘cones’ of the anterior median eyes. In Fig. 4, the fat is

removed and the ‘cones’ are partly exposed, partly covered over

by the lobes of the brain. In Fig. 5, the brain also is removed

thus exposing the two ‘cones’ completely. Magnified about 40 times.

Fig. 6. The ‘cones’ of the anterior median eyes as seen under the dissecting

microscope after the removal of the cephalic shield and the tissues

beneath.

Fig. 7. A & B. Side views of- these ‘cones’.

Plate III (Fig. 8).

Fig. 8. The anterior median eyes of M. plateleoides as seen when looked at

from the front. The series of diagrams on the left hand side

show the appearance of the eye as the colour changes. On the

right side the corresponding position taken up by the ‘cones’ is

represented. For example, A, represents the position of the ‘cones’

when the eyes are seen black as at A, while F, shows the position

assumed by the ‘cones’ when the eyes appear white as at F.

esol ost udeatien tevve ooh eee the black hinder region of the cone.

alee hogan et eoeeni ae the boundary of the cuticular lens.

Coen ts ea thaind ui Shas the translucent or ‘white’ anterior region of the cone.

Plate TV (Figs..9,.10 and 11).

Fig. 9. A longitudinal vertical section through the cephalic region showing

one of the anterior median eyes and a posterior lateral eye in

section. The section does not pass through the median line of the

anterior median eye but slightly to a side. The diagram was

drawn from one of my slides with the help of a camera lucida.

[| Magnification—110 diam.-] — ee

Figs. 10 and 11. Transverse sections of the cephalic region passing through

the ‘cones’ of the- anterior median eyes. These diagrams were

drawn from my slides “with the help of a” camera. lucida.

-| Magnification’ -x 110. ] ea he pee a ee tie ga eee

_ Fig. 10. Section’ passing through- the anterior. region of the ‘cone’ which is

clear and translucent.

Fig. 11. Section passing through the pigmented hinder region of the ‘cone’.

Rey oes Arctitsr beeen ae The cuticular lens of the anterior median eye.

eR ahh Lint al Eo OP a do. of the posterior lateral eye.

Dia ram eencis wero tetene. tes the clear cells making up the vitreous body: these form

the translucent anterior part of the ‘cone’ of the

anterior median eye.

Dek desteet ten noehe me cae the vitreous body of the posterior lateral eye.

Chere ida each ah the Sere the pigmented nerve-end cells forming the retina: these

form the hinder part of the ‘cone’ in the anterior

median eye.

Coe Manals cine er e the ‘retina’ of the posterior lateral eye.

Geet. Sarita reamieea tos the ‘cone’, i.e. the ommateum of the anterior median eye.

Grapes tetas vot oboe usenet the ommateum of the posterior lateral eye.

Sena Pe Eanes caesar the cuticle.

11 2 Cin TGA oO the hypodermis.

He oa AO REIN gh OMB IE ae the ‘cone’ of the anterior median eye cut across in the

clear anterior part. Note the circular outline and the

dorsal pigmentation. .

He ee tae cae eta | eae the hinder, pigmented region of the ‘cone’ .cut across.

Note the lateral compression and contrast with gu

THE ROLE OF SUNBIRDS AND FLOWER-PECKERS IN

THE PROPAGATION AND Dis TRIBUMION “ORs 2 Eas

TREE-PARASITE, LORANTAOCS LONGIFLORGS Disa

IN THE KONKAN GV INDIA)

SALIM A. ALI.

(With 2 plates and 4 diagrams.)

Even the most casual observer of Nature cannot but notice the

ubiquitous clumps of the tree-parasite (Loranthus) with yellowish-

green, rather long, oval-shaped leaves which infest the trees in

such profusion in Western India and elsewhere throughout the

country. Once it has secured root-hold, the parasite spreads from

branch to branch with astounding rapidity, and unless removed in

time it is not long ere the host 1s sucked dry and smothered to

death. I have had special opportunities for studying the subject of

the role of birds in the propagation of the species L. longiflorus Dest.

during the past year. My observations have brought me to the

conclusion that the life-history of the parasite is so inextricably linked

up with the existence of Sunbirds and Flower-peckers that it would

soon die out altogether without the intervention of the birds. Indeed

it seems to me that the only effective way of eradicating the parasite

lies in the extermination of the Sunbird, a vandalism, it is to be

hoped however, no one will seriously take into his head to practice.

‘Man cannot live by bread alone,’ and the Sunbird is surely one of

those etceteras that help to supplement bread for the sustenance of

man. ‘This symbiosis has brought about the most remarkable

specialization in the flowers of ZL. dongzflorus, which is now without

doubt one of our most highly developed ‘ Bird-flowers’ in India.

And what is true of Lovanthus longtflorus is likewise true of many

other Indian species as well.

Hiosts of the Loranthus,—In Western India, ZL. longiflorus is a

serious menace to the mango, and in the mango-growing districts of

Ratnagiri and North Konkan the damage it causes must run to

thousands of rupees annually. In smaller numbers I have also found

it affecting the following trees: Zzzyphus sp., Bombax malabaricum,

Psidium guava, Thespesea populnea, Grewia sp., Ficus bengalensis, and

Casuarina eguisetifolia, while at Roha, in the Kolaba district I noticed

it parasiting on the Teak trees (Zectona grandis) in the reserved

forests.! —

- 1 Fischer records ZL. /ongiflorus from hosts of no less than 104 different

species. - Hf those of its varieties are added, the total number of specific hosts

given byhim is 153. (C.E.C. Fischer, ‘ Loranthaceze of Southern India and

their Host Plants. ’— Records of the Botanical Survey of India, Vol. XI, No. 1.

"1e}09U IO} SIOMOT

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“IEW "Y LATTES sojoug

7] ALVvid "20S ‘LISIH] ‘LVN AvaWog ‘Nuno[

“

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Fic. 1. Unopened Bud, Loranthus

longitlorus Desr. Nat. Size.

Fic. 3. Diagram of Leptocoma

zeylonica feeding from L. longt-

florus flowers. About $ Nat. Size.

DIAGRAMS 1—4

Green

Creamy vy

Nectar

Fic. 2. Flowerof ZL. longiflorus.

Nat. Size.

Fic. 4. Seed of ZL. longiflorus

With adhesive filaments a and 6.

Nat. Size.

PROPAGATION OF LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS 145

Flowering Season and Structure of Flowers.—Loranthus

fongitiorus flowers in every month of the year, but the period

from mid-November to about the middle of January seems to

be that of most abundant inflorescence. Every clump of Loranthus

is one mass of blossoms at this season. The flowers are white with

a faint tinge of cream or sometimes pink. They are about

4 cm. in length, thin, tubular and slightly curved. Their shape and

size form, in the upper part, a perfectly fitting sheath for the bill of

the Sunbird. The lower portion of the flower, where the tube

narrows down (shaded in Fig. 2) contains the nectar, one to two

drops of a colourless, watery, sweet liquid. The stamens, five in

number, rise from the petals and are overtopped by the style which

is green and terminates in a tiny swollen knob—the stigma—

about the size of a pin’s head. The anthers are so arranged

that when the bill of a Sunbird is inserted into the flower, they cannot

but come into direct contact with the bird’s forehead. The five

stamens separate on the intrusion of the bill and the anthers lie flat

against the feathers, encircling the forehead (Fig. 3). The pollen—a

golden yellow dust—readily comes off to the touch and adheres to the

feathers. The style, extending beyond the stamens, is naturally the

first to come into contact with the forehead feathers, and if the Sun-

bird has been visiting other flowers previously, the pollen is brushed

on to the mature stigma which is thus fertilized. The flowers of

L. longitlorus belong to the ornithophilous type named by E. Werth!

‘Explosionsblumen’ or Explosive Flowers. How perfectly their

mechanism is adapted for pollination exclusively by Sunbirds and

Flower-peckers is seen from the fact that the buds will remain closed

unless and until the necessary extraneous pressure is exerted to fling

them open. The Sunbird hops from one bunch of blossoms to

another, gently squeezing the tops of the mature buds (Fig. 1) in his

mandibles. The pressure causes the bud to spring open or ‘ explode °*

exposing the essential organs (as seen in Fig. 2). The bird immedi-

ately thrusts its bill into the flower, sucks up the honey by means of

its specially adapted, extensile, tubular tongue and passes on to a

second bud. The extent of his services in fertilizing the flowers is

immense. I have frequently observed one probing into 8 or 10

flowers in less than a minute, and when it is remembered that the

bird spends the greater portion of the day in flitting incessantly from

clump to clump in the self-same quest, some estimate can be formed

of its importance to the Loranthus. Doubts have been entertained

in regard to the object of birds’ visits to flowers being solely for the

sake of the nectar, and even to-day some ornithologists are inclined

to assume that the search of insects is the primary cause. In the

case of the Loranthus there can be no such uncertainty as the peculiar

structure of the flowers precludes the possibility of the presence of

insect prey within the tubes until the buds have first been visited

and thrown open by Sunbirds or Flower-peckers. Besides, consider-

ing the high nutritive value of sugar, there seems no reason for

doubting that some birds may, ina state of nature, exist. exclusively

1E. Werth, ‘ Kurzer Uberblick tiber die Gesamtfrage der Ornithophilie’

Botanische Jahrbitcher, 53, 1915,

146. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

on adiet of nectar. Sunbirds have been kept healthy in captivity

for weeks together purely on a syrup of sugar and water,! and it is

difficult to conceive that the ‘ short cuts’ by birds to the honey in the

flowers of Sesbania grandiflora as described by Tiwary” and of the

many other species noted in Java by Porsch* can be for any but

this purpose. Birds may—and indeed often do—take in addition to

the nectar, small insects if present on the flowers, but there can be

no doubt that their visits to ‘ bird-flowers’ are mainly in quest of

the nectar. The numerous stomach examinations made by myself in

the course of this enquiry, chiefly in the season of profusest flowering,

on Leptecoma lotenta, L. asiatica and L. zeylonica confirm this.

Poilinating Agents.--In Western India (Konkan) the birds

chiefly responsible for fertilizing Loranthus flowers are the

Sunbirds, three of the commonest species being Leptocoma Jotenia,

L. astatica and L. zeylonica, while occasionally Tickell’s Flower-pecker

(Diceum erythrorhynchum) who visits the clumps principally to feed

on the ripening berries, will also lend a hand.: I have shot speci-

mens of the last named from flower clusters withthe pollen adhering

to their foreheads. Their stomachs contained much nectar which

also dripped freely from the bill when the birds were held up by their

legs.

To satisfy myself that the flowers were really incapable of

developing without the interference of the bird visitors, I covered a

bunch of 21 buds with 12 x 12 mesh wire gauze on 5th December.

By the 19th, all the buds had withered and falien off without a single:

one setting seed, though at one stage in the interval they were so

mature that the red on the dorsal side of the anthers was partly

visible through the slits near the top between the unopened, spring-

like petals. Later the experiment was repeated on a larger bunch

with the same result which shows that the agency of flower-birds is

indispensable for fertilization in this species. HEvans* who tried

similar experiments on two African species, Loranthus krausst

and L. drvegez, also came to the same conclusion.

Dispersal and Propagation,——-The berries which are oval in shape

about 10-12 mm x 4-5 mm., with a minute concave cup at the apex,

take about a fortnight to reach maturity, i.e., the stage when they

become an attraction to the Flower-peckers. If allowed to ripen, they

assume a beautiful rosy-red colour in about 20 days. It is not usual,

however, to find fully ripe berries on the clumps as they are rarely

allowed to remain long enough by the birds, and except when in the

greatest profusion (in late January or February, as a result of the heavy

winter flush) they are seldom met with in this condition. Usually by the

time they have acquired a slightly yellowish tinge and even before—

1 Blanckenhorn, ‘ Naturwissenschaftl. Studien am Toten Meer’, Berlin

1912. Mr. S.H. Prater of the Bombay Natural History Society also reared a

young Leptocoma zeylonica on a diet of Golden Syrup mixed with water.

2 Tiwary, N.K.‘A Note of the Short Cut by Birds to the Honey in

Sesbania grandiflora’ Jour. of the Ind, Bot. Society, 1926, 5, pp. 121-23.

2 Porsch, Otto. ‘ Vogelblumenstudien I’, Jahrbucher ftir wissenschaftl

RBotanik, 63, 1924, pp. 553-705.

* Evans, Maurice E., Nature, Vol. li, p. 235, Jan. 1895.

«tn eect a eae acai antl

PROPAGATION OF LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS 147

as soon as the outer pulp shows signs of softening—they are taken by

the Flower-pecker. In every bunch of berries there are several with

marks of the birds’ beak upon them which have been tested and found

unripe. The two common Flower-peckers in Western India which give

the berries practically wholetime attention are: Diceum e. erythre-

rhynchum and Piprisoma a. agile.

Tickell’s Flower-pecker (Diceum e. erythrorhynchum) in my

opinion is undoubtedly the most important agent in the dispersal and

propagation of the Loranthus parasite. J have studied their feeding

habits and also examined the stomach contents of a great many speci-

mens, shot in every month of the year, and find that while Loranthus

berries are eaten whenever available, during the season when they are

most plentiful they comprise practically the exclusive diet of this

species. In addition to these, the other principal items of its food

consist of the round, white berries of Phyllanthus reticulatus, an indig-

enous shrub, the berries of that pernicious imported weed Lantana

camara which has now overrun and devastated thousands of square

miles in India, and those of the ‘Mistletoe’ Vzscum articulatum another

tree parasite common in these parts ona species of wild Grewza

and on the Ber (Zzzyphus). Occasionally small spiders are also

taken.

On the whole, its food and feeding habits constitute a serious in-

dictment against the Flower-pecker. Lantana, Loranthus and Viscum

are all highly injurious to forestry and arboriculture. All three

(except the first whose berries are eaten and scattered by innumera-

ble other birds as well) owe their propagation and existence more or

less exclusively to this Flowerpecker and the next species. It has

also been frequently accused of damaging ripe mangoes, a charge

which my own observations have been unable to confirm. The

Flowerpecker seems to have regular beats or feeding territories

within which the individuals flit from one Loranthus clump to another

at all hours of the day. While on a clump, the bird hops restlessiy

from bunch to bunch uttering an almost incessant chtk, chik, chik

which is occasionally varied by a series of twittering notes which might

be termed its song. Each berry is first tested between the mandibies ;

if ripe it is plucked and swallowed, broad end (i.e. where the stalk

attaches) first. After it has bolted down three or four berries, one

after another the bird retires to the extremity of some bare branch at

the top of the host or on an adjoining tree and sits quiet fora few

moments with the feathers partly puffed out. It is during this interval

that the mischief is done, for hardly has the bird been there a couple

of minutes than you see him becoming uneasy, and presently one of

the viscous seeds is excreted. I have often watched this process care-

fully through glasses. It appears to involve some effort on the part

of the bird, which considering the size of the seed is by no means

surprising. The passage of the seed through the intestinal canai and its

exit through the anus is no doubt greatly facilitated by the extreme-

ly viscous substance in which it is invested. This is clearly evident

when. a slight pressure is exerted on the abdomen of a freshly killed

specimen which very often causes a Loranthus seed to slip out of

the vent. The seed is invariably extruded broad-end first—there-

fore, in the identical position in which it entered the food canal—and

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, ‘Vol. XXXV

by a final jerky, and dipping motion of the posterior part of the body,

during which the bird often pivots round from its normal crosswise

position on the branch to one nearly along it, itis passed out. The

extruded seed promptly adheres to the perch, slightly to one side

of it as shown in the accompanying photograph taken soon after

extrusion. (Plate II.) |

The discarded seeds measure on an average 10 X 4mm. They

are copiously covered with viscous matter and in addition have

attached at the pointed end a sessile, thread-like, extremely viscid

process about 22-25 min. long. There is also a similar process on

the broad-end which is much shorter, measuring about 10 mm.

(Fig. 4). These processes resolve themselves into small sticky masses

as soon as the seed comes in contact with a branch, helping it to

secure its position.

The largest number of seeds taken by me from a single Diczeeum

is four. One of these was on the point of extrusion and partly out

of the vent when the bird was shot. ‘The other three were found in

the intestine one behind the other, all with their broad ends in the

direction of the vent. In birds the process of digestion is extremely

rapid, but in the case of this Flower-pecker it seems to be exceptionally

so. The seed probabiy does not occupy more than 3 or 4 minutes

(perhaps even less) after the berry has been swallowed to pass out

again. Time and again I have been able to watch the complete process

from the swallowing of the berry to the extrusion of the seed, and as

the inside of a Flowerpecker can obviously hold only a limited number

of berries at a time—presumably not more than 4 or 5—-my estimate

cannot be far out. Immediately it has got rid of the unnecessary

ballast, the bird flies off to some other clump uttering its lively chik,

chik, chtk. The normal method of feeding with Diczeum is to swallow

the berries entire. Thus he is responsible not only for conveying the

seeds to other branches of the same tree, but also for spreading

them further afield to other trees in the neighbourhood. Occasional-

ly I have aiso seen’ him pinch and revolve a berry in his finely ser-

rated mandibles, stripping off the fleshy part and wiping the seed on

toa nearby twig. This habit, however, is more common with the

next species.

The Thick-bilied Flower-pecker Piprisoma agile agile is also

responsible for much mischief in the propagation of the Loran-

thus parasite, though the damage it does is no doubt consider-

ably less. Examination of stomach contents and a study of its feed-

ing habits shows that this species does not swallow the berries

entire, except perhaps in very exceptional cases. The bird is in par-

ticular evidence on the Loranthus clumps between January and

March when the berries are in greatest abundance. Like Diczeum,

it flits about singly from one clump to another also appearing to

have well defined feeding circuits. Its voice and notes are similar

to those of the other species only perhaps somewhat shriller and

more metallic; but with a little practice the two can easily be distin-

guished from one another. The bird twists its little tail from side to

side as it searches amongst the clumps. The berry is plucked and

invariably revolved between the mandibles which being thicker and

stouter, appear better adapted to this method of eating. The flesh

Journ. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE. 11.

Seed of L. longiflorus on a branch, photographed immediately on being

excreted by Diceum erythrorhynchum.

Photos Salim A, Ali,

A Thick-billed Flowerpecker ( Piprisoma agile) with a berry of

L. longiflorus in bill.

PROPAGATION OF LORANTHUS LONGIFLORUS 149

is soon detached and the seed wiped on to a neighbouring twig by

a sweeping side-to-side motion of the head. Occasionally when dis-

turbed at its meal the bird will fly off with a berry in its bill and this

is the only way in which Piprisoma may spread the parasite to

neighbouring trees. Ona Loranthus clump on a Guava tree near my

bungalow which I had under continuous observation, I found

that while the berries were present, Piprisoma visited the cluster on

an average about six times a day. Three or four berries were pluck-

ed on each of these visits, whose seeds were wiped on to the adjoin-

ing branches, with the result that within a short time there were hardly

a couple of inches in a radius of about three feet of the clump free

from the adhering seeds. It is on account of this feeding habit of

Piprisoma that when lopping off branches affected by the Loranthus

parasite care must be taken that all the adjacent members are likewise

removed as these are sure to harbour some of the seeds.

In addition to Loranthus berries, the food of the Thick- billed

Flowerpecker consists of a great variety of berries and fruits. Lan-

tana is a favourite and here again the process of eating is the same

as with Loranthus, the entire berries being rarely swallowed. It is

therefore not. responsible for scattering Lantana seeds far afield to

the extent Dicazeum is. Other contents of the stomachs I have examin-

ed were pulp of the Jamun fruit (Augenia jambolana) and Peepai

figs (Ficus religtosa) and also small spiders.

When one considers that these two species, which are by no means

uncommon in these parts, are ceaselessly engaged throughout the

day and month after month on their task of seed dissemination, one

can form a fair idea of their power for evil to humanity and of their

vital services to the plants on which they are in turn dependent.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIONOMICS OF THE LAC INSECT.

P. S. Necr, M: P. Misra and S..N.. GUPTA.

Department of Entomology, —

Indian Lac Research Institute, Namkum.

PROPORTION OF MALE TO FEMALE LARV FOR EACH DAY OF

EMERGENCE.

According to Sreenivasaya,’ Mahdihassan says that the first batch of larve

to swarm are mainly females, whilst those appearing later are chiefly males.

This statement though vague, if correct would prove of great value in lac

cultivation. Therefore, to test its accuracy, experiments with a number of

individual cells were started in the Katki (July-November) crop in 1928 ard

repeated during the Baisakhi (November-July) 1928-29 and 1929-30 and tke

Katki 1929 crops. Each female cell was confined in asmall wire gauze case and

inoculated ona small plant of Ber (Zizyphus jujuba) or Arhar (Cajanus

indicus). After each 24 hours of emergence the female cell was removed to

the next plant, till the emergence of larvee from the cell stopped.

The identification of sex in the first instar larva of the lac insect is a debat-

able matter, therefore to avoid controversial points, the inoculated plants were

examined for the sex-ratio, only when the male insects had reached the

prepupal and pupal stages. The results of these examinations are given in the

following tables :—

KATRI 1928.

TABLE I.

Cot. I.

No. of cells out of |

the total 15; from.

which emergence took + 15 il 4 5 4 1 i

place on days stated |

in Col. II.

Cou. Il.

Serial No. of days )

for which emergence |

eontinued inathe 7 1 2 3 4 3 6 d

number of cells stated |

in ACol. 1. J

Con, IIt.

Average percentage

of females in the pro- | 90°2 87°05 &8°8 84:09 90°9 50 100

geny of the cells stated |

in Coles

* Ind. inst. Sc¢..J., Vol. vil, pt. vai,-p- 110.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIONOMICS OF THE LAC INSECT 151

BAISAKHI 1928-29,

TABLE IL.

Corr kf.

No. cf cells out of )

the total 21from which |

emersence took place, Zle 219-017, 18) 16 16 14.11 6 4 2 J

on days stated in Col. |

II. J

Cons ii.

Serial No. of days )

for which emergence |

con tinwed in tthesr li 2) "34 edo G 7 8: 9) 10 eb 2 13

number of cells stated |

in Col. I.

Cou.-1i,

Average percentage )

of females in the pro- \ 44°24 41°4 49°6 56°9 72°2 75°8 87°07 85°7 91°4 82°7 75°0 100 0

geny of the cells;

stated in Col. I. J

KATKI 1929.

TABLE III.

Cot. I.

No. of cells out of |

the total 15, from |

which emergencetook }| 15 14 M4 = 13 9 9 10 6 eae |

place on days stated |

in Col, II.

Cot. Il.

Serial No. of days |

for which eimergence |

continued in the + 1 Zz 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10

number of cells stated |

in Col. I. ; y

Con; Tit.

Average percentage |

of females in the pro- L

geny of the cells f 94:9 84:09 81°4 79°5 91°4 78:9 93:2 79°3 109 190

stated in Col. I: )

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

152

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SOME. ASPECTS OF THE BIONOMICS OF THE LAC INSECT 153

The study of the above tables clearly shows that the statement made by

Mahdihassan, that the first batch of larvee which swarm are mostly females

and those which appear later are chiefly males, is incorrect ; these results also

show that the emergence of larve from the incubating chamber of the mother

is of mixed character and that there is no inter-relation between sequence of

emergence and sex ratio.

MOTHER CELLS AND SEX OF THE PROGENY.

In the course of the above study it nas been found that :—

I, In the-Katki crop (July—-October) the progeny of most of the cells of the

Baisakhi crop (October-July) develop as is already known into females

predominantly ; but further it has been noted that the progeny of some of the

cells develop into cent per cent females, and ina few cells, the progeny is

intermediate between the two.

II. Inthe Baisakhi crop, the progeny of most of the cells of the Katki crop

' grow into predominantly female, of a few cellsinto predominantly male and of

some, the progeny is intermediate between the two. Cells producing males

and females from 40-60 per cent have been taken as producers of intermediate

progeny regarding sex ratio. The results are tabulated below :—

KATKI CROPS 1928 AND 1929.

TABLE V.

Mother cells

whose progeny

developed into

cent per cent

females.

No. of Mother cells

mother whose progeny

cells under| developed imost-

observation| ly into females.

Mecther cells

whose progeny

was interme-

diate.

= | No. | Percentage. |No. | Percentage. INo. | Percentage.

23 7 73°91 | 5 | 21°73 | J | 4°34

Percentage

of females in

the progeny S122 80°08 100 53°9

of these

mothers.

BAISAKHI CROP 1928-29 AND 1929-30.

TABLE VI.

emcee amma aaa eT

pares Mother cells Mother cells Mother cells

Coifeeadcr whose progeny | whose progeny | whose progeny

GiecroaL developed most- developed most- | was intermedi-

pe ly into females, | ly into males. ate.

— | No. Percentage.| No.| Percentage. No. | Percentage.

41 | 24 58°53 | 5 | 12°18 12 39°26

Percentage

of females in

the progeny 63°5 746 33° 2° 5) a!

of these

mothers.

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

: * SWARMING PERIOD.

The number of days over which the emergence of larve continues from an

individual mother, depends, firstly on the temperature, secondly on the egg-

laying capacity of the mother, and thirdly onthe rate of egg laying. However,

from the daily observations on 3l cells during July inoculations in 1928 and

1929 it has been found that :—

11 days is the maximum period for the emergence of larve from an individual

mother and 6 days is the average period: while in the October-November

inoculation observations on 50 cells show that 16 days is the maximum period

for emergence to last from an individual mother and 7 days is the average

period. The periods of emergence during the month of February are almost

the same as those in October-November provided that the day temperature

does not fall below the temperature at which the emergence started. Itis also

interesting to note that the largest number of larve swarming on a single day

generally emerge from an individual cellin each crop season between the first

and the fifth day of the swarming period.

CHOICE OF BROOD LAC.

Out of 51 apparently healthy mother cells duriag Ju'y inoculations in 1928

and 1929, larve failed to emerge from 20 cells. During October-November

inoculations the emergence failed from 18 apparently healthy cells out of 68.

On examination, dead larve in large numbers were found in the incubating

chamber of most of the cells. The death of the larvz in most of these cases

proved to be due to the blocking of the anal openings of the lac tests through

which the larve come out. In the remainder, the female was found to be

attacked either by young predator larvee which seem to have entered the tests

through the anal opening, or by full grown parasite grubs. Besides this

ntimerous cases have been noticed in which a mother though apparently quite

healthy, for some unknown reason, fails to lay eggs, and consequently no

emergence of larve takes place. In view of these facts, presumably the best

brood for infecting, in cases where available, is one in which the healthy cells

are situated closely but separately on the sticks or without much overlapping. -

This being preferable to brood which has a healthy looking thick incrustation

due to excessive overlapping and coalescence of lac tests, because in the latter

case there are bound to be a large number of dead and parasitized cells, and

also alarge number of ceils which though living, have the anal openings of

their tests blocked, by the neighbouring cells which coalesce and overlap them.

This has been further confirmed by numerous observations during the exami-

nation of sticks for emergence, etc.

EGG-LAVING PERIOD.

As egg laying is the preliminary stage to the emergence of larve, it has been

thought advisable to include some results in this connection, obtained from the

data collected on fertility in the various broods, and on the effect of temperature

and humidity on egg laying. The egg laying period depends like the emer-

gence period, on the temperature during the swarming season, on the vitality

of the mother, and on the number of eggs a motheris goingto lay. Egg

laying will begin in all the three seasons (June-July, October-November.

January-February) if the temperature is above 17°C. In winter however it

sometimes begins even at 15-16°C. The average egy laying period for an

individual mother in all the broods during all the seasons is about 7 days and

the maximum about 14 days. The largest number of eggs laid by a mother on

asingle day is generally laid between the 2nd and 6th day of the egg laying

period.

ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

The Authors thanks are due to Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, Forest Entomologist,

Dehra Dun, for valuable advice and criticism, and to Mr. P. M. Glover,

Entomologist at the Indian Lac Research Institute for advice and correction

of the manuscript.

SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIONOMICS OF THE LAC INSECT 155

CONCLUSION.

(1) Sequence of emergence and sex-ratio can hardly be said to be inter-

related.

(2) The Baisakhi crop produces females whose progeny in the majority of

cases is predominantly female, in some cent per cent female and in a few inter-

mediate between the two.

The Katki crop produces a major number of females whose progeny is pre-

dominantly female, a few whose progeny is predominantly male and some

whose progeny is intermediate between the two.

(3) Emergence (swarming) period depends on the temperature, egg laying

capacity of the mother and rate of egg laying, 11 days seems to be the

maximum swarming period for an individual Baisakhi mother cell, and the

average period 6 days: for a Katki mother cell 16 days seems to be the

maximum swarming period and 7 days the average. The largest number of

larvee swarming on a single day from a mother cel! in all the seasons emerge

generally between the Ist and 5th day of the swarming period.

(4) The average egg laying period for an individual cell in all the seasons

is about 7 days and the maximum is about 14 days. A mother lays the largest

number of eggs in asingle day between the 2nd and 6th day of her egg laying

pericd.

(5) The best brood lac is that in which healthy cells are situated closely but

separately on the stick or are coalesced without much overlapping.

IN A BURMESE JUNGLE

Lr.-Cot. R. W. BuRTON, 1.A.R.0. (Retd.)

Rangoon has altered out of almost all recognition since I last

saw it in 1891. The golden dome and glittering spire of the Shwe

Dagon Pagoda is, as formerly, the most conspicuous object in the

landscape as the steamer slowly makes its tortuous approach to the

landing stage ; but the piles of many stately buildings seem to my

eyes to be almost all of them edifices constructed within the past

forty years; however one can forget quite a lot in close upon four

decades !

The tramways and the motor traffic; the tarmac roads; the fine

wide streets; the numerous roadside stalls; are all the outcome of

modern development. The streets are thronged with people of all

the nations of the East, and gaily painted rickshaws are busily

plying in and out among the rapid traffic of the broad roads. The

untidy litter scattered all around the street stalls is an offence to

the eye, but one’s nostrils are not assailed by the many offensive

odours of the cities of India. The climate of Rangoon in mid-

December is not unpleasant, but even then electric fans are always

welcome during most of the daylight hours.

We left the central station next evening at six o’clock, and

passing Pegu a couple of hours later, saw on our left the blaze of

electric lights which outline the Pagoda and give it the appearance

of an enormous Christmas cake. At four inthe morning we found

ourselves making tea on the platform of Pyinmana junction; and

soon after six o’clock were enjoying the scenery of the dense

forests of the ‘ wet zone’ as the train wound its way over the lower

elevations of the Pegu Yomahs.

The change in the vegetation showed us that we were gradually

passing into the ‘ dry zone’, where the rainfall is but 20 to 40 inches

as compared with the 60 to 100 of the other, and at twelve o'clock

we atrived at Taungdwingyi.

T.G.IL, as it is commonly styled for sake of brevity, was for

some years the terminus of the railway in this direction, but the

line has now been extended, and will eventually join the Thazi-

Myingyan branch at the latter place.

Having stayed a day to purchase some local supplies, we next

morning went about ten miles by rail, and seven by road, to a

forest rest-house. The Forest Range Officer accompanied us and

I rode one of his ponies. Both the animals were in beautiful condi-

tion and very spirited. The grey cost Rs. 275 and the bay

Rs. 180, the former being about 14 handsin height. Our baggage

was carried in carts, andI learnt that a cart complete with bullocks

cost Ks. 350.

One of the first things which attracted my attention was the

splendid condition of the draught cattle, and their untwisted tails,

so different to the cruelly distorted appendages of the cattle of

India. Ramaswamy, our Rangoon servant, admits that the

IN A BURMESE JUNGLE 157

undamaged tail is good, but says ‘ Burman’s plenty much beating

to make go’; but I noticed that any beating necessary is done

with a pliant bamboo and not a rib-roasting cudgel !

Nearing our night’s destination we passed the local monastery,

situated on rising ground amid umbrageous trees, for these institu-

tions are always established at the most favourable site to be found,

and so arrived at the rest-house, aconspicuous building on posts,

and forty feet square, the floor level being some ten feet above

ground level. The accommodation is two rooms and bath rooms,

with a verandah 36 ft. by 16 ft. Overlooking the large village of

80 houses just below us, we had a wide view over the surrounding

country. Allis forest as faras the eye can see, and away to the

north andeast are the Yomahs, covered with jungle throughout their

length.

In the morning an early start was made to complete the seven

more miles to the shooting camp, where there is a small forest

village and a rest-house of similar size to that we had just left. The

forest was, so far, very similar to that of the Central Provinces

of India, and the birds and butterflies seen along the way were

apparently of similar species to those of the same tracts.

The object of this trip was to obtain specimens of a bull saing

and a stag thamin. ‘The former is the wild ox of Burma and the

Malay States, the latter the Brow-Antlered deer of Burma. For

-the ‘hamin, search had to be made near the village just left; and

as there was said to be only one shootable stag, the quest was

likely to be somewhat difficult.

On the morning of the 22nd December (1929), I set out before

dawn with two trackers: directly overhead was the Great Bear,

and the Southern Cross was among the tree tops. Behind us

followed a lad, with our requirements fcr the day slung at either

end of a bamboo carried over his shoulder. It was wonderful

how silently he kept us in sight throughout our wanderings. The

elder tracker was a middle-aged man of the rather womanish

type, with gentle expression, of so many Burmans. He wore

his hair long, and done up into a bun twisted together on top of

his head. In his hand he carried a dah with a razor-edged blade

about two feet in length, with which he often silently sliced off

obstructing twigs and bamboo shoots. None of the jungle

Burmese; men, women, or children, leave their houses without a

dah. As soon as achild can toddle, it carries a dah, and I used

to see a mother and child going to the jungle for bamboos or

what not, the infant with a dah as high as itself !

The younger tracker was a finely built fellow with splendid

shoulders. He wore his hair short-cropped, as do so many Burmans

of the present day, and had a drooping moustache of the Malay

type. The elder man was clean shaved.

About two miles from the village we entered a network of

ravines. There were some level places here and there, covered

with dense vegetation and bamboo jungle interspersed with giant

trees, some of the semal (Bombax malabaricum) trees being of

immense size. Tracks of sazzg were soon found, and by seven

o'clock we came up with a small herd. A cow dashed off from

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

behind a clump of bamboos, and then came the loud snort of the

bull which was some distance further on. Wesaw no more of the

beasts, for the dry leaves and unburnt vegetation made silent

passage through the forest most difficult, And the watching animal

sees all the moves of the game! But I was notunduly discouraged

because I knew of this before starting, and that should fortune not

favour me, there would be the almost certainty of success in May-

June when proper tracking would be possible.

The next two days were blank, and Christmas Day was spent in

camp. On the 26th the fresh tracks of a bull were found in a ravine

at the foot of the hills. Following up, we eventually came on the

animal. ‘The trackers knew, long before I did, that we were close

upon the bull: how I cannot say, as I could not talk to them and all

our intercourse was by means of sign language; I think it was that

their ears were sharper than mine. A most prodigious snort, which

had a metallic note and something of menace in it, announced that

our approach was not undetected. Here my entire want of knowledge

of the habits of this animal led me to suppose that the snort was

followed by retreat and I went ahead as fast as I could, so giving

myself away to the waiting and watching eyes which had the

advantage of my seeking ones.

So all the view I got was of a yellowish-brown body as the

beast turned and dashed away through the bamboos up the hillside.

The horns I did not see, and consoled myself with the reflection |

that the bull was probably not the typical o/d animal I was in search

of as amuseum specimen. Anyhow he was too sharp for me!

Another day we got up to a bull which could have been shot,

but was allowed to go as his horns had not been seen, and he also

showed no white markings. I had read, in a book on sports in Burma

that all old bulls have white markings amid the general khaki colour-

ing but discovered by observation of mature bulls in the Ridowing

sanctuary that this was not the case. Ontwo days, cows were watched

at close quarters. It was most interesting to see the fine animals, all

unaware of my being so close to them, and admire their beautifully

groomed bright chestnut coats, and white stockings. When a cow

at last detected my over-confident peepings and peerings, the field

glasses showed the slight raising of her muzzle when she snorted

at me. And by this and other occasions it was learnt that there is

always a considerable time between snort and departure, and that

when the danger has been seen, or the approach heard from some

distance, there is no snort, only a silent vanishing.

In many places were tracks of bison, elephant, and sambur;

and one day the fresh tracks of a prowling tiger. In some of the

ravines were pools of water, all rapidly drying up, and from one of

these the younger tracker speedily extracted a dozen murrel of the

small variety (Ophiocephalus gachua) by means of a bamboo, and

a hook produced from the recesses of his clothing. The bait was

found under the boulders of the stream inthe form of water crickets.

By the teaching of the Buddhist religion an unpleasant punish-

ment awaits the hunter and the fisherman in their next existence ;

and for them there is no possible salvation. ‘The miserable de-

stroyer of animal life dangles by the tongue ona fish-hook, while

IN A BURMESE JUNGLE 159

demons jerk him into the air, and drop him back into a lake of

burning pitch! A bad look-out for myself and the young tracker.

At one time or another I have seen and killed snakes of all the

four species deadly to man—Cobra, Daboia, Krait, and Saw-scaled

Viper—but the King Cobra, the dreaded Hamadryad, I had never

seen.

On the 5th January, when coming at midday down the open

sandy bed of a ravine, in which were scattered pools of water, the

leading tracker, rounding a bend a couple of paces before me, stood

and pointed with his dah. There, right in the open, was a large

black snake in the act of mouthing a big frog—a very giant of a frog—

preparatory to swallowing it. He was quite unaware of our

presence just 24 feet from it, and as we watched, threw out the

latter half of his splendid form with one graceful sweeping curve

so that it lay directly facing us, and fully extended. Its length

was about 12 feet, its colour jet black, and its mouth—into the

widely extended jaws of which I looked with my binoculars—was

terracotta, the same colour as a tiger’s nose. ‘There was a slight

whitish marking on its neck which I took to be on the flattened

hood. | :

I had signed to the men behind me not to move, as there was

every prospect of seeing the brute get outside its tiffin, but one of

them did so, and in a moment up went its head, its eyes glistened

as it saw us, and it turned to go up the bank into the forest. I

could have taken my rifle from the man behind me and shot it in

the neck in the first instance, but was too interested to think of it.

Now it was too-late. Heseemed to just stand on his tail and go up

the twelve-foot bank without any effort. Its head went into the

hollow of a tree and emerged on the further side. Then his sinuous

form made its way parallel to us, along the top of the bank, and

disappeared from view. It was about twelve inches or more in

girth at the thickest part. Had the snake attacked us, as the

species has the reputation of doing, there is no doubt that the keen-

edged dah would have sliced it in two as if it were one of the

green bamboos which the tracker, practised from his infancy in the

use of the weapon, severed every day of his life with just a flick of

his wrist. Without such a weapon, ora shot gun, one would be

indeed without defence against the attack of the hamadryad. It

passed through my mind that one’s best defence would be to offer

one’s sola topee to its gaping jaws and then make the best side

exit possible! Ablow from a walking stick such as I had in my

hand would probably not have baulked the ‘spot stroke’. Alas!

My camera was out of order, the orange celluloid disc having

dropped out.

From the appearance of the inhabitants of this forest village it

was evident that they suffered much from malaria, so I was not

surprised one day to find myself down with fever. It was a short

attack of five days only, and inthe intervals there was time to

admire the view from the verandah.

Below was a field of millet, bright green but tending to a com-

mencement of ripening. In it was a platform from which, shaded

from the sun by a sloping roof of bamboo matting, a boy rattled a

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

tin and pulled strings connected at different parts of the field to

loud sounding wooden clappers. His job was to frighten away

parrots, and other birds, eager for the coming grain. Beyond the

field was a wide belt of feathery bamboos which were daily losing

the brilliant green of the rainy season; and stretching away to the

hills is the forest of all shades of green and of brown autumn tints.

The teak trees were rapidly becoming destitute of all leaves, but in

the ravines and hollows the moisture kept the tree tops green.

The hills have an undulating outline and reach an elevation in

places of over 2000 feet. They are wholly covered with forest, the

spurs and the ravines being clearly defined by the colour of the

foliage. I gazed at the dark places and wondered what beasts

were harbouring in them.

In the evening the light softened and the scene was one of

wondrous beauty and charm. One listened to the twittering of

birds, the sweet whistling note of the green pigeons and screech of

parrots, the loud call of the tauk-teh lizard; and from the hamlet

came the merry voices of the careless, laughter-loving Burmese

women taking their rest after the usual day of toil which is their

lot in life. Now they were adorning themselves, combing their

hair and powdering their faces. One evening I came upon a bevy

of them sitting on stones jutting out of the water in the stream

all merry and laughing and looking neat and pretty ; though not so

tidy or so clean as their sisters in the large villages. This isa

jungle hamlet; just a forest village of a dozen houses, built on

posts as is the fashion of this country.

Beneath the houses are the cattle and the dogs; the ducks and

fowls; the carts and the farming implements; and in the evenings,

around the smoking wood fires, are the slanty-eyed little children,

solemnly warming themselves in the chilly air: for the temperature

falls rapidly after sundown at this time of the year, being as low

as 50 ° before sunrise and as high as 85° in the middle of the day.

After the bout of fever another day or so was spent in roaming

the forests from earliest dawn to late in the evening in vain search

of the bull sazzg, and then I realized that hoping for a lucky chance

would be of no avail and further efforts must await the onset of the

rainy season. “tre

Back to the first village we went, passing through patches

of charred jungle, for the forest fires had commenced and in all

directions could be seen a pall of smoke. The bungalow had

suffered slight damage from the earthquake which had roused us at

midnight a week before at our last camp: the doors and windows

would not close and the posts were about four inches out of plumb.

At night, from the verandah, long lines of light could be seen, with

here and there huge beacons of leaping flames where ‘the hungry

fire had found dense patches of grass and dry bamboo. All this

was strange to -see after being so long used to the strict fire

protection in force in India. It seems that the policy of fire

protection was abandoned in Burma some years ago, much -to

the relief of the jungle people no doubt, and it was with evident

delight that the men with me used to expend the best part ofa

~ box of matches during the day in the forest.

IN A BURMESE JUNGLE 161

On the first morning at the new camp I had a glimpse of the

solitary stag ‘amin: seeing that he carried a good head and was

very dark in colour: and that was all that was seen of him in

five days’ search! A more cunning and elusive beast I never

hunted. So it was exactly a month after entering the jungles that

I left them without either of the animals which I had come so far

to get.

Having returned to Taungdwingyi, I went the next day by

rail to a station on the border of the ‘ wet zone,’ and thence five miles

to a forest rest-house near a village were there are ¢hamin. Only

three days could be spared, andI saw no shootable stag. During

long residence in the East one assimilates a certain amount of the

oriental frame of mind, the resignation to ‘kismet’ being, in the

present circumstances, of some benefit.

There is still space to say something of the many matters

noticed. All the villages are surrounded with a formidable thorn

fence, in which are gateways closed at night; this precaution being

to protect the inhabitants from robbers and cattle thieves. In the

‘wet zone’ these fences are of the bamboo stockade type and quite

impenetrable by stealthy people. There also were no jungle fires,

and the forest was of a most pleasing greenness. Birds of beautiful

plumage are numerous and one feels that there is life aJl about one,

a great contrast to the deadly silence of the dry forests in which

the leafless trees appeal in vain for moisture and the dry skeletons

of numerous dead trees raise ghostly branches to the brassy sky.

There had been no animal voices in the night around the forest

hamlet of the first camp; near the ‘wet zone’ village, after the

dark pall of night had closed down on the jungle, the grunting of a

panther was heard as he set out on his nightly prowl. And I heard

the alarm call of a hind ¢hamin as the scent of the brute came to

her nostrils, trained by the hereditary instinct of many thousands

of years, and the teachings of her mother, to know that. here was

the beast to be dreaded more than all else inthe forest. The cal}

has something of the four-horn and of that of the chital, but is

different from either of these. It has a most pleasing and tuneful

note.

It was towards the end of May that the quest of the bull sazzg

was renewed, and a fine beast with 27-inch horns secured without

incident. The accompanying photograph is of another animal,

which may be taken to be his twin brother. A shootable ¢hamin

was not found, as the animals had scattered far and wide on the

breaking of the rains. Everywhere the tracks of elephant and

bison were seen, and a party of elephant catchers in the vicinity,

licensed for kheddah operations, had been successful in capturing

eleven animals.

The low-lying forests of Burma are exceedingly oppressive in

temperature onthe outbreak of the monsoon, so I was glad to

close down shikar for a while and enjoy the peaceful repose of a

journey down the Irrawaddy River on one of the comfortable

steamers of the Flotilla Company, and so end my trip to Burma on

a note of quiet enjoyment.

ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE BHAVANI

RIVER (S. PAGER

D3)! MUKERII, MAGC4. ow Bae ee

Zoological Survey of India, Cale uta. .

(With three teat-figures.)

(Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of

India.)

This note is based on a small collection made by meal. R. W. Burton in

the Bhavani River in the Coimbatore district, South India. The specimens

were sent to Dr. S. L. Hora by the Curator of the Bombay. Natural History

Society. I am indebted to Dr. Hora for kindly placing the-material in my

hands for study. My best thanks are due to Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell,

-Director of the Zoological Survey of India, for his kindness in going through the

manuscript.

The collection comprises ten specimens only, which represent nine different

species. In view of the fact that some of the species contained in the-collec-

tion are hitherto known only from short and inadequate descriptions, opportu-

nity is hereby taken to supply such additional or emended descriptions as are

necessary for convenience of future reference from the present well-preserved

specimens. The local Telugu names for the species are quoted from a list

ecrompanyine the collection.

Callichrous bimaculatus (Bloch).

1794. Silurus bimaculatus, Bloch, Nat. Ausl. Fische, VILL, p. 24,

“1877. . Callichrous bimaculatus, Day, Fish. India, p. 476, pl. cx. figs. 4 & 53°

"1889. Callichrous bimaculatus, Days Faun: Brit. ind., Fish. I, p. 131, fig.

a SNe ee Ree

92726 GHACHY ONS bimaculatus, Rao & Seshachar, lye Journ.

Mysore Univ., 1, No. 2, p. 5.

1930. Callichrous bimaculatus, Prashad & Mukerji, Journ. Boma Nat.

Hist. Soc., XXXIV, p. 165, A:

The entire body is dusky with the exception of the belly which is white. A

‘round blackish blotch is present behind each opercle. The maxillary barbels

are blackish, but the mandibulars are white. i

One specimen ... 98mm. long.

Local name .. Sotlah barat,

- Aoria punctatus. -(Jerdon).

1849. Bagrus punctatus, Jerdon, Madras Journ, Lit. & Sei. Ns p. 339,

1877. Macroines punctatus, Day, Fish. India, p. 445, pl.c, fig. 3.

~1889. Macrones punctatus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish. I, De aLoo,

1927. Macrones punctatus, Rae & Seshachar, Halt-yearly Journ. Mysore

Univ., I, No. 2, p. 8.

The width of the head is equal to the aoen from the middle of tne Ais Patiee

between the anterior border of the eyes and the nostrils to the posterior margin

FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER 163

‘of the operculum. Its height is less than half its total length. The diameter

of the eyes is contained 7 times in the length of the head, almost 2} times in the

length of the snout and the interorbitalspace. The pectoral spines are as long

as the head behind the middle of the eyes. The external mandibular barbels

extend beyond the base of the pectorals.

The fish has the characteristic colouration as described by Day.

One specimen ... 200mm. long.

Local name w.. Kort tee,

Barbus arulius (Jerdon).

1849. Systomus arulius, Jerdon, Madras Journ. Lit. & Sct., XV, p. 317.

1877. Barbus arulius, Day, Fish. India, p. 575, pl. xiii, fig. 5.

1889. Barbus arulius, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish. 1, p. 322.

1909. Barbus arulius, Annandale, Rec. Ind. A/us., U1, p. 289.

Besides the two specimens of the species from the Bhavani River I have also

examined the following specimens preserved in the collection of the Zoological

Survey of India and the measurements and description given below are based

on a study of all the specimens:—

2732 (Figured by Day) .... Wynaad .. Purchased from Day ...86mm

Boog 1 aay wa Lhe Niloiris = 2: a3 sien yn eee OTN

2599/1: ae .. Tenmalay, Tra- Annandale Coll. oo. O/ TMI,

vancore.

F2556/1, F8069/1 = Kalatupuzhal 3; me es ..34mm,.

The length cf the head is contained from 3} to 33 times in the length of

the body without the caudal fin. Its breadth is equal to its length behind the

anterior third or the middle of the eyes. The height is almost equal to the

length behind the anterior nostrils. The diameter of the eyesis contained 3}

times in the length of the head. The snout is as long as the eyes while the

interorbital region which is flat, is slightly less than one diameter in width.

A pair of very thin and short maxillary barbels! are present. ‘They are shor-

ter than the diameter of the eyes. In all the young specimens, however, the

barbels are proportionately longer. ‘Ihe dorsal fin is inserted nearer to the tip

of the snout than to the base of the caudal. Its outer margin is more or less

straight. The last undivided dorsal ray is osseous but fairly weak. The

pectorals are equal to the length of the head behind the anterior margin of the

orbit and are separated from the base of the ventrals by a short distance; but

in young forms they very nearly reach the ventrals. ‘The ventrals are situated

just below the last undivided dorsal ray and are slightly longer than the

pectorals. They extend only to the anal opening. In some fairly grown-up

specimens as well as in the immature ones, however, they very nearly reach the

anal; which latter when laid flat does not meet the base of the caudal. The

caudal is longer than the head and its own height.

There are 23-24 scales along the lateral line and 7 rows in a transverse

series ; 43 rows being between the dorsal fin and the lateral line and 23 rows

between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fins. There are 8 predorsal

scales. The bases of the dorsaJ, anal and caudal fins are scaly. A promi-

nent, fairly deep pectoral pit is characteristic of the species.

The general body colouration is olivaceous green. The portion above the

lateral line is blackish. There are three black blotches on the sides of the

body.

Two spegimens ... 66 mm. long.

Local name ... Pewal kendi

——— Ro en ee.

1 Day’s specimen from the Nilgiris has two pairs of barbels. The maxilla-

ries are very long. They extend up to the posterior margin of the opercles

and are about 21 times the diameter of the eyes. The rostrals are much shorter

and reach beyond the middle of the eyes. The specimen bears a close

resemblance to B. arulius but owing to its bad state of preservation does not

allow of any detailed examination,

i164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Measurements in millimetres.

No: 2752) 4 Bhavani: —

Length of body without caudal _... | 86°0 | 66°0 37-0

Height of body | 31:0 | 26°0 1235

Length of head... ee ra 24:0 | 20°0 16

Breadth of head ... es, bs | 14°5 11:0 7:0

Height of head... Be a 20:0 | 16°0 9°0

Length of snout ... ot orl 7:25 | 6:0 3°0

Diameter of eyes ... es a | (25 | 6:0 4-0

Interorbital width... —.. “ce 7°0 | 6:0 E315

Height of dorsal fin = Fe UP ee ie SC 11-0

Height of last undivided dorsal ray... 12:5 | 12.0 8:0 -

Length of anal fin eI pane ee ae Var 6-0

Length of pectoral fins... fe mee rc chee isos 8-25

Length of ventral fins ss. cae 19:5 | 1570 9-0

Length of caudal fin aa Si. | ane | 22-9 12e5

Length of caudal peduncle ant 12-0 | 11:0 5

Least height of caudal peduncle ... 11:0 10:0 50

Barbus carnaticus (Jerdon).

1849. Systomus Carnaticus, Jerdon, Madras Journ, Lit. & Sci., XV

pe ols.

1878. ‘Barbus Carnaticus, Day, Fish. India, p. 563, pl. cxxxvii, fig. 3.

1889. Barbus Carnaticus, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., 1, p. 305.

The following specimens of the species are preserved in the collection of the

Zoological Survey of India and have been examined :—

2312 a Canara a Purchased from Day oi 62 mm.

2379 oh Bowanny a Ps = jee eee Os taaiia,

2410 wae Bowanny ... “4 ae Fe ic 35 mm,

D. 4/7: A. 3/5: Pealfi4s: Vi, 4/8

The length and the height of the head varies from 4% to 43 and 3 to 32 times

respectively in the length of the body without the caudal, while its breadth

is equal toits length behind the anterior margin, or anterior third or the

middle of the eyes. The height of the body varies with age and is equal to

the length of the head behind the anterior nostrils in fairly grown-up specimens

while in young forms it is much less and equals the length of the head behind

the anterior margin of the eyes. The diameter of the eyes is contained from 3 to

34 times in thelength of the head. The snout isaslong as the diameter of

the eyes or slightly shorter. The interorbital space is flat and is from

1 to 1} times the orbital width. The lips are moderately fleshy. The upper

jaw is slightly longer than the lower and considerably protrusible. The

= aie mst taba a

FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER 165

maxillary barbels are thin and as long as the diameter of the eyes, while

the rostrals are considerably shorter. In grown-up specimens there are series

of flat tubercles on the snout.

_ The insertion of the dorsal fin is considerably nearer to the tip of the snout

than to the base of the caudal. The last undivided dorsal ray is strong and

slightly curved inwards. In grown-up specimens it is as high as the body

below it up to the insertion of the Jateral line but in younger forms it is equal

to or ¢ the body height. The outer margin of the dorsal fin is slightly concave.

The pectorals are as long as the head, but are much smaller in young indivi-

duals. They are separated from the baseof the ventrals by a short distance.

The origin of the ventrals is almost vertically below the insertion of the dorsal.

They are slightly shorter than the pectorais and separated from the base of the

anal. The insertion of the anal is almost equidistant from the base of the

caudal and the origin of the ventrals. It is as long as the ventrals and,

in some specimens, when laid flat, reaches the base of the caudal. ‘The caudal

fin is longer than the head and almost as high as long. |

The scales are moderately large and there are 28-29 scales along the lateral

line and 9 rows in a transverse series, 5; rows being between the base of

the dorsal fin and the lateral line and 34 rows between the lateral line

and the base of the ventrals. In specimen No, 2312 from Canara, however,

there are only 8 rows of scales in a transverse series (43 +33). The number

of predorsal scales varies from 10to12. The dorsal, anal and caudal fins

have scaly sheaths at the bases.

The colouration of the body is dark olivaceous green above the lateral line

and lighter below. The outer margins of the scales are tipped with blackish

pigments. Thereare 4to 5 very fine and faint blackish longitudinal stripes

along the body above the lateral line. The outer margin of the dorsal-fin is

blackish. All the fins are dusky. ‘The rostral barbels are black.

One specimen... 120 mm. long.

Local name ... Shole kendt.

This species is populary known as Carnatic carp. It is, however, ‘ doubtful

how far this designation has any scientific basis, for, certain other species so

called have no more than a distant resemblance to Barbus carnaticus

(Jerdon).’ ?

Measurements in millimetres.

| Nos 2379 | Bhavani R.| No, 2312

Length of body without caudal fin ... 240°0 120°0 62-0

Height of body... Sy a af 78°0 35° 0 17°0

Length of head... of ae o1°0 215 16:0

Breadth of head ie i 36°0 18:0 8°5

Height of head ... eis ve | 44°0 Z1°5 12°0

Length of snout... i oes 1625 (eS 45

Diameter of eyes xi a l5#25 9°0 Shan}

Interorbital width x hs 23'0 11:0 4°5

Height of dorsal fin £6 wee 49°0 26°5 Ns)

Height of last undivided dorsal ray ... 42°0 26°5 Sco

Length of anal fin a ae 53°0 20°0 16:0

* Annandale, N.—fec. (nd. Mus. XVI, p. 135 (1919).

1646; JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL FAST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

No. 2379 | Bhavani R.| No. 2312

Length of pectoral fins... ie VS) 24°0 | 12:0

Length of ventral fins a we 51:0 21:0 11°0

Length of caudal fin ae m3 meer) 3370

Length of caudal pedurcle be Suis 16°5 8:0

Least height of caudal peduncle ues 30°0 14°0 (ao)

1849. Barbus mysorensis, Jerdon, Madras Journ. Lit. © Sci., XV, p. 312.

Jerdon originally described the form from ‘ Cavery and its tributaries’ in

South India. His description is, however, very short and the only chief differ-

entiating character that he mentioned is that the ‘snout is prominent, raised,

covered with mucous pores’. Day merged Jerdon’s form in the synonymy of

B. micropogon (Cuv. et Val.) and did not give it any status beyond saying that

“ The variety B. mysorensis, Jerdon, has numerous large pores on the snout and

preorbital.’* Besides the specimen from the Bhavani River, which | assign to

Jerdon’s form there is another similar but much bigger specimen (No. 2411)

from ‘ Bowanny’ (apparently Bhavani or Bhawani) in the collection of the Zoo-

logical Survey of India. This specimen bears a tag with the legend ‘ Barbus

micropogon (var.)’ in Day’s handwriting. I have very thoroughly examined

the two specimens mentioned above and compared them with Day’s forma

typica of B. micropogon (No. 2398: figured by Day in his /7shes of India, pl.

exxxvi, fig. 3), from ‘Wynaad’ and have arrived at the definite conclusion

that both the specimens from the Bhavani River, although closely allied to B.

micropogon, are sufficiently distinct from it in the general outline of the body,

the shape and size of the snout, etc. (Text-figs. 1 & 2) and should, therefore,

be considered as a distinct form,

Fig. 1.—Lateral view of anterior portion of Day’s specimen of Barbus

micropogon var. mysorensis. (Nat. size).

D. 4/9 5’ Ay 3/5; Peale; V.-479-

The head is short and cone-shaped. Its length is contained 4% times in the

leneth of the body without the caudal. The breadth is equal to its length

1 Day, F. Fishes of India, p. 563 (1878).

FISH FROM THE BHAVANL RIVER | | 167

behind the anterior third of the eyes. The height equals its length excluding

the snout. The eyes are situated in the middle of the head ; they are fairly

large and are contained 3} times in the length of the head. The interorbital

region is more or less flat and is wider than the diameter of the eyes. ‘The

snout is obtusely pointed, longer than the orbital width and covered with

series of horny cone-shaped and pointed tubercles which extend as far back as

the anterior margin of the eyes. There are some similar tubercles on the

preorbital region also. Fhe mouth is horse-shoe shaped and its gape is

moderate. Thelips are fleshy. The maxillary barbels are longer than the

diameter of the eyes while the rostrals are about ¢ the ees of the maxillaries.

ane = ai

SSS SSS SS

Fig. 2.—Lateral view of anterior portion of Day’s specimen of Barbus

micropogon. (Nat. size).

The dorsal fin is situated nearer to the tip of the snout than to the base of the

caudal. Its outer margin is concave. The last undivided dorsal ray is

smooth, very strong, flat and is almost as long as or slightly longer than the

depth of the body below it. The base of the dorsal is equal to the length

of the head behind the anterior margin or anterior third of the orbit. The

pectorals are considerably shorter than the head and are separated from

the origin of the ventrals by a short distance. The ventrals are inserted

vertically below or slightly posterior to the insertion of the dorsal and are

almost equal to ora little shorter than the pectorals. They are separated

from the origin of the anal by a distance equalling half its own length. ‘The

anal is inserted midway between the origin of the ventrals and the base of the

caudal. It is rather short with a more or less rounded outer margin, and, when

laid flat, extends only to the -middle of the caudal peduncle. The caudal fin is

deeply furcate with equal pointed lobes. It is nearly 14 times longer than

high. Thescales are regularly arranged. There are 41-42 scales along the

lateral line, 11 rows (71+ 34) in a transverSe series and 15 before the dorsal fin.

The general colouration of the body is olivaceous green with the dorsum

comparatively dark. The outer margin of the dorsal and the anal fins are

faintly tipped with black.

One specimen ... 135 mm. long.

Local name .os. Korht arranz.

cine following table shows some of the chief.characters that differentiate

Jerdon’s form from B. micropogon (sensu stricto) :—

a B.. micropogon var. mysorensis. B. micropogon.

1. Head 44 times in length of body. 1, Head lessthan 4 times in length

2. Snout pointed and covered with of hody.

Snout blunt and without tuber-

cles.

Anal tin when laid flat extends to

the base of caudal] fin.

38-39 scales along lateral line.” ~~

12 predorsal scales.

pointed tubercles.

3. Anal fin when laid flat extends

to the middle of caudal ped-

uncle.

4. 41-42 scales along lateral line.

9. 14-15 predorsal scales,

one O°. &

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Rao and Seshachar (of. czz., p. 16) reported a form under the denomination

B. micropogon from Mysore and observed that ‘ Mysore is known for its very

large specimens of this fish. Especially the Cauvery supplies us a very large

number of-these fish.’ Since ‘ Cavery’ is the type-locality of Jerdon’s form,

it seems probable that the authors had the variety suysorenszs before them,

Measurements in millimetres.

B. micropogon var. B. mictro-

MYSOYENSLS. pogon.

No. 2411. | BhavaniR.| No. 2398.

Length of body without caudal fin...) 170° 135:0 15220

Height of the body sas sax | 48-0 39°0 43°0

Length of head . Bs en 38°0 34 0 40-0

Breadth of head ee . 22:0 22°0 23°0

Height of head oe bet | 28°5 25°0 28°0

Length of snout ee ei 1520 1220 14:0

Diameter of eyes on a 12:0 11°0 11:5

Interorbital width aS ae a) 13°S 11:0 TeS

Height of dorsal fin ‘ae ee 43:0 42-0 42:0

Height of last undivided dorsal ray ... | 42°5 41°5 42°5

Length of anal fin a Pb 20 22:5 28°5

Length of pectoral fins... “cele CB PRE 29-0 30-0

Length of ventral fins es aoe op 27-0 27°0

Length of caudal fin SE a | 35°0 Fas 40-0

Length of caudal peduncle aa 28°5 Zaid 21°0

Least height of caudal peduncle eae 18°0 15 0 16 0

Danio (Danio) equipinnatus (McClell.).

1838. Perilampus eguipinnatus, McClelland, Aszat. Research, XIX (2),

p..383, pl. Ix,chio.al.

1878. Danio equipinnatus, Day, Fish. India, p. 596, pl. cl. fig. 5.

1889. Danio equipinnatus, Day, Faun, Brit. Ind., Fish, I, p. 356, fig. 111.

1929. Danio equipinnatus, Prashad & Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., XXXI,_

p. 20.

Myers* observes that in this species the insertion of the anal is ‘ under

about the ninth dorsal ray’. Ihave examined a large series of specimens of

this species from various localities in India, Burma, Siam, etc., and find that the

anal is situated vertically below the sixth or the seventh dorsal ray. Further,

according to him the rostral barbels are ‘as long as eye’. Butin all the

specimens that I have examined they are generally half to three-fourths the

orbital width.

One specimen ... 61mm, long.

Local name ... Orichik condee.

1 Myers, G.S.— Amer, Mus. Novitales, No, 150, p. 3 (1924), s

FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER 169

Barilius gatensis (Cuv. et Val.).

1844, Leuciscus gatensis, Cuvier & Valenciennes, AM7st. Nat. Portsson,

XVIIY 4309) pl. 505.

1878. Barilius gatensis, Day, Fish. India, p. 592, pl. cxlix, fig. 2.

1889. Barilius gatensis, Day, Faun. Brit. ind., Fish., 1, p. 349.

1924. Barilius gatensis, Fowler, Acad. Nat. Sct. Phild., \xxvi, p. 78.

I have examined Day’s two specimens of the species (Cat. 871) from the

Nilgiris and I find thatin both of these as well as in the individual from the

Bhavani River, there are present very thin and short maxillary barbels. The

specimens are provided with a series of small pointed tubercles on the snout,

some portion of the cheek and the lower jaw. ‘The pectoral fins are as long as

the head behind the anterior third of the eyes and almost reach the ventrals,

which latter extend only to the vent. The length of the anal fin is as long as the

length of the head behind the middle of the eyes.

There are 12 vertical black bars descending from 3 scales below the dorsal

line. Six or seven smaller and much narrower bars originate from a couple of

scales below and alternate with the first series. They extend further down than

those in the first row.

One specimen ... 73 mm. long.

Local name ... Wa-nati kenat.

Scaphiodon brevidorsalis (Day).

1873. Sem7plotus brevidorsalis, Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 239.

1877. Scaphiodon brevidorsalts, Day, Fish. India, p. 552, pl. cxxxiii, fig. 2.

1889. Scaphiodon brevidorsalis, Day,. Faun. Brit Ind., Fish.,1, p. 286,

fig. 98.7

1927. Scaphiodon brevidorsalis, Rao & Seshachar, FHlalf-yearly Journ.

Mysore Univ., 1, No. 2, p. 15.

D. 3/41 A. 3/52 P) 1/13. V.1/9.

The length of the head, of the caudal fin and the height of the body are

contained 44, slightly less than 4 and a little over 3 times respectively in the

length of the body without the caudal. The eyes are situated almost in the

middle of the length of the head and are contained 5 times in the length of the

latter. There are several rows of small tubercles across the snout,

The origin of the dorsal fin is nearer to the tip of the snout than to the base

of the caudal. ‘The last osseous ray is shorter than the longest branched ray

ard is nearly equal to the length of the nead. The pectorals are slightly shorter

than the length of the head and do not extend to the base of the ventrals which

latter are as long as the former and do not quite reach the base of the anal.

The body above the lateral line is dusky while the portion below is yellowish

to white. There is a blackish band along the lateral line from behind the angle

of the opercles to the base of the caudal fin.

One specimen ... 76mm. long.

Local name .. Latty kendi.

Scaphiodon nashii (Day).

1868. Barbus Nashit, Day. Proc. Zool. Soc. London, p. 584.

1877. Scaphiodon Nashit, Day, Fish. India, p. 552, pl. cxxxiii, fig. 3,

1889. Scaphiodon nashit, Day. Faun. Brit. Ind., Fish., 1, p. 285.

1927. Scaphiodon nashii, Rao & Seshachar, Half-yearly Journ. Mysore

Cnt, No.2; p. 15.

1 The figure 98 in the Fauna of British India, Fishes, 1, p. 286, has wrongly

been referred to Scaphiodon brevidorsalis by Day. It is, in fact, a reduced

replica of the figure of Scaphiodon nashii published in his Fishes of /udta,

pl. cxxxiii, fig. 3,

170. JOURNAL, BOMBAYENATCURAL HIST SCO IM, tera oe.

D3 / Uy A 3/0 veo coe elo:

The length of the head, uf the caudal fin and the height of the body are

contained 44, 34 and 33 times respectively in the length of the body without the

caudal fin. The head is slightly higher than broad. The eyes are situated

almost in the middle of the length of the head. The interorbital space is more

or less flat and equal to. 1; the diameter of the eyes. The snout is slightly

longer than the orbital width, and covered with series of tubercles.

The mouth is very characteristic (Text fig. 3). Itis small and horse-shoe

shaped with rather thick and continuous lips. The horny covering of the lower

jaw is somewhat swollen but not very hard. Dayt observes that the ‘ mouth in

this species alters so with age, that until I had compared specimens of my Osteo-

chilus malabaricus® with gradations of Scaphiodon Nashii since obtained

I could not have believed in their being identical. In the young the jaws are

compressed, each with a cartilaginous covering ; the lips are thick and con-

tinuous, not continued across the chin. As age increases the mouth widens,

the cartilaginous covering becomes more horny, and the colour of the fish

alters.’ This description agrees very closely with the character of the mouth

of the specimen from the Bhavani River.

The origin of the dorsal fin is much

nearer to the tip of the snout than to the

base of the caudal. The longest ray of the

dorsal fin'is nearly 13 times in the depth of

the body below. it. The last undivided

dorsal ray is rather weak. The base of

the dorsal fin is almost equal to its height.

The outer margin is more or less straight.

The pectorals are falciform, slightly

smaller than the head and separated from

the origin of the ventrals by a consider-

able distance. The ventrals are inserted

vertically below the 4th branched ray of

the dorsal, shorter than the pectorals and

extend to the anal opening. The anal is

twice as long as it is broad at the base and

does not quite reach the caudal. The

caudal is deeply furcate and islonger than

it is high at its freeeud. The central rays

which are the shortest are about 44 times

in the entire length of the fin.

There are 40-41 scales along the lateral

line, 125 rows in a transverse series, 74

rows being above the lateral line and 5

rows between the lateral line and the base

of the ventrals. In front of the origin of

Fig. 3.—Ventrai view of Scaphio- the dorsal there are 18 scales. The colour-

don nashii from Bhavani River. ation of the specimen agrees entirely with

x le. : Day’s description.

One specimen ... 115 mm. long. _

Local name .. Kari moti kandt.

Aemarks.—In general facies, character of the pharyngeal bone and teeth,

etc., the specimen agrees perfectly with a Scaphiodon. The proportions of its

body, the position and composition of the fins and the characteristic colouration

highly suggest that it is S. washiz. It is only the shape of the mouth and the

character of the lips that are unlike a Scaphiodon. Unfortunately, I have no

authenticated material of this species at my disposal at present for comparison,

and I have, therefore, greatly relied on Day’s remarks in regard to the vari-

ability of the shape and size of the mouth and the lips in this species.

1 Day, F.—/ shes of India, p. 552, foot-note.

? In all probability this isa misnomer. Day does not seem to have called

anything by this name. rash

FISH FROM THE BHAVANI RIVER

Measurements in nitllimetres.

Length of body without caudal fin

Height of body

Length of head

Breadth of head

Height of head

Length of snout

Diameter of eyes

Interorbital width oe

Height of dorsal fin... ~ 506

Height of last undivided dorsal ray

Length of anal fin

Length of pectoral fins

Length of ventral fins

Length of caudal fin

- Length of caudal peduncle

Least height of caudal peduncle ohe

Bhavani R.

115°0

35°0

25'0

16:0

19°0

9:0

8°0

10:0

23°5

23°0

24°0

23'5

34°5

17°0

14°0

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS

G. W. V. DERHE-PHILIPE, F.E.S.

shart

The passion for collecting something is ingrained in most of us, and Nature

around very frequently provides the material for the satisfaction of this trait in

our characters. Yet, in spite of its wonderful wealth of insect life, the collection

and study of butterflies and moths is not exactly a ‘ popular’ hobby in India.

For one thing, there is, as a rule, too little leisure ; and the climate, except

perhaps in the Hills, is apt to discourage and damp the eathusiasm of the few

who have the time and inclination for the field work which is not only an

important but also the most fascinating side of the pursuit of any branch of

Natural History. But more responsible than anything else for this lack of

interest is perhaps the fact that the path of the aspiring entomologist or

botanist tothe deeper knowledge by which alone interest can be maintained

is so beset with difficulties. He has not, asin England and America, compara-

tively cheap and easily obtainable hand-books on his subject to aid and

encourage him through his early perplexities of classification and nomen-

clature ; nor has he, to any appreciable extent, the stimulation provided by the

example of others with the same bent, or the advantages of companionship

and co-operation in mutual interests enjoyed in the membership of Natural

History Associations and Clubs.

There is little doubt, however, that the study of the Indian Lepidoptera is

beginning to appeal to amuch wider circle than has hitherto been the case.

Till now, the field cf butterflies has been limited to a comparatively small

group of workers such as Atkinson, Marshall, Watson, Bingham, Bell, deNice-

ville and Evans, whose attentions have been directed more to the butterflies of

India as a whole, and whose buoks are the standard works on the subject.

India is, however, almost a continent with large areas which are quite distinc-

tive climatically and zoologically ; and unless the fauna of each of these is

studied and listed, the records of distribution of species and races must, to

some extent, be incomplete. Brigadier Evans’ latest work, the ‘ Identification

of Indian Butterflies’, which recently appeared in the Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society and has since been published in book form, has brought

these records up to the limits of our present knowledge; and the fact that he

has not only been able to extend the previously known distribution of some

species, but has also been able to add some new species and to separate clearly

differentiated local races of many old species, is in itself proof that there is still

work to be done.

There is another direction in which our knowledge of Indian butterflies is

still very backward. This is in connection with the egg, larval and pupal stages

of the life history of alarge number of species. Mr. T.R. Bell has broken new

ground here, and his papers on the ‘Common Butterflies of the Plains of

India’, which also appeared in the Journal, have done much towards adding to

our former scanty store of information. But his work has lain more in the

districts of Western and Southern India, and there is still a large field for

similar observation and study in the northern and eastern areas and in Burma.

In India, unfortunately, this branch of work presents some difficulties. It

needs some degree of settled residence, not interrupted by long absences from

headquarters and not subjected to sudden transfers ; and it demands time and

infinite patience. ‘There are not too many folk in India who work under these

happy conditions ; but there is so much to be done that it is to be hoped that

naturalists in these localities, with inclination and facilities for this side of the

subject, will turn their attention to it and record the results,

ee a we

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 173

Still, there is much useful work which can bedone even by those who cannot

find opportunities for breeding and studying the earlier stages of their butter-

flies. Gaps in our knowledge of butterfly life in India have yet to be filled ;

and this can be done by the observation, study and listing of the species and

races to be found in each of the districts of the country, with notes of the times

and periods of their appearance, nature of the localities usually affected by

each, and descriptions of seasonal and other variations, ifany. Such lists not

only provide specialist students with valuable information as to the distribution

of species and local races and phases of their life-history, but will also, if avail-

able and obtainable, encourage and help many others who,I am sure, are

collectors and students in embryo, but who are deterred from anything beyond

mere ‘ collecting’ by. the absence of literature on their hobby.

Some particular localities in India have already been worked over by a few

enthusiasts. The results have been recorded and may be found in the Journals

of the Bombay Natural History Society, of the Asiatic Society of Bengal, and

occasionally in the Transactions and Proceedings of the Zoological and

Entomological Societies of London. It is unfortunate that these are not

easily traceable and not always readily obtainable ; but they do exist, and any

one who is keen could probably get copies of what he wants by enlisting the

aid of the Societies. A list of these ‘ Lists’ or papers would be useful and I

hope at some future date to get one out.

Some of these lists were made up very many years ago and could probably

be revised and brought up to date with advantage ; while there is little doubt

that all could be added to from time to time. And the lists we have, do not,

by any manner of means, complete the Indian region. The Madras plains and

the Mysore plateau have certainly not been fully explored, nor have the

Eastern coastal districts and Ghats where a very interesting butterfly fauna

should be found.. The upland plains of Central India and Chota Nagpur,

with their broken-up hills and large areas of forest country, must be the home

of many fine insects, but, though we know of many to be found there, we

have no really complete list of the. butterfly inhabitants. Assam is a butterfly

collectors’ paradise, and though we have records of what may be found in the

Khasi Hills, the Naga Hills and in Cachar, these cover only a small portion of

its hill country and there is yet much to learn of the insects of its river valleys

and its vast forests. Parts of the long Gangetic Plain and of the Punjab and

much of the arid deserts of Rajputana and Sind still remain to be worked up.

Very little is known of the butterflies of Baluchistan and the North-West

Frontier regions, where we get a quite distinct type of fauna. And there are

still many gaps in the listing of the long stretch of the Himalayan Range with its

gradual variations of fauna from the Palearctic type of the extreme northwest

to the Indo-Malayan groups of the East.

One of these gaps is the area from and including Kashmir in the north to

“Mussoorie and its environs in the south-east. Brigadier Evans has given us a

list of the butterflies in the Chitral country, and Mr. Mackinnon, years ago,

made a very complete catalogue of what were found in and around Mussoorie.

It might be thought that these two lists would be a sufficient guide to the

fauna-of the intervening tracts of the same mountainous country, but it is

rather an interesting fact’ that this is not the case. The Chitral butterflies are

distinctly and preponderatingly Palearctic ; and as we proceed south-eastwards

there is a gradual but quite definite change till, by the time we reach

Mussoorie and Kumaon, there is a strong:element of the eastern fauna.

Several species are, it is true, to be found throughout this stretch of country ;

but there are others which while common in, say Kashmir, are distinctly rare by

the time we get to Dalhousie and will not be found at all in the Simla

District. Conversely, there are quite a number of species which figure in the

Mussoorie lists and are not rare there, which are scarcer and scarcer as we

proceed west and finally disappear altogether from the local fauna.

With its large European population and its schools, there are probably more

collectors of sorts in Simla than in any other locality in India, the Darjeeling

Hills perhaps excepted. In my butterfly expeditions round Simla, I met many

more folk—grown-up people, not only schoolboys—with nets and collecting

impedimenta than I had done anywhere else in all my wanderings in India.

It was quite a common experience, when exploring some likely nullah, to

come across one or two others bent on the same mission; and there were

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

far more opportunities for talking ‘ butterflies’ than is usually the case in an

Indian station.

Yet, strange though it may seem, there appears to be no list or account of

the butterflies which are to be found in the hill districts of which Simla is the

headquarters. At any rate, I have not been able to discover any such compila-

tion, and I know of others anxious to obtain information who were equally

unsuccessful. I propose, in this paper, to try and supply this want; and I

hope it will be of use, not only to the many school lads in Simla who are keen

on this matter and to others who take it up as a recreation during a period of

service there, but also to more advanced workers in their researches into the

distribution of species and races.

My notes are based mainly on my own collecting and observations during

occasional visits to Simla between 1911 and 1921 and during a four year period

of service there later. I have, in addition, embodied all information ~ and

particulars I have gathered at various times from other collectors working in

the area, and I have to thank many, and notably Brigadier Evans, for a: good

deal of interesting and useful information. The list should be fairly complete.

especially as I have included, marked with an asterisk, all species of which I

have no personal experience or first-hand knowledge but which have been

recorded from the neighbourhood by various writers. .A few other species,

though they do not yet appear to have been taken within the limits, may

reasonably be expected to occur and will possibly be discovered as time goes

on. These will be mentioned and I will leave it to future workers to record

their actual] occurrence, if ever this is definitely established.

Before dealing with the various species themselves, it will, perhaps, be as

well to give a brief description of the country to which these notes more

particularly apply; and to mention some of the localities which my own

experience has shown to be good gevéral collecting grounds. The area covered

is roughly that within a fifty mile radius of Simla and takes in the tract of

mountain and valley from the spurs of the Sewaliks below Kalka to the upper

reaches of the Sutlej and Giri rivers. It lies wholly within the outer ranges

of the Himalayas; and situated thus, provides a great variation of altitude

from the 2,000 ft. above sea level of Kalka aad the valleys debouching into the

plains to the 12,000 and 13,000 ft. of mountain masses like Huttoo and M’Arali

and other peaks of the interior. Every description of country, except,

ot course, expanses of flat plains, is to be found—the broken foothills and

nullahs bordering on the Dun, deep valleys like those of the Gumber and Asni

and similar streams, the low basins of the Sutlej and Giri rivers, bare expanses

of grass lands on the southern slopes of the numerous spurs, heavy and damp

forests such as those on the inner faces of Jakko, Shali and Huttoo, and open

and wind swept hill-tops ten thousand feet and more up in the air. We might,

indeed, by extending the area a little further inland, get into the regions of

snow in the mighty mountains and high passes just beyond the Sutlej and

bordering on Kulu.

With such a range of altitude and such a variety of terrain, there is naturally

a corresponding diversity of vegetation. It changes from the sub-tropical

jungle of the lower foothills, past the cacti and long-leafed pines and rank

grasses of the outer spurs, to the deodars and silver oaks and ilex of Simla

and its environs, and on to the brown oaks and firs of the Huttoo forests

aud the semi-alpine flora of the inner mountains. Collet’s ‘ Flora Simlaensis ’,

though written many years ago and rather severely botanical, is a mine of

information on the vegetation of the District; but to the ordinary individual,

interested in the trees he sees as he proceeds into the Hills or wanders about

the country, I would commend a little pamphlet in which was reproduced

a lecture on the subject once given by E. C. Buck to a long defunct Simla

Natural History Society. I cannot say whether it is still possible to get this

publication ; but if so, it will be found to give a very vivid and fascinating

account of the trees of the different zones.

Butterflies are to be seen in Simla practically all the year roca They

are naturally not prominent in the cold winter months, but I have seen

Vanessas and a stray Colias or two even in December and January with

snow on the ground. Down near Kalka quite a variety are to be seen right

through the cold months. ‘They are most abundant and varied in the late

spring and early summer, and, after a period of comparative thinning out

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 175

during the fogs and wet of the monsoon, they come into their own again in the

gorgeous weather of the autumn weeks, There is thus always some interest

for the collector; but the best months are undoubtedly May and June and

from mid-September to the end of October. To get even a moderately re-

presentative series, one must be on the guwz vive all through the weeks from

the days when the first signs of spring appear till the frosts come in November

and December. Quite a number of the species which are on the wing in

the spring and summer do not appear at all after the monsoon has broken ;

and, conversely, some of the autumn species have no spring broods. Not a

few kinds, moreover, have a very short period of flieht—possibly not more than

a fortnight or three weeks—and if not taicet then, will not be seen again till

the following year.

All the more common species can be seen and taken almost anywhere, and

it is quite worth while spending half an hour in a sunny garden or on some

open saddle on the ridges. But the earnest seeker after good things must go

further afield and work for them in their own particular haunts. As a general

rule, nullahs where there is a stream of running water and which are not

too heavily wooded are good collecting grounds. So also are open plateaus

on hill tops’ and some dips in the ridges and clearings through the woods

which many butterflies seem to use as passages for flight from one locality

to another. The grassy slopes of some of the spurs are often surprisingly

rich in the sun-loving varieties. There are many such favoured spots in

‘Simla or within easy reach and any one who does a bit of wandering with

a net will soon discover several for himself. Apart from ‘ popular resorts’,

the rambler at large, moving away from highways and byways, will often

come upon some patch of ground favoured by some special species, and thus,

in the course of an hour or so, pick up quite a nice little group of some

kind he may have been waiting for years to find.

One of the very best collecting grounds I know is the San Damiano nullah

-behind. the Mashobra-Mahasu ridge. It is worth a periodical visit, even from

Simla. There is quite a good one behind Jakko, while the little valley beyond

Summer Hill, running down to the Chadwick Falls, usually teems with insect

life. Some years ago, the bed of the Simla River and the stream flowing past

Annandale were worth exploring, but I have not been to these in recent years.

The Glen is fair, but is usually too thickly overgrown for comfort. Annandale

was once a favourite collecting ground for boys, but has now, I think, become

too much ofa laid-out pleasure-ground to attract any but the more common

species ; while the Waterworks area, once an excellent butterfly locality, is now

closed to the public. Other places round Simla worth an occasional visit are

the grassy slopes of the spur below-Bishop Cotton’s School, the glades and

nullahs.on the Tara Devi Hill, certain stretches of the Himalayan- -Tibet road

between the old toll bar and Mashobra and between Mahasu and Fagu ;. while

the country round Mahasu itself and, very especially, the plateau on the top of

Kufri Hill should, under no circumstances, be neglected. Of spots further

afield, I might mention some of the valleys and ravines which abound in the

broken country round Kalka, the bridle path up to Kasauli, the nullahs and

open hill sides between Solon Brewery and Kandaghat on the railway, the

ridge along which runs the road from Simla to Chail, the road from Narkanda

to Baghi and beyond, and the slopes and plateaus on Huttoo, I believe, though

I have not been able to explore it myself, that good butterflies are to be found

along the road to Mussoorie where it rises to Paternalla to cross the ridge

leading to the Chor, and the Chor itself should give good hunting.

An energetic collector, with patience and powers of observation, who can

give a little time each season to these localities and can, in addition, look over

some of the higher country beyond the Sutlej and bordering on Tibet, shculd

be able, in the course of three or four years, to get together a very representa-

tive series of the butterflies of this part of the North-west Himalayas. As will

be seen from the list which follows, a complete collection would include some-

thing like two hundred and fifty species or distinct local races—a total large

enough to sustain interest for a very long time. Some of these butterflies are

extraordinarily rare—within the district at any rate—but there is always the hope

of picking up these prizes. There is the chance, too, that species not hitherto

recorded from this part of the country will be discovered either as wanderers

from their own proper habitat or as having established themselves in some out

of the way spot not yet explored by collectors. Would it be too much to ask of

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

any one who has such fortune, that he should report the find in some Scciety’s

Journal? It is only in this way that complete lists can be maintained.

In the earlier stages of butterfly nomenclature in India, many insects were

either, on the one hand, given individual specific rank though almost

indistinguishably near to already known and named species ; or were, on the

other hand, merged with other species though presenting constant minor

variations. Modern science is developing the practice of differentiating groups

which show constant variation as clearly defined local races of an earlier named

specific type and the adoption of the trinomial system of nomenclature to

denote the place within the species. Brigadier Evans, in his recent valuable

work on the ‘ Identification of Indian Butterflies’, has used this system as far

as it is possible in the present state of our knowledge, and I follow him

throughout.

There has been, in recent years, a change in the order in which the various

families are placed. Earlier writers put the Danazde and Nymphalide first,

followed by the Lycewnide and then by the Papilionitde, Pieride and

Hesperide. Seitz, in his Macrolepidoptera of the World, has brought the

Papilionide and Pieride to the front of the.order, and modern authorities

generally adopt this arrangement. I have compiled my list accordingly.

Each species or recognized race which has been definitely recorded from the

area dealt with, is given a serial number in the list. Any not actually reported

but which there is a reasonable chance of finding, are mentinoned without a

serial number. ‘The reference numbers in brackets (e.g. Bing. 33, de N. 272,

Ev. F5(8) ), are those under which the species appear in 7he Fauna of

/ndia, ‘Butterflies’, Zhe Butterflies of India, and the Jdentification of

Indian Butterflies. ‘These will indicate to the reader where a full diagnosis

and description of the insect may be found.

PAPILIONIDAK.

As might be expected in a region where the Palearctic type predominates,

the Papilios are not very prominent in the Simla Hills. Several species are to

be found, but only a very few are in any sense common, and then only in the

country bordering on the plains or in their more favoured haunts. Most of the

species found are distinctly rare. Few as they are, however, the Papilios pro-

vide some of the largest as well as the most striking butterflies of the district.

Byasa aristolochiz aristolochie. Fabricus

(Bing. 490 ; Ev. A2 (10) ).

This insect is-very common in Southern and Continental India and appears

occasionally in the Eastern and Central Punjab, but I have never come across

it in the hills round Simla nor have I been able to trace a definite record of its

capture. It is, however, not at all improbable that an odd specimen or two

would be picked up in the country below Kalka.

1. Byasa philoxenus philoxenus. Gray.

(Bing. 500 ; Ev. A2 (15) ).

2. Byasa dasarada ravana. Moore.

(Bing. 500; Ev. A2 (16) ).

These two closely- related species are very similar in appearance and flight and,

indeed, have not always been separated.. They might well be dealt with

together. Neither is often taken or seen in collections made in the district. 1

have seen butterflies which certainly were one or the other of these species on

two or three occasions—always in the spring or early summer months—flying

down the hill on the Simla-Mashobra road below the Retreat. ‘They seem to

havea most annoying habit of flying high out of reach.

3. Chilasa agestor govindra. Moore.

(Bing. 529; Ev. A3 (1) ).

is said not to be rare, but for all that, is selcom seen in collections. This is

probably because it is on the wing for ashort period only and then in the very

eS. Oe ee eB On, ee ee OO ee, oe eee ae

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 177

early spring weeks before people have moved up from the plains and before

those who winter in Simla think it worth while bringing out their nets.. A

friend who was keen enough to go out at this unpromising season, told me

had taken two or three each spring flying round the oak trees high up on

Jakko ; and [ once saw one myself in similar surroundings on Summer Hill.

4. Chilasa clytia clytia. Linneeus.

(Bing. 532; Ev. A 3(5)).

The dzssimzlzs form of this species is found along the foot of the Himalayas,

commonly as far west as the Mussoorie Dun, and very much more rarely

further west. I haveseen one or two specimens said to have been caught in the

wooded country where the Ghaggar river emerges from the hills.

* 5. Papilio protenor protenor. Cramer.

(Bing. 515 ; Ev. A 4 (6)).

Has been recorded as occurring between Kashmir and Kumaon, but I have

no personal knowledge of its having been taken anywhere west of Mussoorie.

It is not. common even there and would be still rarer to the west.

6. Papilio polyctor polyctor. Boisduval.

(Bing. 538; Ev. A 4 (9)).

This beautiful butterfly, the ‘moonal’ of the Simla school boy, is not

uncommon in the localities it especially favours, and may sometimes even be

seen in gardens in Simla. There generally seem to be a few flying about the

grassy slopes of the hillsides near Salogra station on the Kalka-Simla Railway,

and it was at one time fairly abundant along the tue of the Kaithu spur and in

the valley between this spur and Elysium Hill. It is also fond of open nullahs:

where there is running water, Flies throughout the spring, summer and early

autumn. Usually difficult to obtain in perfect condition as the tails break off

very easily, and particularly so in the autumn when most of the specimens are

badly worn.

* 7. Papilio.arcturus arius, Rothschild.

(Bing 254 hv AaB),

Another bbauty of the insect world. Common in the spring and summer in

Kashmir and the adjoining hills from 8,000 to 10,000 ft., but becoming rarer

eastwards. In the Simla Hills, it will be found only in theinner hills in the

Huttoo-Baghi country, though it may also occur on the Chor range.

8. Papilio polytes romulus. Cramer.

(Bing. 522; Ev. A 4 (25)). .

Not uncommon in the plains and lower hills where I have seen it within a

few miles of Kalka ; but it does not, as far as my experience goes, extend to any

distance into the hills. The monsoon and early autumn months seem to be the

best times for it.

9. Papilio demoleus demoleus. Linnzeus.

(Bing. 507; Ev. A 4 (27)).

Very common in the plains and lower hills but does not extend beyond the

zone of the lime tree on which its larva feeds. I have seen specimens in the

neighbourhood of Kalka, and it may perhaps go up as high as Solon ; but any-

thing beyond this, would be most unusual. Flies spring and autumn.

10. Papilio machaon sphyrus. Hubner.

(Bing. 505; Ev. A 4 (29)).

This eastern cousin of our English ‘ swallow tail’ is common in the spring

and autumn. May be seen almost anywhere above 5,000 ft., but grassy slopes

and meadows are its favourite country. It was often almost abundant on the

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

summit of Kufri Hill and around Narkanda. Once, as a boy very many years

ago, I found this butterfly in iarge numbers on the lower slopes of the Kaithu

spur, where its larvee swarmed on an evil smelling shrub which is common at

lower elevations in these hills.

*11. Pathysa eurous kashmirensis, Rothschild.

(Bing. 548; Ev. A 5 (1)).

Recorded from ‘ Kashmir to Kumaon’, but I have never come across it in the

Simla Hills. On the analogy of its habits in the more easterly part of its range,

it should be found only at low elevations near the foot of the hills.

12. Zetides sarpedon sarpedon. Linnzeus.

(Bing. 30/7 ; Hv. A 6 (2)).

Not particulary common anywhere in the area, but may be seen occasionally

from about 7,000 ft. downwards in the summer and early autumn. Is attracted

by flowers round which I have taken nearly all my specimens here and

elsewhere,

13. Zetides cloanthus. Westwood.

(Bing. 556; Ev. A6 (1)).

Not uncommon, but needs looking for. This butterfly has a most exasperat-

ing habit of flying round some favourite tree—often an isolated one—out of

reach of the net. It is consequently not generally easy tocapture. I remember

one particular tree on the top of Kufri Hill where it was almost a certain find.

I have also taken it on Jakko and on the Kaithu spur in exactly similar circum-

stances. Sometimes frequents the beds of hill streams where it settles on

patches of damp sand. Flies June to October and even November. It does

not, in the Western Himalayas, go much below 5,000 ft.

* 14, Parnassius jacquemontii jacquemontii. Boisduval.

(Bing, 561 s2Byv.-A 13 ,(2));

* 15. Parnassius epaphus epaphus. Oberthur.

(Bing..502 sve AG) 3.(3)))

Both of these ‘ Apollos’ are essentially Alpine insects. They are to be found

from Kashmir to Kumaon, but not below 11,000 to 12,000 ft., and would there-

fore be confined to the higher ranges of the interior. Ihave not taken either

myself within the district, but it is possible that they may sometimes fly on

Huttoo and other peaks,

16, Parnassius hardwickeii hardwickeli. Gray.

(Bing. 543; Ev. A 13 (4)).

The only species of the genus which, in the Himalayas, comes down to

comparatively low elevations. It may be taken even in Simla, where I have

seen it more than ouce within the station, the slopes near Sanjouli generally

harbouring one or two. ‘To find it at all commonly we must, however, go

further inland. The plateau on Kufri Hill, Narkanda and Huttwo will almost

invariably produce specimens. Ison the wing both in the spring and early

summer and in the autumn; and, since it is a butterfly of the snows, it will

probably be found in the winter mouths. I have taken it late in November at

any rate. ‘It affects open slopes and meadows where there is grass and alpine

vegetation.

PIERIDA.

Several of the species are so abundant in individuals, that the Pieridz, in

contrast to the Papilios, are always a good deal in evidence among the butter-

flies of the Simla Hills. They do not, asa general rule, like heavily wooded

country, but in more open surroundings, they wil] be found abroad everywhere

in gardens, in the meadows and about the grass slopes; along the nullahs and

THE PBOLIERIELIES OF JHE SIMLA HIELS. 179

in and out of the scrub. Some of the different species of each gents are so

alike that it is usually advisable to catch and examine even the most ordinary

looking individuals at any rate till some sort of familarity with their respective

little ways has been attained.

Baltia butleri butleri. Moore.

(Binie2 5835" E Vv. Bz (2 )).

Included on the strength of having been recorded ‘from Kashmir to

Kumaon’, but I doubt whether it will be found anywhere nearer than the

Tibet border.

Synchle ausonia daphalis. Moore.

(Bing. 602% iv. ge(3)) ):.

Also recorded from the North-West Himalayas, but I have not met it

anywhere nearer than the extreme north of the Punjab. It may perhaps be

found straggling into the edge of our limits in the interior.

Pieris calidice kalora. Moore.

(Bing. 600; Ev. B4 (2)).

Another higher Alpine species which, from its recorded distribution, might

possibly be found on the lofty ranges beyond the Sutlej.

17. Pieris napi ajaka. Moore.

(Bing. 594; Ev. B4 (7) ).

Fairly common though not so abundant as the other two ‘ whites’, drassice

and canidia. ‘These others are socommon and ubiquitous that any insect of

similar general appearance is often passed by casually and the local race of

-napt thus escapes notice.

18, Pieris canidia canidia. Sparrman.

(Bing. 593; Ev. B4 (10) ).

The ‘ small cabbige’ is common everywhere throughout the spring, summer

and autumn, but appears to be most plentiful after the monsoon,

19. Pieris brassice, Linnzeus.

(Bing. 590. Ev. B 4 (11) ).

This insect, the almost cosmopolitan ‘large cabbage’, is abundant from

early spring to late autumn. Occasional specimens may even be seen some-

times on sunny days in the depth of winter.

20. Aporia leucodice soracte. Moore.

(Bing. 584; Ev. B5 (J) ).

Exceedingly common in May and June, but disappears entirely with the

arrival of the monsoon and there is no autumn brood. It is particularly fond

of the common wild barberry bushes round which it swarms.

* 21. Aporia nabellica mabellica. Boisduval.

(Binge. 586 ; Ev. B 5 (2) ).

Has a range from Kashmir to Kumaon, and thoughI have never taken it

- myself, there is little doubt that it will be found in the Huttvo neighbourhood.

Is rare at the best of times, and does not come below 8,000 ft. Usuallya

spring butterfly.

22. Aporia agathon phryxe. Boisduval.

(Bing. 587; Hv. B54) }.

May be seen very occasionally in Simla itself, but is not pJentiful anywhere

in the district. All the few specimens I have taken in the area were found on

the northern slopes of Kufri Hill on the road to Fagu. It seems to be on the

wing only for a short period just before the rains.

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Delias eucharis, Drury.

(Bing 571; Ev. B6(2)).

Very common from Garhwal eastwards, and I have taken it in Dehra Dun

and seen one as far to the north-west as Lahore. It isnot unlikely to be found,

though rarely, in the strip of country between Kalka and the Sewaliks.

23. Delias sanaca sanaca. Moore.

Delias belladonna belladonna. Fabricius.

(Bing. 577; Ev. B 6 (4) and (5) ).

I put these together as they are usually treated as one species. Belladonna

is fairly common, and in May and June may often be seen round the blossoms

of the horse chestnut which attract them irresistibly. A few specimens may

also be taken later in September and October. Sanaca, which was considered

a light coloured variety of the species, is much less frequently seen, but I took

one or two on Kufri Hillin June. Both extend inland as far as Baghi and

Kulu.

24. Belenois mesentina mesentina. Cramer.

(Bing. 81; Ev. B 8).

Very common in the plains and at low elevations in the outer hills through-

out the year, especially in scrub jungle. Rather rare above 5,000 ft., but odd

specimens may be picked up now and again.

25. Huphina nerissa phryne. Fabricius.

(Bing. 604; Ev. B 9 (2)).

More a plains than a hillinsect. It is common during and after the rains at

the foot of the hills. Occasional specimens find their way up as high as

8,500 ft., and I have taken it in Simla and Kufri.

26. Catopsilia crocale. Cramer.

(Binge: 622) By. B11 (2)).

Abundant in the plains, and, though never as common as the next species,

is generally to be seen in fair numbers in the hills up to about 8,000 ft. Mainly

an autumn flying insect.

27. Catopsilia pomona. Fabricius.

(Bing. 622; Ev. B11 (2)).

Usually sunk to the last species, but has now been definitely placed as

distinct. Flies from May or June till late autumn, more abundantly after the

monsoon, Has the same general distribution as crocale but is always more

common. Females of the form, ‘ catzlla’—Crainer, with purple blotches on the

undersides of the wings, are almost as frequent as the type.

28. Catopsilia pyranthe. Linnzeus.

(Bine. 623; Ev. B11 (4):).

Like the others of the genus, is more common in the plains and country

round Kalka; but it extends up the river valleys and sparingly as far as Simla

and Mashobra. Is best looked for in open grass and scrub country.

* 29. Catopsilia florella gnoma. Fabricius.

(Bing. 624; Ev. B 11 (5)).

Recorded from the ‘ North-west Himalayas’, but I have never seen it any-

wherein North-west India, the nearest locality known to me being Lucknow.

May yet be found in the Simla Hills.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 181

30. Gonepteryx rhamni nepalensis. Doubleday.

(Bing. 624; Ev. B 14 (1)).

The Indian ‘ Brimstone’ is common in the spring and autumn, much less so

in the intervening monsoon months. Found anywhere and everywhere above

about 5,000 ft.

31. Gonepteryx aspasia zaneka. Moore.

(Bing. 629; Ev. B14 (3)).

Confined to higher elevations—above 7,000 ft.—and rather local though never

scarce in the particular places it affects. I have taken itfrom June to October

in various spots in Mashobra, Mahasu, Kufri and Narkanda. It is worth

noting that I have often found that a Cyantris vardhana area is also a G, zaneka

haunt.

32. Terias libythea. Fabricius.

(Bing. 640; Ev. B 15(1)).

Probably the most common of this group of common butterflies. Found

everywhere—but most plentifully in open grass country—from the plains up to

at least 10,000 ft. and from early spring to late autumn.

33, Terias venata venata, Moore.

(Bing. 639; Ev. Bi5 (2)).

Not nearly so common as the last, but is probably usually overlooked among

the many Terias to be seen.

34. Terias laeta. Boisduval.

(Bing. 641; Ev. B 15 -(3)).

Almost as abundant as libythea. It flies at the same seasons and in the same

kind of country and is generally very common about the low hills above Kalka

in the summer.

35. Terias hecabe. Linnzeus.

(Bing. 643; Ev. B15 (5)).

This species is so ubiquitous throughout India and so common everywhere

that its various geographical races seem to merge into one another almost

imperceptibly and it is by no means easy to differentiate between them. The

race ‘ fimbriata’— Wallace, which has been assigned to North-west India, is

ordinarily indistinguishable from the ‘ szszulata’—Moore, of continental India.

One or the other will be found occurring commonly throughout the range ot the

district at almost any time of the year. It is more abundant in the autumn

than in the earlier months.

* 36. Colias ladakensis. Felder.

(Bing. 631; Ev. B 16 (5)).

Recorded from Kashmir to Kumaon, but is a rare insect of the higher

mountains. If found in the district, will be only on the lofty ranges of the

interior.

37. Colias hyale hyale. Linnzeus,

(Bing. 630; Ev. B16 (7)).

This species and its variety erate, — Esperance and its female form pallida,—

Staudinger, though not abundant, will be found fairly regularly anywhere above

7,000 ft. To get a really good series, one must exploit the open grass slopes of

the higher hills, such as the plateau on Kufri Hill and the meadows round

Narkanda and Baghi. Found from May to November and occasionally in the

winter months.

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

38. Colias croceus edusina, Butler.

(Bing. 638; Ev. B 16 (11)).

No cne who has given the butterflies even a passing glance can have failed to

notice this brilliant little orange insect about the hillsides and amongst the way-

side flowers of Simla. It is the only ‘clouded yellow’ which extends into the

plains ; and it is common in the lower country in the winter months and in the

hills all the year round.

39. Ixias marianne marianne. Cramer.

(Binge. 608% Ey. B17 (1)).

Common on the plains and in the submontane tracts, rarer above 3,000 ft.

A specimen or two may be picked up any day after the rains in the open grass

lands around Simla. The bare spurs beyond Sanjouli and Mashobra are the

most likely places.

40. Ixias pyrene satadra. Moore.

(Bing. 606 ; Ev. B 17 (2)).

Not uncommon in the plains and lower valleys to about 3,000 ft., but rarer

in the inner hills. I have seen it in the Asni river valley and Col. Chaldecott

took several near Luri on the Sutlej below Narkanda. Season as _ for

marianne.

*41. Colotis amata amata. Fabricius.

(Bing. 648; Ev. B18 (1)).

This species is fairly common in the central Punjab plains and one is said to

have been taken near Ambala. There is just a chance that an odd one or two

may be picked up below Kalka.

41. Colotis etrida etrida. Boisduval.

(Bing. 654; Ev. B 18 (5)).

Is also a species of the drier plains, but extends very sparingly into the

fringes of our area at the foot of the hills.

Pareronia valeria hippia. Fabricius.

(Bing. 659; Ev. B 20 (3)).

I know of no record of this insect west of Dehra Dun, but it is not uncommon

there, and there seems to be no reason why it should not occur in the similar

country westwards along the foothills into the Kalka area. It will be rare but

should certainly be looked for.

DANAIDA.

Though the Danais group of butterflies usually figure so prominently in

Indian collections, none of the species of the family can be said to be really

common in the Simla Hills. They are essentially insects of the plains and

warm valleys, and though some of the species are fairly common at the lower

levels of the hills in the north west, even these, as a general rule, become

scarcer and scarcer as one ascends into the mountains. Only some eight

Species come into the district at all.

42. Danais aglea melanoides. Moore.

(Bing. 15; deN. 16; Ev. C 2 (1)).

We are almost at the extreme westerly limit of the range of this insect, and

it is very rare here. It will occasionally be found along the foot of the hills,

but does not go above 2,500 ft. I once got a very worn specimen in a nullah

near Kalka in May.

— 2.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 183

43. Danais tytia sita. Kollar.

(Binge 14 deN. 20 3 iv. € 2 (5)).

Not very common but may be seen at intervals—oftener in the autumn than

in thespring. Usually flies high in and around Simla, where I have taken it

in June, September and October ; but is more abundant and more easily taken

in the valleys of hill rivers.

44, Danais limniace mutina. Fruhstorfer,

(Binge lb? deN.26 ; Evs.€ 2.(9)>):

Very common in the plains and comparatively so in the country round

Kalka, but seldom seen above 4,000 or 5,000 ft. Taken in the bed of the Simla

river in September, and below Summer Hill i in June.

45. Danais melissa septentrionis. Butler.

(Bing. 13°; deN. 27 3 Ev. '€ 2°(10)).

This species shares with D. ¢ytia a preference for the hills as distinct from

the plains and is not likely, in the N. W. Himalayas, to be found below 4,(€00

ft., though its eastern and southern races descend almost to plains level. Any

hyaline Danais taken round or beyond Simla is almost certain to be either this

species or ¢yfia. Usually found in open nullahs, but sometimes flies in the

station and in grass country. Occurs both spring and autumn.

46. Danais plexippus. Linnzus.

(Bing. 6; deN. 31; Ev. C 2 (12)).

47. Danais chrysippus. Linnzeus,

(Bing. 8; deN. 28; Ev. C 2 (14)).

Might conveniently be dealt with together. Both are common in the plains

and in the low river valleys, less so at any elevation in the hills. D. chrysippus

is generally the more abundant in the plains, but seldom goes very far into the

hills ; while plexzppus travels further afield and may not infrequently be seen

in and around Simla, though I have not met it above 8,000 ft. Both prefer

open surroundings and fly from April to October, but are more in evidence

after the rains.

48. Euploea core core. Cramer.

Euplea core vermiculata. Butler.

(BingSL;-deN. 61, 62 HvsC 3 (15)).

Two local races of the typical core, distinguished only by the appearance of

the white post discal spots on the forewings, which, in the former, tend to

decrease in size towards the apex, and, in the latter, increase in size. Typical

core is said to be the continental and plains form, while vermiculuta is the

Himalayan variety. Though, in along series of insects, this distinction is

abundantly clear, [ have not been able to satisfy myself that either form is

restricted to any particular area. Both may be taken within the country dealt

with in this paper, vermiculata being very much the scarcer form. Taking

them together, they are common in the plains and near Kalka, but markedly

less sO as one proceeds higher and are rare above 4,000 ft. A very occasional

specimen may be seen in Simla in the summer and autumn.

* 49, Euploea mulciber mulciber. Cramer.

(Binoy 46.5 deN 565 Hv. 3\(1)):

deNiceville has recorded this species from ‘near Kalka,’ and this is the

extreme westerly limit of its range. Though so common in the Eastern and

Central Himalayan foothills, it is rare even in the Mussoorie Dun, and its

appearance here is very exceptional. Any that there are, would be found in

the low valleys and ravines near Kalka.

(Zo be continued)

OBITUARY

JOHN C. ANDERSON

On the 17th June, 1930, John Coussmaker Anderson passed away

at Ramsgate, aged 78, and there must be many old friends who

remember him, although he left Bombay so long ago as 1901.

He was the son of General William Coussmaker Anderson and

Caroline Cahill, and was born at Dharwar, Bombay Presidency, on

9th September, 1851. He was educated at Rugby and afterwards

read at the Inner Temple, being called to the Bar in 1875. Three

years later he went out to India and practised in the High Court at

Bombay for 25 years. He married on his retirement from India in

1901. When he returned to England he made his home for ten

years at Winchelsea, Sussex, where he was Mayor for a time, but in

1915 he moved to Ramsgate on account of his health.

J. C. Anderson was one of the eight original founders of the

Bombay Natural History Society and as another old member writes,

‘he was a keen lover of nature and helped the Society in many ways,

years ago’.

In January 1889 he contributed an interesting Paper to the

Journal (No. 1, Vol. IV) entitled ‘Sporting Rambles round about

Simla’, and presented to the Museum a large number of specimens

of skins of birds and mammais collected by him round Simla.

He leaves a widow, three sons and three daughters to mourn

their loss.

Although handicapped by bad health in his retirement, he

devoted a great deal of his spare time to painting and derived much

pleasure from this hobby.

A very lovable 1nan, whose loss will be regretted by all those

who were privileged to know him and their sympathy will be with

his widow and family in their great bereavement.

WD. Vf.

November, 1930.

REVIEWS.

I. THE GAME-BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA AND CEYLON, (PHEA-

SANTS AND BUSTARD-QDAIL) VOL. III—By E.C. Stuart Baker, o.B.x.,

BeL.S:,) HZ Sap) Me BO. Us, Ets. Av. U.; swithl’ Il rcoloured: plates and 9

black and white plates. 340 pp., John Bale, Sons & Danielsson, Ltd., London,

1930. Published by the Bombay Natural History Society.

During 1915 to 1919 Mr. Stuart Baker published in the Journal a continuation

of his articles on the game birds of India and these have been brought up to

date and are now published in book form.

This volume—number three of the series—includes the Hemipodes or

Bustard-Quails—the Megapodes and the Pheasants, and will be of great

interest to all sportsmen and naturalists in the East.

The first family treated is the Zurnicide or Button-Quails, which includes

three species, the Bustard-Quail, the Little Button-Quail and the Button-

Quail.

Apart from certain anatomical differences, these little birds have a common

habit in which they differ from all of the game birds-in that the males

incubate the eggs and bring up the young without the help of the female.

Of the Bustard-Quails no less than seven races are now recognized, while in

his articles in the Journal, Mr. Baker only gave two. This increase in the

number of recognized races is due to a careful revision of the group in conjunc-

tion with the late Mr. H. C. Robinson. P

The colour differences which distinguish these races were many years ago

pointed out by Mr. W. R. Ogilvie Grant, who attributed them to the varia-

tion in the rainfall in the different localities, but probably that is only one of

the many causes.

The Little Button-Quail, Mr. Baker considers a good species, but we are

rather in favour of Dr. Stressman’s view that it is a race of the common

Hemipode of Europe 7armix sylvatica, of which there are various races in

Africa.

Of the Large Button-Quail two races are allowed as before, but unfortu-

nately there has been an inevitable change of name and the Burmese

subspecies is now known as Turnix maculatus maculatus, instead of Turnix

tankt blanfordt.

The next birds to come under review are the Megapodes of which we have

two races, the one in the Andamans and the other in the Nicobars. Here again

we have birds with very different habits from either the game birds or the

Hemipodes, and instead of incubating their eggs, they deposit them in pre-

pared mounds of dead leaves where they are hatched by the heat given off by

the decaying vegetation. The young when hatched can fly, and apparently

the parents take no interest in them.

Since the account of the Peacock-Pheasants appeared in the Journal, these

birds have been revised by Dr. P. R. Lowe, who found that a hitherto unre-

cognized race inhabited the area between Sikkim and Manipur. The display of

the Argus Pheasant is well illustrated by a photograph taken in the London

Zoological gardens by Mr. Seth Smith, but there is no mention in the descrip-

tion that the male watches the female through the angle formed by the

wing,—a fact which was first demonstrated by Mr. Seth Smith.

The account of the habits of the Red Jungle-Fowl by Mr. Baker and of the

Grey by Davison are very complete and make interesting comparison. Wenow

come to the pheasants but the only true pheasant found within our limits is

Phasianus elegans, Stone’s Pheasant, though Mrs, Hume’s Pheasant and its

Burmese race are very closely allied, but are now kept in a different genus

Syrmaticus, on account of the feathers on the rump being short and rounded

instead of long and disintegrated, and there are certain other small but

constant differences. ‘These birds are confined to the Eastern portions of our

region.

Phe account of the Cheer and Koklas Pheasants will be of more general

interest since, with the exception of Mayer’s Koklas, they all inhabit the

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Himalayas, but why the last is included we do not quite understand since the

distribution given ‘ Yerkalo, Upper Mekofhg to Central Tibet’ can hardly be

said to be within our area.

The beautiful Amherst Pheasant has occurred in the Myitkyina District but it

is strictly speakiny a Chinese bird, while the Fire-back, called Vieillot’s Fire-

back Pheasant, in the Fauna, isfound in the extreme south of Siam, and

the Siam Fire-back Pheasant just comes into our limits in the South Shan

States. :

From the Indus to China and as far south as Tenasserim and Indo-China

. there is found a heterogeneous collection of pheasants belonging to the genus

Genneus, which are known as Kalij or Silver Pheasants. These birds in

certain areas, the Himalayas, Assam, China, Indo-China are separable into

several species and numerous races, that is to say in certain districts the phea-

sants are all of onetype. In certain parts of Burma, however, there is a very

different state of affairs, and except in Arrakan and Tenasserim, there are

really no distinct types but all manner of mongrels. In the British Museum,

there is probably the largest collection of these pheasants anywhere, but it is

totally inadequate to solve the problem of tne Silver Pheasant in Burma.

Residents in that country could do much towards clearing up the question of

the Silver Pheasant if they would carefully collect specimens with full partic-

ulars as to the common type in their district and whether the different types

consort and breed together. Mr. Baker, we think, has made the best of a bad

job with the existing material and considers the Kalij and Silver Pheasants to

belong to six species, though he cautiously suggests in his definition of the -

genus Genuceus, that perhaps ultimately we may have to consider them all

belonging to one species with numerous sub-species.

There are few birds more beautiful in colour than a male Impeyan Phesant

or Monal, and we are glad to learn it is still common in the Himalayas. Inthe

past large numbers were killed for their skins aad we have seen boxfuls con-

fiscated by the Customs. According to Mr. C. H. Donald, the trapping of this

bird still goes on and we suppose some consignments evade the Customs and

reach some Continental market, but we are certain very few are now smuggled

into London, and doubt very much if London dealers have anything to do with

the trade as Mr. Baker rather suggests.

We can strongly recommend the volume to members, ‘and considering the

ealth of illustrations, it ischeap as bird books go nowadays.

Mr. Gronvold and the printers are to be congratulated on their share of the

work,

Nov Bak.

Il. THE FORMENKREIS THEORY AND THE PROGRESS OF THE

ORGANIC WORLD.—By Dr. Otto Kleinschmidt. Translated from the

German ‘by the Rev. °F. CC: Roe Jourdain; “Ne-A., .B,050.4 BZ.S- 9192 pps.

with 16 plates from photographs and numerous text-figures. London

(H. F. & G. Witherby). Price 10s. 6d.

In this book (originally published in German in 1926) the author who isa

clergyman as well as eminent German ornithologist, attempts to show that the

old Theory of Evolution is all wrong. He claims that his own theory, which

he here offers instead, and which according to him is essentially a ‘ recasting

of the old Evolution Theory ’, upholds ‘the indications found in nature

as to independent sources of life in opposition to the theory of a common origin

for all life’. He contends that the evidences hitherto cited in support of the

theory of descent of all life from the protozoon—Palzontologic, Embryologic,

by Blood serum tests and others—are entirely misleading. Among other thing's

he denies the possibility of birds having been derived from reptilian stock, and

gives his reasons for discrediting the belief that the Archzopteryx was the

probable ancestor of our present day birds. He maintains that in the theory of

Recapitulation the seeming phylogenetic resemblances in embryos has been

grossly exaggerated. He asserts that species cannot be derived from races,

and in short, the existence of so many different forms of animal life on the earth

seems to him accountable only on the assumption of there having been

so many independent creutions.

The author explains at the outset that the idea of Formenkreises or ‘ Form

circles ’ is no innovation of his; it was first suggested by the celebrated philo-

REVIEWS | 187

sopher Kant as early as 1775. Indeed the term ‘ Formenkreis’ itself is not new to

zoologists either, but it has hitherto been employed—principally in Entomology

and Malacology—in a slightly different sense to that now assigned to it

by Dr. Kleinschmidt. The former used it merely to denote a group of

geographical forms or races and as such therefore it may be considered synony-

mous with what is more commonly known to us to-day by the term ‘ Species ’—

a unit capable of being split into a number of geographical races or sub-species,

or conversely, comprising all such. To take an example near home, our

Indian House Sparrows Passer domesticus indicus, P.d. nigricollis and P.d.

parkini are all treated by us as belonging to the same Species, or in the sense

of the term as used before Dr. Kleinschmidt’s resuscitation of it, they would

all be considered geographical forms of the Formenkreis Passer domesticus.

Between the term as used above and the significance now attached to it

by Dr. Kleinschmidt there is an intrinsic difference Dr. Kleinschmidt does not

only lump geographical races under this term, but all forins which he considers

to be geographical representatives ot one another, even where these have been

differentiated as Species from Miocene times! He widens the limits of each

allied group ‘ of independent origin’ to ‘an inconceivable extent’; in other

words his ‘ Formenkreises ’ include much more than mere geographical races.

The author lays stress on the fact that for different forms to belong toa single

Formenkreis two essential conditions must be satisfied, viz.: (1) the forms

must exclude each other geographically, and (2) they must replace each other.

These seem to us to be more or less the identical conditions required for what

are known to us as Geographical Races! In order to make his meaning clearer

the authorexplains: ‘A Herring and a Zebra exclude each other geographically.

The last lives on the African Continent, the former in the North Sea’ (p. 34).

and since the Zebra does not replace the Herring as the various species of

Herrings do each other, the Zebra and the Herring belong to two different

Formenkreises. Welland good. But among the carefully selected examples

of Formenkreises which are given (the truth of some of which, as for instance

the Marsh-and Willow-Tits among birds, has already been accepted by

systematists) when the assertion is made that ‘Passer domesticus and P. hispanio-

lensis belong to the same Formenkreis in spite of the fact that in many areas

the two species (‘ forms’ according to the author) are found breeding side by

side thereby distinctly contravening one of the fundamentals above stated

(viz., ‘Formenkreises can exist side by side, races exclude each other geographi-

cally’), we fear the author’s explanation for this discrepancy will not be

generally accepted.

According to the Formenkreis Theory it seems it is not necessary for the

geographical replacement to be able to show all its existing connecting links,

and there may be extensive gaps in the distribution of two apparently quite

different forms which may nevertheless belong to one and the same Formen-

kreis. To make the author’s implication, as we understand it, clearer, we shall

take a hypothetical case. Readers will recall the interesting paper which

recently appeared in this Journal (vol. xxxiv, pp. 754-71) on the Origin

of Continents and Oceans according to Wegener’s Displacement Theory. Well,

suppose the Formenkreis of a certain bird existed over Brazil and West Africa

at a time when the two continents were united along their edges. When the

land masses drifted apart, their fauna was also naturally split up, but in spite

of this one would expect to-find birds in Brazil and West Africa to-day belonging

to the same Formenkreis, though having been separated for such a lengthy

period, the two forms may now have become quite unrecognizable as such.

They may perhaps even be classified by our systematists under totally different

genera, whereas a careful examination of their skeletal characters and natural

affinities, it is claimed, would show them as belonging to the same Formenkreis !

The Seal of Lake Baikal is cited as an example more or less of this nature, its

presence there being only accountable by the fact that Lake Baikal was

formerly connected with the northern oceans by an unbroken stretch of sea.

Both the seals, though widely separated and living in areas not at present

subjacent to one another, apparently belong to the same Formenkreis. ‘The

Seals of the Caspian could, we imagine, also be cited as an example of this kind.

We rather think that the author has contradicted himself in this interesting

suggestion. If he can conceive (as we gather) that isolation and milieu may

bring about changes in an organism of the magnitude suggested in our hypo-

thetical case (viz., to render classification into a totally different species or even

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

genus necessary) why will he not allow us to conceive that under given condi-

tions Species may develop from Races and from one another, or—to carry the

thing to its logical conclusion—that all beings may have evolved from a

common origin? The author, however, definitely seeks to prove throughout

his work that Species have not been derived from Races and from one another

as is commonly believed" to-day, but must be the result of so many original

creations! Unfortunately many of his arguments seem to us rather far-fetched

and not altogether convincing, and we must confess that in the present state

of our knowledge his stand appears to us only justifiable by the fact of his

being—in spite of his scientific outlook and attainments—essentially a theologian

of the old school.

In the course of his book, Dr. Kleinschmidt suggests a new system of

trinomial nomenclature based on a recognition of Formenkreises as defined

by him. We can only hope that he is not in earnest as, in our opinion, its

adoption at this stage can only lead to making confusion more confounded

than ever !

On the whole, Dr. Kleinschmidt’s book is interesting reading and furnishes a

wealth of arresting and thought-provoking material which the author has

laboriously collected in the course otf the last twenty-seven years during which

he has been engaged in elucidating his theory. Though we may not be able

to see eye to eve with him in all that he Las to say, we cannot but admire the

learning and industry which have enabled him to formulate his theory, and his

courage in exposing it to the almost certain hostile fire of what he considers

sceptical and biassed people.

Dr. Kleinschmidt’s style is unfortunate. In places it is unnecessarily pomp-

ous and dogmatic and extremely difficult to follow unless read and re-read

over and over again. On laying down the book one is left with a lurking

suspicion that there may really be more in his theory than has caught the eye.

Clarity has not been enhanced by the translator’s effort to ‘ reproduce in English

the exact words of the author, not amending or altering the text in any way,

but preserving as far as possible the characteristics of the writer’ (p. 15),

although in fairness to the translator we must confess it would have been ex-

tremely difficult to render a work of this nature faithfully in any other manner.

et eae

Ill. AN INTRODUCTION TO ZOOLOGY.—By P. W. Gideon with

illustrations. 88 pp. Student’s Own Book Depét, Dharwar, 1930.

Prof. Gideon’s Introduction to Zoology is a publication primarily intended

for the use of the Intermediate Science Examination students of the Bombay

University, who study a few types of animals representative of some of the

principal phyla in Zoology. He has prepared the book with this intention and

incidentally tried to condense in it as much information as possible about

systematic Zoology in connection with those phyla in the form of charts or

tables. He has succeeded well in accomplishing his first object, inasmuch as

facts relating to the type-animals are given in a most terse manner which the

students will find easy to follow. But beyond this there is nothing special or

original in the treatment of the subject to attract attention, nor is any new

piece of information of an original kind embodied therewith.

In the fulfilment of his second object of imparting knowledge about zoological

classification it may be said that he has fallen short of it. Without brief and

proper explanatory discussion on the classification of the phylum given in each

chart as a preface to it, the chart by itself will not appeal to the student and the

students are very likely to overlook these charts. The book is thus one more

addition to the host of such elementary publications. However, on the whole

the book has been most carefully prepared. ‘The illustrations are all well

drawn and executed, but they all appear to be familiar figures from various

-standard books.

Moreover, at page 3, the author gives the chemical composition of proteins as

formed of C. H. N. & O. only which is not proper. No protein compound

exists without traces of S. being present in addition to the above elements.

No hints for the practical work are given which is rather unfortunate.

WEN OER:

27th October, 1930.

AN OPEN LETTER TO THE EDITORS

A perusal of several recent articles in the Journal has induced

me to write on a matier of considerable importance to the

study of Ornithology. We are face to face with a danger which has

arisen in most countries but at the moment is particularly evident in

India. I refer to the indiscriminate use of subspecific or racial

names.

It is easy to see how this danger has come uponus. The pro-

gress of Indian Ornithology has hitherto been one of fits and starts,

of periods dominated by the work of outstanding authorities ; each

of whom in turn gave an impetus to the study and finally became,

through no fault of his own, something of a stumbling block. Jerdon,

Hume and Blanford and Oates each in turn sunimed up the

Ornithological work done in India and each in turn retarded it as

their writings grew out of date and yet retained the confidence of a

circle of field naturalists working in a land far from the centres of

scientific thought.

When I arrived in India and started to work on Indian birds, my

constant guide, companion and friend was found within the covers of

the four voluines of Blanford and Oates, which we now term the O/d

Fauna. My case was the same as dozens of others. We turned to

the Fauna for each new bird that we met with. We accepted its

dicta with complete and justified confidence. We catalogued and

inscribed our eggs and skins with the serial number of the species in

the Fauna. We corresponded with each other according to the

names and numbers of the Fauna. Occasionally with triumph we

hailed a small discovery of some fact which was ‘not in the Fauna’

and we immediately wrote to the Journal about it. The result was

that we in India attained fora time the millennium of all good

Zoologists——uniformity of Nomenclature.

Then we gradually awoke like Rip Van Winkle. We found that the

world had passed us by. We were writing and talking a language

that to the rest of the Zoological world was becoming archaic. There

were people who smiled at us when we wrote to them about No. 1

Corvus corax and they said that they supposed we must mean

Corvus corax laurenceZ ; or was it Corvus corax tibetanus to which we

referred ? We answered loftily about the views of the fauna, and

they were quite unimpressed and capped us with Hartert.

Looking back now I remember my own struggles against this

clumsy unsatisfactory new system of trinomials, new to me at a

time when science in Europe had entirely accepted it; and chief of

my arguments was that it could not be made to square with my

bible, my Fauna. It is amongst the many debts which I owe to the

present Editor of the /ézs that he patiently struggled with my doubts

and hesitations and at length led me to understand the virtues of the

new system. JI accepted it at last and painfully annotated my /auna

with the aid of Hartert’s great work, endeavouring to reconcile

the old and the new. Looking back through the past volumes of

190 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NALTORALTATST SOCIETY, Vols ey

the Journal I see that I was the first to introduce a trinomial into

the serried ranks of Faunza names and Fauna numbers : and naturally

enough I was attacked for helping to upset the good Old Fauna

names.

However that is all past history. The present is with us and that

includes a New Fauna complete with trinomials. Now the point of

my letter appears. An ornithological public in India is proceeding

to treat the Vew Fauna as they treated the old. It is to provide a

standard catalogue into which all the birds of India are to fall in neat

compartments, ticketed and docketed and filed with the precision of

a Government office. If ornithological science in India is to prosper,

this tendency requires to be stopped at once and the author of the

New Fauna would be the first to agree with this.

It is necessary first of all to explain the reason why there should

be such a difference between the treatinent of the Vew and the Old

Fauna. And then I will show the harm that will result if the

difference is not recognized.

Now the unit of treatment in the two Fauzas is different. In the

Old Fauna it is the species, in the zew the subspecies. The species

is a unit about which there is on the whole very little doubt. There

are exceptions of course but on the whole there is very little

difficulty to a moderately competent ornithologist over the recogni-

tion of species from a book. In the Old Fauna a keen, working

ornithologist could probably recognize 90 per cent of the species

from the written descriptions. Recognizing species alone, the Old

Fauna disregarded minor distinctions. Under No. 1 Corvus corax,

Oates grouped (with slight heart-searchings no doubt which often Jed

him to comment on the points) the largest race of the Raven, the fine

bird of Tibet, with one of the duller smaller races of the desert. It

was not difficult for the egg-collector who knew his Indian birds fairly

well to settle on the balance of knowledge and description and

probability that the nest he had found belonged toa Raven. And >

this division held good whether he found his nest in Tibet, in the

Punjab or some obscure outlying region of the North-West Frontier.

It was a Raven’s egg and that was ail he wanted to know. A higher

authority had settled that although Ravens in these areas might

differ zzter se the point could be disregarded.

In similar cases the difference might be larger and then the

authority decided that the point was to be recognized and a second

species was duly chronicled : but here again it was fairly safe on the

balance of descriptions and possibilities to fit the bird or its egg into

its appropriate division. In due course the keen student wroce his

paper for the Journal on the birds of his district and it was fairly

safe for the reader ard collator to assume that 90 per cent of the

birds were named with their appropriate names. The divisions

were wide enough to give a high margin of safety.

With the Mew Fauna all this has changed. The unit is the

subspecies and the subspecies is a far narrower compartment or

pigeon-hole into which to fit one’s observations. Take the case of

the Common Grey Tit of India for instance. In the Old Fauna we

were provided with one species which we called Parus atriceps. It

was easy to recognize in the cabinet and in the field. There was

ANIOPEN, LETTER TOTHE EDITORS 191

nothing like it in India. Seen in Kashmir or the Nilgiris it was

immediately recognizable—beyond all doubt if the view was clear and

the observer competent--and immediately one’s notes could be

placed confidently in their appropriate division without a care for

minor differences which our Fauna had stated, were negligible.

Now it is far different. The New Fauna has given 5 sub-divisions

of our old division, for India proper alone. For each of those

sub-divisions, that is races, it has given adiagnosis and a distribution.

The Indian Ornithologist is immediately proceeding to behave in the

face of these five races as he behaved with the old Parus atriceps. He

is a little bothered by the fact that he has five pigeon-holes instead of

one and reading the differences between the races he finds them

hard to visualize and perhaps to fit in with his actual specimens.

But he duly decides (with an eye on the distribution) that his bird is

probably of such and sucha race and in due course proceeds to

chronicle it as such. The result is that in many of the recent numbers

of the Journal many racial identifications appear which are certainly

wrong and far more that are probably so.

If this continues, there will be only two possible results, for papers

are set on record as contributions and aids to future work. The

next writer who proceeds to use these papers as a basis for further

writings and collations, will, if he is unwary, accept these wrong

racial identifications and piling Pelion upon Ossa build up a structure

which will prove entirely useless and incorrect. Or, if he is wary

and has the necessary knowledge he will soon spot the number of

wrong racial identifications and finally be compelled to reject

almost everything, through sheer inability to sort the correct from

the incorrect.

The author of the Vew Fauna is the first to acknowledge that the

information in the new edition is not beyond dispute. He says

himself that he regards his volumes as the starting point for fresh

work, and that plenty of it remains tobe done. The material is not

yet available for a complete account of the birds of India to be

written. The Mew Fauna has suggested zz the light of available

‘evidence a system of races or pigeon-holes into which Indian birds can

be distributed. But we must remember that with the exception of

Sind, the Punjab, the Himalayas and the Bombay Presidency, there is

no part of India in which any material number of specimens have

been added to the Hume collection now 70 years old. The Old

Fauna was based on the material in the Hume collection ; to-day in

the British Museum workers turn over the same skins which Hume

collected with little else to supplement them. The whoie of the

eastern side of the Madras Presidency, Mysore, the central plateau

of the Deccan and Central India, and Central Bengal are still

virtually unknown tous in an ornithological sense, whilst numerous

smaller areas require to be worked. It is clear therefore that no

arrangement of subspecies provided in the Mew Fauna can be

regarded as a final arrangement.

To remedy this state of affairs the Society arranged with the

generous aid of Mr. Vernay to send out the survey of the Eastern

Ghats. Working out this collection with Mr. Kinnear, I have already

seen how many forms require revision, both in regard to their

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NAFURAL. BIST. SOCIETY, Vol XXXV

races and their known distribution. In the first family of the Fauna,

the Corvide, for instance we have made two discoveries ; that the

Indian Tree-Pie, one of the commonest and best known of Indian

birds, needs yet another race vernayz in addition to the race pallida

which Mr. Stuart Baker himself has added in Vol. VII to his original

treatment of the group; and that the Himalayan Tree-Pie is

represented in the Eastern Ghats by a new and common race whose

existence there was not even suspected by the ornithologists of

to-day. Yet in both cases the authors of the recent papers whose

practice I am deploring if they had been collecting in the Madras

Presidency would have doubtless identified their specimens of these

magpies by the trinomial names already in Vol. I of the Fauna. We

should have then seen the absurd situation of the small pale Tree-

Pie of Madras being called by the name of the large dark Bengal

bird vagabunda; whilst the tropical, fever-ridden jungles of the

Northern Circars would have been credited with an East-Himalayan

race of a wider spread species. What is the use of such work and

records ?

There is a further point. Many geographical races differ in

details which are not easily apprised from a written description.

Chloropsts auritrons aurtfrons and Chloropsis aurttrons davidsonsi are

easily distinguished from a written description through the presence

or absence of certain markings. Emberiza cia stracheyi and Emberiza

cia par, on the other hand would never be safely distinguished by a

field naturalist with one bird in his hand and merely the book to

guide him. With both races before one, the first glance shows their

distinctive paleness and darkness but comparison cannot be attained

without the presence of the standard. Yet there are many other

good races, and several species, which no one can claim to identify

without careful comparison or great experience. In our survey

series from the Eastern Ghats, common birds like the Quaker-Thrush

(Alcippe potoicephala) and Horsfield’s Scimitar-Babbler (P. horsfieldzt)

have given us endless trouble to identify even subspecifically with a

large series of each obtained by the Survey and the big series in the

British Museum for comparison.

There is a third cause for error, namely, the tendency of birds to

migrate or wander. If we merely identify our races by guess-work,

we lose the chance of learning all those details of migration and

migration routes which the study of subspecies is most especially

likely to furnish.

In the Old Fauna, Emberiza stracheyi was said to migrate to the

plains of the N.-W. in India. When I was posted to the Jhang District

some years ago I found a Bunting common there in winter and at

first accepted it as being stracheyi come down trom the Himalayas in

winter, according to schedule. I collected'.a few specimens and took

the trouble to compare them with my specimens from Simla. They

were very different and hunting about in the pages of Hartert, I

learnt about &.c. dar which my birds were verified to be. Starting

with this information I have since learnt how there is considerable

migration of this Bunting from west to east in place of the north to

south migration assumed in a day when geographical races were not

recognized.

AN OPEN LETTER TO THE EDITORS 193

To take another instance. Some years ago I wrote an account

of the migrations of the Pied Crested Cuckoo (Clamator jacobinus)

appealing for data so that we could find out whether the myriads

which appeared in Northern India in the rains wintered in the South

or in Africa. The specimens procured in the Eastern Ghats survey

prove to belong to the Ceylon race faprobanus, a point which

virtually settles that our Northern migrants go to Africa.

To recapitulate briefly, the state of our knowledge renders it very

unsafe to identify the race of any Indian bird by guess-work from

a perusal of the Fauna. The fact that our knowledge of the distribu-

tion of Indian birds and their races is incomplete; the fact that races

are often recognized only with skilled knowledge and comparison ;

the fact that on migration, birds wander into the territories of other

races of the same species ;—these facts all combine to render guess-

work and deduction very liable to error. That being so, one must

ask the question what is the value of subspecific identifications made

without satisfactory reasons. Thereis only one answer and that is

none. And I go further and assert that every identification of

this type is worse than useless; it is definitely harmful for it not

only may lead us definitely astray on matters of fact; while an

accumulation of such identifications in literature will iand us ina

morass of error, throwing suspicion on good and bad alike, and it

will take a generation or more to put our knowledge straight again.

Destructive criticism should always be accompanied by advice.

So I now propose to suggest the lines on which our members

should write their papers.

The ideal Scientific paper on the birds . of a particular bcictiiet

would be one in which all specific and subspecific identifications were

based on an actual examination of specimens procured in that

district. It is not necessary that these specimens should all be

coliected by the writer de novo. If I set out to write a full account

of the birds of the Nilgiri Hills for instance, I could base the greater

part of my identifications on the fine series collected by Davison

sixty years ago and available in the British Museum. I could

supplement it with an examination of other specimens now in the

Calcutta Museum, in the Society’s collection and in many private

collections. Doubtful points I could clear up by collecting a few

birds myself, and the more thorough and painstaking my work and

my use of existing material, the fewer birds I should need to kiil for

my purpose in an area which had been adequately worked in the

past. On the other hand if I were stationed in some virtualiy

unknown and unexplored area on the Burmese frontier I should

need to procure specimens of almost every species, neglecting only

those well-marked forms of which there could be no possible doubt

of identification, assuming that I already had a good knowledge

of my subject.

Between these two extremes we have to fit the circumstances of

our particular district. The purpose is to know what species and

race we are writing about, and as completeness is never possible, it

is essential to make it clear to others what degree of completeness

has been attained. This is done in various ways. Some writers

list or mention the number of specimens they have been able to

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol. XXXV

exatnine. Others affix an asterisk to the names of all species and

races of which specimens have been procured and examined.

Others use a binomial in general aud a trinomial where actual

specimens have been identified, that is to say they do not mention

the race or subspecies without definite grounds on which they have

satisfied themseives as to the correctness of their sub-specific

identification. The method matters not; all that is necessary is to

leave aS part of your record an indication of the value of your

record. If you have collected no specimens in verification, say so

but do not list all the subspecies by guess-work. Your paper can

still be of value in other ways. |

The matter of course requires to be treated with the usual leaven

of common sense and appreciation of circumstances. If I were to

tour through six or seven districts of the Punjab in the spring and

all the way I came upon Grey Shrikes breeding I shouid accept them

all as Landus excubitor lahtora without a shot fired. My koowledge

of previous identifications of this breeding shrike in this area,

confirmed by the g/asstzg of occasional birds to verify the

presence of the black wing coverts would be sufficient. But Grey

Shrikes met at this season on the frontier hills obviously on migration

would require and receive a very different standard of proof before

I published any trinomial identification. ‘To assume or to guess in

their case, would be a very different matter. Yet here, too, I should

eradually be abie to relax my standard if my posting were in-some

frontier fort where the careful individual identification of one year

could relax with the growing familiarity of spring after spring.

And here a word of caution is necessary. One often reads that a

bird was shot and identified with the Fazza but the specimen was

not kept. Such an identification is far from seitling a disputed

point. Mistakes occur and often outrageous ones—I have had

the skin of a ‘Crested Lark’ sent me to confirm a record of nest in

an area where no crested lark should be; yet when the parcel

arrived, it contained a Crested Bunting, perhaps the most destructive

of all Indian birds and which had merely the crest in common with

the lark (and fifty other birds). Shoot a Meadow Bunting across

the border in Afghanistan and compare it with the Fauna description,

yet unless you have already studied the point and know it, you will

not safely identify your bird either as far or strachey7, not safely

enough that is to base some new fact or distribution upon it. So

if you have shot your bird for the record, make a skin of it for future

verification ; if you cannot skin in the correct manner split your

bird from chin to chine and pull off the skin as a flat one. If you

cannot do that, cut off the wings and tail and legs and put them in

an envelope. Then the record can be verified. :

I hope I have made it clear that it is possible to write and write

usefully on the birds of an area without killing a single bird. The

measure of the value of such a paper lies in the honesty of the

writer. If he makes it clear how his identifications were arrived

at in general terms, and expands this into aa explanation of the

‘grounds on which he bases unusual records, it is then possible for

the student of wider areas to assess the proportionate value of the

records, taking the satisfactory ones and rejecting the unsafe. But

AN OPEN LETTER TO THE EDITORS 195

let the student once assess the writer as untrustworthy (through

lack of knowledge or want of care) and he will probably reject the

paper 27 fofo.

And so with the writer of short miscellaneous notes, who should

use the binomial unless he has definite reason to use the trinomial.

Each of us comes across interesting incidents which we wish to

record, the Red-vented Bulbul’s behaviour in our verandah, the

unusual clutch of eggs and so forth. If we really know the

subspecies to which we are referring that is all to the good and

should be recorded. But if we are deducing the subspecies by the

geographical position of our verandah, we had far better leave that

deduction to the reader and let him be responsible for the further

use he makes of it. We should set down just so much as we

know, or if we deduce we should make it plain that we deduce, and

then our contribution to knowledge will be exact and free from

error.

And now, Sir, I must apologize to you and the readers of our

Journal for so long a homily, but unless our members realize that

the New Fauna has introduced a more precise type-of scientific

nomenclature to Indian Ornithology and that for this reason they

must draw a distinction between their treatment of the Mew and

Old Faunas we shall find ourselves in India in a hopeless muddle

which will delay all further progress. It is not an imaginary evil

which I am describing. The first fruits of it have already appeared

in more than one recent paper which it is hardly fair to specify

more exactly.

CALDBEC HOUSE, HUGH WHISTLER.

BATTLE,

23rd January, 1931.

THE FOUNDERS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY.

It may be of interest to put on record in the Journal the origin

and early history of the Society. 7

The Society was formed on the 15th September 1883 by, I

believe, eight residents of Bombay whose names were:

Dr. D. MacDonald

Mr. E. H. Aitken

Col, C. Swinhoe

Mr. J. C. Anderson

Mr. J. Johnston

Dr. Atmaram Pandurang

Dr. G. A. Maconochie

Dr. Sakharam Arjun

In the proceedings of a Meeting of the Society held on the 22nd

April 1902, (Vol. XIV, page 408), the late Mr. Aitken in referring to

the approaching retirement of Dr. D. MacDonald, said, ‘ probably

few of those present knew the real origin of the Bombay Natural

History Society, or had any idea that Dr. MacDonald was the fons et

orzgo of the whole thing. But such was the fact. It was early in

1883 that Dr. MacDonald suggested that it would be an excellent

thing to form a Society for the study of Natural History.’

Mr. Aitken then mentions that six gentlemen met in the Victoria

and Albert Museum and constituted themselves the Bombay Natural

History Society. The six names he mentions are those given above

but he omits the names of Col. C. Swinhoe and Dr. Sakharam Arjun.

In the Introduction in the first number of the Journal, January

1886, it is stated that the Society was founded ‘ by seven gentlemen

interested in Natural History, who proposed to meet monthly and

exchange notes, exhibit interesting specimens and otherwise

encourage one another’, but unfortunately it does not mention the

names of the seven. The eight names given above were traced from

the earliest Minute Book of the Society.

As No. 1, Vol. I, of the Journal may not be readily available to

many present-day members, it may not be superfluous to quote

further from the Introduction. The name of Mr. H. M. Phipson

was not amongst the original founders, as I believe he was on leave

in England at the time, but he must have joined the Society very

soon afterwards, as the Introduction states :—

‘For several months mectings were held in the ‘“ Victoria and

Albert”? Museum, but in January 1884, Mr. H. M. Phipson kindly

offered the use of a room in his office in the Fort. This removal to

a central situation gave an astonishing impulse to the Society. The

meetings were better attended, the membership increased and

collections began to be made, so that in a very short time the

BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY'S FOUNDERS 197

necessity for more ample accommodation was pressingly feit. The

committee appointed to seek for suitable rooms having failed

elsewhere, recommended the Society to ask Mr. Phipson to let one-

halt of his office premises, including the room of which they had up

to this time had the gratuitous use. He consented to this and sothe

Society continued to hold its meetings and keep its collections at

18, Forbes Street. Its progress was so rapid however, that these

premises were soon felt to be too small and last month the collec-

tions were removed to larger and in every way more suitable rooms

at 6, Apollo Street.’ a

It is well known that Mr. H. M. Phipson was the backbone of the

Society from March 1886,—when he took over the position of

Honorary Secretary from the late Mr. E. H. Aitken—to 1906, when

he left India, and the success of the Society has been greatly due to

his devoted labour on its behalf, and his wonderful personality, aided

by other stalwart early members, such as the late

Mr. E. H. Aitken

Dr. D. MacDonaid

Mr. Justice H. M. Birdwood

Mr. R. A. Sterndale

MreG. W. Vidal, €:S.

Mr. J. C. Anderson

Surgeon K. R. Kirtikar

Miro W ak inciair. C.S.

Rey. F. Dreckmann, S.J.

Mr. R. C. Wroughton

all of whom have passed away, but their work is evident as shown

by the present flourishing condition of the Society, which has been so

ably helped by so many past and present workers whose naines are

too numerous to mention in this brief note.

Mr. H. M. Phipson is, fortunately, still with us, living in

England, and continues to take a great interest in the work of the

Society.

TUNBRIDGE WELLS, KENT, W. S. MILLARD,

November 1930.

[It may be interesting to members to note that the original rooms

used by the Society in 18, Forbes Street, still form part of the Society’s

premises. They are now used for the Taxidermy work of the

Society. Mr. Millard is a link with the old founders. He joined the

Society in the year 1888 and working in close collaboration with

Mr. H.M. Phipson whilst he was in India he carried on his

work as Honorary Secretary from the time of Mr. Phipson’s

retirement until the time came for him too to Jeave India—-in April

1920. He has, however, continued to be an active official of the

Society and as our London representative has lessened the labours

of and earned the gratitude of the EpiTors. |

MISCELEANEOUS NOTES.

I.—A CASE OF HYBRIDIZATION BETWEEN

THE WILD-DOG AND THE JACKAL.

(With a photo.)

I am sending you a couple of snapshots that might interest your

readers. Atthe Mysore Zoo, there were seven wild dogs at one time

and as constantly many fights would ensue, they had to be separated.

Owing to the limited number of cages and also to a certain extent

as an experiment, a bitch was put together with a jackal in one cage.

In due course intimacy was noticed between the two and on

Noveinber, 27, 1930, two young pups shown in the photos were

born. The mother is very good and looks after the young ones

very well. The pups at present resemble the mother very much

but it is yet too early to judge and take notes.

THE PALACE, MYSORE. SADEG Z. SHAH,

February 13, 1931. Assistant Secretary to H.H. the

Maharaja of Mysore.

JouRN., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

A fine bull of the Mithan ( Bibos frontalis, Lamb.}:

Mithan ( Bibos frontalis, Lamb.) showing dewlap and dorsal ridge.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 1¢9

[In vol. xx, p. 215 of the Society’s Journal, Maj. H. W. Berthon

describes an incident of a Jackal hunting with Wild Dogs. The

Jackal was an accepted member of the pack which attacked a goat

tied up for bait. The Jackal was shot and its skin and skull sent to

the Society’s museum where it was identified as a true Jackal. Maj.

Berthon suspected that the Jackal was a hybrid. In vol. xxx. of the

Journal, the late Mr. Tuggersee, D.F.O., Kanara, published a note on

a hybrid Jackal and domestic dog.—-Eps. ]

Il.--LARGE HEAD OF MALAY SAMBHAR

(CZRVOS. ONICOLOR, LOUINUS)

I am in possession of a sambhar head shot in the Thayetmyo

District the measurements of which I give below:

The head is a very massive one but I ain aware is not a record by

any means when compared with some of the heads procured in India.

For Burma, however, it is large, at least I have never seen one

approaching it in size.

I would be glad if you would let me know if it is anyway out of the

ordinary.

Length na ia or

Span sia ek Osa

RiprtOn Pip. va 244”

Beain ae _., at base just below first tine and

Coronet, 124"<,

Above first tine 8”.

THAYETMYO, A. L. BROWNLOW,

BuRMA, ISP:

December 23, 1930:

[The best head of the Malay Sampbhar in Rowland Wards’ Records

of Big Game, (8th Edition), 1s in the possession of the D. H. M. Boyle.

It measures L. 33” ; circumference 53” ; tip-tip 283”; | widest in-

side 30”. Mr. Browalow’s specimen is remarkable for its phenome-

nal girth. Inthe Society's collection there is a single antler of an

Indian Sambhar picked up in the Nimar Jungles C. P. with a girth

measurement of 125”.—Eps.]|

III.—THE GAYAL, OR MITHAN (SOS FRONTALIS)

(With a plate)

Some years ago the sportsman who opened his game license in

Burma found an astonishing entry—‘ one Mithan’ among the ani-

mals he might endeavour to shoot! Was this a facetious pleasan-

try on the part of the Forest Department, or was there really such

a beast? Was it a Myth—or a Mithan?

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

There is no suchintriguing entry now,* sothat Myth, or Mithan,

- may rest undisturbed by the thought of some restless Saheb stalk-

ing them with a rifle ‘suitable for the purposes’. The joke is still

perpetrated though, for the mysterious Mithan is still honourably

mentioned—in the list of animals protected all the year round-—which

but leads us back to the question what isa Mithan? Those who

have climbed up into the mountainous country between India

and Burma will have seen this queer, sacrificial animal of the Chins,

Kukies, Nagas and other hill tribes; and may be able to answer the

question. For those less fortunate I humbly offer some photo-

graphs of Mithan taken in the Chin Hills which may enable them

to visualize this strange beast and form their own opinion as to its

existence. The resemblance to the wild Gaur or Bison is at once

evident, and the more we see of this curious animaithe more we

are inclined to accept the conclusions of the eminent ornithologist

Mr. Stuart Baker, that the Mithan—or Gayal as it is called in Assam

—is specifically the same asthe Bison. But this does not mean

that the Mithan is exactly the same animal] as the Bison is, only

that their affinity is such that they can freely interbreed. ‘The wild

Bison—and there is nothing to show that it has ever been domestica-

ted—is a larger and more powerful and more active animal than its

domesticated relative the Mithan, and the horns are far larger, more

corrugated, longer and with a characteristic angle that at once dis-

tinguishes it from the Mithan which—in the Chin Hills at any rate—

has short and straight horns which are rarely corrugated. The

skulls and horns of Mithan and Bison can be distinguished ata

glance from one another as the two hang row upon row inthe Chin

houses.

In Vol. XV, No. 2 of the Bombay Natural History Society’s

Journal, 1903, Mr. Stuart Baker has given a masterly account, pro-

fusely illustrated, of the differences and resemblances of the two

animals which is of great interest. He lived for years among

these beasts and killed all the record heads and besides was a

highly skilled naturalist and observer. He, however, was on the

Assam border where apparently crossing between the Bison and

Mithan still takes place to a considerable extent, and as we should

suppose, the Mithan there very closely resemble the Bison: in

fact there is a more or less gradual transition between the two.

This is not quite the case in the Chin Hills, however, for there

the Bison have been shot out to a great extent, and the oppor-

tunity for the two to meet and interbreed very rarely occurs.

Enquiries over a considerable area only brought to light a single

case which occurred about ten years ago. As may be then expec-

ted the differences between the two animals are more apparent in

the Chin Hills than the resemblances, whereas on the Assam border

the resemblances seem paramount.

In the whole of his article, however, Mr. Stuart Baker does not

touch on what is perhaps the whole crux of the matter, and that is

* The Forest Department, in theirGame Rules for the Shan States, still

considers it a game animal though it has never existed in the Shan States or

within hundred miles from the Shan States.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 201

once again—what is a Mithan ?>—what causes the difference between

it and the wild animal ? ‘The difference can be due to either the

Mithan being the survival of what was once a species of light hill

Bison peculiar to these hills—or to domestic cattle crossing with the

Bison. There is nothing to support the first supposition—_were it so.

The Chins who are hunters to a man would have some tradition of

it, and extinct animals donot so easily persist in a domesticated

condition. This idea, if indeed it exists, may be dismissed. Nor

is there the slightest evidence that the Mithan is a pure blooded

domesticated Bison. Bison are extremely difficult to keep in capti-

vity and Mr. Stuart Baker ridicules the idea. It is then the result

—this strange beast—of the wild Bison crossing the domestic cattle

of the people: such indeed is their own opinion of the origin of

their Mithan (I speak of the Chins). Inthe Gazetteer of the Chin

Hills of 1896, it is stated that ‘ The Chins tell us that the Gaveus

frontalts is not a separate animal from the Gaveus gaurus, and that

their Mithan are the results of a cross between the wild Bison bull

and the commoncow’. At the fourth generation the true stage of

the Mithan is reached and then it breeds true—or if allowed with

the domestic cattle—until it becomes almost obliterated. In the Chin

Hills every stage between the Mithan proper and the common cow

can be seen—until the high dorsal crest of the Bison has been re-

duced to amere hairy thickening along the back. As the herds

receive more and more cow blood the horns become cow-like and all

the domestic cow’s varied colours begin to appear.

Mithan are to be found throughout this mountainous tract,

from North Cachar, through Manipur to the Lushai and Chin

Hills, and south to Chittagong. They are a peculiar and charac-

teristic possession of the Hill Tribes inhabiting those regions. In

the Chin Hills they are usually herded into the house com-

pounds at night and are in many cases more gentle and tract-

able than the domestic cow. ‘As gentle as a Mithan’ say the

Chins, but there are exceptions to this rule, and I have had on

more than one occasion to protect my horse from being gored at

night by a crusty old wanderer out for blood. At such times they

roar a peculiar bellow—not unlike a mule’s which is of interest as

the bison is a very silent beast. I have seen an old bull charge a

Chin with incredible agility and toss him five yards away into the

jungle—showing a bit of his wild ancestry. Usually they are timid

and harmless enough as indeed are wild Bison till molested.

I shall not forget my first sight of a Mithan. I was riding along

the hill path as it wound round a steep hillside when a slight sound

above me attracted my attention. I looked up and some four yards

distant a magnificent bull Mithan stood gazing down at me—a Bison

but for his straight horns and the proximity of a village.

Mithan are said to be hardly as numerous as they were years

ago inthe Chin Hills and it would be as well to discourage their

too frequent slaughter in sacrifice and feast until the stock is up

again. A good bull is worth about Rs. 80 now.

It is interesting to speculate on the future of this fine animal—

if itis to have a future--now that the chances of getting new wild

Bison blood become more and more remote as the big game

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST.“ SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

becomes yearly less and less. It would be of great interest to intro-

duce it into some other country where grazing is good, as in

Australia. There it might prosper and grow to a larger size. The

difficulty in most cases of acclimatization are here not present to

hinder the experiment—-for suitable animals can be bought in perfect

condition at a reasonable price, and they are moreover docile and

would not fret themselves to death during transit by sea and rail.

I commend the idea for what it is worth.

If the question raised at the beginning of this article ‘ what is

a Mithan’ has not been answered, it has been raised at any rate

for others to reply to, and it would be of interest to hear if they

occur in other parts of the world where Bison have access to

domestic cattle as they possibly have in the Malay States, Siam

and Indo-China.

Haka, CHIN HILLs, | TS Re LIV ESE.

November, 1930.

IV.—A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE TURKESTAN

PENDULINE TIT. (REM1Z CORCNAT CS) ANTES ae NAB:

As Huhg Whistler’s (Journ. B. N. H.S., vol.. xxiii, p. 153), appears

to be the only record for the Punjab it may be worth noting that while

staying at Lahore last cold weather, I came across a party of three

of the above species on the outskirts of the Shahdara Rak.

They were feeding ina ‘ Ber’ (2. jujuba) tree, and I heard no

note.

The party consisted of two and one @, ail adult as ascertained

by dissection. ; :

The date was ist February.

SIMLA, | A. E. JONES.

January, 1931,

V.—NOTES ON THE WHISTLING SCHOOL BOY OR

MALABAR WHISTLING THRUSH

(UVIOPHONEUS HORSFIELDI, ViGORs),

In spite of the fact that it is a common bird throughout the hilly

tracts of the Bombay Presidency, I think it is more often heard than

seen ; consequently a short description would not be unpardonable.

Seen from a distance it appears like a diminutive crow witha slen-

der bill, but on closer examination, its brilliant hues become visible.

It is a black bird with the greater part of the feathers of the body

and tail suffused with a rich cobalt blue. Added to this, the ‘ fore-

head’ and the lesser wing-coverts are a bright cobalt blue. The

bili and feet are quite black, while the eye is brown.

On the whole this Whistling Thrush is a shy and retiring bird,

lurking in the gloom of well-shaded rivulets, water-courses, and over-

hanging rocks and cliffs where there is a constant supply of water.

In spite of its retiring habits the bird soon gets used to the proxi-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 203:

mity of man and will then come out of its hiding place without the

slightest indication of fear, Though fond of water, it (in my experi-

ence with them) never inhabits the neighbourhood of still water,

such as tanks. It is a regular bather and early in the morning may

be observed engaged in having its morning bath, frequently

entering the water during the hot weather. Often, it also engages in

an evening splash as well. When disturbed, it flies up to the nearest

rock or branch, bobs its head down, raises and spreads its tail like

a fan suddenly closes it again, then erects itself and flies away giving

forth a long, sharp, piercing whistle as it goes. This is the alarm

whistle.

Generally single, in the breeding season they go about in pairs.

They appear to preserve certain territorial rights for other birds of

the same species are soon chased away if they happen to encroach

on the preserve of another.

The breeding season commences with the break of the monsoon

and may thus vary with the locality. Around the hills of Sal-

sette, Khandala, and Mahableshwar, they begin to build in June, the

eggs being laid soon after completion of the nest. The nests are

built of moss and other vegetable fibre, sometimes lined with a few

feathers, The nests are generally built in crevices and holes in

overhanging inaccessibie rocks. |

The young are hatched in July. At first they are quite naked,

but soon long black down-feathers are developed which stand erect.

The skin is nearly quite black, and must protect themn completely in

the dark corners in which the nests are usually situated. The down

feathers are highly sensitive and readily react to the slightest touch,

even to that of a fine hair. I have frequently tested this point. This

is what makes me inclined to believe that these long down-feathers

are of a protective value to the young birds, for in the places where

the nests are built, there are to be found innumerable mosquitoes

and small flies which no doubt constantly harass them. That

mosquitoes do worry them I have not the slightest doubt as it has

been amply proved to me by the birds I have had in captivity.

Between August and September the nestlings are able to fly. The

down-feathers are gradually replaced by ordinary feathers to the

extremity of which the down feathers remain attached for some

time before they fall off. Those of the head are the last to be

shed. The feathers are at first quite black but in time become

suffused with the cobalt blue like the adult. The iesser wing-coverts

are the first to becoine cobalt blue and when these have developed.

the feathers of the crown follow—this is the last to be developed,

Even when moulting, the blue of the feathers appear some time

after the feathers have developed and not as soon as they appear.

The food of these birds consists chiefly of snails, small frogs and

insects, and possibly of a little vegetable matter. Crabs are also

largely eaten, so also are worms. Snails and crabs are hammered

against the rocks to break the shells which are not eaten in either

case.

As I have said, these birds are more often heard than seen. It

is their beautiful whistle which first attracts the attention. So human

and full are the notes that they have frequently deceived the

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

listeners. ‘There is no uniform song but one note is followed by

the other much like the awkward whistling of aboy. It is in the

mornings and in the evenings that these birds like to whistle best.

But the monsoon is the time to hear them. It is just the time for

them when there is plenty of mist and fog about and slight showers

of rain.

In captivity they make most delightful pets, though they area

little dirty on account of their diet. They soon become very attach-

ed to their masters. Attimes they are inclined tobe pugnacious,

particularly towards strangers. Two can seldom be kept in the

same cage as they will invariably fight. The young are somewhat

Gifficult to rear at first owing to their delicate nature and diet. The

diet in captivity should consist of hard boiled eggs and raw meat

cut up into tiny pieces, to this may be added some greens and

fruit. When possible, small frogs, not toads, crabs and insect-food

should be givento them. A liberal supply of water should always

be provided. When almost full grown, a tray with water should

always be put into the cage for bathing purposes.

When taught to whistle early, these birds are excelient mimics

and are able to whistle any tune. One that I had for some years, was

able to whistle the song ‘ For me and my girl’ right through quite

correctly and one or two bugle calls. There are few birds in

India which are so adept in whistling.

In captivity these birds, if welllooked after, will live long. I

have had them for as many as seven, eight and nine years and in all

cases an accident was the cause cf death. One that I have at the

moment, has been in captivity for the last eight years. In captivity,

they moult regularly every year, just after the monsoon, usually

commencing about September. It takes about two and a half to

three months tocomplete the moult. During this period the bird is

somewhat quiet. The wing feathers are the first to fall, followed

by those of the tail. Then those of the body and lastly from the

head. During the casting of the wing and tail-feathers many of the

body feathers also fall.

BoMBAY, C. McCANN, F.LS.,

November, 1930. Assistant Curator, Bom. Nat. His. Society.

VI.—A NOTE ON THE NIDIFICATION AND

HABITS OF THE TRAVANCORE LAUGHING-THRUSH.

(TROCHALOPTERUM JERDONI FAIRBANK).

(With a plate)

I have just received a copy of the lately-published Ards of

Southern India by Lt.-Col. H. R. Baker and Mr. C. M. Inglis, from

which I see that the note therein with regard to the nest of the

above reads as follows. .. . ‘Itis, in shape, a deep cup made of

moss, roots and tendrils lined with fern-stems and fine bents, etc,’

(ayunqawf{ wopsal umnasagdojvyI04 Z ) (‘ayungaiv{ vuopaal wnaasdovyI04 { )

‘YSNIyL-surpsney sloourAelT JO YON ‘z ‘JSON 7 YSNIYL-sulysney o100ueaAeiy, *1

‘00S ‘LSIH “LVN AVAWOd “NYNO!L

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205

. Of its habits nothing whatsoever is recorded in this volume. On

turning to The Fauna of British India— Birds, we find no information

about the nest but its habits are said to be similar to those of

cachinnans, of which the following is written—‘ It is always found in

parties, sometimes consisting of a dozen or more birds, and is one

of the noisiest of the family. ... It keeps much to the ground and

to dense undergrowth, and though its diet is mainly insectivorous,

Jerdon remarks that it feeds principally on the imported Peruvian

Cherry (Physalis peruviana). It is said to be a shy bird except in

the breeding season, when it sits very close and becomes much

bolder.’

The notes on cachinnans in The Birds of Southein India reada— A

very common permanent resident on the hills where it frequents

undergrowth, hedges and gardens; it usually associates in small

parties, the members of which keep up a continual cry of VPee-koko,

Pee-koko, from which the bird drives its local name. It is not

particularly shy, yet evinces a disinclination to come out into the

open, preferring to escape notice by hopping and creeping amongst

the bushes.’

From the above, we are now in a position to know something about

the Travancore bird’s mode of living and nest-building, but I venture

to suggest that the normal nest of 7yochalopteron jerdont tairbanki is

not as stated above, nor do the habits of cachinnans as given here,

quite fit this bird, at any rate in so far as those observed around

Kodaikanal are concerned.

I spent April and May of 1928 in the Palni Hills, and besides a

nuniber of old nests, I found the following six occupied ones :—

No. 1. 4h April. Empty, but practically finished.

WoG2 a 230s, In such a very thick hedge in the bungaiow

compound that I was unable to get at it, but

the two young ones left the nest on this date.

NON Sa Seat} Construction just begun. Contained two eggs

on 7th May. :

Wox dn 20th. ,, Two eggs. :

No. 5. 6th May. One egg, but two next day.

Noxon lth’ % ,, Two newly-hatched young ones.

Firstly, as regards nest materials. No. 1, I thought was not very

dissimilar from many nests of cachinnans which I have seen, but as I

discovered it torn out and lying onthe ground the following day

I pulled it in pieces, finding it made up as follows :--The extreme

outside was chiefly of moss which formed possibly 20% of the entire

structure. Coarse grass formed the remainder, while the lining

appeared to be still wanting. This was the only nest in which moss

had been employed to any appreciable extent, although No. 4 had

a very small quantity incorporated in one side of it.

No. 3. I observed from its very inception. In fact had I not seen

the birds fly into the bracken with material, I would never have

realized that the half dozen untidy-looking strips of coarse grass were

the foundations of a nest. This nest, which is the one containing

eggs shown in the plate, was also destroyed, aad but for the bracken

leaves which are visible in the photograph, was exclusively of dry

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

grass. with a lining of slightly finer grass. No. 6, also built in

bracken, was an exact replica of this one.

No. 5 had two small feathers and one hair mixed up with its grass

lining. The remainder, including the old ones I mentioned, do not

call for comment. In fact, a general description of the nest as

visualized by me would run as follows :—Moss is seldom, and then

only scantily, used. ‘The structure is composed almost exclusively

of coarse grass, very compactly put together, with a deep cup, lined

with slightly finer grass. At times bracken leaves or other mate-

rials, depending on the site of the nest, are also used to a limited

extent.

As regards habits, reading the note on cachinnans in The Birds of

Souther India in conjunction with that in Zhe Fauna a very fair

idea of fazvbank7’s habits is obtained, but my own impressions are

that it is more of a ‘garden’ bird than cachinnans and on the whole

much bolder. Whereas the Nilgiri bird’s stronghold seems to be the

sholahs, and to a lesser extent patches of undergrowth and gardens

where a sufficiency of cover exists, fazybanki seemed to me to shun

the deeper wocds, inhabiting the very edges of the sholahs, bush-

dotted hillsides, and the extensive patches of bracken which clothe

them, while every garden, however small, within Kodaikanal itself

boasted its inhabitants. These latter birds move about the rose

bushes and other plants searching for ilusects in quite an open

manner, while the pair mentioned as having a nest in our own

compound were very keen on a tall wire-netting fence. On three

occasions I stood in the doorway only 8 feet distant while oy fed

their two young ones clambering about the top rail.

I do not agree that either of these birds keep much to the ground.

They are certainly not averse to descending to it, but by far the

greater part of their existence is spent in creeping about low cover

or bushes at from 2 to say 6 or 8 feet up, sometimes descending to

the ground as occasion arises.

The first nest mentioned, in an upright fork of a tall bush, was

the only one I found in a sholah and this was in a comparatively

open portion near a stream. The majority of nests were either in

an upright fork in the densest part of a rather isolated bush on a

bush-dotted hillside or else anchored in tall bracken which abounds

all over the summits of the Palnis. These bracken nests were

usually no great distance from the edge of a sholah or other cover,

nest No. 6 being the most isolated, being some 40 yards from the

edge of a pine-wood on the one hand, and 60 yards or so froma

small stream on the other hand whose banks sported a certain

amount of cover. Incidentaliy I never saw the birds visit the wood

which after its kind had no undergrowth whatsoever. |

The statement in The Birds of Southern India that ‘ It usually

associates in small parties, the members of whicii keep up a continual

ery of Fee-koko Pee-koko ..... , is rather misleading. I have

watched numbers of both races, including birds at the nest from the

hiding-tent and parties feeding, and have always noticed tnat this

cry is used by one bird to call up its mate, or companion (?), when

they are separated. One of the photographs here shows a bird on

the nest answering its mate which had just called out twice from

-MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 207

where it was feeding in the bracken some 200 yards away. A

couple of such calls and answers and all would be quiet again for

some time until one or other of the birds, apparently becoming

anxious, would raise its head high in the air, puff out its chest, and

crow loudly once, twice, or thrice until it received an answer. Inci-

dentally Inever saw the Travancore bird in more than family parties,

though, of course, they may become more sociable out of the breeding

season.

The above impressions are the result of but a two months’

acquaintance with this bird; so if some of my conclusions are

incorrect, perhaps there is an ornithologically inclined member

resident in Kodaikanal who will point out the discrepancies.

BAREILLY, Reon DATES;

December 23, 1930. Captain.

VIL.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE GOLD-FRONTED

FINCH (MVETAPONIA PUSILLA) AT SUKKER, SIND.

~The Fauna gives the distribution of the Gold-fronted Finch

(Metaponia pusilla) as follows :—Caucasus, Mountains of Central

Asia, Persia, Afghanistan, Kashmir, Ladak and ‘Tibet. It is

therefore worth recording that I was lucky enough to obtain a fine

specimen of this finch on January 1, 1928, at Sukkur, Sind.

I was out collecting about a mile below the Barrage, and was

passing through some interesting cultivation near a village, when I

flushed about five birds, which I at once recognized as something I

had not seen before. They were very restiess and difficult to

approach. However, I managed to obtain one specimen, the others

took flight, and disappeared out of sight over the top of some tall

‘trees. I failed to find them again. The bird I obtained proved to

be a juvenile male.

This finch has not been recorded from Sind before, and Dr.

C. B. Ticehurst does not mention it-in his list of Sind Birds.

BARRAGE TOWNSHIP, — vi. a. COLE:

SUKKUR, SIND,

February 10, 1931.

VIII.—THE NESTING OF THE MALABAR HEART-SPOTTED

WOODPECKER (HEMICIRCUS CANANTE CORDATUS)

IN TRAVANCORE.

{ have received the following most interesting account of the

nesting of this bird in Travancore, from Mr. C. Primrose. It is so

widely different from the account given by Mr. Stuart Baker in The

Fauna of British India (Birds) 2nd edition, that I am sending it to

you for publication in the Journal. Mr. Primrose wrote :—

‘IT am sending you two eggs of Hemicircus c. cordatus taken on

November 26, and December 15, respectively. These I have

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

little reason to doubt, were laid by the same bird as the following

details will show. The first nest, a shallow tunnel of some 5 inches

in depth, made in a rotten fencing post, 3 feet from the ground, was

taken by me and contained one fresh egg. Shortly after I noticed

another nest being excavated ona similar post about 50 yards further

along the line of fencing and, waiting till I judged the bird had time

to lay, took this as well finding one fresh egg as before. The fence

runs along a much-frequented path near the jungle. Both nests

were not more than 3 feet from the ground and in shape the

entrance was much pointed at the upper end. The bird on

hearing one approach climbs up and keeps a look-out from just

inside the hole, its creamy-yellow forehead and upper breast blending

well with the background of the newly-worked rotten wood. It

allows a close approach before leaving the nest and then only goesa

short distance away and looks anxiously at the intruder, uttering its

characteristic and rather metallic note and bobbing about in a jerky

manner. It returns to the nest very quickly if one conceais oneself

and after a look round, whilst perched at the éntrance, with a final

Kestrel-like bob disappears inside. I shall keep a further look-out

along the many miles of fencing held up by rotting posts round this

estate and see if I come across more. Incidentally the fencing posts

where these nests were taken were within a few yards of heavy

forest containing many dead trees and branches. The bird is

certainiy common here, usually seen in pairs, which attract one’s

attention by their noisiness’.

HULDIBARI. T.E., CHAS. M. INGLIS,

BINNAGURI P.O., E.Z.8., FH.Ss, MoBsO2Us

DUARS,

January 19, 1931.

IX.—THE NESTING OF THE BESRA SPARROW-HAWK

(ACCIPITER VIRGATUS AFFINIS) AT SIMLA.

In his articles on the Bzrds of Prey of the Punjab (J.B. N.A.S.,

vol. xxvii, pp. 139-140), Mr. C. H. Donald in his note on the above

species says there are no nesting records for the province.

It is therefore worth setting down particulars of a nest which

came under my observation this year on 25th and 27th May.

In the first place I ought to say that it was entirely due to the

strange vociferations of the male that my attention was drawn to the

fact that there was to me a strange bird-noise going on in the

neighbourhood, and so sat down to investigate.

Looking in the direction from which the sound came, I saw

another bird fly into the tree. From my coign of vantage I was

unable to see what ensued, but J certainly think the male had called

the femaie off the nest on account of some tit-bit he had brought.

Watching in the direction of the sounds, I had, after an intervai o.

about six minutes, the pleasure of seeing the female fly to a nest of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 209

sticks 60 feet up a Deodar (C. deodava). She stood on the edge of

the nest for some seconds, and then settled down on the eggs,

For forty minutes I sat watching her through the glasses, during

which time she shifted round an axis of about 135 degrees, Standing

up she preened herself after which she seitled down again to

incubation duties,

Two days later, with my climber, I again visited the spot, a quiet

nullah in deep forest composed almost entirely of Deodars.

This time, asthe climber ascended the tree, she sat down very low

in the nest, but when he was half way up, she stood up and waited on

the edge of the nest, then flew to an adjacent tree where she assumed

an aggressive attitude,

The nest contained four highly incubated eggs which are white

with just a tinge of green and are sparingly marked with small spots

of sienna brown,

SIMLA. A. E. JONES.

X.—FURTHER RECORD OF THE MALLARD (ANAS

PLATYRYNCHA) OCCURRING IN_ BURMA.

I am sending you by separate registered post the head, wings,

feet and tail of a duck recently shot by me at Hnokcho, Bhamo

District, on the Theingaw j/ec/. It was identified by Mr. C. E.

Milner, Conservator of Forests, from Blandford’s book on Fauna of

British India—Birds as a female Mallard, but considering the very

rare occurrence of this bird in Burma, I should like Mr, Milner’s

identification verified. If it really is a Mallard, then it is the third

that has fallen to my gun within the last 4 years, the other two being

recorded at page 5/7 of vol: xxxiv,.No. 2;. of your Journal as

having been shot during the winters of 1926 and 1929.

BHAMO ForEST DIVISION, G. M, TURNER,

BHAMO (UPPER BURMA), Dy. Conservator of Forests.

December 5, 1930.

[The bird was received. and identified by us as a Mallard (Azas

platyryncha), This constitutes the third record of this species from

Burma in recent years. Eps.|

XI.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE SPOTBILL OR GREY

DUCK (ANAS 2. POLCTILORMYVNCHA) IN UPPER

CHINDWIN, BURMA.

I send herewith the upper mandible and speculum of what I take

to be the Indian Spotbill, zo¢ the Eastern Spotbill which is the common

bird in Burma vzde Stuart Baker. Unfortunately I have not got the

book on tour. So cannot see exactly what he says, but the key is if

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

I remember—green speculum, red spots on bill, species Indian.

—purple speculum, no red spots on bill, Burmese species.

I never remember to have shot one with any red on the base of the

bill anywhere else during 20 years in Burma; but on this my first

visit to the Chindwin the only two Spotbill brought to bag, on diffe-

rent days and on different jheels have both been like the enclosed.

Dates” 7th “and diithy) guy, Locality near Homalin, Upper

Chindwin.

Geese : all the geese seen on the sandbanks on the Chindwin (and

we have seen 2-300) are Bar-headed (Azser indicus) whereas all the

geese we shot on the Irrawaddy jheels near Katha, Bhamo and

Mandalay, also Weliet in the Shwebo District where there are thou-

sands—I mean thousands—are Grey Lag (Azser anser). Similarly at

Pavyo and other jheels between Mandalay and Mingyan and Paunglin

near Magwe, the geese are Grey Lag, and one only occasionally sees

or gets a Bar-headed. I have two records, Paunglin Magwe—Xmas

1911, and Tiqyaung, Katha—November 1930.

Grey Lag are also seen on the Chindwin jheels but in nothing

like the numbers one sees on the Irrawaddy.

White Eye (Wyroca rufa): Until I got the new edition of ene

Ducks, \ have always shirked identifying Baer’s, the common White-

Eye and the Tufted Duck as all are in eclipse plumage here at Xmas:

but the new key is more helpful and out of three pochard shot near

Homalin on January 7, 1931, one was certainly a common White-

eye (Vyroca rufa) and two Baer’s White-eye (VV. rufa baerz).

Some years ago I sent you another record from Wellet, Shwebo—

Xmas 1920-1927, identified by Mr. J. C. Hopwood as Baer’s.

SYLVAN LODGE, E. MILNER.

MaAymyo, ;

BuRMA.

[The well defined red markings of the bill and green speculum

appear to indicate that. the specimen secured by Mr. Milner is an

example of the Spot Bill or Grey Duck (Anas p. pecilorhyncha), The

Burmese Grey Duck (Auas p. haringtonz) has no red spots on the

bill or only faint traces of them. In the Eastern Grey Duck (Anas

p. zonoryncha), the red spots on the bill are absent, and speculum is

blue. This appears to be the first record of this duck in Burma.

The Eastern White-Eye (4. dger7) is generally an unrecognized

winter visitor to Burma. It is of interest therefore to publish

records of its occurrence in the above note by Mr. Milner and in. the

succeeding note by Mr. Turner. Eps. ]

XII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE TUFTED POCHARD |

(NYROCA FULIGULA) AND THE ELASTERN WHITE-EVE

(NYROCA BAER/) IN BURMA.

I am to-day sending you per registered parcel post the complete

skins of two ducks shot by me on the 7th January 1931, on a small

isolated 7heel surrounded by dense cover on one of the islands in the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 21

Irrawaddy River about 10 miles below Bhamo. I have identified

them from Stuart Baker’s /ndian Ducks and their Allies, as being (1)

the Crested or ‘Tufted Pochard (Myzroca fuligula) and (2) the

Eastern White-Eye, Vyroca baerz). For one identification mark that

is not now visible; I might mention that the irides of the former

were a bright yellow, and of the latter white. The white spot under

the chin of the latter was also much more distinct than it is now

after skinning. Both birds were solitary.

I shall be glad if you will confirm the correctness of my identifi-

cation of the two birds, and if you consider them of sufficient

interest, record the incidents in the next issue of your Journal, as

Stuart Baker seems to consider them somewhat rare winter visitors

to Upper Burma. : =

BHAMO ForEsT DIVISION, | G. M. TURNER,

January 15, 1931. Deputy Conservator of Forests.

[As indicated in the previous footnote, the Eastern White-Eye is

described as probably a regular though undetected winter migrant

into Burma. The new Edition of the Fauna does not mention

the Tufted Duck as occutring in Burma though Hume considered it

a probable straggler. The specimens submitied to us are as identi-

fied by Mr. Turner. Eps.]

- XIII.—OCCURRENCE OF THE CLUCKING OR BAIKAL.

THAL (WETTION. FORMOSUM) NEAR HARDOT,. U-.P::-

I am sending you the head and wings of a duck which I think

is aCiucking Teal, shot at Sandi Jheel, near Hardoi on January 24.

-It was flying in company with some Pintail only lower down when

it was shot. As it is, according to the books, one of the rarer

ducks, I thought it might be of interest to you.. I would be very

erateful if you would identify it for certain. I could not send the

body as it was going bad, but in size it was about that of a very

large Garganey and just too small for an ordinary duck. It was a

kind of dove grey. I hope the head arrives all right.

LUCKNOW, H. SCOTT MACDOUGALL,

January. 22, 1937, Capt., 60th Rtitles.

- [The duck was received by us and identified as the Clucking

Teal [Vettion formosum|. EDs.]|

XIV.—NOTES ON THE WHITE-HEADED DUCK OR

STIFF-TAIL (ARISMATURA LEUCOCEPHALA)

While shooting an open jheel near Chillianwala, Gujrat District,

Punjab, with Captain J. R. M. Hanna and Captain A. H. B. Joyce, m.c.

on February 22 this year, we came upon a flock of eleven white-

headed duck of which we succeeded in shooting three. An adult

drake and duck, and a drake not yet in full plumage.

212: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL fIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXX V

As I see in Stuart Baker’s Game Birds of India, Burma and

Ceylon that these are rare duck I am sending some details.

I saw these birds lying out in the middle of the jheel and with

the sun behind them. I believed them, at first, to be coots, as,

although we had fired all round the jheel, they had not risen.

Later I walked round to the far side of the jheel and noticed the

white heads of two of the drakes and recognized them as Stiff-tail,

(I had come across them previously near Nowshera in 1928).

The heads of the drakes showed up brilliantly white in the sun,

while the ducks at the same distance were unrecognizable.

Of the eleven, two appeared to be drakes in full plumage, and the

remainder ducks and immature drakes.

I waded in and a coolie was sent in to endeavour to turn them

towards me. They all passed within 60 yards of me.

While swimming, their tails were generally lowered in the w tek

but when at rest on the water, the tails were erect.

The coolie drove them to one end of the jheel and on my

approaching in the water they got up and flew back to the other

end, a matter of eight hundred yards.

Their appearance on the wing is very coot-like, but they fly

much faster. I fired at one of the mature drakes and he came

down, still very much alive, and immediately dived. He remained

under water for about a minute and then reappeared for a couple of

seconds showing his head only. ‘There was no reed in the water,

so this duck has undoubtedly the power of swimming with only the

head and neck projecting above water. He kept up these ‘ Submarine

tactics’ for nearly ten minutes before I got near enough to kill him

outright. Towards the end, when I suppose he was tired, he

commenced showing more and more body above water.

The other two were killed outright from the bank.

The drake weighed 1 lb. 10 oz. ; he was very fat.

There appeared to be little difference in the size of all three

secured.

I examined the contents of the drake’s stomach which I found to

consist purely of vegetable matter.

In comparing the aduit with Keulemans’ illustration, I notice

that in my specimen the tail is more squarely cut, each of its twelve

feathers being approximately the same length and definitely black.

The eye is darker than in the illustration. There is no trace of

brown in the feet, which are the same colour as, but slightly darker

than the blue grey bill. The webs are black.

I have kept the drake’s skin, which I should be glad to send you

if it is of interest.

The Stiff-tail is poor eating. Their flesh being rank and rather

coarse.

JHELUM, W. A. WHITEHEAD,

PUNJAB, Capt., lst Punjab Regt.

February 27, 1931.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

XV.—SOME RACES OF THE RED-BILLED CHOUGH

[PYRRHOCORAX PYRRHOCORAX (LINN.)].

The Red-billed Choughs are distributed over a considerable por-

tion of Europe, Africa and Asia. Curiously enough, they are grouped

under the binomial Pyrrhocorax pyrrhocorax (Linn.), from which we

assume that ornithologists are generally of opinion not to recognize

any but the typical form. ‘The approximation of body-colour of

birds of the different areas naturally lends to the suspicion that there

has been hardly any influence of environment at work on these

Choughs, which apparently do not react to the conditions of the

climate, soil and food. John Gould, however, in his examination of

the Himalayan Chough detected differences in point of size, which

left him in no ‘hesitation to describe it as distinct’ (P. Z. S., 1862,

p. 125) from European examples. In the dust of criticisms and con-

troversy which subsequently raged over this point, drawing in their

vortex such distinguished scientists as August Von Pelzeln,

W. T. Blanford, Allen O. Hume, Ferdinand Stoliczka, etc., the true

significance of Gould’s observation was lost, the concensus of opinion

among ornithologists deeming it absurd to found a specific distinction

on the dimensions of the Chough. Recent studies, however, of the

birds bring home the fact that while it is difficult, nay impossible, to

ignore the above decision, it is nevertheless easy to differentiate

them as geographical races or subspecies, separated from one another

by immense barriers of land. The continental Pyvrhocorax of the

Alps, if not the form found on the British Isles, is reckoned as the

type, though the former is appreciably a bigger bird in respect of

size. Witherby records (A Practical Handbook of British Birds, p. 32),

measurements of British birds— wing 270-310 mm.; tarsus

55-59 mm.; bill from nostril 49-58. 2 wing 265-285 mm.; bill

from nostril 42-47. Dr. Stresemann mentions (Journal fir Orni-

thologte, 1xxvi, 1928, p. 343), the Choughs collected by Von Gerd

Heinrich in Elburs Expedition of 1927 asa distinct race (Pyrrhocorax

pyrrhocovax pontifex subsp. nova. Typus in Zoolog. Museum,

Berlin, Nr. 27. 819; Gilan: Pish Kuh 2500-3000 m. 2 Mai 1927)

which, though agreeing in colouration with the Eurcpean examples

is decidedly larger in dimensions. Measurements recorded thereof

Arerior Sigigvand i 24.7. g318,, 320} 327 mim. 3) 91293,,305 mm.2250

far the difference that has been noted in respect of the birds from

different areas is only one of degree, the body-colour in the European

and Elburs examples being glossy black with distinct green

irridescence on the wings and tail. The measureinents of the

Himalayan Chough recorded by Gould (?.Z.S., 1862, p.125) is—wing

8245 mim. tarsus o/ mm. + bill 57 mm. This is fairly corrobor-

ated by Bianford (/. 4. S. B., vol. xli, p. 70) who records— from

Sikkim, “wine ©324:5. mm.; tarsus 61-5 mm.; bill from gape

58 mm.; 2 wing 292°5 to 312-5 mm. Stuart Baker’s measurement

noted in Zhe Fauna of British India, Birds (2nd Edition), p. 68 is,

however, clearly less and appears to tally with that of the continental

if not the English birds. In Himalayan birds, Dr. Stresemann points

out, the green irridescence of the wing and tail-feathers is not found

and is replaced by a clearly blue gloss with a slight shade of violet

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XX XV

(Journal fir Ornithologie \xxvi, 1928, p. 344). Recently, while

revising the bird-coliection of the Indian Museum, I have had oppor-

tunities of examining a large series of the Himalayan Pyrrhocorax.

I notice extraordinary variations in respect of the culmen (50-103

mm.)and tarsus (50-65 min.) bothin male and female, the maximum

measurement of the wing being 326 mm. . The following are

measurements of some specimens :—

Reg. No.| Sex| Lecality |Wing |Culmen ee Tarsus ae coe

19334 | ¢ |Leh, Lada. | 8264 956 51 58 25

19333. .g Leh; Ladak.| 322] 56 49 55 25:5

16381, | @ lGileit 3. 7 |a316" t= 50 44°5 56 24

6051 Ladak “5+. |-.816|" “55 48 50 25

94054 | 9 |Pibet os 2,1, 310) % 52 49 58 25

1173 -| Q1Si Kim’ © a4] 308" 53 47 65 27

1174 .|.9 |Sikkim <..,|° 902; 51 46 co 26

24647 | 9 |Bhutan ...) 301) 73:5 66 65 30

24198 | 9 300 103 96 638 Gh S436

8286 | 2 |Bhutan .../ 291 80 73 60 oy

A living specimen (probably 2) from the Himalayas, belonging to

the Caicutta Zoo, measures as follows :— wing 300 mm.; culmen

98; bill from nostril 92; tarsus 66; middle toe without claw

30 mim:

It appears from reference to above that the measurements

recorded for the Himalayan Red-biiled Choughs by Gould and

Blanford are, by no means, the maximum, and are very often

exceeded. ‘This is fairly corroborated by Col. R. Meinertzhagen in

his systematic results of birds collected at high altitudes of Ladak

and Sikkim (/67s, July 1927, p. 372). The following are measure-

ments noted by him :— |

Sex Locality Wing | Culmen | Tarsus

3 Leh ae 340 60 507

of Sikkim ao 330 57 61

d Sikkim eas 332 69 59

1D |-Sikkim Ae 309 , 55 56

It is worthy of note that while Meinertzhagen’s birds nave extra-

ordinary wing-length exceeding the maximum I have observed in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Goayale

the collection of the _ Indian Museum, the measurements of culmen

and tarsus noted by me are remarkably larger than the maximum

noticed by any other ornithologist. The female birds are invariably

smaller in point of wing-length, though their culmen and tarsus are

often disproportionately larger. The larger dimensions of these

birds and the blue gloss on their primaries will, therefore, mark

them out from their European cousins. The wing-length of the

latter seldom exceeds 310 mm., a character which is fairly constant

at least for the individuals of the British Isles. Dr. Hartert appears

to consider it inipossible to distinguish with any degree of satisfac-

tion the forms in Palearctic fauna District of W. Europe to

E. Siberia. Witherby records that the European birds have greyish

brown feather-bases. In my examination of the Himalayan Choughs

I find that these are brownish black, lighter in tone and rather

inclined to be purplish. The subspecies from. Elburs mountain

recognized by Dr. Stresemann as Pyrrhocorax p. pontifex has very

much larger wing-length and is almost indistinguishable in point of

size from the Himalayan examples, but the green irridescence of

their plumage appears to give them a character of their own. The

individuals from North China, described by Swinhoe as ‘ variety

pEAchyPusy (42.49) Lod Wap. 580), are recognized by La Pouche

(Handbook of Birds of Eastern China, p. 22), as a well-established

race, which resembles the Indian form in colour but is definitely

smaller in size: measuring, wing 256-298 mm.; culmen 43-48;

tarsus 43-49; middle toe without claw 22-30 mm.; While

recognizing the small size of the Choughs of the -Tian-shan,

Dr. Stresemann records (Journal fir Ornithologie, 1928, p. 344) that

they are lighter in colour and inclined more to blue shades, standing

halfway between the Elburs and Himalayan forms. Here for the

first time .an.intergradation is apparent. They have,. says

Dr. Stresemann, decidedly sharper wings than the Himalayan birds.

This variation in the shape of the primaries does not appear to have

been noticed by any other ornithologist. It is a character far reach-

ing in its importance, and we must await fuller details about the

birds, which Dr. Stresemann is inclined to recognize as Pyrrhocorax

p. centralis sub-sp. nova. There are in the collection of the Indian

Museum a few skins of the Choughs of Turkestan whose measure-

ments are noted below :—

: ; : Bill from Middle toe

Reg. No.| Sex| Locality Wing Culmen Nostril Tarsus without claw

14194 3 | Turkestan | 310 52 45 | 55 27

13269 | g 4 303 | 54 46 52 25

13283 se 295 48 42°5 48 } 24

14195 2 7 277 46 40 53 28

These are appreciably larger than Stevens’ records of Turkestan

specimens published in /.B.NV.A.S., vol. xxix, p.527. . Here the

maximum measurement hardly corresponds to the minimum of the

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Himalayan subspecies. The extraordinary dimensions of the latter,

which is more or less isolated in its distribution area, are not found

anvwhete else.

The following key may be adopted for identification of the

different forms :——

Key to subspecies

A. Gloss on wing's green

a. Wing under 310mm. .,. British and W. Palzarctic

form (P. p. hyrrhocorax)

6. Wing over 310 mm, ...° Elburs (@. p.-poniziex)

B. Gloss on wings blue :

a. Wing under 310 mm.;

culmen. and .tarsus 7

smaller under 50 mm..,,. N. China from (P. p. éra-

chy pus)

6. Wing over 310 mm.;

culmen 3 and) «traits ass

larger over 50 mm. .,, Himalayan (P. pf. himala-

yanus)

Habits and Fieid Characters

While in Britain, Pyvrhocorax p. pyrrhocorax (L.) is found in rocks

and cliffs on or close to the sea-coast, nesting usually in crevices in

roofs of sea-caves and hollows of rock-walls, the continental race

generally affects higher mountains inland, and sometimes, though

very seldom, nests in old castle, tower or human habitation. Flight

buoyant, graceful. Call clear, shrill—‘ Avia, or dla dla’ (Hartert);

‘a soft A’chufe, and a rather querulous /chare’ (Witherby for Br.

Birds). Food varied as with Corvide generally. Nest.—Bulky.

Eggs.—4 to 5 or more, 394 x 27:9 1mm. (Witherby’s average of

100 eggs); larger with continental forms (maximum 43:2 x 28 mm.

recorded by Hartert); creamy white, occasionally pale green, with

faint purplish grey and light and dark brown blotches.

Pyrrhocorax p. pontifex (Stresemann) nests in inaccessible

mountain-tops. Young observed and heard cawing by Heinrich in

the end of May. Congregations of young and old observed by him

on 28th July.

Pyrrhocovax p. brachypus (Swinhoe) is a common resident in the

mountains of Chihli, apparently extending its range towards

E. Siberia; great flocks gather in higher hills in late summer.

Eggs.—white, speckled and spotted irregularly with reddish brown

over violet grey spots, the latter on the surface as well as within

the shell; a zone round the large end; shape ovate; 40 x 275,

38 X «28 mm. (Wa Wouche).

Pyrrhocorax p. himalayanus (Gould) occurs throughout the Alpine

regions of Ladak, Kashmir, and Sikkim, in winter as low as 5,500

and as high as 16,000 ft. in summer to and even beyond 18,000 ft.

(Zbzs, 1927, p. 372). Wollaston records them on Everest (20,000 ft.)

in September (/szs, 1922, 3. 526). In the Sikkim Himalayas it

appears to be confined to the far interior, where there has evidently

been no decrease in their numbers since Hooker recorded them in

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217

1849 around Lachen (/.B.N.H1.S., vol..xxix, p. 517); rather.scarce,

according to Blanford, on the Cho La Range; found in winter in

the valleys and plains where they apparently migrate at the season.

Equally at home on deep snow, grassy meadow, cultivated ground,

or on barren plains. Numerous in Ladak from 10,000 ft. and

upwards as much near villages as far away among rocky crags;

mixing commonly with crows, ravens, pigeons on ploughed fields or

irrigated land. While in search of food which is mostly secured on

the ground, they set to work, in pairs or parties, probing their bills

deep down into the earth. ‘Seen about places where yaks have been

herded, hunting for insects under the dung, but they also feed oa

berries and seeds’ (Blanford). Call raucous, somewhat plaintive ;

‘wilder’, easily arresting sportsman’s attention (Adams). Flight

wild, excited. Noisy, sociable and gregarious; feeding, flying and

sometimes breeding in colonies or congregations. Trial of strength

not unfrequent, usually between two male birds, when whichever

gets the worse of the encounter has the ill luck of being molested

with extra pecks of a Jungle-crow. locks circle at immense

height, then with closed wings down come the birds, one after

another in swift slanting swoop. Not wary; observed in higher

altitudes to come and roost under the eaves of the houses. Nest-

construction begins in March; eggs not unusual in April, and young

noticed in the first week of May. ‘The nest is built of twigs, with

wool lining, and placed in clefts of rocks ; but in Tibet frequently in

Tibetan houses, sometimes in holes in the walls only a few feet

from the ground, usually the same site being occupied year after

year. Osmaston records nests built in small holes excavated in

sandstone cliffs by the birds themselves, about 2 to 4 ft. deep;

consisting entirely of a thick pad of hair with no substratum

of sticks. Eggs usually 3 or 4 in number constituting a clutch,

are ‘like those of the English birds, but much duller and brown-

ish in tint and they average much bigger, 41:7 x 28:4 mm. against

40°7(x 27-9. mm. (Stuart. Baker)... The. maxima, recorded by

Mr. Frank Ludlow, of 17 eggs (/dzs 1928, p. 54) are 45°5 x 27:5 and

47°5 x 29-25 mm.

50, KaILAs BOSE STREET, SATYA CHURN LAW,

CALCUTTA, M.A., Ph.D., F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.,,

Aueust 28, 1930: Honorary Correspondent of Zoological

Survey of India,

xVi= NOTES ON THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA :

BIRDS, CHIEFLY WITH REFERENCE TO THE

CENTRAL PROVINCES.

411. Southern Red-whiskered Bulbul. Otocompsa emeria ifuscicaudata:

In the Central Provinces this bird is more addicted to forests than

the vicinity of gardens and cultivation. I have only met with it in

the former. :

433. The White-browed Bulbul. Pycnonotus luteolus: Stated to be rare

or absent throughout the Central Provinces. ‘his is true to some

extent but it is rather plentiful at Kamptee where it breeds freely

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

and whence several nests have been taken. At Nagpur it now

and then visits gardens and has been observed breeding as well.

588. The White-throated Ground Thrush. Geocichla citrina cyanotis. This

bird is resident in the C. P. and has been observed breeding in the

districts of Chanda, Balaghat, Chhindwara and Bhandara.

Vol. II, page 175, line 3 from bottom :— Wing 4:77 to 4:76 mm.’

should probably read inches. |

617. The Purple Thrush. Cochoa purpurea. AHadzts. Four birds whose

stomachs I examined had fed Jargely on small land molluscs.

700. The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher. Rhipidura aureola aureola:

Nidttication—line 4 from bottom ‘the bottom of the nest is

prolonged into a cone and sometimes furnished with a long thin

tail of loose scraps of grass.’ This is more characteristic of the

nests of #. pectoralts and I do not think I have ever seen it in

aureola. Wabits:—R. aureola and R. pectoralis feed largely on the

Jassids Jdiocerus clypealis, Leth. and J. niveosparsus, Leth. which

adhere to the trunks of mango trees in enormous numbers, and its

display with its fan-like tail seems a means for distributing these

insects which are snapped up the moment they take to their wings.

This genus of flycatchers is perhaps the most specialized of the

group in this direction.

703. The White-throated Fantail Flycatcher. Rhipidura a. albiceollis.

The distribution of this species is given as ‘The Himalayas from

Murree to Eastern Assam, Burma, Shan States, Yunnan, Annam,

Siam, Cochin China, Hainan and Malay States,’ yet a little above we

read ‘ Birds from the southern Punjab, Central Provinces and Chota

Nagpur (presumabiy places where it is not found) are very rusty

below, probably because they are all young birds.’

733. The Scarlet Minivet. Pericrocotus speciosus speciosus. Dzstribation:

Oates in the old edition gave the distribution of this species as

practically throughout the Himalayas, East Assam, U. P., Chota

Nagpur and Central Provinces as far south as Bastar and Jaypur ;

but in the new edition its range is limited to the Himalayas,

Assam, North of the Brahmaputra and eastwards to Yunnan. It is

certainly found in the Central Provinces and it may be a resident. |

I have secured or observed it in at least four districts (Balaghat,

Bastar, Betul and Chhindwara) and Osmaston has observed it in a

fifth (Pachmarhi, Hoshangabad District). The latest date recorded

is 21st April.

738. The Small Minivet. Pericrocotus brevirostris brevirostris. Vernacular

name: Raja Lal is the common Hindi name for this species in

Northern India.

744. The Rosy Minivet. Pericracotus roseus roseus. Dzstribution: I

have taken two specimens in the Central Provinces at Nagpur, one

in December and the other on 2nd April.

1021. The White-beaked Munia. Uroloncha striata striata. Extends

North in the C. P. as far as Chanda and Bhandara.

1124. The White-capped Bunting. Emberiza stewarti. This bird isa

winter visitor or straggler to the C. P. I took a specimen on

1-12-1913 at Nagpur.

1133.. The Black-headed Bunting. Emberiza melanocephala. This bird has

also been taken at Nagpur on 20-3-1919.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219

~ 1339. The Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker. Picus vittatus myrmecopha-

neus. This wood-pecker is found sparingly in the Baster State and

I have also taken it in the Balaghat District.

1500. The Rosy-ringed Paroquet. Psittacula krameri manillensis: Among

the few skins of this bird in the Museum, one young male has the

lower mandible entirely red as in P. k. borealis; an adult male has

the under-surface of the lower mandible red, but it is dark at the

sides. A female has it dusky but not black.

1783. The Himalayan Grey-headed Fishing Eagle. Ichthyophaga humilis

plumbeus. This bird wanders further south than Lucknow in the

winter. Specimens were taken by Mr. A. Donald at Kolkaz,

Sipnachadi, in the Melghat (Amraoti District) in January 1913. One

of these was presented to the Museuin.

1819. The Indian Crested Honey-Buzzard. Pernis ptilorhynchus ruficollis.

According to.the key for the species of ferz7s on page 165, all birds

taken at Nagpur have the black subterminal and medium bands much

narrower than the paler bands and would fall under P. apzvorus.

This, however they are not for three specimens have a wing of 400

nim. one of 405 mm. and the largest 421 nim.

1847. The Indian Green Imperial Pigeon. Muscadivora snea_syivatica.

The Green Imperial Pigeon is found in the Central Provinces in the

South Chanda district and in the Bastar State, extending North to

Kanhargaon and Katori. A female from the Chanda district had a

wing of 225 mm. and a male from the Bastar State had a wing of

220mm. I think I have heard this bird further north either in the

Balaghat or Bilaspur district, but am not certain.

1852. The Emerald Dove. Chalcophaps indica indica. Occurs in the sal

forests of the Balaghat district.

1942. The Aravalli Spur-Fowl. Galloperdix spadicea caurina. The spur-

fowls from Asirgarh in the Nimar district are much greyer than the

spur-fowls of Chanda and elsewhere and appear to belong to this

race or are near it.

2066. The Yellow-legged Herring-Gull. Larus argentatus cachinnans. I have

taken this gull on the Mahanady in the Bilaspur district. Z. brunzz-

cephalus has also been taken at Nagpur in June.

2120. The Eastern Golden Plover. Pluvialis dominicus fulvus. I have taken

the Eastern Golden Plover on the Mahanady at Chandrapur in the

Bilaspur district. They were ina flock of about 30 birds.

2213. The Smaller Adjutant. Leptoptilos javanicus. The Smaller Ad-

jutant is resident in the Central Provinces where it keeps to the

well-watered and thinly populated parts. I have met it in the

Nagpur, Balaghat and Bilaspur districts.

2242. The Lesser Flamingo. Pheeniconaias minor. A specimen was shot

on the Ambajheri tank at Nagpur on the 9th June 1912, it was along

with a large flock of P/wnicopterus ruber. Inthe winter of the same

year many of these birds were being hawked about for sale. On

29th June 1925 I also observed a flock of Lesser Flamingos flying

over Nagpur.

CENTRAL MUSEUM, Me ee DE ABRISU; F..Z: S.,

NAGPUR. | Curator.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

XVII.—A ‘ FLYING’ FROG.

(With a plate)

The following notes relate to a specimen captured at Ernakulam,

in Cochin State, on the night of the 11th June, 1930. It was found

adhering to a wet towel, which was hung up in an open verandah

for drying. When caught, in the words of the captor, it ‘flew’

towards the floor, where it was neatly bagged. It was kept in

confinement for nearly three weeks, when it was killed, as it was

felt that no useful purpose would be served by keeping it alive any

longer. During the whole period of confinement it starved, though

dragon-flies and other insects were supplied to it at different times.

Description.—Upper surface finely granulate; under-surface of the

body and snout coarsely so. The iower surface of the thigh also

coarsely granulate, but, here, there are some larger granules scattered

among the smaller ones.

Heel possesses a dermal appendage, which, when the limb is

stretched, 1s nearly triangular. Snout more or less rounded, and only

half as long as the diameter of the orbit. Canthus rostralis some-

what acute, with a lozenge-shaped block spot at the bottom of it.

Loreal region concave. Nositril nearer the end of the snout than the

eye. Inter-orbital space broader than the upper eyelid. Tympanum

5/7 or nearly 2/3 of the diameter of the eye. Vomerine teeth in two

nearly transverse series, and touch the inner front edge of the

choanee. Each of the toothed ridges measures 3 min. in length, and

the two are 2 mm. opart.

Fingers and toes webbed to the discs as in Rk. malabaricus, but

the discs of the fiagers are larger than those of the toes. Those of

the 2nd to the 4th fingers about the size of the tympanum or very

slightly less, that of the Ist finger only about half that size. In the

foot the disc of the 3rd toe is the biggest, but even this is not as big

as those of fingers 2nd-4th; next in size comes the 5th, then 3rd,

2nd, and Ist in regular order. Sub-articular tubercles well developed.

In the hand the Ist digit has one inconspicuous tubercle, the 2nd one

conspicuous tubercle, and the 3rd and 4th two large tubercles each.

In the foot there is a tubercle internal to the hallux, at its base

(probably of a pre-hallux). The 1st and 2nd toes have one tubercle

each, the 3rd to the 5th two tubercles each.

The tibio tarsal articulation reaches the nostril as in RA. malabart-

cus, and as in that species that is a dermal fold of a white colour

(colour not mentioned Boulenger’s description of Ah. malabaricus)

along the outer margin of the forearm and tarsus. ‘The fold along

the forearm is continued on to the hand to the tip of the outermost

digit, just as the tarsal fold is continued on to the foot to the tip of

the outermost toe. The latter fold becomes continuous anteriorly

with the dermal appendage of the heel. ‘There is, moreover, in my

specimen, a similar white fold across the buttock just above the vent.

When the frog is in an absolutely resting posture the folds of the two

legs become continuous by means of this supra-anal fold.

“surydvasojoyd uaym jvmiuv

ayy 49209 07 pasn svm yom ysip ssvjs ayy fo wougvafaa ayn Aq pasnvo asam Aay fT ‘“uautiaads Jvnjav ay] UL quasaad JOU adam YIVDG AY] UO SpUDG YAVP YT, x

((-MOIA TeIqUOA) ‘plof ‘snatavqnyvu snaoydorvyy °z (‘,MOIA TesIoq) ‘piel ‘snatavqvipm snaoydoovyy “1

‘OOUA . ONIATA>» V

. 00S ‘LSIF{ “LVN AvaWwog ‘“Nunof

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES : 221

- Colour.—In the living animal the back is of rich leaf-green colour,

to harmonize with the foliage in the midst of which it lives in Nature.

Sides of the body with a yellowish background speckled with

circular green spots of size. Ventral surface light yellow. Sides of

the thigh of a deeper yellow. Digits and discs yellow. Outer

margins of the outer digits of both the limbs green like the back, so

that when the limbs are folded in the resting posture, nothing but

green is seen. Even in captivity when leaves were put inside the

glass case in which it was imprisoned, it required a very careful

examination to detect the animal. The upper-arm nearly yellowish

with only a green streak above. Inthe position of rest this section

of the limb is hardly visible. The dermal fold, as already noted, is

of a chalky white colour. Upper edge of the post-axial side of the

thigh marbled red. Eyes, of a speckled golden hue with a horizontal

slit-like pupil, which when the frog is ‘sleepy ’ extends almost from

end to end.

In thé (forefoot) the ground colour of the web is yellow.

Between the three outer digits the yellow is rayed with red. Between

the Ist and 2nd digits it is purely yellow, without any red streak at

all. In the hind-foot the web when expanded is pinkish, rayed with

yellow or light streaks ; when folded, the colour becomes deeper,

almost red. There is a double ray of greyish blue in the webbing

between the two outermost digits.

Measurements—(taken immediately after death).

From snout to vent ae, oe wee 22 1Ches.

Hand expanded aes nee ele 2 SCs Cine

Foot expanded .., <P dom eel SCCM:

Diameter of orbit ae A ta fami,

Leneth of snout ae ee ae ae TE

Interorbital space es ee i. Or min:

Breadth of upper eyelid... soe ga) JD Mims

Diameter of tympanum ae 5 mm.

Habits.—'The inan who caught the specimen and brought it to me

stated with great wonder that it ‘flew’ slantingly to the ground.

There is no reason to disbelieve his statement, as ‘ flight’ could not

have been associated in his mind with an animal like a frog, and

there was not the remotest possibility of his having heard of a ‘ flying

frog’ before. It must have been a piece of correct observation.

Mr. M. O. Parthasarathy Iyengar, who describes a specimen from

near Sagar in the Mysore Province (Records of the Indian Museum,

1915—,vol. xi, 140-142) which he calls AA. malabaricus says he saw

it actually flying a distance, roughly, of 30-40 yards. His account

is, however, very meagre, and I cannot say with any degree of

certainty whether the two specimens belong to the same species.

I am in the unfortunate position of A. R. Wallace who described a

‘flying frog’ for the first time from Borneo. He himself never saw

it flying, but was assured by the Chinese workman who brought it

to him that he saw it doing so. I have tried various nanceuvres to

see my Specimen flying, in enclosed rooms, but had to content myself

with the spectacle of various kinds of acrobatic feats, except flying,

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

I dared not take it out into the open, as I found that it was an

expert jumper, and feared that in the open it would make good its

escape by a few ieaps, which wouid take it out of my reach, and

probably out of my sight also, particularly in view of its wonderful

protective colouration. It jumps apparently without any effort, and

on one occasioa, at any rate, its jump was suggestive of flight.

When jumping it has the webs fully extended. It was never tired

of jumping at any time of its captivity, and in spite of its continued

starvation, it would indulge in its gambols if encouraged to do so.

If it misses its aim it lands dexterously and is never hurt. It can

jump repeatedly from heights which are fatal to ordinary frogs.

It is an active and skilful climber as well, climbing up vertical heights

with ease and grace. When jumping, with the webs extended and

the variegated colours shown to the best advantage, it was a most

picturesque object to look at. It naturally, like all cold-blooded

animals, likes a little moist surroundings, but does not tolerate water.

I put it into the ‘frog tank’ in my laboratory several times, when

it invariably jumped onto the side wall, above the water level. If

repeatedly put in water against its will, it gets tired, and then

practically floats on water with its limbs and webs stretched out.

It is by no means afraid of man, but allows itself to be petted, and

sometimes even clings to him in preference to the branches of trees

put in its case to give it as nearly as possible its natural surroundings.

In captivity it was ordinarily rather sleepy, but I had only to moisten

it with a little water, and it at once would wake up, bulge out its

eyes dilate its pupils which then became more or less elliptical,

and was then intent on.mischief. It would take aim at the

spectator or keeper and jump on to his face or glasses, if he should

wear any, spitefully, it would seem. Its attention could be called

by making a tap at the door or window when it jumps towards it.

It was one of the inost lovely creatures I set my eyes on, which

I was indeed loathe to kill. But it consistently refused to take

any food, and by the Sth of July when it was killed it had become

rather famished and the bulging of the sides of the abdomen had

disappeared.

Nevertheless it was even then capable of taking long leaps as

before.

There is, I am told by an old gentleman who happened to see it,

a popular belief with as much truth about it as in beliefs of that

kind, that if by any accident this creature should jump on to the

bodies of babies, the waist of the latter would get constricted

like its own. The significant point about this legend is that it

implies that these frogs have been seen before by commen people,

though not possibly recorded, I showed the photographs to certain

country gentlemen some of whom at once attested to the marvellous

leaping power of the animal.

Systematic posttion.—The first time a ‘flying frog’ was recorded and

described was from Borneo by A. R. Wallace to whom it was brought

by a Chinese workman. Rh. pardalis, as he calls it, differs from my

specimen in severai important particulars. Wallace says (Malay

Archipelago, p. 29) ‘the webs were black, rayed with yellow.’ ‘The

colour of the web of the present specimen is quite different.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 223

Wallace does not mention the mottling of the sides, and from the

illustration of the animal given by him in the next page, the sides

seem to be of a uniform—probably whitish—colour. ‘The measure-

ments: of Wallace have been seriously questioned by Gadow

Cambridge Natural History, vol. vii, pp. 246-47) who thinks that

Wallace was guilty of a little confusion, which accounts for the

exaggerated figures. But the measurements of my specimen, except

as regards the total length do not agree with those given even by

Gadow. Apart from the distribution which is against the specific

identity of the two, there are enough differences pointing to the

conclusion that the present specimen is not referable to Wallace’s

Rh. pardalis.

Mr. M. O. Parthasarathy Iyengar has described a ‘ flying frog’

from Sagar in the Western Ghats region of the Mysore Province,

which is probably referable to the same species as mine. The

description is however meagre, aud touches upon only a few points

of systematic interest. In general, however, the colour scheme

agrees with that of the present specimen although there are

differences, e.g., the underside of his specimen is ‘ bright yellow ’

while it is only ‘ pale yellow’ inthe one under notice. The sides

are speckled according to his description with dark brown spots,

while in my specimen the spots are green. ‘The measurements of

the expanded hand and foot also fairly agree in the two specimens.

He identifies his specimen as RA. malabaricus. I have gone through

the description of Rh. malabaricus given by Boulenger in The Fauna

of British India, (Reptilia and Batrachia) with which, it must be admit-

ted, my specimen agrees most closely of all species of Rhacophorus

described therein. I am not satisfied that my specimen belongs to

the same species. I give below side by side, in two separate

colunins the important points of resemblance and difference between

Rh. malabaricus as described by Boulenger, and my specimen :—

Resemblances Ditterences

1. Fingers webbed to the Snout rounded and _ not

discs. sub-acuminate.

2. Vomerine teeth in two snout only half as long and

straight series touching not as long as the dia-

the inner front edge of meter of the orbit.

the choanez. Canthus rostralis acute and

3. Loreal region concave. not. obtuse. Moreover

4. Nostril nearer the end of there is a black lozenge-

snout than eye. shaped spot at bottom.

5. Inter-orbital space broader While the discs of the

than upper eyelid. fingers are about the

Owl yimpanuney O17. or) 213 size of the tympanum as

diameter of eye. in Rh. malabaricus those

7. Sub-articular tubercles of the toes are much

well developed. smaller.

8. Tibio-tarsal articulation (i) The colour scheme

reaches the nostril. entirely different with

9. Skin finely granular above, the exception of the

more coarsely beneath ;

green above. The

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Resembiances—continued. Differences—continued.

granules under the thigh yellow of the under

intermixed with larger : surface may fade in

ones. Spirit into white, but

10. Outer border of forearm even im Spitit “the

and tarsus with a dermal bright colour of the

fold. web especially of the

11. Heel with triangular toot is not lost,

dermal processes. although it diffuses

12. Green above. into a uniform light

13. Distribution—-Malabar. pink.

This, if present, in /h. mala-

baricus could net have failed

to be noticed.

li. The white of the

dermal fold also is not

mentioned.

iii. ‘The one or two black

spots on either side,

behind the arm’ are

not seen in my speci-

men.

6. The dermal fold above the

vent, mentioned for

Rh. maximus but not

for Rh. malabaricus.

7. Length oniy 24 inches and

not 4”. But this may not

be a real difference. It

may only mean that my

specimen is young.

To my mind, at any rate, the differences are sufficiently numerous

and important to entitle my specimen to a distinct specific rank. I

shail not however be dogmatic on this point until I have an oppor-

tunity of examining a type specimen of RA. ma/abaricus.

Reterences

1. A. R. Wallace ... Lhe Malay Archipelago.

2. Gadow ... Cambridge Natural History,

vol. vii Amphibia and

Repiles.

3. G. A.-Boulenger ..- Fauna otf British India, vol.

on ‘Reptilia and Batrachia’.

4. M.O. Parthasarathy Iyengar. -A South Indian Flying Frog—

Rhacophorus malabaricus.

——Records of the Indian

Mise, vom xi, “1915,

pp. 140-42.

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE, K. KARUNAKARAN NAYAR,

ERNAKULAM, 7 Professor of Zoology.

October 3, 1930.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES | 225

[Professor Nayar’s note amplifies the description given by

Boulenger in the volume on Reptilia (Fauna of British India)

particularly in reference to colouration. The specimen referred to

was submitted to Dr. Malcolm Smith at the British Museum, who

identified it as Rhacophorus malabaricus he writes: ‘some of

the differences quoted by Prof. Nair are not apparent to me and

others can be accounted for by individual variation. The only

marked difference is the shape of the snout, but it rather looks as if

your specimen had banged its nose at some time and spoilt its

shape. The difference between the size of the digital discs of the

fingers and toe is correct as stated by Prof. Nayar and Boulenger has

evidently overlooked this point’. As regards the question of injury

to the snout, Prof. Nair has since obtained a second specimen in

which the snout is exactly as in the first, i.e., rounded and not sub-

acuminate and from which he concludes that the difference in shape

indicated by him could not have been due to an accident as suggested

by Dr. Malcolm Smith. The second specimen has also been

examined by Dr. Malcolm Smith. He writes: ‘ The snout is certainly

flatter than in specimens here, but the tip of the snout in Rhacophorus

is subject tothe same variation as in /xalws and depends, I believe,

upon how much of it is absorbed during metamorphosis.

That the Green Tree Frog (2. malabaricus) and R. nigropalmatus

the ‘Flying Frog’ of Borrieo alluded to by Wallace can ‘ fly ’ or

rather plane,is a well established fact now and probably the same

power is given to all the species of Rhacophorus with broadly

webbed digits. If another specimen can be collected we would

suggest that one be allowed to jump froma considerable height —the

top of a tree out in the open, if several people are below to catch it

again it can hardly escape. Eps.]

XVIIl.—_ENCOUNTER WITH A HAMADRYAD

(NAIA BUNGARUS).

On October 1, 1930, I accompanied my clerk to inspect teak tree

stumps in Compt. 77, Sinthe Reserve, Yamethin District, Burma.

About 8 o’clock in the morning I arrived at a stump which was situated

20 ft. high on the side of a ravine. The top branches of a teak tree

had fallen into the ravine and were resting about 3 ft. above the

actual bed which was covered with firm but damp sand. Opposite

me as I was standing on the top branches was a still smaller ravine,

running at almost right angles to the one I was standing in. This

smaller ravine went up at a steep angle and had a bed, also, of firm

damp sand.

As I found everything in order, I told my clerk to go and hammer

up the stump, which was about 40 ft. away from and above me, with

my hammer. While this was being done I saw a large snake—about

six inches in girth—come down the bed of the little ravine opposite

me. At first it did not see me but when it did so, it stopped immedia-

tely about 4 yards from me. For about 5 minutes it watched me

intently although I had made no movement. At last tiring of this I

NS)

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

told my clerk, who was waiting at the stump for me to move, that

there was a large snake in the small ravine and that he was to throw

a piece of rock at it. However, as he could not see the snake he

_threw the piece of rock to me which I picked up. All the time the snake

watched me very intently but made no movement whatsoever, its

head being an inch off the ground. I, then, threw the piece of rock

which, if the snake had not recoiled, would have hit it fair and square.

The snake next rose up—its head being some 2 ft. from the ground

and its neck distended to about 4 inches in breadth. With a loud

hiss, it rapidly advanced towards me. Fortunately, I had with me a

thick cane tipped with steel and, as it came at me with extraordinary

rapidity, | aimed a blow at its head but missed and caught ita hard

blow on the body some 3 ft. behind the head. This caused it to

writhe in agony and allowed me to continue to shower blows on it.

The snake recoiled and I found time to notice that I had lost six

inches off my stick. Then I heard aloud hiss and the snake again

came forme. I showered blows on it until my stick broke in 3

pieces leaving about 14 inches in my hand. As I had no stick I

turned and ran up the bank. The snake also turned and followed

me for about 10 yards. Fortunately I had so injured it that it could

only travel slowly and I was able to pick up a bamboo and kill it

outright.

The snake measured 8 ft. 5 inches in length and was marked by

bands at every 2 inches. Its general colour was olive green—the

bands being a little lighter than the rest of the body. ‘They were by

no means distinctive. Very unfortunately I was uninterested at the

tine and kept no records of it. The Burmans called it ‘ Nan-than-

dwin’ or, according to the Burmese Dictionary a ‘ belted’

hamadryad.

PyINMANA,

BURMA, P. A. W. HOWE.

November, 1930.

XIX._WEIGHING FISH WITH TWO OR MORE SCALES.

In reply to Capt. Macgregor’s interesting account in Vol. XXXIV,

No. 3 of the 15th November, I produce for him, and any others,

who may care to benefit from it, Thomas’s method of weighing

fish under similar circumstances from his Rod ix India, page 38,

para. 4.

‘When I bought my fishing tackle I thought a spring-balance

weighing up to thirty-two pounds was big enough for any man.

But one fine day I had the misfortune to catch a Mahseer well over

that weight and, of course, I was particularly anxious to know its

exact weight. I had in camp two spring-balances, weighing respec-

tively up to twenty-eight pounds and thirty-two pounds. I passed

a stout cord through the rings of the two, and suspended them from

a bough ; then a cord attached to the fish and passed over the two

hooks, suspended the fish simultaneously from them both. Reading

of the weight indicated by the two instruments and adding them

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 227

together, the result was the weight of the fish, forty-six pounds.

If neither of the springs, is pulled down beyond its power of spring-

ing, the total is bound to be accurate. I have tested it.’

Capt. Macgregor’s was an unusual fish, if a Mahseer, though I

must admit that before I had finished reading his graphic account, I

was convinced it was a Goonch (Bagarus garrellz) he had hooked.

It certainly had in its fight all the characteristics ofa Goonch ; and

if a Mahseer, I can only surmise, must have been schooled by one.

It is an accepted theory that fish attain weight not by age only,

but by the size of the stream and environments. The Namhpok

Kha may be a simali stream and his fish a very old one which wouid

partly account for the sulking and the long drawn-out fight. The

teeth or scales, would show this. Capt. Macgregor’s theory, couched

in humour, of the fish I mentioned, I accept as it is meant, and agree

it must have been about 14 Ibs.’

There is certainly ample scope for writing a most interesting book

on fishing in Burma, but this lot must fall to some member of the

Burma Military Police, or the Burma Frontier Service in both of

which there are more competent pens than mine and some excellent

fishermen with good opportunities. I myself am no longer a

resident of Burma, and so out of touch, or I should have gladly

tackled the task.

URNA ESTATE, MARHOWRAH P.O., A. MACDONALD.

SARAN Dist., BEHAR & ORISSA,

December 30, 1930.

XX.—CANNIBALISM AMONG FISHES.

In a small glass aquarium in my laboratory in which a few fishes

were kept, mainly for show, there were two specimens of Azabas

scandens, three of Macrones vittatus and one each, of Ophiocep-

halus striatus and Saccobranchus fossilis. They were apparently

getting on for some time like ‘a happy family’, and I never imagined

that I was, like the Round Table Conference, confronted with a

vexed minorities problem. But a tragedy happened two days ago

which has very much shaken my equanimity. The only specimen

of Saccobranchus fossilis, about 6 ins. long, was found last Monday

morning when I came to the Laboratory, not only dead, but com-

pletely stripped of its flesh, as if orders had been issued to the rest

of its confréres to make a neat skeletal preparation of it. There

were marks of injury on one specimen of Wacrones, in which one

of the eyes had been nearly gouged out, on Ophiocephalus which

had lost afew of its head scales, and on one specimen of Anadbas,

which showed a whitish streak on one side of the base of its dorsal

fin. Evidently there was a fight, and Saccobranchus did not allow

itself to be murdered without a struggle. The act was, no doubt,

cowardly on the part of its enemies, but to apportion the blame in

just measure to the denizens of the tank is a rather difficult task.

Ophiocephalus is, 1 fancy, the chief aggressor. Only about a month

ago a small specimen of the same species kept in the tank—which is

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

well protected—mysteriously disappeared, and I had. even then my

own suspicion whether his bigger brother was not responsible for

his disappearance. This creature, which, in the presence of man, is

extremely shy, never takes any food when others are fed. Generally

they are given minced frog’s meat once a week, when he keeps

himself perfectly aloof and has none of it. Rressed by hunger, and

probably also prompted by his innate cannibalistic instincts, he must

have swallowed his little brother a month ago, and encouraged by

the gastronomic effects of that meal he probably attacked Sacco-

branchus, who being in a minority, not only did not receive any help

from the rest of the inmates, but was actually harassed by them.

Saccobranchus, faced with heavy odds, used its formidable spines

right and left, and created a certain amount of respect for it, before

it was overpowered and killed. And then the cowardly assassins

could not apparently think of celebrating their ignominious triumph

in a more fitting way than by feasting on the flesh of their erstwhile

comrade, and now the lifeless victim of their heinous crime.

MAHARAJA’S COLLEGE, K. KARUNAKARAN NAYAR,

ERNAKULAM, Protessor of Zoology.

January 28, 1931.

XXI.—EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF A/DARI

BHAWANI, ELYMNIAS PEALIT, AND BHIMA UNDULOSA.

The following notes on the capture of two species of butterflies

and one species of moth may perhaps be of interest as considerably

extending the hitherto-known ranges of these insects. 7

(1) Hidari bhawani, DeN. (/Zesferid@). One male taken near

the town of Toungoo on the Sittang River, Lower Burma, on the

24th August, 1928. I did not see any others. Brigadier-General

Evans in his /dentification of Indian Buttertlies gives the Arakan

coast as the locality for this species, so this record extends its

range a considerable distance eastwards.

(2) Elymnias pealii, W. M. (Satyridz). One male taken on the 23rd

November, 1929 in a glade in evergreen forest near Kokaung Forest

Rest House, which lies about 4 miles west of Namma, a town on the

railway about 40 miles S. W. of Myitkyina, Upper Burma. As far

as I know, this is the first record of this butterfly from Burma pro-

per, as Brigadier-General Evans only gives it as very rare in Assam

and General Tytler records only a few specimens from Manipur and

the Naga Hills.

Both the above were kindly identified for me by Captain Riley of

the Natural History Museum, South Kensington.

(3) Bhima undolesa, Walk. (Lastocampide). Two males taken on the

10th November, 1929 in the Kaing Reserve of the Pyinmana Forest

Division, Upper Burma. While clearing the boundaries of a teak plan-

tation, I found, ona large You tree (Anogeissus acuminata, Wall.),

a grey felted patch of cocoons. This patch was ovalin shape and

about 3 feet long by 18 inches wide. Some 20 recently emerged

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 229

imagines, all males, were still at rest on the patch and I took 8 of

these, but later threw away all but two as they had become very

greasy. JI amtold by Mr, Tams of the Natural History Museum,

that this is the first record of this moth from Burma and that it may

possibly turn out to be a new subspecies. I wish now that I had

not been so hasty in discarding most of those I took, but I did not

then take much interest in moths and only kept the two specimens

as I was rather attracted by their curious shape. I might add for

the benefit of others who may have the fortune to find the larve or

cocoons of this moth, that they are better not touched with the bare

hand, as a plainful rash is the result.

c/o A. SCOTT & CO., D. G. CRAWFORD,

RANGOON, Indian Forest Service.

December 3, 1930.

XXII.—CURIOUS BEHAVIOUR OF BUTTERFLIES IN THE

INTERIOR OF EXTREMELY DENSE

EVERGREEN FOREST.

I do not know whether it would interest your readers to know

that butterflies in the interior of an almost impenetrable evergreen

forest up here, do not seem tofear man. I was working with a gang

of coolies cutting a way into the interior. The butterflies there

would come and sit on the coolies and on me. They sat on my

hat, my arm, my hand, my putties, and on my boots, sometimes

half a dozen at atime. The one sitting on my hand sucked my per-

spiration with its proboscis and then inspite of my jerking it off from

my hand, it would come and sit again on it. This went on for about

five minutes when I proceeded onwards to my work. Next day I

pointed my finger at a butterfly. It came and sat on it and began to

suck my perspiration. Some of these butterflies I saw in Dehra Dun

and had to work hard to catch one of them with a net.

Camp Maxum Jn. P.O., K. MOHAN LAL, Lx#.s.,

UppER ASSAM. Assistant Conservator otf Forests,

Dibrugarh Dn.

XXIII.—_NOTES ON THE COFFEE LOCUST (AULARCHES

MILIARIS, LINN.)

This locust is quite common on the isiand of Salsette, but is more

in evidence during the monsoon months when it has reached maturity,

as in the dry months it is totally absent till about the end of February.

In March I have come across large parties of small ‘hoppers’ feeding

on the leaves of Heterophragma Roxburghii, DC. The ‘hoppers’

though brightly coloured, were sitting with impunity onthe upper

surface of the leaves. These were no longer than # of an inch.

When alarmed, they all dropped to the ground and disappeared in the

dry leaves. At this stage, asin the adult, they are gregarious. It

-would be interesting to know whether these parties are always

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

composed of individuals from the same brood or a combination

of others.

In July the adults are very plentiful. They go about in parties from

thirty to fifty (perhaps more) and like the young, sit in the open on

the top of foliage. At this period I have observed them feeding on the

leaves of Gloriosa superba, Linn. In one particular locality I found

that all the specimens of this plant in the neighbourhood of such a

party were completely eaten barring the stems. When approached

and they apprehend danger, they either drop to the ground or fly very

lazily toa neighbouring bush. The flight is very heavy and laboured,

and usually not prolonged. When caught, they exude a frothy

substance from a pore at the base of the jumping legs which soon

permeates the surrounding atmosphere. The secretion has a very

pungent odour, and in the case of those that I found feeding on

Gloriosa, it smelt like the crushed leaves of that plant. |

It is possibly due to their warning colours and their means of de-

fence, by way of this obnoxious secretion, that these insects are never

taken by birds, and it is this that makes them sit in the open with

impunity, while other members of their family look for shelter. I do

not mean by this that these insects are conscious of their protective

colouration, but that habit coupled with the advantage of protective

colouring, has made them bolder than their brethren. Such pro-

tection is of use to the insect against would-be enemies and not its

natural enemies which keep it in check.

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY CHARLES McCANN, F.Ls.

SOCIETY, BOMBAY,

December 15, 1930.

XXIV.—OCCURRENCE OF PAHRYNICHUS PHIPSONI,

POCOCK, IN SALSETTE ISEAND:

Reproduced trom the Fauna Brit. Ind., Arachnide.

On the 10th of June 1930, I came across a solitary specimen in

one of the water cisterns of the Kanari Caves. The cistern was

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 251

partially dry at the time, there being a little water here and there

after the recent showers of rain. The insect was lurking in a dark

corner under the stones. It always adhered to the undersurface of

the stones (i.e. with its back to the ground). When first discovered,

it was in this position. I touched it to make it move in order to

follow its actions. It made off with a sideways movemenit like a

crab and got under another stone. It is also capable of moving

forward and backward with considerable speed, but the crab-like

movement appears to be the usual methed of progression. The two

long flagella are kept in constant motion, swinging slowly in all

directions, each flagellum keeping in touch with everything in its

half circle.

The action of the flagella and the locality inhabited by this curious

creature makes me inclined to believe that it adopts ‘ fishing habits’

in obtaining its food. It is possible that with the rise in the level of

the water the insect keeps just above the water level with its flat

body adpressed to the rocky walls of the cistern, which it resembies,

and from this position plays with its flagella on the surface of the

water thus attracting ‘ fish ’ in the way of aquatic insects and tadpoles

(the cisterns abound with tadpoles during the rains) which are speedily

taken up out of the water by the chela which are extremely long and

seein well adapted to this method of obtaining prey. It must be

understood, that I only put this forward as a plausible explanation

of the way in which this insect obtains its food and that my theory

is not based on actual observation. It is only how matters present-

ed themselves to me at the moment as to the possible use of such

long tactile feelers and the extremely long chela.

BoMBAY NATURAL HISTORY C. McCANN, F.L.s.

SOCIETY, BOMBAY,

January 20, 1931.

PROCEEDINGS

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING DECEMBER 31, 1930

Administration :

President.—H. E. The Right Hon’ble Sir Frederick Sie PiCs, iG Cank

G Babak. C. 6 4G. MnG.

Vice- Presidents. —H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.C.S.1., G.C.1.E

Rev. E. Blatter, S.J., Ph.D., F.L.S. ; The Hon’ble Sir Ernest Hotson, KeECGsS: i

O2BEE.; T/C.

Executive Committee, Bombay.—Mr. R. D. Bell, C.I.E., I1.C.S.; Mr. H. A. W.

Brent ; Rev. Father J. F. Caius, S.J. ; Mr. Alwyn Ezra, F-R’G:S.,.-F-Z.Se:

Mr. J. B. ‘Greaves ; Prof. V. N..) Hate; °B:-Sc.3) Mr. (Gs Rigland Major

5S. S. Sokhey, I.M.S.; Mr. A. Forrington (Honorary Treasurer) ; Sir Reginald

Spence, Kt., M.L.C., F.Z.S., Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson, F.Z.S. (Joint Honorary

Secretaries).

Advisory Conmittee.—Mr.T. Bainbrigge Fletcher, F.E.S., Pusa; Mr. T.R.

Bell, C.I.E., Karwar ; Brigadier W. H. Evans, C.1I.E., R.E., Quetta; Lt.-Col.

F.C. Fraser, 1.M.S., Coimbatore; Dr.F: OH. Gravely, D.Sc:, Madras... Me.

C. M. Inglis, M.B.O.U.; (E:Z.S., Darjeeling. ;.Mr. RaiC> Morris; F2RIG.s.

E.Z.8., Coimbatore: .Major E.G. Phythian» Adams, 1.2.5) Nilgirisi-; Dr.

Baini Prasad, D.Sc., Calcutta ; Lt.-Col. R. B. Seymour Sewell, M.A., Sc. D.,

I.M.S., Calcutta ; Mr. H. C. Smith, I.F.S., Maymyo ; Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley,

O.B.E., D.S.O., M.C., Meerut.

Szerf.—S. H. Prater, 7M-.L-C., °C_M.Z:s. . sCunator aCe icCann, as.

V.S. LaPersonne, M.B.O.U., Asst. Curators.

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT.

The Society’s Journal.

The Thirty-fourth Volume of the Society’s Journal was commenced during

the year. Among the more important scientific contributions were :-—

Mr. Pocock’s paper on the ‘Panthers and Ounces of Asia’ in which the

sub-species and local races of Asiatic Panthers are dealt with on the lines fol-

lowed in his previous paper on Tigers. Four new races are recognized and

described. The Indian Panther (Panthera pardus fusca), according to the

author, is very imperfectly known. He believes that there are probably

several distinguishable races now grouped under the name of fusca, which

strictly belongs to a Bengalese type. Series of skins and skuils of Panthers

from various parts of [India are required for study before any definite conclusions

can be arrived at. Members of the Society could help in the solution of the

problem by presenting material either to the Society or to the British

Museum.

Mr. Pocock in a second paper deals with the ‘Lions of Asia’. The

author endeavours to settle, as far as the literature and material before him

permit, the character and status of the Lions of the Asiatic Cont nent.

In a paper on the ‘Abnormal Tusks of Elephants,’ Sir Frank Collyer, of the

Royal College of Surgeons, London, discusses the probable causes of the pro-

duction of multiple tusks in elephants and describes a few specimens which

shed light on their etiology. Our thanks are due to Mr. C.R. Pawsey, I.C.S.,

Deputy Commissioner, Naga Hills, Assam, Mr. R. C. Morris, Mysore, and the

Burma Forest School, Pyinmana, for their kindness in supplying examples

of pathological ivory for the purpose of this study.

Papers on birds include Mr. P. F. Wickham’s ‘ Birds of the Upper Burma

Hills’ which was concluded during the current year, The author indicates

PROCEEDINGS 1-230

that a great deal of ornithological work remains to be done in these hills and

that the status of various races of birds occurring in these ranges is but imper-

fectly known. The paper supplements the information on the birds of the area

now available in the new edition of 7e Fauna and corrects certain inaccuracies

as regards distribution. The Jast number of the Journal published during the

year contained PartI ofapaper by Mr. J. K. Standford, M.C.,1.C.S., and

Dr. CB. Licehurst, M.Di,-M.A., on “ The-Birds of the Prome District,

Burma’, to which further reference is made under ‘ Expeditions’, A

preliminary report on the results of the Vernay Scientific Survey of the Eastern

Ghats relative to the birds obtained by the Survey in the Salem District was

published under the joint authorship of Messrs. N. B. Kinnear and H. Whistler.

The report is the first of a series of papers which are to be published embody-

ing the Scientific Results of the Survey. In his notes on a ‘ Tourin Further

Kashmir’, Mr. B. B. Osmaston comments on various species of birds observed

during an expedition into the Highlands of Kashmir. In his account of the

Ornithological Station at Heligoland, Mr. Salim Ali describes the methods

employed in investigating and recording the migration of birds and indicates

the need in India for a central organization for ornithological research.

A paper on the ‘ Monitor Lizards of Burma’ by H. C. Smith, gives descrip-

tions and notes on the 5 species of Monitors which occurin Burma, Dr. Baini

Prashad gives a list of the Fishes of the Manchar Lake and the surrounding area.

Papers of economic interest to Indian fisheries are ‘ Methods of Fishing in the

Punjab,’ by M. Hamid Khan and Mr. F. Mitchell’s article on the ‘ Introduction

of Trout into Kashmir ’.

During the year under review Lt.-Col. F. C. Fraser published Part XXXV of

his serial on ‘ Indian Dragonflies ’ which contains a description of a new species.

A second new species is described by the same author in a separate paper. In his

Report on a ‘ Collection. of Ants in the Indian Museum, Calcutta,’ Mr. Durga-

dass Mukerjee includes descriptions of 6newspecies. Papers of economic value

have been submitted by the Department of Entomology, Indian Lac Research

Institute. Messrs. P.S. Negi, M. P. Misra and S. N. Gupta, members of the

staff of the Institute, in an articleon ‘Ants and the Lac Insect’ list 8 more

species as associated with the lac insect than have hitherto been recorded.

The authors are of opinion that ants in general are not injurious to the lac

insect and that many of them, especially the Large Black Ant (Cumpomotus

compressus) are helpful. The same authors contributed a paper on the

‘Noctuid Moth’ (#ublema amabilis) which does more injury to lac than

any other single predator or parasite of the lac insect. The paper gives a

detailed description of the larval, pupal and imago stages of the moth and an

account of its life history and concludes with physical and chemical measures

to be adopted in its control. In his paper on the ‘Aphidz of Mysore,’

Mr. B. Krishnamurthi makes a further contribution to the knowledge of

the Aphidze of Mysore, records notes on common forms and includes

descriptions of 6 new species by F. V. Theobald of the Agricultural Coliege,

Wye, Kent. Mr.C. E. Fellows-Manson supplements Preston Clark’s ‘ Descrip-

tion of two new species of Sphingidz of the Oriental Region’ with notes on

the distribution, etc., of these species.

Botanical papers include the Rev. Fr. Blatter’s ‘ Revision of the Flora of

the Bombay Presidency’ of which Parts XI, XII and XIII were published

during the period under review. In his series of articles on the ‘ Flowering

of Bamboos’, which were concluded, Fr. Blatter discusses problems

connected with the periodic flowering of these plants. His paper forms a

comprehensive review of what has been ascertained so far on this complex

subject. Other botanical contributions include ‘ Notes on the flowering and

vegetative growth of Aroids,’ by C. McCann, and a paper on the ‘ Fresh Water

Algz of Manipur, Assam,’’ by K. P. Biswas.

We were fortunate in being able to publish during the year Major G. Covell’s

paper on the ‘ Malaria Problem in Bombay,’ based on the results of his

recent survey. The paper supplements and brings up-to-date the previous

investigations of Liston and Bentley into a problem which seriously affects the

heaith of this city.

In a separate class is Mr. Waite’s interesting paper on the ‘ Origin of Con-

tinents and Oceans’ which has been described as a most lucid exposition of

Wegener’s celebrated theory of the evolution of the present configuration of land

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

and sea on this planet—a theory of remarkable interest to Biologists and

Palzontologists, offering as it does, an explanation of the reason for the widely

different character of the fauna of areas now separated by narrow insignificant

Straits—a condition particularly evident in the differing faunal regions of

South-East Asia and Australia. The importance of environment and isola-

tion in directing evolution along a more or less definite line is being increasingly

appreciated. We were glad therefore to be able to publish Dr. Hora’s

interesting address before the Section of Zoology at the Seventeenth Indian

Science Congress on the subject of the ‘ Value of Field Observation in the

Study of Organic Evolution’. Dr. Hora bases his paper on his study of the

modifications undergone by the Fauna of torrential streams. The author,

while not under-rating other avenues of investigation, professes his belief that

the most effective method of interpreting the why and the wherefore of organic

evolution is by direct observation of the organism in its environmert. The

Zoological Survey of India, of which the author is a member, has always

considered Field Research as an important part of the duties of the staff. That

the policy of extensive field-work has been effectively pursued in recent years is

indicated in the series of articles we published during the year on the History

and Progress of the Zoological Survey of India. Besides indicating the

manifold activities of the Survey, our object in publishing these articles has

been to stimulate the interest of our members in the premier Zoological Research

Centre in the East and to show how the work of this Institution can be helped

by the efforts of laymen.

While scientific contributions form an essential and important feature of the

journal, the Editors have endeavoured to identify the publication with one of

the main objects of the Society, namely the popularizing of Natural History in

all its branches. Popular articles, attractively illustrated in colour and in

black and white, have continued to form a distinctive feature of the Journal.

The issuing of 3 coloured illustrations with each number is no small item of ex-

penditure but the Journal is the principal advantage of Membership and the

Committee is doing all that it can to increase its value and attractiveness to

Members. Weare confident that in return members will help by making the

Journal better known among their friends and thereby increase our member-

ship. The serial on ‘ Beautiful Indian Trees’ of which Parts III, IV and V

were published during the year is an especially welcome feature. It is the first

attempt to issue a really well-illustrated series of articles on the more conspicu-

ous Flowering Trees of India and the thanks of the Society are due to authors,

the Rev. Fr. Blatter and Mr. W. S. Millard. We hope eventually to issue

the serial in book-form.

Mr. Stuart Baker continued his interesting serial on ‘ Indian Wading Birds’.

His articles have been a feature of our Journal for many years and the Society

is deeply indebted to him for his unfailing help in adding to the interest and

attractiveness of its pages. His untiring labours and his manifold contribu-

tions to Indian Ornithology, deserve the thanks and appreciation of all Orni-

- thologists and laymen. Mr. H. Whistler’s serial on the ‘ Study of Indian

Birds’ was continued during the year. It is intended as a guide to all those

who wish to take up this fascinating study. The author’s skilful treatment of

his subject amply fulfils the purpose for which he writes. We must also

mention Major Hingston’s very readable and charming studies of Indian

Insect Life. His constant contributions to the pages of the journal are much

appreciated.

Big-Game hunting in India finds its place in this year’s publications in

Lt.-Col. A. H. E. Mosse’s instructive articles on ‘ The Panther as I have known

him.’ and Mr. Morden’s ‘ Notes on an Expedition after Ozzs polt.’ The

author’s experience indicates that, provided one has the means and one is able

to obtain a permit to enter the country, a hunting trip after Ovis polz in the

Russian Pamir presents no unusual difficulties and can be a very enjoyable ex-

perience. Other popular papers include Major W. B. Trevenen’s ‘ Fishing in

the Rivers of the C. P.’, in which the author introduces the novice to the

attractions, the waters of the Central Provinces hold for the fisherman.

We have again to thank a large number of members who contributed to the

Miscellaneous Notes published at the end of each number. They forma very

readable feature of the Journal and offer an opportunity to every member to

contribute to the interest and usefulness of its pages,

PROCEEDINGS 235

PUBLICATIONS.

During the year under review, the following new publications were issued :—

Game Birds of India.—By Stuart Baker, Volume III. Pheasants and

Bustard-Quail.The present volume forms a complement to the two volumes

in the series previously published by the Society and has long been awaited by

members. ‘The next volume will deal with the Partridges and Quails, but

publication must be postponed till at least a good proportion of the money

invested in the present volume has been recovered.

Bird Charts.—As indicated in the previous report, the Society was able to

issue during the year under review sets of charts illustrating 210 Indian Birds

in colour. The charts are intended primarily for the use of Schools and

Educational Institutions. ‘They supply a long-felt want, providing as they do

illustrations in colour of a large series of Common Birds of the Indian Plains.

We can reasonably hope that they will achieve the purpose of familiarizing

the children in our Schools with the birds uf the country. Although designed

for Schools, the Charts would be an acquisition in Messes and Clubs in the

mofussil.

Forthcoming Publications.—The Committee sanctioned the publication by

the Society of Capt. Bates’ Book on ‘ Bird Life in India’. The author is well

known to the readers of the Journal. His well written and beautifully

illustrated articles on Indian Bird Life have formed an attractive feature of its

pages. Capt. Bates has been remarkably successful with his camera-portraits

of Indian Birds and his book is profusely illustrated with examples of his fine

work. Its low cost should ensure a ready sale. The price to members is

Rs. 6-12.

EXPEDITIONS AND EXPLORATIONS.

The Vernay Scientific Expedition to the Eastern Ghats was completed

during the year. <A preliminary account of this important survey, which the

Society owes to the generosity of Mr. A. S. Vernay, was given in our previous

report. Mr. LaPersonne who was in charge of the Survey made collections of

Birds in the Salem, Trichinopoly, Cuddapah, Kurnool, Godavari and Vizaga-

patam Districts. The total number of specimens collected number 1,777. The

material is being worked out by Mr. N. B, Kinnear and Mr. H. Whistler and a

Preliminary Report on the collection was published by them in the Journal.

The authors record their appreciation of the work done by Mr. LaPersonne and

indicate that the Survey has been a great success and that very substantial

results are expected from it, as the material now available provides important

data in regard to the distribution and status of various species and races of

Indian Birds. 1,621 Mammals were collected in the same area by Mr. N. A.

Baptista. The material collected by him is of great value as it has been

obtained from areas which were not touched by the Mammal Survey.

Survey of the Arrakhan Hills.—In January 1930, Mr. Henricks, an assistant

in the Bird Department, was sent to assist Mr. A. R. Villar, Conservator of

Forests, Prome District, in a Bird Survey of the Arrakhan Hills. Henricks

toured the area between January and April. A collection of 353 birds was

obtained. Thecollection is now being worked out by Dr. C. Ticehurst and a

report will be duly published.

Naga Hills.—In January 1930, an expedition was sent on behalf of the

American Museum of Natural History, New York, with the object of collect-

ing material for a group of Gibbons, and incidentally obtaining material fora

similar group for our own Museum. Special facilities were given to the

expedition by the Government of Assam and our party received great assistance

from Mr. C. R. Pawsey, Deputy Commissioner of Mokokchung, Naga Hilis.

The members of the expedition included Mr. C. McCann, Assistant Curator,

Mr. K. B. Sawardekar, artist, and Mr. Gilbert Nogueira, modeller. Eighteen

skins of Gibbons in all stages of colouration were obtained for the Museum, as

well as a fine series of skins of the Capped Langur, (Semnopithecus pileatus) and

the rare Stump-tailed Monkey (JV. arctoitdes). In addition, a number of small

mammals and birds were collected. The latter including a good set of skins

of the Peacock-Pheasant (/Polyplectron chinguts), Paintings of the type of

country inhabited by Gibbons were made by Mr. Sawardekar and specimens

illustrative of the plant-life were collected, The material will be used for a

habitat group of Gibbons which it is hoped shortly to erect,

236 JOVURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

BIRD MIGRATION IN INDIA.

3,000 rings were issued during the year in connection with the Bird Banding

Scheme of the Society. Eight recoveries were reported and recorded in the

Journal. This makes the total number of recoveries thirty-two.

INVESTIGATION INTO TOXICITY OF VENOM

OF INDIAN SCORPIONS.

In connection with the above investigation, we must record our appreciation

of the help received during the year from Museums, Government Hospitals

and Dispensaries which continued to send numbers of live scorpions from all

parts of India. This has enabled Fr. Caius, who has been conducting the

investigation, to add considerably to the material available for his present re-

search—Reports of the amount of venom obtained from various species during

the present year were published in the Journal.

THE PRINCE OF WALES’ MUSEUM.

The Trustees of the Museum, in adopting the report of the Sub-Committee

which recommended the building of a new wing for the Natural History

Section of the Museum, have set aside the sum of two lakhs of rupees towards

the cost of the new building. The sum apportioned does not permit the

commencement yet of the work of erecting a building which is estimated

to cost 54 lakhs, setting aside the not inconsiderable sum that would

be required for its equipment. The fate of the scheme now depends on the

support it receives from the general public. Trade depression and the distrac-

tions attendant on an acute political upheaval have considerably limited the

chances of success of an appeal for money from the public at the present time.

It is however gratifying to record that a donation of Rs. 10,000 towards the

building fund has been received by the Society from H. H. The Maharaja of

Cutch and a donation of Rs. 5,000 from H. H. The Maharaja of Bhavnagar.

Our thanks are due to Their Highnesses for this generous support.

Pending the decision of the Trustees in regard to the erection of'a new

building for the Natural History Section, few additions were made to the

existing galleries during the year under report. Work was concentrated

mainly on exploration, research and the cataloguing of collections.

A list of the contributions to the Museum from lst January to 30th September

1930 has already been published in the Journal anda supplementary list

completing the contributions for the year will shortly be published.

Thanks to the generosity of Mr. F. V. Evans, a Vice-Patron of the Society,

the work of preparing wax models of Marine Fishes from local waters was

continued duirng the year. Mr. Evans in addition to paying for the services of

the Modeller, also made a donation towards the cost of the show-cases for exhi-

biting the fine series of models of fishes presented by him, Another benefac-

tion of Mr. Evans is the many valuable books he presented to our library

during the year. Tne thanks of the Society are due to Mr. Evans for the

assistance and continuous support he has given so generously to the Museum.

We would also express our grateful appreciation of the help we have

received from Mr. A. S. Vernay, Mr. A. R. Villar and Mr. J. K.

Stanford who organized important expeditions during the year; to Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton, Lt.-Col. C. H. Stockley and Capt. L. D. W. Hearsey for their

fine contributions to the collections ; to Mr. Stuart Baker, Mr. H. Whistler,

Dr. C. B. Ticehurst, Brigadier W. H. Evans, Rev. Fr. Blatter and the Staff of

the British and Indian Museums for their willing help in the identification of

specimens submitted to them, and in conclusion we would pay our tribute of

thanks to Mr. W. S. Millard for the continuous and valuable work he has

done for the Society ever since his retirement to England. He has never

‘failed to respond to the numerous demands we make consistently on his time

and attention.

STAFF.

The Committee take this opportunity of placing on record their appreciation

of the work done by the Curator, Mr. S. H. Prater, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C., and

his staff both scientific and clerical.

REGINALD SPENCE,

P. McD. SANDERSON,

March 16, 1931. Joint Honorary, Secretaries.

PROCEEDINGS 237

THE HONORARY TREASURER’S REPORT.

Revenue Account :

Dealing first of all with the Revenue Account: The figures on the expenses

side of this account remain very similar to those which appeared in the 1929

account.

This year’s Entrance Fees amount to Rs. 1,620 against Rs. 1,814 in 1929, and

subscriptions this year show a reduction of Rs. 1,970 when compared with last

year’s figure.

The Taxidermy Department shows only a small profit of Rs. 3-13-3 this year

as against Rs. 192-14-9 last year. In regard to this I would point out that

another man was engaged in this department from April 1930 which hascaused -

the profit to be lower.

It will be seen that the Revenue Account shows a loss of Rs. 667-3-4 as

against a loss of Rs. 2,995-14-7 last year.

Publication Account :

After paying the author his profit on the ‘ Snake Books’, the publication

account shows that a profit of Rs. 588-5-4 has been made this year on the

Society’s publications. Last year this figure was only Rs. 115.

Balance Sheet :

The Balance Sheet discloses quite a satisfactory position again this year.

Assets

The Assets side of the Balance Sheet is self-explanatory except that a note is

due in regard to the heading ‘Game Books ’—a number of these have been

sold during the year and there is as a consequence a balance of Rs. 2,356-6-2 to

be transferred to the Surplus Assets Account.

Liabilities :

Turning now to the liability side, the Life Membership fees amount to

Rs. 46,100 this year as against Rs. 42,600 last year.

Under our Articles we have to maintain Government paper investments up to

the total value of our Life Membership fees. It will be seen from the Balance

Sheet that our investments amount to Rs. 70,487-8-0 and we have, therefore,

complied fully with the requirements of our Articles.

The amount of Rs. 19,448 8-7 shown under the heading ‘ Donations for

Specific Objects Unexpended’ is held by the Society as a Trustee.

Surplus Assets :

We have to add to last year’s balance the profit on ‘Game Book’ sales and we

have also to deduct the sum of Rs. 2,813-5-1 being the necessary depreciation

on our securities and also asmall loss on the Revenue Account.

The securities have in no case been written up and the depreciation is merely

a routine one to bring our 34 % Government paper to market value on the

3lst December 1930. The net difference, therefore, of the Society’s position

between last year and this year is a profit of: Rs. 131-6-5.

Last year the loss amounted to Rs. 4,403-7-5,

Membership :

During 1930 we enrolled 81 new members, three old members rejoined us,

while 112 resigned. The new members enrolled in 1930 show a decrease of 9

over new members admitted in the year 1929.

Resignations in 1930 were, as already stated, 112 against 125 in 1929. Our

total membership on 3lst December 1930 was :—

Life Members sae 205

Ordinary Members eo LTS

Total A 11S

A. FORRINGTON,

March 14, 1931. Honorary Treasurer.

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

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ALHISOS XAYOLSIH TVYNLVYN AVANOE

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OF THE,

Ry ac ogint

Bombay Navurat History Society.

) EDITED BY |

P. M. D. SANDERSON, F.Z.S., S. He PRATER, C.M.Z.S., M.L.C.,

AND C. MCCANN, F.L.S.

VOL. XXXV, No. 2.

“Date of Publication, 15th October 1931.

Price to Non-Members hae Cone! a > Ok

: ; anes es Se IY Oo

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COMmE IN TS Or VOLUME XXXV No. 2

Pacs

THE GaME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EmpIRE. By FE. C. Stuart Baker,

F2Z.S-2. FslS., M.B.O-U:, H.F.A:O.U. Part) XV: (With a _ coloured

(HGH). > . BRBo Bo cobse Bh Bpbagbcobc ka sic Sobre CBS boar Hibs aun tenn cee ececnenr capac cna rtEnnores 241

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By Rev. E. Blatter,

Spat ON a Wot (erent plates vand. Six. LeXt-fiSUves.) iiss. s00c0 254

THe Lonc-TatLep Macaque Monkeys (Macaca radiata and M._ sinica)

OF SOUTHERN. INDIA” AND “CrYLon.” By ‘R.-I. Pocock, F.R-S. | ......... 276

SomE BeauTiruL INDIAN Trees. By E. Blatter, s.j., Ph.D., F.L.s., and

W. S. Millard, F.z.s. Part VII. (With two coloured plates, three

WiGgeevanad iwiite plates And S€vVen.-dIASrANiS.)h gh eiaereddecdateneus Geeees. 289

THE Pic-TaiL—ED Macagues (Macaca nemestrina). By R. I. Pocock, F.R.s. 297

THE Stupy oF Inpian Birps. By H. Whistler, F.z.s., M.B.o.u. Part

WAR itive. plates) ce. = een ease abe Seok ap ate Uae «Mein cls oa Mnles Searcy he

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES. By Lt:-Col: FF. ©: Fraser, 1.M.s.,° F-E:S. Part

ROCK NIT Cath. twoe plates and a text=fisure.)c Pee ei ied cadvcsocdecss ova coneees 325

InpIAN NET-VEINED MIpDGES oR Blepharoceride. By Dr. S. L. Hora

DESC UV tiiaae plate and TOUT LEXD=fURUTES.\ kr scome teers acdsenssabedase tee sclns 342

THE PROBLEM OF EvoLuTIOoN. By Lt.-Col, R. B. Seymour Sewell, I.m.s.

Reece mame teat (al OE ime ee PLAC a) lesine clea alc oe ti. Shade tess oi cule aioaln eo Sous G sent ee Piles aoe eiantn 347

On A SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE STREAMS IN THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN

UICC (OSeENDIA) maby Onan WIUNCeR|l, MiSCie) S cet consis odehecseesscse stiles 359

Notes On INDIAN Hawxkmotus. By Lt.-Col. F. B. Scott, 1.4., F.E.S.

(Math tice. piateswand nine text-fLSUress) 9 '2..0i2 tose: Jobcee sso i satan bss began eter < 362

A Note ON THE BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF Muow. By Rev. F. S.

IS motor cele Carseat eee at cio saice eng hon da stemnedlonduce avo tulbee Nowe tusja cats = 332

A Tate or Five Ticer. By R. C. Morris, F.z.s., F.R.G.S. (With a photo) 405

ANOTHER NEW Ceropegia FROM THE WESTERN Guats. By E. Blatter, s.J

3),

Pisce and ©. aMeCann,. ES. (Wathiva: plate:) © .i.s....04..c.0kes 409

SEA-FISHING ON THE Bompay Coast. By H. C. Mueller, p.sc. ............ 410

THE BUTTERFLIES OF.THE SIMLA HiLts. By G. W. V. de Rhe-Philipe, F.x.s.

pects em ogee ee eC Seer a wo ci. I cas, Liens Muley Balle wl cicicw cg sedsls vee Ue veeebesotowe 415

THE CicaDa: Lethama locusta Watker. By C: McCann, F.u.s. (With

em C ML USNS: \i RA So. vee SEoe tee ease ee ce ne nears e loots ciiet ise Bh eae 430

REVIEWS—

eae ERO IStE ENG ENDLAG. © Stel oe ck, eek os Opes a een clos dates sateen ees 437

2 ORICULIEG OF" THE HVOLUTION. DHEORY, —.coidsscseessivedecesdesdecsedoess 437

il CONTENTS: OF Viole XXX VG AN Oo. 22

PaGE

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES—

I.—JLocaL MIGRATION OF THE FLyiING-Fox (Pteropus giganteus)

IN: THE PUNJAB By "Gs Breadon-9<. 20 io... 2 oc .00n- sete sek 439

I].—ViraLity oF a Cow Mavtep sy a Ticer. By R. C. Morris.

(WE ct0 0: LCXE= fu URES. Noe am. Cae ae eens cece et, oO 439

I1].—A PANTHER’S STRANGE BeuHaviour. By R. C. Morris, F.z.s. 440

IV.—CaNNIBALISM IN PanTHERS. By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton. ... 440

V.—SoME SUGGESTIONS ON PANTHER SHOOTING. By the Maharaja

OL Sur guar gor 7 wen Socnececeetee Lead vag seu las nuneesen nie accaeeeeees 441

VI.—THE NUMBER OF PUPS IN A WiLp Doc’s Litter. By Lt.-Col.

Re OW. (Burton: 6) ov sce ecient < mean ne tree reece See eee 442

VII.—An Ixewent witH Witp Doce iN Nrimar. By R. M.

SUMDIMONS. wh ecw ss teeta eee aec ee teen ce eh ener Sarees 442

VIIL—Tae Miteun. By Jo €. Higgins: .0.S. 2.0. ieeseunsactae vee oe 444

IX.—THE SHWE-U-DAaUNG GAME SaNcTuaRy, UPPER BURMA, WITH

A NOTE ON THE ASIATIC TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS (R.

sumatrensis). By E. H. Peacock. (With a plate.) ...... 446

X.—BirD MIGRATION NOTES FROM PorT BLaiIR. By Lt.-Col.

Ma La Ferrars: cagatsntscsespect sosiand@adls tan nde conn aden es 448

XI.—Twe INDIAN GREAT REED-WaRBLER, dcrocephalus stentoreus

brunnescens. (ferdon). By H. Whistler. © .i9..0..fac02) 25005 450

XIJJI.—CoMMENT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE (GREY HyYPOCOLIUS

(Hypocolius ampelinus) 1N IND1Ia. By Percy Hide. ......... 454

XI1I.—TuHe Macpre Rosin (Copsychus saularis, Linn.) in NortTH

GUyARAT.. By Fart Narayan Acharya. = -eiees-s-benesas ce 455

XIV.—THE MIGRATION OF THE Rosy Pastor (Pastor roseus L.)

By Salint As" Ay) ee h Ss Sees cage, Sore eens naa 457

XV.—OccURRENCE OF THE SIND RED-WINGED BusH-Lark (Mirafra

erythroptera sindianus) IN THE RAWALPINDI DISTRICT OF

THE PunjaB. By H. W. Waite. sii Fis dishes nes KyanasMokeeoe 458

XVI.—ELEVEN Koei Eccs In a Crow’s NEst. By Humayun

PRR AAS ok Se Sala diore atte iat oe Ses Caw oieite ool siels oS Ieee eee eee eae 458

XVII.—THE OccuRRENCE OF PIED CRESTED Cuckoo’ (Clamator

jacobinus, Boddaert) IN NORTH GuyjsRaT. By H. N.

ARRAN Aas eS ee aeari pas cris nsio's anicla ie cote sila ee rene eee nla ea nce 458

XVIII.—TuHe MicraTioN OF THE WHITE STORK (Ciconia ciconia). By

S_ aa... Prater; SCeMiZ-Si0 Mee ewaee ee eeeee geosoc sos shond oes S9so4 459

XIX.—OccuRRENCE OF THE FALcaTED TEAL (Eunetta falcata) IN THE

JueLum District. By Captain M. C. Frye. .....2...0:. 459

XX.—THE WHITE-FRONTED GOOSE (A. albifrons) IN’ MANIPUR. By

J- C. Piaggins, 1.0.8.0. ..ssiie. cece scen secede rnme deo hieeaena- any ess se 460

XXI.—On THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE EASTERN GREY Duck (Anas

ponorypcna). By J.C. PRAMS, T.C.S. 5 no... geese nomen 460

XXII.—NorTes ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS IN THE NORTH-WEST

FRONTIER PRovINCE. By Lt.-Col. G. de la P. Beresford,

MaGreLi VLiglice mab Saardpe de Manmammneedd sted one bas eadeads Gesivedees dsirals els ott — 461

CONTENTS OF (Vol. xXXXV,' No. 2 lil

Pace

XXITI.—CoNGENITAL ABSENCE OF A FORE-LIMB IN A BULL FroG (Rana

tigrina). By G. M. Kurulkar and D. S. Deshpande.

(GU ROOR A PILOLOS..) fi Bier ots cate ct ciadle oe aie vine cep « wsisenne ciate se 462

XXIV.—THE COLOURATION OF THE TAIL OF THE COMMON SKINK (L.

punctatum). By Beni Charan Mahendra. (With a

DIOL 0) MMMM Soo snes tos on ane ses c ciecse Gees ads oacesaensedees 463

XXV.—NUMBER OF VENTRAL SCALES IN THE FASCIOLATED DHAMAN (Z.

fasciolatus). By Lt.-Col. K. G. Gharpurey, I.m.s. ...... 465

XXVI.—DETERMINING THE AGE OF INDIAN FISHES FROM THEIR SCALES.

Bye Dr Ser Dom CUil aya ESCs. PIs Dag a cece edtis «0c cee wees sess <e% 466

XXVII.—NoTES ON THE BEETLE (Platypria echidna) GurER. By C.

INT CO Bia ime Se ile ea Peale wile se tloe cctenls outenclsita e's ees cole sins eldwc's« stele 466

XXVIII.—On THE FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWERS OF THE SAUSAGE TREE

(Kigelia pinnata, DC.) By Bats. By C. McCann, F.L.s.

GW Aile S1n1ees GVA S715.) pe ea ote nasee eet SiMe os Gas emeaca gue voice 467

XXIX.—OccuRRENCE OF Isoétes IN THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY. By

Cre Mic Cannss) Gir at seinen cogs cces oe reece deseo waa ia atlanta end ot 471

PROCEED ENG ian ert ser are eee we i For iG evita hi 472

“edlueqe|euw eianyjdiqo q “Snodipul snoipur snyyaueaigo7

‘6 “ONIMdW] GATLLWM-MOTTAA AHL ‘sh “ONIMdW] GSILLVM -Gay NVIGN[ AHL

‘uopuoT pz] Uossjarued p SUOS 3feg UYOr

‘20G “LSI[[ “LVN AVEWOg ‘Nanor .

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

OCTOBER 1937. VOL. eX. No. 2.

THE GAME: BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE.

ea @. -SUARD AKER.) Fi%.S.). F-LvSi, M.B-OlU., Hi F.A-O.U,

Wiens AVS

THE WADERS AND OTHER SEMI-SPORTING BIRDS.

PART NY.

(With a colour plate).

Genus: HOPLOPTERUS.

moplopleris.bomaparte, Georn. Arcad. Rome, xlix, p. 55 (1831).

Type by mon., Charadrius spinosus Linn.

This genus is distinguished by possessing a long, curved spuv

on the bend of the wing; the wing is rounded, the second primary

longest; the tarsus is long, slender and reticulated throughout;

there is no hind toe.

HOPLOPTERUS DUVAUCELIL.

The Spur-winged Plover.

Charadrius. duvaucelu. Lesson., Dict. Sci. Nat., Vol. xlu, ps 38,

1826 (named from the same specimen as Wagler) Calcutta.

Charadrius ventralis. Wagler., Syst. Av., n. it (1827) (Calcutta).

Hoplopterus ventralis. Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 220.

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Description.—Whole crown and full crest to the nape, lores, chin,

throat and cheeks black bordered with white; hind. neck vinous-

grey, passing into light brown on the back, rump, scapulars, inner

coverts and inner secondaries; upper tail-coverts white; tail white

at the base, black on the terminal half, the outer tail-feathers

NOV 2 ¢ 1931

242. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATORAEL HIST. SOCIETY WG 2eexa i

‘narrowly tipped with white; primary coverts and primaries black,

the bases of the latter white, this increasing in extent until the

central secondaries are pure white; outer lesser wing-coverts black ;

median and greater coverts white; upper breast almost white, shad-

ing into vinous-grey on the sides of the neck and browner-grey

on the lower breast; centre of abdomen black; remainder of under-

parts white.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris dark brown; bill black; legs and feet

horny-brown to reddish-black.

_Measurements.—Wing 185 to 205 mm.; tail 88 to 94 mm.; tarsus

about 64 to 67 mm.; culmen 26 to 28 mm.

Distribution.—Practically the whole of Eastern India as far west

as, and including, the Central and United Provinces; Assam, Burma,

the Indo-Chinese countries and South China. In the north-west

it extends to the foot-hills of Garhwal and Kashmir.

Nidification.—The Spur-winged Plover breeds over the greater

part of India during March and April but I have taken eggs in

the end of February, whilst Osmaston has taken them on the

Narbudda River in early May. These eggs, of course, are all laid

so that they may be hatched and the young: removed before the

floods drown them out but, occasionally, they seem to have a

second nest in late September or October when they make use of

the higher islands and sandbanks above ordinary floods. Unlike

most plovers these birds never breed in colonies; sometimes on

large sandbanks or beds of shingle two or three pairs may be

found together, though even then the nests are separated as widely

as possible. The bird breeds both on the rivers in the plains of

India and on small swamps at a considerable elevation in the

foot-hills of Garhwal, Kashmir and the Eastern Himalayas. The

site selected may be any small island or spit running into the

river but the birds undoubtedly prefer shingle to sand and will

often deposit their eggs in scrapings made in amongst quite large

boulders. Occasionally also they may be found breeding in open

marshy lands amongst terns and other birds and I once took a

clutch of four eggs in a mustard field, in which the crop stood

nearly a couple of feet high. The normal clutch of eggs is four,

as with other plovers, but in some of their breeding areas three

eggs only seem quite common. They are very like the eggs of the

Red-wattled Lapwing but on the whole they are duller and more

grey or olive brown in general tone, as well as being rather more

long in shape. The ground colour may be any tint of stone-yellow,

dull grey-brown or buff, very seldom at all warm or bright. The

markings consist of numerous blotches, spots and .smudges of

blackish with other secondary similar shaped markings of pale

lavender and grey. The markings of all kinds are distributed

numerously over the whole surface of the egg and it is very rare

to see a definite cap or ring. I have one or two clutches in

which the blotches are fairly bold but as a rule they seldom

contrast strongly with the ground colour. The average of one

hundred eggs: in 41.1 x.20.4 mm.; maximao76.7 x. 30,6 mm. ane

42.0.% 31.7 mm.'; minima’ 63.7 x 29.0 mm. and30.0 x 25,o.mnm-

When sitting the bird is undoubtedly shy but at the same time

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMFIRE 243

not so wide awake as either the Red-wattled Lapwing or the Pee-

wit, for frequently when wandering slowly along rivers or swamps,

I have seen the bird get up from its nest and sneak quietly away.

Nor does the cock bird seem to keep a very vigilant watch for

intruders, for I have often found a female sitting on the nest

without there being any sign of the cock bird watching close by.

When disturbed from her nest the female bird does not call until

she has got a considerable distance away from it. Incubation I

think takes from 22 to 24 days. Three eggs which I found on the

third of March had their number increased to four, and all four

chicks were hatched on the 28th of the same month. The little

birds, although apparently only just hatched, could run with great

speed but on being approached and finding escape impossible, lay

flat down amongst the small shingle, becoming at once very in-

conspicuous. When lying thus, they kept their eyes tight shut

but after I had stood a few moments watching them, first one eye

and then the other eye would open, being promptly closed again

when they saw I was watching them. They lay perfectly still until

I picked two up, but the other two, which I had been unable to

watch closely, immediately scuttled away when unobserved and

I was unable to find either. Whilst I was watching them the hen

bird kept circling overhead, calling loudly, ‘‘Did-he-do-it, did-he-do-

it’’, and was soon joined by the male bird who expressed his

indignation in equally emphatic tones.

Habits.—The Spur-winged Plover as a rule keeps either singly

or in pairs but I have occasionally seen two or three pairs together,

probably attracted by an especially extensive supply of food. In

its flight and general actions this plover is very much like the

Pee-wit but he keeps more consistently to the banks of rivers and

large and small streams. When shooting along these streams the

Spur-winged Plover is one of the most annoying birds imaginable,

as he not only gives very early notice of one’s approach to any

big game near enough to hear him but, even after he has done so,

insists on accompanying one for a considerable distance up or

down the stream, calling loudly every few seconds all the time and

many a shot have I missed at big game in consequence of his un-

welcome attentions. He flies with very much the same flapping

motion as the Pee-wit and is capable of the same speed and activity

as that bird on the wing, whilst on the ground he runs with equal

celerity. The call is a loud and most persistent ‘‘Did-he-do-it, did-

he-do-it’’ generally finishing up with an emphatic, ‘‘Yes-he-did ’.

They swim very well and I have seen tiny chicks not more than a

few hours old walk deliberately into a rapid stream and swim

across to the opposite shore. They feed very largely on such

insect life as they find in marsh lands and the edges of streams,

and I have examined birds whose stomachs contained nothing but

a mass of caddis worms. They will eat small frogs and tadpoles,

crabs and crustacea of considerable size and will pursue and catch

small fish cut off in pools of water. The flesh of these birds is

quite good, as indeed is that of most of our plovers, and I have

more than once enjoyed a stew of plover as a welcome change

from the eternal Indian chicken,

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

GENUS: LOBIVANELLUS.

Lobivanellus Gray.—List. Gen. Genera Birds, 2nd. -ed.,* pa 34;

Sept. 1841. The no. of the P.Z.S. containing this name was not

published until October 1841.

Type by orig. desig., Parra gaensis Gmelin=Tringa indica Bodd.

This and the next two genera are distinguished by having curious

fleshy wattles in front of the eye, whilst in this also there is a

small hind toe present. The bill is of moderate length, the culmen

flattened at the base and the dertrum slightly swollen; the linear

nostrils are placed in grooves extending over more than half the

length of the upper mandible; the wing is long, with the second

primary, longest in both sexes, is furnished a spur at the bend;

the tail is almost square; the tarsus. is long and reticulated

throughout.

GENUS: LOBIVANELLUS.

Key to Subspecies.

A. <A white band down each side of the

neck to the breast.

a. Slightly darker and with more

purple slossae... ne he a Ean ateuse

b.. Slightly --paler-"and avithy fess

purple gloss... Bee Plann oben ean

B. “A white cband™=irem «eye to “ear-

coverts only, lower neck black all

round at a ee Jpn le. Cabronuchals.

LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS INDICUS.

The Indian Red-wattled Lapwing.

Tringa indica Bodd., Pl. Enlum., p. 50 (1783) (Goa).

Sarcogrammus indicus. Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 224.

Vernacular Names.—Titiri, Titar, Titi, Tituri (Hind.); Titavi,

(Mahr.); Yannapa Chitawa (Tel.); Al-kati (Tam.); Kirala, Kibulla,

(Cing.); Balighora, Tata-tua (Assam).

Description.—A broad white band from the eye, including the

ear-coverts, passing down the side of the neck and joining the

white of the lower breast, abdomen, vent and under tail-coverts;

remainder of head, fore-neck and breast glossy black, back, scapu-

lars and innermost secondaries olive bronze-brown, with a purple

gloss on the lesser and median wing-coverts; lower back darker

brown; rump, upper tail-coverts and tail white, the last with a broad

subterminal black bar, the central feathers with brown tips and a

brown margin to the black band; primaries and outer secondaries

black, the secondaries with broad white bases, which increase until

the central rectrices are all white; primary coverts black; greater

coverts white with concealed black bases; axillaries white.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris red to red-brown; bill-tip black, the

He red or orange-red; eyelids and wattle crimson-red; legs bright

yellow. |

i eee eee

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 245

Measurements.—Wing 212 to 233 mm.; tail 107 to 116 mm.;

fists avoule7@ to, cg .mm. 7 Culmen 32) to 34 mm.

Young birds have the black feathers of the head broadly fringed

with brown; the chin, throat and fore-neck are white and the sides

of the neck not so pure a white as in the adult.

Nestling in down.—Upper parts grizzled grey-brown, white and

a little rufous; there are well-marked central and lateral coronal

black streaks, a big black patch on both sides of the anterior crown,

meeting behind; a well-marked dorsal line and two short black

thigh-lines; sides of head and neck white; throat and fore-neck

black; remaining underparts dull white.

Distribution.—The whole of India and Ceylon except Sind,

Mekran and the Baluchistan frontiers on the west and Assam south

of the Brahmapootra and the extreme eastern districts of Bengal,

north-east of the Bay of Bengal.

Nidification.—The Red-wattled Lapwing breeds wherever found

throughout the Plains and up to an elevation of nearly 5,000 feet,

though perhaps not very often above 3,000 feet. Its normal breed-

ing season is March, April and May, but fresh eggs may be found

up to August and I have personally taken eggs in the last week

of February, and, on several occasions, in March. The favourite

nesting site undoubtedly is the bank of some river or an island in

the middle of it, though they are not particular as to where they

deposit their eggs so long as there is water within easy distance.

They breed in almost any kind of open country that is not dry,

and very often select a most curious position for their nest. Ballast

of railway-lines is quite a popular resort for these birds during the

breeding season and Hume records the following :—

‘Going along the line at Etawah for about three miles on

14 August, we found five nests, one containing perfectly fresh eggs.

Four of these nests were on the kunker ballast within two feet

of the rail, so that the foot-board of the carriages of every train

must have passed over and within two feet of the sitting bird.

The fifth was on the top of the boundary bank, the bird was sit-

ting totally unconcerned as our trolly passed within six or eight

feet of it, and only moving when I walked up to the spot.

Brooks tells me that along his fifty miles of line he has seen

at least one hundred nests within the last twenty days or month.’’

The same author records eggs as having been found in an old

brick kiln, on the top of hedge banks and even on the top of two-

storeyed houses. On the last-named position they hatched their

young and in two days had them down in the garden, though how

they were transferred from the parapet of the roof, 40 feet from

the ground, Hume could not ascertain. Mr. A. Anderson also

records an instance of this lapwing breeding on the top of a

building, a pair having laid three clutches of eggs between the first

week of May and the third week of June. These were, however,

all taken, so nothing was discovered as to how the birds take down

their young to ground level. Most of the eggs I have found

myself have been on sandbanks in rivers and, though they often

breed more or less in company with various gulls, terns and other

plovers, they seem to prefer sites which are gravelly or rocky, so

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

that whilst other birds may be found breeding on the sandy shores of

the river, the eggs of this plover will be found slightly apart, on

the more shingly portions of the bank. The nest consists: merely

of a depression scraped in the sand or shingle, or of a natural

hollow in the rock, while the lining, if any, in such places is only

a collection of wind-blown fragments.

On the other hand, I have occasionally found nests in cultivated

fields, in which a considerable amount of material had apparently

been purposely collected, forming quite a respectable nest.

The eggs are quite typical plovers’ in appearance, almost invari-

ably numbering four in a clutch. In shape they are broad, slightly

peg-top ovals and in colour much the same as the eggs of the

Pee-wit, though I think on the whole they are duller and more

profusely marked. The ground colour varies from pale yellowish

or reddish stone colour to a comparatively deep reddish buff. Others

have a pale olive ground tint or, more rarely, greyish stone. The

markings are nearly always deep brown or black, consisting of

blotches, smudges, spots and scrawls scattered over the whole

surface, sometimes forming a more definite cap at the larger end.

Most eggs have also secondary markings of lavender, grey, or pale

inky. One clutch in my collection has the ground colour an almost

bright buff, whilst the markings are of chestnut.

A ‘hundred eggs average 42.1 x 290,8°.mm\:; maxima 45.6.1

31.0 mm. and 43.4 x 92:29mm. minima, 7o.gax 2070" maine

The parent birds are very shy and nearly always sneak quietly

off their nests before the intruder can spot them, but in defence of

their young or eggs they are very bold, and I have seen them

bravely attacking both kites and jungle crows, when _ these

approach too near their nests. Miss Cockburn says that she. has

known them attack people taking their eggs, while that they will

drive away dogs and jackals from the vicinity of their nests. If

disturbed suddenly from their nests, the birds will feign illness and

attempt to distract the attention of the intruder and, when once

their young are hatched, will circle overhead, uttering loud calls

and making swoops in their attempt to drive the intruder

away. |

Habits. —The Red-wattled Lapwing is one of the most common

and most widely spread of the Indian Charadriud@, and wherever

he is seen, makes himself conspicuous by his loud cry, ‘‘Did-he-do-

it,’’ or ‘‘Pity-to-do-it.”’. When not breeding and not persecuted

they are very tame and allow a very close apprcach but, if at all

shot at, they at once become the wildest and most astute of birds.

They are fond of perching on little eminences, from which they can

look all round and, on the approach of any danger, down go head

and tail and they scuttle into safety at a great pace, as a rule

not rising into the air until they have gone a considerable distance.

The flight, like that of other plovers, is normally slow and flapping,

though the bird is capable of great speed and has wonderful powers

of twisting about in the air. In former times it used to be a very

favourite quarry for the smaller hawks employed by Indian falconers,

its extraordinary antics in the air often completely baffling the

swift swoops of the falcon.

i ang EE SAAT VRE SAPO EES

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 247

Its food consists of worms, grubs, insects of all kinds, as well

as fresh water mollusca, tiny crayfish, etc. I have seen them feed-

ing on tadpoles and a flight of termites is as great an attraction

to these birds as to nearly all others.

It is resident wherever found although it may desert certain parts

of the country if there is an unusual drought, whilst in winter it

deserts the higher hills for the plains.

LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS AIGNERI.

The Mekran Red-wattled Lapwing.

Sarcogrammus indicus aigneri Laubm., ‘‘Falco’’ Aug. 1913,

p- 30 (Mekran). |

Sarcogrammus indicus. Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 224 (part).

Vernacular Names.—Tatihar (Mesopotamia). |

Description.—This race is slightly paler on the upper parts than

the typical form and has less gloss both on the back and on the

wings. The differences in colour are, however, very slight and

there are exceptional specimens from both Mekran and Mesopotamia

with as much bronze-green gloss on the back and purple gloss on

the wing-coverts as on any Indian bird. ,

Colours of soft parts as in the other races.

Measurements.—Wing 221 to 240 mm.; one 213 mm.; culmen

31 to 35 mm. (Ticehurst). In the British Museum series the wing

runs from 228 to 240 mm.

Distribution.—Mekran, Sind, the extreme North-west Frontier

close to Baluchistan and Afghanistan, roughly the Trans-Indus area.

The whole of Mesopotamia and South-west Persia.

Nidification.—This Lapwing breeds throughout its area, from Sind

to Northern Irak, depositing its eggs in the usual hollow, either

natural or scraped out by the bird itself. Scrope Doig took many

nests in Sind between March and the end of July and Mr. K. Eates

took a large series between the 17th of April and the third week

in June, reporting the bird as an extremely common one along the

banks of the Hub river, where on several occasions he found many

nests containing four eggs on the same day. Most of the nests

are built fairly close either to a river or some other piece of water,

but this race of Lapwing does occasionaliy breed further from water

than does its Indian cousin. At the same time its eggs will very

seldom be taken in really desert country. In appearance the eggs

differ in no respect from those of the preceding bird and the average

Ol 5O efes 1542.4 X30) 4mm,

Habits.—There is nothing calling for remark in the habits of

this bird. It is not perhaps so restricted to well-watered areas as

the Indian bird but does not appear to be found in true desert.

Ticehurst says :—

‘“Throughout the length and breadth of Sind the Red-wattled

Lapwing is common and well known to all. Its only essential

requirement is fresh water or swamps, or, at least; irrigated

fields; hence, wherever there is cultivation, or where some little

trickle from a desert spring allows the neighbouring soil to main-

tain a certain amount of dampness, the inevitable pair or so of

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

these birds will be found, while round jheels, canals, etc., it is

of course common. It is quite resident and not sociable, and

I do not ever remember seeing more than could be accounted for

by a family party, and each pair is jealous of its own terrain.’’

LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS ATRONUCHALIS.

The Burmese Red-wattled Lapwing.

Lobivanellus atronuchalis (Blyth), Jerdon, B. of Ind., iii, p. 648

(1864), (Burma).

Sarcogrammus atronuchalis. Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 224.

Vernacular Names. Titidu (Burm.); Dao-duyip (Cachari).

Distribution.—Differs from the two preceding races in having the

white line down the side of the neck restricted to a patch on and

just behind the ear-coverts, leaving the whole neck black all round;

the black neck is divided from the green back by a narrow white

or lilac band.

Colours of soft parts as in the other races.

Measurements.—Wing 200 to 221 mm.; culmen 27 to 32 mm.

Distribution.—Assam, south of the Brahmapootra, Tuippera,

Chittagong, Burma and Malay States to Sumatra and the Indo-

Chinese countries.

Nidification.—This race of Red-wattled Lapwing breeds princi-

pally during April and May but I have eggs taken as early as the

17th of March and one clutch as late as the 22nd of July, this,

probably, being a second laying. The birds breed both on the

shores and islands of rivers and in cultivated and fallow fields at

some distance therefrom. It nowhere appears to be as common as

either of the two preceding birds. It ascends the hills to some

height and I have taken its eggs in Gachar on the Kopali stream

at an elevation of some 1,500 feet, whilst Harington, Grant and

Hopwood took them higher than this in the Bahmo Hills. Normally

the nests and eggs are just like those of its cousins but I once

found four eggs in a rather unusual place—the footmark of a huge

tiger on a sandbank. The size of the tiger’s tracks had struck

me as so extraordinarily large that I was following them up in the

endeavour to get a clean mark to measure and, as I did so, the

lapwing jumped up and ran along ahead of me and I found the

eggs as described. Another rather curious position from which

I once took eggs was the upper surface of a large semi-rotten log

that lay on the drift left by a hill stream. In Burma they are said

frequently to deposit their eggs on the bare soil of paddy fields

from which the rice has already been reaped. The eggs do not,

I think, vary in any way from those of the other races except that

they are on the whole rather darker, possibly to match the darker

soil of Burma on which they are laid.

Thirty-six eggs average 4175 x 29°38 mm; maxima 75 4 x

Z0'1 «amm.” and 45:0 xX 31% “mms; minima 1407 e262) mms and

AOLA: "X20 Maat.

Habits.—The habits of this race differ in no way from those of

the others. It is equally noisy and equally a nuisance to sportsmen

wandering along the banks of rivers and hoping for bigger game as,

ak Me MPN Rin ge

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE 249

like the Spur-winged Plover, they not only are not content with

shouting loudly when first disturbed but continue to follow the

sportsman and noisily protest against his presence, for some

distance.

The flesh of this bird, as well as of the other races, is quite

good eating but it can hardly be called a sporting bird and certainly

should not be shot for food unless one is very hard up for a dinner.

Genus: LOBIPLUVIA.

Lobipluvia Bonaparte, Com. Rend. Acad. Sci. Paris, xiii,

p. 418 (1856).

Type by mon., Charadrius malabaricus Boddaert.

In this genus the bill is more slender than in Lobivanellus, whilst

the tarsus, which is long and slender, instead of being reticulated

throughout, has transverse shields in front. There is no hind toe

in this genus. Second primary generally longest in both sexes,

first and third subequal. Occasionally the first primary is longest

but there “appears: to be now sexual difference im ‘the shape. of the

wings.

LOBIPLUVIA MALABARICA.

The Yellow-wattled Lapwing.

Charadrius malabaricus Bodd., Pl. Enlum., p. 53 (Malabar Coast).

Sarciophorus malabaricus. Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 226.

Vernacular Names.—Zirdi (Hind.); Jithiri (N.-W. Provinces) ;

Chitawa (Tel.); Al-kati (Tam.).

Description.—Line between wattles on forehead and crown black,

surrounded by a whitish line; back, scapulars, wing-coverts and

innermost secondaries light brown; upper tail coverts and _ tail

white with a broad black subterminal band, absent on the outer-

most pair of feathers and represented by two small black patches

on the next pair, central tail-feathers with brown tips and brown

edge to the black band; primaries black, the first three with white

inner halves to the inner webs; outer secondaries white with a

black tip, this decreasing until the central secondaries are all white;

greater coverts white; primary coverts black; chin and upper throat

black; neck all round paler brown than the back, darkening on the

breast and with a black line dividing it from the white lower

breast, abdomen, flanks and under tail-coverts.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris white to silver-grey or pale lemon-

yellow; bill black, the base and gape yellow, or greenish-yellow ;

legs and feet bright yellow.

Measurements.—Wing 184 to 202 mm.; tail 80 to 89 mm. ; tarsus

about 55 to. 61 mm. ; culmen 26: to 28 mm,

Young birds are pale sandy-brown above, narrowly barred with

rather darker brown; chin albescent, throat and upper breast pale

brown with faint traces of darker brown marks.

Distribution.—All India and Ceylon, as far north-west as Lower

Sind but>not in, Upper Sind or the Trans-Indus area: East it

extends as far as Calcutta and Dacca.

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Nidification.—-The Yellow-wattled Lapwing breeds over the great

part of its area during March, April and May, but on the Travan-

core coast Messrs. Stuart and Bourdillon found eggs from the

3rd. March “to; the 13th Aveoust)- and an, almost -equal numbers

throughout the whole of this time. I think most birds prefer

ploughed fields, muddy shores of lakes, swamps and _ rivers,

or waste lands in which to breed. At the same time, whatever site

they may select will always be dry and, even when the bird breeds

on the shores of swamps and tanks, it does so on the sun-baked

mud, well away from the water. In the South of India it certainly

seems often to choose the sites last-named, whilst in Northern

India it selects in preference dry uplands. The nest is the usual

depression in the soil, either natural, or made by the birds them-

selves; in most instances no lining at all is present but occasionally

a few scraps of grass or leaves may be found in it. Protection in

the form of bushes, grass or clods is sometimes sought but very

often the eggs are placed absolutely in the open, although from

their colouration they are very inconspicuous and difficult to find.

The normal colouration of this plover’s eggs is very similar to that

of the red-wattled lapwings, but there is a very curious erythritic

form which seems exclusive to this species. This red type

of egg appears to be a most wonderful instance of environ-

mental selection. Along the Malabar Coast, stretching into Travan-

core, there is a long, comparatively narrow, strip of red laterite

soil. Roughly speaking, the soil looks as if composed of broken

red brick, the whole surface scattered with tiny to medium-sized

nodules of black ironstone. Throughout this area of red laterite,

the eggs laid by the Yellow-wattled Lapwing are exactly like the

ground upon which they are deposited, that is to say, the ground

colour of the egg is anything from pale to deep buff red, whilst

the markings consist of the usual dark blackish brown or reddish

brown specks and blotches numerously scattered over the whole

surface of the egg: When im situ’ im their nest, the egesare

practically invisible.

The discovery of this wonderful breeding ground is due to Mr. J.

Stuart. In 1915 whilst searching very successfully for the ordinary

form of this bird’s eggs on the black soil which covers most of

Travancore and Malabar, he obtained on a patch of red laterite a

set of eggs of the red form. This he very kindly sent home to

me. In the following year he deputed men especially to work the

larger area of red laterite, similar to that on which he had obtained

the first eggs. The first year neither he nor his men were very

successful though the few sets they did find were all of the erythri-

tic type. Mr. Stuart however believed that when his eyes got

more accustomed to the curious similarity between the eggs and

their surroundings, he would be more successful. Accordingly he

and his men persisted in their search in subsequent years and even-

tually got a magnificent series of these eggs. The birds, he found,

were quite as numerous on the red laterite soil as they: were in

the black surrounding country but, whereas in the latter, practically

every egg taken was of the normal dark, earthy type, those obtained

on the red laterite were with almost equal constancy of the erythri-

i i hae 0 ee ite lal nee

a ee ee ee ere

THE GAME BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE Zo

tic type. On the rare occasions on which eggs were found on

soil contrasting with their colour, they stood up so conspicuously

that it was obvious they must have speedily attracted the attention

of vermin passing anywhere close by.

It would appear as if, in this instance, the Yellow-wattled Lap-

wing had become so common on its normal breeding ground of

black soil that some of the birds had been pushed into the red

laterite, where they had perforce to breed. At first their eggs

must have been regularly destroyed by vermin, but amongst the

many eggs laid it is probable that some had a certain amount of

reddish tinge which rendered them less conspicuous than the others

and they thus escaped destruction. In the course of time, as each

generation of birds developed, the eggs of those which were more

reddish than the rest would survive in greater proportion and thus,

eventually, by gradual elimination, only those would be left which

laid eggs sufficiently red to ensure the continuation of its kind. It

is an extraordinary fact that prior to Mr. J. Stuart’s discovery, the

very well-known ornithologist, Mr. J. Davidson had twice obtained

erythristic eggs of this bird and, when I wrote to tell him about

Mr. Stuart’s discovery, he mentioned in his reply that he had found

two clutches himself and that in each instance the eggs had been

taken from a soil he believed was red laterite, which rendered them

almost invisible, but that in each case he had had his attention

drawn to the place where they were laid, by the female bird getting

up and running away. The number of eggs laid seems to be almost

equally often three or four, and that the threes are not incomplete

clutches is shown by their frequently being incubated. Two hundred

esses averase 36 4 °<X 260'9 mm.;, maxima 42°S x 26'0 mm. and

37, Oeby 26.5... minima: 32°0. x. 24°4).mm.

Habits.—The Yellow-wattled Lapwing is essentially a bird of dry

open country and even though it is more common on the very wet

Malabar Coast than anywhere else, it keeps in that area to the drier

and more open districts rather than to the wetter, heavily forested

country. Stuart says that it is most numerous in the vicinity of the

lakes but that it is always found well away from the muddy shores,

whilst in Northern India it is often found at great distance from

water, which does not seem to be a necessity to this plover as it is

to the Red-wattled Lapwing. Its flight is very similar to that of

the latter bird but it does not indulge so often in aerial tricks, though

at the beginning of the breeding season it constantly rises into the

air and goes through the usual motions beloved of lapwings. Its

food is principally insectivorous but it eats practically any small

living thing such as worms, grubs, small lizards, frogs, etc. Its

flesh is quite good eating but, though it is a shy bird in some parts

and might take a little care before a sportsman could approach

within shot, it certainly cannot be considered a game bird.

Genus: MICROSARCOPS.

Microsarcops Sharpe, Cat. B.M., p. 133 (1896).

Type by mon., Pluvianus cinerea Blyth.

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

This genus is very close to the preceding but has a small hind

toe. There is a lappet as in that genus and the long, slender tarsi

are reticulated behind and scutellated in front.

The genus contains but one species which summers from Mongolia

to Japan, migrating as far as India in the cold weather.

MICROSARCOPS' CINEREUS.

The Grey-headed Lapwing.

Pluvianus cinereus Blyth, J.A.S.B., xl, p. 587 (1842) (Calcutta) ;

Blanf. and Oates, iv, p. 228.

Vernacular Names.—None recorded.

Description.—Upper plumage from forehead to lower back light

brown, the forehead almost or quite pure grey and the head to the

nape washed with grey; wing-coverts edged paler and grayer;

rump, upper tail-coverts and tail white, with a broad _ black

subterminal bar, almost disappearing on the outermost feathers and

bordered with brown on the central ones; primary coverts and

primaries black; greater secondary coverts and secondaries white;

chin albescent; whole neck and upper breast ashy-grey, terminating

in a broad chocolate-black pectoral band; under wing-coverts,

axillaries and under tail-coverts white.

Colours of soft parts.—Iris red; bill yellow with the terminal

third black; eyelids and lappets yellow; legs and toes brownish-

yellow or yellow; claws black.

Measurements.—Wing 228 to 255 mm.; tail 93 to 112 mm.;

tarsus about 75 to-79 mm; sculmen 35° to. 49).mm:

Young birds have the head, neck and breast concolorous with

the black and want the pectoral band.

Distribution.—Breeding from Central Siberia and North-west

China to Japan and Corea; wintering in Southern China, the Indo-

Chinese countries, Malay States, Burma and Eastern India. Irby

reported it from Oude, probably quite correctly, whilst recently

Whistler saw it in Kashmir, so close that, although he did not

shoot it, he is positive as to its identity. In Assam and Eastern

Bengal it is quite common from November to March and I have

shot many in the former Province. It has also occurred in the

Andamans.

Nidification.—There is very little on record about the breeding

of this Plover. According to Dresser it is said to breed in April,

depositing its four eggs in the grass of intersecting ricefields.

Two clutches, each of three, in my own collection, were laid, one

on the fourth of June in Korea and the other on the fourth of

May in Eastern Manchuria. These two clutches and a few others

I have seen are indistinguishable from the eggs of the Common

Pee-wit, except that they average decidedly smaller, although the

bird itself is as big or bigger. Probably, moreover, a larger series

would show a much bigger average size. My clutch of eggs

taken in Manchuria was said to have been laid in a nest in short

coarse grass in a swampy field, whilst the others given to me by

Dr. Paul Leverkhun were deposited in a scratching among the

grass on a bit of raised land in a ricefield. One of my clutches is

eC et eee aes

eT aa Lee ae eT tee

DHENGAVMETBIROS OF THE INQTAN EMPIRE 253

possibly unusually well marked, having a pale buff ground colour

with bold blotchings of dark umber brown, fairly numerously distri-

buted over the whole surface here and there, with smaller secondary

markings of inky brown and a few underlying of lavender. The

other clutch has a comparatively dark brown ground colour, pro-

fusely covered with blotches, spots and smears of brown, one egg

again having a considerable number of secondary markings of grey.

Dresser describes the eggs as being less pointed than those of -the

Lapwing but both my clutches are distinctly pointed. Eight eggs

average 41 3 by 32 oO -mmM,. imaxiia490°O0 x9 34°0 mim.; minima

Oe Xen GO: Oy MAMI.

Habits.—The habits of this Plover seem to be very similar to

those of the Common Pee-wit but it is more addicted to swamps,

lakesides, ricefields and wet ground generally rather than the

higher uplands. In Assam, when we came upon them they were

almost invariably in the wet ground round marshes and we occasion-

ally shot one when snipe-shooting. They did not appear to be

nearly as wild as most plovers and were not difficult to approach

within shot. We never came across them in flocks, generally

singly and occasionally in pairs. Their flight was much like that

of the pee-wit but perhaps less slow and flapping and rather

straighter. Two we ate were very palatable, tasting much the

same as Golden Plover. "The only cry we heard was a plaintive

‘“Chee-it, chee-it’’, and even this was very seldom uttered. They .

arrive in north-eastern India about the middle or end of October

and disappear again before the end of March, though I once saw

one during the first week of April.

- REVISION OF

THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY.

EE. -BEATIER YS J.P heb. hes.

PART EXVir

(Continued from p. 30 of this volume).

ORCHIDACEA.

E. BLATTER & C. MCCANN, F.LS.

(With 8 plates and 6 text figures.)

The key to the genera will be given at the end,

1. OBERONIA Lindl.

Species about 100—Palzotropics. F

Cooke mentions 3 species. We add6 new species and 5 not recorded from

the Presidency, before.

Key partly based on Fisher, Fl. Madras.

A. Sepals subequal.

I. Petals broad, elliptic-oblong or ovate.

1. Side lobes of lip absent wae soe ele On venrieara.

2. Side lobes of lip very small

(a) Lip obcordate with 2 triangular trun-

cate slightly diverging lobes, sinus

subacute or obtuse ; side lobes very

minute Cs .. 2. O. lingmalensis.

(6) Lip oblong, erose, bifid with strap-

: shaped slightly divergent obliquely

truncate segments, sinus 3 the

whole lobe ; side lobes very small,

rounded ... ne Poems: gO.8 DEULID.

divergent lobes and a broad roun-

ded sinus. Side lobes minute.

Flowers spirally arranged co AO SPOY alts.

(d) Lip oblong with 2 short narrow acute

lobes, separated by a broad sinus ;

side lobes small, rounded or tooth-

like. Flowers not verticillate ... 5. O. Falconeri.

(€) Lip obcordate, quadrate, 2-lobulate at

apex, with a narrow sinus, lobules

oblong, dentate at apex ; side lobes

small, rounded, dentate at apex... 6. O. brachyphylla:

3. Sidelobes of lip large, orbicular ; midlobe

obcordate, 2-lobulate So enti en OLE CUTIOR:

II. Petalslinear. Lip distinctly lobed.

1. Scape adnate to the upper leaf.

(a) Lip orbicular with a 2-lobed apical

auricle. Flowers sessile, densely

imbricate ; lip with a concave disk 8. O. Brunoniana.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prater I.

Del. C. McCann after Miss E. Bell.

Oberonia Bellu, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prater II.

Oberonia brachyphylla, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 255

(6) Lip with a short 2-3-fid midlobe ;

laterallobes broad, rounded. Flow-

ers sessile, large (5 mm. diam.),

densely imbricate ne Oats PIAtVCaulor:

rotund with 2 acute or acuminate

parallel processes at the tip, with a

more or less narrow and deep sinus 10. O. Sedgwicki1.

2. Scape not adnate to the upper leaf.

(a) Midlobe of lip much smaller than the

lateral lobes, broad. Lip broadly

3-lobed, crenate, gland-dotted ... 11. O. Lindleyana.

(6) Midlobe of lip much longer than the

lateral, narrow

1 Lateral lobes of lip very broad, ovate,

ODUUSE* eee. are bet te,

Tt Lateral lobes of lip ligulate ust Ba

B. Sepals very unequal, dorsal ovate-lanceolate,

lateral obliquely and broadly ovate-subro-

tund a .. 14. O. umbonata.

1. Oberonia verticillata, Wight Ic. t. 1626; Lindl. Fol. Orch. Oberon. 3

(excl. aliqguibus var.) ; Hook. f.in F:B.I. vi, 678. Malaxis verticillata Reichb.

fim Walp Anne yr, 201,

This species is not mentioned by Cooke. We give first the description as we

find it in the F.B.I. and Wight.

Description: Scape 2°5-5cm., terete. Leaves 5-10 cm. by 4-8 mm., narrow,

ensiform, subfalcate, acute or acuminate. Racemeslong, 10-15 cm. long,

erect or decurved. Flowers whorled pedicelled, pale yellow (Hooker),

2°5-3 mm. long. Bracts ovate-lanceolate, acute, erose on the margin, about

equalling the pedicels. Sepals short, broad, ovate, obtuse, pale green, Petals

oblong (Hooker), subobovate (Wight), obtuse, longer than the sepals. Lip

twice as long as the sepals, oblong, slightly cordate at base, 2-lobed at apex,

lobes broad, roundish, spreading, slightly crenulate on the margin. Ovary pale

green; Capsule pedicelled.

We add the following details observed in fresh material :

Scape channelled. Bracts right down to the base amongst the leaves, all

scarious. Flowers in whorls of 5, but not exactly at the same height, greenish

orange, the base of lip deeper orange above. Column long; anther posticous-

terminal, cap green, oval.

In the type the bracts are only as long as the pedicels. This is not the case

in a specimen collected by Bell, of which we make a variety:

. Arnottiana.

. Wightiana.

Var. longibracteata Blatter & McCann var. now.- bractee floribus equilongae.

Locality: N. Kanara: Yellapur, 1,500 ft., rainfall 100 in. (Bell 3908! type,

PAU.

Flowers: End of September and October.

_ Distribution of species: W. Ghats of Madras Presidency, Nilgiris, Pulneys,

Salem Hills.

2. Oberonia lingmalensis? Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

[Includitur in sectione Oberonie proprie dicte. Similis Oberonie verticillaic

Wight, agua tamen differt scapo complanato, bractets lineari-subulatis minime

erosis et varie tongitudinis, floribus longe-pedicellatis, petalis erosis.|

Description: Scape afew mm. long, flattened, adnate to the side of a leaf,

with a few hyaline subulate bracts. Leavesmany, ensiform, acuminate, falcate

or straight, in the same specimen, up to 7-9cm. by 15 mm., thin. Raceme up to

9 cm. long, 3-4 mm. diam., very dense and uniformly thick throughout, decur-

ved or straight; rhachis slender, channelled. Flowers long-pedicelled,

verticillate or subverticillate ; pedicels very slender, 2 mm. long including the

ovary. Bractslinear-subulate, hyaline, entire, mostly shorter than the pedicel, but

also as long or longer than the pedicel, even as long as the whole flower. Lateral

1 Lingmala is near the Yenna waterfall a few miles from Mahableshwar on

the road to Panchgani.

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. Vol, XXXV

_ sepals broadly ovate, subacute or obtuse. Dorsal sepal much narrower, sub-

acute. Petals oblong, slightly oblique, erose, slightly longer than the dorsal

sepal. Lip obcordate, longer than the sepals, side lobes very minute, midlobe

erose, divided into 2 triangular-truncate slightly diverging lobes, sinus sub-

acute or obtuse. Capsule 3-4 mm. long, pedicelled, pedicel about 15 mm.

long, thickened.

Locality: W. Ghats: Lingmala near Mahableshwar, on trees (Blatter and

Hallberg P 1681! type, Sedgwick 7755!, 4626!); Kamelgad, below Fort

(Fernandez !).—Konkan: Thana forest (Bell 3973!).—N. Kanara: In

forests (Bell 5406 !).

Flowers: February 1918 (N. Kanara) ; November 1918 (Lingmala) ; January

1925 (Lingmala) ; October 1920 (Lingmala). Aruit: January 1925 (Lingmala).

3. Oberonia Bellii Blatter & McCann, sp. xov.

[ Pertinet ad sectionem Oberonie proprie dicte. <Accedit ad Obzroniam

veriicillatam a gua tamen recedit rhachets 8-sulcatis, bracteis, lanceolatis

fimbriatis aliguantulum gemmuis longioribus, floribus sessilibus petalis ovato-

oblongis, labio oblongo lobo medio bitido eroso seginentis ligulatis apice oblique

truncatts.|

Description : Scape together with raceme almost twice as long as longest leaf.

Leaves narrow, ensiform, falcate or subfalcate, acuminate, broad at base, up to

10 by lem. Rhachis fairly stout with 8 grooves and 8 rounded ridges bétween

the grooves. Buds globose, apiculate. Flowers sessile, 2mm. long, verticillate,

one flower on each ridge, the ridge of one node being continued by a groove

on the next. Internodes 2°5 mm. long. Bracts 2 mm. long, lanceolate, acute,

membranous, broadest in the middle, fimbriate, slightly longer than the buds.

Sepals ovate-acute, subequal. Petals narrower than the sepals, ovate-oblong.

Lip oblong, longer than the sepals, erose, side lobes very small, rounded, mid-

lobe bifid with strap-shaped, slightly divergent obliquely truncate segments,

sinus 3 of the whole lobe. Ovary 1 mm. long. Column merely a horseshoe-

shaped low wall, covered by the nearly circular lowly convex green smooth

little cap. Pollinia extremely minute, orange-yellow, pear-shaped ; point of

attachment short and pointed (fixed to a minute surface at each end of horse-

shoe rim of column).

The pollinia fall out when the flower is ready, the cap raising itself for the

purpose. The hollow in the front of the column is square (Bell).

Description and illustration from Bell’s MS.

Localily..N Kanara.) Vellapur (i, Re Bell).

Flowers: March 1912.

4, Oberonia spiralis Blatter & McCann, sf. nov. (non Griff.).

[ Pertinens ad sectionem Oberonie proprie dicte accedit ad Oberoniam ver-

ticillatam Wight, sed differt foliis crassis, floribus interrupto-spiraltter

adispositis, bracteis fimbriatis floribus equilongis vel tis longioribus, labii lobo

centrali bilobo sinu lato rotundato intermisso. |

Description > Scape short, terete, lower 2 cm. ebracteate. Leaves. few,

fleshy, ensiform, straight or subfalcate, 4-6 cm. by 5-8 mm., broad at base or

getting slightly narrower, acute at apex. Raceme 13 cm. long, slender, terete.

Flowers pedicelled, densely packed on a left-turning spiral, but the spiral

regularly interrupted when the flowers have filled 3 of the circumference, wind-

ings close to each other, 27 on 10 cm. of rhachis. Pedicels 1-2 mm. long,

pedicels and flowers 3-4 mm. Bracts narrow lanceolate-acuminate, fimbriate,

as long asor longer than the flowers. Sepals broad-ovate, unequal, subacute

or obtuse. Petals not linear. Lip longer than the petals, obcordate, with

subrctund-angular, divergent lobes and a broad rounded sinus between them ;

side lobes minute, rounded. Fruit not seen.

Amongst the ‘Indeterminable Species’ of Oderonia, Hook.f. (in F.B.I. v,

686) mentions O. spiralis Griff. Notul. iii, 275. As this species wants descrip-

tion and locality and cannot, therefore, be determined, we take it for granted

that the name spzralis is available.

Locality: N. Kanara: Yellapur, rainfall100 in. (‘T. R. Bell 219! type)

Flowers: October.

5. Oberonia Falconeri Hook. f. Ic. Pl. (1888) t. 1780; F.B.I. v, 678; Cke. ii.

676; Duthie Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. 1x;)2; t. 94,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc, Pate ITI.

( | ¢

i |

\ f

Del. C. McCann after Miss E. Bell.

Oberonia Brunoniana, Wight.

Journ., Bombay Nat, Hist, Soc. PuaTe IV.

“Wow ef oH

he:

WAY: ATO Ua of

Zi a een

Glog WM Cee

SIGS ¢ ~ ;

Oberonia Lindleyana, Wight.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY © 257

Description ;,Cke. l.c.

Locality: Konkan (Law, Woodrow!); Thana (Ryan 65!); Kalyan

(Millard ! ). .

Distribution: Tropical Himaiaya, Kumaon, Nepal, Dehra Dun, Behar,

Chota Nagpur, Mysore Hiils at 3,500 ft., Rampa Hiils at 2,000 ft., Vizagapatam

Hills at 2,400 ft.

6. Oberonia brachyphyila Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

| Pertinet ad sectionem Oberonie proprie dicte, Accedit ad Oberoniam

vecurvam Lindl. sed distinguitur foliis ovato-oblongis acutis, non glanduloso-

punctatis, racemis lon2 ior ibus laxis, petalis oblongis subacutis, labio quam

sepala multo longiore lobo medio quadrato bifido incurvato. |

Description: A small plant, 11 cm. high to top of inflorescence. Scape

short. Leaves short, 2°>5cm. long, 1 cm, broad, green, ovate-oblong, acute,

nearly straight. Bracts very:short, shorter than the pedicel, lanceolate, entire.

Raceme up to 9'5 cm. long, lax, siender. Bud ovate or globose. Flowers

1:5 cm. across, long-stalked, 1°25 mm. long, not gland-dotted. Sepals broadly

ovate, dorsal, one obtuse, lateral acute. Petals oblong, subobtuse at apex,

margin dentate. Lip much longer than the sepals; side lobes small, rounded,

dentate at apex; midlobe quadrate, obcordate, 2-lobulate, incurved with a

narrow sinus, iobules oblorg, dentate at apex. Fruit not seen.

' Description after detailed illustrations from live specimens by Mr. T. R.

Bell and Miss Bell.

Locality : N. Kanara (T.R. Bell).

7. Obderonia recurva Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (1839) Misc. no. 8; Hook. f. Ic.

Piety 7O4A 2h), bal.ov, O50. Kine, and. Pantl: Ann. Roy.) Bot.1Gard,Cale.

viii. t. 9; Cke. ii, 676.—O. setifera Lindl. 1. c. 3.—Malaxtis setifera et

vecurva Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann, vi, 210, 212.

Description : Cke.1.c¢.

Locality: Konkan (Law).— IW. Ghats - Lonavla (Gammie 12678!, Hallberg

26553 !); Khandala (Law 39); Mahableshwar (Cooke!); Mahableshwar to

Pratapgad (Agharkar 2 ! Herb. Calc.).

Distribution: Konkan, W. Ghats, Travancore.

8. Oberonia Braunoniana Wight Ic. v (1852) 3, t. 1622; Lindl. Fol. Orch

Oberon. 2; Hook. f. F.B.I. vi, 681; Cke. ii, 677.—Walaxis Brinoniana

Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. vi, 209.

Description: Cke.1.c.—According to Fischer, the sepals and lip ¢ are dark

brownish, the petals pale yellowish.

Locality: Konkan (Dalzell).—N. Kanara: Kalanadi (Ritchie 1405); in

forests (Bell 5403!).

Distribution : Nilgiris, Pulneys, Malabar, Travancore.

9. Oberonia platycaulon Wight Ic. t. 1623; Hook. f. in F.B.I. v, 682;

Gammie in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xvi (1906) 682.—-Mualaris platycau:-

lon Reichb. f. in Walp. Rep. vi, 239.

Description: ‘Scape very broad, flat, 5-20 mm. broad, very coriaceous,

adnate to a leaf tothe iop. Leaves long, narrowly ensiform, straight, subacute,

15-25 cm. by 12-185 mm. Raceme 7-12 cm. long; rachis stout. Flowers whitish

or pale yellow, large, densely imbricate, about 5 mm. across. Bracts broad,

sheathing the sessile ovary, erose, acute. Sepals ovate, lanceolate, acute,

Petals narrow, slightly shorter than the sepals; lip broader than long ; lateral

lobes broad, rounded, midiobe very short, bifid or 3-fid. Fruit sessile.

Locality : Western Ghats from the Konkan southwards (ex Hook. f. J

NMistribution « Nilgiris, Pulney Hills, High Wavy Mountains.

10. Oberonia Sedewickii Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

' [Pertinet ad sectionem Oberonie proprie dicte. Accedit ad Oberonitam

caulescentem Lindl. sed differt foliis oblongis vel ovato-oblongis vel lanceolatis

acutis multo brevioribus scapo in parte intertiore bialaio, bracteis ovatis,

floribus non subverticillatis, labio bast minime lobato.]

Description: A very small peadulous plant, 2-6 cm. high to top of inflores-

cence. Seape arising from the side of a central leaf, up to 12 mm. long, lower

half 2-winged, upper half clothed with hyaline, ovate-acute, erose bracts.

Racemes mostly straight, sometimes flexuose, up to 4°5 cm. long, slender.

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Flowers short-pedicelled, scattered, densely arranged. Bracts aLout the length

of the pedicels. Sepals gland-dotted. Dorsalsepal broadly triangular-ovate,

acute. Lateral sepals obliquely and broadly ovate-acuminate. Petals linear.

Lip without side lobes, midlobe broader than lateral sepals, ovate-rotund, with

2 acute or acuminate parallel processes at the tip with a more or less narrow

and deep sinus between them. Capsules (perhaps not quite ripe) 3 mm. long ;

pedicels half as long, stouter than the flowering pedicel.

Locality: W. Ghats: Castle Rock, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250 in. (Sedgwick’s

collector 5615! type, 5540! co-type).

Flowers and Fruit: March 1919.

11. Oberonia Lindleyana Wight Ic. t. 1624; Hook. f. F.B.I. v, 681.—alaxts

Lindleyana Reichb. f. in Walp. Rep. vi, 210.

Description « Scape compressed, stout, with raceme 10-18 cm. long. Leaves

7-15 by 1°5-3 cm.. very fleshy, ensiform, subfalcate, obtuse or subacute, broad

at base. Raceme stout, drooping towards the apex, brick-red, densely covered

with innumerable small, sessile, densely imbricating flowers. Bracts broadly

ovate-obtuse, subdenticulate on the margins. Petals narrow-linear, entire. Lip

broad, rather longer than the sepals, cordate at base, crenate, broadly 3-lobed,

midlobe broad, much smaller than the lateral ones, all gland-dotted. Capsule

small, sessile on the thickened rachis.

Regarding the colour of the flowers, Wightl.c. says : ‘ Flowers straw colour,

lip dull orange.’ According toJ. D. Hooker 1. c. the flowers are ‘ pale with

an orange (?) centre of lip.” The label in Sedgwick’s herbarium bears this

remark : ‘ Spike brick-red’. Sedgwick very likely gave the general colour-

impression of the spike.

Wight points out that the very succulent leaves and the long drooping raceme

form good marks by which this species can be distinguished. |

Locality: N. Kanara: Anmod, 1,200 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 3302 bis !);

in forests, rainfall 100 in. (Bell 5402 ! )

Distribution : N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Travancore Hills.

12. Oberonia Arnottiana Wight Ic. 1628.—O. Wightiana Lindl. in Bot. Reg.

(1839) Misc. no. 9 (parti) ;. Hook. f. F.B.1. v, 683 (partim) ; Fischer FI.

Madras pt. 8 (1928) 1407 (artim).

We separate this species from O. Wightiana Lindl. and in F.B.I. 1. c.

Hook. f. thinks that O. Arnottiana is a longer-pedicelled variety of O. Wightiana.

The two are certainly nearly allied, but we think that Wight was correct when

ne said that the ligulate lateral lobes of the lip of O. Wightiana is peculiar and

at once distinguishes it from O. Arnottiana. This latter species can be

recognized by long pedicels, by the rounded ovate-obtuse lateral lobes of the

lip, by the racemes not drooping, ciliate bracts and acute sepals.

Description: WUzaves short, ensiform, subfalcate or straight, succulent,

acute. Racemes erect or very slightly inclined towards the apex, scarcely or

not at all drooping. Flowers alternate, longish pedicelled, pale green.

Bracts ovate-acute, ciliate, somewhat sheathing at the base. Sepals ovate-

acute. Petals narrow-linear, about the length of the sepals. Lip cordate at

the base, 3-lobed ; lateral lobes very broad, ovate, obtuse; midlobe small,

prolonged, divided at the apex. Capsules long- pedicelled.

We have avoided giving measures because the specimen at our disposal is

evidently a very small form.

Locality: NN. Kanara: Anmod, on trees, 2,000 ft., rainfall 200 in.

(Sedgwick 3261!).

Distribution : N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Pulneys.

Flowers and fruit: December 1917.

13. Oberonia Wightiana Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (1839) Misc. no. 9 (partinz) ;

Wight Ic. t. 1627; Hook. f. in F. B. I. v, 683 (fartim) ; Fischer Fl. Madras pt.

8 (1928) ) 140 (parti).

Description : Leaves broad, ensiform, acute, straight, rarely subfalcate, 2°5-

10 cm. by 4-8 mm. Scape and raceme together 7-15 cm. long, curved or

decurved; scape terete, naked or sparsely bracteate. Flowers pale green,

scattered, short-pedicelled. Bracts broad, ovate or oblong, erose at the apex,

Jonger or shorter ‘than the pedicels. Sepals ovate-obtuse. Petals linear, obtuse.

Lip 3-lobed; lateral lobes strap-shaped, embracing the base of the column

ee ee ae

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 259

midlobe prolonged ending in 2 obovate spathulate spreading lobes, crenulate

on the margins.

Locality > N. Kanara: Yellapur, hanging on underside of branches, 2,000

ft., rainfall 100 in. (Sedgwick 2483!) ; Haliyal, 2,000 ft., rainfall! 70 in.

(Sedgwick 2863 !).

Distribution : N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Pulneys.

Fruit : May 1917 (Yellapur) ; August 1917 (Haliyal).

14. Oberonia umbonata Blatter & McCann, sA. nov.

[Pertinet ad sectionem Scylle. Accedit ad Oberontam Scyll@ Lindl., sed

distinguitur racemts longissimts, bracteis floribus equilongts vel its longioribus,

sepalo dorsali ovato-lanceotato, :petalis oblongis, sepalis lateralibus oblique et

late ovato-subvotundis umbonatis, labto lunato.]

Description : Stem almost 0. Leaves few, up to6cm. by 8 mm., straight or

subfalcate, thin, Jinear-lanceolate, acute or acuminate. Scape about 1 cm.

long, terete. Raceme up to 13 cm. long, terete, very slender, slightly bent in

the upper third. Bracts narrowly lanceolate-subulate, entire (not erose)

hyaline, as long as or longer than the flowers. Flowers pedicelled, verticillate,

densely arranged. Dorsalsepal ovate-lanceolate, subacute or acuminate, much

longer than the lateral sepals, subcucullate. Lateral sepals obliquely and

broadly ovate-subrotund, umbonate. Petals oblong, subtriangular and

subobtuse at apex, narrower but longer than the lateral sepals. Lip very

small, lunate. lateral lobes erect on each side of the column, lanceolate-

subulate. Capsules pedicelled, pedicels as long as the capsule.

Locality: N. Kanara; Siddhapur, on atree, 1,400 ft., rainfall 100 in.

(Bell & Sedgwick 7270!).

Flowers and young fruits in October J917.

2. }, MicROSTYLIS: Nutt. (Ckes ii) 677).

Species 100.—Asia, America,

We retain the one species mentioned by Cooke.

1. Microstylis versicolor Lindl. Gen. and Sp. Orchid. (1830) 21 (zon Wight).

Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1408.— A7rcrostylis Rheedet Wight Ic. iii (i843-

45) t. 902; Hook. f. F B.I. v, 690; Ic. Pl. t. 1832.—Malaxis Rheedei Heyne

ex Wall. Cat. (1828) swd. no. 1939.

Description : Cke. ii, 678.

Locality : Konkan: (Law, Stocks); Hills W. of Mulund (McCann!) ;

Matheran (Chibber !).—W. Ghats: Khandala (Cooke!, Hallberg !, Blatter &

McCann 25836 !, 25837!) ; Lonavia (Garade 11!) ; Mahableshwar (Cooke !);

in forest near Lake (McCann !);Koina Valley beiow Mahableshwar (Cooke!) ;

Panchgani, Third Tableland (Blatter !); Castle Rock, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250 in.

(Sedgwick 2810 bis!).—NM. Kanara; Guddehalli on edge of open spaces in the

jungle, 1,000 ft., rainfall 120 in. (T. R. Bell 7869 bis!) ; without locality

(Sedgwick 3181 bis!).

A terrestrial herb growing under the shade of trees. Propagation is by two

ways, one by seed and the other by budding. The buds may be developed

either at the side of the old one or upon the stem or sometimes upon the rachis

of the inflorescence. During the dry season the leaves dry up leaving only a

stump, but this is only true of plants growing in deciduous forests. Fruits are

developed in early October.

Distribution: W. Ghats of Madras Pres. from 6,000 ft. upwards, Chota

Nagpur.

3. LiparRis Rich.

Species about 100.—Tropical and temperate regions.

So far, 1 species was known from the Presidency. We add anew one.

YT. Lip 4 mm. long = ... ae ery lal Ue eErUOSA.

22 ips) mma. Lone. o... ca diy CE ILE SCS OTED ALE

1. Liparis nervosa Lindl. Gen, and Sp. Orchid. (1830) 26; Cke. ii, 678;

Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii (1828) 1410.—Z. paradoxa Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann.

wil( 1861), 21385 Hook. f..F BI. v; 697 and vi, 181; King in Ann. Roy. Bot:

Gard. Calc. viii, 27, t. 34.—Z. odorata Lindl. 1. c. 26.—Malaxis odorata Willd.

Sp. Pl. iv (1805) 9]; Grah. Cat. 202.—ZL. Dalzelliz Hook. f. F.B.I. v, 698.—

Liparis nervosa var. Dalzellit T. Cooke Fl. Bomb. ii, 679.

9609 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Description: Cke. ii, 67.

Locality : Konkan: (Stocks.)—W. Ghats : Londa (Spooner!); Castle Rock,

very rare, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250in. (Sedgwick 2792!).—N. Kanara (Law).

Distribution - Kamaon, Nepal, Khasia Hills, 4,000-6,000 ft., Benga!, Konkan,

W. Ghats, N. Kanara, Nilgiris, Anamalais at 3,000 ft., Ceylon.—The species

may extend further eastwards, but we are not sure.

J. D. Hooker (F.B.I. vi, 181) has this note: ‘Mr. Ridley, who finds this

species [Z. paradoxa] at Singapore, informs me that there are two forms, one

with pure yellow flowers, the other with the sepals and petals deep blackish

purple, and the lip green with purple centre, which latter is the Z. nervosa lindl.

Gen. and Sp. Orchid. 24.’ It is strange that Ridley does not mention

Liparis nervosa in his Flora of the Malay Peninsula.

2. Liparis flavo-viridis Blatter & McCann, sf. nov. ; L. paradoxa? Gammie

in Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xvi, 565.

[Orchidacea sectionis Mollifoliarum accedit ad Liparim mnervosam Lindl.

sed distinguitur folits 5-7-nervosis, bractets late lanceolatis acuminatis deftlexis

ammo sub anthest, sepalis valde inequalibus, sepalo dorsali anguste lineart-

acuminato, lateralibus obovatis convolutis apice incurvatulis, petalis convolutis

sursum curvatis apparenter linearibus vel cylindricis, labio subrotundo apice

minutim denticulato emarginato-apiculato, protunde concavo, fructu late oblongo,

non clavato. |

Description: Terrestrial herb. Pseudobulbs ovoid or oblong,. 5-7 cm.

below the surface. Stem thickened at the base and covered by several sheaths.

Leaves 2-5, lying more or less flat on the ground, not erect, sessile, alternate,

sheathing, up to 14 by 8 cm., ovate or eilipticelanceolate, subacuminate or

acuminate, subplicate ; main nerves 5-7, deeply depressed above, very promi-

nent beneath. Scape together with racenie up to 20 cm. long, erect, slender,

with scattered bracts. Bracts broadly lanceolate, acuminate, deflexed even at

time of flowering, shorter than the somewhat twisted ovary. Buds ovate-oblong,

obtuse at apex, not obliquely obovate. Scape, lateral sepals, petals and

column light green, lip, anther and cap of column very dark green, floral

bracts between the twoin shade. Dorsal sepal up to 6 mm. long, narrow

lanceolate-acuminate, generally reflexed, leaving the back of the column bare

and lying along the ovary. Lateral sepals 5-6 mm. long, straight, convolute,

obovate, acute, slightly incurved at apex. Petals slightly longer than the

lateral sepals, strongly convolute, appearing Jinear or rather cylindrical,

curved upwards, sticking out together with the lateral sepals under the lip,

nearly touching its under-surface with their points. Base of lip in its lower

third lying close against and almost parallel to the column with 2 well-deve-

loped calli at the very base, calli applied against base of column, of moderate

length, conical, rounded at top, very shiny and rugose except at top ; limb

large, almost orbicular 7 by 8 mm., bent at rignt angles to the narrowed base,

minutely-toothed on the upper margin, emarginate at apex with a minute

apiculus, deeply concave, the concavity widening from base of sepal forwards

and very shiny along bottom for more than half-way, finely darker-veined, the

veins running from the concavity towards the circumference all round, generally

simple, sometimes forked. Ovary sessile with slightly winged and thin ridges.

Column elongate, stout, inflexed from half-way up, dilated at base. Cap

somewhat convex with the hinder lateral slopes, a little flattened before it lifts

for the emission of the pollinia, fringed with a thin narrow membrane and

minutely rugose laterally. Pollinia 4, without caudicles, in pairs, golden yellow,

each pair closely pressed together, the 2 pollinia of each pair of different

length, the outer faces convex. Fruit broadly oblong, stalked, 2 cm. by 7 mm.

In bud, the lip embraces the whole column. The pollinia fall out when

the cap rises, which happens shortly after the flower opens.

Locality: Mr. T. R. Bell found this orchid in August, 1912, in N. Kanara

on the low margin of a tank off the high road from Yellapur to Karwar, on the

left-hand side going out from Yellapur, just before the path goes off to

Kowdekeri. It was common locally. He found it again in August, 1918, at

Dandeli, N: Kanara. It is from this plant that the above description is taken

(Bell no. 4217 I). —s. M. Country: Londa (several Sheets by Spooner in Herb.

Econ. Bot. Poona).

Flowers and at : August.

Pee ay me

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATEAYV.

Del, C. McCann after Miss E. Bell.

Liparis nervosa, Lindl,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Puate VI.

Del. C. McCann partly after Miss E. Bell.

Liparis flavo-viridis, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 261

4, DENDROBIUM Sw.

Species about 750. ‘Tropical Asia, Japan, Australia, Polynesia.

Of the 8 species mentioned by Cooke DY. Macraei Lindl. has to be trans-

ferred to the genus Desmotrichum, the name of Dendrobium chlorops has been

changed into D. ovatum Krinzl, Weadd 2 other species not contained in

Cooke: D. agueum Lindl. and D. actinomorphum Blatter & Hallberg.

Note : The Dendrobiums have a definite vegetative period. During the mon-

soons new shoots are formed from the bases of the old ones, full of leaves. At the

end of the monsoons the ‘new’ stems reach maturity and are full of reserve

material, After the monsoon the leaves are shed leaving the naked stem. ‘Ihe

stem thus developed at the end of one monsoon flower during the cold season, and

even into the hot weather. After flowering and fruiting these stems wither away

and die. No stem flowers twice. This we have found to be particularly true ot

Nos. 1, 2,3, 4. Itappears to us that Dendrobiums growing in evergreens some-

times flower towards the end of the monsoon as we have observed with No. 7,

which we found in flower on the Fitzgerald Ghat, on the 9th October (1930). In

this case the superabundant food material probably caused the plants to flower

and in such a case the same stem would probably flower again. Evergreen

inhabiting plants may deviate somewhat from those found in deciduous forest.

A. Pseudobulbs short, tufted, with 2 or 3 leaves;

or stems elongate and ieafy. Flowers in slender

terminal or lateral racemes, small or medium-

sized ; lip often with a flat keel on the disk that

ends in a truncate crenate callus on the

midlobe.

I. Stems simple or nearly so, often a small pseudo-

bulb.

1. Small plants with crowded ovoid pseudobulbs.

Flowers small, in racemes from the top of

the pseudobulb; petals not broader than

the dorsal sepal. Sepals and petals white.

(a) Lip pink with dark-red veins sa : . micvobulbon,

(6) Lip yellow-green... 2. D. Mabvele.

Z. Larger plants ; stems tufted. Flowers in

terminal and lateral racemes; petals

broader than the dorsal sepal.

(a) Flowers cream-coloured. Lateral sepais

oblong; midlobe of lipsubquadrate ... 3. YD. ovatum.

(6) Flowers white, mostly with a tinge of pink.

Lateral sepals Janceolate, falcate ; mid-

lobe of lip ovate, acute 4. D. barbatulum.

II. Stems long, copiously ‘pranched ; flowers small. 5. D. herbaceum,

B. Stems elongate, stout or slender, cylindric, clavate

or nodose. Flowers in lateral pairs or fascicles

or racemes, rarely solitary, usually large, white,

yellow, purple or pink.

I. Mentum present.

1. Mentum half as long as the dorsal sepal; lip

longer than broad (18 by 12 mm.) ate Ona Le macrosta-.

chyum.

os Mentum less than half aslong as the dorsal

sepal ; lip as broad as long (12by12mm.). 7. D. crepidatuim.

3. Mentum very short, rotund. Lip much longer

than broad (25 by 15 mm.) oy eeu now Oe agueum.

Il, Mentum absent Ae ve Stee nee 0 actinomor-

phum.

1. Dendrobium microbulbon A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. sér. 2, xv (1841) 19, f.

8; Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (1844) 61; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. Fl. 26i; Hook. t.

F.B.I. v, 716; Cke. ii, 681.—D. humile Wight Ic. (1852) t. 1643.—D. crispum

Dalz, in Hook, Journ. Bot. iv (1852) 111.

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FAUST. SOCIETY, Vor, XKAX

Description ;: Cke. ii, 681.—Add:

Pseudobulbs one on top of the other, often the whole 2-3-pointed, each pear-

Shaped and, of course, constricted at the junctions, one sheath generally

reaching over 2 bulbs, 16 mm. long, longitudinally ribbed, light green

coloured, embracing the whole bulb at base. Leaves often purple-spotted and

marked above with irregularly impressed veins, longitudinally above and

simply pointed below. Flowers 16 mm. long, 12 mm. broad. Bracts straw-

coloured, longitudinally veined, up to4 mm. long. Dorsal sepal 9 by 3 mn..,

lateral ones up to 8 mm. long, 3 mm. broad at middle. Petals 9 mm. or less,

apiculate (Cooke has obtuse). Lip 6mm. long, 4mm. broad, broadest at end,

6 mm. broad when spread out, often green with red veins and edges. Cap

sguare, cordate, 0°5 mm. broad. Pollinia 0°25 mm. long (Bell MS.).

Kranzlin points out that in the lip of the live flower there are tender hyaline

papille which disappear very soon and cannot be seen in dried specimens.

When, however, the dry flower is boiled, the margin of the papillose lip

appears to be what we call ‘ crenulate’.

Locality : Konkan : (Stocks) ; Thana forests (T. R. Bell 3842 !).—W. Ghats :

Mahableshwar, 4,500 ft. (Cooke!, Sedgwick 7324!, Ezekiel 26568!, Millard

25821 !, Chibber!, Fernandez !).—S. 17. Country : Deciduous forests S.-W. of

Dharwar, 1,800 ft., rainfall 40 in. (Sedgwick 3788!) ; Amboli Ghats (Bell!).

—N. Kanara: (T.R. Bell 4359 !).

Distribution « Nilgiris, Anamalais. .

Flowers: January 1929 (Amboli Ghat); February 1918 (Thana); March

1917, 1918 and 1920 (Mahableshwar) ; April 1918 (Mahableshwar) ; September

1418 (N. Kanara) ; December 1918 (Dharwar).

2. Dendrobium Mabele Gammie in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xvi (1905)

567 ; Cke. ii, 681; Kranzl. in Engl, Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1910) 80.

Description : Cke. 1.c.—Add: Whole flower dead white except extremity of

column outside with a green tip. Column like that of D.szcrobulbon, but

stizma comparatively longer. Front of cap quite straight and long (Bell MS.).

Locality: W. Ghats ; Foot of Fitzgerald Ghat (Fernandez!) ; Castle Rock, on

Phyllanthus emblica, 1,600 ft., rainfall 250 in. (Sedgwick 2855!, 5541 !);

Castle Rock (Bhiva!, Gammie 15782!); Londa (Bhiva!); Belgaum Ghats

(Gammie!); Panchgani (McCann!).—N. Kanara: Anmod, on the smaller

branches of trees (Sedgwick 3370!) ; Tinai Ghat, on small trees, especially on

Phyllanthus emblica, 1,800 ft., rainfall 150 in. (Sedgwick 3197!, Gammie

15802 !).

Distribution - Apparently endemic.

Flowered at Panchgani at end of September 1930.

3. Dendrobium ovatum (Willd.) Kranzl. in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21

(1910) 71; Fischer F). Madras pt. viii (1928) 1416.—D. chlorops Lindl. in

Bot. Reg. (1844) Misc. 44; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 261; Veitch Man. Dendr.

27 ; Wiiliams Orch. Grow. Man. 7th ed. 329; Sander Orch. Guide 68; Hook.

f. F.B.I. v, 719; Cke. ii, 682.—D. barbautulum Wight Ic. iii (1843) t. 910.—

ea gece ovatum Willd. Sp. Pl. iv, 1 (1805) 101.—Rheede Hort. Malab.

male eA :

Description : Cke. ii,682.—The flowers are very variable in size and colour.

The midlobe of the lip is sometimes subacute or with a minute mucro in the

same plant. The pubescent part in front of the ridge of the disk was green

in Salsette specimens, the hairs at the very base of the lip on the sides of the

ridge yellowish (Hallberg MS.).

Locality : Konkan: (Stocks); Thana forests, rainfall 150 in. (T. R. Rell

3624!, 3647!); Salsette (Hallberg!); Tulsi Lake, Salsette (McCann!) ;

Wandra forests (Ryan 65!) ; Sagwan (Ryan 359!) ; Pen to Campoli, on trees

(Gammie 16087!) ; Khardi (Ryan 566!) ; Wada range (Ryan 528!) ; Bassein

(Ryan 483!, 896!) ; Matheran (Birdwood) ; Thana District, on mango trees

(Kirtikar).—W. Ghats: Khandala, rare (Blatter & Hallberg 26492!) ;

Mahableshwar (Cooke!) ; Phonda Ghat (Ritchie 1410).

Uber fae - W. Ghats and the W. coast of Madras Presidency from

150-5,000 ft.

4. Dendrobium barbatulum Lind]. in Wall. Cat. (1828) no. 2013, Gen. & Sp.

Orch. (1830) 84; Paxt. El. Gard.-ait. ols, fig. 285 ; Bot. Mag. tf. 5918 (70%

CaS eS

da tha Ae

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Prate VII.

Del. C. McCann after Miss E. Bell.

Dendrobium microbulbon, A. Rich.

Del. C. McCann partly after Miss E. Bell.

Dendrobium crepidatum, Lindl.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 263

5444) ; Hook, f. F.B.I. v, 719; Veitch Man. Dendr. 21; Williams Orch.

Grow. Man. 7th ed., 326 ;-Cogn. Dict. Icon. Orch: Dendrob. t: 25; Cke. ii,

682 ; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1416; Kranzl.in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50,

ii, B 27 (1910) 70. |

Description : Cke. ii, 682.—Notes : Cooke says that the midlobe is bearded

at the base with yellow hairs. It would be more accurate to say that the

midlobe is bearded in front of the channelled ridge and at the base of lip on

the sides of the ridge (Hallberg MS.).

Locality : Khandesh (Hallberg !).—Konkan: (Stocks, Law); Thana

forests, rainfall 150 in. (T. R. Bell 3637 bis!) ; Thana (Kirtikar) ; Kanari Caves

(McCann !) ; Dapoli, Ratnagiri District (Kirtikar); Ratnagiri (Kirtikar).—

W. Ghats : Khandala (Hallberg 26539 !, Blatter 26540!, Blatter & Hallberg

26537 ! ; McCann !) ; Kune, near Khandala (Blatter & McCann 26491 !); Lonavla

(McCann !) ; Sakarpatar (McCann !) ; Duke’s Nose (McCann!) ; Tiger’s Leap

(McCann !) ; near Campoli {McCann !) ; Pen (McCann !) ; Kasara (McCann !);

Igatpuri (McCann 26538 !) ; Panchgani (Fernandez!) ; Bilar, 4 miles S.-W.

of Panchgani (McCann !) ; on road from Panchgani to Mahableshwar (Blatter

& Hallberg B 1682!) ; Mshableshwar, common (Cooke!, Ezekiel 26567 !,

26569 !).—M. Kanara: Tinai Ghat, 2,000 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick

36162!)

Flowers from January to March. McCann has seen flowers of this species

as late as the 29th May (1931) at Khandala.

Distribution : W. Ghats from Mysore to Travancore.

5. Dendrobium herbaceum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (1840) Misc. 69 ; Hook. f. F.B.I.

v.07 19); -Cke? ii, 682\; Gammiie in Journ: Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc: xvil, 32:; Kranz.

in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1910) 72 ; Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928)

1416.—D. ramosissimum Wight Ic. t. 1648 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 261,

Description : Cke. ii, 682.

Locality : Konkan (Daizell, Gibson).— W. Ghats : Mahableshwar (Woodrow !,

Acland !) ; Koina Valley, below Mahableshwar (Cooke!) ; Wada, below

Mahableshwar (Cooke !).—N, Kanara: Anmod, 2,000 ft., rainfall 200 in.

(Sedgwick 3437 !).

Distribution + W.Ghats of Madras Pres., from 2,000-4,000 ft., Godavari

District, Parasnath, Bengal.

Flowers : October 1924 (Mahableshwar),

Fruit - December 1917 (N. Kanara).

6. Dendrobium macrostachyam Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Orchid. (1830) 78 e¢ Bot.

Reo, t, 1865; Wight Ic: t: 1647; Hook.f: F.B.I. v, 735 3 Cke. ii, 683 ; _Kranzr.

in Engl. Pflanzenr, iv, 50, ii, P 21 (1910) 59 ; Sander Orch. Guide 72; Fischer

Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1416.

Description : Cke. ii, 683.—Midlobe of lip embraces the whole column

(Bell MS.).

Locality : S. Konkan (Dalzell 45!).—W. Ghats > Koina Valley below

Mahableshwar (Cooke!) ; Belgaum Ghats (Gammie).—/V. Kanara: Forests

(Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona); Yellapur, 2,000 ft., common (Sedgwick 2469 !,

T. R. Bell 6067 !). ;

Distribution : W. coast and W. Ghats of Madras Pres. up to 7,000 ft.,

Travancore, Ceylon, Maldives, Central Provinces, frequent, Chota Nagpur,

very doubtfully in Burma.

7. Dendrobium crepidatum Lind!. in Paxt. Fl. Gard. i (1850-51) 63 ; zow ed. i

(1882) 53, fig. 40 ; Bot. Mag. t. 4993 ef t. 5011 ; Veitch Man. Dendr. 33 ; Hook.

f. F.B.I. v, 740 ; Grant Orch. Burmah 78 ; King & Pantl. in Ann. Bot. Gard.

Cale. viii, 48, t. 66 ; Dict. Icon. Orch. Dendrob. t. 40 ; Cke. ii, 683 ; Kranz]. in

Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1910) 39.—D. dawanum Lindl. in Journ.

Linn. Soc. iii (1859) 10; Dalz. & Gibs. Bom. Fl. 261; Kranzl. 1. c. 297.—

D. roseum Dalz. in Hook Kew Journ. (1852) 291.

Kranzlin 1. c. 39 considers D. lawanum Lindl. and D. roseum Dalz. as

synonyms of JD. crepidatum and has also included Law’s specimen (Low by

mistake) collected in the Konkan.

We don’t quite see why the same author (1. c. 297) mentions D. lawanum

as a distinct species under the heading ‘ Dendrobia adhuc solummodo tn statu

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

pelorioideo nota.’ He also adduces D: roseum Dalz. as a synonym and

mentions the same specimen gathered by Law in the Konkan. Owing to an

oversight, another mistake crept in in this place: The Konkan is put down as

belonging to the botanical province of the tropical Himalaya.

Locality : Konkan (Law, Stocks) ; near Vengurla (Dalzell 33).— WV. Ghats °

Mahableshwar Hills (Cooke!) ; Lonavla (Gammie 16241!) ; Koina Valley

below Mahableshwar (Ccoke !) ; Belzaum Ghats (Gammie!).—. Kanara :

Anmod, 2,000 ft., rainfall 260 in. (Sedgwick 3319!) ; Tinai Ghat (Gammie

15814 !).

Distribution : Chota Nagpur, Sikkim, Assam, Khasia Hills, Upper Burma

(Kranzlin mentions Malabar, but according to Fischer, Fl. Madras, this species

has rot been found in the area of his Flora).

8. Dendrobium aqueum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (1843) Misc. 6, t. 54; Bot. Mag. t.

4640; Veitch Man. Dendr. 18; Sander Orch. Guide 67 ; Hook. f. F.B.I. v, 739 ;

Kranzl. in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1910) 52.—D. album Wight Ic. Pl.

(1852) t. 1645; Williams Orch. Grow. Man. 7th ed. 324; Orch. Album t.

407.

Description : Stems fasciculate, decumbent, thickened from athin base and

slightly compressed, with many or several articulations, leafy, 30-45 cm. long,

in the middle almost 1 cm. diam. Leaves ovate-lanceolate, acuminate ; the

sheaths widened above ; lamina well-articulated, 8-12 cm. by 2-3cm., striate,

persistent during the flowering time, Racemes short, usually 2-flowered,

rarely 3-flowered. Bracts very minute. Flowers white, suffused with green,

lip suffused with pale yellow inside. Sepals and petals 3 cm. long, 15-18 cm.

broad. Sepals ovate, lateral ones ovate-triangular, subfalcate ; mentum very

short, rotund. Petals obovate, equal in size, allacute. Lip 2°5 by 15 cm.,

subrhomboid, ascending from the base to the middle, then deflexed, acute in

front, obscurely 3-lobed, rotund on both sides, in the middle of the disk slightly

excavate, triangular in front, the whole disk puberulous, the margin of the

midlobe denticuiate-ciliate, a raised line from the base of the disk to almost

the middle. Ovary with pedicel 2°5 cm. long.

Locality : Konkan (Stocks ex Kranzlin).—Sometimes grown in gardens of the

Bombay Pres.

Distribution - W. Ghats of the Madras Pres. 3,000-7,000 ft.

: 9. Dendrobium actinomorphum Blatter & Hallberg in Journ. Ind. Rot. ii (1921)

0, Fig. 4.

Description: A pendulous epiphyte with numerous very slender matted

roots. Flowering stem reaching 25 em., leafless, jointed, internodes thick,

cylindrical, about 2 cm. long, slightly thickened below the nodes, fleshy, green,

each internode completely enclosed in a scarious many-nerved sheath arising at

the node and extending to about the middle of the next internode, tip of sheath

1 cm. broad, deeply eimarginate, nerves parallel, 9 prominent ones alternating

with 10 less conspicuous ones, prominent ones very stout and white. Last

internode very short and conical. Leafy shoots appearing after the flowering

at the base of the flowering stem. Leaves distichous ; lamina of young leaves

about 10 cm. long, with 5 conspicuous and many inconspicuous nerves ;

petiole amplexicaul, many-nerved. Flowers in pairs or solitary arising from

the nodes. Pedicels stout, 2°5-3°5 cm. long, pinkish in flower, clavate and green

in fruit. Flowers subregular, 3 cm. across, shallowly cup-shaped ; sepals and

petals subequal in length, pinkish, sepals 15 mm. long, about 7-8 min. broad,

oblong, subobtuse or mucronate. Petals and lip broadly ovate-oblong, 15-17

mm. long, 10 mm. broad, rounded or retuse at tip. Column very short, white,

with 2 dark Purple processes at the base, behind each of which there is a

deep cavity (probably nectary). Anther terminal, flat on top, 2-celled.

Pollinia 4, 2 in each cell, waxy, yellow, free in the cells, without caudicle or

viscid appendage. Capsule about 2 cm, long, 1 cm. thick, pear-shaped,

crowned by a cylindrical clavate process formed by the hardened column

slightly trigonous.

Can be distinguished by the absence of the mentum. Otherwise Se reeling.

in many points with D. crepidatum Lindl.

Locality: N. Kanara: Castle Rock (McCann 13768 !).

Distribution: Apparently endemic.

Flowers ; March 1919.

—

t~ ede

eee eee ees

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 265

5. DESMOTRICHUM Blume (emend. a Kranzlin).

Epiphytic herbs. Stems long-pendulous, clothed with imbricating cataphylls,

radical, branching. Branches often thickened into fusiform or subcylindrical

bulbs which bear usually 1 leaf, rarely 2. Flowers fascicled, arising from the

axil of the leaf, fugaceous. Bracts scarious, always much shorter. than the

thin pedicels, forming a capitulum. Dorsal sepal and smaller petals attached

to the back and sides of the column ; lateral sepals adnate to the foot of the

column and forming with it a small mentum (spur) which is more or less closed

in front. Basal part of lip always narrow, rather elongate, prolonged in front

into small lateral lobes ; midlobe flabellate or dilate, with the margin more or

less pinnatifid or sinuate, always undulate or fimbriate or pilose, the 2 lines

near the margin of the disk more or less undulate. Column asin Dendrobium.

Species about 30.—Indo-Malayan.

The only species observed in the Presidency was usually known as

Dendrobium macraei Lindl.

1. Desmotrichum fimbriatum Blume Bijdr. (1825) 329; Kranzl. in Engl,

Pflanzenr, iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1910) 354; Fischer F!. Madras pt. vill, (1928) 1412)=—

Dendrobium fimbriatum Lindl. Gen. & Sp. Oreltid:. (183), 76.. (nec Hook,

nec Dalzell mec Wallich).—D. MJacraei Wind. 1.c. 75; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb.

Fl. 260; Hook. f. F.B.I. v, 714; Grant Orch. Burmah 1604; King and Prantl.

ine Ann... Bot.’ Gard”. Cale; viii, 6h. t2 86; Cke.. ii; 680’; Gammie: in” Journ:

Bomb, Nat. Hist. Soc. xvi (1905) 566.—D. plicatile Lind!. Bot. Reg. (1840)

Misc. 10.—D. insulare Steud. Nomencl. ed. 2, i (1841) 490.—D. nodosum

Dalzell in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. iv (1852) 292.—D. flabellum Reichb. f. in

Bonpl. v (1€57) 56 ef Xen. Orch. ii, 75, t.118, fig. 7.—D. Binnendijkii Reichb.

f. Xen. Orch. ii (1865) 74, t. 118, fig. 6.—D. Radbani Lindl. in Journ. Linn.

Soc. iii (1859) 7.—D. pardalinum Reichb. f. in Gard. Chron. ii (1885)

230.—D. rhipidilobum Schlecht. in Schum. & Lauterb. Nachtr. Fl. Deutsch,

Schutzgeb. (1905) 151.—D. Kunstlert Hook. f. F.B.1. v, 714.

Description : Cke. ii, 680.

Locality : See Cke. 1. c. 681.

Distribution: W. Ghats of Bombay and Madras Presidencies, Ceylon,

Sikkim, Khasia Hills, Burma, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago to the

Philippines,

6, BULBOPHYLLUM Thouars. (Emend.).

Hook. f. (in F.B.I. v, 772) says: ‘The species of Bulbophyllum and

Cirrhopetalum are in many cases so allied by cross affinities that the two genera

might be regarded as one. My keeping them apart is due to the consideration

of convenience, and the fact that all my attempts to commingle the species of

both have resulted in a chaotic aggregate, with most unsatisfactory sectional

characters.’

J.J. Smith in a paper entitled : Bulbophyllum Thou. sect. Cirrhopetalum

[Bull. Jard. Bot. Buitenz. sér. 2, vii (October 1912) 19-29} has tried to neglect

the view of Hooker’s ‘ convenience’ and to overcome his practical difficulties

by transferring the species of Cirrhopetalum to the genus Bulbophyllum, We

follow him. :

The diagnosis of the genus Bulbophyllum must include those characteristics

by which Czrrhopetalum was distinguished before by Lindley and Hook. f.,

viz. by the more often and regularly whorled flowers and by the short dorsal

sepal, rarely half the length of the almost invariably much longer lateral, and

finally by the very small stipitate lip.

Species about 550. PT repical and subtropical.

1. Sepals green, Flowers in umbels ace vl. be Lomoriatum.

2. Sepals dull brownish ae Flowers in

racemes woo, 2, BD. neileherrense.

1. Bulbophyllum fimbriatum Reichb. f. in ‘Walp. Ann. vi, 260.—Cirrhopetalum

fimbriatum Lindl. in Bot. Reg. (1839) Misc. 72; Bot. Mag. t. 4391; Wight Ic.

1655 ; Gammie in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soe. xvii (1906) 34; Cke. ii, 686;

Fischer Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1420.—C. Wadllichti Grah. Cat. 205 (non

Lindley). |

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV.

Description « Ckeé. ii, 686 (under Cirrhopetalum fimbriatum).

Locality: Cke. l.c.—Add: W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (James in Herb.

Calc.!, Hallberg!); Tinai Ghat (Bhide!).—N. Kanara : Very common at

ane towards Chandwadi, in flower and leafless at the end of March 1911

(Bell !).

Distribution: Bombay Pres.: Konkan, Deccan, S. M. Country, W. Ghats,

N. Kanara; Coorg.

4 ee caudiele.

{iim > Altace ment of ls.

pl - Sool:

dl LR. Bell.

Fic. 1. Bulbophyllum neilgherrense, Wight.

1. Lateral sepal. 6. Pollinia.

2. Dorsal sepal. 7. Column (front view).

3. Bud, Sa etal:

4, Column and lip. J. ips

5. Column (side view).

2. Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wight Ic. v (1852) 6, t. 1650; Bot. Mag. t. 5050;

Gamie in Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xvii (1906) 33; Cke ii, 686; Fischer

Fl. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1418.

Description : Cke. ii, 686.—The pollinia are in pairs, one of each pair smaller

than the other, applied clesely along the inner faces, the outer faces convex ;

caudicle short, oblong, black. There are bulbs of all sizes bearing a single

erect spike of flowers, densely packed, the larger bulbs bear larger spikes.

Spikes catkin-shaped, flowering from below upwards. ‘The flowers smell of

highly rotten meat, and are chrome-yellow. Column white, the stigmatic

hollow bordered thinly red, the foot also bordered red from stigma to end; lip

with side lobes bordered blackish ; cap yellow, greenish in front; pollinia pure

bright yellow (Bell MS.).

Locality : W. Ghats: Belgaum Ghats (Gammie!).—NV Kanara: Ghats

(Gammie!); Sampkhand (Woodrow); Yellapur, 2,000 ft., rainfall 100 in,

(Sedgwick 2532!) ; Kumbarwada (Bell !).

Listribution ; W. Ghats of Madras Pres,

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 267

7. Trias, Lindl.

BiG. - 2... Lids. Stocks? Hook, tf.

Species 3.—Indo-Malayan.

1. Trias stocksii Hook. f. F.B.I. v (1890) 781; Gammie in Journ. Bomb.

Nat. His. Soc. xvii (1906) 34; Cke. ii, 687.

Description : Cke. ii, 687.

Locality: Konkan (Law).—N. Kanara : (Stocks 59) ; Chandawadi (Bell!) ;

Pavhol (Bell!).

8. PHoLiIpoTa, Lindl.

PECL alent

Fic. 3. Pholidota imbricata, Lindl.

Species 30.—Indo-Malayan, China.

1. Pholidota imbricata Lind]. in Hook. FI]. Exot. (1825) t. 138; Dalz. &

Gibs, 262; Wight Ic, t. £07; Lindl. Bot. Reg. t. 1213 e¢. t. 1777; King &

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Pantl. in Ann. Roy. Bot. Gard. Calc. viii, 144, t. 201; Cke. ii, 688.—P/zloc-

nema inbricatum Don Prodr. 33.—Cymbidium imbricatum Roxb. Fl. Ind. iii

(1832) 460.

Description : Cke ii, 688.

Locality: Konkan. (Stocks); S. Konkan (Dalzell 51); near Vengurla

(Dalzell & Gibson.).—M. Kanara: Sampkhand, 1,600 [ft., rainfall 200 in.

(Herb. S.X.C. 26516!, Sedgwick & Bell 6963 !).

Distribution : Nepal, Chota Nagpur, Konkan, N. Kanara, W. and E. Ghats

of Madras Pres., 2,000-3,500 ft., Ceylon, Malay Peninsula, China, Malay Archi-

pelago to the Philippines, Pacific Islands.

Flowers : July 1895 (N. Kanara).

Fruit : October 1919 (N. Kanara).

9. JOSEPHIA, Wight.

Species 2.—India, Ceylon.

1. Josephia lanceolata Wight Ic. v (1852) 19, t. 1742 (folia tantum), flores in

t. 1743; Hook. f: F.B.1L. v, 823; Cke. i, 688 ; -Hischer, tn L- Madras Spt-avaii

(1928) 1428.

Description : Cke. ii, 688.—Sepals white tinged with yellow. Petals and lip

white. Anthers opercular, yellow with a brown spot on connective. Stigmatic

lobes just in front of tip of anther (Hallberg).

Locality : N. Kanara (Stocks! in Herb. Cale.).—Has never been gathered

in the Pres. since Stock’s time.

Distribution: W. Ghats of Madras Pres., High Wavy Mountains.

10. Porpax, Lindl.

Species 6 —Indo-Malayan.

Cooke mentions 2 species, we add a new one. Cooke’s P. lichenora has to

be changed into P. zerdoniana Reichb.

I. Flowers dark purple or dul! red-brown.

1. Lip panduriform, crenulate Rak l. FP. reticulata.

2. Lip ligulate See os 2. P. papillosa

Il. Flowers yellow ... es wee 3. P. serdoniana,

1. Porpax reticulata Lindl. in Bot. Reg. xxxi (1845) Misc. 62; Cke. ii, 689;

Kranzl. in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1911) 165.—47za reticulata Benth.

in Benth. and Hook. f. Gen. PI. iii (1883) 509; Hook. f. F.B.I. v (1890) 786.—

Cryptochilus reticulatus Reichb. f. in Bot. Ztg. (1862) 214.—Aggeranthus

marchantioides Wight Ic. v (1852) 18, t. 1737 (Kranzl. habet A. reticulatum

per errorem).

Description : Cke. ii, 689.—Bell & Sedgwick’s specimen no. 6820 shows

spatnulate leaves.—Fruit globose, long-stalked, short-beaked, glabrous, about

6 mm. long, stalk almost as long, as the fruit, dorsal ridges of carpels

prominent.

Locality : N. Kanara: Chandwar (Ritchie 1415); on rocks on the summit

of Guddehalli Hill, 1,800 ft , rainfall 250 in. (Bell & Sedgwick 6820!) ; with-

out locality, 1,800 ft., rainfall 100in. (Bell 5979!) ; Khumbawada, 1,500 ft., rain-

fall 150 in. (Bell 6040!) ; Sirsi, 1,600 ft., rainfall 100 in. (Bell & Sedgwick

7002 !).—Cooke says throughout the W. Ghats.

Distribution: NN. Kanara, Madras Pres: Iyamalai Hills; Donipoya in

S. Malabar at 700 ft.

Flowers : May, June and October 1919 (VV. Kanara).

2. Porpax papillosa Blatter & McCann, sf. nov.

[ Accedit ad P. reticulatam Lindl , sed distinguitur foltis et sepalis minutim

papillosts, bracteis minoribus, petalis falcatis 3-nervosis, labello ligulato, non

panduriform1 vel late ovato crenulato. |

Description : Pseudobulbs button-like, 1‘8cm.diam. Sheaths membranous,

margin crisped, papillose. Leaves at time of flowering 2, shorter than bract,

minutely papillose on both surfaces, conspicuously so on margin. Bract

membranous, orbicular, retuse, apiculate. Flowers dull red-brown, brighter

inside. Sepals united into a 3-lobed tube, densely minutely papillose with

papille in rows, 7-nerved, the outermost nerves from 2 adjoining sepals conni-

yent downwards a little below the sinus, Petals 3-nerved, falcate-spathulate.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 269

Fic. 4. Porpax papillosa, Blatter & McCann, sp. tov.

reaching the sinus in the calyx. Lip tongue-shaped, slightly papillose along

margin, basal process prominent, elongate, narrowly triangular. Pollinia 8,

anterior large, broad, pear-shaped, posterior smaller, narrow. Column with 2

ridges along the back, stronger at the top. Stigma forming a deep depression.

Locality : Prof. Hallberg found this species at Khandala in the W. Ghats in

June 1917.

/ Wy

a iif YW WY ;

am) \\oa VY Mf

! ie Ua My

ol) lull

x a

WY S

VW WS SS

Fic. 5. Porpax Jerdoniana, Reichb.

3. Porpax Jerdoniana (Wight) Reichb. f. in Walp. Ann. vi (1861) 267;

Kranzl. in Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, B 21 (1911) 163.—Zyria lichenora Lindl.,

270 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

in Journ. Linn. Soc. iii (1859) 46; Hook. f. F.B.I. v, 787; Cke. ii, 689.—

Lichenora jerdoniana Wight Ic. v (1852) t. 1738.

Description : Cke. ii, 689.—Cooke is doubtful whether the dorsal sepal is

free or connate with the lateral ones. Wight in his description says that the

sepals are adherent at the base, though this fact is not shown in his drawing.

Kranzlin says in his key: ‘ Sepalum dorsale liberum, cum lateralibus in unum

btapiculatum connatis basi tantum coalitum.’

Locality : Konkan : (Stocks, Law).— W. Ghats : Belgaum Ghats (Spooner !).

-~-N. Kanara: Sampkhand (Herb. S. X. C. 26489!) ; Kadra, on trees, rainfall

200 in. (2. R. Bell 4285") = Anshi, 1,500! {t:; rainfall’ 300 inss(T ak. Bell

6606 !).

Distribution: W. Ghats of Bombay Pres. to Malabar and Travancore,

Bababudan Hills.

11. Erria Lindl.

Species about 330. Tropical Asia.

Cooke has 4 species: £. reticosa, E. Dalzelli, E. microchilos and FE.

mysovrensis. We retainthese, but &. mysorensis is being called EZ. polystachya.

To these we add 2 species new to the Presidency: &. ex7lis and E. pubescens,

and-describe 2 new species: &. rupestris and E. minima.

A. Flowers solitary on slender scapes ,

I. Mentum bilobed ... AK oe wea ha, LE HU PESEVIS.

II. Mentum not lobed as i Sue ICMR ELICO SOK:

B. Flowers in racemes

I. Small plants less than 10 cm. high. Leaves less

than 7°5 cm. long. Scapes slender.

1. Flowers secund.

(a) Margin of sepals entire. Lip ovate-lanceo-

late 3

(6) Margin of sepals ciliate with minute eland-

tipped hairs. Lip panduriform Watpes 23

Flowers not secund.

(a) Scape bracteate ask “iste sei, Oe LU. CHEMUNG.

(6) Scape not bracteate ... meee Oetinly MebLL ZS.

II. .Larger plants ‘exceeding: 10cm. high. Leaves

10-20 cm. long. Scapes comparatively stout. ...

1.” Flowers,6-8 som, done. ship: entire, = ovate-

E. Dalzellit.

E. microchtilos.

subpanduriform, subacute 7. £. polystachya.

2. Flowers 12-18 mm. long. Lip ovate- -subcordate,

acute at Seg =e: .. 8. E. pubescens.

1. Eriarupestris Blatter & McCann, sf. nov.

[Pertinet ad sectionem Conchidit. Persimilis Erie reticose Wight,

distinguitur tamen bracteis mucronatis, mento bilobo, sepalo dorsali late

oblongo non lanceolato, forma labelli lobo medio rotundato crenulato, fructu

oblongo vel paulum obconico. |

Description: Frequently found growing on perpendicular sides of rocks.

Pseudobulbs disk-like, depressed, rounded or oblong, up to 2 cm. diam.,

covered with a fibrous net-work, one peduncle arising from the underside of the

old pseudobulb. Leaves 2, contemporaneous with the flowers, when young

ovate-acute or broadly oblong, mucronate, narrowed into a petiole 2 mm. long,

the larger 3 cm. long, 12 mm. broad, dark green tinged with brown-purple,

thin-fleshy, midrib depressed above, prominent below, margin densely beset

with macroscopic crystalline hairs ; smaller leaf up to 2°5cm. long, up to 8 mm.

broad, otherwise like the larger one; old leaves (at time of fruiting) 7 by 2:2

cm. Bud boat-shaped, green at the lower end, dirty purplish in the upper part.

Flowers solitary, comparatively large, reaching 25 mn.., arising from between

the leaves with sheaths. Sheaths cylindric, up to 13 mm. long, lower part

greep, upper dingy purple, mouth oblique. Scape 1-flowered, purplish,

curved by the weight of the flower, 1 mm. diam., up to 3°5 cm. long, thickened

just below the flower. Bract immediately below the flower, membranous,

almost orbicular, cordate, amplexicaul, pale brown-purple, mucronate at tip,

Ww ith a dark midrib and 2nerves. Sepals white or slightly suffused with pink ;

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 271

Fic. 6. Fria rupestris, Blatter and McCann, sp. nov.

lateral ones elongate-triangular, falcate, mucronate, 2 cm. long, strongly

7-nerved above, obscurely so below, adnate. to the long-produced foot of the

column ; dorsal sepal broadly oblong with the apex rounded or acute, more

distinctly mucronate than the lateral ones, 2°2 cm. long. Mentum 4 mm.

broad, bilobed. Petals broadly lanceolate, mucronate, obscurely 5-nerved,

pure white, free, 18 mm. long, 6 mm. broad. Lip oblong-obovate, sessile on

the foot of the column and incumbent, 19 mm. long, 9 mm. broad in the

middle, white, 3-lobed; midlobe 8 mm. long, 4 mm. broad, oblong, rounded

and crenulate at tip; lateral lobes short, narrew, resembling small ears, acute

at apex, 2 pale yellow crests running from the base of the lip to a little beyond

the lateral lobes, the tips of the lateral lobes and the area between them

golden-yellow, the edge of the lip below the yellow area purple. Column short,

at the top a small white hood, foot 10 nm. long, 3 mm. broad, edge purple, on

the face many parallel purple lines which get fainter towards the end of the

foot. Pollinia 8, obovoid, attached by fours to a short granular membrane.

Fruiting scape up to 3°5 cm. long. Fruit oblong or slightly obconical,

6-lobed with 6 strong ridges, sometimes 3 alternate ridges weaker, up to 12

mm. long, 8 mm. diam. where broadest, truncate at apex.

This species is nearly allied to &. reticosa Wight, from which it can easily

be distinguished by the bilobed mentum and by the shape of the lip.

As to the bilobed mentum, we take it for granted that Kranzlin’s statement

on this point is correct. He distinguishes, e.g. his &. braccata from

E. extinctoria by the large obtuse mentum, whilst 4. ertinctorza has a long

obtuse bipartite mentum. The fact that the new species has a bilobed

mentum would be sufficient to mark it off as a species distinct from

£, veticosa.

Regarding the shape of the lip, Wight describes the one of his &. veticosa

as ‘obscurely 3-lobed’ and ‘yellow’. Hooker f. (F.B.I. v, 787) says: ‘lip

nearly as long as the sepals linear-oblong 3-lobed, side-lobes rounded terminal

ovate, disk with 2 crested ridges.’ This description agrees fairly well with

Wight’s Ic. 1637, which by the way, does not quite explain Wight’s

description. Cooke, finally, gives this description: ‘Lip ? in. long, 3 lobed ;

side-lobes long, narrow, rounded, white-edged with a purple line;

midlobe 3-3 in. long, ovate, acute, yellow at base and white towards the tip,

the margins subcrenulate, disk with 2 crested ridges.’ .

The following points become clear from the above: The lip of Z. relicosa

is 3-lobed, the side lobes are long, narrow, rounded and the midlobe is ovate,

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

acute. In the new species the side lobes are very short, and the midlobe is

oblong and rounded at the tip.

Locality : Panchgani, on perpendicular rocks of Tableland above Convent,

also on rocks of Second Tableland, facing the mcnsoon-current, always in

exposed situations (May Langham 231! type, Blatter 227!, 2%8!, 229!

co-types) ; Lingmala, on tree (McCann !).

Flowered at the end of June 1925. Was also found flowering in other years

about the middle of June, immediately after the breaking of the monsoon;

also at beginning of July.

Fruit found on Ist September 1925.

In September new pseudobulbs were formed of the size of the old bulbs,

surrounded at the base by 3 scarious sheaths. Sheaths broadly ovate, strongly

nerved, suddenly contracted-acuminate ; midrib very prominent below near the

apex.

This species forms large dense patches, sometimes 0°5-1 m. across.

2. Eria reticosa Wight Ic. (1852) :t. 1637 ; Hook. f. F.B.I) v, 787 - Cke. ii,

690.—Z. uniflora Dalz. in Hook. Kew Journ. Bot. iv (1852) 111.—

E. braccata Dalz, & Gibs. Bomb. FI. 262 (zon Lindl.).—£Z. édraccata Kranzl. in

Engl. Pflanzenr. iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1911) 18, fig. 1, A-B. (parvtim); Fischer Fl

Madras pt. viii (1928) 1425 (partim).

We cannot agree with Kranzlin and Fischer in uniting &. rveticosa with

E. braccata Lindl. We put the differences between the two species side by

side.

£e. reticosa E. braccata

Leaves lanceolate or elliptic-lanceolate oblanceolate

Pseudobulbs netted not netted

Sepals acute obtuse

Dorsal sepal linear-lanceolate oblong: lanceolate

Lateral sepal falcate nearly straight

Lip 3-lobed, at least obscurely entire

- In our opinion, these differences are sufficient to keep the two species

separate.

Wight’s plate 1637 of &. vetficosa is, though not perfect, on the whole correct,

and Wight’s figure was drawn from the type specimen of &. reticosa.

We do not know what to make of Kranzlin’s figure l. Fig. 1A is said to

show the natural size. Jn the description the length of the sepals and petals is

given as almost 3cm. ‘This size is reached not even in fig. 1 B which is said

to be slightly enlarged. Then it is difficult to combine lip of fig. 1 B with its

description *‘ labellum ligulatum vel oblongum, obtusum, lobi laterales obsoleti

vel plica insiliente formati, vix Conspicui.’ Besides, the bract which is

correctly drawn in Wight’s Ic. as touching the flower is removed a good distance

from it in Kranzlin’s fig. 1 A and still more so and quite without proportion in

fig. 1B. Inthe latter the shape, too, has been changed entirely.

Now it is possible that Kranzlin wanted to draw a specimen approaching the

type of E. braccafa, but then we would say that the shape and position of the

bract certainly forms another distinguishing character between £&. relicosa and

£E. braccata.

‘Kranzlin’s Nota at the end of his description does not improve matters.

‘Reichenbachius’ he says, ‘optimo jure Eriam reticosam cum E. braécata

conjunxit, labellum enim: quod ex Hookero in E. reticosa trilobum in E.

braccata simplex describitur, ve vera formam praebet quae neque stricto sensu

simplex neque triloba judicanda est, subtrilobum s. pseudotrilobum, -margine

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 273

laterali tnsiliente tnterrupto,’ We are afraid that the lip in his fig. 1 B is not

even pseudo-trilobed.

Description :.Cke. ii, 691.—The column is very short, more or less parallel-

sided, straight. The anther terminal, surrounded along margin by a thin

erect wall except where there is a membranous plate with upturned front-edge.

Cap with 2 pockets, each holding 4 pear-shaped poilinia which are smooth and

shiny (Bell MS.).

Locality : Konkan: (Woodrow!).—W. Ghats: (Dalzell! Herb. Calc.);

Mahableshwar, on tree (Sedgwick 7916! ); Lingmala, on rocks, 4,000 ft.

(Sedgwick 7899 !), on tree (Sedgwick 4625!); Lonavla, very common (Gam-

mie!); Castle Rock, 1,800 ft., rainfall 300 in. (T. R. Bell 4336!); Ramghat

(Ritchie 707).

Distribution : W. Ghats from the Bababudan to the Nilgiri Hills at about

6,000 ft., High Wavy Mountains.

Flowers : Jane 1921 (Lingmala).

Fruit; August 1921 (Mahableshwar); September 1918 (Castle Rock);

November 191% (Mahableshwar),

3. Eria Dalzellii Lind]. in Journ. Linn. Soc. iii (1858) 47 ; Dalz. & Gibs. Bomb.

Fl. 262 ; Gammie in Journ, Bomb. Nat. His. Soc. xvii (1906) 36 ; Cke. ii, 691;

Kranzl. in Engler’s Pflanzenr, iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1911) 19, fig. A-C (partim) .—

E. filiformis Reichb. f. in Wolp. Ann. vi, 268 (fartin:).—Dendrobium

fiizforme Wight Ic. v (1852) t. 1642 (central and top left-hand figs.).

Description: Cke. ii, 691.

Locality ; Konkan (Stocks).— W. Ghats: Khandala (Hallberg 26520 !, Blatter»

& McCann 25839!, McCann 25834!, Blatter 25840!) ; Lonavla (Chibber!) ;

Panchgani (Herb. Econ. Bot. Poona!); Lingmala (McCann !).—W. Kanara -

Yellapur, 1,500 ft. rainfall 160 in. (T. R. Bell 3909!); near Karwar, on tree,

sea-level, rainfall 120 in, (T. R. Bell 7873!); Jog, on tree, 1,400 ft., rainfall

200 in. (Sedgwick 7171 !); without locality (T. R. Bell 4265 !).

Distribution: W. Ghats of Bombay and Madras Pres.

Flowers : July 1916 (Khandala); August 1918 and 1920 (N. Kanara); October

1919 (N. Kanara) September 1931 ; (Lingmala).

4. Eria microchilos Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. iii (1858) 47 ; Gammie in

Journ. Bomb. Nat. His. Soc. xvii (1906) 36; Cke. ii, 691—Z. Dalzellit var.

fimbriata Hook. f. F.B.1. v, 789.—Dendrobium fimbriatum Dalz. in Kew Journ.

Bot. iv (1852) 292.—D. microchilos Dalz.in Kew Journ. Bot. iii (1851) 345.—

via Maize Kranz, in wneler’s: Pilanzenr,iv,. 50,/ii,,B 21 (1911). 19

(partim).

This species was united by Hook. f. with &. Dadzelli Lindl. and Krdanzl.

l.c. has followed him. Gammie and Cooke keep the two species distinct. We

agree with them. Gammie has pointed out the following differences :

E.. Dalzellii E.. microchilos

Venation of pseudo- | principal venation pinnate | principal venation flabel-

bulbs. late.

Lip oe ... | ovate-lanceolate with 2/| fiddle-shaped, the almost.

thickened ridges near obsolete ridges extending

base. to the middle of tke lip,

where they join to form

a single line towards the

apex,

Colouration of lip... | green suffused with yellow | yellow ou lower half and

on the basal half and white on the upper.

white on the upper.

Colamn: .:. ... | green soe ... | nearly white.

274 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Description : Cke. ii, 691. a

Locality: Konkan (Stocks, Gammie! ); Wari country, on mango trees

(Dalzell & Gibson).— W. Ghats: Khandala, on a boulder in a mountain stream;

2,500 ft., rainfall 250 in. (Hallberg !, Sedgwick 2645 !); Mahableshwar (Cooke!).

Flowers : July 1917 (Khandala).

5. Eria minima Blatter & McCann, sf. nov.

{ Pertinet ad sectionem Conchidii. Accedit ad Eviam exilem Hook. f. a Gur

taszen distinguitur scapo bracteato, bractets late ovatis (non lanceolatis), floribus

minoribus, sepalis a@guilongis, pede gynostemii longo et labello relative

longtore.]

Descripiion: A very small epiphyte, 1-3 cm. high. Pseudobulbs flat,

irregularly orbicular or obovoid or broadly obovoid or rhomboid, adhering end

to end like a chain, up to12 mm. diam., grey or light olive-green when dry,

with a membranous coat more or iess reticulately veined, with a thickened

matgin. Leaves usually appearing after the flowers or with them, usually 2

sometimes 3, very variable in size and shape, obovate or oblong-obovate and

tapering at base, or oblanceolate, or oblong, always rounded and apiculate at

apex, always distinctly 7-or 9- nerved when dry, sheathing, very thin, light

brown or olive when dry. Scape 1-3 cm. long, capillary, zig-zag, arising from

between the leaves with a few minute sheaths at the base, bracteate at every

bend of the axis (not nude asin #.exzlis). Bracts broadly ovate-cordate,

acute or apiculate or acuminate, hyaline, semi-amplexicaul, as long as the

stalked ovary, 1-1'5 mm. long. Flowers minute, up to 6 in a raceme up to

10 mm. long, 1 at every bend of the axis, about 1:5 mm. long; distance

between 2 flowers 1-2 mm. Sepals obtuse or subacute, all of the same length ;

dorsal oblong ; lateral ones very broad at base, forming a stout saccate mentum

almost as long as the upturned tips of the sepals. Petals small, oblong, half

the length of the sepals. Lip oblong-ligulate, sessile on the foot of the column

and incumbent, curved, longer than the petals, but shorter than the sepals.

Column with an elongate foot. Anther ovate.

Locality: N. Kanara: Anmod, on trees 2,000 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedg-

wick 3260! type, T. R. Bell 4443 shee Siddhapur, 1,400 ft., rainfall 100 in.

(Sedgwick 7269!) ; Jog, ontree, 1 400 ft., rainfall 200 in. (Sedgwick 7170 !).——

W. Ghats: Mahableshwar (Blatter & Hallberg B 1683 !, Sedgwick 7631!,

Ezekiel 26570 !, McCann !).

Flowers : October 1919 (Siddhapur, Jog) ; October 1920 (EIEN) :

December 1907 (Anmod) ; February. 1917 (Mahableshwar).

6. Eria exilis Hook. f. F.B.I. v. (189¢) e¢ Ic. Pl, xxi, t. 2074; Kranzl. in

Engler’s Pflanzenr. -iv, 50, ii, B21 (1911) 21; Fischer’s Fl. Madras pt. viii

(1928) 1425.—. microphyton Schlechter in Fedde Repert. ii (1906) 170.

Description: A delicate plant, up to 10 cm. high. Pseudobulbs well

approximate, ellipsoid, 1-1'3 cm. diam., leafless at time of flowering. Leaves

unknown. Scapes arising near the apex of the pseudobulbs, slender, with sonie

hyaline little sheaths, naked, 4°5-6 cm. high. Spike few-flowered (6-15).

Bracts ovate- lanceolate, acuminate, hyaline, shorter than the flowers.

Flowers white. Sepals oblong, acute, scarcely 3mm. long, connate for the

lower +, lateral ones oblique. Petals obliquely lanceolate-elliptic, narrowed

towards the base, slightly shorter than the sepals. Lip oblong-ligulate, obtuse,

glabrous, arcuate, slightly shorter than the petals. Column short; foot almost

absent ; clinandrium entire; rostellum wide, ascending, triangular, obtuse;

another broadly ovate, obtusely apiculate in front, glabrous ; pollinia 8, pyriform,

oblique; ovary short-pedicelled, glabrous, 2 inm. long.

_Locality : Mahableshwar (Cooke! in Herb. Calc.).

Distribution : Travancore, Ceylon, Siam.

7. Eria polystacbya A. Rich. in Ann. Sc. Nat. 2 sér. xv (1841) 20,t. 9; Hook.

f. F.B.]. v, 792; Kranzl. in /Engl. Pianzenr.- iv, 00; 41, -B 21 (1911) 64 ;

Fischer FI. Madras pt. viii (1928) 1425.—4. pubescens Wight lierrt; 1635¢20

E. mysorensis Lindl. in Journ. Linn. Soc. iii (1858) 54; Hook. {5h Boles

793; Gammie in. Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc. xvii (1906) 37; Cke. ii

692.

‘Description: Cke. ii, 692.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE VIII.

Eria minima, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

REVISION OF THE FLORA OF THE BOMBAY PRESIDENCY 275

Locality: Konkan: (Stocks).—W. Ghats: (Gammie!); Mahableshwar

(Gammie!, James!, Herb. Calc. Woodrow !) ; Koina Valley below Mahablesh-

war (Cooke!, Herb. S.X.C. 26521 !).—.S.47. Country ; Dharwar (Law).

Distribution: W. slopes of the Nilgiris, Bababudan Hills, Malabar,

Travancore, Maldives, Ceylon.

8. Eria pubescens Wight Ic. (1856) 1634, 22 tad. E. polystachya dicta ; Hook.

f. F.B.1. v, 793 ; Kranzl. in Engler’s Pflanzenr, iv, 50, ii, B 21 (1911) 64,

Description : -Pseudobulbs short, ellipsoid, as thick asthe thumb. Leaves

pubescent, soon deciduous, up to 15 cm. long, 2cm. broad, lanceolate.

Racemes arising from amongst the leaves, slightly drooping, longer than the

leaves, sparingly puberulous. Flowers 1:2-1'6cm. long, 2 cm. diam., white,

tipped with pink. Sepals lanceolate, acute, 5-7-nerved, white with pale

streaks, dorsal one longest, mentum almost none. Petals linear-lanceolate,

acute, 5-nerved. Lip entire, much broader than the sepals, ovate-cordate,

acute, slightly sinuate on both sides, with purple blotches and yellow tip, 2 low

short ridyes in the lower third of the base: of the disk ; column short, no

stelidia.

This species is very nearly related to Z. polystachya A. Rich., but can be

readily distinguished by its pubescent leaves, its much larger leaves and 5-7-

nerved, white and pale streaked sepals.

Locality; W. Ghats; Mahableshwar (Hallberg !).

Distribution; W. slopes of the Nilgiris.

(Zo be continued)

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS (MACACA.

RADIATA AND M. SINICA) OF SOUTHERN INDIA

AND CEYLON.

Rl POCOCK, ReRES:

(Ze emporary Assistant in the Zoological Dept. Nat. Hist., Museum.)

Exatnination of the Bonnet Monkeys collected in the Eastern

Ghats and a comparison of them with the splendid series of skins

and skulls previously collected by the Mammal Survey in various

parts of South India yielded so many interesting results, never

before recorded, that I was induced to take up the study of the

Ceylon species as well. My observations and conclusions are

set forth in the following pages.

THE BoNNET MACAQUE (Macaca radiata),

The Colour-variations of the Bonnet Macaque.

In view of the evidence I have discovered for the existence ot

more than one race of this monkey in India, it must be recalled that

Geoffroy’s description of his example as ‘ brun-verdatre’ fixes

the colour of the typical sub-species or local race. I consequently

assign to this race (JZ. radiata radiata) a number of specimens,

obtained in several districts by the Survey, which exhibit various

shades of olive-brown. .

A hasty inspection of the skins suggests at first the occurrence

of locai races of this type; but the available evidence points to

the conclusion that the marked differences in tint are due to

seasonal change. Unfortunately it was not possible to collect

throughout the year a series of examples attesting month by month

the changes in colour and coat in one locality. When this is done

for various districts, it may prove that more than one race is repre-

sented by the olive-brown type. But at present there is not

sufficient materiai to justify, in my opinion, that conclusion.

The general tint of the winter coat on the dorsal area is deep

brown or olive-brown with little, if any, pale ticking or speckling in

the hair. The long radiating hairs on the bonnet and the short

hairs diverging from the middle line of the forehead in front are

greyish brown at the base, blackish distally. The outer sides of

the arms are rather paler than the back, there being more grey in

the hair; and the legs and feet are greyer than the arms. ‘The tail

is black above in its basal half, turning to deep brown distally.

a. |), a es

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS 277

The under side and inner side of the limbs are clothed with whitish

grey hairs which show up. conspicuously on the black pigmented

skin of the chest and abdomen.

In the spring and early summer the long hairs of the upper side

fade through the greater part of their length to a pale buffish tint

giving a decidedly pale olive-grey or buffy grey colour to the skins.

The hair then looks dull, lustre-less and shaggy and is decidedly

coarser to the touch than the rich brown coat of mid-winter.

The following skins may be referred to in illustration of this

summary. of the seascnal colour-changes.

An adult male and female shot:on December 20 by Shortridge

on the Haleri Estate, N. Coorg, 3,555 ft., have the coat long and

soft, deep brown in colour with scarcely a trace of pale speckling

init. Two obtained by. J. A. Graham at the same place on January

16, have the coat somewhat coarser and paler.

“An adult male from Ghatmatha, . Satara (S. H. Prater), dated

December 17, is also a deep olive-brown with inconspicuous

ticking on the nape and shoulders.

A male and three females from Dharwar, 2,300.ft., (G. C. Short-

ridge); November 14, are very like the Satara specimen but a

little paler.

Six specimens, an adult male and five females, from Samasgi

the Kanara. Boundary, S. W. Dharwar, 2,000 ft., (G.C. Shortridge),

on March 12th, have the coat on the average longer, shaggier and

much paler owing to an extensive pale buffish-olive area on the

hairs.

A female from Karumbapatti, Salem, April 21st, and a male and

two females from Malakondapenta in the Kurnool District,

May 14th (N. A. Baptista), have the coat long and shaggy, consisting

of dead hair extensively olive grey in colour. At a little distance

these skins appear to represent a sub-species easily distinguishable

from the one represented by the deep brown skins from Satara and

the Haleri Estate in North Coorg; but the differences between

them and the series from Samasgi in S. W. Dharwar are compara-

tively slight. |

The examples in the British Museum I assign to this race were

collected in the following districts :-—

Satara (S. A..Prater). Dharwar 2,300’, Kanara 2,000’, (G. C.

Shorirdge), Kurnool (NV.A. Baptista), Mysore, Devikop in S. Mahrata,

N. Coorg 3,555‘, .S. Coorg 2,000’ (G. C..Skortridge),. Shevaroy

tHills 4.500" (VV. A. Bapiisia), Nilgiri Hills 5,120’ (2. Gosse),

Kodaikanal 5,500’ (C.McCanz), Cochin 1,500’ (R. O’Brien), Palni

Hills 3,000’-4000’ (A. O’Brien and C. McCann),

There are, however, a few specimens from other localities which

deviate from them in certain particulars regarding colour. For

example, a full-grown male from Vijayanagar in Bellary 1500’,

obtained by Shortridge on August 12th, can be picked out at once

by the distinct yellowish speckling giving a greener aspect to the

-pelage, the bonnet and forehead and the base of the tail are not

so dark and the legs below the knees are greyer. Buta young male

from the same place, shot on August 4, is like the series from

Dharwar, | , :

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Very similar greenish yellow speckling may ke seen in two

examples obtained by J. Riley O’Brien on May 28th at Shernelly

in Cochin 1,500’. Superficially these examples are’ tolerably

uniformly olive-brown in colour, the coat being dull and in process

of moulting. But the speckling is revealed in the newly erupting

hair when the old coat is parted.

These markedly yellow-speckled specimens coming from widely

separated districts may for the present be set aside as varieties.

A pale example of a different type, an immature female

from Cumbum in Madura obtained by S. H. Prater on May 17th

also looks suggestively different with its annulated hairs from the

typical form. But that too must be set aside.

Another specimen,.a sub-adult female collected by G. C.

Shortridge on May 27th at sea-level below the Gersoppa Falls in

Kanara, differs from the typical form in exhibiting a decidedly

reddish-brown tinge especially on the flanks, shoulders and sides of

the neck, and tu a lesser degree on the limbs and tail. As may be

inferred from the date the pelage is lustre-less and no doubt faded.

Probably the reddish tint would have been brighter five or six

months earlier. A young one, collected with her, is, however,

normally tinted. She measured in the flesh: head and body 1 ft.

62 ins., tail 1 ft. 92 ias.; total 3 ft. 4 ins., and her weight was 9 lbs.

Provisionally at all events I treat this example as an erythristic

sport. It is, however, the only representative of this monkey taken

at sea-level that I have seen; and the interest of the coloration lies

in its approximation to that of the Ceylonese Toque. Possibly the

record of the Toque from India by Gray was due to his knowledge

of similar reddish specimens of the Bonnet. The skin is quite as

red on the back as some specimens of the Toque, but it does not

show the redness of the thighs observable in the brownest examples

of the Ceylonese species.

Two specimens appear to represent a distinguishable local race,

which may be described as follows :—

Subsp. /. radiata diluta nov.

Differs from typical J/. vadiata in being much paler in tint

throughout. The hairs of the forehead are buff with darker tips,

those of the ‘cap’ are a pale brownish buff without dark tips

but grey at the base. The hairs of the neck and shoulders are

long and, like those of the rest of the back, have long buff tips.

The arms, legs and tail are correspondingly paler and _ buffier.

The hairs of the belly and of the insides of the limbs instead of

being whitish grey are creamy white, and the skin of the chest and

abdomen is pallid, not dark blackish grey. |

Locality : Boothapaundy in Travancore.

Two female examples, one nearly adult, the other younger,

obtained by R. S. Pillay on November 18. The skins are in good

coat and differ noticeably in their paler coloration from examples

of typical zadiata shot by Shortridge on November 14 at 2300’ in

Dharwar. They more nearly resemble the pallid, faded skins

obtained on March 12 at Samasgi in S, W, Dharwar and those from

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS 279

Salem and Kurnool obtained on April 21 and May 14 respectively,

but are not the same tint above and are noticeably different from

them and from all the skins of typical zadzata obtained at various

months of the year by the absence of dark pigment in the

integument and by the creamy tint of the hairs of the under side.

The dimensions of the two skins, the adult measuring : head and

body 1’ 44”, tail 1’ 104”, total 3’ 32”, and the younger: head and

body 1’ 13”, tail 1’ 9”, total 2’ 103”, show that this motfkey is as

large as typical sadzata, a conclusion borne out by the measurements

of the skull of the type entered on the subjoined table.

The measurements and weights, taken in the flesh, of some of

the examples of 47. radiata, collected by the Mammal Survey, are

as follows :—

Locality and Sex Seay Tail | Total | Weight [Remarks

Vijayanagar, Bellary, 6 ads| F187 |. 27) 377-40 247: .19% lbs;.| Typical

radiata.

Dharwar, Gas ILO 0S 2 086.3% 118" Abe ae

Rialenielstate, iN. Coorg... fad. i lae GPa 8” 35> SE") 3) Ibs: 5,

Samasgi, Kanara, ooads ks GEO ei" 108% 3" 72” | 148 tbs. Rs

Ghatmatha, Satara, Cuads eh She 204 te” 3r 96” 116. Tbs: “ih

Dharwar, Qiagen’ (B82 tS 10s a Be 7 ee fed pe

Samasgi, Kanara, Orads lelepese leloeos. or -4e. |; Oslbs, ;

Haleri Estate, N. Coorg, Qad.|1’ 63”/1’ 5S!” | 2’ 112”) 83 lbs, '

Wottekolle, S. Coorg, Qeade le Ge Melhor BES | Ge 2 be a 3

Boothapaundy, Travancore, 2 ad.| 1’ 13”%| 1% 9” | 2’ 102” ne Type of

diluta.

With regard to general superiority in size of the males over the

females, this table confirms the table giving weights and measures

of the specimens collected in the Eastern Ghats. The two

sexes do not always differ greatly in actual length, but males are

always considerably heavier. ‘The specimens enlisted above are the

largest procured. Special attention may be drawn to the very big

male shot by G. C. Shortridge in Bellary and to the big female,

as long as many males, obtained by him in Dharwar. The temale

from Samasgi is the largest of a series of six, the weights of the

others being 8 lbs. The tail, ii may be seen, is asa rule longer

than the head and body. Where it is shorter, the great possibility

of artificial abbreviation must be borne in mind.

The Skull of M. radiata.

Blanford described the skull of this monkey as ‘long, flattened

over the brows with the orbits much broader than high and vertical,’

and he gave the total length and zygomatic width of the skull of an

(280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

adult male as 4:8 inches (=120 mm.) and 3-5 inches (=871 mm.)

respectively. Since all the skulls of adult males I have measured

‘are much narrower across the cheek-bones and have the. orbital

-sockets approximately circular and sometimes higher than wide, I

have no doubt:that he selected for measurement one of the several

skulls, in:‘the British Museum, of examples of this monkey that had

been reared in captivity, probably in the Zoological Gardens. These

may be distinguished at once by their low brows, imparting a

‘peculiarly scowling aspect to the skull, as wellas by other characters

from the skulls of wild-killed specimens. lanford’s record 1s

therefore valueless.

The following table gives some dimensions in “aallimveters of

male and female skulls of the two races recorded akove. The

table shows the difference in cranial size between the males and

females of 7. radiata and also some of the individual differences

between members of the same sex :—

cece es ES ire ds

Locality and Sex 5 Se 5 U a8 & q |Remarks

| Rio ee or | 2 Stina tal

Coorg Jf ad. Al 78 61 32 87 | Typical

: race.

9 ref ad. 119 77 57 31 86 AN)

Nilgiri Hills 3 ad. 117 80 65 30 84 ”

Kotagiri, Nilgiris Jad. 116 77 39 31 80 ”

Coimbatore © ad. 105 67 56 29 ine ny

Coorg 9 old. 105 72 58 ae) 73 y

ae 9 old. 103 68 54 30 Tes Aiea

Kotagiri, Nilgiris 2 old. 104 69 55 30 oe ap

Dharwar © ad. 102 69 55 30 73 ”

_ ov raga O9ia4| 63.8 51 :| eral 6am

Kanara (sea-level) 2 young 100 Wires enees) cae .. |Reddish

variety.

Travancore G ad. 105 72 90 22 28 ee toe MEVipe OF

diluta.

(SL OE I, ES REST Bs

CASES

Apart from size, the two adult male skulls from Coorg differ in

_the shape of the palate and of the orbits. Inthe larger example, the

rows of cheek-teeth are approximately straight and parallel, and the

orbital sockets are nearly circular, measuring 20 by 20 mm. Inthe

smaller the rows of cheek-teeth are noticeably arcuate and the

orbital sockets are higher than wide, measuring 22 by 20 mm.

' Female skulls may, of course, be at once distinguished from male

skulis by their small canine teeth, accompanied by a narrower and

» iy PST S

re ee

6 MIEN NO OREO MGI Oe

TT tc

17 tomeamy

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS: ~ 281

shorter muzzle. In shape they resemble the skulls of sub-adult

males; but the cheek-teeth are only Slightly shorter than those of

males, and the orbital sockets are quite as large:

Tue ToouE MACAQUE (Macaca. sinica).

Examination of the specimens of the Bonnet Macaque suggested

a revision of the specimens in the British Museum, mostly obtained

by the Mammal Survey, of its Ceylonese ally the Toque Macaque

‘(M. sinica). The skins proved a puzzling series and perhaps the

following remarks about them may prove of interest :—

_Ditterences between the Bonnet and the Toque Macaques. |

The degree of kinship between. these two monkeys has always

been open to doubt. Most authors have treated them as distinct on

account of the prevalent difference between. them in colour and the

alleged difference in size, the Ceyion form being redder and smaller

than the Indian. Such characters, however, have only a sub-specific

value in the case of the Crab-eating Macaque of Malaya and the

Sunda Islands; and Blanford, after describing the Bonnet and the

Toque, said ‘it is very doubtful if there is any constant difference,

[between them]. For my own part, I doubt if the two are entitled

to specific distinction.’ Hinton and Wroughton, however, claimed

that, apart from its red colour, the Toque may be distinguished by

the forward growth of the hairs up to the eyebrows on the forehead,

the corresponding hairs inthe Bonnet diverging sideways from a

_median parting.

Comparison of the skins in the British Museum shows that none

of these three characters is absolutely distinctive and constant. But

there is one difference, hitherto unnoticed, which appears to admit

of no exception. In the Bonnet Macaque, the hair on the cheek in

front of the ear grows upwards from the throat and lower jaw to

the level, or nearly so, of a line running from the eye to the summit

of the ear where the tips meet those of the hairs of the crown which

diverge transversely from the middle Jine. In the Toque Macaque,

the hairs on the cheek in front of the ear slope obliquely downwards

and backwards and meeting the upwardly growing hair from the

throat and lower jaw form a distinct whorl on the cheek and often.a

definite crest below the ear. This whorl varies in. size .and

distinctness, possibly due in part to the ‘ make-up’. and shrinkage of

the skins; but it is always detectable.

Variations in the Togue Macaque.

The available skins of this monkey. are not sufficient to supply:a

full explanation of the variations in general colour and in the growth

of the hair on the forehead.

A series of five collected by Major E. W. Mayor: hence

September 24th and October 4th at Mankeni on the: coast of the

Fastern Province, may be-selected as a basis for comparison. !

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Two adult males, weighing 12 lbs. and 10 lbs. respectively, have

the fore part of the back reddish brown; this tint increases in

brightness on the hind back and loins and is especially bright,

almost orange, on the outside of the thighs and shoulders but

becomes duller and dies away distally on the limbs, the arms being

brighter than the legs. The tail is greyish brown to blackish above,

speckled with orange at the base. On the head the ‘cap’ consists

of long radiating hairs, greyish below and yellowish buff at the tip,

which overlie and mostly conceal laterally and in front a fringe of

shorter hairs rendered conspicuous by a bright orange band preced-

ing the black tip. The hairs of this fringe, which narrows in front,

grow forwards up to the eye-brows. The cap is set off by greyish

hairs on the cheek and over the ear. The under side of the body

and tail and the inner sides of the limbs are clothed with whitish

grey hairs.

A half-grown male, weighing 6 lbs, resembles the adults in

colour; but the fringe does not cover the forehead, a short area

behind the eye-brow being covered with hairs growing backwards and

outwards.

A female, unmeasured and undated, has the brow as in the

young male; but the pelage is less brightly coloured than in the

males.

A vety young male, weighing only 2 lbs., is well coloured, but

has the long hairs of the cap much shorter and not overlapping the

forehead which is covered to the brow with short hairs directed

forwards and outwards, there being no definite orange-edged fringe.

Compared with this series an adult female from Tellula 300,’ in

Ura, shot in April, and an adult female from Wellawaya in Ura, shot

in July, are as richly coloured as the adult males from Mankeni

and have the forehead similarly covered to the brow by the orange-

edged fringe. ‘The coat in the female from Wellawaya is, however,

a little longer. A young one killed with her is also very like the

young one from Mankeni.

In north western Ceylon Major Mayor also secured some interest-

ing specimens. An adult male shot at Cheddikulam on November,

llth has the forehead covered to the brows as inthe adult males

from Mankeni; but the margin of the fringe is dull buffy yellow,

not bright, and the general colour of the head, shoulders, back and

arms is yellowish olive without a trace of red. The only red

present in the pelage is on the outer side of the thigh, which is

orange but not so bright as in Mankeni specimens.

A younger male, three-quarters grown, from the same place and

shot on November 26th, is dark brown in hue, also without any

bright yellow or orange in the pelage, but a note on the label states

that the coat was discoloured by the firing of a lamp in the drying

shed. It may be noted, however, that the normal grey of the under

side is unaltered. In this younger specimen the area behind the

eyebrows is uncovered by the cap, its hairs being directed outwards

and backwards.

This specimen closely resembles in its brownish tint a young

male shot at Kala Oya, N.C.P., in May ; and here also the fore part

of the forehead is uncovered by the cap. The forehead is similarly

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS 283

uncovered in a sub-adult female, weighing 64 Ibs., shot at Tam-

manewa in May ; but this specimen is as brightly coloured as the

Mankeni series.

The specimens so far described carry no convincing evidenee

of seasonal colour-change, bright typically coloured reddish-

orange tinted specimens being met with in April, May, July,

the end of September and the beginning of October. But such

evidence is supplied by two examples obtained at Maha Oya in

the Eastern Province in August. A sub-adult male, weighing 9 lbs.

shot on August 12, has a good deal of the typical orange hue on

the thigh, but the coat on the back is short and coarse and dark olive-

brown in hue. Beneathit, however, the new coat, with characteristic

orange speckling, may be seen sprouting. A younger male, shot

on August 17 at the same place, shows the same phenomenon

but is redder on the loins and thighs. The cap and fringe on the

head in these examples are respectively very similar to those of

the adult males and the baby from Mankeni.

Passing reference may here be made to an immature female from

Hambantota on the coast of the Southern Province, received many

years ago from the Colombo Museum. It is a dark coloured

monkey iecalling in colour and the uncovered brow the example

from Cheddikulam at the northern end of the island. In the toler-

ably uniform dusky tint of the long radiating hairs of the ‘cap’,

this Hambantota example resembles those described above from

the northern and eastern parts of the island; but two other

specimens from the Southern Province differ considerably from it

in that respect and from each other in other particulars.

An adult, or sub-adult, female from Ranna, collected on May 17,

has a large area of the forehead behind the eyebrows covered with

short backwardly directed hairs of a yellowish grey hue, and the

long radiating hairs of the anterior half of the cap are buffy

throughout, a little paler at the tips, and contrasted with the duskier

radiating hairs of the hinder half of the cap. The hairs of the neck,

shoulders and arms are, moreover, paler than usual, being golden

buff rather than orange or red, and these areas are brighter i in tint,

not duller, than the hinder part of the back.

A young half-grown male, weighing 44 lbs., from Kottawa on

the coast of the Southern Province, is very different from the

example from Ranna and in general colour recalls the specimens

from Mankeni, but is more brightly tinted, the orange red being

everywhere much in evidence in the long coat, and the bases of the

hairs are biackish grey. The forehead too is covered to the eye-

brows by a fringe of forwardly directed hairs as in the full-grown

male examples from Mankeni. But the hairs of this fringe are

bright orange throughout; and the long cap of radiating hairs is

markedly two-coloured, the hairs of the anterior half being bright

orange buff throughout, whereas those of the posterior half are

greyish with buff tips and contrast markedly in tint with the hairs

of the fore-part, an exaggeration of the same feature exhibited by

the Ranna specimen.

An adult female collected by W. W. Phillips on January 15

at Anasigalla Matugama in the Western Province, also has the

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

anterior part of the cap all buff as in the Ranna and Kottawa speci-

mens. The-coat is long as in the Kottawa specimen, but it is only

conspicuously red on the loins and thighs, the fore part of the

back and the neck being dull brownish, much darker than in typical

forms. |

Finally, the flat skin of an adult male obtained by Major E. W.

Mayor at -Roygam Korali, in the Western Province, resembles the

example from Kottawa in all essential particulars, i.e., the colour of

the cap, the intensification of the orange redness everywhere and of

the deep bluish black of the basal part of tne hairs. Unfortunately

it is undated and unmeasured.

I have described these specimens at some length to illustrate the

great variability of the species in colour and in the growth of the

hair on the top of the head, two features by which it has been '

claimed that J/. szzzca may be distinguished from /. radiata. The

~specimens show that the general hue of the body may be almost

identical with that of the Indian species, and that the forehead

behind the eyebrows may resemble that of vadzata in the direction

of growth of the hairs.

All that can be said of the differences between the two species so

far as these features are concerned is that in J/. sznzca, there always

seems to be a certain amount of orange-red on the thighs, and that

the short-haired area between the eyebrows and the ‘cap’ is at all

events on the average smaller than in JW. vadiata and seldom

exhibits so conspicuous a median parting.

The following tab!e shows the weights and measurements, taken

in the flesh, of some adult or almost adult examples of W/. sinica:—

Locahty and Sex Tee Tail | Total. | Weight

Cheddikulam, ¢ ad. ip vee 168-2 | 0323" 447 OF bse

Mankeni, fad... at SS Avg al cee 2 ei g ae eee Ss

Mankeni, gad: “.:. ee jee | eS “ial OR 2 Sas Ue Omelase

Kala Oya, ¢ aoe ah salad coe eee al nomena a2 eae lice

Wellawaya, 2 Are ee colada Sena lem SOAS 2 a

Ranna, 2 as he Bis |e Woke Pace hon ak eee ZO

Matugama, 2 ie End Reig (we Gla: acme pay a Ck Bae NAG

Although the available skins of adult examples of this species is

small, this table, when compared with the table on p. 279, bears out

the claim put forward by Kelaart that the Ceylonese species is

smaller at least on the average than its Indian ally.

I agree with Blanford that there is no character by which the

skulls of JZ. sinica can be distinguished from those of J/. radiata.

‘In both species, the skulls are liable to a good deal of individual

variation.

clean! 5 ae:

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS 285

The following table gives a few of the dimensions in millimetres

of some of those that I have examined :—

eevee ee | yet | ano | bi | oper | Tower

Koliyagalla, gad. ... re 117 78 67 30 83

Mankeni, gad. _... 506 12 Sa ae 27 81

Bee ie uade sie lee ali0 79 62 31 82

Tellula, 2 ad. xe: world OO 64 52 27 68

Matugama, Qad. _... ave 95 ote ee 27

These skulls bear out the evidence supplied by the skins that the -

average size of MW. sintca is less than of MW. radiata.

The two skulls from Mankeni differ considerably when viewed

from the front. In the smaller the orbits are circular, measuring

21 by 21 mm., and the orifice of the nostrils is 11 mm., whereas in. .

the larger the orbits are noticeably wider than high, being 21 by 17

mm., and the aperture of the nostrils is 14 mm.

Revising the facts, set forth above, relating to the coloration of:

examples of this species obtained in various parts of Ceylon, it

must be admitted that many of the variations must be set aside as

unexplained until more specimens come to hand.

The evidence, however, supports three conclusions :—

(1) The two specimens from Maha Oya show that the moult

begins in August and is accompanied by a marked change

in colour when the old brown coat is replaced by new. hair

with conspicuous orange annulation yielding the red tinge

characteristic of typical-szvzca.

(2) There is a general increase in the redness of the pelage

from north to south, the difference in colour between the

adult males from Cheddikulam and Roygam Korali being

very striking.

(3) It also seems that examples from the south-western part of

the island differ from those from the northern and eastern

parts by the tint of the radiating hairs of the cap, a feature

particularly noticeable in the very rich red specimen from

Roygam Korali, in which the hairs of the anterior half

of the cap are noticeably reddish from base to tip.

These facts I think supply evidence for the existence of three.

distinguishable local races of s#v7ca, a conclusion enforcing a

decision regarding the coloration of the cap and coat in typical

_stnica for which unfortunately no locality was known. Reliance

must in consequence rest upon the descriptions of the Macaque

monkey Buffon described as ‘ Le Bonnet Chinois’ to which Linnzus

gave the name Szzzca under the mistaken belief that it came from

China. By both Schreber (Die Sazigth. I, p. 108, 1775) and

Audebert (fist. Nat. Singes, Fam. 4, sect. II, p. 17, 1799), this

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

monkey was described as red; but neither their descriptions nor

their coloured plates indicate that the cap, or bonnet, of radiating

hairs was anything but uniformly coloured throughout. I propose,

therefore, to restrict szzzca as a subspecific term to the red examples

with uniformly tinted bonnets with dusky buff-tipped hairs. The

examples above described from Mankeni and elsewhere farther

south in the eastern part of the island may be taken as representa-

tive of this race.

The two new races I propose to admit may be haa and de-

scribed as follows :—

Subsp. zzaurea nov.

Resembling the typical form szzzca in having the hairs of the

anterior and posterior halves of the bonnet alike in colour, but

distinguishable by the absence of red from the pelage, apart from

the outside of the thighs, the general hue of the head, shoulders,

back and arms being yellowish olive, the hairs being merely

annuJated with greyish buff.

Locality and history of type: Cheddikulam (N. P.), north of

Adams Bridge. An adult male collected by Major E. W. Mayor.

-Since this example was killed in November, just after the August-

September moult, the absence of yellow or orange annulation in

the hairs cannot be assigned to fading. A second, younger

example, also killed in November at Cheddikulam, similarly lacks

the red speckling, but is browner thanthe type. The skin, however,

is said to have been artificially discoloured. A still younger

specimen shot in May at Kala Oya to the south of Cheddikulam is

also brown without red speckling ; but at Tammanewa, near Kala

Oya, the red race occurs.

The likeness in colour between this northern race of szzzca and

the Indian /. vadiaza is interesting.

Subsp. aurifrons nov.

Resembling typical szzzca in the redness of the pelage but

brighter coloured, the hairs long, almost purplish black at the base

with bright orange-red tips, the arms comparatively brightly

speckled to the hands, the outside of the thighs and lower leg

almost fiery red, the feet yellow. Hairs of the bonnet very long,

those of its anterior half reddish from the base to the tip, of the

posterior half dusky greyish at the base, reddish at the tips.

_ Locality and history of type: Roygam Korali(W.P.) Flat skin

of an adult male sent. by Major E. W. Mayor, but undated and

unmeasured.

A young male from Rota (S. P.) agrees very closely with the

type in its long coat of bright red and deep black hairs, and it has

a frontal fringe wholly golden red throughout. This fringe is

concealed in the flat skin from Roygam Korali.

Examples from Ranna and Anasigalla Matugama also have the

hairs of the fore half of the bonnet of a uniform colour, without

dusky bases, thus differing from the hairs of the hinder part; but

they show none of the vivid -coloration of the two specimens

THE LONG-TAILED MACAQUE MONKEYS | 287

assigned to aurifrons and cannot at present be certainly included in

the sub-species.

SUMMARY.

The following analytical key setting forth the distinctive charac-

ters of the different kinds of long-tailed Macaques from South

India and Ceylon will serve as a summary to this paper.

A. Hairs onthe cheek growing upwards

from the throat and lower jaw to

the level of the top of the ear, or

nearly so, not forming a whorl on

the cheek; typically a larger

short-haired area between the

bonnet and the brows ; red usually

absent from the pelage, never

specially in evidence on the out-

side of the thighs; size on the

average larger oe -- Macca radiata.

(a,) General colour of the winter

coat brown or olive-brown, at

most faintly speckled, fading

to buffy or greyish brown

before the summer moult ;

hairs on under side whitish

grey ; skin of belly blackish. Subsp. radiata.

(a,) General colour of the winter

(Nov.) coat much paler,

markedly buffy throughout ;

hairs of under side pale

cream; skin of belly pallid,

without dark pigment .. subsp. diluta,

B. Hairs on cheek in front of ear

growing downwards and_ back-

wards and forming a_ distinct

whorl on the cheek where they

meet the upgrowing hairs from

the throat and lower jaw; hairs

on the forehead very variable but

typically a shorter area of short

hairs between the bonnet and the

brows ; pelage usually ticked with

yellow or red, always so on the

outer side of the thigh; size on

the average smaller...

(6,) General colour brownish

olive, annulation of hair yel-

lowish brown, not bright;

hairs of the bonnet alike

throughout is ... woubsp. znaurea.

Macaca sinica.

288. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

~ (6,). General coiour much brigh-

ter, annulation of hairorange,

yellow or red, altogether

more vivid

(c,) Long radiating hairs of ie

‘bonnet ali alike, greyish

at base with buffish tips;

hairs of. the back not so

black at the base or red at

the tips ae we) WUDSP.2. Sz22762.

(c,) Hairs of the anterior half

of the bonnet uniformly

reddish from base to tip,.

strongly contrasted with

those of the posterior half ;

hairs of the back redder and

blacker 907s: ... oubsp. auritrons.

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PrATE 13.

John Bale. Sons & Danielsson. Lt’ London.

THE JAVA CASSIA

Cassia javanica, Linn.

(about 4 nat. size)

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES.

Bee BEARER: S.J: PilaDe hese AND: Wo. MILLARD, F.Z.S.

EAU ee alele

(With two coloured plates, three black and white plates and 7 diagrams.)

(Continued from page 65 of thts volume.)

THE JAVA CASSIA.

Popular names: Java Cassia, Javanese Cassia (Engl.); Dulang.

Cassia javanica Linn. Sp. Pl. (1753) 379.

Description : Roxburgh describes this Cassia as the most beautiful

he has ever seen. It is a medium sized tree. Its

straight trunk, covered with smooth, dark brown

bark, supports a spreading crown of sturdy,

horizontal branches and numerous, drooping

feathery-leafed branchlets. The leaves are from

6 to 12 inchesin length. At the base of the leaf-

stalk is a crescent-shaped stipule. Its lower half

is narrow, the upper half is broader with a spur

in a notch at its apex. A large leaf is composed

of from 8 to 14 pairs of leaflets; on the smaller

leaves growing on the lateral flower-bearing

branchlets there may be no more than 2 to 4

pairs. These leaflets are 1 to 2 inches in length

and about half that in breadth. They areall very

short-stalked, oblong-oval in shape and rounded

or blunt at the tips. ‘There is much variation in

the shape of the leaflets, mostly they are blunt at

the apex but in some this character is less

pronounced. In texture they are smooth and

silky, the under surface being covered with a

mat of downy hairs. They are quite glossless.

Leaf fall commences in December, some of the

leaves turn a bright yellow; by February most

of the branches are bare—their only ornament is

the blackened seed pods. The soft tender green

leaves come out in May together with clusters of

deep pink buds. ‘The buds are grouped in whorls |

at the end of short, lateral branchlets. These

presently opening form lovely bunches of rose-

pink flowers. In its‘crown of tender green leaves and flower laden

branches the Java Cassia is indescribably beautiful. The distinct

clusters of flowers intermingled with the foliage is a character which

distinguishes the flowering of this Cassia from the Pink Cassia

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST) SOCIETY, Voli Xoo

(C. renigera). In the latter the flowering branches are leafless.

Except for a few leaves at

the extremity they are cover-

€d with a flow of pink and

white blooms in which the

individual clusters are not

readily discernible. In Cassza

javanita each cluster. of

flowers contains about 10

blooms growing on long, slen-

der stalks. At the base of

each stalk is a leafy, dull-

red heart-shaped bract. ‘The

calyx has 5 deep red sepals. The oblong petals are of

a lively rose-pink, veined in deeper pink. They fadeto

white. The red bracts and sepals, the deep pink buds,

the pink and white of the petals give the clusters a lively,

variegated appearance. There are 10 bright yellow stamens. The 3

lower stamens are long and prominent. ‘They project in a double

curve, swell out markedly in the middle and then bend inwards. They

are crowned with large brown anthers. The anthers on the smaller

stamens are yellow. All of them are fertile. The style is green.

The pods grow from 15—24 inches in length ; externally they differ

in no way from those of the Indian Laburnum (Cassia fistula). The

only distinguishing feature is the soft sweet pulp of C. fzstula. Ina

pod of the Java Cassia the space between the partitions—there are

70 to 80. of them—is filled with a spongy mass in which there is a

roomy cell for a flattened seed, the size of a pea, smooth and of a

shiny brown colour.

Flowering season: The tree flowers in May and by mid June the

height of the flowering season is past and the ground below the tree

is strewn with fallen petals. The seed pods ripen about February.

This is another of the beautiful trees which, during the hot weather,

brighten the roadsides and gardens of Bombay where it was

introduced about the year 1910. Mr. Kemball was prominent in

introducing it. Unfortunately the tree has not a long life.

Distribution: A native of Sumatra and Java. Pianted in the

Peninsula, in Calcutta and Bombay, very likely elsewhere.

THE BusuxK-BUSUK.

Popular names: Busuk-Busuk, Turucop Bumi, Sibsuk (Malay

Peninsula) ; Gnoo-thein (Burm.).

Cassia nodosa Ham. in Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 31.

The term zodosa means a node. It alludes to a character in the

3 longer stamens of the flowers of this tree which are spherically

thickened in the middle. The character is present in the flowers of

some other species of the genus.

As this Cassia, in common with the Java Cassia, is frequently

planted on roadsides and in gardens, we give here a description

which emphasises the points of distinction between these two trees

which are very similar in general habit.

‘quip yyoeK Avquiog jekoy oy} 4V JoMOy UT saeIq (vorwHAv DISsHD) BISSeD BAL OL,

THS @2.9Id ‘009 ‘LSI ‘LVN AvaNog ‘Nunofr

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. His. SOC. Plate XIV.

et Se

Flowers and leaves of Cassia javanica, Linn. Note the blunt tips of the leaflets.

PSUR ih Ore

Flowers and leaves of Cassia nodosa, Ham. The leaflets are more oblong and pointed

than in Cassia javanica.

(Photos by C. McCann).

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 291

Cassia nodosa grows to a larger size than the Java Cassia. Like

the Java Cassia, it has a crown of spreading branches with numerous

drooping feathery-leafed branchlets. The leaf is about from 6 inches

to a foot in length. It is composed of

from 6 to 13 pairs of ieaflets without an

odd terminal leaflet. The base of the

leaflet is oval but towards the apex it

natrows and becomes almost _ lance-

shaped. ‘The leaflets of the Java Cassia

are blunt or rounded atthetips. Another

point of distinction is the texture of the

leaflets. Those of the Java Cassia are

glossless, slightly downy below. ‘They

have a silky feel. The leaflets of C.

nodosa, When full grown, are smooth and

leathery in texture with a glossy upper

surface. Like the Java Cassia, the

flowers come out in big distinct clusters.

These clusters, grouped along the branch-

es in pairs or solitary, grow from the

axils of the leaves or more usually above

the scars of the fallen ones. The flowers

and buds are of the same bright pink

colour and display the same tendency to

fade white. They are set in whorls at

the end of a short branchlet. The points

of distinction are: The flower of C,

nodosa has a velvety calyx with green

sepals, in C. javanica the calyx is smooth

and the under surface of the sepals is

deep red; the petals of the former are

more sharply pointed at the tips than in

the Java Cassia; finally the leafy bracts

at the base of the flower stalks are dis-

piveile eee shaped in C. javanica while in xodosa they are narrow

and lance-shaped. The flowers have 10 very unequal stamens. ‘The

lower 3 are the longest, each with a distinctive globular swelling in

the middle. These nodes inthe middle of the stamens give the tree its

name, but this character is also present in the flowers of C. javanica

and in other Cassias. The pods are similar in both trees. Those

of the Java Cassia are said to grow longer, reaching from 18 to 24

inches while the pods of C. zodosa are from 12 to 18 inches in length.

Flowering season : May and June.

Distribution : Burma. Chittazonc,, Malay. Penmsula, China,

Sumatra, Borneo.

THE RED CASSIA.

Popular names : Red Cassia ; Vakal (Tam.); Kada konna (Mal.).

Cassia marginata Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 31.—C. Roxburghii DC.

Description: A rather small, round-shaped tree, growing about

from 15 to 20 feet in height with slender, downward curving branches.

Less robust in appearance than the Cassias previously described, the

292 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Red Cassia is uncommonly beautiful at all times, particularly when in

full ower. The leaf is composed of from 10 to 20 pairs of leaflets.

They are leathery, smooth above and blunt at the tips. The flowers —

appear in small single clusters growing from the axils of the leaves,

on the young twigs of the year. ‘There is a

ereat profusion of them covering the upper

surfaces of the drooping branches. ‘The petals

of the flowers are terra cotta red with fine green

veins, deeper in tone on the under surfaces.

The older blooms are very bright pink. The

2 lower petals of the flower are usually the

largest, though the flower itself is small, the

petals not being more than half an inch in

jeneth. All the stamens bear anthers. The 3

upper-most are the longest, they protrude and

curve inwards and are crowned with dark red

anthers. They have no swelling in the middle

as with the stamens of C. zodosa and some of the

other species. In the cenire there are 4 much

smaller stamens with bright red anthers and 2 lower stamens. ‘These

2 are the smallest. They bear yellow anthers. The sepals are salmon

pink. There are pale green bracts at the base of the flower stalks.

‘The pods are cylindrical, 8-12 inches long with transverse partitions.

Flowering season: The Red Cassia commences to flower in May

though the height of the flowering season is

June when the treesare smothered with their

littie red fowers. The seed pods are ripe in

March and April.

Distribution : The Red Cassia is a native of

Ceylon. It was introduced in the Royal Botanic

Gardens at Calcutta in 1802. It is a common

tree in South India from South Arcot to Tra-

vancore and in the forests of Mysore and the

Carnatic. It is not uncommon in Bombay

gardens. ‘There are anumber of fine specimens

in the grounds of St. George’s Hospital

originally planted by Lt.-Col. Dimmock.

THE HORSE CASSIA.

Popular names : Horse Cassia, Pink Shower

Cassia grandis Linn. f. Suppl. 230.

Description : The Horse Cassia is common

in Bombay. It is a smail tree with deep green

foliage. The terminal leaflets on the younger

leaves have a coppery tinge which is very

distinctive. The leaves are velvety to the touch

as they are finely hairy above and below. A

leaf contains from 10 to 20 oblong leaflets

abruptly rounded at both ends. The flowers

are rose coloured ; they grow in the axils of the

leaves in drooping racemes. ‘There are no

ry 7

eae

ris

my hee ay

: v at "

ow bel ae ‘

aes

ahi vr eee os

Journ. Bompay Nar. Hist. Soc. PLaTE 14.

John Bale, Sons & Danielsson. LtS Londor r :

THE SACRED BARNA.

Crateva nurvala, Ham.

(% nat. size)

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN TREES 293

bracts at the base of the flower stalks. The pod is 3 inches or less

in length, compressed, cylindrical, smooth, and transversely wrinkled.

Flowering season: 'The Horse Cassia flowers in February and

March when it has lost its foliage.

Distribution: A native of Tropical America; grown in many

tropical countries.

Cassia multijuga Rich.

This is a small South American Cassia which was introduced into

Bombay from Peradeniya, Ceylon. Its leaves contain from 20 to 25

pairs of oblong-elliptic leaflets, hence the name mzltijuga which

means many pinnee or leaflets. The leaflets are a bright green above

and very paie, almost white below. ‘The tree bears masses of bright

yellow flowers during August and September when it is in full leaf.

‘This is the latest flowering Cassia. ‘The cycle commences with the

flowering of the Horse Cassias in February and ends with this

species in September.

We append here a key which will heip in distinguishing the various

species of Cassias we have described.

A. Bracts very small falling off long before the

flowers appear.

1. Leaflets few, large, smooth, in distant pairs. C. fistula.

2. Leaflets many, hairy, in closely approximate

pairs oa A Ce OV Andes.

&. Bracts conspicuous persisting till the flowers

open.

a.» Leaflets 6-14 pairs. Racemes lateral :

1. Leaflets pointed at the tips ; smooth s. Cn nouosa.

2. Leaflets rounded at the tips, hairy below. C. javanica.

6. Leaflets 8-20 pairs. Racemes growing

from the scars of the fallen leaves one VENTS a.

c. Leaflets 10-20 pairs. Racemes growing

in the axils of the leaves on the young

twigs of the year ea Sen G. 2007 CUA 10.

d. Leaflets 20-25 pairs os Mana TUILII UCR.

THE SACRED BARNA.

Popular names : Barna, Barun, Bilasi, Bila, Biliana (Hind.) , Barun,

Tikto-shak (Beng.); Tailudu, Bunboronda (Mechi) ; Purbong (Lepcha) ;

Barna, Barnahi (Pb., Raj.); Bela, Bel (C.P.); Vayavarna, Bhatavarna,

Hadavarna, Kumla, Waruna, Karvan (Bomb.) ; Kumla, Karwan (Mar.);

Maralingam, Marvilinga, Narvala (Tam.); Nirvala, Vitusi (Kan.,

Mal.); Uskia, Usiki Manu, Ulimidi, Urimidi, Urumitti, Tella ulimidi,

Tellavule (Tel.} ; Nirujani (Coorg); Kadet, Katat (Burm.); Varuna,

Asmarighna (Sans.); Roxburgh says that it is the Tikta-shaka of

Sanskrit writers.

Crataeva Nurvala Ham. in Trans. Linn. Soc. XV (1827) 121.—C.

walgeiosa + orst: var. WVurwala Hook, f..% Th. in- Hook. f.. Fi: Brit.

+ Our plant has been known under the name of C. religiosa for a long

time. This, however, is a Polynesian tree and totally different from the Indo-

Malayan plant which has to be called C. Nurvala Ham.

294. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIZTY Wel. 2 OCW,

ivcliaw leh 7/.2,

(Capparidacee or Caper. family). (Cvateva after

Cratevas, an obscure writer on medicinal plants, not at the time of

Hippocrates, but at the beginning of the first century B.c., since he

named a plant after Mithridates. Nurvaia is an Indian vernacular

name.)

Description: The Sacred. Barna is a small tree with a much

branched head of glossy foliage ; its leaves clustering mainly towards

1 by # inch. There is a very narrow

the ends of the branches. ‘The tree sheds its leaves

during the cold weather. The leaf is trifoliate.

It is composed of 3 leaflets growing on a long

slender stalk which may be from an inch and a

half to 3 inches in length. The leaflets are

from 2-6” long. Their shape varies from oval to

lance-shaped or they taper to a fine point. They are

covered with a net work of veins,

smooth on both surfaces, glossy

above and pale, almost white

below. The young leaves appear

with or sometimes before the

flowers. The tree is very hand-

some when profuse in bloom. The

flowers grow in dense greenish-

white clusters at the ends of the

branches. Each cluster is borne

upon a sturdy stalk. The sepals

of the flower are small, oval and

pointed sat 7 the apex. |, [hey sare

green when young ; fading to pale

pink or yellow. The white petals

also fade to yellow. They measure

claw petal + inch in length. A bunch

of long, thread-like spreading stamens

protrude from the flower. They are

much longer than the petais and purple

or white when young, lilac when old.

The Sacred Barna is one of a class of

plants which is called gynophorous,

which means that it bears its ovary at

the end of along stalk. The gynophore

in the present species appears like a

lilac thread 2 inches long with the swol-

len ovary at the tip. When the petals

fall away the thread-like gynophore

remains ; it thickens and bears a glo-

bular woody fruit which contains

numerous brown, nearly smooth seeds.

Distribution : Throughout most parts

of India and Burma, wild or cultivated.

Often found along streams, but some-

times occurs almost gregariously on

dry, deep boulder formations in the

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIS. SOC. Plate XV.

Flowers of the Sacred Barna (Crateva Nurvala, Ham.).

The Sacred Barna (Crateva Nurvala, Ham.)

(Photos by C, McCann).

SOME BEAUTILFOLAN DIAN TREES: 295

sub-Himalayan tract from the Ravi eastwards. A favourite tree

near temples and tombs. It is a common tree in Bombay where

it is known as the ‘ Wai-warna’.

Leat--shedding, Flowering and Frutting: The tree is leafless in

the cold season, the new leaves appearing in February and March.

The handsome lax-clustered flowers, white, turning yellowish or pale

pink, having numerous prominent stamens with purple filaments,

appear in March-May (December-April in southern India ?), and the .

fruit, a hard-rinded many seeded berry, 1-2 inches in diameter,

ripens in the rains (about August in northern India). The seeds are

about + inch in diameter, somewhat compressed, helicoid-reniform

or irregularly circular, dark brown; testa hard but splitting readily

along a suture round the seed.

Gardening: Although often found in moist shady places the tree is

more a light demander than a shade-bearer. It is partial to loose deep

alluvial soil near streams, while its long taproot enables it to grow

on deep boulder formations where water is at some depth. It is

sensitive to frost, at all events in its early stages. It produces

root-suckers freely.

Two conditions favourable for natural reproduction are bare

ground and sufficient moisture. Seed scattered in grass or among

weeds both on moist and on dry ground, or in dry situations on bare

soil, persistently failed to germinate, while if scattered on moist bare

ground it germinated both in the open and under dense shade,

though in the latter case the shade soon killed off the seedlings.

Seed should be sown at the time of ripening, in the rains, on deep

loose soil kept sufficiently watered, or in deep pots or boxes, and

transplanted during the following rains. The seed may not germin-

ate, even if kept regularly watered, until about May or June of the

year after sowing, in which case the plants will be ready for

transplanting about August or early September; they are then

ordinarily about 3--6 inches high. Owing to the long taproot care is

necessary in transplanting.

Uses: Wood yellowish white, when old, turning light brown,

moderately hard, even-grained. Used for drums, models, writing-

boards, combs, and inturnery. In Trichinopoly it is also used for

making planks and as firewood.

Medical uses: The bark is demulcent, antipyretic, sedative,

alterative, and tonic; and the fresh leaves and root-bark are rube-

facient.

The bark is useful in some cases of urinary complaints and fever,

and in some mild forms of skin diseases in which sarsaparilla is

generally resorted to. It also relieves vomiting and other symptoms

of gastric irritation. The fresh leaves and root-bark, particularly the

former, are very efficacious in all the affections in which mustard

poultice is indicated.

‘Bruised well with a little vinegar, lime-juice or hot water and

applied to the skin in the form of a poultice or paste, the fresh leaves

of C. religtosa (C. Nurvala) act as a rubefacient and vesicant so

efficiently that I do not hesitate in saying that they are not only much

superior to the mustard seeds in this country, but also quite equal, if

not superior, to the flour of that drug imported from Europe. From

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

5 to 10 or 15 minutes is the time required for them to produce their

full effect as a rubefacient, and if kept longer than this in contact

with the skin they begin to act as a vesicant. The existence of one

or two plants of C. religiosa (C. Nurvala) in each Hospital and

Dispensary will certainly save them from the cost of the supply of

Europe mustard for external use.

‘The fresh root-bark of this plant is also a very good rubefacient

and vesicant, but it is rather too dear and not procurable in large

quantities. The bark of the stem is very thick (from 1 to 2 inches

when fresh, and from § to 1 inch when dry), greenish brown on the

outer side, and grey or pale white internally and on the inner side,

and almost tasteless and odourless. It is one of those barks which

can easily be reduced to a coarse powder immediately after its

removal from the stem’’. (Moodeen Sheriff).

The bark of the stem and root of this plant constitute the principal

medicine of the Hindoo Pharmacopoeia for calculus affections. It is

said to promote the appetite, decrease the secretion of the bile, act

as laxative and remove disorders of the urinary organs.

In Bombay, the leaves are used as a remedy for swelling of the

feet, and a burning sensation in the soles of the feet. The leaf-juice

is given in rheumatism in the Konkan, in doses of § to 3 tolas,

mixed with coconut juice and GAz. In caries of the bones of the

nose, the leaf is smoked and the smoke exhaled through the nose.

The bark and the leaf pounded and tied in a cloth are used asa

fomentation in rheumatism.

THE. PIG-TAILED MACAQUES (MACACA NEMESTRINA).

ee le OCOCK, aR: S.

Temporary Assistant in the Zoological Department

of the British Museum.

In his volume on the Mammalia of British India, pp. 18-21,

Blanford described two species of these Macaques as members of

the Fauna, the first, Macacus leoninus, inhabiting Arakan and

Upper Burma, the second, M. nemestrinus, ‘Tenasserim. But owing,

in a measure, to lack of material, he seems to have had no first-

hand knowledge of these monkeys and his descriptions of them

contain many errors due to a variety of causes into which it is

needless to inquire.'

The typical Pig-tailed Macaque (M. nemestrina), which is common

in the animal trade and is a familiar exhibit in most menageries,

is found in Borneo, Sumatra and the Malay Peninsula, but does

not extend so far north as Tenasserim; and since it is not known

to occur in any part of British India, it is only incidentally con-

cerned in the subject-matter of this paper. Great diversity of

Opinion exists with regard to the Pig-tails which replace it in

Tenasserim, Siam and Burma; and much confusion over their names

and characters has arisen mainly from erroneous identifications

made more than half a century ago. These are explained in the

following attempt to straighten the synonymy and define the races

which appear to me to be distinguishable.

By way of preface it must be stated that I agree with Mr. Boden

Kloss in thinking that all the different kinds of Pig-tails, ranging

from Upper Burma to Borneo, that have been named and described,

belong to one species, Macaca nemestrina, a name given by

Linneus in ? to an example from Sumatra.

Of the British Burmese Pig-tails the first to be described and

named was leoninus. . This name was given by Blyth in 1863 to

an adult male sent to him with a young specimen from Northern

* The skull, alleged by Blanford to be that of a very old @ of M. nemestrina,

obtained by Bingham on the Thoungyeen River, Tenasserim, is the skull of a

very old og of the Stump-tailed Monkey, M. speciosa, which Blanford called

arctoides; and the skull from Mergui, presented by Dr. Oldham to the British

Museum, which Blanford also assigned to M. nemestrina, is the skull of an

adult § of the Crab-eating Monkey, M. irus, which Blanford called cynomolgus.

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Arakan by Sir A. P. Phayre. The name leoninus was, however,

inadmissible because it had been previously and very appropriately

applied to the Travancore species, the so-called Wanderoo, M.

silenus. Nevertheless, leoninus was used for this monkey by all

writers on the Indian fauna until 1912, when Elliot set it aside and

rightly substituted the inapplicable name andamanensis.

This name, andamanensis, was given in 1869 to a female Pig-tail

received at the Zoological Gardens and stated to have come from

Port Blair in the Andamans, its author, Bartlett, not unnaturally

supposing the Andamans to be its natural home. But in the follow-

ing year (Proc. Zool. Soc. 1870, p. 220), Capt. F. Hamilton wrote

to say that there are no indigenous monkeys in those islands and

that the specimen had been imported, with several others, some

years previously from the adjoining mainland of Burma. He did

not say whether it came from the northern or eastern mainland.’

It might have come from either.

In 1906 two new names for British Burmese Pig-tails were intro-

duced by Miller. One, Macaca adusta, was given to some speci-

mens from Champang and Red Point in Tenasserim; the other,

M. insulana, to examples from Chance Island in the Mergui Archi-

pelago. To Miller belongs the credit of being the first author to

show that the Tenasserim Pig-tail is quite distinct from the more

southern form nemestrina.* But curiously enough his paper con-

tains no reference to the extensive literature relating to leoninus.

Finally, in 1919 Boden Kloss gave the name indochinensis to some

specimens from Klong Menao and Lat Bua Kao in Eastern Siam.

In the same paper he stated that he had seen from Trang, in

Peninsular Siam, two male specimens of the Pig-tail, of which one

had all the characters of typical nemestrina, found at Selangore,

Perak and other places in the Malay Peninsula, whereas the other

approached in colour the Tenasserim form named adusta by Miller.

From this he inferred that Trang indicated roughly the latitude

where the northern and southern types of this monkey blend.

Furthermore, he summarised his conclusions* regarding the races

of Pig-tailed Macaques, based partly on Miller’s paper and partly

on his own observations, in a tabular key setting forth their

differences. This I venture to abridge.

1. Muzzle elongated; back blackened ... nemestrina.

2. Muzzle modified, tapering; back only

slightly blackened in the middle line ;

annulations of hair conspicuous and

markedly present over a larger area

of the body.

* He spoke of the island of, which Port Blair is the capital as ‘‘Ross Island’’.

I cannot ascertain the authority for this, Ross Island being one of the Mergui

group, where these monkeys are probably indigenous. His information regarding

the monkey was extracted from a private letter and there has perhaps been

some confusion about the locality of the specimen.

* It may be noted that the characters Blanford ascribed to the Tenasserim

monkey were derived from this southern type.

* It is significant that he omitted to consider the form from Chance Island,

Mergui, named insulana by Miller.

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES 299

a. Shoulders bright russet [ex

Miller | ae Me aie adusta.

b. Shoulders tinged with dull rus- |

set , .. tindochinensis.

3. Muzzle much reduced and_ shortened,

face more vertical; more annulations

in the fur; mid-line of back scarcely

blackened oe Ss ep ... andamanensts

(=leonina).

Setting aside nemestrina which is distinguished by its compara-

tively immense jaws, browner general colour, with a blackish back,

and typically less conspicuously annulated hair, Kloss’s analysis

shows that the differences in coloration between adusta, indochi-

nensis and andamanensis are comparatively trivial. For reasons

given below, I consider them to be inconstant and of no systematic

value. As regards the skull-characters by which Kloss separated

andamanensis from adusta and indochinensis, they too have no

value because they were derived from figures, published by Ander-

son, of a skull taken from a Pig-tailed Macaque, which, as stated

below, is quite distinct in colouring from andamanensis as repre-

sented by Bartlett’s type of that monkey and by Blyth’s type of

leonina. It was from an examination of the skin of the latter, in

the Calcutta Museum, that Kloss drew up his description of the

colours of andamanensis. This specimen was also seen and

described by Anderson in 1881 and by Elliot in 1912. It 1s, indeed,

abundantly clear from Blyth’s original description of leonina that

this male from Northern Arakan closely resembled the Tenasserim

and Siamese forms described later as adusta, msulana and

indochinensis.

The British Museum contains a good number of specimens of

these British Burmese and Siamese Pig-tails, including the type of

andamanensis, a co-type of indochinensis, as well as others from

Eastern Siam, several from Tenasserim and the Mergui Islands,

whence the types of adusta and insulana, came, and one from Upper

Burma. No two of the skins are alike, even from the same locality,

as the following account of them shows.

The type of andamanensis, which has never been _ properly

described, is uniformly annulated from the crown, which is not

darkened, over the shoulders to the middle of the back with

ochraceous buff and blackish grey, giving a yellowish olive hue,

rather brighter and yellower on the shoulders, where the hair is

long and somewhat mane-like. On the hind-back and loins the

annulations become more obscure, the pelage here being darker

olive, a little intensified in the middle line. The upper side of

the tail is black and contrasted with the back. The arms are

olive grey outside and annulated to the hands. The legs outside

are very much the same hue but without annulations. The sides

of the forehead and cheeks are grey, with the tips of the full

whiskers duskier and annulated. The under side of body and

the inside of arms and legs are greyish white.

This specimen, as recorded above, came from Port Blair in the

Andamans. But there is nothing in its coloration to preclude

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

the idea that it is the female of the form described as leoninus by

Blyth. It is not, however, quite like the male which Blyth described

as having the crown infuscate, the general colour grizzled brown,

the hairs being annulated dusky and fulvous, with the long mane

on the shoulders strongly tinged with golden ferruginous, the middle

of the back behind the shoulders darker and the tail black above

with a reddish tip. This description was taken from the specimen

when fresh; and since the type of andamanensis was presented to

the British Museum in 1871 and not unstuffed and removed from

the gallery till r909, it is no doubt somewhat faded and duller in

colour than when it was alive.

Anderson described an adult @ he shot just to the south of

Bhamo in Upper Burma as resembling Blyth’s type but without any

darkening of the crown and with the tail yellowish brown. The

only example I have seen from Upper Burma is a very old @

collected for the Mammal Survey by G. C. Shortridge at Hkamti

in Upper Chindwin, 500/, on July 26. It is very different from

the female described by Anderson, being much redder, although

the two localities are alike in the valley of the Irawady and less

than 250 miles apart. The general colour is a uniform buffish

brown, redder in patches; the head is obscurely annulated but the

rest of the pelage lacks the annulation characteristic of these

Macaques. The coat, however, is long and shabby, suggesting

the imminence of the moult which probably occurs in July, as it does

in the common Rhesus Monkey (M. mulatta). This may account

for the absence of annulation on the hairs of the body and their

faintness on the head.

From Tenasserim, whence the specimens of adusta came, the

British Museum has an adult ¢, shot’ in November, an adult @

and her young one, shot on December 29, and a half grown female,

shot on December 43, all collected at Bankachon for the Survey by

G. C. Shortridge.

In the adult male the crown is only slightly darker than the

nape. The hairs of the upper side are everywhere annulated with

yellowish buff and brown, their bases being yellowish on the shoul-

ders, where they are longer, grey on the back. The general tint

is rather rich yellowish brown on the fore part, greyer and more

olive behind, with the middle line of the back darker and tinged

with greyish black, passing into the blackness of the upper side

of the tail. The buttocks are markedly grey and sharply contrasted

with the duskier hue of the back. The arms outside are much

greyer than the shoulders, with the hairs annulated with buffish

grey to the hands. The leg is greyish brown and _ indistinctly

annulated. The cheeks and temples are mostly grey, with the hairs

of the whiskers apically annulated with fuscous. The throat,

chest and inside of the limbs are also grey, but the fore part of the

abdomen and the lower arm are speckled with annulations.

This specimen differs apparently from the type of adusta in lack-

ing the bright russet hue of the neck, shoulders and fore-back,

the blackness of the crown and the light ochraceous buff of the

buttocks. But I regard these merely as individual differences; and

this view is supported by the colour of the adult female from Banka-

THIS PIG-TAILED MACAQUES 301

chon, the hairs of which are annulated orange and grey, the orange

predominating, the whole dorsal area, except the hind-back and

loins, which are duller and darkened in the middle line, being very

brightly coloured, russet. The arms below the elbows are greyer

than the shoulders but annulated; the legs outside are greyish

brown and only indistinctly annulated.

The half grown female from Bankachon is not nearly so ‘‘russet’’

as the adult, the. annulations being yellower; but the arms are as

bright and as annulated as the shoulders. The still younger speci-

men is tolerably well coloured, annulated buffish yellow and brown.

The youngest of all, newly born, is pallid buffish grey, without

annulations.

If we set aside the youngest specimen, which has not moulted

its ‘‘baby’’ coat, the rest of the specimens from Bankachon attest

considerable individual variation in colour in the same locality.

A subadult ¢ from Sullivan’s Island, Mergui Archipelago, col-

lected for the Survey on February 31 by C. Primrose, is darker on

the crown than the adult male from Bankachon and browner, not so

bright on the nape and shoulders, but the buttocks are yellower

and the arms exhibit brightish yellow annulation, almost lemon on

the hands; the legs, both outside and inside are darker, and there

is no annulation on the abdomen.

Before these Bankachon and Sullivan Island specimens are set

aside, their likeness, or otherwise, to the specimens Miller described

from localities near at hand in Tenasserim and the Mergui Archi-

pelago, giving them full specific status as Macaca adusta and Macaca

insulana respectively, must be considered. About adusta from

Champang something has already been said; and since it must be

presumed that the Bankachon specimens are representatives of the

same race, their considerable variability in colour, both general and

in detail, shows that no great reliance can be placed upon such

characters as the difference between red yellow and buff or black,

brown and dark annulations in the hairs, or even between the

presence and absence of annulations in certain parts. The Chance

Island specimens, according to Miller, differ from adusta, the main-

land form, in having the hair on the shoulders noticeably longer

than on the back, the chest and belly more heavily grizzled and the

hands and the feet noticeably darker than the arms and legs.

But since the male from Bankachon has the hair on the shoulders

noticeably longer than on the back, this feature is not distinctive

of the insular form. The example described above from Sullivan’s

Isiand differs in details from those from Chance Island and from

the specimens from Champang and Bankachon on the mainland;

but it does not differ more from the Bankachon specimens than they

differ from each other. I cannot, indeed, find a single reliable

character to distinguish these Tenasserim and Mergui Pig-tails

from Blyth’s Arakan specimen. By describing the shoulders of

this specimen as ‘‘golden ferruginous’’, Blyth, I imagine, intended

to convey the idea that they were the same colour that Miller

assigned to adusta, namely ‘‘russet’’.

Precisely similar individual variations in colour are exhibited by

the Siamese specimens in the British Museum.

‘

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

An adult Q shot at Klong Menao in S.-E. Siam, in January,

and assigned by C. B. Kloss to indochinensis, is greyish olive brown

in general hue, with no bright yellow or red tint anywhere, the

annulations, although traceable, being indistinct; the middle line

of the back is slightly darkened and the hair below the buttocks is

whitish.

Another adult Q from Klong Tundai, Tongha, December 21, is

much brighter. The annulations are not sharply defined but the

shoulders are bright ochraceous buff, there is more black pigment on

the lumbar area, the whiskers are yellower, not so grey, the hair

on the buttocks is buffy and the hands and fore-arm are clearly

annulated pale greyish yellow. This specimen approaches in bright-

ness of colour the adult Q from Bankachon but is not quite so

russet and in poorer coat. Its coloration also recalls that of the

92 from Hkamti in Upper Chindwin.

A female from Pak Jong in Eastern Siam (December 4), also

assigned by Kloss to indochinensis, is brighter in tint than the

female from Klong Menao, the shoulders and nape being compara-

tively rich ruddy yellowish buff with better defined annulations ;

the lumbar region and loins are darker, especially in the middle

line, much as in the adult male from Bankachon and the buttocks

are buffy. It is nearly intermediate in tint between the Klong

Menao and Tongha specimens.

Finally, an adult male from Selok Poh in Panjang (January 22) is

very like the Bankachon male but with more vivid annulations and

more reddish yellow, ‘‘russet’’, on the shoulders, the lumbar region

a little paler, the buttocks not so grey, more buffy, the whiskers

whiter, with the tips of the hairs less pigmented.

Reference to Kloss’s key to the races of nemestrina quoted above

shows that he distinguished indochinensis from adusta by being

duller russet on the shoulders; but, as the available specimens show,

this difference of tint is of no systematic importance.

I have described these Burmese and Siamese Pig-tails in some

detail to show the impossibility of dividing them into races by the

characters employed by Miller and Kloss. If these characters are

to be trusted the male and female from Bankachon are distinguish-

able forms. It is unnecessary to add anything further in justifica-

tion of the following synonymy which embraces the names _ that

have been applied to the Pig-tails ranging from Arakan and Upper

Burma to Tenasserim and the adjoining districts of Siam.

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUE OF BRITISH BURMA

Subsp. andamanensis, Bartlett.

Inuus nemestrinus (?) Blyth, Journ. ASS. Sock Bengal. xin,

p. 473, 1844. Adult male (type) and young from North Arakan.

Inuus arctoides(?) -Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xvi, p. 731,

1847. Alternative identification of the same specimen.

Macacus leoninus, Blyth, Cat. Mamm. Mus. Asiat. Soc., p. 7,

1863. New name, but preoccupied, for the same _ specimens.

Blyth, Journ. As. Soc. Bengal, xliv, p. 2, 1875 (Inuus). Anderson,

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES 303

Cote VManm. vind. Vius. Calc) 1, p. 71, 1881. Description of

Blyth’s type.

Macacus andamanensis, Bartlett, Land and Water, viii, p. 57,

ES6g4 “Sclater, Proc: Zool. Soc. 1869, p. 467 (woodcut 9). Elliot,

Rev. Primates, 11, p. 208, 1912 (Pithecus). Description of Blyth’s

type of leoninus. Kloss, Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam, iil, pp. 343-

344, 1919. Description of Blyth’s type of leoninus.

Macaca adusta, Muller, Proc: U.S. Nat. Mus:, xxix, p.. 559, 1906.

Specimens from Tenasserim. Elliot, Rev. Primates, ii, p. 206, 1912

(Pithecus). Description of Miller’s type. |

Macaca: imsulana, Nillery roc. U.S. Nat... Mus; xxix, -p, 560;

1906. Specimens from Chance Island, Mergui Archipelago. | Elliot,

Reo. Primates, i, p. 207, 1912 (Pithecus)., Description of Miller’s

type.

Macaca nemestrina indochinensis, Kloss, Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Sam, li pe 342,, 1OLO.. « Specimens: from Eastern, Siam.

Locality of type: Port Blair, introduced from Burma.

Distribution: Arakan and Upper Burma to Tenasserim, includ-

ing the Mergui Archipelago, and the adjoining districts of Siam.

Description: General colour comparatively pale with an indi-

vidual tendency to erythrism, ranging from greyish olive to buffy

yellow, russet or golden ferruginous, these tints being especially

noticeable on the long hairs of the shoulders which are brighter

than the back, the lumbar and sacral regions being duskier especially

in the middle line but never so black as the upper side of the tail,

the blackness of which is sharply contrasted. The hairs of the

upper side typically profusely annulated with alternating pale

bands of buff or yellow or russet and dark bands of brown or

black, but their distinctness varies. The annulation is less con-

spicuous on the back and hind legs than on the shoulders and arms

and may be quite inconspicuous, especially in the old coat. Crown

the same colour as the neck or darker. Cheeks greyish or buffy,

the hairs of the long fringe apically annulate to a varying degree.

Under side greyish white with some darker annulations sometimes

on the abdomen and inside of the limbs. Buttocks grey or buffy,

sometimes indistinctly annulated, sometimes sharply contrasted with

the back. Usually there is a whitish fringe projecting from the

lower side of the base of the tail on each side.

This race differs from typical nemestrina in being paler and less

brown in hue, in the absence of blackish brown unannulated hairs

over the greater part of the lumbar and sacral regions which are

noticeably paler than the upper side of the tail in the more profuse

and widely distributed annulations of the hairs of the dorsal area

and the paler crown.

The skull also differs in having weaker, less: produced jaws, the

elongation of the jaws and their greater expansion anteriorly in

nemestrina being correlated with the larger size of the canine teeth

of the males.

The weights and measurements of some specimens of this race

of macaques and some dimensions of their skulls are included in

the tables at the end of this paper.

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

DESCRIPTION OF A NEW Race oF PIG-TAILED MACAQUE.

From the synonymy of the race just described I have excluded

references to a Pig-tailed Macaque which since 1870 has been cited

as leoninus or andamanensis and regarded as belonging to the same

type of monkey as the male from Arakan Blyth described as

leoninus. Blyth was partly responsible for this. When he visited

the London Zoological Gardens in 1870, Sclater showed him a

magnificent full grown male Pig-tail which had recently been received

through the animal trade. Its locality was unknown; but Blyth

at once pronounced it to be leoninus; and under that name it was

entered. Sclater published a coloured plate of it by Wolf in the

Proceedings of the Zoological Society, and declared it to be the

male of the female Pig-tail which had been received the year before

from Port Blair and named andamanensis by Bartlett. Blyth’s and

Sclater’s identifications have been unreservedly accepted, although

Blyth’s hasty opinion was given without the possibility of close

examination of the specimen or of comparison of it with his type

of leoninus in Calcutta, and Sclater’s view involved the conclusion

that the sexes of this Macaque differ profoundly in colour, although

in other species of the genus the males and females are alike in

that respect. In addition to the figure of the very dark male above

referred to, in the foreground, Wolf depicted the comparatively pale

type of andamanensis in the background. Blanford reproduced, as

a woodcut, the figure of the male to represent Macacus leoninus ;

and Elliot reproduced the whole plate in colour to illustrate the

characters of his Pithecus andamanensis.

Neither of the monkeys in question lived more than a year or

two in the Zoological Gardens and both when they died were luckily

sent to the British Museum where they were examined independently

by Anderson and Blanford. They are strikingly different; and the

male differs equally strikingly from the Arakan male described by

Blyth.

So far as I am aware, Anderson was the only author who saw

and described as leoninus both these males; but he did not state

.that his description of 1898 was taken from the Zoological Society’s

specimen; nor when he described Blyth’s type in 1881 did he com-

ment on the marked differences, which can hardly have escaped

him, between the two. No author but Kloss seems to have been

puzzled by the discrepancies contained in Anderson’s two accounts.

Needless to say, there is no evidence that the Zoological Society’s

specimen came from Arakan, although the skin is thus labelled.

It may have done so; but it may equally well have come, as I

suspect, from some other part of northern Burma or from north-

eastern India. At all events.no specimen like it has been met with

in Siam, the Malay Penimsula or the Sunda Islands where tolerably

extensive collections of monkeys have been made. Only one other

specimen resembling it has been described, namely, one stated by

Elliot to have been living in the Calcutta Zoological Gardens at

the time when he was compiling subject-matter for his Review of

the Primates. It is a pity he did not ascertain on the spot the

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES 305

locality and history of this specimen; but he gave a description of

it which applies very closely to the example recorded above.

The name I propose to give to this monkey and the bibliography

relating to it are as follows :—

Subsp. blythii' nov.

Weacicus leoninus, Selater. Proc: Zool. Soc., 1870, p. 063,, pl.

xxxv. Adult male, from unknown locality, exhibited in the Zoolo-

gical Gardens, London, and identified by Blyth as his leoninus.

Anderson, 2001, Kes. .Yunnans, 1878, p. 52: Description of “skin

and skull of Zoological Society’s specimen, which was sent to

British Museum in 1872. Blantord, Haun, Brit. India, Mamm.,

1891, p. 18. Male specimen with fig. copied from Sclater. Not

leoninus Blyth, 1863.

Pithecus andamanensis,, Biliot.< Rev. ‘Pronates, 11, -1912, p. 208.

In part only, pl: of ¢,° copied from. Sciater. and description of

living specimen, from unstated locality, exhibited in Zoological

Gardens, Calcutta.

Macaca nemestrina andamanensis, Kloss, Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc.

Sidm, ils 1910, p. 344: °. Skull only, its characters taken. from

Anderson’s fig. of skull of Zoological Society’s specimen. Not

andamanensis Bartlett, 1869.

Type.—The adult do figured by Sclater in 1870. B.M. No. (?)

Distribution.—Unknown.

Description of type: General colour very dark, the hairs dis-

tinctly annulated everywhere except on the lumbar and sacral areas

and parts of the lower side and of the limbs.

Crown mostly black, its hairs dark reddish brown at the base,

broadly black at the tip. Hairs of the nape and shoulders long,

especially of the shoulders and fore back, conspicuously annulated

with orange red and black. On the lumbar and sacral regions the

annulations disappear, the distal part of the hairs being black and

their bases dark brown, at least over the lumbar region, towards

the rump the bases become greyish white, but when the hairs are

not disarranged these areas are mainly black, showing no contrast

with the black tint of the tail. At the root of the tail on each

side is a tuft of white hairs continuous with the shorter white hairs

of its under side; the buttocks beneath the callosities are also white.

Arms externally paler than the shoulders, the hairs conspicuously

annulated black and buff to the hands; internally the hairs are pale

brownish to the elbow, but annulated from the elbow to the wrist.

Legs darkish olive externally, the hairs annulated yellowish and

deep greyish brown; foot blackish brown, the“hairs not annulated;

inside of hind legs brownish on the thigh, dark greyish brown and

indistinctly annulated below the knee. Cheeks mostly dusky grey,

annulated with greyish buff, but the crest in front of the ear dark,

the apical annulations black. Throat grey, the hairs with paler and

darker annulations. Chest and fore part of abdomen conspicuously

annulated with yellowish and dark grey; hinder part of abdomen

* Named in honour of the distinguished zoologist, Edward Blyth, to whom

so much of our knowledge of Indian Mammals was due.

306 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

brownish not annulated, like the inner side of the thighs and upper

arm.

In the blackish colouring of the crown and of the lumbar and

sacral regions, the absence of annulations on the latter areas and

the identity in tint between them and the upper side of the tail,

this skin resembles typical nemestrina; but differs in the more pro-

fuse and conspicuous annulation of the nape and shoulders, the

whiteness of the buttocks and of the fringe at the base of the tail,

the grey hue and annulation of the hairs of the throat and chest

and the generally darker under side.

It is strikingly different in its dark coloration from all the examples

I assign to andamanensis, although resembling typical examples of

that race in the annulation of the hairs of the shoulders, the white

or whitish fringe at the base of the tail and a few other points.

Anderson figured and described the skull of this specimen and

published many measurements of it in 1878; but did not give its

history. The information he supplied regarding it was used by

Kloss, in conjunction with the colour-charatters of Blyth’s type of

leoninus, to differentiate andamanensis from adusta and indochinen-

sis.

The skull is that of an exceedingly well developed and oldish

specimen. It differs strikingly from adult skulls of typical nemes-

trina in the shortness of its jaws, comparatively small canine teeth,

elevated, massive, wide brow-ridges, nearly vertical orbits, wide

zygomata and mastoids, the coalescence of the temporal ridges over

the parietals and uptilted occiput.

- It is clearly more like the skulls of andamanensis, especially in

the shortness of its jaws. I have only seen two male skulls of this

race, one from Selok Poh in Eastern Siam, the other from Sullivan’s

Island, Mergui. Neither is quite fully developed; but both show

certain likenesses to the skull of blythii. For example, in the Selok

Poh skull the temporal ridges noticeably converge on the parietals

where they are only 7 mm. apart as compared with 20 mm. on the

frontals; but this skull has the depressed occipital plane, back-

wardly inclined orbits and low brow-ridges of typical nemestrina.

The Sullivan Island skull, on the contrary, which is a little younger,

has the orbits less inclined backwards and the occiput more uptilted.

This skull, I imagine, might have acquired all the peculiarities of

the skull of blythii, if the animal had lived another ten years or so

under conditions favourable to its development. There is one other

point. In the lower jaw of the skull of blythii the coronoid process

and condyle are separated by a much narrower space than in any

skulls of nemestrina or andamanensis I have seen. And it is

necessary perhaps to add that the skull and skeleton of this monkey

show no evidence of deterioration from captivity. The animal was

evidently captured when full-grown, and it lived only a very short

time in the London Gardens.

In the following table are recorded the weights and _ principal

dimensions of examples of typical nemestrina and of andamanensis

taken in the flesh. The only known example of blythii was not

measured in the flesh; but Anderson, who probably measured the

skeleton, gave the following dimensions: head and body 1 ft. 11 ins.,

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES 307

tail 8 ins.; total 2 ft. 7 ins., practically the same as the male

from Bankachon in the following table.

manera

Head and! Tal enor cee

Locality and Sex Body Sie Name

Sarawak, Borneo, Spade te LG hY OL De OL” nemestrina.

maribeas Bay, Sumatra,j ad.} 1’ 113” 82” | 2” BL” | 30 oF

Kateman River, ,, ros ell Pang aS Fe 7g | 2° 5B” | Zi ee

Perak, Malay Pen., race |e OR OE (Age 780 |

Selangor, ,, . raat ly Or VEO Ne Oe 25 “

Pahanic. 3, salle Bade less GU 94” | 2’ 64” Pen,

Lat Bua Kao, E. Siam,-jad| 1° 9” PO Qog sleedee ven andamanensts

Sclok- Poh, Pamjane’, ,;,.c) ad.) 1° ° “108"<) 6671-2" 537 | . a

. Champang,

Tenasserim, ,,, 0 ad| 1’ 10%” ee a

Bankachon, ,, ead. bo. My TN eG OF 18 »

Chance Island, Mergui, fad.} 1’ 92” | 72” | 2” 44” | .

Sullivan’s Island, ,, ,

subad.) 17. 9” Ta Wee aaa .

Tarussan Bay, Sumatra,Q@ad| 1’ 73” | 8&2” | 2’ 4” 16 | wemestrina.

tampanila River -;, ;@:ad.| 1’ 747) 82% | 2" 32 | 10-2 ae

Tongha, E, Siam, SAG ed Os oe odes ee We ae, Qndamianensts

Bankachon, Tenasserim,Q ad.) 1” 72” | 52” | 2’ 0€” | 10-4 ae

Hkamti, Upper

Chindwant-Or old yl” 25EO 7k 2 Ie oles. sa, s

Notes on the table.—The adult male nemestrina from

Sarawak was collected by the late H. C. Robinson at

Sarabas. the. examples: from’ -Sumaima, were recorded), by

Miller and those from the Malay Peninsula and E. Siam _ by

Messrs. Robinson and Kloss. The male from Lat Bua Kao is the

type of indochinensis; those from Champang Tenasserim and

Chance Island, Mergui, are respectively Miller’s types of adusta and

insulana. The other specimens were collected and measured for

the Mammal Survey by G. C. Shortridge.

I have omitted from the table the dimensions of two females from

Klong Menao and Pak Jong in Eastern Siam, assigned by Kloss to

indochinensis, because the measurements on the labels, given in

millimetres, indicate a size in excess of that of all the males recorded

in the table. There was clearly some accidental error which J]

‘cannot explain.

308 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

The table shows close agreement in size between the two races,

and that the tail is subject to greater variation than the head and

body. Large females are not very much shorter than small males;

but there is considerable difference in their respective weights.

Some skull-measurements of Pig-tailed Macaques :—

= Pee wee 3

bo a\3\2 2g] &

@ peek ae ths ae

Lecality and Sex 4H lags e | | ee vs a

@ lee|o| 8/2/28 | ies

| w a} a.

Seer see ae er bt

Sarawak, Cad. iol 100) 82 Sil 2898 12| 115) wemestrina.

e df yng. | 138) |: 82 6344.37 e-S. pau mace e

Pahang, gad.| 151 | 100; 83) 55} 40/10x9 | 114) 110 2

Selangore, go ad.| 151 92} 78) 48} 38) 9x9} 11) 116 )

Perak, gj ad.| 144 90) 72) 48) 37| 9x8 | 103] 103 it

Lat. Bua Kao, © gad.| 138. | 95140.) «. } oe |e | 16l) S8landananen-

SUS.

Selok Poh, fg ad. | 130 OO) 72) SAS SBS Sai 4 2 oo aa

Champang, dad | 136 OA) stele ee |S Seed ia ele a lOO ¥

of ; g ad.| 130 BS aves tl apes beeee | mee mallee se kee me

Chance Island, dj ad.| 133 mots MGne cre gil eae redl Quem te eaee™ See le ee ey

- RM a Peer Ko ah Dese 1 femon olh Code lesen. || God We a0 a a7 RS

Sullivan’s Island. ae 84, 69) 41) 32) 8x8 SET Sul “

ff subad. | A

oc.? Gad: |) 136 > | 202) s5i8 47 \\. 35109 <9 9) 102) blythi

| (type).

Sumatra, Orade| BSA Oa|iecwt |) seen i aes ae ... |93 +] memestrina

Tarde, Ovad S| 13k 85) P(e ital 430 | sa

O ad A342 dest teal re sera eee Sit

Klong Menao, Coad) Halls 76 €4) 39) 32) 8x7] ... | ... | andamanen-

| StS.

E. Siain, Crag 6 76) 64) 39) 32) 8x7! ... 80 ms

‘Port Blair’, -.@ad.| 115 | 76) 64] 39) 34) 8x89) 4.1) 80 s

3ankachon, Orad |) 169 75259) - 39a SB SbSe we, slenccu An

Notes on the skull measurements. —The skulls have been arranged

in approximately the same order as the skins to which they belong,

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES 309

the Sarawak specimen which heads the two tables being the largest

Pig-tail known to me. I have inserted the dimensions of a young

skull, with the last molars only just through the bone for comparison

with the adult skulls of andamanensis which it closely resembles in

length, although, be it noted, decidedly narrower. The canine tooth

is not fully erupted.

Some measurements given by Miller of Sumatran specimens agree

very closely with those from Pahang and Selangore, one being a

little longer, namely, 154 mm. The measurements show that the

skulls of adult nemestrina are on the average considerably longer

and have larger teeth than those of andamanensis; but in details

they vary a good deal from each other, as attested by the differences

in width, especially of the muzzle, between the examples from

Pahang and Selangore.

I am able, unfortunately, to give very few complete measurements

of male skulls of andamanensis, and one of them from Sullivan

Island, is not quite full sized. It may be noted that there is a

complete overlap in size between the Champang and Chance

Island specimens regarded by Miller as distinct species.

The measurements of the, skull of blythii bear out what was

said above with regard to some of its peculiarities. In total

length it is exactly 25 mm., one inch, less than the adult male

from Sarawak, but it is actually a little broader across the cheek-

bones (zygomata), the orbits and, it may be added, across the

mastoids (the back of the skull behind the ears).° It is almost

exactly the same length as the skull from Champang in Tenasserim,

the type of adusta Miller.

With. regard to the female skulls very few measurements of

typical nemestrina are available. Miller gives the length and

breadth of two from Sumatra. The larger of these has been entered

in the table; the other is a little smaller, namely, 130 by 824 mm.

dhewonly sadult sremale. ly have seen is ticketed “India”; . These

three specimens show that females of this race are noticeably larger

than females of andamanensis. This is borne out by the measure-

ments of the young specimen from Penang, in which the first

upper molar is only just through the bone, the second being: still

buried. Yet this example is about the size of the adult female from

Bankachon. It is important to note that the dimensions of the

skull of the type of andamanensis, labelled ‘‘Port Blair’’ in the

table, are in almost punctilious agreement with Siamese skulls

named indochinensis.

The only other skull which calls for comment is the small one

from Hkamti in Upper Chindwin. This is a very old individual

with the molars worn flat, the incisors dropped out and the jaws

shrunken in length.

SUMMARY.

The views above stated regarding the distinguishable races of

Pig-tailed Macaques (Macaca nemestrina) may be epitomised in the

following analytical key :—

310. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATUORALVHIST! SOCIE DY. Wael seow)

a. The back behind the shoulders . at

most slightly darkened, not nearly

so dark as the top of the tail which

offers a strong contrast; general

colour much paler; jaws short... andamanensis.

a’. The back behind the shoulders,

and the crown, deep blackish

brown, the same tint as the top

of the tail which is not contrast-

ed; general colour much darker.

b. Hair generally, except on the back,

profusely annulated; colour not so

brown; white tuft on base of tail

and buttocks white, contrasted with

the loins; jaws short; brow-ridge

massive, orbits nearly vertical, occi-

_ put uptilted on ae

b’. Hair generally comparatively in-

conspicuously annulated ; colour

browner, base of tail and but-

tocks not white and strongly

contrasted with loins; jaws

long, brow-ridge low, orbits

sloping, occiput depressed ...._ nemestrina.

blythii.

A.specimen of the Pig-tailed Macaque, which must for the present

be regarded merely as a variety or mutant of M. nemestrina nemes-

trina, was captured, it was alleged, many years ago at Long Salai

on the Baram River, E. Sarawak, and after living in captivity for

about five years was given by the Rajah to Major F. Day who

brought it alive to England where it died in 1893. Its skin was

exhibited. to’. the -Zoolopical: Society (2:Z.S-,.- 1893; p. -325)hepy

Mr. Sclater and was presented to the British Museum by Major

E. Day.

Its general colour, to which Mr. Sclater drew attention, is a

golden brown on the upper side, rather darker in the middle of the

back, the hairs being uniformly tinted and without annulations.

Nowhere is there any black. But the skin exhibits a variation,

unnoticed by Sclater, which is unique in M. nemestrina. The hair

on the middle of the top of the head grows straight backwards

from just behind the brow where there is a short fringe of erect

hairs. The head thus lacks the definite cap of hair radiating from

a whorl near the centre of the crown which is found in

M. nemestrina. The hairs on the cheek, however, are directed

upwards to the sides of the crown as in that monkey. The hair-

growth on the head, indeed, partakes of the characters of the two

species M. mulatta and M. nemestrina; and despite the story of

the capture of the specimen as a wild animal, I am inclined to

regard it as a menagerie-bred hybrid between those species, an

opinion supported by the colour. At all events examples of M.

nemestrina, from the Sarawak district, which I have seen are per-

fectly normal in colour and hair-growth on the crown. Hence the

cubeiiealta antl Bina Witbe oat ont

THE PIG-TAILED MACAQUES sual

coincidence of two ‘‘mulattine’’ characters, namely, erythrism and

backward hair-sweep on the crown, would be surprising in a wild

specimen. Nevertheless, the skull, which is just adult, does not, I

admit, look like the skull of a monkey reared from birth to maturity

in captivity, unless, of course, more favourable conditions are sup-

plied in Borneo than England. It only shows a little of the charac-

teristic menagerie scowl and prognathism.

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS.

HuGH WHISTLER, F.Z.S., M.B.O.U.

DART VELL

(With a plate).

(Continued from page 103 of this volume.)

THE REPRODUCTION OF BIRDS.

he Nest.

However ignorant people may be of Nature and her ways there

is practically no one who is ignorant of the fact that birds make

nests. It is one of the most conspicuous and widely known of all

the attributes of bird life. Just as the egg is one of the salient

characteristics of a bird, known alike to savage and civilized man,

so too is the construction of a nest to hold that egg, a corollary

which is known to all. In this chapter therefore I propose to discuss

some of the facts connected with birds’ nests and some of the

angles from which they may be considered.

We have already seen that the egg is one of the reptilian features

which a bird retains from its ancestral heritage. The nest, on the

other hand, may be regarded perhaps as one of the mile-stones that

mark the rise of the bird above its ancestry.

On broad lines most of us are familiar with the reptile’s treatment

of its eggs. The snake deposits the grape-like cluster in a rotting

manure-heap or in any secret hole or corner. The lizard’s eggs

are found within a crevice in a wall. The crocodile and turtle

bury their eggs in holes in the sand. The actual site in all cases

is doubtless determined largely by chance, influenced by the fairly

obvious if unconscious idea of concealment. Occasionally the site

may add slightly to the process of incubation. The natural genera-

tion of heat in decaying vegetation or the sun scorching the sands

must have some influence on the buried eggs. In rare cases the

parent guards the eggs, her presence doubtless retarding the loss

of heat even if it does not serve to generate it.

But in every class of reptile the care for the egg is almost the

minimum, probably much as it was amongst the great reptiles of

the primeval world whom we may picture as depositing their eggs

-in the decaying bogs and leafmould of their sweltering world and

then and there forgetting them.

But, with the slow development of the bird from the reptile, this

treatment grew inadequate. As the temperature of the bird rose

and it became warm-blooded, the egg must have become less auto-

matic in its development. <A higher temperature was required for the

maturing of its vital germ. The call on the parent was greater

and as the parent responded to the call methods, obvious and

Lae SLODY OF IN DIAN BIRDS 313

instinctive in their beginning but with the seeds of rapid improve-

ment within them, soon suggested themselves by which the parent

could help in incubation and, in the process, add to its own safety,

comfort and ease. - Lo pull a little rubbish into a hole is an

instinctive matter but it contained the germ of an idea capable of

much improvement. And as the bird became gradually an arboreal

creature, pari passu with its growing wings, it gradually shunned

the dangers of the ground and the hole in which it might so easily

be trapped by its non-flying relatives and enemies. The hollow

and the hole on the tree trunk or the cliff face was more favoured

than the ground, and the provision of the artificial hollow naturally

followed.

To-day we may still see in actual use all the stages between

the most primitive methods of bestowing the eggs in or under

the surface of the earth side by side with the most wonderful forms

of artificial nest and I propose to make a brief review of all these

stages. But there is one proviso of which to warn the reader

in advance. The line of development has not been either conti-

nuous or in equal measure with the evolution of the different orders

of birds. The same ideas have originated in different classes.

They have advanced sometimes on the same lines, sometimes on

different lines. There have been sudden steps and limitations, due

to the chances of environment or fate; and scmetimes no doubt

there have been retrogressions, sudden returns to primitive methods.

The result is that the stages we shall observe have no connection

with the degrees of the physical development of the birds that

employ them. The fallacy must be avoided of comparing the

sketchy dove’s nest with the crow’s far better structure and drawing

from the evolution of the nest a guide to the evolution of the

families. The furthest that it is safe to go in this respect, is to

state that Passerine birds, as an order the most highly developed

of all birds, reach the highest levels of nest architecture; or we

may see and note the evolution of a particular type of nest, such

as the saliva-gummed nest of the Swifts, running through the family,

and reaching its highest point of success in particular species, so

long as we do not attempt to correlate it with the evolution of the

various members of the family.

The primary purpose of a nest is to be a receptacle for the eggs.

It is in its essence and construction nothing more. Without the

eggs it is meaningless to the bird. In practice it often serves to

hold the young after they have left the egg. In practice it may add

a little to the process of incubation, to the comfort of the incubating

bird. Occasionally it 1s used as a shelter, and very occasionally

dummy or extra nests are built as part of the normal routine of

a bird’s reproductive circle. But viewed in wide terms, the sole

aim and function of a nest is to contain the egg.

One is tempted to believe that the most primitive nest in the

world is that of the Megapodes, of which one species Megapodius

nicobariensis is found in the Andamans and Nicobars. Although in

a sense—viewed from: the standpoint of human _ intelligence—the

nesting arrangements of this bird appear somewhat elaborate, I

regard it as primitive in its resemblance to that of many reptiles.

314 JOCRNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCGTETY. “Vol, 2OXCW,

The megapode of our area lives and nests just within the dense

tropical jungle that clothes the island shores at spring tide high

water mark. Here in the jungle the birds collect great mounds

of decaying vegetation and sandy soil. These mounds vary in size.

A small one may be three feet high and twelve or fourteen feet

in circumference; an average one five feet high and thirty feet in

circumference. An exceptionally large one is recorded as eight feet

high and sixty in circumference. Hume’s account is worth quot-

ing :—‘It appears to me that the birds first collected a heap of leaves,

coconuts and other vegetable matter, and then scraped together

sand which they threw over the heap, so as not only to fill up

all interstices, but to cover everything with about a foot of pure

sand. I say sand, but this term is calculated to mislead, because

it does not contain much silex, but consists mainly of triturated coral

and shells. After a certain period, whether yearly or not I cannot

of course say, the birds scrape away the covering sandlayer from

about the upper three-fourths of the mound, cover the whole of it

over again with vegetable matter, and then cover it over again

with the sand.’ The general effect is much that of a leafmould

heap as prepared by any gardener. In such a heap, the bird or

birds—for there is some doubt as to the number of females which

use a given mound, place their eggs which hatch therein without

any assistance apparently from the female. It is generally assumed

that the heat generated by the decaying vegetation causes incuba-

tion. The young are hatched in a very advanced stage, feathered

and able to fly, apparently extricating themselves unaided from the

mound.

The similarity of this system to that of many reptiles is self-

evident, except in so far as the formation of the mound is concerned.

Davison indeed tells us that reptiles often use the megapode mounds

and that he himself from one mound besides megapode eggs dug

a dozen eggs of some large lizard.

It would be interesting to know the blood temperature of mege-

podes as compared with other birds. For the eggs are evidently

hatched by the mere retention of the body heat with which they

are laid, conserved by the superincumbent sand and vegetation;

and one might hazard a guess that the megapode has still an

approach to the lower reptilian temperature which finds such con-

ditions all that is necessary for incubation. The eggs are reported

to be abnormally tough in constitution. St. John records how some

eggs taken were put away and forgotten, left exposed to the open

air and rain and still about half of them hatched. But it must be

remembered that in tropical climates air-heat is sufficient to com-

plete the incubation of well-advanced eggs of widely differing

species. All egg-collectors in India have had the experience of

hard-set eggs hatching on their tables, sometimes several days

after taking. In the hot, moist, primeval jungles incubation must

have been far more of a spontaneous development than it is in

the cooling world of to-day.

Incubation by the parent bird must have been a process long in

development, marking slowly the rise of the bird from its reptilian,

cold-blooded ancestry and the slow dessication and cooling of its sur-

LfHE-SLODY OR INDIAN BIRDS 315

roundings. Parental interest in the egg meant parental presence in

the nest. The act of laying insensibly merged into the act of in-

cubation. Increase the importance of an object and more attention

is paid to its receptacle. The cared-for and carefully-tended egg

was provided with a nest. It was one of the mile-stones to mark

the progress of the evolution from the reptile to the bird.

Originally, one may presume, all eggs were placed in holes in

term I include all dingy varieties of that colour—is the colour of all

reptile’s eggs, which have reached the stage of a hard shell. It is

therefore doubtless the original colour and we find it to-day still

amongst the vast majority of birds which lay their eggs in holes.

In a hole hidden from the gaze of passing creatures the conspicuous

nature of white is of no importance. Evolution has not needed to

work upon it and the primitive condition remains. Eggs which are

laid on the ground in the open, on the other hand, are usually

well-coloured, often in patterns and colours that tend to obliterate

them amongst their surroundings. The variety and the success of

such patterns makes it evident that evolution has been at work in

their case. For this reason one decides that the placing of the egg

in a hole is a far more primitive condition than the placing of an

egg on the ground. —

To my mind the nesting of the Storm Petrel (Procellaria pelagica)

is very instructive as an illustration of the supposed ancestral

method of nesting. It is fresh in my mind as 1 saw it recently in

the Mediterranean.

We landed on a tiny islet, little more than an outcrop of stone

on which time and wind had collected a mixture of soil and stones

with a few creeping plants. A Herring Gull standing on a rock

was the only living thing in sight, save for a few scuttling lizards

and the familiar snails of the Mediterranean seaboard. The gull had

no nest and there was nothing else apparently to breed there. |

walked round about the island and could see nothing of interest.

Then. I tried the sense of smell, like any other mammal. I sniffed

round the crannies of rock and the piled-up heaps of stones until

a sickly oily smell rewarded my search, the unmistakable smell of

Petrel. Had I been a fox or a jackal, my search would still have

availed me nothing. The rough stones would have foiled my digging

paws. But human hands can go where other mammals fail. I lifted

out a number of large stones until finally in a crevice a Storm Petrel

was visible brooding the solitary egg. There proved to be a large

colony of the birds packed into the crevices of the stones and rock,

some brooding eggs, others waiting for the eggs to come, all

drowsing away the hours of daylight.

On that islet, man was probably the only enemy that ever could

rob the colony. With altered details the scene was typical of the

nesting habits of many of the Petrel family and it is evident that

the isolation of the sea has preserved amongst them a picture of the

original method of the nesting of birds before evolution changed

their habits.

There must have been variations on this habit of nesting under

stones and amongst a chaos of fallen rocks. For such sites are

316° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XVXV

not found everywhere, and in the great primeval swamps and

forests they must have been often lacking. So parallel with such

sites we may consider a habit of pushing in amongst herbage, fresh

or decayed, for concealment and the scraping of hollows in sand

or loose deposits. The nesting on the ground amongst herbage is

such an obvious method that we need not labour it here. The habit

has continued amongst innumerable species and we find it at the

present day practised still by birds with nests in every degree of

evolution.

But the scraping of holes merits rather more attention. Here

again we may find it profitable to consider first the case of islet

nesting species.

In this connection British Ornithologists would immediately think

of the case of the Pufhn (Pratercula arctica) whose burrows honey-

comb the soil in all directions so that, on the islands where they

breed it is almost impossible to walk across the turf without

breaking through the crust. But for Indian Ornithologists the most

handy illustration is found in the case of the Crab-Plover (Dromas

ardeola).

To quote Mr. Stuart Baker:—‘Sir Percy Cox and Major Cheese-

man found immense colonies of these curious birds breeding on

some of the islands in the north of the Persian Gulf, those on

Buna Island consisting of several hundreds of birds. The eggs are

either laid at the bottom of burrows in the sandy soil—in some

cases apparently dug out by the birds themselves—or they are laid

in hollows amongst the loose boulders and rocks. It undoubtedly,

however, prefers burrows wherever the soil is sandy and loose

enough for these to be made. They are of no great depth, being

anything between a foot and four feet, the extremity where the

nest is being rather larger than the entrance. Only one egg is laid

but that one is enormous in size compared to the bird. In colour

it is a pure white, with a very smooth close texture, but not

particularly hard or glossy, whilst in shape it is a long oval,

slightly pointed at the smaller end .. . the birds are said to sit

very close and have in some cases to be pulled out of the hollows

which they refuse to quit.’

When we remember that the Crab-Plover is so primitive a species

that systematists have difficulty in fixing its” true affinities and

position, when we regard its curious egg, I feel sure that we are

entitled to regard this picture of its nesting as typical of very

primitive conditions.

The principal of the burrow in the ground or in the face of a

bank is not capable of much development, other than that of

mere length. For some reason or other—possibly the fact that

burrows are easily discovered by snakes and sma!l predaceous mam-

mals and that discovery often implies the entrapping of the bird

upon her eggs——this mode of nesting is comparatively rare except

amongst island-nesting seabirds; and those species that adopt it are

often colonial in their habits.

India has a large share of the comparatively uncommon burrow

nests. The Pied Kingfisher (Ceryle rudis leucomelanura) will im-

mediately occur as an example of the isolated burrow. Whilst

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS ~ 3

boo |

some of the various Bee-eaters (Merops), the Sandmartins (Riparia

riparia) and the Bank Mynahs (Acridotheres ginginianus) furnish

familiar instances of colonies of burrows. The longest burrows are

probably those of the Blue-tailed Bee-eaters (Merops javanicus) ; in

these 7 feet is no unusual length. The Bank Mynah colonies are

remarkable for the amount of inter-communication often found

between various burrows. Although burrows of these types are

usually driven into bank faces, some of the Bee-eaters burrow into

the ground. The labour involved is shown by the wearing down of

the beaks of Kingfishers and Bee-eaters and this renders all the

more remarkable the burrowing of the Sandmartins whose tiny

beaks are ill adapted to the task. It will be noted that in such

instances the building of definite nests within the burrows is con-

fined to Passerine birds as a rule.

Starting with the assumption that the hole is the obvious form of

nest, one is prepared to believe that becominy arboreal the bird

readily adopted the chance of nesting in the natural holes and

hollows that growth and decay soon provide in any tree. In such

holes the ancestral white of the eggs would still be retained without

modification. There is some significance doubtless in the fact that:

the birds which lay white eggs in holes with little or no nest mostly

belong to the more ancient orders. When Passerine birds breed in

holes, one generally finds that the hole contains a more or less

definite nest and that the eggs follow the general colour-pattern of

their group. This would seem to indicate that hole-nesting

amongst the Passeres is not an original but a reversional trait.

The habit of nesting in a hole in a tree lends itself to two lines

of development, obvious and circumscribed though they may be.

The first is excavation. The second is masonry.

Suitable holes are not always numerous, especially in young and

healthy trees. The would-be tenant, therefore, disappointed of the

perfect hole of his desires, naturally falls into the way of clearing

out the rotted wood which has not yet quite decomposed; he gnaws

the entrance hole a little larger; he attacks even the circumscribing

sound wood. Finally we reach the stage of the Woodpecker which

drives a perfect burrow into hard wood, just as the Bee-eater drives

it, into. “earth. ‘But the. harder: material implies more. drastic

specialization of structure, and that the Woodpecker family exhibits.

The opposite line of development is far rarer. Only a few

species have attained the mason’s craft which obviously means

something more like reasoning power. Two outstanding Indian

‘examples of this immediately occur to the mind, the cases of the

Nuthatches (Sittid@) and of the Hornbills (Bucerotide). As 1s

well known, both of these families are accustomed to plaster up the

entrance holes of their nest, though on somewhat different lines.

The simpler case is that of the Nuthatches. They adopt any

hole in a tree, or occasionally wall, and as the entrance is usually

rather larger than their requivements, they build it up with earth

and clay, which dries to the consistency of plaster, leaving only a

small hole just sufficient to allow of their passage. It is, however,

to be remembered that a certain number of the family, usually

known as the Rock Nuthatches, represented in Baluchistan, are

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

accustomed to build a complete oven-shaped nest of mud on the

face of cliffs, and it is possible that the nesting habits of the tree-

building Nuthatches are really a retrogression, the plastering up

of the holes being a relic of tormer habits. It is often manifestly

unnecessary.

The case of the Hornbills is far more interesting. Hornbills are

large birds, some of them very large. They nest in large holes in

trunks and branches and the females are imprisoned in the holes,

built in with a hard wall which leaves merely a wide vertical slit

through which the sitting bird’s beak can pass to receive food from

the male who fends entirely for her during her captivity. The

plaster in this case is apparently provided by the female’s own

excrement and she is believed to build it up herself from within.

Here the motive appears to be solely defence and one must surmise

that the habit has been rendered necessary by the large size of the

birds and the consequent size of the entrance hole needed. This

must render the bird vulnerable to the attacks of the larger

arboreal mammals, monkeys and large squirrels, which, while able

to attack the sitting bird in a large unprotected hole, must surely

hesitate to tear at a small loophole defended easily by the Hornbill’s

great beak.

Hitherto we have dealt with developments of nests in which the

site was all important. Such nest holes are really independent of

any constructional skill. The presence or absence of any material

in the nest is really negligible. With the abandonment of the hole

the full scope of evolution begins.

A complete book might be written on the subject of Indian nests

alone. Here I must be content with simply recording a few of the

interesting developments which occur when once the nest is freed

from the trammels of the ancestral hole.

For the moment we will concentrate on the arboreal nest.

It is easy to see how the arboreal nest originated. There must

have come a point in the evolution.of the arboreal lizard-bird where

the supply of nest holes up in trees did not equal the demand. Fail-

ing in her search for a suitable hole the breeding female was

compelled—under the urgent, unconscious knowledge that her eggs

were ready for laying—to accept the best substitute available, the

crown of a treefern or the hollow between the branches of a free

at the spot where they leave the trunk. In such a spot to-day one

may find the nest of a Tree-Duck (Dendrocygna) which has been

disappointed of a hollow bough. Some such hollows are very

suitable, others are uneven or incomplete but with the piling in of

a little material can be made to serve. In such hollows rubbish

accumulates, and the very dullest instinct can scon learn to shuffle

the rubbish into convenient positions and add a little to it to make

things more satisfactory. ;

I saw an example of such a case not long ago. <A pair of Wood-

Owls (Strix) were living in a tract of wooded country where careful

forestry had removed all dead and dying trees. There was literally

no hole in the place which provided their usual requirements. They

had in consequence. perforce nested in a junction of the boughs of

a large tree, where a small hollow, eked out with a few roughly-

ie aly lh cea eel

THE STUDY OF INDIAN BIRDS PES

placed sticks afforded a nesting place for the eggs. The eggs

were safe but when the young hatched and began to move about,

their number dwindled, as chick after chick fell overboard.

Such must have been the position. Safety was for those with

the greatest skill in adapting the available hollows and fencing in

their sides with material to save the young from falling out. The

young of the successful builders survived and evolution worked to

perfect their skill. With advancing skill the choice of sites in-

creased. Materials piled into a fork of a bough prepared a site,

where had been none.

We can see this process at work any day. The ordinary cup-

nest of the open Babbler-type is started by the haphazard piling

of a collection of sticks, roots, fibres and grass into a convenient

fork or tangle of twigs. The material is brought and dumped with

no particular arrangement. Some falls to the ground. ‘The rest

catches in the twigs and accumulates, each successful piece making

it progressively easy for the next piece to rest there. When there

is a little pile the bird stands on it, shuffles it about, pokes ends

in here and there, smoothes and rounds it by squatting down and

turning about. In a short time there is the semblance of a nest.

Finer materials are brought to line the cup, piled in haphazard and

then smoothed into place and the structure is complete. The history

of such a nest is the history of the evolution of the nest.

If a census could be taken of all the nests of all the species in

the world it would certainly be found that the overwhelming majority

are of this type—an open cup in which the foundations ake OL

coarser material, growing progressively finer to the surface on which

Test the, eggs.

With this universal type as a starting point there are a number

of modifications which for the most part, however beautiful and

diverse their special characteristics, fall into well-defined types.

The impelling purpose behind these modifications is always the

same, the attempt to secure the maximum of safety for the eggs.

Though there may be in addition, occasionally, the purpose of

allowing a species to colonise a peculiar type of habitat which would

otherwise not be available to it.

We must first of all in our consideration of these points avoid

the common error of estimating all modifications in the light of

their success as a protection against human enemies. It is so easy

to say that the nest of a minivet (Pericrocotus) mimics an excre-

seence or the bough on,which it is placed or that the nest of ja

White-browed Fantail-Flycatcher (Rhipidura aureola) looks like that

of a hornet. These effects may be only in human eyes, viewed from

the standpoint of the ground. Yet, as I emphasised under the

question of protective colouration, the human enemy is under the

normal conditions of Nature the most negligible of all. The various

nest types were fixed long before man counted as an enemy. Now

it is true man and his civilisation is a serious enemy but his

influence works in other ways, without affecting established patterns.

This is no doubt the reason why birds appear so seldom to

utilise protective sites other than holes. One is tempted to think

that all wise birds would nest in the centre of cactus hedges, or

320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. KOC

beds of nettles, on the tips of Euphorbia plants, or at maximum

heights in trees, forgetting that although these sites are deterrent

to human beings they avail nothing against the real enemies of

eggs and young. There are exceptions of course. The little nest

of the Rufous-fronted Wren-Warbler (franklinia buchanani) no doubt

benefits from its habitual site in the matted thorns of the wild caper

bush and the woodpeckers of the genus Micropterum, which nest

in the centre of ant colonies, no doubt are protected by their involun-

tary hosts. But as a general rule protection of this type is value-

less as the enemy can attack by the same road used by the owner

of the’ nese.

Leaving aside the most destructive of all enemies—the elements,

birds chiefly require to protect their eggs against two classes of

enemy, other birds and mammals and reptiles. Against birds the

best protection is concealment; against mammais and reptiles this

can be reinforced by difficulty of access.

The egg and chick-eating bird, of which the Indian Tree-Pie

(Dendrocitta vagabunda) is a most familiar example, hunts entirely

by sight. It probably has not even the reasoning power to watch

deliberately a pair of birds to their nest. It wanders casually

through the trees and bushes collecting a miscellany of food, finding -

what its keen eye lights upon. From below or sideways it may or

may not recognise a nest—but certainly the eggs are most in danger

at the angles from which they are visible. Invisibility 1s clearly the

best protection and in the absence of the sitting bird this is best

attained either by the doming over of the nest or by the obliterative

colouration of the eggs.

Colouration and pattern are certainly far more of a protection for

eggs and young than they are for adult birds. In ground-nesting

species this is self-evident. In other cases one must not expect the

eggs to match the nest when viewed in the open at close quarters.

The effect to be appreciated is that of the nest and eggs viewed

through a vista of boughs and leaves and glancing lights and

shades. From such an aspect even the white eggs of a dove, on

their sketchy light-admitting platform, fade away in the patterns

of Nature.

The climbing mammal and reptile can be more easily foiled by

placing the nest in situations where they are less likely to reach.

Such an effect is attained by the Orioles (Oriolus) and the King

Crows (Dicrurus) which build at the ends of the side-boughs of

trees and the Shrike-Tits (Pteruthius erythronotus) which build on

the topmost twigs of high trees. But such situations in turn

render the eggs more liable to damage from the wind and the nests

are therefore modified into the well-known hammock-type to give

safety as the boughs sway. A similar safety from the wind is

attained by the depth of the cup-nest of the Great Reed-Warbler

(Acrocephalus stentoreus brunnescens), slung amongst the stems of

the reedbeds which bend over at an angle of 45 degrees when the

wind blows. Though here the situation of the nest 1s chosen not

so much as a protection from enemies as to allow the birds to

colonise a habitat for which there is little competition.

Protection from climbing enemies is also attained by the method

JouRN. Bompay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Pendant Nest of the Thick-billed Flower-pecker—Piprisoma squalidwm.

Nurpur 2,000 ft. C/3 eggs, 15th April, 1921.

tHE SLODY OF INDIAN BIRDS eye!

of suspenaing the nest beneath a bough and most effectively from

the tip of it. To secure the effect of suspension a considerable

modification of structure is necessary and is attained by starting

the nest in the form of a pendant loop of material, gradually filled

in from the sides. This postulates considerable skill even for

species like the common Purple Honeysucker (Cinnyris asiatica)

which only use ordinary building materials. It does not seem

surprising therefore that species which have attained the art of

suspending their nests have also special skill in the use of unusual

materials. This development reaches its apogee in the wonderful

felt nests of the Flower-peckers (Diceum) and the strong grass-

woven nests of the Weavers (Ploceus). One can hardly envisage

a more wonderful nest than that of the Baya (Ploceus philippinus) ;

it is suspended by a cord from the tip of a palm leaf or thorny

bough, and the inaccessibility of the site is reinforced by the close

weaving of the tough grass strips (torn specially by the bird to

suit its requirements), the Jong pendant entrance tube and the

peculiar position of the egg chamber.

The reality of the protection afforded by these modifications of

site is shown by their prevalence in tropical countries and _ their

rarity in temperate countries where the enemies that inspire them

are scarcer.

Compared with such nests, the far-more famous and advertised

nests of the Tailor-birds (Orthotomus) and of certain Wren-

Warblers (Prinia and Franklinia) are less wonderful. One or more

leaves are linked together with threads and, in the cavity so formed,

an ordinary cup-nest is suspended. The so-called ‘sewing’ of

the leaves has attracted popular notice but the constructive skill

involved is really far less than in numberless other nests.

This point—appeal to the imaginative faculties of the human

mind—must be given its proper value in assessing the comparative

development of different types of nest. The use of a given type

of material may necessarily lead to a certain type of treatment with

the’ result that a nest is produced which appeals to the human

imagination, though it may be far less developed or wonderful in

reality than structures which we accept without comment.

A case in point is that of the mud-nest of the Flamingoes

(Phoenicopterus). This is a very simple structure, a little mound

of mud moulded roughly in the shape of a cup-nest and baked by

the action of the sun. It is the sort of nest which forms a simple

solution of the difficulty of breeding on half-submerged mud-flats

where alterations in the water level are apt to occur. Scrape up

a heap of mud in such a place and pat it well into shape and

firmness and immediately a little island is formed. The solution

and the nest are amongst the simplest. Yet such a nest has been

unduly advertised first of all because of a prevalent belief at one

time that the long legs of the Flamingo could only be accommodated

by a high clay cone which the bird straddled as if on a saddle,

and secondly because, in 1912, a libel action was fought in the

King’s Bench Division, connected with Abel Chapman’s and Col.

Willoughby Verner’s writings on the subject.

It is customary to consider the laying of eggs on the open

322, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALVIST.. SOCIETY Ole OO aA

ground as a primitive arrangement. With this I am quite unable |

to agree. I started by .showing the primitive treatment of the

eggs is undoubtedly. that of concealment within the ground, whether

in a mass of decaying matter like reptiles and megapodes or in

crevices.and burrows. The nest and egg only emerged into the

open with development. And here we must keep in mind two

separate- lines of..development. ~The nest and eggs-of certain of

the Willow-Warblers (Phylloscopus) are placed on the ground merely

as a variant of the tree and bush sites adopted by others of the

family. They have undergone no separate modification in connec-

tion with their ground building. The eggs and nests agree with

those of the non-ground building forms, taking with them the

same chances of concealment and discovery. In some species indeed

the ground site and the bush or tree site are alternative. In some

families such as the Wagtails and Pipits (Motacillide) the ground

feeding habits of the species have made the ground nest almost

universal, but neither nests nor eggs show any modifications which

necessarily limit them to a site on the ground.

In birds like the Plovers (Charadriide@) on the other hand the

ground site 1s accompanied by the most substantial modifications

and developments which cut them off entirely from the first case.

Take the case of that familiar Indian bird, Jerdon’s Little Ringed

Plover (Charadrius dubius jerdoni). The three or four eggs are

laid on a bed of shingle or sand and so closely resemble the stones

around them that they

with the utmost difficulty. The nest is a natural hollow in the

shingle or a scrape in the sand, and if any material at all is used

in its construction, the material chosen is small pebbles and pieces

of dry clay which further the plan of concealment. It is useless

to contend—as is sometimes done—that this is the primitive nest,

the scrape in the ground from which all other nests have started.

As much development has taken place between the white reptile

egg. in its hidden site and the Little Ringed Plover’s egg on the

shingle as between the original starting point and the elaborate

Structure of the Baya (Ploceus philippinus),—other needs, other

modifications. Safety has been obtained on the one hand by ela-

borate construction and difficulty of access, on the other hand by

increasing the difficulties of search. The Kentish Plover (Charadrius

alexandrinus) indeed goes a step further than the Little Ringed

Plover in concealment. Its eggs and nesting habits are similar

except that it usually nests on sand, and this sand it heaps up

over the eggs until they are almost buried from sight.

It is in the eggs and young of these ground-breeding species

that the most acceptable examples of protective colouration may be

found; and their importance is enhanced by the fact that totally

unrelated forms have reached independently the same degree of

development. The perfection of the Little Ringed Plover’s nesting

habits is paralleled by the case of the Sandgrouse (Pterocletes) and

the Nightjars (Caprimulgid@), totally unrelated forms and it is

obvious that all have attained the same result by independent pro-

gress on a parallel line as the result of identical needs.

And here I may emphasise once more the fact that development

LAE SLODY OR ANDIAN BIRDS 323

of nesting habits has no connection with physical evolution. The |

Nightjars have no connection with the Sandgrouse though both

lay eggs, similar in peculiar shape and colouration; while both

rely for protection on the blending of the eggs, with the ground on

which they are laid without a nest. Whilst amongst the Nightjar’s

nearest relatives are the Humming birds (Trochilid@), which con-

struct ordinary cup-nests of the prevalent type, and the Swifts

(Micropes) which make most specialised nests. There is no need

for me to describe the nesting of the Swifts here, as I have recently

in the fournal (xxxiv, 772-777) discussed some of their peculiar

methods. But I may emphasise that in the Swifts we find a very

unusual degree of special development.

In all the types of nest which have been described above, and

indeed practically in all nests, the materials used are collected by

the birds from extraneous sources. The Swifts have the peculiarity

that in the breeding season their salivary glands are enlarged to

provide a glutinous substance, hardening with contact of the air,

which is used largely in the. construction of the nests. In the

genus Collocallia the nest is made entirely of this saliva.

There is one other way in which birds provide their own nesting

material. This is by plucking feathers and down from their own

plumage. It is not common and is chiefly confined to the family

of the ducks and geese (Anatid@) amongst which it is general.

But though we may find down and feathers used in the construc-

tion of innumerable nests we will practically always find that the

feathers were not provided from its own body by the owner of the

nest. They were picked up loose and derelict, part of the World’s

rubbish lke most of the materials of most nests.

Where ts no need for me to give a catalozue of the types of

nest.or a description of various very remarkable nests which are

to be found in India. Such details may be taken from various

books which describe the nesting of Indian birds, or culled from

the bird-nesting experience of the reader. My aim has been merely

to suggest the lines of evolution to which are probably due the

infinite variety of form and fashion. But before closing the chapter

I must add a few words on a question that sooner or later occurs

to all—how does a bird learn to make its nest?

Now one thing is definitely certain that the architecture of a

bird’s nest 1s specific. A Little Ringed Plover breeding in one part

of India will build the same nest as another Little Ringed Plover in

a different part of India, perhaps a thousand miles away. A common

Babbler’s nest in the Punjab is exactly the same as a nest of the

same species in Salem District. There will be a small limit of

variation of course both in materials and consiruction; there will

be the occasional freak nest; while occasionally we notice a species

for which two or three types of nest are specific. The Ashy-Wren-

Warbler (Prinia socialis) for instance may build a circular domed

nest in a bush, or it may sew two leaves together and build a

cup-nest within the resulting cavity, either type being normal for

the species, if not perhaps for the same individual.

But within this reasonable amount of latitude we can lay it down

as an established law that all birds’ nests remain true to their

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. ‘SOCIETY, Vol oa

specific type. This fact defeats all explanations as to how a bird

learns to make its nest. A pair of birds start to breed in their

first season. There is no hesitation how to set about the matter;

there is no doubt of success, except from other factors; there is

no system of trial and error resulting occasionally in the building

of a nest proper to some other species. But the young pair im-

mediately set to and build the nest of their species complete in all

essentials, with no one teaching them how to do it. So far no

one has been able to explain this ability. Various suggestions

have been put forward, that the birds remember the nest within

which they were born and therefore reproduce the same details;

that young birds see the older individuals of their species building

and copy their activities; that birds act from an inherited instinct

which orders their work without their volition; or that nest-

building is as much a psychological response to the physiological

aspects of the breeding season as is the act of coition. There are

objections to each theory. At present we can no more explain how

a bird learns to build its own particular type of nest than say why

the Indian Robin (Saxicoloides fulicata) invariably finishes off its

nest with a piece of Snake’s slough.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES.

F, C,. FRASER, Lt.-Con.; TeM.S:). FES.

Part XXXVIIL,

(With two plates and a text-figure).

(Continued from page 76 of Volume XXXV).

Sub-family : PLatysTicTInz. (Continued).

Fic. 1. Wings of Platysticta deccanensis, Laid.

Genus : PLATYSTICTA Selys (1860).

Platysticta Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2), x. p. 436 (1860) ; Id. (Subgenus

Platysticta, 1st group) Mem. Cour. xxxviii, p. 150 (1886) ; Id.

Syn. Agr. sep. pp. 5, 6, 8 and 9 (1860) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 132

(1890) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii, pp. 339, 340 (1917) ; Id.

Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii, p. 360 (1924); Fraser, Legion

Platysticta, Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xxvi, p. 498 (1924); Laid.

Journ. Malay branch, Roy. Asia. Soc. vii. pp. 303-304 (1924).

Dragonflies of slender build with the characteristics of the sub-family, of

rather larger stature than the Protostictas but resembling them closely other-

wise. Body-colouring non-metallic, black, brown or bright brick-red marked

_ with azure blue. Wings closed when at rest, long narrow, falcate at apex, with

a long petiole, hyaline or opaque at apices; discoidal cell elongate, costal

border about four times as long as the proximal and slightly longer than the

posterior ; sectors of arc arising at lower part of arc but diverging form origin ;

an accessory basalpostcostal nervure always present near base of wing in

addition to the nervure Ac which is situated about midway between the two

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Val. XV.

antenodal nervures ; 4d always present but incomplete, meeting Ac at or well

away from the posterior margin of wing and extending to the posterior side of

discoidal cell which it meets at a point near its middle; 4 absent; Cuwzi of

about 6 to Q9cells in length; M7A4 and /A777 zigzagged almost from origins ;

Riv+v arising a short distance proximad to the oblique nervure descending

from the subnode, /A777 slightly proximad to the level of the subnode;

pterostigma subquadrate, costal side shorter than posterior which is somewhat

convex, inner border oblique, unbraced, outer straight; cells of wings mainly

pentagonal.

Head, thorax and abdomen similar to Protostzcla but the latter less than

double the length of wings; anal appendages variable, superiors forcipate,

spatulate at apices; inferiors usually shorter than superiors, broad at base,

tapering to the apex which is acute or obtuse, directed straight back or curled

inwards towards its fellow. Genitalia,—hamules broad quadrate plates, penis

with apex curled strongly over dorsum and its branches long, curled and

embracing the stem of organ ; a crest or ruff on the dorsum which simulates a

spine as viewed in profile ; lobe flask-shaped. Vulvar scales very robust,

minutely spined below, usually extending beyond end of abdomen. Larve

unknown. Genotype.—Platysticta maculata Selys.

Distribution.—South India and Ceylon only. ‘Three species only are

included in this genus from within our limits and it is doubtful if other species

outside of this area can be strictly classed as congeneric to P. maculata. Two

species are from Ceylon, the third from Cochin in South India. The genus as

defined here includes only those species which fall within the Selysian subgenus

Platysticta, group 1. Like Protosticta, species of the genus are to be found

along the banks of montane streams clinging to mosses and ferns overhanging

shady spots.

Key to the species of genus Platysticta.

Wings of male tipped with black ... see) Sen PLCAULS KATY.

| Wings hyaline throughout omyce

9 Thorax uniform brick-red ae ne Sle cccamensis Naaid

4 Thorax black marked with blue _... «. £. maculata Selys.

The authorship of species P. maculata and C. hilaris has been shown as

Selys, since Hagen’s papers published in the Verhandlungen der k.-k. zool-bot

Gesellschaft Wien, vols. viii and ix of 1858 and 1859 respectively gave only a

list of names without descriptions. The descriptions of these two species were

published later by Selys who adopted Dr. Hagen’s names. It is even possible

that the descriptions were communicated to Selys by Hagen as in the case of

many others.

Platysticta maculata Selys.

Disparoneura maculata Hagen, Verhandl. zool.-bott-Gesell. Wien. vol. ix.

p.-206 (1959).

Platysticta maculata Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) x. p. 437 (1860) ; Id. Rev.

Syn. Agr. sep. p. 151 (1886) ; Kirby. Cat. Odon. p. 132 (1890) ;

Id; Journ. Linn: Soc. (Zool) xxiv. p. 561 (1893)..; Laid: Ree. Ind:

Mus. vol. xiii, p. 341°(1917) 5 -Id. abid? vol, oxi; p20 387 -( 1915);

Id. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii, p. 361 (1924).

Platysticta aaa Kirby, Proc. Zool. soc. ond.s piu 204) wols xx. fosta aga

1891).

Male. Abdomen 47-48 mm. Hindwing 31-33 mm.

Head velvety black; labium brown paling to dirty white at base; labrum

glossy black, pale azure blue for its basal half ; anteclypeus pale azure blue as

also bases of mandibles adjacent to it ; postclypeus and rest of head unmarked ;

eyes black above, dark olivaceous brown below.

Prothorax black, its sides low down palest blue.

Thorax velvety black on dorsum as far lateral as the anterior border of

metepimeron and traversed on each side midway between the humeral and

postero-lateral sutures by a narrow pale blue oblique stripe, The hinder three-

fourths of metepimeron palest blue changing to creamy white beneath thorax.

Legs brown, trochanters and coxz creamy white, the base and flexor surface

of femora pale, spines pale golden yellow.

ras Rp

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Plate I.

Anal appendages of Ceylonosticta tropica (Selys), seen from the right

side.

The same, dorsal view.

Anal appendages of Platysticta deccanensis Laid., dorsal view.

The same of Drepanosticta annandalei Fras., seen from the right side.

Anal appendages of Platysticta apicalis Kirby, seen from the right

side,

The same, dorsal view.

Anal appendages of Platysticta deccanensis Laid., seen from the right

side.

The same of Ceylonosticta digna (Selys), seen from the right side.

The same, dorsal view.

The same of Drepanosticta virid7s Fras., ventral view.

The same cf Ceylonosticta montana (Selys), right dorso-lateral view.

(Camera lucida studies, all drawn to the same scale.)

Pepe ol:

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES oe 327

Wings hyaline palely tinted with yellow; pterostimma subquadrate but

slightly longer than broad, inner border very oblique, outer slightly convex,

costal border four-fifths the length of posterior, dark reddish brown framed

finely in yellow and enclosed in thick black nervures ; 20-25 postnodal nervures

in forewings, 19 in the hind ; ac and aé meeting the posterior border of wing at

a common point, a6 meeting discoidal cell nearer its base than outer end.

Abdomen black above, yellow along the ventral border and below, the sides

of segments land 2 and base of 3 pale yellow, this colour forming basal

annules interrupted on the dorsum on segments 3 to 7. Segments 8 to 10

azure blue on dorsum, this colour broad at apical end of segment 8 and tapering

to a fine point on the middorsum just short of the base of Segment ; segment

10 black at sides.

Anal appendages black, paler at apices ; superiors nearly twice the length of

segment 10 which is very short ; seen from above these appendages are forci-

pated curling gently inwards at apices, broad at base then tapered at the

middle, again abruptly dilated on the inner side, from which point as far as

apex they are of even width and spatulate (The whole appendage viewed from

above resembles a Krop razor with its blade nearly fully opened). Inferior

appendages rather more than half the length the superiors, very broad at base,

tapering rapidly to an obtuse point, the apical fourth angulated inward; a

small subbasal tubercle on the inner side.

Closely similar to the male save for sexual characters. . Prothorax with two

curious bosses on the dorsum of middle lobe; segments 8 and 9 blackish brown

on dorsum, unmarked with blue ; segment 10 with a large spot of blue on the

rmuiddorsum, its apical border ridged. Vulvar scales robust, extending beyond

end of abdomen, minutely spined below; anal appendages short, pointed at

apex, conical, as long as segment 10.

Distribution.—Confined to the hilly tracts of Ceylon at elevations of 3,000 to

4,000 ft. Rhambodda, Punduloya, Urugalla during April and May.

In the British Museum collection there are no less than three species included

under the head of P. maculata but I do not think that there is much doubt as

to which of these is the actual species under discussion. ‘Fhe description given

here is from specimens collected by Col. F. Wall at Urugalla and compares so

closely with the original description that there can beno doubt as tothe

correct identification of Col. Wall’s specimens.

Platysticta apicalis Kirby.

Platysticta apicalis Kirby, Journ. Linn. Soc. (Zool). xxiv. pp. 561, 562 Pl,

Sl noes = (105). taid: ec. ind. Mus: .vol, oxi, pe 31)

(1917) ; Id. Ibid. vol. xi p. 387 (1915); Id. Spfolia zeylanica.

VOl-xit.. p, SOL: (1924),

Male. Abdomen 48 mm. Hindwing 34 mm.

Head velvety black with a steely blue reflex; labium pale brown; labrum,

bases of mandibles, ante-and post-clypeus azure blue, rest of head unmarked.

Eyes black above, dark brown below.

Prothorax azure blue, posterior lobe black.

Thorax steely black with a blue reflex, marked on each side with a narrow

oblique azure blue stripe on the mesepimeron. Beneath and along lower

border of metepimeron pale yellow.

Legs black, coxe, trochanters and bases of all femora pale yellow.

Wings hyaline with the apices of all blackish brown as far proximad as the

inner end of pterostigma which structure is twice as long as broad, inner end

oblique, outer end angulated or convex, covering oneor two cells, dark blackish

brown ; 19 postnuodal nervures in forewings, 18 in the hind ; ac very oblique

and meeting ab very near the posterior margin of wings; other features of

venation as for the genus.

Abdomen black on dorsum, yellow low down on the sides and beneath

except for the last few segments. Segments 8to 10 azure blue on dorsum, but

the base of the former segment narrowly black which projects into the blue

along the middorsal carina as a tapering point.

Anal appendages black ; superiors two and a half times as long as segment

10 which is very short, broad at base, then tapered as far as the middle where

it again dilates as a compressed spatulate apex somewhat squared at the end.

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURALIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Seen in profile, the appendage is convex dorsally and rather strongly curved at

its middle. Inferiors about four-fifths the length of superiors, very broad at

base, then tapered as far as apex which ends in an acute abruptly turned-up

point ; a very robust spine projecting back from the dorsum near its base.

Female. Abdomen 42 mm. Hindwing 36 mm.

Closely similar to the male except for sexual characters, differing only by its

wings which are tipped with yellow instead of blackish brown, and by the

terminal abdominal segments the 8th being entirely black, 9 with a small

greenish blue or yellow spot on each side and 10 with its dorsum greenish blue

or yellow. Anal appendages conical, pointed at apex, as long as segment 10.

Vulvar scales robust, extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Ceylon only, confined to the montane tracts. Belihul-Oya

during June, and Madulsima where Mr. Bainbrigge. Fletcher took a few

specimens during August. It is probably on the wing from June to August or

September. The species is probably very local and has only been taken in the

~ years 1892 and 1908; it should not be difficult for Ceylon entomologists to

rediscover this beautiful insect and give us some account of its habits.

Platysticta deccanensis Laidlaw.

Platysticta deccanensis Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xi, p. 388, text-fig-1. (1915) ;

Id. ibid. vol. xiii, pp. 340, 341, Pl. xv. foew4. (1917)s;) Kraseild- vol xxvie

pp. 498, 499 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 45-47 mm. Hindwing 31-32 mm.

Head.—Labium yellowish; labrum and anteclypeus azure blue, the former

narrowly bordered with black; postclypeus azure blue bordered above with

black ; rest of head matt black ; 3rd joint of antennz brownish at its distai

end; eyes black above, olivaceous brown below : ,

Prothorax dark reddish brown above paling to light red at the side and

yellowish beneath.

Thorax bright brick-red changing to golden yellow low down on the sides

and pale yellow beneath. Middorsal carina and antealar sinus narrowly

marked out in black.

Legs reddish brown, femora at proximal ends and coxe and trochanters

golden yellow.

Wings palely enfumed, hyaline; pterostigma dark red framed finely in light

yellow and heavy black nervures, not quite twice as long as broad, inner end

pointed, outer border straight, costal border shorter than posterior, covering

1 to 2 cells ; ac meeting ab at the posterior margin of wing ora short stalk

intervening, ad short and often sinuous; 17 to 21 postnodal nervures to fore-

wings, 17-19 in the hind.

Abdomen dark reddish brown paling to golden yellow beneath at

bases of seginents 2 to 6; segments 8 to 9 azure blue but segment

8 has a narrow black basal annule and both it and 9 are bordered below with

black ; segment 10 blackish brown, very narrow.

Anal appendages black, subforcipate as seen from above ; superiors broad at

base constricted at about the middle where a robust obtuse spine is seen on the

inner side, then broadened and somewhat spatulate for the apical half which is

curled down and in and hollowed out; inferiors nearly as long as superiors,

broad at base then tapered as far as apex which ends in an obtuse point turned

slightly inward.

Female. Abdomen 36-40 mm. Hindwing 28-29 mm.

Differs rather widely from the male, far more so than is usual in the

subfamily; head similar to male; prothorax coloured similarly, the posterior

lobe very broad, rounded.

Thorax brick-red, the middorsal carina and antealar sinus mapped out in

black, the dorsum and anterior half of mesepimeron black but the ground

colour showing as a fine line against the middorsal carina and upper humeral

region, the humeral suture being finely delineated in reddish and the upper and

lower part of mesepimeron more broadly so. ‘Traversing the black of dorsum

is a narrow antehumeral pale blue stripe convex inwards and not extending to

upper part of thorax: bordering the black area of mesSepimeron, another

similar blue stripe (a beautiful ensemble of colours) ; beneath as for male.

Legs and abdomen similar to male but segment 1 bright brick-red at the

sides, segment 8 unmarked with blue, segment 9 with a large oval pale blue

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE IJ,

Plate II.

I. Anal appendages of Platysticta maculata Selys, dorsal view.

Il. The same, seeu from the right side.

III, Anal appendages of Drepanosticta carmichaeli WLaid., seen from the

right side.

IV. The same, dorso-lateral view.

V. Anal appendages of Ceyvlonosticta hilaris (Selys.), seen from the right

side.

VI. The same, dorsal view.

VII. Anal appendages of Cey/onosticta nietneri sp. nov., dorsal view.

VIII. ‘The same, seen from the right side.

IX. Analappendages of Drepanosticta viridis (Fras), dorsal view.

X. The same, seen from the right side,

XI. Ceylonosticta lankanensis sp. nov., anal appendages dorsal view.

XII. The same, seen from the right side.

Camera lucida studies, all drawn to the same scale.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 329

lateralspot. Segments 7 to 10 are blacker than in the male, segment 8 only

about one-fourth the length of seven, segment 9 nearly twice the length of 8,

and segment 10 very short as in the male.

Anal appendages short, not longer than segment 10, reddish brown, pointed,

conical. Vulvar scale very long and robust, extending well beyond end of

abdomen and with a robust spine above the end.

Wings usually more deeply enfumed than in the male, pterostigma of

similar shape but more blackish than reddish brown ; 20 postnodal nervures in

forewings, 17 in the hind.

Distribution.—Confined so far as known to Cochin, South India. The

type is in the Indian Museum and was taken at Kavalai, Cochin State on

24-27. ix. 14. Wishing to obtain more of these interesting and beautiful insects

and to study their habits, I revisited Kavalai in September, 1928, and took

17 males and 4 females atthe same stream as the types came from. Most were

found resting on maidenhair fern in dark shady spots, a number being seen in a

culvert running beneath the forest railway. The red thorax and the blue iden-

tification marks, especially the latter, were very conspicuous. The flight of the

insect is short and weak. Although very local, it was by no means uncommon

and I suspect this to be the case with P. apicalis its near relation. The

colouring of the female with its blue striped thorax is nothing less than

remarkable and without parallel in an order where, if the female differs from

the male, it is usually on the side of duiler and less conspicuous colouring. It

would suggest a more primitive insect in which both sexes were black with blue

antehumeral and lateral stripes as is the case with Indoneuras, the male

having subsequently lost these markings in favour of heliochromatic tints.

CEYLONOSTICTA gen nov.

Platysticta 2me groupe Selys, Syn. Agr. Derniere Legion, sep. p. 9 (1860).

Dragonflies of smaller size than the last genus but with similar habits and

' characters. Body-colouring black and brown with blue markings. Wings

closed when at rest, long, narrow, falcate at apex. with a long petiole, hyaline,

never opaque ; discoidal cell shaped as in Platystzcta; sectors cf arc arising

from lower part of are but fused for a short distance from origin ; an accessory

basal postcostal nervure present near the base of wings in addition to the

nervure 4e¢ which is situated rather nearer the distal antenodal nervure;

Ab always present but incomplete, meeting Ac at ora little away from the

posterior margin of wing and extending to the posterior side of the discoidal

cell which it meets at a point near its proximal end; JA absent; Cuzz of

about 6 to 8 cells in length; 7A and L127 not zigzagged at origins; Riv + v

arising ashort distance proximad to, at or slightly distad of the oblique nervure

descending from the subnode, //A7zzz at or slightly distad the level of subncde ;

pterostigma similar to genus Pla/ysticta ; cells of wings mainly quadrangular.

Head, thorax and abdomen similar to Protosticta but the latter less than

double the length of wings; anal appendages variable, superiors usually

somewhat forcipate and spatulate at apices; inferiors tapering from base to

apex or more widely variable in the species. Genitalia of both sexes very

similar to genus Platysticta.

Larve unknown. Genotype.—Ceylonosticta hilaris (Selys).

Distribution.—Confined to Ceylon in montane and submontane tracts.

Habits similar to those of Platysticta so far as known. The original descrip-

tions are poor so that without the actual types before one, it has been difficult

or impossible to accurately determine the available material. Four species

were originally described by Selys but a fifth has been described since by Dr.

Laidlaw under the heading of Drepanosticta sp. which he surmises however,

and I think with good reason, may be conspecific with P. Azlaris Selys.

Another pair, also described as Drepanosticta sp., but presumably differing

from the above, was said by the same author, to be too damaged to identify.

I have also found some difficulty in determining some material before me,

collected by Col. F. Wall, I.M.S., several species of which do not compare

exactly with the Selysian descriptions. Thus it is certain that more species

remain to be described and three of such have been named below. Further

material is greatly to be desired and it is hoped that Ceylon entomologists will

assist us in elucidating this problem.

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL TST AS OCIEIN., Wolo.

Key to species of genus Ceylonosticta.

Moderately large species with abdomen more than

40 mm. in length D

Smaller species with abdomen less than 40 mm. in

length 4

Anterior lobe of prothorax prolonged. forward as

two stalked process et . C. tropica (Selys. )

Anterior lobe of prothorax simple

Inferior analappendages acutely pointed ; labrum

bordered with black s C. hilaris (Selys.)

Inferior anal appendages obtuse at apex ; labrum

not bordered with black . C.ynontana® ,}

Inferior anal appendages viewed dorsally squared

at apex and with a very robust subapical spine

directed inwards to meet its fellow across the

middle line ES we arena 5

Inferior anal appendages simple, without subapical

spine be)

Very small species with abdomen less than 30 mm,

in length; labrum finely bordered with black ;

inferior anal appendages acuminate at apex; C. lankanensis

posterior lobe of prothorax simple ae sp. nov.

Very small species with abdomen less than 30 mm.

Ds in length ; labrum broadly bordered with black ;

posterior lobe of prothorax prolonged into a long

tapering point ... . C. walli sp. nov.

Larger species with abdomen more than 30 mm

in length; inferior anal ee trilobate at

apex ee Sees iC. MILELILCIL =,

Le)

Ceylonosticta hilaris (Selys).

Agrion hilare Hagen, Verhand. zool-bot-Gesell. Wien, vol. viii, p. 479

(1858). Name only given.

Disparoneura hilaris 1d. ibid. vol. ix, p. 206 (1859). Name only given.

Platysticta hiiaris Selys, Bull... Acad. Bele: (2) xp 438 (1860)4 tid. Sin.

Aor. Sep, pp. Aland 1241860); lid. Rev.-Syn. Aor.esep.. pa aaliol

(1886) ;.dd. Mem. Cour. xxxviil, “p..152 (1886) = KinbyCat

Odon. p. 132° (1890):5 Id. Journ. Linn Soc-Zool> voly xxivp.

562 .(1893)°; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus:. vol. xi, p.387 (1915).

Drepanosticta hilaris Laid. Spolia Zeylanica, Vol. xii. pp. 362, 364 (1924).

Drepanosticta sp. Laid. 1.’c. Vol. xii, pp. 362-364 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 42mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Head.—Labium brown ; labrum pale turquoise blue narrowly bordered with

giossy black ; bases of mandibles glossy black, the extreme base only blue;

anteclypeus turquoise blue; postclypeus glossy back, rest of head bronzed

black with alarge patch of obscure reddish brown partially encircling the

ocelli behind and on each side; eyes black above, olivaceous brown beneath ;

occiput with a projecting scale like ledge pointed at either end overlapping

anterior lobe of prothorax.

Prothorax bronzed brown on dorsum, paler brown laterally ; anterior lobe

sloping forward encircling the neck like a stiff collar; middle lobe with a deep

central pit situated between two prominent rounded bosses; posterior lobe

simple rounded, the posterior border straight or very shallowly concave.

Thorax bronzed black or deep coppery brown on dorsum changing to reddish

brown and then ochreous on the sides and beneath. A narrow oblique azure

blue stripe on each side traversing the centre of mesepimeron, after which is a

thin black line on the postero-lateral suture. (In the original description the

blue stripe is omitted probably because decompositicn had obscured it.)

Wings hyaline, enfumed and tinted palely with yellow ; pterostigma reddish

brown finely framed in yellow and thick brown nervures, rather longer than

broad, inner side a little oblique, outer nearly straight ; 15-16 postnodal ner-

vures in forewings, 14-15 in the hind; Azv+v arising slightly distad or in

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES Soil

continuation of the oblique nervure descending from the subnode; ad meeting

near the hinder border of wings.

Legs yellow or olivaceous, outer surfaces of femora and articulations

blackish.

Abdomen dark reddish brown deepening to bronzed black at ends of seg-

ments ; sides of segments 1 and 2 paler ; segments 3 to 7 with moderately broad

basal annules ; segment 8 with its apical border broadly and the whole of

segments 9 and 10 azure blue, reddish brown below and along ventral

borders.

Anal appendages blackish brown ; superiors more than twice the length of

segment 10, broad at base then tapering and curving down in the apical half

which is broadened out, excavated on its inner side and squared at the apex.

A small dorsal spine situated at the point where the appendage begins to

broaden out. Inferior appendage slightly shorter than superiors, very broad

at base where is situated a robust dorsal spine, then slender and tapering to

an acute point at apex.

Female. Abdomen 36-37 mm. Hindwing 26-27 mm.

Closely similar to the male in colouring and markings,—differs as follows :—

border of labrum less broadly bordered with black and the black border itself

bordered with reddish brown; iegs yellow, articulations only blackish. Wings

more deeply enfumed ; 15-17 post-nodal nervures to forewings, 14-15 in the

hind ; Azv+v arising proximal to the oblique nervure descending from the

subnode. Abdomen similar but the basal annules pale blue in old specimens,

yellow in others and tenerals ; segment 8 unmarked with blue, 9 with only a

small subdorsal oval spot near the apical border of each side of segment, 10

with a large dorsai spot.

Anal appendages reddish brown, conical, pointed at apex, barely as long as

segment 10; vulvar scale robust, extending well beyond end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Ceylon only. Rhambodda Ghat, Kandy and other montane

areas from May to September. ‘The figure given of the anal appendages by

Dr. Laidlaw for his Drepanosticta sp., is sufficient proof that this species

is C. hilaris as he surmised. Post-mortem decomposition accounts for the

differences to be noted between the above and the Selysian description. From

C. digna, this species is easily distinguished by the shape of its inferior appen-

dages; from C. tropica by the simple collar-like anterior lobe of prothorax ;

from C. wtontana by the labrum bordered with black and by the inferior

appendages ending in an acute point ; from the remaining species by its much

larger size and more numerous postnodal nervures.

Ceylonosticta montana (Selys.)

Platysticta montana Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) x. p. 438 (1860) ; Id. Syn.

Acrs sep:: pp. 10-11*.(1860)'; Id. Mem. Cour. Rev. Syn. Agr: p.

151 @s86)"; Kirby. Cats Odon:. =p. 132)(1890):; Id. Journ. Linn.

Soc: Zool. vol. xxiv, p. 363° (1893) ; Laid. Recs Ind. Mus’. vol.

Ki pa cov (1915).

Drepanosticta montana Vaid. Spolia zeylanica. vol. xii, p. 362 (1924),

Male. Abdomen 43mm. Hindwing 28 mm.

Head—Labium dark brown ; labrum turquoise blue narrowly bordered with

reddish brown; bases of mandibles and anteclypeus turquoise blue; post-

clypeus glossy black, rest of head bronzed black with a broad patch of reddish

brown encircling the ocelli on either side and behind; eyes black above,

olivaceous brown beneath.

Prothorax bronzed brown on dorsum, paler reddish brown laterally ; anterior

lobe collar-like ; posterior lobe simpie, rounded.

Thorax bronzed black on dorsum changing to reddish brown on the sides

and yellowish beneath. (Probably an oblique blue stripe on the middle of

mesepimeron but obscured by decomposition in the type.)

Legs yellowish, the outer surface of femora and articulations blackish.

Wings hyaline, palely enfumed; pterostigma slightly longer than broad,

similar in shape to that of C. Azlaris; 16-18 postnodal nervures in forewings,

15-16 in the hind; Azv+v arising a little distad of the oblique nervure de-

scending from the subnode.

Abdomen bronzed brown on dorsum deepening to black at the distal ends

of segments ; segments 3 to 7 with moderately broad basal annules ; segment

332, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATCRAL FIST. SOCIETY. Val Xa

8 unmarked (so far as can be seen in the type, but probably its apical border

bluish during life); segments 9 and 10 azure blue on the dorsum. (In the

type, segment 9 brown from decomposition.)

Anal appendages blackish brown, superiors more than twice the length of

segment 10, broad at base then tapered as far as the middle, at which point

they are dilated internally and curved rather strongly downward and furnished

with a small obtuse spine at the point of the angulation on the upper inner

border of appendages ; the dilated part of even width, excavate on the inner

side and ending in a squared apex directed somewhat inward and downward. ~

Inferiors slightly shorter than superiors, broad at base, then tapered and slim

as far as apex which,is again broadened and curved inward towards its fellow ;

a robust tooth on the upper inner border near the base.

Female. Abdomen 37 mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Closely similar to the male, differing only in sexual characters and by the

markings on the terminal segments of abdomen. A small subdorsal subapical

spot of blue on each side of seginent 9, and a broad dorsal spot of the same

colour on segment 10. Anal appendages as long as segment 10 which is very

short and without an apical notch, conical, pointed at apex, brown. Vulvar

scale very robust, extending well beyond end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Ceylon only, in montane tracts, Rhambodda Ghat and

Kandy. Differs from C. ¢tropica by the simple shape of the lobes of prothorax ;

from C. hilaris, to which it is very closely related, by the tumid end of inferior

appendages and by the labrum unbordered with black ; from C. digna by the

absence of a middle inner spine on inferior appendages. From the remaining

species by its much larger size.

Ceylonosticta tropica (Selys.)

Platysticta tropica Selys. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2). x. p. 438 (1860) ; Id. Syn

Agr. sep. p. 10 (1860) ; Id. Mem. Cour. Rev. Syn. Agr. p. 151

(1886) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 132 (1890) ; Id. Journ. Linn. Soc.

Zool. vol. xxiv. p. 562 (1898) ; Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xi.

p1.987.(1915) 5) id: Ibid =voliexi. proto).

Drepanosticta tropica Laid. Spolia Zeylanica. vol. xii. p. 362 (1914).

Male Abdomen 41 mm. Hindwing 26 mm.

Head—Labium pale brown ; labrum, bases of mandibles and anteclypeus

pale turquoise blue, the former narrowly bordered with brown; postclypeus

bronzed brown above, rest of head bronzed black with a small obscure yellow

oval spot on the outer side of each outer ocellus ; eyes black above, olivaceous

brown beneath; 2nd and 3rd segments of antennz pale yellowish.

Prothorax pale olivaceous brown, the middle lobe possibly bluish during

life; posterior lobe bronzed black, arched, rounded; anterior lobe with a

deep and wide cleft at its middle, the lobe on each side of this prolonged into

a curious stalked scale resembling those seen on the posterior lobe of some of

the Caconeura group ; between these two scales the lobe prolonged forward as

a short blunt process.

Thorax dark bronzed brown or cupreous black on dorsum, the lower part of

sides paling to reddish brown and then yellow beneath thorax; a moderately

broad oblique azure blue stripe on each side traversing the centre of mesepi-

meron from above down.

Legs olivaceous, the externai and extensor surfaces of femora and the

articulations mottled with black.

Wings hyaline palely enfumed ; pterostigma blackish brown finely framed

in creamy white and again by thick black nervures, half as long again as

broad, costal border shorter than posterior, distal border straight, proximal

very oblique, braced; Azv+v arising slightly before the oblique nervure

descending from the subnode ; 16-17 postnodal nervures to forewings, 14-16 in

the hind ; a6 meeting ac at a short distance from posterior margin of wing.

Abdomen bronzed brown deepening to black at apical ends of segments and

with narrow basal anuules on segments 3 to 7; segment 1 yellow laterally;

segments 2 to 4 yellow along the ventral borders ; seyments 9 and 10 azure

blue on the dorsum, the latter narrowly black at the apex.

Anal appendages blackish brown; superiors more than twice as long as

segment 10; seen from above curving gently inward towards one another ;

broad at base then tapered to apex which is obtuse, the apical half presenting

ee ee ee mt

ee *

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 333

a spatulate-like dilation on the inner border which is hollowed out on its inner

aspect. Inferior appendages rather more than half as long as superiors, very

broad at base where is seen an inner tubercle which, viewed from above,

is broad and coated with numerous stiff bristles. The apical three-fourths

slim, sloping up and back and ending in an obtuse shallowly-notched apex as

viewed in profile, or as an acutely-pointed, inwardly directed spine as viewed

from above.

Female. Abdomen40 mm. Hindwing 29 mm.

Closely similar to the male in colour and markings but rather more robustly

built. Labium dark brown; labrum entirely blue; prothorax with similar

scale-like processes on anterior lobe; wings more deeply enfumed ; 16 to 17

postnodal nervures to forewings, 16 in the hind; other details of venation

Similar to the male. Notrace of blue to be seen on the terminal abdominal

segments but these may be obscured by post-mortem decomposition, and

during life are probably present as subdorsal spot on the sides of segment

9 and a large dorsal spot on segment 10. Anal appendages short, barely as

long as segment 10, conical pointed, brown ; segment 9 about one-third longer

than 8 and more than twice the length of 10. Vulvar scales moderately robust,

blackish brown, not extending to end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Confined to the montane tracts of Ceylon. Passara, Haycock

Hill, May to August. Hakgala, March and April. The description of the

female which has not hitherto been published, is from a Specimen in the

author’s collection from Hakgala.

There isno possibility of confusing this species with any other as the curious

prothoracie processes are unique in the genus and are sufficient to determine

the species at a glance. It is of interest to note that these accessory sexual

appendages are found in both sexes.

Ceylonosticta digna (Selys. )

Agrion digna Hagen, Verhandl. Zool-bot. Gesell. Wien, vol. viii. p. 479.

(1858).

Disparoneura digna, Hagen, Ibid. vol. ix. p. 207 (1859). Name only.

Platysticta digna, Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) vol. x. p. 440 (1860) ; Id.

Syn. Agr sep. p. 12°(1860) ; Id. Mem. Cour, Rev. Syn. Agr.

XEXViil.) pol (18c6)s) Kirby... Cat.- Odons., pe 132.(1890) ;

fidearJourns jinn: g50c. Zool, vol xxiv. p. 362) (1893), > Laid.

Ree: Ind. Mus, vol. xi. p. 387 (1915).

Drepanosticta digna, Laid. Spolia Zeylanica, vol. xii. pp. 361, 362, text-

figure 9 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 35mm. Hindwing 23 mm.

Head.—Labium pale brown ; labrum, bases of mandibles and anteclypus pale

turquoise blue; postclypeus glossy black, rest of head blackish brown ; eyes

black above, olivaceous brown beneath ; 3rd joint of antennz palest brown,

Occiput with the usual scale-like ledge posteriorly.

Prothorax ochreous, possibiy blue on the dorsum during life; anterior

lobe arched, sloping forward, collar-like ; posterior lobe simple, rounded, dark

bronzed brown.

Thorax dark bronzed brown on dorsum paling to reddish brown laterally

and yellowish beneath ; middorsal carina finely blue and an oblique stripe of

the same colour traversing the length of mesepimeron midway between the

two lateral sutures.

Legs ochreous, outer surface of femora and all articulations blackish brown.

Wings hyaline palely enfumed in adults ; pterostigma blackish brown finely

framed in yellow and an outer frame of thick black nervures shaped similarly

to that of C. hilaris ; 15-16 postnodal nervures to forewings, 14 in the hind ;

Aiv-+v arising in prolongation of the oblique nervure descending from the sub-

node; ac and ad meeting at a common point on the posterior margin of wing

or a short stalk intervening at the junction.

Abdomen blackish brown, segments 2 and 3 at the sides and the bases of 2 to

7 with basal annules yellow ; segment 8 black ; segments 9 and 10 azure blue

above, black along the ventral borders.

Anal appendages blackish brown ; superiors more than twice the length of

segment 10, broad at base, then tapering somewhat to apex which is obtuse,

slightly curved in and down as viewed from above, and the apical half which is

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST SOCIETY Vel eer.

alittle expanded on the inner side, markedly excavate. Inferior appendages

about two-thirds the length of superiors, of unusual and irregular shape, very

broad at base, outer border sinuous as seen from above, inner border deeply

serrate, presenting an obtuse basal tubercle followed by a subbasal which is

followed successively by a deep notch, a median robust spine and then a final

shallow notch ; the median spine is directed straight inwards and nearly meets

its fellow on the opposite side; the apex squared and slightly bevelled. Seen

from the side the appendage tapers rapidly to an obtuse point. Female

unknown.

Distribution.—Ceylon only in montane tracts. Rhambodda Ghat and

Haragama from May to August. The above revised description was made

from aspecimen in the British Museum. ‘The species is easily determined from

all others by the curiously shaped inferior appendages. ‘Type in the Selysian

collection.

Ceylonosticta nietneri sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 31-32 mm, Hindwing 20-21 mm.

Head.—Labium pale brown ; labrum, bases of mandibles and anteclypeus

pale turquoise blue; postclypeus glossy black, rest of head bronzed black ;

3rd joint of antenne pale brown; eyes black above, olivaceous brown

beneath ; occiput with a similar scale as seen in C. Alaris.

Prothorax pale ochreous; posterior lobe except its hinder border and the

whole of the dorsum of middle lobe pale blue; anterior lobe collar-like,

posterior rounded, simple.

Thorax bright reddish ochreous with a cupreous reflex on dorsum and a broad

oblique pale blue stripe on each side situated between the two lateral sutures ;

pale ochreous beneath.

Legs pale olivaceous, the articulations speckled with black.

Wings hyaline, very palely enfumed; pterostigma blackish brown finely

framed in creamy white and thick black nervures, nearly square, but slightly

longer than broad, distal side convex, proximal oblique, braced ; 14-16 post-

nodal nervures in forewings, 13-14 in the hind; a6 meeting ac ata short

distance from the posterior margin of wing, the former ending very near the

proximal end of discoidal cell; origin of Azv + at or slightly distad of the

oblique nervure descending from the subnode.

Abdomen yellow beneath and on the sides of segment 1, dark enfumed

olivaceous on dorsum and sides, deepening to black at apical! ends of sezgments,

and on the whole of segment 7 and most of 8; bases of segments 3 to4or5

with incomplete basal annule which extend apicad along the ventral borders of

segments ; segment 8 blackish brown marked dorsally with an apical triangle.

of aztuire blue which extends variably towards base of seyment covering from

one-fourth to half the segment ; segments 9 and 10 entirely blue on dorsum,

the ventral borders black.

Anal appendages blackish brown, apices of inferiors paler brown ; superiors

twice the length of segment 10, simple, arched up and then down, broad and

depressed at base, then, at the middle, twisted on the long axis of appendage,

the outer half broadened compressed and hollowed out within, wot bearing any

spines ; inferior appendages of the same length, broad at base, directed straight

back or a little obliquely upward, of even thickness throughout as far as apex

which is expanded into three angles like the webbed foot of a duck ; without a

basal spine.

Female. Abdomen 30-31 mm. Hindwing 22 mm.

Closely similar to the male but of stouter build, the abdomen more especially

robust. Differs as follows,—Prothorax more prominently marked with blue on

middle and posterior lobes, the latter very simple rounded, the scale-like border

very narrow and of even width.

Wings with 14 postnodal nervures to forewings, 13 in the hind, otherwise

exactly similar to those of male, but A7v+v always arising distad the oblique

nervure descending from the subnode.

Abdomen dark reddish brown, segments 3 to 7 with broad basal azure blue

annules interrupted on the middorsum on the latter segment ; segment 8 dark

reddish brown, theapical articulation only blue; segments 9 and 10 broadly

azure blue on dorsum, reddish brown on lower part of sides.

Anal appendages shorter than segment 10, small pointed conical processes,

brown. Vulvar scale brown, robust, extending beyond end of abdomen.

LNDIAN DRAGONFLIES 335

Distribution.—Ceylon only, Kandy, 2,000 ft. Three males and a single

female taken at the latter place by Col. F. Wall, I.M.S., 14. x. 24.

This species and the two following—C. lankanensis and C. walli are the three

smallest species known in the subfamily, not excepting P. hearseyi and may be

distinguished from all other species at a glance byreason of this feature. The

curious shape of the apex of the inferior anal appendages, shaped like a duck’s

foot, will serve to distinguish it from the other two species mentioned of the

same Size as itself. The female is to be distinguished by the arched rounded

shape of its prothorax, this being produced and strongly angulated in C. wadl/z,

whilst the female of /ankanensis is unknown,

Ceylonosticta lankanensis sp. nov.

Platysticta montana Kirby, Journ. Linn, Soc. Zool. vol. xxiv. p. 562

(ales) 4

Male. Abdomen 29mm. Hindwing 20 mm.

Head.—Labium whitish brown: labrum, bases of mandibles and anteclypeus

pale turquoise blue, the former very narrowly bordered with black, rest of head

blackish brown ; eyes dark brown above, olivaceous brown beneath.

Thorax dark reddish ochreous on dorsum and sides but paling to ochreous

on metepimeron and yellowish beneath. A broad oblique pale blue stripe on

each side lying paralle] with and midway between the lateral sutures, contrast-

ing strikingly with the adjacent reddish brown.

Legs olivaceous marked with dark brown on the outer sides of femora and all

articulations. |

Wings hyaline, palely enfumed ; pterostigma blackish brown, finely framed

in white and thick black nervures, similarin shape to that of C. mzetnert ;

12-13 postnodal nervures in forewings, 11 tol2 in the hind ; Azv. + v arising in

continuation with the oblique nervure descending from the subnode; ab

meeting ac near the posterior margin of wings.

Abdomen reddish brown deepening to black at apical ends of segments ;

segment 1 yellow laterally ; segments 3 to 7 with narrow basal yellow annules ;

segment 8 with a small apical triangular bordering of blue; segments 9 and 10

azure blue dorsally, black along the ventral borders.

Anal appendages blackish brown, superiors more than twice the length of

segment 10, broad at base then tapering as far as the middle, at which point

they are dilated, compressed and rotated on their long axis, the apex broad

and squared ; seen from above these appendages are curved gently towards

one another, of almost even breadth throughout and slightly clubbed at apex ;

inferiors of about two-thirds the length of superiors, very broad at base, then

abruptly slim and cylindrical, curved gently in, the extreme apices more abrupt-

ly so and ending in a fine point.

Female unknown. ‘Type in the British Museum,

Distribution.—Ceylon only, confined probably to montane districts. The

type is labelled—‘ Kottawa, 19. iv. 92,’ and is incorrectly determined by the late

Mr. Kirby as P. montana. This specimen is undoubtedly Col. Yerbury’s

referred to by Kirby as P. montana ‘with some doubt’ in the J.L.S.1.c.

ts small size, the smallest species of the genus, is sufficient to determine

it from P. montana and several other differential points may be made out

with ease. The acutely pointed inferior appendages are sufficient to

determine it from C. mzetnert which has them broad and clubbed at the

apices and aslong asthe superiors. Itis possible that the next species described

below, is the female of this but the curious shape of the hinder margin of the

prothorax in the latter and the extensive black bordering of the labrum appear

to place it as an entirely distinct species.

Ceylonosticta walli sp. nov.

Female. Abdomen 31mm. Hindwing 22mm. (Male unknown.)

Head,—Labium blackish brown ; labrum pale turquoise blue broadly bordered

with glossy black ; bases of mandibles, black with a spot of blue at the extreme

base ; anteclypeus pale turquoise blue, postclypeus and rest of head black

bronzed ; eyes black above, olivaceous brown beneath: distal end of 3rd seg-

ment of antenne pale brown.

Prothorax with middle lobe pale blue, anterior and posterior lobes reddish

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

brown, the former collar-shaped, the latter with the medial portion of its

thinned-out border prolonged into a long tapering point.

Thorax reddish ochreous deepening to dark bronzed brown on dorsum,

paling on lower part of metepimeron and beneath ; a moderately broad azure

blue stripe traversing the whole length of mesepimeron midway between the

lateral sutures.

Legs olivaceous, articulations blackish, outer surfaces of femora and whole

of tibice enfumed brown,

Wings hyaline, palely enfumed; pterostigma nearly quadrate especially in

the forewings, inner end slightly oblique, outer slightly convex, dark reddish

brown framed finely in white and thick black nervures ; 15 postnodal nervures

in forewings, 14in the hind; Azzy + wv opposite or a little distad of the oblique

nervure' descending from the subnode; ac and aé arising from different points

on the posterior border of wings (in the type the nervure aé is absent in

the right pair of wings).

Abdomen reddish brown changing to blackish brown at distal ends of

seginents ; segments2 to 7 with azure blue basal annules, very narrow on

segment 2, broad on 4to6; segment 8 unmarked ; segments 9 and 10 with the

dorsum azure blue, the ventral borders dark blackish brown.

Anal appendages reddish brown, slightly longer than segment 10, conical,

acute at apex; vulvar scale robust, extending beyond end of abdomen.

Distribution .—Ceylon only, confined to montane tracts. Type, a female, in

the author’s collection, taken at Kandy, 2,000 ft., 13. ix, 24 by Col. F. Wall,

I.M.S. Differs from the female of C. mezttneri by the posterior lobe of prothorax

which is prolonged into a long tongue-like point and also by the labrum

broadly bordered with black, by the higher nodal index, etc. From the male

of C. lankanensis it also differs by the shape of the posterior lobe of prothoras,

by the labrum broadly bordered with black, by the broader basal blue annules

of the abdomen and by the different origin of ad, ete.

Genus: DREPANOSTICTA Laidlaw (1917).

Platysticta Selys. pars. Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) x. p. 436 (1860) ; Id. Mem.

Cour. xxxviii, p. 150 (1886) ; Kirby, Cat. Odon. p. 132 (1890) ;

Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus, Vol. xi, pp. 378, 379 (1915).

Drepanosticta Laid. ibid. vol. xiii, pp. 339, 341 (1917) ; Id. Journ. Malay

branch Roy. Asia. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 304-306 (1924).

Dragonflies of the same small size as the last genus and with similar habits

and characteristics. Body-colouring usually black, but in one species at

least, reddish brown marked with blue. Wings closed when at rest, long,

narrow, falcate at apex, with along petiole, hyaline; discoidal cell shaped as

in Platysticta ; sectors of are arising from lower part of are dut fused for a

short distance from origin, an accessory basal postcostal nervure present

near base of all wings in addition to the nervure ac, which is situated rather

nearer distal antenodal nervure, ab usually present dat sometimes absent

and, when present, always incomplete, meeting ac at or near the hinder

margin of wing or arising from that margin at some point more or less

distad of ac and extending to the posterior border of discoidal cell near its

proximal end ; JA absent ; Cuzz of variable length, usually 6 to 8 cells in length ;

MA and Jiit not zigzagged at origins; AzZv+v arising slightly before, at or

slightly distad the oblique nervure descending from the subnode ; //Azzz at or a

little distad of that nervure; pterostigma subquadrate, costal side slightly

shorter than the posterior, inner end oblique, unbraced, outer slightly convex.

Cells of wings mainly quadrangular.

Head, thorax and abdomen similar to Profosticta but the abdomen less than

twice the length of wings except in D. viridis.; anal appendages variable,

superiors subforcipate, spatulate in the apical half which is curved down and

usually carries a robust dorsal spine at the middle; inferiors variable, with or

without a long inner narrow spine; genitalia similar to that of Protosticta, penzs

without a dorsal ruff or spine. Larve unknown. Genotype.— Drepanositcta

carmichaeli ( Laid.)

Distribution.—N. E. India, Burma, Indo-China, Malaya to New Guinea.

The habits of species of the genus are unknown save for D. carmichaeli which

resemble those of Protosticta. Dark shaded retreats are the localities in which

to seek these insects, where clinging to ferns, etc. they may be beaten up and

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 537

driven into the open. Four or five species are known from within Indian

limits, one of which is from Bengal, two or possibly three from Burma anda

fifth from the Andamans.

Key to species of genus Dyrepanostictua,

Length of abdomen twice that of hindwing ... JY. viridis Fras.

| } beng of abdomen considerably less than

twice that of hindwing uns aoe 28

Species coloured black marked with white and

9 | pale blue : 3

Species coloured reddish brown marked with

blue 4.

Pterostigma slightly longer than broad ; thorax

with ill-defined blue stripes, blackish brown

3 beneath a8 3 ate .. DD. carmichaeli Laid,

Pterostigma squared ; thorax with well-defined

blue stripes, beneath pale yellow... .. D, polychromatica sp.

nov.

Anal appendages ee, furnished with

1 spines jan .. D. quadrata Selys,

Anal appendages simple, without any spines... 2. annandalei Fras.

Drepanosticta carmichaeli Laid. .

Protosticta carmichaelt Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xi, p. 390, fig. 1 (1915).

Drepanosticta carmichaeli Laid. ibid. vol. xiii. pp. 341, 342, pl. xv. fig. 5

(1917) ; Id. Journ. Malay branch Roy. Asia, Soc. vol. ii, pp.

304-306 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 36-37 mm. Hindwing 23-24 mm.

Head.—Labium brown; labrum turquoise blue narrowly bordered with dark

brown; genae, bases of mandibles and anteclypeus turquoise blue; post-

clypeus, frons and vertex as far back as the level of posterior ocelli blackish

brown, behind which an irregular broad band of pale blue extending from eye

to eye; occiput behind black, presenting a vestigial ridge behind as seen in

Platysticta ; 2nd joint of antennz pale blue ; eyes blue above, paler below and

marked with a dark equatorial band of grey.

Prothorax with anterior lobe projecting forward collar like; posterior lobe

simple rounded ; middorsum olivaceous, the rounded bosses on each side of

middle lobe azure blue ; posterior lobe reddish ochreous, blue at either side ;

middle lobe dark chocolate brown on each side and beneath.

Thorax olivaceous on dorsum changing to golden brown laterally and then

dark chocolate brown ventrad and beneath. An ill-defined pale blue ante-

humeral stripe on each side of dorsum confluent with the blue on posterior lobe

of prothorax; laterally a broad, slightly oblique pale blue stripe traversing

the whole length of mesepimeron.

Legs pale ochreous, hind femora with a small distal point of black on

extensor surface.

Wings palely enfumed, hyaline; pterostigma rather longer than broad,

costal side slightly shorter than posterior, proximal side very oblique, distal

side slighty convex, covering 1 cell, unbraced, brown framed finely in creamy

white and thick black nervures ; 15-16 postnodal nervures in forewings, 14 in

the hind; Azv+v arising distad the oblique nervure descending from the

subnode; ac, midway between the two antenodal nervures or nearer the dista!

one; a6 arising from the posterior border of wing well distad of ac, very

oblique, meeting the discoidal cell near its proximal end, hardly longer than

ac ; Cutt 8-9 cells long in forewings, 12 in the hind.

Abdomen dark golden brown deepening to blackish brown at apical ends of

segments and on the whole of segments 7 to 10; segment 1 with an apical blue

annule ; 2 with the middorsum narrowly turquoise blue from base nearly to

apex ; segments 3 to 7 with bright blue basal cordate spots; 8, 9 and 10 pale.

azure blue on dorsum, the lower parts of sides, especially of 10, black.

Anal appendages blackish brown, apices of superiors paler brown. Superiors

broad at base, then tapering strongly till about the middle, the apical half

338. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST] SOCIETY M ole Oo

expanded and curved strongly downward ; apex falcate ; a very obtuse spine on

dorsum at the site of angulation; equal to more than twice the length of

segment 10; inferiors equal in length to superiors, very broad at base, then

tapered, cylindrical and ending in a fine point which is curved inward ; a large

robust acutely pointed spine situated at the base, directed inward and upward.

Female. Abdomen 34mm. Hindwing 23 mm.

Almost exactly similar to the male but the abdomen shorter and

stouter. Segments 8 and 10 unmarked with blue; basal blue spots

on segments 4 to 6 larger and more conspicuous; wings similar to

those of male but Azv+w arising rather more distad the subnode; 16

postnodal nervures to forewings, 15 in the hind. Anal appendages short

conical pointed, brown; vulvars scales robust but not extending beyond

end of abdomen.

Distribution.—Sikkim, Kalimpong, 4,000 ft., Pashoke 3.000 ft., from April to

July, in similar situations to those frequented by Protosticta. The beautiful

colour complex of this insect will serve to distinguish it from all others of the

genus save its near relative D. polychromatica from which it is distinguished by

its larger size, different character of the thoracic markings, different shape ot

pterostigma, distal origin of Azv + v and longer Cuzz,

Drepanosticta polychromatica sp. nov.

Male. Abdomen 32 mm. Hindwing 21 mm. (Female unknown.)

Head.—Labium pale brown ; labrum, genae, bases of mandibles and ante-

clypeus palest blue, the former narrowly bordered with brown; rest of head

blackish brown as far back as the level of posterior ocelli, at which point is a

moderately broad blue transverse band which falls well short of the eyes save

for a minute point anteriorly.

Prothorax with dorsum chocolate brown, laterally blackish brown marked on

the centre of middle lobe with anarrow yellow line, and onthe sides by a broad

band of blue extending from anterior to posterior lobe, the latter ochreous on

the middorsum and shaped asin D. carmichaelt.

Thorax black on dorsum, dark chocolate brown laterally, the former

marked with a well-defined narrow blue antehumeral stripe, broad

anteriorly where it is confluent with the blue on prothorax, narrowing and

tapering to a fine point near the antealar sinus posteriorly. Laterally a sharply-

defined oblique moderately broad blue stripe lying just anterior to the postero-

lateral suture, followed by an equally broad stripe of the ground colour ; lower

part of metepimeron and beneath thorax pale yellow.

Legs pale ochreous, unmarked. Wings hyaline, palely enfumed ; pterostigma

almost quadrate, costal side only a shade shorter than posterior, the proximal

side but slightly oblique, dark brown finely framed in creamy white

and thick black nervures ; 15 postnodal nervures to forewings, 14 in the hind;

kiv+v arising in continuation of the oblique nervure descending from the

subnode ; Cwzz only 7 cells long in forewings, 10 in the hind; ac lying midway

between the two antenodal nervures; aé arising from ac or more usually from

the posterior margin of wing a little distad of ac and longer and more oblique

than in D. carmichaelt.

Abdomen yellow at the sides and beneath, enfumed on dorsum and deepening

to blackish brown at apical ends of segments 3to6to form rather sharply

defined apical annules; segment 2 with a narrow middorsal streak of blue not

quite extending to apical border; segment 3 with a pale blue dorsal basal

spot, segments 6 to 7 with narrow pale blue complete basal annules ; dorsum

and sides of segments 8 and 9 broadly pale azure blue; segment 10

black, unmarked.

Anal appendages black, paler at apices, shaped similarly to those of

D. carmichaeli but the inferiors stouter and the basal spine less pronounced.

Distr zbution.—Darjeeling district, Gopaldhara, May to July. Type inthe

author’s collection. Distinguished from all other species of the genus by its

colouring and from D. carmichaeli by the points enumerated under the descrip-

tion of that species. The sharply defined blue and dark brown stripes on the

sides form the best medium for separating these two closely-allied species but

in addition it is to be noted that whilst the thorax of D. carmichaelz is lighter

than that of D. polychromatica, the abdomen is strikingly darker; the 10th

abdominal segment is blue in the former, unmarked in the latter.

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 339

Drepanosticta Viridis Fraser.

Drepanosticta viridis Fras. Mem. Pusa, Dept. Agric. Ind. (Ent.) vol. vii.

INOw 7. ppe so, 40 (1922):

Male. Abdomen 50 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Head.—Labium palest brown ; labrum, basesof mandibles and anteclypeus

palest blue, the former bordered narrowly with glossy black ; postclypeus

glossy black, rest of head steely blue black; eyes pale yellow, capped above

with puce; occiput ridged behind as in Platysticta.

Prothorax dirty yellow ; posterior lobe dark bronzed brown, broadly arched,

simple ; anterior lobe collar-like.

Thorax dark metallic green or blue on dorsum changing to reddish brown at

humeral region and pale brownish yellow laterally. Lateral sutures mapped

out obscurely in pale brown, the anterior suture bordered broadly and diffusely

with black. Beneath yellow.

Legs yellow with black spines; extensor surfaces of femora blackish brown,

tibiae olivaceous.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma reddish brown, very small almost quadrate,

costal border but slightly shorter than posterior, distal border convex, proximal

but slightly oblique; 14 to 15 postnodal nervures to forewings, 14 in

the hind ; ac lying much nearer the level of distal antenodal nervure; ad

arising from posterior margin of wing well distad of ac, very short, hardly

longer thanac; Aiv + v arising well distad of the oblique nervure descending

from the subnode. ;

Abdomen of great length, very slim, resembling species of Protosticta more

closely than any other species of the genus, Segments 1 to 7 brownish black,

this colour deepening at apices of segments 2 to 7 but falling short of bases of

segments where are seen narrow white basal annules; segment 8 with the

basal half azure blue on dorsum, black laterally and middorsally so that the

blue of apex presents two points directed basad subdorsally ; segment 9 entirely

pale azure blue on dorsum, segment 10 black, emarginate and with a deep

depression on dorsum extending nearly as far as its base.

Anal appendages black ; superiors twice the length of segment 10, bent at a

right angle at their middle, downwards and a little inwards, broad at base,

presenting a needle-like dorsal spine at the point of angulation; apex

expanded, bevelled at end. Inferiors nearly as long as superiors, broad at

base, then flattened, twisted spirally on their long axis at the middle of

appendages, apical half angulated sharply upwards to meet and overlap apices

of superiors; a small needle-like spine on the inner border, directed inwards

near the middle of appendages,

Female. Abdomen 37 mm. Hindwing 25 mm.

Closely similar to the male in colour and markings but shorter and more

robustly built. Segments 8 and 9 without blue markings; segments 1 to 6

with well-defined basal white annules, 7 without, otherwise all details, inclu-

ding venational ones similar to those of male.

Distribution.—King Isiand, Mergui, Lower Burma. Found beside marshes

and small irrigation channels and streams in rubber plantations. Distinguished

from all other species of the genus by the extreme length and attenuation of its

abdomen which is exactly double the length of the wings as in species of

Protosticta. The armature of the anal appendages recalls that of P. Azma-

laica.

Drepanosticta Quadrata (Selys.).

Platysticta quadrata. Selys, Bull. Acad. Belg. (2) x. p. 441 (1860); Id.

Syn. Agr. Derniere Legion. sep. p. 13 (1860); Id. Ann. Mus.

Civ. Giv. Genov. (2) x. xxxii. pp. 507, 508 (1891); Kirby, Cat.

Odon. p. 133 (1890); Laid. Fascic. Malay. Zool. Pt. iv. p. 11. fig.

TC1S07)s

Drepanosticta quadrata. Laid. Rec. Ind. Mus. vol. xiii. p. 343 (1917);

Id. Journ. Malay. Roy. Asia. Soc. vol. ii. pp. 304-306 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 35mm. Hindwing 21 mm.

Head.—Labrum, bases of mandibles and anteclypeus palest blue, the former

broadly bordered with glossy black ; postclypeus and rest of head black.

Prothorax creamy white; posterior lobe black, simple.

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

‘Thorax bronzed black on dorsum, pale bluish laterally, pale yellow beneath.

Laterally an oblique black stripe traversing the length of mesepimeron.

Legs pale, the extensor surfaces of femora and articulations black.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma subquadrate, black, finely framed in white and

thick black nervures; Azv+v arising slightly distad the oblique nervure

descending from the subnode; 11-12 postnodal nervures in forewings, 10-11

in the hind.

Abdomen blackish brown, segments 2 to 7 with a narrow yellow hasal

annule, the black expanding at apical ends of each segment to form broad

apical annules; segment 8 with the apical half and 9 with the whole of dorsum

pale blue; segment 10 black.

Anal appendages black, superiors twice as long as segment 10, slightly

curved towards each other and downwards, a robust spine on the upper border

of middle of appendage, apex slightly flattened and dilated. Inferior appen-

dages of similar length, pale at base which is broad and presents an inner

upper obtuse spine or tubercle, then tapering, subcylindrical, apex curved in,

notched and preceded by a long inner spine.

Female. Abdomen 31mm. Hindwing 18mm.

Head.-—-Labrum dirty white; anteclypeus pale yellow ; postclypeus and front

of frons traversed by an obscure band ; rest of head black.

Prothorax pale yellow; posterior lobe emarginate at middle, yellow with

obscure greyish fascia.

Thorax bronzed black on dorsum as far lateral as the antero-lateral suture,

the middorsum greyish yellow. .Laterally and beneath pale yellow with a

broad oblique brown stripe traversing the mesepimeron. Legs pale yellow,

articulations obscure.

Wings similar to the male but A7zv+v arising in continuation with the

oblique nervure descending from the subnode.

Abdomen brownish black, segments 2 to 7 marked similarly to the male;

segment 9 yellow on dorsum, 10 black.

Anal appendages short, conical, black. Vulvar scale robust.

Distribution.—The type comes from Singapore but it is by no

means certain that the allotype female from Burma (Teneral and in

poor condition) belongs to it, the probability being otherwise. The

female, taken on Mt. Karenin May, has the paler yellow markings probably

pale blue in the adult stage.

Drepanosticta Annandalei Fraser.

Drepanosticia annandalei Fras, Rec. Ind. Mus. Vol, xxvi. pp. 412, 413 (1924).

Male. Abdomen 32mm. Hindwing 22 mm.

Head.—Labium brown ; labrum, bases of mandibles and adjacent part of

anteclypeus palest blue, the former narrowly bordered with glossy black ;

postclypeus and rest of head matt black ; basal and 2nd segments of antennz

white ; eyes olivaceous brown above, paler beneath.

Prothorax brownish white with a large black spot on each side; posterior

lobe simple, rounded.

Thorax blackish brown on dorsum with the middorsal carina and upper part

of humeral suture paler. Laterally white with a diffuse brown fascia traversing

the sides obliquely as far as metepimeron. :

Legs creamy white; femora on extensor surfaces stippled with black ; tibio-

femoral joints black.

Wings hyaline; pterostigma blackish brown, shaped similarly to that of

D. carmichaeli; 16 postnodal nervures to forewings, 14 in the hind; Azv+vu

arising in continuation with the oblique nervure descending from the subnode ;

ab very oblique, arising from posterior border of wing somewhat distad of ac.

Abdomen creamy white laterally and beneath, black on dorsum, the black

not extending to extreme base of segments but expanding apicad to form broad

annules ; segment 8 white or pale blue for its basal two thirds but the black of

the apical third extending finely along the middorsal carina as far as base of

segment ; segments 9 and 10 black, unmarked with blue.

Anal appendages black, slightly longer than segment 10, the inferiors

slightly shorter than superiors. Superiors broad at base, rotated on their long

axis at the middle at which point they curve somewhat inwaids and strongly

02 py enone

INDIAN DRAGONFLIES 341

downwards ; apices obtuse and slightly bevelled. Inferiors broad at base, then

tapering, cylindrical, ending in an acute point.

Female. Abdomen 25mm. Hindwing 20 mm.

Very similar to the male but abdominal segment 8 black for its apical half ;

segment 9 with the basal two-thirds white (or blue) apical third black. Anal

appendages short, conical, pointed, pale; vulvar scale robust, not extending

beyond end of abdomen.

Distridbution.—Andamans only. Type in the Indian Museum from Mt.

Harriet, 500 ft. South Andamans, taken in deep jungle at edge of a stream in

December. Its simple black colour with white and blue markings serves to

determine it from D. carmichaeli and D. polychromatica whilst the compara-

tively short abdomen will separate it from D. viridis. Its extremely simple

anal appendages will distinguish it from DV, guwadrata as well as from other

Malayan species of the genus.

In the original description I compared this species with DV. Azlar7s from

Burma, whereas JY. guadrata was of course intended.

( Zo be continued.)

INDIAN NET-VEINED MIDGES OR BLEPHAROCERIDA:

(INSECTA: DIPTERA).

SUNDER Lat HORA, D.Sc. (Punjab set Edin) ah Rasy aL. Seb) Zes-p

F.A.S.B., Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey

of India).

(With one plate and four text-figures).

The Blepharoceride or Net-veined Midges are of special interest

to a student of Animal Adaptations and Evolution. These insects

comprise an archaic family of Nemocerous Diptera whose affinities

are still a matter of conjecture. Whey “are hichl= specialized:

life in swift currents during all stages of their development. In

the course of my work on torrential populationst I became greatly

interested in the larvz and pupz of the Blepharoceride and have

made a representative collection of the group at Dumpep and

Shillong in the Khasi Hills, in the Teesta-Valley below the Darjiling

Himalayas and at Dalhousie and Chamba in the Western Hima-

layas. - Dr. A. L. Tonnoir? has worked sout this. collection) and

has come to the conclusion that the Blepharocerid fauna of India

‘Gs certainly the richest of the world in the number of Genera’’.

He has described two new remarkable genera—Horaia and Euli-

poneura. Dr. Tonnoir has expressed a hope that his paper ‘‘will

stimulate the collectors in the Indian region to pay more attention

to those interesting flies’’. It may be pointed out here that the

Blepharoceride seem to be fairly well represented throughout India,

for, a few specimens have been brought back by the Zoological

Survey parties from the Nilgiris, the Simla Hills and Burma. No

systematic collection has, however, been made in any part of India,

except in the three regions mentioned above.

The object of this short note 1s to» brine. to thes novices oe!

likely collectors the general form and habitat of these interesting

flies.

Of all the animals that inhabit the torrential streams of India

the larvze of the Blepharoceridze are the best adapted to hang on

to bare rocks in the most tumultuous situations. They ‘“‘like the

lip of a fall, the rocks of cascades, and the sides of a_pot-hole

in which the water is ever whirling and boiling’’.* They always

' Hora, S. L., Phil. Trans. Roy. Soc. London, Series B, "CCX IM pp. 1171-252

(1930).

4-Tonnoir,, A. L:; Recs, Ind: (Mus: “XX XT Sppe 761-21 4g(mTogo):

5 Kellog, V. L., “Diptera. Fam. Blepharoceridae’’. ‘‘Genera Insectorum”’,

Fase. LV U5 p: 3331907),

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIst. Soc.

HABITAT OF INDIAN BLEPHAROCERIDAE.

Fig. 1. A fall in the course of asmall stream below Shillong-

Cherrapunji Road } mile beyond Dumpep, Khasi Hills, Assam.

Fig. 2. Stream below Umdong fall near Dumpep, Khasi Hills, Assam,

D. Bagchi Photo,

INDIANS BLEPAHAROCERIDALE 343

live on bare rocks (not overgrown with slimy matter) but naturally

BiGs er:

the habitat of the different species is

different. Some live on stones and rocks

forming the bed of a torrent, others

prefer lips of falls, while there are

some that live on rocks at the base of

falls over which water falls with a tre-

mendous crash. Usually the larve live

in large number in one place and form

black patches on the rocks. Each larva

is a small animal only a few millimetres

in length, oval in outline with the body

slightly depressed. By virtue of half a

dozen ventral suckers, each of which is

capable of powerful and independent attach-

ment to the stones, these larvae manage to

live in the swiftest part of the current. The

suckers have become so important that the

body has become segmented secondarily, so

that the major divisions of the body conform

to the suckers and not to the original body

segments. In some forms (fig. 1) the body

is constricted between these divisions and

the lateral appendages are well-marked,

while in others a regular limpet-shaped form

is attained (fig. 2).

Fic. 2. Dorsal (a) and ventral (b) views of Larva Ri, of Horaia (after Tonnoir).

344 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

A pupa (fig. 3) of the Blepharoceridee is roughly oval in outline,

is strongly convex on the dorsal surface and flat on its ventral

surface by which it adheres. Each pupa is fastened to the rocks

by six pads, three on each lateral margin of the ventral aspect

pir gg

Re an ee Poa

—— sa — — >

Mie et ee

22 < peo”

Fic. 3. Dorsal (a) and ventral (b) views of Pupa I of Euliponeura hovat

Tonnoir (after Tonnoir).

of the abdomen. The pupe, like the larve, are found closely

clustered together with the head pointing downstream. According

to most writers pup live in similar situations as the larve but

Hubault! has observed them actually preferring swifter currents

than those in which the larvae live. My observations are different.

About the time of pupation the larve seek comparatively sheltered

places and generally pupate in such situations where they are kept

moist either by the dribbling of the water or by the spray of a fall.

I have collected pupe from the under side of the rock forming

the lip of a fall and from the face of a cascade behind the column

of falling water. In a small stream flowing through the Teesta

Bazaar, Mr. Hodgart, the field-collector of the Zoological Survey,

obtained pupzw from the exposed surfaces of rocks and_ stones

living in similar situations as the larve.

Dr. Tonnoir has sent me the following valuable information

regarding the habitat of the Blepharocerid pupz studied by him

under natural conditions: ‘“‘I have always found Edwardsina pupz

under the water, Neocurupira and Peritheates pupz can live right

under the water as evidenced by breeding them in aquarium; but

the latter are found sometimes out of the water. The same applies

to Paracurupira; Apistomyia were found mostly. out of the water

but in New Zealand and Tasmania the level of the mountain creeks

is varying so much even in summer (especially on the west coasts

that the pupee may be from one day to the other completely sub-

* Hubault, E.; Bull. Biol. France. Belgique, Supp., IX, p. 304 (1927).

eo ene Gl

INDIAN BLE PHAROCERIDAE 345

merged or well above the water level and sometimes not even

kept moist by the spray’’.

It is clear from the above that a collector must look for the

pupz in all kinds of possible ‘‘niches’’ in close proximity to the

falls where the larvee live.

I have not been very successful in collecting the adult flies

of this family. ‘‘The imagines have very long, slender hind legs,

and cling to the wet rocks with all six legs spread widely out.

Their wings are held out at right angles to the body and in line

with one another; this habit enables the collector at once to distin-

guish a Blepharocerid from various forms of Tipulidee which frequent

similar situations, but which always rest with the wings folded

down the abdomen’’?. Another character, by which a collector

can distinguish flies of this family, is the secondary net-veining

Fic. 4.—Male of Euliponeura assamensis Tonnoir (after Tonnoir).

7 tillyard, R., J.,. Australian Zoologist, Il, p. 1§9 (1922).

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

and the petiolate condition of the wing. According to Tillyard

the flies are very tame and ‘‘can be easily caught either with a

forceps or with the fingers, though they should be approached

without unnecessarily irregular movements’’. I collected two speci-

mens of Apistomyia drifting up stream in the evening along the

rapids above the falls of the Punj-pul stream at Dalhousie. A

few flies—Blepharocera, Horaia and Eulitponeura (fig. 4)—were

collected by sweeping among overhanging plants near waterfalls

in the Khasi Hills.

So far as my experience goes these interesting insects can be

collected in India at all times of the year, but spring is believed

to be the most favourable time.

EXPLANATION OF PLATE

Fig. 1.—A fall in the course of a small stream below Shillong-

Cherrapunji Road + mile beyond Dumpep, Khasi Hills, Assam.

Blepharocerid larvee were found in great abundance on such

portions of the vertical rock over which the water fell. Pupe

clustered together on slightly raised portions of the rock, such

as the one indicated by the position of the small net in the photo-

graph, where they were kept moist by a spray from the waterfall.

A few flies were netted by sweeping among the overhanging bushes.

Fig. 2.—Stream below Umdong fall near Dumpep, Khasi Hills,

Assam.

Blepharocerid larvee were very common on sides of rocks which

formed rapids and lips of small falls. Clusters of pupze were found

above the level of water on the sides of rocks marked with X. In

such situations they were being constantly washed by the eddies

of the current and kept moist by spray.

THiteyROBLEM OF EVOLUTION,

R. B. SEYMOUR SEWELL, M.A., D.Sc. (Cantab), F.z.s., F.L.S.,

F.A.S.B., Lt.-Col., I.M.S., Director, Zoological Survey of India.

ANNUAL ADDRESS DELIVERED BEFORE THE ASIATIC SOCIETY

OF BENGAL, FEBRUARY 193

Part II.

(With a plate).

(Continued from page 131 of this volume.)

THE TREND OF EVOLUTION UNDER NATURAL CONDITIONS

The theory of evolution is based on one proved fact and one

assumption, namely (1) that living matter exhibits definite variations,

whether these be of the nature of small and gradual alterations or

of larger and more obvious changes that may be inherited and are

termed mutations; and (2) that nature has exercised and presumably

still exercises a selective choice among living organisms as a result

of changing conditions of time and space combined with competi-

tion. I do not propose to discuss here the causes of these vari-

ations and mutations but it seems to me that such departures from

the normal must ultimately be the result of external eee

that act on the organism, and, further, we must bear in mind

that the primary cause may have acted on the pee es or larval

stage of an animal and not on the adult, and that the effect may

not become visible until the next or possibly even the 2nd generation.

Garstang! claims as examples of this early action that the Order

Gastropoda in the Mollusca originated by a change, to wit, the

torsion of the body, that first arose in the free-swimming larval

stage of development; and that the differentiation of such genera

as Emarginula and Fissurella were equally brought about by a

larval mutation, these changes being handed’ on to the adult.

Willey? has Aik emphasised the view that ‘‘Larve are the vehicles

of the future rather than the relics of the past’. In any case

varieties or mutations arise from the parent eae and according

to the Darwinian theory their survival will depend on the value

or otherwise of the alteration; if the variation is an advantage to

the species then it will be preserved. Darwin* himself remarks,

‘It is, as I can see now, probable that all organic beings, includ-

ing man, possess peculiarities of structure, which neither are

now, nor were formerly, of any service to them, and which,

’ Garstang, W., 1928. ‘Origin and Evolution of Larval forms.’’ British

Association, Section D. Zoology. Glasgow.

; Willey, A., 1911. Convergence in Evolution, p. 41. London.

$ Darwin, Charles, Descent of Man, pp. 61, 62. and Edition, 1896,

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

therefore, are of no physiological importance. We know not what

produces the numberless slight differences between the individuals

of each species . . . ; but each peculiarity must have had its

efficient cause. If these causes, whatever they may be, were to act

more uniformly and energetically during a lengthened period, the

result would probably be not a mere slight individual difference

but a well-marked and constant modification though one of no

physiological importance.’’ Twice in thirteen lines Darwin asserts

that these changes may be of no physiological importance; but

can any change, accompanied as it must be by other changes in

the complete organism, be of no importance, physiologically or

otherwise? The advocates of the Darwinian theory of Evolution

and those of the Mutation theory appear at first sight to be in

the main in complete opposition in their views regarding the effect

of environment on the race. According to Darwin, animals are

always tending to vary and if the variation is beneficial then

external surroundings will by selection perpetuate and even inten-

sify such modification, till we ultimately get a new species

established. The Mutationists, however, hold the view that the

change of structure or function is inherent in the egg and _ the

effect. of environment on a favourable mutation will be to fix it

and eliminate all those other forms that tend to vary from _ the

mean. These views regarding the effect of the surroundings on

the individual are, however, not so diametrically opposed as at

first sight they appear to be; but neither view formulates any

ultimate cause for the variation or mutation, or, in other words

for the actual evolution of new forms.

Evolution, as I understand it, is the response of the living

organism to the outside influences that constitute its environment

and this response may be in one of two directions. In the early

stages of evolution or in the early stages of development in those

animals in which evolution has already advanced to a considerable

degree and which we in consequence term higher animals, the

actual external conditions themselves appear to have acted upon

the organism, producing changes in the genital cells and thus

giving rise to forms that differed from their parents and, if those

influences affected the chromosomes of the nucleus of the germ

cells, the change in bodily form was inherited and we get what

is termed a mutation. Bather' in his address to the Geological

Society in 1928 asks ‘‘Why do mutants so often assume the same

characters as the adaptive modification? Does the influence that

produces the modification also induce a change in the germ, and,

if so, why is that change in the same direction as the modifica-

tion?’’ He suggests that there is some physico-chemical factor in

the body that will be found to be capable of producing the same

effect on the germ cells as on the body itself; but without actually

adopting this view, though it is, I think, extremely probable, we

must not overlook the fact that while changed surroundings may

produce mutations in a number of different directions, it is only

* Bather, F. A., 1928. ‘‘The Fossil and its Environment.’’ Annual Address

to the Geological Society, London.

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 349

those that are of direct utility to the animal or, in other words,

those that approximate to the modification that will be able to

survive and thus become known to us either by their presence in

animals in the living state, or by their presence as fossils in the

various strata in sufficiently large numbers to have ensured their

subsequent discovery and thus to afford the proof that at one time

they did survive the changes in their surroundings. Whatever the

actual process may be, there can be but little doubt that there is a

close connection between the surroundings and_ the bodily

characters. As Baker’ remarks, ‘‘Some Zoologists—especially

Ecologists—may affirm that the environment, in directing evolution,

does in fact cause the change, as for example, when a normal

river or creek species is forced to inhabit a lake, and in a sense

this may be true, the changed environment compelling the organism

to change its structure so that it may be in harmony with the

changed conditions.’’ My colleague, Dr. Hora’, has made a special

study of the similarity of structure in those animals that inhabit

torrential streams, and the same close resemblance can -be seen

in those animals that have respectively adopted an arboreal exist-

ence, a borrowing form of life, or an aquatic habitat, etc. A

comparatively short change of environment may be sufficient to

produce a similar change in different animals. During the last

year Le Souef*® has given a very interesting account of the changes

that have taken place during the last 60 years in certain species

of Wallaby that were introduced from Australia into Kawan Island,

near Auckland, New Zealand; four species were introduced and in

three of these exactly the same evolutionary changes have now

taken place; the fur has become longer and more silky, the colour-

ation is darker and the markings have become more pronounced.

The fourth species is, as yet, unchanged. Exactly similar changes

have occurred in Opossums that were introduced into New Zealand;

here also the fur is longer, more silky and less dense and these

changes are so marked that New Zealand skins can be distinguished

among thousands of others that are offered for sale. We have

here a very clear instance of identical changes being caused in

certain characters of species belonging to different Sub-orders of

the Marsupialia as a result of introduction into the same conditions

of life.

In the present state of our knowledge it is not, however, always

possible to correlate similar variations in different species with

similar changes in the environment; as an example I may cite the

change from a distome form to a monostome in some of ‘the larvze

of the Digenetic Trematodes.' In every case these larval forms

‘* Baker, F. C., 1928. ‘“‘Influence of a changed environment in the forma-

tion of new species and varieties. Ecology, Vol. ix, No. 3, p. 271.

* Hora, S. L., 1930. ‘‘Ecology, Bionomics and Evolution of the Torrential

fauna, with special reference to the organs of attachment.’’ Phil. Trans.

Royal Soc. “London. Series, B: Voll) 218). pp.. 171-282.

° Le Souef, 1930. Australian Zoologist, Vol. vi, p. 111. (I have not been

able to refer to this paper. R.B.S.S.)

* Sewell, R. B. S., 1930. ‘‘The Evolution of the Excretory System in

certain groups of the Furcocercous Cercariae.’’ Rec. Ind. Mus., Vol. xxxii (in

the Press).

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

pass through a stage, known as the Cercaria, in which they leave

their first host, a Mollusc, and take to a free-swimming life. So

far as one can judge, ‘there can @be but little ditterence vin ‘their

surroundings and yet in five or six instances there has occurred,

quite independently, a suppression of the posterior or ventral sucker.

A somewhat similar phenomenon, met with in certain other groups

of the animal kingdom, is the progressive variation, or the waxing

and waning of what Metcalfe’ terms ‘‘trends.’’ These trends may

arise in certain families and are not, apparently, directly connected

with the external surroundings though their inception must, I think,

have some ultimate external cause. The examples that Metcalfe

quotes are certain planktonic organisms or intestinal parasites,

both of which live under conditions as stable as one is likely to

find anywhere in nature. These trends are tendencies to vary in a

particular direction and may possibly be the result of a physiological

mutation, but even so they appear to have periodic fluctuations,

rising to a maximum and then waning again; and they may for a

time even be suppressed altogether but only to appear again later.

Such trends act’ and behave like other characters of the body;

and, like many other characters, they tend to appear in subsequent

stages of evolution at an ever earlier stage of development and in

some instances may, as a result of this, actually become harmful

to thet race.

Within recent years it has been shown that changes in environ-

ment may be accompanied by and in all probability themselves

produce physiological alterations in the body without causing any

corresponding morphological change, except possibly, one of bodily

size; in such cases even a detailed and careful examination fails to

reveal any difference in the structure of the various parts of the

organism, even the proportional sizes of the various parts remain-

ing the same. We thus get the formation of physiological or,

as they have been termed, Biological races within the limits of

the same single morphological species. Such races may be induced

by a variety of causes, such, for instance, as:

(1) changes in the external temperature conditions.

Individuals of a species may become acclimatised to either

high or to low temperatures and yet be unable to stand any

sudden change. In such cases individuals adapted to higher

temperatures are unable to inter-breed with those living

at a lower temperature. Exactly similar changes may be

induced by

(2) changes in the pH concentration of the surrounding medium,

or, |

(3) changes in Salinity.

Again, we may get changes in the physiological conditions of

the animal itself, as for instance—

(4) differences in the time of ripening of the genital organs, or

differences in habits during the breeding season, or,

1 Metcalfe, M. M., 1928. ‘Trends in Evolution: A discussion of data bearing

upon ‘Orthogenesis’”’. Journ. of Morphology and Physiology, Vol. xlv, Ope

ee Ge

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 351

(5) in the nature of the food and the resulting differences in the

vitamine supply that may cause a difference in the bodily

S1ze.

Any of the above causes may prevent the fertilisation of the

females of one race by the males of another, and we should thus

eet a physiological isolation, the effect of which will be quite

comparable, so far as the production of new species is concerned,

to that produced by spatial isolation.

There is also a growing mass of evidence that, quite apart from

any possible effect that it may have on the germ cells, an alteration

in the environment, using this term in its widest sense, may

produce an effect on the body as a whole and also on certain

groups of cells or organs within the body and may thus affect the

future structural and physiological condition of the organism. In

this connection it is interesting to note the very small limits of

the physical conditions within which life is possible. The known

range of the thermometer extends from -273° C to the upper extreme

that lies far beyond the condition known as white heat, approxi-

mately 20009 C; yet living organisms can only exist between the

ranges of 0° and roo® C. As Coleman! has pointed out, liquid

water is essential for the continuance of life. In some of the

lower organisms the individual can withstand being frozen for a

short time, and in the higher or warm-blooded animals their bodies

can for varying periods withstand an exposure below 0° C, but only

because the body retains its own temperature and thus prevents

the water in the system from freezing; water as a gas and water

as a solid will not serve the purpose of life, it must be in a liquid

condition. Doubtless changes in the external conditions can be

met by living organisms in a variety of ways and in my Presidential

address to the Indian Science Congress last month I put forward

evidence to show that either external conditions, using the term

in its widest sense, or the internal conditions of the parent may

so affect the developing animal as to cause the appearance of new

characters. Many of these changes are small and of but little

concern to the animal; yet, by the summation of such characters

brought about by natural selection, we may ultimately produce a

very marked change. Sewertzoff? has classified the evolutionary

changes that occur in the animal kingdom into four groups:

(1) Aromorphoses, or changes of both the structure and function

of organs or progressive evolution; |

(2) Idio-adaptations, or specialised adaptations to changing sur-

roundings ;

(3) Coenogenesis or embryonal adaptations; and

(4) Degeneration.

These two latter groups of changes are of a somewhat specialised

kind and I do not propose to consider them further; the other

two seem to me to differ from each other in degree rather than in

kind. In both cases they are the responses of the body to altered

environment and in the case of the Aromorphoses, that led to the

= Coleman,.,A: P.;. 1926._ Ice Ages.

? Sewertzoff, H. N

NV Olfx pu 50:

Recent and Ancient. New York.

-, 1929. ‘‘Directions of Evolution.’? Acta Zoologica,

352 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

origin of the great groups of the animal kingdom, occurred for

the most part, if not entirely, at those periods of the world’s

history when the earth itself was undergoing profound changes in

its physical condition. There is among some zoologists and espe-

cially among those who have attempted to study the Psychology of

the lower animals a growing tendency to regard the animal’s own

initiative as one of the most important factors in the evolution of

the race, though some appear to me to press the argument too far.

One cannot but admit that a change of function in an organ,

such as Sewertzoff postulates in the ‘‘aromorphoses’’, must in many

cases have been due to a large extent to the animal’s own activities.

The change from a simple branchial skeleton supporting the gill

arches in the primitive chordate to a definite mechanism for captur-

ing prey, with its upper and lower jaws, must very largely have

depended on the efforts of the animal and its use of the anterior

arches as a prehensile mechanism; again, in the torrent-inhabiting

forms, the development of a flattened body or prehensile claws,

that enable the ‘animal to lie close against the surface of, or to

cling to, a rock and thus allow the rush of water to pass harmlessly

by, could only have possessed survival value if the animal had

adopted a rock-frequenting habit, and it is possible that in a dim

and smaller degree the same initiative was active in the production

of new forms among the lowest animals.

Bidder has recently pointed out that a small change in the

animal’s structure or physiology, that under normal conditions may

be neither useful nor harmful, may, during the occurrence of a

‘‘cataclasm’’, become the deciding factor whether the possessor

shall survive or not; and if these cataclasms are repeated, even

if only at intervals of such immense length as 50,000 years, they

will have a great effect on the preservation and in determining the

character of the surviving fauna. Such cataclasms or rather cata-

clasmic periods seem to have occurred in the earth’s history on

five different occasions, in most cases associated with a definite

Glacial Period, and at or closely following each successive cata-

clasmic period there was a considerable development and evolution

of animal forms. In the accompanying chart I have attempted to

show graphically the time in the history of the earth at which

the great groups of the animal kingdom came into existence and

you will at once notice how early many of these great groups made

their appearance. The figure is based on a chart recently

published by Matthew', showing the probable Geological period

in which each of the main phyla arose, modified in places

in accordance with the views of Chamberlin and Salisbury’,

while on the left hand side, the wavy line, showing the periods of

instability of the earth’s crust is taken from Dudley-Stamp*. Life

probably began on the earth at some stage of the Eozoic or possibly

even in the Azoic Era, though up to the present time the earliest

_ ' Matthew, W. D., 1930. ‘‘The Pattern of Evolution’. Scientific American,

Sept... :p. 402.

* Chamberlin and Salisbury, Geology; Earth History. London.

* Stamp, L., Dudley, 1923. An Introduction to Stratigraphy, Fig. 4, p. 10.

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THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION 353

fossils that have been discovered are from the Proterozoic Era.

In the Huronian period of the Proterozoic Era we get the first

great period of instability and glaciation, and immediately following

this we find that by the end of the Proterozoic period evolution

had. advanced so far that the Protozoa, Sponges, Coelenterates,

Echinoids, Annelid worms, Crustacea, Pteropods, and Molluscoides

had all definitely made their appearance. At the close of the

Proterozoic Era in the Precambrian period there was a_ second

Glacial Epoch and immediately following this in the Cambrian we

get evidence of the existence of Gastropod .and Lammellibranch

Molluscs, while in the periods that follow we find the existence

of Cephalopods, Chordata, .and Vertebrates in the form of Fish;

while at the close of the Silurian period there is evidence of another

period of instability of the earth’s crust, though in this case

unaccompanied by any glacial epoch, and we now find the remains

of Crinoids, Reef-forming Corals, Arachnids (Scorpions, Spiders)

and in the Devonian Period of Insecta and Amphibia. Following

on the Carboniferous (Pennsylvanian) Period of the Palaeozoic

came the third great glacial epoch again accompanied by a period

of instability of the earth’s crust and this is followed in the

Permian by the appearance of Reptiles, while the Triassic and

Jurassic Periods of the Mesozoic saw the commencement of the

Birds and Mammals. From this stage there has been no new appear-

ance of Classes or Orders and for the most part evolution has been

limited to the appearance of new genera or species. The effects

on the animal population of the globe of this Carboniferous glacial

epoch are summed up by Coleman!’ in the following words: ‘‘The

Palaeozoic, the time of ancient life, ends with the Permian, when

most of the formerly dominant types of living beings disappear or

lose their importance, leaving the way open for new types to take

their place. This is true of land and sea and air. It was too

serious an ordeal for many creatures adjusted to warm waters, and

we find that Trilobities vanish, Corals and Brachiopods diminish

greatly and few of the many primitive sharks of the Palaeozoic

seas survive. The antiquated Ganoid fish with bony scales or

plates almost disappear. In their place come the more modern

and adaptable molluscs, Ammonites, bony fish, and great marine

reptiles. On the land the giant spore-bearing plants, horse-tails,

ground pines and tree ferns lose their supremacy and give place

to Conifers and Cycads, the forerunners of Mesozoic forests.

Among the Cryptogamic trees, there were many strange insects,

including forms like dragon-flies with a two-foot spread of wings.

The climax in size of the lower forms of plant and animal life, the

spore plants and the insects, passed with the long winter of the

Permocarboniferous Ice Age, leaving the way clear for the flowering

plants and flying vertebrates, such as the Pterodactyls and the

birds with teeth of the Mesozoic. On the land the small reptiles

which survived the cold rapidly multiplied and expanded into the

dinosaurs, which ruled the renovated continents after the Ice Age

disappeared.”’

1 Coleman, A. P., 1926. Ice Ages. Recent and Ancient. New York.

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

- Matthew! remarks ‘‘the period was a most important and critical

one in the evolution of land life for it witnessed the first great

expansion of land vertebrates and the origin, probably, of mammals,

birds, and the principal orders of reptiles, including dinosaurs.’’

The huge dinosaurs were, again, in their turn, destroyed by. or,

at any rate, at about the time of the Glacial Epoch in Eocene times

and finally it was the Glacial Epoch in Pleistocene times that gave

Man his opportunity and led to the evolution of Homo sapiens

from some primitive ancestor, such'as Homo heidelbergensis or

Homo neanderthalensis. |

I would remind you that the Hee assigned to the first appearance

of these great groups of the animal kingdom is dependent on the

discovery of fossil forms in the various strata and it may be that

future researches by geologists will throw. the origin of some of

these groups even further back. All that we can definitely state

at the present time is that each of the groups are known to have

been in existence at the period indicated. In this connection I may

refer again to the recent publication by Matthew! who believes

that nearly all the great groups originated at about the same time

in the Precambrian era; Austin Clark? has recently suggested that

the main evolutionary divisions took place at an even earlier stage.

He postulates that ‘‘from the single cell life, at its very first begin-

ning's, developed simultaneously and at once in every possible

direction. _ All of the phyla or major groups seems to be a simul-

taneous development. From each one of them a separate evolution-

ary tree arose, growing upwards through the ages.’’ He maintains

that so far back as Cambrian Times, at least, the major groups of

animals bore the same relationships to each other that they do

to-day and moreover that this Cambrian era is much nearer to the

present epoch than it was to the far distant time when life on earth

began. Dr. Hans. Przibram* throws the great changes in evolu-

tion even further back, and suggests that every species of Metazoan

has been derived, independently. of all others, from a distinct species

of Protozoan. Whichever of these. views: be right there seems but

little doubt that each successive Glacial Epoch or period of instabi-

lity of the earth’s crust has been responsible for less and less

advance in the evolutionary scale. No great group has appeared

since the Jurassic and Triassic Epochs, when the Mammals and

Birds first arose from the Reptiles, and by attaining to the condition

of Homoiothermy or warm-bloodedness were able to dominate all

the other groups of the animal kingdom.

As Langdon Brown* has ‘recently pointed out, ‘‘the most striking

thing about protoplasm is its incessant urge to assert itself as

strongly as its environment will permit. This is the real struggle

fon -existence..+2 alive mole OS) of the multicellular organisms

1 Matthew, W. D., 1923: ‘‘Recent Progress and Trends ‘in Vertebrate

Palaeontology.’’ Bull. Geol. Soc. Amer.,. Vol. xxxiv,.p. 404.

2 Austin H. Clark, 1930. ‘‘Zoogenesis’’ Scientific American, “Aug., p. 104.

*Przibram, H.,. Rev.sGen. 1Sct... Vol x1) (No: 310, 9p.zo- have not been

able to refer to this papers IR sB525.)0

4 Langdon Brown, W., 1930. “On Clinical Psychology” ‘St. Bartholomew’s

Hospital Journal, Vol. xxxvii, No. 10.

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION ,.:.° 399

is one of mutual adjustments between the different tissues, each

trying to do the best for itself within the limits of those adjust-

ments. And, similarly, the individual composed of such tissues

struggles to achieve the best it can within its environment, or to

change into a more favourable one. The dipnoid fish, gasping for

breath on the mud-flats and struggling with its spiky fins to reach

the land, was, no doubt, actuated by the need to escape from the

competition of life in the sea towards the abundant food-supply

on the land. From that successful struggle all the land Vertebrates

and ultimately man himself arose.’’ A study of the changes that

have been carried out in this process of evolution indicates that

protoplasm and the animal can react in one of two ways; the first of

these ways, and probably at the outset of evolution the only way,

was for the animal to react to and with its surroundings. In the

very early stages of life on the earth the temperature of living orga-

nisms was the same or nearly the same as that of the surrounding

medium; similarly the fluids of the body originally possessed the

same specific gravity as that of the surrounding fluid, and if, as

we believe, life originated in the sea these early animals were

exposed to an almost definite and constant salinity and to only

slight changes of temperature and gas content, while owing to the

permeability of the outer wall or ectoderm any changes in. the

surrounding medium were rapidly compensated by changes in the

animal itself. But as evolution progressed, we find that this adapt-

ability was given up and the animal began to react against its

environment or perhaps one should say to insulate itself against

environmental changes. Attention to this type of evolutionary pro-

cess has been drawn recently by Wardlaw‘. As he points out,

if the environment becomes too dry, the animal will surround itself

with an impermeable wall and will encyst. At a later stage with

the formation of a body, the body fluids at first possessed the

salinity of the medium in which the animal lived, namely, that of

the sea in which they originated, and doubtless fluctuated in accord-

ance with the slight variations in the external conditions, but

with the development of an ectoderm, that prevented the diffusion

of the body salts into the surrounding medium, any subsequent

change in the condition of the outer medium was without effect.

The osmotic pressure of the body fluids such as the blood is in

lower animals the same or very nearly the same is that of. the

surrounding medium. In Elasmobranchs the osmotic pressure of

the two fluids is practically identical. In the Teleosts we get,

however, the commencement of a controlling mechanism, for in the

Plaice the osmotic pressure of the sea-water may vary 74 per cent

while the osmotic pressure of the blood varies by only 20 per cent

whereas in the cod the osmotic pressure of the sea may vary in

different localities by 69 per cent but that of the cod’s blood only

by 3 per cent. One result of this stabilisation of the characters

of the body fluids was to render it possible for marine animals to

migrate into fresh water. Still later came the power of preventing

..2 Wardlaw, H. S. Halero, 1930. ‘‘Some Aspects of the Adaptation of Living

Organisms to their Environment.’’ Presidential Address, Proc. Linn. Soc.

NES. Wales; V-ole Iv.<P> V3: p. viii. a

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

the outer surface from drying up and the ability to absorb oxygen

from the air, and in consequence animals were able to leave a

watery medium and take to dry land.

This land migration was not limited to any one group of the

animal kingdom. It has taken place independently in at least

three of the great groups or Phyla. In the Mollusca the Pelecypoda

have been able to invade fresh water, but up to the present time

have not succeeded in populating the land. The Gastropoda, on

the other hand, have been able to do so, and we now find numerous

representatives that pass their whole existence out of water and

are able to protect themselves in time of drought by closing the

opening of their shell. The Cephalopoda, which are regarded as

being the most highly evolved of the Mollusca, have throughout

maintained their marine habitat. Again in the Arthropoda a num-

ber of Crustacea have taken to fresh water and some even to a

terrestrial existence, though most still have to return to water for

breeding purposes; the second and third great classes, the Insecta

and Arachnida, are nearly all terrestrial and breathe air, though

here again some have to pass through their early stages in water.

It is in the Vertebrata that the greatest and most complete change

of habitat has taken place. In the lowest class the fish are still

essentially aquatic, though a few have developed accessory respi-

ratory organs that enable them to breathe air. The Amphibia, as

their name implies, frequent both a watery and a dry habitat,

though here again their early life-stages are passed in water.

The Reptiles, Birds, and Mammals are essentially land dwellers,

though a few have again returned to an aquatic habitat.

Finally we get the stabilisation of the temperature of the body

in both the Birds and Mammals, or the condition known as ‘‘Homoi-

othermy’’; formerly the body temperature varied with that of the

outer air or water but its stabilisation in the warm-blooded animals

not only rendered them comparatively impervious: to the changes

of the outer medium but, being stabilised -at a moderately. high

temperature, enabled them to perform all the functions of the body

at a-much more rapid -rate than could be -done in animals

whose temperature not. only fluctuated but was. frequently. consider-

ably lowered in conformity with that of the outer air or water.

They thus have a distinct advantage over the cold-blooded animals.

In this connection it is interesting to note that the mechanism of

heat control is not so efficient in the lower mammals, Monotremes

and Marsupials, as it is in the higher forms, and also is not so

efficient in the young of these higher forms as it is in the adult;

in Echidna a variation in the temperature’ of 30° C results in a

change of 10° C in the body temperature. In some of the higher

vertebrates the warm-blooded condition is, however, not permanent,

but is replaced by a cold-blooded state of. ‘‘poikilothermy’’ during

hibernation.

In the highest group of animals the Vertebrates and even in

some of the Invertebrates this tendency on the part of the animal

to cut itself off from its external surroundings has been carried even

1 Pearse and Hall, 1928. Homoiothermism, p. 91, New York.

THE PROBLEM OF EVOLUTION iss Bok

further and has been supplemented by various devices that especially

protect the individual in the very early stages of its development.

In the lowest organisms eggs were and are laid in water and

possess only a thin and delicate membrane around them, so that

they are directly affected by changes in the external surroundings.

Exposure to air would cause their drying up and the consequent

death of the embryo, while changes in temperature would alter

the rate or character of development. Then came the stage when

the eggs were surrounded by a thicker covering, chitinous in some

cases or with a lime shell in others. Such a shell prevents eva-

poration, so that the eggs can now be laid on land and develop-

ment be expedited by the effect of the sun’s rays, while the

calcareous shell still further serves to protect the embryo from

such influences as ultraviolet rays”. Finally, animals tend to become

viviparous and development occurs in utero, where the embryo is

maintained in equable surroundings, completely protected from

changes in temperature, salinity or other changes in the external

conditions, since those of the parent remain constant. These

changes, however, did not take place simultaneously with the alter-

ation of the habit of the parent but followed, usually, at a later

period, though in some cases it has taken place in animals that

still inhabit their old ancestral environment, the sea. In the

Elasmobranch fishes, for instance, the eggs are usually enclosed

in tough chitinous egg-capsules, but in a few cases the process of

intra-uterine gestation has been attained. In the Amphibia, while

the lower forms still respire by gills, the higher are able to breathe

air when adult, but they nearly all still lay their eggs, surrounded

by a thin capsule and enclosed in a gelatinous matrix, in water,

though some, such as the Java tree-frog, lay their eggs in a nest

made of a rolled leaf. The Reptiles, however, acquired the method

of enclosing their eggs in a thick chitinous shell, and were thus

able to deposit them on land; and in certain cases the chitin of the

shell is still. further strengthened by the addition of calcium salts.

The Birds enclose their eggs in a shell impregnated with calcium

carbonate and have adopted the process of: incubation, thus protect-

ing the developing offspring from variations in temperature, and in

all these cases, in addition to this provision of a protecting shell,

the egg is supplied with a large amount of nutrient material or

yolk, that enables the developing young to pass a considerable time

within this protection and to reach a comparatively advanced stage

of development before it has to become exposed to the varying

character of the external surroundings. Finally, the Mammals have

evolved the method of intra-uterine gestation, though here again

the process was somewhat delayed, for the most primitive mammals,

the Monotremata, still lay eggs, while in the Marsupials intra-

uterine gestation is extremely short, the young embryos being trans-

ferred to the Marsupial pouch. The result of this is that there

has throughout been a steadily progressive protection of the develop-

ing embryo from its external surroundings, so that environmental

1 Hinrechs, Marie A., 1927. ‘‘Modification of development on the basis of

differential susceptibilities to radiation.’’? Journ. Exper. Zool., Vol. xlvii, Pp. 309.

358 JOURNAL, ROMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

changes can no longer reach the embryo at that stage of its existence

in which it is most, if not only, susceptible to such influences.

In a similar manner. the introduction into the body of any sub-

stance is, if the introduction does not prove fatal, immediately

counteracted by the production in the body of a substance that can

neutralise the effect of the foreign materials; thus the introduction

of an acid causes the production of an alkali, a toxin is met by

the production of an anti-toxin, etc. In a number of cases, if not

in all, the body overdoes the process, so that not only is the

toxin. neutralised but a superfluity of the anti-toxin is produced

so that subsequent poisoning by the same toxin becomes more

difficult or impossible, and this effect appears in some degree to be

transmitted to the offspring.

It thus appears that throughout the later stages of evolution the

animal has been steadily cutting off both itself and its offspring

from its external surroundings and thus has equally throughout its

whole life been cutting itself off from just those influences that in

times past were responsible for the origin and gradual development

of new forms and higher races. Wardlaw! concludes his address

as follows: ‘‘We have in man, then, the most perfect adaptation

to environment shown by any form of life. So great is his power

of modifying his surroundings, and so rapidly is this power increas-

ing that it would seem that further adaptation of his physical

structures has become unnecessary.’’ I would, on the other hand, be

inclined to postulate that man has, or in the very near future will

have, rendered himself so independent of his environment that this

will no longer be able to affect his physical characters and that if

there is to be any further evolution, this must be the result of his

own mental processes.

1 Wardlaw, H. S. Halero, 1930. ‘‘Some Aspects of the Adaptation _ of

Living Organisms to their Environment.’’ Presidential Address, Proc, Linn,

Soc. N.S, Wales, Vol. lv, Pt. I, p. Vili, ;

ON A SMALL COLLECTION OF FISH FROM THE STREAMS IN THE

BILLIGIRIRANGAN HILLS (S. INDIA).

D. D; MUKERSJI, M..Sc.,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(Published with the permission of the Director, Zoological Survey of

India.)

This note deals with a small collection of fish made by Mr. R. C. Morris in

the various streams in the Billigirirangan Hills on the Mysore-Coimbatore

border in South India at altitudes varying from 2,500 to 5,000 feet. The

collection was made at the request of Dr. S. L. Hora through the courtesy of

the Bombay Natural History Society and recently sent to the Zoological Survey

of India for identification. I am thankful to Dr. Hora for the opportunity of

studying these fishes. -

The collection comprises eight different species belonging to the families

Cobitidee, Cyprinidz and Ophicephalide. All the species are known to

occur in South India, and, except for a few on which notes are given below, do

not call for special remarks. Mention must, however, be made of the excellent

state of preservation of the material as a result of which the natural colouration

of the different species is admirably preserved.

The details of localities, Kanarese local names, etc., are quoted verbatim from

the original notes of Mr. Morris. The local: names, however, are not meant to

be absolutely correct, for, the collector himself ‘remarked that. he*' cannot

vouch for the correctness of the names.’

Lepidocephalichthys thermalis (Cuv. e¢ Val.).

1846. Cobitis thermalis, Cuvier et Valenciennes, Nat. Hist. Poisson, XVIII,

p. 78.

1878. Lepidocephalichthys thermalis, Day, Fish. India, p. 610, pl. lv.

je leaice

1927. Lepidocephalichthys therinallis, Rao & Seshachar, Half-yearly Journ.

Mysore Untv., I, No. 2, p. 10.

The height of the none is contained rote 6 to 64 times in the length of the

body excluding the caudal fin. The origin of the ventrals is vertically below

the first or the second branched ray of the dorsal fin.

The upper portion of the body is clouded with irregular black spots and

blotches. In fairly grown-up specimens there are from 9 to 10 blackish bands

along the back. Along the lateral line, there isa series of squarish black

marks. The lower portion of the body is devoid of pigmentation. The fins,

except the dorsal and the caudal, are diaphanous. Both the dorsal and the

caudal fins have from 4 to 5 black curved bands. In some cases, these bands

are broken up into irregular dots, «A deep black spot at the base of the upper

lobe of the caudal fin is present in all the specimens.

The species is known to inhabit-the bottom mud or sand of rivers and ponds

where it usually lies buried. Sundara Raj 1 has observed how this fish dives

into the sand at the bottom of an aquarium. He further remarked that the

‘* branchial respiration appears to be insufficient in this loach. In an aquarium,

it grows restless at various intervals and rises to the surface to take air, which

is apparently swallowed, consequently it Jives for a long time out of water,”

1 Sundara Raj, B.—‘‘ Notes on Fresh- water Fish of Madras.’’ Rec. ee Mus,

XII, pp. 261-262, (1916).

360 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ATST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Nine specimens varying from 30 to 45 mm, in length were collected. The

species is ‘‘ found in all streams, in evergreen sholas and deciduous jungle and

bamboo scrub below all elevations. ts

‘« WYurralli’’ is the local Kanarese name of this loach.

Nemachilus striatus Day.

1867. Nemachilus striatus, Day, Proc. Zool, Soc. London, p. 347.

1878 Nemachilus striatus, Day, Fish. India, p. 617, pl. cliii, fig. 8.

This species was originally described by Day from Wynaad at 3,000 ft. eleva-

tion, but his description of the species is so inadequate, and the Indian Species

of the genus Nemachilus are in such a state of confusion at present that it is

difficult to be certain about the specific identity of this fish. As Dr. S. L.

Hora is already tackling the problem with a view to definitely define the specific

limits and characters of the different species, I refrain from giving a detailed

description of VV. s¢rzatus, but provisionally refer the South Indian specimens to

this species.

There are 10 to 12 vertical black bands along the sides. The dorsal fin is of

an orange colour with two black bands. The characteristic black band at the

base of the caudal fin is present in all the specimens.

The fish is represented in the collection by three specimens varying from

32 to 37 mm. in length. Itis ‘‘ found in all streams at eastern toot of hills

(elev. 3,000 ft.), place—Mavatur, name of stream—Bellaji Halla. Stream heavily

shaded.’’

The Kanarese call this loach ‘‘ Av/l-koorchi ’’.

Nemachilus evezardi Day.

1878. Nemachilus Evezardi, Day, Fish. India, p. 613, pl. cliii, fig. 11.

1927. Nemachilus ‘evezardi, Rao & Seshachar, Halt-yearly Une: Mysore

(uzo, As No. 2p, il

The length of the head is contained from 5 to 54 and the height of the body

from 6 to 62 in the length of the body excluding the caudal fin. ‘The eyes are

small and are about two diameters from the tip of the snout. The width of the

inter-orbital space is almost equal to the Jength of the snout. ‘The pectoral fins

are shorter than the head. ‘The nasal barbels are longer than the diameter of

the orbit and almost reach the anterior fourth of the eyes.

The colouration is a faint olivaceous green with a number of vertical black

bars and blotches irregularly distributed.

The species is represented in the collection by six well- -preserved specimens

varying from 35 to 42 mm. in length. They are ‘‘ found in rocky streams at

eastern foot of hills (elev. 3,000 ft.), place—Mavatur, name of stream—Bellaji

Halla. Stream heavily shaded.’’

The Kanarese do not apparently distinguish this species from NV. striatus as

both the species are locally known as ‘* Kull-koorchi”’’.

Garra sp.

There is a single specimen about 30 mm. long which appears to agree in all

essential characters with G. /amta (Ham. Buch.), but since all immature forms

of Garra show a wide range of variability in respect to specific characters, I

refrain from referring it to any definite species.

The specimen was found with the two species of Vemachilus referred to above

and collected in the ‘‘ rocky stream at eastern foot of hills (elev. 3,000 ft.) place—

Mavatur, name of stream—Bellaji Halla. Stream heavily shaded.”’

Barbus dorsalis (Jerdon),

1849. Systomus dorsalis, Jerdon, Madras Journ. Lit, & Sct.. XV, p. 314.

1878. Barbus dorsalis, Day, Fish. India, p. 573, pl. exlii, fig. 2.

1916. Barbus dorsalis, Sundara Raj, Rec. Ind. Mus., XII, p. 255.

The species is represented in the collection by a single young specimen about

45 mm, long excluding the caudal fin. The dorsal fin is inserted slightly in

Pe tty

FISH FROM THE BILLIGIRIRANGAN AILLS 361

advance of the ventrals and is situated nearer to the tip of the snout than to the

base of the caudal fin. There are two prominent black spots, one each at the

base of the dorsal and caudal fins. ‘These spots are often absent in adult indivi-

duals. The upper portion of the body is dusky, and the bases of the scales are

blackish. ‘The belly is yellowish white.

The species is common ‘‘ in all small streams (elev. 3,000 to 5.000 ft.) in shola,

deciduous and scrub jungles.”’

‘“* Kull-kooni’’ is the local Kanarese- name of this fish.

~ Rasbora daniconius (Ham, Buch,),

1822. Cyprinus daniconius & anjana, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges,

pp.) 327-329-391, pl. xv; fis. 89:

1878. Rasbora daniconius, Day, Fish, India, p 584, plexivi;, fie7.2;

1929. Rasbora daniconius, Prashad & Mukerji, ec, Ind. Mus. XXXI, p. 203.

The diameter of the eyes is contained from 4 to 44 times in the length of the

head; they are 14 to 1% diameters apart. The snout is almost equal to or

slightly longer than the diameter of the eyes.

The dorsum is dusky. There isa black streak running along the median

dorsal line from occiput to the insertion of tiie caudal fin. A very prominent

transverse broad black band runs along the middle of the body from the snout

to the base of the caudal fin. In some specimens, the scales of the upper

portion of the body have dark edges. ‘The fins are diaphanous.

The species is represented in the collection by eight specimens, the largest

being 85 mm. inlength. It is ‘‘ found ina big stream at Punjur (western foot

of hills) elev. 2500 ft. Partially shaded, rocky and sandy.”’

*« Sessillu’’ is the local Kanarese name of the species.

Barilius gatensis (Cuv. ef Val.).

1844, Leuciscus gatensis, Cuvier & Valenciennes, A/zst. Nat. Poisson, XVII,

p: 309,- pl. 503,

1878. Bavibius gatensis, Day, fash. India, p. 592, pl..exlix, fig: 2.

1931. Barilius gatensis, Mukerji, Journ. Bombay. Nat. Hist, S0C.5 NO, Oe

p. 169.

Very thin maxillary barbels are present in all the specimens. The number

of vertical black bars along the sides varies from 9to13. The dorsal fin has

a triangular white outer area. The anal fin hasadark base. A bright pink

band and a white outer streak run parallel to it. The pectorals and ventrals

have similar pink bands. ‘The cheek and the belly are of a light pink

colour.

Seven well-preserved specimens were collected. The largest of the series is

88 mm. long. The species was found in (i) ‘‘rocky stream at eastern foot of

hills (elev. 3,000 ft.), place—Marealut, name of stream—Bellaji Halla. Stream

heavily shaded ’’, and (ii) ‘‘ in a big stream at Punjur (western foot of hills),

elev. 2,500 ft. Partially shaded, rocky and sandy ’’.

‘* Genday”’ is the local Kanarese name of this fish.

Ophicephalus gachua (Ham. Buch.).

1822. Ophiocephalus gachua, Hamilton Buchanan, Fish. Ganges, pp. 68, 367,

; pik xxi ofc. .216

1878. Ophiocephalus gachua, Day, Fish. India, p. 367.

1929. Ophiocephalus gachua, Prashad & Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., XXXI, p.

215,

Two half-grown specimens were ‘‘ found in a big stream at Punjur (western

foot of hills) elev. 2,500 ft. Partially shaded, rocky and sandy.’’

‘ Kworamin’’ is the local Kanarese name of the species.

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS.

Er -COn:- FE BY SCOTT, A. EELS:

(With 3 plates and 9 text-figures.)

~The Hawkmoths belong to the Natural Order Lepidoptera, or

scale-winged insects. ‘This Order is divided into the Butterflies

(Rhopalocera), which have the antennez ending in a club, and the

moths (Heterocera), which have the antenna of various forms other

than clubbed at the ends. The moths are divided into Groups, and

the Groups into Families, the Hawkmoths or Sphingide being one

of the Families. The scientific name is derived from ‘ sphinx’, the

designation used by Réaumur for the English Privet Hawkmoth, on

account of the fancied Sphinx-like attitude adopted by the cater-

pillar when it is alarmed, and the name was later adopted by

Linneeus for the whole Family.

DISTRIBUTION AND FOoD-PLANTS.

There are but 17 species of Hawkmoths known to occur in the

British Isles, and some of them are only rare visitors. In the Indian

Empire about 180 species are known to occur, out of a total of about

850 species known throughout the world. Some of the Indian

species are very common, others so rare that only one or two

individuals have so tar been obtained. Some of the species are

widely spread, others very local in their occurrence. A few of the

species which are found in Eagland are found also in India. These

are the Convolvulus, Broad-bordered Bee, Oleander, Humming-bird,

Spurge, Bedstraw, Striped and Silver- striped Hawkmoths. Two

species of Death’s-head Hawkmoths are found in India, but they are

not the same as the ails species. These are the only species

which have been given ‘common’ names. The rest are known only

by their scientific names.

Certain parts of India are more rich in species than other parts.

Areas with a heavy rainfall and a large variety of trees and plants

produce the largest number, and dry areas with poor vegetation the

smallest number, though individuals of certain species may occur in

vast numbers in both wet and dry areas, becoming serious pests on

crops and‘ other plants. Probably many new species remain to be

discovered, but of those now known 58 species occur in the west

Himalaya (west of Nepal), 128 species in the east Himalaya (east of

Nepal, and including Assam), 73 species in the South of India and 40

in Burma, Many more species must occur in Burma, but very little

coliecting has been done there. The North Kanara district of

Southern India is very rich, having over 45 species in an area of

JOURN. BomBaAy Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate I,

INDIAN HAWKMOTHS.

I. Oxyambulyx sericetpennis, Butl. Q@ 2. Rhagastis albomarginatus, Rothsc.,

3. Marumba sperchius, Ménétries. ¢@ 4. Theretra nessus, Drury. 5. Rhopalopsyche

nycteris, Kollar. One of the Humming-Bird Hawkmoths. 6. Langia zenzeroides,

Moore. 7. Clanis thalaris, Huebner

. NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS _ 363

3,600 sq. miles. The distribution of the species overlaps, some of

them occurring in more than one of the areas mentioned. The

plains area of Northern India has no special Hawkmoth fauna of its

own, but receives contributions from the surrounding areas. ‘The

information on this subject . is very scanty and it is worth recording

the locality where any Hawkmoth is obtained.

The distribution of the moths is dependent to a great extent on

that of the food-plants on which the caterpillars feed, though the

moths are such fast fliers that they may be found a long way away

from the nearest food-plant. Some species feed on a wide range of

food-plants, others confine themselves to one or more. ‘The food-

plant on which any Hawkmoth caterpillar is found feeding should

also be recorded. Plants belonging to the botanical Order Rubzaceez,

to which Randia, Gardenia, Madder, Bedstraw and other shrubs,

herbs and creepers belong, is the most popular food-plant, about 30

species feeding on piants of this Order. Vines (Grape vine, Virginia

creeper, Zeea) and Arums (Garden arum, Caladium, Cuckoo-pint,

Snake plant) are the next most popular, with about 16 species each.

Leguminous trees and plants (Indian Beech, Shisham, Indian

Laburnum, Shiras, Gram, Pulse) come next, followed by Balsams

and Spurge. Altogether about 50 Orders of plants are represented

in the list of Hawkmoth food-plants known up to the present,

ranging from the largest trees to the most insignificant herbs, and

including even grasses. ss

THE HAWKMOTH.

I have often heard the questions asked ‘ What is a Hawkmoth ?

How can one tell a Hawkmoth from ally other kind of moth ?’

In order to do so with certainty, it is necessary to make a minute

exainination of the veins of the wings and of the organs of the body,

but for all practical purposes something more simple will suffice.

Hawkmoths can usually be recognised by their characteristic

appearance and habits. ‘The fore-wing is long, narrow and sharply

pointed ; the hind-wing short and rounded ; the eyes large ; the chest

or thorax heavy; the body or abdomen shaped like a cigar, or like

the pointed end of a cigar. ‘This last character is sometimes

obscured by lateral tufts of hairs giving the impression ui a broad

tail, such as occurs in the Huinming-bird Hawkmoths and a few

other genera (Plate I, fig. 5); but the other characters are present, and

also the clean-cut, high-bred appearance common to all Hawkmoths

(Plate I). Finally, if when strolling in your garden in the evening

you notice a moth, poised almost motionless except for its rapidly

vibrating wings in frent of a flower, suddenly darting away and as

suddenly re-appearing, and never settling, you may be sure you are

observing a Hawkmoth, since no ‘other kind of moth is known to

feed in this manner. If you look.more closely you will see that

when poised before the flower, the, moth unrolls a long tongue or

proboscis, and probes the flower for honey. All Hawkmoths which

have been seen feeding, with the single exception of the Death’s-

head Hawkmoths, have this habit of feeding when on the wing.

The Death’s-head. moths are known to enter bee-hives to, steal the

honey. The vibration of the wings makes a deep humiing note

364 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

when the moth is flying, and some species produce a similar note

when at rest, if they are disturbed.

The Hawkmoth caterpillar can be recognised by the hard,

chitinous horn on segment 12, though a few caterpillars of other

families have a somewhat similar, but soft fleshy horn.

Tur Ecc.

The eggs of Hawkmoths are round or oval, and are most

commonly of a green coiour with a translucent appearance, like a

tiny, green grape, but ihey may be almost white or pale. yeliow, or

more rarely brown or orange, in different species. The egg-shell

is cither smooth and shiny, or dull, and no sculpturing is visible to

the naked eye. The eggs of different species vary a good deal in

size, the smallest being about 1 mm. in length, and the largest about >

3inm, The average size is about that of a pin’s head.

Fig. 1. A Hawkmoth caterpillar, showing segments. 1 (the head) to 14

(the anal segment).

a, the antenna; 6, the true legs; ¢, a spiracle, or breathing hole ; d, the

prolegs ; e, the anal clasper ; /, the horn.

THE CATERPILLAR OR LARVA (FIc. 1).

The Hawkmoth caterpillar, like other insects, has a head and

thirteen other segments. There are different ways of numbering

these segments, but we have adopted the method shown in figure 1,

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. Soc. Plate ITI.

INDIAN HAWKMOTHS.

1. Acherontia stvx, Westw. One of the Death’s-Head Hawkmoths. Note the twice

curved horn and oblique stripes. 2. Psilogyramma menephron, Cramer. Note the wart-

like tubercles and oblique stripes. 3. Cephonodes hylas, Linn.; in Sphinx-like attitude.

Note the tubercles on segment 2 and horn, and the spiracles. 4. Pseudodolbina fo, W1k.

Note the wart-like tubercles and oblique stripes. 5. Marumba sperchius, Ménétries.

Note the tubercles all over, and the oblique stripes. 6. Clanis phalaris, Huebner.

Note the very small horn, tubercles and oblique stripes. 7. Rhagastis albomarginatus,

Rothe. Note the conical ocelli, and oblique stripes.

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 365

counting the head as segment 1, the segment next to the head as

segment 2, and soon. The body of the caterpillar is usually round

in section, and is more or less cylindrical in some species (Pi. II,

figs. 1 to 6), and in other species increases rapidly in diameter from

the head to segment 5, and then becomes cylindrical to segment 12

(rig tiene.t/ bi Wil nes. di 2). Segment 2.5 and 4 each bear a

pair of true legs. These are hard and shiny, have three joints and a

claw for gripping at the tip (ig. 1. b). They are called ‘true legs’

as they occur on the same segments as they do in the moth.

Segments 5 and 6 are without legs. Segments 7 to 10 each have a

pair of pro-legs or false legs (fig. 1d). These legs are not present at

all in the moth. They are fleshy and soft, with a circular pad set all

round with curved hooklets, which enable the caterpillar to obtain a

firm grip on any surface. Segments 11 to 13 are again without legs,

but segment 14 bears the axzal claspers (fig, 1 e). The anal claspers

aré similar to the pro-legs but have a still larger gripping surface.

‘So tightly does the caterpillar cling to any rough surface that if it is

pulled away, the ends of the pro-legs and claspers are sometimes torn

off. Segments 2 and 5 to 12 each have a pair of spiracles or breath-

ing holes (fig. 1c). These, with the air-tubes or /vacheae which start

from them and spread through the tissues of the body, supplying

them with oxygen, take the place of the breathing apparatus in

manimals, birds and reptiles. The spiracles are oval in shape and

have a central slit or opening down the long axis. They are of

different colours in different species. Those on segments 2 and 5 to

11 are placed vertically in about the middle of the segments, and

that on segment 12 obliquely. Segment 12 bears the horn which is

so characteristic of Hawkmoth caterpillars (fig. 1 f). Segment 13 is

narrow and rather difficult to make out sometitnes, as it is wedged

between segments 12 and 14. Just above the anal claspers on

segment 14 is the anal flap, a fleshy

triangular flap which covers the anus.

The head (fig. 2) is made up of

separate chitinous plates fused to-

gether into one piece. The front

part of the head is called the face.

This is made up of <a triangular

plate called the clyfeus (fig. 2, a) and

the frontal portion of the two lobes

(fig,/2, b).. The sides of the head are

called the cheeks. Projecting from

the lower part of each cheek are the

antenne (fig. 1, a and fig. 2, c). These

have three joints, and two bristles, a

long and a short one, at the tips of

the end joint. The bases fit into

sockets in the cheek, and the whole

organ is moveable. The function

of the antenne is not known with

certainty. Between the antenne are the powerful jaws or mandibles

(fig. 2, d) with their bases also set in sockets in the cheeks. They

are wedge-shaped, curved near the tips, with bevilled edges working

Fig. 2. Head of a Hawkmoth

Caterpillar.

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

against each other sideways, and are used to cut pieces from the

leaf when feeding. Behind the mandibles are mouth-parts called the

labrun (fig. 2 e) and the /7gula (fig. 2 f) which come into play when

the catterpillar 1s feeding. Above the base of each antenna is a

group of five eyes directed forwards, anda sixth eye is near the

base of the antenna but directed downwards (fig. 2 g). These are

very small, hardly visible to the naked eye, but under a magnifying

glass appear as circular, convex, black dots. It is doubtful if the

caterpiliar can see more than a few inches with these eyes. Behind

and below the mandibles is a small cone with a perforated tip, which

is the spzzneret from which a thread of silk can be spun at will.

PUPA OR CHRYSALIS (fig. 3, 4 and 5):

The Hawkmoth pupa has a shell or casing of hard chitinous

material, inside which the moth forms. The pupa has the same

number of segments as the caterpillar. The head (segment 1), the:

thorax (segments 2 to 4) and segments 5 to 8 of the abdoinen are

ali fused together so that they are immoveable, but the remaining

segments of the abdomen are jointed and moveable (fig. 3). The

Fig. 3, Pupa or Chrysalis of a Hawkmoth.

_ A. Ventral view ; a, the head; 4, foreleg; c, midleg ; d, antenna ; é, tongue ;

f, aspiracle ; g, cremaster ; /, wings. | ee ;

- B, Lateral view.—a, head; 6, eye; c, antenna; d, foreleg; e, midleg;

f, spiracle; g, cremaster ; 2, wings. . iit DAYS tA .

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 367

head is usualiy round and blunt, the abdomen pointed as in the moth,

the body being thickest in the middle. The case is so moulded that

the position of the head, eye, tongue, fore and middie legs, the

antennae, folded-up wings and the body of the future moth can be

seen (fig. 3). The tongue runs down the middle of the ventral

surface, and may or may not reach the end of the wing-cases. On

either side of it are the lower part of the fore legs, then the middle

legs and then the antenne. The hind legs are concealed under the

edge of the wing-cases, which start near the antennz and reach about

half way down the ventral surface of the pupa. At the end of

segment 14 is the cremaster (fig. 3, g). This is an organ of hard

chitinous substance, which is either triangular or spike-shaped, and

tisually branches into two points. These points may again divide

into two, and there may be one or more pairs of small hooks. The

shape of the cremaster and the arrangement of the hooklets provide

a valuable means of identifying different species in the pupal

stage. The cremaster does not appear to perform any function

except when provided with hooklets. When these are present they

are used to fix the tip of the abdomen to a pad of silk woven by the

caterpillar at the end of the cocoon. Spiracles are present on

segments 2-and 5 to 12 as im the caterpillar, though that on segment

5 is concealed by the edge of the wing-case.

In some species of Hawkmoth the tongue is very long, and. it

cannot be accomimodated in a pupal case shaped as in figure 3. Itis

then housed (to use a mechanical term) in a special hollow casing

which projects in front of the head of the pupa (fig. 4). The Convol-

Tongue case

Tip of tongue

Fig. 4, Chrysalis of Hawkmoth with tongue case.

vulus Hawkmoth (and a few other species) has such an excessively

long tongue that it cannot be accommodated even in this manner,

and it is then housed in a free tongue-case (fig. 5). The tongue

Tip of tongue Free tongue case .

Fig. 5. Chrysalis of Hawkmoth with free tongue case.

starts from the front of the head, runs along the case to its bulbous

end where it turns back on itself and re-joins the head casing, then

368. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

runs between the wing-cases to the end of the latter. ‘This free

tongue-case looks like the handle of a jug.

In colour the pupa is chestnut or dark-brown in the case of those

species which ptipate underground, and of various colours, with

dark or pale dots, stripes or patches in the case of those which

pupate on the surface. The surface of the pupal case may be

smooth and shiny, or duil, and is sometimes shagrcened or covered

with small tubercles, and sculpturing is sometimes present on

segment 4 or near the spiracles and head.

-MoTH OR IMAGO

The general appearance of the Hawkmoth has been already

described. Those who wish to study the structure are referred to

Rothschild and Jordon's great work on the Hawkmoths, Tzhe

Revision of the Sphingide, in Novitate’s Zoologice Vol. 1X, Supple-

ment (1903).

LIFE History AND HABITS

The Hawkmoths, with very few exceptions, lay their eggs singly,

usually on the undersides of the leaves of the food-plant or plants

on which their caterpillars feed. Each egg is stuck firmly to the leaf

or twig with some sort of gum secreted by the moth. The opera-

tion of egg laying has not been observed in natural conditions in

the vast majority of Hawkmoths, as it is usually carried out after

dark, but a few day-flying species have been seen laying their

eggs, and they have done it on the wing, without settling. While

poised delicately over a leaf or a young shoot, the tip of the

abdomen is turned up or down and an egg quickly deposited. The

moth then darts away to repeat the operation elsewhere. Whena

large number of females of any species are engaged in egg laying,

several eggs may be found on a single leaf or plant but they are

alniost certainly laid singly at different times by the same or different

. females. Most butterflies, and afew moths also lay their eggs

singly, but the eggs of butterflies can usually be distinguished from

those of Hawkmoths by being of various shapes, and by the shells

being sculptured into patterns visible to the naked eye. The eggs

of some of the swallow-tail butterflies are very similar to Hawkmoth

eggs, and one might be taken in by the resemblance until the

young caterpillars hatch out. All doubt is then dispelled by the

presence or absence of the horn which is the distinguishing mark of

the Hawkmoth.

The egg usually becomes paler in colour a few days after being

laid, owing to the transparent shell allowing the colour of the

caterpillar which is forming inside to be seen. If the egg is

examined under a fairly strong magnifying glass just before the

young caterpillar is due to emerge, the head and some parts of the

body may be made out.

The young caterpillar or eg g-caterpillar comes out in 5 to 10 days

after the egg is laid, the larger species usually taking a longer time

to hatch than the smaller species. ‘The egg-caterpillar eats a hole in

AP ees

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 369

the side of the egg-shell, and makes its way out in a minute or so.

Most commonly it is of a pale yeilow colour, including the horn, but

the horn soon becomes.black. The body is covered with hairs which

are visible to the naked eye in some species. The caterpillar eats

more or less of the egg-shell for its first meal and after resting for

a time along the midrib or a vein of the leaf, starts to eat the leaf

itself. It often eats small holes in the middle of the leaf ai first,

and tackles it from the edge when it grows a bit bigger. After

feeding for a few days the body becomes too big, not for its boots,

but for its head and legs, which are unable to stretch like the skin

of the body does. ‘The caterpillar then settles down to change its

skin and acquire a larger head. It lies motionless along a midrib

or vein for some hours, and then the new larger head may be seen

forming under the skin behind the old head. The old head is

pushed forward till the skin breaks round the neck. Then by an

undulating movement of the body the old skin is worked back,

until, with a waggle of the claspers it is cast off, and the old head is

also got rid of. Some species eat the cast-off skin. After resting

for a time the caterpillar starts feeding again, and when the body

becomes too large for the head it changes its skin again. In most

species there are four such changes of skin before the caterpillar

reaches the final or mature stage (each stage being called an zustar),

moult. The ocelli or other markings gradually develop, and the

shape of the body and of the horn may differ in each successive

“moult. The caterpillar feeds more and more voraciously as it

nears maturity, then suddenly stops feeding and remains motionless

for about 24 hours. During this period of rest it often becomes of

a darker colour in preparation for its descent to the earth, green

caterpillars assuming a pink or brown suffusion along the back, and

dark-coloured caterpillars becoming still darker. _

Suddenly leaving the food-plant the caterpillar begins to look for

a suitable place to pupate. Those species which pupate under-

ground get very agitated and hurry along the ground with a quick

undulating motion, and if touched, lash their bodies wildly from side

to side. Their pro-legs and claspers gradually lose their power of

gripping, and the caterpillar falls over lumps of earth and other

obstructions in its anxiety to get safely underground. When it finds

a soft place, it immediately starts digging with its head, and very

soon disappears under the surface. It may dig down to a depth of

6 or 8 inches, and there makes a large oval cell in which it turns to

a pupa.

The species which pupate on the surface (these are the larger

number) do not have to travel so far to find a suitable spot, and are

more leisurely in their movements. They crawl under dead leaves

and vegetation, and make a rough cocoon by joining leaves, earth

and rubbish together with a few strands of siik from the spinneret. -

The change to a pupa takes place from two to ten days after

going underground or starting the cocoon, but in one or two species,

may not take place for several months. The change to the pupa is

not carried out in the same way as the moults in the caterpillar.

When ready to pupate, the head of the caterpillar splits down the

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

front, and the head of the pupa is pushed through the slit. The

skin of the caterpillar, with the head attached to it in two halves, is

then worked back over the body of the pupa. The pupa is at first

soft and shapeless, and the sheaths or cases which will later

on contain the antennee, legs, wings and tongue are separate from

the body, but they soon fall into their final positions and become

firmly tused to the body. The pupal case hardens and assumes

its final form and colouring. After. lying nearly motionless for a

period of from a fortnight to several months, according to the species

and the time of year and other factors, the pupal shell splits open

along the dorsal Jine of the thorax, the head and tongue case breaking

_ away together, and the moth emerges and dries its wings, and darts

away to feed and find a mate. After mating, the male dies, the

female lays her eggs to start a fresh brood and then she also dies.

This is a short outline of the life history of the Hawkmoth.

There are many variations, some common to whole subfamilies or

genera, others peculiar to certain species, but it is not possible to

give more than a general account in these notes.

COLOUR AND MARKINGS.

When first hatched, the Hawkmoth caterpillar is usually some

shade of pale yellow or yellow-green, and is without markings. In

a few cases only the colour is brown or black. After feeding fora

time the green colour of the food sometimes shows through the body,

giving it a green tinge. In the second and chird instars, that is,

after the first and second changes of skin, the colour is usually

green, and the oblique stripes and other markings begin to appear.

Where the mature caterpillar has the eye-like markings called oce//z,

these first show as round spots of a uniform colour, and develop

with each change of skin till they reach their final form. Inthe

greater number of species the colour remains green in the fourth

and fifth instars (the fifth usually being the final instar before the

caterpillar pupates), but there is in some cases a startling change in

the fifth instar, the ground colour of the head and body changing

from green to brown, black or purple. The oblique stripes and

other markings may remain unchanged or may be greatly modified.

Even in the case of those species in which the colour is normally

green till maturity, individual caterpillars may assume this dark form

of colouring in the final or in earlier instars, and in a few species

there are three or more differently coloured forms. The various -

forms are so unlike each other in colour and sometimes in markings

as well, that one would not believe them to be the same species,

but the moths bred from the different forms are identical. There

are other cases where the change to a dark form is not coimnplcte,

certain individuals developing dark patches which do not cover the

whole body. Inthe few cases where the egg-caterpillar is black,

the colouring may remain black (or dark) throughout, or there may

be both dark and green forms. The different cases may be

summarised as follows, in the order of their occurrence in nature :—

_.: (a) The caterpillar is always green in the earlier instars, later

has both:a green and a dark form, or three or more different

forms. ;

——

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 37

(6) The caterpillar is always green from birth to maturity.

has a green form with or without dark patches.

(d) The caterpillar is always Ecc until the Jast instar, always

dark in the last instar.

(e) The caterpillar is dark in the earlier instars and later has

only a dark form, or both dark and green forms.

The occurrence of two or more differently coloured forms in the

caterpillar, with no corresponding change in the moth, is very

curious. It cannot be accounted for by any difference in food,

since the different forms are found feeding onthe same plants. The

green form is usually the most common in nature, or at least the

forin most commonly found, but when specimens are bred from an

early stage ina dark tin or box, a far larger proportion of them

assume the dark form. This seems to show that absence of light

is a factor in influencing the colouration. On the other hand, dark-

coloured specimens are found in nature in the same situations as

the green forms, both forms being exposed to the same amount of

light. Also, where there is only a dark form at maturity, the dark,

mature caterpillars are often found during day-light in the same

situations as green forins of other species. I had a curious ex-

perience with caterpillars of the Convolvulus Hawkmoth at Sheikh

Othman, near Aden. There were large numbers of them in the

earlier green stages on a certain creeper, but no mature caterpillars

could be found. Someone suggested keeping the small caterpillars

in more or less natural conditions in a large box. On doing so it

was found that all specimens turned to a dark form at maturity, and

that during the day they left the food-plant and hid among dead

leaves and even buried theniselves in the earth to avoid the light.

This experience does not lead us to any conclusion, since it may be

argued either way-—that the caterpillars hid themselves because they

had assumed the dark form, or that they assumed the dark form

because they had developed the habit of hiding during the day.

Further evidence on this question is required to enable the problem

to be solved.

In addition to the general colouring, Hawkmoth caterpillars

have various markings, the most common style of markings being

longitudinal stripes, oblique stripes and ocelli. Longitudinal stripes

may be present in combination with either oblique stripes or ocelli,

or all three types of markings may appear together. The longi-

tudinal stripes may be present along the back (dorsal), high up on

the side (dorso-lateral), through the spiracles (spzvacular) or below

the spiracles (sab-spivacular). The oblique stripes are usually seven

in number, on segments 5 to 11: that on 11 extending upwards and

backwards over segment 12 to the base of the horn. (Pl. II). The

ocelli occur in one pair on segment 5, or two pairs on segments

5 and 6 orin seven pairs on segments 5to1l. In one species there

is an extra pair on segment 4. The ocelli are round or oval, and

usually have a dark centre surrounded by a paler colour and

then a dark ring (Pl. III, Figs. 1, 3,5, 6). In some cases they are

convex in section and shiny in appearance, and then the resem-

372 .JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST, SOCLETY, Volo XXXV

blance to a real eye is increased (Pl. II, Fig. 7). The ocelli usually

lie on the dorso-lateral line, but in a few cases the spiracle on

seginent 5 is ringed with colour, so that it resembles an oceilus. __

At each change of skin, the shape of the head, body and horn

may change, as well as the colouring. In the egg-caterpillar the

head is always round, and it may remain round to maturity, or it

may become triangular or pointed in the second instar (PI. III, Fig.

4). Ina few cases the head of the egg-caterpillar is round, it then

becomes triangular or pointed, and at maturity again becomes

round. The body is nearly cylindrical at birth, and remains so to

maturity in some species, while in other species the fourth and fifth

segments become tumid or swollen. The horn of the egg-cater-

pillar is always straight, slightly tapering, and $ézfid, or with two

points, and each point bears a hair or seta. The double point is

usually lost in the later instars, but in some cases persists to

maturity. The horn may remain straight, or it may become curved

downwards, more rarely upwards, and in a few cases it is twice

curved, first down and then up, as in the Death’s-head Hawkmoths.

The shape, thickness and relative length varies greatly in different

species, and in some of the genus Clanis may be so small as to be

overlooked (Plate II, Fig. 6).

In the egg-caterpillar the horn can be moved at will in a vertical

plane and this limited power of movement is retained in a few species,

where the horn is very thin up to maturity, but in most species all

power of movement is lost in the later instars, and the function of

the horn, if any, is unknown. In some Hawkmoth caterpillars from

South America the horn is very long and whip-like and can be moved

freely over the back of the caterpillar like the filaments of the Puss-

moth caterpillar. In these species it may serve to drive away para-

sites, but it is not long or mobile enough to be of any use for his

purpose in any Indian species.

The surface of the head, body and horn is usually dull, and

either smooth or tuberculate. The tubercles may cover the whole

surface, or may be present on certain parts only. Sometimes only

the horn is tuberculate, or the tubercles may run along the back or

along the line of the oblique stripes. In one species they have

developed into long fleshy spines, and in others into wart-like pro-

minences. Hairs are always present, but except for a few on the

head, legs, pro-legs and anal flap, are too small to be seen without a

lens. . (Plates: [land 111).

MEANS OF DEFENCE AND ENEMIES..

The Hawkmoth caterpillar is a most defenceless creature. Hav-

ing no long hairs or poisonous spines such as many other kinds of

caterpillars have, it fails an easy victim to many other creatures.

Its only hope of escaping from its enemies is to avoid detection, and

for this purpose its habits and colouring are admirably adapted. It

habitually lives on the underside of the leaves of the food-plant, and

grasps the midrib or a vein with its pro-legs or claspers, its head

directed towards the point of the leaf. When resting it is entirely

hidden from above by the leaf, and when feeding only the head and

JOURN. BOMBAY Nat. HIsT. Soc. Plate ITI.

Res

INDIAN HAWKMOTHS.,

1. Rhagastis confusa, Rothsc. Note the large ocelli. 2. Ampelophaga khasiana,

Rothsc. Note the tubercles and the dorso-lateral stripes. 3. Thevretra clotho, Drury. ;

dark form. Note the seven pairs of ocelli. 4. Degmaptera mirabilis, Rothsc. Note

the pointed head and pointed horn. 5. Hippotion celerio, Linn. Note the two pairs

of ocelli, dorsal and dorso-lateral stripes. 6. Thevretra alecto, Linn. Note the seven

pairs of ocelli 7. Macroglossum pyrrhosticta, Butl. A Humming-Bird Moth.

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTAS 373

one or more pairs of legs are visible. When young, the pale colour-

ing matches that of the midrib, and later, when the green colour

and the oblique side stripes have developed, the latter lie parallel to

the side veins, and the whole creature appears to melt into the leaf.

Some species have irregular spots which look like dead patches in

the leaf. When once discovered and attacked, the caterpillar can only

defend itself by are the front part of the body and hitting side-

ways with the head. The Death’s-head

caterpillars increase the effect by mak-

ing aclicking noise with their jaws, and

those of Langia zenzeroides and other

species make a loud squeak at each

stroke by expelling air forcibly through

the spiracles. Those caterpillars which

have ocelli draw in the head and anterior

segments into segments 4 and 5, at the

same time puffing out these two seg-

ments as to expand the ccelli to their

full extent (PI. IH, Fig. 1). - This gives

thein a somewhat snake-like appearance,

and the effect is enhanced by their rais-

ing the fore-part of the pody and waving

it from side to side. The Spurge

Hawkmoth caterpillars have a more

effective means of defence. _ They live

gregariously on the Spurge, a dozen or

more perhaps ona plant. When distur-

bed, they throw back the head and

fore-part of the body and eject drops of

clear green fluid (fig. 6). The effect of

their simultaneous action is most start-

Fic, 6. Spurge Hawkmoth ling, and probably serves to drive away

Caterpillar’s attitude in small enemies. Their striking appear-

pctcace. ance, lack of concealment and the poison-

ous nature of their food-plant point to their being unpalatabie to birds.

The enemies of the Hawkmoth caterpillar are many and varied.

The wolf-spiders jump on them when they are small, and suck their

juices. Ants of most kinds consider them fair game and attack them

regardless of size. It is reasonable to assume that birds and lizards

eat them when they can find them, and that hunting wasps carry

them off to their burrows or cells, though I have never actually seen

them doing so. Judging from the gusto with which some Slender

Loris I once kept devoured the huge caterpillars of Clanzs phalaris,

such insectivorous mammals must take theirtoll. They would seize

the caterpillar in both hands, and having first scrunched up the head

would work steadily down the still squirming body, the green juices

dribbling down them the while——a horrid proceeding. But the really

insiduous foes, which probably cause more destruction than all the

rest put together, are the parasitic wasps and flies. One minute

species of wasp lays its eggs in or on the eggs of the Hawkmoths,

probably when the latter are freshly laid and still soft. Small grubs

hatch out and eat the substance of the egg. The eggs which have

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

been attacked turn first grey, and then mottled with black and white,

the white patches being the pupz of the wasp. If kept under

observation a tiny wasp will be seen to come out of a small round

hole which it has bitten through the shell of the egg, and the rest of

the brood will scramble out after the first at short intervals.

The caterpillars themselves are attacked by several kinds of

parasitic wasps and flies, from the time they are about half-grown to

maturity. The method of attack is the same as in the case of the

egg, but the parasites are much larger. The grubs feed on the

tissues of the living caterpillar, which carries on as usual till one day

it is seen to be covered with small cocoons like ants ‘eggs’, which

stick out all over its body like alnionds in a pudding. The maggots,

being full fed, have made their way out through the skin of the

caterpillar and formed their cocoons there. If brushed off, each

cocoon leaves a black spot on the skin, and the caterpillar presently

dies. Other species of maggots carry on their fell work unseen till

the caterpillar is found, still holding on by its claspers and one or

more pairs of pro-legs, but the upper part of its body hanging down

limp and empty except for the squirming maggots. These when

full fed form hard cocoons inside the empty skin, from which the

perfect insects emerge in due course. Sometimes the caterpillar

succeeds in pupating. The maggots continue their horrid feast, and

form their cocoons inside the pupal shell. Then, instead of the

beautiful moth we had expected, half a dozen nasty-looking flies or

a wasp or two come out. Some species seem to be far more often

attacked by parasites than others, and to suffer more in some years

than in others. hee

It is not known what enemies the pupz have in nature, since

they are so seldom found, but when kept in ariificial conditions they

are attacked by the small black fly mentioned under ‘ breeding ’.

The moths are so swift on the wing, and hide so skilfully when

resting, that they probably have few enemies, but bats certainly

catch them. A friend once told me that he used to find the wings of

Hawkmoths in his verandah every morning, under a hook where a

bat used to hang while it devoured their bodies. All observations on

the subject of enemies and means of defence would be of interest.

BREEDING AND COLLECTING.

The breeding of Hawkmoths, though a somewhat exacting hobby

if undertaken on a large scale, is very fascinating and of great

scientific value, as so little is known about the early stages and

habits. Itis the only method by which perfect specimens of the

moths can be obtained, and many of the more rare species cannot be

obtained at all in any other way, except by chance.

‘First catch your hare.’ Choose some likely-looking spot where

there is plenty of vegetation, and search systematically by turning

over leaves and branches and pulling up strands of creepers, so that

the undersides of the leaves are exposed. Keep a sharp lookout for

leaves which have been eaten, and along roads, paths, stream-beds

and similar places look on the ground for droppings, or frass, which

give away the presence of caterpillars feeding somewhcre above.

At first one will not have much success, but the eye soon learns to

8 ra

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 375

glance from leaf to leaf and to pick out an egg or caterpillar. The

caterpillars found will not always be those of Hawkmoths, and beet-

les also feed on leaves; but beetles are ragged and untidy feeders.

In the hills and other places where it gets cold in the winter, eggs and:

caterpillars will be found from about April to November, but where

it does not get cold, may be found at any time.

It is best not to touch the eggs or caterpillars, but to pick the

leaves or twigs on which they are found, and put them in a tin with

small holes punched in the lid or ina wooded box. Eggs take about

a week to ten days to hatch, and the young caterpillars should be

supplied at once with fresh leaves of the plant on which they were

discovered. After eating more or less of the egg-shell they may

start feeding on the leaf, or they may wander about aimlessly with-

out féeding. If they will not start feeding it is either because they

have not been given the proper food-plant, or else, especially in a dry

climate, that they require water. Sprinkle a few small drops of

water on the leaves. When the caterpillar comes across a drop it

will cock up its tail once or twice, and then suck it up and look for

more. Don’t overdo the water. The liitle beast may drown itself

in a large drop or the leaves may become affected with mildew if the

air is damp, and kill it. Fresh leaves should be given every day,

and the tin or box kept clean. The best way of doing this is to turn

out the contents on to a sheet of paper, and clean out the frass or

droppings ; put fresh leaves in and sprinkle them with water; snip

off the bits of leaf on which there are unhatched eggs or young

caterpillars, and put them back in the tin, throwing away the rest.

As the caterpillars grow transfer them to larger tins or to wooden

boxes. Keep them supplied with fresh leaves and turn out the old

leaves and droppings daily, otherwise mildew will start and kill the

caterpillars. Any caterpillars which die should be removed for the

sanie reason. ‘The food-plant can be kept fresh by putting it in water

but care must be taken to prevent the caterpillars from drowning

themselves by stuffing leaves or moss into the mouth of the bottle

or vase, round the stems of the plant. Another method is to park

out caterpillars on a bush or a bough of the food-plant, covering them

with a bag of muslin or fine cloth. A rag soaked in kerosine must

be wrapped round the stem or bough to prevent ants from getting

at the caterpillars.

In spite of all precautions, caterpillars often die from having

been attacked by parasites before they were found. The

changes of skin, or moults, are also the cause of many casualties,

especially when the caterpillars have not been given enough

moisture. Changing skin is a tricky operation, and things may go

wrong. Sometimes the old head remains fixed over the mouth-parts

of the newly-formed head, and the caterpillar cannot feed. Some-

times the skin gets so dry that it will not split properly, and

unbroken strands constrict the swelling body. A little assistance, if

given in time, may save the caterpillar. I have often operated success-

fully with a paint brush dipped in water, and fine forceps or a pin!

As the caterpillar nears maturity it feeds more and more greedily,

till suddenly, being full fed, it stops eating and rests motionless for

a day or so. It is about to pupate, and it is time to prepare a place

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

where it may do so comfortably. Some Hawkmoth caterpillars

pupate underground, but the larger number do so on the surface.

For the former it is best to have a wooden box with 4 or 5 inches of

soft earth, and for the latter a box half full of dry leaves or torn-up

newspaper. If in doubt, put the leaves or paper on top of the

earth. Those that wish to go underground will do so, and the others

will make their cocoons on the surface. Leave them undisturbed

for ten days or a fortnight, and then carefully break open the cells or

cocoons and put thein in

another box on damp moss

which has previously been

baked in the sun to kill

various creatures which may

attack the pupe. This box

should be of a good depth so

that the moths may have room

to open their wings properly

when they come out, and the

sides and lid should be rough

enough to enable them to

climb up and get a foothold.

It is best to remove the pupz

from the earth, first to make

rooin for fresh caterpillars to

¥—— Solder to wire here yupate, and secondly because

it is difficult to keep the earth

atthe proper degree of mois-

ture. If it is allowed to get

too dry, the moth may find it

difficult or impossible to make

its way out, and if kept too

damp, the pupe may be killed

by mildew. Also we wish to

describe the different pupe,

and to spot from which pupa

any species of moth has come out, if more than one kind is kept in

the one box. In most places it is essential to protect the caterpillars

and pup from ants, or one day we will find half of them eaten.

The various tins and boxes can be kept on a table with the legs in

tins of water, or better still in tins filled with naphthaiine balls.

Water may evaporate, or the dog miay drink it. Another way is to

have hanging shelves with ant-proof guards, asin figure 7.

The pupal stage may last from a fortnight to several months,

according to the species and the time of year. If the pupz are

found in June or July, the moths will probably coine out in the

autumn, but if formed late in the year, they will not come out till the

following spring, or later. Even those pupze which have not been

attacked by parasites in the caterpillar stage are not safe from

further attacks. There is a small black fly which attacks healthy

pupz, especially in the Hills. This active little brute gets through

the smallest cracks in the box, and Jays its eggs on the pupa. Small

maggots hatch out and eat the inside of the pupa, leaving only the

\ Fill with nagthaline balls

Tin cone

Fic. 7. An ant-proof guard.

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 377

empty shell, and having finished one will often crawl to the next one

and attack it too. In order to protect the pupze from this pest, the

box in which they are kept should be well made, without cracks, and

a piece of muslin should be fastened in some way under the lid,

with a good overlap. If cracks appear through the warping of the

wood, paste muslin over them.

Water should be sprinkled over the moss occasionally to keep it

slightly damp and any dead pupze or empty pupal shells should be

removed. When the moth is about to emerge, the pupal shell

becomes soft, and in some species transparent, so that the moth can

be seen through it and the pupa becomes very lively, squirming

vigorously even before it is touched. The shell suddenly splits, and

the moth pushes out its head, withdraws its legs, wings, antenne and

tongue from their sheaths, and finally its body from the pupal case.

Its body is now soit and flabby and the folded-up wings are limy,

useless appendages. The tongue is in two halves, looking like a

long tube which has been split longitudinally from end to end, but

after a short time the two halves fuse together, forming the tube

which is used for sucking honey from flowers. :

The moth’s one idea is to climb to some position where it can

hang by its fore-legs with space below to allow the wings to expand.

The wings first hang down back to back, and expand to their full

leneth before they are turned forwards into the normal position,

which is either in the same plane as the body or sloping downwards.

The moths usuaily come out after dark, and if left undisturbed,

remain motionless, drying and hardening their body and wings, till

after dark on the following night. They then start a rapid quivering

motion of the wings before darting off in their first flight. They

should therefore be put into a killing bottle some time before dark

on the evening after they come out, or they will quickly batter their

wings to pieces. They should. be kept in the killing bottle for some

hours before being set or put into envelopes, otherwise they may

recover.

Collectors may be employed to bring in eggs and caterpillars.

The average plainsman is quite useless at this game, but hillmen,

such as the Khasis and the Lepchas are very clever at it. Sometimes

they are too clever. Towards the end of one season, when eggs of

all but the commonest species, and consequently backsheesh, were

getting scarce, one of my Khasi collectors started bringing in eggs

on exciting new plants, and was duly rewarded. ‘To my disappoint-

ment the young caterpillars would not feed, and one after another died

off. Then I noticed that this particular collector's eggs hada funny

way of dropping off the food-plant unless carefully handled, and a

close examination revealed that Nature had triumphed over Art, and

that the gum used by the Khasi for sticking on common ege’s was

not as efficient as that used by the moth.

In order to get the full value from breeding, it is necessary to

keep a careful record and notes. ‘The best way is to give each batch

of eggs or caterpillars found on each food-plant a nuinber (I started

giving letters, but soon got to Z and had to take to numbers). Note

the date and locality where eggs or caterpillars were found, when

the eggs hatched, when each change of skin was made and so on.

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

Note the colour, shape and size of the egg, and make descriptions of

each stage of the caterpillar, and of the pupa.. The moth can be

preserved, and it is not necessary to describe it, but there is no

satisfactory way of preserving the caterpillar or the pupa in its

natural colours. There is a method of ‘ blowing’ the caterpillars,

but it is messy and laborious, and the colours fade. They can be

preserved in spirit (see appendix below), but again the colours fade. If

we have not the time or the knowledge necessary to make detailed

descriptions, the best way is to make a note of the colours, or careful

paintings, and then put the specimens into spirit. If these are sent

to the Society, completé descriptions can be made later. Photographs

are very valuable, and if printed lightly on paper with a matt surface,

can be coloured up with water colours. Pups can also be preserved

in spirit, the colours being recorded separately.

Keep any empty egg-shells, and the cast heads of the caterpillars

in glass tubes, with a slip of paper on which their number is written.

The empty pupal cases and dried droppings can be kept in match

boxes with the number written on them. The moths should be

labelled with their number, locality and date of einergence or capture.

The food-plants can be pressed, and labelled with their number. If

we now send the moths and other specimens to the Society to be

named, and also get the food-plants named, we have a complete

record. Any parasites which come out can also be kept and labelled

with the number of their host. The habits of the caterpillar in its

different stages, and also of the pupa and moth should be recorded.

In the case of the caterpillar, does it eat the egg-shell; any pecu-

liarities in feeding ; in what position does it rest ; how does it try to

defend itself when alarmed; does it change colour before pupating ;

does it make a cocoon on the surface or go underground to pupate.

Many peculiar habits will be noticed in different species.

In the pupz note whether the abdominal segments are stiff or

flexible ; are they lively or sluggish; do they make any noise; is

the cremaster free or hooked into the silk of the cocoon.

In the moths note the angie at which the wings are held ; do they

make any noise; are they active or sluggish; fly by day or by night;

do they mate in captivity ; any other special habits. The method of

keeping a record is shown in the appendix.

Some species of Hawkmoths may be caught when feeding at

and after dusk. They are very fond of tubular flowers such as

Petunia, Tobacco, Railway-creeper and Plumbago, and many other

garden and wild flowers, and also bushes like Lantana and Duranta.

Some of the day-flying species may be caught feeding in the

morning or evening. Some Hawkmoths are attracted by light, and

may be caught round lamps. ‘Sugaring’ does not often attract

Hawkmoths, but males may sometimes be caught by putting out a

female. A large series of moths may sometimes be bred by a

captive female mating with a wild male, or by inducing a pair to

mate in captivity when a male and female happen to come out more

or less at the same time. The two sexes are usually very much

alike;-but the female is bigger and has thinner antenne. It is

always worth experimenting with a deformed female to see if she

will attract a mate.

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 379

The moths, however obtained, may either be set or else kept in

envelopes of smooth paper, folded as shown in the appendix. Set

specimens take up a lot of room, and in this country are difficult to

protect from mould and insects, and are also easily broken when

travelling or when sent by post. It is best to set a pair or two of each

species for reference, and to put the rest in envelopes to be set

later.

LITERATURE.

Very little has up to now been published on the life histories

of Indian Hawkmoths. In Moore's Lepidoptera of Ceylon, Vol. II

(1882-3) there are short descriptions and somewhat crude, coloured

pictures of some Hawkmoth caterpillars from Ceylon, most of which

arealso foundin India. In the Aauna of British India series, Moths,

Vol. I by Sir George Hampson (1892) there are a few text figures of

caterpillars. Both Moore’s and Hampson’s books are very much out

~ of date, the names given to species and the classification having

been changed by later writers. In Bzologie und Systemattk der

sudchinestschen Sphingiden, by Rudolph Mell (1922) there are good

coloured illustrations and photos of many caterpillars and larvee

from South China, some of which also occur in India, and also

detailed descriptions of the early stages; a few species have been

described and figured in various Natural history Journals ; and finally

the early stages of species common to England and India have been

figured and described by many writers (Richard South, Lucas etc.).

Rothschild and Jordon, in their great monograph on the Hawkmoths

of the world (NOVITATES ZOOLOGICAE, Vol. IX, Suppienient (1903),

the Revision of the Sphingidae) hardly touch on the early stages.

The Macrolepidoptera of the World, by Adalbert Seitz, is now under

publication in English. In this huge work there are good coloured

pictures of many Hawkmoths, but none of the early stages, though

there are short descriptions of some of the latter. If all the infor-

mation contained in the above books be extracted, and the

descriptions of the early stages of nearly one hundred species bred

by a friend and myself (not yet published) be added, there still remain

about 60 species of the early stages and habits of which nothing

whatever is known. There is thus a wide field open to anyone who

takes up the breeding of Indian Hawkmoths. The Society or the

writer will be glad to receive any information regarding the occur-

rence, food-plants and habits of any species, and to give those who

are interested any help they can. There are certain species of which

only one or two moths have been obtained ; others of which the cater-

pillars have been obtained, but have died without producing moths,

and which therefore cannot be identified. Inforrnation regarding

localities near Shillong, Mussorie, Dehra Dun and Bangalore with

details of food-plants, etc., will be given to members of the Society

who are willing to try their hand at breeding, in return for some of

the specimens bred. (Address :—Lieut.-Colonel F. B. Scott, 1a.,

U.S. Club, Simla).

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

APPENDIX

PAPER ENVELOPES.

Take pieces of smooth paper of oblong shape and different sizes.

Fold across as shown in Fig. 8 and then turn the ends over to make

triangular envelopes. Take a moth from the killing bottle and

choosing an envelope of suitable size, put the moth into it in the

position shown in Fig. 9,

with the antennz folded

back to protect them

from injury. Write the

number of the moth,

locality “and dia tie “of

emergence or capture on

the flap, and pack the

envelopes fairly tightly

into a box with naphtha-

line balls or powdered

naphthaline. If kept ina

damp climate, ‘keep a

sharp. “lo: aki0 1 ator

mildew.

PIGe io:

SET SPECIMENS.

The store-boxes in

which set specimens

are going to be kept can

be treated as follows to

Fic. 9. protect the specimens

i from insects. Dissolve

naphthaline in petrol and pour it all over the inside of the box.

The petrol will evaporate and leave the naphthaline as a fine deposit.

If set specimens are attacked by mildew put a few drops of pure

carbolic acid onto small balls of cotton-wool, and pin the balls near

the affected specimens. The bodies of Hawkmoths sometimes

become greasy, and if not attended to the grease may spread over

the whole specimen. ‘Treat by soaking the whole moth in petrol

till all the grease has been dissolved, or break off the body, soak it

in petrol and replace in position with cement. When travelling

cross-pin the body of each moth. Set the moths high up on the

pins sothat the pins can be driven well into the cork of the store-box,

and so that the specimens, being well raised, are less liable to

attacks of insects and mildew. |

- PRESERVING IN SPIRIT.

Make up a bottle of spirit as follows :—— |

Alcohol (90 per cent), three parts; water, two parts; glycerine,

one part.

> et AR

NOTES ON INDIAN HAWKMOTHS 381

Put the specimens into glass tubes of suitable size, with a slip

of paper on which the necessary data is written in pencil. Pour in

the spirit, cork tightly, and seal the cork with sealing wax. A plug

of soft paper should be placed on top of the specimen in each tube

to prevent injury from shaking or washing about.

NAMING FOOD-PLANTS.

In order to get food-plants named they should first be pressed.

Special botanical paper can be obtained for this purpose, but news-

paper or brown paper does very well. Whenever possible flowers

or fruit should be pressed with the plant. Small plants can be

pressed complete with roots. Larger plants can be pressed with

part of the stem removed. In dealing with trees and shrubs press

a twig with leaves, and flowers or fruit attached or separate. Label

each plant with its number and locality. When pressed and dry, the

plants can be sent to the Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, or

some other authority. Botanists are usually pleased to receive and

name well-pressed specimens.

How TO KEEP A RECORD.

No. 23. [the serial number of the species].

Deilephila neriz, Linneeus. The Oleander Hawkmoth [name

given by the Society].

Locality. Allahabad (in the hills, elevation etc.).

Food-plant. Nerium odorum, Soland. The Oleander [name

given by the Forest Research Institute or other authority}.

Egg. Date when found, colour, shape, size in millimetres.

Lg g-caterpillay :—Describe, or put in spirit. .

After first, second, third, etc., changes of skin, describe or put in

spirit. :

Pupa. Describe or put in spirit.

Moth. Set or put in envelope. |

Habits of caterpillar, pupa and moth. Any other remarks

such as common or rare, local, etc. 3

If possible, take one or more eggs and record :—-

Date egg was found or laid.

Date on which caterpillar hatched.

Date of each change of skin.

Date caterpillar stopped feeding.

Date caterpillar left food-plant.

Date pupa was formed.

Date moth emerged.

No. 32. Celerio cuphorbiag, Linneeus. The Spurge Hawkmoth.

Locality. Changla Gali, 9,000 feet.

Caught when feeding on flowers at dusk on (date).

No. 34. Aippotion rattlest, Butler.

Locality. Nandidroog, Bangalore. 3,000 feet.

Caught in bungalow at 10 p.m. on (date).

A NOTE ON THE BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW.

Rev. F. S. BRIGGS.

The following notes are mainly from my own observations, made while

stationed at Mhow, Central India, from March 1927 to October 1929, but, for

the sake of completeness, I have added whatever notes on this area I have been

able to find elsewhere.

My thanks are due to Mr. Hugh Whistler for identifying many of my

specimens, and for checking my identification of others, alsofor many valuable

suggestions. I also wish to thank General Betham for information with

regard to certain species of birds which he found breeding near Mhow.

Most of these notes refer to the country within twelve miles of Mhow, but I

have also included a few observations made at a greater distance, particularly

in the neighbourhood of Barwani in the Narbadda Valley.

The country round Mhow falls into two divisions. First, the Vindhya Hills.

Secondly, the Malwa Plateau. The Vindhya Hills are mostly covered with

jungle, and intersected by deep and steep-sided ravines. The Plateau is

largely under cultivation, but there are also on it stretches of rolling grass-land,

particularly where it merges into the Vindhyan range.

The Raven. Corvus corax (Linn).

One seen in barracks at Mhow, 2-10-28.

The Jungle Crow. Corvus coronoides Gould. Q 7-2-28, ¢ 9-2-28.

Common in every type of country, but the majority seem to leave the

Cantonment for breeding purposes. A nest containing fully fledged young was

found on June 29, but young birds able to fly were seen as early as May 5.

The Indian House Crow. Corvus splendens splendens (Vieill.).

Commoner than the last species in Cantonments, less common away from

houses, but, like the last species, many appear to leave the Cantonment area

to breed. Eggs are laid in June. One was seen with a white crescent on the

throat and a narrow white line round the neck, the latter concealed except

when the bird stretched its neck, 23-8-27.

The Indian Tree-Pie. Dendrocitta rufa (Latham). ¢ 7-9-27. |

Common at all times in scrub jungle. In winter a fair number invade the

Cantonment.

Grey Tit. Parus major mahrattarum Hartert. 92 5-3-28, ¢ 27-28.

The former specimen was obtained from a flock of four or five, the latter was

alone, and was in full breeding condition. Both specimens were obtained at

the foot of the Vindhya Hills. »

The Yellow-cheeked Tit. Maclolophus xanthogenys ( Vigors).

This species is fairly common. Most of them appear to leave the Cantonment

during May, June, and July, presumably for breeding. During the rest of the

year they are cominon garden birds. A nest was found on June 29 about forty

feet up a Peepul outside the Cantonment. Young birds left the nest the

following day.

The Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch. Sitta castaneiventris (Frank). Jerdon states

(Birds of India, Vol. I, p. 386) that this species occurs ‘In the Vindhyan

Range of Hills.’ I did not observe it.

PREG tee atten ie anus

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 383

a Jungle Babbler. Turdoides terricolor (Hodgs.). ¢ 28-7-27, ¢ 29-3-28,

9-11-28.

Fairly numerous within the Cantonment; only occasionally seen elsewhere.

They seem to form strong local attachments. In some gardens, one can be

fairly certain of seeing a flock of them, while there are other gardens which they

never seem to enter. One flock, also, is always to be seen in jungle about a

mile below Simrole, though, as arule, they belie their name by rarely being

seen in jungle. They breed throughout the rains, and possibly at other times

of the year as well, but most eggs appear to be laidin July. The three above-

cited specimens are intermediate between 7. ¢. ferricolor and 7. ¢. sindianus,

but nearer the latter than the former. .

The Common Babbler. Argya caudata caudata (Dumont). @ 30-1-28,

This species is singularly scarce, and local in its distribution. In the swamp

below the bund at Bircha, a flock is always to be found, and I have seen pairs

further up the Bircha Valley, and by the Ghambier River for about six miles

below its source in the above-mentioned swamp, I have seen them nowhere

else near Mhow, though they are common in the Narbadda Valley, especially

near Barwani. Eggs found as early as March 17, and young birds in the nest

as late as October 24. All the nests found were in low date-palms, amongst

the fronds, at the point where they spring from the trunk.

The Large Grey Babbler. Argya malcomi (Sykes).

Quite the most numerous member of the family near Mhow. It rarely, if

ever, comes near houses, preferring scrub-jungle and roads lined with acacia

trees. In scrub-jungle it is always the first bird to give warning of the

approach of an intruder, and causes a good deal of annoyance to naturalists

and sportsmen by alarming other species with its call. Its flocks sometimes

number as many as forty, and flocks of twenty are common. Eggs are laid in

February and March, and again after the breaking of the rains, in June and

July. The majority of nests are situated in acacia trees, at any height up to

fifteen feet from the ground. On August 5 a pair were seen with a juvenile

Pied Crested Cuckoo, which was being fed by them on open ground near the

village of Gowlipura. Jerdon states that this species is ‘Rare at Mhow.’

(Birds of India, Vol. WJ, p. 65.). There must have been an increase in the

species since his day.

The Rufous-bellied Babbler. Dumetia hyperythra (Frankl.). $$ 25-6-29.

The one specimen obtained was in full breeding condition. A few individuals

of this species were seen on several occasions at different seasons in Jungle at

the foot of the Vindhya Hills on the Northern side of the range, near the

Bombay Road. None were noted elsewhere. The following is a quotation

from On the Birds of Central India, by Lt.-Col. C. Swinhoe and Lt. Henry

Barnes? (Ibis 1885, pp. 52-69 ; 124-138). ‘ At present we have obtained it’ (i.e.

D. hyperythra) ‘at and in the vicinity of Mhow only, in March 1882 and

December 1881.’

The Yelluw-eyed Babbler. Pyctorhis sinensis (Gmel.), (4 5-3-28.

Resident in small numbers in the swampy ground below the bund at Bircha.

_ Mixed flocks of this species and Argya caudata were seen there on several

occasions.

The Central Indian lora. Agithinia tiphia humei Stuart Baker. ¢ (juv.) 5-8-27.

Not uncommon, but erratic in its appearance. It occurs both in gardens and

in scrub jungle, but rather more often in the latter type of country than in the

former. It breeds about the beginning of the rains, i.e. during the latter half

of June and the first half of July, but males assume their breeding plumage in

April. The male takes his share in the duties of incubation, and one was

observed sitting on a nest and singing vigorously on June 25th.

1 Henceforth referred to for brevity as S. & B.

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Jerdon’s Chloropsis. Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth).

‘Found at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 98.)

The Central Indian Red-vented Bulbul. Molpastes hemorrhous pallidus Stuart

Baker. ¢ 3-8-27, 2 13-2-28, $ 29-12-28, 2 25-2-29.

Numerous in every type of country except thick jungle. In winter, they

gather in flocks up to a dozen or more in strength, but within the flocks, appear

to keep largely in pairs. These flocks invade gardens during the winter,

beginning to disintegrate early in March. A few individuals remain in gardens

all the year, and breed there, but ‘scrub jungle appears in this area to be their

favourite type of country for breeding. Eggs found between May 6th, and

September 5th. The subspecific name pal/idus covers all birds intermediate

between intermedius, bengalensis and hemorrhous; but the Mhow epoca es

are nearer to haemorrhous than to the two former races.

The Spotted-grey Creeper. Salpornis spilonotus (Frank).

Lt. Young states that he shot one near Mortakka on April 4th. (.. B.N.A.S.,

Vol. XVI, p. 514).

The Northern Indian Pied Bush-Chat. Saxicola caprata bicolor (Sykes) 2 5-10-28,

& 27-10-28.

A winter visitor, not very numerous, seen chiefly in open country and swampy

ground. Earliest and latest dates seen; September 23 and March 25.

There seems to be some misconception about the status of this bird. The

Fauna, (2nd edn., Vol. II, p. 27,) states :—*. . . is a resident almost through-

out its habitat but it seems to leave its highest ranges in winter, and in some

places moves locally from the plains to the adjacent hills for breeding purposes,’

From my own small experience, its movements seem to be more marked than is

here suggested. In the Peshawar valley it is mainly a summer visitor, though

a few individuals spend the winter there. In the sanie area it has also a

secondary movement from the Valley to the surrounding hills after breeding,

and before moving south for the winter. Round Mhow it is, both on the

Plateau and in the Vindhya Hills, purely a winter visitor. At Poona it is

common inthe winter, but leaves before the summer. There, however, the

movement may be only lIccal, as it breeds in considerable numbers round

Khandala, less than forty miles away. Mr. Hugh Whistler states that ‘It isa

very marked summer visitor throughout most of the North-West, but here and

there a few individuals are resident.” From these notes it appears to be very

largely a migratory race.

The Stone-Chat. Saxicolor torquata (Linn.). ¢12-12-27, 9 23-1-28, 0? 14-9-28. (juv.).

A winter visitor, much more numerous than the last species.

It is to be found wherever there are not too many trees, but chiefly in swampy

and rocky country. Earliest and latest dates seen : September 9, and March 25.

‘The three species, none of which were obtained in swampy ground, belong to

the race zzdica. But Jerdon states, (J., Vol. II, p. 130), with reference to

Saxticola leucuroides (= Saxicola torquata leucura), that it is ‘ Not uncommon

about Mhow in the cold weather.’ Both races, therefore, appear to occur,

The Pied Wheatear. (Enathe picata (Blyth). ¢ 1-10-28.

The above-mentioned specimen, obtained about a mile south of Mhow on

the Bircha Road, and a female seen a few weeks later on the road to Indore are

the only records I have of the species in the area.

The Wheatear. (Enanthe cenanthe cnanthe (Linn.).

‘I got a specimen near Mhow in the cold weather.’ (J., Vol. II, p. 132).

Gould’s Desert Wheatear. (Enathe deserti atrogularis (Blyth.) ¢ 10-2-28.

My only other record is of one seen about mile 14 on the Neemuch Road,

12- 11-28. Jerdon, however, states (J., Vol. II, p. 133) :—‘ Common at Mhow in

the cold weather,’ F

exe

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 385

The Brown Rock-Chat. Cercomela fusca (Blyth).

A pair seen in Mhow itself 22-1-29. It seems strange that this should be the

only record of so common a bird.

The Black Redstart. Pheenicurus ochrurus pheenicuroides (Moore).

A common winter visitor. Earliest and latest dates seen: Sept. 17 and April

10. This species seems to form strong local attachments. One can be fairly

certain of seeing an individual within a few yards of certain trees, once one

has learned where to look. The same trees are favoured year after year,

Males always appear greatly to outnumber females. As the male is for the

first year exactly like the female in appearance, and breedsin that immature

dress, one would expect the reverse to betrue. It would appear, therefore,

that most of the females and immature males migrate to some other locality

from that favoured by the males. They are very bold, and in the autumn of

1928 one frequently came into my bungalow to catch insects, and on one

occasion was catching them inthe church throughout the morning service,

entirely undisturbed by the singing of the congregation.

The Eastern Red-Spotted Bluethroat. Cyanosylvia suecica pallidogularis (Saruday).

2 30-1-28.

Not uncommon, particularly in reed-beds, during the winter. It arrives late

and departs early, its earliest and latest dates being Oct. 1 and Mar, 25.

The Brown-backed Indian Robin. Saxicoloides fulicata cambaiensis (Lath.).

Common and resident, in gardens, cultivation, and scrub-jungle. Eggs are

laid in April, and probably up to the middle of June.

The Magpie Robin or Dayal. Copsychus saularis (Linn.).

This species is fairly common ingardens and cultivation. Onseveral occa-

sions I noticed the female singing tothe male. No nest of the species was

found, but very young birds, which had evidently only just left the nest, used

to make their appearance in the middle of July. This species resents the

presence of members of the last species in any garden in which it has taken up

its abode, and does its best to drive them off, attacking them with great vigour.

‘The Dark Thrush. Turdus obscurus Gmel.

A bird which was taken for this species was seen on the Ghambier River on

the outskrits of Mhow, on the evening of 2-2-29. This was during a spel!

of phenominally cold weather which was making itself felt over the whole of

Northern India. The bird seemed very tired, but I was unable to obtain it as

a specimen, so the identification must be regarded with suspicion.

The Indian Blue Rock Thrush. Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes). Q 2-4-28.

A winter visitor in small numbers, in addition to which many pass through

on the Spring migration. Females seem to be more numerous than males.

Earliest and latest dates: Oct. 16 and Apr. 1.

The European Red-breasted Fiycatcher. Siphia parva parva (Bechst.). ¢ 6-2-28.

Mainly a passage migrant in October and April, but a few seem to winter

in the district. Red-breasted males are greatly in the minority. The one

specimen obtained belonged to the typical race. [Earliest and latest dates;

September 24 and April 17.

Tickell’s Blue Flycatcher. Cyornis tickellii (Blyth).

Not uncommon inthe Vindhya Hills, both in scrub and in thicker jungle.

General Betham took their eggs in the valley below Simrole in May. A pair

were seen courting in the same valley in June.

The Verditer Flycatcher. Stoparola melanops ( Vigors).

One seen in garden 30th November 1928. ‘Mhow and Manpore are at

present the only places where we have obtained it’ (S. & B.).

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

The Brown Flycatcher. Alseonax latirostris (Raffl.).

General Betham took the eggs of this species in the valley below Simrole. I

did not see any birds of this species in the Mhow district, but a bird described

to me by a careful observer appeared to belong to this species. S. & B. record

having obtained a single specimen at Manpore.

The Paradise Flycatcher. Terpsiphone paradisi (Linn.).

This species seems to be resident in small numbers in the Vindhya Hills,

and to occur as a passage migrant.on the plateau. General Betham took eggs

in the valley mentioned above. My own observations of the species are not

very numerous, so may be given zu extenso.

1927 Mar. 27. nae in mixed chestnut and white plumage opposite bung-

alow.

May 28. Several females by Simrole Road.

Sep. 21. Numerous, both sexes, Jeshwantnagar.

Oct. 12. Several below Simrole.

1928 Apr. 5. One adult male, Indore.

June 22. Female in Jungle about two miles S. of Simrole Road.

Sep. 10. Females (or Juveniles) numerous at Jeshwantnagar.

1929 Mar. 25. One adult male Bircha.

June 12. Female by Ghambier River.

July 3, Adult male with ribbon feathers missing, Fort glacts.

Sep. 27. Female, Mile 7 on Bombay Road.

The White-browed Fantail Flycatcher. Rhidipura aureola (Less.).

Fairly common, and resident, but subject to local movement. In the spring

and summer they are common along the road between Mhow and Simrole,

and in the scrub jungle to the south of the road, but donot appear to occur

anywhere else inthe district. During the winter they spread over the whole

district frequently coming into gardens. On several occasions in the winter

pairs of them were seen feeding with a flock of Phylloscopus collybitus tristis.

Breeding appears to commence about the middle of February.

The Indian Grey Shrike. Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes). Q 17-6-27.

Seen at all times of the year, butin distinctly greater numbers in summer

than in winter. It is mainly a bird of open grazing grounds and roads sparsely

lined with trees, particularly Acacia. The one specimen obtained showed

some signs of breeding, and a nest containing fresh eggs was found on April

17, but breeding appears to take place mostly in the rains.

The Bay=backed Shrike. Lanius vittatus (Valenc.). ¢ 21-12-28.

The one specimen obtained was in juvenile plumage. This is by far the

commonest shrike about Mhow. It is even more numerous in winter than in

summer. Breeds during the rains, and usually has two broods.

The Rufous-backed Shrike. Lanius schach (Linn.). ¢ 3-10-27; + 28-11-27 ;

Q 16-6-28.

The above specimens are all intermediate between eryihronotus and caniceps,

and cannot be assigned definitely to either race. Nests containing eggs found

between June 16 and Aug. 20. All the nests found round Mhow were

much less bulky and contained less wool than those I have seen in the Peshawar

District and in Kashmir. The species is not very common about Mhow at any

‘time, but there is a noticeable increase in numbers in the autumn.

The Brown Shrike. Lanius cristatus (Linn). :

Seen very occasionally in winter and early spring. Also recorded from

Mhow byS. & B.

The Indian Common Woodshrike. Tephrodornis pondiceriana pondiceriana (Gmel.).

3% 19-6-28, 2 15-10-1928.

Fairly numerous in scrub-jungle, but rather erratic in its appearances.

Rareiy seen in winter. One of the two specimens obtained on June 19 was a

SS aleaiee

Oia

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 387

juvenile which could not very long have left the nest, and was still being fed

by its parents.

The Sinall Minivet. Pericrocotus peregrinus (Linn.) ¢ 26-10-27 ; 9 16-11-27.

Common and resident, but, like the rest of the minivets, wanders a good

deal in small parties in search of food. It breeds in March, and apparently

agaia in the earlier part of the rains. _On one occasion a pair of females were

seen fighting very fiercely for the favour of a male, who looked on with

apparent interest, but took no part in the dispute.

The White=bellied Minivet. Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon). @ 9-5-28.

This species was numerous on the road to Bircha on the day the specimen

was obtained and two days later. It was occasionally seen again, each time

either in spring or in autumn. It may therefore be regarded as a passage

migrant only in this area.

The Large Cuckoo=Shrike. Graucalus macei (Less.).

Status uncertain. From September to May it is a common bird in gardens

and in cultivated country wherever there are tall trees. Nearly always they are

seen either in twos or threes, but I have one record of a flock of six. Between

May and September I have only five records of this species in the area. They

are as follows :—

1928 July 9. Onein thick jungie, S. of Mhow, Simrole Rd.

July 10. Do. edo.

1929 June ll. ‘Three seen beyond polo-ground.

July 8. Onein same place as previous July.

Aug. 6. One west and one east of polo-ground.

The behaviour of those seen in July in both years suggested that they had

nests, though I was unable to find them. On September 27, 1930, a pair were

flying round what appeared to be a half-finished nest about forty feet up ina

Peepul tree on the outskirts of Mhow. ‘Twice while I watched, the female flew

away with a little of the material of the nest in her bill. The next day all the

materialhad disappeared. As it was in a position quite inaccessible to a

human being it may be assumed that the birds had themselves removed it all.

On October 5, a pair were seen courting vigorously ina tree at the side of a road

in Indore. From the above observations it would seem probable that this

species is mainly a winter visitor to the immediate neighbourhood of Mhow,

and makes a local migration, probably to the jungles of the Vindhya Hills, for

breeding, but that they may sometimes breed a second time later in the year

on the plateau.

The Black Drongo or King Crow. Dicrurus macrocercus (Vieill.).

Numerous at all times, but even more numerous in winter than in summer.

Breeds mainly in June and July.

The Ashy Drongo. Dicrurus leucopheus (Vieill.).

S. & B. procured specimens at Mhow in October.

The White=bellied Brongo. Dicrurus cerulescens (Linn.).

Only occasionally seen. It appears to be resident in small numbers, and is

local in its distribution. The one place where one can generally be fairly

certain of seeing several is over the river at Indore. Its notes are similar to

those of the King Crow, but much Jess harsh than the usual call of the latter,

and more like its softer, early-morning call.

Acrocephalus.

‘A note on the Asiatic Members of the Genus Acrocephalus’ by Mr. Hugh

Whistler (The /ézs, July 1928, pp. 449-453) suggested the possibility that

some memters of that gentis not yet recorded as breeding in the plains

of India, may actually do so. Hence 1 spent some considerable time in reed-

beds looking for the nests of Reed-Warblers. The results were interest-

ing but inconclusive. A fringe of reeds grows along the side of the over-

flow from Bircha Lake, In these reeds I found the only trace in the

388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

district of Acrocephali breeding. On August 5, 1928, there were two nests, both

of them typical Reed-Warbler nests, in these reeds. One was slung between

about four reed-stems; the other was attached to a reed-stem and to two or

three thorny, upright branches. The former nest was empty, and the latter

contained one egy, strongly reminiscent of the egg of Sylvia atricapilla. 1 left

itin the hope that more would be laid, and that I might see the parent

birds. On examining the nests a few days later, however, I found both

empty. In 1929, I again kept my eye on the same fringe of reeds. In August,

I again found a nest exactly similar in all respects to the nest I found in the

preceding year. On August 9, when I was looking at it, a small bird

which might quite well have been a Reed-Warbler was showing great anxiety

in some bushes behind the nest. As the nest was empty, however, I went

away at once so as not to frighten the owner. I visited the nest on several

subsequent occasions, without, however, finding any eggs.

Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler. Locustella certhiola (Pall.).

Jerdon says that he met with it in ‘ Long grass in the neighbourhood of

Mhow, during the rains.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 159).

The Tailor=Bird. Orthotomus sutorius (Forst.).

Very common and resident. There appears to be at least one pair of these

birds to every garden, besides which they are numerous in scrub-jungle.

They breed from June to the end of September, and appear usually to have two

broods. Some writers state that it is the hen Tailor-Bird that does all the

work in building the nest. In the case of three nests built in my garden at

Mhow, the male did the greater part of the work of sewing the leaves together,

and each took a share in building the nest itself. Two nests built in the

summer of 1929 were lined almost entirely with bits frayed off from a rope for

opening and shutting one of the voshandans of my bungalow. The eggs were

taken from the former of these nests, probably by a squirrel, and the male

Tailor-Bird was seen removing a good deal of the lining to use on a second nest

about twenty yards away.

The Streaked Fantail Warbler. Cisticola juncidas (Rafinesque). @ 30-1-28.

Fairly common, but rather erratic in its appearances and disappearances. It

is generally to be seen at Bircha.

Franklin's Wren=Warbler. Franklinia gracilis (Frankl.). Q 15-8-27, ¢ 2-7-28.

Fairly common and resident. This species is chiefly found in bushes by the

side of roads, and in gardens. Breeds inthe rains. A pair seen feeding fairly

well-grown young on 21-8-29,

The Rufous-fronted Wren Warbler. Franklinia buchanani (Blyth).

Jerdon states that he obtained.a specimen near Mhow. (Jerdon, Vol. II,

p. 187.)

The Booted Tree=Warbler. Hippolais scita (Eversm.). ¢ 4-4-28.

The above-cited specimen was excessively fat, suggesting that it was on

the point of migrating. The species was not identified on any other occasion.

Hume’s Lesser Whitethroat. Sylvia althea Hume. @ 1-10-28.

- This specimen was obtained from a flock of three or four, No other record.

The Desert Warbler. Sylvia nana (Hemp. & Ehr.).

‘Found at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 209).

The Indian Lesser Whitethroat. Sylvia curruca affinis (Blyth). <¢ 31-10-27,

Q 14-11-27,

Very numerous on passage in the spring and autumn, a considerable number

also wintering in the neighbourhood of Mhow. It is chiefly found in open

scrub-jungle with pleaty of acacia bushes, but also occurs in gardens.

Sap PaaS A)

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 389

The Siberian Chiffchaff. Phylloscopus collybita tristis (Blyth). 4 28-12-27,

& 9-1-28.

Occurs fairly plentifully in winter in small flocks. On several occasions a

flock of this species was seen following a pair of Fantail Warblers about and

feeding with them. They occur in every type of country.

The Olivaceous Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus indicus (Jerd.). 0? 15-10-28.

The above specimen was obtained from a flock feeding in trees near Jesh-

wantnagar. They ran about the trunks and branches searching the bark for

insects in the manner of Tree-Creepers.

The Greenish Willow-Warbler. Phylloscopus nitidus viridanus (Blyth.) 9 10-9-28.

This specimen, obtained from a mixed flock of Phylloscopi feeding in the

trees overhanging Jeshwantnagar Lake, is the only record.

The Streaked Wren-Warbler. Prinia gracilis (Licht.).

‘Abundant on the Vindhya Mountains near Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II

Deek7Z):

Stewart’s Ashy Wren-Warbler. Prinia socialis stewarti (Blyth).

§)

Fairly numerous and resident, rarely seen far from water. The only nests

found were of the Tailor-Bird type, and always close to a stream. Breeds

about the end of March and the beginning of April, and again in the rains

(August).

The Indian Wren-Warbler. Prinia inornata inornata (Sykes). (4% 29-7-27,

Q 21-9-27, 2 8-6-28, ¥% 17-9-28.

Numerous and resident. It is always commoner near water than elsewhere,

but also occurs in cultivation well away from water. Every nest found was

close to water, the majority being either in reeds or in Marestail. By far the

greater majority of eggs are laid in the last fortnight in August, but a few are

laid in September.

The Indian Oriole. Oriolus oriolus kundoo (Sykes).

This species occurs at all seasons, but is distinctly more numerous in spring

and autumn than either in summer or winter. It breeds in May.

The Indian Black-naped Oriole. Oriolus chinensis indicus (Jerdon).

‘One seen at Manpore in June 1882.’ (S. & B.).

The Rose-coloured Starling. Pastor roseus (Linn.).

In March 1927 I saw several large flocks. In the two succeeding years their

numbers were much smaller. Flocks were also seen four times in April, twice

in February, and once in January. On 11-3-29 a mixed flock, consisting of

five Common Mynahs and three Rose-coloured Starlings flew over the glaczs of

tHe tone.

The Black-headed Mynahk. Temenuchus pagodarum (Gmiel.).

Fairly numerous. ‘There seems to be a slight increase in numbers before

the breeding-season, which extends from the middle of April to the middle of

June.

The Common Mynah. Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linn.). ¢ 28-7-27,

Very common and resident, Eggs laid about the middle of July. A young

bird, not quite fledged, which had fallen from its nest was picked up in

August 1928, brought up by hand tillit was big enough to look after itself, and

then released. It visited the bungalow daily till about April, generally timing

its visits to coincide with meal-times. It showed a strong dislike to anything

containing chocolate, but otherwise would eat anything, and its great_partiality

for all dairy products, especially cream and cheese, made it necessary to

‘keep avery wary eye on those articles when he was about. He was entirely

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

fearless, and waiked about the table during meals. In April he disappeared,

but reappeared, rather to our surprise in September, continuing to haunt the

house with the same persistence and fearlessness till we left Mhow at the end of

October.

The Bank Mynah. Acridotheres ginginianus (Lath.).

‘I got it at Mhow,.... though rare, and on the banks of the Narbadda.’

(Jerdon, Volsil,p: 327).

The Baya or Weaver-bird. Ploceus philippinus (Linn.). ¢ Q 19-5-28, 9 26-12-28,

bbb 14-6-29, J 29-6-29.

Common and resident. The ¢ obtained on 19-5-28 was just beginning to

assume breeding plumage; the four specimens obtained on 14-6-29 were in

varying stages of moult, but all nearly in complete breeding plumage; and the

last specimen was in complete breeding plumage. Their second moult

appears to take place immediately after breeding. but I obtained no specimens

to illustrate it. Work on nests is begun before the end July, but the earliest

date on which I have found eggs is September 7. The latest date on which I

found eggs was October Ist. Several books state that there is never any

lining in a Baya’s nest. Every nest I examined in the neighbourhood of Mhow

had at least a few feathers, and in several cases the eggs were resting ona

thick mat of feathers. In one or two cases the feathers were white, but

ustially, they were pale grey.

The White-throated Munia. Uroloncha malabarica (Linn.). ¢ 3-8-27.

Resident, but subject to local movement in accordance with the supply of

food. ‘They breed irregularly from August to April, but the majority of eggs

are laid in January and February.

The Green Munia. Stictospiza formosa (Lath.).

A few of these very. beautiful little birds were seen in a large flock of

Amadavats near Killod, South of Mhow, 8-6-28. Jerdon says (Vol. II,

p. 361):—‘ Occasionally caught and caged... .at Mhow.’

The Amadavat. Amandava amandava (Linn.).

A flock of about fifty seen near Killod, 8-6-28. No other record.

The Common Rose-Finch. Carpodacus erythinus (Pall). @ 9-11-28.

Winter visitors. A large flock seen 9-11-28, otherwise only one or two

individual birds.

The Yellow-throated Sparrow. Gymmnoris xanthocollis xanthocollis (Burton).

The status of this species is somewhat puzzling. About the end of

February, they begin to build in considerable numbers, and by the end of

April, young birds begin to appear. In May they cease to be evenly distributed

over the countryside, and gather into flocks usually of about a dozen to twenty

individuals. These flocks are seen mainly in scrub-jungle. Soon after the

rains break, (i.e. about the end of June or beginning of July), they entirely

disappear and I have only one record of the species in July, (9-7-29), and none

at ail for August or September. In 1927 the first occasion on which they

were recorded after their departure in the early rains was November, 6th, two

days after heavy and unseasonable rain. They were again seen on the 7th,

8th, 23rd, and 24th, of the month, each time in smal] parties. In December

they were seen four times, each time in large flocks. In January they were

fairly frequently seen, generally in smaller flocks than in the preceding month,

and before the end of the month they were beginning to sing and fight.

Throughout February they were very frequently seen but in very. varying

numbers, the impression given being that flocks of them were passing through

the district, while some individuals were settling down to breed. A male

shot on February 20, was in full breeding condition, and they were seen

carrying building materials on February 29. In 1928 their appearance after

the rains was earlier than in 1927.. On October 19 and 20 they were very

‘

ee a, ee ae Se Se an ee

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 391

numerous fifty miles south of Mhow, beyond the Narbadda River, and on the

21st, one was seen at Mhow. From that date till October 29 the notes

correspond pretty closely with those already given. ‘The above observations

Suggest that the breeding birds leave Mhow for the rains, and that there is an

influx of other individuals of the species, possibly those which have bred in the

Punjab, in the winter. If these winter visitors do come from the Punjab,

however, they must delay a long time on the way, as they are amongst the first

summer visitors to leave the Punjab.

The Indian House-Sparrow. Passer domesticus indicus (Jard. & Selby).

More numerous in the bazar than elsewhere, but by no means as numerous

about Mhow as in many other parts of India. Breeds irregularly almost

throughout the year.

The Grey-headed Bunting. Emberiza fucata Pail.

‘Seen at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 276).

The Grey-necked Bunting. Emberiza buchanani Blyth. (% 6-2-28,

A pair were seen in scrub below the fort on April 25 and 26, 1929. Other-

wise the above-cited specimen obtained in scrub near Bircha Lake, is my only

record of this species.

The Red-headed Bunting. Eniberiza iclerica Eversin.

‘Tolerably abundant at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 379).

The Crested Bunting. Melophus melanicterus (Gmel.).

Appears to be a summer visitor in considerable numbers to the Vindhya

Hills. Only seen once in winter, 8-12-28, when a small party of one adult

male and a few hens or immature birds were seen feeding in the long grass on

the bund of Bircha Lake. General Betham states that he twice took the egg

of Cuculus canorus from the nest of this species near Simrole.

The Sand Martin. Riparia riparia (Linn.).

‘ Saw it occasionally at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. I, p. 163).

The Dusky Crag-Martin. Ptyonoprogne concolor (Sykes).

Fairly numerous in summer, much less so in winter. Eggs laid in August

and September. Nests placed both on cliffs and buildings. Lt. Young found

young birds of this species in nests in the Narbadda Valley in April (/.B.NV.4.S.,

Vol. XVI, p. 315). This suggests the question as to whether the species breeds

twice ; once in the Narbadda Vailey in the spring, and once on the Plateau in

the latter part of the rains.

The Common Swallow. Hirundorustica Linn.

Occurs in immense numbers on passage in the autumn, and is occasionally

seen throughout the winter. Only one record in the spring, viz. Indore,

12-3-27.

The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow. Hirundo smithii filifera (Stephens).

Resident in considerable numbers. Eggs found at various times between

February 17 and September 25. The same nest was used in April and

September 1927, and in February and May 1928. The last time the nest was

used, it cracked off the cliff to which it was attached, presumably owing to the

dry heat, when containing two young birds nearly ready to fly, but caught on a

projecting root, where it remained till the young left some days later,

The Indian Cliff Swallow. Hirundo fluvicola Jerdon.

Occasionally seen, chiefly in winter. A very large colony breeds on the piers

of the railway bridge over the Narbadda at Mortakka, about thirty miles from

Mhow in July. Apparently they breed twice in the year in the Narbadda

Valley, as Lt. Young (J. B.N.A.S., Vol. XVI, p. 515), states that on April 9

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

he examined a colony of these birds, and found that most of the young had

just left the nests.

Hodgson’s Striated Swailow. Hirundo daurica nepaiensis (Hodgs.). 2 @ @

25-1--29.

The three specimens were all mepalensis. ‘The winter birds look different

from the breeding birds, and probably belong to a different race. The

breeding birds arrive in May, and breed during the latter part of the rains.

Nests containing young having been found from August 25 to October 12.

The one nest found on the latter date contained one nearly fledged bird, which

appeared to have been deserted by its parents. During the latter half of

October I have no record of this species for any of the three years. There is a

great influx of Striated Swallows about the beginning of November, and they

occur in large flocks during that month, December and January. No records

cf the species for February, March, or April.

The Indian White Wagtai!. Motacilla alba dukhunesis (Sykes). 9 7-11-27,

2 2 5-10-28.

The commonest of the migratory Wagtails. They are to be seen in im-

mense numbers every evening in the winter on the polo-ground, where they

appear to be entirely undisturbed by any match which may happen to be in

progress, merely flying up when the ponies approach very close to them, and

settling again at once. About sunset they fly off in flocks in a south-easterly

direction. Earliest and latest dates seen : September 21, and April 7.

The Masked Wagtail. Motacilla alba personata (Gould).

One seen on the roof of the post office, 6-12-28.

The Large Pied Wagtail. Motacilla maderaspatensis (Gmel.).

Several pairs are resident at Bircha, where they breed in a punt and on the

pumping station in the hot weather, and the rains. Rarely seen elsewhere.

The Grey Wagtail. Motacillacinerea ‘Tunstall.

Presumably this is casfzca, but no specimen was obtained. This is usually

the earliest of the migrant Wagtails to arrive, and the latest to depart.

Earliest and latest dates September 6 and April 29. On 13-9-27, one adult

and two juveniles were seen together. This is the least social of the migratory

Wagtails, never occurring in large flocks. Individual birds seem tc occupy a

certain very restricted area for the winter, and, once they have settled down,

may be seen daily in the same place.

The Indian Blue-headed Wagtail. Motacilla flava beema (Sykes). & 1-10-28,

% 5-10-28, ¢ 24-10-28, ¢ 30-11-28.

Seen from the end of September till March. They occur in flocks, generally

near water and in swampy ground, but sometimes on dry pasture-land.

Frequently they are found in mixed flocks with J/7. alba. They appear

to roost in great numbers on the open ground on One Tree Hill. Considerably

more numerous on the autumn passage than, later on, in the winter or on

the spring passage.

_The Western Yellow-headed Wagtail. Motacilla citreola vere Buturlin. ¢ 7-11-27,

& 4-1-28, ¢ 25-3-29,

Winter visitors, arriving about the end of September or beyinning of October,

but no exact dates recorded, as it is by no means easy to distinguish between

this species and the last in the field. ‘This species never appears to occur on

large flocks, or away from water, and is chiefly seen on the margins of tanks

and ponds. Most of the males are in breeding plumage by the end of March,

and leave early in April, but one was seen by Bircha Lake en 11-5-28 which

had not completely assumed breeding plumage.

The Tree-Pipit. ag trivialis irivialis (Linn.). ¢ 5-12-27, ¢ 27-1-28,

Q 30-1-28, ¢ 6-2-2

A very common ee visitor, found in every type of country except swamp

and thick-jungle. It is very common in gardens. Earliest and latest dates,

‘September 26 and April 13. During the greater part of its stay in the

‘district, it is found in small flocks, but the flocks break up_into pairs during

the last:month before departure.

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 393

The Persian Rock-Pipit. Anthus sordidus decaptus Meinertz. 4 28-12-28.

The single specimen obtained seems to belong to this race. It is occasionally

seen in winter, occurring either singly or in pairs. It frequently perches on the

top of haystacks. Open grassland was the only type of country in which

it was seen. Very shy and difficult to approach.

Richard’s Pipit. Anthus richardi richardi (Vieill.).. ¢ 28-11-27.

The above specimen was obtained near Killod, about three miles from

Mhow. No other record.

The Indian Pipit. Authus richardi rufulus (Vieill.). Q@ 29-7-27; 0? 24-8.-27,

J 13-2--28 ; 2 4--4-28 ; 2 11-5-28 ; 2 28-12-28.

Numerous and resident, breeding in the rains. Occurs in all types of open

country. Inthe Narbadda Valley, Lt. Young found three much incubated eggs

of this species on April9. (J.B.N.A.S., Vol. XVI, p. 515).

The Eastern Tawny Pipit. Anthus campestris griseus Nicoll. ¢ 14-2~29.

This specimen was obtained about three miles east of Mhow. Ihave no

other record, but Jerdon describes it as ‘Abundant at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol.

If, p. 235).

The Yarkand Short-toed Lark. Calendrella brachydactyla longipennis (Eversm.).

The above specimen was obtained from a very large flock on open ground

about fourteen miles west of Mhow, and is the only record. The birds were

very wild and difficult to approach.

The Red-Winged Bush-Lark. Mirafra erythroptera erythroptera (Jerdon). 2 20-8-27 ;

$f 16-9-27 ; 2 23-1-28 ; ¢ 2 1-6-28; ¢ 16-6-28. |

Fairly numerous and resident, keeping to the broken ground in the

neighbourhood of the Vindhya Hills. Itis mainly a bird of open grassland,

but is also met with in fairly open scrub-jungle. Breedsin the rains. Jerdon

states that he ‘ did not find it at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 419).

Sykes’ Crested Lark. Galerida deva (Sykes). ¢ 8-8-27, 4¢16-9-27, Q 27-3-28,

3 26-5-28, 2 8-6-28, of 11-6-28. ¢ 31-8-29.

Chiefly, if not entirely, a summer visitor. One Crested Lark was seen in the

winter, but I was not certain to which species it belonged. From March to

September it is common in open, and often in swampy country. A nest

containing two fresh eggs was found in the shelter of two stones in a stubble-

field on 10-8-29.

The Indian Rufous-tailed Finch-Lark. Ammomanes pheenicura pheenicura (Franklin).

$ 23-11-27, go 2 27-2-28, 2 1-6-28.

Very numerous, sometimes in large flocks and sometimes singly, in

winter. About March the numbers are reduced considerably, but some may

be seen throughout the year. Of the two specimens obtained on 27-2-28, the

male was in full breeding condition, and the ova of the female were beginning

to enlarge. Jerdon says of this species:—‘I have seen it north of the

Narbadda, at Mhow and Saugor, but rare.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 422).

The Pale Ashy-yrey Finch-Lark. Pyrrhulauda grisea siccata (Ticehurst.) ¢ 20-2-28,

2 3-9-28.

Breeds in March and April on open, dry grassland. During the rest of the

year they keep mainly tothe same type of country, but are occasionally seen in

cultivation in small flocks.

The White-eye. Zosterops palpebrosa ('Temm.).

This species is very erratic in its appearances. It occurs at all seasons, but

is rarely seen except after rain bas fallen. Whether this is only because rain,

by bringing out the insects, makes it more lively and therefore more

noticeable, or whether there i is some local mov ement, is uncertain. The same

phenomenon is noticeable at Peshawar. e

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

The Purple Sunbird. Cinnyris asiatica asiatica (Latham). ¢9-7-28.

Common in gardens and scrub-jungle. The majority of the species appear

to leave the neighbourhood during the rains, gradually returning during

the autumn. The species is notoriously irregular in its plumage-changes, but

in this area the majority of the males seem to have adopted their noa-breeding

plumage by the beginning of August, and to have reassumed their breeding

plumage by the end of November. The one specimen obtained was moulting

from breeding into non-breeding plumage. Nests containing fresh eggs found

between March 3 and June 25. Eggs are incubated for thirteen days. A

nest containing two eggs was found on 14-3-29. The eggs hatched, and the

young were successfully reared. On May 1, seeing a Sunbird again visiting

the same nest, I examined it, and found that it contained one freshly hatched

chick. ‘There was no trace of a second chick or egg.

The Thick-billed Flower-Pecker. Piprosoma squalidum squalidum (Burton). 2 2-11-28.

This specimen was shot from a party of three or four in scrub-jungle.

No other record.

The Indian Pitta. Pitta brachyura (Linn.).

Not observed, but General Betham took its eggs in the valley below

Simrole.

The Golden-fronted Pied Woodpecker. Leiopicus mahrattensis (Lath.). ¢ 25-6-28,

6 ¢o-10—28:.

All three specimens are intermediate between the northern and southern

races. Resident. Found alike in gardens, cultivation, along tree-fringed

roads, and in scrub-jungle. A nest found on March 21, in a hole in an acacia,

about twelve feet from the ground, contained one hatching egg, one addled,

and two infertile. One of the parent birds went off when the operation of

cutting into the nest with an adze was begun, but the other did not leave

till the excavation was completed and she was being handled.

The Golden-backed Woodpecker. Brachytpternus benghalensis (Linn.)._

Resident, in smaller numbers than the last species.

The Black-backed Wocdpecker. Chrysocolaptes festivus (Bodd.).

Jerdon states that this species occurs ‘in the Vindhyan Mountains near

Mhow’. (Jerdon, Vol. I, p. 283.)

The Wryneck. lynx torquilla (Linn). 2 17-3-28, ¢ 30-9-28.

Appears to occur mainly as a passage migrant in spring and autumn,

though some may stay through the winter. Earliest and latest dates Sept. 30

and Mar. 17.

The Northern Green Barbet. Thereiceryx zeylanicus caniceps (Franklin).

Occurs in ‘the jungles of the Vindhyan range of hills’ (Jerdon, Vol. I,

oon Aye

The Coppersmith. Xantholema hemacephala lutea (Lesson). Q 20-2-29.

The above-cited specimen was obtained in rather an unusual way. Seeing

two jungle crows pecking at a Coppersmith on the ground I drove them off,

and picked up the Coppersmith, apparently little the worse, though unable for

the time being to fly. However, in an hour or two it died. The species is

resident, and very numerous in the gardens of bungalows. It also occurs,

though in smaller numbers, in scrub-jungle and cultivation. The majority of

eggs appear to be laid in April, but work on the nest-cavity begins as early as

January. During the earlier part of the work of excavation, the birds only

work on the warmer days, a cold spell or a shower at once stopping work.

Rain at once silences this species, but if there is a break of a few days in the

monsoon it recommences calling at once, though not with quite the same

energy it shows in the hot weather.

Pi echt GEES Ay I oer

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 395

The Common Cuckoo. Cuculus canorus (Linn). ¢ 10-7-28 ; ¢ 30-7-28 ; ¢ 24-6-29,

All three specimens appear to be intermediate between C. c. canorus and

C.c. telebhonus, but nearer to the latter than to the former. The status of

this species in the neighbourhood of Mhow is somewhat puzzling. It calls

vigorously through June and July, chiefly in scrub-jungle in the neighbourhood

of the Vindhya Hills, but also to a less extent within the Cantonment itself. I

have never heard or seen the species on the plateau north of Mhow. Apart from

the two months mentioned, I have only seen it three times, twice in September,

and once in November. On each of these three occasions, it was seen just be-

yond the polo-ground. The fauna (Second edition, Vol. IV, p. 137)

says :—‘ Beitham found it breeding in the broken country near Mhow.’

General Betham kindly enlarged on this statement in answer to my queries as

follows :—‘ I only twice got an egg of the Cuckoo, both times from the nest

of the Black-crested Bunting. One nest was situated on the roadside, where

the road had been carved out of the side of the hill, and the other on the

ground. These Buntings were very common on the ghat below Simrole.’

This did not seem to me quite conclusive, the more so as Cuculus micropterus

is numerous on ‘the ghat below Simrole’; so J shot three Cuckoos and

examined their organs. The specimens were all calling vigorously when shot,

though the first two were in moult, a condition in which birds do not usually

breed. Most species of birds are silent when moulting. In both these cases

the organs were somewhat enlarged. The third specimen had just mated with

a hen when shot, and almost before the body could be picked up the hen was

favourably receiving the attentions of another male Cuckoo, This last specimen

was in breeding condition. Both in 1928 and 1929 it was a very common sight

in the scrub-jungle immediately south of the Mhow-Simrole Road to see

Cuckoos engaged in vigorous courtship. They are so numerous in June and

July that the fact that they were only observed three times during the rest of

the year, and then not in the locality where they were common in the summer,

suggests that they are mainly, if not entirely, summer visitors. The three

individuals seen in the autumn may well have been migrating from further

north. The note of the Cuckoos round Mhow varies slightly from the note of

the Cuckoo in England. In both England and Central India the interval

between the two parts of the Cuckoo’s call varies, but whereas in England

it appears to vary normally between a major and a minor third, in the neigh-

bourhood of Mhow it varies between a minor third and a major second. The

variation is not mereiy between individual birds, but may be noted in the call

of the same bird. When beginning to call, the Cuckoo generally employs the

larger interval, but when it has been calling continuously for some minutes, it

appears to get tired and occasionally employs the smaller interval. Some

individuals seem to use the smaller interval almost all the time. The following

grassy plains).’ (Jerdon, Vol. I, p. 322). ‘ Fairly common on the hills near

. Mhow at the end of the rains.’ (S. & B.)

The Indian Cuckoo. Cuculus micropterus (Gould).

Fairly numerous in the Vindhya Hills, cailing during June and July. Not

recorded at any other season.

The Common Hawk-Cuckoo or Brain-fever-Bird. Hierococcyx varius (Vahl.).

Fairly numerous in summer. It begins to call shortly before the rains break

(June), but only comes into full ‘ song’ after they have broken, and continues

to call till well into September. An occasional bird may be heard calling in

October. Not noted between October and the end of May, though whether

this is due to its migrating or simply to the fact that it is not conspicuous during

its silent season, is uncertain.

The Pied Crested Cuckoo. Clamator jacobinus (Bodd.)

A rains visitor, sometimes in considerable numbers. Earliest and latest

dates seen: June 2] and Oct.16. In 1928 this species occurred in very large

numbers, in 1927 and 1929 in very much smaller numbers. Few seem to

arrive before the beginning ot July, or to remain after the end of September,

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

On 5-8-29 a juvenile was seen in an Acacia being fed by a pair of Large

Grey Babblers.

The Koel. Eudynamis scolopaceus (Linn.).

Mainly a summer visitor, but a few stay througnout the winter. Even in

winter it seems to be the first bird to wake up in the morning. It begins to

call about the middle of March. It victimises both Corvus coronoides and

Corvus splendens.

The Sirkeer Cuckoo. Taccocua leschenauiti sirkee (Gray).

Occasionally seen, chiefly in scrub-jungle. Appears to be resident.

The Coucal or Crow-Pheasani. Centropus sinensis (Stephen).

Numerous and resident. It breeds during the rains, and seldom calls at

other times. A break of a few days in the rains silences it. The female

has a very peculiar call used in courtship. ‘The following is an extract from

my diary for September 5:-—‘ When I first saw them (2.e. a pair of Crow-

Pheasants), they were both on the ground, the cock pursuing the hen, and

the latter running with tail depressed and wings drooped. ‘lhe male then

flew into a tree, while the female remained standing on the ground, drooping

and vibrating her wings, and constantly repeating a harsh cry—’ Ske-e-e-

a-aw’. After about two minutes the cock returned, and the hen, after

another short pursuit, allowed herself to be captured, and the two mated, one

of them giving voice to a low and melodious variation of the usual ‘Whoot-

whoot’ note. -

- The Large Indian Paroquet. Psittacula eupatria (Linn.).

Small flock seen on the outskirts of Mhow 3-11-2$, and a single bird on

the same spot 15-7-29. No other record.

The Rose-ringed Paroquet. Psittacula krameri (Scop. ).

Numerous and resident, but moves about locally in relation to food supply.

Outside a small temple near Mhow it is the custom of the priest for a few

weeks during the rains to put down grain for the paroquets each morning. On

these occasions not less than two hundred gather together within a space not

more than twenty feet square. No other species of Paroquet was noted

feeding there, though it was in the trees just above the temple that the last

species was seen. A pair of Jungle Crows occasionally joined the Paroquets

at their meal, looking somewhat nervous in the middle of a green carpet of

Paroquets. Eggs laid in February and March.

The Blossom-headed Paroquet. Psittacula cyanocephaia (Linn.). @ 28-5-28.

Resident in small numbers, rarely coming near houses. The one specimen

obtained was so young that it cannot have left the nest many days. Eggsare,

therefore, probably, laid in April.

The Kashmir Roller. Coracias garrula semenowi (Loud. & Tcshusi). Q 22-9-28,

Ore 27/-9-29.

Numerous on passage about the end of September. Not noted on the spring

passage.

The Indian Rotter or Biue Jay. Coracias benghalensis (Linn).

Resident. Not as numerous as in most parts of India. Appears to breed in

April and again during the rains.

_ The European Bee-eaier. Merops apiaster (Linn).

Several birds which I am convinced beiouged to this species, seen at Bircha

24-10-28. Unfortunately, no specimen could be obtained. No other record.

The Common Indian Bee-eater. Merops orientalis (Lath).

Resident in small: numbers. Very numerous in autumn and spring. The

scarcity of suitable nesting’ sites probably accounts for the smallness of their

numbers inthe summer. When courting (about the end of March and

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 397

beginning of April), the cock frequently presents a wasp tothe hen. The

increase of numbers in the autumn begins towards the end of September, and

lasts till about Christmas. ‘The spring passage is less marked.

The Blue-tailed Bee-eater. Merops superciliosus javanicus (Horsf.). ¢ 19-8-29.

Appears to be entirely a passage migrant, very much more numerous in

autumn than in spring. In spring it passes through Mhow in May. In the

autumn it makes a longer stay, having been seen from Aug. 2 to Oct. 2.

The Pied Kingfisher. Ceryle rudis (Linn.).

Common over tanks, and occasionally seen fishing on small streams.

The Common Kingfisher. Alcedo atthis (Linn.).

Appears to be resident in small numbers, On more than one occasion when

this species ventured to fish in a reach wherea pair of White-breasted King-

fishers commonly fish for crabs, the latter attacked the former with great fury

and drove him off.

The Stork-billed Kingfisher. Ramphalcyon capensis (Linn.).

One is generally to be seen over the river opposite the Residency grounds at

Indore. S.&B. procured one at the Depalpore Lake.

The White-breasted Kingfisher. Halcyon smyrnensis (Linn.).

Numerous and resident, breeding in April. A pair seem to live permanently

at the confluence of two small streams just outside Mhow. The streams are

generally dry for the last three months before the breaking of the monsoon.

So long as there is water in the stream the favourite diet of these Kingfishers

seems to be crabs, though they have sometimes been seen to catch fish

(Chilwa). Their method of dealing with a crab is to beat it to a pulp on a

stone or the branch of a tree, and to swallow it whole. Any part that may

have fallen off in the beating process, a claw, for example, is carefully retrieved

and eaten afterwards. When the stream runs dry they take to a diet of

crickets, ete., and in 1928, when water remainedin the stream later than it

does most years, they gave up fishing at the time they would normally be

obliged to. A lady living in Mhow told me that one White-breasted King-

fisher used frequently to come and catch Goldfish from a small pond in her

garden.

The Common Grey Hornbill. Lophoceros birostris (Scop.).

Appears to be migratory. Occasionally seen in the winter, frequently in

spring and autumn, but only once between April 23 and September 16. It

generally occurs in flocks of six. On the one occasion when one was seen in

the summer, it was a solitary bird seen on June 10 in the Vindhya Hills just

below Simrole.

The Hoopes. Upupa epops (Linn.).

Resident in small numbers. Breeds in April and May. Its numbers are

greatly increased in winter. The breeding birds, from their bright, chestnut

colouring and the fact that there is no white between the chestnut of the head

and the black of the crest I take to be U. epops orientalis. Many of the winter

birds are paler in colour, and have a good deal of white in the crest. Unfor-

tunately, no specimens were obtained.

The Alpine Swift. Micropus melba (Linn,).

A passage migrant, fairly numerous over tanks in February and March, and

again in September.

The House Swift. Micropus affinis (Gray). :

The chief breeding season is in April. Some stay for the winter, and appear

to breed then, but the majority seem to leave Mhow about the end of October,

returning at the beginning of March.

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

The Crested Swift. Hemiprocne coronata (Tickeli).

General Betham in a letter, referring to Simrole, writes:—‘ The Crested

Swift also hangs out there, but I was never fortunate enough to get eggs.’

Lt. Young (J: B&B. N. H. S., Vol. XVI, p. 514) states that he saw the species

in the Narbadda Valley in March and April. I have no record of the

species.

Franklin’s Nightjar. Caprimulgus moaticolus monticolus (Franklin). Q 6-8-28.

A summer visitor. They appear to arrive in April and leave about the end of

August. The one place where, between those two months, one can always be

certain of seeing this species is the channel for taking the overflow water from

Bircha Lake. In July and August they occur there in flocks of eight or more.

The only other place in the neighbourhood of Mhow where I have seen them is

in scrub-jungle south of the Mhow-Simrole Road, where I put one up off two

fresh eggs on 1-7-29.

The Common [ndian Nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus (Lath.). ¢ 16-11-27 ; 2 22-6-28.

Fairly numerous in scrub-jungle, and occurs, though in smaller numbers,

within the Cantonment. In summer after dark they frequently sit in the middle

of the road, where it passes through scrub-jungle, and their large eyes reflect

the lights of approaching cars long before their bodies become visible.

Eggs laid in the latter half of June.

The Indian Barn-Owl. Tyto alba javanica (Gmel.).

Juvenile bird in captivity, which had been taken from a nest in the roof of

occupied barracks some three months earlier, seen 25-12-27.

The only other record of the species is of one which came out of the Bagh

Caves, about eighty miles W. S.-W. of Mhow, 23-4-29.

The Dusky Horned Owl. Bubo coromandus coromandus (Lath.).

Occasionally seen.

The Indian Spotted Owlet. Athene brama (Temm.).

Numerous and resident. Breeds in April.

The Osprey. Pandion haliaétus (Linn.).

One fishing in Bircha Lake, 16-9-27.. No other record.

Cinereous Vulture. AEgypius monachus (Linn.).

“*Tsaw it... also at Mhow.’ »(Jerdon, Vol-1, p.17°)

The Black Vulture. Sarcogyps calvus (Scop.).

One pair, never more, seen in almost every collection of vultures round

a carcass.

The Indian Long-billed Vulture. Gyps indicus (Scop.).

More numerous than the last species, less so than the next.

The Indian White-backed Vulture. Pseudogyps bengalensis (Gmel.).

Resident and very numerous as arule. All the last three species, however,

deserted the district in June 1927, and only came back gradually in the

autumn. The time they deserted the neighbourhood of Mhow was the time of

heavy aud destructive floods in Gujerat and Kathiawar, when there must have

been an unusual quantity of food suitable for vultures in those parts. Whether

there was any connection, it is impossible to say.

The Neophron or Scavenger Vulture. Neophron percnopterus (Linn. )

Common and Resident. Lt. Young found that in the Narbadda Valley in

April there were nests of this species containing eggs on ‘ almost every suitable

piece of cliff’. (J. B. N. H. S., Vol. XVI, p. 515).

The Indian Tawny Eagle. Aquila rapax vindhiana (Frank.).

Resident, but not very numerous. Breeds in March. ‘This species is

frequently mobbed by kites.

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 399

The White-eyed Buzzard-Eagle. Butastur teesa (Frankl.) 0-? 5-10-28 ; 0? 20-10-29.

Not very numerous, but appears to be resident. Lt. Young found a nest of

this species containing one egg in the Narbadda Valley on April 5. (AB.N.A.S.,

Mol. XVig pe ol5).

The Pariah Kite. Milvus migrans govinda (Sykes).

Numerous and resident. This species seems to have a strong dislike for the

Indian Tawny Eagle, and it isa common sight to see one of the latter being

mobbed by kites. Eggsarelaidin January and February, but kites may often

be seen carrying sticks up into trees about the end of September. As the

weather becomes colder, they cease from this practice, and do no more work on

their nests till January.

The Black-winged Kite. Elanus ceruleus (Desf.).

S.& B. report having shot one at Mhow on September 25, and two at the

Delapore Lake in December and January respectively.

The Pale Harrier. Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmel.).

Fairly numerous in winter. One was seen at Bircha as early as August 2,

and again on August 9, but the majority do not appear to arrive before the

end of September or the beginning of October, .

The Marsh Harrier. Circus eruginosus (Linn.). 9 17-9-28,.

This is the commonest of the harriers round Mhow, being particularly

numerous in September and April. The stomach of the above-cited specimen

contained the whole of a lark, apparently Ga/erida deva, with the exception of

the head. It is seen in equal numbers over the swampy margins of jhz/s,

cultivation, and dry pasture land.

The Indian Shikra. Astur badius dussumieri (Temm.). 0? 12-10-27; & 15-10-28.

Fairly common, more so in winter than in summer. The former of the

above-mentioned specimens contained a snake 45” long, a large, striped wasp,

a very large beetle, and the remains of several fresh-water crabs.

The Besra Sparrow-Hawk. Accipiter virgatus (Temm.).

S. & B. Obtained two specimens at Mhow in October 1881. They saw no

others.

The Shahin Falcon. Falco perigrinus perigrinator (Sund.).

Said by Jerdon to breed ‘ at the great waterfall at Mhow’. (Jerdon, Vol. I,

p. 27). Presumably the waterfall referred to is that at Patalpani, about three

miles out of Mhow, A pair of this species were circling round over it when I

visited it on March 19, and on the face of the cliff on the side of the gorge

opposite the fall, there was a site which had obviously been used for an eyrie

for very many years. I did not observe the species elsewhere in the neighbour-

hood of Mhow. S. & B. state that a pair of this species frequented the same

waterfall during the cold season of 1881.

The Lagger Falcon. Falco jugger (Gray).

Occasionally seen.

The Red-headed Merlin or Turumti. Falco chiquera (Dauden).

Occasionally seen, generally in pairs.

The Kestrel. Falco tinnunculus (Linn.). @ 24-2-28; ¢ 3-10-28 ; 2 9-2-29.

A winter visitor in considerable numbers. Earliest and latest dates recorded,

September 22 and April 2. Crickets form a large part of their diet and they

also seem to be partial to centipedes.

The Common Green Pigeon. Crocopus pheenicopterus (Lath.).

Appears to be resident, but not in very great numbers. More often seen on

the outskirts of jungle along the Simrole Road than anywhere else. Lt.

Young found their eggs in the Narbadda Valley on March 28 and April 6.

CBN FL St Nol XVI pp. S14 i:

400. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Volo XXXV

The Blue Rock-Pigeon. Columba livia (Gmel.).

Not as numerous as in many parts of India, possibly owing to the paucity

of buildings suitable for nesting-sites. They appear to have no. regular

breeding season. One or more pairs were engaged in domestic duties in the

tower of my church during most of the year.

The Indian Rufous Turtle-Dove. Streptopelia orientalis meena (Sykes).

‘Very common at and near Mhow.’ (S. and B.) I did not observe the

species.

The Spotted Dove. Streptopelia chinensis (Scop.).

Resident, but more numerous ia summer than in winter. Early in the rains

it gathers into flocks up to about a dozen strong. About November the flocks

disappear, and the numbers diminish.

The Brown Turtle-Dove. Streptopelia senegalensis (Linn.).

The commonest dove in the neighbourhood of Mhow. Breeds chiefly from

March to May, and again, in smaller numbers, from September to November,

i.e., before and after the rains.

The Indian Ring-Dove. Streptopelia decaocto (Frivalszky).

Almost as numerous as the last species. Appears to breed at all seasons.

In winter gathers into small flocks.

The Indian Red Turtle-Dove. (Enopopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Henry).

¢ .21-9-27.

The least common of the doves about Mhow. It is mainly a summer

visitor, only rarely being seen in winter ; nest containing one egg found 30-3-29.

The Painted Sandgrouse. Pterocles indicus (Gmel.).

Resident, but more numerousin winter thaninsummer. On three occasions ~

in July a pair were put up in scrub-jungle. Lt. Young took the eggs of this

species on March 28 in the Narbadda Valley. (/J.B.N.H/.S:, Vol. XVI, p. 514).

This suggests that the close season, which at present begins in Central India

on April 1, might with advantage be put earlier.

The Coronetted Sandgrouse. Pterocles coronatus atratus (Hartert).

‘Swinhoe obtained three specimens from Mhow in Dhar.’ (Fauna,

Nol? pet 20a.)

The Common Sandgrouse. Pterocles exustus (‘'emm.).

Fairly common, particularly so in April. Jerdon says of this species,

‘At Mhow—most of them leave the district after breeding in July and do not

return till the end of the rains.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 503).

The Peacock. Pavo cristatus Linn.

Never seen in cultivation, and not very common in jungle, as the species

has been shot a great deal in the neighbourhood of Mhow. In 1928 a law was

passed by the Indore Durbar making it illegal to shoot this species in Indore

State. If this law is enforced, Peacocks may be expected to become very much

more common.

The Red Spur-Fowl. Galloperdix spadicea (Gmel.)._

‘Seen in Vindhya Range.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 542).

The Blue-breasted Quail. Excalfactoria chinensis (Linn.).

One seen about five miles south of Mhow, 8-5-29.

The Common Quail. Coturnix coturaix (Linn.).

Fairly numerous in the winter.

The Rain Quail. Cotuanix coromandetica (Gmel.).

Not so numerous as the last species. Not observed in the summer.

eee

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 401

The Jungle Bush-Quail. Perdicula asiatica (Lath.).

Very numerous in scrub-jungle in spring and summer. Less numerous in

winter.

The Rock Bush-Quail. Perdicula argoondah (Sykes).

Appears to be resident in small numbers, and sometimes occurs in the same

covey with the last species.

The Painted Bush-Quail. Crytoplectron erythrorhynchum (Sykes).

A pair seen near Dunga gaon, about two miles from Mhow, 21-8-28.

The Painted Partridge. Francolinus pictus (Jard. and Selby).

Numerous in long grass, crops, and rushes.

The Grey Partridge. Fraucolinus pondicerianus (Gmel.).

Not so numerous as the last species, and keeps to drier ground as a rule.

The White-breasted Waterhen. Amaurornis phenicura (Pennant).

Numerous on the river at Indore. The only other record is of one bird,

possibly the same individual each time, which was always to be found by the

Ghambier River just beyond the Mhow golf links in March 1928 and 1929.

The Brown Crake. Amaurornis akool (Sykes).

One was found sitting on six eggs in a nest built in acollection of food-wrack

in the top of a stunted Acacia on the bank of the Ghambier River, on Sept. 2.

The nest was about four feet above the ground and about ten feet above the

surface of the water. The bird sat very close, and used to allow me to watch

her from a range of about three feet. Thisis probably the same bird that

I had seen, without being able to identify it, skulking about by the stream at

this point on a good many other occasions. ‘The species was not observed

elsewhere.

The Moorhen. Gallinula chloropus (Linn.).

Numerous on the river at Indore. Once or twice seen on the Ghambier

River.

The Common Coot. Fulica atra atra (Linn.).

Very numerous on some tanks, and entirely absent from others apparently

as suitable.

The Sarus. Megalornis antigone (Linn.)

Numerous at all seasons in all types of country except jungle. It is an

irregular breeder, but by far the majority of eggs are laid in September.

The Likh or Florican. Sypheotides indica (Gmel.).

Mainly a rains visitor in varying numbers. It was more numerous in 1928

than in 1927 or 1929. Eggs laid in August. ‘Common during the rains,

at which season it breeds but some of them remain in the neighbourhood of

Mhow throughout the year.’ (S. and B.)

The Stone-Curlew. Burhinus edicnemus (Linn.). ¢13-2-28.

Seen occasionally, always on rocky hillside covered with a growth of young

‘country teek’, except once when several were feeding in swampy ground

by the Bircha overflow.

The Indian Courser. Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmel.). ¢ 11-5-28.

Status doubtful. Frequently not seen for weeks together, while at other

times it occurs in great numbers. Very large flocks seen near the 13th

milestone on the Mhow-Neemuch Road on November 5 and 12, 1928. .

The Pheasaat-tailed Jacana. Hydrophasianus chirurgus (Scop.).

This species seems to be mainly, if not entirely, a spring and autumn visitor

to the immediate neighbourhood of Mhow. It is very numerous on the shores

of Bircha Lake during May. On 13-9-29, they were breeding in large numbers

on the various tanks at Mandu, some sixty miles away.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XX XV

The Red-wattled Lapwing. Lobivanellus indicus (Bodd.).

Very numerous and resident. Localname 7Zzfurz. The majority of eggs

appear to be laid in May, but they may also be found in June and July, and

probably in other months as well. All the ‘ nests’ I saw in May, consisted of

a depression in the ground, unlined, and fairly near water. A nest found on

July 16, 1928, was, however, of a different type, and a description of it also

covers several nests found after the breaking of the rains in the following

year. It was situated on the top of a grassy mound, about ten yards from a

stream, and the eggs reposed on a bed of gravel, evidently brought from the

bed of the stream by the birds themselves. As the monsoon had broken

about a month before, and rain was to be expected daily while the eggs were

incubating, this arrangement seems to have been designed to provide drainage.

For a bird that does no more normally than to make a scrape in the ground,

to take special measures to meet special weather-circumstances, suggests a

fairly high order of intelligence.

The Yellow-watiied Lapwing. Sarciorais malabaricus (Bodd.). Q 23-3-28.

Local name Lauri. Status uncertain, but it certainly breeds in the neigh-

bourhood. Seen occasionally on barren ground, chiefly in spring and summer.

The Sociable Plover. Chettusia gregaria (Pall.).

‘Seen at Mhow.’ (Jerdon, Vol. II, p. 645).

The White-tailed Lapwing. Chettusia leacura (Licht.).

A small flock of birds which appeared to me to belong to this species were

feeding near the Towers of Silence on the evening of May 26. I watched

them for some time through field-glasses from a clistance of from 150 to 200

yards. They were very shy, however, and would not allow me to approach

within reasonable range to obtain a specimen.

Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover. Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge). 2 (juv.) 16-7-28

Occasionally seen at Bircha in April and the rains. A pair seen there

22-4-27 were behaving as if they had eggs or young. Lt. Young found their

eggs in the Narbadda Valley on May 5. (/.B.N.H.S., Vol. XV, p. 514.)

The Black-winged Stilt. Himantopus himantopus (Linn.).

Common in winter, generally in pairs, but sometimes in flocks up to about

twenty. Contrary to general belief, these birds are by no means bad eating.

The Common Sandpiper. Tringa hypoleuca (Linn.),

A winter visitor in small numbers.

The Wood-Sandpiper. Tringa glareola (Linn.).

Occasionally seen in winter.

The Green Sandpiper. Tringa ochropus (Linn.). ¢ 26-10-27; 2 15-8-28; 9 (juv.

by oviduct) 2-7-29,

A very numerous winter visitor. From September to April at least one is

to be seen by every stagnant pool, and several along the margin of every 7fzd.

In April they tend to gather into flocks, and their numbers are increased by

the addition of birds on passage from further south. The last species

scmetimes mixes in these flocks. The majority have left by the end of April,

but a few individuals, presumably non-breeders stay for the whole summer.

By the middle of July their numbers begin to increase. A pair watched on

on March 2, were courting. One was displaying and the other apparently

inviting his attentions. The former kept up a call quite unlike the usual call

of the species, sounding rather like two Hints being knocked together.

The Spotted Redshank. Tringaerythropus (Pall.). ¢, Manpur, 20-10-28.

Occasionally seen, always solitary, in winter.

The Redshank. Tringa fotanus (Linn.).

A winter visitor in small numbers, occurring singly and in pairs.

a ee

A NOTE ON BIRDS IN THE NEIGHBOURHOOD OF MHOW 403

The Greenshank. Tringanebularia (Gunner). ¢ 19-11-28.

A winter visitor in larger numbers than either of the last species, usually

seen in pairs.

The Little Stint. Erolia minuta (Leisler).

Occasionally seen in winter, and more frequently in March and April.

IWarliest date seen, Aug. 3.

More numerous than the last species, especially in April and May. During

the winter they occur in small parties of about five, but towards the end of

‘the season in pairs, which may often be seen courting.

Fantail Snipe. Capelia gallinago gallinago (Winn.).

Fairly numerous in the winter.

The Pintail Snipe. Capella stenura (Bonaparte).

A winter visitor. I have been told that in the neighbourhood of Mhow the

last species is more numerous from September to November, and the present

species after November, but I cannot vouch for this personally.

The Painted Snipe. Rostratula benghalensis (Linn.).

Resident and fairly numerous, but subject to local movement as the swamps

dry up.

The Black-headed Gull. Larus ridibundus (Linn.).

One seen over a tank about fifteen miles from Mhow, 26-11-28. No other

record.

The Indian River Tern. Sterna seena (Sykes).

Fairly common over tanks in winter. Lt. Young saw a young bird of this

species near Mhow on May 15S. (/.B.N.A.S., Vol. XVI, p. 516).

The Black-bellied Tern. Sterna melanogaster. (‘Temin.). |

Also seen in winter, but less commonly than the last species.

The Indian Shag. Phalacrocorax fuscicollis (Steph.).

Resident in all suitable localities,

The Little Cormorant. Phalacrocorax javanicus (Horsfield).

Appears to be resident, but by no means so common as the last species.

The Indian Darter or Snake-Bird. Anhinga melanogaster (Pennant).

A pair to be seen on almost every tank at all seasons.

The White Ibis. Threskiornis melanocephaia (Latham).

One seen by tank fifteen miles west of Mhow, 12-11-28, and one by the

Narbadda at Barwani, 24-4-29.

The Spoonbill. Platalea leucorodia (Linn.).

Two or three at Barwani by the Narbadda River, 24-4-29.

The White Stork. Ciconia ciconia Linn.

Two or three by the Narbadda River at Barwani, 24-4-29.

The White-necked Stork. Dissoura episcopa (Bodd.).

Resident in small numbers.

The Black-necked Stork. Xenorynchus asiaticus (Lath.).

Occasionally seen.

The Open-bill. Auastomus oscitans (Bodd.).

Several by the Narbadda at Barwani, 24-4-29,

The Purple Heron. Ardea purpurea (Linn.).

One on island in Jeshwantnagar Lake, 20-8-28.

The Grey Heron. Ardea cinerea (ULinn.).

Seen at all seasons, but most numerous in winter.

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

The Large Egret. Egretta alba (Linn.).

A pair seen over a tank about thirteen miles west of Mhow, 5-11-28. Not

identified with certainty on any other occasion.

The Little Egret. Egretta garzetta (Linn.).

Fairly common at all seasons.

The Cattle Egret. Bubulcusibis. (Linn.).

Occurs at all seasons, but a great increase in numbers takes place the day

after the first rain of the monsoon falls. In the immediate neighbourhood of

Mhow I have not found any colonies breeding, though in May I have seen them

carrying sticks. Two nests in a tree on the platform of Rutlam Railway

Station contained two and three fully-fledged young respectively on 3-8-28.

The Reef-Heron. Demiegretta sacra (Gmelin.).

One seen flying high and steadily from the west about 7-30 a.m. on 8-10-29.

On coming over the polo-ground it circled down and joined a party of Cattle

Eegrets which were feeding there. After feeding with them for about five

minutes it flew off steadily due east, rising as long as I could see it.

The Pond Heron. Ardeola grayii (Sykes).

~-Common at all seasons wherever there is water.

The Night-Heron. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linn.).

One seen by the Ghambier River, about five miles from Mhow, 23-9-29.

The Common Flamingo. Phcenicopterus ruber (Linn.).

One seen by the Narbadda, near Barwani, 24-4-29,

The Cotton Teal. Nettapus coromandelianus (Blanf. & Oates).

Seen occasionally on Bircha Lake, at Dhar, and Mandu. At the latter place

they appeared to be breeding, 13-9-29.

The Bar-headed Goose. Anser indicus (lJ.eatham).

One seen on a tank-about thirteen miles west of Mhow, 5-11-28.

The Lesser Whistling Teal. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsf.).

Numerous at Bircha during the early part of the rains. Occasionally seen

there and at Jeshwantnagar up to the end of September.

The Ruddy Sheldrake or Brahminy Duck. Casarca ferruginea (Vroeg.).

Not uncommon on the Narbadda in winter. Mr. M. Young reports having

seen them there as Iate’as April 14. (J B.N-A.S., Vol. XIV, p.ols: ae

The Mallard. Anas platyrhyncha (Linn.).

_A winter visitor in, varying numbers. - It was more numerous than usual in

the winter of 1928-29, which was an- abnormally cold winter over the whole of

Northern India.

The Gadwall. Chaulelasmus streperus (Linn.).

A very numerous winter visitor.

The Common Teal. Nettion crecca (Linn.).

The most numerous member of the family in winter. Earliest date recorded,

Sept. 16.

The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal. Querquedula querquedula (Linn.).

Occurs in winter, but is more numerous in the spring. Latest date seen,

May 9.

~The Shoveller. Spatula clypeata (Linn.).

Not uncommon in the winter. Mr. M. Young says :—‘I saw one flock of

seven Shovellers (Spatula clypeata) on April 14, and shot one which was

quite good eating.’ (J.B.NV.77.S., Vol. XVI, p. 515.)

The little Grebe or Dabchick. Podiceps ruficollis. (Vroeg.).

Resident in small numbers on permanent water. Never seen on tanks that

dry up.

A TALE OF FIVE TIGER

(With a photo).

On the 23rd January news came in of a tiger kill some 15 miles

away. I was not long in getting away in my Ford van, and

was in my machan by 5 p.m. Only a mouthful had been

eaten of the kill, The kill was a cow I had tied up on a path

running through dense forest, on the borders of a stream, in the

hopes of bagging a large tiger that had been prowling around

these parts for some time, and calling—the grand ‘‘Ar-r-o-ungh’’—

as he roamed the country side. The kill was almost certainly his.

At 6 p.m. monkeys could be heard swearing in the trees someway

behind me, and 30 minutes later a low moan from a tiger. At about

7 p.m. an animal galloped. passed behind me, crashing heavily

through the undergrowth, followed a few seconds later by another.

I soon realised that they were tiger and it was not long before the

jungle around seemed to be full of tiger, trampling all over the

place. At just about 7-30 p.m. I heard more than one tiger

approach the kill and start feeding. I turned on my torch (a 2-cell

Ever-Ready, clamped to my rifle) and five tiger were revealed

grouped round the kill, the largest, a monster, furthest to the

right. Before 1 could fire the big tiger stepped back: into the

shadows and I took the next in size, a tigress, and rolled her over.

The remainder scattered, I switched off the light, and dead silence

supervened for about three or four minutes—then I heard a tiger

moving on my left, and another on my right, and a few seconds

later I heard another move across my front near the kill. I quickly

lit up the kill, shot a smaller tigress just before she entered the

darkness to the right of the kill (she disappeared as I fired), and

switched off again. Once more dead silence, and a little later I

heard a tiger on my right walk heavily away, and another on my

left walked round (behind my machan) to my right. Then the

former, undoubtedly the big tiger, that had walked away, started

calling his great, organ-like ‘“‘Ar-r-o-ungh’’ sending the notes crash-

ing out into the stillness of the night with a startling suddenness,

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

The calls, at intervals of about 10 seconds, were kept up from then

on till 4-30 a.m., except for two intervals when the tiger returned

to the scene of slaughter and licked the large dead tigress, which

was lying out of view, to my right. On- each occasion he

spoke his mind to one of the other two tiger, which I fancy

was standing near the dead tigress, and a great rumpus there was

too, coughing roars, and giant cat-like spits and snarls—and then

away out into the far distance he wandered off again calling, his

calls sounding fainter as he went further away and louder again

as he came round on his detour. Now and again, as he drew near,

he would halt and vary his call to a short ‘“‘Ar-r, Ar-r’’, and then

the deep ‘‘Ar-r-o-ungh’’. At about 4-30 a.m. he came to the dead

tigress for the third time, now calling, and the air seemed to

quiver as the grand volume of sound reverberated through the sur-

rounding jungle. As he reached the tigress, a few paces from the

kill, he stopped, and all sound ceased. The sudden cessation of

sound was weird in the extreme, there was not a breath of wind,

and the very insects in the jungle seemed to participate in maintain-

ing a heavy and oppressive silence. I could distinctly hear the

tiger breathing, and the firm tread of one of the other tigers could

be heard in the jungle behind me, while some way off the fifth tiger

commenced to call plaintively. This silence lasted for about half

an hour, the tiger listening intently. I heard no sound to indicate

that the tiger had moved from his position, and jumped perceptibly

when the kill was suddenly jerked, and this was followed by a

great tearing of flesh and sounds typical of the big cat indulging

in a hearty meal. I waited for a minute or two and ‘then switched

on the light—a huge tiger lay at full length at the tail end of,

and at right angles to, the kill. He lifted his great head and

stared up at me and next moment was roaring and rolling on the

ground mortally wounded. Before I could fire again he disappeared,

crashing into the darkness for about 50 yards, and then came

deep gurgling sobs, and—silence. I lay back against the back

rail of my machan with a feeling of relief and a queer feel-

ing also that I- had undergone a certain amount of strain.

Dawn brought. with it. all the usual awakening noises of the

jungle, and there was very little to show, sitting where I was in

the machan, that anything had happened during the night—the

kill was in the same position, very little more had been eaten from

it, and no sign of the three tiger I had shot. I was also not sure

that the smaller tigress I had fired at was dead. I called to my

men who were in some fields not far off—and descended from

my machan. As I approached the kill I saw the larger tigress

lying dead a few paces down the path the old tiger was wont to

travel along. I walked down the path a few yards beyond and

I saw the smaller tigress lying dead three or four feet off the path.

I returned to the kill and advanced cautiously along the tracks of

the old tiger, which had lurched off in the opposite direction, and

to my delight, found him lying stone dead about 50 yards away.

This was great, and the joy of my shikaries can be realised. A

dozen villagers were soon got together and the three tiger were

carried to my Ford yan, where they were placed side by side—an

8 =~ i . « SA FY 0 Pita we -

0 ee ee ee

ASTAEEL OF FIVE, TIGER 407

imposing spectacle! They measured oft. Ioin., 8 ft. 7 in. and

7 ft. 5 in. The shikaries’ opinion that the kill wae the work of

the old. tiger, probably at dawn, which would account for his not

having eaten more, and that the other four happened to join him

by chance, was shared by me.

To continue, I sat up again the fous ag night in the hopes of

seeing the two surviving tiger on the kill, but although I heard

at least one of them moving about they did not approach the kill.

The following night saw me motoring on the road again to sit up

for the third time. I had perforce to start very late, and it was

dark before I had got half way. When nearing the eventful spot

as the car swung round a corner, the headlights showed a tiger

advancing up the road. In a moment the tiger had disappeared

below the road, and I slowly brought the car to a standstill at the

spot where it was seen to disappear. I quickly strapped to my

fore-head an electric Inspection Lamp I had in the car, and

leaning out over the side I found myself looking into the tiger’s

eyes at a distance of about ten or twelve feet. I had already loaded

my rifle, and slowly bringing it up to my shoulder and aiming

between its eyes I fired. The tiger rolled over with a. roar, and

then rushed off without giving me a chance of putting in a second

shot. It was pitch dark, and following up the tiger then was out

of the question. I was down on the spot next morning with my

trackers and two dogs; and immediately picked up a handful of

teeth and bits of bone, which indicated that my bullet had smashed

the poor brute’s lower jaw. We followed the blood tracks down

the hill-side to a ravine and up the further slope. It was soon

apparent that the tiger had avoided all thick cover, and made a

detour round every bush and thicket. By midday we could find no

further blood tracks, and after searching two small nullas we

decided to make straight for a large shady stream—a most likely

place for a wounded tiger to choose. Sure enough we found fresh

tracks on the dry sand; but after following the bed for a short

distance the tracks led out of the nulla again, and were lost. It

was now late, and nothing further could be done for the day. I

was down again early next morning, and very soon fresh tracks

were picked up in the nulla. The tracks entered the nulla down a

narrow game path leading out of dense Lantana and ‘‘Sigie’’ thorn,

followed down the bed for some way, and led up into similar thick

cover on the other side. Cautiously following up the tracks we

emerged into short grass and on the hard ground the tracks were

again lost. Returning to the nulla we effaced all traces of tracks

on the sand, and I had just decided to sit up over the nulla that

night hoping to see the tiger come along when news of a fresh

kill nearby was brought to me, a natural one. I immediately

visited the scene of the kill, had a machan put up, and shot the

fifth of the group, a young tigress, (7/10”) at 7-30 p.m. Next

morning fresh tracks were found on the sand in the nulla higher

up, but again we could not discover where they led to. For the

next three days this: was repeated: fresh tracks were to be seen

every morning; but the tiger could not be located. He would

enter and leave the nulla by one or other of the several game tracks

—through the almost impenetrable cover on either side, but it was

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

impossible to tell where he was lying up; and the dogs were not

of much help. The use of cattle was out of the question in this type

of cover. On the following day, however, our luck changed. I had

sat up all night over the nulla with no result as usual, and now

wandered up the stream searching for fresh tracks and found them;

but this time mozst tracks on the dry sand: it was evident that the

tiger had been down to water only a short while before. The

tracks led up one of the paths into the dense cover and the fresh

wet pug marks could not be missed. I had advanced up the

path for about fifteen yards when a low hiss from my tracker who

was about five yards behind me brought me crawling back to his

side, and following the direction of his pointing finger, I saw the

tiger lying tail on, about four yards off. Taking quick aim at the

root of its spine I fired, and immediately the tiger was in its death

throes. Its struggles carried it another six or seven feet further

into the cover, where it lay almost hidden from view. Advancing

on my hands and knees cautiously I put in another shot when I

tound myself in a position to see the tiger well. The tiger was

already dead however, and we hacked our way through the cover

to its side. As was to be expected the poor animal was in a terrible

condition, the lower jaw had been completely blown away, and the

wound and mouth were a mass of maggots. The tongue was in-

tact, so presumably the tiger had been able to drink: but it made

me sick to feel that the wretched animal had been in this condition

for a week. It was a great relief to get it, and its death brought

to a close a most unusual tiger episode—the visit to a kill of

five tiger and the bagging of all five eventually. The last tiger

was a male, measuring 8’,

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Ceropegia hispida, Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

wwe US

ANOTHER NEW CEROPEGIA FROM THE WESTERN GHATS.

ie SBLATIER) SeJ.4 (PH-D:,;°F-L.S.,,0AND :C..’ McCaNN, ¥:L-S:

(With a Plate).

Ceropegia hispida Blatter & McCann, sp. nov.

[Asclepiadacea accedit ad C. elegantem Wall. sed differt caule, petiolis, folits,

pedunculo necnon pedicellis dense hispidis vel hirsutis, petiolis fortibus, corollae

lobis subobovatis, sepalis subulatis dense hirsutis. |

Suffruticose. Root tuberous, 3 cm. long. Stem twining, 1°5 m. long, slender,

green tinged with black or purple, densely hispid, especially the younger parts.

Leaves up to 12 cm. long, 4 cm. broad at base, ovate-lanceolate, acute to

acuminate, rounded or subcordate at base, membranous, margins ciliate, upper

surface hirsute from slightly bulbous bases, lower surface with scattered hairs

and strongly hirsute on the nerves, nerves depressed above, prominent beneath.

Petiole 15 mm. long, hirsute, channelled above, a few glands above the petiole

on base of leaf. Flowers 1-5 in umbellate cymes. Peduncle arising from

between the petioles, 2°5-3 cm. long, purple, densely hispid; pedicels 1 cm.

long, densely hispid; bracts subulate, hirsute, 7 mm. long. Calyx §5-partite,

divided to the base; sepals subulate, densely hirsute outside, 9 mm. long.

Corolla pale green mottled with long vertical purple lines in the upper half

below the lobes, 4 cm. long, with a large hemispherical head 12 mm. diam. ;

tube inflated globose at base, glabrous, curved, enlarged at the mouth, ciliate

inside with the exception of the inflated portion; lobes 11 mm. long, subobovate,

10 mm. broad at the widest part, connate almost halfway down, yellow-green

with the margins purple, midrib of ventral side ciliate with long purple hairs

in the upper half only. Outer corona-lobes shortly horizontally oblong in the

basal part, apex deeply bifid, teeth sharply deltoid, with silky hairs outside and

inside; inner corona-lobes 4 mm. long without the hook, cylindric, strongly

hooked. Fruit not seen.

Locality: Western Ghats: Panchgani, near Godauli (McCann and Fernan-

dez (No. 3566, type).

Flowered 6th Oct., 1930.

SEA-FISHING ON THE BOMBAY COAST

He CC. NIDELLER,- 1p. Sc,

Public attention has lately been redrawn to the fishing problem

of the Western Coast, by the activity of the Bombay Natural

History Society. Urgent work is necessary: enormous treasures

are to be lifted from the sea to provide a large maritime population

with a cheap and valuable food. The sea is abundant with edible

fish; the Indian peoples need a cheap and nourishing food; they are

to a great extent fish-eaters. To-day’s supply of sea fishes in the

Bombay Presidency is insufficient, and the preservation of fishes

for inland transport is most primitive and inefficient. Everybody

—from Government to the fishermen—seems to be anxious to im-

prove matters. In short, the conditions are favourable and the

interest sufficient so that with concentrated energy and some skill

most satisfying results should be obtainable in a short time.

The Bombay. Government have already made a bold step in

carrying out trawler-fishing along our coast by the , ‘William

Carrick’’. Admittedly, as yet, no practical result has come out from

this experiment; but the information gained by the ‘William

Carrick’’ will be of enormous value when once the fishing industry

in the Bombay Presidency is developed, and moreover, the work of

the ‘‘William Carrick’’ has in my opinion shown the way in which

the fishing industry should be developed: not by trawler-fishing

which, through its fuel consumption and expenses for a European

crew, cannot compete with local fishermen and which in supplying

the market from time to time only with quantities of fishes, needs

first of all a preservation plant and a specially organised market.

The development should come from and with the local fishermen

who are well able to increase their catches and work efficiently

if they are taught the right way how to do it.

I have watched the fishermen in Chimbai-Bandra arid gone out

with them for fishing. Chimbai supplies the Bandra and Bombay

market with fresh fishes and dries a certain amount of Bombay

Duck, Ribbonfishes (Waghti, Trichiurus) and cut Rays for the up-

country and foreign trade. I think I can assume that the situation

in other parts of the Bombay Presidency Coast is similar to that in

Chambai with the exception that greater difficulties for marketing

are to be faced.

The bottom of the sea off Bombay Island is a gradually deepen-

ing flat, covered with a very soft mud until a distance from shore

of about ten sea-miles and a depth of about ten fathoms is reached.

Beyond this the bottom of the sea continues to deepen gradually

but the mud apparently loses somewhat of its great softness.

After the monsoon each community of the fishing villages in

Bombay Island prepares three fishing grounds. The farthest is

about eight to ten sea-miles: from the coast with a maximum depth of

SEA-FISHING ON THE BOMBAY COAST 411

ten fathoms. The nearest ground is in about five fathoms deep

and the third hes halfway between the two others. The fishing

grounds consist of two anchored buoys for each boat, the buoys

all lying in a row at an angle to the tidal currents which flow

North to South and South to North, parallel with the coast. The

currents are strong and make a gcood anchoring of the buoys

necessary.

This anchoring in the very soft mud is done by inserting long

stakes into the mud, sometimes as much as thirty feet deep. The

stakes either stick out of the water—in the grounds where the water

is shallower—or the iron shoes at the bottom of the poles are left in

the mud and the pole itself removed.

There is generally one catch per day by each boat—mostly at

night—so that the catch does not suffer from the heat and the sun

of the day while bringing it to shore.

The net, consisting of two wings and a bag in the centre is

tied to the two stakes at the time of change of tide, just when

the current of the water reverses. The net opens through the

current and rests at the bottom of the sea. Before the tide

changes again, the men commence to pull in the net which takes

sometimes one hour and the catch is sailed or rowed home for

the market.

The water was rich with plankton in October 1930 and there was

a phosphorescence of the sea such as I have never seen elsewhere.

We could see the net at a depth of about 9 fathoms as an indistinct

silver cloud, the light coming from plankton, thrown against the net

and the ropes in great quantities.

There is an absence of any mechanical devices on the fisher-

boats. A small winch for instance, made by the village blacksmith

would facilitate and quicken the heaving in of the net and of the

second buoy before fixing the net and possibly save one hand in

each boat.

The fishermen struck me as hard working, robust, cheerful and

open minded.

The sailing (or rowing) from the fishing grounds to the villages

takes from three to ten hours, on the average about 6 to 8 hours

and it often happens that through the delays by western winds or

lack of wind in the morning, the fishes suffer before they can be

landed.

At times when tides are low, the catch is very poor and many

boats do not go out. Apparently, the fishes avoid shallow

waters and keep at a certain depth changing the places with the

height of water. The fixed fishing grounds prove a great handicap

here and more so the inability of the fishermen. to establish their

fishing grounds in deeper waters. The anchoring stakes are long

and heavy and have to be manipulated by hand from between two

boats. Longer poles for greater depths are out of question for the

fishermen, as long as they do not have heavier boats and mechanical

devices at their disposal.

The “William Carrick’? found that the best fishing grounds for

coastal fishery were apparently in 20 to 25 fathoms of water. Our

local fishermen seem to touch just the edge of the good fishing

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

grounds. If they were in a position to go farther out and to land

their catch quicker, if they could continually fish from their boats

and make use of all four of the daily tides, the result would be many

times that of to-day’s fishing. They could achieve all this if each

village had a few boats fitted with motors—not so much for fishing

as for the transport of fishes. The anchoring of boats and buoys

by means of an ordinary light anchor will be possible for our fisher-

men if they have motor-driven winches at their disposal for lifting

these anchors out of the soft mud.

Crude Oil motors can be fitted to the existing fishermen’s

boats. The men themselves when they heard of this, were much

interested and suggested that they would stay in sea and continue

fishing with all tides if a motor-boat would bring them food and

water and take the catches home to market regularly.

So much can be done here and it is very satisfying to hear that

the Development Department of Messrs. the Burmah Shell Oil

Storage and Distribution Co. Ltd. are contemplating the fitting of

a fishing boat with a suitable and economic motor to demonstrate its

usefulness along the coast. A start made in this direction will

probably be the nucleus of a development of our fishing industry

to a state which will compare or even excel that of other countries

with sea fisheries. The conditions on our coast are, I believe, better

than those of other countries: fishes are abundant, the waters with

the exception of the four monsoon months are not tricky and free

from dangers, the weather constantly fine and the Indian fishermen

as hard working and daring as any other fishermen.

If so, by comparatively small efforts, the supply of fishes to the

coastal markets can be multiplied. There remains another import-

ant task to be taken in hand at once: The markets of bigger towns

prefer and require special types of fishes and, at the same time,

fully grown fishes; a fish-preserving industry can only use the best

fish material; thirdly the catching of immature fishes must be pre-

vented in order to protect regular supplies. Sea-fishing in other

countries could only be developed fully after a thorough

knowledge of the good fishing grounds and the migration of fishes

had been obtained, and this applies the more to fisheries in Western

India, as we have—besides the observations of the ‘‘Walliam

Carrick’’—no knowledge about the occurrence of fishes beyond

the 10-fathom water mark. Unless we know where and when and

in what depth the various types of our valuable market fishes are to

be found, a fishing industry cannot grow. Only when the scientist

can tell the fishermen that at such and such time of the year and

at such place and in such depth he will find the big pomfrets or Goal

or Karel, etc., can we hope for an increase of the Indian wealth

through sea-fishing in our province. The financial results of the

work of the ‘‘William Carrick’? were far behind expectations.

This is due to the fact that every unorganized fish-market will refuse

to take up chance deliveries at decent prices but I am confident that

our fish trade will be only too keen to make use of any regular and

reliable supplies of fishes which are in demand. Therefore the

scientist must begin to work to help the fishermen. A _ Fishery

Institute with its own steamers and with a staff of experts to gain

SHA-FISHING ON THE BOMBAY COAST 413

and collect the necessary scientific knowledge would be the preli-

minary requirement. However, in times of political unrest and a

vast economic depression, it is too much to hope that Government

will be able to provide sufficient funds for such an Institution.

There is however a way to collect valuable information from the

fishermen themselves if everyone interested in the problem and

living in a fishing port, along our ccast, will help to collect, say

every month, information as to where and in what depth and what

quantities the fishes are caught, which species are then prevalent in

his market and at the same time measure the sizes of the fishes

caught. The fishermen are very willing to give such information

with a fair accuracy.

The Curator of the Bombay Natural History Society—to whom

I owe this suggestion, is willing to give any assistance that may be

necessary. I venture therefore to appeal to any layman who is

willing to help in this important scheme, to communicate with the

Curator and to provide him with regular information of the kind

just mentioned. Even occasional information is of value and nobody

should be reluctant to forward any observation however important

or unimportant he may consider it.

But we have still another difficulty to overcome: the vernacular

names of our sea fishes change with almost every district and the

information gained from fishermen can naturally only be based on

the local vernacular names given by the fishermen.

Here again the Bombay Natural History Society is willing to help.

We will have to find out the scientific name to every vernacular

name given to market fishes along our coast. For this purpose

one specimen of each fish should be taken from the fishermen and

the vernacular name written with an ordinary pencil on a strong

label which is best tied to the fish’s tail. The fish should

ee be put into a solution of 2 per cent Formalin (Formal-

dehyde). A number of fishes should then be sent in a -soldered

kerosene tin or an earthenware vessel, etc., to the Society who will

classify the fish and inform the ‘sender about its scientific name.

This valuable information will provide a basis for a _ study of the

migrations and habits of our edible fishes.

I began to collect the vernacular names of the market fishes

in Chimbai-Bandra in October 1930 and am publishing below the

first list of vernacular names, which I hope, will be followed by

many others also from other places. Unfortunately, I had to leave

for Europe just after starting the collection and classification of

the Chimbai fishes. Therefore my list is anything but complete—

while my note is a sketchy one in all parts. My reason for publish-

ing it is my belief that it 1s necessary to make some start in this

direction and because I trust that this note will induce other

members of the Bombay Natural History Society to co-operate

in the same direction.

1 Formalin can easily be obtained from any druggist and is not expensive.

The 4o per cent solution sold in the trade should be mixed with fresh water

in a proportion of 1 part Form. to ro parts fresh water.

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FHST, SOCIETY. Vol. Ox

Lists of ish caweowt during the Month of October 1930 in

Chimbai-Bandra.

Scientific Names.

Scizna sina (Cuv. et Val.).

Otolithus argentius (Cuv. et Val.).

Scienoides pama (Ham. Buch.).

Polynemus sextarius (Bl. et Schndr.).

Engraulis hamiltonii Gray.

Pellona filigera Cuv. et Val.

Clupea? atricauda (Bleek.).

Caranx djedaba (Forsk.).

Coilia dussumieri (Cuv. et Val.).

Therapon jarbua (Forsk.).

Sillago sihama (Forsk.).

Trichiurus savala Cuv.

Caranx auricorone Chaudhri.

Harpodon nehereus (Les.).

Tetrodon lunaris (Bl. et Schndr.).

Sciena vogleri (Bleek.).

Scizna semiluctuosa (Cuv. et Val.).

Stromateus cinereus (Bloch.).

~Mugil kelaartu Gunth.

Caranx gallus (Linn.).

Trichiurus haumela (Forsk.).

Pteroplatea micrura (Schndr.).

Dasybatus zugei (Mull. et Hen.).

Cybium commersonii (Lacep.).

Ephippus orbis (Bloch.).

Hilsa toli (Bloch.).

Carcharias laticaudus (Mull. et Hen.).

Sciznoides brunneus Day.

Chirocentrus dorab (Forsk.).

Arius macronotacanthus (Bleek.).

Lacatirus lactarius (Bl. et Schndr.).

Cynoglossus macrolepidotus (Bleek.).

Polynemus plebeius (Lacep.).

Clupea sp.

Hemirhamphus xanthopterus Cuv. et

Val.

Hilsa ilisha (Ham. Buuch.).

Mahrathi Names.

Goal Doma or Goal.

Tela Doma:

Kkala Doma.

Maya.

Baderkanti.

Dolkanti.

Kanae (Sardine).

Denkha bagras.

Manla.

Nakhera.

Murdi.

Tunkri waghti.

atin.

Bombil. (Bombay Duck).

Khaen. ;

Tela Doma.

Bombera.

Serga or Pamhphlit.

Kala

Selpa.

aan,

Pitiorkti or Piti waghti.

Bala or Balwaghti.

Pakert (s).

Sola.

Tonri.

Pimpru.

Bing or Bingla.

Mushi.

Kontvil or Kontla.

Dantal.

Singala or Shingala.

Eepti.

Lepti. (Flat fish).

Darvilks.

Gonas.

‘Toit

Palkhati.

ne ee REE Cr 4

‘Ss

A od

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS.

G. W. V. DE RHE-PHILIPE, F.E.S.

Partant

(Continued from page 183 of this Volume).

SATYRIDA,

Quite a number of species of this family are to be found within the district,

and a few of them are butterflies which are amongst the most common of all

seen in these hills. Many of the species are, on the other hand, comparatively

rare in so far as individual numbers are concerned; and these, keeping as

they do to difficult nullahs and thickly overgrown country, have to be looked

for and worked for. Sombre coloured insects for the most part, they do not

attract attention ; and even when seen, are troublesome to catch amongst

the bushes and jungle they affect. It is seldom, therefore, they are well

represented in the ordinary collector’s ‘bag’; and information, other than

what one gathers oneself cr from the few more serious students of entomology,

is hard to come by. I was never able to obtain as much as I could have wished

to do, and my notes of some of the species are therefore somewhat scrappy.

Still the family is interesting enough and merits more attention than it gets.

*50. Mycalesis francisca sanatana. Moore.

@bing ols deN.69),.Hv.. DZ (5). ).

Recorded ‘ Kulu to Burma’, but extremely rare in these western hills,

though more common eastwards. I have not faken it anywhere nearer than

Mussoorie, nor seen any actually taken in the district. It flies both summer

and autumn elsewhere.

51. Mycalesis perseus typhlus. Fruhstorfer.

Mycalesis perseus blasius. Fabricius.

GoBings -537;-deN nde, 99.5 Eve D27(9) 3).

These have hitherto been considered as the dry and wet season fornis of the

same species, but Evans has now treated them as slightly differentiated races,

typhlus being relegated to the continental plains, and 6/as7us to the Himalayas

and Burma. Both appear within our limits—fairly commonly in the lower hills

and valleys, much more rarely at altitudes above 3,000 ft. Can be taken

throughout the year except in tbe very cold months.

52. Mycalesis mineus mineus. Linnzeus.

( Bing. 54; deN 97; Ev. D2(10) ).

Fairly common in suitable country at the lower altitudes, April to November.

53. Mycalesis visala visala. Moore.

(Bing, 5/ ;-deN: 99°: Ev. D2 (12). ).

Evans has restricted the westerly range of this species to Kumaon, but I

found it fairly common in the Mussoorie Dun and I once took a battered

specimen in the jungle country below Kalka. Will only be found at the foot

of the hills.

416 . JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

54, Mycalesis lepcha lepcha. Moore.

(- Bing. 645 deN- 1s By. 12 30) ae

Rather scarce in the district which is at the westerly limit of its range, but

common further east from Garhwal to Kumaon, Most likely to be found in

the spring and early summer at elevations up to 5,000 ft. in the jungle terrain

affected by all Mycaleszs, but appears sporadically at other seasons and in the

inner hills.

55. Lethe sidonis vaivarta. Doherty.

( Bing 88s deN. 1495 iy. D3iG7)) Me

I found this species very common in Dalhousie one October and it is plentiful

in the autumn months in the Mussoorie and Kumaon Hills, but, though I have

taken occasional specimens in Simla, it never, for some reason, seems to be

common in this district. Is almost wholly an autumn butterfly and is not,

as far as I know, found below 6,000 or 7,000 ft. Prefers deep forest.

56. Lethe maitrya. deNicevilie.

(Bing. 92> .deNedo0s my. seo)am).

Essentially a species of the higher and inner ranges. The late Col. Chalde-

cott found it fairly plentiful near the Jalauri Pass in September, and I have a

specimen from the Narkanda forests taken in October. Would seem to be a

post-monsoon insect.

*57. Lethe nicetas. Hewitson.

( Bing Oly -deN:15l* Ev Ps se).

Recorded from the Himalayas from Kulu eastwards, but is rare everywhere

towards the western limits of its range. It will be confined to the inner hills.

I have not seen it in the Simla area.

58. Lethe jalaurida jalaurida. deNiceville.

( Bine sl) 3 den, 158: Ev; D3iGiy ioe

This species was discovered by deNiceville near the Jalauri Pass into Kulu,

and it is not rare there just before and during the monsoon months. It keeps

to the inner ranges and will probably be found in forest country on Huttoo,

the Chor and other lofty mountains. |

“#59, Lethe goalpara narkanda. Fruhstorfer.

_ (Bing. 116; deN. 156; Ev. D3(20) ). _

I have not seen this. It is said to be very local, and, like others ofthis

group, is confined to the higher hills. Some lucky collector should find one of

its haunts in the forests beyond Narkanda.

60. Lethe rohria dyrta. Felder

( Bing. 79; deN. 139; Ev. D3 (24) ).

The most common species of the genus in the district. May be picked up in

almost any well-wooded locality between 6,000 ft. and 9,000 ft. between May

and October.

61. Lethe confusa confusa. Aurivillius.

( Bing. 82 ; Ev. D3 (27) ).

Fairly common here and becomes more so as one goeseast. Like other

Lethes, prefers wooded country. Flies from spring to autumn, but is scarcer

after the rains.

62. -Lethe verma verma. Kollar.

( Bing. 85 ; deN. 146; Ev. D3 (28) ).

Nearly as abundant as vohria dyrta and in similar localities between June

and September.

CHEE RO DITRELLES OF DAE SIMEATTIILES 417

63. Lethe insanainsana. Kollar.

( Bing. 81; deN. 142; Ev. D3 (3]) ).

Not very common, but may, occasionally, be found in forest country from

6,000 to 8.000 ft. froin June to October. All my Simla specimens were caught

on the northern face of the Mashobra-Mahasu ridge.

*64. Lethe pulaha pulaha. Moore.

(Bing. 120; deN. 142 ; Ev. D3 (47) ).

Ranges from Chamba to Sikkim, but is apparently very rare everywhere

west of Kumaon, for I have never come across it or seen itin any of the

collections from the Western Himalayas. Is probably confined to the inner

hills.

*65. Lethe yama yama. Moore.

(Ging. 122 >;sdeN.al627. Hv. 13: (52) )

I found this species fairly common in June in Naini Tal, but have not come

across it further west. It is recorded from Kulu and will undoubtedly be

found in the intervening country. From my experience of its habits in other

places, I would expect it to be on the wing for a few weeks only before the

rains.

*66. Orinoma damaris. Gray.

( Bing. 125; deN. 168: Ev..D5 ).

Recorded from Kangra to Upper Burma, but is local and rare everywhere. I

have never taken it anywhere.

67. Pararge (=Satyrus) schakra. Kollar.

( Bing. 129; deN. 172; Ev. D4 (2) ).

This little chap, who rather reminds one of the ‘ Wall Brown’ in England,

is one of the most common of the Simla butterflies. It flutters about the road

sides and over every patch of stony ground almost throughout the year.

Pararge morula. Felder.

( Bing. 130; deN. 173; Ev. D4 (3) ).

This butterfly really belongs to the extreme north-west, though it has been

reported as extending to Kumaon. Ihave some doubts whether it will be

taken in the Simla area; but I include it as there is a chance that it may

wander into the interior boundaries, It is rare everywhere.

68. Pararge (=Rhaphicera) moorei. Butler.

( Bing. 127 ; deN. 170; Ev. D4 (6) ).

Not uncommon, but somewhat irregular in appearance and very local in its

haunts. I could not discover it in the Simla District for years : and then, one

summer between May and September, I got several in two particular glades

of the forests in Mashobra and Mahasu. It was also taken in fair numbers by

a collector on the road to Kulu below the Jalauri Pass.

*69, Maniola pulchra. Felder.

(Bing. 143 ; deN. 198; Ev. D (7) ).

Not rarein Kashmir and Pangi, and is found in Kulu and eastwards along

the inner ranges as faras Kumaon. I have not seen it from the Simla area,

but it should occur in the summer months in the high country of the interior.

*70. Maniola lupinus cheena. Moore.

( Bing. 143; deN. 194; Ev. D7 (5) ).

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

“71. Maniola davendra davendra. Moore.

( Bing. 139; deN. 191: Ev. D7 (8) ).

The remarks on the previous species apply equally to these two. I have not

seen either from within the district myself, but I was told by a P. W. D. road

Engineer that a Maniola, probably cheena, is tobe seen on the Himalaya-

Tibet road towards Chini.

72. Nytha parisatis parsis. LeCerf.

( Bing. 138; deN. 176; Ev. D8 (1) ).

‘This species isnot uncommon, but it needs to be looked for in suitable

places and atthe right season. Though an occasional specimen may be

picked upin the autumn, the real time is the few weeks just before the mon-

soon begins. It keeps to rocky nullahs and slopes and, while it seldom flies

fast or far, itsettles quickly and unobtrusively, so that its course has to be

closely watched.

Nytha mniszechii baldiva. Moore.

( Bing. 134; deN. 180 ; Ev. D8 (4) ).

An inhabitant of the inner and higher ranges which may possibly be found

along the upper reaches of the Sutlej towards Chini.

73. Aulocera brahminus brahminus. Blanchard.

( Bing. 148 ; deN. 189 ; Ev. Dll (1) ).

Has been taken in Kulu and I have one from the Sutlej valley above Ram-

pore caught in August. It should occur nearer Simla; but it is rare or may

possibly be overlooked in the crowds of other species of the genus.

74. Aulocera padma padma. Kollar.

( Bing. 150; deN. 187; Ev. D111 (2) ).

75. Aulocera swaha swaha. Kollar.

( Bing. 149; deN. 188; Ev. Dll (3) ).

These two species are such a common feature of the Simla fauna and are

superficially so alike that a casual observer would easily look on them as the

same, that they might well be dealt with together. Who has not noticed the

heavy looking butterflies, black with a white band across the wings, which fly

about and settle on the slopes by the road sides and on the very road itself, and

then lean over till the wings almost rest on the soil? Of the two, padma is

distinctly the larger and darker and, in Simla, seems to appear a trifle later in

the season. Itis, except locally, not quite so abundant as swaha. The latter

generally comes into prominence in May, and after that is seen everywhere

from 5,000 to 10,000 ft. Both are on the wing till late autumn, but those seen

after September are usually worn and faded.

76. Aulocera saraswati. Kollar.

( Bing. 151; deN. 190; Ev. DII (4) ).

Has the genus general pattern and colouring, and is rather liable to be over-

looked in the crowds of swaha; but the beautiful brown striations on the

undersides of the wings are distinctive. May occasionally be found anywhere

from July to September, but has a tendency to concentrate in certain localities

and in these is almost as common as the two preceding. One of these favoured

spots was between the 4th and Sth milestones on the road to Mahasu, where

the flowers of athistle and of some other composite attracted scores.

Another gathering ground was a length of the lower road on Elysium Hill.

77. Erebia shallada. Lang.

( Bing. 178; deN. 233; Ev. D13 (3) ).

78. Erebia nirmala nirmala. Moore.

( Bing. 180; deN. 239; Ev. D 13 (4) ).

THE BULITERPLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 419

79. Erebia scanda. Kollar.

(Bing, 162 deN: 235; Ev. D.13 (5): ):

80. Erebia hybrida. Butler.

(Bing. 181; deN. 238; Hv. D 13 (6) ).

Sl. Erebia annada ceca. Watkins.

( Bing. 181; deN. 237; Ev. D 13° (7) ).

* 82. Erebia hyagriva. Moore.

(Bing. 179 den: (as, ) prhimo) 1/9); Ev... D 13:(8), ).

The habits, localities and seasons of these six Hredzas, lumped by the Simla

schoolboy under one comprehensive and very appropriate name of ‘ hoppers’,

are so much alike that they can conveniently be grouped for notice. All are

insects which favour wooded, shady localities where it is comparatively damp;

all appear in the summer months and continue to fly till the autumn but,

speaking generally, are most abundant during and for a short period after the

rains ; all have the same general habits of flight and settling. Not only are

their ways and seasons alike, but they are very similar in appearance on the

wing and it is only experience which can then differentiate between them and

often a close examination and comparison with detailed descriptions has to be

made before individuals can be satisfactorily placed.

Of the species found in and near Simla, zirma/a is the only one that can be

called really common. It is the smallest and darkest of the group and appears

in great abundance in June and July, fluttering about the shady roads and

hillsides. Scanda and annada are probably the next in numbers and are

larger, lighter coloured (mainly because of the white irrorations on the

undersides) insects and are rather more frequently taken towards the end of or

just after the rains. MAMybrida and shallada are somewhat uncommon, while

hyagriva is distinctly rare.

To get a good series of all the species, it is advisable to capture every Erebia

that is not clearly a m7viala and examine it before release; and any you are

not then certain about should be retained for closer examination and com-

parison at home with recorded descriptions.

83. Ypthima nareda nareda. Kollar.

( Bing. 163; deN. 209; Ev. D 14 (4) ).

The Ypthimas, or ‘ Ringlets’, are small, inconspicuous butterflies which

usually lurk in undergrowth and bushes and are not often seen abroad ; but if

point is made of looking for them, zareda will be found to be not uncommon.

It does not seem to go below 5,000 ft. or above 8,000 ft. and may be picked up

any time between May and October.

84. Ypthima asterope mahratta. Moore.

( Bing. 173; deN. 213; Ev. D14 (6) ).

More a plains species than one of the hills. Is not uncommon in the country

round Kalka and probably extends up the valleys.

85. Ypthima hubneri kasmira. Moore.

( Bing. 170; deN. 217; Ev. D 14 (10) ).

Also a butterfly of the plains and lower hills and to be found, though not very

commonly, around Kalka. I have as yet nowhere found it above 3,000 ft. and I

co not think it goes any distance into the hills.

*86. Ypthima avanta avanta. Moore.

( Bing. 167 ; deN. 207; Ev. D14 (12) ).

Said to be found throughout the Himalayas and to be-common in Kulu. I

have not seen it anywhere west of Kumaon, where it is, at low elevations, a

spring butterfly.

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

87. Ypthima baldus baidus. Fabricius.

( Bing. 154 ; deN. 204; Ev. Dl14 (14) ).

Very common in the Central and Eastern Himalayas up to about 4,000 ft., but

is apparently much scarcer towards the western limits of its range. Should

be looked for in the lower hills and valleys from May to October.

*88. Ypthimaindecora. Moore.

( Bing. 153; deN. 206; Ev. D14 (15) ).

Recorded from Kashmir to Kumaon, but I have not taken it within the

district or anywhere near. It is common enough elsewhere.

89. Ypthima sakra nikeea, Moore.

( Bing. 161; deN. 226; Ev. D14 (20) ).

This is, by far, the most common of the genus inthe Western Himalayas. It

occurs everywhere in suitable country from 4,000 up to 9,000 ft. from May to

October.

Orsotricena medus medus. Fabricius.

(Binge. 72 ;'deN.92>+ Ev... DI6);

A species of the plains. It has been recorded fron. Ambala, just outside the

district, and it is quite probable that an occasional specimen may find its way

into the country round Kalka.

90. Melanitis leda ismene. Cramer.

( Bing. 191 ; deN. 243, 244, 249; Hv. D22 (1) ).

A.cominon butterfly of the plains. I have noticed it at Kalka and have

seen specimens in a soldier’s collection made round Sabathu; but it does not,

asfaras Iam aware, extend far into the hills. May be ‘ flushed’ in scrub

jungle at any time but flies freely, especially round the trunks of trees, in the

evening. This habit and the dead leaf appearance of the undersides of the

wings have led to its being called the ‘ Evening Leaf’.

Elymnias hypermnestra undularis. Drury.

( Bing. 202; deN. 256; Ev. D25 (1) ).

Has not yet actually been found so far to the west, but it is not uncommon in

the Mussoorie Dun and it is possible that one or two may turn up in the damp

river valleys at the foot of the hills.

(NYMPHALIDA)

We come now to a family of butterflies which, in India, has probably received

more attention from the general collector than any other. It is easy to see why

this should be the case. Some of the species of which it is comprised are an

outstanding feature of the insect fauna of every place; and being showy and

as a genera] rule, common, they usually attract attention. They present such

a diversity of form and size, of pattern and colouring that they arouse interest ;

and, with the interest, the idea of ‘making a collection’ is often born. The

Simla Hilts are fairly well provided with members of the family; and though

there are, of course, several which are distinct rarities, a goodly proportion of

the species are numerous in individuals, and soon become the backbone of

every collection. that is put together.

The habits of the Nymphalid@ are almost as varied as their colouring ; but,

though a few of the sp@cies display a preference for damp and shady surround-

ings, they may, as a group, be said to be sunloving insects who delight to

flaunt their charms among the flowers of the gardens and meadows and around

their favourite shrubs and trees. Open sunny nullahs with forest growth around

and clearings and gaps in the woods attract many; while some species have a

marked predilection for the plateaus and downs on the very tops of hills.

And now to continue our list.

ee Shay es

ase

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS. 421

91. Charaxes fabius fabius. Fabricius.

( Bing. 244; deN. 570; Ev. Fl (7) ).

Has been recorded from Chamba and Mandi and appears generally along

the foot of the hilis and the Gangetic Plain, getting more common towards its

easterly range. Will occur, though rather rarely, in the Kalka area and up the

valleys, but not likely to go above 5,000 ft. Flies spring and autumn.

92. Eriboea athamas athamas. Drury.

( Bing. 245; deN. 568; Ev. F2 (2) ).

A very strong flying insect like all the others of the group and appropriately

named the ‘four tail’ by school boys. Not rare and may be taken fairly

frequently from spring to autumn. The most likely haunts are rocky nullah

beds where it flashes from tree to rock, frequently settling on patches of damp

sand. Sometimes flits round some favoured tree; while exuding sap and

ordure of any sort is always a strong attraction.

93. Eriboea dolon dolon. Westwood.

( Bing 251; deN. 565; Ev. F2 (7) ).

A distinctly rare member of the genus and especially so in the Western

Himalayas. Anyone getting a specimen can deem himself fortunate. Very

strong and rapid on the wing and difficult to catch unless absorbed in sap

drinking. I have not actually taken it in the Simla District, but I picked up a

wing one June ona path on the Retreat hill. A summer butterfly in the

Kumaon Hills and presumably the same here.

94, Dilipa morgiana. Westwood.

(Bing. 262 ; deN. 328; Ev. F5).

A beautiful insect and always a prize because of its rarity throughout its

range. I could not find it in Simla for years; and then, one June, I had the

fortune to hit on a small colony of males flying round a brown oak tree on the

top of Kufri Hill. I picked up another male later near a water trough on the

road to Mashobra. deNiceville took some males on the top of Tara Devi.

{solated trees on hill tops are, in my experience, the most likely places for

males. Females are very rare indeed and seem to skuik in the valleys. I know

of only one taken within our area. This was on the road to Sipi village, also

in June. It also flies in the autumn.

95. Apatura auibica ambica. Kollar.

(Bing. 259% deN:. (as among) 329;, Hv. EZ (5). ).

The Indian ‘ Purple Emperor’ is not at all uncommon in the Central and

Eastern Himalayas, but is rarer in the North West. Flies round trees, but is

much more likely to be caught in rocky nullahs with running water. Females

are very much rarer. Found summer and autumn but the former is the better

season.

96. Sephisa dichroa. Kollar.

(@bing.62/0i, deN 33327. vs Fo 9.(1) ‘

The ‘ Silkie’ of the Simla school boy is a feature of open oak woods in May

and June. One may often see a dozen or more flitting round a tree or coming

down to drink at damp patches by the road side. There is a less prolific

autumn brood.

97. Parhestina persimilis zella. Butler.

(Bins. 266 ssdeN. 33/7; Wy. 11h): ),

Never common, but a regular worker will usually pick up a few each season.

Nullahs and open woods in the summer will be the most promising localities.

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

*98. Parhestina nicevillei. Moore.

( Bing. 267 ; deN. (as Zella) 338; Ev. F 11 (2) ).

This rare species really belongs to a zone further west round Dalhousie and

Chamba. It is said to extend to the Mussoorie hills. I have never seen a

specimen from our district.

*99. Calinaga buddha buddha. Moore.

(Bing. 451; deN. 435; Ev. F 14).

Very rare and I have never had the luck to get one. Most of those recorded

were from Kulu. Like the Papilio, Chilasa agestor govindra which it very

superficially resembles, it is a butterfly of the very early spring months, though

odd specimens sometimes carry on till June and July.

*100. Dichorragia nesimachus. Boisduval.

(Bing. 274; deN. 434; Ev. F16).

Though the recorded range of this species is ‘from Kulu to Burma’, I have

some doubts of its right to be included among the Simla District fauna. It is

really an Eastern Himalayan butterfly, which, as Hannyngton reports in his

paper on the ‘ Butterflies of Kumaon’, is very rare even on the eastern borders

of that district. If found in the Simla Hills, it will -be in the low river

valleys.

* 101. Stibochiana nicea nicea. Gray.

(Bing. 275; deN. 418; Ev. F 17).

Also more a butterfly of the Indo-Malayan fauna, but it is common as far

west as Kumaon at any rate. There are specific records from the Kulu Valley

and from the Sutlej near Kotgarh: but it is rare so far to the west. Will occur

in the river valleys up to about 4,000 ft.

102. Euthalia garuda anagama. Fruhstorfer.

(Bing. 302:; deN.25l3 +4. as C14) )..

The North Western race of the species is not uncommon though it does not

often figure in collections from these parts. I have seen it near Kalka. The

larva feeds on the mango tree, and the imago will almost certainly be found

wherever the mango grows. It flies almost throughout the year.

103. Euthalia lubentina indica. Fruhkstorfer.

(Bing 296 sideN. o/s iv. AS 7a:

Somewhat rare within our limits but will be picked up occasionally any-

where up to 8,000 ft. in the summer or autumn. I have taken it at Kufri; but

the low warm valleys would be more profitable hunting grounds.

104. Dophla patala patala. Kollar.

(Bing. 286; deN. 490; Ev. F18 (25) ).

Not often seen at large, but is not uncommon in the localities it favours. It

affects oak woods and may sometimes be seen round these trees on Jakko ;

but nullahs with oak growth around are its special haunts. It was very com-

mon in some ravines behind the Mahasu ridge one year. Appears just before

the rains and flies till August or September. Excluding sap or rotting fruit will

always attract it if it is in the neighbourhood.

105. Liminitis danava. Moore.

(Bing. 318; deN. 446 ; Ev. F24 (2) ).

Rare throughout its range, and specially so here at its western boundary.

Iremember that, very many years ago, the catching of a ‘ Rainbow Tapsel,’

as the female was called, was a notable event among the Simla schoolboys.

J have taken a female in the stream below Annandale; andI once came

across quite a small colony of males in a secluded corner of the Glen. This

corner was also, it so happened, a rendezvous of the common rock-snake, and

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 423

there were several of these reptiles slithering about the damp rocks. ‘They are

harmless, of course ; but—well, I confess that if there is anything I have always

loathed, it is a snake of any kind! I caught one or two of the danavas which

were well away from the cluster of snakes and then decided to do my shikar-

ing elsewhere. I have only come across the butterfly, both here and in the

Kumaon and Mussoorie Hills, in October, so it is presumably a post monsoon

Species.

Liminitis procris procris. Cramer.

( Bing; 310);/deN. 452; Ev. F 24,(7) ).

Not as yet recorded from within our limits, but it is not uncommon in the

West Central Himalayas and in the Mussoorie Dun. I have seen it in the

Jumna Valley between Mussoorie and Chakrata, and as this is less than fifty

miles from our area, there is every possibility of its turning up in the low

valleys round Kalka.

106. Liminitis trivena trivena. Moore.

( Bing. 315; deN. 451; Ev. F24 (8) ).

A very worn female taken one September near Kufri was, for several years,

the only specimen I found. But the species is common enough if only one

hits on the right places and season. It ison the wing for only a very short

period in May and early June, and then keeps to certain localities. I discover-

ed this when I first made a timely expedition to the nullahs behind the Mahasu-

Mashobra ridge, in some of which it could be taken, literally, by hundreds. I

have since also found it occasionally in the Water-works area on the nearer

side of this ridge and, once, in the Summer Hill nullah. To get really good

specimens one must take them within almost a single particular week, as they

soon get worn and scrubby. The one I had previously taken in September

was probably an unusually hardy survivor of the June brood.

Pantoporia selenephora selenephora. Kollar.

( Bing. 326 ; deN. 467 ; Ev. F25 (4) ).

The Simla District is on the borders of the known westerly range of this

species, and it has hitherto not been definitely reported from nearer than

Mussoorie. I know, however, of one which was caught in the vicinity of

Paternala on the Chor ridge, and it may yet be found within our limits.

107. Pantoporia opalina opalina. Kollar.

( Bing. 328; deN. 462 ; Ev. F25 (8) ).

Exceedingly cominon from spring to autumn. May be seen pretty nearly

everywhere Sailing about the trees. Does not appear to descend below

4,000 ft.

* 108. Pantoporia asura asura. Moore.

( Bing. 333 ; deN. 455 ; Ev. F25 (13) ).

Has been recorded from Kulu and from Kotgarh and ranges eastwards as

far as Tenasserim. A rare butterfly everywhere and particularly so in the west.

I have seen none taken within the Simla Hills.

109. Pantoporia perius. Linnzeus.

( Bing. 331; deN. 454 ; Ev. F25 (14) ).

A common Indian butterfly, but here again, Simla is the westerly limit of

its range and it is by no means plentiful in the district. Col. Evans took one

at San Damiano in June; and I got one at the same season in scrub oak forest

on the spur beyond Elysium Hill.

110. Neptis mahendra. Moore.

( Bing. 341; deN. 399; Ev. F20 (5) ).

Not so ubiquitous as the next, but quite common spring to autumn.

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

111. Neptis hylas astola. Moore. °

( Bing. 336; deN. 386; Ev. F26 (6) ).

Neptis hylas varmona. Moore.

( Bing. 336; deN. 279, 385 ; Ev. F26 (6) ).

The common ‘ sailer’ which is to be seen everywhere right through the

spring, summer and autumn. ‘The varmona form is that found in the plains

and low country, while asfola is confined to the higher hills. Typical speci-

mens of each of the two are easily distinguished, but individuals of an

intermediate type may be found in the demarcating zone.

112. Neptis yerburyii yerburyii. Butler.

( Bing. 342 ; deN. (as Nandina) 397 ; Ev. F26 (9) ).

Very similar in general appearance to mahendra, and likely to be mistaken

for it especially as both species fly at the same time. VYerduryii is much

the less common of the two, so it is just as well to take a good look at all the

apparent mahendras before setting them free as ‘ not wanted.’

113. Neptis sankara sankara. Kollar.

( Bing. 344 ; deN. 466; Ev. F26 (10) ).

Would be considered rare—till you discover its own particular domain.

When such a spot is found, youcan usually get all you need. The San

Damiano nullah behind the Retreat Hill was generally a good place, but I have

also taken it in the Catchment area and in the Summer Hill ravine. Is plentiful

only in May and June and it disappears almost completely once the monsoon

breaks.

114. Neplis narayana narayana. Moore.

( Bing. 346; deN. 367 ; Ev. F26 (23) ).

Appears at much the same seasons and in the same places as the last, but is

always very much rarer. It is necessary, in order to get really good series of

these two species, to find one of their special haunts at just the right fortnight

or three weeks of the season.

115. Neptis ananta ananta. Moore.

( Bing. 354; deN: 363.. Ev. 26 (15)),.

This is the only tawny yellow ‘sailer’ found in the North-West Himalayas

and is distinctly rare at this end of its range. I have not taken it myself in the

Simla Hills, but I have seen one caught on the Chail ridge.. Wooded nullahs

and damp clearings in forest are, judging by my experience elsewhere, the

most likely spots for them.

* 116. Neptis zaida. Doubleday.

(Bing. 348; deN. 365; Ev. F26 (25) ).

A rare butterfly which I was never fortunate enough to get. I believe it

prefers low elevations and flies only in the early summer.

117. Cyrestis thyodamus ganescha. Kollar.

( Bing. 364; deN. 544; Ev. F27 (4) ).

The familiar ‘Map butterfly ’ known, I expect, to every one who has taken

any interest in Himalayan butterflies. Common from spring to autumn, and

may frequently be seen floating gracefully around trees. They love the

neighbourhood of watercourses and often settle on damp sand and rocks with

outstretched wings.

118. Pseudergolis wedah. Kollar.

(Bing. 450; deN. 417; Ev. F29).

Might appropriately be called the ‘Brown Map’, for the black lines across

the wings do suggest a map. Not uncommon but keeps to wet nullahs and

damp shady glens. Flies spring to autumn.

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 425

119. Hypolimnas misippus, Linnzus.

( Binge. 393 ¢deN. 420°; Ev -W30)(1)a).

Is essentially an insect of the plains and is not common so far to the north-

west as the Punjab; but it appears sparingly in Ambala and the country below

Kalka. I have never seen it in the actual hills.

120. Hypolimnas bolina. Linnzeus.

(Bing. 397; deN. 419; Ev. F390 (2) ).

Also prefers the plains but extends well into thehills. I have seen it in

Simla, but it is scarce anywhere above 5,000 ft. After the rains is the best

time for them.

121. Kallima inachus huegeli. Kollar.

( Bing. 403; deN. 552; Ev. F34 (2) ).

The well-known ‘Oak Leaf’ seen in pretty nearly every collection in India

and in every case of exotic butterflies in England. Is not rare anywhere and

may frequently be seen in oak woods dashing from tree to tree and suddenly

vanishing as it settles. Often quite common in wooded ravines where there is

astream. The undersides of the wings, while always resembling a dead leaf,

vary so much in details of pattern, that it is interesting to set a series to show

this aspect alone.

122, Precis( = Junonia) hierta hierta. Fabricius.

(Bing. 374; deN. 349; Ev. F35 (1) ).

123. Precis orithya swinkei, Butler.

GC Bing 2-372) deN.. 350. bv. B35: (2); )s

Why the first of these should have been called by the Simla schoolboy a

‘Gentleman’s Fancy’ and the other a ‘ Lady’s Fancy ’ I was never able to

fathom! Both, in the hills, like open, sunny country, and grass lands in

particular, though, in the plains, they flit about gardens and road sides

equally freely. The ‘Gentleman’s Fancy’ is rather the less common of the

two ; but both will be seen frequently in summer and autumn anywhere up to

8,000 or 9,000 ft.

124. Precis lemonias persicaria. Fruhstorfer.

( Bing. 371; deN. 347 ; Ev. F35:(3)-).

Very common in gardens and open hillsides from spring to autumn.

125. Precis almana almana. Linnzus.

( Bing. 375 ; deN. 344, 345 ; Ev. F35 (4) ).

Exceedingly abundant in the plains and lower hills, but does not appear to

venture freely into the higher ranges. I have seen one or two of the wet sea-

son ‘ asterie’ form in vaileys below Simla, but have no note of any appearance

in Simla itself.

126. Precis iphita. Cramer.

( Bing. 370 ; deN. 343 ; Ev. F35 (6) ).

The ‘Chocolate’ is common pretty nearly everywhere and seems to shun

only densely wooded country. Flies from early spring to late autumn.

127. Vanessa cardui. Linnzeus.

( Bing. 376 ; deN. 520; Ev. F36 (1) ).

Our cosmopolitan friend the ‘ Painted Lady’. It is, of course, common

everywhere in the district. Towards the plains it is, more or less, restricted to

the autumn and winter months, but flies in the hills practically throughout the

year. Open ground with thistles scrub is their special home.

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

128. Vanessa indica indica. Herbst.

( Bing. 377 ; deN. 521; Ev. F36 (2) ).

The Indian ‘ Red Admiral’ is common at all times. Like the last, it loves

thistles.

129. Vanessa canace himalaya. Evans.

( Bing. 384; deN. 522 ; Ev. F36 (3) ).

The ‘ Blue Admiral’, though quite as abundant as his red confrére, does not

wander abroad so freely. He prefers to keep near running water and will fre-

quently be seen flitting up and down streams. I have also often noticed

numbers in small oak plantations. Flies spring to autumn.

130. Vanessa kashmirensis kashmirensis, Kollar.

( Bing. 378; deN. 525 ; Ev. F36 (10) ).

The Indian ‘Small Tortoise shell’ is such a common sight everywhere that

it is quite unnecessary to say anything about it.

131. Vanessa c-album cognata. Moore.

(Binge. 385; :deN. 591 -yv..836)(@)a).

Is not uncommon in Kashmir and in the Kulu hills, but is distinctly rare in-

side the Simla area, though it probably appears more frequently on the

interior hills. My only record of its occurrence is one seen (alas, not caught)

on a horrible patch of nettles on the Himalaya-Tibet Road near the Wildflower

Hotel in Mahasu. This was in June, but the species also flies in the autumn.

132. Vanessa xanthomelas fervescens. Stich.

( Bing. 382 ; deN. 528 ; Ev. F 36 (1]) ).

The large Tortoise shell is not really as uncommon as one might imagine

from the very few seen in ordinary collections. The reason for this is its very

early and brief appearance. It begins to fly with the first advent of spring and

has usually disappeared by the end of May. The valley between Snowdon

and the Walker Hospital was a good place for them one year ; and I have also

taken one behind Jakko and another (a very Aasse relic of the brood) on Kufri

Hillin June. It would probably be more abundant, and perhaps found later

in the season, further in the hills.

133. Symbrenthia hypselis brabira. Moore.

( Bing.-390';-deN. 539, 540; Ey. F38 (3)47.

Somewhat rare in the Simla Hills, but getting less so towards the east.

deNiceville took it in the bed of the Simla (Asni) River, and I got a very worn

specimen one July in a nullah near Barogh. I have also seen one in a soldier’s

catch, taken below Dagshai. These records would indicate that it keeps to

the lower elevations here, though I have taken it at 6,000 ft. in Mussoorie.

Likes wooded ravines and flies summer and autumn.

134. Symbrenthia hippoclus lucina. Cramer.

(Binge. 3865;2deNcos2s) bv. FS8-(a).

Like the last, not common here though it is abundant from Mussoorie east-

wards. It is, however, taken oftener than dradzra in the valleys near the foot

of the hills. Once, travelling up by train, I saw several butterflies which I am

certain were this species in the nullah near Jabil station on the Kalka-Simla

Railway.

*135. Symbrenthia niphanda hysudra. Moore.

( Bing. 390 as brabira ; deN. 541; Ev. F38 (4) ).

Recorded from Kashmir to Kumaon, but is rare everywhere. I have not

come across it anywhere in its range.

1 een aes es

Bop 4:

THE BUTTERFLIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 427

136. Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius. Johanssen.

( Bing. 435 ; deN. 421 ; Ev. F39 (1) ).

Not uncommon, though not as abundant, in Simla, as some of the other

Fritillaries, or as it is at lower elevations and to the east. A collector is,

however, bound to pick up some every year between June and October. Hasa

preference for open grass country, and, like so many other butterflies, is

attracted by thistle flowers.

137. Argynnis childreni sakontala. Kollar.

( Bing. 433 ; deN. 423; Ev. F39 (2) ).

The ‘ Dun Leopard’, as this fine fritillary was called, is generally common

from May to October, though it does not fly much during the very wet period

of the monsoon. Sunny glades in woods and grass slopes are its favourite

grounds and, like the preceding, it is attracted by thistle scrub. Does not go

below 5,000 ft. or so.

138. Argynnis kamala. Moore.

(, Bing. 4315 deN.-425:7 av... 1839 .(3)\-)..

Appears in May, is very common till July or August, and continues to fly

till October. I always found it very plentiful on Mahasu and Kufri Hills,

where it flits about gardens and every sunny slope. I have never seen it

anywhere below 7,000 ft.

139. Argynnis adippe jainadeva. Moore.

( Bing. 430 ; deN. 426 ; Ev. F39 (6) ).

Simla itself is rather too low for this species, and I doubt whether it wiil be

found in the immediate vicinity. The late Colonel Chaldecott took several

near the Jalauri Pass on the Kulu road, and it should occur round Narkunda

and Baghi. Is mainly a summer butterfly, but will be seen, if less frequently,

in October and November.

140. Argynnis lathonia isseea, Doubleday.

( Bing. 436 ; deN. 429 ; Ev. F39 (8) ).

The ‘Queen of Spain’ fritillary is exceedingly common above 5,000 or

6,000 ft. at all times from spring to autumn, except during heavy monsoon

weather. Avoids deep forest but is otherwise impartial as to its surroundings.

*141. Argynnis pales sipora. Moore.

( Bing. 441 ; deN. 432; Ev. F39 (13) ).

I have not seen this butterfly in the Simla Hills though I know it has been

caught in the interior. In Kashmir it keeps above 8,000 ft. and it will probably

be found here only above the 10, 000 ft. line in the Huttoo and Baghi

neighbourhood.

142. Melitza arcesia sindura. Moore

( Bing. 443 ; deN. 309; Ev. F40 (5) ).

A friend who did a walking trip into the interior and incidentally collected a

few butterflies brought back one of this species which he had caught in early

June on the way from Kulu. I doubt whether it will be found within the district

limits, but it should occur on the inner borders.

143, Atella phalanta. Drury.

( Bing. 416 ; deN. 314; Ev. F42 (1) ).

Very common in the autumn everywhere up to about 8,000 ft. I have not

noticed it particularly before the monsoon.

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

144. Ergolis merione tapestrina. Moore.

( Bing. 449 ; deN. 299: Ev. F49 (2) ).

This species, which is always so abundant in its own proper zone, is here

nearing the north-western limits ofits range. I have seen it at rare intervals

near Kalka, but it does not penetrate far into the hills.

(ACR ID AZ)

This family is, in the main, an African one and is represented in India by

two species only. Only one of these is known to extend into the North-west

Himalayas, though it is just possible that stray members of the other may

sometimes find their way into the plains bordering on the district.

145. Pareba vesta anomala. Kollar.

(Bing. 453 ; deN. 297 ; Ev. FS1).

Not common in the Simla area, but an assiduous collector may generally

count on getting two or three each season. I have taken it on Kufri Hill and

one or two other places in the summer, and it wili be found to show up at

occasional intervals between 2,000 and 10,000 ft.

Telchinia viole. Fabricius.

(Bing. 454 ; deN. 298 ; Ev. F52).

A continental species which is common in Oudh and which I know occurs as

far to the north-west as Roorkee. There is a possibility that it may sometimes

appear in the tract between Ambala and Kalka.

ERYCINIDZ:

A small group of the butterfly family, but the few species by which it is

represented in the Simla Hills are, for the most part, common and rather

interesting butterflies.

146. Libythea lepita lepita. Moore.

( Binge. 455.s.deN 594) hv. G1 (2) )e

Evans’ proposed name, the ‘ Beaks’, or the old Simla schoolboy name of

‘Snouters’ are both very apt, as the elongated palpi distinctly suggest some

such appellation. Lepzta is very common about the hills from 5,000 fit. up to

at any rate 9,000 ft. You may see them, from spring to summer, round

damp roadside drains ; and every nullah has its inhabitants.

147. Libythea myrrha sanguinalis. Fruhstorfer.

(Binge. 456-; deN. 592. Hv. G13)").

Not nearly so common in the Simla Hills as the preceding, but the two

species are so alike in habits and flight that it is probable that the rarer

muyrrha is often overlooked amongst the crowd of others. Look twice at every

Libythea that you cannot definitely say is a lepita /

148. Dodona durga. Kollar.

( Bing 460; ideN. 597; Ev. G3 (1) ).

I expect most folk in Simla have noticed this perky little fellow. He flies

in his jerky, assured way about the roadside shrubs, and settles preening

himself and apparently looking at you. Quite common from June till Novem-

ber and delights in sunny spots where there is plenty of shrub growth.

THE BUTTERPEIES OF THE SIMLA HILLS 429

149. Dodona dipoea nostia. Fruhstorfer.

( Bing. 461; deN. 598; Ev. G3 (2) ).

Not at ali common in the Western Himalayas, though more frequently met

with in the east. Habits and haunts much the same as the next, so it is Hable

to be overlooked.

150. Dodona eugenes eugenes, Bates.

( Bing. 463 ; deN. 604 ; Ev. G3 (3) ).

Likes damper and shadier surroundings than durga and is best looked for in

wooded nullahs and clearings in forests. Is fairly common in such places from

May to October.

151. Abisara echerius suffusa. Moore.

( Bing. 474; deN. 614 ; Ev. G4 (5) ).

A common butterfly of the submontane tracts of the Central and Eastern

Himalayas, but much rarer between Mussoorie and Chamba. I have taken it

near Kalka and it will sometimes be found in the ravines and damper clearings

in this neighbourhood. Just before and during the rains is usually its

favourite season.

(Zo be continued.)

THE CICADA: LETHAMA LOCUSTA WALKER.

C. McCann, F.L.S.

(With 5 text-figures).

It is a quiet October evening. Everything is at its best: after

the four months of rain. The sun is setting behind the Maha-

bleshwar hills. Slowly the song of the various diurnal birds and

insects dies out. The sun has gone leaving a faint glow in the

sky. There is a lull and everything becomes silent for a little while.

The diurnal creatures have gone to their rest and the nocturnal

ones are performing their toilet and getting ready for their nightly

routine. Night falls—there appears a jackal, he has a look all

round to see if the coast is clear. All’s well, away he goes slinking

along under the cover of some bushes. A Horned Owl sails over

my head. Flying-foxes whiz over. I am sitting on the edge of

the Tableland at Panchgani. I am not interested in all these

prowlers of the night. I am waiting for the nocturnal Cicada

(Lethama locusta, Walker).* Locally it is known as the “‘Croaker’’.

They are very noisy creatures and rightly deserve the name. They

have already started their chorus down in the valley’ where it is

already darkening. I wait. The sound soon travels up to where I

am sitting. It moves up in a regular wave till every bush around

me is alive with “‘Croakers’’. They did not fly there. Where did

they come from all of a sudden? Where do they spend their day?

What is the meaning of all this noise? These are the questions I

set myself, and I try to find the solutions in their behaviour. In the

feeble light I closely watch the bushes about me. They are Lantana

and Lasiosiphon eriocephalus, Decaisne. I take up my position near

a bush of the former. I see three or four ‘‘Croakers’’ making

their way up the stems. They have been spending the day at the

bottom of the bush in rest.

They are noisy fellows, commencing to croak as soon as they

begin to climb up to the branches, from their hiding places. They

make for the topmost branches. This answers my first question

and also the second. The light is just sufficient to discern

them against the sky. The incessant croaking at once gives the

position of the songster away. The noise is deafening not unlike

the noise of pneumatic drills. I single out one and watch. He

is too interested in his ‘‘vocal’’ production to take any notice of

me. It is only the male who is capable of making himself heard

for the females are voiceless. This calls to mind the words of the

poet who commented on the bliss of married life among the Cicadas

for they have voiceless wives!! They vie with one another in

song—they enter into competition and quarrel with one another

for positions of vantage. Their quarrels -are far from fatal

battles. They consist of a “‘kicking’’ and ‘‘shouldering’’ competi-

tion. One tries to ‘‘kick’’ the other off the branch on which two

* My thanks are due to Mr. W. E. China of the Insect Department, British

Museum, for kindly identifying the specimens for me.

THE CICADA: LETHAMA LOCOSTA WALKER 431

or more are seated. When they have all left their resting places

they frequently fly from one bush to another. ‘‘Croakers’’ from

neighbouring bushes frequently come to quarrel with a songster

who has already taken up his position. The stronger one succeeds

in keeping the perch. The weaker flies off to a nearby branch.

The croaking is incessant. The vanquished may be pursued, but

there are several others to carry on the pandemonium on the same

bush. When fighting the cicadas turn round and round the branch,

one treading on the others’ ‘‘toes’’, until such time as one gives in.

Whiz! something passes my head at high speed and alights close

to my songster. It is another ‘‘croaker’’ but this is a silent one.

Closer examination with the aid of a match (these cicadas are not

as shy as the diurnal species, which fly off no soon they see anything

moving) shows me that it is a female. She has a long ovipositor

which immediately distinguishes her from the male. Besides,

she is voiceless, having only rudiments of the song producing

organs. | Where jis* a “stin..0 My. “songster is= aware)s of — her

prcsencer and “so-. are one “or ‘two. of! the others ‘near ‘by.

Their song ceases and they move in her direction but slowly—too

slowly. My “‘croaker’’ has already taken possession of her. Copu-

lation now takes place. The others arrive but too late. Their song

is now modified to an occasional croak. They crawl over and around

the couple, but the latter are quite unconcerned. Disappointed, the

rivals retreat to a little distance and commence their song with

renewed energy in the hope that some other prospective mate might

hear. In the meantime another female arrives and the process is

repeated. The act is partially dorsiventral and is completed in

Fig. 1. Position of the Cicadas in copulation.

three to four minutes. All this time my box of matches helped me

to watch the process. When the act has been consummated the

female is released. The male is now silent and settles down to

the more important business of feeding. The female goes off.

This small observation answers the third question. The females of

this cicada are attracted by the song of the males. Their song is

a ‘mating’ song. It ceases completely after copulation.

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIZTY, Volexyxxy

I am satisfied with my answers and so I sit listening to the chorus

around me. It gradually dies down. Then everything is quiet once

more. The concert has ended. The performance only lasts for

about an hour or a little more. The rest of the night is spent in

feeding and in the meantime the females may be also laying their

eggs.

Next morning I visit the same locality. Not a ‘‘croaker’’ is to

be seen in the neighbourhood. Occasionally, a belated reveller, in-

toxicated with the juice of plants may be found lying about in the

grass. He is silent but as soon as I pick him up, he utters short

protestations by way of croaks indicating his disapproval of my

interruption of his slumbers. However, had I not picked him up,

he would probably have fallen a victim to the Kites (Milvus govinda)

which were already on the prowl for insect food in the short grass

—a daily proceeding of these birds in this particular locality.

During the time that these cicadas are wont to perform their

‘‘shrieking chorus’’, handling does not seem to retard the volume

of sound produced in the least. A captive will continue his music

in your hand.

THE MECHANISM OF THE SOUND-ORGANS.

The ‘‘vocal’’ efforts of cicadas are well known to most. people.

The intensity of the sound depends much on the size of the insect

and on the type of ‘‘instrument’’ “‘he’’ is supplied with, for “‘she’’

is silent. Above I have given sufficient evidence to prove that the

song of the cicadas is an expression of their sexual feelings and

at the same time is really an attraction to the females which respond

to the invitation. But to explain the way in which this song is

produced is quite another matter. It cannot be termed vocal for

as is well known there is a special apparatus for its production.

The first record of the song of cicada was made apparently in the

eighth century before Christ, by Hesiod, who states that the cicada

‘‘pours forth from under his wings, his shrill song’’. As far as it

goes his observation is correct. Aristotle and many other later

observers believed that the sound was produced by respiration. This

view was held for a considerable time and was perpetuated until it

was disputed by Casserius and Galileo. Galileo’s statement swept

the board of the old traditions and was a clear conception of the

modern spirit. Giulio Casserio (Casserius), a contemporary of

Galileo, had already discovered the effective organs of the cicada’s

sound, even before Galileo. In 1600 he published a detailed account

of several species, illustrating the tymbals and also the muscles.

But we owe much to Réaumur (1740) whose accurate observations

were confirmed by Carlet (1876) and other workers.

To be able to understand this most complicated and interesting

sound-organ we must make a careful survey of all the parts con-

cerned, both internally and externally... The rudiments of these

organs are met with in the females but they do not function,

hence all our remarks must necessarily be confined to the opposite

sex in which the sound producing organs are developed to a remark-

able degree, so much so that they have developed at the expense

Nae

THE CICADA: LETHAMA LOCUSTA WALKER 433

of all the other internal organs, which have been reduced to a

minimum.

; Fig. 2. Tymbal of the left side with both opercula. Gperculm

If the fingers are passed over the abdomen of the cicada, it will

at once be noticed how papery it is. Cut it in two longitudinally.

It will readily be seen how empty the abdomen is—perhaps there

are no internal organs! No! these are all reduced in size and

are fixed to the dorsal region of the abdomen. In order that it

may freely serve the purpose, it has now become a _ resonator—

empty vessels make the most noise! The thoracic region is full

of powerful muscles. .The anterior part of the thorax is divided

from that part which is continuous with the empty abdominal cavity,

by a thin wall of chitin. In front of this wall are the muscles

connected with flight and behind it one large, broadly conical muscle,

the pair to this one is in the other half of the body. These two

muscles are by far the largest muscles in the whole anatomy of

this cicada and are devoted to the sole purpose of working the

“instrument’’ with which these creatures make their ‘‘big noise’’

in the world. We shall have occasion to refer to these muscles

later.

On either side of the abdomen in the present species there is a

large obovoid plate constricted below the middle and_ then

narrowed into the base where it is attached. These are

them opercuia (ne. 2), = These plates. are, fixed and* are not

capable of any movement. They assist in directing the sound

waves over the surface of the hollow abdomen, thus. increas-

ing the volume of the sound produced. Now we come to

remove an operculum and cut away a portion of the abdominal wall

to see this part of the apparatus in operation. At the basal end

of the opercula, and partly covered by them, are two small

highly convex structures composed of a thin flexible mem-

brane reinforced with strongly chitinised ribs and plates of a

reddish-brown colour. These are the tymbals (figs. 2 & 3). The

tymbals are in a strong chitinous frame which borders them on

all sides. The ribs and plates help to produce the sound and at the

same time act as a spring, bringing the tymbals back to their

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NA LFURAL HIS Le SOCl Ei yeey ol OXCa,

original position after deflexion. The tymbal is somewhat trian-

gular, though it appears circular when in position on the insect. At

the posterior margin of the

tymbal, which would cor-

respond to the base of the

triangle, there is a large

chitinous plate somewhat

triangular in shape—this I

propose to call the plectrum

(figs 2 3)..\, “Ubis™ plate aus

larger than the others and

the thickness of the chitin

is varied at different points,

the surface being somewhat

undulate. At the dorsal

angle of the triangle the

chitin 1s extremely thicken-

ed in.the form of a broad

imverted -Y (fie. 35.4).." Phe

top angle (that pointing in

the direction of the head)

has an obtuse beak (fig.

3, b)—the point of the plec-

trum. The other portions

of the plectrum gradually

Fig. 3. A single tymbal showing

fade away into the mem- ae

fo ai Gre eon ees chitinous ribs and plates. a. Y-shaped

a an y ; : eae end of plectrum. b. Point of plectrum.

mucn for the present abou

the externals of the ‘‘instrument’’, now let us have a look into the

body. In the longitudinal section we noticed the large broadly

conical muscle arising from the last segment of the thorax. This

is the tymbal-muscle (fig. 4). It is surmounted by a thin chitinous

cord Ww ng muscles

ae bal - muscle Ros frei

Fig. 4. Nl capitudiaal section showing the muscles.

“THE CICADA: LETHAMA LOCUSTA WALKER — 435

plate on the top of which is a thin chitinous cord. This cord

is attached to the stem of the thick Y-shaped angle of the plec-

trum, already referred to. In cross section the tymbal-muscles are

seen to be united at their bases, but the upper portions diverge

from ‘one another in the form of a V (fig. 5).. “They ‘are the

largest muscles in the body and are composed of a bundle of

inuscle. strands, giving them a striated appearance.

Let us examine the outside of the tymbal once more. ae we

have seen, there are chitinous

ribs and plates on its surface.

The ribs are important and call

for our attention first. There

are four in number crossing

the surface of the tymbal. In

their upper half they are more

chitinous than in the lower, par-

ticularly at the centre. The two

anterior ribs are free, but the

two posterior are united at the

top and at the middle forming

a solid mass, the lower ends are

free. When the tymbal is de-

flexed by the contraction of the

tymbal-muscle, the upper portion

| of the tymbai alone (about 2/3)

is deflexed. On relaxation of

Tymbal * muscles the muscle the ribs spring back

to their original position. Now

to follow the action of the whole

apparatus. When the tymbal-

muscle is contracted, the cord which is attached to the plate on the

top of the muscle is pulled. The other end of this cord is attached

to the stem of the Y-shaped angle of the plectrum. This tension

deflexes the plectrum, the beaked (or anterior) angle of the plectrum

crosses the thickened portion of the fused ribs, at the same time

the rest of the tymbal is deflexed. When the beak of the plectrum

crosses the fused ribs there is a click and when the muscle is

relaxed the same click is repeated, just in the same way as a

true plectrum is used on the string of a banjo. Now in the

cicada the tymbal-muscle contracts and relaxes at a tremendous

_speed bringing the plectrum into play as described above, thus

giving rise to the noise made by the cicada. The sound waves are

conducted over the hollow abdomen by the opercula. They function

in much the same way as a hand placed above the mouth of a singer

can increase the volume of sound. Thus the clicking sound is

magnified to the tremendous din.

In order to verify my observations, I performed the following

experiments with living cicadas. I might mention here that this

particular species does not modify its production when handled.

In the first place I was anxious to see whether one tymbal was

able to operate without the other. With this object in view, I first

obstructed the action of one tymbal—the other continued to func-

Fig. 5. Section showing both

tymbal muscles.

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

tion. I then cut out the tymbal of one side—the result was the

same. Lastly I injured the tymbal-muscle of one side with a like

consequence. The next point that drew my attention was the

opercula. Partial removal of one or both had no perceptible effect

on the volume of sound, but when both were entirely removed there

was a slight change in the volume of sound. In the next experi-

ment I made a hole in the abdomen with the effect that the sound

was considerably modulated. With the removal of the entire

abdomen, the sound was reduced to a minimum—it was a little more

than just audible.

The result of the experiments are thus reduced to (a) one tymbal

is capable of producing sound independently of the other; (b) the

opercula are only conductors of the sound waves; (c) the abdomen

is reduced to a resonator.

REVIEWS

I. BIRD LIFE IN INDIA’ by Captain R. S. P. Bates, M.B.O.U., x +

187 pp., 92 ins. X 7 ins., with a map and sixty-two black and white plates, and

frontispiece. Published by the Bombay Natural History Society. Price Rs. 9.

(to members Rs. 6-12)

The untiring efforts of the Bombay Natural History Society to promote an

intelligent interest in all branches of natural history in this country are too

well known to need special comment. Witness for instance the numerous

excellent publications it has placed before the public in recent years including,

among others, the charts for the identification of poisonous snakes, the

Butterfly book by Col. Evans, the sumptuous volumes dealing with the game

birds of India by Stuart Baker, and the sets of charts illustrating in colour

over 200 species of the commoner birds of the Indian plains. To this

creditable array has lately been added the book under review.

Captain Bates, the author, is familiar to all readers of the Journal through

his beautifully illustrated and charmingly written articles on Indian bird life

which appear in its pages periodically—though unfortunately not as often as

we should like to see them. As pointed out in the preface, a great part of

the subject matter of the 11 chapters that go to comprise the book is a re-

casting of the articles that have appeared from time to time in the Society’s

Journal, and among the illustrations likewise readers will recognise a number

of old friends. Their publication in book form, with the addition of hitherto

unpublished material both in the letterpress and photographs will, we trust,

serve to bring the fruits of Captain Bate’s painstaking observations and infinite

patience before a_ still wider circle of readers. Popular works on Indian

Natural History are few and far between and we are sure all nature lovers

will welcome the advent of this publication.

The fascinating sport of bird photography in India, despite the almost

unparalleled facilities the country offers as regards lighting conditions and

abundance of bird life, is still in its infancy. It undoubtedly presents a great

many difficulties, besides which the climate, especially in the plains, is a

factor to be seriously reckoned with when working from a hide. The last

two chapters of the book entitled ‘Experiences with Natural Hides’ and ‘A

Bird-Photographer’s Needs’ are particularly illuminating, and we would com-

mend them particularly to those about to begin, or have abandoned in disgust

or despair, the hobby of photographing Indian birds. Captain Bates’ achieve-

ments entitle his hints and suggestions to the right of being treated as

authoritative, and his photographs demonstrate the high degree of success

that can be attained through patience and attention to detail.

We heartily commend this book to every nature lover in general and to

every bird-photographer in particular, be he old or young, would be, successful

or otherwise, and are sure that all will read it with pleasure and profit.

A word of praise is due to the printers of the plates, the Times of India

Press, Bombay, whose name we find has been inadvertently omitted on the

title-page. The reproductions of the photographs are excellent and reflect great

credit, on the Press.

The only fault we have to find with the book is in its binding, a defect

all the more deplorable since in the line of popular natural history works the

get-up plays a most important part in the selling-power and circulation of a

book. In these days of financial depression, however, it was imperative for a

work that would be popular to be at the same time inexpensive, and it cannot

be denied that the price fixed for this book, embellished as it is with such

a large number of plates, brings it within the reach of all. We hope it will

meet with the success and popularity it deserves.

Sp 3 eae

Il. DIFFICULTIES OF THE EVOLUTION THEORY by Douglas Dewar.

Published by Edward Arnold and Co., London.

The author has clearly been very much impressed by Vialleton’s ‘Morphologie

générale’ and in the course of compiling the present volume (I use the term

compiling deliberately, for a large part of the book consists of abstracts or

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

quotations from other authors) has clearly read a number of works on various

branches of science. Unfortunately, the result appears to be a kind of mental

indigestion.

“At the outset one is faced with the difficulty of discovering what’ exactly

Mr. Dewar means by the term evolution; so far as I ‘have -been able «to

discover, thé author would apply this term solely to those cases in whith the

change from one form to another has been by gradual and almost imperceptible

stages, i.e., evolution in the strictly Darwinian sense, whereas changes that have

been brought about-somewhat abruptly, as by mutation, he would regard as cre-

ations. A close study fails to show whether Mr. Dewar agrees with and accepts

the time-honoured dictum Omne vivum ex vivo, or whether he genuinely believes

that each main phylum and even: some of.the smaller groups in the great

biological kingdom have arisen as special creations, using the term in its generally

accepted sense to mean the creation of a living-organism by supernatural powers

out of non-living material. At one time he appears to hold this latter view,

namely that teach creation is the embodiment of a divine idea, or that organisms

have been created out of nothing by the mere fiat of the Creator’; but in other

places he seems to regard ‘the rearrangement of the structural elements of some

earlier organism or a change in the development of some embryo’ as an act

of creation. In his definition of a special creation as ‘a new kind of organism

which has had an abrupt origin or made a sudden appearance, as distinguished

from a gradual transformation through successive generations of some earlier

organism’ the author tries to so widen the ordinary meaning of the term ‘creation’

that it can be used to include, on the one hand, the formation of a complex living

organism out of nothing or at least out of non-living matter, i.e., a miracle,

and, on the other, those mutations that, one knows, occur in nature and

that can be induced experimentally in organisms by the application of some

unusual environmental condition, such as X-rays or a modified food-supply.

Every biologist will agree that, so far as the geolcgical record goes, new

types make their appearance ‘suddenly in the succeeding strata; but that is

a vely different thing to believing that because their’ appearance is sudden

these types have been specially created; and no one with an adequate realisa-

tion of the intermittent manner in which these fossiliferous strata have been

laid down and the thousands of years that may have elapsed between the

deposition of one stratum and that immediately preceding or succeeding it, would

be so surprised, as Dewar appears to be, that ‘the fauna and flora of a

horizon differ very markedly from those of the horizon immediately below”;

neither would they accept Mr. Dewar’s final’ summing up (p. 155) that ‘the

correct scientific attitude, in the present state of knowledge, is to recognise that

in the’ past new types -have. made an abrupt appearance, and. to admit

frankly that at present we are quite unable to point to any natural forces

capable of originating them; ‘in other words, to revert to the theory of

creation,’. nor that it appears ‘to be necessary to adopt a provisional hypothesis

of. special creation, . . . supplemented by a theory of evolution.” —

' Much’ knowledge has been acquired since Darwin first postulated his great

theory and it has been found necessary to modify the theory to some extent;

the hope that future paleontological research would -reveal missing . links

connecting the great phyla has been abandoned and it is now recognized that

the evolution’ of these main groups took place at a. very early stage in the

history of the biological kingdom but it is also becoming .more and more

widely recognized that the further we go back in the past the more plastic

were the then existing animals and plants; and it is probable that, correlated.

with the greater instability of the earth’s crust and of the physical conditions

existing thereon, this greater plasticity may have permitted those. abrupt

changes or mutations, that still occur even in the most highly specialised

and therefore most fixed forms, to be of much greater range and importance,

even of sufficient importance to have caused the mutation of one phylum

from another. To seek for the origin of the great phyla one has to go back

beyond the Protozoic era, but that is no argument in favour of adopting a

belief in special creation. : : ;

The book contains some glaring inaccuracies; zoologists will be amazed

to read that ‘the-structure of the pelvic (hip) girdle differs fundamentally ‘in

the two classes (Reptiles and Mammals). ‘In Reptiles it articulates’ with the

sternum (breast-bone) by means of the coracoids, and forms part of the thorax’,

and again, that ‘the Reptiles have two aortae ; the mammals have but .one—

R. Bus. a5?

WISCBEEANEOUS NOTES.

I.—LOCAL MIGRATION OF THE FLYING-FOX

(PTEROPUS GIGANTEUS) IN THE PUNJAB.

The Flying-Fox (P. giganteus) remains in the Gurdaspur District

of the Punjab from March up to the end of the fruit season.

This year the first arrivals were seen by me on the 3rd. of March.

They are not very numerous as yet—food is not plentiful—plums

and Bombax are the only trees that provide them with food. Later

they will be in thousands.

GURDASPUR, G. BREADON,

PUNJAB. District Engineer.

March’ 13, 193.

Il.—VITALITY OF A COW MAULED BY A TIGER.

(With two text-figures).

A case of a cow that was scragged by a tiger, and then ran

about 40-50 yards with a broken neck before it collapsed dead

occurred near here recently. The kill, a natural one, was the

work.of the filth tiger (rather, tigress) of the group of -five “I

recently had the fortune to bag. I was shown the spot where the

tiger had obviously first felled the cow (signs of the struggle,

blood, and hair were there in plenty), and then 4o or 50 yards

below the kill itself, a cow in its prime, with neck broken. This

was interesting, and on writing to Major P. T. Saunders, Director

of Veterinary Services, Madras, on the matter I received the follow-

ing reply:—‘I have your letter with the query about the cow with

the broken neck. It is really most interesting but is certainly

possible. Had the neck been broken, 1.e., with displacement

of thé ‘parts, the cow--could “not have’ run .50 yards, as

pressure on the spinal cord would mean loss of both sen-

sation and control. In my opinion

what occurred was that the ‘‘break”’

took place where the tiger tackled

her but displacement of the parts

was not immediate and took place

later. Imagine Fig. A showing

two neck bones, the dotted lines

showing the canal for the accom-

modation of the cord, and the dark

part the cord itself. The disloca-

tion ef the joint’ might occur -and

the parts still remain in position.

Then by a muscular action of the

cow’s neck the displacement (actual

— = _ dislocation) takes place later thus

(Fig. B.). The ligaments’ etc., holding the joint in. position

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

were no doubt destroyed at once. Similar cases have occurred

S b

in men.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. MORRIS,

ATTIKAN EOF, F.Z.S., F.R.G.S. :

Via Mysore, S. INpia. :

March. 3, 1OgT.

III.—A PANTHER’S STRANGE BEHAVIOUR.

In December last a couple of panther (male and female) came

to a kill R. E. W. of Madras and I were sitting up over, (time,

8 p.m.—moonlight). The male commenced to feed and was shot

dead on the kill. The female immediately started to ‘perform

an extraordinary set of evolutions which lasted for about 10

minutes—rushing up and down across our front, kicking up an

almighty din the whole time, seizing and shaking the kill and its

dead mate, and repeatedly taking at a bound a high rock in front

of us. We received the impression that had she discovered our

presence on the small, lone tree we were on, she would probably

have taken our machan at a bound too, possessed with the devil

as she seemed to be. When she finally quietened down and

cautiously approached the kill, a shot laid her low beside her mate—

so in death they were not divided.

HONNAMETTI ESTATE, R. C. - MORRIS,

ATTIKAN P.O., F.Z.S° E.R.G.S: *

Via Mysore, S. INDIA.

May 18; 193i.

IV.—CANNIBALISM IN PANTHERS.

Cases of cannibalism by the greater Carnivora have been occa-

sionally recorded in the Society’s Journal, but incidents of this

nature are always of interest. The following is an account of a

recent happening near Pachmarhi, which is of added interest, as

a further indication of the well-known boldness of most wild animals

during the hours of darkness and twilight.

Captain G. W. N. Barefoot, M. C. and Mr. B. M. Pratt write: —

‘“‘We were motoring down a ghat road about 11 o’clock on the

night of June 6th, and by the light of a hand torch saw by the

roadside the reflected light of several eyes. Having stopped the

car, we searched about in the bamboo forest with the torch, and

about two hundred yards from the road came to a dry nullah, on

the further side of which there was rising ground. The eyes were

now seen up the slope, but we were not able to make out the owners

of them sufficiently clear for the purpose of a shot. Half an hour

passed by without the beasts changing their position, so we threw

stones, and made noises, in the hope of moving them to a place

where Mr. Pratt placed himself in waiting. Eventually a No. 4

shot was fired in their direction which disturbed them, and after

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 441

about ten minutes, caused one of the animals to show itself about

thirty yards from Mr. Pratt, who fired at it with his 12 gauge shot

gun (lethal bullet). The animal leapt in the air, ran some yards,

and then sound ceased. Throwing of stones produced no response,

but it was thought best to leave the possibly wounded beast until

the morning. The other two animals remained exactly where they

were, hidden behind clumps of bamboo, and out of range, but after

fifteen minutes their eyes were not to be seen. We returned at an

hour before dawn, and approaching the place found one panther

eating something where the body of the animal fired at should be;

but on account of the darkness could not make it out clearly enough

for a shot.

On our nearer approach it moved off, and we found our panther

had been eaten. The skin had all gone from one side of the

stomach, and there was a deep gash in the cheek; it resembled,

in most respects, a natural kill, although the bullet must have

killed it outright, having entered just behind the shoulders.

It was a male and measured 6 ft. 4 ins. Probably the party

was a female with two almost fully grown cubs. We followed

after the cannibal for some time, and saw two panthers moving

rapidly up a dry nullah, but could not obtain a shot at them.’’

Mr. Pratt tells me he has killed 6 panthers during the past two

years by spotting them with a torch from a car, and then following

them up in the forest with gun and torch.

Until a shot is fired, and a hit made, there is probably but little

risk in this method of panther shikar; but following the perforation

of the target any kind of excitement may eventuate.

Long life to this young sportsman, who has shown the way to

thrills which may attract even the most blasé of shikaris! The

great majority of sportsmen condemn all shooting with aid of a

motor car as unsporting; but so long as the shot is not taken with

the direct aid of the car, but in the manner here indicated, it will,

I think, be agreed that this method of coming on terms with tiger

and panther may be considered permissible; provided, of course,

that any beast wounded must be next day followed up in the usual

way.

PACHMARHI, R. W. BURTON,

Vane 2) lO a: Lieut.-Colonel.

Indian Army (retired).

V.—SOME SUGGESTIONS ON PANTHER SHOOTING.

I do not know how far this will appeal to the sportsman in

general, but as I have myself tried it many times and with success,

I offer the suggestion for what it is worth.

It is not unusual that the bait tied up to obtain a panther kill

is carried off by a Hyzna and much time, labour and energy is

lost.

One method of circumventing the prowling hyzna is_ to

tether the bait on a small machan, a rough platform, 5 ft. x5 ft.,

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

raised on poles say about 4 ft. 6 ins. from the ground. If this is

done hyenas will leave the bait alone and if a kill is made one can

be certain that it is the work of a panther. The ground below the

platform and for three feet around it should be cleared and, if

sprinkled with sand, will reveal pug marks.

AMBIKAPUR, RAMANUJ or SURGUJA.

june A0, Pears) A

VI.—THE NUMBER OF PUPS IN A WILD DOG'S: CEMIER.

With reference to Miscellaneous Note IV at page 1055 of Vol.

xxxiv, No. 4, I have seen seven pups with a wild dog bitch which

brought her family to a panther kill. A friend says he has seen

ten pups with a bitch, but in both these instances it might be

that the pups belonged to two mothers, though that is not likely.

But another friend tells me that he himself saw seven embryos

taken out of a wild dog which was shot. When he sees this

note perhaps he will give the date (which I forgot to enquire) as

evidence of the breeding season.

PACHMARHI, i Ree VV Bb WiRGOINE

jane 23) 1981. Lieut.-Colonel.

Indian Army (retired).

VIT.—AN INCIDENT WITH WIELDS DOG STN SN TVIERe

In March 1930, a friend and myself were the victims of an

unusual encounter with Wild Dog. On the night of the oth. and

1oth., a bait, tied up at the junction of a cart track and a‘ nalla

which held several pools of water, was killed by a tiger whose

pugs were clearly imprinted in the sand. Visiting the spot in the

early morning we selected two trees for our machans, each about

30 yards from the kill, as we hoped to get a shot by daylight.

We covered up the kill and left two men on Buand to see that

nothing was disturbed.

Early in the afternoon the shikaris were despatched fon tie. up

the machans and we followed shortly afterwards in a bullock cart.

The last half mile of our road lay over an open maidan covered

with short spear-grass and having here and there a thin clump of

trees. As soon as we entered this maidan we came on a pack of

Wild Dog, some dozen or more strong, lolling about under a clump

of trees about too yards off the road. We stopped and debated

whether or not to open fire, since, though we knew that to do so

would probably ruin our chances of getting the tiger, yet we had

good cause to suspect that it was due to the presence of these

Wild Dog in our block that we had hitherto had no success and

it seemed a pity to let the pests escape. Eventually, however, we

decided against firing and moved on; the dogs, mean-while, had not

taken more than a mild interest in our proximity. A few minutes

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 443

later, topping a slight rise in the ground, we sighted three or four

nilgai bunched together in the open; these stood at gaze for a

moment and then cantered off for the edge of the forest. I think

we must have cut in between the dogs and their quarry.

On reaching our destination we found that our shikaris had

seen nothing of the dogs on their way so it seemed unlikely that

the latter would remain in the vicinity, but, to make certain of this

we sent two men who had been on guard to drive them off in the

opposite direction.

It was not long before we settled down to our vigil.

_ Before sunset our only visitors were a solitary langoor and a

couple of peafowl; but as soon as the full moon was flooding the

open grassy stretches with silver ligt, the teak-clad slopes of the

low hills to my front began to rustle with the movements of sambar

coming down to drink at the pools a hundred yards or so behind

me. Soon small groups of deer could be seen silhouetted against

the silvered grass.

Next a rustling in the grass from behind my friend’s machan

set my pulse beating, but, after an eternity of waiting, it materia-

lized into a chausingha, or four-horned antelope, also on its way

to drink. The little creature made a tremendous clatter moving

down the stony nala-bed, as if it had not an enemy in the world.

_ The hours dragged on and the sambar were back again in their

hillside and I was brooding on the many disappointments of

shikar, when the silence of the night was rent by a deep and

throaty snarl, some distance away. After what seemed an age

two small black shapes trotted out of the long grass and made

straight for the kill. At first I thought they were jackal; but,

when, after a sniff. at the carcase, they retreated only to return in

a moment, followed by the remainder of the pack, and without

further ado fell to tearing at the kill, it was clear enough that we

had not seen the last of the Wild Dog.

All other means of persuading them to decamp having failed,

I fired ‘into the. brown’ which had the effect of making them

scatter, but not by any means clear out. In a minute or two the

bolder ones were moving back to their interrupted meal. Again I

fired, again without recording a hit, but this time they seemed

to have had enough and disappeared.

We now gave up all pretence of keeping quiet and discussed

the situation and the pros and cons of a proposal to return to

camp; before, however, we had come to an agreement on this

point, we were interrupted by a commotion arising on the hill

slopes whence the sambar had come earlier in ihe night.

The sound grew rapidly closer and now above the noise of the

stampede rose a frenzied whimpering cry. I have only heard Wild

Dog give tongue once before and on that occasion we had surprised

two drinking and my friend bowled one over and the other circled

around out of sight calling—dquite a different call. Perhaps what

we now heard was the cry of pups as we had noticed some half.

grown ones with the pack in the afternoon.

A few minutes later a confused black mass of flying shapes

came out into the moon-light, heading straight towards us, and,

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

ceasing to advance when exactly opposite my friend’s machan,

began to revolve, as it were, on its own axis.

After a bit I made out a sambar in the middle of the mélée, and

my friend, who was closer and could see better, shouted that the

dogs were pulling down two sambar and that he was going to

fire:

Two shots crashed out and a sambar hind plunged off past me

and away. My friend reported that he had missed with both

shots but that the dogs had cleared leaving one sambar apparently

dead; but whilst we were still talking the poor brute staggered

to) its feet and“came. tottering. towards’ me.) It 7pausede ter. a

moment under my machan and I turned my torch on to it but could

see no trace of wounds; ther@it slowly made off towards the pools

behind. :

Poor brute! We wondered what would happen to it and we

were not long in doubt. We heard it bell from the water and

once again the whimpering cries arose. Then came a scream

followed by awful moans of agony as the wretched creature was

torn to pieces.

At dawn we visited the pools and found the signs only too

clear to read. A scoop in the sand at the edge of the deepest

pool. showed where the sambar had been dragged forth. Higher

up the bank the boulders were stained with blood and here lay

the stomach and there six inches of the tip of its tail.

AHMEDABAD. R. M. SIMMONS.

March 23, 1030.

VIII.—THE MITHUN.

Your correspondent in the last issue of the Journal, through

ignorance of the Assamese language, does the Burma Forest

Department an injustice, when he accuses them of jesting at the

expense of the shikari, in issuing a permit to shoot mithan. The

Assamese use the word mithun (not mithan: the name is spelt

correctly by Carey and Tuck in the Gazetteer of the Chin Hills and

by Sanderson, in The Wild Beasts of India, but wrongly by your

correspondent and most other sporting writers, including Lydekker

in The Game Animals of India) indiscriminately, when speaking

both of Bibos gaurus and Bibos frontalis. In fact, to most

Assamese the word would probably call up the image of the Bzbos

gaurus, as only those living near the hlils on each side of the

Brahmaputra Valley have seen Bibos frontalis. Probably the list

of protected animals and permit to ‘which your correspondent takes

exception were drawn up by some Conservator who had served in

Assam. | |

Among the Kuki tribes inhabiting the Manipur Hills the mithun

was, until recently, the only bovine domestic animal. Together

with the gong and cornelian beads, it constituted their currency,

and penalties for breaches of their primitive code of laws, as well

PANS TR

a AY OR a eet

ee aie Se eee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445

as the price of wives, were calculated mostly in so many head of

mithun.

The Chins (who are closely related to the Kukis) are probably

correct in making the Bibos frontalis the offspring of Bibos gaurus

and domestic cattle, although it has now become a separate species.

The Kukis practically cleared the Manipur Hills of bison upwards

of half a century ago, and mating of Bibos gaurus either with

Bibos frontalis or domestic cattle is quite unknown nowadays. But

Bibos frontalis is a fertile species, and breeds freely. The bulls

also interbreed with domestic cows. Crosses are not uncommon

among the Naga tribes of the Manipur Hills, who keep cattle as

well as mithun. I have never known the crosses to interbreed

with each other or with domestic cattle in these hills, but I knew

a case on the Kuturi Tea Estate, in the Nowgong District of

Assam, where a cow, bred from a mithun bull from the Aka Hills

and a domestic cow, bore a calf to a domestic bull. I have often

wondered whether the sturdy black cattle kept by the Naga tribes

in these hills do not possess a strain of Bibos frontalis. I met one

instance of a cross between a bull of Bibos frontalis and a domestic

_ buffalo cow. The animal could hardly be distinguished from a pure-

bred buffalo. I never ascertained whether it interbred with

buffaloes.

It is not correct to say of the mithun of the Manipur Hills that

‘fall the domestic cow’s varied colours appear’’. They are all

black and white, as in your correspondent’s excellent photographs

(calves are brown and white until they are a few months old, when

the brown changes into black). The majority are coloured like Bibos

gaurus, with black bodies and legs and white stockings, but a

number are piebald, though always in black and white. Occa-

sionally the white prevails over the black.

The Bibos gaurus is not always ‘‘a very silent beast’’. I remem-

ber taking a friend out in a remote forest in Nowgong, where

mithun (bison) were very plentiful, and we were surrounded by

animals bellowing loudly in the early morning. Sanderson rightly

describes the noise as follows:—‘‘It closely resembles a common

sound made by elephants. It is used by bison to call each other

at a distance, and can be heard for about a mile in favourable

ground. It may be described as a sonorous bellow’’. Not un-

naturally, it even more closely resembles the sound made by Bibos

frontalis.

I have never had the misfortune to encounter a savage specimen

of frontalis. In return for a little salt they will usually follow

one about the village.

IMPHAL, EsGask

MANIPUR STATE.

uly 278 TOR 1.

[The spelling of the word ‘‘mithun’’ as ‘‘mithan’’ in Mr. Livesey’s

recent note was due to the Editor’s following the spelling adopted

by Blanford in the Fauna of British India, Mammals. Eds. |

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

IX.—THE SHWE-U-DAUNG GAME SANCTUARY,

UPPER BURMA, WITH A NOTE ON THE ASIATIC

TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS (R. SUMATRENSIS).

(With a plate.)

I enclose some notes and photographs taken by me during a

fortnight’s tour in the Shwe-u-daung Game Sanctuary in Upper

Burma. They may be of interest to readers of the Society’s

Journal.

The Sanctuary extends over 126 square miles; 75-per cent of

which is heavily afforested. The more elevated portions of the

Sanctuary assume the form of a high watershed which stretches

for about 10 miles at altitudes varying from 4,000 ft. to 6,223 ft.

on the Shwe-u-daung peak. The main peaks, the ridge, and most

of the high spurs leading from it are partly or altogether bare

of tree growth over considerable areas. They are covered by a

coarse grass which is from 1 to 3 feet high on the higher

slopes; but this gives way to very high kaing grass in depressions

and on the borders of the forests which clothe all the lower

portions of the Sanctuary. The climate on the main ridge is cold

and bracing, and with the exception of a few blood-blister flies

most of the insect pests found lower down are absent.

The three main peaks; Shwe-u-daung, Nanmadawgyi, and Nan-

madawegalay are popularly supposed to be the abode of certain Nats

(spirits,) which are held in some reverence by the Shan villagers near

the Sanctuary, and serve most opportunely to preserve the sanctity of

this stronghold of wild game. It is an area the high ground of

which is eminently suited to be a National Park of the future.

The transition to this desirable end must be gradual; but it is

hoped that it will not be very long before the communications are

improved and this area made available as a resort of every lover

of nature and wild animals.

All species of animals indigenous to Northern Burma with the

exception of Thamin, Goral, and Hog-deer are found within the

Sanctuary. Saing (Bibos banteng) are found on the low ground

in the western parts of the Sanctuary but do not climb high into

the hills. With this exception, all the species may be found in

due season on the open grassy slopes on and near the main ridge.

During my visit from October 24th to November 6th the grass

was too coarse to attract Bison to the main ridge and only one

herd of 15 was seen out in the open. Sambhur, however, were

plentiful and were on view in the open at all hours of the day in

herds of from 3 to 1o individuals. They are not shy; but being

unaccustomed to the sight of human beings desert the open ground

for a few days after seeing men. This fault can be easily set

right during the transition stage between a Sanctuary and a

National Park. In March to May the numbers of animals on viev

would be far greater. fens

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIstT. Soc.

THE ASIATIC TWO-HORNED RHINOCEROS (R. summatrensis), SHOT IN THE SANCTUARY.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 447

_ Experience in other countries has shown that in order to persuade

wild animals to remain on view in the open, they must be made

accustomed to the sight of men. In my experience in the Sanc-

tuary, areas in which animals were seen on the first day were

deserted on the next, and this is bound to be the case in an

altogether secluded area. The regular patrolling of the Sanctuary

by reliable keepers and the gradual construction of paths and build-

ings will, far from disturbing the game, make them indifferent to

the sight of men.

Heavy mists are the rule at high elevations within the Sanctuary

during the rains and the early part of the cold weather. During

more than half my time in the Sanctuary photography was at a

discount owing to mists and some rain. During the dry season

however and especially in March, April and May, the Sanctuary

would be a paradise to the keen photographer of wild animals.

One tiger was seen right out in the open. They are splendid

creatures; but disturb the deer on the main ridge and should be

destroyed.

In addition to a large number of sambhur, I saw within a

fortnight three rhinoceros, one solitary bison, one herd of fifteen

bison, one tiger, one elephant, one barking deer and six pigs.

The accompanying photograph is of a male Two-horned Rhino-

ceros (Rhinoceros sumatrensis), shot within the Sanctuary under the

direction of the Local Government for museum purposes on the

27th October, 1930. The skin and skeleton have been presented to

the British Museum for mounting.

The destruction of this animal is less to be deplored than might

be apparent, as there are fully ten. other rhinoceros living in the

Sanctuary under conditions ideal for their continued existence and

increase. The specimen depicted measured between pegs g ft.

5 ins. in length and 4 ft. 5 ins. in height: an average male with

much rubbed and worn horns of which the front horn is 7 ins. in

length along the curve from base to tip.

R.. sumatrensis spends most of its time in the heaviest forest

it can find and only occasionally climbs onto the open grass-clad

ridges and spurs which are a feature of the Sanctuary at elevations

above 4000 feet.

There is still some hope that a specimen or two of the Lesser

One-horned Rhinoceros (R. sondaicus), is to be found in the Shwe-u-

daung Sanctuary. Tracks measuring 84 ins. in diameter have been

seen which correspond nearly to those of R. sondaicus in Mergut

and Thaton in southernmost Burma. The tracks of the specimen

of R. sumatrensis shot in this Sanctuary were a_ shade less

than 8 ins., and I am afraid the animal responsible for the larger

tracks will be found to be merely a larger specimen of the same

species.

There appears to be no marked variation either in structure or

habits between the specimen shot in the Shwe-u-daung Sanctuary

and a couple of others shot by me about 8 years ago in the angle

between the Uyu and Chindwin rivers. One of the latter was,

however, a foot longer and 4 inches higher than the former.

Rhinoceros sumatrensis wander generally in pairs, and a former

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XXXV

experience was duplicated in that the mate returned to the body

of the one killed a few minutes after the shooting, and had to be

driven off by a shot fired over her head.. They appear to have

a fair share of the pugnacity attributed to their African relatives,

and are not the kind of animal one would care to meet at very

close quarters when unarmed.

The Rhinoceros in the Sanctuary conform to the practices com-

mon to the species of making sometimes quite large collections

of their droppings; wallowing frequently in liquid mud, and break-

ing down and twisting small saplings along the routes favoured

by them. On one occasion I saw a small sapling that had, in

some amazing manner, been twisted into a simple knot.

The protection afforded to the Sanctuary has taken the form

of legislative rather than practical measures. There are no Game

Keepers, unless one includes in this meaning the monthly visit

of one or two foresters; no roads and no buildings. No signs of

poaching were ‘noticed either on the ridge or the lower ground at

the wallows and licks. When one considers that a Rhinoceros is

worth to the average poacher at least from 20 to 4o times his

monthly income, the comparatively large number of Rhinoceros

existing in the Sanctuary is a very great tribute to the law-abiding

nature of the population surrounding the Sanctuary.

Maymyo, Eo. REACOCKS

Feprua7y 15, Ost.

Y X.—BIRD MIGRATION NOTES FROM PORT BLAIR.

I have only very recently had access to Stuart Baker’s

completed edition of the Birds of British India and find that infor-

mation is still required on many points to do with not only the rarer

but even the common birds of the Andamans and Nicobars. I

already knew that both the British Museum and the Bombay

Natural History Society require skins of almost all birds from this

region. I am myself leaving Port Blair before long but hope to

find some resident here who will take up local ornithology and

supply what is needed in the way of material as well as of

information.

The Koel appears to be an immigrant. Which race have

we got and what is its line of entry? In Port Blair, the Koel is first

heard (but seldom seen) about October 7th, when he gives out

short and timid notes about dusk as though to enquire whether

any of his friends have also arrived and are lurking about. By

December he and his wife are noisy and assertive. They seem to

disappear in March. I have frequently visited the Nicobars in the

second half of September and have found the Koel there well

established as far as noise and bustle go. Is the line of migration

through the Nicobars to the Andamans and if so is our race

malayana? A comparison of female skins would settle the point.

I have in much wandering only seen one male Koel after April.

Perhaps it was a young bird without the migratory feeling.

Every South-West monsoon there are a few Curlew, Whimbrel and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

Eastern Golden Plover left behind and ornithologists in [England

have told me that this is common with immature birds.

There are also a few snipe to be flushed, very tame, in

May and June and possibly these are the birds one shoots in early

September. My shooting book shows that a few snipe are to be

had in young rice during the middle of September and that there

is often a period from about September 2oth to October 20th when

one may walk the most likely ground in vain. Then a favourable

moon or some other weather factor brings the birds in thick. On

the other hand in two seasons they have come in well about Septem-

ber 20th. Once arrived do they stay in Port Blair or move on

elsewhere and make way for others? Generally the snipe grounds

are pretty dry by December 15th and snipe hard to find. In 1926,

NOwever., Zon inches ol tain tell between the 21st and 25th of

December and the paddy stubbles in the east of the Settlement

again filled with snipe and three weeks splendid shooting followed.

Where did all these birds come from? Not from the western area

which is later than the eastern but which could hardly have sup-

plied so many snipe. Were they migrating birds passing over?

This seems the more probable solution. What factors govern a

good and a bad year for snipe? 1928-29 was good in Port Blair.

On November t1gth, 1928 another gun and myself got 504 couple

which is a local record. On the same day a year later, I walked

the same ground, much of which was in prime condition, saw three

snipenanc ikilled-one? Itas: to "be remarked that; in 1929-30. there

arrived in Port Blair an immense number of Pale Harriers (Circus

macrourus B. & O.). Every patch of rice had one of these birds

over it. They also arrived in Stewart Sound. 90 miles North of

Port Blair, some time in November and sat about on fences and

trees in great numbers, apparently exhausted. Did they frighten

away the snipe? The snipe season of 1930-31 was fair and there

were: no Pale Harriers about. But even in 1930-31 there-was a

complete absence of snipe in some places where in the past they

have been very plentiful. Just at Christmas time, 1930, there were

some 4 or 5 days of heavy rain and I looked forward to repeating

the happy shoots achieved in fanuary 1927 but the reconditioning

of the ground was quite without effect and I walked over miles of

attractive looking paddy swamp and hill side in January 1931 to

find them completely devoid of birds.

Om the might of the 24th of December after: some days ‘of

high winds from the South-East a Petrel took refuge in the Settle-

ment Mess from where I took it home quite unhurt sitting on my

open palm: 1 left if for the night. in a chart cupboard where, it

immediately got inside a rolled-up chart. Next morning when put

on the table it at once took cover in a narrow crack left by me

for the purpose in a pile of books, thus behaving as described on

page 301, Birds, Volume vi, (new edition) Fauna of British India,

The bird corresponded with the Dusky-vented Petrel, Fregetta

tropica melanogastra, in measurements and colouration except that

it had no white markings whatsoever, barring the extreme bases

of certain feathers being white. I took the bird out on my hand

after breakfast and as we encountered the South-East wind still

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

blowing freshly it began to collect itself for flight and suddenly

was gone, flying in a zigzag course into the teeth of the wind at

great speed. While on a flat surface such as the table or when

in my open hand it was strangely fearless, just gently mouthing at

my finger if placed near its beak. A very interesting visitor.

PorT BL air, M. L. FERRAR, Lieut.-Colonel,

ANDAMANS. Chief Commissioner,

Andaman & Nicobar Islands.

XI.—THE INDIAN GREAT REED-WARBLER.

[ACROCEPHALUS STENTOREUS BRUNNESC HINS

(JERDON) ].

The recent discovery of the Great Reed-Warbler in the Man-

groves of Rewas across the harbour from Bombay has led to a

request from the Society that I should examine and report on the

specimens of this species in their collection.

The Rewas specimen was collected by Mr. Salim Ali on the

2nd April, 1930, and he noted that the birds were noisy and

numerous in the mangroves while the testes of the male were

sufhciently large to suggest that the birds were at their breeding

station. The question immediately arose therefore whether the

birds belonged to the race brunnescens which breeds in Iwashmir

and westward to Transcaspia or to the race amye to which in the

Fauna vol. sil, p. 390, the breeding colonies of the plains of India

are attributed.

I have taken this opportunity therefore to go into the whole

question of the status of these two races in India.

Three of these Great Reed-Warblers have been described from

within our limits :—

Agrobates brunnescens -Jerdon, Madr) Jour. st. Sct. ovo rps

p. 269 (1839—Trichinopoly).

Calymodyta meridionalis- Legge, So. “voll vill, 9p: 360,.4(1375—

Ceylon).

Acrocephalus stentoreus amyce Stuart Baker, Bull., B.O.C. xlin,

p. 17 (1922—Hessemara, Assam).

The first name of course applies to the bird which has been so

well known ever since Jerdon described it nearly a century ago and

which ornithologists in India for many years considered could only

be a winter visitor to India though it was known to breed in

Kashmir.

The other two names owe their existence to this belief in brun-

nescens as a winter visitor. Legge discovered that a Great Reed-

Warbler bred and was resident in Ceylon and jumping to the con-

clusion that it could not therefore be the same bird as the winter

visitor separated and named it on differences which Hume immedi-

ately shewed to be non-existent.' ;

* Wait (Birds of: Ceylon) is inclined to believe that the breeding form of

Ceylon should be called [email protected] But if the Assam and the Ceylon birds were

the same and were separable from brunnescens both would be called meridionalis

by the rule of priority.

MISCELLANEOUS. NOTES 451

Then when several zoologists discovered that a Great Reed-

Warbler bred in the Gangetic plain history repeated itself and

amyc@ was separated and named on distinctions, which I shall show,

no more hold good than those of meridionalis.

Turning to the original description we find that amye is there

described:—‘‘A small dark form ot Reed-Warbler, similar to

A. s. brunnescens, but decidedly smaller and darker. In this race

of A. stentoreus the under surface is darker and more richly coloured

than A. s. brunnescens, and so marked is this that breeding birds

of the new race in breeding plumage are darker even than winter

specimens of that bird.’”’

Disregarding the point that the worn breeding plumage of a

Great Reed-Warbler is usually darker in tone than fresh winter

specimens—had the fact been the other way round it would have

been of importance—there is one serious objection that this race has

bechw named. OW +a. single specimen: Phe type cited 1s: ¢ no.

12-4-05. Stevens, Coll. no. 2650 and it is now in the British

Miusecum-en <kiis bind. 1s <reterred™ to ins /29B. NV dd. SS. xxill, 247

as follows:—‘‘Secured in heavy reed jungle at evening, single

record only.’’ At the time there was no reason to believe it a

breeding bird at all. Later on however, when Mr. Stevens was,

ol Cesan St jar doa latino go XK MIX LONG), Examining” his, s\ssam

collection afresh it became evident that the eggs of Reed-Warblers

obtained on the ‘“‘Churs’’ of the Subansiri river belonged to two

forms, a large and a small. As skins of two species, a large and

a small, had been obtained (though only one of the latter had been

actually shot upon eggs) it was assumed that the eggs belonged

to the two species in question. As brunnescens is found as a

migrant well into May it is obvious that there is not any necessary

connection between this April bird (of which the organs are not

recorded as in breeding condition) and eggs found in the local

reed beds.

This single bird I cannot separate in any way from brunnescens.

In colour, I can exactly match it with a Kashmir breeding bird,

whilst in size I can match it with many specimens of brunnescens.

In the description, its wing is given as 81°5 mm. Mr. Stevens

himselt (loc. cit.) credited it ih a wing of 83 mm. _ I personally

measured it as 83'5 and that was independently verified for me

by Mr. Kinnear in ignorance of my result.

A. s. amye must therefore be considered as a synonym of

Al. So .brumnescens.

In the course of my enquiry I took the opportunity to collate

the records of A. s. brunnescens for our area and to go carefully

through all available specimens. It may be of interest to put the

results on record.

The first point that has emerged is that the Great Reed-Warbler

is far more widely spread as a breeding bird than the Fauna

recognises. Brunnescens is said (fauna, 11. 389-390) to breed in

Kashmir and Garhwal whilst Bahraich, Gonda and Assam are

given for amye.

I find however, the following records, working from west to east

within our limits. In British Baluchistan, it breeds at the Kushdil

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

Khan Lake, on the Lora River and near Quetta Ge Bs, DEES Ss

Xxx1, 696), in Sind on the E. Narra (Ibis, 1922, 548), in the N.-W.

F. Province near Dundar in the Kurram (Ibis, 1909, 119) and

possibly in the Kaghan Valley (J. B. N. H. S., xxiii, 104). In the

Vale of Kashmir it of course breeds in immense numbers. In

Gurdaspur district there is a huge breeding colony on the Kershopin

jheel (f. B. N. H. S., xxiv, 602:) The authority for the statement

that it breeds in Gharwal I have not found.

From here there is a gap in the records, but specimens in the

British Museum from Delhi (Bingham, rst August), Moradabad

(June, Hume Coll.), and Theenguik (13th September, Brooks) all

in worn breeding plumage, and Loyah Bridge (18th October, Hume

Coll.) completing an entire moult all suggest local, breeding colo-

nies. Be that as it may colonies are recorded from Bahraich

(j:..B.. Ni ael. Sv, oxxvills 755) and -Gorakpuri(/ BN BS. ois esis

The evidence for the supposed colony on the Sabansiri River,

N. Lakhimpur, has already been discussed. There is then a definite

gap until we reach the Southern Shan States where eggs have been

procured at Taungwhe (Wickham, J. B. N. H. S., xxxiii, 824) and

Inle Lake, Yaungwhe (Livesey).

Southwards there is no definite record until Ceylon is reached

but Davidson (S. F. x, 307) thought that there was probably a

breeding colony on the Tapti below Prakasha in W. Khandesh

and Mr. Salim Ali’s bird is very suggestive. Its organs on the

and April were far larger than those of migrants I have collected in

May in the Punjab. That mangrove swamps suit the bird for

breeding is known on the Mekran Coast and they probably nest

in the mangroves of Karachi also.

It is unfortunate that the egg collectors who recorded the above

nesting colonies did not trouble to collect a series of skins to

verify their discoveries. Field preserved two birds at Gonda

which are now in my collection. His nests were taken in May and

June and again in July and August. So the male shot in August

is doubtless a breeding bird. It has a wing of 79 but is terribly

worn. The other bird (¢ wing 84°5) was shot in March so does

hot necessarily but probably represents the breeding colony. An

unsexed bird shot by him, also in March, in Bahraich has a wing

of 84 mm.

Legge’s two males from Ceylon (S. F. 1, 488) on the other hand

have each a wing of 86 mm., the Delhi, Moradabad and Theenguik

birds mentioned above have wings of 93, 90, and 87 mm. (9, dd).

The moulting wing of the Loyah bird does not admit of measure-

ment.

Six males collected by me from the Kashmit colony measure

88-92 mm. I can see no difference in colour, except such as 1s

due to abrasion, between Kashmir and plains birds, whilst the

measurements quoted do not permit of any separation between the

Kashmir and the Indian birds on size. A large series of measure-

ments taken from non-breeding birds in India, on migration or

in winter gives a variation in wing length from 79 to 93 for both

sexes.

It is evident that we have no reason at present to separate the

}

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453

plains’ bird from the Himalayan. I am not prepared to accept as

a reason the small measurements of a small series of eggs, or the

statement that the nests looked small, more especially bearing in

mind my warning (Ibis 1928, 451), that Acrocephalus agricola will

probably prove to be a breeding bird of the Indo-Gangetic Plain.

It is not impossible, however, that the Great Reed-Warblers

which breed in the Southern Shan States may prove to be separable.

There are three specimens available in the British Museum:—

3 24-4-25 Taunggyi, ¢ 10-3-29, Q 22-3-29 Yaungwhe with wings

respectively 81°5, 84, and 835. The Taungyi bird would pass in

colour as ‘a Kashmir specimen. The other two are very close,

but are perhaps darker, a more saturated colour above and a greyer,

less fulvous-brown below. Should further breeding specimens con-

firm this difference separation will be possible.

It is difficult to define the status of the Indian Great Reed-

Warbler very accurately. Like all jheel birds its movements are

affected by the quantity of rain in any given year and by the

burning and the cutting of the reed beds. Few observers have

taken the trouble to record its status in their particular locality.

It is at any rate established that whilst in parts of India the

bird is a resident or a local migrant there is a great influx of winter

visitors from Kashmir and the extralimital breeding range away to

‘Transcaspia.

These birds can only be recognized from the records when they

pour through the North-west on spring and autumn passage.

Thus:—Kohat, ‘common on migration from the end of March till

well into June and again in August and in September’ (Whitehead,

Ibis, 1909, t19). Baluchistan, ‘It is most noticeable on passage at

the end of August and September and is apparently absent until

Aprils (licehurst, j. B. oN. H> S.5 xxxi, 696). Karachi, Sind, “pas-

sage migrants may be seen from the first week in September on-

wards ... they pass through again from mid-April, and the latest 1

have seen them is the 2nd May’ (Ticehurst, [bis, 1922, 549). These

records could be further substantiated by a nuumber of others, but

it is unnecessary to labour the point, beyond remarking that on

passage the Great Reed-Warbler is found anywhere, 1n crops, trees

and hedgerows and gardens and is then not confined to the reed

beds.

The breeding season in Kashmir, Baluchistan and India is from

May to August.

CALBEC HOUSE, HUGH WHISTLER.

BATTLE, ENGLAND.

May 1931.

[Mr. Salim Ali sends us the Pailowine extracts from his diary

and states he is almost certain that the birds breed in the tidal

mangrove swamp that flanks the neighbourhood of Rewas Pier and

extends along the Dharamtar Creek. He made several attempts

last year to procure nests and eggs from this locality, but owing to

the nature of the terrain and density of the growth was unsuccess-

454 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

ful. Even offers of bakhsheesh were unable to tempt the local

fisherfolk to search for them.

April rt, 1926: Numbers present in the mangroves about

the pier, calling in loud harsh notes from

the-"tops ‘ol “the; bushes:

May 15, 1926: ‘Still present in the: mangroves. setts vorce

appears out of all proportion to its size.

It is a great ventriloquist. I should not

be surprised if a breeding race is found

in this part of India.

April 2, 1930: Shot specimen while warbling from top of

mangrove bush. Male*. Testes greatly

enlarged: -W> 84," Bill 16) lar 2Sonam

Numerous in mangroves and noisy.

May 31, 1930: still present; plentiful and! noisy

June 26, 1930: Still present; Males clamberine, up to ex-

posed branches and warbling.

July 8, “1930: Seen) and heard, “aime sure atemusi epreed

in the mangroves.

Aug. 2, 1930: Still present. Warbling vociferously.

Aug. Bi 19302 a Re

Sept. 7, 1930: > 5s

Sept. 28, “TO30': i, a

Oct 47 Ss 1920;

Decema 20" -s1980. i a x4

March -'26,° 1931: Present in the mangroves. . VWarbline:

May TO; SEOR TL:

May 29°)" TORI

) dy)’

) }o)

In addition to the above, Mr. Ali also observed the birds among

the mangroves ‘at Mahul (Trombay Island) on the 6th May 1931,

and remarks that the males were exhibiting the same excited and

noisy. behaviour. Eps. }.

XII.—COMMENT ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE

GREY “HYPOCOLIUS (HYPOCGOLIUS AM PETINGS)

IN INDIA.

In the last number of the Journal (Vol. xxxiv, 1061), Mr. Salim

\. Ali records the shooting of Hypocolius ampelinus and states that

its occurrence in India seems to have been recorded only once

before. Presumably he refers to the bird obtained by Blanford

(Barnes’ Birds of Bombay, p. 149).

In the cold weather of 1900- 1901 I shot a specimen on Ne Gadaf

Plain near Karachi and sent it to the Karachi: Museum where it

was skinned.

Further I sent a notice of this to the Bombay Natural History

Society’s Journal but as the notice was not printed apparently the

matter did not seem worthy of record.

* This is the specimen referred to by Mr. Whistler in his note

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 455 |

As to Mr. Ali’s letter about the casualties among the young of

small birds perhaps pp. 164 and 165, Grey’s Charm of Birds might

interest him. There is put forward the view that the visits of a

man to a nest help to show the nest to the robbers.

21, NORTHMOOR Roap, Pel OY ei

OxFORD.

Api 5, Shoat.

[On page 544 of his paper on the Birds of Sind (Ibis, July 1922)

Die Cy, Be Aicehurst omits mention, of the specimen procured «by

Mr. Hide. Evidently the skin no longer existed in the Karachi

Museum when Dr. Ticehurst examined its ornithological collec-

tions. It is unfortunate that the occurrence of this rare bird within

our limits should have escaped record in the Journal. Eps. |.

SE MAGPIE KOBIN (COPS YCHUS SAULARIS,

EINNS iN NORTE GUJARAT,

On page 84 of his Popular Handbook of Indian Birds Mr. Hugh

Whistler writes: ‘‘Although said to be only a winter visitor to

Mount pw and Northern Guzerat, . . .. 2 etc.”*;,.1 do not know

who started this idea but it has absolutely no truth in it as the

Magpie Robin is found in this district all the year round as will

appear from the under-noted observations which I quote from my

diary. The mistake seems to have been made by some official

who in the hot season had failed to observe the presence of the

bird because he himself retired to a hill station or because the

bird left his usual haunts in the breeding season to build its nest

in some secluded place. Otherwise it is impussible to ignore the

Magpie Robin in summer as they are met with in all sorts of

places and are found singing at all hours in the day.

My observations will show the occurrence of the bird in various

places in and around the city of Ahmedabad in North Gujarat.

UC ee Bla NO 20: Saw ao flying in and out of a lime tree

in Shahi Bag.

Sept fev odkogor In a neem tree near Grand Hotel, a single 3.

Oct. 2.81980: In a bamboo clump near Gujarat College, a ¢

Nove 6,. 21930: ‘A couple under a bush on way to Ashlali,

five miles South of Ahmedabad.

| ND seen a6 Found a Q living in a bamboo clump in

a private garden outside Delhi Gate. For

about two months, I saw this bird daily

at about 8-30 a.m. basking in the morning

Sutil. petenca On. sa “branch: It dis-

appeared in the last week of February.

It was also observed in the afternoon

at intervals. I never heard her utter a note.

iiheyewercy, causnt mear the Sabarmati

Station (B.B. & C.I. Ry.). Ultimately

I had to free them as they did not thrive

in captivity.

456. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY “Vala XXX

March 15,519 Got another pair (this time a Q anda @).

They were freed after a week’s trial.

alley near my house in the heart of the

city.

May 2-28, 1931: A pain built) their nest | neat, tye whose:

I saw them every day—sometimes to-

gether, at other times singly—feeding on

the ground in the company of Indian

Robins (whom the magpie od _ chases

away at times), mynahs, house sparrows

or warblers. Every morning, taking its

perch at the highest “pomt oer a house

nearby, the male sends forth its beautiful

music, whose liquid notes float softly in

the -cool* mornings ain.) Tinic? vise. their

breeding time and they do not seem

to tire of their singing which conti-

nues throughout the day. At the time

of writing this note, the ¢ is singing

lustily on the roof of a house in front

of my window. They have appar-

ently laid their clutch in some hole in

this locality though I have not been able

to locate it. 2 the- birds’ are “very shy,

though the ¢ seems to be the bolder of

the two. The Q is generally accompani-

ed by the ¢g who shifts his perch every

few minutes.

May. 16;) 1931: Sawa 6 singing: from his, perch ony tic

telephone wires in front of the Municipal

building. No amount of din created by

the hooting and purring of passing motor

cars could interfere with his song which

was poured out without a break.

May. 23260; 1031), Heard a ¢ singing on the outskirts of

Asarva, a suburb.

May, 27,5. S19g1: Saw a do in a tree in the compound of the

Mahalaxmi Training College for Females.

I have found that the song of the Magpie Robin has two distinct

groups of notes. Generally it has 9 to 10 notes: 24+4+3 or 4.

But the bird in front of the Municipal offices had quite different

notes: tirtu—tirtu—tirtutu (which I confess is a poor attempt at

imitation). The difference was clear and unmistakable, as I had

waited for about five minutes under the bird and the song was

distinctly heard. At times I have found the ¢ (watching from

a roof the Q feeding on the ground) utter some soft whistling

notes which are very pleasing though indistinct.

AMMEDABAD, HARI NARAYAN ACHARYA.

(NoRTH GUJARAT.).

May 28, 1931.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 457

NIV. DHE MIiGRARION OF THE ROSY PASTOR

| (PASTOR ROSEUS: 1.).

Through the kindness of Dr. J. Schenk of the Royal Hungarian

Institute of Ornithology, Budapest, I have obtained a most inter-

esting record of the recovery in India of a specimen of the Rosy

Pastor which was marked as a nestling in Hungary. The parti-

culars of this bird are as follows:

Date of Ringing: ‘30 June, 1925.

No. of Ring: 27381 (of the Royal Hungarian Inst. of Ornith.).

ocaiiyae Villager Nova, INe-beomblungeary, 47° 55’ N. Lat. ox

20° 920 wee Lone:

Date of Recovery: 28 April, 1926.

Place;ojeiecouvery: “lahore (Punjab)*31° 35’ N. Lat... x 74° 20!

2. Lone?

The recovery was reported by Mr. M. J. Sheikh, proprietor of

‘Karachi Motor Works’’, Lahore, who kept the bird alive for a

fortnight before it died of its wounds. Mr. Sheikh further informs

me that the ringed bird was amongst a lot of twenty that fell to

a single shot of his, at a place about four miles cut of Lahore City.

According to him the birds are plentiful in this locality between

toth April and 15th May, during which time they feed largely on

‘‘Badana’’ (?) berries and grow very fat, and are eagerly sought

after as food. The direct air distance between the places of mark-

ing and recovery in this case is 3000 miles.

From an excellent paper on the Rosy Pastor in Uzbekistan

(Turkestan) recently published in the Journal ftir Ornithologie’ we

learn that the author ringed 1,oo0 nestlings in 1929 and another

2000) i togo. In that locality. The 1929 rings are 1- centimeter

broad and all fastened on the right legs of the birds. They bear

the inscription “‘UZ’’ in addition to the serial number. The 1930

rings belong to the Moskow Biological Station, numbers r12o01-

13200, and besides the serial number and the cipher F (denoting

the series) they are inscribed ‘‘Moskwa-Bjun’’. It is very probable

that some of these marked birds may be recovered in India, in

which case it is requested that the person finding it, or whoever

comes to hear of it, should send the information with particulars

as regards number and inscription on ring, date, locality ete.

to the Bombay Natural History Society who will communicate with

the ringers concerned. If possible, the leg of the bird with the

ring attached should also be kindly forwarded.

KIHIM, SALIM A. ALI.

‘ KoLaBa DISTRICT.

Maven 57; 1031.

' Serebrennikov, M. K., ‘Der Rosenstar (Pastor roseus L.), seine Lebensweise

und d6konomische Bedeutung in Uzbekistan’ Turkestan), Jour. fiir Ornithologie,

IkXixjo 0, pp. 20-56, Jan. 1937.

458 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

XV.—OCCURRENCE OF THE SIND RED-WINGED

BUSH-LARK (MIRAFPRA ERYTHROPTERA SINDIANUS)

IN THE RAWALPINDI DISTRICD OFA NES PUINTaIB:

On the 16th October last I shot a juvenile Red-winged Bush-Lark

(M. erythroptera sindianus) in the scrub-covered foot-hills at Kallar,

some 20 miles from Rawalpindi, and in the following February

obtained a pair of adults in the same locality. The specimens

have been identified by Mr. H. Whistler, who informs me that this

is an extension of the range of the bid which is worthy of record.

RAWALPINDI, me Wo Wei

PUNJAB. Indian Police.

April son Tog Tr.

AVI.— ELEVEN: KOEL, EGGS IN A CROW Sans:

On oth June I came upon a Common Crow’s nest (Corvus splen-

dens) at Bhandup (Salsette) containing eleven Koel (Eudynamis

scolopaceus) eggs belonging to two distinct types and apparently

the product of two females. There were four eggs of one type

and seven of the other. I removed one egg of each type which were

kindly confirmed by the Society as having been laid probably by

different females. The nest contained no crow eggs, but bore

obvious signs of having recently had an egg broken in it. As

far as could be ascertained the locality certainly appeared to hold

more koels than crows, a circumstance which may account for the

concentration on this nest.

On the 17th L visited the place again to tind =the nest emptya!

There was another nest within 50 yards—not previously noticed—

in which a crow was sitting.

ANDHERI, HUMAYUN ABDULALI.

SALSETTE.

JUNE TZ; eVOgt.

XVIIL.—THE OCCURRENCE OF PIED CRESTED

CUCKOO (CLAMATOR JACOBINUS, BODDAERT) =

INSNORGEH GOUSARAT:

Mr. Hugh Whistler in a recent number of the Society’s Journal

writes: The Pied Crested Cuckoo is a rainy season visitor and is

spotted in Gujarat as under:

Deesa: Plenty in July.

pee tae Vlay2 25 to-<Octoberaze:

Anandra (Near Abu): July 5.

Rajkot (Kathiawar): June 5.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 459

In this connexion the following observations made by me last

year around Ahmedabad will be found interesting :—

imlew: Ore 13 On: Saw a pair on a Peepal tree near Ashlali,

six miles south of Ahmedabad.

INGV Oy 1680085 4 sinele bird ima Neem tree im the -same

locality. 5

Oty is 1O80: A young bird was observed in Bhavnagar

(Kathiawar).

Between June and November, I came across the birds occasion-

ally. They do not seem to visit this district in large numbers as

the maximum I saw at any time was three.

AHMEDABAD, | HARI NARAYAN ACHARYA.

(NoRTH GUJARAT).

WG 2 2. SO.

XVIIL—THE MIGRATION OF THE WHITE STORK

(CICONIA CICONIA).

On the 2nd, December, 1930,.the les ofa stork was found in a

dried up condition at the edge of a small lake in Bikanir, Rajpu-

tana and forwarded to us by Capt. Maraj Kumar Shri Sadul Singhi

Bahadur. The leg had a numbered ring put on through the agency

of the Ornithological Station, Heligoland. The recovery was

reported to Dr. R. Drost, the Director, who in reply informed us

that the bird in question, a young White Stork, was ringed on the

rith June, 1930, near Braunschweig, Germany (ca 52°16 N. Lat.,

10730. B.. Long).

BomBAy NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, Ss. Hi. PRATER.

Ula S TO Gis, Curator.

XIX.—OCCURRENCE OF THE FALCATED TEAL

(BONE ETA PALCATAY IN@HE [HELUM DISTRICT.

It may be of interest to your members to know that I shot a

drake. of the Falcated Teal (Eunetta falcata) at Chomud

near Chimainsala Battlefield, about forty miles from Jhelum in

February last year. Captain Johnson of my regiment can vouch for

the occurrence. The bird was in full plumage with the sickle-shaped

secondaries fully developed. I intended at the time to forward the

bird to you, but was unfortunately shooting for several days and

on my return found that the Mess ‘khansamah’ had got hold of

and plucked the bird in error. However, there could be no possible

mistake over the identification, the specimen I shot was marked in

every detail in accordance with Stuart Baker’s illustration and

though I had never seen the bird before, I was able to recognize

it off-hand on the spot before I returned and turned up the book,...

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

I was so disappointed over the loss of the skin that I did not report

the fact at the time and allowed it to elapse until Mr. Hopkinson

recently persuaded me to do so.

If you are interested enough and would like further data,

Mr. Wilson, R.E., of Roorki whom I met coming out to India

this year, told me, in a chance shikar talk, that he had also shot

and identified the bird on one occasion near Roorki last year.

JHELUM. NU Oe a De

March 2a tioar, Captain,

Ist Bn. rst Punjab Regiment.

XX. —THE WHIEE-KRONTED GOOSE (At 725 iO Nis)

IN VEAIN T PUR

In addition to the Eastern Grey Duck reported to you in another

letter, the following locally scarce birds have been shot this year :—

White-fronted Goose (Anser albifrons)—One shot on January 18,

1931, by Colonel M. Goodall: this is the fourth specimen recorded

in the Manipur Club Game-book, which has been kept since 1g1o.

Eastern Solitary Snipe (Gallinago solitaria)—One shot by me on

February 7, 1931: this is the third specimen recorded since 1910.

THE RESIDENCY, 1..C, HIGGINS:

IMPHAL, MANIPUR STATE. Crs:

XXI/—ON THE DISTRIBUTION OF THE EASTERINGG EN,

DUCK (ANAS ZONORYNCHA).

I was surprised to read, in Mr. Inglis’ letter in Vol. xxxiv, 3 of

the Journal, the statement that a drake of the Eastern Grey Duck

(Anas zonorhyncha), shot in Darbhanga in March, 1929, was the

first Indian record of this species excluding two specimens shot in

Burma. Mr. E. C. Stuart Baker, in Indian Ducks and their Alhes,

says :—

‘In 1902, Messrs. Moore and Mundy got several specimens in

Dibrugarh, and each succeeding year up to 1go5 got others. I

obtained my first specimens in 1903, and got a good many more

in 1904 and 1905.’

On the 28th December, 1908, Messrs. Botham, McKercher,

Burke, Hay and I obtained 3 on a small bhil in the Sibsagar district.

What has always surprised me in view of these comparatively

plentiful records from the Assam Valley, is the fact that this

species has never been recorded from the Manipur Valley, until

baa sd

Pe eh earl eh ae HN

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 461

recently, although the Spotbill (Anas pcecilorhyncha) is resident

there, and is far commoner than in the Assam Valley. Between

Igto and 1931, the Manipur Club game-book records 3437 paci-

loryncha. I have been present when 2265 of these were shot, and

have personally examined the majority of these, as I have always

been on the lookout for sonorhyncha. But I have only seen 2

zonorhyncha—one shot by Colonel Goodall on February 6th, 1930,

and one by me on January 18th, 1931.

The Eastern White-eye (Nyroca baeri) to which Mr. Inglis also

refers in his letter, is a fairly regular visitor here. It was first

recorded in the Club game-book in 1912-13, since when 48 have

been shot.

THE RESIDENCY, de Crgt LIiGGN:S,

IMpHAL, MANIPUR STATE. | 5G. Se

March 13; 1031:

XXII.—NOTES ON THE MIGRATION OF BIRDS IN

THE NORTH-WEST - PRONTIER PROVINCE, ~

The following notes on the migration of birds may be of interest

to you :—

Kohat :

Demoiselle Crane. Anthropoides virgo. 27th August, 1928,

27th AUSUSt, 1920, 25th AusSUst, 1Q30.

(Noted coming into India from the North-west.)

An Officer in the Mess asserted that he always hears the first

Kullam on his birthday—27th August.

Rosy..Pastor., Pastor *roseus i. ie PU eis. TOZC.

The Raven. Corvus corax Be Pee NUCWS. «1, eG 20)

wleal’ cm 6 = LOCPLCMbDEL \7peelQQ0.

In 1930 the exit of migrants from India was much delayed—

Snipe and Teal were still to be found in the Kohat District as

late as ist. May. It was an exceptional year so much so that

flowers normally coming out in September bloomed in April and the

Chrysanthemums came into bud and flowered here then, their normal

season being November to December.

ICLOHAT, G. de la P. BERESFORD,

INGA Ve ee Et.=Cotonel. MG:

7-12-1930.

462 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

~XXIH.—CONGENITAL ABSENCE OF A .FORE-LIMB

IN A BULL FROG (RANAVIIGIRENA:

(Hith two photos.)

During the monsoon of 1930 a collection of frogs and toads from

Thana was made by the Pharmacological Department of the G. S.

Medical College, Bombay. One of the specimens showed the

absence of a left fore-limb. Later on the specimen was transferred

to the Embryology Department of the same College.

Fic. A. Rana tigrina lateral view.

fay

The sitting posture of the animal was very queer. (Fig. A.).

The surface where there was the absence of the arm presented

no mark of any kind, and the skin, colour, and the contour of

that region was just like that of the surroundings (Figs. A. and B.).

Fig. A. shows the dorsal view of the specimen and Fig. B. the

left lateral view of the same.

The absence of the limb does not seem to have affected in any

way the normal development of the frog, and obviously it could

get its food without much difficulty.

On dissection, the following peculiarities were noticed. The

pectoral girdle of the right side was fully developed while the

supra-scapula alone represented the pectoral girdle of the left side;

the scapula, the coracoid, and the clavicle being completely absent.

Instead the pectoral muscles were greatly developed and they

took their origin from epicoracoid region and were inserted into

the inner concavity of the supra-scapula.

WISCELLANEOUS NOTES 463

In the arterial system, the subclavian or branchial artery was

found to be absent.

{

Fic. B.: Rana tigrina dorsal view.

The subscapular from the back of the arm and the branchial from

the arm of the left side were absent.

All the nerves which in ordinary condition used to arise from the

brachial plexus were found to be in a rudimentary condition on the

left side while, on the right side, all the nerves were found to be

normally developed.

DEPARTMENT OF EMBRYOLOGY, Go Me-KURULK AR

GOCULDAS SOONDERDAS COLLEGE, D. S. DESHPANDE.

BOMBAY.

XXIV —-FHE COLOURATION OF THE TAIL OF THE

COMMON SISINK (EE VGOSOMA. PUNCTATUM.)

(IVith a photograph.)

A friend of mine recently asked me why the tail of the

common skink of these parts (Lygosoma punctatum) is red, while

the rest of the body is brown or olive above. The cause, of such

peculiar coloration, though not mentioned so far, is not hard to

seek. The tail of the skink, like that of the house-lizard (Hemu-

464. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST SOCIHIVAVO]. KOO

dactylus flavivirides), is fragile and serves as a device for defence.

When the creature is attacked, the tail breaks away from the body

and begins to perform a series of convulsive movements, jumping

and twisting as if in great pain and thereby diverting the enemy’s

attention from the escaping tail-less trickster. The red color makes

the tail prominent and increases its efficiency.

The Sand Boa (Eryx johnit).

(Note the head-like tail).

Nor is it only in the skinks and the house-lizards that the tail

has taken on itself the task of deceiving the attacker. Amongst

others, the case of the common Sand Boa of Agra (Eryx johnit)

might be mentioned. Here the stumpy, bluntly-rounded tail looks

so much like the head that the snake has been given the name

‘Dumuhv’ (the ‘two-headed’ in Hindustani). The snake-charmers

of India have spread a great many lies on this point, and there

are people who believe that this Sand Boa, after using one end of

its body as the head for six months, gives that honor to the other

end and drags the former head bebind it as the tail Really “the

tail of the sand snake is a ‘tricky device for (defence!) Wien

attacked, the sand snake tries at first to escape, but if it finds such

efforts futile, it coils itself tightly, keeping the head below the

coils, and making the tail jut out at some prominent point (see

photograph). The tail by its appearance diverts attention from

the actual head.

ST. JOHN’s COLLEGE, BENI CHARAN MAHENDRA,

AGRA. Lecturer in Zoology.

March 30; 192i

MISCEELANEOUS NOTES... 465

[The red colouring of the end of the tail may in some skinks

be a condition dependent on age. The young of the common

skink (Mabuia carinata) frequently have the extremities of the tails

coloured red, this disappears with age. The same character is dis-

played by the American Blue-tailed skink. In the young the tail

is bright blue; as the skink grows older the colour fades to grey.

In the skink referred to in the above note the red persists through-

out life. Mr. Mahendra’s interpretation of the red colouring of its

tail as a defensive adaptation provides an interesting contrast to

the theory which explains the red end of the tail of certain Vipers

as a medium of offence. Young examples of the Green Pit Viper

(I. gramineus) and of the Large-scaled Viper (TI. macrolepis),

uniformly green snakes, often have the ends of their tails coloured

red. It is suggested that the dash of brilliant colour attracts small

birds, lizards and frogs. Coiled among vegetation the green

coloured owner of the red-tipped tail is practically invisible.

The tail of the Sand Boa (Eryx johnii) is again believed to be

useful to the reptile in overcoming its prey. In our desert regions,

where this snake is common, it is generally seen half buried in

the sand with its stump-like tail projecting like some _ forlorn

root. A gerbille or field mouse brushes against or inspects the

stump. The snake is galvanised into activity, leaping from the

sand it flings its coils about the rodent and holds it in a vice-like

Sripw LDS. |< |

XXV.—NUMBER OF VENTRAL SCALES IN THE

FASCIOLATED DHAMAN (Z. FASCIOLATUS).

Boulenger in an old edition of Reptilia of India states that

Zamems fasciolatus has 197-225 ventrals, 73-88 subcaudals. He

does not mention the Bombay Presidency as a habitat for the

snakes recorded by him. Wall mentions:—ventrals, 191-232, sub-

caudals, 73-92. The four specimens secured by me, three from

Ahmednagar and one from Vizapur have ;—

(1) Ventrals 228, subcaudals 61. Length of snake 4ft. 8 ins.

A note was published in your journal about this specimen.

(2) Ventrals 232, subcaudals 37. Length of snake 4 ft. 6 ins.

(3) Ventrals 240, subcaudals 87. Length of snake about 18 ins.

This specimen was sent to me from Vizapur.

(4) Ventrals 232, subcaudals 50. This specimen was sent to you

lately.

So it seems that the range of ventrals will have to be increased

to 240 and of the subcaudals lowered to 37 unless this type is

considered a variety.

AHMEDNAGAR. K. G, GHARBUREY,

26-6-1931. Et=Colonel;, TMs:

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

XXVI.—DETERMINING THE AGE OF INDIAN FISHES

FROM THEIR SCALES.

The methods for determining the age and the rate of growth

of fish by an examination of scales, otoliths etc. have not so

far been attempted in India, neither have the scales of Indian fish

ever been subjected to a critical examination. As the result of

an extended observation of fish scales from different parts of India,

I have come to the conclusion that the scales from Indian fish no

doubt present very great difficulties inasmuch as the rings on these

are not well marked. This feature introduces peculiar difficulties

which greatly handicap their elucidation. I have, however, come

across some scales on which by the graphical method evolved by

Winge, one could pick out what would appear to be distinct |

growth rings but one should hesitate a good deal before accepting

them as age rings.

In India as elsewhere each species of fish must be investigated

by the methods which one can best apply to it. What holds good

in one species is not necessarily applicable to another, and apart

from this even a specialist on scales from:English fish would not

venture to pronounce any definite opinion with regard to the inter-

pretation of Indian scales. Even when one has specialised in

reading the scales of one species of fish, it does not follow that he

is quite qualified for applying the same principles to other species,

as for instance a Salmon scale specialist in England is not the

most competent person to advance an opinion on Trout scales.

To be able to say anything definite, one must examine as many

fish of one species as possible in detail, carry out systematic

measurements of rings to discover their interpretation. I feel we

have ample material for age and growth studies of fish in India.

RoyaAL INSTITUTE OF SCIENCE, 5.2 bso LNG

BomBay. M.Sc. Ph.D.

JUNMectO, “LOST.

XXVII.—NOTES ON THE BEETLE

PLATYPRIA ECHIDNA, GUER.

On the 1oth of May I found a large number of these beetles

congregated under the leaves of Zizyphus rugosa, Lamk. at Khan-

dala. On examination of the leaves, it was discovered that the

beetles were feeding on the epidermis of the upper side. So far as

I am aware this plant is not known to constitute the food of these

insects. Platypria erinaceus, F. is said to have been found on a

species of Zizyphus at Belgaum. Platypria andrewesi, Ws. was

taken on Zizyphus jujuba, at Nagpur and on a species of Zizyphus

at Hajari. It was also obtained on sugar-cane leaves. P. hystrix,

F. was taken on Erythrina indica at Madulsima, Ceylon. Thus we

see that the majority of the genus, so far as is known, have been

taken largely on species of Zizyphus.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 467

When touched these beetles dropped vertically to the ground

(as is the habit of many insects) and tried to hide themselves in

the fallen leaves. Some of them took to flight when they reached

the ground.

On the 29th May I came across many more specimens of the

same species (P. echidna) on the same food plant (Z. rugosa). At

this period I also found a few in copulation.

BomsBay Natura History Society, C. McCANN, F.L-.s.,

6 APOLLO STREET, BomBay. Asst. Curator.

XXVIII.—ON THE FERTILIZATION OF THE FLOWERS

OF THE SAUSAGE TREE (KIGELIA PINNATA, DC.)

BY BALLS.

(With 3 diagrams.)

My observations on the opening time of the flowers of the

‘Sausage Tree (Kigelia pinnata, DC.) soon brought me to the con-

clusion that the flowers are nocturnal. They open in the evening’

usually between 5-30 and sunset and by about 9 a.m. the next

morning, provided the flowers have been fertilized, all the corollas

drop to the ground leaving

only the calyx and style in

position. When fertiliza-

tion has not been effected

the entire flower falls away

from the articulation im-

mediately below the calyx.

The corollas—deep _ blood-

or wine-red within, and

yellowish-green on the out-

side—are large and fleshy

with many wrinkles and

furrows. When open, the

flowers emit a strong and

somewhat unpleasant

odour. The four stamens

are placed in the manner

characteristic of the order

Bignoniacee, to which this’ Fic. 1. Position of flower of Kigelia pinnata.

species belongs. The bases (Half nat. size).

of the filaments are much thickened and are densely papillose within

the throat of the flower; together with the style, these swollen

bases fill up the entrance to the throat. The style is long, tapering

from the base upwards; it is somewhat recurved and exerted beyond

the corolla. The stigma is bifid and appears like two leaf-like

structures at the extremity of the style. At the base of the ovary

are situated several large nectar glands which secrete a copious

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

amount of clear sweetish nectar. This liquid fills up the cavity

between the nectaries and the throat of the flower and trickles out

into the furrows of the lower petal when the flower is bent down-

wards. e

It appears curious that such a deep-red coloured flower should

be adapted for nocturnal fertilization. In passing, it might be

mentioned however, that similarly dark-coloured flowers also noc-

turnal in habit has_ been

cbserved by me in the case

of Oroxylum indicum, Vent.

a common species on the

island of Salsette, and be-

longing to the same natural

order. In this case also I

find that the flowers only

open in the evening and are

“ama. ~~ shed by the next morning,

GAN making it next to impos-

Weelavces sible to obtain a_photo-

graph of the tree in flower

without the aid of a flash-

light. On the other hand,

I consider it noteworthy

that Heterophragma Rox-

burgh. DC. and Stereos-

permum xylocarpum,

Wight, also belonging tothe

same order and both fairly common in the same locality (Salsette)

have creamy-white flowers (‘‘night-coloured’’) which open only

during the daylight hours! It was not until I accidentally observed

a bat visiting one of the Kigelia flowers that I was led to investigate

the matter further. Many of the Bignoniace@ are said to be ferti-

lized through the agency of birds, though in the case of a species

like Oroxylum indicum, Vent. this process appears to me hardly

applicable since most birds are already on their way to roost by

the time the flowers open. An examination of the Kigelia flowers

which opened early in the evening showed that the anthers were not

yet ready to disperse their pollen, whereas those examined at dusk

had the anthers perfectly ripe and the pollen ready for despersal.

The slightest jerk to the flower caused the pollen to drop down

directly on to the lower petal. The fact, therefore, of the pollen

only becoming ready for dispersal. at dusk does away with the

possibility of fertilization by birds, at least the diurnal ones.

The nectar is produced in such large quantities that one literally

gets a shower bath when plucking an inflorescence since, as has.

already been mentioned, it trickles freely into the furrows of the

lower petal when the flower is bent down.

There are two avenues planted entirely with Kigelia pinnata trees

not far from where I reside, in Gell Street and Club Back Road

(Agripada). In the flowering season, March-July’ I frequently visit-

Fig. 2. Longitudinal section of the flower

of Kigelia pinnata.

(Half nat. size).

1 I. have seen flowers and buds on: certain trees as late as the end of

August and early September.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 469

ed these roadside trees at different times of the day and night to

study more about the fertilization of their flowers. I noticed that at

dusk the avenues were regularly visited by numbers of the Short-

nosed Fruit Bat (Cynopte-

rus sphinx) and was not a

little surprised to discover

that these animals were

really responsible for the

fertilization of the flowers.

On several occasions I ob-

served the bats visiting the

open flowers, — thrusting

their heads into them and

after hanging there a short Re

while, flying off again.

The bats are no doubt

apprised of the open flowers

by the strong smell they

emit, as they were seen to

circle round and round the

trees before alighting.

When’ the bat alights, the

flower stalk, which ~ is

sharply bent upwards in Fic. 3. Position of bat in. flower.

its upper quarter, is deflex- (Drawn from memory).

ed by the weight of the

animal and at the same time the peduncle of the flower swings,

causing the nectar to ooze out on to the petal from where it is

greedily licked up by the bat. In all probability at the time of the

bat’s impact with the flower the ripe pollen is shed on to the

head of the bat as it is being inserted within, though there is also

another possibility in that the head or ears of the visitor may actually

come in contact with the anthers. There is yet the further possibi-

lity that as the bat throws its head back when taking to flight

(as is its habit) the snout may come in contact with the anthers.

Whatever be the exact manner in which the pollen is transferred

to the fur, I think there is good ground for assuming that the

head or snout of the bat or both, does get covered with pollen.

When the bat’s head is inside the flower the stigmas protrude over

and directly behind it and in a position where the pollen-besmeared

snout or crown must unavoidably brush past them when the animal

takes to wing again, thus effecting pollenization. Assuming. that

the bat has been visiting other flowers previously and that its

head has become covered with the pollen from these, there are two

possible ways in which it may be transferred to the stigmas: (a)

while entering the flower the head may come in contact with the

stigmas, or (b) the impact and weight of the alighting bat which

causes the flower to sway violently up and down may bring the

stigmas into contact with the bat’s head. Both these possibilities

may indeed even operate simultaneously, but there seems to me no

doubt that this bat is in a large measure responsible for the ferti-

lization of the flowers of this tree. I realize that for conclusive

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV

evidence it would be necessary to shoot the visiting bats for exami-

nation, but unfortunately in the piesent case I am unable to do

so. owing to the proximity of dwelling houses and the Police

Regulations.

My thanks are due to my friend Mr. Salim Ali for reading over

this note and drawing my attention to two important papers by

Dr. Otto Porsch of Vienna* who has in recent years made some

most valuable contributions to our knowledge on the subject of

the fertilization of flowers by birds and mammals.

According to Porsch, Hubert Winkler was the first to point out

from the shape and size and other peculiarities of the flowers of a

closely related species, Kigelia africana, Benth. that this may be

of bat-fertilized species although he was unable to record the visits

of bats by direct observation. Porsch’s own observations on

Kk. pinnata, DC., in the Buitenzorg Gardens, Java, convinced him

that the flowers of this tree were fertilized by bats. In regard to

another closely allied species, Kigelia @thiopica, Decne., Porsch

was also struck by the nocturnal habit of the flowers, their

characteristic smell, their unusual colours and the width of the

opening of the corolla. The fallen flowers under the tree showed

the tooth-marks of bats and the fact that the flowers could be

available to birds only for a very short time in the early morning

hours, precluded the possibility of their (birds) being important

pollinating agents.

Heide, who also made observations on K. @thiopica in the Dutch

East Indies, was of opinion that the bat Eonycteris spelaea Dobs.

which was the pollinating agent he observed, was attracted to the

flowers solely by the pollen which it gathered from the anthers by

means of its specially adapted rasp-like tongue. On the tongue

and snout as well as inside the stomach and intestines of a specimen

he shot, were found only pollen without any traces of petals or

other parts of the flowers. He makes no mention whatsoever of

nectar being sought, but as Porsch points out, if pollen was the

bat’s sole quest it is unintelligible why the visitor should thrust

its head so deep down into the flowers, as has also been observed

by me, and he himself is inclined to the belref that nectar is the

bat’s main objective.

L. V. D. Pijil, without being aware of Heide’s work has inde-

pendently corroborated the latter’s observations in regard to the

visits of bats to the flowers of K. ethiopica. This observer also

refers to the nocturnal habit of the flowers and to their characteristic

smell, but according to him likewise the chief object of the bats’

visits is the pollen though he admits that at the same time nectar

may be eaten.

Spennemann has observed that carrion-smelling flowers of Oroxy-

lum indicum (L.) Vent. to be visited and fertilized by bats, and

my note helps to confirm his remark that the flowers open in the

1 Porsch, Otto. ‘Bliitenstande als Vogelblumen’, Osterreichische botanische

Zeitschrift, 1923, Nr. 6-8, pp. 125-149. ‘ ee ae

2 Porsch, Otto. ‘Crescentia—eine Fledermausblume’, Ost. bot. Zeitschrift,

Heft 1, Jahrg. 80, pp. 31-44.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 471

evening and drop off the next morning. Finally Porsch has recently

described from Costa Rica the flowers of Crescentia cujete, L. and

Crescentia alata, H.B.K. (Order Bignoniacee) to be visited by bats,

and by a careful study of their structure and physiological peculiari-

ties he arrives at the conclusion that they are undoubted bat-flowers.

Already in 1922 his investigations in tropical countries had con-

vinced him of the existence of purely bat-fertilized flowers.

This opens up a vast field for observations in India, and I hope

my note will induce other observers to. take up the study of

bat-fertilized flowers.

BomsBay NatTurAL History SOCcIETY, C. McCANN,

6 APOLLO STREET, EiL. Ses

BomBAY. Assistant Curator.

23-7-1931.

XXIX.—OCCURRENCE OF ISOETES IN THE BOMBAY

PRESIDENCY.

Roxburgh in his Flora Indica, Vol. III, page 745, (1832), records

two species of Isoétes from India, viz. I. capsularis, Roxb. and

I. coromandeliana, Linn. But so far as our knowledge goes none

have been reported from the Bombay Presidency. On the 3rd

September I discovered a species of this genus in rocky pools at

Khandala (W. Ghats). This specimen is different from those des-

cribed in the Flora Indica and is in all probability a new species.

In a subsequent issue of the Journal I hope to be able to publish

the full description of the plant. This constitutes the first record

of the Isoétaceae in the Presidency.

BomBay NATURAL History SOcIETY, C. McCANN,

BOMBAY. FLcS.,

September 15, 1931. Assistant Curator.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE MEETING OF THE BOMBAY

NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

A meeting of members of the Bombay Natural History Society

and their friends was held at the Prince of Wales’ Museum on

Wednesday, the 15th July 1931, at 6 p.m. Col. Sir Frank Connor,

D.S.O., I.M.S., presiding.

The Honorary Secretary Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson announced the

election of the following 14 new members since the last meeting

held on zoth March 1931:—

The President, Mess Committee, 1st North Staffordshire Regi-

ment, Nasirabad; Dr. V. R. Khanolkar, B.sc., M.p., Bombay; The

Conservator of Forests, Cochin State, South India; Mr. W. J. L.

Smith, Palaw, Burma; Mrs. A. J. Wadia, Bombay; The Mess

President, 2nd Lancers, Meerut ;.Mr. EF. |. Guthrie-Smiuth, 1c,s:,

Meerut; The Director, Transvaal Museum, Pretoria; Captain D. L.

Duncan, Loralai, Baluchistan. Mire Wack lune, Calemttay mn vine

Framji Dessabhoy Wadia, Poona; Lt. R. F. H. Drake-Brockman,

B.A., Bangalore; Captain G. W. McCarthy, Agra; His Highness

Maharaja Shri Himmat Singhji Saheb Bahadur, Idar State (Life

Member).

Mr. P. M. D. Sanderson referred to the recent publication by

the Society of Captain Bates’ book on Bird Life in India. The

author is well known to readers of the Society’s Journal. His

_ illustrated articles on Indian Birds and their Nests have formed

an attractive feature of its pages. To his ability with the camera

Captain Bates adds the gift of close and patient observation. His

notes and pictures of Indian Bird Life make up a charming and

readable book, which will appeal to all who are familiar or wish

to be familiar with the birds of this country.

The Honorary Secretary announced the forthcoming pabieaten

of a second edition of Brigadier Evans’ Identification of Indian

Butterflies. The first edition, which was issued 3 years ago, sold

out very quickly. Since then there have been frequent enquiries

for the book which, with its hundreds of illustrations of Indian

Butterflies and its simple keys, is an invaluable guide to collectors

and to people interested in this subject. The second edition has

been revised and enlarged should have as ready a demand as the

author’s previous book.

BirD COLLECTING IN THE HIGH ALTITUDES OF SIKKIM.

In the spring of this year the Society co-operated with the

Field Museum of Chicago and the British Museum in a collecting

expedition in Sikkim. Mr. V. S. LaPersonne, Assistant Curator,

was sent to help Mr. Stevens, the leader of the expedition in this

work. Mr. Stevens was compelled to return to England shortly

after LaPersonne joined him and Mr. LaPersonne continued alone.

A base camp was established at 16,000 ft. in Northern Sikkim and

PROCEEDINGS = (8. M38 Oe ES 473

from this point excursions were. made to 19,000 ft. on to. the high-

lands of Tibet. Mr. LaPersonne has brought back a remarkable

collection from this cold, bleak region and from the dense tropical

forests of the lower altitudes of the Eastern Himalayas. Some of

the specimens obtained were on view to members. They included

two species of Marmots, the Tibetan Hare and examples of: such

birds as: Grandalas, Choughs, Snow Pigeons and Accentors which

live in these high altitudes. Among the exhibits were four magni-

ficent wild dogs shot at an altitude of 10,000 ft. where they prey

mainly on sheep and ponies.

A New EXHIBIT AT 1HE MUSEUM.

Mr. S. H. Prater, the Society’s Curator, invited the members

and their friends to a private view of the new group in the

Mammal Gallery of the Museum and which will be shortly

opened to the public. The group is a _ representation of a

pair of tigers drinking at a forest stream. The scene is

laid in the dense rain-swept forests of the Naga Hills in Assam,

where the material and accessories of the group were collected

during an expedition undertaken in conjunction with the American

Museum of Natural History, New York, last year. The back-

ground depicting the dense forest, painted from studies made in

the field by Mr. K. B. Sawardekar, the canopy of feathery bamboos,

the moss covered boulders of the stream, the beautiful lighting

effect provide a magnificent and realistic setting for the tigers.

These were mounted by Mr. C. McCann and represent fine examples

of the high development of modern taxidermy. The group makes

a wonderful addition to the Museum and is one of which the

people of this city may well be proud. |

PERSIAN, AFRICAN.AND INDIAN LIONS IN THE First CENTURY.

Dr. Sir Jivanji Modi then read his interesting paper on Indian,

Persian and African Lions in the First Century. The following is

a brief outline of Sir Jivanji’s notes :—

The subject of the paper is suggested by an interesting paper

on ‘The Lions of Asia’ by Mr. R. I. Pocock, in a recent issue

of the Journal of the Natural History Society. The present paper

was divided into two parts. (1) The Lions from an old Iranian

point of view. (2) Appolonius of Tyana, a Greek ascetic, on the

Lions of Persia, Africa and India.

Lions do not seem to have flourished towards Bacteria (Balkh)

where the Parsi Avesta Scriptures were written, but they flourished

in the Western part of the Iranian Empire where some Pahlavi

literature was written. The Pahlavi books agree with Mr. Pocock

in associating the Lions, Panthers and Tigers in one genus, the

genus of ‘the Great Cats’. The Iranian word for Lion viz. ‘Shir’

seems to come from khshathra ‘King’. A Lion is the King of the

Animal world.

Appolonius of Tyana, a Greet ascetic of the Indian Sadhu type,

who. abstained from animal food, wine and women and who ob-

served total silence occasionally for days together, and believed in

474 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XXXV —

metampsychosis had travelled a good deal in the Iran of Parsi

Mobeds and India of Hindu Brahmins; and in the account of his

travels we find an interesting account of the Lions of Persia,

Africa and India. In etal account we find the cameras parti-

culars :—

(a) The normal enon of ap stalinind iS Six aaa bhe:

(b) Each lioness had only three litters in her life, having 3 cubs

in the first litter, 2 in the second, and 1 in the third:

Appolonius saw. an extraordinary Pare with 8 cubs.

(d) The Iranian Kings had their preserves of lions at Babulon,

where they hunted with beaters.

_(e) The souls of kings e.g. King Amasis of Egypt, metamor-

: phosed into lions who were royal beasts.

(f) In one part of India, the apes helped men in collecting pepper

from mountain cliffs. There men killed lions in great num-

bers because these lions killed the apes who helped them. __

(g) Lionesses in some parts of India mated with tigers and gave

birth to spotted cubs which the lions killed at first sight

taking them to be ‘bastards’.

(h) Indians ate the flesh of lions.

The full text of the Paper will be published in the next issue of

the Journal.

An interesting discussion arose from Sir Jivanji’ s reference to

apes (described as being black in colour) helping men in collecting

pepper from the mountain cliffs. It was suggested by Mr. Prater

that the statement may throw some light on the more southerly

‘range of the lion in India than now recorded. Pepper is confined

to the South-Indian Forests, where also live two species of monkeys,

which are uniformly black in colouring and answer to the description

of the writer. It is a fact that the aboriginal hill-tribe of Mysore—

the Sholagas—have a name for the Lion. They call it ‘‘Simba’”’

which curiously enough is the Swahili name for the lion.

cS TED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS, AND PUBLISHED BY SIR REGINALD SPENCE

FOR THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, BOMBAY ;

BOOKS FOR SALE

Journals Bombay Natural History Society, (a) Vols. 1V—XXXIV, Rs. 350 ;.

(6) Vols. IV—X, Rs. 75; (c) Vols. XX—XXXIV, Rs. 150; bound and

perfect... (2) Stray Feathers, Vols. I—X, Rs. 70; (3) Fauna of India, Birds, : x

2nd ed. by Stuart Baker; 8 Vols. Rs. 100; (4) Moths, 4 Vols. Rs. 40; (5) ia

Game Birds of India, by Stuart Baker, 2 Vols. Rs. 50; (6) Indian Pigeons

and Doves, Rs. 20; Barnes Birds of Bombay Presy. Rs. 5; Hooker Flora

of India, Vol. IV, only Rs. 10; Jerdon, Birds of India, Vol. I only, Rs. 5;

All books perfeet and carriage free.

: Apply to—

Mr. N. M. BILLIMORIA,

Marston Road, Karachi.

FOR SALE

The Indo-Australian Butterflies, by Dr. Adalbert Seitz. Complete

with 1,200 pages text and 172 plates. Bound in four volumes, half-calf, as

under :--

Vol. I. Papilionide and Pieride. age

Vol. II. .Danaide, Satyride, and Amathusidz. \. Price Rs. 180.

Vol. III. Nymphalide.

Vol. IV. Erycinida, Lycaenidae, and Hesperiidz.

Apply to—

H. DOW, I.C.S.

7, Ghizri Road, Karachi.

INDIAN BUTTERELIES !

The Society is shortly bringing out a second edition of

Brigadier _W. H. Evans’? ‘IDENTIFICATION. OF INDIAN

BUTTERFLIES ’. This edition will embody all the changes

and corrections necessary, and the nomenclature will be brought

tip to, “date. ~“Sincée.the. spublication of the. last “edition: much

has been added to our knowledge of the distribution of the

different species.

The book contains an introductory chapter on Butterfly

collecting in India, hints for AMATEURS on collecting and

treatment and preservation of specimens. Apart from this, the

book includes thirty-two black and white plates illustrating over

206 species.

Only 500 copies are being printed. The price to pace

will be Rs. 10. To Non-Meinbers, Rs. 15.

Apply to: |

THE HONORARY SECRETARY,

~Bombay Natural History Society, |

6, Apollo Street, Bombay.

[3 oT

-GAME BIRDS OF INDIA, BURMA & CEYLON.

hoe < ‘STUART BAKER, 0. B. asl EZ. Ss. M.B.0. U., H. F.A.0. ou.

‘Imperial 8v0. Half bound.

~ VOL. Ill. en oar

PHEASANTS AND BUSTARD- QUAIL.

About 320 pp. With.12 Coloured Plates and

numerous Black and White Plates |

eS |

Price to Members who have not sige set

Wols. (Lidge a is oh, 1-15- O—=Rs. 23. ie

Members who have nitchauee: one 3

of the above Volumes ie A 1.10.0= =Rs. 20.

Members who have imide ye

both the above Volumes ..- £ 1- 5- 0—Rs, 17.

Price to Non-members. ‘ ! ero A see 4 28.

—OoNTee NN Ar

Packing and postage extra.

COMMON INDIAN BIRDS.

ILLUSTRATIONS IN COLOUR

Tdo hundred and ten Camoon Birds. of hae

Indian Plains, arranged in a set of 5 Charts _

measuring 40x 36 in., fitted with wooden rollers and designed

for hanging on a wall. : |

peed to Members | ve Rs. fe Postage Aare Re 2

i ; dad

i Non-members ... Rs. 45 7

Packing extra. f

only to :—

The Heanbay Natural History Society,

6, eae Street, BOMBAY.