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Mar oy

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THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

INDEX AND TITLE PAGE

VOL. XLII

SlOnaL mused:

Price ort Rs. 2-4-0

MADRAS

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

1942

INSTRUCTIONS TO BINDER

The contents of these two parts should be arranged in the

following order when they are being bound :—

Title page ee :

Contents of Nos. Ll and Zof Vol7xLil: :

List of Contributors as -. | To follow” “tromtts: 4

piece in this order. :

Listto! Plates --- ue aoe

Index to Illustrations on es

Errata sas

Index of Species re

To go at the end of

= two numbers.

THE

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

EDITED BY

* ey. Fr. J. FE. CAIUS, S.J. F-L.S.. H. M. MCGUSTY AND S.H. PRATER, MLL.A., J.P.

VOL. XLil

age

Nos. 1 & 2

Containing 4 Coloured Plates, 45 Black and White Plates,

49 Text-figures, 4 Photos and 1 Map

Dates of Publication

Part I. (Pages 1, to 232)... December 1940.

Fe lk. S(Ge 52 P2353 to,.454) ae April 1941.

LONDON AGENTS

DAVID NUTT, (A. G. BERRY)

212, Shaftesbury Avenue,

London, W.C. 2.

PRINTED AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS

1942

mo Ss

CONTENDS OL VOL OME Xi.

No. 1

PAGE

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part V.

By N. L. Bor, M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S., I.F.S., and M. B. Raizada,

M.Sc. (With one coloured plate of Bauhinia Galpini

N. E. Brown and three black and white plates, and seven

TORU Al LOILHES) ee vaemet tats cota ese nro Sose hee Cas eee eS eed ook oe aowet 1

THE POMEGRANATE. By Father J. F. Caius, $.J., F.L.S........ 13

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA. Part V. By

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.. A ie kt 38

A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN eee Sa Pari Lis aby.

McCann, F.L.S. (With six black and white plates)....... 45

THE EcoLoGy OF A TEMPLE TANK CONTAINING A PER-

MANENT BLOOM OF Microcystis aeruginosa Cad Fen it :

By S. V. Ganapathi, M.SC., A.I.c.. BF 65

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA. Part XL “By ioe S. ie eee

D.SC., F.R.S.E., F.Z.8., F.R.A.S.B., FeN.I. (With one colour-

ed plate and four text-figures)... Se vcah caste 78

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE Hetee oF Zr ie ee

bens Linn. By I, Banerji. ae two plates and twenty-

MEU BECIEI-NEO VE )eccnteueoseast ses See'vet fc kot usa sus tev celts endecleas ce 89

SOMETHING ABOUT ee By Lt.-Col. R. W. Burton,

mACRetd.) \GW/2th a Olack and White: Plate) ....scsscsn.sb aes 100

Notes on SomE NEW AND INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES

CHIEFLY FROM BurRMA. PartII. By Major-General Sir

Harry. Pytier, K:C:B., C.M.G.,/C.1.E.; -D.S.0.; Mises 109

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUA Prae

AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS. By Dr. T.S.

Sabnis, B-A= (EIons.), D.SC., -FVA.S.GC,,. 1. AS: me 124

BurMA’s DECREASING WILD Lirz. By D’ Anew WWeatneche.

(With two plates) . arated eree lee a2 a LOO

SomE ComMMON TOSS Ramer WITH Nerke ON THEIR

ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS. Part V. By M. Sayeedud-

Din. (With two plates)... - 161

THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF EUASSIE Chememrecins ae

of Crocallis sp.) By G.C. Bhattacharya. (With a plate). 164

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF INDIA. By

J. F. Caius, S.3., F.L.S.....0.-..110-s0ncaeserserseeseesogesereecesees 167

iv | CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII

A STUDY OF THE COURTING HABITS OF Myrmarachne platale-

otdes (Cambr.) A SPIDER MIMIC OF THE INDIAN RED-

ANT, Oecophylla smaragdina. By A. P. Mathew, M.A.....

REVIEWS :—

1. A Facsimile of R. H.Beddome’s Articles on Indian

Reptiles 1862-1870. By Malcolm Smith...........

2. The Tetrapod Reptiles of Ceylon. Volume I,

Testudinates and Crocodilians: “By PE. PB:

Deraniyagala... , ene

WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT Nancens edits ian ne te

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. How the Mongoose counteracts Snake Bite. By

A. L’E. Browniow.. bed LR eee ae

ii Ae Wwarce Panne ante cor SrrechiOny ‘By Yashodaar

Singh of Khilchipur... b

III. The Short-nosed Fruit- mae (Ghichtegu 1S Me phiaie as

an Agent of seed dispersal in the Wild Date

(Phoentx sylvesiris L.). / By C.aMicCani. cer es

{V. Jungle and House Crows as destroyers of Game.

By K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji...

V. Notes on the nesting of Wastes Ss eee

(Acmonor-hynchus vincens [Sclater|). By Cicely

Lushington, (wth a plate)... i

VI. The Occurrence of the islieee bellied riggs

pecker (Pachyglossa melanoxantha Uodgs.) at

Almora, U.P. By S: H. Prater :

VII. TheOccurrence of the Drongo Gucles (on es

lugubrts oan in the Punjab. By Mrs. A. B.

M. Way...

VIII. A Note on ae “Alpines ae apes naib

, bakeri Hartert). By C. McCann, F.L.s..

IX. Vultures ‘feeding’ atnight. By E.S. ee ee

X. Injuries to the feet ofa Mallard. By W. P. Keelan.

XI. Additional Notes on the Birds of Bombay and

Salsette. By Humayun Abdulaliand Salim Ali.

XII. Some Birds. of Lower Burma. By J. A. M.

SVMS tee vie deprceabane

iy Some Bird sae cite Oil fields, Borat ok A. M.

XIV. Birds vere Batteriios ae S. F. Hopwood, 1.F.S.

PAGE

171

181

182

1837

183

184

185

186

187

188

189

191

198

199.

ogee

eve

VA.

NOW

XVIII.

XIX.

XXII.

OIL.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVII.

XXVITI.

XXIX.

XXX.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII

The many Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus)

{ieSsuininan wey er Nae Minho yas, ne eee ee

Extension of the range of the Brown Whip Snake

(Dryophis pulverulentus Jan.) By C. McCann.

Frog eating a Snake. By R. K. Dharmakumar-

SUA dee cer geteee cx < wee meee Cas ;

Notes on the cat distribution and

larvicidal propensities of Hloraichthys setnai

imbkarnte | Dy vives COD) MSCs. J08.5 eo baste ccs

Notes on the Early stages in the development of

the Deccan Killifish Aplochetlus lineatus (Cuv.

ande Vials) bys. UOneSs, Masc..and Vio J. Job,

MEGG,, (tO7th LON TEXT 102 UTES). 22s one. css

Butterflies attracted by moist earth.

Parsons, F.R.E.S.. :

On the larva of the moth ise ty ripitaa)

and the destruction of the cocoons by Tree

Shrewss) bye. 2). Parsons, PeR.E.S) ok leeks,

Lagerstroemia indica as a food plant of the Silk

Moth Cee ee By. KR. i: Parsons,

F.R.E.S.

The ee he Witlow (Salix hai iontaye asa food

plant of the Moth Loefa katinka Westw. By

Rio. Parsons, FRIES. Pet

The Wood-cutting Wasp (SPnee te ie Bing

and its prey in Salsette. By C. McCann........

Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. parasitized by

MACIIMIC INES eb y Co. VICCAnd, dec. 2 ee. keke

March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam).

Bye DaGe SCvaStOpUlo,s | FORKS. 0300 ..re.¢esaceee oes

By R. E.

Some insects from a Mango trunk ( Mangitera

indica Love ©. MeCann .. fcc sccsss008 doa eee

Insects at a street lamp at Andheri. By C.

ic Caritaoanerrce ements al CMe Ie 8 cusck eran h Rotten

Some Indian Spiders: Their season of prosperity.

By T. V. Subrahmanyam...

Theft of a watch by a Fiddler Poa ‘By Violet

Dickson., atts eed os'c

proceedings of ine es feoican bMesting:

POU Sites dostt oe:

201

203

206

207

208

209

210

211

212

213

217

7A ee

221

vi CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII

No. 2

SoME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS. Part VI.

By N.L. Bor, M.A., D.SC., F.L.S., I1.F.S., and M.B. Raizada,

m.sc. (With one coloured plate of Mussenda frondosa

Linn. and three black and white plates and three text-

figures)... co0d00 “t oe see

SOME DORN innOrOcTeat Reon OF THE Unni Wo Canaere

EXPEDITION OF 1938/39 To NORTHERN BuRMA. By

Major J. K. Stanford, 0.B.E., M.C., F.R.G.S., 1.C.S. (Retd.)

(With two plates)... < Monee

THE WHALE SHARK (Rep ineden ie ican in Tadic

Coastal Waters with notes on its wanderings in other

areas. By S.H. Prater, ¢.M.z.s. aes one map and

SEVEN PIOTES) ccc s. cetes sete ceo madineseeeecsetee

SomE COMMON ieOTACe Hone: WITH Nonae: ON THEIR ANA-

TOMICAL CHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. Part VI.

(With two plates)... a bee danineia de oe pecsemese

THE EARLY STAGES OF ee Lamoc me Dane VI.

By D. G. Sevastonulo, F.R.E.S.. : OL ek Sie

PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’S pen Ciena nane. By W.

W... AC Phillips; #-LS4 B-Z:S. sCWiethisex Plaies) eae

A CONTRIBUTION TI THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH AND

AguaTic Prants. By J. F. R. D’ALMEIDA, B.A., M.Sc.

(With to PIGles) Wr. cccice eenene sa: 2+ ceslseccert Seneeee

Tue GAME FisHes OF INbDIA. Part XII. ee aehs ibe

Hora, D.SC., F.R:E:S.,. £.Z.S.) 92 -R-A.S.B.)) BN ban iene

Misra, M.SC. ees one coloured plate and seven text-,

A NEw ceren ae OF : (Srosarsta By K. CHERIAN JACOB, L.Ag.,

F.L.S: (Wth a plate)... : ee

MARINE SHELLS OF Nor Ac | “8 M. 0) ‘CRICHTON. Wie

four plates)... :

A Conmeeuntoun TO THE ons. OF THE Poke AND THE

ASsocIATED Hi1LL REcGions. Part II. By Dr. T. S.

Sabnis, B-A. (Hons.); D.Sc, BSA-SC., I-A:s..

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LAaBIATES ¢ OF “Tsao =

Rev. PriJ. F.4GCAnus, Si-,8:E-S.- a

On THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN Ve a AND Does

(Heterocera). By D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S............

OBITUARY :—

FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS (1865-1940)... ...cceeceseeee toe cee eee ene

233

242

2595

280

283

295

298

323

342

380

421

431

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII vii

PAGE

REVIEW :—

The Fauna of British India including the remainder of

the Oriental Region, Dijtera. Vol. VI. Family

Calltphoridae. By R. Senior White, Daphne

PMUDEREM ANNU OMM SIMALGs cs cceskcccisscoctele ecteess ee ee 200

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons.

By R. E. Parsons. . Saran hace ceireeises ae Oo

II. A pale colour form of the Panther: By H. A.

Fooks. (With a photo)... pabcbisceseeee 435

III. A Brown form of the Hialayan Black Bene

(Selenarctos thibetanus). By Botha VanIngen. 436

IV. The Indian Wild Dog. By Lt.-Col. R. W.

Burton, 1.A. (Retd.)... ‘ Sees a FOO

V. Village Dogs Hunting. as w. P. Sees bathe sts 437

VI. Vitality of a Hygena ee eee By t.. J:

Phillips .. ue Si 438

VII. On the occurrence of “ihe Ghatiace Ueda

coelebs Linn.) in Waziristan. By T. J. Phillips. 439

VIII. Vultures and Palms. By C. McCann......°......... 439

IX. Sandgrouse coming to water at mid-day. By

Major R. C. Nicholas... : 440

X. Scarcity of Sandgrouse ati fie Soi ete

1939=1940, By Lt.-Col. EB. O’Brien...4....2...0. 440

XI. Habits of the See-see Partridge (Ammofperdix

griseogularis griscogularis). By T.J. Phillips. 441

XII. Curious nesting site of the Red-wattled Lapwing

(Lobivanellus indicus indicus Bodd.) By C. Mc

Cann. (With a photo)... Ldmedoeeene O44).

XIII. Records of Swinhce’s Sained in Coe oe JC.

Higgins... A 442

XIV. Occurrence of etic’ S Jeunes in Seen ne R. 1

Clouahe: See ww. 442

XV. Moulting of ceeabion Teal “abseqtient: ae migra-

tion to India. By the Secretary to Heir

Apparent of Bikaner. (With a photo)............ 443

XVI. Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera,

NEWAHGP byob Col, Ha bs Rields. o8.cisee ceca 445

XVII. Injury toa Crocodile. By R. K. Dharmakumar-

sinhji. (With a photo)... ee 445

XVIII. Food of Lizards. By D.C. Sevastopulo. ee 446

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVIT.

CONTENTS OF VOLUME XLII

A New Family of Fishes. By Carl L. Hubbs....

Addenda to the list of Simla Butterflies. By

M. A. Wynter-Blyth, M.A..

Butterflies attracted by TOIBEY eau: ae D. G.

Sevastopulo..

Supplementary Notes on a life history Ba fae

Moth (Brahmea pene By R. E. Parsons,

F.R.E.S.. bare Ue creeh dame ean tee

Larva of ‘Tiere nee os parasitized by

Tachinid Flies. By D. G. Sevastopulo..........

Lagerstroemia indica as a Foodsplant of Actias

sélene. & By D.'G.-Sevastopulor.s.c-.iae- soe eee

The death expedition of Hibiscus caterpillars.

(A correcizon):. “By DW ~ Ge sevastopulorncs. ss

Abnormal seedling of Mangifera indica Linn.

N. O. Anacardiaceae. By G. A. Kapadia, m.sc.

(With a text-figure)...

Some Wild Flowers of igactnais Aaa ici ladicee

ous use. By Samsar Chand Koul...

PAGE

446

448

449

450

452

—-"

MEPAHABEDICALS LIST OF ‘CONT RIBOTORS

VOLUME XLII

ABDULALI, HUMAYAN and ALI,

’ Sauim ; Additioral Notes on

the Birds of Bombay and

Salsette ...

ALI, SALIM ;

Humayan.

ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING ;

Proceedings of 1939

BANERJI, I; A Contribution to

the Life History of Tvridax

procumbens. Linn. ( With two

dlates and twenty-five text-

figures) .. ; eae a00

iyenoer enneye G. C.; Lhe

Death Expedition of Hibiscus

Caterpillars (larvae of Crocalt-

lissp.) (With a plate)

BIKANER, SECRETARY 10 HEIR

APPARENT OF; Moulting of

Common Teal subsequent to

‘migration to India. (With a

photo) : ws

Bor, N.L., M.A., D.Sc., F.L.S.,

TeE.So ana Ree M.B.,

M.Sc. ; Some Beautiful Indian

Climbers and Shrubs. (With

two coloured plates and six

black and white plates and

ten text-figures). Parts V &

Beovucont A. L’E. ; How the

Mongoose Sermforacis Snake

Bite ao; es

Burton, Lr.-CoLt. R. W., 1.4

(RETD.); Something about

Swordfish. (With a black and

white plate) se aa

eS OS A

See Abdulali,

._———- —

The Indian Wild Dog

CAIUS Je ES S.J. B.E.S)

Pomegranate

The

Nos. 1 and 2

PAGE

ahe)3

221

164

443

melKaao

183

100

436

CAIUS, J. F:; S.J.) F.1iS.; The

Medicinal and Poisonous

Flaxworts of India

——-—— —— - The

Medicinal and Bo sonar

Labiates of India

CLOUGH, R. J. ; Occurrence of

Swinhoe’s Gripe in Bengal ...

Cricuton, M. D.; Marine

Shells of Madras. (With four

plates ) a a ae

DAEMEIDA,| Ji. (2 0R., Bed.

M.Sc., ; A Contribution to the

Study of the Biology and

Physiological Anatomy of

Indian Marsh and Aquatic

Piants. (With two plates) ...

DHARMAKUMARSINGJI, K. S. ;

Jungle and House Crows as

Gestroyers of Game.. se

DHARMAKUMARSINHUJI, Ry K.

Frog eating a Snake ...

—————

aie

Injury to a Crocodile.

a photo) ..

DICKSON, Viooen Thett an a

watch by a Fiddler Crab

FIELD, Lt.-Col. F. F. ; Occur-

rence of the Stiff-tailed Duck

at Nowshera, N.-W.F.P. .

Fooks, H.A.; A Pale colour

form of the Panther. (With

a photo) .. aie ee

GANAPATI, S. Niij7 MSC.5) ATIC.

The Ecology ‘of a ua

Tank containing a permanent

bloom of Microcystis aerugi-

nosa (Kutz) Henfr.

Hiccins, J. C. ; Records of

Swinhoe’s . Snipe in

Assam ...

PAGE

380

442

323

298

185

200

445

219

445

435

442

x LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS -

Hopwoop, S. F., 1.F.S. ; Birds

eating Butterflies eae

Hora, SuNDA LAL, D2.Sc.,

E.R.S.E., F.Z/S., -F.ReA.S-B

F.N.I. ; The Game Fishes of

India. Part XI. (With one

coloured plate and four text-

figures) ..

Part XII. (With one te

plate and seven text-figures) .

Hupss, Cart L. ; A New

Family of Fishes och

JACOB, K. CHERIAN, L.Ag.,

F.L.S. ; A New Species of

Coloeus. (Witha plate)

Jos, T.J., M.sc., Notes on the

Geographical Distribution and

larvicidal propensities of

Horaichthys setnat Kul-

karni

JONES, S., M.Sc. Nohen diy. im

M.SC. 5 Notes on the Marly

Stages in the development of

the Deccan Killifish Aplochet-

lus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.)

( With two text-figures)

Kapapia, G. A., M.Sc. ; Abnor-

mal Seedling of Mangifera

indica Linn. N. O. Alnacar-

diacee. (With a text-figure).

KEELAN, W. P. ; Injuries to the

feet of a Mallard

; Village dogs

hunting ..

KouL, Siar one Gasy. Some

Wild Flowers of Kashmir and

their indigenous use ...

Lewis, E. S. ; Vultures

ing’ at night

LUSHINGTON, CICELY ; Nates 61 on

the nesting of Legge’s Flower-

‘ feed-

pecker [Acmonorhynchus

vincens as (Witha

plate) “ ne ioe

MATHEW, A. P., M.A. ; A Study

of the Syeesne Hanis of

Myrmarachne plataleoides

(Cambr.) a Spider mimic of

the Indian Red-Ant, O¢eco-

phylla smaragdina

PAGE

199

305

201

203

450

191

437

452

189

186

171

McCann, C., F.L.S. ; A Reptile

and Amphibian Miscellany.

(With six black and white

plates). Part II. ae

— = + <P shwe

Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Cyxo-

plerus sphinx) as an agent of

seed dispersal in the Wild

Date (Phoenix sylvestris L.).

; A Note

on the Alpine Swift (Micropus

melba bakeri Hartert)

-- ; Exten-

sion of the range of the Brown

Whip Snake (Dryophis pul-

verulentus Jan.)

ie Lahte

Wood-cutting Wasp (Sphex

edax Bingham) and its prey

in Salsette

——_- - ; Larva

of Zheretra lycetus Cr. parasi-

tized by Tachinid flies

-_—_—---—— ; Some

insects from a Mango trunk

(Magnilera indica L.)

—— ; Insects

at a street lamp at Andheri ...

sa tl

-_-—_——. —————— =

tures and Palms BA

-—_— -——_ ; Curious

nesting site of the Red-wattled

Lapwing (Lodivanellus indt-

cus indicus Bodd.) (Witha

photo) boc a a:

Misra, K.S.,M.Sc. ; See Hora,

SUNDA LAL, D.SC., F.R.S.E.,

F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., FE.N.I.

NicHo.as, Masor R. C. ; Sand-

grouse coming to water at

mid-day ...

OBITUARY : —EVANS,

RICK VICTOR ... ae

O’BRIEN, Lt.-Cou. E. ;

city of Sandgrouse during

the cold weather 1939-40 abe

Parsons, R. HE., F.R.E.S. ;

Butterflies attracted by moist

earth Sete vee 440 SHE

FREDE-

——<—<—<——— es 2

On the larva of the moth

eee!

PAGE

184

188

200

209

210

212

213

439

441

305

440

431

440

206

LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

(Circula triferestrata) and

the destruction of the cocoons

by Tree Shrews

Lagerstremia indica as a food

plant of the Silk Moth

(Actias selene) ...

The Weeping Willow (Salix

babylonica) as a food plant of

the Moth, Lepa katinka

Westw. ...

Rivers as barriers tothe dis-

tribution of Gibbons...

—; ee oe

Supplementary Notes on the

life history of the Moth

(Brahmea wallichit) ...

PHittips, T. J.; Vitality

of a Hyena. (Hyena

striata) ... a is

--—_—_—_--- ; On the occur-

rence of the Chaffinch (Fyrza-

gilla celebs Linn.) in Waziris-

tan

; Habits of the

Seesee Partridge Ammoper-

dix eae a

laris a ae

PHILLIPS, W. WwW. AG, Bel Sa

Photographing in Ceylon’s

Bird Sanctuaries. (With six

plates) os wee a

PRATER, S. H., C.M.z.S. ; The

Occurrence of the Yellow-

bellied Flowerpecker (Puchy-

glossa melanoxantha Hodgs.)

at Almora, U. P. sis

— --— -— ; The

Whale Shark (Rhineodon

typus Smith) in Indian Coas-

tal Waters with notes on its

wanderings in other areas.

(With one map and seven

plates) f oF be)

Proceedings of the Annual

General Meeting 1940...

RaizapDa, M. B., M.sc,

Bor, N. L., M.A.,

F.L.S., 1.F.S.

; See

D.Sc.,

PAGE

207

208

209

434

448

438

439 |

295

187

255

221

Fe er RE

441 |

REVIEWS :—

A Facsimile of R. H. Bed-

dome’s Articles on Indian

Reptiles 1862-1870...

The Tetrapod Reptiles of

Ceylcn.

dinates and Crocodilians ...

Wanted information about

Mahseer

The Fauna of Brie Tae

including the remainder of

the Oriental Region, Dip-

tera, . Vol. VI, Family

Calliphoride. By R. Senior

White, Daphne Aubertin,

and John Smart ;

Sasnis, T. S., B.A. (HONS.),

DESC, . -H.AGS.C.,” TvArS. s CA

Contribution to the Flora of

the Punjab Plains and the

Associated Hill Regions,

PAGE tl ee

Part <1f

SAYEEDUD- Day. M. ‘Soitie Con.

mon Indian Herbs with notes

on their anatomical characters,

Part V. (With two plates).

ate. Wis (Go Gs) ons i os

SEVASTOPULO, D. G., F.R.E.S.;

The Early Stages of Indian

Lepidoptera, Part V.

—————-Part VI.

March Lepidoptera at arias

pur (Dist. Ganjam) .

On the Food-Plants of fan

Agaristide and WNoctuide

(Heterocera)

Food of Lizards

—==

es ee ®

Butterflies attracted by moist

earth

es es

—_— ee

Larva of Zheretra lycetus Cr.

parasitized by Tachinid

Flies, sé

SS SS ee ee ;

Lagerstremia indica as a

Food-plant of Actias selene ...

Volume I, Testu- .

PAGE

181

182

433

124

342

161

280

283

211

421

446

448

449

xii LIST OF CONTRIBUTORS

SEVASTOPULO, D.G., F.R.E.S. 3

The death expedition of

Hibiscus caterpillars (A cor-

rection) . ;

See Grae TT. m SEE

Indian Spiders: mei season

of prosperity :

STANFORD, Major, J.K., 0.B.E.,

M.C,, F-R.G.St, 1:C.Se (desma:

Some Ornithological Results

of the Vernay-Cuiting Expedi-

tion of 1938-39 to Northern

Burma. (With two

plates.)

Symns, J. A. M.

of Lower Bee ;

——; Some Birds

of the Oil fields, Bane

_——_—_-——; The many

Banded Krait (Gungarus

multicinctus) in Burma

nA SUHIE Birds

PAGE

450

242

198

199

TYTLER, Magj.-Gen. SIR

HARRY, K.C.B., C.M.G., C.L.E.,

D.S.o.; Notes on Some New

and Interesting Butterflies

chiefly from Burma, Part II...

VAN INGEN, Botua; A Brown

form of the Himalayan Black

Bear (Selenarctos thibetanus).

Way, Mrs. A.B. M:; The

Occurrence of the Drongo

Cuckoo (Surniculus lugubris

Horsf.) in the Punjab...

WEATHERB:, D’Arcy; Burma’s

Decreasing Wild Life (With

two plates) oi wae

WYNTER-BLYTH, M. A., M.A.;

Addenda to the list of Simla

Butterflies ate

YASHODAAR SINGH OF Ayieee

CHIPUR; A large Panther

(A correction) ...

PAGE

109

436

187

150

448

183

LAST ORA TA ATES:

VOLUME XLII

Nos. 1 and 2

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate 5. Banhinia Galpini N. E. Brown

Plate re acuminata, Linn.; New Forest, bene

Dun wae eee oes

Plate he Galpint N. E. Brown; New Forest,

Dehra Dun ee Sat

Plate . corymbosa Roxb. New Pest: Dehra

Dunk..

A Reptile and Amphibian Miscellany

Plate X. Dissections of the Forest Bloodsucker (Calotes rouxi

Dum and Bibr.) showing condition of breeding

organs

Plate XI. The Common Skink (Maou eae Bonlehecs)

at home fee one ei

Plate XII. (A) The Common Skink (Mabuya carinata

Boulenger)

(B) The Little Skink (Wabuya macularia Boulen-

ger) showing Eggs, Ova, and Oviduct

Plate XIII. Two couples of the Bull Eros (Rana tigrina Band )

taken in amplexu ae fat

Plate XIV. ‘The Indian Salamander (Drlototriton VEVVUCOSUS

Anders.) oso aes

Plate XV. The Yellow- eerie Bind: ene (Lchthyophis

glutinosus Fitz) (Dissection)

Game Biches of India

Plate The Bokar of the ects and Katli of the

Nepalese, (Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis

McClelland)

A contribution to the Life History of Tridax BP ocibens thine.

Plate I. Figs. 1-13

Plate II. », 14-16

Something about Swordfish

Plate A Striped Marlin—313 lbs. ...

Burma’s decreasing Wild Life

‘Plate Thamin or Brow-antlered Deer (Rucervus thamin

Thos.)

Plate Serow (Capricornis eS) os

Some Common Indian Herbs with Notes on their Anatomical Cperactets

Plate I. Allmania nodiflora R. Br. (Nat. Size)...

Plate TH: Do.

PAGE

BR:

105

150

152

161

162

xiv LIST OF PLATES

PAGE

The death expedition of Hibiscus Caterpillars (larvae of Crocallis sp.)

Plate (A) Caterpillars marching in a line towards potted

plant

(B) Caterpillars moving along circular rim of pot... 164

Nesting of Legge’s Flowerpecker (Acmonorhynchus vincens {Scl.])

Plate Nest in branches of Dipterocarpus zeylanicus wos . 186

Some Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs

Plate 6. Mussaenda frondosa Linn.. 233

Plate a luteola Del. New ere Dena Duns), 237

Plate a frondosaLinn. ,, me Ge, ese

Plate - 239

Some Ornithological Reais ai the vere Cutting Expedition of 1938/ 39

to Northern Burma

Plate I. Imaw Bum. Typical Tragopan country . 244

Plate II, Takin country near Chimili Pass Bob A 4S)

Hpawte Valley towards ,, ee SccteMRZLO

The Whale Shark (Ahineodon typus Smith) in Indian Gone Water.

Plate I. Whale Shark (21’ 6”) caught 15 miles from

Bombay ae nop

Plate II. (1) Whale Shark Beent at Renae

(2) Whale Shark nee off oe Monze,

Karachi. 2: 256

Plate III. Whale Shark caught near sf ecard Remain

Bombay Province 257

Plate IV. Whale Shark (18 ft.) ne Grown Besert

Bombay ee 258

Plate V. Whale Shark (18 ft.) femdea CHommatiy Beach,

Bombay foe aon BA PASS,

Map Surface currents of the Bay of ena eS co 200

Plate VI. Whale Shark. Close-up of head aes ave ez70

Plate VII. Do. Frontal view oe cal

Some Common Indian Herbs with notes on their ne omicall craaee

Plate I. Lochnera pusilla K. Schum. aoe vos 200

Plate Il, Do: see em nS By ta

Photographing in Ceylon’s Bird Sanctuaries

Plate I.- Open-bill Storks ... aes a Bis 40

Plate II. Pond-Heron eee is ons ron CUS

Plate III. Spoonbill By ee oes be AIS

Plate IV. Pelican aan sais 400 Sas A

Plate V. Painted Storks... Cone seg eh 88

Plate VI. Grey Heron a 296

A Contribution to the study of the Biology and Pieciologien eome of

Indian Marsh and Aquatic Plants

Plate I. Malachra capitata L. aS “00 nc ueZoe

Plate | Dy: Do. Ac see «ee 300

The Game Fishes of India

Plate The Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the

Nepalese (Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis

McClelland aes ~ soe “eet O06

A New Species of Coleus

Plate Coleus vettiveroides aes nee jog, RY4II

LIST OF PLATES

Marine Shells of Madras

Plate E

Plate bie

Plate III.

Plate IV.

Pale colour form of the Panther

Photograph

Curious nesting site of Red-Wattled Lapwing

Photograph

Moulting of Common Teal

Photograph

Injury to a Crocodile

Photograph

PAGE

324

325

328

329

435

442

444

445

INDEX TO JLLOST RATIONS

VOLUME XLII

Nos. 1 and 2

. PAGE PAGE

Acmonorhynchus vincens Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.

Pl. Nest in branches of Text-fig. 2 Ee A 4

Dipterocarpus zeylant- = vahlit

CUS aes a ae 186 Text-fig. 6 a Beer onl)

Almania nodttlora Calotes rouxt

Piel: ee CLO Pl. X. Breeding organs,

Pisd svics: lt: 05 elG2

Barbus caldwelli

Text-fig: ¢ 22. mee ee ous

—— (Lissochiius) hexagono-

lepis McClelland

Pisee: ii ap a

Text-fig. 1. A. Ventral

surface

of head

B. Ventro-

lateral

of head... 80

Text-fig. 2, Juvenile speci- ~

men. ies oe sy

Text-fig. 3. Pharyngeal

bone and teeth... tes gf) 188

Text-fig. 4. Lateral -view

oftwo specimens... 8&4

Pies as SS es 306

Barbus (Porpuntius) normant

Text-fig se bs SOULS.

——_—— soroides

Text-fig. ... siete 2 OU

Bauhinia acuminata Linn.

lee ae ane ah 5)

Text-fig. 3 ae ae 6

—_——. anguina

Text-figs. 4 and 5 8&9

—-—— candicans Benth.

Text-fig. 1 5 ae 3

—_—— corymbosa

Plies Se soap al

Text-fig. 7 a ee EI

— —_ Galpini, N.-E. Brown

Piss os we ret 1

1A here oie oe, oN: 7

males and females a ere iye

Capricornis sumatrensis

Photograph ust aaa)

Ceylon Bird Sanctuaries—Photo-

graphing on

Pl. I. Open-bill Storks soo Belo

Pl. . It. Pond-Herony <= eee OG

Pl. 111, Spoon-bill | =) -2.. 9296

Pipi Visbenicane we eee See

Pl. V. Painted Storks aie 296

Bl Vi. Grey Heron. Bo 8 AAC)

Coleus vettiveroides

lees ne Pee He IA

Crocallis sp.

Pl. Migration of jes OS

Crocodile, Injury to

Photograph on .. 445

Gardenia florida

Text-fig. ... sa PA 74:13 |

Ichthyophis glutinosus

Pl. XV. Yellow-striped Blind

Worm (dissection) ... 23. aoe

Lissochilus hendersont

Mextoii se. 503 ap eo)

———— hexagonolepis

Text-figs.... 307, 309, 313

——— hutchinsoni

Text-fig. ... one roll OUD)

——— sumatranus

Text-fig. ... oe Beare 7

—— tweedtiet

Mex t-moene. ng word MONO

Lochnera pusilla

Pie aie 280, 281

Lapwing, Red-Wattled, Curious

nesting site of

Photograph as nopatess ates

ee ee ee a

SS ee ee ee

LNDEX TO ILLUSTRATIONS xvil

PAGE | PAGE

Mabuya carinata Miia 22) Abed el Ev, ae as re PT 256

Pl. XI. Common Skink at (Piers: see an CHC O,

home ... a om eS PLS IV oe: ae és ee 208

Bi RAG eo os AF PE OVe Se a me a ZOU.

, (dissection } Taare 7 DO mel ay NL Gece mA Ge 270

macularia Pe MODIS TION ona tee Oe Senet 27 |

Pl. XII. B. Little Skink | Map. Surface currents, Bay of

(dissection) ae % Sf) Bengal sa te een)

Malachra capitata | Rucervus thamin

Pret ct is Le. 298: | Photograph oes Er LOU)

Pl. II a -- 300 Serissa foetida

Mangitera indica Text-fig. ... ae s2te 2239

Text-fig. ... eee ». 451 | Striped martin

Marine Shells of Madras Pl. Photograph of speci-

1c aS Lae sie Ace See ee men weight 313 lbs. .... 105

14 Ve) Ge eA on Ae .. 325 | Teal, Common; Moulting of

Pl Ais 5053 WS ee a 328 Photograph ... at w. 444

PIeiN ate ae nae ... 329 | Tridax procumbens

Mussaenda trondosa Text-figs. 1-6... a ae 0

Bik oe a bo es) Text-fig. 7 sr a ero

Pls. ae ba 238, 239 Text-figs. 8-12 ... as eee 2

——_——_ luteola Text-figs. 13-17 ... was Non ees

Pi: ae we eee Bed Text-figs. 18-25... Bet ae ats oy

Mext-fic.sl) 7. ey 2o/s) ble Pigs. 1-13 see seo eg 3

Panther, Pale colour form of | PL IL. Figs. 14-16 Sen) teiue OA

Photograph is «. 435 | Tylototriton verrucosus

Rana tigrina Pl. XIV. Indian Salamander

Pl. XIII. Bull Frog (dis- . (dissection) ... ies ee OS

sections) 586 .. 08 | Vernay-Cutting Exped. to N.

Rhineodon typus Burma 1938-39

Blige Foie. ese ae i. W200 Pls. P-& I. oe Ace 244, 245

ERRATA

; VOL. XLI, No. 4.

Page 901, Mise. Note No. XV, line 2 for ‘ Palasbani’ read

‘Palasbari’.

V OLe XI No.2

Page 270, line 5 from bottom for ‘Muni’ read ‘ Mini’.

Misc. Note No. I, p. 434, line 10 for ‘Subansini’ read ‘ Subansiri’.

’» 4h 43 line 17 foxy ‘ Rangdoi’ vead ‘ Rongdoi’.

3 & * line 17 for ‘ Kenua’ vead ‘ Kerua’.

es a . line 18 fox ‘ Rongdoi-Laikoaghat’ vead

‘ Rongdoi-Saikoaghat ’.

Page 452, line 12, for ‘Bhauddin’ vead ‘ Bahauddin ’.

- , line 13, for ‘Ahmedabad’ read ‘ Junagadh’.

VOL. XLII, No. 3.

Page 476, line 18, for ‘(3000 ft.) in coll. m.’ vead ‘ Holo-type, 0,

27-x-40, Sineh Safid ; in coll. m.’.

vs , line 20, for ‘Subsp. n. and sp. dist.’ vead ‘Subsp. n.

an sp. dist ’.

, 477, line 18 for ‘but curved slightly based’ vead ‘ but

curved slightly basad’.

Misc. Note No. XIV. p. 668, in the heading of the note. for

‘Assam’ vead ‘ North Bengal’.

ie 5% 7 p. 668, inline 1, after list of species for

‘Specimens’ zead ‘ Specimen ’.

VOL. XLII. No. 4.

Page 762, Plate III, facing the page, Fig. 2 for the word

‘Dhoby ’ vead ‘ Dhoti’.

,, 903, Wherever ‘Fig.1’ appears on the Plate and the

letterpress vead ‘Fig. 2’, likewise in the place of

‘Fig. 2’ read‘ Fig. 3’. Fig. 1 was not published.

“INDEX OF

Aberia caffra

Abrostola ...

Abrus precatorius

Abutilon bidentatum

—-—— fruticosum

————- indicum

—-——— molle......

Acacia aneura

arabica a

auriculeformis ...

--_—— bonariensis

Catechu...

confusa

- eburnea

Farnesiana

filicina

homalophylla

leucophicea

modesta...

spadicigera

spherocephala ...

torta cate ae

Acanthophorus serraticornis ...

Accipiter gentilis

——_-—— trivirgatus

——-—— virgatus

Acer Campbelli ...

—_——- pentamopicum

Acheea as

Acmonorhynchus vincens

Acontia

Aconitum Cie smantnaen

eee

Acosmetia ... ee

Acrocephalus indicus ... ney

Acronicta .

Aconitum fe oprciine

Actias selene an

Actinodura nipalensis eee:

4égithaliscus bonvaloti ...

Aigle Marmelos ...

Atischynomene indica

AXthiopsar fuscus Peat Attensa)

Aithopyga cara ...

—— dabryi

PAGE |

208,

134

429

348 |

138 |

138

356

355 |

356

256

355

356

357

356 |

356

SO7

357

356

214

253

209

148

428

186

428

454

425

384

422

454

449

250

249

144

294

194

SPECIES.

Agrotis spinifera

Ajuga bracteosa ...

Allardia glabra

Alauda arvescens...

- gulgula gulgula...

Albizzia Lebbeck...

- mollis

- odoratissima

- Stipulata...

Alcippe cinerea :

poioicephala Breen

Alhagi camelorum

Allmania nodiflora

Allotinus drumila_ grisea

Altha nivea

Altheea rosea oe

Alysicarpus longifolius ...

Atylosia crassa ...

Amandava amandava ...

Amathes

Amatissa cuprea ...

Amaurornis fuscus fuscus

Ammania bacctierra

Ammoperdix griseogularis

Amorpha fruticosa Bi.

Amorphophallus commutatus ...

Amphipyra

Amsacta lineola ...

Amusium pleuronectes ...

Amycieza ieee

Amyna wt

Anagallis arvensis

Anapheis aurota..

Anas Bee neaha ache aecilosiyncne ik

Anastomus oscitans

Androsace lanuginosa ...

—— saxifrageefolia

Anethum graveolens

Anisochilus carnosus

Anisomeles indica

-——- malabarica...

Anogeissus latifolia

198 | Anthropoides virgo

253 | Anthus spinoletta japonicus

PaGr

384

453

253

195

Sioy)

5357.

SOL

aby!

250

193

347

161

122

288

137

348

350

194

424

288

196

364

441

345

213

424

286

334

yal

426

377

PAU)

197

B47

367

384

385

359

196

253

XxX

Anua

Anuga sh

Apatura cooperi... a

parvata burmana

~——~-— ulupi kalawrica

- mai

Aplocheilus lineatus

——--———— panchax

Aplysia fimbriata aoe

- tigrina

Arabis taraxacilolia

Aracnothera longirostra

Araschnia prorsoides dohertyi..

Arca avellana

Ardisia Pickeringia

— solanacea

Arenaria serpyllifolia

Argadesa ...

——-—— materna

Argonauta hians... :

Argya caudata caudata...

Argynnis adippe astorica |

gyala...

———-— laodice indroides

———-—- pales hunzaica

Argyrolobium flaccidum

Arripis salar aa

Artabotrys odoratissima

Artamus fuscus ...

Artemisia scoparia

‘ Ascaris’ brachyura

Asota caricae

Aster Thomsoni...

Astragalus Aitchisoni

—— composum ...

prolixas

———-——— Psilocentros...

pyrrhotrichus

—— tribuloides ...

Atella phalenta ...

Athetis

Attatha ond

Atylosia scarabaeoides ...

Autoba bar

Averrhoa Gara aes

Azazia

——=

Babax Teak Sha score

Babylonia spirata

Baltia butleri butleri

Bandicota malabarica *.

Barathrae.. ee a ape

INDEX OF

PAGE

201,

42,

Peo:

428

427 |

110 |

111)

110 |

1st

203

203.

339

339 |

129

198

119

338

o77e

37731

136

439 |

Ze)

327

193

120

120 |

120

120 |

343

104

164

440

373

212 |

BY) AE

346

347 |

346

347

346

425

428 |

350.

426

143

430

250

334

448 |

915-

422

SPECIES

PAGE

Barbus caldwelli... 228306

a oka oa. OOo

-——- Dukai 306

——- heristichns 79, 81, 306

———-(Lissochilus) hexagonolepis 78, 81, 305

———- macrocephalus ... a 79

a - inegalepis 79

——-—- progeneius 79

- putitora ... 220

- soroides ... 306

- tor 225

———.- (Tor) mosal 79

—- putitora .. 79

- tor ate 79

Batocera rubus 213.0255

Bauhinia acuminata 5

——_——. anguina 7

——— candicans 3

————— corymbosa 10, 354

—_ -——_ Galpini i

——— racemosa 353

———— tomentosa 4

———— Vahlii... 9, 353

Beara 428

~—— dichronsellas 289

Berberis Lycium ... 127

Bergia zstivosa ... a 137

Biduanda melisa cooperi 123

Blainvillea latifolia 373

Blumea Wightiana Bilal

| Blythipicus pyrrhotis 253

Bombotelia 427

Borassus flabellifer 439

Brachypteryx stellatus ... 251

Brahmea wallichii 448

Brassica alba 130

——— campestris 130

Brithys as 423

Brunella ieee 386

Bryophila ... 422

Bullia livida 324

tranquebarica 324

———- vittata sa 324

Bungarus multicinctus .. 199

Burhinus cedicnemus 196

Bursa crumena 339

——- granularis... 338

Bursera serrata Cotas

Buteo burmanicus 258

Butea frondosa 350

Cadaba indica 132

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Caesalpinia coriaria 352

—-. Gilliesii 352

—__—_ -——- nuga 209

a= pulcherrima shop?

—-—— sepiaria 352

Ceesulia axillaris 372

Cajanus indicus . 350 |

Calamintha Glinonodiars 387 |

Calandrella brachydactyla Hse) |

~—— rufescens Ise

Calliandra grandiflora ... Bor

Callistemon coccineus ... 359

Calogramma 424

Calotes rouxi ee ere eS 52

- versicolor 48, 52, 212

Calymnia ... re 425

Campanula canescens ... 376 |

-——colorata 376

Camponotus compressus 49

Capella megala ... 442 |

— nemoricola 197

- solitaria ... 254 |

Capparis aphylla... 132

—————- horrida ... 1327)

—— -— sepiaria 132

——-——- spinosa.. vs 132

Caprimulgus aaicus mci ae eee LOZ

monticolus monticolus... 192

Capsella Bursa-nastoris 130

Caranx georgianus 103

Carapa moluccensis 327 |

- obovata ... x 327

Cardiospermum Peticaeanans 148

Carea ie: ; 428

Carpodacus Aamir ae an 252

Carthamus oxyacantha ... 375

Carum anethifolium 367

- Bulbocastanum... 367

Cassia bicapsularis 353

- corymbosa 353

——- didymobotrya 353

- Fistula 352

——-- levigata ... 353

-——--—- mimosoides 399

- Sophera ... : aoe 353 |

. - var. purpurea 303 |

- Tora 353

Castanospermum auetrale 352

Catocala 428

Catopsilia pomona 73) Ib

Cedrela Toona 145

Celastrus paniculata

—— -—- Royleanus

Celosia argentea ...

Cenia turbinata

Centaurea Calcitrapa

—- cyanus

Centipeda orbicularis ...

Centropus sinensis parroti

Cepheelis (Psychotria) ipecacuanha ...

Cephalandra indica

Cephanodes hylas

Cepora nerissa

Cerapteryx

Ceratonia siliqua ..

Cerithidea cingulata

Certhia discolor shanensis

Ceszeria tomentosa

Ceyx erithaca erithaca ...

Cheetura gigantea

Chalciope ...

| —- —— Hypa

Chalcophaps indica indica

Chamissoa aspera

Chaptia zenea malayensis

Charadrius dubius jerdoni

Charaxes fabius magzensis

Chikrassia tabularis

Chloridea ...

Chioropsis jerdoni

Chorisia insignis ...

Chrysolophus amherstize

Chrysophlegma flavinucha

Cicer arietinum ... ee

Cichorium Intybus

Cinclus cinclus

Cinchona officinalis

Circus melanoleucus

Circula triperestrata

Cissampelos Pareira

Citriobatus pauciflora ... aS

Citrullus Colocynthis

—— vulgaris...

Clematis Buchaniana

—--—— flammula

——_—— Gouriana

——— grata

———— graveolens

Cleome brachycarpa ...

———— - papillosa see

— viscosa ...

Clubiona trivialis... ae fe

ao%

196, 1

XXii

Clytie 500

Cnicus argyracanthus

arvensis

Coccidiphaga ...

Cocculus Lezeba ..,

——-—— villosus

Cocos nucifera

Cocytodes ..

Coffea arabicay)... see

Coix Lachryma-Jobi

Colebrookea oppositifolia

Coleus Amboinicus

osmirrhizon

vettiveroides

Columba pulchricollis ...

Combretum coccineum ..

Conservula

Conus amadis

figulinus ...

Copsychus saularis

Coracias garrula semenowi

Corchorus acutangulus ...

——~-—— Antichorus

—— ——- trilocularis

Coriandrum sativum

Cornus oblonga ... eo

Conostoma cemodium

Corydalis cornuta

Coryllis vernalis subsp.

Cosmia

Cosmoiyce oesthate

Cosmophila :

Cotoneaster pieropinlled

Cousinia minuta..

Cratzgus saligna...

Cratzeva religiosa

Creatonotus transiens

Cremastogaster rogenhoferi

Crepidula walshii

Crepis foetida

japonica ... a

Criniger pheeocephalus

Crino

Crocallis sp.

Crotalaria alata ...

Burhia

——-—— medicaginea

————-_ prostrata

—— sericea

Cucullza concamera ...

Cucullia

—_

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

429

374

426

127

440

428

235°

387

388

320

254

3h)

Smee 4:

ES ow)

339

192

141 |

141

367

368 |

249

128

424

212

429

358

374

358

132

212

328

375

198

424

164

343

343 |

343 —

339.5

423

Cuculus micropterus micropterus

Cucumis Melo

--—_— — trigonus

Cucurbitula cymbium

Culasta a

Cultellus maximum

Cutia nipalensis .,

Cyamopsis psoralioides

Cyathocline lyrata

Cyclostrema bushi

Cynopterus sphinx

Cypreea arabica ;

Cyornis concretus cyaneus

Dalbergia Sissoo Jas san

Danais chrysippus

- plexippus

Delias eucharis a aC

Delichon dasypus cnshminiense

— nipalensis mn

Delphinium denudatum ee

saniculefolium

Dentalium octangulatum

Derris robusta

Desmanthus virgatus

Desmodium gangeticum

-—— laxiflorum a

—_—_--—— podocarpum

——_—-- -——- tilizfolium

Deutzia staminea

Dicze um concolor

-- erythrorhynchos

—— erythrorhynchos

Dicerorhinus sumatrensis

Dichoniopsis

Dichrostachys nutans

Disophylla auricularia

Diosopyros cordifolia

tomentosa ...

Diphtherocome orion

Dipterocarpus zeylanicus

Dipterygia doc eee

———

Dissemurus paradiseus nine eens a

Ditrema violacea ...

Dodona adonira

SS== roeates

—__——_--—- Bala

—__-____-— learmondi

naga

— dipoea dipcea ...

-—--—-- dracon

ee eee

putaoa ane

PAGE

195

355

365

328

430

332

250

344

371

340

184

338

-252

351

aud |

211

252

126

327

351

355

348

358

293

Zaz

424

354

389

378

42]

186

424

194

103

121

122

121

120

UAL

ee ee

INDEX OF SPECIES

Dodoneza triquetra

———n Ooo viscosa eve eee @eo

Doleschallia bisaltide kara

Donax scortum

Draco dussumieri

Dracocephalum Moldavica

Drinia crenularis

Dryobates cathparius

——~--——darjellensis ...

—— -- -— hardwickii Rarawicla

—_—_—- --— mahrattensis mahrattensis.

--— major

Dryophis pulverulentus

Dumetia hyperythra albogularis

Dysdercus cingulatus :

Earias

Echinops achigatas

Eclipta alba

Eleodendron glaucum

——-—- orientale

Elanus coeruleus vociferus

Elsholtzia cristata

Emberiza cia

Einberiza elegans

melanocephala

——-——- tristrami

Epeira diadema

Ephesia

Epilobium roseum

Ercheia

Eremostachys abantioealys

———-Vicaryi ..

Ergolis merione es

Eriboea eudamippus “erm tioare

—-—— nigrobasalis

— narcea thawgawa

Erigeron alpinus

——-——-- canadensis

————-— linifolius

Eriopus :

Erismatura iencore hala

Erolia testacea

Erythrina Blakei

————-- Crista-galli ...

——__-—— stricta

Eschscholtzia californica

Eublemmoides Kae Bae

Eucalyptus bicolor

—- affinis

—_——-- —— Bosistoana ...

—— -———. citriodora

PAGE

149

Vas)

325

45 |

388

334

253

492

195

253

200

193

427

374

373

146

196

389

252

194

252

428

364

428

389

211

110

109

371

aya

424

445

197

350

210

128

426

359

360

362

Kucalyptus cornuta .,,,

—— erebra

— exerta one

_——+-—_-+——. foecunda

—_——— gomphocephala

-———_—_—-—— hemiphloia..

——_—--—-- Kirtoniana

-——_— ——- Leucoxylon...

———- ——- loxophleba...

- melanophloia

———-——= melliodora ..

———---—-—. microcorys...

———-——-- microtheca...

ee a Ochropnioia

, ————- oleosa

——-- -——- paniculata ...

——__———-- patentinervis

-———--—— platyphylla...

——--———- platypus

—--- -—-— polyanthemos

——— -—— populifolia ..

—-—-——-- redunca

——_——_--—- resinifera

————-- rostrata

—_———-- rudis...

- salmonophloia

——~-——-- salubris

——_—_—_- siderophloia

———__——- tereticornis...

—— ——- Trabuti

————- uncinata

Euclidium syriacum

Eugenia bracteata

uniflora...

Jambolana

Eulima bivittata ...

Euonymus Hamiltonianus

—— japonicus

—— perdulus

Eupatorium conyzoides...

Euplexia

Euploea core

— mulciber mule

Euproctis subfasciata

Eupterote germinata

Euripus halitherses

Eurois

Euscotia

Eusemia bisma ...

Baserotias «.. Fife

XxXili

PAGE

360

363

360

361

360

362

361

363

360

361

362

361

362

361

363

362

361

362

ase 300

361

362

363

326

146

370

424

448

450

111

422

423

421

426

xxiv

Eutelia aoe ae

Euthalia confucius dene oe See

— duda amplifascia

——— — durga splendens

— eriphyle

— flora cooperi

garuda ...

——— julii anisakani

———— — kesava maymyeensis...

lenoba, .:.

————— nara

kalawrica,

nagaensis coe

Euthalia nara shania

——_——. narayana

———— sahadeva ose

—__————- thawgawa ...

Euxoa

Eysenhardtia awioT noes

Fagonia arabica ...

Farsetia Jacquemontii ...

Fedia sclerocarpa

Filago germanica

Finella virgata ;

Flacourtia Ramontchi ...

—— sepiaria

Flemingia congesta a3 va ace

—— fruticulosa

Foeniculum vulgare

Francolinus pictus

Franklinia gracilis gracilis

Fraxinus oxyphylla

Frerea indica *

Fringilla coelebs ... Ad Bcd

Fritillaria Roylei...

Fulica atra aan e

Fulvetta cinereiceps me nere ne

——-—— chrysotis forresti

———— vinipectus perstriata...

Fumaria parviflora

Galeopsis Tetrahit

Galium Aparine ...

—tricorne ...

Galphimia gracilis

Gardenia florida florida...

————- Thunbergia

Garrulax ocellata similis

———— rufogularis

Geniosporum prostratum

Geokichla citrina cyanotus ...

var. sapinda ..

PAGE

427

116

114

113

112

211

116

114

134

115

422

INDEX OF SPECIES

Geranium rotundifolium

Gerbera lanuginosa

Glareola maldivarum matdivencen

Glauces marinus... S00 580

Gleditschia triacanthos ...

Gnaphalium luteo-album

Goidbachia levigate

Gomphostemma crinitum

Gortyna ns

Grammatoptila SHEE come

Grammodes

Granatum punicum

Grangea maderaspatana

Grewia flavescens

- oppositifolia ...

——-- popullfolia

- salvifolia... obe one

- sapida

Gymnosporia Royleana...

Gynandropsis pentaphylla

Gypsophila cerastioides...

Hadena Bt

Hzmatospiza nai Sad

Hamiltonia suaveolens ... ee

Harpa conoidalis

Hectarthrum heros

Hedera Helix

Helicteres Isora ...

Helinus lanceolatus i

Heliotropium strigosum ae

Hemicircus canente cordatus ...

Hemidactylus flaviviridis

Hemipus picatus Soi

Heptapleurum venulosum

Heracleum candicans

Heritiera macrophylla ...

Hesperia alpina alpina ...

Herpestes urva S50

Hibiscus argentinus

— cannabinus.

-—_—— — ficulnens

———— Gibsoni

———— Rosa-sirensis ...

= Solandra © vite

——— tiliaceus

— vitifolius a ac6

Hippa asiatica

Hiptage Madablota

Hirundo smithii filifera...

Horaichthys setnai fs

Horeites fortipes... She

PAGE

143

375

He) 196

329

352

372

131

390

425

250

429

371

141

140

141

146

135

423

252

369

330

213

368

140

148

285

194

Fe a7)

198

368

367 |

140

448

183

139

139, 164.

139

324

142

195

201, 447

252

ee opp oe ag

Ss Se re

Hugonia Mystax

———— Planchoni

— serrata

Hyeena striata

Hybla

— puera

Hydatina velum ...

Hydroecia .. :

Hylobates Hpoloek

Hylcdes sed

Hymenocrater sessilifoltus

Hypeetra

Hypena Boe

Hypericum cernuum

—— patulum

Hyphilare ...

Hypocala ...

Hypolimnas bolina

— misippus

Hypopicus hyperythrus ...

Hyptis pectinate

——_——.- suaveolens

Hyssopus officinalis

Ianthina iricolor ...

— roseola ...

Ibidorhyncha struthersii

Ichthyophis glutinosus ...

——-~ monochrous

Ictinetus malayensis perniger

Ifloga Fontanesii...

Ilex Cassine

Indigofera cordifolia

—— echinata

——— —— hebepetala ...

————— hirsuta

————— pulchelila

—— tinctoria

Inula Cappa

Ipomcea palmata

Ischyja Peat

Isopterygium vane

Ithaginis cruentus kuseri

Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis ...

Ixonanthes cochinchinensis

Jasminum arborescens ...

—— auriculatum...

———-— humile

officinale

———-—— Pubescens

———-——_ rigidum

=———- —— Sambac

eee

INDEX OF SPECIES XXV

PAGE

167

438

430

292

332

425

434

430

390

429

430

137

423

430

Zee

AOL

253

391

329

254

195

O72

145

345

372

288

430

432

254

197

167

378

PAGE

Kaempfera Evansii B08 oe beer Wis y/4

Khadira ... : ae soa 450

Kittacincla Tinlabarica Rn abatioa ae ape be)

Koelpinia linaria ... ae ee Soup er aS)

Kydia calycina ... ar re .. 140

Lacera a ae, As nae .. = 430

Lactuca dissecta ... area cee con ovo

Leelia exclamationis aa a .. +286

Lagerstroemia anisoptera is we 364

indica oe 208, 288, 449

aoe floribunda ate me © 304

Flos-Reginz tr saz. 364

Laggera aurita ... Shc eae seen Ae

Lagoptera... se TA 00 oe aco

Lalage sykesi se ae a fee LO

Lallemantia Royleana ... a te OO

Lamium album net ies ieee 3008

Lanius isabellinus vs a so LOS

‘Laphygma ies oe as ss” 425

—— — exigua woe oe orn AL

Lathyrus Aphaca ne set fice MOtO

—inconspicuus ... ae .. 349

—-—-— sativus... oer ase joe O49

—-——— sphericus ae se wis He OAd

Launea asplenifolia ... sy i O70

— chondrilloides ... ie secu O16

— nudicaulis ait aot ieee a7

Lavandula bipinnata _... oan crite OOO

Lawsonia alba... as nee .. 364

Leioptila desgodinsi ... ee OU.

- - pulchella eeralegene eo EZ OU

Leonotis nepetefolia ... act Mint ee O00

Leontopodium alpinum... an nee OLE

Leonurus Cardiaca va cr .. 394

-—-- sibiricus sae ae ee OOD

Lepidium Draba ... i be tee, oO)

- sativum ats ibs eam 10)

Leptodermis lanceolata... ase ‘so O00

parkeri... ae ws, (309

Lespedeza eriocarpa ... Be ee O47

-—- sericea es “es cus GAY,

Leuceena glauca... oe: i cee OOO

Leucas aspera ... oes ae Peep, 00

—~—-— Cephalotes are Bes Pee eer ls

——-— linifolia... AY oe acele

martinicensis ... ae i OUT

——-— stelligera... an t same OO

—--— urticefolia ve vos ye oa

——-— zeylanica ae am Stn) ood

Limenitis austenia purpurascens... 116

————- - brunnea ies eA eo

“Bs

Xxvi LNDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE PAGE

Limenitis oberthuri rileyi a .» 116 | Makaira mitsukurii 103

—-— zayla... tec Se Jae kG -- mazara .. anc sic 103

Limonia acidissima aoe a ... 114 | Malachra alceefolia ... 300

Lissochilus dukai... .. 306 | ——-—— capitata 300

—— hendersoni ... bite .. 306 | ———--- conglomerata... 300

——— —— hutchinsoni... ay .. 306 | —- mexicana i 300

———-—— sumatranus .. Ane .. 306 | ——-—— rotundifolia 300

- —— tweediei ... aa .. 306 | Malcomia africana ae 129

Lithacodia ahi an i: won ZG —----———- var gracilis Pe)

Littorina malaccana ... a, jen shite) — strigosa get ko

-— undulata rae a .. 337 | Mangifera indica 212, 450

-— ventricosa... ar .. 338 | Mania ane oe. cae w. 424

Linum alpinum ... bes a .. 168 | Marginella ventricosa ... 335

angustifolium ... a .. 168 | Marrubium vulgare 398

—— austriacum sa a .. 168 | Medicago denticulata ... 344

—— catharticum a, xe .. 168 | — falcata... » 344

——— Chamissonis.... ae .. 168 | ——-—— laciniata 344

—— flavum ... ee es .. = 168 | ——-—-— Minima 344

——— gallicum ... tne sae .. 168 | Melaleuca Leucadendron 359

——— hirsutum ... sick fee .. 168 | Melanitis leda 211

—— Macrei ... ea ie ... 168 | Melia Azedarach ... 145

—— maritimum ae ats «- 168 | Melicleptria 427

———~- narbonense a aoe ... 168 | Melilotus alba ma 344

—— nodiflorum nae se re 168 -— corylifolia een Ae 344

———- perenne ... sare Ay OOS ly Saree ee ea aoe 344

—_ selaginoides ters wale 400 168 co parviflora 344

——— strictum ... Ss a 142, 168 | Melissa parviflora + 28399

—— suffruticosum ... a ... 168 | Mentha arvensis ... 399

—-— tenuifolium ace ere ose 168 — piperita ... 400

—— Thunbergii ee am, vee) 168 | ee cy lvestsis 401

—— usitatissimum ... a wate S08 - viridis : 401

viSCOSum... see a ... 168 | Meriandra bengalensis ... 402

Lobivanellus indicus indicus ... preemie: <: ‘9 Ed gene strobilifera .. 402

Lochnera pusilla .. see “H0 ... 280 | Michelia Champaca ao 126

Loepa newara nw eee --- 209 | Microcichla scouleri scouleri ... 251

Lonicera quinqueloculari ae « 368 | Microcystis eruginosa ... 75

————sempervirens ... wee ... 368 | Microhierax eutolmus ... 199

Lophoptera 2 se Se --- 427 | Microhyla ornata 62

Loxia curvirostra ose wee .. 252 | Micromeria capitellata ... Joo we aO2

Lycena tseng mandersi... se - 122 | Micropternus brachyurus jerdonii ... 195

Lycopus europzeus es .-- 398 | Micropus melba bakeri ... 188

Lymantria ampla ah is .. 212 | Microscelis sp. 251

Mabuya carinata... we REP oo 53 | Millettia ovalifolia 346

= macularia ee a ve 59 | Mimeusemia basalis 42]

Macroglossum gyrans ... ca .. 212 | Mimosa acerba... se) anoos

Mactra cygnus ... ais hes es ie 5) - himalayana aioe)

——-— mera dee an ey | peo | Mimosa*hamata 2 305

—-—— turgida ... an eet . 332 | ——-—- pudica ... aes 164

Meenas _... wae ane ae .. 430 | —-——- rubicaulis a OS

Merua arenaria ... 05 530 ... 132 | Mimusops Elengi 377

Makaira indica ... we bet 0703 Ce hexandre 378

Minolia impressa..,

Mocis

Modiolus feierns

Molluge hirta

nudicaulis

Moma Abe

Momordica dioica

Monima :

Monsonia neliomopioides

Monticola solitaria pandoo

Moschosma polystachium

Motacilla alba dukhunensis

Mucuna pruriens

Mudaria x

Murex orreractus

tribulus

virgineus ...

Murraya exotica...

— Koenigii

Musszenda frondosa

luteola

Mycalesis visala ...

Myriactis nepalensis

Myrmarachne manducator

— plataleoides

Myrsine semiserrata

Myrtus communis

Nasturtium officinale

——- palustre

Natica didyma

Nautilus pompilius

Nelumbium speciosum ...

Neosolen aquedulcioris ...

Nepeta Cataria

= Ciliaris

-elliptica ...

- glomerulosa

Nephelium tomentosum

Nephila maculata

Neptis ananta learmondi

——-—— namba

aspasia

berce eee

cartica cartica

melba gafuri ..?

pila

radha asterastilis

sankara guiltoides

zaida thawgawa...

Nerita albicilla

——_—— chameleon

_—————_—.

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

327

429

340

366

422

365

423

cas ae

ee 193

‘woe 403

ee OD

350

425

338

330,

330

144

238

237

283

371

174

170

54d

363

128

333

327

128

340

403

404

148

217

118

119

au,

119

337

Neritina siquijorensis

Neszea myrtifolia

Neslia paniculata

Nettion crecca

Ninox scutulata ene!

Nuculana mauritiana

Numenius arquata lineatus

——--—— pheopus phezopus...

Nymphea Lotus...

——~-—— stellata

Nyroca fuligula fuligula

~ rufa

Ochna squarrosa

Ocinara varians ...

Ocimum basilicum

——_——- canum ...

-—---—— gratissimum

———— sanctum

Odina Woodier

Oecophylla smaragdina

Oenanthe stolonifera _... fe

Olax nana

Olea cuspidata

ae europea eos eo tee ¢ae

Oligia

Oligomeris Pinaceae

Oliva gibbosa

—- ispidula

—~ oliva

Oncbrychis Stewartii

Ophideres ..

— + Fnilenies

Ophthalmis milete

Opuntia Dillenii ...

Origanum Majorana

——_~-—— vulgare

Oriolus xanthornus Heer pata as

Orthagoriscus mola

Orthosiphon stamineus

Oryzias melastigma

Oscillatoria Agardhii

Ostrea forskalii

Othreis :

Otostegia achert

———-- limbata

Ougeinia dalbergioides ...

Oxalis corniculata

corymbosa

latifolia

Pes-capree

«a0

Nucifraga caryocatactes yunnanensis.

RXV1i

PAGE

340

364

131

444

192

249

338

197

127

197

144

212

404

408

343

170

369

145

379

424

132

324

347

430

290

421

366

409

410

194

102

411

446

338

429

411

348

143

XXViii INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Pachyglossa melanoxantha ... iene

Peectes es a fas Ee ieaad

Peederia foetida ... Ce oe i neo)

Pandesma . * ae ae tice HAO

Pan operat jina sinoines ies mask ells

— opalina shan ae sate rea

——-——— punctata ... ty erp ly:

———_—— sulpitia adamsoni ... age Li:

—- zeroca whitei ihe Be LL.

Papaver Hookeri... = get os 228

Paphia callus -:;. Wee ae Lee OS

Papilio demoleus... eee ve oe eee

paris oe Hi ie aca eek

POV tESes ses Sposa db

Paradoxornis lalyitionel aibitacies Sue)

———— poliotis poliotis wus ve 249

-————-——-—— unicolor ... a w. 249

Parallelia ve — a ee 420

Parasa lepida ... wis ites poet 49

Parastichtis ats ae - .. 424

Parkinsonia aculeata ... se BSE

Parnassius simo simo ... an .- 448

Parrotia Jacquemontiana aoe Bie poh)

Parus ater emodius ... ses i es)

-——-- dichrous dichrous Ae oe eee

——-— major mahrattum ide ee eh los

——- rufonuchalis beavani.... soe 44)

Pasipeda ... BGs zs ae) 400

Passiflora cerulea-racemosa ... Sacee Cro)

a ae ae iy 2 O05

Pastor roseus ... sie ae a eos

Pavetta indica... : = ore 309.

Pavonia near P. ee ee, a 9

Pecten tranquebaricus ... a ee OeO

Peganum Harmala ae 353 we 9 843

Penisa es es ce ea G

Penthema Ginenennl eae aac fo

= - darlisa a aoe ea 2

— — lisarda ae tee porfeeegeed ke

Ferdicula asiatica as‘atica es bo 4196

Pericyma ... Fe ie aes mee ass)

Perilla ccimoides ra a peed

Perina nuda a, eats we le eee

Perissospiza icteroides ay Seen seo,

Perowskia atriplicifolia ae Pepe ree: k72

-——- abrotanoides =e Rapes Oe

Petelia medardaria _... op sdy |) Zacks}

Phalacrocorax carbo sinensis... aoe st 192

Phalium areola ... a a. von COR

Phaseolus aconitifolius ... con wae oo

Phasianus colchicus ... an ae eon

Phidippus clarus

——-———- mcecookii

——--—— purpuratus

Philzeus militaris

Philagria entella

Philantus bombayensis

Philomachus pugnax :

Phoenicopterus ruber paniquocie

Phoenicurus frontalis

a schisticeps

Phoenix sylvestris

Phragmatiphila ...

Phyllophila :

Phylloscopus proregulus

puleher oz. ase

subaffinis

Physaloptera archari

Phytometra

Picridium tingitatuim

Picus mahrattensis

Pieris ovalifolia aes Sa

Piptadenia nitida

Pistacia integerrima ... aco

Pithecolobium dulce

oo ——— - saman

Pitta oatesi ee ae

Pittosporum floribundum

~—— phillyrzeoides

— -—— Tobira

Placenta placenta

Planaxis sulcatus

Platalea leucorodia major

Platystoma africanum ...

Plaxiphora indica do

Plegadis falcinellus (alcincile

Plotheia

Pluchea Ianeneaee

Plumbago capensis

Plusiodonta :

Pnoepyga albiventer aibicentoe

Pogostemon Heyneanus

-~—— parviflorus

plectranthoides

purpurascens — =...

Polia ae e

Polyalthea ieneote a

Polydelphis rotundicaudatus ..,

Polydorus aristolochicize

——-—— hector

Polygala abyssinica

-_———- chinensis

PAGE

38,

177

176

174

212

197

251

184

425

426

252

429

375

198

376

354

342

357

217

253

134

340

337

197

412

137

192

427

a7 2

376

430

251

413

423

127

211

134

INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE

Polygala erioptera 134

— Hohenackeriana 134

Polygonum amplexicaule 453

Polytela > ... 200 siete 423

Pomatorhinus horsfieldi 193

Pongamia glabra es 302

Porphyrinia 426 |

Porthesia scintillans 212

Portulaca oleracea 136 |

Porzana bicolor... ae 254 |

Pratapa vidura vidura ... 123

Proxentus ... a 425

Precis lemonias ... ves Zaye

-— orithya 211

Primula erosa re 377

Procarduelis nipalensis 252 |

Proden‘a oe 425 |

————- litura ... ’ 212

Propyrrhula Pahiimacnald 2a

Prosopis alba 354

— juliflora 354

— specigera 354

Prospalta 425

—— ——— capensis 43

Prunella strophiata tne Os ae

Prunus communis Mar mele)

Psammogeton canescens 368

Pseudogyps bengalensis 439 |

Psidium cattleianum 363

—.-— pumilum 363

Psittacula columboides 192

— eupatria subsp. 195

Psoralea plicata 345

Pterocles alchata 440

-— exustus 440

Pterodroma aterrima ¥ eae los

Pteruthius erythropterus yunnanensis. 250

—- - melanotis melanotis 250

_ -- rufiventer rufiventer 251

--———-—- xanthochloris pallidus 250

Puffinus persicus 197

Pulicaria orispa ... 00 S/o

Punica florida is 36

- granatum Adis vere

- grandiflora ts see 37,

- nana 37

- Spinosa 37

Pupalia lappacea a 162

Pyramidella terebellum ... 326

Pyrene terpsichore 337

Pyrois 424

KIX

PAGE

Pyrotrogon wardi 253

Pyrrhia a 425

Pyrrhoplectes epaniea 202

Pyrrhula erythaca 252

Pyrus communis 358

Querquedula neeradedals 137

Rana cyanophilictis 58

-—— hexadactyla a,

——- leithii ot)

-—— malabarica 60

——.- rufescens 59

-——— tigrina | 58, 200, 215

Randia tetrasperma 369

Ranunculus aquatilis 125

~—— arvensis 126

—-muricatus ... 126

———--—— pen nsylvanicus 126

-—— sceleratus 126

Rapala schistacea ae 41

Rapana bulbosa 320

Recurvirostra avocetta 254

Reinwardtia trigyna 169

Reptonia buxifolia 347

Rhacophorus maculatus 60

Rhamnus pentapomica 147

= - persicus 147

——--——. ‘riqueter 147

—— ——- virgatus 147

Rheum webbianum 453

Rhineodon typus au2o5

Rhinoceros sondaicus ... ee 152, 223

— sumatranus 152

Rhinodon typicus 102

Rhoea Punica 37

Rhus copallina 342

-—- levigata 342

——- rhodanthum 342

——- semialata 342

Rhyacia ar wv» 422

Rhynchosia minima 285, 2905551

—- sericea 351

Rimella cancellata 332

Riparia concolor... 194

'- rupestris 194

Risoba 427

Rosa multiflora ie ae 358

Roucheria Griffithiana ... aise 169

Rousettus leschenauiti 184

Roylea elegans 414

Rubia cordifolia ... 239

Ruburs faticosus 358

SOX

Ruta graveolens ...

Sageretia Brandrethiana

Saitis barbipes

Salix babylonica

Salvia zegyptiaca

cabulica

——— glutinosa ...

lanata

macrosiphon

moorcroftiana

plebeia

spinosa

Sameodes cancellalis

Saponaria Vaccaria

Sarrothripus

Satureia hortensis

Saussurea albescens

——~—— candicans

—— --—— sacra

Saxicola torquata aiee

Scabiosa Olivieri

Schinus dependens

Schinus molle

Schoenobius bipunctifer

Schotia brachypetala

Scolopendra sf. ...

Scopula emissaria

Scotogramma

Scrobigera proxima

Scuteliaria galericulata

Selenarctos thibetanus ...

Senecio Coronopifolius

Sepia prashadi

Serissa foetida ...

Sesamia Ae

Sesbanié a hers

Sendyra transiens

Shorea robusta

Sida cordifolia

—— grewioides ..

— humilis

== TNOMItOlia-...

—— spinosa

Sideridis

-— percussa

Siegesbeckia orientalis .,.

Silene arenosa

- conoidea ...

- Falconeriana

~— terebinthifolius

—— egyptiaca vee

PAGE

143

147

177 |

209

414

415

-415

415

415 |

415

416

212

leisy |

427

416

374

452

193

370

343

342 |

Beh

354 |

215

294

423

421

416

436

374 —

S27

370

426

346

421 |

137

138 |

SY)

138 |

138)

423

212 |

373

135

INDEX OF SPECIES

Simyra

Sisymbrium Come

-———--———— Irio ... : ee

—— ——-——. var. dissectum

—_—— rupestre

——— ——- strictum

-—— Thalianum...

Sitana ponticeriana

Sitta himalayensis iiradlapenes

Smaragdia oualaniensis...

Solen annandalei...

—-— lamarckii

Soletellina diphos

Solidago Virga-aurea

Sonchus arvensis...

——-——- oleraceus

Sophora mollis... me ae

-~ secundiflora

Speleornis longicaudatus amriengen

—— souliei

Spergula arvensis

-— pentandra

— rubra

Spermacoce hispida

Sphetta

Sphex edax

Spindasis ictis

Spinus thibetanus

Spireea prunifolia

Spodoptera

——- mauritia

Stachys palustris...

— parviflora

—- Sieboldi ...

sylvatica...

Standella pellucida

Staphylea Emodi...

Stellaria media

Stephegyne parvifolia

Sterculia diversifolia ,..,

Sterna albifrons albifrons

aurantia ...

Stictoptera soe

Stigmaphyllon periplocefolium

Streptopelia orientalis meena .

Strombus sibbaldii)

—--~ succinctus

——_~-—— vittatus

Strongyluris calotis

Sturnia malabarica blythii

--——_ malabarica

PAGE

422

130

129

249

- 340

341

325

37i

376

351

352

251

136

370

426

209

212

252

358

425

212

417

339

149

135

369

140

196

192

427

142

196

332

194

INDEX OF SPECIES KKX!

PAGE

Sturnopastor contra contra... pace va Go)

Surendra learmondi tae - He OA

Surnicul us lugubris be: i ee eS,

Sunetta scripta ... Me ee BeBe)

Sylviparus modestus mnoresuiee ea:

Symbrenthia brabira don! ... see ILI)

Syngrapha... aes ane occ ee a70

Syntomis passalis ay sae LOS

Tachornis batasiensis ... Bob . 440

Tamarix articulata ee ie fc aloO

dioica ... ee Ape 236

————— Parkeriana ... aS ae 1

~- Troupii... er site noo | es)

Tantalus leucocephalus ... ae ieee LUO

Sorel © gay ignite ae eee ers gular mia 740

- Tarentula barpipes im ae ee eT.

Tarsiger cyanurus a oh ae Zoe

—- indicus yunnanensis... Pieri)

efarucus nara ... ate ais a eee

Taverniera nummularia... 1 Oy:

Tchitrea paradisi paradisi ue ee LUO

Telchinia vicle ... Ses a beth oa

- Telescopium telescopium ay we = AO

Tephrodornis gularis pelvica ... bic, ree ler

Tephrosia Hamiltonii ... ... 2 7346.)

——-———--- purpurea... one Hee 2340)

—_——--- tenuis... ae au fe 2 S46

Terebra eximia ... a on Te wee

--tenera ... an ies one = 7300

Teredo clava 300 a) ae Soe ee)

Terminalia Arjuna nor ae sg eR

— belerica nes ae fk 359

Teucrium scordium _.... te Breet kaj T|

————-- Stocksianum ... ies we 418

Thais bufo ae “cio are ics O00

—--rudolphi ... bs ee ae OOO

Thalasseus bergii Lae mah ee 192

Thalictrum foliolossum... ae Me dla)

Thelaudros maplestoni ... jaa me oe

‘Theretra lycetus... a on 210, 449

Thespesia populnea _... ee bo kee

Thlaspi arvense ... se ee Pte SO

Thosea loesa ote oe sae. CON,

Threskiornis Pris nceopiatis sate 198

= ——-— melano-

cephalus .. tes soe Ys

Thriponax javanensis ... oon eG

Thymus serpyllum wee te fo © 249

Tilia cordata Jan aes eaele ee nel

—-vulgaris ... 0... ae ged

Gainolius ... Aan a oO |

PAGE

Tinospora cordifolia... ele, 290, 202

Tiracola ~... ae aoe ae eet 1 e2G

Tonna dolium ... fs sae Sew es,

Trachea... Sa Ane ae ed ae

Trapa bispinosa ats ts oF clon

Trianthema crystallina ... aie ae 2o00

-—— pentandra ....... wh S00

Tribulus alatus ... 1 AFD pe RD

——-—— terrestris Pes an hae NA

Tricosanthes cucumerina ime O05

Tridax procumbens oie ec fe 89

Trigonella Foenum-grecum ... SOA EoaS

Tripheena ... ae are As swe ee

Trisidos tortuosa au, ee see OOD

Trisula variegata ves : see

Trochalopterum affine eieeaien ee ay)

——_——_-——-=— — subunicolor ... dg ee)

Trochosa ruricola Se SHEE at

Troglodytes troglodytes Ripsicasic 2s col

Tudicla spirillus ... ies uf Ose oe

Tujuria luculentus Inculentus . Baa che 38)

—-——-~-~mantra .. ee se rea eles

~ yajna ellisi Se ‘ae ee Oke

Turdus dixoni ... . eA

— mollissima Holl esi te aae

—naumanni eunomus ... i.) 20

— obscurus aes ast ae ah ot

- rubrocanus gouldi sr te ol

Turnaca acuta see wae et 28H

Turritella duplicata ae wae see O39

Tylototriton verrucosus as a 63

Umbonium vestiarium ... aah i. ae SS

Unona discolor ... tee ae Bima CAS)

Uraria neglecta ... see aie . 348

Urena lobata ee es en wel3S

Urocissa flavirostris Aevarostns Se ad)

Ursus arctos tas ee oss 830

Wtetheisagloteixe’.) |,.th2e) ss ee oss 2A

Vanessa cardui aureum an vay Ae LS

urticae chinensis a Brice lea)

Vernonia cinerea =, ve a ene

Viburnum cotinifolium ear Pena elole:

~——--——— coriaceum .... a ae OOD

Varanus monitor sae Se Pe 56

Viburnum stellulatum ... ies ea O08

Vicia bithynica ... — sie 349

——-Griffithii ... as es .. 349

——- hirsuta £7, ae aoe ee | OA

——- pallida ae oe pe eee OLS

—- sativa — aes oe 1». 349

Vicoa vestita BAe ae ee - 3/2

X xxii INDEX OF SPECIES

PAGE | PAGE ©

Viola cinereay. ©... abe ih .. 133 | Xylomania aoe sd Ae 2)

==. Patrinti 4. «4. > 8 183" |) XylosMa lonsifoltum 7). | ee

———- serpens Bo: ves sat .. - 133 , Ypthima hubneri 406 seis waa 39

-——-tricolor ... ee ea ... 133 | Yuhina bakeri ... ahs si . 250m

Vitis arborea... te 2 ieee eae diademata ee eater ate ae I

——-Jacquemontii .... es .. 148 -——-—- gularis gularis ... oN: .. 250mm

——- trifolia ce de oy ie ese ——-nigrimentum ... Se > 20m

Volutarella divaricata ... ae Sg —occipitalis obscurior ... . 2007

Volva sowerbyana ee a 3324) Zatania anulinora ae

Wendlandia exerta wee Nee we 9869" Ziphias Gladius <0) 7.20 st.) se

-——— puberula ... A .. 369 Zizeeria trochilus aes le!

Westermantia ... oo Bc «. 428 Ziziphora clinopodioides ae +20

Woodfordia floribunda ... Re ay ele a ~~ tenuior oe 03) .. 2200

Xancus pyrum ... oa ahs .. 332 Zizyphus Hysudricus rie we 147

- rapa ue aM Sep woe =«=3932 ————-- Juiuba - 146, 284, 289, 293 7

Xanthium Strumarium ... iv .. 373 ——-—— oxyphylla_... ie Lok rn

Xanthoxylum alatum ... a .. 144 | ——-—— Spina-Christi ... Ss . da 7a

Xenophora solaris ve : 332 | ——-—— vulgaris ao! Ae . 147g

Xiphiramphus superciliaris forresti... 250 | Zornia diphylla ... Se oth . 348m

PRINTED At THE DIOCESAN PRESS, MADRAS—1942, C7682

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WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT MAHSEER. Editors

MASCEELANEOUS NOTES :—

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II. A Largé Panther—(A eae ne ms Yashodaar Singh

of Khilchipur ,

Ill. The Short-nosed Fruit-bat (Copopterts caine) as an Recat

of seed dispersal in the Wild Date gee sylvestris

L.). By C. McCann a ae

PAGE

109

124

181

182

1V.

XVI.

XVII.

XVITT.

XIX.

XXII.

XXIII.

XXIV.

XXV.

XXVI.

XXVIT.

XXVIII.

XXIX,

CONTENTS OR Vole Crier orn ar

Jungle and House Crows as ee of Game, oe

K. S. Dharmakumarsinhji i

Notes on the nesting of Legge’s ribaecpeeeee at venir

hynchus vincens [Sclater]). By Cicely Lushington,

(with a plate) ae agi ane ee

The Occurrence of the Yellow-bellied Flowerpecker

(Pachyglossa melanoxantha Hodgs.) at Almora, U. P.

By= Sant.) ebakater,

Drones Gace Su yniculus

The Occurrence of the

lugubris Horsf.) in the alas By Mrs. A. B. M.

| Way i 4

A Note on the ee Swift uGiiseropes icles poner

Hartert), By C. McCann, F.L.s. §,

Vultures ‘feeding’ at night. By E. S. Rewis. oe

Injuries to the feet of a Mallard. By W. P. Keelan ..

Additional Notes on the Birds of Bombay and Salsette.

By Humayun Abdulali and Salim Ali ee

Some Birds of Lower Burma. By J. A. M. Symns ...

Some Birds of the Oil fields, Burma. J. A. M. Symns

Birds eating Butterflies. By S. F. Hopwood, L¥F-.s.

The many Banded Krait (Bungarus multicinctus) in

Burma. By J. A. M. Symns SAA

Extension of the range of the Brown Whip

(Dryophis pulverulentus Jan.) By C. McCann

Frog eating a Snake. By R. K.

Notes on the Geographical distribution and

propensities of eas setnai Kulkarni.

Job, M.sc.

Notes on the Early stages in the ‘igbargeenens of the

Deccan Killifish Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.).

By 3S. Jones, M.Se., ands (73 J Job, iesc.; ae two

text-figures) 5 :

Butterflies attracted My moist eae

F.R.E.S.

On the larva of the sat (Gireute Winer estiaia) and hs

destruction of the cocoons ey Tree Shrews. et Rows

Parsons, F.R.E.S.

Lagerstroemia indica as a food vente ‘of the Silk Moth

(Actias selene). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.

The Weeping Willow (Salix babylonica) as a food Sian

of the Moth Loepa katinka Westw. a Reals:

Parsons, F.R.E.S.

The Wood-cutting Wasp (Sphex eine Bingham) and its

prey in Salsette. By C. McCann

Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. ie orruen by Piachinid

flies. By C. McCann.

March Lepidoptera at Gopalpur

D. G. Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S.

Some insects from a Mango trunk (Mansifera Rue L.)

By C. McCann

Insects at a street lamp at Roane

Some Indian Spiders: Their season of prosperity.

T. V. Subrahmanyam : ;

Theft of a watch by a Fiddler Cae

Proceedings of the Annual General Meeting—1939

Snake

larvicidal

By AN fs

(Dist. Ganjam). By

ae Violet Dickson

Dharmakumarsinhji ...

By R. E. Parsons

By G. Meoann ae

PAGE

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IQI

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20I

ro ba

JouRN. BomBAy Nat. Hist. Soc.

BAUHINIA GALPINI N. E.

(93°4 per cent nat. size)

PLATE 5.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

1940. NW OLA Wels No. 1.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

INE ee BOR* UMUAS SCHR UeSi) Iv F Ss;

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. Ratzapa, M.SC.,

Assistant Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

ParRT V.

(Continued from Vol, xli, No. 4 (1940), p. 690).

(With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 7 text-figures).

Bauhinia Linn.

The genus Bauhinia was created in honour of the brothers Jean

and Caspar Bauhin, French herbalists of the sixteenth century, in

consequence of most of the species having their leaves composed

of two lobes, which are either quite separate, or, more frequently,

joined by a portion of their inner margins. This arrangement of

the leaves was considered to be symbolic of the great services the

two brothers had rendered to science. |

The genus belongs to the family Caesalpineae, which was formerly

considered to be a subsection of the Leguminosae, or sweet-pea

family. The flowers are, however, not papilionaceous and the

Caesalpineae is considered to be distinct from, though closely

allied to, other sections of the Leguminosae, Papilionatae and

Mimoseae, and like them has keen given full family rank.

Blatter and Millard in Beautiful Indian Trees have treated two

tree species, B. variegata and B. purpurea, but the genus contains

a number of other species, shrubs and climbers, which are culti-

vated in gardens in this country on account of their showy flowers

or handsome foliage.

The characters of the genus are as follows :—

Trees, shrubs or climbers, the latter with tendrils. Leaves

alternate, compound, usually consisting of two leaflets which are

WAR 24 1%)

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

joined together by the lower part of their inner margins, simulat-

ing a 2-lobed leaf. The top of the common rib or nerve between

the 2 leaflets is produced as a small spur; a vestigial structure

which represents the remains of the rhachis of the compound leaf.

The flowers are showy and are arranged in simple or panicled,

terminal or axillary racemes. Calyx tube sometimes long and

cylindrical, sometimes short and turbinate, with the disk produced

to the top; limb entire or spathaceous or cleft into 2 or 5 teeth.

Petals 5 in number, slightly unequal, usually narrowed at the base

into a claw, variously coloured, ranging from red to purple, white

or yellow. Stamens 1o or reduced to 5 or 3, if less than 10 with

sterile filaments absent or present; filaments free, filiform. Anthers

versatile, dehiscing longitudinally. Ovary seated on a_ stalk

(gynophore); ovules usually many. The style is long or short

and usually curved, ending in an oblique or terminal stigma. The

fruit is a linear pod, dehiscent or indehiscent.

In many species the fowers are fragrant, and this characteristic

combined with their showy appearance points to pollination through

the agency of insects. |

It is well known that the cotyledons of dicotyledonous seedlings,

which are widely spread during the day, press their inner surfaces

together during the night in order to prevent loss of heat and to

protect the tender first leaves. This phenomenon is particularly

well seen in the seedlings of all Bauhinias. The cotyledons, more-

over, seem to function as ordinary foliage leaves to some extent,

as well as performing their role of reservoirs of food.

Bauhinia Vahliu, a climber, often reaches a length of over

100 yards and scrambles over the tallest trees. The exceedingly

tough and fibrous bark of this particular species had, and still has,

a great reputation as a suitable material for making strong ropes.

Before steel came into use, ropes made from this species were

used to carry suspension bridges. About the middle of the 19th

century the ropes for the suspension bridge over the Jumna at

Kalsi were made from the bark of B. Vahlii.

The bark of certain Indian species smoulders very slowly when

set alight. This property was made use of in bygone days to con-

struct the slow matches whereby primitive artillery were discharged.

Now-a-days such torches are often carried by cattle-boys to free

themselves from the attention of sandflies and other insects.

KEY TO THE SPECIES.

Erect of prostrate shrubs.

Stems spiny. Ae of seit ... B. candicans.

Stems not spiny.

Stamens Io.

Flowers usually in axillary pairs . B. tomentosa.

Flowers in axillary racemes. . B. acuminata.

Stamens 3 . B. Galpint.

Climbers.

Stems flattened and undulate ... . B. anguina.

Stems cylindrical.

Leaves very large, 4 in. to 18 in. long ... » B. Vahlii.

Leaves small not longer than 1.5 in. . B. corymbosa.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3

Bauhinia candicans Benth.

(candicans means hoary, covered with white hairs).

Fig. 1.--Bauhinia candicans Benth. x 2/3.

Description.—-A shrub or small tree with zigzag, very hoary,

tomentose branches. Leaves compound, 2-3 in. long, ovate or

somewhat oblong, shallowly cordate at the base, 2-lobed for one-

third or almost to the base, with the common midrib produced as

a short spur, 11-13-nerved from the base; glabrous on the upper

surface, very hoary below, petiolate, stipulate; lobes obtusely

rounded at the top; petioles hoary, up to 1 in. long; stipules

represented by a pair of stout thorns.

Flowers few, in axillary racemes. Pedicels short. Calyx tube

short, turbinate, hoary. Calyx-limb spathaceous; segments valvate

and connate in the bud, shortly 5-lobed at the apex, up to 2.5 in.

long, densely and shortly hairy outside. Petals 5, free, long-clawed,

with a pronounced midrib, spathulate, creamy-white in colour,

opening at night. Stamens 10; 5 on short, 5 on long filaments;

filaments bound together at the base by a short membrane which

is apparently a prolongation of the disk. Ovary seated on a long

gynophore, hairy, glabrescent, ending above in a long style and

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

capitate stigma. Pod dehiscent, very leathery, polished, 3-4 in.

long.

Teloiiers = Saneayale Fruits.—Oct.-Nov.

Distribution.—A native of Brazil, now commonly cultivated

throughout the plains of India.

Gardening.—An almost evergreen shrub with large creamy white

flowers which usually open in Dehra during the night and last only

for a day. Easily raised from seed.

Bauhinia tomentosa Linn.

St.. Thomas-Tree.

(tomentosa is a Latin word meaning hairy and refers to the

hairness of the leaves and pods).

Fig. 2.—Bauhinia tomentosa Linn. xX 1/1.

Description.—A handsome shrub which sometimes grows into

a small tree. Leaves compound, on slender petioles up to 1 in.

long, stipulate; stipules long, subulate, hairy. Leaf-blade of two

M. N. Bakshi

‘ Bauhinia acuminata Linn.

AULA ACUMIMALA “111 )1

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS | 5)

connate leaflets, coriaceous, 1-2 in. long, broader than long,

7-g-nerved from the base, glabrous on the upper surface, tomen-

Pose below, 2-!obed; ene rounded at the apex; Pe culation

conspicuous.

Flowers axillary in pairs (sometimes 1 or 3) on pedicels bearing

a pair of subulate persistent bracteoles. Calyx tube short, covered

with appressed pubescence; limb spathe-like with 2 small teeth at

the apex in bud, splitting down one side when the flower opens,

about .5 in. long. Corolla of 5 distinct petals. Petals obovate

in shape, .75-2 in. long, not clawed, yellow in colour, conspicuously

veined, one with a red blotch on the inner surface. Stamens ro in

number arising from the lip of the calyx tube; anthers sagittate.

Ovary on a gynophore; style nearly .75 in. long. Pod dehiscent,

stalked, 4-5 in. long, 6-10-seeded, tomentose or glabrous.

Flowers. —August-Oct. Fruits.—Dec.-Feb.

Distribution.—Throughout India, wild or cultivated, extending to

China and tropical Africa. Now commonly cultivated in the tropics

of both the old and the new worlds.

Gardening.—A handsome shrub. New foliage and young parts

downy brown. Flowers sulphur-yellow, drooping. Easily raised

from seed sown in April. This shrub is partially deciduous in

Dehra. According to J. D. Hooker it was introduced to the Royal

Gardens, Kew, in 1860.

Medicinal and economic uses.—The wood oe this species is tough

and the heartwood black. It was formerly used in Java for the

handles and sheaths of krises (Burkill).

The bark, root and leaves are said to be efficacious as poultices

for boils. The plant is also said to be anti-dysenteric, anthelmintic

and of value in liver complaints.

Bauhinia acuminata Linn.

(acuminata is a Latin word meaning sharp pointed, and refers

to the lobes of the leaf).

Description.—An erect shrub with reddish-brown branches

covered with minute hairs. Leaves alternate, stipulate; stipules

lanceolate-subulate, covered with short hairs. Petioles 1-1.5 in.

long, swollen at the base and apex, downy. Compound leaf-blade

g-11-nerved from the base, the common midrib being produced as

a very short spur, orbicular in shape, acuminately 2-lobed, thinly

coriaceous in texture, glabrous above, pubescent on the nerves

beneath, 3-6 in. long.

Flowers a pure white, close, shortly peduncled, in axillary,

corymbose racemes. Calyx tube about .3 in. long; limb spathe-

like up to 1.5 in. long in the bud, ending above in 5 short subulate

hairy lobes. As the flower opens the calyx splits along one side,

becomes retlexed and eventually divides into five segments below.

Petals 2 in. long, .75 in. wide, oblong-obtuse, white, not clawed

but rounded at the base, seated on the margin of the calyx tube.

Stamens 10, filaments white, of various lengths; anthers yellow,

versatile, hairy. Ovary on a gynophore at the base of the calyx

tube. Style short, .5 in. long; stigma a 2-lobed disk. Pod pendent

6 JOURNAL, (BOMBAY NATURAL HIST “SOGHETY,) VolseXxL ir

from a .5 in. stalk, 4-5 in. long, .9 in. broad, firm, glabrous,

6-12-seeded, with a rib on each side of the upper suture.

Fig. 3.—Bauhinia acuminata Linn. X 2/3.

Flewers.—March-May. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—Indigenous to Central India, Ceylon, Malaya and

China. Very frequently cultivated in gardens all over the country.

Gardening.—This is one of the most satisfactory species of

Bauhinia for cultivation in the open. It is quite frost hardy and

starts flowering when the plants are only a few months old and

but a foot or so high. According to Aiton’s ‘Hortus Kewensis’

it was introduced from India into England by Dr. Francis Russell

and flowered at Kew in the month of May and June. It grows

readily from seed and bears its numerous, large, snow-white flowers

practically all the year round but chiefly during March-May.

‘eruryneg s,utdyes

Mq 0,04

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS fe

Bauhinia Galpini N. E. Brown.

Galpin’s Bauhinia.

(This plant was named in honour of E. E. Galpin, who was one

of the earliest collectors of the species).

Description.—A rambling prostrate shrub with hairy stems.

Leaves alternate, stipulate, consisting of two leaflets connate by

their inner margins, with the common midrib produced as a minute

spur, obtusely 2-lobed, 7-nerved, broader than long, up to 3 in.

broad, minutely pubescent with white hairs on the lower surface;

margins and under surface thickly or sparsely covered with yellow

glandular exudations; petiole about .5 in. long.

Flowers brick-red or crimson in colour, borne in 2-r10-flowered

axillary racemes. Peduncles very short. Calyx tube up to 1 in.

long, rather stout, somewhat striate, dark red in colour, sparsely

covered with yellowish glandular exudations. Calyx limb at first

spathe-like, reddish but appearing to be striped with yellow from

the production of a glandular yellow substance, becoming reflexed

after the flower opens and splitting down one side, subsequently

dividing into 5 segments at the base which remain connate at

the top. Petals 5, inserted at the top of the calyx tube, 1-1.5 in.

long, clawed, the claw being as long as the limb. Limb orbicular

in shape, cuspidate, rather undulate on the margins. The inner

surface of the petals is clear red, the outer surface being dotted

all over with yellow particles. Stamens 3 in number, inserted at

the top of the calyx tube, together with seven very short, subulate

staminodes. Filaments red, anthers versatile. Ovary linear, seated

on a gynophore 3 in. long, covered with short white hairs and

yellow glandular exudations. Style thick; stigma globose. Pod

3-5 in. long; seeds dark brown.

This plant will often be found to be covered with ants which

come to feed upon the yellowish product of the glands.

Flowers.—Sept.-Oct. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.—Indigenous to the Transvaal and adjacent tropical

Africa; commonly cultivated in gardens in the plains throughout

India. )

Gardening.—This fine species, which in its native country is said

to be a climber is found only as a straggling or prostrate shrub

in India. It thrives better on a well-drained soil and bears its

bright scarlet flowers profusely during Sept.-Oct. Propagated by

seed which germinates rather sparingly. The seedlings are liable

to damp off during the rains if not properly looked after. This

beautiful shrub is well worth growing in spite of the initial

difficulties of propagation.

Bauhinia anguina Roxb.

Snake Climber.

(anguina means snake-like and refers to the peculiar stems of this

species).

Description.—A woody cirrhose climber with very peculiar com-

pressed flattish stems, alternately concave and convex in the central

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

portion, with stout margins. This is an adaptation to take strain.

The majority of the sap vessels are in the corrugated part so

that if tension is applied the strain is taken by the margins and

Fig. 4.—Bauhinia anguina Roxb. X 2/3.

the ascent of sap is not impaired. Leaves alternate, densely tomen-

tose when young, glabrous when old, thin, 2-5 in. long, shortly

lobed or with 2 very long acuminate lobes. On old plants the

leaves are often quite entire and acuminate,

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 9

The flowers are very small for the genus and are arranged

racemosely in lax, pubescent, terminal panicles. Individual flowers

seated on very short pedicels. Calyx very small about .05 in.

long, broadly campanulate, with 5 deltoid teeth. Petals 5, oblong-

lanceolate in shape, about .1t in. long. Fertile stamens 3. Pod

thin flat, oblong or elliptic, glabrous, indehiscent, 1.5-2 in. long,

1-2 seeded.

Flowers und fruits. —Cold season.

Distribution.—Sikkim Tarai, ascending to 2,000 ft., Khasi hills,

Chittagong, Martban, Malabar and Travancore.

Fig. 5.—Stem of Bauhinia anguina Roxb.

A.—A surface view of the strap-shaped stem.

B.—A longitudinal section of the stem seen sideways to show the sinuous

centre portion.

Gardening.—A large evergreen climber having a curious stem

and small inconspicuous white flowers. According to Roxburgh

‘the most regularly serpentine pieces of the stems and large branches

are carried about by our numerous mendicants to keep off serpents’.

Easily propagated by seed or layers.

Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A.

Camel’s foot Climber.

(This species was called after Martin Vahl, a Danish botanist,

1749-1804).

Description.—-A gigantic climber, with densely pubescent branches

and abundant circinate tendrils, mostly leaf-opposed. Leaves com-

pound, alternate, petiolate, deeply cordate at the base, lobed at

the top, 11-15-nerved from the base, almost orbicular in shape,

10 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCTE RY A Vom

up to 18 in. long, sparsely ‘hairy on the upper surface, densely

ferrugineous-tomentose on the lower surface; petiole 3 in. long.

Fig. 6.—Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A. X 2/3.

Flowers numerous, arranged in long-peduncled, terminal, dense,

subcorymbose racemes. Individual flowers seated on _ pedicels

1-2.5 in. long, with persistent bracteoles at the base. The whole

inflorescence is covered with a dense rusty tomentum. Calyx tube

short, it and the limb very hairy; limb splitting into 3-5 valvate

segments when the flowers open and becoming reflexed. Petals 5,

white fading to yellow, shortly clawed, broadly spathulate in shape,

spreading, glabrous within, covered on the outside with rusty

villae. Stamens 3, fertile; a number of staminodes may be found

on the lip of the calyx tube. Ovary on a short gynophore, very

densely hairy as is also the style. Pod woody, up to 12 in. long

finally dehiscent, velvety, 8-12-seeded.

Flowers.—April-June. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distribution.--Subhimalayan tract and outer valleys ascending

to 3,000 ft. from the Chenab eastwards, chiefly in sal forests;

Assam, Bihar, Western Peninsula.

Gardening.—TVhis gigantic woody climber needs plenty of space

for its growth. It is useful for covering unsightly embankments and

the like. Easily raised from seed. It is one of the most distinctive

climbers in the Indian forests. The trunk may reach a girth

of 4 feet and is often deeply fluted. When cut down shoots more

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc.

Photo by M.N. Bakshi

Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 11

than 50 feet long may be produced in one season, and for this

reason it is difficult to eradicate this plant which is considered a pest

by forest officers.

It is known as Camel’s foot Climber as the leaves are very

much the size and shape of a camel’s footprint.

Medicinal and economic uses.—The large leaves are used as

plates by the local inhabitants, who also value the seeds as a source

of food. To extract the seeds the pods are placed in the fire. The

bark yields a strong fibre which is used for making ropes. The

stem produces a valuable tanning material. The seeds are said to

possess tonic and aphrodisiac qualities.

Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb.

(corymbosa refers to the arrangement of flowers in the inflorescence

which are described as corymbose, but in Dehra they are decidedly

racemose).

Fig. 7.—Bauhinia corymbosa Roxb. xX 1/1.

Description.—A woody climber, branching from the ground, with

grooved branches and circinate tendrils. Leaves compound, 1-2 in.

long, divided almost to the base; common midrib very short, pro-

duced into a short spur; lobes rounded. The two leaflets fold to-

gether at night. Petiole up to 1 in. long, swollen at base and apex,

often covered with appressed brownish hairs.

The fragrant flowers are borne in terminal long-peduncled racemes

or corymbs. The individual flowers are seated on pedicels up to 1 in.

long and are supported by bracts and bracteoles. The calyx tube is

,75 in. long, green in colour, with ro well-marked red ribs covered

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY; Vol} XLII

with brownish hairs. Calyx-limb short, .25 in. long, red, 5-lobed;

lobes valvate, splitting into 5 segments, which turn downwards as the

flower opens. Petals white, with pink nervation, rather crumpled,

seated on the margins of the calyx tube. Fertile stamens 3, on

pink filaments, posterior; staminodes 5, pink, anterior, all seated

on the calyx tube. Ovary on a gynophore arising from the calyx

tube, red in colour, produced into a short style and globose stigma.

Pod 4-5 in. long, .7 in. broad, thin, smooth, dark brown.

Flowers.—April-June. Fruits.—Cold season.

Distrihution.— Native of China. Commonly cultivated in

gardens throughout India.

Gardening.—Bauhinia corymbosa is one of the most beautiful

of climbing Bauhinias; and even with its rather small flowers, it is

a most charming plant with exceedingly slender stems and very

small, pretty, dark green shiny foliage. The rosy-white, fragrant

flowers appear in great abundance during April-June. Easily

raised by !ayers. It has long been cultivated in Indian gardens

for its ornamental foliage alone.

THE POMEGRANATE.

Jee Has CAtUs. iS 4), Fo. S.

Alphonse de Candolle sums up the results of his painstaking

investigation into the origin and distribution of the pomegranate

(Punica Granatum Linn., the sole genus with only two species

within the family Punicaceae) as follows :—-

‘To conclude, botanical, historical, and philological data agree in showing

that the modern species is a native of Persia and some adjacent countries.

Its cultivation began in prehistoric times, and its early extension, first towards

the west, and afterwards into China, has caused its naturalization in cases

which may give rise to errors as to its true origin, for they are frequent,

ancient, and enduring.’

In fact, many of these errors, if errors they be, are being

perpetuated with effusion of much good ink and not a little bad

blood. But there is no apparent reason why the question should

ever be satisfactorily settled, because the pomegranate has been

-so long under cultivation that it is impossible to say with any

degree of certainty whether the plant is really native in any

particular region.

The antiquity of the tree as a cultivated plant is evidenced by

the references to the fruit in the Old Testament—

‘Why have you made us come up out of Egypt, and have brought us into

this wretched place, which cannot be ‘sowed, nor bringeth forth figs, nor vines,

nor pomegranates... ’—.

and in the Odyssey where it is spoken of as cultivated in the

gardens of the kings of Phaeacia and Phrygia. In the villa garden

of king Amenhotpou IV, of the Eighteenth Dynasty, may be seen

painted on the wall of a tomb at Tell-el-Amarna, ten pomegranate

trees easily recognizable from the shape of the fruits and the

leaves. The fruit is, indeed, frequently represented in ancient

Assyrian and Egyptian sculptures, and it figures prominently

among the offerings made to the gods by Ramses IV, a Pharaoh

of the Twentieth Dynasty. As a design it has been used in archi-

tecture and needlework from the earliest times. It formed part

of the decoration of the pillars of King Solomon’s Temple, and

was embroidered on the hem of the High-Priest’s ephod. It had

a religious significance in connection with several Oriental cults,

especially the Phrygian cult of Cybele, and it is still used by the

Jews in some ceremonials.

The pomegranate was well known to the Greeks and Romans,

who were acquainted with its medicinal properties and its use as

a tanning material. The name given by the Romans, malus punica

or malum punicum, indicates that they received it from Carthage,

as indeed is expressly stated by Pliny—‘but the territorie of

Carthage challengeth to itself the punicke apple’ (Holland)—; and

this circumstance has given rise to the notion that the tree was

indigenous in northern Africa.

14 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLfi

The pomegranate-tree was introduced into India from Persia

or Afghanistan, presumably in the first centuries of our era. The

tree is not mentioned in Vedic, Pali, or early Sanskrit literature;

and the word ddlima or dddima is traceable to the Iranian dulim,

as reconstructed by Berthold Laufer’ on the basis of the Chinese

transcription. According to the Agnipurana ‘dadima’ is to be planted

in the garden adjoining one’s house; and, on the authority of the

Brihat-samhita, it is to be propagated by means of cuttings

besmeared with cowdung. Varahamihira mentions the pomegranate

as one of the trees growing in the Anupa region, Susruta gives it

as one of the plants which act as cordials and increase the appetite,

and Charaka recommends it for the wholesomeness of its fruit.

CHARACTERISTICS.

The pomegranate is a large deciduous shrub or small tree. As

a tree it rises to a height of fifteen to twenty feet; it is covered

with a desquamating greyish or pale brownish bark, and is divided

into many slender, twiggy, nearly cylindrical branches, which are

armed with spines. ‘The buds and young shoots are red.

The leaves are opposite, or ternate, about three inches long,

sessile, wavy, entire, oblong or lance-shaped, pointed at both ends,

glossy green and with red veins.

The flowers are large, raised on a short stalk, of a rich scarlet

colour, solitary, or in twos or threes or fives at the extremities of

the young branches. The calyx is turbinate, thick, fleshy, of a

fine red colour, and divided into five acute segments, which are

valvate in aestivation. The corolla is composed of five, or seven,

large roundish crumpled petals, inserted on the throat of the calyx

alternate with the sepals, rather spreading, and of a bright scarlet

colour. The stamens are indefinite, many-seriate, perigyn-

ous, inserted at different levels below the petals; the filaments are

capillary and free, furnished with ovoid yellow anthers, 2-celled,

dorsifixed, and bursting in front by two chinks. The ovary is

inferior, roundish, many-celled, with a slender simple style—the

length of the stamens, and capitate papulose stigma.

The fruit is as big as a common orange, and not unfrequently

much larger. It is globular, somewhat compressed, obscurely six-

sided, and indehiscent. It contains numerous oblong or obconical,

many-sided exalbuminous seeds, each enveloped in a distinct very

juicy rose-coloured pulp enclosed in a thin skin, so that the inside’

of the pomegranate appears to be made up of a large number of

reddish berries packed tightly together. The rind, which is the

calycine tube, 1s smooth, hard, leathery and, when the fruit is

ripe, of a brownish yellow tint, often finely shaded with red. The

interior is divided into two chambers by some six spurious transverse

membranous dissepiments meeting in the axis of the fruit. The

upper chamber is 5- or 9-celled, the lower 3-celled. The placentas

? Sino-Iranica. Chicago Field Museum of Natural History, publication 201;

Anthropological Series, Vol. xv, No. 3.

THE POMEGRANATE | 15

of the upper division reach from the walls to the centre; those

of the lower proceed irregularly from the bottom of the fruit.

The embryo is oblong with a short straight radicle, and foliace-

ous, spirally convolute cotyledons.

As a botanical entity the pomegranate has been placed by various

authorities in different orders wherein, for want of close relations,

it has always occupied an anomalous position. Though nearly allied

to the myrtles it differs from them in the absence of aromatic

principles in the green parts, in the absence of dark dots and

marginal veins in the leaves, and in the typical conformation of

the fruit. It is chiefly owing to the singular structure of its fruit,

a balausta, that the genus Punica has finally been formed into a

separate order, Punicaceae.

The family consists of only one genus with two species:

PY “Granatum Winn. (=P. florida, Salisb., P. grandifiora Hort.,

P, nana Linn., P. spinosa Lam.), and P. protopunica Balf. dis-

covered by Balfour in the island of Socotra.

CULTIVATION.

The pomegranate is a favourite in the East, and is grown both

for its beautiful flowers and for its edible fruits. It is not particular

as to soil, though it enjoys a deep calcareous ground and prefers

a dry situation to. one that is surcharged with wet. Native gardeners

in India recommend that the soil be mixed with a large proportion

of bricks broken fine, together with old, decayed cowdung.

The trees may be planted eight or ten feet apart, and the ground

cultivated with irrigated crops until the trees occupy the soil. They

can also be grown as a hedge. ‘They are usually raised from seed,

but are also multiplied by hardwood and softwood cuttings, or by

layers. As the plant forms many shoots, these are often used, as

they are usually provided with rootlets. For latitudes higher than

the 35th degree North, the plant ought to be cultivated in tubs,

and given a conservatory during winter.’

Under cultivation there are several forms differing more or less

in the colour of the flowers, both single and double, and only of

ornamental value. The double-flowered varieties are specially desir-

able for the beauty and long duration of their flowers. The better

known are: double red, with a very large calyx, from which protrude

numerous large bright scarlet petals, larger than those of the

common single type, which give the flower the appearance of a

bright scarlet pompon ; double dwarf, specially desirable for growing

in pots, with bright scarlet flowers borne in clusters; double varie-

gated, with very large flowers, the petals being striped and mottled

with yellow and scarlet—as this is a sport of the Double Red it

frequently reverts to type, and’consequently double red blooms are

often to be found on the same stem with variegated blooms; double

yellow, similar to the Double Variegated in the shape of the flower ;

double white, with a pure white flower similar in shape to Double

Red.

+L. H. Bailey.—The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture ; 1916.

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLI1

Although of such ancient origin and cultivation, there are but

few varieties of fruit-bearing trees, and the various kinds of

pomegranate may be reduced to three: one very sour, the other

two moderately sweet or very sweet. The distinction between a

sweet and a sour pomegranate is already made by Theophrastus

and, though Pliny distinguishes five varieties—dulcia, acria, mixta,

acida, vinosa—, ancient authors discriminate between only two.

The emperor Jahangir mentions in his Memoirs the sweet

pomegranates of Yazd and the subacid ones of Farrah, and says

of the former that they are celebrated all over the world. Crawford

remarks in his History of the Indian Archipelago: ‘The only good

pomegranates which, indeed, I have ever met with are those brought

into upper India by the caravans from eastern Persia.’ And

Firminger’ states: ‘The Pomegranate tree is common in all parts

of India, but never produces fruit at all to be compared with that

brought down annually by the Afghan traders from Kabul.’

The seedless pomegranates so highly prized by Akbar’s house-

hold came from Kabul; and the sweet, pure, and_ full-flavoured

pomegranates with white and very transparent seeds were from

Baluchistan. In course of time the seeds of these high class fruits

found their way from Afghanistan to Bengal, where there is made

mention of several fine varieties of local growth: seedless’, very

sweet, deliciously perfumed, the size of an ordinary human head

or as large as a small shaddock.

‘A tree that bears fruit of good flavour with as few seeds as

possible should be grafted on seedlings, and none but the grafted

plants grown. Such trees need no more manure, water, or land

than common seedlings, yet the value of their fruit is very great

in comparison.’ Woodrow’s’ recommendation to graft from trees

of a superior kind is sound, but not all superior varieties will thrive

away from their natural surroundings. Thus, says Burns, the

Kabul Pomegranate, both in its own roots and when grafted on

Poona stocks, has done very badly in Poona, making little growth

and producing few fruits.

In North America, where pomegranates are grown commercially

in several of the southern states, the following varieties are culti-

vated for fruit :— )

Acid or Wild—with a sharp acid pulp; fruit often very large,

from 3 to 4 inches diameter and with a bright-coloured rind.

Dwarf—a form of the Acid variety, of very low and bushy

growth; flowers single; fruit from 14 to 2 inches diameter; pulp

very acid. This can be grown in a pot, as it fruits very abundantly.

Paper Shell—very large, juicy, very sweet, and of excellent

quality; skin thin, pale yellow with crimson cheek; sides crimson;

fine grower, good bearer, and ships well.

ee a a 6 ee een SE Sn NN AE

* W. Burns.—Firminger’s Manual of Gardening for India, 1918.

* ‘1 do not know any seedless variety is growing in Bengal.’ (N. Mitra,

Curator, Royal Botanic Garden, Shibpur; 5th December 1939).

* G. M. Woodrow.—Gardening in India, 1889.

THE POMEGRANATE 1

Rhoda—fruit crimson, of large size; skin thin but tough; crisp,

sweet, and of exquisite flavour.

Spanish Ruby or Purple-seeded—is cultivated in Louisiana, seems

to be only a form of the subacid. Fruit large and bright-coloured

with deep crimson pulp. It is considered the best of its class.

Subacid—differs only from the sweet in the more acidulated pulp.

Sweet—fruit usually somewhat smaller than the Acid and with

a darker-coloured rind; pulp sweet.

Wonderful—said to be the largest of all pomegranates; fruit

sometimes 5 inches in diameter, bright crimson; pulp highly

coloured; very juicy; fine flavour; ripens early; good shipper.

All these varieties are very ornamental from their abundant yield

of bright scarlet flowers, which are produced upon the extremities

of the young branches of the same year’s growth. When the plant

is grown in a tree form, the branches should be annually cut back

after the leaves drop.

A great many shoots spring from the base of the plant; these

should from time to time be cut clean out, as it is contended that

they withdraw the nutriment which should go to the fruit-bearing

stems. To yield fine fruit the plant must be manured each year.

Writing about ‘Tropical and Subtropical Fruits in California,’

F. W. Popescoe notes!.—‘The Pomegranate is produced commerci-

ally in a small way, the demand for the fruit being limited. The

shrub succeeds best, and is most commonly grown, in the interior

valleys. The inferiority of the varieties cultivated in the State has

led to an attempt to secure superior ones; among those which have

been introduced the variety ‘Wonderful’ has proved to be choice,

and is now offered by the trade.’

Pomegranate ripening fruit on a wall at Trewarthenic, Tregony,

was reported? as one of the effects of the fine summer of 1911.

And in 1912, R. Irwin Lynch wrote*:—‘I have seen this | Punica

Granatum, North Africa, West Asia] fruiting on the side of a

house in East Cornwall; it has fruited at Henley-on-Thames, and

should fruit generally without much assistance. The double form

flowers on my house at Cambridge, and for some years a stool of

it grew in the open, quite without protection, dying down in winter

and coming up in spring like a Fuchsia.’

The longevity of the tree is said to be remarkable.

CULTIVATION IN INDIA.

In India the Pomegranate is cultivated in various places:

North Kanara, Bijapur, Sholapur, Satara, Poona, Ahmednagar,

Ahmedabad, Sind, Baluchistan, Muzaftargarh, Delhi, and Jodhpur.

BomBay.—In the Bombay Province about 2,000 acres are under

pomegranate. More than half the area is claimed by the Poona

district, where most is grown in the Haveli, Bhimthadi and

Purandhar talukas. The Dholka taluka of the Ahmedabad district

* Journal of the Royal Horticultural Society; xxxix, part II, 1913.

Gelbida we xZxxvill, part 1, 1912.

Seluid xxXxvilt, part Il, roi2:

ig JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLii

claims 15 per cent. of the total area in the Bombay Presidency. The

Ahmednagar district grows about 15 per cent., mostly in the

Pathardi, Rahuri, Ahmednagar, and Sangamner talukas. Except

in a few places like the Dholka taluka, and a few villages in the

Poona district, the fruit is not of a superior quality.

1. Sangamner'.—Pomegranates require a porous soil containing

much lime; and generally farmers choose such soil. Sound and

big fruits are selected for seeds. These fruits are kept longer

than usual on the tree, and are plucked only when they begin to

rot; they are then allowed to rot still further; the seeds are taken

out, well mixed with ashes, and dried in the shade.

A plot, about two or three gunthas in area, near a well is

ploughed and dug out deeply down to 1 foot. The soil is made

fine by breaking clods, and about a cartload of farmyard manure

and household ashes is mixed with it. The seeds are then thinly

broadcasted in walas about one hundred feet square. The seed

is covered, and the plot is watered on the same day. The second

watering is given on the sixth day, and then further waterings

once in ten or twelve days as required. No weeds are allowed

to grow in the plot.

Generally the seedlings are transplanted in the early part of

the monsoon, when six or twelve or even eighteen months old.

The field into which the seedlings are to be transplanted is twice

ploughed and harrowed, and the soil is mixed with about ten or

twelve cartloads of farmyard manure. This ploughing and manur-

ing is done to prepare the ground to receive onions, garlic, chillies,

or any other plant which may be grown without injury to the

young pomegranate. These sub-crops are cultivated during the

first two or three years, that is up to the time when the fruit plants

cover the ground and begin to yield. |

Pits, about eighteen inches square and two feet deep, are then

dug out. The distance between two pits cross-wise as well as

length-wise varies from twelve to fifteen feet. In one acre about

two to three hundred plants can easily be grown this way. Of

late, however, some farmers have’ reduced the distance between

the pits to ten feet.

The earth that is dug out of the pits is separated into two

portions, the upper layer being kept apart from the lower one.

The earth of the upper layer, which is well weathered and con-

tains ready plant food, is put first in the pits; it is then covered

with a basketful of farmyard manure. When the plant has been

fixed in the pit the earth from the lower layer mixed with house-

hold ashes is thrown over the manure. About a cartload of ash is

sufficient for one acre of land.

_ Ring-like bands of three to five feet in diameter are then made

round the plants and moderately filled with water. A second

watering is given on the fourth or fifth day, and afterwards once

in a week or ten days according to the season.

* Mirza Niazbeg—Pomegranate Cultivation at Sangamner. The Poona

Agricultural College Magazine; March 1914.

THE POMEGRANATE i9

The pomegranate plants begin to flower when they are three

years old; but this first flowering brings very little fruit, and it

is not until the fourth year that the garden is earnestly taken in

hand. During those first four years the plants are manured once

a year with farmyard manure and whenever possible, with fish

manure also. The ringed area is dug out once in three months

to give a better circulation of air. No weeds are allowed to grow.

In the fourth year the rings are widened up to eight feet in diameter.

Pomegranate plants flower thrice a year :—in February or March,

ambe-bahar; in June, mrig-bahar; and in September, /atti-bahar.

Five or six months after the flowering the fruit is ready for

marketing.

Except for the time of the first watering, which varies with every

bahar, the routine is always the same. Let us take, for example,

the mrig-bahar, since preference is generally given to it by the

farmers for reasons of economy, the cost of watering being very

much lessened on account of the rainy season. In April the ringed

portion is dug out and the roots in the upper layer are exposed

to the air for a week or two—the leaves that fall off are often

used as manure for the same plants. A basketful of farmyard

manure is given to each tree, and if fish manure is available a

handful of it per plant is given in addition to the farmyard manure.

The manure is thoroughly mixed with the soil. The first watering

is given in Akshattritiya, which is generally in May, and further

watering’s are given once in a fortnight. Flowers appear one month

after the first watering. When the ovary is developed and fruits

as big as small lemons are formed the ringed portion is lightly

dug out every month before watering. |

Each plant bears about forty fruits in the first year, and each

year the number increases even up to four hundred when the tree

is fully grown up. If good care is taken of them the trees bear

fruit up to from twelve to fifteen years. When a plant does not

bear a sufficient number of fruits it is pruned leaving the stem only

from six to twelve inches above the ground. The cut surface is

plastered with cowdung, and the plant is heavily manured and

watered. New shoots come out and grow into trees which bear

fruit for another ten years.

Generally the garden is rented to Bagwans who pay Re, 1 to

Rs. 1-4 per plant. The Bagwan takes care of the garden, but

the farmer supplies him with water for irrigation. As a rule the

Bagwan makes a net profit of Rs. 200 on one acre. His expenses

are Rs. 150, and he pays Rs. 250 to the owner. So the gross in-

come on one acre of land is Rs. 6oo.

. 2. Ganeshkhind.’—Seven varieties of pomegranate were under

trial from the year 1905. Three of these were local, two from

Sangamner, and two foreign (Kabul and Muscat). All were grown

from seeds of specially selected fruits. The foreign varieties made

eee

* S. H. Prayag—The Ganeshkhind Botanical Garden, Kirkee. Its genesis

and development. Department of Agriculture, Bombay; Bulletin No. 104 of

1920.

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol! XLIT

poor and stunted growths, and failed to bear fruit even after eight

years’ growth. Grafts of Kabul variety on local stocks also failed

to fruit even after seven years’ growth. The following trials were

conducted for nearly four years:—(i) The comparison of different

methods of irrigation, viz., Basin, Trench, and Ring systems. The

trench system proved to be unsatisfactory as the trees began to

show signs of drought, reacting on the yield, which was conse-

quently very low. The ring method showed the advantages of

economy in the amount of water given and the avoidance of any

rot of the stem at the collar.—(ii) Comparison of grassed and

cultivated lines of fruit trees. In this experiment the weeds as they

grew were cut and kept as a mulch three to four times during the

year. The difference between the two plots was not appreciable.

3. Gokak.'—As evidenced from the growth of the plants and

the quality of the fruits in one of the gardens at Gokak a limy or

phosphatic soil seems to suit the pomegranate very well. Medium

black soil with murum as sub-soil is fairly suitable, but black soil

is no good.

Before digging the pits the land is well ploughed, harrowed and

clod-crushed, and the soil brought to a fine state of tilth. The pits

are 3 ft. deep and 3 ft. square, and the distance between them is

13 to 14 ft. each way. To economize space the hexagonal system

based on equilateral triangles 1s adopted, whereby all adjacent trees

are equally distant from each other. The pits are dug in the

summer months of April and May so that the earth, both in and

out, may be thoroughly exposed to the action of the daily hot air

for .a- space of two .or three months. When the pits are toibe

filled up bone meal, if available, is spread at the bottom; this is

then covered with the surface portion of the excavated earth; and

this in its turn is covered with the bottom soil, if not too bad.

When the bottom soil is too bad it is rejected, and good soil or

fine silt brought from outside.

Seedlings one year old are the best for planting; others take

more time to establish themselves. July-August is the-proper time

for planting, preferably late in the afternoon. The ideal conditions

are a cool weather and light drizzling rains. The pits are watered

one or two days before planting. When the young plant has been

firmly fixed a small basin is made to hold the requisite quantity of

water. At first the plant is watered lightly every day in the evening

or at least once in two days. After the appearance of fresh sprouts

the watering is given only twice a week for some time, and then

gradually the interval is increased to once in a week or ten or

even twelve days.

After the seedlings have established themselves two or three

handfuls of farmyard manure may be given. Three or four days

after each watering, the basins are kept loose by stirring and all

the weeds are removed. When the plants are one year old they

* T. S. Kulkarni—Notes on the cultivation of Pomegranates as experienced

on the Gokak Cana] Farm. The Poona Agricultural College Magazine ; January

1920.

THE POMEGRANATE 21

are manured with about half a basketful or 10 Ibs. of farmyard

manure per plant. In the second and third years, twice as much

manure is applied. No further care need be taken except pruning,

weeding, and watering at intervals, the interval varying with the

nature of the soil and the time of the year. If the soil is good

and if proper care is taken the plants will become fit for bearing

even as early as the third year.

For the first three years intercrops such as onion, garlic, ground-

nut, gram, chilly, cabbage, pea, tomato, brinjal, knolkol may be

grown; and the net income accruing from these will more than

make up for the initial and the running expenditures involved in

the cultivation of the pomegranates during the early stages.

The, flowering periods are (i) January-February, ambebahar;

(ii) June-July, mrigbahar; and (iii) August-September, hastabahar.

On this farm the period selected for treatment is either ambebahar

or mrigbahar, preferably the former when the plants are less subject

to attacks from insect and fungus pests. Watering is stopped

two months before the time of flowering; one month after, the

roots are exposed and the branches pruned; then the roots are cov-

ered again, the beds renewed, and the plants manured and watered.

It takes from four to five months for the fruits to ripen. When

the fruiting season is over all flower-buds, flowers, and stray fruits

are removed and the trees left to themselves till the next year’s

treatment.

At Gokak the pomegranate is propagated from seeds. The fruit

is allowed to ripen completely on the tree and to fall down to the

ground of itself; it is then picked up and kept for some time to

allow rotting. Then the seeds are squeezed out, mixed with earth

or ashes and kept ready for sowing.

Sinp!.—Shikarpur is famous as a centre for fruit-growing.

There are altogether some 150 orchards, with an area of 868 acres,

of which 139 are under pomegranate.

With the advent of spring, mature branches are pruned out

and cut in pieces nine to twelve inches long. These cuttings are

buried two-thirds deep in the soil of the nursery bed, and their tops

are covered with fresh cowdung. The beds are irrigated at intervals

of three to four days, till the cuttings have sprouted, which they

usually do in about a month’s time. The cuttings stand in the

nursery bed for full two years, during which period they receive

hoeings once a month regularly. They are planted in rows nine

to twelve inches apart. This is by no means too close a

planting because, while there are always some cuttings which do

not germinate, the white ants do a good deal of thinning work.

The cuttings are raised in gardens for sale and fetch Rs. 2-8-0

to Rs. 3 per hundred.

The field operations begin during the inundation season. The

plantation is irrigated, ploughed twice, levelled, and laid out in small

“ Mahomed Umarkhan F. Barokzai.—Fruit Culture as practised near

Shikarpur, Sind. Department of Agriculture, Bombay; Bulletin No. 08 of

1920.

22 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

plots measuring from one quarter to one half of an acre each.

Parallel channels or furrows, twelve inches by eighteen inches, are

made twelve feet apart. Along each channel, but on one side of

it only, circular holes are dug at a distance of twelve feet. After

an exposure of a week to ten days, the excavated earth is mixed

with fifty pounds of cattle manure and returned to the pits. The

plants to be used are carefully lifted from the nursery beds and

carried to the field some time about the 1t1th March, at the Maha-

shivaratra.

Irrigation during the first few months after the transplantation

is given about twice a week, but when the plants are fairly estab-

lished watering is limited to once a week throughout the year.

In case of white ants proving a serious pest, the interval is shortened

to suppress the attack. i

For «the first three years the ‘soil round the plants is ‘stirred

and weeds removed twice a month. The channels are also cleaned

in order to grow sub-crops: brinjals, chillies, karela (Momordica

Charantia), turi (Luffa acutangula), bhindi (Hibiscus esculentus),

chuka (Rumex acetosa), methi (Trigonella Faenum-graecum), etc.

With the fourth year, when the fruit plants cover the ground and

begin to yield, the weedings cease altogether and the growth of

natural grasses is encouraged as these provide an excellent green

feed for cattle and consequently are readily sold. Cattle, camel,

and horse owners purchase standing crops of weeds for the season.

The weeds commonly found in pomegranate and other fruit planta-

tions are dubh (Eragrostis cynosurioides), gandheer (Eleusine

flagellifera), chhabar (Cynodon Dactylon), savri (Panicum Colonum),

kabah (Cyperus rotundus), lulur (Digera arvensis), and dinuhi

(Andropogon annulatus).

Pruning of dead branches on the top and fresh growth at the

roots of full-grown plants is effected in November. Manure is

applied once a year in February when the trees are leafless; one

jholi (cloth load) of manure weighing about thirty pounds is applied

to every two plants. This costs about two annas. Before apply-

ing manure, the soil round the roots is dug out and replaced by

fresh canal earth.

The pomegranate has two flowering seasons, the first commenc-

ine from early Phalgun (March to April), and the second from

Bhadra (September to October). The fruit of the former lasts

till the Dassera (October) festival, and that of the latter till Marga-

shirsh (January-February). Of these two seasons the Phalgun

flowering is always the better. In addition to these distinct flower-

ing seasons the plant is said to put on all the year round one or

two flowers locally termed the Chorgul (thief flower).

From the fifth to the fiftieth year of their age the trees produce

excellent yields. The average number of fruits per plant is 70,

the range being from 4o to roo, each weighing from half to three

quarters of a pound. This gives an average yield of 30 pounds

per tree, the maximum amounting to as much as a maund (80 lbs.)

of fresh fruit. Calculating at the average price of Rs. 4-8-0 per

maund, each plant produces Rs. 1-11-o on the average, and each

acre of about 250 plants returns roughly Rs. 420.

THE POMEGRANATE 23

_. Another product of the trees is the quantity of fallen flowers

obtained from the Phalgun flowering. These are gathered, dried,

and sold at Rs. 4 per maund of 80 lbs. Ten to twelve maunds

are collected per acre fetching from Rs. 4o to Rs. 50.

The third product consists of the rotten fruits which have been

damaged by insects or by birds. The seeds are dried and sold as

khat (sour substance used in curries), while the rind goes to the

dyer to yield a yellow dye. The quantity collected is not large but,

nevertheless from Rs. 10 to Rs. 15 per acre are usually obtained.’

There are twelve varieties of pomegranate commonly grown in

the locality : bedaho, kandhari, vanga, chiho, sona, dandan, multani

chiho, sehwani, green sehwani, sindi sehwani, jesalmeri, sindi

jesalmeri. Of these sehwani, kandhari, sindi sehwani, sindi jesal-

meri, and bedano are sweet-pulped varieties, while the rest have an

acid sour taste. But all the twelve varieties, whatever their taste,

command a ready sale in the market. Bedano (the seedless) 's

a rare variety; it is not altogether free of seeds as the name would

indicate.

BALUCHISTAN’.—Pomegranate is cultivated commercially in. Balu-

chistan. It is also imported from Kandahar in fairly large quantities

through Chaman. There are four varieties of commercial import-

ance in this Province, viz. :— |

1. Kandhari. Grown in Pishin sub-division, mostly in Killa

Abdulla and Gulistan. It is slightly acid in taste, very

juicy and large in size. Its skin is of brick red colour.

2p Vetha.g “Grown. im, Loralai district. ~75° per cent.) of -the

total area in this district is under this variety. It is

thick skinned, juicy, less acid in taste, and medium in

size.

3. Khata. Grown in Loralai district. It is sour in taste,

small in size, thick skinned, and less juicy.

4. Jhalari. Grown in Loralai district. Big size, soft skin,

a little acid in taste, and juicy.

The so-called Bedana, or seedless variety has no commercial im-

portance. It is grown in Loralai district, but only a few plants are

seen here and there in the orchards, which are kept for home con-

sumption. It is a shy-bearer, which seems te be the chief reason

for its limited cultivation. It is sweet and juicy, and a very small

residue is left after the juice is extracted.

PunjaB.—The following information was supplied by the Fruit

Specialist, Punjab, Lyallpur: ‘Pomegranate is not a very important

crop in the Punjab. It is grown in a tract known as Alipur in

Muzaffargarh district of the Punjab. No separate figures of area

are available, but the area in that tract as well as small patches of

pomegranates found here and there in the Punjab would not exceed

more than a few thousand acres. In Muzaffargarh district an

average yield of 1 maund of fruit is obtained per tree which sells

in the market at retail sale of annas 2 to annas 4 per seer depend-

ing upon the quality.’ .

* From the Agricultural Officer in Baluchistan ; 1940.

24, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL OSD. SOCIETY, “Wolk XeLit

JODHPUR.—The area under Pomegranate cultivation, and also

the estimate of the yield of Pomegranates per bigha in Jodhpur 1S

shown in a statement sent by the Superintendent, Hawala Depart-

ment! :

Village Area under Pomegranate | Be es ay

Bagan sop us : 3, bighas 10 biswas_... | 10 maunds

Gavan | 30 4. = ceed 190 sy

Suthla Eee ve — pkg ess

Umaidsagar 2 7 _ ae: 6 mn

Mandore | 12 — a 36 .

54 bighas 10 biswas__.... | 163 maunds

PESTS AND DISEASES.

The different varieties of pomegranate have been found to suffer

from attacks of birds and insects, and from fungus infections.

Birds.—Parrots are the only birds attacking pomegranates.

They visit the plantation especially in the morning and in the evening

and should be regularly watched.

Insects.—In addition to white ants which do much. damage to

cuttings in the nursery bed, various other insects are known to

injure the pomegranate tree; they are fruit-borers, stem-borers, and

sucking insects. z

‘An insect, says Firminger, which I have detected to be a certain

hairy caterpillar, penetrates the hard rind when the fruit is a little

more than a quarter grown, and by devouring part of the interior,

causes the remaining part to canker and rot. To obviate this, the

fruit, when as yet small, should have the large fleshy calyx by which

it iS Surmounted cut cleanly off, and then be tied up loosely in a

piece of linen cloth.’. Woodrow recommends ‘to gather every fruit

that is infested even to a slight degree and burn them. If the

cultivators of a district will unite to do this for several years, the

stock of that particular insect will greatly be reduced and fair crops

during some years may repay the trouble.’

Woodrow quotes the following account of the pest from the

Catalogue of Indian Lepidoptera in the British Museum.—‘The

larvae of this butterfly reside in the interior of the pomegranate,

seven or eight at least having been reared in the interior of a small

specimen of this fruit. Of the mode in which the eggs are deposited

by the female in the interior of the pomegranate no information has

been received; it is, however, probable that this is effected whilst

the fruit is in its very young state. The caterpillars feed upon the

seeds and the inner part of the fruit, which is thus weakened, and

toth February 1940,

THE POMEGRANATE 25

rendered unable to support its own weight, and consequently liable

to have its stem broken, and to fall to the ground with the first

wind. This, however, would be destruction to the inclosed insects ;

since, in all probability, they would find it impossible to make their

escape were the fruit to be suffered to lie rotting on the ground.

To obviate this evil, the caterpillars, when full fed, have the instinct

to bore a hole about a quarter of an inch in diameter through the

hard shell of the fruit whilst it remains on the tree; through this

hole they then creep to the stem of the fruit, and spin a white

web, which they attach to the basal part of the fruit as well as

to the stem for about the distance of an inch along the latter.

This web is sufficiently strong to support the pomegranate from

falling after the wind has broken the stem near to the fruit.’

The fruit-boring insect is Virachola isocrates Fabr. (known as

sursa in the Deccan), the most important economically of the

butterflies, perhaps the only one that is constantly and regularly

injurious, and sometimes a serious pest of pomegranate. ‘As is

well known, writes Aitken in this Journal (Vol. I; 1886), the larva

feeds inside the fruit of the pomegranate and, some time before

becoming a pupa, eats its way through the tough rind and fastens

the fruit with silk to its stalk, thus preventing it falling off in

case it should wither before the butterfly escapes, as it generally

does. I have taken a pomegranate infested with these larvae

(several usually inhabit each fruit) and made it stand in an egg-

cup, in the morning it was so securely fastened, that in taking

up the fruit I lifted the cup.’

The treatments mentioned by Firminger and Woodrow are

effective but expensive when applied to large gardens. Bainbrigge-

Fletcher has suggested catching of butterflies by hand-nets; but

they are difficult to catch, being exceedingly swift, wary, and given

to sitting on high trees. Burns thinks that a spray of contact

’ poison when the fruits have just set is more likely to be effective ;

for it is highly probable that the eggs are laid in the calyx of the

flower of the young fruit. ‘At the time the pomegranate is in

flower,’ says Downes, ‘and at a very early period, the Hair Streak

may be seen very busily occupied about the flowers, and I have

little doubt that the eggs are deposited at the bottom of the calyx,

from the position in which I have seen the abdomen of the butter-

fly placed; as the fruit enlarges the eggs are enclosed, and in this

situation matured’.

At the Botanical Garden of Ganeshkhind, Kirkee, attempts were

made to prevent insect attack by bagging the fruits immediatelv

after fertilisation. Paper bags proved most unsatisfactory as they

tore badly. Even paper bags soaked in paraffin wax were not

found to be of much use as water entered the bags along the fruit

stalk and caused rotting of the fruits. Cloth bags were effective

and the cost came to 4 pies each. If carefully used, each bag served

for two years. Comparison was made with Gide oil emulsion

versus tobacco water. This resulted in favour of the crude oil

emulsion.

At Sangamner the bagwan puts about a pound of asafoetida in

the main water channel or in a small water reservoir which is

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

generally built near wells and through which the water passes.

This is done twice or thrice from the second or third watering.

Thereby the attack is said to be much lessened.

Mr. M. A. Wynter-Blyth mentions the larva of Dendoryx

epyjarbas ancus Fruhs. as feeding inside the fruit of the pome-

ae on the lower slopes of the Simla Hills.!

- A hairy caterpillar (Euproctis fraterna Moore) sometimes

appears on the pomegranate plant and does some damage to the

foliage, but is not as serious a pest as the fruit borer.

3. Another serious pest is the stem borer Arbela tetraonis Moore,

which bores into the stem and causes the branches to wither. The

larva may be known by the peculiar patches of excrement and silk

found on the bark of the trees near the bore of the caterpillar,

which comes out at night, feeds on the bark, and makes the peculiar

covering on the part it eats. The caterpillars may be destroyed by

probing them with a piece of thin wire, or by syringing into the

burrows either rock oil or a mixture of 2 parts chloroform and

I part creosote. A good preventive remedy is not to grow shevari

(Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers.) anywhere in the vicinity, for this is

the plant from which the pest generally comes on to the pome-

granates.

_ 4. Occasionally small sucking insects, such as aphides, thrips,

and mealy wings may become a nuisance in the pomegranate plant-

ation. Mealy wings are of very little moment. Aphides and thrips

are easily kept under control by spraying twice or thrice with

crude oil emulsion (1 part of crude-oil stock emulsion to 66 parts

of water), or better still with incosopal emulsion (1 part of incosopal

to 80 parts ot water).

Fungi.—Fruit rot is so very common in the pomegranate

gardens of the Deccan that the gardeners, far from looking upon

it as a calamity, welcome it as a sign of the high yielding capacity

of their trees. It is more particularly severe in low situations,

in crowded gardens, and in gardens that are neglected and unclean.

The loss due to it amounts to about 15-20 per cent. Every garden

seems to be attacked and, during the monsoon, every plant in the

orchard.

This disease is recognised? by the appearance of brown or

orange black round pustules on the surface of the fruits, usually

near the stalk-end. These pustules appear in regular patches, which

may in some cases, extend to even half or more of the fruit surface.

This discolouration of the surface extends slowly to the inner tissues

and even the seeds, which, consequently, remain immature, small,

and pale in colour. Rotting now sets in, especially in the case of

young fruits, and the whole fruit becomes dried up and_ hollow.

The fruit loses in weight, and shallow depressions occur on the

discoloured portion.

Flowers may also be affected and drop down in large numbers.

The fungus may be seen even on the dried up twigs where it remains

in the shape of small round pustules ready to infect the succeeding

1 Journ. Bomb.) Nat. Hist Soc.c i vole xhwsp. 727.

*M. N. Kamat—Fruit Rot of Pomegranates. The Poona Agricultural

College Magazine; xv, 3; December 1923.

THE POMEGRANATE 27

crop of flowers and fruits. It is a weak parasite, and it has been

found to be a species of Phomopsis. It is capable of living as a

saprophyte on the dead branches and twigs of the trees. And this

accounts for its yearly reappearance; for the amount of fruits,

flowers, leaves, branches, and twigs that are allowed to decay on

the ground all around the trees is enormous. |

It is difficult and perhaps uneconomic to devise any direct method

of controlling or treating this disease. The nature of the garden

and the growth of the plants will not permit of any such operation.

The only effective way of checking the infection is to regularly

pick out all diseased fruits and flowers and burn them. No dead

part of the tree, whether it be fruit, flower or twig should be allowed

to remain in the garden, whether on or near the tree; and all those

parts ought to be buried. Nor should any diseased part be allowed

to rot in the manure pit, as is generally done by the cultivators.

Specimens of pomegranates were received from a garden in

Bombay’, in which the fruit, though of excellent external appearance,

were blackened and rotting inside. The fruit appears perfectly

healthy on the outside, but when cut open, the seeds and pulp are

found blackened either wholly or in part. In the more advanced

stages there are cavities inside, filled with a brown powdery

substance, composed of the spores of the fungus. The rot was

found to be due to a fungus known as Sterigmatocystis castanea

Patterson, first observed in the United States in rogro.

DomEstTic USEs.

In his account of the Voyages of the Ambassadors of the Great

Duke of Muscovy and the King of Persia (1633-39), Olearius writes:

‘The wild pomegranates, which you find almost everywhere, especi-

ally at Karabag, are sharp or sowrith. They take out of them

the seed, which they call Nardan, wherewith they drive a great

trade, and the Persians make use of it in their sauces, whereto it

gives a colour, and a picquant tast, having been steep’d in water,

and strain’d through a cloath. Sometimes they boyl the juyce of

these Pomegranates, and keep it to give a colour to the rice,

which they serve up at their entertainments, and it gives it withall

a tast which is not unpleasant.’

In the East the pomegranate is universally eaten and much

esteemed as dessert. The fruit is cut open, seeded, strewn with

sugar, and sometimes, as it is particularly the case in Syria,

sprinkled with rose water. The Portuguese prefer wine to rose

water. The seeds are also much used in syrups and conserves.

The fruit is greatly valued in warm countries on account of the

delicious, cooling, and refreshing pulpy seeds which, with the addi-

tion of water and sugar, make a very pleasant cooling drink known

as granadine or pomegranate-water. This is much used, not only

in the East but also in certain parts of Europe and in the southern

states of North America. In India pomegranate sherbet is highly

esteemed, and justly appreciated by all who have tasted it.

" The Agricultural Journai of- India; vol. ix, 1914; p. 205.

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HiSE SOCIETY, Vol. Xuor

It is but one step, one very short step, from the sweet juice to

the ‘Pleasant liquor that distils from the pomgranet fine’ (Drayton),

and man was not slow in taking that step. |

Pomegranate-wine was known throughout the Near East at an

early date. In the Canticle of Canticles the bride, when urging

the groom to come to her mother’s house, says: ‘and I will give

thee a cup of spiced wine and new wine of my pomegranates’.

And in Papyrus Anastasi IV the fellah is advised to refrain from

the alcohol of the pomegranate. Ye-lu Ch’u-ts’ai, in the account

of his journey to Persia (1219-1224), speaking of the pomegranates

of Khojand, which are as large as two fists and of a sour-sweet

taste, says that the juice of three or five fruits is pressed out into

a vessel and makes an excellent beverage.

A jet-black smooth writing ink is made of the bark of the root.

This is much used by Algerian scribes, and in particular by the

‘sopherim’ when copying the text of the sacred Mosaic books.

The barks of both the root and the fruit enter into the composition

of popular preparations used by Annamites to lacquer their teeth,

or by Moroccans to dye their hair.

The bark is of real value as a tan and dye for leather; it is

largely employed in preparing the morocco leather of Tangiers.

The flowers stain the saliva; they are used in various parts of

India to impart a light-red colour, said to be fleeting, to cloth. The

inhabitants of the Chinese province of Hainan make use of them

for fermenting their wine. |

The astringent rind of the fruit is a valuable tan, and is also

employed as an auxiliary to colouring agents, generally turmeric

or indigo, in dyeing. Alone, it imparts to cloth the greenish colour

known in the North-West Provinces of India as kakrezi. When

used for this purpose the rind is boiled in water till three-fourths

of the latter has evaporated; and the cloth then dipped in the con-

centrated infusion. Samples of the rind have been found to contain

a small amount of yellow colouring matter, readily given up to

boiling water, which imparted colours varying from a dull-yellowish

green to a bright reddish-drab with tussur and corah silk, and

cotton; and which with salts of iron produced an almost black

dye on wool.

In North Africa selected branches or young plants are used

for making walking-sticks.

The wood is light-yellow, with a small dark-coloured, irregularly-

shaped heartwood, compact and close-grained; it is used for roofs

in some parts of India.

The plant makes a good fence, and for this purpose is established

by sowing seeds in position, putting in stout cuttings, or trans-

planting from the nursery.

MEDICINAL USES.

According to the Castel of Helth ‘pomegranates be of good

iuyce and profytable to the stomacke, specially they which are

sweete.” Their nourishing and digestant properties have been pro-

verbially nutshelled by the Arabs: ‘If hungry, eat pomegranate ;

THE POMEGRANATE. 59

if sated, eat pomegranate’. And they had to be eaten at the

conclusion of royal banquets in order to facilitate the digestion of

fatty viands. |

Tobaiah Rofé distinguishes between the properties of the two

varieties, sweet and acid. The sweet pomegranate rejoices the

heart; and its bark, boiled with water or with wine, promotes the

cicatrization of wounds. The acid fruit stops sanguinolent diarr-

hoeas, allays thirst, and reduces the congestion of the liver and

the stomach.

The ancients valued the pomegranate fruit as a stomachic.

Whether in the form of a sherbet or of a syrup, it has been used

with advantage in typhus, gastric and asthenic fevers, inflammations

of the urinary tract, haemorrhages, and colliquative sweats.

Hippocrates prescribed it for heartburn, and van Swieten for

dysentery and diarrhoea.

Hindu physicians prescribe the juice of the ripe fruit combined

with saffron as a cooling drink in dyspepsia and in fevers. The

seeds are considered to be stomachic, the pulp cardiac and stomachic ;

by some it is said to be diuretic and antibilious.

Locally the acid juice is used as drops for the eyes in ophthalmia.

In the Konkan the juice of the green fruit, rubbed with galls,

cloves and ginger, is given in honey as a remedy for piles.

In Cambodia the unripe fruit is used in the treatment of

diarrhoea and dysentery. For diarrhoeas a small ball of kino is

introduced into the fruit, green and about the size of a walnut,

and the whole heated over a slow fire until it becomes burning hot;

it is then cut and infused in 200-300 grammes of boiling water; the

infusion is to be administered in two doses in one day. For

dysentery a small pill of opium is used instead of kino, and the

burning hot fragments are boiled in a tumblerful of water until

two-thirds of it has evaporated; the decoction is to be adminis-

tered in one single dose.

According to the rabbi Maimonides the pomegranate taken

internally with wine is an excellent remedy for the stings of wasps

and hornets.

The rind of the fruit, and the flowers were recognized as

medicinal by the ancients. They are both powerfully artringent,

and were employed in diarrhoea and similar diseases. They were

also given for relaxation of the gums and throat, mucous dis-

charges, prolapsus of the rectum or uterus. They are still used

aS an injection in leucorrhoea, as a gargle in sore throat in its

early stages, and in powder form in intermittent fevers. ‘A decoc-

tion of them, says Culpeper, stops bleedings and purgings of all

kinds, and is good for the whites . . . A strong infusion cures ulcers

in tite mouth and throat, and fen teeth.’

In India the rind and the flowers in decoction with opium and

an aromatic, such as cloves, cinnamon, coriander, or pepper, are

used as an astringent in bowel affections unaccompanied with in-

effectual and painful straining at stool.

In Madeira an infusion of the flower buds and the rind of the

fruit is given for inflammation of the throat, and also for dysentery.

In Guia the decoction combined with lime juice is used as a

gargle. When taken internally the decoction is sweetened with

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. xiii

honey and administered with the juice of the sorrel and of the water

cress.

The rinds of three wild pomegranates are said to be used in

Java: the red-flowered merah, the white-flowered poetih, and the

black-flowered hitam.

The rind of the pomegranate is official in Holland under the

name of cortex fructus granati. ;

The juice of the flowers mixed with the root juice of Bermuda

grass (Cynodon Dactylon Pers.) is used to stop bleeding from the

nose. The flower-buds powdered, in doses of 4 to 5 grains, are

useful in bronchitis; they are also much used in dysentery and

diarrhoea.

The Hausas use a tea-like infusion of the young flowers as a

vermifuge. The Arabs rank the flowers of the male plant among

their styptics, and the blossoms amongst their cicatrizants.

In Shikarpur, Sind, unripe flowers are dried and pounded, to

make a snuff, which is ‘considered to be the best astringent in nasal

haemorrhage while internally it is very effective: during infantile

diarrhoea and dysentery. Green leaves are made into a “paste and

applied on the eyes during conjunctivitis.

In some parts of India the expressed juice of the leaves and

the young fruit is used in dysentery. In other parts the juice

expressed from the leaves and flowers is sniffed to stop bleeding

from. the nose.

In Ceylon the leaves are boiled and used as: an eye- -wash. In

the Philippine Islands the decoction is used as a ‘gargle in all

affections of the buccal cavity. In Jamaica the leaves are beaten

with oil of roses, and applied to an aching” head.

The efficacy of the bark of the root of the pomegranate tree,

as a remedy for the tape-worm, has long been established in India.?

It is given in decoction prepared with two ounces of the. fresh

bark, boiled in a pint and a half of water, till but three quarters,

of a pint remain; of this, when cold, a wineglassful may be

drunk every half-hour till the whole is taken. This quantity

occasionally sickens the stomach a Hhttle, but seldom fails to destroy

the worm, which is soon after passed. .

Pomegranate root is known to have been long used by the

Chinese for the expulsion of the tape-worm. And a decoction of

it was recommended for a similar purpose by Celsus, Dioscorides,

and’ Pliny. That the Egyptians knew the taeniacide properties of

the root bark is evident from their mention in the Ebers and Berlin

Papyri: the bark was bruised with beer, mixed with water, and

allowed to stand overnight—a mode of preparation which is still

followed in Egypt.

While the efticacy of the root-bark as a taeniacide is admitted

by every one, opinions differ as to the relative values of the root-

bark and the stem-bark, the fresh bark and the dried bark, the

bark of the wild pomegranate and the bark of the cultivated plant.

* Udoy Chand Dutt, who made a thorough study of the Materia Medica

of the Hindus compiled from Sanskrit medical books, remarks that he has

not been able to find any notice of pomegranate root-bark in Sanskrit works.

THE POMEGRANATE 31

According to Sheikh Abd .Erzeraq the flowers, the fruits, and

the bark of the pomegranate have anthelmintic properties. The

decoction of the root-bark 1s a common remedy for roundworm in

Bengal; while in Bombay the flowers and the pericarp are prepared

as ascaricides. In Europe the flowers, either in decoction or in

the powder form, are used for roundworms and worms of the

genus Sirongylus. Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally

that the bark is ineffective against hookworms.

In Cambodia a handful of toasted roots is given in infusion for

colic accompanied with diarrhoea.

The Arabs credit the seeds with stomachic properties. In India

the seeds are considered cooling and useful in fevers; ground to

a paste with milk they are a Tamil cure for renal lithiasis during

pregnancy.

The bark and fruit combined with other drugs are prescribed in

India for the treatment of snake-bite (Sushruta, Vagbhata, Rasa-

ratnakara); the bark is also prescribed for scorpion sting (Sush-

ruta). Caius and Mhaskar have demonstrated that neither bark nor

fruit are an antidote to either snake or scorpion venom.

PHARMACOGNOSY.

Pomegranate bark has a place in many pharmacopoeias. The

bark of the root is official in Italy, Mexico, Portugal, and Yugo-

Slavia; the bark of the root and stem in Belgium, Brazil, Denmark,

France, Germany, Russia, Spain, and Turkey; the bark of the

root, stem, and branches in Austria, Hungary, Japan, and Switzer-

land; the bark of the root and stem, and the rind of the fruit in

Holland. |

The rind is in irregular, more or less concave fragments, some

of which have the toothed, tubular calyx still enclosing the stamens

and style. It breaks easily with a short corky fracture. Externaliy

it is rather rough of a yellowish brown or reddish brown colour ;

internally it is more or less brown or yellow, and honeycombed with

depressions left by the seeds. It has hardly any odour, but has a

strong astringent taste.

The middle layer of the rind consists of large thin-walled and

elongated, sometimes even branched, cells, among which occur

thick-walled cells and fibro-vascular bundles. Both the outer and

the inner surface are made up of smaller, nearly cubic and densely-

packed cells. Small starch granules occur spraringly throughout

the tissue, as well as crystals of calcium oxalate.

The root bark occurs in transversely-curved pieces; externally

brownish-yellow with. conchoidal depressions and dark brown

irregular patches in the cork; internally dark yellow, the medullary

rays extending to the outer surface. The odour is light, the taste

astringent, somewhat bitter and nauseous.

The stem bark occurs in pieces of variable length and thickness.

The outer surface is yellowish or greyish-brown, with patches of

greyish lichens, broadly elliptical lenticels and yellow-brown furrows

or abraded patches of cork; longitudinally wrinkled. The inner

surface is light yellow or yellowish-brown, finely striate. It breaks

short, with dark green phelloderm and yellowish-green inner bark.

32. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

The stem bark differs from the root bark by the presence of a

broader cortex whose outer cells contain chloroplastids, and by

possessing shorter medullary rays. A transverse section of the bark

exhibits the following structure: cork thin, of alternating rows of

thin-walled suberized cells and lignified cells with greatly thickened

inner walls; cortex of parenchyma with a few large stem cells

isolated or in small groups; medullary rays mostly one-cell wide;

rosette aggregates of calcium oxalate ‘very numerous in _ the

parenchyma.

The powder is from yellowish-brown to dark brown. It con-

tains calcium oxalate crystals in rosette aggregates or monoclinic

prisms; numerous starch grains, spherical, ellipsoidal, biconvex or

irregular, and single or compound; fragments of whitish cork with

prominent, thickened, lignified walls; stone cells with very thick

and strongly lamellated walls; occasional long wood fibers associated

with tracheae possessing simple and bordered pores.

In the Dutch East Indies the local product, which mostly consists

of small pieces and scrapings, is used instead of the European

article. But, as the alkaloidal contents of the Indian bark, more

especially that of the white-flowered variety, are relatively much

higher than those of the European bark, the Dutch Pharmacopoeia

rules that when Indian pomegranate bark is to be prescribed 1n

Holland it shall be as Cortex Granati indicus.

ADULTERATION.

The commercial drug frequently consists partly or entirely of

the bark of the stems or branches, characterized by its (less abundant

cork-formation, with longitudinal bands or ridges of light brownish

cork, but not conchoidal exfoliations. Such bark is considered

adulterated in countries which recognize only the root bark as

official. .

The pomegranate bark is sometimes substituted oy the bark

of other plants. Among these are Berberis vulgaris Linn., which

is bitter and not astringent; Buxus sempervirens Linn., which 1s

also bitter and free from tannin; and Strychnos Nux-vomica Linn.,

or false Angostura bark which has a dark inner surface and a very

bitter taste. None of these barks have the characteristic checkered

appearance of the transverse surface of genuine pomegranate bark.

CHEMISTRY.

The inner surface of the bark, steeped in water and then rubbed

on paper, produces a yellow stain, which by the contact of ferrous

sulphate is rendered blue, and by that of nitric acid acquires a

slight rose tint, which soon vanishes. These properties serve to

distinguish this bark from those of the box root and barberry.

The root bark yields over 22 per cent. of tannin, and a con-

siderable amount of mannitol. It contains five alkaloids, which

bear a close relationship to the hemlock alkaloids. The active

constituent is believed to be ‘pelletierine’, which is highly toxic to

tapeworms, and explains the use of the bark, and the mixed alkaloids

in the form of the so-called, ‘pelletierine tannate’ and. ‘pelletierine

THE POMEGRANATE 33

sulphate’ as anthelmintics. The ‘tannate’ is official in the Pharma-

copoeias of Brazil, Great Britain, Italy, Mexico, and United States

of America, and the ‘sulphate’ in the French Codex.

The bark of the stem usually contains slightly less alkaloid

than the bark of the root. The amount in the stem bark has

been determined by various investigators to range from

maeeto ©.0 per cent., and in the root from 0.6 to 1.0 per

cent. Stoeder, in 1890, found out that of the root bark of three

varieties of the wild pomegranate recognized and used by the natives

of Java, the red-flowered merah yielded 2.43 per cent., the white-

flowered poetih yielded 3.75 per cent., and the black-flowered hitam

yielded 1.71 per cent.

POPULAR BELIEFS.

In various parts of India the flower and the fruit of the pome-

granate are given to women to eat, so that they may conceive sons.

Among the Arabs, the bride, when dismounting before the tent

of the bridegroom, receives a pomegranate, which she smashes on

the threshold, and then flings the seeds into the interior of the

tent. The Arabs would have a man like the pomegranate: ‘bitter-

sweet, mild and affectionate with his friends in_ security, but

tempered with a just anger if the time calls him to be a defender

in his own or in his neighbour’s cause.’

In China the pomegranate is regarded as a symbol of fertility.

We read in the ‘Pei si’ that two pomegranates were presented to

king Nan-te of Ts’1 on the occasion of his marriage to the daughter

of Li Tsu-sou, who explained that the fruit encloses many seeds,

and implies the wish for many sons and grandsons. Thus the

pomegranate is still a favourite marriage gift and plays a part

in the marriage festival. The same obtains in modern Greece.

In ancient Greece the pomegranate was one of the plant remedies

for sterility. In cases of difficult labour the Romans gave the

parturient woman pomegranates and a decoction of fenugreek.

MyTHOLOGY.,

The pomegranate was one of the attributes of Aphrodite of

Venus, the goddess of love and beauty; of Demeter or Ceres, the

goddess of agriculture and vegetation; and of Dionysus or Bacchus,

the youthful, beautiful, but effeminate god of wine.

The attribute of Persephone or Proserpina as the wife of Hades

or Pluto was the pomegranate, and her votaries had to abstain

from this fruit. When carried off to the under-world Persephone

resisted, begged, and implored gods and men to help her, but

Zeus approving the transaction let it pass. Although she had been

thus carried off by force she loved her husband, and when her

mother, Demeter, implored her to come back to earth, her answer

was that she had accepted from him the half of a pomegranate, or

apple of love, and had eaten it. Persephone, who has eaten of the

pomegranate, is the fructified flower that returns in spring, dwells

in the region of light during a portion of the year, and nourishes

men and animals with the fruits.

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

RELIGION.

The pomegranate is one of the fruits offered to the deity by

a Hindu woman taking the ‘Saubhagya Vrat’, that cruel death may

not snatch away from her the husband she loves.

It is also one of the nine plants that make up the ‘Navapatrika’

worshipped on the occasion of the Durgapuja, as carried in some

districts of Bengal.

There is abundant proof that the ancient Egyptians offered

pomegranates to the gods and to the dead, and that the tree was

sacred both to the Semites and to the Greeks.

The pomegranate figures in the New Year ceremonies of the

Jews, and the blessing is as follows: ‘May your approbation be

granted, O Lord, our and our forefathers’ God, to be full with

good deeds as a pomegranate’.’

According to the Koran there are fruits in paradise: the date

and the pomegranate. ;

There is current among the Arabs a ‘hadi’ or traditional saying

that: ‘whosoever eats pomegranates when he is hungry, his heart

will be illumined for forty days and he ,will be immune from the

temptations of the devil—and, therefore, will not sin, and, there-

fore, will enter heaven.’

Another saying is that: ‘whenever the Imam Ali wanted to eat

pomegranates he would spread a cloth. He was asked the reason

for it; and he answered that every pomegranate contains a grain

of the heavenly pomegranate and that whenever infidels want to

eat that grain, by God’s command angels. take it to prevent them

from eating it.’?

ART.

The pomegranate tree and its fruit occupy a prominent place in

Egyptian and Assyrian decorations and works of art: ivory, metal,

pottery. They may also be seen on preserved specimens of pottery

from Jerusalem and on some Jewish coins.

Among other details relating to the making of the ephod of

the High Priest, the Exodus prescribes the following: ‘And

beneath at the feet of the same tunick round about, thou shalt -

make as it were pomegranates, of violet, and purple, and scarlet

twice dyed, with little bells set between: so that there shall be

a golden bell and a pomegranate, and again another golden bell

and a pomegranate.’

In 1408, Quercia executed in Ferrara various sculptures, notably

the ‘Madonna of the Pomegranate.’

~ HERALDRY.

The pomegranate appears in the escutcheons of the South

American Republic of Colombia, and of Bogota, its capital. It

is also found in the arms of the Spanish city of Granada, and in

the seal of its University; in those of the towns of Granadella and

————————

1 Dr. David Judah, M.p.

* Prof. K. Dehdashti, B.A. (Hons.)

THE POMEGRANATE 33

Santafé, in the Spanish province of Granada; and of Tregoney, in

Cornwall.

The arms of the Sassoon family are: ‘or, a palm tree eradicated

proper between on the dexter a pomegranate, also proper, and on

the sinister a branch of laurel fructed, vert, both proper, on a chief

azure a lion passant of the first, in the dexter paw a rod erect,

gold.’

LITERATURE.

One of the most familiar of the Rabbinical interpretations

designed to expound the symbolism of the priestly decoration

prescribed in Exodus is that it indicates ‘something like an alterna-

tion or mixture of music with discoursing, sound with sense, poetry

with thought.’ And this is what Robert Browning meant to convey

to the minds of his readers when he chose as a title for his poems

Bells and Pomegranates’.

Mrs. Browning refers to her husband’s successive pamphlets in

her poem Lady Geraldine’s Courtship :—

Or from Browning some ‘Pomegranate’, which

If cut deep down in the middle,

Shows a heart within blood-tinctured, of a veined humanity.

Sanskrit poets often compared the redness of the cheeks or

lips to the colour of the red seeds of the pomegranate. A simile

not altogether unknown in the West:— _

Her cheeks like . . . faire pomegranade kernels washt in milke

(Greene). :

- Her. temples, peices of Pomegranates seeme (Robinson), —

That small pomegranate-like mouth (Ouida).

As a pomegranate, cut in twain,

White-seeded is her crimson mouth (Oscar Wilde).

The young pomegranate’s blossoms strew

Their blooms in blushes ever new (Byron).

As rosy as a half-opened pomegranate (Flaubert).

In the Journal of the Malayan Branch of the Royal Asiatic

Society (vol. xvii, part III, January 1940) Mr. R. O. Winstedt

gives the following as an example of a Malay quatrain (pantun).

Satu tangan bilangan lima,

Dua tangan bilangan sa-puloh.

Sahaya bértanam biji délima,

Apa sébab péria tumboh?

I find one hand has fingers five,

I count up ten upon the two:

What is the matter, man alive,

Pomegranate planted and gourd grew! |

Apparently the conundrum is about a gardener who counts his

plants and finds their tale complete, but is astonished to discover

a gourd growing where he had planted a pomegranate. However,

to the Malay mind the pantun conveys much more than meets the

ar; for in the Maiay language of fruits a pomegranate stands as

rs i a a a

JAE ron eee ete into, MAG: TeL.B.

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIii

a simile for the purple lips of the Eastern beauty and the bitter

gourd as a symbol of disappointment.

And here is a delightful little Marathi tale:—-‘In the house of

learned men, who were profusely rewarded by king Bhoja, women,

while playing in the yard got their pearl-necklaces broken and

the pearls were scattered on the ground. These pearls were tinged

by the lac-dye that was stamped on the floor, while the women

were playing on the ground. The pearls thus coloured red by the

lac-dye of the soles of the women’s feet attracted parrots who

mistook them for pomegranate grains and began to pick them

up.”

PROVERBS.

‘Omni malo punico inest granum putre’, says the Latin: Every

pomegranate has its rotten pip.

Ek andar, sau bimdr’: one pomegranate to a hundred sick. A

Hindustani proverb used when there are many candidates for the

same post: ‘one post to a hundred applicants.’

‘Kauvé kt dum mén anar ki kali’: pomegranate blossoms on a

crow’s tail. A Hindustani proverb used to describe a black ugly

person finely dressed.

INDIAN MARKET.

Bombay :—Regarding the Bombay Market the following infor-

mation was supplied by Mr. D. S. Laud, Superintendent of Markets

and Slaughter-Houses, Bombay :—

‘Pomegranates sold in our local markets are obtained from

Bhawnagar, Dholka, Kabul, Maskat, Poona, and |Harnai. Most

of the good quality ‘of fruits comes from Kabul.

‘The chief local fruit on sale is that from Poona, of which about

500 baskets are sold daily during the months of August, September

and October.

‘The approximate quantities of pomegranates imported into

Bombay from Kabul and other areas and the seasons are shown

below :—

_ from Bhawnagar and Dholka, 100 to 150 baskets per day during

the months of March, April and May;

from Poona about 500 baskets per day during the months of

August, September and October ;

from Maskat, 200 to 250 baskets per week during the months

of October, November, December and January ;

from Kabul, 75 to 100 kulus (long baskets) on every alternate

day during the months of October, November, December and

January.’

SYNONYMY.

Granutum punicum St. Lag. in Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, vii (1880)

132.

Punica florida Salisb, Prod. 354.

1 Prof. N. K. Bhagwat, M.a.

THE POMEGRANATE 37

Punica Granatum Linn. Sp. Pl. 472.

Punica grandiflora Hort. ex Steud. Nom. ed. I. 660.

Parca nana Linn. Sp. Pls ed. II; 676. :

Punica spinosa Lam, FI. Fr. iit. 485.

Rhoea Punica St, Lag. in Ann. Soc. Bot. Lyon, vii (1880) 133.

VERNACULAR NAMES.

Afrikaans: Iralnate—; Amharic: Ruman—; Annam: Cay luu, Thach luu—;

Arabic: Rana, Rana rumman, Rumman, Shajratur-rumman—; Aramaic:

Rummana—; Assam: Dalim—; Baluchi: Anar, Nargosah—; Bengal: Dalim,

Dalimgachh, Darim-—; Berber : Armoun—; Bombay : Anara, Dalimba, Darima— ;

Brazil: Roma—; Burma: Salebin, Talibin, Thale—; Calcutta: Baidana—; Cam-

bodia: Totim—; Canarese: Dadima, Dadimbe, Dalimbare, Dalimbe, Dalimbu,

Hulidalimbe, Husidalimbe— ; Catalan: Magraner—; Cham: Dalim—; Chinese :

An Shih Liu, Che Lieou, Liou Pi, Ngan Shih Liu, Shih Liu—; Cochin-China :

Cay-thach-luu— ; Coptic: Erman, Herman—; Danish: Granattraee—; Deccani :

Anar, Dhalim, Dharimb—; Dutch: Granatboom—; Egypt: Anhmani, Arhmani,

Rumman—; English: Pomegranate Tree—; Ewe: Aboda—; French: Balaustier,

Grenadier, Migraine, Miouganier—; German: Granaat baum, Granate—; Greek:

Roa, Rodia, Roia, Roidia, Roidion—; Gujerat: Dadam, Dadum—; Hausa:

Rumman, Rummani—; Hebrew: Rimaus, Rimmon, Rimnon—; Hindi: Anar,

Dalim, Darim, Daru, Darum, Dhalim, Dharimb, Gulnar—; Hova: Aponga-

beandanitra— ; Indo-China: An thach luu, Luu, Luu chua trap, Phila, Thap

luu—; Iraq: Rumman—; Italian: Melogranato, Melograno—; Japanese :

Sakaro, Sakuro, Zakuro—; Jaunsar: Danoi—; Javanese: Gangsalan— ;

Jhalawan: Anar, Sor—; Jolo: Dalima—; Kharan: Hanor—; Khmer: Tatim—;

Konkani: Dalimb, Dallimbini—; Kotra: Anar—; Kumaon: Darim—; Kurdish:

Hannar—; Languedoc: Gronodié, Miouganié, Miougranié—; Malaya: Delima,

Shak liu—; Malayalam: Dadimam, Matalam, Pumatalam, Raktabijam, Tali-

matalam, Uruyampalam—; Malta: Pomegranate, Melogranato, Rimmien,

Rummien—; Marathi: Dalimb, Dalimba—; Mexico: Granado, Granado de

China—; Michi: Madala—-; Mendari: Anardaru—; Naples: Granato, Granato

servaggio— ; North-Western Provinces: Anar, Darim—; Persian: Anar, Darakh-

tenar, Dhalim, Dharimb—; Philippines: Dalima, Granada—; Polish: Drzewo

granatowe—; Portuguese: Romanzeira, Romeira—; Potenza: Gronuto— ;

Punjab: Anar, Daan, Danu, Daran, Dariun, Daru, Daruna, Daruni, Dhalim,

Dharimb, Dharu, Jaman—; Pushtu: Anar, Anor, Gharnangoi, Nargosh— ;

Quetta: Anarbedama—; Romagna: Melagrano, Melgarne, Melingarne— ;

Roumanian: Pitligean, Pitlingean, Rodiu—; Russian: Granat, Granatnik— ;

Sanskrit: Bijapura, Dadima, Dadimasara, Dadimba, Dalika, Dantabija, Danta-

bijaka, Darimba, Karaka, Kuchaphala, Kuttima, Lohitapushpaka, Madhubija,

Milapatra, Milapatraka, Mukhavallabha, Nagarata, Parvaruta, Phalashadava,

Pindapushpa, Pindira, Raktabija, Raktapushpa, Shukadana, Shukavallabha,

Sunila, Suphala, Svadvamla, Valkaphala, Vrittaphala—; Shahrig: Nargosa

Sibi: Anar, Dahrun—; Sicily: Granatu—; Sind: Anar, Dhalim, Dharimb— ;

Sinhalese: Delun, Delungaha, Delunghedi—; Sinjawi: Anangi—; Spanish:

Granada—; Swedish: Granatrad—; Syriac: Rumono—; Tamil: Kalumal,

Madalai, Madulam, Madulungam, Magilan, Pumadalai, Pulimadalai, Tadimadalai,

Tadimam, Tusagam—; Telugu: Dadimamu, Dadimba, Dalimma, Danimma,

Karakamu, Pulladanimma, Puvvudanimma, Tiyyadanimma— ; Timne :

Labo—; Treviso: Melogranato, Pomi ingranai—; Tuareg: Tarrumant— $;

Tulu: Dalimbe—; Turkish: Nar—; Tuscany: Granata, Melagranata—; Urdu:

Anarmitha—; Uriya: Dalimbo, Dalimo—; Verona: Magragnar—; Waziri:

Narghesa— ; Yemen: Ruman—; Yugoslavia: Magranj, Nar, Sipak—.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

PART /V.

(Continued from Vol. xli, page 320).

RHOPALOCERA.

PAPILIONIDAE.

pany doris hector “1,

Moore, Cat. Lep. Mus. E.I.C., i, 93, pl. 2, figs. 4, 4a, rib 1857.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., i, 152. 1880-81.

Moore, Dep. Ind53v, 173, plw435,, gcse 1, tay be weol-os:

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, ii, 19. 1907. ,

Bell, ‘Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. S0C., XxX). 1190-32 atom.

Talbot, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies (2nd. Edits) 1)" 84. 1930:

Head black, the clypeus outlined in crimson. Body blackish

purple. 1st somite with a short sublateral and a long lateral orange

red tubercle, a black dorsal plate with four orange red spots anteri-

orly and two posteriorly. 2nd somite with a short lateral and

sublateral and two longer subdorsal orange red tubercles. 3rd

somite similar. 4th and 5th also similar but the outer subdorsal

tubercle obsolescent on the 4th and absent on the 5th somite.

6th to 11th somites with a very low set sublateral short tubercle

and a longer lateral and subdorsal. 12th and 13th somites with

subdorsal tubercles only. 5th somite with a pale orange red spot

above and posterior to the lateral -tubercle and another anterior to

the subdorsal, an orange red transverse dorsal band. 6th to 8th

somites each with a pale orange red spot anterior to the subdorsal

tubercle, a pair of oval dorsal spots on the anterior margin and

with traces of a transverse dorsal band. There is some variation

in the amount of marking. Legs and Speaelcs black. . Prolegs

blackish purple. Osmeterium orange.

Pupa suspended by a girdle and tail pad of black silk. Head

flattened frontally and expanding into a slight lobe on each side.

Thorax with a double keel and a slight lateral lobe. Wing cases

expanded laterally and developing into a lateral lobe. 4th to 7th

abdominal somites each with a pair of subdorsal rounded lobes.

Colour pinkish russet, the wing cases slightly darker and mottled.

The prothorax with two white subdorsal streaks, the abdomen

marked with white above the wing cases. The pupa is very

similar to that of P. aristolochiae F. (mihi, Journ. Bomb. Nat.

Hist. Soc., xl, 392), but the cephalic lobes are slightly smaller and

those on the abdomen are smaller and more erect. The colour is

more pinkish, that of aristolochiae being slightly tinged with olive,

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOFTERA 39

Food-plant—Aristolochia spp.

Described from a full fed larva found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam)

8-iii-40, pupated 14-ili-go, and a male emerged 1-iv-4o.

SATYRIDAE.

Ypthima hubnert Kirby, hubnert.

dewNiceville, (/- ACS, Bi. 237, pl. 125, firs, 1;.4, b. 1886.

Moore, Lep. Ind., 11, 77, pl: 111, fig. 1. 1893-06.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 1, 143. 1905.

-. Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened. Pale bluish green.

Minutely punctate. Laid singly on the blades of grass. Deposited

30-vi-40. Hatched 6-vii-4o.

Newly hatched larva pale buff marked laterally with purplish

and clothed with short hairs. The body colour changes to green

as soon as it has fed but the head remains buff. Resting attitude

with the head and fore-part of the body curved downwards.

Moulted 10-vii-4o.

2nd: instar—Head and body pale green. ‘A darker green dorsal

line, a slightly waved white subdorsal and lateral line with a third

line between them. Ventral surface paler. Anal plate divided into

two points. Body clothed with short hairs. Moulted 14-vii-4o.

ard i imi but with a pale subspiracular stripe.

Moulted 18-vii-4o.

Final instar--Head green. Body green, pubescent. A dark

green dorsal stripe, becoming whitish on the 1st and 2nd somites.

A slightly waved whitish subdorsal line with two more below it.

A pale subspiracular stripe. Legs and prolegs green. Anal plate

ending in two short pinkish processes. Length about seven-eighths

of an inch. Two larvae in a batch of fifty bred from ova were

pale purplish instead of green, with a dark purplish dorsal stripe

and with the white lines more distinct. Pupated 24-vii-4o.

Pupa suspended by the cremaster. Yellowish green in colour,

the thorax and wing cases less tinged with yellow. A brownish

black stripe along the dorsal edge of the wing case and a series of

black specks along the outer margin. Thorax humped and slightly

keeled, in some specimens the keel outlined in brownish black. A

very few examples have the wing cases shaded with black. A

female emerged 31-Vvii-4o.

Food-plant—Grasses.

The larvae usually hang up for pupation during the night and

change late the following evening. The imagines usually emerge

between eight and ten in the morning.

Described from material bred from a female caught at Calcutta.

de Niceville, quoted by Bingham, writes :—‘About one inch in

length, with two divergent processes from the anal segment point-

ing backwards. Colour entirely green with a dorsal line somewhat

darker green, which becomes white at the fourth segment, and

extends right through the crown of the head; there is also a paler

green lateral line below the spiracles. Pupa green or brown, with

the head rounded, the edges of the wing-cases raised and angled

anteriorly; the thorax humped and marked like the abdominal seg-

ments, with some dark brown waved lines and spots.’

40 -- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

NYMPHALIDAE.

Atella phalanta Drury.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl.; 1,962, pl. 31,7) fic. aa, 1880-51,

de Niceville, Butt. Ind., ii, 30. 1886.

Davidson & Aitken, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., v, 269. 1890.

Moore, Lep. Ind., iv, 197, pl. 360, figs. 1, 1a-1f. 1899-1900.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, i, 412. 1905.

Head black with a small white pear-shaped central spot. Body

grey, minutely speckled with white, the dorsum paler with a black

dorsal line. A zig-zag sublateral cream coloured stripe. 1st and

2nd somites each with a lateral and subdorsal longish black branched

spine, 3rd somite with the subdorsal spine only. 4th to r1th somites

with a subdorsal, lateral and sublateral spine, 12th and 13th with

subdorsal spines only. Legs black. Prolegs greyish. Spiracles

black ringed with white. Venter tinged with yellow. One speci-

men had the upper half of the head pale reddish brown. Before

pupation the dorsum becomes tinged with yellow, the whole body

finally turning green with the bases of the spines ieee ae

white.

Pupa with the head square in front with a pair of very Seal

horns. Thorax slightly humped with a pair of short subdorsal

spines on the pro- and meta-thorax. 4th, 6th, 8th and oth abdo-

minal somites each with a pair of subdorsal spines, 1st and 3rd

each with a pair of raised subdorsal spots, 5th and 7th each with

a pair of very small subdorsal spines. Suspended by the cremaster

from a pad of white silk and hanging at an angle of about thirtv

degrees from the horizontal. Ground colour mother-of-pearl tinged

with pink and with the following black and metallic silver markings.

Black—-three small spots on the front of the head, a circle round

the eye, the cephalic horns, the base of the prothoracic spines,

the anterior portion of the metathoracic spines and an irregular

blotch in front of them, the thorax along the junction with the

wing cases, an irregular triangular costal mark a third of the way

from their base, a series of lanceolate spots on the outer margin

of the wing cases, the antenna and proboscis cases, the anterior

part of the spines and raised spots on the rst, 3rd, 4th, 6th and

8th abdominal somites and the whole of the spines on the 5th, 7th

and oth, a minute speck next to the spine on the 7th somite, a

~ series of short transverse dashes on the venter, a lateral blotch on

the 3rd, ath and 5th abdominal somites and the cremaster. These

black markings vary considerably in size. Metallic silver—the

centre of the eye, the back of the prothoracic and metathoracic

spines and also of the spines and raised spots on the rst, ard,

4th, 6th and 8th abdominal somites, the inner margin of the wing

cases and a streak along the outer edge.

Described from a number of full fed larvae found at Gopalpur

(Dist. Ganjam) 16-iii-go, one of which pupated 19-ili-go, and a

female emerged 24- -lii-40.

Moore gives a very bad figure of both larva and pupa in The

Lepidoptera of Ceylon and the following description :—‘Larva pur-

ple-brown; head armed with two delicate branched spines, each

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 4]

segment with two dorsal rows of similar spines and two lateral

rows of shorter spines. Feeds on Flacourtia, Salix, etc. Pupa

pale green, tubercular along the back.’ Bingham quotes Davidson

and Aitken as follows.—‘Larva cylindrical, moderately thick, very

smooth... . bears six longitudinal rows of branched spines. The

head is unarmed. The colour varies from dark brown to pale

yellowish-green, with a white or yellowish spot at the base of each

spine. It feeds on one or more species of Flacourtia. Pupa colour

very variable, some specimens being almost white and some bright

green, the markings are usually silver soled, or tipped with red.’

He also quotes de Niceville’s description of the pupa ‘A beauti- _

ful green with a subdorsal series of five acutely pointed tubercles,

marked with red between each pair of very small blunt ones, the

upper edge of the wing-covers and a spot on each side of the

head also marked with red.’

LYCAENIDAE.

Rapala schistacea Moore.

Head brown, very small and retractile. Body flattened, pale

yellowish green. Somites deeply cut and with a subdorsal and

sublateral series of slight humps. Skin pubescent, the subdorsal

humps bearing short black bristly hairs, the sublateral humps white

ones. Gland fairly large. The larva is well concealed by its

appearance when resting among a bunch of the flower buds of its

food-plant.

Pupa formed in captivity on the bottom of the box under a

leaf, resting on a very thin mat of silk and held in place by a

slight girdle and the cremaster. Head and anal end obtuse, the

abdomen rather swollen laterally, thorax and abdomen domed

dorsally with a slight depression between the two, ventral surface

flat, but this may be due to the situation in which the pupa was

formed. Colour pinkish speckled with black, the wing cases tinged

slightly with olive green, and with a blackish subdorsal stripe edg-

ing the thoracic dome and then running along the abdominal somites.

Under a lens the body is seen to be covered, with the exception of

the wing cases, with short whitish hairs. Wing cases minutely

punctate.

Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 19-x-309,

pupated 23-x-39, and a female emerged 31-x-39.

HETEROCERA.

LYMANTRIIDAE.

Euproctis subfasciata Wk.

Head very dark brown, the bases of the antennae white. rst

somite black with two subdorsal white streaks, a smaller lateral

white streak and a black subdorsal wart tufted with greyish hair.

The rest of the body blackish grey, a double white dorsal line

from the 6th to roth somite and a very faint whitish lateral line.

2nd and 3rd somites each with four brownish warts across the

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

dorsum and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair.

4th and 5th somites each with a dorsal black hump, a subdorsal

black wart and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair.

6th to 11th somites each with four black warts across the dorsum

and a reddish lateral wart, all tufted with brownish hair. 1ath

somite with four small greyish warts tufted with brownish hair.

The dorsal glands on the 9th and 1oth somites pinkish red. Legs

black. Venter and prolegs grey. . |

Pupa olive brown,- the thorax more chestnut, the wing cases

greener. Enclosed in a cocoon of thin whitish brown silk mixed

with Jarval hairs.

Food-plant—Quisqualis indica Linn.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 26-v-40, spun

I-vi-go, and a male emerged 16-vi-4o. -

ARCTUDAE, -

Creatonotus transiens Wk. ;

Moore, Lep. E.I.C., 260, pli 13) tie. a5. 18577- 59.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, ‘29. 1894.

Ovum very pale yellow, spherical, flattened at the base, without

sculpturing. Laid in large batches, each individual ovum touching

the ones next to it. Hatched on the fourth day.

Young larva greyish with transverse black bands on the 3rd,

4th and roth somites. Hair grey. Head black. Later with a

white dorsal stripe edged with black between the transverse bands,

the anal somite orange and a series of orange sublateral warts.

Full-grown larva—Head black, marked with white ‘above the

jaws and with a pale inverted V-shaped mark. outlining the clypeus.

Body greyish black minutely speckled with white on the lateral

areas. A broad white dorsal line interrupted on the 3rd, 4th, foth

and 311th somites by wide black transverse bands. A pale’ cream

lateral streak on the 2nd and 3rd somites. 5th to goth somites

with double oblique pale ochreous lateral streaks, and with traées

of similar streaks on the 1r1th and r2th somites. Hairs blackish

brown. Spiracles white. Legs black. Prolegs deep purplish pink.

Pupa in a thin cocoon of whitish silk mixed with larval hair.

Pale chestnut brown, the intersegmental areas and a dorsal stripe

on the abdomen darker. Not quite as dumpy as the usual Arctiine

pupa. é

Food-plant—Various Composites, and probably. many other

species of low plants.

Described from a number of larvae bred from ova in Calcutta,

one of which pupated 29-vili-39, and a male emerged 5-ix-39.

Hampson’s description, which is apparently based on that of

Moore, is ‘black, blotched with red-brown and with tufts of -red-

brown hair, the lateral tufts arising from ferruginous tubercles ;

a dorsal broad white line; head black, marked with white.’

Asota caricae Bsd. (nie Cr);

Sevastopulo, Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., x1, 402. 1938.

The colouring of the head in this species is variable. Out of

eh...

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA AS

a batch of larvae found in Calcutta in August 1939, the majority

had the head red, as recorded by Hampson and Moore. A

smaller number had the head black with the vertex marked with

red, as previously recorded by me, and there were a very few

intermediates. ;

SPHINGIDAE.

Cephonodes hylas L., hylas.

Sevastopulo, journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., xli, 315. 1939.

Head grey. 1st somite swollen, black with minute whitish

tubercles. Ground colour very pale grey, the secondary segmental

lines darker. A pale lavender subdorsal line edged below with

white and with a small black spot immediately below it in the

middle of each somite from the 2nd to the 1oth. Legs purple.

Prolegs purplish. Anal flap and claspers purple with minute

whitish tubercles. Horn black and tuberculate. Spiracles white

with a transverse orange bar and with an ill-defined grey blotch

immediately behind each. Another specimen had the subdorsal line

and black spots obsolete and a third a black streak centred with

white in place of the spots. In some cases the ground colour was

considerably darker than in others.

Described from a full-fed larva found at Gopalpur (Dist. Ganjam)

I2-1li-40, pupated 16-ili-go, and a male emerged 30-ilI-40.

The dark forms were considerably commoner than usual and

outnumbered the green by about two to one. Three larvae found —

when in the first instar were green but became almost jet black

after ecdysis, and finally developed into the form with the broad

black dorsal stripe. :

NOCTUIDAE.

Prospalta capensis Guen.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 29, pl. 147, fig. 2a. 1884-87.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, ii, 211. 1894.

Warren Seitz, Indo-Austr. Noctuidae, xi, 346.

Head brownish green with a broad black stripe on either side

running from the outer edge of the mandibles to the vertex, where

it is slightly broader. Ground colour pale brownish green, an inter-

rupted white dorsal line edged with dark crimson and ending on

the 11th somite in a white spot. A very fine white subdorsal line,

between which and the dorsal line there are three minute crimson-

ringed white spots on each somite from the 4th backwards, of

these the central one is nearest the dorsal line and the anterior

one is the smallest. 2nd and 3rd somites with a transverse series

of four similar dots on each side of the dorsal line. A spiracular

stripe, white and fairly broad and tinged with crimson, immediately

above which there is a white dot broadly ringed with crimson over

each spiracle from the 4th to 11th somite. 6th to 8th somites

each with a pair of sublateral white crimson-ringed dots. Legs

black. Prolegs and the whole area below the spiracular stripe

very pale greenish. 11th somite slightly humped dorsally. Spira-

cles white ringed with black,

44. JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL’ HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol, (XLTI

Pupa in an earthen cell. Red brown, the thorax and wing

cases tinged with olive green, a dark dorsal stripe and the inter-

segmental areas of the abdomen darker. Cremaster ending in two

sharp spines.

Food-plant—Found on Marigold, but fed up on Cosmos, pre-

ferring the flowers.

Described from a_ full-fed larva found in Calcutta 12-i-40,

pupated 17-1-40, and a male emerged 1-11-40.

All the published descriptions that I have seen are based on

that of Moore. This is: ‘Larva smooth, pale green, anal somite

conical; with a dorsal and lateral series of purple-brown blotches

dotted with white, and a sublateral row of white dots. Pupa

greenish, with reddish segmental bands. Feeds on Acanthads.’

Moore’s plate shews a pupa with the head, thorax, wing cases and

intersegmental abdominal areas bright green, the rest almost

scarlet.

(To be continued).

A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY.

CHARLES MCCANN, F.L.S.

Part Il

(Continued- from. Vol. lr, po 76a).

(With 6 plates).

SUBORDER: SAURIA (contd.)

Famity: Agamidae.

Draco dussumieri Dum. & Bibr. Flying Dragonet.

On the roth June, 1938, Mr. A. R. Hughes and I saw a specimen

of this species in the forests of Gersoppa Falls, N. Kanara. The

animal parachuted from one tree to another, a distance of some

60 feet. As soon as it alighted, it ran up the trunk for a foot or

so, much after the fashion of a Tree-creeper (Certhia). Though

I stoned it in an attempt to secure it, it made no attempt to para-

chute again, but just moved round the trunk climbing a little

higher each time, just as a Bloodsucker (Calotes versicolor) would

do under similar circumstances. It eventually dropped after being

hit, but was lost in the undergrowth. The upper surface was

entirely black, like the bark of the tree, with no indication of

marking’s.

Habits.—Apparently nothing is known of the habits of Draco

dussumieri, but under the heading of the genus the Fauna

(vol. ii, p. 137, 2nd Ed.), referring to the gular appendage, states,

‘The gular pouch is usually much larger in the males than in the

females’. In dussumieri the males always possess the larger ap-

pendage. Continuing the Fauna adds, ‘Both it (appendage) and

the wattles are distensible, or erectile, and are utilized by the males

during courtship.” Though the gular appendage may be used

during courtship, this does not appear to be its only use. As

parachuting is under control, the triangular lateral expansions on

the sides of the neck assist in flight, and the gular appendage acts

as a possible ‘rudder’. Further, | am of opinion that the appendage

plays a part in attracting insects. The appendage is flicked up

‘and down and, at the same time, the lateral neck expansions are

spread out: the three appendages forming a badly shaped T. The

dorsal surface of the neck expansions is coloured like the back,

but the lower is a metallic bluish green with some scattered dark

spots. The appendage is intermittently brought into play when

the animal is travelling up a trunk or immediately after alighting.

The appendage, when fully exerted, describes almost a semicircle,

from the resting to the exerted position, and when at its fullest

exceeds the length of the snout, in males. During the performance

the animal stands high on its forelegs. Agitation, caused by

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

disturbances, also make the animal perform. All three appendages

are brought into play when the animal assumes a_ threatening

attitude. The lateral expansions are spread, the gular appendage

is detlexed (not to its fullest) and the mouth is opened. Actually,

the whole eitect produced is that of a queer-looking orchid flower.

In flight the animal appears like a highly coloured grasshopper.

Breeding.—Keterring to the breeding in Draco, the Fauna

states, “Ihe young are produced from eggs, from two to five

being laid at a time. These are buried in the ground’. Thanks

to the kindness of Dr. M. Suter, whose guest I was during a

fortnight’s trip to Kanara, I was able to observe and collect some

of these interesting lizards, ‘The period of the trip extended

from the 3rd _ to 15th September 1940. The breeding season of

this lizard is undoubtedly during the monsoon months. While

at Karwar, 1 saw many young and secured four gravid females,

one of which contained large eggs in the oviducts almost ready for

laying. These eggs measured 15Xg mm. The other females con-

tained smaller eggs still in the body cavity. The normal number

of eggs in a clutch appears to be four. The condition of the male

genitals in mature males indicated that the animals were passing

out of the breeding season.

Sexual differences.—The females are larger than the males.

The gular appendage is not as long as in the males, but Pee

the same colouring.

Hood... he 1o0d!tor HSIN EE is apparently composed largely

of ants, particularly the Red Tree-Ant (Oecophylla smaragdina

Fabr.). ‘Lhe stomachs of some were Dooce exclusively with this

species.

Colouring.—In May 1939, iis D’Souza of our office brought in

a living example which he had caught at Yellapore, N. Kanara.

Apparently the colouration of this species from lite has never been

recorded (vide Fauna). Now I attempt to describe the difficult

colour pattern, but this is by no means constant as it keeps chang-

ing within certain limits. The colouration, as I saw it, was as

follows:—Head and dorsal portion of body (excluding parachute

membrane), limbs and tail mottled with dark and light browns,

buff and grey. On the nape there is a transverse ellipsoid, buffish

patch. Along the vertebral column, from between the forelimbs to

the region of the pelvis, there are four longitudinal narrow ellipsoid

patches, the mid-dorsal patch being the largest. Each patch con-

sists of a buffish ellipse with dark brown lineal ellipses within—-

these patches under certain conditions turn almost white, and the

rest of the body black. The tail is irregularly banded at intervals,

with the same tones as the body.

The dorsal surface of the parachute; the peripheral margin is

radially streaked with thin lines of brown and buff; within this

margin which has a depth of about 5 mm. it is very strongly

blotched with black and gold or dull yellow, the blotches often

confluent. The yellow gradually passes into the body. colours.

The reverse has fewer black blotches, no margin as above and

the entire area suffused with pale blue. The chin and throat are

metallic yellow-green with a few brown markings near the mouth,

REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY

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48 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

this passes imperceptibly into the bright chrome yellow of the

gular appendage. The chest, abdomen, under-surfaces of the

limbs and a part of the ventral of the tail are metallic blue-green.

The eyes are almost black, surrounded by bluish eyelids. The inner |

margin of the upper jaw is strongly demarked in pearly white.

Sitana ponticeriana Cuv. Fan-throated Lizard.

A female measuring from snout to vent 45 mm. and from vent

to tip of tail (broken) 55 mm. was captured at Sutgutti, 16 miles

north of Belgaum, on the 5th June, 1938. Two days later she laid

eleven eggs. The Fauna records that this species lays six to eight

eggs. The average measurements of the eleven eggs is

7.90x 5.76 mm. The largest measured 8x6 mm.; the smallest

7.5x6. The shape is ellipsoid, tapering somewhat towards both

poles.

Calotes versicolor (Daud.) Jerdon. The Bloodsucker.

In volume xxxix of the Journal I described some of the habits

of this lizard. With regard to the egg-laying period, the latest

date on which eggs were discovered was the 22nd August (1937).

A fresh clutch was unearthed in a flower pot on the 17th September,

1938. Late clutches may explain the appearance of a few immature

animals after the aestivating period.

Copulatory organs.—An anatomical detail which has puzzled me

much is the ‘dual’ copulatory organs of certain reptilian groups,

namely, the lizards and snakes. One can hardly resist asking, Why

are these reptiles provided with a bifid, others with a single

ee ae organ? Dr. Smith | Fauna British India (Reptilia),

vol. il, p. 4, 2nd Ed.] referring to these organs in lizards writes :—.

‘Each organ consists of a tube of erectile tissue, which can be everted like

the finger of a glove. *Only one organ 1s inserted, but which one is immaterial,

and depends upon which side the male happens to be at the time of copulation.’

Referring to Gadow (Camb. Nat. Hist., Amphibia and Reptiles,

Pp. 499) we find the same statement: ‘*Only one organ is inserted

at one time.’ .

On the other hand we have the view proposed by Jones [The

Animal Kingdom, p. 758, para (2025)| discussing the copulatory

organs of reptiles :—

‘The earliest appearance ot copulatory organs is .seen in Serpents and

Lizards tribes: and in such reptiles it will be observed that *the penis is

vather a provision for securing the juxtuposition of the sexual apertures of

the male and female than an instrument of intromission. The two lateral halves

of the penis (or corpora cavernosa as we shall have to call them hereafter,

when they become conjointed in the mesial line) are as yet quite separate,

and placed on either side of the cloacal fissure, from which they protrude

when in a state of erection, so that there appears to be two distinct organs

of excitement, or, more properly speaking, of prehension; for each division,

being of course imperforate, is covered with sharp spinest, *and is obviously

adapted to take a firm hold of the cloaca of the female than to form a channel

for the introduction of the seminal fluid.’

* The italics are mine.

t+ There are no spines in Calotes nor in Hemidactylus.

A REPTILE AND AMPHiBIAN MISCELLANY 49

If the copulatory organs of snakes and lizards are organs of

prehension, as suggested by Jones, then such prehension, to be

effective, implies the use of both organs. In such lizards, as |

have observed, i.e. Hemidactylus, Calotes and Mabuya, the male at

first holds the female in its jaws, but the grip is released as soon as

the copulatory organs are inserted. In these lizards the limbs are

employed in securing a stance on vertical walls or the surface of a

branch, and cannot be used for holding the female, and, once the

grip of the jaws is relaxed, hold is maintained solely by the

copulatory organs. In these conditions it 1s difficult to accept the

contention that only one organ is employed; and one is inclined to

the conclusion that security and effectiveness of hold depend upon

the use of both organs.

Fat bodies.—Before the gonads become active there are two

large, ovate-oblong, yellow fat bodies present in both sexes, one

on either side of the vertebral column. With the increase in

the size ef the gonads there is a relative decrease in the size of

these bodies and eventually become totally absorbed. In some

specimens taken on the 16th June (1940) at the Tulsi Lake, the

fat bodies had been absorbed though the ova were not mature, but

still in the body cavity (see table). The main function of these

bodies appears to be to ensure the proper development of the

gonads at a time when the food supply is precarious, 1.e., during

the dry months when few insects are about.

Food.—In my previous paper on this lizard, I dealt with the

question of food in somewhat general terms, but further observ-

ations have enabled me to give more details, The following is

a list of the stomach contents of several lizards :—

Dysdercus cingulatus Fb. These bugs though very common at

certain times of the year are only eaten in small numbers.

Both species are eaten in

large numbers, and in the dry

months appear to form the main

source of food, particularly,

Cremastogaster sp.

Plagiolepis sp. (Hymenoptera). This ant is very common in

Salsette Island and at first looks very much like Oecophylla

smaragdina Fabr, but the former is slightly smaller and does not

bite, while the latter bites viciously.

Scolopendra sp. occasional.

Pavasa lepida Gam. (Limacodidae). ‘Three larvae of this moth

were taken from a single Calotes. ‘This find is interesting in that

these larvae are armed with strongly irritant spines which are

sufficient to deter most enemies. The spines are believed to

contain formic acid.

Small Coleoptera are taken in plenty, and various caterpillars

frequently. Numerous other insects were found but too far decom-

posed to identify with certainty.

Apart from the above list I have found the seeds of a grass,

Coix Lachryma-Jobi Linn. These seeds were evidently taken in

error for insects on account of the peculiar shape. Mr. H. Ali

informs me that he found the fruit of ‘Lantana in the stomach.

Other curious finds were a piece of clear glass about 6 mm. square:

Cremastogaster Sp.

Camponotus compressus Fb,

XLII

Vol.

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| om | Pee 5

F : Snout |Vent to tip} Size of| Size of =

Species Sex Date Locality teatuant me Tail P Testes Cra. Remarks S

Culotes =

versicolor.| & 28-4-40 |Andheri, Salsette Isl.| 122 | 290 cL 7a | tases Fat bodies large. Lungs infested with Nema- ‘7

| ! todes. ie

Do. d 29-440 » + 90 118 | 277 14x7 | Fat bodies reduced, ro)

Do. é 29-4-40 A i x | 117 | 274 95«5 Fat bodies large. =

Do. go | 29-440 ” ” 1 | 125 | 276 12x 6°5) ” » S

Do. 3 26-S—40 y es 1» | 128 | 272 14x9 Fat bodies fairly large. Lungs heavily infested =

with Nematodes. 2

Do. ¢ 1-6-40 oT * », | 139 | 293 L2:S'x) Siu eceseees | Fat bodies considerably reduced. Lungs elighdy S

| infested with Nematodes. 8

Do. d 2-6-40 ” " » | 126 | 291 SEE) | ceceee Fat bodies absent. iS

Do. g 2-6-40 ni », | 118 | 270 145x'535| i meneee Fat bodies reduced. Lungs infested with 2

Nematodes. —

Do. é 9-6-40 1» 0 on 129 | 126 (B)* | 17x9 Fat bodies absent. ie,

Do. d 9-640 * i i 118 | 275 14x7°5 Fat bodies reduced. iS

Do. é 9-6-40 a » | 121 | 265 4x8 | Fat bodies small. Lungs slightly infested with &%

Nematodes, ee

De. 6 9-6-40 Di 5 >» | 119) 272 LS): 7c OH teceers Fat bodies absorbed. Lungs heavily infested %

with Nemateodes. =

Do, rae 16-6-40 (Tulsi Lake ,, 6H 137 | 310 } 15x9 oy Fat bodies absorbed. Lungs infested with Nema- S

todes. 3

Do. dé 16-640 ” » » | 109 | 268 HEI |} Geo | Fat bodies absorbed. Lungs infested with Nema- e

todes. %

Do. 2 30-4-40 |Andheri, ,, af 89 | 210 2 Fat bodies large. Ova in body cavity. SS

Do. @ | 30-4-40 ~ * » | $2 | 132 (B) 2 | . i 3 i b=

Do. 2 30-4-40 on 7 7 83 | 193 1 ” ” i) YP be

Do. fe) 30-4-40 om a 9 104 | 240 3 ” ” ” ” Ss

Do. Q | 15-5-40 es si erly 893) |k235 ; 4 | Fat bodies reduced. ,, i 5

Do. 2 26-5-40 rm tA ow 881202 eee | mereenes 6 Fat bodies large. = Bn (right ovary 6,

left 6).

Wile 8-5 Fat bodies small. Ova in body cavity (right

Do. 2 26-35-40 | ? ” ” 97 | 230 ovary 7, left 8). . Feu

ee TOMB) elles 12°5x7'5 | Fat bodies small. Eggs in oviducts righ

Do. 2 | 2540] ,, mpl 22) || HONEY 8, left 6). : (right 11

ey Quiml45i0B)e |) eevee 14:5x8 | Fat bodies small. ” ” rng ,

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Do. g 1-640 v. 22 4 AUS} 28 left 8). Abdomen infested with large Nema- i

todes. A, Gtaten ty (right ie

+ B 7 Fat bodies absorbed. va in body cavity (rig’ ica

Do. Q@ | 16-640 |Tulsi Lake ,, » | 86 | 101 (B) 6. left 5). : his =

7 oe | axe 9 Fat bodies absorbed. ,, ” » (rig =

Do. 2 16-6-40 ” ” ” 89 0 12, left 11). : ane SF

9, Bees 5 Fat bodies absorbed. ,, ” » (71g) is

Do. 2 16-6-40 ” ” ” 82 | 210 5, left 5). =

—

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*(B) = Broken.

62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

-a valve of a bivalve shell. As there is no muscular pyloric region

in Calotes, hard substances would serve no useful purpose, hence

the only conclusion is that hard substances, such as these, are

swallowed in error,

Parasites.—In my paper referred to above, I mentioned the

occurrence of some internal parasites taken from Calotes, but

could not mention them specifically at the time. Since then some

of the worms were identified. They are as follows :—

Polydelphis rotundicaudatus (v. Linst., 1904) Baylis, taken from

the stomach.

Strongyluris calotis Baylis & Baubney, infesting the rectum.

A Pentastomid was taken from the lungs, one in each.

On the 26th May 1940 I removed 65 small worms, similar to

Strongyluris, from the lungs of a single male—go in one and

25 in the other! Another male (on 16-6-40) yielded 55 Nematodes,

36 in one lung and 19 in the other! In spite of such heavy infections

the lizards appeared healthy and behaved quite normally. The

upper half of the lungs was seriously inflamed and the inner walls

of the lower half were covered with nodular outgrowths. The

Nematodes lie free in the lung cavity. It does seem curious that

though these lizards are often heavily infected, externally, they

appear healthy and normal. On the rst June (1940) I recovered

seven large worms measuring 60 mm. long from the body cavity

of a female. These worms moved among the viscera and the

eggs. Though the animal harboured these. worms she seemed

perfectly fit and contained 17 eggs in the oviducts.

Besides the above-mentioned parasites the following have .been

recorded from Calotes versicolor (vide Baylis, F.B.I. Nematoda) :—-

‘Ascaris’ brachyura (v. Linst., 1904) from Ceylon.

Thelaudros maplestoni (Chatterji 1930) from Burma and

Ceylon.

Ceylon. -

Thubunaea dactyluris Karve 1938, India.

Physaloptera archari Mirza 1935 (=? P. paradoxa v. Linst.

1908), India.

Calotes rouxi Dum. and Bibr. The Forest Bloodsucker.

Colour.—The Forest Bloodsucker is smaller than the common

Bloodsucker (C. versicolor). In non-breeding garb it may be mis-

taken sometimes for juveniles of versicolor, but in the breeding

season it is very distinctive. At that season both males and females

are black in tone throughout, except for the head and a narrow

patch along the vertebral column which are bright scarlet, the

scarlet gradually lessening in intensity posteriorly. In the females

the scarlet markings are far less pronounced than in the males. In

this phase of colouring the animal does not look unlike some bark

fungus from a distance. In the non-breeding season the general

colouring consists of sober browns, but like other lizards they are

able to change colour considerably according to the ground they

ate on. On the top of the head there are four characteristic black

déts in both sexes throughout the year. The breeding colours are

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A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 53

controllable and their intensity depends on the temperament of the

animal at the time. Under disturbed conditions, such as handling,

the colours almost disappear.

Sexual difference.—The males are larger than the females.

Habits.—Dressed in the contrasting breeding colours the males

sit watching for females, and from time to time bob their heads

and shoulders up and down just as the common Bloodsucker does.

This form of display possibly serves a dual purpose; one as a

challenge to other males who respond in the same manner before

approaching each other to fight; and the other, to distinguish the

females which do not adopt the same performance. Fights between

males are not uncommon and some lizards may be seen with scars.

Rival males may be seen going from tree to tree to chase one

another away. The courtship is apparently short; the male will

chase a female round a trunk, she will dodge, often arch her back

and meet the male in an ‘aggressive’ attitude, then suddenly take

to flight again. This sort of play continues for a time before

actual copulation takes place. Many of the habits of the species

are not unlike those of the Bloodsucker (C. versicolor).

These lizards spend much of their time low down on the trunks

of trees coming to the ground frequently to catch insects. They

are inhabitants of deciduous forests. Their numbers have been

considerably reduced in Salsette since the wholesale deforestation

of certain parts of the island. Owing to this state of affairs large

numbers were congregated where a few trees were available in

June 1939, but since then, the trees have been demolished !

Breeding Season.—The breeding season commences during the

hot weather, i.e. the middle of May and reaches its height in

June when the eggs are laid. The clutch numbers from 4 to 9,

but 6 or 7 appears to be the general rule. The accompanying table

gives the size of the eggs.

In Kanara the breeding season appears to be somewhat later

than in Salsette Island. While at Karwar during the early part

of September (1940) I noticed several males in breeding colour

and secured a single female with fully matured eggs in the oviducts.

At the same time there were a number of young about.

Food.—This lizard is insectivorous. On one occasion I found

it feed on a red Pyrrhocorid bug. The bugs are avoided by most

other lizards. At the breeding season the bugs appear in large

numbers. 7 ,

FAMILY: Scincidae: Skinks.

Mabuya carinata Boulenger. The Common Skink.

The Common Skink, is often referred to as the ‘Snake-leader’

or ‘Snake-ant (or aunt)’’—Snake-leader, because popular belief has

it that this inoffensive creature is a ore nncr of snakes. There

is, of course, no real foundation for this belief, but it must be

remembered, that this lizard, like so many others, forms the chief

2 1 “Snake-ant’ is a literal and mutilated translation of the Marathi name

Surpa chi moust (=snake’s aunt).

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A. The Common Skink (Mabuya carinata Boulenger). |

B. The Little Skink (Mabuya macularia Boulenger).

E. eggs; ©. ova; “Ov oviduct.

A. REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 55

food of certain snakes, such as the Wolf-Snake (Lycodon aulicus),

which is a frequent inhabitant of dwellings. There is, in the

Society’s collection, an interesting specimen of a Lycodon, which

had eaten a skink ‘too large’ for it, with the result that the skink

forced all four legs through the body wall of the snake giving it

the appearance of some prehistoric monster.

In district bungalows this lizard is a frequent visitor, where

it may be. seen gliding about in corners and under furniture in

search of insects. If not molested it often becomes quite tame, pay-

ing no attention to the inmates of the house. In forests it is fre-

quently seen streaming in and out of fallen leaves, and under stones

and rocks, its snake-like head peeping out now and again, looking

very ‘snakish’ indeed. In the early hours of the morning, parti-

cularly in the cold weather, it may often be seen basking in the

sun, either on rocks or on the trunks of trees (it never climbs into

the thin branches). When possible, it will also climb on to the

roof and hunt among the tiles or thatch.

In habit it is purely diurnal, resting at night in any suitable

place. They are so attached to their resting places that they return

to them in spite of disturbance. In my bungalow one always

returned to a cloth-covered box, where it slept under the cloth.

Mr. C. King, a neighbour of mine, always had one in his bed

every night during the monsoon months (at no other season). The

lizard would either get under his pillow or under the folded blanket

at the foot of the bed. Here it would return night after night in

spite of being rudely ejected at bed time. I can vouch for this

statement as I have seen the lizard in question on many occasions.

The young are numerous among the fallen leaves during the

months of June and July. |

It is perhaps unnecessary to say that this creature is perfectly

harmless and even when handled rarely bites, but old beliefs die

hard. In captivity it does well and lives for several years. The

food consists chiefly, if not exclusively, of insects. I have kept

several in captivity, feeding them largely on cockroaches, when other

insects were not available. Recently I had two large lizards in

the same box. I put in a large green mantis, one of them got

hold of it and dusted it vigorously on the floor. The other tried

to join in the meal but each time the second lizard approached,

the one with the mantis would turn its hind portion towards the

other to ward it off. ‘After the mantis had been beaten to pulp

it was swallowed. The skink drinks water occasionally (noted in

captivity).

Mabuya macularia Boulenger. The Little Skink.

This is quite common in the Island of Salsette, and may at

first glance be mistaken for a young M. carinata. A_ pair

was found on the 22nd June (1935) in copulation. I was only able

to secure the female. It measured from snout to vent 48 mm. ;

vent to tip of tail 59 mm. On dissection it was found to contain

four eggs, approximately 5 mm. in diameter. On 8th June 1939,

I secured a female measuring from snout to vent 52 mm., tail 74 mm.

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL) HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. XLII

She contained three, almost mature eggs in the uteri (2 in the

right and one in the left) measuring 9x6 mm. Besides these large

eggs there were numerous other small ones in the body cavity.

The normal clutch appears to be four.

It is more of a forest dweller than the Common Skink.

FamIty: Varanidae: The Monitors.

Varanus monitor (L.) The Common Indian Monitor.

The Common Monitor is frequently referred to by many

Europeans and Anglo-Indians as the Iguana. It is well known that

true Iguanas are American, though Chalaradon and Hoplurus occur

in Madagascar. To most Indians it is known as Gor, Gorpad,

Or variations of the name. The young, owing to its very different

markings from the adult, is referred to by other names, one of which

is the mythical bis-cobra. In ancient wars and in criminology in

India this monitor is said to have figured frequently, as a means

of scaling walls. A rope was tied round the waist, and the animal

allowed to ascend the wall. Once over, pulling on the rope forces

the animal to secure itself. The owners would then climb up the

rope. The well-known Marathi surname, Gorpade, arose from the

belief that some ancestor of the family used this lizard effect-

ively for scaling a fort wall. Be this as it may, to my mind this

story is quite possibly true. From my own experience, I have found

it exceedingly difficult to extract a monitor from a crevice once it

has wedged itself in. The following will suffice to show the great

strength with which it can hang on:—In Mt. Abu (5,000 ft.) I

once caught one of these lizards just as it was disappearing into

a crevice. It was about 30 inches long. Only the tail remained

out. I hung on to it with my feet planted against the rock, I

pulled and pulled, but the animal would not give way an inch.

As I was close to our bungalow I called for assistance and a rope.

The rope we managed to tie just ahead of the hind limbs. With

the aid of three servants I tried again to dislodge the animal but

it would not move. As this plan failed, I got some straw,

lit it, and put it near the tail, thinking the heat would make it

release its hold, but no. Later I discovered that I had unintention-

ally burnt the tail a bit. In spite of this it still held out. Even-

tually, I slackened the rope slightly and as the animal tried to go

further in, I suddenly jerked the rope and out it came. It stood

at bay until captured.

As the monitor has such extraordinary strength, is it any wonder

that it was used as a means of scaling? One man’s weight would

be nothing, once the animal wedged itself into a crevice, or got

down a hole. After such experiences as I have had with this

lizard, I, for one, cannot discredit the probable use of these lizards

as an aid to scaling rough walls. Anyone who has handled a fair

sized, vigorous animal must have been impressed with its extra-

ordinary strength.

Though this monitor is perhaps commoner in dry districts, it

is also found in dense forest. It swims and dives well, and often

takes to water for safety, and remains submerged for a considerably

A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 57

long time. When pursued over flat ground it runs exceedingly fast,

but for a short distance only; it soon shows fatigue and stands at

‘bay when overtaken, blows itself up, hisses and lashes out with

its tail. Having recovered itself, it takes to flight once more at

the first opportunity. The monitor climbs trees with great ease,

and may sometimes be seen up the tallest palms in search of

birds’ nests. The young appear to climb more easily and oftener

than the adults.

Young.—In Salsette most young appear during the hot weather

and the early part of the monsoon. Only once have I found eggs

with well-developed embryos. Unfortunately, I did not keep a

record at the time. A recently hatched young was caught by

Mr. D. B. Barretto at Kurla in the month of February 1939. On

the 24th May (1939) I caught an older one at Andheri. It was

perhaps three weeks to a month old. The young are very varia-

ble in colouring and are able to modify their colour to a certain

extent, generally they are strongly banded. These markings dis-

appear with age. Growth during the early period is fairly rapid,

but beyond a certain size it slows down.

Food.—The food is varied and consists of rats, birds, frogs,

and perhaps any animal that can be overpowered. In captivity,

adults live for many years when fed on raw meat, rats, birds and

eges. The food is generally swallowed whole, but when it is too

large it is torn to pieces with the aid of the forelimbs. Living

prey is soon killed by vigorous dashing against the ground. In

the process of swallowing, if portions of the prey protrude, the

animal brushes them into its mouth by rubbing the jaws against

the ground.

The Common Monitor is purely diurnal. Captive specimens, due

probably to confinement, get extremely fat and frequently suffer

from a fusion of the vertebrae.

The Monitor is often destructive to poultry, feeding both on the

eges and the birds. The meat is eaten by the local people.

ORDER: ECAUDATA.

Famity. Ranidae: Frogs and Toads.

Rana hexadactyla Lesson. The Six-toed Frog.

In *olume xxxvii (p. 742) of the Journal I mentioned the occur-

rence of this species in the Bombay Presidency, but unfortunately

omitted to record the measurements. They are as follows: females,

from snout to vent 60 mm. and 65 mm.; no males were obtained.

On the 12th March 1939, Mr. H. Ali and I secured a male

and female living in one of the dry cisterns at the Kanari Caves,

Salsette Island. These two specimens I kept in an aquarium. As

the female showed signs of being gravid, I lived in hope of being

able to trace the life cycle, but it escaped just before the monsoon

broke. It was last seen in the aquarium on 30-5-39. The

male called frequently both day and night. The call is not unlike

that of R. cyanophlictis. In the note referred to above, I mentioned,

‘It is curious that these frogs should be gravid at this time of the

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLIi

year,’ (25-2-34) and concluded by saying, ‘they may possibly breed

all the year round’. The present instance indicates that though

the females may be gravid early in the year the eggs are not laid

till the beginning of the rains, as do most other frogs.

Together with this species we also found R. tigrina, R. leithii,

and R. malabarica, all living together under the same stones.

Rana cyanophlictis Schneid. The Skipper.

During the latter part of May and early June I have often taken

specimens full of ova. This indicates that the breeding season

commences with the monsoon. Two females measured 62 mm.

and 59 mm., respectively. The males are smaller. Amplexus takes

place in lakes and not in small puddles as in the case of R. tigrina.

Rana tigrina Daud. The Bull-Frog.

Voice.—About the middle of May 1938, I heard a single Bull-

Frog calling. As it was some time before the rains actually broke,

it seemed rather unusual. Then again, I heard several croaking in

the: fields, at Andheri, during the month of August (1938), long

after the general breeding season was over. Usually croaking: in

this species ceases after amplexus which occurs during the first

week, or couple of weeks, of the rains, depending on weather con-

ditions. The question naturally arises: Are these ‘croakers’ late

comers in the season, or are they males that were unsuccessful in

finding mates during the general breeding period? Whichever the

reason, the sexual urge must have still lasted, though the frogs

had lost their yellow garb-—a characteristic of males during the

breeding season. Perhaps the croaking is intimately associated

with the sexual urge and the condition of the testes, the croaking

only ceasing after the testes are voided, or in the case of un-

successful males till the contents have been absorbed and diminished

to non-breeding condition. Here I must leave this interesting point.

Colour.—In my paper, Notes on Indian Batrachians (J.B:N.H.S.

xxxvi, 158), I dealt at some length on the life-history of the Bull-

Frog. In that paper I made several references to the remarkable

colour displayed by the males at the breeding season, but did not

venture to offer any explanation for it, nor do I intend to do so

here, but merely record some further observations. On page 160

of the paper I wrote, ‘Another curious point arises here. Tht males

which remain above ground during the dry season, according to my

observations, retain their normal colouring. Specimens kept in

captivity by me exhibited no change...’ In the light of further

observations one is frequently compelled to alter a previous state-

ment, and this I must do here. During May 1937, I collected

several adult specimens at the Powai Lake, for dissection and

observation. Around the lakes in Salsette, this frog is found all

the year round.

An examination of the specimens caught on the 7th May showed

that the males were in the ‘normal’ attire—brown—but the insides

of the forelegs were suffused with yellow, and the same tint ex-

tended along the flanks of the thighs. Dissection revealed that the

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testes were distinctly enlarged, almost in breeding condition.

Females were laden with almost mature ova. Specimens collected

on the 21st May showed no appreciable difference from those

collected earlier. But on the 24th May the males showed distinct

signs of becoming yellow and by the 26th had become completely

so. The yellow colouring appears to be under control, and

the animal is able to vary it under certain conditions. A yellow

frog, if handled, will change to greenish brown, but when at rest

again will return to the yellow phase. Disturbances react on the

colouring of the animal.

In a subsequent paper on the Bull-Frog (Precocity in young

Bull-Frogs, J.B.N.H.S. xxxviii, 409), I pointed out that young

males also turn lemon yellow at the breeding season, in spite of

the fact that the genitals are immature. It seems clear from these

observations that the condition of the genital organs, namely,

whether they are in breeding condition or not, does not directly

influence the colouring of the males at the breeding season, if at

all.

A breeding male in amplexus measured from snout to vent

149 mm.; testes 20 mm. long. A breeding female 122 mm. Non-

breeding male in amplexus: snout to vent 88 mm., testes 11.5 mm. ;

female 76 mm.

Rana rufescens Boulenger. The Rufescent Frog.

A female measuring from snout to vent 31 mm. and containing

almost mature ova was taken on the roth June 1938, at the

Gersoppa Falls. Its general colouring was brick-red almost

throughout the dorsal surface, and a slight mottling on the hind

portion of the thighs. The ventral surface was greyish-white.

Other specimens taken at the same time varied from light brown

to dark brown with hardly any indication of the brick-red.

Rana leithii Boulenger. Leith’s Frog.

On the night of. roth June 1938, a female containing almost

mature ova was taken in the compound of the Gersoppa Bungalow

(British side). It measured from snout to vent 37 mm. A curious

point about it was that at some time she had received a severe

abdominal injury which tore open her left flank near the base of

the foreleg for about half the distance to the middle of the abdomen.

The wound was an old one and had healed up by the formation of

a translucent stretch of skin over the once gaping area. Through

this ‘window’ the ova could be seen easily. The piece of flesh

which had been torn out at the time of the accident now formed a

conical protuberance adhering to her side.

Onethesi2thy March 1930, Mr.°H, Ali and I: secured several

specimens in a cistern at the Kanari Caves, Salsette. Here the

frogs were living under stones in the dry cisterns. In this situa-

tion the animals were almost black in colour, corresponding with

the dark rock of the cistern, but later assumed a sandy colour.

On the 6th April 1939, I caught several specimens which were

living under stones and among leaves in the dry bed of the stream

60 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST, “S@GIETY" Vol. XEIT

leading to the Lingmala Falls, near Mahableshwar (4,000 ft.). In

this locality the animals were slate-black with just a slight indica-

tion of marbling, but later became sandy in tone.

These three records constitute a further extension of the range

of this species. The type came from Matheran (3,000 ft.). Since

then it has been found at Khandala, 1,600 ft., Poona District;

Gersoppa Falls, > 1,800 ft., N. Kanara District; Kanari Caves,

1,300 ft., Salsette Island, and Lingmala Falls, 4,000 ft., near

Mahableshwar.

Rana malabarica Dum. and Bibr. The Fungoid Frog.

After years, I was able to fix the author of a very peculiar

metallic call in the Salsette jungles. It was made by this species,

and may be said to be the breeding call. It can only be likened

to the noise made by a tin rattle. It is audible a long way off,

but as soon as one tries to locate it, though ever so near, it sud-

denly ceases—the frog has spotted the intruder and stopped.

In a former bungalow at Andheri several of these frogs took

up their residence in a corner of the house, both during the rains

and the dry weather. They would come out at dark and return

with daybreak. They would frequently call on dull days and

could be induced to do so repeatedly with a tin rattle, which

imitated their call very closely. The cook slept in the same room

and frequently complained of being disturbed during the night, either

by calls of those that had not left, or because they jumped on him

while he was asleep. He had orders not to kill them; so, frequently,

there was a search during the night, and the frogs, when discovered,

were rudely shot out into the compound. Naturally they returned

later—such forcible ejections did not disturb their ‘homing instinct’ !

Breeding.—The frogs are evidently late breeders as I have

taken females with ova in July. A breeding male measured from

vent to snout 51 mm.; testes 6 mm. A breeding female 62 mm.

The males are smaller than the females.

Rhacophorus maculatus Boulenger. The Chunam Frog.

In volume xxxvi, p. 172 of the Journal, I described some phases

from the life-history of the Chunam Frog (Rh. maculatus). On

page 172 I wrote, ‘It appears at the break of the rains,’. This

sentence must be modified in the light of further observations. The

statement is certainly true of animals living under unfavourable

conditions, but near perennial water and in houses, where water is

at hand, they may be seen all the year round.

In my bungalow, at Andheri, this frog is a common resident

throughout the year, except for a brief period during the rains, but

even then it sometimes comes in. At the break of the rains they

go afield to return when the rains stop and conditions are too

dry outside. As many as six or seven reside with us annually.

During the day, in the dry weather, they hide in vases, among

clothes, behind bottles and the like with the limbs drawn up under

the body as close as possible. Two regularly hide between the

battens of my cot! The resting places are more or less regularly

occupied, but sometimes two or three places are selected and these

A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 61

are occupied on different days. Once their haunts are discovered

one is sure to find them there. As soon as it is dark they emerge

and first of all make for places where they are likely to get water.

In such places they sit tor a considerable time absorbing water

under the skin, betore starting on the night’s adventures. Early

morning, just before it gets light, they return to their respective

retreats, but belated frogs, like nocturnal revellers, are not un-

common.

Before proceeding further, I would like to make a few remarks

on the peculiar habit of absorbing water under the skin. It is

well known that frogs do absorb water through the skin,

what is more, they are also able to breathe through the skin}.

but in this species it appears to be developed to a remarkable

degree. When the animal first emerges from its retreat it appears

thin, but after a time at the water supply it has increased in bulk.

The water accumulates partly under the abdomen, and partly under

the skin between the hind legs, the spine forming a dividing line

between the two ‘reservoirs’! As soon as sufficient water has been

absorbed, the animal moves off. In this case we see a special

provision for water transport for the next twenty-four hours during

the dry season! Hence, perhaps it is that this species is able

to remain active throughout the year in favourable localities. I

have not observed this provision in any of our terrestrial species.

During the rains such a provision would of course, be unnecessary.

On arrival at the diurnal retreat, each frog goes through a

process of ‘self-massage’, a somewhat ludicrous performance. The

head is first rubbed down from the top over the snout, by the

forelegs, and then down the throat and thorax as far as the limbs

will reach. This is followed by a ‘massage’ of the back, flanks

and abdomen, by the hindlegs. The hindlimbs then massage one

another. When all this ‘toilet’ is over, the limbs are collected

under the body and the frog ‘retires’. I have tried to figure out

the reason for this performance and can only ascribe it to the

possibility that the animal tries to clear its body of foreign matter

adhering to its skin, perhaps also, an even coating of slime, when

dry, acts as a sort of film, to prevent further evaporation of

moisture.

During the resting period, the body looks like a large chry-

salis and the animals are very reluctant to move, even when dis-

turbed. It takes quite a lot of provocation to make them jump.

The pupils are reduced to a narrow horizontal sht, scarcely wider

than a fine silk thread, but when on the move at night, the margins

of the pupils coincide with the margins of the eyes—hence the entire

eye appears black. Though, generally speaking, the size of a pupil

is automatically controlled by the intensity of the prevailing light

in most animals, in this frog, I have noticed that light is not

entirely the controlling factor, but also the activity of the animal

at the time. I have often seen ‘late-comers’ in bright davlight

with the pupils fully dilated. Only on assuming the resting

attitude do the pupils begin to diminish in size.

Further, close observations of several animals, both during the

night and during the day showed the following Gesults, “At

62 JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

night, when they leave their resting places the pupils gradually

enlarge to full size, even in bright lamp light, but when they sit

about, in the resting attitude, for hours, as they are wont to do,

in the same place, the pupils become mere slits once more. When

I have found them in this condition, I gently ran a pin-point over

the skin, at once the pupil began to open slightly, with a little

harder treatment the pupils expanded still more, but as soon as

the animal became active and jumped about the pupils opened to

the fullest. Even the light of a powerful electric torch had no

effect. During the day, similar experiments evinced the same be-

haviour, except that the pupils in bright sunshine did not open to

their fullest, but about half to three quarters. Hence it appears

that the dilation of the pupils is closely associated with the activity

of the animal and not entirely with the intensity of light.

A frog that lived behind some books on my writing table got

on the wrong side of a pane of glass on its way ‘home’. It made

frantic efforts for several minutes to get through, as it could see

its usual haunt, but the window-pane baffled it completely. It

climbed up and down the pane, tried to force its head through,

but eventually jumped on a neighbouring chair and thence to its

usual retreat. .

During the cold weather, though the frogs were about the

house every night, they did not appear to be as active as when the

weather got warmer. In the winter season they often sit about for

hours in the same spot in a ‘semi-dose’. Incidentally, the chance

of finding insects is then remote. Towards the middle of. April the

males in the house began to call now and then. The calling became

more frequent with the approach of the rains. No frogs called

outside. As soon as the rains commenced the frogs in’ the house

disappeared. Rh. maculatus is heard occasionally throughout the

rains in the neighbouring vegetation. On, the 15th September

(1938) the first frog was seen again in the house, the rains were

diminishing. This arrival was followed by others as the season

Wore on and once more we had our full complement of tree-frogs.

Food.—The food, like that of most frogs consists chiefly of

insects, but certain insects are definitely avoided, such as Cantharids,

garden bugs, water beetles, fire-flies, and some carabids. In com-

mon with its fraternity, it will only ‘lap up’ moving objects. Once

I saw a Chunam Frog ‘lap up’ a fire-fly, the very next moment

it ‘spat’ it out; a peculiar performance. The frog flapped its

tongue out with the insect adhering to it, backed a bit, dragging

its tongue along the floor till the insect was free of it. This ex-

periment did not teach it that the fire-fly was distasteful, for 4a

little later as the insect moved off the frog lapped it up again.

The same ludicrous performance was repeated as before and the

insect released. Eventually it left the fire-fly to go its way.

Microhyla ornata Boulenger. The Black-throated F rog.

This frog is not uncommon at Andheri during the rains. Ben

during the dry weather it may be found occasionally in the earth

of watered flower-beds. On the 11th July (1937), I secured a gravid

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLaTeE XIV

—

Photo: C. McCann.

The Indian Salamander (Tylototriton verrucosus Anders.) |

BE. eggs. |

A REPTILE AND AMPHIBIAN MISCELLANY 63

female measuring 20 mm. from snout to vent. Another female

caught on the 5th June 1940 at Andheri showed the ovaries to be

active, but the ova were far from mature, were creamy yellow and

did not occupy the entire abdominal cavity as in the previous speci-

men with almost mature, pigmented, ova. This apparently indicates

a later breeding season than is the case with other frogs.

In my paper in the Journal (xxxvi, p. 177) I wrote, ‘The number

of eggs laid is comparatively few—3o-40’. This in the light of

the specimen mentioned above must be modified as it contains a

lot more—perhaps a couple of hundred at a rough estimate. As

the mature specimen I have is the only one, | cannot give the exact

number without destroying it.

An examination of the stomach contents of the animal caught

on the 5th June (1940) indicated that the animal fed on small

Coleoptera and small ants.

Philautus bombayensis. The Bombay Philautus.

This species I was surprised to find some years ago during the

dry months in fairly large numbers under stones in the bed of

the stream leading to the Lingmala Falls, near Mahableshwar,

4,000 ft. It is most elusive during the rains, when it is more

often heard than seen. During the Easter holidays of 1939 (April)

I visited the same area and again found them to be very plentiful.

The colour and markings are very varied.

ORDER: CAUDATA

Fami.y: Salamandridae: Salamanders.

Tylototriton verrucosus Anders. The Indian Salamander.

Mr. C. M. Inglis, Curator of the Darjeeling Museum, scnt some

living specimens of this interesting amphibian to the Society for

casting. After casting I dissected one specimen to find that it was

a gravid female. The date was 11th November 1937. The speci-

men measured from snout to vent 88 mm. and from vent to tip of

tail 9g mm. I made an attempt to keep the remaining specimens

alive under observation, but failed completely, they soon died

away. The correct food was the main difficulty, I tried insects,

snails and some aquatic insects, but nothing seemed to tempt their

appetites, they would just lie about on the floats placed in the tank.

Out of water they were extremely clumsy, water is their true

element.

ORDER: APODA.

FaMILy: Caeciltidae.

{chthyophis glutinosus Fitz. The yellow-striped Blind Worm.

Mr. R. C. Morris sent me a couple of specimens of this curious

amphibian in September 1937, from the Billigirirangan Hills, Mysore.

On the 8th November, as the specimens died, I dissected one of

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLil

them, a female measuring 310 mm. It proved to be gravid and

besides 22 large eggs measuring 10 mm. across, it contained 2-4

smaller ova adhering to each of the larger ones. The undissected

second one measured 330 mm. “hy

Ichthyophis monochrous Boulenger. The Brown Blind Worm.

In volume xxxi, p. 1039 of the Journal I recorded the occurrence

of this species from Khandala, Western Ghats. On the 6th Sep-

tember 1931 while collecting frogs, I discovered another specimen

living under a stone on the banks of the lake behind a range of

hills, locally called the ‘Sausages’. I have repeatedly hunted for

this animal since its. first discovery at Khandala, but without

much success. The 1931 specimen measured 232 mm. T hough the

Fauna gives the diameter of the body as half an inch my specinens

measured considerably less.

eee eka

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PratE XV

Photo: C. McCann.

The Yellow-striped Blind Worm (Ichthvophis glutinosus Fitz)

Is Goes Hy heart; Ye tat bodies; Ib. lung; Lv. liver.

‘THE ECOLOGY OF A TEMPLE TANK CONTAINING A_

- PERMANENT BLOOM OF MICROCYSTIS AERUGINOSA

(KUTZ) HENFR.!

5; Ve, GANAPATY., MSC., ,Ac1eC.,,

Water Analyst, Municipal Corporation of Madras

(From the Health Department of the Corporation of Madras).

There are in the city of Madras some five hundred ponds or

tanks, of which about a hundred or so are dry from June to

September. The remaining contain water at all seasons of the

year, but differ from one another in several important respects.

They may, however, on the basis of their aquatic vegetation be

broadly classified into three groups: (i) those containing abundant

macrophytic vegetation without phyto- and zoo-plankton, (ii) those

containing abundant phyto- and zoo-plankton without any macro-

phytic vegetation, and (ili) those containing both macrophytic

vegetation and phyto- and zoo-plankton.

_ All these tanks or ponds are, in one way or another, sources of

serious trouble to the health authorities of the Municipal Corpora-

tion. Many of them afford breeding places for the larvae of

malarial mosquitoes, and also produce a foul odour during the

south-west monsoon season (July to September), when numerous

complaints are received every year by the Corporation. Whether

these tanks are really inimical to the health of man and animals

drinking their waters remains a problem for investigation.

In the case of the first group of ponds remedial measures are

easily taken by dredging or removing physically all the aquatic

weeds and plants. But the problem is not so simple in the case

of the second and third groups. The second group are ponds of

_ ‘artificial origin and often of very ancient date’, which consist

absolutely of one or several species of a _ blue-green alga,

Microcystis sp. These algal forms are present at all seasons of

the year and in such abundance as to exclude almost all others;

they may be said to have formed a permanent water bloom. By

their death and decay, they not only affect the taste of the water

but also produce a characteristic foul smell, which the health

authorities of the Corporation are unable to prevent. These minute

algal forms float freely in the water, so that it is not possible

to remove them easily and completely unless all the water is

pumped out. Such a procedure would be uneconomical. So, ways

and means have to be found for the eradication of the algal pest.

—— =

* Abstracted from a paper read before the Indian Academy of Sciences at

the meeting held in Madras in December 1938.—Eds.

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIt

Studies of the physical, chemical and biological conditions of the

many Microcystis ponds in the city, under their natural conditions

and during the different seasons of a year, will most probably

throw light on the causes responsible for the permanent water

bloom and for the production of the foul smell during certain

seasons of the year.

These studies, besides being of great significance from the

health point of view are also of great scientific interest; for the

ecology of lakes or ponds with a permanent water bloom is unknown

in the temperate regions. Lakes or ponds with permanent water

bloom are known only in the tropics, and the ecology of such

waters, as far as the author is aware, has not been studied. In

this paper, it is therefore proposed to put on record the changes

noticed in the physical and chemical conditions of one of these

ponds, during a year.

The pond in Krishnappa Naicken Tank St. attached to Kasi

Viswanather Temple has been selected for this purpose as numerous

complaints have been received about it, from the residents of the

locality. It is used by the people of that division for all religious

purposes. It is a rectangular pond measuring 285 ft. by 230 ft.,

and 10 ft. deep. It is situated in the midst of a thickly populated

part of the city, and is surrounded on all sides by rows of houses

belonging to middle class people. On all four sides, perpendi-

cular walls rise up to about twenty feet above the surface of the

water. They are intended as a protection against falling into the

tank, but they also prevent the wind from disturbing the surface

water. The tank never runs dry, as the existence of a perennial

spring somewhere near the centre is reported to be present. There

are no trees in the neighbourhood, so that the rays of the sun fall

directly upon the tank between 8 a.m. and 4 p.m. every day.

Samples of water were collected, usually between 8 a.m. and

g a.m., once a fortnight from one and the same place near the

northern ghat or entrance into the tank. Bottles and the reagents

required for the determination of the dissolved gases and hydrogen-

ion concentration were taken in a carriage and the analyses for

the same were done on the spot. A Winchester quart full of water

was taken to the laboratory for the cther chemical tests. The

investigation was begun on the 22nd February 1934 and continued —

upto the goth January 10935.

PHYSICAL CONDITIONS.

(a) Colour :—The water was greenish throughout the year on account of

the thick growth of Microcystis aeruginosa.

(b) Transparency: This was measured by means of an aluminium Secchi’s

disc of 20 cm. diameter. The figures varied from a minimum of 8 cm. in

August and September to a maximum of 33 cm. in October.

_ The records show that (i) the water was least transparent during the

south-west monsoon and most transparent during the hot weather period ; (ii) the

figures increased from February to May; decreased thereafter till the minimum

was reached in September; increased again from October to December ; and

finally began to decrease in January.

means of an accurate thermometer graduated from 0.0 to 50°C., each degree

being sub-divided into a fifth of a degree. It was found to vary between a

minimum of 25°.1 in December and a maximum of 30°.8 in May.

ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M. AERUGINOSA HENFR 67

The records show that (i) the temperature of the water was highest during

the hot weather and least during the north-east monsoon; (ii) it. increased

from February to May when the maximum was reached, and later on decreased

till September; increased again in October, only to decrease gradually till

December when the minimum was reached. Finally from December to

January, it increased again.

Thus the temperature of the surface water in the tank follows closely

the changes in the temperature of the atmosphere.

CHEMICAL CONDITIONS.

(d) Dissolved oxygen:—The dissolved oxygen content of the surface water

was estimated according to Rideal and Stewart’s modification of the Winkler

method. It was found to vary between a minimum of 0.0 cc. in September

and October and a maximum of 8.49 cc. in July. j

The results show that (i) the content of dissolved oxygen was greatest

during the hot weather period and least during the latter half of the south-

west monsoon season; (ii) it was found to increase generally from February

to May, and to decrease thereafter till September or October, and again to

increase from October to January.

The surface water was found supersaturated with dissolved oxygen on

8-3-34, 14-7-34, and 23-11-34; it was in maximum (151.5%) on 14-7-34 and

in minimum (103.4%) on 23-11-34. There was practically no oxygen present

in the water in September, October and December; and during the remaining

months, it was found to fluctuate between 23.9% and 84.3%.

The oxygen content in any piece of water is dependent upon such factors

as (i) solubility of oxygen, depending upon the temperature at the time of

sample collection; (ii) intensity of illumination ; (iil) photosynthetic process ;

(iv) respiratory process; (v) wind action; and (vi) abundance of vegetation.

The amount of oxygen at any time of the year therefore will be the resultant

of the several factors mentioned above. pees

(i) Taking the first factor imto consideration, it will be seen from a few

of our findings that the content of dissolved oxygen in the tank does not depend

upon the physical factor of solubility. For according to the law of solubility

of gases, periods of high temperature should be periods of low oxygen content

and vice versa; but that it is not so in this case, is evident from the following :

(a) from February to 8th March there was no change in temperature (29°.4c),

but the oxygen content increased from 3.72 cc. /1 to 6.6 cc. /1; (b) from

April to May, when the temperature increased from 29°.5 to 30°.6, the dissolved

oxygen also increased from 1.34 cc./1 to 4.12 cc./1; (c) from May to June,

the temperature decreased from 30°.8 to 29°.8, and the dissolved oxygen also

decreased from 4.12 cc./1 to 2.87 cc./1; from June to July, the temperature

decreased from 29°.8 to 29°.6, while the dissolved oxygen increased from

2.87 cc./1 to 8.49 cc./1; from July to August there was a fall in temperature

from 29°.2 to 28°.2, and the oxygen content also decreased from 8.49 cc./1 to

1.75 cc./1; and finally from August to September there was an increase from

28°.1 to 29°,1, while the oxygen decreased from 1.7 to zero. So, it will be

apparent from the above that the controlling factor was not the temperature of

the water.

(ii) The oxygen content of the tank, though the water be taken nearly at

the same time of the day, varies greatly; and this variation appears to depend

largely upon the intensity of illumination as measured by the hours of bright

sunshine. Generally, the oxygen content was comparatively high in February,

March, April, May, June, July, November, and January when the sky was

clear and cloudless. The oxygen content decreased considerably from August

to October, when the sky was cloudy with frequent rainfall. During the

period when the sky was bright and clear, the algal vegetation of the pond

carried on active photosynthesis and thus increased the oxygen content of

the water. Thus the tank water was supersaturated on three occasions:

8-3-34, 14-7-34, and 23-11-34. The maximum amount of supersaturation of

151.5% was recorded on 14-7-34, and this can be explained only as being due

to the photosynthetic activities of the dominant alga, Microcystis aeruginosa

which was found in abundance. On those dates when there was no bright

sunshine, and at night, the algal and animal forms consume the oxygen

present in the water. During August to October, there was practically no

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL BISI. SOCIETY. Vol xem

oxygen in the water, and its absence might be due to the absence of bright

sunshine and to the presence of plenty of dead algal ‘slime floating near the

place of sample collection. In November, the cloudy weather cleared up

temporarily and the alga was able to resume its photosynthetic activities with

the, ‘result that the amount of oxygen increased considerably. Again in

December there was a great fall in the content of oxygen due to lack of

bright sunshine when the respiratory activities were greater than the photo-

synthetic activities. So, the amount of oxygen in a pond of this type depends

largely upon the intensity of illumination, and the consequent photosynthetic

processes, and also upon respiratory activities of the animal and vegetable life,

and organic matter.

(iii) Another important source of oxygen is the atmosphere, and it is of -

particular importance in large and shallow lakes which are exposed to the

action of the winds. Waves.are formed and thereby different layers of water

are exposed to the air, so that the water is oxygenated by mechanical admixture

of ‘air and water particles. Such a condition does not exist in the case of

this tank, for its sides are steep and it is protected on all sides by high walls

and rows of houses. So there is no possibility for the formation of big Waves

which alone can expose different layers of water for oxygenation to the

atmosphere.

(iv) During photosynthesis, carbonic acid is split up by the aquatic vegetation

in a piece of water whereby assimilation of carbon takes place and also libera-

tion of oxygen to the surrounding water. The greater the abundance of

vegetation, the greater the assimilation and consequently the greater the

liberation of oxygen. So, in our tank which contains abundant algal vegetation,

the quantity of oxygen also must be great. The tank water being supersaturated

to the extent of 151% can be due only to the presence of abundant algal

growth.

(e) Free carbon dioxide:—This was not detected at any time during the

period of investigation. Its absence can be explained in two ways: either

free CO, was utilised during photosynthesis by the profuse algal growth as

soon as it was formed or the carbonates were found in great quantities so that

the free carbon dioxide formed during respiration and oxidation of organic

matter was not sufficient to convert all of them into bicarbonates. The exact

cause for its absence can be ascertained only after a further detailed study

of its diurnal variations during the different seasons of the year.

(f) Hydrogen-ion concentration (pH):—The hydrogen-ion concentration of

the surface water expressed in terms of pH was found to vary from a minimum

of 8.8 in January to a maximum of 9.7 in May. It was determined with a

Hellige comparator, using thymol blue as an indicator. :

The records show that (i) the pH values were highest during the hot

Weather period and south-west monsoon, and lowest during the north-east

inonsoon ; (ii) they were nearly constant or increased by a narrow margin of

0.1 or 0.2 units from February to September, and decreased gradually to the

minimum thereafter in January.

The hydrogen-ion concentration expressed in terms of pH dépends) upon

the amount of carbonates of calcium and magnesium and the carbon dioxide

tension in the water. The latter in its turn is influenced by the photosynthetic

activities of the aquatic vegetation and the animal life present. In the case

of this tank, animal life is poor (fish is totally absent) but the algal vegetation

is extraordinarily great, so that the chief factor responsible in controlling the

pH is the alga. The pH values during the year under investigation may be

divided -into five periods :—from February to May, when the pH rose up from

9.3 to 9.7; from May to June, when it decreased slightly from 9.7 to 9.5;

from June to September, when there was no change (9.6); from September to

October, when it decreased from 9.6 to 9.1; and from October to January

1935, when it decreased further from.g.1 to 8.8. The tank water was there-

fore extremely alkaline throughout the period of investigation.

(i) It is well known that during photosynthesis the carbonates of calcium

and magnesium are precipitated from their respective bicarbonates due to

rapid carbon assimilation from the dissolved bicarbonates, and the water

becomes more alkaline. So, if in a piece of water the pH values exceed

8.1, then it may be inferred that the photosynthetic activities are greater than

the “respiratory processes, for a ‘saturated calcium bicarbonate solution in

ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M, AERUGINOSA HENFR ‘69

equilibrium with air containing about 3 parts per 100,000 of carbon dioxide is

close to pH 8.1’ (Atkins and Harris 1924). In the case of our tank, the

water became more and more alkaline (pH 9.3 to 9.7) from February to May

when the temperature and hours of bright sunshine were higher. A value of

pH=9.0 is usually recorded for a saturated solution of pure calcite (Atkins

and Harris). And pH values higher than 9.0 have to be attributed to the

presence of magnesium salts, for the pH value of a saturated solution of

magnesium carbonate is close to pH=10’ (Atkins and Harris). Therefore the

period during which the pH values reached 9.7, may be construed as being

due to intense photosynthesis and to the resulting precipitation of magnesium

salts.

The high pH values of the tank water (8.8 to 9.7) which are far above

8.1 would seem: to show therefore that the photosynthetic activities are generally

great; and that the period from February to September is one of intense

photosynthesis, while that from October to January is one of mild photosynthesis.

(ii) It was suggested from the high pH values that the photosynthetic

activities must be very high at all times in the tank, so that one would expect

the water to be always saturated or supersaturated. Atkins and Harris have

taken 8.1, or any value above, to be a sure indication of supersaturation.

The water of our Madras tank ought then to have been supersaturated with

oxygen. Nevertheless this was not the case. Except on three occasions, the

water was generally undersaturated or did not contain any dissolved oxygen.

The presence of considerable quantities of organic matter may perhaps. be

responsible for this strange behaviour.

(g) Total and fixed solids :—The figures for the total solids varied from a

minimum of 126.0 parts per 100,000 in December to a maximum of 180.4 parts

in September; and the fixed solids varied from a minimum of 104.6 parts in

February to a maximum of 139.2 parts in August.

The records show that (i) the figures for total solids were highest during

the south-west monsoon and least during the north-east monsoon; and (ii) they

increased gradually from February to September when the maximum was

recorded, and decreased thereafter till the minimum was reached in December.

The fixed solids increased from February to August, when the maximum

was reached and decreased thereafter till December, and increased again in

January. Therefore, the fixed solids were highest during the south-west

monsoon season and lowest during the cold weather period instead of during

the north-east monsoon.

Atkins and Harris have found the electrical conductivity (a measure of

the dissolved solids) to vary inversely with the pH changes noticed in the

ponds studied by them. ‘The explanation for this relationship has to be sought

in the gradual decrease in the quantity of bicarbonates dissolved in a water

resulting from the carbon assimilation and the consequent precipitation of

the less soluble carbonates of calcium and magnesium. In the case of our

pond, measurements of the electrical conductivity of the water were not made,

but only of the total and fixed solids present in the original water. These

were found to increase with the increase in pH. The total solids represent

not only the suspended matter but also the dissolved matter. It is therefore

quite likely that the presence of the abundant suspended matter has masked

the true relationship. A measure of the total dissolved solids alone would

probably have portrayed a true picture, but unfortunately that was not done.

_ (hk) Hydrocarbonates and Bicarbonates:—The hydrocarbonates were found

to vary from a minimum of 3.8 mg. per 100 cc. in December to a maximum

of 21.2 mg. The bicarbonates were found to vary from a minimum of 6.1 mg.

in May to a maximum of 31.4 mg. in January.

The records show that (i) the hydrocarbonate ions were found to be highest

during the hot weather and south-west monsoon, and least during the north-

east monsoon and cold weather periods; and (ii) they increased gradually

from February to July when the maximum was reached, and decreased there-

after to the minimum in December, and increased again finally from December,

to January.

The curve for bicarbonates runs almost: opposite to the hydrocarbonates

curve.. The findings are that (i) the bicarbonates were least during ‘the hot

weather and south-west monsoon, and highest during the north-east monsoon

and cold weather periods; and (ii) they decreased gradually from February to

May when the minimum was reached: increased from Mav to July ; decreased

70 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

again from July to September and increased thereafter till the maximum was

reached in January.

Generally, in the absence of ‘free carbon dioxide’ the bicarbonates are

decomposed by algal vegetation which abstract the carbonic acid from them,

precipitating the less soluble carbonates of calcium and magnésium. In_ this

tank water, the bicarbonates appear to constitute the chief source of carbonic

acid for the alga Microcystis aeruginosa. A study of the figures recorded

shows that the whole period of investigation can be roughly divided as below:

from February to May when the general trend of the bicarbonates was to

decrease gradually (except on 27-4-34 when there was a spurt) and the carbonates

to increase; from May to June there was a big increase in bicarbonates and

a decrease in carbonates; from June to 8th August there was a decrease in

bicarbonates and an increase in carbonates; from 8th August to 25th October

there was a gradual increase in bicarbonates and a decrease in carbonates;

from October to November there was a slight decrease in carbonates and

bicarbonates; from November to December there was a slight increase in

bicarbonates and a decrease in carbonates and finally from December to January

there was an increase in both carbonates and bicarbonates. Normally the

decrease or increase of bicarbonates may be respectively ascribed to the

photosynthetic or respiratory process of the alga in the pond. There were

however, a few occasions when both the carbonates and bicarbonates decreased

or increased and the reasons for*this behaviour are not known.

(i) During the periods February to May, June to 8th August, and October

to November the atmospheric conditions were conducive to intense photosynthesis,

so that the carbon dioxide from bicarbonates was utilised for assimilatory

purposes by the alga, resulting in the increased precipitation of the less soluble

carbonates. Under these circumstances one would have expected a progressively

increasing amount of dissolved oxygen in the water tending towards super-

saturation. But that was not always the case. Excepting 8th March, 14th July,

and 23rd November, on all other dates the water was very much undersaturated.

This indicated therefore that there was some other factor operating against an

increase in the oxygen content of the water. This will be discussed later under

‘organic matter’.

During the other periods (from 8th August to 25th October and from

November to December) when the bicarbonates increased and _ carbonates

decreased, there was very little or no oxygen in the water. This condition was

most probably due to the prevailing weather conditions, which prevented the

photosynthetic activities of the alga, but increased its respiratory activities,

so that free carbonic acid was added to the water instead of oxygen. It may

have been due also to its absorption by dissolved organic matter resulting in

the liberation of carbon dioxide and also available nitrogen (Pearsall 1923).

In spite of the interfering factor an intimate relation between the hydrogen-ion

concentration and the several factors mentioned above has been noticed on some

occasions in this tank. On 8th March and 14th July there was an increase

in oxygen content, a fall in bicarbonates, and an increase in carbonates and

pH, over the corresponding figures of z2nd February and 21st June, respectively.

Again, on 25th October, there was a decrease in oxygen content, an increase

in the amount of bicarbonates, a decrease in carbonates and in pH, over the

corresponding figures for 22nd August.

(‘) Phosphates :—Phosphates were present in small quantities and were found

to vary from a minimum of 0.012 mg. in May to a maximum of 0.040 mg.

in August. They were in minimum during the hot weather period and in

maximum during the south-west and the north-east monsoon; and (ii) they

were found to decrease gradually from January to June and to increase there-

after till they were present in maximum on 22nd August. From August to

January they were found to be nearly constant generally.

Phosphates are among the important nutrient substances found in lakes or

ponds. They are utilised by algae during the process of photosynthesis, so

that they are usually reported to be absent or present in very small quantities

during summer months and to be present in large amounts during winter

months. In the pond under investigation, however, they were found in

fairly large quantities throughout the year. Even during the period of

intense photosynthesis they were not entirely absorbed by the profuse growth

of Microcystis aeruginosa. The sources of phosphates may be either due to

constant and daily contamination of the tank water by human agencies, or

ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M. AERUGINOSA HENFR 71

to the diurnal chemical stratification by day and circulation at night, so that

phosphates are brought to the upper region of photosynthesis from below,

where they are regenerated from the dead algal cells by bacterial action.

(j) Silicates:—The quantity of silicates varied from a minimum of 2.0 mg.

in November, December and January to a maximum of 3.604 mg. in May.

The quantity of silicates was high during the hot weather and south-west

monsoon, and low during the north-east monsoon; and (ii) it fluctuated between

very narrow limits (3.0-3.6 mg.) between February and September, decreased

thereafter, and reached a minimum in November, December and January.

Though found in fairly large quantities in the tank water, the silicates do

not seem to have any biological significance in view of the absence of diatoms.

(k) Chlorides :—These were found to vary from a minimum of 40.2 parts

in November to a maximum of 63.0 parts in July. They were very high during

the south-west and low during the north-east monsoon; and (ii) they increased

gradually from February to July when the maximum for the year was reached,

and decreased later till November when the minimum was reached. From

November onwards they increased again.

The content of chlorides was very high in the tank and, therefore, showed

that it was highly polluted.

(1) Hardness :—The total hardness varied from a minimum of 4.0 parts

in April and May to a maximum of 8.0 parts in February, June, August, Septem-

ber, October, December, and January. It was least during the hot weather

period and highest during the rest of the year; it decreased from February

to May, increased thereafter generally jand varied between narrow limits

from June to January.

Although no relationship was evident between pH and total solids, a

distinct relationship could be traced between the pH and the total hardness

of the water. The pH increased from February to May from 9.2 to 9.7,

while the total hardness showed a general decline from 8 to 4 parts per

100,000. The decrease in hardness has to be attributed to the precipitation

of the less soluble carbonates of calcium and magnesium owing to the

equilibrium being upset by the algal assimilation of carbon from the bicarbonates

dissolved in the tank water. -

(m) Organic substances and their decomposition products :

(i) Ignitible matter: This was found to vary from a minimum of 15.6 parts

per 100,000 in December to a maximum of 48.0 parts in August. The records

show that (i) the content of ignitible matter was lowest during the hot

weather period and highest during the south-west monsoon; and (ii) it was

found to decrease from February to 27th April, and thereafter to increase

till the maximum was reached on 22nd August, when it gradually decreased

till December, reached a minimum, and again increased from December to

January.

(ii) Oxidisable organic matter (Tidy’s 4 hours’ Test):—This was found to

vary from a minimum of 1.431 parts in February to a maximum of 2.327

parts in July. The content was least during the cold weather and hot weather

periods and highest during the south-west monsoon; it was found to decrease

gradually from February to 27th April and to increase later on till July when

the maximum was reached; from July onwards it decreased till a second

minimum was reached in November, when it again increased till January.

(iii) Ammoniacal Nitrogen: This was found to vary from a minimum of 0.003

in March to a maximum of 0.216 part in October. The content was lowest

during the hot weather period and highest during the south-west monsoon;

it was found to decrease from February to May (when the minimum was

reached) and to increase thereafter till October when the maximum was

recorded ; it decreased again from October to January. .

(iv) Albuminoid Nitrogen: This was found to vary from a minimum of 0.120

in August to a maximum of 0.280 in September. It was lowest during the

hot weather and the first half of the south-west monsoon and highest during

the latter half of the south-west monsoon and the north-east monsoon ;_ it

was found to increase gradually from March to June when the first maximum

was reached ; it thereafter decreased till 8th August, and increased till December

when the second maximum was reached; from December decreased again.

(v) Nitrites and nitrates: Except for one occasion in October when they were

present in traces, they never were detected,

V2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST. SOCIETY; Val. XL Y

(a) The relationship that exists in a piece of water between the oxidisable

organic matter and dissolved oxygen has been admirably portrayed by. Knauthe

(1898), Kolkwitz (1914), and Pearsall (1923). Similar observations have been

made in this tank. Briefly stated, they are: (1) during bright sunny days,

oxygen is liberated in such abundance that the water becomes supersaturated ;

(2) during nights and on dark cloudy days (which are few and far between)

the tank water is depleted of its oxygen content; (3) depletion of oxygen is

also caused by the oxidation of organic matter dissolved in the water; (4) the

second and third processes result in the liberation of carbon dioxide, thereby

increasing the content of bicarbonates, and in the formation of free ammonia

and other nitrogenous substances: and (5) thus extreme variations in the

dissolved oxygen content result.

(b) Normally, waters containing a large number of Myxophyceae are dis-

tinguished by a high content of organic matter and nitrogenous substances

(Pearsall 1923). Although the tank is populated almost entirely by a form of

Microcystis. and contains also high organic content, nitrogenous substances like

nitrites and nitrates are absent. Their absence may be explained in two ways.

They are probably utilised during photosynthesis as soon as they are formed

daily, leaving practically nothing behind, or they are acted upon by the de-

nitrifying bacteria which are very active at higher temperatures (Pia 1934).

But Atkins (1932-33) believes that this second reason is not so satisfactory as

the first, in view of the fact that denitrifying bacteria do not act in the

presence of an abundant ‘supply of oxygen in the surface waters of the

tropical seas. According to him their absence in tropical seas is due to their

rapid utilisation by algae in the well-lighted upper layers of water during

long and intense photosynthesis. In any case, their absence from this tank

water is not the only one on record. Hutchinson et al. (1932) have reported

mere traces or total absence in all the ponds and lakes of South Africa, and

Beadle (1932-34) has found the same to be the case, with the Rift Valley lakes

of East Africa. Kolkwitz (1914) has recorded their absence in Lietensee

under conditions almost identical with those found in our tank water. Harold

(1934) has stated that a marked reduction in nitrites and nitrates is usually

observed in cases of abnormal algal development. In their absence, therefore,

free ammonia seems to have been utilised by the alga in the pond, as will

be evident from ‘its low figure from February to May. On other dates, the

free ammonia is considerably higher, especially when the content of dissolved

oxygen is low, indicating the oxidation of the organic matter present in the

water.

proved indirectly the presence of abnormal quantities of algal development in

the tank water (Harold 1934). According to Drew (1914) the presence of a

large quantity indicates the corresponding presence of a large amount of

organic matter in solution; and a gradual rise from February to September

indicated that a greater amount of decomposition was going on in the water;

and the time when it was in maximum was when the bacteria were decom-

posing the organic matter- into soluble substances.

SEASONAL VARIATIONS.

-Summarising briefly the changes which occurred in the physical “and

chemical conditions of the pond during the four seasons of 1934, the following

observations may be made.

(a) The cold weather period (January 1935, and February 1934).

This period was characterised by a large number of hours of bright sun-

shine, small percentage of cloudy days, low ‘wind velocity, low temperature,

and very little rainfall.

‘The tank water was greenish with plenty of leaves, flowers, and other

vegetable debris, floating upon the surface. <A thick green scum was seen

moving slowly on the surface near the middle of the pond. The transparency

of the water was rather moderately low, so that the rays of the sun could

penetrate to a depth of 21-27.5 cm. below the surface. The total and fixed

solids were moderately low, and the nutrient substances like phosphates, silicates,

ignitible and oxidisable organic matter, ammoniacal nitrogen, albuminoid nitrogen

were also moderately low. Nitrites and nitrates were absent. The temperature

ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M. AERUGINOSA .HENFR 73

of the water was low and its dissolved oxygen content was. fairly great,

carbonates low, bicarbonates high, pH low, the total hardness and _ chlorides

moderately low.

~The heleoplankton was composed almost exclusively of Microcystis aeruginosa,

in abundance throughout the. period,

(b) The hot weather period (March to May).

A conspicuous feature of this period was its high temperature with practically

no rainfall, maximum hours of bright sunshine, low percentage of cloudy days,

and moderdte wind velocity.

The tank water was generally coloured greenish, with a large area_ of

thick green scum floating .near the corner adjoining the place of sample

collection. The depth of visibility as measured by means of a Secchi’s disc

was slightly more than during the previous period. The total and fixed solids,

silicates, and chlorides, were higher while the phosphates, ammoniacal nitrogen,

albuminoid nitrogen, oxidisable and ignitible organic matter were lower than

during the previous period, Nitrites and nitrates continued to be absent.

The dissolved oxygen ccntent was uniformly high, the water occasionally

being even. supersaturated in spite of the highee temperature of the water.

The heleoplankton was quantitatively well developed with abundant water-

bloom of an almost pure growth of Microcystis ceruginosa.

The outstanding features of this period were very small hours of bright

sunshine, high percentage of cloudy days, moderately high temperature, lowest

velocity of wind, and a moderate amount of rainfall.

- The colour of the water continued tc be greenish due to the large quantities

of dead and living Microcystis aeruginosa present in suspension. The water

surface was covered in several places with a thick coagulated green mass of

M. aeruginosa which was being driven slowly by a slight breeze. The depth

of visibility was minimum.

As for the cheinical characteristics of the water, it was found to contain

the maximum amount of total and fixed solids, phosphates, silicates, chlorides,

oxidisable and ignitible organic matter. Ammoniacal nitrogen was high while

albuminoid nitrogen was low. Nitrites and nitrates were absent.

The oxygen content was high during the first half of the period, when

the carbonates were high, bicarbonates low, and pH high. The oxygen content

was least (practically nil) during the second half of the above period, with

low carbcnates, high bicarbonates, and high pH.

The heleoplankton consisted almost wholly of Microcystis aeruginosa in

abundance, but in a poor condition. ag

(d) The north-east monsoon season (October to: December).

This period was notably wet with maximum amount of. rainfall, smaller

hours of bright-sunshine, greater percentage of cloudy days, lower temperature,

and higher velocity of wind. .

-The tank water continued to be greenish; it was covered with a_ floating

green scum in all the corners and gradually spreading to the middle with the

blowing of a gentle wind. The algal scum was not so dense as in the previous

season.

The chemical conditions of the tank water had profoundly changed during

this period. The total and fixed solids, chlorides, phosphates, silicates, oxidis-

able and ignitible matter.. were lower than during the previous season. Nitrites

and nitrates were either present in traces or were absent. - The content of

dissolved oxygen varied, being greater or less, carbonates lower, bicarbonates

higher, pli lower, and the total hardness higher.

-The character of the heleoplankton was unchanged, containing an abundant

growth. of Microcystis aeruginosa, ar

FACTORS INFLUENCING TIE DEVELOPMENT OF A PERMANENT BLOOM OF |

Microcystis aeruginosa IN KriSHNAPPA NAICKEN TANK WATER.

The phenomenon known as ‘water bloom’ is usually brought about in lakes

and ponds by the rapid multiplication of some member of the Myxophyceae,

Chlorophyceae, Heterokontae, or Bacillariophyceae on calm _ bright days, when

the organism can concentrate in the upper layers of the water, Generally,

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

this phenomenon occurs in temperate regions for a few days only in August,

and is caused by a member of the Myxophyceae, notably Microcystis aeruginosa.

In the tropics, on the other hand, the Myxophyceae are known not only to

dominate the algal flora of lakes and ponds, but also to dominate the entire

plankton of a considerable number of ponds [Fritsch 1907, Geitler and Ruttner

1936]. In the pond under investigation, Microcystis aeruginosa is found in

abundance at all seasons of the year almost to the exclusion of other forms of

the same group.

For a mass production of an alga to take place in any piece of water at

all seasons, optimum conditions for its development must obtain. These are

light, heat, and nutrient_ substances; and they are found in plenty in the

water of Krishnappa Naicken Tank.

The chief physical factors contributing to the prolific growth of the alga

in a tank are temperature, intensity of illumination, absence of movement

of water by wind action, colour, and transparency, and no inlet or outlet.

(Fritsch 1907). In the tank under investigation the temperature of the surface

water undergoes seasonal and diurnal variations from 25° to 32°C.; usually

it is very low: carly in the morning, but as the day advances, the full heat

of the sun is received from 8 a.m. to 4 p.m. during which time the intensity

of illumination varies ordinarily from a minimum of 5 to a maximum of

10 hours every day; the maximum temperature of the water is attained in

the afternoon.

The diurnal increase in temperature is confined only to the upper surface

layers of the water on account of the colour and transparency of the water.

The colour of the water is greenish almost throughout the year, and the algal

masses floating upon the surface of the water are so dense that a Secchi’s

dise becomes invisible within about 30 cm. from the surface. This means

therefore that the depth to which the sun’s rays can penetrate is very small,

so that the zone of photosynthesis is extremely small compared with the zone

of reduction extending towards the bottom.

If the sun’s rays cannot penetrate into the lower layers of the water on

account of its low transparency, then the temperatures of the lower layers also

will be considerably less than those of the upper layers, and thermal stratifi-

cation must result. The formation of a thermal stratification is also helped

by the highly steep and perpendicular walls rising on all sides of the tank.

The walls prevent strong winds from blowing over the surface of the water

and forming big waves. In lakes and ponds which are exposed to the action

of wind, big waves are formed which prevent the formation of a permanent

thermal stratification (Worthington and Beadle 1932, Ruttner 1931). In _ this

pond where there is no such possibility a permanent thermal stratification is

possible. The tank water remains undisturbed excepting for occasional bathers

disporting in«a limited area near any of the three entrances to the tank. The

conditions are therefore ideal for an intense photosynthesis whereby rapid

reproduction of the alga takes place in the upper well-illuminated layers of

the water at all times of the year.

That the thermal stratification is only temporary and of daily formation

may be gathered from the facts observed by the author and the reports of

persons who take their bath in the tank. People who bathe early in the morning

or late at night feel the temperature of water to be homogeneous, while in the

afternoon bathers distinctly appreciate the difference between a warm upper

and a cold lower layer. These observations go to show that the thermal

stratification formed in the tank is only temporary; a view further supported

by the studies in the diurnal variations in temperature and dissolved gases

of a similar, but smaller, pond in the Madras Horticultural Garden (Unpublished

thesis of Miss Mercia Janet), and by the absence of fish life in the tank.

Further, the duration of day and night being nearly equal ‘the diurnal period

of radiation is substantially equal to that of insolation’, so that considerable

heat cannot be stored up in the upper layers (Juday 1915-1916).

The temporary thermal stratification appears to be accompanied by temporary

chemical stratification in oxygen, bicarbonates, carbonates, hydrogen-ion con-

centration, phosphates, silicates, ammoniacal nitrogen, albuminoid nitrogen, and

oxidisable organic matter. This is also an inference, which has to be verified

by further work. This inference is drawn from the low figures for transparency.

As has been already stated, the limit of photosynthesis is confined to the top

ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M., AERUGINOSA HENFR 1%

few centimetres of water. Consequently in the deeper bottom portion of the

tank, bacterial action must be at work in decomposing the dead algal matter

which has settled there. As a result of reduction processes, there will be a

lowering of the oxygen content, and an increase in bicarbonates, phosphates,

ammoniacal and albuminoid nitrogen, and oxidisable organic matter. All these

nutrient substances are formed in the lower layers and used up in the upper

layers into which sun’s rays easily penetrate; they are brought to the surface

at night when the different layers of water attain the same temperature. The

processes of consumption and regeneration of nutrient substances are daily taking

place so that there is no dearth of foodstuffs for the alga at any time. It is

therefore able to multiply in enormous numbers.

Among the chemical factors which are essential for plant growth may

be mentioned phosphates, nitrogenous substances, and salts of calcium and

magnesium. Phosphates are always present in the water in considerable

quantities, so that they do not seem to constitute a limiting factor, but permit

of continued growth. Their occurrence in fairly large amounts is an additional

proof for the existence of a temporary thermal and chemical stratification. If

that were not the case, the phosphates would have been consumed in no time

during the intense photosynthetic processes going on daily undisturbed in the

tank water, and this would have resulted in shortage or complete exhaustion

at a certain period of the year. But the fact that they are available in fairly

large quantities and at all seasons of the year can be explained only by our

inference of daily formation of thermal stratification by day and of its destruc-

tion by night. Phosphates result most probably from the decomposition of the

abundant algal cells which sink continuously to the bottom, where they are

decomposed by bacterial agencies. A study of the diurnal variations in the

vertical direction of the tank water will be most interesting and may afford

an insight into the exact mechanism of their formation at all seasons of the

year in the tank water.

As for nitrogenous substances, the absence of nitrites and nitrates may

appear to be an extraordinary feature in a water of this type, which contains

abundant algal vegetation and is subjected also to heavy contamination. But

excepting one occasion when they were found in traces, their presence was

never detected. In their absence the alga seems to utilise the ammoniacal

nitrogen present in the water, and this fact is easily seen from the very

low figures during the hot weather period compared with those for the rest

of the year.

Besides phosphates and nitrogenous substances, the tank water contains also

at all seasons of the year fairly large quantities of the salts of calcium and

magnesium, and organic matter. Therefore the chief factors such as high

temperature, long hours of bright sunshine, large quantities of phosphates,

free ammonia, oxidisable organic matter, and salts of calcium and magnesium

are always .available and they are known to be quite favourable for the

luxuriant growth of Myxophyceae (Pearsall 1923, Thienemann 1925, Fritsch 1907).

Another important factor ‘aiding’ the development of this alga to the

exclusion of other generic forms is ‘the presence of a second colouring matter

(phycocyanin) side by side with the chlorophyll’. The presence of this additional

pigment acts as a screen and also ‘plays some other important part in adapt-

ing the blue-green group to varying types of illumination’ (Fritsch 1907).

Summing up, the conditions of life favouring the development of a_per-

manent bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa in the tank water, are high temperature,

intensity of illumination, stagnation, large amounts of phosphates, ammoniacal

nitrogen, albuminoid nitrogen, organic matter, salts of calcium and magnesium.

Gaseous solutes do not seem to have any influence. But it is not known

exactly why the tank water should favour the exclusive development of

Microcystis. ‘This requires further detailed study of all other Microcystis ponds

in the city, and further work is in progress.

IKRISHNAPPA NAICKEN TANK AND LIETENSEE COMPARED.

It is now proposed to make a brief comparison between the physical and

chemical conditions of our tank water with those of Lietensee in Germany

where the phenomenon of water bloom has been reported to occur with great

regularity every year during the warm summer months from 1908 to 1914

(Kolkwitz). During this period—-Aprii te September—a mass production of

16 « JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘AISE. SOCIELY.. Vol. Lit

the blue-green alga, Oscillatoria Agardhii Gom. has occurred to the exclusion

of almost all other forms of algae. : i :

Lietensee resembles our tank in being shallow and having no outlet or

inlet... It is 810 metres long, 75 metres broad, and 2 metres deep. : It. is: suite

rounded on all sides by sloping walls of brick and mortar, which rise high

above the surface of the water. These walls protect its water against strong

winds, and thus tend to maintain an approximate tranquillity.

The water is greenish, and has a very low transparency due to the abundant

algal growths which prevent the sun’s rays from reaching the bottom. The

temperature of the surface water consequently becomes higher, but it appears

to be only slightly higher than at the bottom. A thermal stratification also

seems to develop in it; but it is not known whether it is daily forming by

day and breaking at night or is permanent during the period of summer

stagnation.

Chemically it resembles our tank water almost in all respects. The oxygen

content of the surface water is very high due to vigorous carbon assimilation,

and the latter is accompanied by a reduction of bicarbonates; free carbon

dioxide, nitrites and nitrates are absent. Free ammonia is either absent or

very low, while organic nitrogen and oxidisable organic matter are considerably

high. Phosphates and silicates are also present.

In short, the Lietensee at the time of summer resembles our tank in its

high surface temperature and low transparency; in the absence of water

movement; in its high oxygen content, and low bicarbonate content; in the

absence of free carbon dioxide, nitrites and nitrates; in the absence of or a

low free ammonia; in the abundance of organic nitrogen, oxidisable organic

matter, -and chlorides; and in the luxuriant growth of a blue-green alga.

Me ‘

SUMMARY.

1. Very little is known about the ecological conditions of ponds containing

a permanent bloom of Microcystis aeruginosa, and the conditions of existence

for a year in one such pond at Madras is described.

2. The most important factors favouring its development seem to be the

high temperature of the water, absence of water movement, high organic

content, and phosphates. Nitrites and nitrates are absent. Gaseous solutes

donot’ appear to exert any influence.

3. It is suggested that a diurnal temporary thermal stratification takes

place in the-pond, ‘and it is destroyed at night. The nutrient substances

required for the growth of the alga are brought up daily to the surface from

the bottom, where the dead algal cells are decomposed by bacterial action.

4. The tank may be designated as an extreme eutrophic type of water,

usually associated with the tropics.

_- ACKNOWLEDGMENT.

In conclusion the author wishes to take this opportunity of expressing his

gratitude to Dr. P. Sadasivan and Rao Bahadur Dr, C. .S. Govinda” Pillay

for ‘their interest in this investigation and for permitting him to publish this

paper; and also to Prof. Dr. M. O. P. Iyengar for help in the identification

of the plankton algae. 3 é

List OF REFERENCES. a

Atkins W. R. G. (1932-33)—The chemistry of sea water in relation to

the productivity of the sea. Science Progress, xxvii, 298-312.

Atkins, W. R. G. and Harris, G. T. (1924).—Seasonal changes in the water

and Heleoplankton of fresh water ponds. . Sc. Proc. Roy. Dub. Soc., xviii

(NS )eala2T

Beadle, L. C. (1932-34)—Scientific results of the Cambridge. Expedition to

the East African lakes in relation to their fauna and flora. Jo Eimngesoc

(zool), XXXViii, 157-211. | i, ee ee i

Drew, A. H. (1914).—A probable causative factor in the awakening of pond

life in -the spring. Science Progress, ix, 96-104.

Fritsch, F. E. (1907a).—The sub-aerial and fresh-water algal flora of the

tropics. A phytogeographical and ecological study. Ann, Bot. xxi, 235-275.

ECOLOGY OF A TANK CONTAINING M,. AERUGINOSA HENFR (4

Fritsch, F. E. (1907b).—A_ general consideration of the sub-aerial and fresh

water algal flora of Ceylon. <A contribution to the study of tropical algal

ecology. Part I—Subaerial algae and algae of the inland fresh waters. Proc.

Roy. Soc., (B Series) Ixxix, 197-254.

Geitler, L. and Ruttner, I. (1936).—Die Cyanophyceen der Deutschen Limno-

logischen Sunda Expedition, ihre Morphologie, Systematilk und Okologie.

Dritte Teil (Schlu 8) Suppl. B Arch. f. Hydrob.; xiv, 553-715.

Harold, C. H. H., Lt.-Col. (1934).—Twenty-ninth Annual Report of the

Metropolitan Water Board, London, 83 pages.

Hutchinson, G. E., Pickford, G. E. and Schuurman, J. F. M. (1932).—Con-

tribution to the Hydrobiology. of Pans and other inland waters of . South

Africa. Arch. f. Hydrob. xxiv, 1-154.

Juday, C. (1915-16).—Limnological studies of some lakes in Central America.

Trans. Wis. Acad. Sc. xviii, 214-250.

Knauthe, R. (1898).—Der Kreislauf der Gases in unseren Gewassern. Biol.

Cent. xviii, 785-805.

Kolkwitz, R. (1914).—Uber die Ursachen der -Plankton-entwicklung im

Lietensee. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Ges. xxxii, 639-6606. .

Pearsall W. H. (1923)—The Phytoplankton of Rostherne Mere, Part I.

Mem. Proc. Manch. Lit. and Phil. Soc. vol. 67, 45-55.

Pia, J. (1934).—Die Kalkbildung durch Pflanzen. B.B.C. lii, 1-72.

Rideal, S. and Stewart, C. G. (1901).—Determination of ‘dissolved oxygen in

waters in presence of nitrites and of organic matter. Analyst, xxvi, 141.

Ruttner, F. (1931).—Hydrographische und hydrochemische Beobachtungen auf

Java, Sumatra und Bali. Arch. f. Hydrob. Suppl. B. viii, 197-457.

Thienemann, A. (1925).—Die Binnengewasser Mitteleuropas. Bd. I.

Worthington, E. B. and Beadle, L. C. (1932).—Thermoclines in Tropical lakes.

Letter to Nature, London, cxxix, 55-56. :

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA.!

SuNDER LAL Hora, D.SCc., F.R.S.E., F.Z.S., F.R.A.S.B., F.N.L.,

Assistant Superintendent, Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one colour plate and four text-figures).

(Continued from page 794 of Vol. xli, No. 4).

XI.—THe MAHSEERS OR THE LARGE-SCALED BARBELS OF INDIA.

4. THE BOKAR OF THE ASSAMESE AND KATLI OF THE NEPALESE,

Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland.

CONTENTS.

PAGE.

Introduction 78

History and Nomenclature . me et A eee TS)

Synonymy and Description tes ee eo eon

Measurements oe ee ise use eas etek)

Distribution and Size se ois Me Seu yO

Bienomics and Fishing Notes ne ah — ay he

Acknowledgments aie 233 nee ee Loe MOA

List of References a5 $e: SA ae . Se

Explanation of Plate... Ate 500 see ve 88

INTRODUCTION.

After Hamilton (3, pp. 303-307)”, McClelland (10, pp. 333-338)

in his account of the Indian Cyprinide dealt with the large-scaled

barbels of India and described 5 species, viz., B. hexastichus, B.

progeneius, B. macrocephalus, B. hexagonolepis, and B. megalepis.

The first four were described from Assam, while the last species

was obtained in the river Kosi. As McClelland’s descriptions are

brief and inadequate, and his illustrations inaccurate, an attempt

was made in an earlier paper (7, pp. 324-331) to define the specific

limits of his species, but in the absence of authentic material from

Assam, the conclusions reached could only be tentative. With a

view to study good series of specimens from Assam, a_ short

visit was paid to the Darrang District in November 1939, and the

fish fauna of the Brahmaputra and some of its tributary streams

* Published with permission of Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of the

various publications listed in the bibliography at the end of the paper.

Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

The Bokar of the Assamese and Katli of the Nepalese,

BARBUS (LISSOCHILUS) HEXAGONOLEPIS McClelland.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 79

was investigated. Unfortunately, examples of only two species of

the large-scaled barbels were obtained, and the systematic position

of the remaining forms, therefore, still remains uncertain. For

the sake of convenience of reference, I give below in a tabular

form the conclusions reached so far regarding the identity of

McClelland’s five species:

McClelland’s determination Assamese name. Present position.

1. Barbus hexastichus, pl. 39, Lobura. Barbus (Tor) tor (Ham.),

fig. 2.

2. Barbus progeneius, pl. 56, Jungha, Barbus (Tor) progenetus

fig.. 3. McClelland.

3. Barbus macrocephalus, Burapetea. Barbus (Tor) putitora

plaess, fig. 3: (Ham.) — .

4. Barbus hexagonolepis, Bokar, - Barbus (Lissochilus) hexago-

plie4a1, fig. 3. nolepis McClell.

5: Barbus megalepis. a Barbus (Tor) mosal (Ham.).

I have not examined any examples of the specimen known as

Lobura to the Assamese, but it may be noted that McClelland him-

self regarded his Barbus hexastichus as a synonym of Hamilton’s

Cyprinus tor. Similarly he considered his B. megalepis identical

with Hamilton’s C. mosal. Of the other three species, I have

examined specimens of Burapetea and Bokar; the former is un-

doubtedly the same as Cyprinus putitora Hamilton—the species

with the large head. The Bokar belongs to a totally different

group of Barbus known as Lissochilus, which has not yet been

recorded from the Western Himalayas; its range extends over

Indo-China, Siam, Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, Burma and

the Brahmaputra Drainage System. The first three species have

been dealt with in the earlier articles of this subseries, while the

Bokar Mahseer forms the subject matter of the present article.

It is hoped that some specimens of Jungha from Assam will reach

the author’s hands by February, 1941, so as to enable him to deal

with this species in a subsequent article.

HISTORY AND NOMENCLATURE.

The Bokar of the Assamese was described by McClelland as

Barbus hexagonolepis and characterised as follows :—

‘Length of the head to that of the body is as one to four; twenty-seven

scales along the lateral line, and seven in an oblique line from the base of

the ventrals to the ridge of the back. On the anterior part of the body

the exposed surfaces of the scales represent hexagonal outlines, the fins are

placed as in the preceding species, but the rays of the ventrals as well as

those of the pectorals are small. The fin rays are,

[Ost it pe OL pena. Os soy Naif s,s ©, LOY:

“The head is small and little compressed, the snout smooth and _ slightly

rounded, and the postorbitan plates Jess expanded in this than in any of the

other species, having a smooth dorsal spine and large scales. In large-sized

individuals the: back and head, base of the fins and scales are blackish

grey; but the opercular plates, scales, and fins are tipt with yellow. In

young ones a leaden hue supplies the place of yellow, and the fins are tipt

with black.’

Ginther (2, p. 129) considered B. hexagonolepis as a synonym

of B. hexastichus, but his description of the latter shows that he

was dealing with a species of the Tor-type and not of the Lissochilus-

type. Day (1, p. 564) recognised B. hexagonolepis as a valid

66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

species and stated that ‘The character of the interrupted groove

behind the lower lip at once distinguishes this species from B.

hexastichus.” He gave as its habitat ‘Assam in the large rivers,

and those from the Himalayas.’ All the specimens referred to —

Bb. hexagonolepis by Day and now preserved in the collection of

the Indian Museum possess pores on the cheeks. though in most of

the specimens the wart-like tubercles have fallen off. However,

this tuberculated condition of the snout impressed Day to such an _

extent that he separated a few young specimens from the Tista

river below Darjeeling into a separate species—Barbus dukai. 1

have examined large series of specimens from Assam and _ the

Darjeeling Himalayas, and have not been able to separate them |

specifically. B. dukai, however, has been recorded from Siam (6,

Pp. 155) and the Indo- Australian Archipelago (12, p. 168). Several

species have since been described in the genus Lissochilus, but their

systematic position is somewhat doubtful, and will form the subject

matter of the next article when I hope to deal with the specimens

of Lissochilus from Burma and the neighbouring areas.

In their treatment of the fishes of the Indo-Australian Archi-

pelago, Weber and de Beaufort (12) recognised several genera

Text-fig. 1.—Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland.

a, Ventral surface of head and anterior part. of body of a specimen

from the Tista River, showing the interrupted post labial. groove and_ the

structure of the lower lip. Nai. size.

b. Ventro-lateral view of same, showing horny tubercles and the structures

associated with the mouth. Nat. size.

h.c. Horny covering of lower jaw; 1.1. Lower lip; p.g. Post labial

groove; 7.f. Rostral fold; u.J. Upper lip.

among the fishes hitherto grouped under Barbus Cuvier and proposed

the genus Lissochilus for B. dukai and a new species from Sumatra.

The most salient features of this genus, which distinguish it from

the true Mahseers of the Tor-type, are :—(i) The post labial groove,

though continuous round the corners of the mouth, is interrupted

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA al

in the middle (versus continuous); (ii) the lower lip is conspicuously —

separate from the jaw, which is provided with a horny covering

(versus lower lip covering the jaw, which is devoid of a horny

covering); and (ili) the snout is provided with horny tubereles or

series of open pores (versus smooth snout). The horny covering

of the lower jaw sometimes becomes inconspicuous in specimens

preserved in formalin. In all other respects, these fishes are similar

to those assigned to the subgenus Tor. For reasons detailed in an

earlier article (9, p. 276) I think it will be useful to regard

Lissochilus as a subgenus of Barbus till such time as this assemblage

of forms is thoroughly monographed and the taxonomic limits of

the various genera properly defined.

Synonymy! AND DESCRIPTION.

1839. Barbus hexagonolepis, McClelland, As. Res., XIX, pp. 270, 336, pl.

xii, fig... 3.

1878. Barbus hexagonolepis, Day, Fish. India, p. 564, pl. cxxxvii, fig. 4

(pores on snout not shown, present in the specimens),

1878. Barbus dukai, Day, Fish. India, p. 564, pl. cxliii, fig. 3.

1889. Barbus hexagonolepis, Day, Faun. Brit. Ind. Fish., I, p. 305.

1889. Barbus dukai, Day, Faun, Brit, Ind. Fish., I, p. 306.

1913. Barbus hexagonolepis, Chaudhuri, Rec. Ind. Mus., VIII, p. 249.

1913. Barbus hexastichus, Chaudhuri (nec McClelland), Rec. Ind. Mus.,

VIII, p. 249. se a

1921. Barbus hewastichus, Hora (nec McClelland), Rec. Ind. Mus., XXII,

p. 186. 7

1924. Barbus hexastichus, Hora (nec McClelland), Rec. Ind. Mus., XXVI,

p. 27:

1935: Burbus hexagonolepis, Hora & Mukerij, Rec. Ind. Mus., XXXVI,

Pp. 389. |

1936. Barbus hexagonolepis, Hora, Rec. Ind. Mus, XXXVIII, p. 330.

1937. Barbus hexagonolepis, Hora, Rec, Ind. Mus., XXXIX, p. 334.

1937. Barbus (Lissocheilus) dukai, Shaw & Shebbeare, Journ. Roy. Asiat.

Soc. Bengal. Science, III; p. 37, pl. v, fig. 6, text-fig. 33.

Vernacular Names.—Bhorkol and Buluk (Bengali), Katli (Nepali), Mirpunia

(Lepcha), Kantasi (Mechi), Boka or Bokar and Boolooah (Assamese),

:4/9% Bis /13-15,; V-5/8; 4.3/5; ©.19; 1..1.22-31.

In general facies, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis is similat

to B. (Tor) mosal and has a graceful form in which both the dorsal

Text-fig, 2.—A juvenile specimen of Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis

McClelland from the Kalimpong Duars, showing relatively larger head and

eyes, and the development of horny tubercles at this young stage. x2.

* In the synonymy I have included Indian references only. References to

extra-Indian records will be dealt with in the next article.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLii

and ventral profiles are more or less equally arched. ‘The head is

relatively shorter and broadly rounded in front. The length of

the head is contained from 4.5 to 5.6 times in the total length

and trom 3.5 to 4.3 times in the length without the caudal. ‘ihe

height of the head at the occiput is considerably greater than

its width. The most conspicuous feature of the head is the

possession of several rows of horny tubercles on the sides in front

of and below the eyes. These tubercles are present in smaller

numbers in specimens even below 50 mm. in length. The number

and arrangement of tubercles vary in different individuals, and

when the tubercles are rubbed off or fall away series of

Open pores are present instead. The eyes are lateral in position

and are of moderate size; they are relatively larger in young

specimens and are situated mainly in the anterior half of the

head; the diameter of the eye.is contained from 2.6 to 4.2 times

in the length of the head, and according to the size of the specimen

it may be greater or smaller than the length of the snout or the

interorbital width. The snout is, however, shorter than the inter-

orbital width. The mouth is of moderate size, horizontal and

subterminal; it is slightly overhung by the snout. The lips are

thick, continuous round the angles of the mouth, but the labial

groove is widely interrupted in the middle. The posterior lip is

not| produced into a flap in the middle. The lower jaw is covered

by a sharp, horny covering which enables the fish to rasp off

encrusting organic matter from rocks. The barbels are longer

than the ‘diameter oftheseye:

The pharyngeal teeth (5. 3. 2/2. 3. 5) are relatively “shorten

but more massive than those of the J or-type.

With the exception of a few specimens from Pegu, I have

found that the depth of the body is somewhat greater or less

than the length of the head; the depth of the body is contained

from 4.0 to 5.3 times in the total length and from 3.0 to 4.6 times

in the length without the caudal. The caudal peduncle is well

formed but narrow; its least height is contained from 1.2 to 1.7

times in its length. The scales are large and well-set; the lepidosis

varies considerably even in specimens from the same locality. The

number of scales along the lateral line may vary from 22 to 31,

of predorsal scales from 8 to 11, and of the transverse series

between the lateral line and the base of the ventral fin from 23

to 34. An examination of a large series of specimens. from different

localities shows that no reliance can be placed on this character

for separating species. There is a scaly appendage in the axil ot

each pelvic fin.

The dorsal. fin commences opposite to or slightly in advance

of the pelvics; its commencement in half-grown specimens is

generally slightly nearer to the tip of the snout than to the base

of the caudal fin. The position of the dorsal varies with the

size of the individuals.

The size and strength of the dorsal spine is also very variable

and it has been found that specimens from streams running through

lime rocks have better developed spines. The pectoral fin is low

and pointed; in young specimens it may extend to the pelvic fin,

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 88

but in somewhat grown up individuals the two fins are separated

by a considerable distance. The pelvic fins are also sharp and

do not extend to the anal fin which latter may or may not reach

Text-fig. 3.--Right pharyngeal bone and teeth of a specimen of Barbus

(Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland from below Darjeeling. x 4.

a. Dorso-lateral view, showing the pitted surface; b. Lateral view, showing.

arrangement of teeth in three rows; c. Ventro-lateral view.

The teeth are shorter and more massive than those of the Mahseers of

the Tor-type.

the base of the caudal fin. The caudal fin is deeply forked with

both the lobes pointed. '

From the observations so. far recorded, ‘it seems that the

colouration varies considerably according to the nature of the

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLiI

water inhabited by the fish. The colour sketch reproduced here

was made from a living specimen kept in a katchha tank at the

Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate, Darjeeling District. The dorsal

surface of the head and body was bottle green, the lateral band

above the lateral line was yellowish brown followed by an area

of king’s blue colour which was replaced below by silvery white.

The edges of the scales were marked with light bluish neutral

tint. The tip of the snout was stone green, and the barbels had

a neutral tint. There were two oval patches of a light yellow colour

before and behind the eyes; the iris was yellowish brown and the gill-

cover light alizarine pink. The dorsal fin had a citron green

Text-fig. 4.—Lateral view of two specimens of Barbus (Lissochilus)

hexagonolepis McClelland to show marked variations in lepidosis and nature

of dorsal spine. ca 4.

a. A specimen from the Naga Hills, Assam, with weak dorsal spine,

32 scales along lateral line and 34 rows between it and base of the ventral

fin; b. A specimen from Nepal, with strong dorsal spine. 25 scales along

lateral line and 23 rows between it and base of ventral fin.

colour, while the pelvic, anal and greater part of the pectoral

and caudal fins were of a slate gray colour. There was a patch

of buff colour on the pectoral and the margin of the caudal was

of a light greenish neutral tint.

According to Shaw and Shebbeare (11, p. 38), the colour is

‘Olive green on back; each scale above the lateral line copper-

coloured at the end deepening to bronze-green at the base. Below

the lateral line the scales are pale slate-coloured fading to pure

white on the belly. Fins deep slate-colour paling towards their

margins, Iris bright coppery red.’ -

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DISTRIBUTION AND SIZE.

Though the final distribution of the species will be discussed

in the next article after an account of the extra-Indian material,

it may be noted that B. hexagonolepis is perhaps the commonest

large-scaled Barbel of Assam and of the Eastern Himalayas. In

the collection of the Indian Museum there are numerous specimens

from the Eastern Himalayas, the Garo Hills, the Khasi Hills,

the Naga Hills, and several other places in Assam. There is

also a specimen from Nepal. The species has not hitherto been

recorded from the Ganges River System or ‘any other part of

India.

Both McClelland and Day have noted that this species grows

to upwards of two feet in length. Shaw and Shebbeare state that

‘Rarely, if ever, exceeding 10 lb. in our area, but W. Nelson

records a Katli of 25 lb. caught by him in the Champamoli near

Gorubasha (Assam).’

In a recent note. Holt (4, sp. 154) recorded the capture otma

Katli weighing 21 lbs. from Jaldacca, so it would appear that

in Duars also the fish grows to a fairly big size. Mr. S. J. Duncan

informed me (vide 8, p. 334) that this was the mighty Mahseer

of the region traversed by him and that it was found in almost

ali the rivers of the hills.

BIONOMICS AND FISHING NOTES.

McClelland (10, pp. 336, 337) made the following observations

regarding the bionomics of B. hexagonolepis:—

‘The stomach is about the. length of the. body,~ gradually contracting

till it joins the intestines, which are thrice the length of the stomach, but of

great capacity, expanding in size from their commencement, to about the

middle of their length, and again gradually contracting until they reach

the vent. In the stomach and intestines I found numerous minute bones of

small fishes. Instead of the intestines of this species being disposed in trans-

verse or longitudinal folds, they are convoluted transversely. Mr. Griffith

remarks that the Bokar is to be found in all large rivers on the eastern

frontier, from the base of the mountains to the situation at which the

currents first become languid in the plains, keeping mostly in

the middle of the stream, where it takes a red hackle very freely, as_ well

as worms and other bait. It is very powerful, often attaining two feet and

upwards in length, and usually weighing from eight to twelve pounds.’

Wood (13, pp. 71, 72) in his notes on Fishing in India and

Europe recorded the following observations regarding Booka or

the snub-nosed Mahseer :—

‘The Booka or snub-nosed Mahseer. This is a true Carp and the colour

is duller than in the last; the fins are bluish-red and the pharyngeal teeth

are broader and flatter. As the Booka is not such a cannibal as the true

Mahseer, feeding more on falling fruits, weeds, grasses, etc., it does not

attain to a very great size, 123 lbs. being the heaviest I ever got. A curious

thing about him is that his fins are never entire, pieces especially in the

caudal fin being bitten out. The Khasias have told me that this is done by a

little fish with a beak like a parrot and which can blow itself out. They

call it the Poothla Mas. I have seen little boys blowing these fish up as

one does a toy balloon. Sometimes when bathing these fish will nip your

legs. The Khasias hate the Booka and many will not eat them, as_ they

say they devour the excrement of monkeys. I fancy there is something in

this. A fruit which they are fond of, a species of small fig is often found on

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 87

-trees overhanging the water. I have seen hosts of monkeys feeding on the

berries and when the fruit’? fell into the pool below it was eaten by the

Booka and other fish; the excrement also dropped into the water and I do

not think the Booka would object to eating this. The Booka does not make

the terrific rush like the Mahseer, he rather bores down into the depths of

the water and shakes the line like a bull dog. By this feeling you can

always tell you have a Booka on. ‘They take a G and S_ spoon well but

one has to spin deep for them and in a pool they soon get scared of a

spoon. During a sudden heavy spate, when the river gets muddy like pea

soup, I have seen Booka spring into the air to get more oxygen. The teeth

of the true Mahseer are much longer and pointed than those of the Booka,

some having a distinct notch. They play on a hinge system and the teeth

point downwards into the pharynx. They are admirably adapted for cutting

purposes and their strength can be gauged by putting one’s fingers down the

throat of a small Mahseer.’

Shaw and Shebbeare (11, p. 38) noted that the habits of Katli

are ‘Very similar to those of the Mahseer. As a sporting fish

there is nothing to choose between them, weight for weight. It

is unfortunate that, as both take the same lures, and are found

in the same water, the smaller species is often taken on much too

heavy tackle which does not give him a chance to show his power.’

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

I am indebted to the authorities of the Bombay Natural History

Society for bearing the cost of the illustrations for this article.

Mr. K. S. Misra very kindly prepared the table of measurements

and for this my thanks are due to him. The colour sketch was

made from a specimen caught by Mr. W. K. Langdale Smith of

the Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate, Darjeeling District, from the

Tista River and later kept by him in a Katchha tank. I am

indebted to Mr. Langdale Smith for affording facilities to my

artist to make the colour sketch. The illustrations were prepared

by Babu B. Bagchi with his usual skill and care under my super-

vision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Day, I’.—Fishes of India, p. 564 (London, 1876-78).

- 2. Gtinther, A.—Catalogue of the Fishes in the Grate Museum, vol. vii,

pe20) (L. ondon, eee)

3. Hamilton, F.—An Account of the Fishes found in the River Ganges and

its branches, pp. aoe 307 (Edinburgh, 1822).

Aeartolt, S. —A large Cutli from the Jaldacca.’ Journ. Bengal Nat.

Hist. Soc., vol. xiv, p. 154 (1940).

Hopwood, S. F.—‘Effect on Mahseer of eating the fruit of the Kalaw

tree (Taraktogenos Kurzii).’ Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxvii, pp.

743-745 (1934). PibascOhe en ek 9.

6. Hora, S. L.—On a Collection of Fish from Siam.’ Journ. Nat. Hist.

Soc. Siam, vol. vi, p. 155 (1923).

7. Hora, S. L.—On a further Collection of Fish from the Naga Hills.’

Rec. Ind Mus., vol. xxxviii, pp. 324-331 (1936).

8. Hora, S. L.—‘On a small Collection of Fish from the Upper Chindwin

Drainage.” Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. -xxxix,-p. 334 (1937).

* In this connection reference may be made to Hopwocd’s (5) observations

on ‘Effect on Mahseer of eating the fruit of the Kalaw tree (Taraktogenos

Kurzii)’. The flesh of the fish which eat the fruits of this tree becomes

poisonous,

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

9. Hora, S. L.—'The Game Fishes of India. WIII.—The Mahseers or

the Large-scaled Barbels of India. 1. The Putitor Mahseer, Barbus (Tor)

putitora (Hamilton).’ Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, pp. 275-277. (1939).

1o. McClelland, J.—‘Indian Cyprinidae.’ Asiatic Researches, vol. xix, pp.

333-338 (1839).

11. Shaw, G. E. and Shebbeare, E. O.—‘The Fishes of Northern Bengal.’

Journ. Roy. As. Soc. Bengal Science, vol. iii, pp. 37-38, pl. v, fig. 6; text-fig.

33, 1937 (1938).

12. Weber, M. and de Beaufort, L. F.—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian

Archipelago, vol. ili, pp. 167-169 '(1916).

13- Wood, H. S.—‘ Fishing in India and in Buropee Journ. Darjeeling

Nat,. Hist. Soc.; vol: vil “pp. 71,772" ‘(19g9).

EXPLANATION OF PLATE.

Colour sketch of a tame Katli, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland

of the Tista River.

The specimen, 268 mm. in total length, was collected by Mr. W. K. Langdale

Smith, and kept in a katchha tank at the Rungli Rungliot Tea Estate,

Darjeeling District. The colours shown in the drawing probably differ from

those of specimens living under natural conditions.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE LIFE HISTORY OF

TRIDAX PROCUMBENS LINN.

I. BANERJI.

(Department of Botany, Calcutta University).

(With two plates and 25 text-figures).

The family Compositae includes over 23,000 species and con-

tains about one-tenth of the total number of flowering plants. It

is distributed throughout the world, and the plants show HBR cas

ble diversity in habit.

Although a considerable amount of work has been done on the

embryology and cytology of the plants belonging to the family

Compositae our knowledge is far from complete. Schnarf (16)

and Bhargava (3) have reviewed the vast literature on the subject.

It is interesting to note that various types of embryo-sac develop-

ment, as also variation in the number and structure of antipodal

cells have been recorded in different species. The literature on the

cytology of the family is also very extensive. Of the interesting

observations made in recent years, mention may be made’ of the

occurrence of secondary association of chromosomes and polyploidy

in several genera. Meiotic irregularities leading to the formation

of sterile or multinucleated pollen grains, as also the partheno-

genetic development of the egg have been recorded by several in-

vestigatiors.

Tridax procumbens is a common weed found in all waste places

in Bengal. The plant flowers during the greater part of the year

and is easily recognised in its natural environment by its straggl-

ing habit, opposite pinnatifid leaves and long pedunculated flower—-

heads containing pale yellow coloured ray florets.

MATERIAL AND METHODS.

The material used in this investigation was obtained from plants growing

as weeds in the college compound. Fixation was usually made between

12 noon and 4 p.m. Various fixing fluids were tried of which Allen’s modified

Bouin’s fluid, and Flemming’s weak solution gave the best results. The

involucral bracts were removed before fixation and the flower-heads were cut

into small pieces to facilitate penetration of the fixing fluid. An exhaust

pump was always used for the same purpose. The material was dehydrated

and cleared in the usual way. Sections were cut 8 to 14 microns thick, depend-

ing on the stage required for study. Heidenhain’s iron-alum haematoxylin

and Newton’s iodine gentian violet were the stains commonly used.

OBSERVATIONS.

1. Flower development. The fiowers are arranged in long pedunculated

heads which are about 1/3 to 1/2 inch in diameter. The ray florets are

carpellate and the disc florets hermaphrodite. The opening of the florets is

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEDY, Vol Xie

centripetal, and the disc florets become differentiated first. The individual

florets appear on the convex floral axis as minute papillate processes, each

subtended by a bract (Fig. 1). The apex of the flower primordium very soon

curves inwards and develops into the corolla. (Fig. 2). The primordia of

the stamens, five in number, are seen to arise on the inner side of the petals

(Figs. 3 and 4), and rapidly grow upwards and become differentiated into

I 2 3

Figs. 1-6.—Tridax procumbens. Figs. 1-5, Stages in the development of

the disc florets. Explanation in text. Fig. 6, Part of pappus showing

arrangement of cells. Figs. 1-5,x940; Fig. 6, X 430.

comparatively large anthers and small filaments. Immediately after the appear-

ance of the staminal primordia, the origin of the sepals is noted. In longi-

tudinal sections of the flower these appear as twce_ scale-like projections on

the outer side of the petals (Fig. 5). In the initial stages of their develop-

ment they are composed of a few cells, but later develop into hairy structures

known as ‘pappus’. Figure 6 represents~the arrangement of the cells com-

posing the pappus. A spindle shaped nucleus is seen in each cell. The last

floral whorl to appear is the gynaecium composed: of two carpels which arise

on the inner side of the stamens and close to the centre of the floral axis. In

the early stages of their development they remain side by ‘side, but with

increased growth their distal ends come together to form the solid style, while

their proximal ends separate out to form the ovarian chamber. The carpels

open out again at the apex to form the bifid stigma. The stigma is clothed

by unicellular subulate hairs. From the base of the ovary a papillate protu-

berance develops which at first grows obliquely upwards, but very soon curves

to form the single anatropous ovule.

The development of the ray florets is similar to the above, except that the

corolla becomes ligulate and the stamens are absent. The style in both types

of flowers is surrounded at the base by a ring of glandular tissue. Figures 1

to 5 represent stages in the development of the disc florets.

The sequence of development of the floral parts appears to be similar to

that observed by Martin (10), Merrell (11), and others. ;

2. Microsporogenesis. The origin of the archesporial cells, or the early

differentiation of the sporogenous cells could not be made out. When first

noted the sporogenous cells appear to be separated from the epidermis by

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

Tridax procumbens Linn. ‘|

For explanation see end of article.

AMCONTRIBUIION. TO, HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 91

four or five layers of cells. In the resting stage the sporogenous cells are

packed close together in the anther Joculus and they are mostly polygonal in

outline. The nucleus is generally situated centrally inside the cell and contains

a single nucleolus surrounded by a hyaline zone. At the periphery of the

nucleus a granular reticulum is noted. With the onset of prophase a number

of elongated and beaded threads are seen to lie scattered irregularly inside

the nuclear cavity. (Plate I, fig. 1). The double nature of the threads could

not be very clearly made out, but from their beaded appearance it is inferred

that they are composed of two filaments which are spirally intertwined. Close

approximation of the leptotene threads next takes place. Figure 2 in plate I

represents a typical zygonema stage. The threads next contract away from

the periphery. of the nucleus and ball up into a tight knot. (Plate I, fig. 3),

the nucleolus being enclosed in the meshes of the thread. Synizesis lasts for

a long time as is evidenced from a large number of preparations showing

this stage. The spireme next opens out and gradually fills up the nuclear

cavity. Careful examination at this stage reveals the double nature of the

spireme (Plate I, fig. 4). At the pachynema stage the spireme appears as a

uniform thread which lies loosely convoluted inside the nuclear cavity. (Plate I,

fig. 5). At this stage the nucleolus decreases in size and its chromaticity also

becomes reduced. The pachytene thread next segments into a number of

unequal bits. These synapsed portions separate out markedly except at the

portions where chiasmata are established. The four-partite nature of the

diplotene threads is evident at certain regions only. The number of chiasmata

depends on the Jength of the threads. As a rule the number varies from five

to two (Text fig. 7). Some of the longer pairs have three interstital and two

terminal chiasmata, while others have one interstital and two terminal chiasmata.

In some others, especially in the shorter cnes, two terminal chiasmata are seen.

In later diplotene stages there is a reduction in the number of chiasmata and

Fig. 7.—Tridax procumbens. Some of the diplotene bivalents showing the

number of chiasmata and the spiral nature of the strands X 3650.

a shifting of their positions towards the ends. Terminalisation of the chiasmata

appears to be complete in every instance and at diakinesis the bivalents are

Seen to lie side by side. (Plate i, fig. 6). The nucleolus becomes still smaller

and paler and finally disappears at this stage. The heterotypic spindle is next

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

noted. The spindle is well defined with sharp ends, and the bivalent chromo-

somes are aligned on the equatorial region. A polar view of an equatorial

plate shows clearly eighteen bivalent chromosomes. (Plate I, fig. 7). The

anaphasic movement of the chromosomes appears to be regular (Plate I, fig. 8).

Non-disjunction or other meiotic irregularity has not been noted at this stage.

Figs. §8-12.—Tridax procumbens. Fig. 8, Microspore nucleus in prophase.

Figs. 9 and 10, Division of the microspore nucleus. Fig. 11, Tube and

generative nucleus separated by an ephimeral cell membrane. Fig. 12,

A mature pollen grain (mounted in a liquid medium); note germ-pores

and sculpturing on the exine. Figs. 8-11,X1555; Fig. 12,3650.

On reaching the poles the chromosomes at first clump together, but very soon

they open out and their spiral nature is once more apparent. A _ nuclear

membrane is secreted and the two daughter nuclei are connected by cytoplasmic

strands (Plate I, fig. 9). The spindles are oriented either at right angles, or

parallel to each other. The chromosomes while oriented on the spindle appear

to be somewhat elongated (Plate 4) /Gfig. 70): s2O@ni the completion of the second

A CONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 93

division four daughter nuclei are organised, inside which irregularly coiled

threads are noted (Plate I, fig. 11). The microspore tetrads are either isobi-

lateral or tetrahedral in arrangement and are encased by a _ mucilaginous

pellicle (Plate I, fig. 12). Cytokinesis takes place by the advancement of

peripheral furrows which meet at the centre of the protoplast. Quadripartition

by furrowing is now believed to be the general method of cytokinesis in di-

cotyledonous plants. The young microspores are at first enclosed in the

mucilaginous pellicle, but as the latter gradually undergoes dissolution they

are liberated and lie free inside the microsporangium. At this stage they have

a wavy outline but very soon they round up and the exine becomes differen-

tiated. The nucleus of the microspore increases in size and prepares for divi-

sion. The various stages of the division are shown in text figures 8 to Io.

The nucleus migrates towards the _ periphery before the commencement

of division and the metaphase spindle lies at one side (Fig. 9), and occupies

more than half the diameter of the microspore. According to Wulff and

Maheshwari (19) this is the general condition in angiosperms though exceptions

have also been recorded. On the completion of division two cells are formed

which are unequal in size and are separated by a cytoplasmic membrane. The

generative cell, as in most plants, is lens-shaped and lies close towards che

periphery. Its nucleus is slightly smaller than that of the vegetative cell

(Fig. 11). Geitler (6) believes that this might be due to the small amount of

karyolymph present in the generative nucleus. The mature pollen grains are

two celled, and ellipsoidal, but become spheroidal when mounted in a

liquid medium. Their diameter varies from 32-5 to 36°8 microns. They are

echinate, the spines having a broad base. Four broad and short furrows with

tapering ends are present, each having a single germ pore, from the centre

of which the intine protrudes as a tiny papilla (Fig. 12). The intra-colpar

regions show the presence of vestigial spines.

3. Periplasmodium.—In the early stages of meiosis the tapetal cells are

uninucleate and somewhat elongated. Before the pollen-mother cells have com-

pleted the I division, the nuclei of the tapetal cells divide mitotically and the

cells become binucleate due to the non-formation of a cell wall. The two

Figs. 13-17.—Tridax procumbens. Stages in the amitotic division of the

tapetal nuclei, X1555.

nuclei mostly lie side by side. During the tetrad stage of the pollen mother

cells, the first indication of plasmodium formation is observed. The walls deli-

miting the individual cells disappear and their cytoplasm coalesce and protrude

inside the anther cavity. As this process takes place from all sides, the

microsporangium is soon filled by the tapetal plasmodium which closely surrounds

94 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

the young microspores. The tapetal nuclei before migration into the

anther cavity become very much elongated. ‘They show the presence of

fine chromatin granules and a few small nucleoli. At a later stage they are

seen to divide amitotically. Text figures 13 to 17 represent the various stages

of division. The daughter nuclei formed as a result of the disorganisation

of the constricted area, withdraw the attenuated portion very soon and become

elongated in form. They remain in this condition till the disappearance of the

plasmodium when they degenerate.

The formation of a tapetal plasmodium has been recorded in many plants

of the family Compositae. Merrell (11) working on Silphium observed the

collection of plasma around the microspores which later became encrusted by

it in the form of a sheath. Gates and Rees (5) state ‘the plasmodium flows in

among the pollen grains and may contribute directly to the sculpturing of the

wall’. Similar observations have been made by the present writer (1) working

on Carthamus tinctorius. In Tridax procumbens though the plasmodium was

seen to be in intimate contact with the spinous projections of the exine, yet

in the absence of further evidence it would be unsafe to suggest that the

plasmodial substance is incorporated on the exine. The plasmodial substance is

finally resorbed so that hardly any trace of it is left in the anther.

4. Multi-nucleated pollen mother cells. During the later stages of meiosis

when the pollen mother cells have rounded up, in some anthers a few large

cells have been noted. As a rule not more than one such cell is present in

the anther and it lies close towards the periphery. These cells contain two,

three or four nuclei. (Plate II, fig. 14). The nuclei in most cases show the

early prophasic changes, while the surrounding pollen mother cells show all

stages from diakinesis to pollen tetrads. Figure 15, in plate II, represents a

stage in which the presence of eight nuclei is seen in the protoplast. From

the form and arrangement of the nuclei it appears that they are the product

of division of pre-existing nuclei. The nuclei being probably in the interkinetic

stage. Figure 16 in the same plate illustrates another stage where the nuclei

are in a state of division. Seven telophasic spindles with polar grouping of

chromosomes are clearly seen. From the occurrence of a chromosome group

at the position marked x in the diagram one is inclined to believe that another

spindle is present at that region, probably masked by the adjacent chromosome

groups. This condition would then represent an advanced stage to that observed

in figure 15. (Plate II). But it is very rare, and has been observed in only

one preparation out of a large number examined. Mostly the multi-nucleated

pollen mother cells degenerate early, as is evidenced by their collapsed and

irregular outlines and the presence of large dark shapeless masses in the anther.

In no preparation was any giant microspore observed nor a polycaric condi-

tion of the pollen grains noted.

5. The development of the megaspores and the female gametophyte. The

ovule arises as a tiny protuberance from the base of the ovary when the

sporogenous cells have just become differentiated in the anther. It grows

obliquely upwards and curves inwards even before the differentiation of the

megaspore mother cell. The curvature of the ovule is not brought about by

its contact with the ovarian wall as has been noted by Reeves (15) in

Medicago sativa. The direction of curvature of the ovules is not the same

in all florets.

The archesporial cell becomes. differentiated in the hypodermal layer of

the nucellus and directly functions as the megaspore mother cell. (Fig. 18).

The megaspore mother cell increases in size and then passes through the

usual stages of reduction division (Figs. 19 and 20), and a linear tetrad of

four megaspores is produced in every instance (Fig. 21). The nucellus is

greatly reduced and consists of a single layer of cells lining the megaspores,

which are completely encased by the integument. The lowest or the chalazal

megaspore always functions, while the rest degenerate and could be made

out by their dark shapeless masses capping the functional megaspore. The

functional megaspore increases in size before division. The two nuclei pro-

duced as the result of division show distinct polarity, and at this stage de-

generation of the surrounding cells of the nucellus is first noted. The quadri

nucleate stage is next reached and the embryo-sac becomes encased by the

radially elongated cells of the integument. This condition appears to be a_

characteristic feature in the family Compositae, and the inner cells of the

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. Piare II

Tridax procumbens Linn.

For explanation see end of article.

ie) ye

‘ ae :

‘

A CONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 95

integument have often been referred to as the ‘integumental jacket’. The

eight nucleate stage is next reached and the embryo-sac shows considerable

increase in size.

The mature embryo-sac is of the normal angiospermous type (Fig. 23). The

synergids are pear shaped and have prominent beak like processes which

extend inside the micropyle. A big vacuole occurs at the base of each synergid

at the top of which the nucleus is placed. The egg is very much elongated,

Figs. 18-25.—Tridax procumbens. Fig. 18, Longitudinal section of the ovule

showing the hypodermal origin of the megaspore mother cell and the

single integument. Fig. 19, Heterctypic division of the M.M.C. Fig. 20,

Homotypic division of the M.M.C. Fig. 21, Tetrad of megaspores. Fig. 22,

Eight-nucleate embryo-sac. Fig. 23, Mature embryo-sac, the antipodal

cells bi-nucleate. Fig. 24, Antipodal region of an embryo-sac, showing

two antipodal cells, of which the upper one is three-nucleate and _ the

lower binucleate. Fig. 25, Same, showing two anti-podal cells, the

lower cell has three nuclei and the upper two. Fig. 18,430; Figs. 19-21,

X1050; Figs. 22-25, X 940.

it lies below the synergids and shows the usual form. The secondary nucleus

lies very close to the egg. It is bigger than. the egg nucleus and is surrounded

by a dense mass of cytoplasm. The three antipodal cells which are separated

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLii

[epe}

from one another by cytoplasmic membranes lie at the chalazal end of the

embryo-sac. At first they are uni-nucleate, but very soon become binucleate.

In a few instances only two antipodal cells have been noted in the mature

embryo-sac. Of these cells sometimes the upper one’ was seen to be trinucleate

and the lower binucleate (Fig. 24), or the reverse condition prevailed (Fig. 25).

DISCUSSION.

1. Meiosis.

The spiral structure of the chromosomes first observed by Baranetsky (4)

has now been definitely established. There are, however, different views re-

garding the number of spirals that compose the prophase chromosomes. Among

the recent investigators on the subject Nathany (12), Huskins and Smith (8)

and others are of opinion that the leptotene threads are single, while Koshy (9)

and others believe that they are double. In Tridax procumbens the leptotene

threads appear to be beaded, which is probably due to the close intertwining

of two threads forming nodes and internodes. Such appearance of the leptotene

threads has been observed by Koshy (9) in Aloe Iittoralis, and he is of opinion

that the beaded nature is due to two closely intertwined chromonemata. The

structure of the chromosomes during the later stages of meiosis could not be

made out clearly on account of the unsuitability of the material for such

investigation. The chromonematic structure of the chromosomes again becomes

apparent in the interkinetic nuclei and in the nuclei of young microspores.

It thus appears that each chromosome is composed of two spirally intertwined

threads. Further indication of the spiral nature is obtained in the diplonema

stage where the wavy outline of chromosomes is suggestive of the existence

of coiled strands.

The method of chromosome conjugation is parasynaptic. The pairing of

the leptotene threads is apparent in the early prophasic stages and as the

spireme recovers from synizesis, its double nature is evident at places. The

absence of a ‘second contraction’ stage and the segmentation of the spireme

to give rise to the bivalent chromosomes lend support to this view. Gates

and Rees (5) working on Lactuca have observed a looping of the spireme dur-

ing the second contraction stage. The number of loops corresponded to the

number of chromosomes, and it was concluded that each loop represented

a pair of chromosomes which later separated out. The above observation led

the authors to believe that synizesis in Lactuca has no part in bringing about

the pairing of the threads. It is difficult to accept this view as the observations

on Tridax indicate that synizesis is a critical stage when the pairing of the

threads takes place.

Great variation in the number of chromosomes has been noted in the family

Compositae. Tischler (17) gives a list of the numbers recorded till recently.

Of the plants under the tribe Helianthoidae the chromosome numbers of the

following have been recorded: Xanthium Strumarium, X. italicum,

X. inflexum and X. pensylvanicum (n=18); Galinsoga parviflora (n=18);

Helianthus annuus (n=17); Bidens sp. (n=24). It is interesting to note that

Tridax procumbens possesses 18 haploid chromosomes and thus shows chromoso-

mal affinity with some other plants of the tribe to which it belongs.

2. Multi-nucleated pollen mother cells.

The presence of large multi-nucleated pollen mother cells in the micros-

porangium during the later stages of meiosis is an interesting feature in Tridax.

Careful examination of the synizetic and presynizetic stages failed to show

the presence of such cells, and it can therefore be concluded that these cells

are not differentiated as such during sporogenesis. The origin of these cells

might be due to the union of the cytoplasm of two or more pollen mother

cells or to a process of nuclear migration or cytomyxis. As the latter

conditions have not been observed in any preparation, it is likely due to

the former. Besides, measurements show that the size of the nuclei

in the large pollen mother cells is nearly the same as those of the

ordinary meiocytes in the same stage of meiosis. The number of separate

truclei in the protoplast indicates the number of pollen mother cells involved

in the process. Gates and Rees (5) have observed similar bi-nucleate pollen

A €ONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 9%

mother cells in Lactuca. These were noted in the presynizetic and synizetic

stages of the pollen mother cells and not later. It has been suggested that

these cells owe their origin through a breakdown or due to the incomplete

formation of a cell membrane between the two cells. The absence of any

evidence in that direction and the presence of multi-nucleated cells in Tridax

procumbens makes this interpretation difficult to accept. Holmgreen (7) has

observed quadrinucleated pollen grains in Erigeron eriocephalus and E. malas-

chkensis. According to him these resulted from the failure of wall formation

' after reduction division. Non-formation of walls after reduction division appears

to be the condition in Tridax also, and it results in an increase in the number

of nuclei. Such a condition is illustrated in figures 15 and 16, plate II. In

the first figure, the arrangement of the nuclei indicates that they have just

completed the division and are in the interkinetic stage, while in the second

figure, all these eight nuclei are in a state of division. The large eight-

nucleated cell (fig. 15, Plate II), therefore must have resulted from the coales-

-cence of the cytoplasm of four pollen mother cells, and not as a result of

non-formation of wall after reduction division. Besides, as in most other

cases the nuclei of the aberrant pollen mother cells are seen in early prophase,

they could not have possibly resulted from a process of division as suggested

by Holmgreen (7).

3. Tapetal plasmodium. .

The tapetal cells become bi-nucleate in the early stages of meiosis. Quadri-

nucleate tapetal cells as reported by many workers on Compositae have not

been observed. A true plasmodium was formed during the later stages of

meiosis and as the tapetal nuclei migrated inside the micrcsporangium, they

became very much elongated and divided amitotically. Similar amitotic division

of the tapetal nuclei has been noted by the present writer (2) in Colocasia anti-

quorum. Bhargava (3) has noted the occurrence of a tapetal plasmodium in

Eclipta erecta—a member of the tribe Helianthoideae—but he does not mention

the amitotic division of the tapetal nuclei.

: ei Pollen grains.

In recent years the study of pollen morphology has received considerable

attention. Wodehouse (18) states—‘pollen grains of the same species and

of closely related species tend to be alike, and if the environmental factors

are alike, the degree of their similarity_is a measure of their closeness of

relationship’. The pollen morphology of a few plants belonging to the tribe

Helianthoideae has so far been studied. Helianthus annuus, Xanthium catharti-

cum, Chrysanthemum coccineum, C. morifolium, C. carinatum and Eclipta

erecta could be mentioned in this connection. The size of the pollen grains

in this. tribe does not show great variation. The pollen grains of the differ-

ent species of Chrysanthemum studied, range between’ 26-6—36:5 microns in

diameter, while those of Xanthium, Helianthus and LEclipta are 20-9, 27°7

and 18’o0 respectively. The diameter of the pollen grains of Tridax procumbens

has been found to vary from 32:5 to 36°8 microns (with. spines).

' Wodehouse (18) has observed the pollen grains of the different species of

Chrysanthemum studied by him to be tetra- or hexa-colpate. It is interesting

to note that the pollen grain of Tridax are also tetracolpate. In general, the

pollen grains are similar to those of Helianthus. .

_ The shape of mature pollen (mounted dry) of Tridax procumbens is ellipsoidal.

This agrees with the observation of Wodehcuse (18) on other members of the

tribe Helianthoideae. Bhargava (3) however, states: that the pollen. grains of

Eclipta erecta to be spherical and questions. .Pope’s (14) observation on other

Compositae. .In Tridax the, ellipsoidal condition is due to harmomegathy. of

the germinal furrows and the pollen grains assume;.a «spheroidal form when

mounted’ in a liquid medium. In the light of our present knowledge, a careful

re-examination of the pollen grains of Eclipta erecta seems to be necessary.

5. Development of the female gametophyte.

The development of the megaspores' and the female gametophyte is of the

normal type. It is interesting to note that in .the few. plants ‘of thé< tribe

Helianthoideae so far investigated, the same type of embryo-sac development

prevails. The variability in the number of antipodal cells and their nuclei, as

lord

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLli

observed in the material investigated, appears to be a characteristic feature of

this tribe. Fusion of the nuclei of the antipodal cells as observed by Palm (13)

in Zinnia was not seen in any preparation.

SUMMARY. :

The paper gives an account of the development of the flower, pollen grains

and the female gametophyte of Yridax procumbens.

1. The ray florets of the capitulum are carpellate and the disc florets

hermaphrodite. The development of the latter takes place in the following

sequence :—petals, stamens, sepals and carpels.

2. The chromonematic structure of the chromosomes is seen in the nuclei

of the microspore mother cells in early prophase and also during interkinesis.

3. Chromosome conjugation is of the parasynaptic type. No _ irregularity

was noted in the meiotic process. —

4. The haploid number of chromosomes is eighteen.

5. Cytokinesis takes place by a process of furrowing.

6. A true periplasmodium is formed, the nuclei of which divide amitotically

when inside the microsporangium.

7. Large multinucleated cells have been observed to be present inside the

microsporangium in some anthers. Generally the nuclei of these aberrant

cells show early prophasic changes while the surrounding pollen mother cells

show all stages from diakinesis upwards. In a few anthers the nuclei of

these large cells have been observed to divide.

8. The pollen grains are bi-nucleate. They are ellipsoidal, echinate and

tetracolpate. Germ-pores are four in number and are ‘situated in the centre

of short furrows.

9g. The development of the embryo-sac is of the normal type. <A_ linear

tetrad of megaspores is produced of which the chalazal one always functions.

The organisation of the mature embryo-sac is of the normal eight nucleate

type.

se The number of antipcdal cells varies from two to three. Normally the

antipodal cells are bi-nucleate, but sometimes tri-nucleate cells also occur.

LITERATURE CILED.

i. Banerji, I.—A contribution to the morphology and cytology of Carthamus

tinctorius. Pro, Nat. Inst. Sci. India., vi. 1. 73-86 (1940).

2. Banerji, 1.—‘Sterility in Colocasia anliquorum’. Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc., xvi,

159-164 (1937).

3. Bhargava, H. R.—‘Contribution to the morphology of Eclipta erecta’.

Proc. Ind; Acad, ‘Sct. 1, 325-336, (1035):

4. Baranetsky, J.—‘Die Kerntheilung in den Pollenmutterzellen einiger

Tradescantien’. Bot. Zeitg. XXxvili, 241-248 (1880).

5. Gates, R. R. and Rees, E. M.—‘A cytological study of pollen develop-

ment in Lactuca’. Ann. Bot. cxxxix, 365-394 (1921).

6. Geitler, L.—‘Beobachtungen uber die erste Teilung im Pollenkorn der

Angiospermen’. Planta, xxiv, 361-386 (1935).

7- Holmgreen, I.—‘Zytologische Studien uber die Fortpflanzung bei den

Gattungen Erigeron und Eupatorium’. Kungl. Svensk. Vetenskapsakad. Handl.,

lix, 3-118 (1919),

8. Huskins, C. L. and Smith, S. G.—‘Meiotic chromosome structure in

Trillium erectum’. Ann. Bot, xlix, 119-150 (1935).

g. Koshy, T. K.—‘Number and behaviour of chromosomes in Aloe littoralis’.

Ann. Bot. N. <S. 4, 443-58 (1937):

10. Martin, G. W.—‘Development of the flower and embryo sac in Aster

and Solidago’. Bot. Gaz. xvii, 353-357, 406-411 (1892).

11. Merrell, W. D.—‘A contribution to the life history of Silphium’. Bot.

Gaz. Xxix, 99-133 (1900).

12. Nathany, S. P.—‘Chromosome studies in Hyacinthus orientalis’ II. Ann.

Bots? NaS 5 451 257-275111037):

13. Palm, B. T.—‘Antipodals in Zinnia’. Trans. Illinois State Acad. Sci.,

XXIV, 143-147 (1931).

A CONTRIBUTION TO HISTORY OF T. PROCUMBENS LINN. 99

14. Pope, M. A.—‘Pollen morphology as an index to plant relationship of

Bonen. Bot. Gaz. 1xxx, 63-73 (1925).

15. Reeves, R. G.— Development of ovule and embryo sac in Alfalfa’. Amer.

Journ. Bot. xvii, 239-246 (1930).

16. Schnarf, K.—Vergleichende. Embryologie der Angiospermen, Berlin (1931).

17. Tischler, G.—‘Pflanzliche chromosomen-zahlen’. Tab. Biol. Berlin, iv, vii,

xi, Xli (1931-1936).

_ 18. Wodehouse, R. P.—'*Pollen grains their structure, identification and sig-

nificance in Science and Medicine’. (1935). .

19. Wulff, H. D. and Maheshwari, P.—‘The male gametophyte in Angiosperms’.

Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc. xvii, 117-132 (1938).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

All figures were drawn at table level with the help of a Zeiss camera lucida.

With the exception of figure 7, the rest of the figures in plate I have been

drawn at a magnification of 1,400 diameters. Figure 7 has been drawn at

a magnification of 3,650. Magnification of the figures in Plate II, is given

below.

BrLatE 1;

Fig. 1.—Nucleus of microspore mother cell in early prophase. Note the beaded

nature of the leptotene threads.

Fig. 2.—Zygonema stage.

Fig. 3.—Synizesis; nucleus enclosed within the meshes of the thread.

Fig. 4.—Recovery from synizesis. Double nature of the spireme evident at

places.

Fig. 5.—Pachynema stage.

Fig. 6.—Diakinesis.

Fig. 7.-—-Polar view of metaphase, I division; note 18 bivalent chromosomes.

Fig. 8.—Heterotypic anaphase.

Fig. g.—Interkinesis; note coiled nature of the chromosomes.

Fig. 10.—Homotypic anaphase.

Fig. 11.—Pollen tetrad surrounded by a mucilaginous pellicle.

Fig. 12.—Cytokinesis by furrowing complete. Microspores encased by the

mucilaginous pellicle.

Fig. 13.—A young microspore liberated from the tetrad.

Piate II.

Fig. 14.—A longitudinal section of an anther showing a multinucleated pollen

mother cell and pollen tetrads surrounded by tapetal cells, x 430.

Fig. 15.—A large pollen mother cell showing the presence of eight nuclei, x 2140.

Fig. 16.—Another large cell in which the nuclei are in a state of division.

Seven polar groups of chromosomes are clearly seen, another group

probably occurs at the position marked x; 2,140.

SOMETHING ABOUT SWORDFISH.

Lizur.-Con. R. W. BURTON, 1.4. (Retd.)

(With a plate).

There is something about the taking of swordfish, and other

monster fish of the sunlit tropic seas with rod and line, which has

captured the fancy of the public and the big-game sea _ fishing

fraternity ;‘so each season thany sportsmen, and sportswomen too,

have been attracted to Australian and New Zealand waters.

It is an exciting sport packed with thrills, for there is always:

the hope that each day, each hour, each minute may bring a yet

larger and more furiously fighting leviathan to test the tackle and

endurance of the fisherman.

‘ Swordfishing was begun in New Zealand waters some thirty

years ago, the first of the species being captured off Cape Brett

by Mr. AD Do Campbell im 191e70r torr. Inv r9o26 7 Mies © lane

Baker, a Vice-President and veteran Member of the Bay of Islands

Swordfish and Mako Shark Club, induced Mr. Zane Grey to visit

the Bay of Islands where he pitched camp at Otehei Bay on the

island named Urapukapuka (meaning? Diary should say, but

doesn’t). On the shores of that lovely cove is now the Otehei Bay

Hotel, where the visiting. angler finds everything he needs for

his comfort and his sport. Those wishing to be nearer the fishing

grounds can obtain accommodation at Deep Water Cove-which is

ten minutes run, instead of an hour’s, from Bird Rock: there are

other places also. i

Mr. White Wickham’s broadbill of 675 Ibs. was the record for

that species up to 1928, and. may. be so to the present time.

Names of a number of noted sportsmen are in the Club records.

_-New Zealand swordfish waters are off Whangaroa’ Heads,

Cavalli Islands, Cape’ Brett, Mayor Island in the Bay of Plenty,

and some in-between places of less note. From the available records

the best period off Cape Brett is the last week of February and

the first three weeks of March; this would also apply to the first

two named localities. On a future visit the inclination would be

to find two companions to share a launch suitable to live on a

few days at a time, and so work the Cavalli area as well as Cape

Brett. The cost would be less, and the sport might be more.

Ordinarily the cost of this fishing is N.Z. £5 to £6 a day. (Rs. 52

toms 2105).

During the season 1936/37 (ist Dec. to 31st May) 28. black

marlin averaged 452 lbs.; 321 striped marlin 283 Ibs. ; 97 mako

shark 175 lbs.: the largest of the three species being 850, 404,

and 612 Ibs. respectively. The largest thresher shark, hammer-

head shark, and king fish were 922,394, and 75 lbs.; the first named

a record. Record for king fish—a redoubtable hehter, 15 in los

SOMETHING ABOUT SWORDFISH 101

(Zane Grey). When in Fiji the writer saw a photograph of a

112 Ib. king fish, but caught nothing approaching that size in those

seas during a three months stay.

Seasons vary considerably. 1937 was exceptionally good. In

the following year the figures for the first three species were 9,130,

and 58 only, there being much stormy weather during February and

early March. Up to oth March 1937 172 swordfish were caught

off Mayor Island: Thresher and hammer-head are much less com-

mon than mako, which is a magnificent fighter.

One never knows what may come along. The late Captain

Mitchell of America killed a black marlin of 985 lbs. (length 13 ft.

5 in.) off Whangaroa on the 25th February 1926. It was then a

world’s record. Mr. H. J. Court killed one of 957 lbs. in 1936;

and in 1932 one of 823 Ibs. was captured by Mrs. Eastham Guild

of Tahiti. Monster fish of this species are always hoped for!

On the 8th February 1938 G.H.D. and the writer were trolling

‘around .Piercey Rock in one direction while E. E. G. and C, in

Alma GIT, circled the opposite way. The launches were on opposite

sides when a huge black marlin, biggest launchman Arliss had ever

seen, and he had been at the killing of fish of over 1000 Ibs. with

Zane Grey in American waters, rushed the bait from below, shot

out of the water in a e@feat curve, and went off at tremendous

speed. After a hundred yards the reel overran, the line broke.

Then the fish broached again—ten feet and more of him in the

air—and threw the bait. Again he came up and repeated the

spectacular performance in vain endeavour to get rid of the hook—

‘then he was seen no more.

What a misfortune for G! And had the monster taken C’s

bait would his reel have jammed? Or D’s, or mine? Who knows,

Kismet. But was it just bad luck? One has to be most careful

to wind the line, after wetting it, tightly on to the drum; and to

brake the reel just right, neither too tight nor too loose.

That matter of luck. C. had bad luck all along, while G’s was

consistently good. One marlin took the bait off C’s hook, then

seized G’s and was killed. That day ‘Minerva’ saw no sign of

fish: while ‘Valhalla’, ‘Alma G.II’, and ‘Lorna Doone’ killed two

‘each. Some sportsmen, frequently novices, do extraordinarily well;

others, of much experience, will go a whole month with but one

fish fe Luck has it-all the time: but care counts:

Broadbill are not often caught in New Zealand waters. A fine

specimen taken in 1937 is mounted in the Auckland Museum;

where also are eehibited specimens of marlin, mako, and other

big-game fish, which should be seen.

The sword of the broadbill is as much as four feet in length,

that of the striped marlin being thirty to thirty- four “inches; the

bill of the black marlin is shorter in proportion though the fish

attains far greater size than his striped relative.

Talking of ‘swords’. Before me is a photograph of the launch

‘Little Jim’ which was rammed off Leigh (opposite Little Barrier

Island) by a striped marlin on the 29th January 1932. At the

time of the attack the launch was not fishing. The sword’ was

broken off by the frantic struggles of the great fish and is seen

102 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

to pierce the planks above the water line and protrude six inches

above the deck! At Otehei Bay can be garnered authentic stories

of swords broken off in bodies and heads of mako shark. The

‘Minerva’, seen in the photograph, bears a scar from sword of a

marlin which struck a glancing blow. There must be many terri-

ble fights when the monsters of the deep seas meet at feeding time

on the immense shoals of trevalli and other fish which swarm in

those prolific waters. Swordfish opened up have been found to

contain fish of several species with spear holes in them. The prey

is swallowed whole. <A swordfish taking a trolled bait has been

charged and transfixed by a companion fish; they often swim in

pairs. One is known to have shattered his spear against Piercey

Rock in his wild rush to escape. In 1937 there was a newspaper

report of a terrific swordfish battle seen off Hokitika on West Coast

of South Island.

No doubt. the fish often die when swords are broken off, but

there is a record of a piece a foot long having been left inside a

rammed launch. A month later that same fish was caught (267 lbs.)

his broken rostrum exactly fitting the piece in the launch. (T. E.

Donne, Rod Fishing in New Zealand Waters, 1927). Swordfish are

said to attain a speed of fifty miles an hour. That can well be

believed. The caudal fins of spearfish have a greater spread than

those of the true swordfish, and as the former are even more stream-

lined, and have two strengthening keels as supports to the waist

of the tail as compared with the single keel of Ziphias gladius, it

is likely they are the more speedy. The speed and weight of all

‘swordfishes’ is ample to drive their weapons through planking of

any thickness found in ships and boats.

The sailfish attains a weight of nearly two hundred pounds.

Not long ago a lady angler caught one of 170 lbs. off the Seychelles.

Off the coast of Chile broadbill are found in great number and

are fished for commercially. One of over 800 lbs. has been taken in

those waters on rod and line. (The Field, 21st Sept. 1935).

Fishermen, and anglers too, are sometimes injured by attacks

on boats. Some have occurred on the Travancore coast. One in-

stance was that of a fisherman wantonly attacked while sitting on

his catamaran and_ speared through the shoulder. (Journal

Vol] *XXxiN; 1p,’ 273):

When cruising at the surface striped and black marlin are dis-

tinguished by the tail fluke ripping scimitar-like through the water ;

broadbill show both dorsal fin and tail fluke; mako the dorsal only.

Sunfish (Orthagoriscus mola) are sometimes seen, being known by

the peculiar side movement of the big fin. Field glasses should be

used. Basking Sharks (Rhinodon typicus), sometimes, though

erroneously, called sun-fish, are of great size. One seen at Auck-

land in 1885 was 34 feet long with a dorsal fin of five feet in

height ; and one of this species stranded at Trivandrum, Travancore,

in 1900 measured 29 feet with a circumference of 11 feet 3 inches.

Now let us have something from the scientists. The name

‘swordfish’ should, strictly speaking, be applied to the Broadbill

only. Scientists divide ‘swordfishes’ into two families. Xiphiidae

comprise one genus and species only. Ziphias gladius, the true

SOMETHING ABOUT SWORDFISH 103

swordfish, known to sportsmen as the Broadbill. It has a flat,

smooth, sword and erect backward-curved non-depressable dorsal

fin. The family Istiophoridae comprises the spearfishes and sail-

fishes which have round, rough, bills shorter than that of the

Broadbill and dorsal and ventral fins folding into recesses, thus

rendering them even more stream-lined than Z. gladius. They also

differ from Z. gladius in having paired pelvic fins placed beneath the

body in line with the pectoral fins and also folding neatly back into

a longitudinal groove. These fins are apparently in course of

atrophy—a condition found in other vertebrata as instanced by the

floating collar-bone of felines. It may be conjectured that by means

of these the fish may know when they are touching the floor of

the sea. In all species the pectoral fins fold backwards, but not

into grooves.

The swords in all these ‘swordfishes’ are formed by the coales-

cence of the praemaxillae, vomer, and ethmoid bones. The rough-

ness on the sides and under surfaces of the spearfish and sailfish

bills is due to the presence of very short mediatory teeth point-

ing backwards.

The ‘swordfish’ taken off the coasts of New Zealand are mostly

true spearfish, or marlinspike fishes, of two species. The Black

Marlin is Makaira mazara; the Striped Marlin, Makaira mitsukurit.

The Broadbill is not often taken both because of its scarcity in

those waters, and because of it not readily taking a bait. The

Salifish, Istiophorus is not apparently found in New Zealand seas.

It is common in the Indian Ocean where one species of marlin is

Makaira indica: there may be others.

Mr. V. W. Lindauer of Russell, a Life Member of the Bay of

Islands Club, informed the writer that there is very little difference

to mark the sexes of the marlins killed off the New Zealand coast.

The more mature fish are probably females who take the bait more

readily owing to developing ova; while the smaller fish may be

immature males: but it may reasonably be asked whether there are

any males among those caught by rod and line sportsmen. There

is yet something, a good deal indeed, to be learnt about these

fish.

The principal fishing ground from Bay of Islands is off Cape

Brett around Piercey Island and near Bird Rock about 2 miles to the

north. The first two were named by Captain Cook in November

1779 after Sir Piercey Brett, a Lord of the Admiralty. Piercey

Island has a large archway through the shoreward end of it so no

doubt the famous navigator had a good chuckle when he gave

that name; the arch is now known as ‘The Hole-in-the-Wall’.

Around these two rocks can be seen positively acres of trevalli,

also called cavalli (Caranx georgianus) averaging four or five lbs. ;

seen with them is a violet-coloured fish (the maomao, Ditrema

violacea) eight to ten inches in length. All the time there are

violent upheaving splashes as the much harried fish scatter to

escape the hungry under-water onslaughts of king-fish and

schnappers; but not infrequently there is a rapid-running splash

of a hundred yards or more, clearly indicating the furious charge

of a swordfish through the lower stratum of the shoal. Somehow

104- JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST? SOCIETY, Vol, XLIT

one does not have much ‘swordfish success close to these shoals,

perhaps because the bait is quickly torn to pieces by smaller pre-

datory fish.

Trevalli have small mouths and are not to be caught by any

ordinary method. They are best snatched by a large treble hook

thrown well into the shoal by a bait-casting rod, and afford quite

good play, but time is too important to admit of any nicety in

the matter. Being flat-sided fish they are excellent for trolling.

The other bait used is the kahawai (Arripis salar) a salmon-shaped

fish averaging five to seven lbs. and taken by any small spinner

trolled with a hand-line behind the running launch. These also

afford excellent sport with suitably light rod and tackle.

In my diary I find—‘much time is wasted in procuring bait.

The launches should be fitted with live-bait tanks under the counter :

it seems foolish to waste hours of expensive launch hire, and some

of the best fishing hours in the early part of the day—in searching

for bait: and surely it is better to use live bait for drifting?’

The proper way to seek swordfish is no doubt by trolling, and

all would fish that way during the greater part of the time were

it not for the increased consumption ol ‘petrol: The: ‘smaller

launches, such as ‘Minerva’, consume a gallon an hour—-about

eight miles to the gallon; larger ones considerably more. All

hands need a rest occasionally and then dr ifting with the tide is

done. , That way anything—any of the four species of shark—Blue,

Raremai, Tiger, Grey Nurse, may be hooked; as also Mako,

Hammer-head, and Swordfish. It savours of bottom fishing’ for

mahsir with a lump of paste! One feels with this swordfishing

from a power launch that the launch kills the fish; and I agreed

with D, my companion for a week, that a king fish on suitably

lighter tackle affords better actual spor’. It would be a different

contest were one to fish from a row-boat, or dug-out, as is usual

in some seas but could only be done on carefully chosen days in

New Zealand waters; not practical politics in fact.

The question of hooks. The Bay of Islands Club did not, up

to 1938, bar the use of two hooks, the practice being with some

launch-men, not all, to use a treble hook as a ‘dangler’. This can

only be for ‘the purpose of foul-hooking, and should not be allowed.

There should be only one hook, except for sharks when two are

permissible; but it is seen in the Proposed Rules for a World Big-

Game Fishing Association the Rule would be:—‘No multiple or

‘gang’ hooks may be used. Not more than two single hooks are

allowed, which must be placed at least a shank’s length apart’.

That would seem to permit a flying hook which might foul-hook a

fish. Not good! The Rule should provide for both AGO to be

attached to the bait.

Now let’ us’ set ‘Gut in search of the ‘striped tiger of the sear,

or his larger relatives. Harness is adjusted; rod placed in the

socket of revolving chair; doubled portion of line fastened to wire

trace by a buffer knot; No 14 hook passed firmly from below behind

the lips of the bait; baited trace let out some thirty feet, the idea

being to have the bait dancing on the surface, for which purpose

the trevalli is so good; reel-brake properly adjustéd ; in fact every-

JOURN.

Photo by

BOMBAY

Nat. HIST. SOC.

—

BEES

A Striped Marlin—313 lbs.

Author.

SOMETHING ABOUT SWORDFISH . 105

thing ‘just right’. Then the ‘teasers’ are let out on either sideé,

and we cruise around at five to six miles the hour all eyes on the

watch for a showing fin. aS :

_ This is the time for real enjoyment. The bold outlines of Cape

Brett please the eye; there is the charm of watching the cloud

shadows sweeping across the grassy and wooded slopes of the

steep hills; of seeing the on-rushing waves ceaselessly thundering

in vain fury against the perpendicular battlements of Piercey Island.

The gulls scream and wheel; the great gannets steeply plunge;

petrels, Mother Carey’s Chickens, and other birds are seen; and

there is the never-ceasing interest of the great trevalli shoals.

The hours of waiting and expectancy may be long; the rays of

the sun may be most unpleasantly hot, or the motion of the launch

‘such as to defeat even the hardiest of ailore: but there is so much

life to observe, so much movement, that there are no dull moments:

while all the time there is that hopeful feeling, and not for an

instant can the state of readiness be relaxed.

‘Marlin seem to take under most conditions, provided the water

is not discoloured by storms, and will strike in calm or rough seas,

on dull days and on bright days. The best hours seem to be from

‘sunrise to mid-day and from four to six in the evening.

The 13th February was fine, the sea calm. We secured: only

two baits and each got a fish! Mine ran about three hundred yards

before broaching in a smother of foam to stand on his tail. Failing

to throw the hook he came up again several times—fighting furi-

ously—and then bored deep, so heavy ‘pumping’ was necessary to

prevent sounding as these fish sometimes die far below and are

then very difficult to recover. Special equipment is necessary for

‘the purpose but is not carried by all launches. After fifty minutes

the fish was moving slowly to and fro some fifty yards away and

‘in another five minutes was gaffed and quickly secured on the

counter—a striped marlin of 313 lbs.

Within a few minutes we got going again and almost immedi-

ately a marlin, perhaps attracted by all the disturbance, took D’s

trolled bait. It was not a good fighter so was killed in 35 minutes—-

226 lbs. Next day D’s trevalli was taken by a big marlin which

emerged a long way off and threw the bait. Our lines.were not

marked at each hundred yards. It is difficult to know how much

line is out and fish are missed by not striking at the right time.

That has to be learned by experience and I missed two fish for

that reason. ‘As the bait was being reeled in for examination

another fish seized it and gave a great display of leaping, standing

on tail, skittering along the waves, a most spectacular performance.

It fought all the time close to the surface. 45 minutes, 197 lbs, a

striped marlin. Marlin appear to vary a good, deal in fighting

qualities. These two fish of the 13th are seen in the photograph of

the ‘Minerva’.

We hooked several sharks of the unwanted unsporting kind

and cut them loose.

It was learnt in Australia that big-game fishing off the coast

of New South Wales is making great progress. There are several

Clubs: The Sword-fish and Tunny Club of Australia (Vic.); The

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol XE

Bermagui Big-Game Angler’s Club; The Illawarra Game Fish Club

(N.S.W.); and further north other Clubs, including the Queensland

Game Fishing Association and the Great Barrier Reef Angling Club.

So the visiting sportsman has much choice of locality and can fol-

low the coast line with the season from south to north. Off the

Queensland coast boarding house accommodation can be had on

several islands.

The name of Barrier Reef has a special! attraction and the wonder

of those prolific waters has to be seen to be realized, while the

large variety of sporting fish afford never ceasing enjoyment. Per-

haps the best of all is the Barred Spanish Mackerel, a leaping

fighting fury running 4o to 100 lbs; it is a near relative of the well-

known Seir fish of Indian seas: and there is the Queen Fish which

fights almost more out of the water than in it! Others of note are

bonito, albacore, kingfish, swordfish and _ sailfish; and one may

strike a great ugly stubborn ‘groper’ running to seven or eight

hundred pounds. The season is June to September.

As in Auckland, so in Sydney and other places all and every

kind of ‘rod, reel, line, and-gear-jcan be, purchased. Phe, VN: Sane

O fficial Fishing Guide and Holiday Sporting Handbook is indis-

pensable: in it will be found much of interest, besides many useful

hints for angler and camper.

The serious Big-Game angler will know all about the Proposed

World Big-Game Fishing Association, the Rules of which are to

be found in the euchaaes Gazette for the 21st and 28th January

and 4th March 10939, together with interesting comments by

Mr. Mitchell Henry.

‘But’, readers of the Journal may ask, ‘are there no swordfish

to be had nearer than the other side of the world?’ Yes! Through-

out the tropic seas swordfish, sawfish, spearfish, and those beauti-

ful creatures with the lovely prussian blue dorsal fin known also

as sailfish, are to be found. Wherever there are coral islands,

reefs, and underwater banks all kinds of sea fish congregate, so

there also are the larger fish of the deep seas which prey upon

them.

Off the Seychelles, Ceylon (where is an established Sea Angler’s

Club providing all that is necessary for the taking of all kinds of

fish), and the Andaman Islands there are swordfish and their brethren.

Spearfish and Sailfish, doubtless Swordfish also, are to be found

off the coast of Bombay over the Angria Bank west of Ratnagiri;

the Cora Divi Bank west of Kundapoor; and the Sesostris and

Bassas de Pedro Banks west of Mangalore. All these Banks being

beyond the one hundred fathom line, and surrounded by deep ocean,

swarm with sea fish of every description.

Adventurous Ratnagiri fishermen no doubt spread their nets »

and set their ‘trot’ lines over the Angria Bank, and it is known

to the writer that the people of Chetlat and Kiltan of the Laccadives

fish over the Bassas de Pedro—called by them the Munyal Par—

with great success at seasons of the year when favourable weather

is assured to them.

Off certain of the banks and reefs nearer to the Laccadives

there are seerfish, sawfish, and every other kind of sea fish. Much

SOMETHING ABOUT SWORDFISH 107

can be done by hiring a Laccadive boat of about 18 tons burthen

during the months of December and January. The conditions are

of course rather hard and primitive; but the sport is good and the

expense not great. The fishing is out of the sailing dug-out taken

along as a towed dinghy. These are the conditions for real sport

as the great pelagic fish are fought on equal terms with a big-game

reel of five to seven hundred yards capacity of 36 thread line.

There is no room for a swivel chair. You sit on the floor of the

boat with the rod butt in a stout block of wood and swivel around

on the ‘ischial callosities’ which you soon acquire.

Indian boatmen are exceedingly happy-go-lucky so it is essential

to make sure that the boats are properly fitted and found in every

respect. On one occasion I had the mast come down in half a

gale of wind because the stepping block was secured (!) by wire

nails of insufficient length and strength. That was off Quilon,

and entailed a seven mile row against wind and tide for return

to the coast. One does not want such happenings in mid-ocean !

And the cordage: as well to make sure it is sound, as also the

sails which the west coast fishermen use to the last rotten rag.

The deep sea islanders are more careful: but ‘safety first’ is a

good slogan.

There are ‘swordfish’ off Cape Comorin but conditions there

need a power boat. The owner of a seagoing 12 H.P. Diesel

Engine Launch would have all the places mentioned at his disposal

'-and, after the necessary exploration and experience, as good fish-

ing as is obtainable anywhere.

Now we know something about ‘swordfish’; where to seek them

and how to get hitched on to these leviathans of the deep seas,

as also many other worthwhile sporting fish. of various kinds. All

that remains is to do our individual best to aid the world to a

sane existence and hope there may be tight lines for some when

all the turmoil is over.

Supplementary Note.—All sportsmen interested in ‘Sea Fishing

in Indian Waters’ should read the contributions under that title by

Engineer Commander F. O. Gadsden of the R.I.M. (now the

Royal Indian Navy) in volumes xii and xiii of our Journal. He

wrote in an interesting and informative way of Bamin, Mullet and

Garfish, The Andaman Seas, Karachi, and Aden.

Extremely informative articles by Major W. H. Lane as to

‘Game Fish of the Persian Gulf’ are contained in vols. xxiv and

KXV;

A list of seafish found off the coast of Travancore is in vol. xxxiv.

The Fish Supply of Our Western Coast is exhaustively dealt

with by the Editors of our Journal in vol. xxix, part 2, and

vol. xxxiv part 4. There are many illustrations. The Authors

rightly remark as to sustained supply of fish by commercial methods

that ‘a wide local knowledge of the life history and habits of our

food fishes is essential to success’: so also sea anglers should,

as said by Major Lane, get a firm grasp of the habits and nature

of the particular fish in quest; determine the method which will

present the lure in the most natural way; ascertain what pattern

108. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HS @.°SOCIn TY, Vol. “Xiii

of lure is most deadly; select the most suitable locality’: to which

sound advice may be added the necessity of knowledge of. the

season-——the precise month—during which the various species sought

are to be found in suitable localities.

Only by reading and studying all the above-cited articles will

the sea angler arrive at that success which he would otherwise

only attain at long last through expensive and vexatious experience.

All Fresh Water Anglers in India will be interested and widely

informed by the illustrated article ‘Game Fishes of Bombay, the

Deccan, and the Neighbouring Districts of the Bombay Presidency’

contributed by Sir Reginald Spence and Mr. S. H. Prater and pub-

lished in part I of vol. xxxvi. The article by Mr. A. Macdonald

in vol. xxxiil part 2 on the Mahsir of the Irrawaddy Confluence

above Myitkyina should not be overlooked.

If any Member wishes to try ‘Fishing without a Fish Hook’

and so catch fish in running streams in the most sporting manner

imaginable, he should read Miscellaneous Note xix at page .789

of. vol. xxii and marvel at the ingenuity of the untutored human

of the wilds.

RK. W285.

Editors’ Note.—Back numbers of the Journal referred to above

are available at a cost varying from’ Rs.°37to Rs? 5 peri copy:

In connection with the study of fishes the Editors invite atten-

tion to the illustrated series, The Game Fishes of India, now

appearing in the Journal with the permission of the Director,

Zoological Survey of India. The author of this series is Dr. Sunder

Lal Hora to whom has been entrusted the preparation of the

second edition of Dr. Day’s Fishes in the Fauna of India Series.

It is anticipated that this second edition will extend to at least

five volumes. The first edition was of two volumes and. published

in 1880.

By a curious coincidence we received Colonel Burton’s article

on the same day that a copy of Memoirs of the Royal Asiatic Society

of Bengal, vol. xi No. 2, pp. 215 to 315 came to us from Calcutta.

In that issue of the Memoirs is an article by Mr. E,W. Gudger,

Honorary Associate in Ichthyology, American Museum of Natural

History, New York, entitled ‘The Alleged Pugnacity of the Sword-

fish and the Spearfishes as shown by their Attacks on Vessels’.

All specially interested in this subject would be very fully informed

by perusal of this comprehensive and well illustrated contribution

to “science. =~ Ghescost Of mt issn 4:

~*~

NOTES ON SOME NEW AND. INTERESTING

BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA.

MAJOR-GENERAL SIR. HARRY .TYTLER, K.C.B., C.M.G.,- C.1.E.,- D.S8.0O.

PartT II.

_- [Owing to the death of the author, the manuscript of this part

has been edited by. Mr.’ G. Talbot, FRvE.s

., who has also corrected

the proofs of both parts.—Ed. |. |

NYMPHALIDZ.

Charaxes fabius nagaensis, s.sp. nov.

Male: differs. from the typical form before me from Chota Nagpore, and

the United Provinces, in being larger, and in having the yellow macular band

narrower and spots smaller; it is as large as the Ceylon form Ch. fabius

cerynthus, Fruh. but.the yellow macular band is’ paler; it differs from

Ch, fabius sulphureus, Rothsch. in being larger, with the macular band darker.

_ A large series of males was taken at Nichuguard at the foot of the Naga Hills;

a female was taken in the Lushai Hills.

_ Further south-west, in the Chin Hills,,a male of Ch, fabius sulphureus,

Rothsch. was taken. 3} have not taken the latter farther north than Bhamo; it

occurs more commonly further south in S. Shan States and in the Karen Hills.

6 and @Q paratypes are deposited in the British Museum.

Eriboea narcaea thawgawa, s.sp. nov. :

This form is very close to E. lissainei, Tytl. from the Naga Hills, and to

EK, aborica, Evans. In size it is equal to the latter. On the upperside it

agrees with aborica, Evans in having on the forewing the dark submargina!

band as broad, but the pale spots are much larger. On the hindwing it differs

in-lacking the pale jine in the middle of the post-discal black band from the

tornus to v. 4. On the forewing the submarginal spots have rounded apices,

in intefspaces ‘I, 2 and 3, instead of being pointed.

From E. lissatnei, Tytl., it differs on the upperside in the black border to the

forewing being broader, and the pale spots rather larger. On the hindwing

there is no trace of the pale brown edging to the discal band which shows

through from the underside. It is not rare, and a large series of males was

taken at Htawgaw at the: end of June.

A <6 paratype is deposited in the British Museum.

Eriboea eudamippus nigrobasalis, Lathy.

_ Brig. Evans, in his ‘List of Indian Butterflies,’ . gives the range, of

E, -e. eudaniippus, Doubl. as Kumaon-Assam; of E. e. nigrobasalis, Lathy as

N. Burma; and of E. e. jamblichus, Fruhst. as Karens—S. Burma.

The type of E. e. nigrobasalis, Lathy came from Pak-a-jong, Siam. I have

not seen the original description nor have I seen the type, but according te

Lord Rothschild and Dr. K. Jordan, (Novitates Zoologicae, vol. vi, 1899,

pp. 266-267), the type has the cell of forewing all black and the abdomen above

pale yellow.

Lord Rothschild and Dr. Jordan include specimens from the Shan States

in this subspecies, but at the same time note that these specimens have black

bodies and state ‘It appears singular that in the specimens from Pak-a-jong

the abdomen 1s pale yellow as in E. eudamippus’.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIt

I have a fairly large series of E. eudamippus before me and note the

following differences amongst the geographical forms :—

Specimens as far east as Assam, Naga Hills and Manipur, and at Sadon,

extreme N.-E. Burma, are the same as those from Sikkim, i.e. typical

E. e. eudamippus, Doubl.

At Htawgaw, which is considerably to the south of Sadon, a large form

occurs with cell and base of forewing entirely black, and base of hindwing

yellow; the marginal area of hindwing is not clear yellow but dusted with

dusky bluish. Two males were taken in June (wet season). I propose calling

this form splendens, s.sp. nov.

Further south, at Maymyo, N. Shan States, a slightly different form

occurs ; two specimens taken in June and September (wet season) are very much

smaller, and in addition to having the cell and base of forewing black, the base

of the hindwing is also black. Two specimens taken at the same place, one in

February (dry season) and the other undated, but probably a dry season form, are

slightly larger; the body and cell of forewing are black, but the cell has a small

pale diffuse spot in it, and the base of both wings is only slightly dusted with

black. The marginal area of hindwing is clearer yellow than the above form

splendens, Tyt.

From further south and east I have received two specimens from Loimwe

close to the Siam border, taken in July (wet season), which are very similar

to the form from Maymyo with cell and base of forewing entirely black, and

with a slight dusting of black on base of hindwing. Still further south, of

ten males and one female from the Karen Hills, two have the cell and base

of forewing entirely black, and the remainder have the cell black with a. large

whitish suffused patch against the lower edge of the cell; these have the base

of the forewing only slightly dusted with black, and one male and the female

have no dusting of black at all. The abdomen of all these is greyish yellow,

in only one is it pure yellow. The late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper informed me

that still further south, in the Dawna Range, in the dry season; he has taken

both black-bodied forms and greyish yellow-bodied forms but at different

elevations.

It would appear that the Karen Hills form is very close to Eriboea e.

nigrobasalis, Lathy, but without seeing the type I am unable to say whether

they are identical or not; but the black-bodied forms from Maymyo and

Loimwe are certainly not nigrobasalis, Lathy and will require a new name.

I propose the name chota, s.sp. nov. for this form. Type ¢, Maymyo.

Eriboea eudamippus jamblichus, Fruhst.

The type is given as from Tenasserim, but without further precise locality ;

Fruhstorfer, in his description, states :—

‘Males from Tenasserim in my collection are smaller than males of the dry

season period from Sikkim, and do not show any blue bordering at all on the

proximal part of the submarginal catenary band of the hindwings which is

copiously provided with very large pupils.’

I have seen no Karen Hills nor Dawna Range specimens which agree with

this description, but I have seen specimens from Tavoy and Mergui, in the late

Mr. G. E. R. Cooper’s collection, which do agree, and it seems probable that

E. e. jamblichus only occurs in the extreme south of Burma.

Apatura cooperi, Tytler.

There are two broods of this insect; the spring brood, flying in May. and

June, and the autumn brood, in October and November. The latter seasonal

form is the more plentiful.

The two forms do not differ.

Apatura ulupi kalawrica, Tytler.

There are two broods of this form; the spring form, flying in May and

June, and the autumn form, in September and October.

A male taken at Maymyo is a melanic aberration with the yellow markings

dusted with black.

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 111

Apatura ulupi mai, s.sp. nov.

A single male taken at Loimwe, S. Shan States, differs from Ap. ulupi

florenciae, Tytl. as follows :—

Upperside: darker brown and not so tawny. Forewing with all the yellow

markings smaller and more round. Hindwing with all the yellow markings

very small and indistinct; a well defined row of macular terminal yellow spots

as in Ap. u. florenciae, Tytl. but darker; the subterminal row of blackish

spots obsolescent and very indistinct. Apex of forewing and tornus of hind-

wing much blunter and not nearly so much produced. The differences are

well marked and although only a single male was taken, I consider it is a

good local race. Its occurrence at Loimwe extends the range of the collective

species a considerable way to the east. It appears to be very rare.

Apatura parvata burmana, s.sp. nov.

Male: Larger than Ap. parvata, M., from Bhutan and the Naga Hills, of

which I have a large series before me.

Upperside: darker, with yellow markings more distinct; the band on the

hindwing much broader and better defined.

Underside: darker, all black markings more defined; discal band broader

as on upperside.

Hindwing: tornus more produced.

Six males were taken at Htawgaw and Sadon, N.-E. Burma, from June to

September.

A 6 paratype is deposited in the British Museum.

Euripus halitherses, Doubl.

-Brig. Evans gives four forms of females, namely :—

Q v. isa, M. as typical form; outer half upper hindwing brown.

2 v. nyctitius, Db. Upper forewing dark brown with apex broadly suffused

bluish. Upper hindwing all dark brown.

Q v. cinnamoneus, W.-M. As last, but upper hindwing outwardly with

white streaks.

Q v. alcathaeoides, de N. As nyctitius but upper forewing all dark brown.

In the large series of females before me I notice the following subdivisions :—

Q f. isa, M. 1st form: typical. 2nd form: hindwing very white, almost

extending over the whole wing. 3rd form: as 2nd form, but darker and white

area, which extends to termen, well-defined with brown streaks along the

veins.

Q f. cinnamoneus, W.-M. 1st form: white streaks on hindwing restricted

to the terminal area. 2nd form: white streaks more extensive, and produced

inwardly to the discal area. 3rd form: as in 2nd form but apex of forewing

suffused with violet.

Penthema lisarda, Doubleday.

Fruhstorfer gives the range of this species as Sikkim to Assam, and that

of the form T. mihintala, Fruhst. as the Chin Hills.

Brig. Evans extends the range of the species to Manipur, probably based

on specimens taken by myself, 1911-1914.

Fruhstorfer separated the form from the Chin Hills as being larger than

Sikkim forms, the colour of the underside being dull brown and not red brown,

and the spots in the ceil being rounder and the internervular strigae broader.

_I have a large series of forms taken in the Abor Hills, foot of the Lushai

Hills bordering on Cachar, Manipur and N.-E. Burma; also one male from

the Arrakan Hills which agrees with Fruhstorfer’s description of his mithintala.

All the other forms are intermediate in varying degrees between typical

lisarda, Db. and mihintala, Fruh., those from the foot of the Lushai Hills

being closer to lisarda, and those from Manipur and N.-E. Burma being closer

to muhintala.

I have only one specimen before me from the Arrakan Hill tracts but have

seen several in Mr. Cooper’s collection; he kindly gave me _ the specimen

referred to; this form is constant in the shade of colouring on the underside.

The occurrence of the coliective species to N.-E. Burma extends ifs range

considerably to the east.

112° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

Penthema darlisa, Moore.

The type came from the Thounguen forests in Upper Tenasserim.

Further North, in the Karen Hills and at Maymyo, Northern Shan States, a

modified form occurs which appears to be constant. It differs in the following

respects :-— /

Male and female. Upperside. Forewing with a long bluish-white streak

in interspace 1, not broken into two spots as is generally the case in the

typical form. Hindwing with discal row of spots not touching the internal streaks

except in interspace 2; a round detached spot placed inwards to the discal spot

in interspace 6, in the typical form replaced by a discal streak touching the

outer spot.

Underside. As on upperside but discal spots on hindwing very small.

I propose the name shania, s.sp. nov. for this form.

To the south, in Tavoy, a very large and distinct form occurs.

Male and female. Upperside with all white markings large. Forewing with

a long streak in interspace 1. Hindwing with discal streaks broad, and coalescing

with the discal spots, forming one uninterrupted streak. Underside, as upper-

side except that some of the discal spots in 4, 5, 6 and 7 are sometimes clear

of the discal streaks.

I propose the name of cooperi, s.sp. nov. for this race.

The late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper found this form.as Kanbank, Tavoy, and

kindly gave me a pair.

Penthema binghami, W.-M.

The late Mr. G. E. R. Cooper, in his large series, had several interesting

forms of binghami, some of which were intermediate between the various

named forms :—

(a) The typical form from Dawnas with small spots on fore and hindwings.

(b) P. binghami merguia, Evans, from Ataran Valley, with spots on fore-

wing small and discal streaks on hindwing joined to terminal spots.

wing are the same as (b) but much larger than in (a); the two discal streaks

near the tornus are joined to the submarginal spots.

Euthalia flora cooperi, s.sp. nov.

Specimens of E. flora, Butl., taken by the Jate Mr. Cooper in the Ataran

Valley, have the borders on the upperside pinkish-violet and not blue, and

are very close to the form of salangana, Fruh. which occurs on the Western

Coast of Siam opposite the Nicobars, the only difference being that the border

is not so broad. Typical E. flora andersoni, M. has a blue border, and

occurs further south.

it is better to consider E. andersoni as a race of E. flora, Butl. than of

E. lepidea, M.

Euthalia julii anisakani, s.sp. nov.

Male: Wet season form very like Eu. julii xiphiones, Butl. on the upper-

side, but on the underside the two discal rows on forewing are rather farther

apart, and the inner spot in 4 is not so bent outwards and out of line.

The dry season form is much smaller and paler. Female. Upperside rather

similar to E. julii adima, M. female. Underside very similar to the female

of E. julii xiphiones, but as in the male the two brown discal lines are rather

further apart, and the inner spot in 4 not so outwardly thrown out of line

and so placed further from the outer spot. é .

A male and female. of the autumn form, taken in December, is as large

and dark as the w.s.f., but all the markings on the underside are obliterated.

Types: male and female, Anisakan, N. Shan States. Several specimens were

also taken in Maymyo. :

Euthalia kesava maymyoensis, s.sp. nov.

Types: Male and female. Maymyo, N. Shan States. )

Brig. Evans gives the habitat of E. Resava kesava, M. as Assam—N. Burma

and of E. kesava discispilota, M. as Bhamo—S. Burma. Besides. males before

Sel

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 113

me I have a female from Bhamo and one from the Upper Chindwin which

are certainly not discispilota, M.; the female is quite different.

The male is similar to E, kesava kesava, M. and to E. kesava discispilota,

Female. Much smaller than the former and slightly so than the latter. It

is nearer to E. kesava kesava, M. than to E. kesava discispilota, M., but

differs from the former as_ tollows :—

On the upperside koth wings with discal grey area extending well over

the submarginal line; submarginal line not so crenulate.

Underside: submarginal line as on upperside. The specimen taken on the

Upper Chindwin is not typical but nearer to this form than to E. kesava

kesava, M. Specimens of the Q taken at Sadon, N.-E. Burma, are typical

E. kesava kesava, M.

Euthalia eriphy!ae, de Nicév.

There has been a good deal of confusion regarding de Nicéville’s insect.

Bingham placed it under Euthalia apicalis, Voll., and Brig. Evans considered

it to be a race of Eu. merta M.

E. eriphyle de N., according to Fruhstorfer, was based by de Nicéville

on males of two different species, namely true Eu. eriphyle de N., figured

by de Nicéville himself, and on E. apicalis, Voll., or rather on Eu. merta, M.,

the Tenasserim form of apicalis, Voll.

According to Bingham de Nicéville described and figured the female of

Eu. eriphyle, erroneously as Eu. binghami, de N. This statement I do not

consider to be correct as de Nicéville’s fig. of Eu. binghami does not agree

with a large series of females of Eu. delmana, Swinh., the Assam form of

Eu. eriphylae, de N. (the Burma form) and which are undoubtedly the females

of that species.

The females of Eu. eriphyle delmana, Swinh. can easily be recognised by

the shape of the submarginal dark band on the upperside of the forewing ;

this band is not parallel to the termen but inwardly bent in the middle in the

same way as it is in the male. de Nicéville’s fig. of the male clearly shows

the shape of this band.

So de Nicéville’s figure and determination of the female of his binghami

must be assumed to be correct until proved to the contrary.

Eu. merta, M. is a distinct species and has nothing to do with Ew.

eriphyle, de N.

The males of Eu. eriphyle, de N., dry season form, differ from the dry

season form of Eu. delmana, Swinh. in having the apex of the forewing and

tornus of the hindwing more pointed. The upperside is not so dark and

all the pale markings are still paler, especially along the termen of both wings.

The pale terminal area of the hindwing has a series of detached dark spots,

whereas in delmana these spots coalesce and form a continuous dark brown

band. Underside darker, otherwise the same.

Female. The single d.s.f. 9 of Eu. ertphyle, de N. in the British Museum,

taken at Pattechaung in the Karen Hills’ in March 1926, and kindly: sent to

me on loan for examination, differs considerably from the d.s. forms of

delmana now before me from the Naga Hills.

Upperside. Much paler; the white sub-apical markings of forewing nearly

pure white instead of being sullied or pale brown; submarginal band on _hind-

wing slightly paler on its inner edge, and inwardly the crescents are more

ointed.

; Underside very pale; the bluish suffusion which almost covers the hind-

wing is carried into the base of the forewing and into the cell. In delmana

this bluish suffusion is confined to the lower half of the hindwing and does

not extend to the forewing except slightly into the cell.

The wet season males of delmana are darker above than the dry season forms,

and all the dark markings below are more prominent.

The wet season females are much darker above; the underside is also

darker and the bluish suffusion is more vivid.

In the British Museum there is a fair series of dry season males and one

female of true E. eriphyle, de N., from Lower Burma, and two males and

one female of Eu. delmana, Swinh., including ¢ and @Q types from. the

Khasi Hills.

114 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vel. XLII

Of Eu. delmana, Swinh., there are before me, in my collection, four males

and five females of the wet season form and thirteen:males and six females of

the dry season form. It is very rare in the Naga Hills and apparently also

rare in the Khasi Hills.

Eu. eriphyle, de N., also appears to be very rare in Lower Burma.

Two males and a female from the Naga Hills have been deposited in the

British Museum.

Euthalia duda amplifascia, s.sp. nov.

Male: Upperside with white discal band on both wings very much _ broader

than in the typical form, as broad as in D. durga. Forewing with discal band

continuous and not macular as in D. duda, Stgr. Underside with ground-colour

and all markings darker. .

_ The type was taken at Sadon, N.-E. Burma, at about 6,000 ft., in July.

Euthalia durga splendens, Tytler,

Two specimens of this very rare form were taken at Sadon, N.-E. Burma,

in July, at about 6,000 ft.

Euthalia nara, Moore.

Moore’s type was described from Sikkim; the collective species extends

over a large area and is represented by local forms as far East and South as

the Shan States, Burma.

Evans, in his Ident. Ind. Butt., has separated the form from Loimwe,

S. Shan States, under the name shania, based on the colour of the male which

he describes as bright dark green instead of bronze olive-green as in Sikkim

males. He does not mention the female.

The males of the various local races are hard to describe in writing but

can readily be seen when series of each form are placed side by side. The

females, however, are different, and easily distinguishable.

I propose separating the form from the Naga Hills and Manipur and also

the form from Kalaw in the northern portion of the S. Shan States. A single

male from N.-E. Burma is again different, but until the female is found and

a larger series of males obtained, it had better be placed with the Naga Hill

form. ;

_ Euthalia nara nagaensis, s.sp. nov.

Male: Upperside darker bronzy green than Sikkim males, with all dark

markings more conspicuous. Female: Upperside very bronzy, much more so

than in Sikkim females. Forewing with discal white band narrower, especially

in interspace 2, where it is very small. Hindwing with the two costal white

spots obsolescent and blurred, not white and clear as in the typical form.

Habitat :—Naga Hills and Manipur.

Euthalia nara kalawrica,s.sp. nov.

Male: Upperside with all dark markings more conspicuous than in the

Sikkim form. Hindwing with the apical yellow patch smaller, with the discal

green area dividing it in two and reaching the costa. Female: Upperside

brighter green and dark markings more distinct, as in male. Forewing with

the discal transverse witite band much broader, except in interspace 2, where it

1s much smaller. Habitat :—Kalaw, northern portion of the S. Shan States.

Euthalia nara shania, Evans.

Type, Loimwe, S. Shan States.

As Evans’ description, in his Ident, Ind. Butt., is rather scanty, and only

refers to the maie, I am giving a. fuller description based on a large series

of both sexes.

Male. Upperside, as eek by Evang, brighter green. All dark markings

more conspicuous than in the typical. form.. Hindwing with discal yellow area.

larger, the green discal colour just entering interspace 6. See

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 115

Female. Upperside rather darker than the Sikkim form, with all dark

markings more conspicuous. Forewing with the white discal band similar,

but the spot in 2 much smaller. Hindwing with the two costal white spots, in

6 and 7, completely absent or only one minute spot in interspace 6 sometimes

present.

Males are common; the females very rare.

Euthalia narayana, Gr.-Sm.

The type, a 9, was taken in the Ruby Mines, in the Bhamo Hills.

It also occurs commonly in the Naga Hills, rarely in Manipur, rarely in

the extreme N.-E. of Burma; side by side with races of E. sahadeva, M.

it also occurs throughout the S. Shan States.

At Loimwe, in the extreme S.-E. of the S. Shan States, it occurs commonly

with E. sahadeva which, however, is very rare.

There has been some confusion about this form, and it has been considered

by some authors to be,a race of E. sahadeva, M. As the two forms occur

together over a great part of their range I think it better to give E. narayana,

Gr-Sm. specific rank.

This form is represented in my collection by 13¢¢ and 14° Q 9: from’ the

Naga Hills; 1 ¢@ and 2 @@Q from Manipur; a pair from extreme N.-F.

Burma; 5 dd and 4 @@ from: Maymyo, N. Shan Statés; 6 O<¢ and

3. Q@@ from the Kengtung State, extreme east of the S. Shan States. It

is curious that both sahadeva nadaka and narayana, which occur commonly

side by side in the Naga Hills, are rare in the adjoining Hills of Manipur.

Euthalia sahadeva, Moore.

The following notes are tentative and are based on 30 dod and 35 2 9 in my

collection and now before me.

The collective species has been divided up into three subspecies :—

E, sahadeva sahadeva, M. type, ? Bhutan; Sikkim.

E. sf nadaka, Fruh., type, Khasi Hills.

E. ae narayana Gr.-Sm., type QQ, Ruby Mines, N. Burma.

There is no difficulty in recognising the Sikkim-Bhutan. form, FE. sahadeva

sahadeva, M., in which the males have all the markings large and yellawish-

white, and on the hindwing the post-discal series of six spots seeing to

interspace 2. The female is much larger than the male; upperside dark bronzy-

green; discal band on forewing white, and hindwing with one subcostal white

spot in 6.

There should also be no difficulty in recognising E. sahadeva nadaka, Fruh.,

from the Khasi Hills, which Fruhstorfer describes as ¢, on both sides darker

leaf-green than specimens from further west; hindwing with three, instead

of six, white discal spots.

Female, as figured by Moore, with no white spots on hindwing.

I have no males before me from the Khasi Hills, and only two females:

these differ from Moore’s fig. in one having one small white subcostal spot in

6 on upper hindwing and the’ other having three spots in 5, 6 and 7; other-

wise similar to the female from Sikkim.

This form extends into the Naga Hills and Manipur where it differs slightly

in the male having very occasionally one or two additional discal spots below

the upper three; in the female the number of spots on the.-hindwing may be

one or two, or they are entirely obsolescent.

Of this form there are before me 27 ¢¢ and g 29 from the Naga Hills,

and one male from Manipur.

Euthalia sahadeva thawgawa, s.sp. nov.

A third form of sahadeva, which I ‘propose calling as above, occurs at

Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma. Both sexes are darker than the Naga Hills speci-

mens, and the female..is. brighter green; the, male .has_ five discal. spots on

hindwing instead, of three, the female has none.:; ia. 5 sider! agra hay

od o>

1i6é =jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XL

There are also before me two females from the extreme S.-E. end of the

S. Shan States; these agree with the females from Hthawgaw, but without

seeing a male it is not certain whether they are the same or not. It is curious

that I have received no specimens from intermediate areas, but they probably

occur.

Euthalia lengba, s.sp. nov.

In the J. B. Nat. Hist. Soc., Feb. 2nd, 1915, I recorded the capture of

this species, in Manipur, erroneously under the name of EF. taooana, M., which

is, however, quite different.

Male. Smaller than EF. taooana, M.

Upperside rather more yellowish, markings very similar, but discal band

on forewing not so-broad and spots narrower; spot in 3 not touching spot in 4.

Hindwing with three post-discal spots, and one or two black white-centred

spots in 3 and 4; the outer edge of these spots convex. Underside more greenish-

yellow than E. taooana; marking very similar. In appearance it is between

E, taooana, M., and the form of confucius described below.

Euthalia confucius sadona, s.sp. nov.

Male: very like EF. lengba, Tytl., but upperside much darker green.

Upperside. Forewing with post-discal band darker yellow; spot in 4 projecting

outwards beyond spots on either side. Hindwing with three discal spots in 5,

6 and 7; no traces of spots below; spots in 5 and 6 excavated on the inner

edges.

Underside. Forewing with conspicuous black subterminal band _ bordering

the subcostal spots and reaching spot 2; inner edge of all the spots in the

post-discal band edged with black; a large black area below the white spot

in 2, with two small white dots in the middle. It differs from E. confucius,

Leech, in being much smaller, with more pointed wings; the colour is much

darker green on the upperside; the post-discal band on forewing is much

narrower; no spot in 1. Hindwing with three post-discal apical spots.

Type ¢ from Sadon, N.-E. Burma, 16-7-1929, deposited in the British

Museum. Also a male from Hthawgaw, N. Burma, 27-7-1927, in my collection.

Limenitis austenia purpurascens, Tytl.

This form occurs in N.-E. Burma as a variety of L. austenia austenia, M. ;

of four males secured, three are very close to typical austenia, M., and one is

identical with typical purpurascens, Tyt., with the rosy purple colour very

conspicuous.

Limenitis brunnea, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside dark brown, with paler brown discal and subterminal bands

parallel to the outer margin; edges of the bands even. Forewing with a white

apical spot as in L. danava, M. Underside very similar to L. danava, M., but

darker; the outer edge of the subterminal band on hindwing even and not

crenulate. Two males were taken at Konglu and Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma.

It appears to be very rare. A paratype has been deposited in the British

Museum. There also are four males from Lingtsi, Bhutan, 6,500-7,500 feet,

and one from the Mishmi Hills, 4,000 feet.

Limenitis zayla, Doubl.

A single male was taken at Hthawgaw N.-E. Burma. I believe this

species has not been recorded from Burma.

Limenitis oberthiri rileyi, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside very similar to Hestina oberthiiri, Leech, from W. China

but all, the pale grey. streaks between the veins broader. Underside ground

colour reddish-brown and not grey-brown as in oberthiiri, Leech. Forewing

—

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA. 117

with grey markings broader as on upperside and dusted over with darker grey.

Hindwing with grey markings dusted with reddish-brown, broader in the cell

and in 5, 6 and 7, getting very indistinct towards the tornus. where the reddish-

brown colour is superimposed. /

I have much pleasure in naming this species after Capt. Riley who has

afforded me the greatest assistance in working out my new form from Burma.

Four males were taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in June. A male paratype

is deposited in the British Museum.

Pantoporia sulpitia adamsoni, Moore.

This butterfly has, I believe, only been recorded from N. Burma, and I

have taken it from Putao N.-E. Burma to Maymyo N. Shan States. I have

also taken one ¢ at Pattechaung, Karen Hills. This extends its range a

good deal further south. It must be very rare in the Karen Hills as Pattechaung

has been systematically worked by numerous collectors.

_ Pantoporia zeroca whitei, s.sp. nov.

A single male taken at Fort White, Chin Hills, differs considerably from

typical specimens from the Naga Hills and Manipur.

, Upbperside. Both wings with pale bands broader and broadly edged with

greyish-blue. Underside. Forewing: .the two apical spots are very narrow;

the pale band in the cell has below it three dark vertical lines connecting this

area with the lower edge of the cell. Hindwing post-discal band very narrow.

It is a very beautiful and distinct looking insect.

Pantoporia opalina shan, s.sp. nov.

Male and female differ from P. opalina orientalis, El., from the Khasi and

Naga Hills, in being smaller; the markings on the upperside are pure white

and not sullied; the white spot beyond the apex of cell of forewing, blunt

and short, not long and narrow and pointed. On the underside the terminal

and dorsal area of the hindwing not washed with violet as in P. orientalis and

P, opalina opalina, Koll., from the N.-W. Himalayas.

It occurs commonly in the Northern and Southern Shan States.

Types, male and female from Maymyo. From the extreme N.-E. Burma

there is before me a male which agrees with true P. orientalis, El., from the

Naga Hills and Assam. ¢ @ paratypes are deposited in the British Museum.

Pantoporia punctata, Leech.

Four males of this species were taken in Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in

June. They only differ from Leech’s figure in having the discal patch on the

hindwing much larger.

This is an interesting capture as it has not been recorded within Burmese

limits before.

Pantoporia jina jinoides, Moore.

A large series was obtained at Sadon N.-E. Burma. Some of the specimens

were hardly separable from P. jina, M.

Neptis sankara guiltoides, s.sp. nov.

Male and female differ from N. guilta, Swinh., in having all the bands

on the upperside purer white and not sullied with brown; the markings -on

the underside are broader, especially the submarginal pale band of the hind-

wing.

Numerous specimens of both seasonal forms were taken at Maymyo, N.. Shan

States; and also in the Karen Hills. Two females taken in August and

October differ from others taken in October in the pale markings on the

upperside being tinged with yellow, as is sometimes the case with N. sankarq

guilta, Swinh.

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCISTY, Vol! XLIT

A curious aberration taken by Dr. Haynes, and kindly presented to me, is

very pale sepia-brown on both upper and lower surfaces.

Specimens taken at Sadon, in the extreme N.-E. of Burma, are not typical

but intermediate between this form and guilta, Swinh.

Paratypes ¢ and Q, and the aberration noted above, have been deposited

in the British Museum.

Neptis cartica cartica, Moore.

The range given for this insect. by Brig. Evans in his Ident. Ind. Butterflies

(2nd Ed.) is ‘Sikkim-Assam’ and of N. cartica burmana, de N., ‘Assam-Burma’.

I have a large series of both forms before me and _ find that no specimen of

burmana has been taken further north than the Karen Hills; whereas the

form occurring commonly from Manipur, through the Naga Hills, and N.-E.

Burma to the S. Shan States is N. cartica cartica, M. N. cartica burmana,

de N. does not appear to be so common as N, cartica cartica, M.

Neptis ananta learmondi, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside differs from N. ananta ochracea, Ev., in heving all the

yellow markings larger and of a brighter and lighter colour.

Underside. Forewing somewhat similar. Hindwing with discal band broader,

and on its inner edge margined with blue from the dorsal margin to v. 5;

the violet post-discal band is narrower, and the subterminal violet band is

much. broader.

Female. Upperside rich clear yellow; darker than the female of ochracea,

Ev.; subterminal band very broad; somewhat similar in colour to the temale

of N. ananta namba, Tytl., but the subterminal yellow band broader.

Underside very similar to N. ananta namba, Tyt!., but the subterminal band

on hindwing much _ broader.

I'ifteen males and a female were obtained at Loimwe, S. Shan States, by

Capt. Learmond after whom I have much pleasure in naming this form.

Neptis ananta namba, Tytl.

A large series was obtained on the Putao Road, N. -E. Burma, in March.

Neptis melba gafuri, s.sp. nov.

In the Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc., 1915, p. 508, I erroneously recorded

this form from the Naga Hills as N. antilope, Leech. I recorded how it differed

from Leech’s insect, and stated that in view of those differences it might prove

to be a race of that species. It is very close to N. melba, Evans, and is un-

doubtedly a race of that form, from which it only differs in the upperside

being yellow instead of white. The underside also differs in being yellow

instead of whitish. The female is very similar to the male.

Neptis melba pila, s.sp. nov.

This form is very like N. melba melba, Ev., but the colour on the upper-

side is pale yellow and not white. It differs on ‘the upperside from N. melba

gafuri, Tytl., in the yellow colour being much paler; on the hindwing the

post-discal yellow band broader. The underside is very similer to N. melba

melba, Ev., but the colour is very pale yellowish.

Five males and two females were obtained at Loimwe, S. Shan States,

in April, September, and December. A female was also taken in -Bhamo in

May. I think it better to consider N. melba, Ev., as a distinct species and

not as a sub-species of N. antilope,. Leech, to which insect it is very different

in appearance.

SG Q paratypes are deposited in the -B, M.

Neptis aspasia, Leech. ii.

A single. d was taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in July.

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA © 119

Neptis radha asterastilis, Oberthiir.

The type in the Oberthiir Collection came from Momeit, N. Shan States. It

may be a dry season form, All the specimens I have seen from Burma,

except two in the British Museum which agree with the type, are typical |

vadha, M. Oberthiir’s fig. unfortunately accentuates the paleness and makes

the ground-colour pale yellow, almost white in places, which is not the case

in the type.

I have before me three ¢ ¢ from N.-E. Burma which are typical N. radha,

M., and one ¢ from Bhamo, N. Shan States, and close to where the type

came from; this is slightly paler on the upperside and may be considered to

be asterastilis, Obrth.

Neptis zaida thawgawa, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside somewhat similar to N. saida drummondi, Tyt., but the

apical and submarginal spots on forewing are larger. Hindwing with discal

band broader, and the submarginal band narrower. Underside markings some-

what similar to N. zaida manipurensis, Tytl., but the ground-colour is

greenish-yellowish tinged with rufous. A single male was taken at Hthawgaw,

N.-E. Burma, between 5,000 feet and 8,o00 feet, in June.

Neptis beroe, Leech.

A single male was taken ot Loimwe, S. Shan States, in April 1928. ;

This is an interesting capture as this Chinese insect has not previously been

recorded from Burma.

Doleschallia bisaltide kara, s.sp. nov.

Male. Rainy season form differs from D. andamanensis, Fruh., on the

upperside in being rather darker; interspaces 2 and 3 in the forewing are

concolorous with the rest of the wing and not paler as in that form; the

black terminal area darker, extending as far as the tornus; the fulvous bar

across the apex narrower and more diffuse, especially the portion in 4 and 5;

four subapical white spots instead of three. Hindwing terminal area with two

very distinct marginal lines, and two discal black spots large and more

distinct.

Underside very dark, and all markings very prominent.

Dry season male above as in the wet season form; below very dark but

markings not very prominent. .

Female. The dry season form does not differ very much from the Andaman

form, types form Car Nicobar, except that the underside is uniform light

‘fulvous.

Vanessa cardui aureum, Linn.

A female was obtained on 16th December, 1924, at Loimwe, close to the

Yunnan and Siam borders. It agrees entirely with specimens in the British

Museum. It has not previously been recorded from Burma. Brig. Evans

probably referred to this specimen in his ‘Identification of Indian Butterflies.’

Vanessa urticae chinensis, Leech.

Three males were taken at Hthawgaw in July. This is an_ interesting

capture as it has not been previously recorded from Burma.

Araschnia prorsoides dohertyi, Moore.

A large series was obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, during July-

October.

Symbrenthia brabira doni, s.sp. nov.

Male and female. Upperside ‘ with fulvous markings slightly broader.

Specimens taken in May and June (dry season) ‘are very like S. brabira, M.,

taken in June and August. Underside very similar, but the ground-colour

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

is not uniformly yellow and has some paler patches; the black markings are

slightly heavier ; the post-discal band has no blue centres on the yellow ground.

The wet season form, taken in August, is larger and darker, with narrower

fulvous markings, otherwise similar. Types from the Naga Hills. It also occurs

at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma.

Argynnis laodice indroides, s.sp. nov.

The form occurring in N.-E. Burma differs from the Khasi Hills form,

A. laodice rudra, M., in the following respects :—

Upperside paler and spots smaller.

Underside of hindwing with subterminal pale pinkish band much _ broader.

Six males and one female were taken at Hthawgaw, N.E. Burma, in

June, 1927.

Argynnis adippe astorica, s.sp. nov.

Male and female smaller and paler than jainadeva, M., above and below,

but darker and larger than pallida, Ev. A large series was taken at Rama,

Astor, in August.

Argynnis adippe gyala, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside rather similar to jainadeva, M. Female. Very like the

male, but paler. Underside of hindwing with all silver spots large; in inter-

space 7 the third silver spot from base large and well separated from the

fourth; an inner discal row of small silver spots above and close to the

discal row.

Three males and a female were kindly given me by Col. Bailey, and were

taken at Gyala, S.-E. Tibet, in July.

Argynnis pales hunzaica, s.sp. nov.

Male. Upperside with all markings on both wings much smaller and less

pronounced than in A. pales sipora, M. Underside of forewing with no spots

on disc of wing; a subapical brown streak pointing to the dorsum; below this

there is a submarginal row of five small black spots in 6-2, the spots in 2

and 3 being more inwardly placed. Hindwing ground-colour more extensive

and yellowish than in A. pales sipora, M.; submarginal spots blackish-red

and conspicuous.

The hindwing is of a different shape to sipora, M., in hunzaica the termen

is round; in sipora, M., it is rather straight from the apex to vein 4, and

then sharply bent inwards io the tornus, giving the wing rather a square

look.

Eight males and a female were taken by my native collectors at Mizgah,

Hunza, in August.

ERYCINIDAE.

Dodona dipoea dipoea, Hew.

Two males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.E. Burma. I believe this form

has not previously been recorded from Burma.

Dodona dracon, de Nicév.

There are two forms of Q differing considerably from one another :—

1st form. A single female taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, in September,

only differs from the male from the same locality in being larger and _ all

markings on upperside and underside being larger and_ paler.

2nd form. A_ single female taken at Bhamo, N. Shan States, in July,

and a single female taken at Loimwe, in December, differ from the 1st form

in being more ochreous-brown with all the pale markings being tinged with

ochreous on the forewing, and very ochreous on the hindwing.

The males vary a good deal according to locality :—

Four males taken near Putao, extreme north of N,-E, Burma, are much

smaller and form a separate subspecies,.

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 121

Eighteen males, taken at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma; two males at Bhamo,

N. Burma; and ten males taken at Loimwe, S. Shan States, agree with

each other fairly closely; the form from Loimwe and Bhamo on the whole

has the markings on the underside rather narrower than the form from

Hthawgaw; the female from Hthawgaw however, as previously stated, differs

from the female from Bhamo and Loimwe, and if this difference is constant

the form from Hthawgaw will require a new name.

The type of D. dracon, de N., is stated by Fruhstorfer as coming from

the Ruby Mines; N. Burma, which is a good deal south of Hthawgaw but

much further north than Loimwe. |

Dodona dracon putaoa, s.sp. nov.

Male. Much smaller than D. dracon, de N. Upperside markings very

similar, except on the forewing the spots are fulvous and not white. Underside

much warmer and darker reddish-ochracecus; markings rather broader.

As previously stated, four males were taken at Putao on the extreme north

of N.-E. Burma. The female was not obtained.

Dodona adonira, Hew.

The collective species has been divided into two races, D. adonira adonira,

Hew., from Sikkim-Bhutan, and D. adonira argentea, Fruh., from the Ruby

Mines, N. Burma.

Fruhstorfer states that argentea differs from the Sikkim form in having a

black base to forewing instead of a brown one, a much broader black distal

border, and more extensive submarginal band. On underside, the long longi-

tudinal bands are not black but brown; the space between the two sub-

marginal bands and the two basal bands, as well as the subanal region, are

covered with broad silvery stripes; also at the costal margin there is a square

silvery spot.

I have not seen any specimens from the Ruby Mines where the type came

from, and I have no forms which agree altogether with Fruhstorfer’s description.

The nearest locality to the Ruby Mines from which [ have received a male

is Bhamo, 120 miles away. This might be considered to be typical, except

that it has not a black base to the fore and hindwings, but agrees with Sikkim

specimens in this respect.

On the other hand I have before me numerous specimens from the Naga

and Manipur Hills; from Hthawgaw, 150 miles North of Bhamo; and from

the extreme S.-E. of the Shan States, about 300 miles S.-E. of the Ruby

Mines, which vary a good deal and may form new subspecies.

Fruhstorfer considered specimens from the Naga Hills and Bernardmyo

might be referable to his argentea. The Naga Hills are a very long distance

from the Ruby Mines, whereas Bernardmyo is so close to the Ruby Mines that

there can be no doubt specimens taken there by Doherty are typical; on the

other hand specimens from the Naga Hills, as before stated, may form a new

sub-species.

The following key will assist in separating the adonira from Assam, and

the Burma forms of Fruh.

(A) Upperside: base of both wings brown and not as dark as the black

margin of the forewing.

(ai) Upperside: very similar to D. adoniva from Sikkim, but on the under-

side the markings are not quite so black, and the hindwing has the

silvery markings of argentea but not quite so conspicuous.

Dodona adonira naga, s.sp. nov. Naga Hills, Manipur.

(aii) Upperside: fulvous markings broader and paler than the Sikkim form.

Underside: all markings very narrow and fulvous.

D. adonira argentea, Fruh. Ruby Mines, Upper Burma.

(B) Upperside: base of both wings very dark, almost the same colour as

the marginal border of forewing.

(bi) large; markings on underside narrow, and only slightly fulvous; silvery

markings well developed. i

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: “SOCIET Y> Viola XT

D. adonira kala, s.sp. nov. Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma.

(bii) smaller ; markings of upperside similar. Underside: dark bands on both

wings broader and markedly fulvous; silver spaces still more developed.

D. adonira learmondi, s.sp. nov. Loimwe, S. Shan States,

Abisara chela amplifascia, s.sp. nov.

The male differs from the typical form from Sikkim in having the white

band on both sides of the forewing much wider.

Two males were obtained on the Irang River, Manipur, in March and

April; fourteen males at Sadon, N.-E. Burma, in October-——-December; a

male taken in the Abor Hills in July belongs to this ferm; it is a wet season

form and the white band is slightly narrower but still very much broader than

the Sikkim form. 3

LYCAENIDAE.

{

Allotinus drumila grisea, Riley and Godfrey.

The type was described from a single extreme dry season female from Siam,

taken in April. A large series was obtained at Kalaw, S. Shan States, and

at Loimwe on the extreme east of the S. Shan States, close to the Siam border.

The male is very close to the typical form, and only differs in the apical

pale band not being so pure white. The females, taken at Kalaw in October,

belong to the wet season, the ground-colour is brown and not whitish; those

caught in November are transitional forms to the dry season form, and one

specimen agrees entirely with the type.

Lycaena tseng mandersi, Elwes.

This form only differs from the typical form from China in the colour of

the upperside which is much _ brighter.

Six males were obtained at Hthawgaw, N.-E. Burma, and a female in

the Bhamo Hills. A male was also obtained in Kalaw, S. Shan States. °

The type, a male, was taken at Bansan, Shan States.

Surendra learmondi, sp. nov.

Female. Upperside dark blackish-brown, with a large bright purple patch

filling the cell and inner half of forewing and cell of hindwing; in one speci-

men the cell of hindwing has only a little blue towards its apex. Underside

vinous-brown with purplish-black spots, mostly rectangular. Forewing with two

spots in cell, with a costal spot over the outer one; a large spot closing the

cell, with a spot above and below it; a post-discal row of six spots in echelon,

‘those in 2, 4 and 6 being placed more outwardly than those in 3, 5 and 7.

Hindwing with four basal round spots, followed by a discal and_post-discal

band composed of peculiarly shaped markings, hard to describe; a well defined

lobe at tornus, and a fairly long and stout tail.

Expanse: @, 42 m.m.

Two females were obtained at Loimwe, S. Shan States, in June. It is a

very distinct species and unlike anything I know.

Spindasis learmondi, sp. nov.

Male. Upperside very like S. nipalicus evansi, Tyti., but smaller tornal

area of hindwing in two specimens, not marked with black spots, one specimen

with a maroon spot; inner tail rudimentary, outer tail thicker and mostly

maroon with a white tip. Underside plumbeous wine-colour ; markings on outer

margin inclined to be obsolescent, a maroon spot at tornus. This is a very

distinct species and unlike anything I know; the underside is very distinctive.

It agrees with S. mascinus, Elw. in having only the outer tail fully developed,

the inner one being rudimentary.

INTERESTING BUTTERFLIES CHIEFLY FROM BURMA 123

Pratapa vidura vidura, Horsfield.

Mr. G. Cooper has taken in Mergui several specimens of a form which

agrees with the type from Java. There is a specimen from Lower Burma in

the B. M. over the label P. burmana, M., and there is also a specimen from

Perak over the label D. v. vidura, Horsf.

It can easily be distinguished from D. v. burmana by the greater development

of the orange spot above the inner tail of the hindwing.

It would appear that typical viduwra extends to the extreme end of S. Burma,

and burmana is from further north. The type of burmana was taken at

Moulmein.

Tajuria luculentus luculentus, Leech.

Two males, which appear to be nearer the typical form than to T. lI. nela,

Swinh., were taken at Loimwe,

Tujuria mantra, Feld.

Two females of this rare form were taken at Maymyo in July.

Tujuria yajna ellisi, Evans, °.

- The female, which I believe is undescribed, is very similar to the o, but

on the upperside the blue is rather duller, and on the forewing is more

extended; underside ground colour much paler.

Biduanda melisa cooperi, s.sp. nov.

Mr. G. Cooper took several specimens of a meiisa which differ from typical

specimens from further south in having the blue area on the hindwing dark

purplish-blue as in B. m. cyara, Hew., and not bright shining blue. It appears

to be a good race. Type ¢ from Maymyo, Anisakan.

There is a specimen in the B.M. taken by Mr. Godfrey in S.-E, Siam, in

April, 1924.

N.B.—-The location of the types of Spindasis learmondi and Tajuria yajna

ellisi Q, omitted by the author, cannot be given as the specimens are not

available. The former probably came from Loimwe (G._ T.).

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUNJAB

PLAINS AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS

Dr: 1. 5. SABNES, BoA. o| blonce; se.

F.A.SC., I.A.S.,

Economic Botanist to Government, United Provinces, Cawnpore.

The flora of the Punjab plains is closely related to the floras

of the Indian desert and Sind and shows considerable similarity

to the plant population of the latter.

The area dealt with is approximately enclosed by the lines join-

ing the South-West end of the Punjab to Mianwali, from Mianwali

to Gujrat, south of the Salt Range, and from ‘Gujrat through

Amritsar, Ludhiana and Saharanpur to the South end of the

Punjab. It includes the following districts :—

Bahawalpur, Muzaftargarh, Multan, Mianwali up to Salt Range,

Montgomery, Lyallpur, Jhang, Shahpur, Gujrat south of Salt Range,

Gujranwala, Lahore, Amritsar, Ferozepore, Ludhiana, Patiala,

Hissar, Jind, Nabha, Karnal up to railway-line, Ambala, Saharanpur,

Rohtak, Gurgaon, (the Jumna to form the E. boundary of the

regions).

The plants from the associated hill regions are also included

to determine to what altitude the same species can grow.

_ The present contribution is compiled from the data obtained from

the plant collections in the Herbarium of the Forest Research

Institute, Dehra Dun. Original notes made by the several plant

collectors are also incorporated. Localities mentioned under dis-

tribution are largely drawn from the Flora of the British India by

Hooker. The Flora represents 118 families which include 530

genera and 949 species.

I wish to take this opportunity to thank Mr. C. E. Parkinson

for facilities for studying the collections in the Herbarium of the

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

Bibliography.

1. Aitchison, J. E. T.—A Catalogue of the Plants of the Punjab

and Sind to which are added some others, that from their Geo-

graphical proximities may be found hereafter to occur in the Punjab.

London, 1869.

2. Bambar, C. J. Col.—Plants of the. Punjab, Lahore, 1916.

3. Blatter E. and Hallberg, F.—Flora of the Indian Desert

(Jodhpur and Jaisalmir). Journ. Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc., Dec. 1918.

4. Blatter, E. and Almeida, J. F. R.—The Ferns ‘of Bombay,

D. ee Taraporevala Sons & Co., Bombay, 1922.

Coventry, E. M.—A Catalogue of the Trees qnd Shrubs of

the Pie IQOT.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS — 125

6. Hooker, J. D. Sir,—Flora of British India Vols. I-VI.

7. Parker, R. N,—A forest Flora for the fe with Hazara

and Delhi, Lahore, 1918.

8. Roxburgh, W.—Flora Indica.

9g. Stewart, J. L.—Punjab Plants, Govt. Press, Lahore, 1869.

10. Kashyap, S. R. and Joshi, A. C.—Lahore District Flora,

University Punjab, Lahore, 1936. .

I. RANUNCULACEAE.

1. Crematis L.

1. Clematis Gouriana Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814), 43.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 66a!); Sindhiara in Chamba (66a!); Jhelum

and Hoshiarpur (Ait. 436!).

Flowers.—August-September.

Distribution.—Java, Philippines. India—hilly districts from the Western

Himalaya, alt. 1-3,000 ft., to Ceylon and the Eastern Peninsula.

2. Clematis grata Wall. Cat. (1828), 4,668.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4,586!, 68!, 67!, 70!).

Flowers.—May-September. nee

Distribution.—Afghanistan, China, Tropical Africa. India—subtropical and

temperate Himalaya, from Kumaon westwards, alt. 2-8,000 ft.

3. Clematis graveolens Lindl. in Journ. Hort. Soc. I (1846) 307.

Locality.—Kunawar (Nanak 1138 !).

Flowers.—July-September,

Distribution.—India—W. temperate Himalaya, from Murree to Kulu and

Kumaon, alt. 6-11,000 ft.

4, Clematis Buchananiana DC. Syst I (1818), 140.

Locality.x—Dalhousie (Drum. 71!).

Flowers.—August-November.

Distribution.—India—throughout temperate Himalaya, alt. 5-10,000 ft.

5. Clematis flammula L. Sp. Pl. 544.

Locality.—Lahore, gardens (Parker 13622!, 13769 !).

Flowers.—June-September.

Distribution.—Mediterranean region,

2,°. LHALICTRUM LL.

6. Thalictrum foliolosum DC. Syst. I, 175.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 79).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 5-8,o00 ft.; Khasia Hills, alt.

4-6,000 ft.

8 RANUNCULUS- ZL:

7. Ranunculus aquatilis L. Sp. Pl. 556.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 333 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Temperate N. and S. hemispheres. _India—W. Himalaya, from

Kumaon to Indus; plains of the Punjab, as far south as Delhi and Saharanpur.

East and West Tibet.

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. XLII

8. Ranunculus sceleratus L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 551.

Locality.—Ludhiana (Drum. 1172!); Karnal (Drum. 3020 !); Lahore (Stewart

2821!); Rawalpindi.

Flowers.—January-April. Pe,

Distribution. Throughout the N. Temperate Zone. India—river banks in

Bengal and Northern India; marshes of Peshawar, warm valleys of the

Himalaya; (unknown south of the Nerbudda).

9. Ranunculus pensylvanicus Linn.

Locality.—Karnal (Drum. 4336!, 6278 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Nerth China; Amurland; N. America. India.

10 Ranunculus muricatus L.

Locality.—Gurdaspur (Drum. 81!); Lahore (Parker!); Rawalpindi (Ait.

306!); Near Peshawar (Collett !).

Flowers.—February-April.

Weed in wet places.

Distribution.—Europe, W. Asia, temp. N. America.

India—swampy places, at low elevations, in the Punjab-Himalaya, and in

the plains at Peshawar and Ambala.

11. Ranunculus arvensis L.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 305!); near Peshawar (Collett !).:

Flowers.—February-April. )

In wet places.

Distribution.—Europe, Asia Minor, Afghanistan, Western Siberia. India—

Western Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon.

4. DELPHINIUM L.

12. Delphinium saniculaefolium. Boiss. Fl. Orient I, gr.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 307 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India—W. Punjab, on the dry hills from the

Indus to the Jhelum.

13. Delphinium denudatum Wall. Cat. No. 4719.

Locality.x—Dalhousie (Drum. 87!).

Flowers.—July. f

Distribution.—India—W. temperate Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon

in grassy places.

II. MAGNOLIACEAE.

5- Micueria L.

14, Michelia Champaca L.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 555 !). |

Distribution.—Java. India—commonly cultivated; but wild in the forests

of the temperate Himalaya, from Nepal eastwards, and in Pegu, Tenasserim

and Travancore. a ts

Ili. . ANONACEAE.

6. Unona L.

15. Unona discolor Vah!. Symb. II 63, t. 36.

Locality.—Lahore-Govt. Gdns. (Parker 13621!).

Flowers.—June. i

. Distribution.—Malayan Archipelago (all the forms). India-Tropical forests

from Sikkim, Assam and Silhet, to Arakan and Malacca, Orissa and Konkan.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 12%

7. PoryaLTHEa Bl,

16. Polyalthea longifolia Benth & H. f. Gen, Pl. I, 25.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 552!); Parker 14383.

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Drier parts of Ceylon. Cultivated throughout the hotter parts

of India.

IV. MENISPERMACEAE.

8. TINOSPORA MIERS.

17. Tinospora cordifolia Micrs. Contrib. iii, 31.

Locality.x—Karnal (Drum. Herb. 6291 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Throughout India from Kumaon to Assam and Burma, and

from Bihar and Konkan to Ceylon and the Carnatic.

g. CoccuLus DC.

18. Cocculus Leaeba DC. Prodr. I, 99.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 175!); Montgomery (Parker 6263!); Changa

Manga (Kanjilal !).

Flowers.—September ; Fr.—November.

Distribution.—Afghanistan, Arabia, tropical and subtropical Africa. India—

drier parts of Western India, the Punjab, Sind and the Carnatic.

19, Cocculus villosus DC. Prodr. I, 98.

Localitykx—Karnal (Drum. 1647 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—-Tropical Africa. Throughout tropical and subtropical. India—

from the base of the Himalaya to Malabar and Pegu (absent in the Eastern

Peninsula and Ceylon).

10. CISSAMPELOS L.

20. Cissampelos Pareira L.

Locality.—-Karnal (Parker 1220!, 1221!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 717!); Alt.

4,000-5,000 (Jerram!); Dalhousie (Drum. go!, 91 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in warm regions. Undia—-tropical and subtropi-

cal, from Sind and the Punjab to Ceylon and Singapore.

V. BERBERIDACEAE.

1r. Berpseris L.

21. Berberis Lycium Royle Ill. 64.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram !).

Flowers.—April. ze

Distribution.—India-——-Western Himalaya, in dry places, alt. 3-9,000 ft. from

Gharwal to Hazara.

VI. NYMPHAEACEAE.

12. NYMPHAEA L.

22. Nymphaea Lotus L.

var. pubescens H, f. & T. Fl. Ind. 241.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (308 !).

Flowers.-—August.

128° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

Distribution.—Africa, Hungary, Java, Philippine Islands. India—common

throughout the warmer parts.

23. Nymphaea stellata Willd.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 289 !).

Distribution.—Africa. | India—common throughout the: warmer parts. —

13. NELUMBIUM Juss.

24. Nelumbium speciosum Willd.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 421 !).

Distribution.—Persia, Malay Islands, China, Japan, tropical Australia,

India—throughout, extending as far to the N.-W. as Kashmir.

VII. PAPAVERACEAE.

14. Papaver L.

25 Papaver Hookeri Baker ex. Hook. f. Bot. Mag. t. 6729.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2580!); Karnal (Drum. 6293 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—India—Punjab.

15. Escuscnottzia CHAM.

26. Eschscholtzia californica Cham. in Nees. Hor. Phys. Berol. 74.

Locality.—Islamia College Peshawar (Quizilbush 56 !).

Distribution.—California.

VIII. FUMARIACEAE.

16. CorypaLtis DC.

27. Corydalis cornuta Royle Ill. 69.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 97, 99).

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 8-10,000 ft.

17. Fumaria LAMK.

28. Fumaria parviflora Lamk.

Locality.—Islamia College, Feshawar (Quizilbush 8!); Lahore (Parker 10!;

Brandis 2954; Stewart 2832 !).

Distribution.—India—Indo-Gangetic plain, lower Himalaya and Nilgiri Hills;

a weed of cultivation.

IX. CRUCIFERAE.

18. Nasturtium Br,

29. Nasturtium officinale Br. in Hort. Kew. ed. 2 IV, 110.

Locality.x— Rawalpindi (Ait. 176!, 312!).

Flowers.—September.

Has been introduced in Salt Range.

Distribution.—Afghanistan, temperate Europe and Asia. India—Rohilkhand,

Punjab, also found near all the hill stations, but probably introduced.

30. Nasturtium palustre DC. Syst. Veg. II, 191.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1007 !).

Flowers.—March. The fruit peculiarly eae and bloated.

“FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 129

Distribution.—Many temperate regions. India—abundant in ‘temperate

Himalaya, ascending to 10,000 ft., and in N.-W..India, rare in Assam and

Bengal.

19. ARaBis L.

31. Arabis taraxacifolia Anders.

Locality. —Rawalpindi (Ait: 319 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—India—Punjab.

20. Farsetia DESV.

32. Farsetia Jacquemontii H. f. & T. Journ. Linn. Soc. V, 148.

Locality.—Hissar (Duthie 38331); Multan (1886, Munro 29!, 61!, 285

348!, Duthie 10784!), Punjab (Ait. 424!), Lahore (Stewart 2834 !, aan

2574 !).

Flowers.—April-December.

Eaten as a tonic, small branches eaten raw. Chutney prepared from it.

Distribution.—Afghanistan, Baluchistan. India—sandy places in the Punjab

and Sind. ;

21. Matcomia Br.

33. Malcomia africana Br. Hort. Kew. ed. 2 IV, 121.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 315!); Lahore (Parker!; Stewart 2514!).

Weed in wheat crop.

' Distribution.—W. Asia; Mediterranean _ region. idee notes and waste

places in the Punjab, Kashmir and Western Tibet, ascending to 13,000 ft.

34, Malcomia africana Br.

Vac cracihs OO: E. Schulz,

Locality.—Muzaffargarh (Monro 161!).

Flowers.—March.

Eaten by cattle.

Distribution.—S. Europe; Orient.

35. Malcomia strigosa Boiss. Fl. Orient. I, 224.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 316!, 160!).

Flowers.—Mach-July.

Distribution.—Afghanistan, Baluchistan, Persia. India—in the Salt Range,

Punjab.

22. SISYMBRIUM L.

36, Sisymbrium Thalianum Gay & Monn. in Gaud. Fl. Helv. IV, 348.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum, 105!); Barrakow near Rawalpindi (Ait. 11yg2‘).

Flowers.—March. |

Distribution.—Temperate Europe, Asia, Abyssinia. India—temperate Hima-

laya from Bhotan to Kashmir, and in Western Tibet, alt. 5-10,000 ft. —

37. Sisymbrium rupestre Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. XX, 33.

Locality.—Peshawar (Quizilbush 391 !).

Distribution.—India—in the dry regions of the Western Himalaya, from

Kumaon to Kashmir, alt. 8-14,000 ft.

38. Sisymbrium strictum H. f. & T. Jour. Linn. Soc. V, 161.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum... 107!,° 111!, 1121). _

Distribution.—India—-Western Himalaya from Kumaon to Kashmir, alt.

5-10,000 ft.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

39, Sisymbrium Columne Jacq. Fl. Austr. t. 323.

~ Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 318 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Westwards to Central Europe. India—Western Himalaya

from Kumaon to Kashmir, ascending: to 10,000 ft.

40. Sisymbrium Irio L.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 313!, 317 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan and westwards to the Canary Islands... India—

Northern India from Rajputana to the ‘Punjab.

41. Sisymbrium Irio L.

var. dissectum O. E. Schulz.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2575!, 2576!).

23. Brassica L.

42. Brassica campestris L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 320!)..

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—Cultivated for its seed for oil throughout India.

43. Brassica alba H. f. & T.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 321 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—From Syria eastwards throughout S. Europe.

fields at Ferozepore in the Punjab.

India—cultivated

24. CapsELLA MOENCH.

41. Capsella Bursa-pastoris Moench.

Locality.-—Peshawar (Quizilbush 26 !).

A weed of cultivation.

Distribution.—Cultivated places throughout temperate India.

25. Lepipium L.

45. Lepidium sativum L.

Locality.—Lahore (Parker 21038!; Stewart 2515!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 324 !).

Flowers.—March.

Weed in wheat crop (Aitchison); but cultivated and spread, not indigenous.

Distribution.—Cultivated throughout India and Western Tibet.

43. Lepidium Draba L. |

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1012).

Distribution.—Westwards to Europe. India—a weed of cultivation in’ the

Punjab. . |

26. Tuteaspi L. prc ae

47. Thlaspi arvense L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1015 !).

Flowers.—March. /

Distribution. —Europe, Asia, always in cultivated places. India—a weed of

cultivation throughout the temperate and subalpine Himalaya, ascending to

14,000 ft.

‘' FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED. HILL REGIONS .131

27... Nesta DESV..

III, r62.-

48. Neslia paniculata Desv. Jour.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 323 !).

Flowers.—March.

Western Asia, temperate Europe. India—in the

Distribution.—Persia,

Punjab-Himalaya, from Hazara to the Beas; Kashmir, alt. 5-6,000 ft.

28. EUCLIDIUM Br.

49. Euclidium syriacum R. Br. in Hort. Kew. ed. 2, IV, 74.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 10165 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Westwards to Central Europe. India—Kashmir, alt. 5-6,000 ft.,

Punjab at Peshawar.

29. ~ Gorpgacuia DC,

50. Goldbachia laevigata DC. Syst. II 577.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 325 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Westwards to S, Russia.

common in the Punjab.

India—Kashmir, alt. 5,000 ft.,

X. CAPPARIDACEAE.

30. CLEOME L.

51. Cleome papillosa Steud. Nomencl. ed. 2., I. 382.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 573!, 139!).

Flowers.—August-October.

Distribution.—Abyssinia; Kordofan; Arabia. India—Rajputana and arid

districts of Sind and Western Punjab.

52. ‘Cleome brachycarpa Varl ex DC. Prodr. I, 240.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2508!); Hissar (Duthie 3837!); Punjab (Ait.

196 !)

Flowers.—August.

_ Distribution.—Arabia, Abyssinia. India—N.-W. India from Agra_ to

Peshawar.

53, Cleome viscosa L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait.

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Abundant throughout tropical and warm India and the: rest

a the we ES

326 !); Lahore (Stewart 2507 !).

31. GYNANDROPSIS DC:

54. Gynandropsis pentaphylla DC. Prodr. I, 238.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (327); Multan (* Monro 65!); Hissar (Duthie 3839!).

Flowers.—June-August.

* Leaves collected and made into plaster for sores. Leaves and flowers

eaten cooked.

Distribution.—Abundant throughout the warm parts of India and all tropical

countries.

132. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

32. Maerua FORSK.

55. Maerua arenaria H. f. & T.

Locality.x—Hissar (Duthie 3840!).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—India—Western Himalaya and Central India abundant.

33- Capaspa FORSK.

56. Cadaba indica Lamk.

ee ea so CIN Manga. (* Parker 14877); Kanjilal!; Chatterji

129!; Montgomery, Okara (Parker 4563 !).

Flowers.—November-January ; Fr. January. ;

Distribution. —India-—Western Peninsula, from Gujrat and the Konia south-

wards, on old walls and in waste dry plains. * On unirrigated canal belt.

34- Capparis L.

57. Capparis spinosa L.

Locality.—Bashahr (18256!, 18128!, 17131 !, 18125!); Jhelum (J. Prasad 32!

alt. 2000); Rawalpindi (Ait. 177 !).

Flowers.—August-November.

Distribution.—Afghanistan, West Asia, Europe, N. Africa, Australia,

Sandwich Islands. India—hot western Himalayan valleys eastwards to Nepal;

West Tibet, ascending to 13,000 ft.

58. Capparis aphylla Roth.

Locality.—Multan (Ram Nath 47327!); Ratchoany in Raw alpindi (Aity323. 3)

Hissar (Duthie 3842! 4512!); Lahore (Ram Nath = 1795235):

Flowers.—April-August; Fr. October to December.

Distribution.—Arabia, Egypt, .N. tropical Africa. India—driest places in the

Punjab, Sind, Gujrat, Rajputana, the Deccan and. South Carnatic.

59. Capparis sepiaria L.

Locality.--Hissar (Duthie 3841!, 3843!); Karnal (Parker 1254!).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Philippines, Ceylon. Dry places throughout India, from_ the

Punjab and Sind to Burma, the Carnatic. and Pegu.

60. Capparis horrida L.

Localitv.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 565 !). |

Distribution.—Java, Philippines, Ceylon. India—Gangetic plain, .Western |

Peninsula, Chittagong to Pegu.

35. CraTaEva L.

61. Crataeva religiosa Forst.

Locality.—Jhelum (Ait.).

Distribution.—Tropical Africa. India—near streams in Malabar and Canara;

cultivated elsewhere in India.

-XI; RESEDACEAE. |

36. OLicomreris CAMB.

62. Oligomeris glaucescens Cambess.—in Jacq. Voy. Bot. 23, t. ‘25.

Locality.—Multan (Monro 247!): Lahore (Stewart 2519!); Hoshiarpur (Ait.

70!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 697 !).

. FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 133

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—Westwards to Spain and the Canaries. India—Sind, and the

Punjab, from the Jumna eastwards, common; rare in the Konkan hills.

XII. VIOLACEAE.

37 NIOLAGL,.

63. Viola Patrinii DC. Prodr. I, 293.

Locality.—-Peshawar, College (Quizilbash 34 !).

Distribution.—Afghanistan, N. Asia, Japan, Middle Russia. India—temperate

Himalaya, alt. 4-8,o00 ft. from Kashmir to Bhotan, Western Tibet, Khasia

Hills, hills of the Western Peninsular, Ceylon.

64. Viola serpens Wall. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Wall. II 449 (not of Cat.)

and in DC. Prodr. I, 296

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 541 !).

Distribution.—Java, China. India—moist woods, ete., throughout temperate

Himalaya, Khasia Hills, Pulney and Nilgiri Hills and Ceylon, alt. 5-7,000 ft.

65. Viola cinerea Boiss; FI. Orient I, 454.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 30!).

Distribution.—Afghanistan, Persia, Arabia. India—dry hilly regions of the

Punjab and Sind, common.

66. Viola tricolor L.

Localitykx—Rawalpindi (Ait. 331!); Lahore (Stewart 2822 !).

Flowers.—April. Cultivated. A garden escape.

Distribution.—Europe, Asia and N. America.

XIV. BIXACEAE.

38. FrLacourtia Comm.

67. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’ Hérit Stirp. 59, t. 30, 31.

Locality.—Kalesar, alt. 1,200 ft. (Lace :1!).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Madagascar, the Eastern Archipelago. India—Common

throughout, wild or cultivated.

68. Flacourtia Ramontchi L’ Hérit Stirp. 50, t. 30, 31.

wan. sapinda HH. f. & T.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 504!); Gurdaspur (Bisram 850!).

Flowers.—May. }

Distribution.—India—common in the western Ghats and elsewhere in_ the-

Peninsula.

69. Flacourtia sepiaria Roxb. Cor. Pl. I, 48, t. 68.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 6252 ye

Flowers.—April. er:

Distribution.—Java. India—dry jungles throughout Bengal, the Western

Peninsula; Ceylon.

39. XYLOSMA FORST.

70. Xylosma longifolium Clos. in Ann. Sc. Nat. Ser.-4, VIII, 23.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 597 !).

- Distribution.—India—Western Himalaya on the outer ranges, ascending to

5,000 ft., from Kumaon to Murree; Assam: at Nowgang and Gowhatty:

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

40. AEE Ria HOCHST.

71. Aberia caffra Harv & Sond. Fl. Cat. II, 584.

Locality.—Madhopur in Gurdaspur distritt G Parker 14862!, 14863 !).

Flowers.—March.

* A shrub 12 ft. high; dioecious.

Distribution.—South Africa.

XV. PITTOSPORACEAE.

41. Pittosporum BANKS.

72. Pittosporum floribundum W. & A. Prodr, 154.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (6256!, 6258!); Bindaraban, Nurpur, Kangra Dis-

trict (6257); “Kangra (212): =

Flowervs.—-June-December.

Distribution.—Tolerably common along the range of the ghats in the

Bombay Presidency; subtropical Himalayas.

73. Pittosporum phillyraeoides DC. Prodr. I, 347.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 11415 !).

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—Australia.

74. Pittosporum Tobira Ait. Hort. Kew. ed. II, ii, 27.

Locality.—\ahore—Gardens (Parker 12966 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Japan ; China.

42. Citriopatus A. CUNN.

75. Citriobatus pauciflora A. Cunn. in Lond. Hort. Brit. Suppl. I, 585.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38695 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Australia.

XVI. : POLYGALACEAE.

43.7" POLYGALA: “L.

76. Polygala abyssinica Fresen. in Mus. Senk. II 273.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi, Barrakow to Tiete (Ait. 334 !).

Flowers.—September e

Distribution.—Afghanistan; Abyssinia to Natal. India—subtropical and

temperate Himalayas, alt. 3-8,o00 ft., from Murree to Kumaon, Punjab- at

Multan. ;

77. Polygala Hohenackeriana Fisch. & Mey. Ind. Sem. Hort. Petrop. IV 42.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 991 !).

Flowers.-—July. as? ;

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan; Persia; Caucasus. India—Western

Punjab; Attock; Waziristan, ascending to "3, 500 ft.

78, Polygala erioptera DC. Prodr. I 326.

Locality.—Maniniajra (Nanak 1275!); Hissar (1288!, 1287!); Ludhiana

(1276!); Lahore (Stewart 2619 !).

Flowers..—March-April.

Distribution.—Kordofan; Baluchistan; Arabia; Tropical Asia and_ Africa.

India—the Punjab; Sind; Rajputana; Bihar; the Western Peninsula; Ava;

Burma. bs hiewsse

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 135

79. Polygala chinensis L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Barrakow to Tiete (Ait. 333 !).

Flowers.—September. ~

Distribution.—Tropical Asia, Australia and Ceylon. India—throughout, from

the Punjab to Pegu, and in the Western Peninsula.

XVII. CARYOPHYLLACEAE.

44. GypSsoPHILa L.

80. Gypsophila cerastioides Don Prodr. 213.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 138!); Lahore (Stewart 2907 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya from Kashmir and Kunwar to

Sikkim, Alt. 6-12,000 ft.

45. SApPonaria L,

81. Saponaria Vaccaria L.

Lahore—Gardens (Parker 21032!; Stewart 2542!); Rawalpind:

Locality.

(ites 335 |)

Flowers.—March.

A weed of cultivation.

Distribution.—In wheat fields throughout India.

46. SILENE L.

82. Silene conoidea L.

Locality.—Peshawar—Gardens (* Quizilbash 53!); Lahore—(Stewart, 2918! ;

Gdns-Parker 21029!, 21030 !); Hoshiarpur (* Ait. 57!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 336 a!) ;.

Barrakow in Rawaipindi (336 b!); Peshawar (22 !).

Flowers.—March-April.

* On this specimen may be seen both forms conica L. & conoidea I..

Distribution.—Westwards to the Atlantic Ocean. India—Western Himalaya ;

from Kumaon to the Indus, alt. 1-8,o00 ft., and from Oudh to the Punjab

in the Plains.

83. Silene arenysa C. Koch in Linnaea XV, 711.

(Quizilbash 30!); Rawalpindi—Hurror (Ait. 1021 !).

Locality.—Peshawar

Flowers.—-March. .

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Persia; Armenia. India—Western Punjab, com-

mon at Peshawar, Attock.

84. Silene Falconeriana Benth. in Royle Ill. 79, t. 20.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Duthie 136!).

Distribution.—India—Western Himalaya, from Kumaon to Kunwar, alt,

3-9,000 ft.

47. STELLarIA L,

85. Stellaria media L.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2544!); Changa Manga (* Parker 21714); Lahore-

Nowoagarh (Stewart 2993!); Cachrah (Stewart 2914!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 337).

* In most shady places. Completely covers the ground after good winter

rain or cold weather irrigation. |

Distribution.—Throughout the Punjab and temperate regions of India, ascend-

ing in the Himalaya to 12,000 ft. Ceylon, all Arctic and N, temperate regions ;

a doubtful native elsewhere.

{6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

48. ARENARIA L.

86. Arenaria serpyllifolia L.

av Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 334 !).

49. SPERGULA L,

87. Spergula arvensis L.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens «(Parker 21704!); °Rawalpindi—Futtehganj (Ait.

O22").

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—Cultivated fields in various cool parts a India; and through-

out the Northern hemisphere.

88. Spergula pentandra I.. | ae

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2586! 2587!); Lyallpur (Inayat 27!); Hoshiarpur

(Ant 57781). °

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Cultivated fields in various cool parts of India; and through-

out the Northern hemisphere. é

89. Spergula rubra L.

Locality.—Lahore (* Stewart 2911!, 2588).

Flowers.—March.

* Named S. pentandra L,. in the Brandis collection.

Distribution.—Europe.

XVIII. PORTULACACEAE.

50.8 (PORTULACAS EL:

90. Portulaca oleracea

Locality..- Rawalpindi (Ait. 339 !).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—Throughout Tinie ascending to 5,000 ft. in the Himalayas;

adi: warm: climates.

XIX. TAMARICACEAE.

Sih sey to. ah 3 51. Tamarix L.

Ql. Tamarix Troupii Hole in Indian Forester, 1919 XIV 248.

Locality.—Montgomery—Chichwatni (Parker 20781!, 20778!, 20782!, 20783!,

20779!, 20787!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 625!); Ludhiana (Duthie 10791 !).

Flowers.—September-December.

ee GAT: ea. India.

92. vamiatic dioica Roxb. Hort. Beng. 22.

Locality.—Montgomery—Chichwatni (Parker 20513!, 20515!, 20518!,

20517!); Multan (Monro 36!; Duthie: 10792!);. Rawalpindi (Ait. 346!).

Flowers.—September-December.

Distribution.—India—from Rajputana, Sind and the Punjab to Assam, the

SVE Peninsula and Burma, near rivers and on the Sea Coast.

A 93. Tamarix articulata Vahl, Symb. II 48, t 32.

Gligcatay, —Changa Manga (* Parker 21223 !); Lahore (Parker 6048! ; 38776 !);

Rawalpinds (Ait. 341 !); Montgomery—Chichwatni (Parker 20522!; 20521 !).

ff lowers.—August-October. a.

* Small tree with nearly smooth bark.

‘FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 137

Distribution.—Baluchistan ; Algeria; S. Africa; Egypt; Arabia. India—very

common, especially on Kalar soil throughout Sind, abundant in the Punjab.

94, Tamarix Parkeriana Hole. Vern. N. Phitlai.

ee or ecaery Chichwan (Parker 20734!,'20777!, 20733 !,.20774!,

20731 !, 20735,!, 20736!, 20737!, 20776!, 20739!, 20740).

Flowers.—September.

XK. ELATINACEAE.

Bei aia - §2. Bercia L.

95. Bergia aestivosa W. & A. Prodr. 41.

Locality.—Lahore (* Parker 12971!); Multan (Monro 225 !).

Flowers.—April; pink.

* Branches lying flat on the SRS

Distribution. —India—Punjab.

XXI. HYPERICACEAE.

53. Hypericum L.

96. Hypericum cernuum Roxb. Hort. Beng. 59.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4827 !)..

Distribution.—India—W. temperate Himalaya.

97. Hypericum patulum Thunb. Fl. Jap. 295

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4834!).

Distribution..—Japan; Formosa. India—throughout temperate Himalaya;

Khasia Hills.

XXII. DIPTEROCARPACEAE.

54. SHOREA ROXB,

98. Shorea robusta Gaertn. f. Fruct. Lie 48, t. 186.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (* Ait. 539!).

* Quite wild.

Distribution.—Tropical Himalaya, and along its base from Assam to _ the

Sutle}; Eastern districts of Central India, W. Bengal hills.

XXIII. MALVACEAE.

55. ALTHAEA L.

99: Althaea rosea L. Cav. Diss. II, 91, t. 29. f. 3.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2573 !).

Distribution.—Orient.

56. SIDA LE.

100. Sida humilis Willd.

Locality.—Jullandur (9727!); Gurdaspur (Drum. 4633 !).

Flowers.—December. ;

‘Distribution.—Tropical Africa and America. Generally distributed through-

out the hotter parts of India,

hpi

i38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

101. Sida spinosa L.

Locality.—Changa Manga (* Parker 15042 !).

Flowers.—October.

* Common; 2-3 occasionally 5 ft. high.

Distribution.—Tropical and subtropical regions of both hemispheres. Hotter

parts of India, from the N.-W. Provinces to Ceylon, Rajputana, Sind.

102. Sida grewioides Guill. & Perr. Fl. Seneg. I, 71.

Locality.-Hoshiarpur (20698!); (Duthie 3876!); Pabbi Hills (Parker

24328 !).

Flowers.—October-December.

Distribution.—Baluchistan ; Arabia; Tropical Africa. India—N.-W. Provinces,

Rajputana, Sind.

103, Sida rhombifolia L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 344!).

Flowers.—September. |

Distribution.—Tropics of both hemispheres. Widely distributed throughout

India. ;

104. Sida cordifolia L.

Locality.—Gurdaspur-Madhopur (Parker 14350!, 14351 !, 1,000 ft.); Jullandur

(Parker 9726!).

Flowers.—November-February.

Distribution.—Generally distributed throughout tropical and subtropical India

and both hemispheres. <A tropical. weed.

57- ABUTILION GAERTN.

105. Abutilon indicum G. Don. Gen. Syst. I 504.

Locality.—Gurdaspur (Drum, 152!); Lahore (Parker 7876!; Stewart 2956!,,

2828 !).

Flowers.—December-March.

Distribution.—Baluchistan and Tropics. India—-Rajputana, Sind; Ceylon.

106. Abutilon bidentatum Hochst. in A. Rich. Fl. Abyss. I, 68.

Locality.—Hissar (Duthie 3875!); Lahore (* Parker 78831, 7875 !).

Flowers.—August.

* A weed in the Government gardens.

Distribution.—Arabia; Tropical Africa. India—N.-W. Provinces, Sind,

Punjab, Rajputana.

107. Abutilon fruticcsum Guill. & Perr. Seneg. I, 73.

Locality.—Changa Manga (Parker 7886!); Gurdaspur (Drum. 4630!); Rawal-

pindi—Futtehgunj (Ait. 345 !).~

Flowers.—August-November.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa; Arabia; Baluchistan; Java. India—Sind,

Rajputana.

108. Abutilon molle Sweet Hort. Brit. ed. II, 65. |

Locality.x—Lahore (* 31!).

* Beginning to run wild.

Distribution.—Peru.

58. Urena L,

109. Urena lobata L.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 505 !).

Distribution.—Tropics of both hemispheres. Generally distributed over the

notter parts of India. :

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 139

59. Pavonia CAV,

110. Pavonia near P. hastata Cav. of S. America & Australia.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (6770 !).

Flowers.—December. Flowers white with a crimson centre.

60. Hisiscus MEDIK.

111. Hibiscus Solandra L ’Hér. Stirp. I, 103; t. 49.

Localitykx—Dalhousie (Drum, 154!). _

_Distribution.—E. Tropical Africa. Hotter parts of India, from the N.-W.

Provinces to Sikkim, and from Kumaon and Burma to Ceylon.

112. Hibiscus vitifolius L.

Locality.x—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 40714!, 40715 !); Lahore Gardens

(Parker 14864 !).

Flowers.—October-November.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa; Australia. Hotter parts of India from the

N.-W. Provinces to Ceylon.

113. Hibiscus cannabinus L.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2847 !).

Distribution.—Cultivated in most tropical countries. | India—generally cuti-

vated, apparently wild east of the Northern Ghats,

114. Hibiscus Gibsoni Stocks. Mss.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—-Barrakow to Triete (Ait. 346!).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Aftghanistan ; S. Tropical Africa; N. Australia. India—Punjab,

Sind, Deccan, Konkan.

115. Hihiscus ficulnens I.. Sp. Pl. 695.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 178 !). ;

Distribution.—Asia; Tropical Australia.

116. Hibiscus ti'iaceus L.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 12961 !).

Flowers.—- April.

Distribution.—Tropics of both hemispheres, usuaily near the coasts. India—

Coasts of both Peninsulas, Bengal and Ceylon.

117. Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis L.

Locality.—Peshawar College (Quizilbash 57 !).

Distribution.—Cultivated in gardens throughout India.

118. Hibiscus argentinus Speg. in Bot. Agric. Buenos Aires I, 304.

Locality.x—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 17190 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—Argentine.

61. TuespPesia CORR.

119. Thespesia populnea Corr. in Ann. IX, p. 290.

Locality.x—Punjab (Ait. 633 !).

Distribution.—Tropical Asia, the Pacific Islands; Africa. Tropical shores of

Bengal, Ceylon and both Peninsulas,

140, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCFEET ¥, Volz XLII

62. Kypia ROXB,

120. Kydia calycina Roxb. Hort. Beng. 50.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Triete (Ait. 348 !).

Fiowers.—September. :

Distribution.—India—Tropical regions of the Himalaya, from Kumaon east-

wards, and throughout the Western Ghats.

63. ‘CHORISIA GH Be (Ke

121. Chorisia insignis H. B. & K. Nov. Gen. & Sp. V, t. 485, f. 1,

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 38856!, 37123 I).

Flowevs.—-January.

Distribution.—Peru.

XXIV. STERCULIACEAE.

64. STERcULIA L.

122, Stercutia diversifelia G. Don Gen. Syst. I, 516.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 13795!, 12950!, 12951 !).

Flowers.—April; Fruits.—May. :

Distribution.—Australia.

65. HeEritIERA AITON.

123. Heritiera macrophylla Wall. ex. Voigt. Hort. Suburb. Calc. 103, |

nomen and ex) Kurz, in Journ. As: Soci Benge XEVY (7872), Jk 6m,

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 14390!).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India; Burma.

66. HELICTERES L.

124. Helicteres Isora L.

Locaiity.—Rawalpindi—Barrakow (Ait. 179 !).

Flowers and Fruits.—September.

Distribution.—Java; N. Australia. Dry forests throughout Central and

Western India, from Bihar, as far west as Jammu, the Western Peninsula

and Ceylon.

XXV. TILIACEAE.

67. Grewia L.

125. Grewia oppssitifolia Roxb. Fl. Ind. II, 583.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Parker 22416!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 273 !); Kangra (alt.

3000).

; Flowers and Fruits.—October-February. | a

Distribution.—India—Common and indigenous, wild in the N.-W. Himalaya,

from Jammu to Nepal, ascending to 7,006 ft.; also frequently cultivated.

126. Grewia popullfolia Vahl. .

Locality. Rawalpindi (Ait. 352!, 198!); Hissar (Duthie 3881 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan; Arabia; Tropical Africa; Mauritius.

India—Punjab, Rajputana, Sind, W. Peninsula, Nilgiris, Konkan, —

| FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 141

127. Grewia salvifolia Heyne in Roth Nov. Sp. 239.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Parker 22415!;. Ait. 180!).

Fruits. —September-December.

Disrtibution.—Tropical Africa. India—N.-W. Provinces, Rajputana, Sind,

W. Peninsula.

128. Grewia sapida Roxb. FI. Ind. II 590.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—alt. 3500 (Jerrum 7328 !).

Distribution.—India—tropical Himalaya, from Gharwal to Bhotan = and

Assam.

129. Grewia flavescens Juss. in Ann. Mus. Par. IV (1804) g1=pilosa.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (* Parker 13793 !).

Flowers.—September.

* Grown from seed collected in Jaipur State.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa.

68. CorcHorus L.

130. Corchorus tritocularis L. Mant (1767) 529.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Fattehganj (Ait. 350!, 351!); Hissar (Duthie 3885!) ;

Lahore (Stewart 2830!, 2957!, 2986!). |

Fruits.—August-September.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa; Afghanistan. India—N.-W. Provinces, from

Ambala to the Punjab, Rajputana, Sind, Nilgiri Hills.

131. Corchorus Antichorus Raesch. Nomencl. Bot. ed. III, 158.

Vern. N. Biphalt.

Locality.—Lahore—(Cleghorn 2643!; Changa Manga 42604); * Multan (27!,

Ait!; Munro 234!); Hissar (Harsukh 20683!, 20685!); Lyallpur (Inayat !).

Fruits.—September-December.

* Used as medicine to produce cold in the body. Fodder for goats only

but not very good.

Distribution.—Afghanistan; Aden; Tropical Africa; Cape de Verde Isles.

India—N.-W. Provinces, Rajputana, Sind, Western Peninsula, in Kathiawar,

Gujarat, the Deccan.

132. Corchorus acutangulus Lam. Encycl II (1786) 104.

Locality.—_Rawalpindi (Ait 179!).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Australia; Tropical Africa; West’ Indies. India—Rajputana,

Sind and hotter parts; Ceylon.

OO; Linkia 2,

133, Tilia vulgaris Hayne Arzn. Gew. III, t. 47.

Locality.—Kangra (Trevar 14395!).

Distribution.—Europe.

134. Tilia cordata Mill. Gard. Dict. ed. VIII. n. 1.

Locality.—Between Kata top and Dalhousie alt. 7ooo (Parker* 21653 !).

Flowers.—June.

* Several specimens growing wild on the northern slope.

Distribution.—Europe.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

XXVI. LINACEAE.

70. Linum L.

135. Linum strictum L. Sp. PI. 279.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 353 !).

Flowers.-—May.

Distribution.—Mediterranean region; Orient.

XXVII. MALPIGHIACEAE.

71. GaLpuimia CAV.

136. Galphimia gracilis Bart]. in Linnea, XIII (1839) 552.

Locality.—-Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38775!, 38774!).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Mexico.

72. STIGMAPHYLLON A. JUSS.

137. Stigmaphylion periplocefolium A Juss. in Arch. Mus. Par. III (1843)

380.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 12976!).

Flowers.——April.

Distribution.—Western India.

73. Huiptace GAERNTN.

138. Hiptage Madablota Gaertn. Fruct. II, 169, t. 116.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 600).

Distribution.—China; Java. Throughout the hotter parts of India, from

Jammu and Sind to Burma, Malacca and Ceylon.

XXVIII ZYGOPHYLLACEAE.

74. -TRIBULUS L.

139. Tribulus terrestris L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 387.

Locality.--Lahore (Stewart 2679!); (Cleghorn 2653!); Hissar (Duthie 3887

a!); Multan (Monro 32!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 355 !). .

Flowers.—April-October.

Distribution.—Throughout the warm regions of the globe. Throughout India.

140. Tribulus alatus Del. Fl. Aegypt. Arab. III (1812) 62.

Locality.—Multan (Monro 106 !).

Distribution.—Egypt ; Arabia; Nubia. India—Rajputana, Sind, Punjab.

75. Faconia L.

141. Fagonia arabica L.

Locality.—Jullandar-Phillur (Parker 8152!); Peshawar College (Quizilbash !).

Flowers.—February.

Distribuiion.—Throughout N.-W. India, Sind, the Punjab and the: southern

provinces of the Western Peninsula. Westwards to Egypt.

XXIX GERANIACEAE.

76. Monsonia LE.

142. Monsonia heliotiopioides Cav.

Locality.—Multan (Duthie 10795!; Monro!).

.FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 143

., Flowers.-—December,

Distribution.—India—the Punjab, Rajputana, Sind. Westwards to Egypt.

77. GERANIUM L.

143. Geranium rotundifolium L.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi—Barrakow & Hissar (Ait. 357!); Hoshiarpur (Ait.

250 }).

Distribution.—India—the Punjab and W. Temp. Himalaya. Siberia and

eastwadrs to Europe and N. Africa.

78. Oxaris L.

144. Oxalis corniculata L. Sp. PI. ‘

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Barrakow (Ait 358!); Lahore (Stewart 2835 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan. Throughout the warmer parts of India and

Ceylon, ascending the Himalaya to 7oo ft.

145. Oxalis corymbosa DC. Prod. I, 696.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (*Parker 21215!); Lahore (Parker

21216 !).

Flowers.—February. Pink.

* Naturalized in moist shady places. Completely naturalized.

Distribution.—Madagascar.

146. Oxalis latifolia H. B. K. Nov. Gen. et. Sp. V, 237. t, 467.

Locality.x—Punjab plains in irrigated places (Parker 19504!).

_ Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—Mexico.

147. Oxalis Pes-caprae L. Sp. Pl. 434.

Locality.—Lahore (* Parker 21217 !, 21218 !).

Flowers.—March; Yellow.

* Quite naturalized in moist places. Sometimes cultivated with double

flowers.

Distribution.—S. Africa.

79. AVERRHOA L.

148. Averrhoa Carambola L.

Locality —Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13613!); Hoshiarpur (* Ait, !).

Flowers.—-June.

* Cultivated tree.

Distribution.—In gardens throughout the hotter parts of India as far north

as Lahore. Native country unknown.

XXX. RUTACEAE.

80. Ruta L.

149. Ruta graveolens L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 354!).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Cultivated in India. Westwards to the Canaries.

81. Prcanum L.

150. Peganum Harmala L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 359!); Lahore (Cleghorn!; Stewart 2540!).

Flowers j—April.

144 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLti

Distribution.-—Soongaria ; Arabia: N. Africa, and Westwards to Hungary

and Spain. N.-W. India from Sind, the Punjab and the Kashmir plain to

Delhi and Agra; Western Deccan.

82. ZANTHOXYLUM L.

151. Zanthoxylum a'’atum Roxb. Fl. Ind. III, 768.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 37193 !, ** 38635 !).

Flowers.—January—April.

** This is identical with a thornless form which is common in China

(Duthie).

* Zanthoxlyum introduced from Argentina as Fagara Coco Engl. but appa-

regtly not that species.

Distribution.—Hot valleys of the subtropical Himalaya, ascending to 6, ooo ft.

from Jammu to Bhotan; Khasia Hills, 2-3,000 ft.

83. Murraya L.

152. Murraya exotica L.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 548!); Hoshiarpur Siwaliks (Mardanali!).

Probably indigenous (Duthie).

Distribution.-Throughout the hotter parts of India from Gharwal to Assam

and Burma, and southwards to Chittagong, Travancore and Ceylon. \East-

wards to China, Australia, and the Pacific Islands.

153. Murraya Koenigii Spreng. Syst. Veg. II, 315.

Locality.—Peshawar (Quizilbash 4856 !).

Distribution.—Along the foot of the Himalaya, from Gharwal to Sikkim,

ascending to 5,o00 ft.; Bengal, Pegu and southwards to Travancore and

Ceylon. Often cultivated.

84. Limonia L.

i154. Limonia acidissima L.

Locality.— Kotla 37963!; Hoshiarpur (Ait. 416!).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Yunnan.. Dry hills in various parts of India, N.-W. Himalaya

in Simla and Kumaon, ascending to 4,000 ft.; Monghyr hills in Bihar; Assam ;

Western Peninsula, from the Bombay Ghats and Coromandel southwards.

85. AEGLE CORR.

155. Aegle Marme'os Correa.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (* Ait. 520!).

* Quite wild.

Distribution.—Throughout India; wild or cultivated, ascending to 4,000 ft.

in the W. Himalaya. (

XXXI. OCHNACEAE.

86. OcHna L.

156. Ochna squarrosa Roxb.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13141!, 13643 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India—Silhet; Burma; E. and W. Peninsulas, and Ceylon.

#LORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILii REGIONS — 148

XXXII. BURSERACEAE.

87. Bursera L.

157. Bursera serrata Wall. Cat. 8492.

Locality:—Lahore—Gardens (*Parker 6115 !):

Flowers.—April.

* Cultivated. . a

Distribution.—India—E. Bengal; Garo Hills and Rajmahal Hills, Assam :

and Chittagong.

XXXIII. MELIACEAE.

88. Meia L.

158. Melia Azedarach L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 360!).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Persia; China. Commonly cultivated in India; wild in the

sub-Himalayan tract, alt. 2-3,000 ft.

89. Cuikrassia [USS.

159, Chikrassia tabularis A. Juss. in Mem. Mus. XIX 251, t. 22, f. 27.

Locahity.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14371!, 14370!, 14369!).

Flowers.—April; Pale yellow.

Distribution.—India—W. Peninsula from the Konkan to Coorg. Malacca

and Ceylon.

go. CEpDRELA L.

160. Cedrela Toona Roxb. ex Rottl. & Willd. in Gesell. Nat. Freunde. N.

Schr. IV, 198 (1803).

Locality.—-Dalhousie (Drum. 206!); Rawalpindi (* Ait.).

* Cultivated in Jhelum and Rawalpindi.

Distribution.—Java; Australia. India—tropical Himalaya; from the Indus

eastwards ascending to 3,000 ft.; throughout the hilly districts of Central and

S: India and Burma.

XXKIV. OLACACEAE.

gt. Orax L.

161. Olax nana Wall. Cat. 6783 A.B.

Locality.-—Hoshiarpur (* Ait. 467 !).

* On the sand storm rocks in clefts.

Distribution.—India—Hot valleys of the W. Himalaya, ascending to 5,000 ft.

from Nepal westwards and in the Punjab.

XXXV. ILICACEAF.

92.) ILEX EE.

162. Itex Cassine Walt. Fi. Carol. 241.

Locality.—-Lahore—Gardens (Parker 6260!).

Flowers.—April.

» Distribution.—N. America.

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

XXXVI. CELASTRACEAE.

93. Euvonymus L.

163. Euonymus pendulus Wall. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey, H, 406; Cat.

4280.

var. japonicus L.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13652 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya.

164. Euonymus Hamiltonianus Wall. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey, II, 403;

Cat. 4279.

Locality.—Rawalpindi alt. 6,000 ft. (Jerram 8063 !).

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya.

165. Euonymus japonicus L. f. Suppl. 154.

Locality.x—Peshawar (*Quizilbash 61 !).

* Cultivated.

Distribution.—China; Japan.

94. CELASTRUS.

166. Celastrus paniculata Willd. Sp. Pl. I, 1125.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 564!) ; Gurdaspur—Dhunera (Bisram 309 !).

Distribution.—Tropical and subtropical Himalaya alt. 1-4,o00 ft.; Punjab

and throughout the hilly districts of India ascending to 3,000 ft. Ceylon;

Malay Archipelago and Philippine Islands.

167. Celastrus Royleanus Wall. = Gymnospuoria Royleana Wall.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 4o!); Rawalpindi-Fattehgunj (Ait. 1030!) ;

Gurdaspur (Bisram 53264!).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India—W. Himalaya, in Kumaon and Gharwal,

alt. 1-4,500 ft.

95. ELAEODENDRON JACQ. f.

168. Elaeodendron glaucum Pers. Synops. I, 241.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Parker 7102!); Kangra (Parker 7096!) ; Hoshiarpur

(Ait. “945%).

Fruits.—June.

Distribution.—Malay Archipelago. Throughout the hotter parts of India and

Ceylon.

169. Elaeodendron crientale Jacq. IC. Rar. t. 48.

Locality.--Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (*Parker 38697 !).

Flowers.—May.

* A small tree 15 ft. high, but has been frozen many times. Has much

the appearance of a Podocarpus, but is one of the Celastraceae. Ovary con-

fluent with disk. One cell distinct with 2 erect collateral ovules, and possibly

1 or 2 empty cells as well, but this is obscure.

Distribution.—Mauritius ; Madagascar.

XXXVITI. RHAMNACEAE.

96. ZizypHus JUSS.

170. Zizyphus Jujuba Lamk. Dict. III 318.

Locality —Hoshiarpur (Ait. 105!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 110); Hissar (Duthie

3908 !); Gurdaspur—Dhunera (Bisram 310 !).

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 147

Flowers.—J une-July-August.

Distribution.—Ceylon ; Afghanistan; China; Australia; Africa. Throughout

India. ‘

171. Zizyphus hysudricus Hole, in Indian Forester, 1918, XLIV, 505:

Z. Jujuba, var. hysudricus Edgew.

Locality.—Lahore (Gamble 23383!; Parker 21205!); Changa Manga (* Parker

przoor, 20991 !, 21204!); Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* * Parker 20992!, 21207 !).

Flowers.—August-September ; Fruits.—March.

* Cultivated form, fruits ovoid. It is budded on to the globose fruited

wild form of the same species.

** Petioles long, 1. glabrous, or glabrescent below. Wild form reaches

nope tts mn. girth.

Distribution.—India—Rawalpindi, Ajmer, D. Ismail Khan, Lahore.

172, Zizyphus Spina-Christi Willd. Sp. Pl. I, 1105.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 24053!, 24054!).

Fruits.—December.

* Cultivated in Government Ag. Hort. Gardens, Lahore, from seed obtained

from the Ag. Hort. Depart. Cairo, Egypt.

Distribution.—N. Africa; Orient.

173. Zizyphus vulgaris Lamk. Dict. III, 316.

Locality.—Rawalpindi alt. 4,500 ft. (Jerram 8065 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—Baluchistan ; W. Asia; China; Japan; South Europe; India.

174. Zizyphus oxyphylla Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. XX, 43.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 144 !).

Distribution.—India.

97. Ruyamnus L.

175. Rhamnus persicus. Boiss. Fl. Orient II, 17.

Locality. —Rawalpindi-Nandkot 4,000 ft. (,aram 2266}, 7899 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Baluchistan; Persia, India.

176. Rhamnus virgatus Roxb. Hort. Beng. 17 (1814), nomen.

Locality.—Lahore—Gardens (Parker 8149!); Rawalpindi alt. 5,500-7,000

(Jerram 7900 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Nepal.

177. Rhamnus triqueter Wall. in Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. Carey II, 376.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum. 4832 !).

Distribution.—-India—Punjab in the Salt Range; West Himalaya, from

Jhelum to Kumaon.

178, Rhamnus pentapomica Parker in Kew Bull. 1921, 216.

Locality. —Rawalpindi—Futtehgunj (Ait. 1036 !).

Flowers.—March. .

Distribution.—N.-W. India.

98. SaGERETIA BRONGN.

179. Sageretia Brandrethiana Aitch. in Journ. Soc. VII, 62.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38781 !); Rawalpindi—Futteh-

gunj (Ait. 361!); RawalpindimHissand (Ait. 1035 !).

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist, SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

Flowers.—February-August.

Distribution.—Westwards to Persia and Arabia. India—N.-W. Provinces.

99. Hetinus E. MEYER.

180. Helinus lanceolatus Brandis For. Fl. 574. *

Locality.—Kangra—Dhamtal (7100!).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—India—the Punjab, Oudh and the W. Himalaya from Kashmir

to Kumaon, alt. 1-4,o000 ft.

XXXVIII VITACEAE.

1oo. Vitis L.

181. Vitis Jacquemontii Parker, Forest FI. Pb., ed. 2, 559 (1924).

Locality.—Rawalpindi 4300 (Jerram 8083!); Dalhousie (Drum. 226!).

Distribution.—E. India; China.

182 Vitis trifolia L. Sp. 203=V. carnosa Wall, Cat. 6018. Vern. N.

Ratan bail.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 2t1!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 183!); Hissar (* Cooper

aq12 + * “5 Duthie 3912.1):

Flowers.—September.

* Bulbous creeper. Largely applied to indolent swellings and promotes sup-

puration. Applied to anthrax with good results (from the letter of Dr. J. A.

Cooper, Civil Surgeon).

* * Root said to be a remedy for carbuncles.

Distribution.—Tropical Himalaya, and throughout hotter parts of India

from the Punjab and Burma to Ceylon and Malacca.

183. Vitis arborea L. Sp. Pl. 203.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38779 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Orient ; N. America.

XXXIX. SAPINDACEAE.

101. CARDIOSPERMUM L.

184. Cardiospermum Haiicacabum L. Sp. Pl. ed. I, 366.

Locality.x—Hissar (Duthie 3915 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution—Most tropical and subtropical countries. Throughout India.

1o2. NEpPHELIUM L.

185. Nephelium tomertosum G. Muell. in Trans. Vict. Inst. II (1858) 64.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 37126!, 37125!, 37124!).

Flowers, Fruits.—January.

Distribution.—Australia.

103. AcER TOURNEF.

186. Acer pentamopicum J. L. Stewart ex Brandis For. Fl. 111.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Gainthal, alt. 2,500 ft. (12979!; Jerram 8497! alt.

1800-3500 ft.).

Flowers.—April-July.

Distribution.—India—N.-W. temperate Himalaya.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 149

104. Doponagza L.

187. Dodonaea viscosa L. Mant. Pi. alt. 228.

Localiy.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 1031!); Hoshiarpur (51 !).

Flowers.—February-March.

Distribution.—Throughout India. Baluchistan; Ceylon and in all warm

countries.

158. Dodonaea triquetra Andr.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 11533!, 13775!, *12963 !).

Flowers.—February ; bisexual.

* Grown from seed obtained in 1913 from Vilmorin under the above name.

Resembles D. viscosa very closely but is monoecious. J. H. Maider, Sydney

S. S. W. says ‘appears to be referable to D. viscosa L.’

105. STAPHYLEA L.

189, Staphylea Emodi Wall. Cat. 42735.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram 8271!; over 6,000 ft. 8270!).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India.

BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE.

D’Arcy WEATHERBE,

(With two plates),

INTRODUCTION.

Were it possible to prepare a careful chronological record, cover-

ing the past 50 years, from all available reliable sources, including

big-game hunting and shooting records, in countries of the Empire,

indicating the quantity of game existing, the results would be of

intense interest and value. They would disclose in all countries such

an appalling decrease in the stocks of wild animals remaining, that

the figures would be startling in the extreme.

Returning recently from eighteen months in the Far East, which

included long tours in Burma proper, the Southern and Northern

Shan States, the ‘Tribal’ and ‘Backward’ areas, Manipur and

Assam, and a special inspection of the Kahilu Rhinoceros Sanctuary

in Lower Burma, my attention was drawn to a letter from Mr. A. W.

Moodie, Chief Conservator of Forests, Burma, in June in at least

two magazines. The letter calls attention to certain articles in the

Press during the past two years, which deplored the inadequacy of

measures for Wild Life Preservation ins Burma. Mr. Moodie com-

mends to those interested in the subject the Annual Reports of the

Game Warden, which reports, he infers, should dispel any doubt

as to the efhcacy of such measures.

In further support of his contentions that these measures. are

adequate, Mr. Moodie gives details of the sanctuaries set apart in

Burma for the purpose, and emphasizes that ‘a whole-time’ Game

Warden is in charge of this work. Incidentally he points out_that

the Reports may be obtained at the offices of the High Commissioner

for India in Aldwych, or through any bookseller. Inquiry at the

offices mentioned, elicited the information that no Reports of the

Game Warden, Burma had been received since 1935-36. Of a num-

ber of booksellers visited, none knew anything of a later report and

the office of the King’s Printer in Kingsway was equally ignorant.

I have, however, beside me, a copy of the 1935-36 Report and a

condensed copy of the Report for 1938, published in the Rangoon

Times on January 21, 1939. The quotations which I use below

are from these two sources, and they do not support Mr. Moodie’s

views.

With some claim to a knowledge of the subject, it is, in my

opinion, important at this time that the present position should not

be glossed over; to pose that everything in the garden is lovely

ii Burma’s measures for wild life preservation would be fatal.

In reality, as I attempt to show below, the reverse is the case,

the garden is choked with weeds, and until more drastic efforts

thamin

Brow-antlered Deer (Rucervus

amin

in Burma.

isappearing species

A fast d

BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 151

are made to save species, now in immediate danger of extinction,

agitation for reforms must not be slackened, and the necessity for

criticism of the apathy that pervades must not be forgotten.

As one who is keenly interested in the conservation of wild

life, who has given the greater part of his time during the past

ten years or more in visiting and living in the great game areas

of the world, in studying the question from a practical angle, and

who at intervals has travelled widely in Burma during the past

eighteen years, I cannot share Mr. Moodie’s complacency. I am,

in fact, surprised that one who should be conversant with the real

conditions has adopted a view which so many of the facts contradict.

If the Chief Conservator’s letter is merely a defence of his Game

Warden and his administration it is intelligible.

Personally I have not the slightest doubt that most of these men

have their hearts in their work and have tried with inadequate

facilities to carry out what, to some of them at least, must have

been a heartbreaking task.

BURMA’sS WILpD LIFE SANCTUARIES.

I would like to draw brief attention to some of the instances

that Mr. Moodie cites, rather unfortunately I think, as evidence of

the result of adequate measures.

I will not refer in any detail to the show-piece of the Depart-

ment, the Prpaunc RESERVE, except to remark that it appears

to fulfil its functions. But like all other sanctuaries in Burma it

is not under a Trust, and like the other reserves is liable to molesta-

tion, or even cancellation, on commercial or political grounds, by

the present or future administration. In the Game Preservation

Report for 1936, the Game Warden writes :—

: much depends, however, on the formation of a National Trust to

take over the administration of sanctuaries . . . It is thought, therefore, that

the formation of a National Trust for sanctuaries will be closely bound up

with a Wild Life Protection Society, and the formation of a National Trust

should be pressed forward with all speed.’

That was written some three years ago by the present Game

Warden. Up to the present nothing whatever has been done to

bring this about. The Game Warden’s recommendation cannot

be too strongly endorsed, as the danger of commercial or political

exploitation hangs like the Sword of Damocles over these Sanctu-

aries.

A friend, a former high official and head of a department of

the Government of India, in Burma, recently answering a protest

of the writer, wrote as follows:—‘If they cannot keep their National

Parks inviolate in Malaya how can one expect any better behaviour

in the case of a popular Government depending on the vote?’ How

indeed! Wild life have no votes.

He referred, of course, to the recent threat, by the present

Administration in Malaya, to violate, for commercial purposes part

of the King George V National Park. The attempt was, tem-

porarily at least, frustrated by the matter being brought up strongly

152 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XET

in the House of Commons—but that for the present is another

story.

Mr. Moodie writes: —‘THE SHweE-v-DauNG SANCTUARY was

constituted primarily for the protection of the Sumatran Rhinoceros,

but it also contains a good stock of elephant, bison, saing, sambhur,

serow, barking deer, tiger, leopard, bear, pig and birds.’

In the condensed Game Warden’s Report for 1938, mentioned

above, the Game Warden is quoted:—‘The Principal Forest Officer

estimates at least five rhino in the Sanctuary but no young . . it is

a very dangerous probability that young rhino are being killed

off by tigers.’ No mention is made of any other animals in the

Sanctuary except sambhur, tiger and pig. ‘Sambhur were reported

to be less numerous.’ The Game Warden mentioned that steps

were being taken to reduce the number of tigers. In the Divisional

Forest Officer’s Report for 1936, though he saw sambhur he writes

that ‘no other animals were seen’, and in several visits by the

Principal Forest Officer and at least two other Forest Officers no

mention is recorded of bison, saing or serau. The Divisional

Forest Officer reports that poaching undoubtedly takes place in

the western side of this Sanctuary, which the Game Warden had

apparently not visited in 1938. Not a very inspiring outlook?

Of the Kahilu Sanctuary, the Chief Conservator writes:—

‘Contains a few specimens of Rhinoceros which are, according to

all available evidence, the Javan Rhinoceros. It also contains

sambhur, barking deer, bison, pig and game birds.’ The under-

lining is mine.

It is quite incorrect to say that all available evidence shows

these rhino to be Rhinoceros sondaicus. ‘The writer visited and

carefully inspected this Sanctuary in 1938 with the special object

of trying to gather evidence as to the identity of the rhinoceroses

there. ‘A detailed report of this visit was submitted to the Forest

Department in the same year, and the opinion was expressed that

the identity of species of the specimens there was not definitely

proved. This opinion took into account all evidence both pro and

con which had been gathered up to that date and has been concurred

in by at least two well-known experts on the subject, one of whom

goes so far as to say that he did not think the animals there were

of the Javan species and that the photographs of the tracks were

almost positively of sumatranus.

In the same report I expressed the opinion that measures for

the proper conservation and propagation of the few rhinoceroses

there, whichever of the two species they may be, are totally

lacking.

Regarding bison. So far as I could gather, they do not inhabit

the Sanctuary, seldom visit it, and are rare in these parts. I saw

tracks in two places only, probably of the same animal. Sambhur

are not plentiful and game birds scarce, and as all game may be

legally killed by villagers, on the pretext of necessity for crop

protection, and as villagers live in the Sanctuary and have dogs

and guns, it is morally certain that birds and small game are

regularly poached. At least one Forest Officer has advocated that

the natives be allowed to kill pigs without licences, though the

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BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 153

two rangers in the Sanctuary would be available for such protec-

tion if it was really necessary. Also it is absurd that constant

cultivation should be practised in a ‘sanctuary’. As my report on

this area has appeared elsewhere (B.N.H.S’s Journal, 1939) it is

unnecessary to enlarge further on its deficiencies as a sanctuary.

Of the other sanctuaries, most of which are quite unimportant

from the point of view of saving the fauna of the country, I will

only comment on Mr. Moodie’s reference to the Mutayir

SancTuaRy. He writes in The Field as follows:—‘It contains

chiefly bison, serow and mouse deer.’ In the case of all of these

sanctuaries to mention species particularly, one would be led to

believe that they contained at least a fair and not easily exhaustible

breeding stock of the animals for which they were set aside? Of

this Sanctuary, the Mutayit, however, the Game Warden writes

in his report for 1938:—‘The report of a subordinate, specially

deputed to compile an estimate of the stock of wild animals here,

is most disappointing. No traces of any big-game animals were

seen. Wild dogs were the only animals encountered.’

SHAN STATES.

Referring to these States the Game Warden’s report for 1938

says :—‘Legislation to provide protection would be almost value-

less, considering the vast area of unclassed forest and the small

number of Forest subordinates available.’ And again:—‘The

Divisional Forest Officer, Northern Shan States, reports that jungle

fowl appear to become scarcer every year,’ and he adds ‘it is not

surprising in view of the energy with which local villagers hunt

them down, wherever they are found, and so-called sportsmen

cannot be said to be blameless in this matter. He might have

truly said, further, that they are destroyed in and out of season

equally relentlessly.

In another place, referring to proposals for improvement of

protective measures the Game Warden’s_ report says :—‘The

Principal Forest Officer (Shan States) writes . . . one great stum-

bling block will always exist, however, in the number of guns

licensed as there seems to be no hope of their reduction to any-

thing approaching reasonable numbers.’

Well might he complain for, incredible as it may seem, the

official number of licences for guns issued in the Shan States alone,

to say nothing of the rest of Burma, was over 27,000. Without

the srongest protective measures, what chance has wild life of

survival under such conditions ?

In the 1936 report, the Game Warden wrote:—‘Throughout

the Shan States a large number of offences against the Game

Rules must be committed annually, but, with the very limited forest

staff available, it is impossible to detect the majority of these

offences,’ and, in another paragraph of the same report we find :---

‘The Divisional Forest Officer, Moncamir Division, — reports

that saing have been severely depleted by epidemic, especially in

NAUHLIANG RESERVE. This is most unfortunate, as the NAUHLIANG

RESERVE and the surrounding unclassed forests used to be well

stocked with these animals.’

154 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

No mention of investigations as to cause or possible amelioration

is made, but presumably that would be impossible without increased

staff or the calling on Government veterinary officers or other

skilled advice.

After a recent tour in the Northern and Southern Shan States,

covering in all upwards of 800 miles, the writer’s impression was

that over a great portion of the whole area most of the larger

fauna may be considered as practically extinct.

There may be, however, extensive tracts more sparsely settled,

where strict protective measures might still produce favourable

results. If such measures are not instituted promptly, the first-

mentioned condition will maintain over the whole area.

A glance at the financial figures for the Shan States for

1934-5-6,—I have no figures for 1938—will make serious considera-

tion of any protection in the region appear farcical. The revenue

for 1934-5 from wild life was Rs. 832 and in 1935-6 was: Rs. 710,

while for the same respective periods the expenditure was Rs. 70

and Rs. 25, the equivalent of £5-3-0 and £2-0-0. It might be

of interest to know on what these sums were expended.

Many more instances of the admittedly unsatisfactory state

of Wild Life Protection in Burma generally might be quoted, were

it necessary; but a summary of the specific causes of such unsatis-

factory conditions with a few notes thereon will suffice.

INSUFFICIENT PROVISION OF FUNDS.

This is the primary cause and the one that must be remedied

before any further reforms need be considered.

Although destructive criticism may correctly analyse and call

attention to ills it may not be very useful unless practical remedial

suggestions are also given.

In Burma’s case it may be thought that it is too late. That

is a defeatist policy and not one to which I can subscribe. With

regard to some of the fauna, determined and drastic measures

may be necessary. Notably amongst species possibly doomed to

early extinction in Burma is the Rhinoceros, followed by the

Thamin deer. In the latter case the quick and efficient develop-

ment and administration of the sanctuaries now proposed for its

survival may save it as a species. Outside these areas it will not

last long under present conditions. In some districts where they

formeriy existed large bovines, bison and saing, are already

extinct; in other districts they are fast becoming so; while in the

Pidaung Reserve it is refreshing to note that so long as it 1s

maintained as at present, including its necessary extensions, these

two species should flourish there.

It is curious to note that the one species naturally maintaining

its existence in Burma is the very one that is now threatened by

official slaughter at the hands of those selected to support its

preservation. I refer of course to the Elephant and ‘Elephant

Control’. [I hope to have more to say on this question elsewhere.

Now I think that I can indicate where funds should come from

and logically show how and why certain revenues should be allocated

for the work of conservation.

BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 155

In the summarized extracts of the Game Warden’s Reports for

1938, now before me, no figures of revenue and expenditure are

available, but for comparison I have used the figures for 1935 and

1936. They are enlightening, though insufficient in detail.

Under Wild Life Protection the figures are as follows :-——

1935 1936

INS: Rs.

Revenue ee a 38,189 Ba0 750

Expenditure nae om 3,445 10,350

In the last figure for expenditure the ‘Elephant Control’ figures

are not inciuded, while the sum of Rs. 1,211 is not included in

the revenue, the proceeds from fines.

But the most important omission is the revenue from licences

and import duties on sporting arms and ammunition, which the

Game Warden roughly estimates as another lakh of rupees.

(Rs. 100,000).

It is not stated whether fees for export permits on trophies and

wild life specimens are included but with a properly organized

Game Department there is little doubt that on the present figures

an approximate revenue from Wild Life Resources would amount

to perhaps Rs. 150,000, which should be made available for

conservation.

From what I have written above it must be obvious that without

reforms and funds it is a matter of time only when no further

expenditure on Wild Life Protection will be required—there will

be nothing to protect.

Judging by the past, the period before we reach that condition

will be short indeed, but before reaching it the revenue from

wild life resources will also have disappeared. These implications

are simple but will they be believed? The first question to be asked

is:—Would a properly organized and independent department, with

sufficient funds at its disposal, be able to save the majority of

species holding their own and possibly resuscitate others now in

danger? I think so, if present conditions are not allowed to drag

on, and reforms completed within a couple of years at the most,

though a few changes should be made immediately.

Outside the sanctuaries matters are in a critical state; inside

them, bar the Pidaung Reserve, most unsatisfactory. If the Gov-

ernment of Burma are not satisfied that conditions are as represented

above, then let them appoint an expert, but completely independent

commission to inquire into the whole subject. Official findings,

however disinterested, will never secure the complete confidence of

the outside world. Let the work of inquiry be as competent and

thorough as was that of the Wild Life Commission in Malaya,

but for the sake of Wild Life Conservation, and for the reputation

of the Burma Government, do not let the recommendations be

ignored and wasted as were those in Malaya.

The above facts summarized are as follows :—

(a) There is an annual income from Wild Life Resources now

being collected in Burma amounting to between Rs. 100,000 and

150,000,

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE “HIST: SOCTETY, Vol. XL

(b) This income is derived solely through the existence of

Wild Life.

ally finished the greater part of the income from these resources

will cease.

(d) The Wild Life, .or a considerable portion of it, it is

thought, if adequate measures are taken now, can be saved, and

the income maintained. To do this the greater part of the income

must be expended for the purpose to which it obvidusly belongs.

This principle is well recognized in countries that have looked

the question in the face and successfully tackled it.

The reasons why the Burma Government has not done so must

be put down to ignorance, disbelief or apathy, and the greatest

of these is apathy.

AN UNSCIENTIFIC AND COMPROMISING SYSTEM FORMING THE

PRESENT MACHINERY FOR THE ADMINISTRATION OF THE

GAME LAWS AND OTHER MEASURES FOR WILD LIFE

PROTECTION.

This heading refers to the fact that the administration at

present is entirely under the Forest Department.

This antiquated system is a relic of the Government of India’s

jurisdiction over Burma during which the greater part of the wild

life of both India and Burma has disappeared, and though this,

perhaps, may be partly due to parsimony, until quite recently it

was due to indifference to and lack of knowledge by the Forest

Department of that branch of its work.

One of the chief reasons for the employment of the Forest

Department for the protection of wild life was economy and, judg-

ing by results, a false economy; if we are to agree that the same

serious considerations are to be given to this national possession

as to others more definitely commercial.

The work of the Forest Department is essentially utilitarian

and commercial. Where its immediate objects may conflict with

the principles and practice of wild life protection, and they may

so conflict in a number of cases, the interests of the former would

prevail.

The use of the Forest Department is a makeshift, and its

personnel, per se, is little if any better fitted for the duties of wild

life protection than are members of a number of other depart-

ments. In practice a number of Forest Officers are shooting men,

but that in itself is not necessarily a qualification. It may be, I

regret to say, and in some instances I have known it was, a detri-

ment. Many Forest Officers have not, as might well be expected,

any interest either in destruction or preservation of wild life. Such

men may be, and upon occasions are, in charge of critical areas,

in which are situated sanctuaries requiring special attention. Their

attitude would naturally be one of indifference. To such men a

voluntary policy of vigorous apprehension or prosecution of offenders

could hardly be expected, even if they were allowed to spénd their

time on such duties.

BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 157

On principle I think that the term ‘whole-time’ Game Warden

a misnomer, when applied to Forest Officers transferred temporarily

to this position. I believe I am correct in saying that since the

first Game Warden was seconded from that service some eleven

years ago, there have been four incumbents, but for four years of

that time there was no official Game Warden at all. One of these

officers has acted in that position in an honorary capacity in addi-

tion to his official duties.

The position is not altogether independent, and is not looked

upon either as a career or as a permanent occupation. When pro-

motion comes, and perhaps before, for one reason or another,

the Game Warden reverts to his position as Conservator or what-

ever it may be in the Forest. Department. If on leave another

Forest Officer is temporarily appointed as Game Warden, but

whether in addition to his other duties or not, I do not know.

During his tenure of office a Game Warden has not control of

other officers of his department who are supposed to be assisting

him in duties. They are under their own departmental chiefs and

naturally their routine forest duties have first call on their time.

The Game Warden cannot give them orders at all.

The Chief Conservator of Forests is Head of the Department

administrating preservation of wild life; but he has not reached

the position of Chief Conservator through any special qualifications

for that branch of his department’s work and might not, in fact,

have the slightest interest in or knowledge of the subject. It is

he, however, who is responsible, and who has to deal with the

appropriate Ministry—a most important function.

The Art of Conservation of Wild Life cannot be picked up in

one’s spare time.

There can hardly be two opinions but that the Wild Life Pro-

tection Departments of countries of the Empire, like India, Burma

and Malaya, should be entirely divorced and separated from any

other department, and while in every way gratefully accepting co-

operation and assistance, a completely independent department must

be responsible for the work of Conservation.

The Director of such a department should be a man of suitable

age and selected for his technical ability for, and experience in,

practical wild life eonservation, as well as his disinterested keen-

ness in the work. In Burma, it is probable that such a man might

be available from the Forest Department Service, could he be

transferred from that department. But a separate department must

be formed if success is to be obtained. We have sufficient proof

of the failure of the present system.

SHORTAGE IN THE NUMBER OF GAME WARDENS, GAME RANGERS,

WATCHERS, GUARDIANS, ETC.

At present there is only one Game Warden and whether he is

‘whole-time’ or not, it is physically impossible for him to. properly

visit or supervise his vast area in the six months season of the

‘cold weather’ during which time it is customary, and in some

cases only possible, to travel in Burma.

It is a vast territory of forests, jungles, rivers, swamps and

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

mountains, sparsely traversed by roads or railways; and travelling

off the beaten track is slow and arduous.

The area under the Game Warden, which contains some six

sanctuaries, stretches north and south a thousand miles from above

Myitkyina to Victoria Point, and from the China Border on the

east to the Bay of Bengal and Assam on the west.

The Game Warden writes :—‘In almost every Forest Division

the Divisional Forest Officer admits that sufficient attention to

wild life preservation cannot be given by the existing staff.’ He

further points out that during the year, while some 15,000 licences

for sporting fire-arms were taken out, exclusive of the Shan States,

only 721 of these licensees took out game licences. The inference

is obvious. Further he writes:—‘When it is realized that there

are 31,300 square miles of Reserved Forests to which all of the

Game Laws apply, and g2,o00 square miles of Unclassed Forests

to which many of the Game laws apply, the difficulty of controlling

the activity of poachers with a limited staff can be appreciated.’

The Conservator of Forests in Sittang Circle who was the first

Game Warden, and who afterwards acted in an honorary capacity,

is quoted by the present Game Warden, in the 1938 report, as

follows :—

Referring to South Toungoo and Pegu Divisions: ‘In both

these Divisions during the hot weather all the available staff is

moved from the hill forests down to the plains in order to cope

with the annually increasing amount of (forest) work... . the

area in both these Divisions. where game is most plentiful, or

rather least scarce, are therefore left almost entirely unprotected

during he period of the year in which protection is most needed.’

At the very minimum an additional two or three Game Wardens

are urgently needed, whose duties should be in the field and not

in an office, and who should be almost constantly touring the areas

allotted to them. Although co-operation should maintain, as at

present, with Forest Officers and subordinates in the field, a very

much larger staff of permanently employed game rangers and

other natives should be employed, and these should be under

constant supervision of the Game Wardens. Watchers and others,

who would be sources of information, in towns and _ villages,

markets and fairs, should be regularly employed, and the police

should be instructed to co-operate with them.

Honorary Game Wardens should be appointed wherever keen

men could be induced to act, more especially in the game bird

districts, where their assistance should prove invaluable.

There. are, [feel sure from omy Own experience, many ‘goed

sportsmen who would willingly act in this capacity. This branch

of the conservation service is of great use in East Africa and it

also was used in Malaya.

LAcK OF COMPREHENSIVE, CONSISTENT AND PRACTICAL

Laws TO EMBRACE THE CONSERVATION OF WILD LIFE IN

ALES) EHASES:

A law which would ensure facile provision for prompt legal

apprehension, prosecution and punishment of all offenders against

BURMA’S DECREASING WILD LIFE 159

its provisions giving, at the same time, wide powers to the Game

Warden to enable him to carry out his work without irksome and

time-wasting references, would go a long way to solve the pro-

blem which confronts wise conservation of wild life in Burma.

No such law is on the statute book in Burma today. Protection

of Wild Life was embodied in the Forest Department Act, in the

Burma Game Rules published under that Act, and in the Wild

Birds and Animals Potection Act.

An attempt was made to better these provisions, and nearly

three years ago a new act was drafted and called the ‘Burma Wild

Life Protection Bill, 1936.’ At that time Burma was a Province

of India, but before the draft with its rules was finally finished

the inauguration of the new Burma Government became imminent.

This dratt was a move in the right direction and its promoters

deserve considerable credit for what they achieved. It does not,

however, fulfil the requirements of a complete law on the subject.

Besides being inadequate it is in some respects inconsistent, and

in one ludicrous. ‘he provisions regarding rhinoceros prohibit

the killing of the animal. In another clause, however, its blood

may be legally sold by native medicine men and others though

there is no special provision for killing it or importing it for this

or any other purpose, except that there is one clause allowing the

animal to be killed in protection of crops.

In fairness I should say that it was reliably stated to me

that the reason it was submitted in this form was the urgency

of getting it approved before the new and independent Legislature

‘took office, as if not already approved the act might have been

indefinitely delayed or not passed at all.

While I leave the reader to judge the value of this excuse, |

would point out that the Rules for the Act had not been passed

up to March 1938. So the Game Rules of 1927 are still being

followed where they do not conflict with the provisions of the new

Act.

THE INORDINATE ISSUE OF GUN LICENCES FOR ALL SORTS

OF UNNECESSARY REASONS.

Although’ the country is not at war there are over forty

thousand licences issued for guns! For what purpose? These

guns are not given to the police or to the armed forces, but to

ordinary citizens. Such conditions are unknown elsewhere in the

Empire. The populace should be disarmed and fire-arms only issued

with the strictest supervision, and only for bona fide sporting

purposes, and in conjunction with game _ licences, issued and

renewable annually by the Game Warden alone.

1 Written before outbreak of war.

i160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIii

THE COLLECTION, SALE AND Export oF WILD ANIMALS

FOR COMMERCIAL PURPOSES.

This nefarious practice goes on, I believe, to a far greater extent

than is perhaps supposed, and often upon the false plea that the

animals are collected for scientific purposes. No animal should

be captured or exported, except by special permit signed by the

Game Warden himself, after the strictest inquiries as to the pur-

pose. Co-operation of the police at all ports and elsewhere, to

prevent the harbouring of wild animals or birds without permit,

should be freely given, as also the good offices of the Customs

Department to prevent illegal export. The lack of control is re-

ferred to in the Game Warden’s Report for 1938.

His Majesty’s Government has, I believe, on a number of

occasions, through various Ministers, and through at least one

‘Prime Minister, clearly enunciated that preservation of the wild

fauna of the Empire was a policy that had its firmest support.

If, therefore, the suggestions I have made above fail with the

Burma Government and with the Governor, then in that last resort

persistent appeal must be carried to London. But through what

organized channel is this appeal to be made? That is the difficulty.

In my view, though it is a depressing admission, until public

opinion becomes sufficiently interested in the subject, none exists

to-day that has practical influence.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE @

Sayeedud-Din—Allmania nodiflora R.Br. (Nat. Size).

For explanation see end of article.

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON

THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

M. SAYEEDUD-DIN,

Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan.

(With two plates).

(Continued from page 798 of volume xli, No. 4).

V.—ALLMANIA NODIFLORA R. Br.

(AMARANTACEAE).

SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

Allmania nodiflora R. Br. (var, aspera Hook.) in Wall. Cat.

esgosvexch By Hy F.' 8B: 1., 1V,..716; Gamble F. M; Pr,, Pt. VII,

1167-1168; Syn:—Chamissoa aspera, Wt. Ic.. t. 1772; Celosia

aspera Roth Nov. Sp. 173.

An annual, diffusely dichotomously branched, sparsely hispidly

hairy herb with stout root-stock. Leaves alternate, lanceolate.

Flowers in large axillary and terminal globose brownish orange

heads which consist of small dichasia, in each of which there are

3 flowers, the centre one sessile with 1 bracteole, the side ones

pedicellate with 1 bract and 2 bracteoles; bracts and bracteoles

narrow, scarious, hispid, with filiform tips. Perianth. calycine, of

5 almost free lanceolate acuminate lobes. Stamens 5, filaments

united in a membranous hypogynous cup, anthers 2-celled, opening

by means of slits; pollen irregularly spherical and blackish when

dry, round and brownish black when moistened. Ovary ovoid;

ovule erect; style slender; stigma 2-lobed. Fruit an ovoid mem-

branous utricle, circumscissly dehiscent. Seed erect, subglobose,

in a cupular aril. (Plate I, & Pl. II, Fig. 4). Flowers practically

throughout the year.

HABITAT.

Corn-fields, Coimbatore and Mysore (Hooker, 3); Deccan

Districts, west to the FE. slopes of the Ghats, less common in

Circars. or Carnatic, in fields (Gamble, 2); a common weed. in

Hyderabad Deccan, very variable (Sayeedud-Din, 7); Deccan:

Purandhar Fort, Bhiva, (Cooke, 1). Distrib. China, Malay Islands.

i62 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

ANATOMICAL NOTES.

Structure of the Leaf (Plate II, Fig. 3). Stomata are found on

both sides of the leaf. They are surrounded by ordinary epidermal

cells. The mesophyll is differentiated into palisade and spongy

tissue. Epidermal cells are rather large.

Oxalate of lime is present in the form of large clustered crystals

in the mesopbyll, and in that of crystal-sand in the stem, as in

Pupalia lappacea Mog. (Sabnis, 6). Mullan (5) has observed

aggregate crystals and coarse granules in Celosia argentea L.

The hairy covering (Plate IH, Figs. 1-3) consists of ordinary cloth-

ing uniseriate trichomes both on the stem as well as on the leaves.

Those on the stem are longer and in some cases provided with

small protuberances in the upper portion. The hairs on the leaf

form a fine tomentum. Capitate hairs with a unicellular or uniseriate

stalk and unicellular spherical or ellipsoidal head, mentioned by

Solereder (8) as having been observed by Nemnich in species of

Allmania have not been seen.

Structure of the Stem. The herbaceous stem possesses stomata.

They are not provided with anv special subsidiary cells. No

anomaly is found in the structure. The epidermis in the region

of the ridges consists of small tabular cells with outer and inner

walls slightly thickened and convexly arched outwards and inwards

respectively. In the primary cortex chlorenchymatous cells occur |

with the collenchymatous groups at the angles. Stone-cells are

found in the pericycle. There is an extensive pith composed of

large thin-walled parenchymatous cells.

CONCLUSIONS.

The main anatomical characters revealed by the study of

Allmania nodiflora R. Br. are: (i) stomata are surrounded by

Ordinary epidermal cells, and do not possess any special subsidiary

cells; (2) oxalate of lime is present in the form of clustered crystals

in the leaf, and in that of crystal-sand in the stem; (3) hairy cover-

ing consists of ordinary clothing uniseriate trichomes; (4) glandular

hairs are absent.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

As before the photograph and the drawings were prepared by

Mr. Sri Ramloo under my supervision, for which I am thankful to

him. My thanks are also due to Mr. M. Moinuddin for the pre-

paration of several slides. ,

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

1.. Cook, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pt. iii,

p. 487 (1906).

2. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Pt. vii, pp. 1167-1168

(1925).

3. Hooker, J. D.-—The Flora of British India, vol. iv, pp. 716-717 (1885).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE If

Sayeedud-Din—Allmania nodiflora R. Br.

For explanation see end of article.

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 163

4. Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of Madras City and _ its

immediate Neighbourhood, p. 242 (1929).

5- Mullan, D. P.—‘Observations on the Biology and Physiological Anatomy

of some Indian Halophytes.’ J.I.B.S., vol. xii, Nos. 3 & 4, pp. 235-253 (1933).

6. Sabnis, T. S.— The Physiological Anatomy of the Plants of the Indian

Desert.’ -J.1.B.S., vol. ti, Nos. 4 & 5, pp. 103-106 (1921). \

7. Sayeedud-Din, M.—*‘A Further Contribution to some of the Common

Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic im-

portance’. Jour. Bomb. Nat. Hist. Soc:, vol. xl, No. 2, p. 208 (1938).

8. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons. Engl. Ed.,

vol. ii, pp. 651-655 (1908).

9. Wight, R.—Icones Plantarum Indiae Orientalis, p. 1772. (1838-53).

EXPLANATION OF PLaTEs I & II.

Allmania nodiflora R. Br.

PuaTe I.

Fig. 1.—Black and white sketch of Allmania nodiflora R. Br. (Nat. size).

Fig. 2.—A dichasium, showing three flowers. (X10).

Fig. 3.—A single flower with the calycine perianth opened out to show the

parts (X10).

Figs. 4 & 5.—Two views of the stamens, showing in (4) the lateral slits in

| the anthers for shedding of pollen. (xX 10).

Fig. 6.—Pollen grain in dry condition. (xX 10).

Fig. 7.—Pollen grain in moist condition. (x 10).

Fig. 8.—Pistil, showing the circumsciss dehiscence of the future fruit. (x15).

Prate II.

Fig. 1.--Uniseriate clothing hair on stem. (X 420).

Fig. 2.—Stem-epidermis, showing stomata, an ordinary trichome ahd crystal-

sand. (xX 420).

Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata, trichome and_ clustered crystals.

( X 420).

Fig. 4.—Photograph of Allmania nodiflora Rk. Br.

igs.

(To be continued).

THE DEATH-EXPEDITION OF HIBISCUS CATERPILLARS

(larvae of Crocallis sp.)

G. C. BHATTACHARYA,

Bose Research Institute, Calcutta.

(With a plate).

The migratory instinct in lower animals often appears to be

very peculiar and exceedingly interesting. The migration of the

little rodent lemmings offers an excellent example. These little

animals colonize a hill-side and multiply at an amazing rate, so

much so, that when, owing to insufficiency of food supply, starva-

tion becomes inevitable all the inmates of the colony, millions and

millions strong, rush head-long from their dwelling place. Nothing

can stop or divert this impetuous flow. Thousands and thousands

of them die of starvation or of injuries, many more are devoured

by predaceous birds or other enemies but still the stampede con-

tinues relentlessly until the sea is reached, where this instinct still

impels them to press forward to some promised land which they

never reach.

This instinct of the rodents of a breakneck migratory movement,

heedless of the goal, is extraordinary indeed, but the instinct evinced

by the larvae or caterpillars of the moth, ‘Crocallis. sp., which

occupies a far more backward position in the process of biological

evolution, in their reckless mode of migration is still more wonder-

ful and thought provoking.

ihe moth, Crocallis sp., lays her eggs on the leaves of Hibiscus

Rosa-sinensis, Artabotrys odoratissima and some other plants. The

young larvae or caterpillars about 4 to 5 mm. in length, hatch

out after ten or fifteen days and assemble under the surface of

the leaves where they scrape off all the chlorophyll bodies leaving

the thin films of cellulose. ‘After a few days, growing larger, they

devour the whole of the leaf and move over to a neighbouring one.

Thus within a short period all the leaves of the plant are eaten

up and the caterpillars begin to migrate to a new place for food

and shelter. ;

Once early in May, I happened to notice such a migration of

Hibiscus caterpillars (larvae of Crocallis sp.). 1 was standing near

a cemented platform, built over a cemented floor at the corner of

an extensive lawn, observing the leaf movements of a sensitive

mimosa plant (Mimosa pudica), when at the far end of the floor

a procession of greenish white caterpillars, numbering about sixteen

individuals, crawled forward in single file over the lawn towards

the platform. The order and regularity of their movement speci-

ally attracted my attention. The procession hurriedly approached

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THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF HIBISCUS CATERPILLARS — 165

the raised platform, but finding its vertical wall too smooth to

scale, changed its course towards the grassy lawn. Progressing

a few feet onwards along the base of the platform, the caterpillars

turned back towards the cemented floor. It was apparent from

their movements that they had scented the leaves of the mimosa

and were searching for a way to get at them. At last they

descended to the cemented floor and now marched quickly towards

the corner of the platform where the mimosa plant grew in its

earthen pot. Closely following one another, the caterpillars went

round the base of the platform and now, finding a suitably rough

surface, climbed the vertical wall and made straight for the plant.

On reaching it they dispersed and raising their heads began to

smell about. After a short while they fell into line and climbed

the pot, eager for their meal on the leaves of the plant. The file

of caterpillars attaining the circular rim of the pot, now commenc-

ed—extraordinary to relate-——-what was going to be for them a con-

tinuous and interminable journey round and round the rim. The

surface of the soil in the pot was somewhat below the rim necessitat-

ing a descent. While the close proximity of meal inspired them

to brisker and brisker movement, the caterpillars did not take the

one way which would have led them directly to the plant. They

did not descend from the rim of the pot, blindly following the

circular rim they were deceived into a vain and endless march.

The circumference of the rim proved too small for the whole

length of the caterpillar chain. They had to squeeze themselves

in for accommodation and every individual looked very much shorter

in length than it did in the open space. Incessantly they marched

round the rim of the pot throughout the day without a halt or

rest, and their journey never came to an end.

Very carefully I removed the pot to my bedroom and watched

the movement of the caterpillars every now and then during the

night. As a rule, the larvae of moths refrain from eating after

sunset and rest quietly until next morning, but these larvae marched

through the night and carried on their unprofitable journey.?

Through the next day, the march continued, but a slight slowing

down was noticeable in the movement. On the third day, the

Weariness was more apparent. The inability of two or three indi-

viduals to keep pace with the others hampered the regular progress.

At about tr o’clock in the morning, one of the stragglers fell out

of the line in a comatose state and expired after half an hour or

so. Three hours later, another caterpillar dropped out and died.

Now the death of the two individuals gave the others space

to stretch out their bodies a little, so that no gap was to be seen

in the file even in the absence of two members. The caterpillars

were moving as usual head to tail, but their progress was very

much slower than before. More deaths occurred on the fourth day,

while the survivors seemed to be totally exhausted. They moved

reluctantly and halted at intervals. On the afternoon of the fifth

———

1 Fabre described the processionary habits of tent caterpillars of the apple

tree who kept following the line all day long but slept when night overtook

them and resumed their journey with the morrow’s sun.

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

day, some of the caterpillars dropped out of the regular line and

took to crawling aimlessly over the pot but they never left

it, for the smell of the green leaves was a constant and uncon-

querable source of attraction. So after a few hours of fruitless

straying those which did not succumb came back to the rim of

the pot and resumed the weary march. The length of the chain

was now greatly reduced owing to the death of several individuals

and a gap was formed between the head and tail of the moving

chain.

On the morning of the sixth day most of the caterpillars were

found lying dead on the platform or on the soil of the pot. The

three that were still surviving and sticking to the rim were in a

precarious condition and died soon after. Lured by the scent

of food, and urged by the instinct to march relentlessly towards it,

all of them ultimately embraced death but did not give up their

pursuit for a moment.

Later it was observed that the leaves of Hibiscus Rosa-sinensis

planted beyond the wide lawn were infested with the caterpillars

of Crocallis sp. These caterpillars, voracious eaters as they are,

had eaten up almost all the green leaves of those plants, and scarcity

of food there had compelled them to migrate elsewhere for food

and shelter. On several occasions after the incident noted above

I was able to persuade different processions of these caterpillars

to climb to the rims of circular vessels and in everyone of these

experiments, the results were the same as in my first observation.

If during migration, water intercepts the path of their progress,

the leading member by raising up its head looks around and,

finding other means to avoid the obstacle changes its course, the

rest of the party following in a regular line. When no alternative

is available but to go through the water, they enter it, but

reluctanily and as a last resort. As the film on the surface of

water does not break under the weight of their bodies, the cater-

pillars float on it like bits of cork. Like a flock of sheep un-

hesitatingly following their leader, the caterpillars also follow the

foremost member across the surface of water, some wriggling their

bodies sideways try to proceed in a zig-zag manner. Unaccustomed

to swimming, most of them by indiscriminate wriggling of’ bodies

are led out of line. Those who are fortunate enough to cross the

water assemble again in a line and resume their journey.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF

INDIA,

oR CAWSRSs. 5 Fi .S:

The LinaceE® are herbs, shrubs or trees, broadly distributed,

especially in the northern hemisphere. They consist of g genera

with 150 species.

The medicinal and poisonous Flaxworts of the world belong

to 5 genera: Huconia (Tropics); IXONANTHES (tropical Asia);

Linum (temperate and _ subtropical regions, especially Mediter-

ranean); REINDWARTIA (North India, China); ROoUCHERIA (Guiana).

Ixonanthes cochinchinensis Pierre, which is used medicinally in

Annam, is not found in India.

A. Petals contorted, fugacious. Perfect stamens as many

as the petals. Herbs rarely shrubs

I. Calyx glabrous or pubescent. Styles 5. Capsule

5-celled see “ie LINUM.

II. Calyx glabrous. Styles 3-4. Capsule 3-4-celled .,.. REINWARDTIA,

B. Petals contorted, fugacious. Perfect stamens 2-3-times

as many as the petals. Fruit a drupe. Usually scandent

shrubs

I. Sepals subacute, tomentose, ebracteolate ... HUGONIA.

II. Sepals obtuse, bracteolate Bd ... ROUCHERIA.

HuGONIA.

The genus consists of 11 species, inhabiting the Tropics of

the Old World.

AH. Planchonit Hook. f. is used medicinally in Liberia and Sierra

Leone, H. serrata Lam. in La Reunion.

Hugonia Mystax Linn. is found in the Konkan and North

Kanara of the Bombay Presidency, throughout the dry forests

of the Madras Presidency, and in Ceylon.

The bruised roots are employed externally in reducing inflam-

matory swellings, and as an antidote to snake-bites. In the form

of a powder, it is administered internally as an anthelmintic and

febrifuge. The bark of the root is also employed as an antidote

to poisons.

Mhaskar and Caius have shown experimentally that the root

is not an antidote to snake venom.

Canarese : Modirakkanni—; English: Climbing Flax—; Malayalam : Modera-

kkanni, Motirakkanni—; Sinhalese: Bugatteya, Mahagetiya—; Tamil: Agori,

Kodivirai, Modirakkanni—; Telugu: Gatrinta, Kakibira, Penkebedali, Pisangi,

Renangi, Tivvaputiki, Ungaralapidemu, Vendapa— ; Tulu; Mullankola—; Uriya:

Chulijinka—,

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURATP GIST] SS CCIET Yo Vols ew

LINUM.

The genus numbers go species, inhabiting the temperate and

subtropical regions of the world, but especially Mediterranean.

The seeds are oleaginous, emollient, and sometimes purgative.

Glucosides—linamarin, phaseolunatin—are among the products

isolated. Linin, a peculiar drastic principle has been obtained from

L. catharticum Linn.

The following are used medicinally in Europe—L. alpinum Linn.,

TL. angustifolium Huds., L. austriacum Linn., L. catharticum Linn.,

L. gallicum Linn., L. flavum Linn., L. hirsutum Linn. L. mane

timum Linn., L. narbonense Linn., L. nodiflorum Linn., L. perenne

Linn., UL. strictum Linn., L. suffruticosum Winm., EL tenwjohunm

Linn., L. usitatissimum Linn., L. viscosum Linn.—; in China—

L.° perenne Linn.—; in North America— L. catharticum Linn.,

L. usitatisstrmum Linn.—; in Brazil—L. usitatissimum Linn.— in

Uruguay—L. selaginoides Lam.—; in Chili—L. Chamissonis

Schiede, L. Macraei Benth., L. selaginoides Lam.—; in South

Africa LL. Thunbergiit: Eckl. and Zeyh.—; in Mauritius—. L.

usitatissimum Linn.—.

A. Petals blue

I. Capsule scarcely exceeding the narrowly’ white-

margined sepals... E as .. L. usitatissimum.

{I. Capsule much longer than the white-margined

sepals an L. perenne.

B. Petals yellow me Bee ws soe bas USEYECTUAD.

1. Linum perenne Linn. is fourd in the North-Western

Himalaya, extending westwards to the Canaries.

In Europe and in China the seeds are used as an emollient.

Country people, in England, boil the fresh herb and take it

for rheumatic pains, colds, cough and dropsy.

Chinese: Ya Ma—; English: Perennial Flax—-; French: Lin de Sibérie—.

2. Linum strictum Linn. occurs in the Punjab and the North-

Western Himalaya, from Soongaria to the Mediterranean.

The seeds are used as an emollient in Spain.

Arabic: Farq, Kittan, Zir—; Punjab: Bab-basant, Basant—.

3. Linum usitatissimum Linn. is cultivated throughout India

up to 6,000 feet.

The bark and the leaves are useful in gonorrhoea.

The bark when burnt and applied to wounds stops the bleeding

and promotes the healing process.

The flowers are considered a nervine and cardiac tonic.

The roasted seeds are said to be astringent. Fumigation with

the smoke is recommended for colds in the head and hysteria,

and the tinder is used to staunch haemorrhages.

Linseed poultice is recommended for gouty and rheumatic

swellings; as an emollient, the mucilage is dropped into the eye;

with honey it is prescribed in coughs and colds, ;

THE MEDICINAL AND .POISONOUS FLAXWORTS OF INDIA 169

The seeds are used internally for gonorrhoea and irritation of

the genito-urinary system. The decoction is used _ extensively.

Occasionally the seeds are powdered and taken with sugar.

In Iraq local druggists recommend linseed poultice for chest

troubles.

An infusion of the seeds has long been given in Europe for

soothing a sore chest or throat in severe catarrh or pulmonary

complaints. As a domestic remedy for colds, coughs, and irritation

of the urinary organs, linseed tea is most valuable. A little honey

and lemon juice makes it very agreeable and more efficacious.

It is taken in wineglassful doses, which may be repeated ad

libitum.

The crushed seeds, or linseed meal, make a very useful poultice,

either alone or with mustard. In ulceration dnd superficial or

deep-seated inflammation a linseed poultice allays irritation and

pain and promotes suppuration. It is commonly used for boils,

abscesses and other local affections.

Tumours of a simple nature, and sprains, may be usefully

rubbed with linseed oil. The oil forms, when mixed with lime

water or with spirit of turpentine, a capital external application to

recent burns or scalds.

Internally, the oil is sometimes given as a laxative; in cases

of gravel and stone it is excellent, and has been administered in

pleurisy with great success. It may also be used as an injection

in constipation. Mixed with honey, linseed oil has been used as

a cosmetic for removing spots from the face.

The oil enters into veterinary pharmacy as a purgative for

sheep and horses, and a jelly formed by boiling the seeds is often

given to calves.

Linseed has occasionally been employed as human food; but it

affords little actual nourishment and is apparently unwholesome,

being difficult of digestion and provoking flatulence. It has

been mixed with corn for making bread, but it proved indigestible

and hurtful to the stomach, and even was responsible for the

death of many.

There is in England an Act of. Parliament still in force which

forbids the steeping of flax in rivers, or any waters which cattle

are accustomed to drink, as it is found to communicate a poison

destructive to cattle, and to the fish inhabiting such waters:

Cattle poisoning by linseed flowers is fairly common in Bengal

and Bihar. The linseed flowers and the immature seeds contain the

maximum amount of a cyanogenetic glucoside producing as much

as 0.69 per cent of free hydrocvanic acid. About half a pound of

flowers is sufficient to kill a bullock.

The seeds of L. usitatissimum Linn. and the oil from them are

officinal in all pharmacopoeias, except that of Mexico.

Amam: Ho ma—; Arabic: Bazar-ul-katan, Bazr-ut-kattan, Kattan—;

Behar: Chikna, Tisi—; Bengal: Masina, Mosina, Musni, Tisi—; Bombay:

Alasi, Javas, Javasa—; Brazil: Linho—; Bundelkhand: Bijri—; Canarese:

Agashi, Alashi, Alsi—; Catalan: Lli—; Celtic: Lin—; Chinese: Hou Ma—;

Danish: Hoer—; Deccan: Alshi, Javas—:; Dutch: Vlas—; Egypt: Kittan—;

English: Common Flax, Flax, Linseed, Lint, Lyne—; Finland: Lin, Pellavan—;

Formosa: Hu-ma—; French: Lin, Lin chaud, Lin. commun, Lin cultivé— ;

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST: SOCIEDY> Volx iii

German: Flachs, Haarlinsen, Lein, Saatlein—; Greek: Linon—; Gujerat:

Alshi, Alsi—; Hamadan: Basarak—; Hebrew: Bad—; Hindi: Alsi, Tisi—;

Hungarian: Len—; Iraq: Kittan—; Italian: Lino—; Kashghar: Zighir—;

Kashmir: Alish, Keun—; Kolami: Unshi—; Konkani: Sonnbium—; Kumaon:

Alsi, Tisi—; Kurdish: Gosh—,; Loralai: Alsi—; Madagascar: Rongonimbazaha

—; Malayalam: Cheruchanavittintevilta—; Marathi: Alashi, Javas, Javasa—;

North-Western Provinces: Bijri—; Norwegian: Lin—j; Persian: Basarak katun,

Bazarug, Bazr-ul-katan, Tulkhm-e-katan, Zaghir, Zaghu—; Polish: Len—;

Porebunder: Alasi, Javas—; Portuguese: Linhaca, Linho—; Punjab: Alish,

Alsi, Tisi—; Roumanian: In—; Russian: Len, Lyon—; Sanskrit: Atasi,

Auma, Chanaka, Devi, Haimwati, Kshauma, Kshaumi, Kshuma, Madagandha,

Madotkata, Malina, Masina, Masrina, Masruna, Masuna, Matasi, Nilapushpi,

Nilpushpika, Parvathi, Pichhila, Rudrapatni, San, Sunila, Suvarchala, Tailot-

tama, Uma—; Spanish: Lino—; Swedish: Lin—; Tamil: Alshi—; Telugu:

Atasi, Madanginjalu, Ullusulu—; Turki: Ziggar—; Turkish: Keten—; Urdu:

Alasi-—-; Uriya: Pesu—; Yugoslavia: Lan—.

REINWARDTIA.

The genus consists of only 2 species, one Indian and the other

Chinese.

Reinwardtia trigyna Planch. is found along the Himalaya from

the Indus eastwards, the Salt Range, Simla, Kumaon to Sikkim

up to 6,000 feet, Assam, Chittagong, Bihar, Mount Abu, Bombay

Konkan and Ghats, the Western Ghats, the forests of South

Kanara and Mysore. It is distributed to Siam, Tongking and

China.

It is used.as a medicine for ‘founder’ in cattle.

Deccan: Abai—; Dehra Dun: Basant—; Jaunsar: Pengun—; Kumaon:

Piuli, Piunli—; Matheran: Abai Punjab: Balbasant, Basant, Gudhbatal,

Gulashruf, Karkun, Kaur—; Saora: Labodatar—.

ROUCHERIA.

The genus consists of 4 species, natives of Guiana.

Roucheria Griffithiana Planch. is found in Malaya; common

in low country, Singapore, Malacca to Perak and Penang. It is

distributed to Sumatra and Borneo.

The plant is used in the preparation of the dart-poison of the

Sakais.

Malay: Akar biji, Akar kait putih, Akar musiang, Garam-garam, Ipoh akar

putih—; Sakai: Bhoi—. ;

rm SPUDY OF THE COURTING. HABITS OF

MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES (CAMBR.)—

A SPIDER MIMIC OF THE INDIAN RED-ANT

OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA.,

A. P. MaTHEW, M.A.,

Lecturer in Zoology,

The University of Travancore.

The familiar red ant is mimicked by a few insects and spiders.

Two spider mimics are fairly common and well known to

naturalists in this country—the attid mimic, Myrmarachne

plataleoides and the thomisid mimic Amyciaea_ forticeps. The

habits of these spiders were studied by me, and in the course of my

studies I made interesting observations on their mating habits.

Comparison of these mating habits with the ordinary behaviour of

these spiders in the field under different conditions, was found to

be instructive. In this article the mating habits of M.plataleoides

as observed in the field and in artificial cages, are described.

This spider moves about on plants infested by the red ants

amongst which it would easily be overlooked. Though when it

moves about ordinarily it is truly Oecophylla—like, while distrubed

it betrays its arachnid and attid characters and to one who would

patiently observe, the distinction becomes fairly easy.

One evening while out searching for these spiders during the

Christmas holidays 1928, at Mavalikara, Central Travancore, I

came across a nest outside which there was a full-grown male. It

was observed for nearly half an hour: but I could not understand

what it was about. Except for an occasional show of restlessness

it remained patiently and calmly outside the nest. Evidently

something inside was engaging its attention. As I did not want

to wait longer, I thought of securing the specimen. Getting closer

I was just attempting to drive it into an open tube, when, to my

surprise, a female ran out of the nest and began ‘staring’ at me.

Quite probably they were courting. Both the specimens were

soon secured in tubes. |

At home the specimens were placed in a large glass cage and

watched closely. They wandered about the cage erratically for

some time during which they met each other a number of times.

At first they were too frightened to take notice of each other but

later on there were signs of ‘recognition’. They would pause and

look at each other for a while, the male showing some signs of

excitement. As the male however approached the female, the latter

would run away. But after a little while they stopped and faced

each other, The male raised its body on its legs and inclined the

2) /OURNAL, BOMBAY; NATURAL AIST. SOCHERY. Wiol.mxaeih

falces downwards giving the body an arched form. In this attitude

it approached the female in a series of short sudden jerks. As it

drew nearer, the excitement increased and its movements became

more jerky, turning now to the right and then to the left. Thus

it ‘displayed’ itself before the female with bowed falces arched and —

uplifted body and with the first pair of legs lifted up; moving in |

sharp sudden jerks sideways and forwards. All the while the

female was closely watching the ‘antics’ of the male, often turning

in such a way as to keep it in full view. Both were in a state of

great excitement. The male advanced slowly towards the female

in this queer jerky manner till their front legs just touched. A few

rapid mutual strokes by the palpi followed and with this the short

‘dance’ ceased. The arched body of the male resumed its normal

position and all excitement seemed ended. The female remained

quiet, slightly raising the abdomen and twisting it slightly to one

side. The male moved forwards, got astride the female on one

side, and felt with its palpus for the epigynum. The palpus on that

side nearest to the female’s abdomen was applied to the epigynum

and for about five minutes they remained in this position. The

male then moved backwards and then again moving forwards got

astride the female on the other side and the other palpus was applied

to the epigynum. The copulation over, the male moved away,

while the female remained guiet for a little time.

Similar modes of courtship and pairing have been observed a

number of times in my cages where mature males and females were

kept together. But a few other observations which I have made

on these spiders and their allies in the field have convinced me that

this is not the normal way in which pairing takes place under natural

conditions but that this occurs only under artificial conditions.

On several occasions I have taken males and females from the

same nests and their behaviour and the readiness with which they

paired when put together make one feel certain that they must have

been pairing or preparing for pairing within the nests.

On one occasion I observed a male and a female of this spider

moving about on the same leaf. As it was very inconvenient to

watch them there I secured them and placed them in a cage. - Thev

ran about for sometime and eventually faced each other. The male

soon began to pay attention to the female. It approached the latter

in the usual jerky excited manner turning to one side and then to

the other in regular alternation; but the female would turn round

and run away. The male however persisted in paying his attentions

and at last the female stopped, turned round, and faced the male.

They touched each other by their forelezs and them the female

stroked the falces of the male by her palpi. Some mutual recog-

nition must have passed between them! For, this time, unlike the

previous instances, no attempt was made at immediate pairing

but after an ‘agreement’ as it were, the female hurried off teva

corner of the cage and began busily to make a nest. The male

showed no anxiety to pursue her. It watched the female closely,

and leisurely moved towards her. When he neared, the female

left off her work, came out and stroked the male with her palpi for

a second and immediately hastened away to her work. . The male

COURTING HABITS OF MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES 173

quietly continued waiting outside. The female worked very fast

and soon got a nest ready. The next day the male was found

to get in and pair.

Similar observations I have made in a mimic of the small red

ant Solenopsis and also in certain dark mimics.

During the summer of 1930 and again in 1931 I had further

' opportunities to observe the courting habits of these spiders at Parur

in North Travancore. While these observations generally con-

firmed the view given above that pairing takes place within the

nest, certain other interesting details were noted.

On the 4th June 1930 I came across a nest in which were a male

and a female. Closer scrutiny showed that they were not in the

same chamber but were in two separate compartments of the same

nest. There was a well-built nest in which the female was. This

nest was completely covered over by a larger silken dome, rather

sparsely woven, and within this was the male. From this chamber

he had free access to the female’s compartment. They remained

each in its respective compartment quietly for four days. On the

morning of the 8th I was surprised to note that the female had

moulted and that its cast off skin was lying. on a

Sid@erein the mest. It was very surprising for it -meant

that the spider was, till then, only in the penultimate stage and was

not a mature female. After some time the male who appeared to

have been watching all these events showed restlessness, got out

of its retreat and began to wander about the leaf for some time.

Then it returned to the female’s. nest, was admitted into it, the

female meeting it at the entrance and showi ing the usual expressions

of excitement and then they paired inside the nest.

On the 8th June 1930 two of these spiders, a male and a female

were seen on the underside of a plantain leaf. The female was

very busy weaving a nest while the male was quietly observing

from the outside, occasionally fastening a few strands overhead

making the outer nest. In a short time the nest was completed

and the female took her position in the inner and well constructed

nest. The male waited outside for a long time. Then it was

noticed to wander away returning in about an hour. It waited

outside and made no attempt to get into the female’s nest. Till

the 12th June I observed them in the same position. On the 12th

inorning the female had moulted; the male was still waiting outside.

These were not further observed but there is no doubt that soon

the male must have got into the female’s nest and paired.

Again at Parur, on the 8th May 1931, a female was observed

in the hollow of a leaf within a nest of closely woven silk. Outside

this and enclosing it, was a larger nest which was not however so

carefully constructed as the inner one but consisted merely of a

large number of silk strands. In this outer enclosure, was a male.

They remained quietly till the 1oth when the female was found

moulted. The male came out of the retreat, moved about the leaf

for a while and then returning to the female’s nest entered the

nest and paired.

On the 17th December 1931 I again observed a female in a

fully formed nest with a male watching outside. The next morning

174 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY) Vol; XLII

the female had moulted and by noon they were observed to pair

inside the nest.

A few double nest of the same pattern as described above were

observed at Mavalikara, Central Travancore, on the 16th September

1932. One of these was kept under observation. On the 1oth

night the female moulted and-on the 20th I noticed them pairing

within the nest.

Since making these observations, I have, almost every time

I was out in the field searching for these spiders, come across

one or more of these double nests or mating nests each having a

female in the penultimate stage in the inner chamber and an

adult male in the larger outer chamber. A number of times I

have taken these females to examine if they are in the penultimate

stage. On a few occasions they were found to be adults; but

in all these cases the moulted skin lying inside the nest bore

unmistakable testimony to the fact that its moulting to the adult

was quite recent and took place only after she retreated into

the mating nest. In the few previous instances of pairing which

I observed and have recorded above, it is likely that the cast off

skins in the nests were overlooked since such a phenomenon was

not suspected at all. |

In August 1933 I made very similar observations on _ the

courting habits of two black mimics—M. manducator and another

species not yet identified—from Cape Comorin and Vattakottai

near the Cape. A number of mating nests with the females in

the penultimate stage guarded by adult males were seen. Similar

mating nests were also observed at Courtallam beyond the Ghauts,

in August 1934.

In January 1932 the following observation was made. <A male

in the course of his wanderings came across a female still within

its nest. This female was in the final stage. The male approached

the nest with some jerks but without the details of courting which

were observed when it took place in the open, and introduced

both its first pair of legs into the female’s nest. She was agitated,

showed a few jerky movements and embraced the front legs a

number of times. The male. withdrew for a moment and then

immediately returning, thrust the front legs as before into the nest.

The female stroked the front legs with her palpi and front legs.

This was repeated two or three times and then the male entered

the nest and paired with the female.

In July 1934 the following experiments were made on M.

plataleoides in cages. On the 14th of July I secured a mature male

and also a female in the penultimate stage: these were put in

separate cages tor a day. At night they made their usual silken

chambers and retreated into them.

The next morning I introduced into the cage in which the

mature male was, a female in the penultimate stage. The female

wandered about the cage and came across the male in his retreat.

She moved towards the entrance of this retreat and introduced her

forelegs and anterior region of her body into it. The male met

her and a few rapid jerky strokes of the palpi and contacts of

front legs followed. The male then hurriedly got out of the nest

COURTING HABITS OF MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES 1%5

and the female directly got into it. She immediately began to

make the walls of the nest thicker. The male waited outside for

a few minutes and then wandered away for a while. However, it

soon returned and took up its position outside the retreat and spun

a few silken strands over his body and enclosing the female in

her retreat. The next morning the female had moulted and a little

later I saw the male getting into the nest and pairing. As he got

into the nest the female met him at the entrance and the usual

strokes of the palpi took place.

In the other cage where a female in the penultimate stage was

kept and which had made a retreat of its own, I introduced a

mature male. He,wandered about the cage a little and then came

across the nest of the female. Without any delay he thrust the

first pair of legs and his elongated chelicerae into it. The female

who was resting within with the head turned in the opposite d‘rec-

tion, immediately turned towards the male and they felt each other

by their front legs and palpi. This was accompanied by a few jerky

movements of the body. The male then retreated from the nest

and waited outside while the female remained quietly within the

nest. The next morning she had moulted and a little later the

male got in and they paired within the nest. )

Again, I kept a mature female in a cage. She made a retreat

and rested within. The next day while the female was still in

her retreat, I introduced a mature male into the cage. He

wandered inside the cage a little and then came across the female’s

retreat. As in the previous experiment, here also the male directly

introduced himself into the nest, his forelegs and falces thrust

out in front. The apparently ‘surprised’ female felt the intruder

with her palpi and front legs which immediately enabled them to

recognise each other. After a little more of touches of legs and

palpi, the male got into the nest and they paired inside the nest.

These observations show that the male in the course of his

wanderings, if he comes across a female which is only in its

penultimate stage and is in her moulting chamber, takes charge

of her and waits outside her nest patiently for her final moult

to take place: that he, while thus waiting outside makes a large

and loosely-woven nest outside the female’s chamber and enclosing

it. In this outer nest he remains. When the female has moulted

and thus attained ‘maturity’ he gets into the inner nest without

any special courtship and they pair within the nest. If however,

he comes across a mature female within her nest, he directly

introduces himself into the nest and pairs with her inside the nest.

Several spiders are known to pair within ‘pairing nests’! But

the antlike spiders of the family Attidae are supposed to pair out-

side any nests.? My observations of several species of Myrma-

tachne however convince me that in this genus at any rate pairing

does not take place in the open but only inside nests though in

* "Tr. H. Montgomery, 1910. The American Naturalist, vol. xiv.

mete yy. and) Bi C. Peckhams, 1889... Occ. Pap. ofthe Nat. Hist. Soc. of

Wisconsin 2.

i76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

a state of confinement they may be noted to pair in the open:

The necessity for retreating under the shelter of the silken canopy

for pairing will be obvious when we remember that they live in

the company of the ferocious red ants and that if pairing lakes

piace in the open they run the- risk of oem surprised~ by the

forager ants from the ant colony.

The observation that. the males take charge of young females

in the penultimate stage and wait till the latter moult, is not,

however, without parallel though, as far as I could ascertain, no

such observation has been. recorded of any Indian spiders or, of

any ant-mimicking spiders. However, one can be sure _ that

if only the habits of spiders are sufficiently observed, many such

instances would be forthcoming from the abundant spider-fauna

of this land.

A number of American Attidae have been observed where the ~

male seizes an immature female and lives with her in mating nests

till she moults and becomes mature.’ Peckham has shown such

a behaviour in Philaeus militaris.” McCook has given. certain

additional instances’ and Montgomery has described similar habits

in Phidippus purpuratus.’ They have also described members of

other families such as Drassidae, Therididae and Lycosidae behav-

ing in a similar manner. The commonly observed instances of

the males of many orb-weaving spiders waiting near the webs of

immature females must also be parallel phenomena to these. In

a British clubionid, Clubiona trivialis the male is known to construct.

a nest near the nest of the female and tap- upon the partes

between them sometimes for days together.

Mating seems to be promiscuous; a male.in the course of its.

wanderings may come across a female in the penultimate stage,

in which case he waits outside for her to moult and then pairs

with her. Or, if. he comes across a mature female.in her jmese

he gets in and pairs with her. The male may mate with a number

of females successively and in the same way a female, after being

impregnated by a male, may receive other males into her nest

and pair with them successively.

From the above-recorded observations we may draw the fol-

lowing conclusions :—

1. When a mature male and a mature female are placed

together in a cage the male ‘courts’ the female with characteristic

jerky movements, uplifted front. legs and bent abdomen and finally

pairs with her in the open. ;

2. Under natural conditions however, such cases of. court-

ship have not been observed. On the other hand males have been

many times observed to come .across females in their nests. The

male without any formality introduces himself into the nest at

the entrance of which the female meets him and there follows a few

i i a a A

1 T. H. Montgomery, 1910. The American Naturalist, vol. xliv.

2G. W. and E..G. Peckhams, 1889. Occ. Pap. of the Nat. Hist. Soc. of

Wisconsin 1.

® McCook, 18go. American spiders and their spinning work, vol. ii.

COURTING HABITS OF MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES 177

‘passes’ of the front legs and palpi during which they appear to

‘recognise’ each other. If the female is an adult he gets in

forthwith and mates with her. If she is only in her penultimate

stage, he withdraws from the nest, and remains outside making a

larger nest enclosing the female’s nest and waits within it till

she moults. After this event he gets in and pairs with her. If

the female spider is not yet in ine. penultimate stage, she hastens

away and escapes from the nest on feeling a male pushing himself

into her nest,

3. The male is able to distinguish between a mature female

and a female in the penultimate stage whom he had come into

contact with and adapt his behaviour accordingly. At the same

time the immature female—it is only natural that the mature

females should recognise the male—which is only in its penultimate

stage appears to have already attained to the ‘adolescent instinct’

which enables her to recognise and prepares her to receive the

male.

‘THE Dance’,

The movements made by the male during courtship in the open,

which, had not the later observations been made, would, certainly

have been designated the ‘courtship dance’ deserves a little closer

study. I have studied the behaviour of these spiders when they

come across a stranger or a rival—the spider stops suddenly, looks

closely at the stranger, the body is raised high on the legs, the

falees are sloped downwards, and the first pair of legs are lifted

upwards. <A short pause in this attitude, and then he slowly

approaches the other in short jerky movements or cautious

measured steps. On approaching he seems to get clearer im-

pressions about the other, for, his behaviour is modified according

menu olf it 15 a large and formidable enemy: it- has: faced) ~ it

suddenly darts back and escapes. If it 1s a rival male they both

take up a fighting attitude. If it is a female he continues his

jerky approach till their forelegs touch each other which appears

to convey to each other the information they want. Quite possibly

then, these ‘courtship movements’ and their behaviour when they

come across any stranger are more or less similar in their earlier

phases—only later as the movements proceed and the spiders get

more definite impressions of the objects engaging their attention,

they take different aspects.

Some insight into this phenomenon can be got by an investigation

of what are called Abnormal courtship dances of several male

spiders.

Peckham has recorded a male Phidippus mccooku ‘court’ a

female P. clarus while Locket saw a male Tarentula barbdipes ‘per-

forming’ in front of a male Trochosa ruricola. Berland noticed a

male Saitis barbipes ‘courting’ in the absence of a female! Thus

there are several recorded instances of male spiders beginning their

‘courtship actions’ before other males, mature or immature, of

178 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLH

their own species or even of another species." My own observa-—

tions on Myrmarachne plataleoides have shown that the preliminary

parts of the ‘courtship movements’ were exhibited by the male in

the presence of other males or other spiders even if separated from

it by glass partitions. Nay, they have even on a few occasions

been noticed to begin these movements before their own images in

a mirror!

On one occasion when I casually turned towards one of my

glass cages in which a ‘mature male was kept, I saw him suddenly

turn to a side and begin his ‘courtship’ movements: Of course,

he did not continue it far but it was interesting that similar move-

ments to ‘courtship’ were noted when apparently there was none

nearby to cause any excitement. Probably Berland’s observation

of male jumping spiders courting ‘nothing’ is closely similar to

this. He attributes this to Physiological excitement. It may be

so; but while investigating this a simpler explanation that occurred

to me is that the spider was not really courting ‘nothing’ as at

first it appeared to be; but my movements in front of the glass

cage either directly or by reflections on the sides of the cage gave

the spider an idea of some stranger moving close by. It immedi-

ately put on its attitude of scrutiny and caution.

These ‘abnormal courting phenomena’ tell us that—

1. The male may begin the ‘courtship movement’ before other

males, other spiders or even their own images. :

z. The male does not need to ‘recognise’ the female by sight

or by smell before he begins ‘courting’. In fact the stimulus that

initiates the movements of the male appears to be only something

vague rather than anything definite.

3. When under these conditions ‘courtship’ has begun it does

not however proceed to its culmination. As the male gradually

approaches the object of his attentions he must certainly be getting

some more definite impressions about the latter. If it is a male

of another species its behaviour would be quite different; they

may quietly resume their ways or the stronger would chase away

the other. If it is an individual in a separate glass cage that

has engaged the spider’s attentions, it would soon find it

physically impossible to get closer and failing to get the proper

~stimuli he would stop his attentions. On the other hand if it is

a female whose presence has initiated these movements, as_ they

approach they get more definite impressions of each other either

by sight or smell and this would stimulate them further till their

front legs touch each other. This is the climax of their effort to

recognise each other; the cautious, ‘on guard’ attitude is given up

and they prepare to pair.

CONCLUSION.

Our study of the courting habits of M. plataleoides has shown—

1. That ‘courtship antics’ do not take place usually in the natural

a a i

ea Be H. Savory, 1928. The Biology of spiders.

COURTING HABITS OF MYRMARACHNE PLATALEOIDES 1%9

state where the male merely gets into the nest occupied by the

female and pairs with her within the nest.

2. When a certain form of ‘courtship’ appears to take place

under certain conditions, the spiders do not seem to recognise each

other fully—there being only a general impression of a stranger

at first.

3. The earlier phases of those movements which constitute this

‘courtship’ are similar to those made by the male when he comes

across any stranger. In the open under confinement, these move-

ments proceed and if the object engaging his attentions chances to

-pe a female of the same species, the necessary impressions are

sooner or iater received which stimulate the sex instinct in both

and they approach one another and prepare to pair.

These would partly appear to support the views of Professor

Montgomery’ in his interpretation of the courtship phenomena

among spiders. He remarks that the adult male is excited by sexual

desire and at the same time by fear during courtship and that the

movements of the male at this time ‘are for the most part exagygera-

tions of ordinary motions of fear and timidity’. |

Here the male, however is bigger and he need not fear his mate

in any way: yet his movements are suggestive of extreme caution.

When however he comes across a female in her nest—as happens

under natural conditions—he does not wait for any of his ‘display’

but merely gets into the nest through one of its opening. At the

opening of the nest they meet and ‘recognise’ each other. The

cautious movements which are exhibited when they meet outside any

nest are to be looked upon as the spider’s peculiar way of ‘on guard’

approach towards a stranger for the purpose of ‘finding out’ its

veal nature, his eyes at a distance having given him only a vague

impression. When a male and a female confined in a cage have once

met they thereafter meet and embrace a number of times without

any repetition of the special movements.

Against this view it has been pointed out that the courtship

antics are not exactly the ordinary movements of excitement, self-

defence and caution. It may be so in many spiders but in M.

plataleoides which has been the subject of this study there is

practically very little difference. Montgomery, however, analysing

the instincts at work in the male and the female during courtship

believes that the male recognises the female and is excited by

sexual instinct; at the same time he is afraid of her and hence his

attitude of self-defence. The latest theory of Bristowe and Lockett?

which is only a modification of Montgomery’s views is stated

thus—*‘Since the male spider runs the risk of being killed and

eaten by the female the first use of his courtship antics is to enable

her to recognise him as a male and not to regard him as some:

thing to be eaten. When he has begun his courtship the male

spider is practically safe but it takes a varying amount of continued

1 TY. H. Montgomery, tg10. The American Naturalist, vol. xliv.

eaves S-- btistowe and G. Hi Wocket,. P.Z:S.. XXII, 2:

* T. H. Savory, 1928. The Biology of spiders.

is0 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY,- Vol. XLII

solicitations to stimulate the female so effectively that she submits

herself to him. Recognition and stimulation are therefore both

necessary before mating can take place.’

As Savory remarks’ this later theory appears to he neédiesall

complex, attributing mental powers. to the spider which it: probably

does not possess. Both the above-mentioned interpretations assume

that the male is much better able ta recognise the female than

she is to recognise him. : |

The above study of ‘courtship’ in M, plataleoides shows that

here at any rate a simpler interpretation is possible. When

‘courtship’. begins the spiders do not appear to fully recognise each

other. but behave as if they are confronted by any stranger,

‘recognition’ taking place only as these movements have proceeded

considerably, the finale of this attempt at recognition being

reached when their forelegs have actually come into contact.

er i ds eR

1T. H. Savory; 1928. The, Biology of_spiders.

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Monthly Journal of Medical Science, with illustrations and marginal notes,

this slim brochure gives the specialist the sort of first-hand information which

is usually out of his reach. It is recommended to every serious student of

herpetology, and to all who are interested in the bibliography of natural

history.

joe ae

Il.— THE. TETRAPOD REPTILES OF CEYLON. Volume I: Testudinates

and Crocodilians. By P. E. P. Deraniyagala. Pp. xxxii+412. Ceylon:

Colombo Museum; London: Dulau & Co.; 1939. Price: Rs. 10 or sh. 15.

A warm welcome will be given to this book, the work of an author well

qualified to deal with the reptiles of Ceylon in their many different aspects.

Mr. Deraniyagala has done his task exceedingly well, and his book is a

model of what such things ought to be: clear and exact statement, selected

and arranged so as to give the most ready assistance.

Although the author gives much that is already known about the testudinates

and crocodilians of Ceylon, his work is obviously not a thing of scissors and

paste and second hand information, for the amount of new material incor-

porated by far outweighs the rest. For instance, the sections on the Leathery

Turtle and the Estuarine Crocodile mark a great achievement in that they

present so much which is entirely new.

The book contains 24 plates, 137 text-figures, 62 tables, a systematic

index, a glossary of technical terms, a bibliography, and indexes of names:

English, Sinhalese, Tamil, Scientific, authors. It is essentially a work of

reference, and it is difficult to write about it; its thoroughness can only be

tested by use.

‘ Published by ‘The Society for the Bibliography of Natural History’,

4t, Queen’s Gate, London, S.W. 7.

WANTED INFORMATION ABOUT MAHSEER.

Members who are anglers in India will be reading with much

interest the series now being published in the Journal on ‘The

Game Fishes of India’. |

Dr. Sunder Lal Hora discusses on pages 279 to. 282 of

Volume xli the why and wherefore of the hypertrophied lips of

certain mahseer in certain rivers; and asks that ‘To elucidate

this problem it is highly desirable that anglers may kindly note

the condition of the lips of the mahseer caught by them and

also make a detailed note of the length,’ etc., etc.

It is hoped that anglers will kindly do what they can to assist

Dr. Hora in the manner suggested.

EDITORS.

WMiIScereANneOuUs NOTES

IL—HOW THE MONGOOSE. COUNTERACTS SNAKE BITE.

With reference to my letter of the 27th of March regarding the

habits of my crab-eating mongoose (Herpestes uwrva) I was told the

other day by a Burman that these animals have a patch on the

tongue which contains medicine to counteract a bite from a

poisonous snake. I examined carefully the tongue of my mon-

goose and found it to be of normal red colour except for a small

patch in the middle about the size of an elongated 3 penny bit.

This patch is dark grey in colour and covered with fine spines

of what appears to be hair. I do not know if this is recorded in

the smaller species of red snake-catching mongoose. It is not

altogether unlikely that this rough patch on the tongue could

serve for the purpose of cleansing a wound inflicted by a poisonous

snake. I would be very grateful if you would let me know if

you have ever heard of this theory before and whether the small

species of red mongoose has a similar rough hairy patch on the

tongue.

AMHERST DIsTRICT, A. L’E. BROWNLOW,

MOouLMEIN. District Superintendent of Police.

[The idea that’ mongooses are immune to the bite of the cobra

and_resort to the eating of various roots and herbs to counteract

the effect of the poison is very prevalent. But the story about the

patch on the mongoose’s tongue, containing medicine to cure

snake-bite is a new one. ‘The central patch on the tongue of the

mongoose 1s composed of numerous papillae. These horny papillae

are to be seen on the tongues of many carnivorous animals. Thev

are encased in horny pointed sheaths. Their function is purely

mechanical. The numerous rigid points give the tongue the action

of a rasp designed to remove remnants of flesh adhering to

bones, etc. These conical papillae tend to form spiny patches

on the fore part of the tongue and the patch referred to has probably

the function which we have indicated.

While the blood of the mongoose, like the blood of cats, has

a certain resistance to snake venom, a mongoose, once injected

with a fully lethal dose, will not survive. Eps. ]

1I.—A LARGE PANTHER.

(A correction).

I find that in your issue of the Society’s Magazine, vol. xli,

-p. 656, you have been kind enough to publish an account of the

World Record Panther shot by me.

I find however that owing to some oversight in my Office

the name of wrong Taxidermist has been entered. The skin was

184 — JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. “SOCIETY, -V ol. Xonid

cured by Messrs. Theobald Brothers, Mysore, and not by Van

Ingen & Van Ingen, Mysore.

Enclosed herewith a true copy of the Taxidermist’s Certi-

ficate which I possess.

PALACE, YASHODHAR SINGH.

KHILCHIPUR,

CENTRAL INDIA.

May -22, 1940.

[In Rowland Wards Records of Big Game there is a record of

a panther measuring 8! 6” before skinning (9! 3” dressed). It was

shot at Banipur Kashmir by Col. A. G, Arbuthnot. Eps. |

III.—THE SHORT-NOSED FRUIT-BAT (CYNOPTERUS

SPHINX) AS AN AGENT OF SEED DISPERSAL IN

THE WILD DATE (PHOENIX SYLVESTRIS E.).

Standing in my garden at dusk on the 8th August (1940), I

noticed a constant stream of bats flying in and out of the crown

of a date palm (Phoenix sylvestris). The palm was laden with

ripening fruit. At first I took the bats to be the Fulvous Fruit-Bat

(Rousettus leschenaulti Desm.), but the flight did not seem to be

that of Rousettus. Being interested, I got my torch and net and

took my stand under the tree. In the fading light the crown of

the palm was silhouetted against the sky and the bats could be

clearly seen coming in, ferreting among the dates and then flying

off. In the beam from the torch the colour of the animals soon

betrayed their identity, they were the short-nosed_ Fruit-Bat

(Cynopterus sphinx). Though dazzled, the bat did not seem to

mind the light much. It made alighting difficult and in most

cases the bats flew off again, but when the light was turned on

once they had settled, they did not worry about it much. They

would hurriedly select the ripest dates and fly off with one in the

mouth. At no time did any of them finish its meal on the spot.

I soon caught some on the return flight to the tree. An examina-

tion- of the mouth revealed pieces of the scanty pulp of this date,

adhering to the teeth. The stomachs contained much liquid and

just traces of well-masticated pulp. From this it seems that this

bat, like the Flying-Fox and Rousettus, relies mainly on juice and

not on pulp.

By carrying off the fruit to be eaten elsewhere and there dropping

the seeds when done with, the bats unconsciously become agents

of seed dispersal. Bats are not unknown as agents of seed

dispersal; and ‘Ridley in his book quotes several instances, though

* The Dispersal of Plants throughout the world, p. 349.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 185

he does not specifically mention Cynopterus as an agent of the

date palm (P. sylvestris). However, he states that in Africa,

where the genus Cynopterus is absent, Iousettus is known to

feed on dates and disperse the seeds. While feeding the bats

made no noises.

A point worth noting is that the genitals were in non-breeding

condition at this season. The testes were invisible externally indi-

cating that they ‘atrophy’ after breeding just as in Rousettus.

Among the adults were a number of young adults which did not

appear to exhibit the characteristic ferruginous tints of their elders.

This seems to show that this bat, like Rousettus, breeds earlier in

the year, perhaps about the same time as the latter species.

Bompay NaTuRAL History SOcIgETY, C,. McCANN,

August 10, 1940,

IV.--JONGLE AND HOUSE CROWS AS DESTROYERS

OF GAME.

This year, in the beginning of April, I noticed house crows

arriving in the town of Bhavanagar in increasing numbers. Trees

in which ten and twenty crows used to roost, now held at least

a hundred if not more. The numbers in which they arrived was

striking, reminding one of travelling parties of pilgrims. This

preponderance of crows was also noticed in several large villages

in the State. The increase may have been due to the famine pre-

vailing in parts of Kathiawar, and to the scarcity of water in those

districts. Here we have been fortunate this year in having good

rains, but the crows have left no peace for breeding partridges

and other birds.

The Jungle Crow, especially, has been a great menace to

partridges, destroying their chicks. During this summer, I saw

not less than half a dozen partridges robbed of their young.

April and May seem to be the breeding season of the Jungle Crow

here, and hence during this period the parent birds become fearless,

attacking young birds, squirrels, and any living thing which they

can tackle. It was a pathetic sight to see a pair of jungle crows

destroying tiny partridge chicks despite the parents’ vain attempts to

protect them. Other small birds fared as badly. The Jungle

Crow levies a heavy annual toll on young partridges. I am sure

most nesting birds shudder at the call of the crow, which is a

prolonged qwauu qwauu, generally emitted with outspread wings.

Interpreted it must mean a general invitation to the robber band

‘Food is here come and help yourselves’.

The House Crow does useful work as a Scavenger. I have

constantly observed parties of crows leave in the early mornings

to visit villages ten or twelve miles away, specially to feed on

dead cattle. They return to their roosts late in the evenings with

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY "NATURAL FIST) SOCIED YS Vole oven

bad on account of their abundance. House crows _ frequently

combine in their marauding.

This hot weather, when making notes on the habits of the

Common River Tern, a very interesting bird to study during the

nesting season, I noticed one of these marauding parties of crows

harassing a small colony, which had selected an island on our

lake for their nesting. Morning and evening troops of crows would ©

fly around the island, they were attacked immediately and vigor-

ously by the terns, which succeeded in driving them away from time

to time. The terns had the advantage of speed, and did not permit

the crows to settle on their islands, nevertheless the raiders did

not abandon their purpose. Reinforcements arrived, more and more

crows came, and by sheer numbers, the raiders were eventually

successful in stealing two eggs from the twenty-seven that were

on the island. The raids continued day by day, the eggs were

reduced until there were none, and the terns were compelled to

evacuate their breeding grounds.

K. S$. DHARMAKUMARSINHBHYJI.

BHAVANAGAR,

April 15, 1940.

V.—NOTES ON THE NESTING OF LEGGE’S FLOWER-

PECKER (ACMONORHYNCHUS VINCENS., |SCLATER]).

(With a plate).

As there are no records of the nesting ‘of “this (species, “a

description of the nest I found last February, may be of interest.

It was built about 75 feet from the ground in one of the lower

branches of a Dipterocarpus zeylanicus which stands in a strip

of jungle on this estate.

These trees are tall and straight, the trunk being bare of

branches for 60 feet or more, and then breaking out into a fairly

large head. The leaves are stiff, and from 5 to 8 inches long.

The nest was suspended from a leafy twig, being well protected

from above by the foliage. It was larger than most Flower-

peckers’ nests, measuring about 44 inches in length, and as will

be seen from the photograph, had a pronounced hood over the

somewhat large entrance.

It was rather fragile, being made of reddish vegetable down

and cobwebs. The small furry seed cases of some plant were also

incorporated, and were of the same reddish brown colour. The

outside of the nest was decorated with dried leaf bracts or stipules,

of varying size, two or three long ones being attached to the

bottom of the nest.

Unfortunately I waited too long, and missed getting the eggs.

The hen incubated for such brief periods, that I was under the

impression that she was still building. It was only when I saw

both cock and hen going regularly to the nest, that. I realised my

mistake.

There were two young. Only the hen built the nest and brooded

the eggs. All observations had to be done with field glasses, and _

(suasuia snysudysouowsp) saxpedsoMopy S,a8saT JO ISON

"20S ISIE] ‘JUN Avquog ‘“‘usinor

“

i .

5 a .

”

eek ages

coon

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 187

the nest was so well screened by leaves, that it was very difficult

to get a good view of it.

The trials of getting it down were much enhanced by the large

red ants which swarmed among the leaves,—-and at times all over

the Sinhalese climber. They give a very painful bite.

I have seen fledgelings of this Flowerpecker in August, so it

is probably double-brooded.

eam ‘much indebted to W. W. A. Phillips, moe for the

excellent photographs of the nest, which he has kindly allowed

me to use to illustrate these notes.

I found another nest of this species in June. The young were

just leaving it. It was built in the same species of tree, but in

a very large specimen.

It was well within the crown, and about half way up it, built

in a topmost spray of an erect branchlet about 3 feet high, growing

from the main portion of a large limb.

The height from the ground was estimated at 125 feet. The

tree was rather isolated and in an exposed position, standing on the

edge of the jungle where it adjoined tea.

This tree was about fifty yards from the tree where the first

nest was found, and I have every reason to believe it was built

by the same pair.

CICELY LUSHINGTON.

HoupPE,

KAHAWATTA,

CEYLON.

April to, 1940.

VI.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE YELLOW-BELLIED

FLOWERPECKER (PACHYGLCSSA MELANOXANTHA

HODGS.) AT ALMORA, U.P.

Among the small collection of birds made at Almora_ by

Mr. W. A. Hewitt, is a specimen of the Yellow-bellied Flower-

pecker (Pachyglossa melanoxantha) 2. This specimen was obtained

at Almora Kumaon District—altitude 6,800—in August 1940. The

range of this species, according to New Fauna, is given as ‘Sikkim

and Nepal to Eastern Assam and the higher hill ranges south

of the Brahmaputra’.

S: He PRAGER,

BomBay NATuRAL ‘History SOcIETY,

August 27, 1940.

VII.—THE OCCURRENCE OF THE DRONGO CUCKOO

(SAR NICULUS LUGUBRIS HORSE.) IN THE PUNJAB.

I thought it might interest you to know that I am almost

certain I have seen a pair of Surniculus lugubris here.

The bird answers the description of the Drongo Cuckoo given

tine Mauna of British: India,’ vol. tii, p. 223. J should say

188 [OURNAL, (BOMBAY (NATURAL, BISESSOCIED You Vola

the birds are young though, as I did not handle them, I did not

see any white feathers. I first noticed them sitting on the tele-

graph wire beside the golf club house, and at first glance thought

they were the King Crow until I noticed the tail, which had the

outer feathers considerably shorter than the rest and _ slightly

protruding.

According to the distribution of this bird given in F.B.1.

it is rare in the Indian Peninsula and this part of India is not

given as a likely locality. The paragraph finishes up by saying

that it is probably more widely distributed, but owing to its great

resemblance to the King Crow it is apt to be overlooked. This

encourages me to believe that it may be the bird, and I would be

very grateful if you would tell me whether you think this is pos-

sible or not.

The King Crow itself is not a common bird here in Jullundur

except in the breeding season. 1 only saw Surniculus (?) a week

ago; and on four consecutive days they have been in the same

place, and I venture to think they have only just arrived or I

would have seen them before as I spend a great deal of time

watching birds.

7, NAPIER Roap, MRS. Ay Bi AMS vea

JULLUNDUR,

PUNJAB.

September 5, 1940.

[The Indian Drongo Cuckoo S$. 1. dicruroides is described as

being found in Upper India and Assam, extending into Northern

Burma. It is obviously a rare visitor to the Punjab. Col. Rattray

in a paper on the Birds of the Murree Hills, (vol. xvi, 661) des-

cribes it as a very rare species, which was shot in the Murree Hills

at 5,000 ft. in 1899. Then A. J. Currie, in a note on the Cuckoos

of the Punjab (vol. xxiv, p. 549), states that he heard the notes

of this bird in a garden in Lahore, and identifies the call unmis-

takably as belonging to this species. EDs. |

VIIE—A NOTE “ON THE ALPINE SWIFT (MIChORUS

MELBA BAKERI HARTER).

In a letter to me, Mr. Humayun Abdulali has pointed out that

the resident race of M. melba is bakevi Hartert, and not M. m.

melba, a point we overlooked in the joint paper by Mr. A. R.

Hughes and myself, On the road to Gersoppa and back (fourn.

BUNCHES. ivol’ elt} Cp: a6).

With regard to the breeding of this bird, we were merely quot-

ing from the Fauna [F.B.1. (Birds) 2nd Ed. vol. iv, p- 225 )8

If the birds breed ‘during June and perhaps the last week of May,’

then it was quite reasonable to expect the swifts there in numbers,

but this was not. the case at the time of our visit in June 1938.

Mr. Ali’s record in the Journal (vol. xxxviii, p. 830), ‘The male,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 189

with fairly large salivary glands had testes measuring 188 mm.

The female with a shelled egg in the oviduct, had the salivary

glands very much more enlarged.’ seems to definitely establish

‘that this swift breeds in December at the Gersoppa Falls, and

not in June as mentioned in the Fauna.

Commenting further on my observations Mr. Ali writes,

‘But your note raises an interesting question. Where do the

birds go during the rains? You found them absent in June, and

I did not see them either, when I was down at Gersoppa on the

grd August, last year (1939). A friend of mine however, was

there on the 7th September and almost certainly saw the swifts.

As a matter of fact, he dropped his camera lens over the ledge on

the British side, he saw ‘many small birds flying about in the mist’.

The birds appear to leave the falls from June to August, or,

as you must have heard from the Chowkidar at the Dak Bungalow,

the pigeons and swifts store large reserves of food in the crevices

and thus hibernate through the monsoon’ !!

~ As already stated in the joint article Mr. Hughes and I saw

no birds in June (1938), but I have seen them in thousands

in October (1919). I also stated that I shot this bird in the

Pulnai Hills during June and July (1921). At that time they

were about those hills in fair numbers. My observations, and

Mr. Ali’s subsequent visit in August, seem to suggest that there

is a definite migration to other parts during the full force of the

monsoon, but where the thousands of birds go to is yet to be

discovered.

C. McCANN.

BomBpAy NATURAL History SOCIETY,

Bombay.

July 31, 1940.

IX VULTURES “FEEDING? AT NIGHT.

Mr. Livesey’s interesting experience with vultures feeding on

a carcase at night--on page 55 of your Journal (vol. xlI—No. 4—

May 1939)—has prompted me to quote the following entry from

my “shikar diary’ in respect of very similar proceedings witnessed

by me when shooting in the Nepal Tarai and the Maharani of

Khairigarh’s jungles early this month with the Maharaj Kumar

of Vizianagram.

‘On 6-4-40 the Maharaj Kumar and I sat up for tiger in the

Nepal jungles. This was in dense tree and grass jungle where

it joined the narkul and ratwa grass jungles. A pair of tigers

had overnight killed one of our large-size buffalo paddas at cross-

paths some 50 yards into the tree jungle. At the crossing was

a clearance some 30x40 yards with a few big trees and right

round was dense tree and cane jungle. The kill had been dragged

towards clumps of cane. We decided to sit up and so the kill

was dragged back into the clearing at about 4-30 p.m. Half an

190 -JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XM

hour later we took our seats in a comfortable machan and had

hopes of the tigers, which were certainly present earlier in the

evening, turning up. But alas! all our hopes were blasted by

vultures who must have been particularly tamished! When we

arrived, several of the high trees round about were full of these

birds waiting patiently. Up to the time we got into the machan

our men were about, but they left when we were comfortably

settled in, two of them remaining hidden about too yards away

for some time in case anything was required. The sun was high,

and from 5-30 p.m. to 8-o p.m. the men did nothing but charge

the vultures, who every to minutes or so fell on the kill. After

8-o p.m. no further attempt was made to get rid of them and,

when we got down from the machan half an hour later, some

20/30 of them were still feeding. We flashed our torches on

them and, after craning their necks at us, they continued their

repast as if nothing had happened. Several of them, which had

tea to repletion, were sitting about at the edge of the tree jungle

and, owing to the darkness, could not fly to safety. Some of

them tried to do so, missed their mark, and tell to the ground.

those on the ground were not molested by any animal and were

none the worse lor being on the ground on a dark night.

ihis episode was astonishing to me for | was always under

the impression that alter sun-aown vultures never alighted at

kills, especially in jungle where they could easily be ambushed.

On returning to camp I| consulted the two head shikaris, one

a local man tad the otner of Murzapur, who said that nothing

unusual had happened. According to them vultures, which have

had even a partial teed, will not come down atter sunset, but, it

they have been kept off, as was the case here, they are very bold

and throw discretion to the wind. ‘Lhey may have a shrewd

knowledge of the presence of the killer, but when hungry very

frequently take their chance. One of the shikaris told me that

he was once watching a kill from a tree. At about 6 p.m. a tew

vultures, from among many that were sitting round, ventured

to alight and peck at the kul. dhis brought tne tigress out and

she chased some birds for 20/30 yards. While she did this other

birds, which had meantime alighted, tackled the kill. These pro-

ceedings were repeated a dozen times till the tigress left in disgust

and the birds had their feed. No vulture was killed though 3/4 had

been hurt by blows aimed at them by the tigress. ‘This incident

took place in Khairigarh jungles bordering on the Nepal Tarai.’

I can offer no comment beyond that 1 was truly surprised at

the conduct of the vultures who seemed to suffer from a type of

fatalism. We had had several other kills where such behaviour

was not resorted to.

It would be interesting to learn of the experiences of others.

10, RajJPORE Roap, E; <S,. LEWIS:

DELHI,

April 28, 1940.

MISCEELANEOUS NOTES 191

[In volume xxxvili, p. 190 Mr. R. C. Morris published a note on

‘Vultures feeding at night’. The birds descended from neighbour-

ing trees at about 8 p.m. and by 11 p.m. they had completely

demolished the carcase. It was a moon-light night.

Onep., 624-01 the Same) volume, MreeW.-Gough records: an

identical incident when sitting up for tiger near Neemuch. EDs. |

X.—INJURIES TO THE FEET OF A MALLARD.

Last February I shot a Mallard, the feet of which appeared

-to have suffered a loss of portions of the web and ‘toes’, the

latter being in certain cases, mere stumps, and having the appear-

ance of the ravages of ‘Frost Bite’, or amputation as might occur

from a jaw-trap. The injuries were of no recent date, as there

were no raw or open scars, and the bird—a drake—was in capital

condition, being one of the heaviest of the species I’ve shot—-

well over 34 lbs.

W. P. KEELAN.

FNRCADIA T. Ex,

DeHRA Dun, U.P.

uly LO, 1940.

XI.—ADDiITIONAL NOTES ON THE BIRDS

OF “BOMBAY AND SALSETTE.

Since the publication of the final part of our paper on ‘The

Birds of Bombay and Salsette’ we have obtained several fresh

records, and our attention has been drawn to overlooked data.

This is an attempt to bring the paper into line with the informa-

tion available today, and we hope to be able to bring out these

supplementary reports from time to time.

Several of the records merely duplicate previous observations,

and are entered for completeness. We are also including a number

of nesting records from the adjacent country, since almost no

information is available from our area, and these might facilitate

further work.

We would like to place on record our appreciation of the con-

siderable amount of data obtained by Br. Navarro at Khandala,

and we hope to be able to publish a more complete list of the

mass of interesting details that he has procured in that locality.

1.—-BIRDS NEW TO THE BOMBAY-SALSETTE LIST.

The Indian Pied Myna: Sturnopastor contva contra (Linn.).

At Dharavi, near Sion Station, a pair of these mynas was noted several

times in a localised area and one was seen singing lustily in a Bombax

(April 1940). H.A. also saw another pair near Kurla during the monsoon

last year, but these records may refer-to ‘escapes’ since this is a common

cage bird.

jo8 §=jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

The Pigmy Wood-pecker: Dryobates hardwickii hardwickii (Jerdon).

A solitary bird was observed on a Bombax in open deciduous forest near

Borivli on 31-12-39, and a pair on the Wada Road some 20 miles North of

Bhiwandi, on 27-60-37. There is also a specimen obtained by Fr. Palacios at

Murtd, Janiira, during August, 1937. These records show that the bird is

sparsely distributed throughout our area.

The European Roller: Corvacias. garrula semenowi Loudon & Tschusi.

Further to the Khandala records mentioned in J.B.N.H.S. xl, p. 168,

a specimen was obtained in Bombay City during December, 1938.

The Blue-winged Paroquet: Psiifacula columboides (Vigors).

This bird was twice seen on a hillside in heavy forest at Tungar Hill

near Bassein on 2-4-34. Brother Navarro has records of c/3 on 4-2-40, and

c/3 on 15-4-40, both trom Ishandala.

The Jungle Nightjar: Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham.

A specimen obtained at Chembur on Trombay Island was sent in to

St. Xavier’s College during December, 1939. This species may be a rare resident

in our area, as it was noted common at Kardi (near Atgaon) on the Nasik

Road.

It is also common at Khandala, where Navarro has ‘taken 3 clutches of

2 eggs each during May, 1937. He records that in each clutch one egg was

distinctly larger than the other.

Franklin’s Nightjar: Caprimulgus monticolus monticolus Franklin.

A specimen was obtained by D. A. Barretto at Kurla on 1o0-1-4o... The

characteristic sweesh call of this bird is too distinctive to be overlooked, and

this individual may have been a straggler.

The Brown Hawk Owl: Ninox scutulata lugubris (Tickell).

A male, with dormant testes was shot at Bandra on 13-1-40, by Mr. Knox.

The specimen, which is now in the St. Xavier’s College Collection, was

examined by Salim Ali who places it with lugubris.. The colour is

intermediate between lugubris and hirsuta, while the head is darker than

lugubris. Vhe wing measures as 213 mm.

The Indian River Tern: Sterna aurantia Gray..-

This tern was noted as common on flooded mud flats at Bassein on 17-9-39.

There is a specimen in the St. Xavier’s College Collection obtained at Trombay.

The Large Crested Tern: Thalasseus bergii ssp.

One was noted ‘going over the ternlet colony at Utan Washi on 28-5-37.

Considering that a sub-species of this bird is common further south and

breeds on the Vingutrla Rocks, it is likely that stray birds do occasionally turn up

round Bombay. It is of course essentially a bird of the sea.

The Large Indian Cormorant: Phalacrocorax carbo [sinensis (Shaw & Nodder)].

Several were seen at Tansa Lake on 18 April 1940. The white about

the head and on the thighs is unmistakable. The bird is also appreciably

larger than the other cormorants and much stockier than the Darter.

The White Ibis: Threskiornis melanocephalus melanocephalus (Latham.).

In the St. Xavier’s College Collection there is a specimen shot by Fr, Palacios

in Rewdanda Creek on 8-11-33. This Ibis is also common in the Deccan,

and a large flock was seen at Lake Beale on 22-10-39.

The Glossy Ibis: Plegadis falcinellus falcinellus (Linn.).

A bird was shot by Fr. Palacios of St. Xavier’s College, in Rewdanda

Creek on. 8-11-33. A pair was observed by H. A. in salt pans at Bassein on

17-9-39. This species is common at Nasik and in the Deccan generally.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 193

The Reunion Petrel: Petrodroma aterrima. .

On 15-6-40, a specimen was sent in alive to St. Xavier’s College. After

some speculation regarding its identity, and in the absence of any material

for comparison, it was -forwarded to the Colombo Museum, and has _ been

named as this species by Mr. G. M. Henry of that place. This bird is new

to the Indian’:area; its distribution is given as ‘Western Indian Ocean

near Mascarenhas Island, and breeds at Reunion Island’ (These islands are

off Madagascar). The specimen was obtained by fisher-follk near Colaba

Lighthouse, and considering that Puffinus persicus has also been procured in the

same area this year, it appears that petrels may be commoner about our coast

than existing records indicate, and further collaboration with fishermen might

produce interesting information.

2.—ADDITIONAL NOTES RELATING TO BIRDS ALREADY MENTIONED

IN OUR ORIGINAL PAPER.

The Southern Grey Tits: Parus major mahrattarum — Hartert.

Several were noted on 13-2-38, some 20 miles north of Bhiwandi, along

the Wada Road. Navarro took an egg at Lonavla.

The Common Babbler: Argyva cavdata caudata (Dumont).

Navarro has a record of three fresh eggs taken in a bush in an orchard

at Bandra on 2-3-40. ,

The Deccan Scimitar Babbler: Pomatorhinus horsfieldi Sykes.

On g-11-39, Navarro took c/3 fresh and c/3 half-incubated at Khandala.

The White-throated Babbler: Dumetia hyperthra albogularis (Blyth).

We -took c/4 at Khandala on 3-9-39.

The Bombay Quaker Babbler: Alcippe potoicephala brucei Hume.

Navarro obtained c/3 at Khandala on_ 10-11-39.

Jerdon’s Chloropsis: Chloropsis jerdoni (Blyth).

Navarro has two records of nests with 2 eggs obtained at Khandala on

13-6-40.

The Indian Stone-Chat: Saxicola torquata indica. (Blyth).

Birds were seen on bushes bordering snipe country near Kihim on 19-10-32.

The Indian Shama: Kittacincla malabarica malabarica (Scopoli).

Navarro has taken 2 clutches of 4 eggs each at Khandala on 15-4-38 and

27-5-38. ,

The White-throated Ground Thrush: | Geokichla citrina cyanotus (Jardine &

Selby).

Records appear to indicate that this bird is a monsoon visitor to Salsette,

and further notes would be of interest.

The Blue Rock Thrush: Monticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes).

The first and last records of this bird are on 2-10-33 and 18-4-35.

The Paradise Flycatcher: Tchitrea paradisi [paradisi (L)].

The last record from Salsette is on 3-5-34, but Navarro has obtained eggs

(c/2) at Khandala on 17-3-40. The sub-species requires confirmation.

The Pale Brown Shrike: Lanius isabellinus Hempr. & Ehrenb.

The appearance of this species in our parts in the cold weather of 1939-40

may have some connection with the failure of the monsoon in its usual winter

quarters further north and west. A male was shot on the mud-flats near

Rewas in Dharamtar Creek on 3-12-39, and another was obtained at Ghoti,

Nasik Dist. on 1-1-40. It was then noted as common. Another was seen

in ‘katchar-patti’, Trombay Island, on 26-1-40. .

io4 jOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

The Black-headed Cuckuvo-Shrike: Lalage sykesi. Strickland.

Navarro obtained a c/3 at Khandala on 27-5-39.

The Bronzed Drongo: Chaptia aenea malayensis. Blyth.

A pair was observed in deciduous forest at Borivli on 31-12-39, where

they were occasionally hawking very close to the ground; another example

on 7-4-40, a few miles from Thana. It may be a winter visitor.

The Racket-tailed Drongo: Dissemurus paradiseus malabaricus (Latham).

A c/1 was observed along the Tulsi Flume on 18-6-39. On 7th April,

1940, the forest north of the Dahisar stream was rapidly cut down, and

several Racket-tailed Drongos were seen in deforested country which can now be

termed scrub, with a few stunted clumps of bamboo. Will the birds migrate to

heavier forest or acclimatize themselves to scrub?

Franklin’s Wren-Warbler: Franklinia vracilis gracilis (Franklin).

A bird was building at Vihar Lake on 3-7-38.

The Black-headed Oriole: Orviolus xantnornus maderaspatanus — (Franklin).

Another nest with c/3 was obtained at Powai Lake on 5-7-36, and young

out of nest were also observed.

The Rosy Pastor of Rose-coloured Starling: Pastor roseus (Linn.).

Birds were seen at Bhyandar as early as 20th Aug. 39. This might be

due to the drought in the North.

The Grey-headed Myna: Sturnia malabarica malabarica (Gmelin),

Navarro obtained a c/1 at Khandala on 18-6-39, and this is the nearest

breeding record available. In Salsette it appears to be commonest during the

monsoon and cold winter.

Blyth’s Myna: Sturnia malabarica blythii (Jerdon).

On 9-9-39, a party of four or five was observed at Trombay Island.

The Jungle Myna: thiopsar fuscus mahrattensis (Sykes).

A pair was observed at Powai on 20-4-40. By June quite a _ colony

appear to have settled down among the palms now standing on marshy land

exposed by the drainage of the lake. One pair was noted building in a

hole in a headless brab. Common Mynas are also present, but these appear

to keep to drier land.

The Indian Red Munias Amandava amandava_ (Linn).

A small party, all in female plumage, was observed at Vihar on 2-2-34.

The Black-headed Bunting: Eniberiza melanocephala Scopoli.

A small flock was observed between Mumbra and Panvel on 18-3-39. It

was common near Ghoti, Nasik Dist. on 1-1-40.

The Crag Martin: Riparia rupestris (Scop).

These birds were observed at Khandala on 30-11-39. They were noted as

common near Lake Beale on 1-1-40, as well as at Niphad on 17-3-40.

The Dusky Crag Martin: Riparia concolor (Sykes).

On 2-7-38, a pair was observed nesting over a door-way at Worli, Bombay

City. Another pair was building at Kampoli—Bhor Ghat on _ 1-3-39. On

3-9-39, the latter nest site had been shifted by about 10’ and the birds were still

building. Water was apparently seeping up to the old nest, and the material

for the new nest was obtained from the old one.

We have no breeding records in the City, except during the monsoon.

The nests found during March-April, are situated near springs in the Ghats.

The availability of water may therefore constitute a factor governing single

or double broods.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 195

The Indian Wire-tailed Swallow: Hirundo smithii filifera (Stephens).

On 28-7-40, birds were seen visiting a nest under a culvert at Bhiwandi,

Thana Dist.

The Indian White Wagtail: Motacilla alba dukhunensis Sykes.

It may be interesting to note that the same roosts are used year after year

on migration. Does this indicate memory among birds?

The Small Indian Skylark: Alauda gulgula gulguia Franklin. 7

A c/3 was found at Colaba Reclamation on 7-9-38, while a c/2 was picked up

at Godhbunder in snipe country on 8-10-39.

Tickell’s Flowerpecker: Dicaeum erythrorhynchos erythrorhynchos (Latham).

The breeding season appears to be more prolonged than indicated by us

previously, as a nest with 2 chicks was obtained at Bhiwandi, on 26-8-38.

The Southern Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker: Dryobates mahrattensis mahrat-

tensis (Latham).

This bird was seen busy at flowers (nectar?) of Sterculia colorata at Kaneri,

Borivli, on 19-4-35.

The Rufous Woodpecker: Micropternus brachyurus jerdonit (Malherbe).

On 25-6-39, Navarro obtained a c/2 from a nest alive with ants at Khandala.

A pair at work demolishing a ‘live’ Crematogaster nest interrupted work to

remove the unwelcome ants off their persons. The alarm note is a quick low

‘qu-uk’. The rectrices do not appear to be as stiff as those in other wood-

peckers and this may be correlated with their un-woodpeckerlike habit of perching

across a_ branch.

The Malabar Heart-spotted Woodpecker: Hemicircus canente cordatus Jerdon.

On 21-5-39, a pair were seen suspiciously near a hole in dry branch

along Wada Road near Striamal, and another pair was observed elsewhere.

We have two further sight records from Salsette: 31-3-36 and 31-12-39.

The call is harsh and jerky rather like an Ilynx’s.

The Indian Cuckoo: Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould.

This bird appears more common than indicated before, at least: during the

monsoon. The call is difficult to discriminate from that of the Scimitar

Babbler, except that it always comes from the tops of trees, and there is

occasionally an extra syllable. A male was shot on 28-7-40, at Tansa River

north of Bhiwandi.

The Common Crow-Pheasant or Coucal : Centropus sinensis parroti Stres.

A bird was observed carrying grass blades at Trombay, on 9-9-39.

Navarro has obtained young at Khandala on 23-5-38.

The Large Alexandrine Paroquet: Psittacula cupatria ssp.

A pair was shot at Bandra on 20-8-32. The specimens are in the St.

Xavier’s College Collection.

The Loriquet: Coryllis vernalis ssp.

These birds were noted as common in small parties, about 8 miles

north of Bhiwandi along Wada Road, on 28-7-40.

The Indian Three-toed Kingfisher: Ceyx erithaca erithaca (Linn.).

A c/1 was obtained from a hole in cutting in wooded hill-side, on road-side

at Powai on 5-7-36. A newly hatched chick with 2 eggs was found in a

nest in a similar situation at Suriamal during the rains in the same year.

The Indian Black Eagle: Ictinaétus malayensis perniger Hodgs.

On. 12-11-39, Navarro located a bird building at the top of a tall tree

down in the valley at Khandala, but it had apparently deserted the nest at a

later visit.

i96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL: HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

We have several sight records of this bird in Salsette and the neighbouring

area. It appears too distin¢tive to be confused with any other species.

A specimen was shot at Virar, a little north of Salsette on 14 Jan. 1940.

(BAN. T.S| xii, 1890).

The Black-winged Kites Elanus coeruleus vociferus (Lath.).

A specimen was obtained in Tulsi-Vihar area on 25-2-40. Its stomach.

contained a Mabuya carinata lizard.

~ The Pied Harrier: Circus melanoleucus (Korst.).

A specimen was shot in early November, and another observed at Panvel,

On 25-2-34.

The Indian Emerald Dove: Chalcophaps indica indica (Linn.).

A loud cooing, reminiscent of a large wood-pigeon, often heard in Salsette,'

has been traced to this bird. On 21-3-40, Navarro took a c/2 at Khandala.

- The Indian Rufous Turtle-Dove ; Sireptopelia HEE CUS meena (Sykes).

Several were seen at Godhbunder on 23-3-38.

The Jungle Bush Quail: Perdicula asiatica asiatica (Lath.).

A bird with young was seen at Powai in March 1939. On = 17th

September 1939, a female with soft egg in gave was shot in paddy stubble

at Tungar, near Bassein.

The Southern Painted Partridge: Francolinus pictus (Jard. and Selby).

A imale shot calling off a tree near Bhiwandi on 17-9-39, had enlarged’

testes and was obviously breeding. The breeding of most of our game birds

does not appear to coincide with the statutory close season.

~The Ruddy Crake: Amaurornis fuscus fuscus (Linn. ).

Specimen No. 266 noted in J.B.N.H.S. xl. 629 should be dated 21-6-36 and

not November.

The Coot: Fulica atra Linn.

A bird was seen at Bhyandar as early as 29th Aug. 1939. On 3-9-39

there’ were quite a few birds on Panvel Tank. In the St. Xavier’s College

Collection there is a single egg labelled ‘Bombay, 1gro.’ ;

The Demoiselle Crane: Anthropoides virgo (Linn.).

This is, of course, a common visitor to the Deccan during the cold

weather. \

The Indian Stone Plover: Burhinus oedicnemus ssp.

One was seen at Andhéri. in a deserted garden on 4-2-40.

The Large Indian Pratincole or Swallow-Plover: Glareola maldivayum maldivarum

(Forster).

On 1-9-39, a solitary bird was shot on “the road at pend It appeared

to be a tired straggler.

_ The Little Tern or Ternlets Sterna albifrons albifrons Vroeg.

The colony at Utan Washi was Visited again on 4-6-39,° and numerous

nests observed. The parents were noted wetting the eggs by dipping themselves’

in sea-water every few minutes. This is described in J.B.N.H.S. xli, p. 433:

Jerdon’s Little Ringed Plover: Charadrius dubius jerdoni (Legge).

Navarro has had two birds taken off clutches both of 3 eggs on a May

at Khandala, identified as jerdoni.

- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES « , 1S

The Eastern Curlew: Numenius arquata lineatus Cuvier. -

Snails, mudfish and fiddler crabs appear to form a fair proportion of the

pod of these birds.

_ The Whimbrel : Numenius phaeopus Sneo pas (anc dats

This bird is a prominent passage migrant, in. Salsette. Stomach, examined,

contained remains of snails and crabs.

The Ruff and Reeve ; Philomachus pugnax (Linn.).

On 29-8-39 one was shot out of a flock 2 25 in a SUE maidan “covered

with short grass at Bhyandar.

The Curlew-Stint or Pigmy Sandpiper: Frolia testacea (Pallas).

This was common at Nala Sopara on tidal mud-flats on 17-9-39.

The Wood Snipe: Capella nemoricola (Hodgs).

One shot at Ambarnath in Jan. 1940 has been recorded in the Journal

vol. xli, p. 665.

The Persian Shearwater: Puffinus persicus Hume.

A female was brought in alive by fishermen to St. Xavier’s College from

Colaba Light-house on 3-7-40. Legs and feet pinkish white: outer, part of

tarsus and outer toes including web black. Iris brown; bill brown. Wings

221 mm. cul. 31 mm. tar. 36 mm. tail 80 mm.

The Indian Spoonbill: Platalea leuwcorodia major (Temm. & Schlegel).

We have several sight records from the surrounding area, and it appears

to be well known to most local shikaris as ‘paat’. At Lake Beale near

Ghoti it was very common on_I-I-40.

The Open-billed Stork : Anastomus oscitans (Bodd).

On 4-2-40 a solitary bird was seen at north end of Vihar Lake.

The Yellow Bittern: Ixobrychus sinensis sinensis (Gmelin).

Specimen No. 268 obtained at Powai and recorded in J.B.N.H.S. xli, p. 648

should be dated 21-6-36, and not November.

The Flamingo: Phoenicopterus ruber antiquorum Temm.

A flock of eight was noted at Bhyandar on 20-8-39. One with downy

head was shot out of a party of three at Dharamtar Creek On 12-11-39.

This was a drought year in Cutch and Gujerat.

The Spot-bill or Grey Duck: Anas Wiceae cywehé poecilorhyicha Forster.

On 7-4-40 a pair was observed at Powdai, where shooting is now prohibited.

When settled the spots on the beak are distinct, while in flight the red legs

_are prominent. This bird breeds in Niphad, Nasik Dist.

The Garganey or Blue-winged Teal : Querquedula querquedula (Linn.).

Several were shot at Bassein on 17-9-39. A small party ‘including a male

in full plumage was observed at Powai on 7-4-40.

The White-eyed Pochard: Nyroca rufa Linn.

This was observed with the party of Garganeys at Powai on 7-4-40.

The Tufted Pochard: Nyroca fuligula fuligula (Linn).

‘Mr. McCann reports seeing a party on Tialsi Lake on 3-2-40.

Bompay, HUMAYUN ABDULALIT,

September 24, 1940. SALIM ALI,

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.HIST:. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

XIT.—SOME BIRDS OF LOWER BURMA.

I record below the names of five birds that I have shot during

this month in Insein and Tharrawaddy districts,. which were

apparently not found by Mr. Standford.

Criniger phaeocephalus (Grey Headed Bulbul). One of a pair

found in dense evergreen forest in the foothills of the Pegu Yomas

between Taikgyi and Gyobyu.

Hemipus picatus (Sykes Pied Shrike). A male found in deci-

duous forest near Taikgyi.

Aethopyga cara (Tenasserim Yellow-backed Sunbird). A male

found in.very dense evergreen forest near Taikgyi.

Arachnothera longirostra (Little Spider Hunter). A female

found in deciduous forest near Taikgyi. |

Chrysophlegma flavinucha (Goulds Yellow-naped Woodpecker).

Fairly common in the teak forest foothills of the ee Yomas

near Nyaungbinzin.

Yesterday I saw a large flock of pure oe ibis flying over

lake Hlawga. I think these birds must have been Tantalus

leucocephalus (The Pelican Ibis) which Oates stated were abundant

in the Plains of Pegu in his day, though Mr. Standford only:

records having come across Threskiornis melanocephalus, the

white Ibis, during his 3 years. | 3

RANGOON, J. A. M. SYMNS.

May 28, 1940.

XIII.—SOME BIRDS OF THE OILFIELDS, BURMA.

I give below the names of three birds found by me in the

vicinity of Yenangyaung, Magwe District, that do not appear in

Mr. MacDonald’s list of birds from the Mingyan District. |

Tephrodornis gularis pelvica (Nepaul Wood Shrike). One

specimen shot in the open scrub country in July 1o miles outside

the Oilfields was identified by Mr. Garthwaite of meyeye as being

of this species.

Picus mahrattensis (Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker). By far

the most common woodpecker of the scrub country round

Yenangyaung.

Chaliophaps indica (Bronze-winged Dove). Seen on _ two

occasions in the thicker wooded parts of the, Pin Chaung when

out Jungle Fowl shooting.

RANGOON, J. A. M. SYMNS,

May 28, 1940. :

> ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 199

XIV.—BIRDS EATING BUTTERFLIES.

I have been up in Nepal (Katmandu) for the last month and

while there an incident occurred which might be worth recording in

the Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society. I visited a

Mr. and Mrs. Kilburne who have a house with a garden in the town

of Katmandu and Mrs. K. said that a pair of Paradise Flycatchers

lived in the garden having made a nest in the same tree for some

years. They arrived each year about 30th March, and a friend of

hers who had been observing these birds in Calcutta had told her

that they arrived in Calcutta on the same date. I said I should

like to see them, and after about one minute the birds appeared;

the hen with some material in her mouth flew to the nesting tree.

This was about 24th April. There were several ‘cabbage white’

butterflies flying about the garden and one of the birds seized one

on the wing and carried it to a perch and there ate it—the wings,

which I enclose, fell to the ground. The birds then made several

attempts to catch another butterfly. I know birds do eat butterflies—

I wrote a letter in 1930 or thereabouts to the Journal relating that

I had seen the red-legged Falconet catch and eat a butterfly, but

the extraordinary part about this incident is that the Paradise

Flycatcher carried the butterfly to its perch, not into beak but in its

feet like a kite. I was not the only one who saw this; there were

several of us in the garden and they all saw it, but it was all done

so quickly no one could say whether the butterfly was caught by the

bird’s beak and transferred to the feet or whether it was caught by

the feet of the bird—the white wings showed up vividly under the

body of the bird as it flew to the perch.

S. F. HOPWOOD, 1.F.s.

C/o Messrs. THos. Cook & Son, Lrp.,

PHAYRE STREET, RANGOON,

April, 30 1940.

[In the December 1939 issue of the Journal (vol. xli, No. 2,

P- 445) we published a note by Mr. Hubback on the Paradise

Flycatcher eating butterflies: a discussion on birds eating butterflies

will be found in the editorial comment to a note on the Red-legged

Falconet (Microhierax eutolmus) hawking butterflies contributed to

the Journal by Mr. S. F. Hopwood (vol. xxxi, p. 826). Eps. |

XV.—THE MANY BANDED KRAIT (BUNGARUS

MULTICINCTUS) IN BURMA.

In his ‘Poisonous Snakes of India’ Wall remarks that this

snake is rare in Burma and that only one specimen has_ been

recorded, somewhat dubiously, from Rangoon.

I was therefore very interested when Mr. L. C. Glass showed

me a specimen killed in his garden in Rangoon on May artst,

He says two were seen, but the larger one got away.

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL.:HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The specimen killed had 31 white stripes on the body and

IO stripes on the tail, and was about 2! 4” in length.

ay RANGOON 0 gh gk OE MIN ie

_ May 28, 1940. : _,

Ae —EXTENSION OF THE RANGE OF THE BROWN |

- WHIP SNAKE. (DRYOPHIS PULVERULENTUS JAN.)

F ppaopie pulverulentus has so far been recorded from Ceylon

aa the Anamallai Hills, South India [vide Fauna British India

(Reptilia). p. 371, 1st Ed. 1: While on a visit to Karwar, N. Kanara,

I, secured a male on the 14th September 1g40. It measured

53. inches. This, however, is not the first record of this

species from Karwar. There is a specimen in the Society’s

collection labelled ‘Karwar’ and another, ‘Kanara’. Both are

without the names of the donors and were collected in 1907.

There are other specimens from, Castle Rock (P. Gerhardt, 1907) ;

Nelliampatty Hills, S. India (A. M. Kinlock, Nov. 1911); Ceylon

(BE. £.. Green): and, Matigama, Ceylon (f. JVall). Thus it. is

clear that D. pulverulentus is a lot more widespread than originally

recorded.

My specimen is of interest as there are some slight differences

exhibited by it when compared with the details given in the Fauna.

In the first place there is a small ovate oblong scale bounded by

the internasal, praefrontal and 2nd upper labial. Secondly, the

number of ventrals is 195 as against 194 (maximum) mentioned in

the Fauna—a very minor difference, indeed. Lastly there are

199 subcaudals as against 173 (maximum). These are all points

of minor importance, but, nevertheless, I think, worth recording.

BomBay NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY, C. McCANN.

BOMBAY,

September 21, 1940.

asf

XVIL—FROG EATING A SNAKE,

I was glad to read Mr. Charrington’s note on ‘Snake attacked

by Frogs’ in the Bombay Natural History Society’s Journal

Vol. “if No. 3, because I witnessed a similar incident a few years

ago. It was during the monsoon when I was returning from a

dinner party and had just entered my gate, when in the headlights

of my car I caught sight of a large frog (Rana tigrina) and a

snake close to each other on the lawn. I stopped the car keeping

the headlights on the frog. and the snake, and got down to see

what would happen. In a few minutes the frog hopped closer

and leaped onto the snake taking hold of it by the neck. The

snake which was only 10 to 12 inches long made frantic efforts

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES . 201

to escape but could not release itself from its adversary’s. grip.

When the snake’s struggles weakened the frog slowly began to

swallow it. I watched this performance for over 15 minutes until

nothing but a few inches of the snake still remained. I think the

snake was a wolf-snake, a harmless species.

_ >. BHAVNAGAR, | 3 eG DHARMAKUMARSINHII.

July 8, 1940. 7

[A number .of notes have appeared in the Journal on ‘Frogs

eating Snakes’. \In volume xxxvi, p. 161 of the Journal McCann

records that the Bull-Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) readily devours

such small..snakes as it can overpower. Eps. | :

XVIII. NOTES ON THE GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

AND: LARVICIDAL PROPENSITIES OF ROUSSE ENS

SETNAI KULKARNI. |

Observations made on fish fry collected by me from the terri-

torial waters of Cochin and Travancore at Manjummel and

Cheranellore in the months of May and June, 1938, have revealed

the presence, among them, of larvae of Horaichthys setnai, the

sole known representative of a new family of fish recently described

by Kulkarni (1940, pp. 379-423). Regarding the distribution of

the species, Kulkarni records it as occurring in the coastal areas

about ‘100 miles north and south of the city of Bombay’. After

the larvae were found, adults were looked for and collected on

various occasions from Manjummel and Cheranellore from shallow

inlets within tidal influence of the backwaters. It is thus evident

that the fish thrives and breeds in the coastal backwaters of

Cochin and Travancore. In all probability, the fish extends

throughout the western coast of Peninsular India.

Regarding the feeding habits of the fish, Kulkarni lists

‘copepods, diatoms, minute crustacean larvae, etc.” as the main

items, while he mentions, amidst .the stomach-contents of the fish,

‘fine particles of sand, pieces of grass, leaves and other debris’,

which evidently do not form part ‘of its dict. Observations made

by me on the larvicidal tendencies of the fish, however, show. that

it is destructive to mosquito larvae of the first and second instars

whenever available. As the fish is small and provided with delicate

mouth parts it is more successful in tackling the earlier instars

than the later ones. In this respect the fish is likely to prove a

valuable adjunct to other major larvivores like Aplocheilus lineatus

(Job, 1940; John, 1940) and A. panchax (Job, 1940a) especially

in the brackish waters of coastal districts. 7

The bionomics of H. setnai, as revealed from the interesting.

observations of Kulkarni, are quite favourable for utilising the

Species in anti-malarial work. ~While a typical backwater species

common in puddles and pools of stagnant brackish-water, and

breeding in sheltered places along the edges of the creeks, it extends

‘to waters under tidal influence’, Even after the monsoon it is

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

noted to remain in large perennial pools within tidal limits to

propagate the species. Covell’s (1935, p. 40) requirements for

larvicidal fish are to a great extent satisfied by this tiny toothed

carp. Thus (1) the fish is ‘small, so that it can get about in

shallow water among weeds, etc.’ (2) It is hardy, being recorded

to be able to withstand a wide range of salinity varying from 4.363

to 1.348 per cent, and can even tolerate fresh-water within limits.

(3) It breeds easily throughout the year (with a peak period during

July and August). (4) It stands transport very well. A stock

stood the train journey from Bombay to Calcutta! and _ thrived

quite well thereafter. (5) It-is an agile active fish with large eyes

which are helpful in locating its prey and in detecting the approach

of enemies. (6) It is absolutely insignificant and worthless as

food. (7) It is carnivorous as is proved by a study of its stomach-

contents as also by its short intestine. The fish is remarkably

adapted for surface life. The head, which is flat dorsally and the

upturned mouth are suitable adaptations.. As Kulkarni has men-

tioned, the species, like Aplocheilus, occurs invariably near the

surface of the water and mostly in the midst of aquatic plants,

and ‘is often found in swarms which move about in_ close

formations’.

Thus it will be seen that Horaichthys setnai is a suitable species

for use in malarious areas of coastal waters, and its efficiency

lies in its capacity to destroy mosquito larvae in their early instars.’

Teo). (OB Messe

- Lady Tata Memorial

Research Scholar.

LABORATORIES OF THE ZOOLOGICAL

SURVEY OF INDIA, CALCUTTA.

REFERENCES.

Covell, G., 1935.—Anti-Mosquito Measures with special reference to India.

Malaria Bureau, No. 3, Health Bulletin, No. 11, Calcutta, 4th edition, pp. 1-62.

Job, T. J., 1940.—On the Breeding and Development of Indian ‘Mosquito-

fish’ of the genera Aplocheilus McClelland and Oryzias Jordan and Snyder.

Rec. Ind. iMus.,! XLAI,. pp. 51-79:

Job, T. J., 1940 a.—Practical Utility of Miillifish Aplochetlus panchax |

(Hamilton) in the Biological Control of Mosquitoes. I. Efficiency. (In course

of publication).

I. Efficiency. (In the course of publication).

John, C. C., 1940.—Observations on the Utility of Aplocheilus lineatus

(Cuv. & Val.) for Mosquito Control. Journ. Malar. Inst. India, III, 1,

pp. 67-80.

Kulkarni, C. V., 1940.—On the Systematic Position, Structural Modifica-

tions, Bionomics and Development of a remarkable new family of Cyprinodont

Fishes from the Province of Bombay. Rec. Ind. Mus., XLII, pp. 379-423.

1 Mr. Kulkarni kindly gave me some fish to experiment with from this

stock which was brought by him to Calcutta, and my thanks are due to

him for the same,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — . 203

XIX._NOTES ON THE EARLY STAGES IN THE

DEVELOPMENT OF THE DECCAN KILLIFISH

[APLOCHEILUS LINEATUS (CUV. AND

VAL.)].

(With 2 text-figures)

INTRODUCTION.

The sexual dimorphism and breeding habits of the Deccan

Kullifish, Aplocheilus lineatus (Cuv. and Val.) have already

been discussed by one of us (Job, 1940). Its egg and a

juvenile stage of 14.7 mm, have also been described. Observa-

tions on the early devlopment of the fish made from eggs collected

from natural habitat are detailed in the present paper. It may

be pointed out that from the beginning of this century, when

Aitken (1902, cited by Bannerman, 1910, p. 525) observed the

larvivorous propensities of A. lineatus, the fish has attracted the

attention of various workers, and several observations (vide Job,

p. 52) point to its being of special value in anti-malarial cam-

paigns, especially in the Deccan. Prashad and Hora (1936, p. 643)

have emphasized that it is essential, for control measures to be

successful, that the biology of the natural agent proposed for

control work should be known in all possible details. It is hoped,

therefore, that a thorough knowledge of the breeding and develop-

ment of A. lineatus will prove helpful in the culture and use of

this efficient larvivore, which is known to be of proved utility in

mosquito-control.

In r910 Willey (p. 122) wrote that A. lineatus lays eggs which

become attached by glutinous threads to water plants, but added

that he had ‘not found them so attached’, though he had seen

them freshly extruded in the month of July. Again, Job’s des-

cription of the eggs of the species was based on those laid in the

month of May, 1938, under artificial conditions of the aquarium

in which a few large-sized adult fish were kept.

Search for the eggs laid under natural conditions was since

then continued. On_ several occasions empty egg-cases were

found attached to water weeds and roots of other aquatic vegeta-

tion. Young fry were found in the tanks and ponds in and around

Trivandrum throughout the year. Eggs with healthy embryos

were collected by one of us (S.J.) from the large tank in the

Public Gardens, Trivandrum, in the month of September, 1939 and

these were found attached singly to submerged bamboo sheaths

near the margin of the tank by the tuft of anchoring filaments,

which have already been described in detail by Willey (p. 122)

and Job (p.. 69). The eggs were carefully transferred to troughs

of clean water and their development followed.

DEVELOPMENT.

The course of development of Aplocheilus lineatus is so similar

to that of its North Indian congener, A. panchax, which was

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

recently described by. one of us, that only some of the salient

features in the development of A. lineatus need be described.

Embryonic stages.—The fairly large eggs are transparent

during the early stages, but turn brownish as the development pro-

ceeds, owing to pigmentation within and accumulation of dirt

outside the egg. The period of embryonic development is variable

as was observed in the case of A. panchax, but usually lasts for

about ten days. In the course of development the central mass of

oil globules gets broken up, but the Kupfer’s vesicle is not distinct

as in A. panchax.

Ban rm

Text-fig. 1.—Developing egg and early larvae of Aplocheilus lineatus

(Cuv. and Val.). ,

a. Six days old egg x ca. 22;

—b. Newly hatched larva (dorsal view) x ca. 18;

“c. Larva of twelve days’ growth (lateral view). xX ca 145

p. f. pectoral fin, thr. .c. cut ends of adhesive threads ;

y: ' yolk.

The six days embryo (text-fig. 1 a) is well developed with

large pectoral fins which are kept in constant motion. The mouth

and gill openings are present, the eyes are dark, the vitelline

circulation is complete, the caudal fin bears rays and the embryo

wriggles actively inside the egg-membrane. The embryo is seen

to occupy a greater space within the egg-membrane than that in

A. panchax. The nature of the hatchling depends on the period

of incubation, the quantity of yolk being less in late hatchers.

Metamorphosis: —In general appearance the newly hatched

larva (text-fig. 1-b) of A. .Jineatus resembles. very much that of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 205

A. panchax, but exceeds the latter in length by about one milli-

metre. Some yolk-remnant with oil globules is present; the eyes

are bright and shining, and the air-bladder is clear. The larva

very seldom comes to the surface of the water. The pectorals,

though without fin-rays, are large and functional. The caudal,

which is lanceolate in shape possesses seven fin-rays, of which the

third from above is the longest. All the median fins are continu-

ous, and the dorsal and the anal are devoid of rays. The lower jaw

extends slightly beyond the upper. The distribution of pigmenta-

tion is very much as in A. panchax.

A remarkable feature that has been noticed in the early larva

of A. lineatus is its capacity to adhere to the smooth vertical sides

of the aquarium by the antero-dorsal region of its head for fairly

long periods. The usual position is oblique with the tail directed

either obliquely upwards or obliquely downwards. Even a_ very

careful examination has failed to reveal any special adhesive organ.

Probably the adhesion is effected through adpression. The ad-

hesive habit, however, lasts only for a couple of days after hatch-

ing. A more or less similar, though less apparent adhesive habit

has also been observed in the case of A. panchax (Job, p. 64).

By the second day the larva makes more frequent visits to the

surface. The yolk is reduced, the air-bladder becomes larger, and

two more fin-rays are developed in the caudal fin.

In another day practically all the yolk is absorbed, and the

larva moves about actively, feeding on minute organisms in the

water at the bottom and on the sides of the aquarium. The air-

bladder grows larger and extends further backwards. The chro-

matophores on the head turn brownish, while some of those between

the eyes acquire a silvery lustre.

The main change that takes place within the next few days 1s

in regard to the fins. The anal fin becomes gradually marked

off from the caudal, and rays are formed in its posterior portion,

which becomes broader. A week after hatching, the larva has

fourteen rays in the caudal and. ten in the anal fin. Text-fig. 1 c

shows a twelve days old larva. It is about 7.5 mm. long. The

protractile premaxillae have heen protruded during fixation.

Beginnings of as many as seven rays have appeared in the pectoral

fin, while the number of rays in the anal has risen to eleven.

Text-fig.-.2.. Post-larva, 11 mm. long (lateral view) x ca. 9.

(The Le given’ are those on reduction of text- fig. 1 to half and.

of text Ene: 2 to one- ce) a

__ Text-fig. 2 shows a fish eleven millimetres long. The anal fin

has fourteen rays and the. pectoral about . fen. The pelvics

are well differentiated with the appearance of rays. The dorsal,

206 =JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

ocellus is conspicuous. The occipital spot, however, is not yet

well formed. This stage represents the final post-larval stage

which grows and leads on to the ‘young adult’, 14.7 mm. long,

described in the earlier paper (Job, p. 60).

SUMMARY.

Some of the early stages in the development of Aplocheilus

lineatus are described. Eyed ova were collected from a natural

habitat of the fish and hatched in aquaria. The salient features in

the development of the species are more or less similar to those

of A. panchax, but the Kupfer’s vesicle is not distinct in A.

lineatus, and the developing embryo occupies a greater space

inside the egg-membrane. The characters of the hatchling with

its peculiar habit of adhering to objects are described. The changes

undergone by the larva in its growth up to the 11 mm. Size are

described. The 11 mm. size represents the final post-larval stage

of the fish, after which it assumes the adult characters.

REFERENCES',

Bannerman, W. B.—‘Note on Dr. Bentley’s paper ‘‘The Natural History

of Malaria (sic.)’’’. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., xx, pp. 525, 526, (1910).

Job, T .J.—‘On the Breeding and Development of Indian ‘‘Mosquito-fish”’

of the genera Aplocheilus McClelland and Oryzias Jordan and Snyder’. Ree.

Ind. Mus., xlii, pp. 51-79, (1940).

Prashad, B. and Hora, S. L.—A General Review of the Probable Larvi-

vorous Fishes of India’. Rec. Mal. Surv. Ind., vi, pp. 631-648, (1936).

Willey, A.—‘Observations on the Nest, Eggs and larvae of Ophiocephalus

striatus’. Spolia Zeylanica, vi, pp. 108-122, (1910).

S. JONES, M.Sc.,

Travancore Central Research Institute, Trivandrum.

July 1940. T. JOB, M.Sc.

Lady Tata Memorial Research Scholar, Calcutta.

XX.—BUTTERFLIES ATTRACTED BY MOIST EARTH.

On page 646 of volume xli No. 3 of the Journal, Capt. W. C.

Carrot mentions coming across thousands of the butterfly Appzas

nero galba gathered on the sand near a stream. This peculiarity

of collecting together in large numbers and sitting on damp spots

and sucking up the moisture is a common occurrence with certain

families of butterflies, though not of all species of some families.

Troides, Tros, Chilasa, Papilio, Pathysa, Zetides,. Paranticopsis,

Appias and Huphina amongst others very commonly have this

habit. But what is interesting about this habit is the reason for

it. Why do these butterflies collect and suck at the damp earth

in this way? The places at which they congregate are extremely

local and cover a definite area small or large as the case may be,

1 For further related literature such as Moody (1939), Stoye (1935), Mellen

and Lanier (1935), Fraser (1938) and Innes (1939), see Job, 1940.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 307

beyond which few if any butterflies will be seen sampling the

moisture, although the earth or sand has the same appearance as

the area on which they are sitting—at least this has been my

experience. Moreover day after day butterflies will be found: on

the same spot but not on others adjacent to it, which have identi-

cally the same appearance. Has it ever been investigated what

it is in the moisture which attracts particularly butterflies and not

other insects, such as flies? I am not speaking of areas where

there has been carrion or other dirt but merely plain damp areas

in earth or sand. Have samples of the earth where butterflies

settle in such hundreds at times ever been analysed to find out if

there is any component in these patches which is not found in

adjacent areas? Is there some organic substance in the earth

which is particularly to their liking or is it some inorganic

chemical? Do butterflies visit these spots in the same way that

animals visit a salt lick? Furthermore it is only the males so far

as I know which behave in this way. I have frequently experi-

mented on a small patch by quietly placing my net over all the

butterflies on it and killing them all and then watching the behaviour

of other passing butterflies. It was quite apparent that these

areas gave off some sort of scent for butterflies, particularly

of the genus Pathysa, invariably exhibited great excitement when

passing close to such a patch although there were no butterflies

on it to give any indication of its nature. ‘They would fly back- -

wards and forwards over it after suddenly checking in their flight

and finally they would settle—nearly always on the edge of the

patch and then flutter and hop with perhaps a short flight or two

towards the centre of the patch where they would start sucking

in earnest occasionally ejecting drops of moisture from their anal

extremities. Gradually more and more individuals would collect

until there were as many as before. Another point is that I have

seldom, if ever, seen these patches at heights above 3,500 feet

where butterflies collect in such profusion as they do at lower

elevations, particularly in the hot valleys at the foot of the hills.

Perhaps somebody has taken the trouble to investigate this

matter more closely and has come to some definite conclusions.

If so it would be very interesting to hear of them from other

readers.

Kopjr VILLA, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E.s.,

AUKLAND Roan, Indian Police.

DARJEELING,

BENGAL,

July 15, 1940.

XXIL—ON THE LARVA OF THE MOTH (CIRCULA

TRIPERESTRATA) AND THE DESTRUCTION OF THE

COCOONS BY TREE SHREWS.

On looking through my notes I have come across the following

occurrence, which is perhaps worth recording :—

One of the most common larvae to be found in and near Gauhati,

Kamrup District, Assam, is that of the moth Circula triperestrata

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

Helfer; where it swarms at times on mango and one or two other

trees and shrubs. I have noted two broods in the year; but there

are possibly three. The last brood which spins up in about

September passes the winter in the pupa and the moths emerge

the following May or late April. The moth is seldom seen, al-

though I have found the cocoons a the score and larvae by the

hundred.

_ One morning I was watching a small squirrel-like animal

hunting industriously among the leaves of a clump. of orchids on

a tree in our garden there. It seemed to be finding something

very much to its relish and frequently sat up chewing and cracking

something which looked like a nut. I investigated and found. that

the clump of orchids and the leaves of the tree contained numerous

cocoons of the moth mentioned, on which the animal had been

having a fine feed; first eating a hole through the silk cocoon

and then pulling out the pupa which was chewed up in exactly

the same way as a squirrel eats a nut. I later shot one of these

animals, which were very common, and the. Society very kindly

identified it asa. Tree. shrew, Tupaia belangeri. These animals

must, in my opinion, unless kept off, cause considerable damage

to the larvae of the Muga Silk Moth which are reared on trees

in various parts of the District. They also dispose of any cocoons

of the Muga which are accidentally left on the trees and I have

frequently found empty cocoons of this moth in the Muga

‘orchards’ with the usual hole in the side. Such cocoons are use-

less for reeling of course.

Incidentally I sent some triperestrata cocoons to an expert who

informed me they were useless for reeling .purposes being too

coarse. The local name of triperestrata in Kamrup is ‘Amlodie’,

so I was told. an

Kopyr VILta, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E-S.,

AUKLAND Roapb, — Indian Police.

DARJEELING, bie

BENGAL,

June 23, 1940.

XXII.—LAGERSTROEMIA INDICA AS A FOOD PLANT

OF THE SILK MOTH (ACTIAS SELENE), ;

I have recently been reminded that some years ago while |

was at Sardah, in the Rajshahi District of Bengal, I obtained a

female specimen of that beautiful, large, pale green, tailed Saturnid

Moth (Actias selene Hub.), from which I got about fifty eggs. At

the time I did not know what was the most usual food plant of

this species and so tried various shrubs and plants from the garden

without success until I gave the newly hatched larvae a sprig of

that common garden flowering shrub Lagerstroemia indica Linn.

They immediately began to eat it, and I successfully reared about

a dozen to the moth stage. The only thing I noticed was that the

perfect insects were somewhat smaller than they should have been,

ites

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 309

Perhaps this note may be of use to some of your readers who may

be placed in the same position as I was of not knowing what to

feed the larvae of this species on. The shrub mentioned is of

course exceedingly common in gardens on the plains of Bengal

-and Assam where it is cultivated for its flowers: A number of

the larvae had died of starvation before I gave them the Lager-

stroemia.

Kopjt ViLLa, Rey iP RS ONS. FIRIE.S-;

AUKLAND ROAD, Indian Police.

DARJEELING, ‘

BENGAL,

July 8, i940.

XXIII.—THE WEEPING WILLOW (SALIX BABYLONICA)

AS A FOOD PLANT OF THE MOTH (LOEPA KATINKA

WESTW). %

Many thanks for vour letter dated the gth July 1940 regarding

my enquiry about the food plants of the Moth Loepa katinka

Westw. I had found in Seitz that the food plants of this species

were stated to belong to the genera Cissus and Leea and that the

larvae would probably also feed on vine. Cissus and Leea are

not available in Darjeeling; I obtained some vine, but they did

not appreciate it and only nibbed the edges of the leaves. They

began to die fairly soon and before your letter arrived mentioning

the food plants of Loepa newara Moore, as Caesalpinia nuga

Aitk., Salix babylonica and Acer Campbelli. The first named is

not available here, so far as I was able to find out. Acer Campbelli

is very common, but the larvae of Katinka would not touch it

even. I then tried weeping willow which is Salix babylonica, I

understand, and they, or rather the remaining 19 larvae, are feeding

well on it. This may interest you as you state you have nothing

on record as to the life history and food plant of Katinka. I got

the eggs from a badly battered female which I found on a bush

here. She laid a fair number of fertile eggs.

Kopji VILLA, R. E. PARSONS, F.R.E£.s.,

AUKLAND Roap, Indian Police.

DARJEELING,

July Us. 1040,

XXIV:—THE WOOD-CUTTING WASP (SPHEX

EDAX BINGHAM), AND ITS PREY IN SALSETTE.

_ According to Bingham [Fauna British India (Hymenoptera)

vol. i (1897) p. 251] Sphex edax has been recorded from ‘Sikkim,

Tenasserim, Ceylon.’ This wasp is not uncommon.in the forested

areas of the Salsette Island. On 4th March (1940) I caught two

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

excavating an old, fallen trunk of Zyziphus sp., and another was

seen on the same trunk. On the 14th April another was caught

working on an old trunk. Again on the 12th May I saw one

excavating a rotting piece of the trunk of Erythrina stricta. All

these records were made in the Tulsi Lake area. |

S. edax is an extremely active insect and moves about with

rapid jerky movements. Its presence in a log is soon noticed by

the heap of newly excavated, coarse, wood-dust. On breaking up

the Erythrina log I noticed that there were several tunnels, some

old, some new. The tunnels generally run in the direction of the

grain of the wood, and may be several inches deep by about a

little more than half an inch wide. When the tunnel is complete the

provender for the future young is deposited at the far end and then

the cavity is plugged with wood-dust for a distance of two to three

inches. The wood-dust is packed tight. At the end of one of

the tunnels I found five or six black, flightless cockroaches,

'Perisphaeria sp. The cockroaches were alive, but in a_ stupefied

condition. It is well known that some members of the Sphegidae

collect Orthoptera for storing in their homes.

In life, the general colour is shining black, except for the

abdominal segments which are bright red; but in the preserved

state the bright red fades to dull-red or red-brown. The wing's

are an irridescent blue-black, somewhat like those of a scolid.

BomBAy NATURAL HiIstToRY SOCIETY, Cy McCANINe

BOMBAY,

May 13, 1940.

XXV.i LARVA, OF THEREDRA LVGETLUS, CR. PARAS

TIZED BY TACHINID FLIES.

On the 14th July (1940) while scouting round for entomological

specimens in the jungles just off the road between Bapsai and

Murbad, Mr. J. Alfrey spotted a large larva of Theretra lycetus

Cr. feeding on a species of Leea (Vitaceae). As the larva appeared

quite healthy we brought it home in the hope of getting the moth.

I kept it in a case. The next day the caterpillar left the leaves

and moved round as though looking for a place to pupate. On

the 16th it changed colour from green to brown and lay in a

corner—pupation seemed inevitable. On the 17th morning I found

the caterpillar dead in the centre of the cage. It appeared rotten

as it had burst and was liquefying. Inside the body was a heaving

mass of several fly maggots. On the 19th no trace of the maggots

was to be seen; only the skin of the caterpillar remained lying

on a damp patch of earth. On the 29th three flies appeared in

1 1 am indebted to Dr. Baini Prashad for the identification.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 314

the morning and another in the afternoon. The next day a fifth

fly had emerged. On the rst August as there was no addition

to the flies I opened the case, after killing the flies, and examined

the earth under the caterpillar. The pupal cases of the flies could

be clearly seen just where the skin of the host was lying, The

mud had become a compact mass—as a result of the putrefying

liquids filtering into it, and in this were buried the pupal cases of

the flies with the tops just showing at the surface. A single pupa

which was apparently dead was also found which brought the

total number of flies to six. These observations give the pupal

life of the flies as approximately ten days.

Bompay NaturaL History Society, C. McCANN.

BOMBAY,

August 1, 1940.

XXVIL—MARCH LEPIDOPTERA AT GOPALPUR

(DIST. GANJAM).

The following is a list of species taken in the course of a month’s

very superficial collecting in March 1940. The list is obviously

far from complete and most of the species recorded were taken in

the Casuarina jungle surrounding the Yatton Hall Hotel. The

Heterocera recorded as being taken at light were caught in the

Hotel itself.

RHOPALOCERA.

Polydorus hector L.—About the commonest butterfly. Also

larvae.

Polydorus aristolochiae F., avistolochiae—Common. Also

larvae.

Papilio paris L., paris—Common.

Papilio polytes L., romulus Cr.—Uncommon.

Papilio demoleus L., demoleus—Uncommon.

Delius eucharis Drury—Uncommon.

Cepora nerissa F., phryne F.—Common.

Anapheis aurota F., aurota—Common.

Catopsilia pomona F,,—Common. Also f. bidotata Fruhs.

Danais plexippus L.—Common.

Danais chrysippus L.—Not uncommon.

Euploea core Cr., core—Very common.

Melanitis leda L., ismene Cr.—One specimen.

Euthalia garuda Moore, anagama Fruhs.—Common.

Hypolimnas misippus L.—Common. —

Hypolimnas bolina L.-—Common.

Precis orithya L., swinhoei Btlr.—Uncommon.

Precis lemonias L., vaisya Fruhs.—Not uncommon.

Atella phalanta Drury—Not uncommon. Also larvae.

Ergolis merione Cr., tapestrina Moore—Not uncommon.

Telchinia violae F.—Very common.

12 jfOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL, HIS?. SOCIETY, Vol) xan

Cosmolyce boeticus L.—Very common.

_ Spindasis ictis Hew., ictis—Common.

HETEROCERA.

Ocinara varians Wlik.—One specimen.

Cephonodes hylas L., hylas—Common. Also larvae, mostly

a dark form. |

Macroglossum gyrans Wlk.—Larvae not uncommon.

Lymantria ampla Wlk.—Dead pupae common, and one larva

on Casuarina.

Porthesia scintillans W1ik.—One larva..

Perina nuda F.—One female at light.

f young larvae.

Philagria entella Cr.—One male at light.

Agrotis spinifera Hbn.—At light, not common. | -

Sideridis percussa Btlr.—At light, not common.

Prodenia litura F.—At light, not uncommon.

Spodoptera mauritia .Bsd.—-At light, not uncommon.

Schoenobius bipunctifer Wik.—At light, not uncommon.

Sameodes cancellalis Zell.—At light, uncommon.

CALCUTTA, D. G.. SEVASTOPULO, fF: REVS:

‘August 3, 1940.

XXVIL—SOME INSECTS FROM A MANGO TRUNK

(MANGIFERA INDICA 1..).

Just outside my compound wall at Andheri, Salsette Island,

there is a mango tree which showed signs of withering.’ On

inspecting it I found that the trunk and branches were riddled with

holes, evidently the work of Batocera rubus L. On one of the

branches was a lively nest of the Brow Tree-Ant (Cremastogaster

voxenhoferi Mayr.) not far from the original seat of attack. The

ants were constantly moving about, and a Bloodsucker (Cdlotes

versicolor | Daud.]|} sat on the stem daily and ‘lapped’ them up as

they passed near. Closer examination of the trunk revealed that

the bark had split in several places. The underside of the bark

had been destroyed and the space was packed tight with excreta

and wood shavings. The bark was quite lose and came away

easily, leaving much of the ‘packing’ in situ. In several places

under the bark the ants had established themselves. In some of

the large holes I found Elaterid beetles (Agrypnus sp.) resting on

their head as though they had fallen dead and had slipped down

towards the entrance, but they were quite alive—waiting coh night-

fall to take off.

Under the bark I found five pairs of the Brenthid beetle,

* The tree has since died.

~ MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 213

Orychodes sp. These beetles were always in couples. Besides the

Brenthids there was a single specimen of a Cucujid beetle, Hectar-

thrum heros F. (?), and “several small larvae and pupae of other

Coleoptera which I cannot place. On opening the bark, the ants

immediately took possession of all other insects, but I soon de-

prived them of many of their spoils. In the packing of excreta

there were numerous Book-Scorpions, Chelifer sp., in various

stages of development, but these were more frequent where the

refuse was damp. In spite of the presence of ants, life goes

merrily on under the bark.

In volume. xli, p. 678 of the Journal I recorded the presence

of Book- Scorpions under the wings of Batocera rubus. At the

time (November-December) several specimens invaded the house

at night, being attracted by the lights. Later in March, the

Brenthids came in, but sporadically; and yet later the Elaterids

appeared from time to time in rather unusual numbers. As _ the

drying mango is about forty feet from the verandah, it is evidently

the home of the insect invaders. |

Of these insects Batocera is known to attack mango trunks; the

food of the Click-beetle appears to be uncertain; the Brenthids

seem another unknown quantity as regards their diet, though it

is presumed they are wood-boring: the Cucujid is a carnivorous

beetle and feeds on other insects and larvae.

BomBay NaAturRAL History SOcIrety, C. McCANN.

BoMBAyY,

May -12, 1940.

XXVHI.—INSECTS AT A STREET LAMP AT ANDHERI.

The desire to predict an event is common to most people, but

how often do our calculations turn out as predicted? During the

sweltering heat of the hot weather there are many prophets abroad

anxious to forecast the break of the rains—even the Press indulges

in a bit of fortune-telling! For the past weeks speculation had

run high, but Nature pays little heed to mere human calculations,

it generally upsets them, and so it was with the break of the rains

in to4o. Heavy rain fell on the 3rd June. Some people insisted

that the monsoon had burst, others held that it was just a storm.

In fact, weather conditions were rather abnormal this year. Animal

life is greatly dependent on weather conditions and accordingly in

abnormal years animals also behave ‘abnormally’. The fact was

betrayed by the arrival of certain insects out of season; for example,

certain Cantharids, which are abundant in August and September

in Salsette, arrived in the latter part of April—much before their

usual time. Turning to the ornithological field, a pair of Dhayals

_[Copsychus saularis (Linn.)| had brought up a family in a dead

Date Palm, by the end of May. The young were on the wing—

rather early for these birds in this area. Also, in the botanical field,

an Aroid (Amorphophallus commutatus Engler) had miscalculated

too. It came into full bloom before the end of May, before any rain

214 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

had fallen. This species usually blooms only soon after the first

showers arrive. Nature seemed upset! Heavy rain continued

to fall for a couple of days and all Nature responded to the climatic

change.

The sky on the night of the 5th was almost cloudless, the ground

was sodden and the temperature sticky. Millions of insects had

waited for the rains to be released from their pupal stages, and

take to wing on perhaps, life’s last mission to reproduce or die as

food for others. It was an exhibition of the struggle for existence.

This struggle is, perhaps, never keener at any other time of the

year than at the break of the monsoon. Life at this time is just

one enormous ‘tidal wave’. I took my stand under a street lamp

at Andheri—a naturalist on the prowl, complete with net and sundry

killing bottles.

The ground around the lamp post was teaming with large,

winged ants. They had just emerged from the ground and gathered

round in clusters, bidding farewell to their late home and taking

leave of their ‘nurses’-—it was time for the marriage flights—the

last flight for them all, some to fall victims to their fate, others,

but few, to start a new colony. Away from their birth place they

were now to brave the dangers of a new adventure. The lamp

had attracted thousands of other winged ants, and conspicuous

among them were Camponotus and Cremastogaster. The presence

of the new arrivals did not seem to worry the groups on the ground ;

none were in a fighting mood, though at any other time the ants

would never have tolerated such familiarity. The flying termites

had appeared earlier in the evening, and by 9 p.m. were no longer

around the lamp.

The air around was alive with insect forms, so numerous that

frequent collisions brought many to the ground dazed. Small

moths were in plenty, and a few large Euproctidae, all vainly

trying to reach the burning filament. The magnetism of the light

held them. Doom awaited most of them. Now and again a

cricket would kick itself into the air, take to wing for a while

and then fall clumsily to earth, to kick off once more when disturbed

by another insect. The whir of thousands of small wings, the

constant metallic click from the lamp shade and the dull sound of

a fall to the ground, were from time to time interrupted by the

deep drone from the wings of some large coleopter. The zooming

noise was soon followed by a crash against the light or the post,

then a thud which announced that the beetle had landed on its

back, and finally a shuffling sound as it made frantic efforts to

right itself. Success meant a new assault on the bewildering light.

All these sounds betrayed the arrival of one of the largest of the

Longicorns, Acanthophous serraticornis Ol., quite a formidable

name for a formidable looking beetle with large punishing jaws.

A suitable hold on the back soon puts its ‘armaments’ out of action,

Before I decided to retire I had secured sixteen fine specimens—

five others had been crushed by passing vehicles. This was an

exceptional flight, for, in all the years I have been at Andheri,

I have never known this species to appear in such numbers. Sub-

sequent enquiry showed that the flight was rather general,. for

—

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the longicorns had been seen by many other’ people in

Andheri.

At times wayfarers stopped and took stock of me, perhaps

wondering what on earth the ‘sahib’ was doing at that hour of

the night under the light, covered with insects, and armed with a

butterfly net and several bottles. They watched me, and when

they saw me make a dash for this or that insect and quickly consign

it to one of the bottles, they were satisfied, though curious as

to what would be the fate of the insects—were they eatable or

medicinal? Any way they evidently doubted my sanity and moved

off commenting. They were villagers and did not understand.

Motorists hooted at me as I hastened across the road to retrieve

a specimen; heads popped out to have a look—the general con-

sensus of opinion must have been-—a iunatic at large! It was

not the first time that my identity and intentions have been mistaken.

When following natural history pursuits, I have been often pitied

as’a case more suitable for a mental asylum! A naturalist must

be prepared for such comments from the uninitiated, but let me

return to my lamp and its fauna.

Insects spell food for many animals, so I soon discovered that

I was not the only watcher under the light. The recent rain had

deluded the Bull Frog (Rana tigrina Daud.) from its retreat.

They had come up to breed, but the rain was insufficient for

breeding purposes, so they hopped about the countryside in a vain

search for puddles. The chorus of their sonorous voices lifted in

‘prayer’ for more rain, was in vain. Some of them were in their

wedding garb of yellow, but not as bright as it should be—a dirtv

greenish yellow. Though not quite intent on food at this time,

they still ‘lapped’ up an insect here and there. Some of the un-

fortunates had been run over by cars—an enemy Nature had not

counted on-—and were now just ‘grease spots’ or mangled forms.

On the lamp-post were a couple of geckoes (Hemidactylus flavi-

viridis Rippel). They had soon eaten their fill and now looked

longingly at the insects they could not eat. What would they

have not given for a more elastic stomach! At last, tired of

looking on at the feast before them, and the constant rain of

falling insects on their bodies, they decided to move off. The

ground was alive with spiders, large and small, preying on the

insects as they fell. Among the spiders was a single Mygale.

The spiders too were constantly disturbed by the rain of insects,

which made them retire to suck their meal in peace. Sneaking

along the edge of the drain was a shrew (Suncus sp.) with its

long snout vibrating like the free end of an agitated spring, seek-

ing this or that ‘dainty’, Now and again it would make short

sallies into the arena, seize an insect and retreat to make a meal

of it, only to return for another. A little way off a gentle crack-

ling noise drew my attention, so I switched on my torch to discover

a Bandicoot (Bandicota malabarica Shaw) gnawing at a_ big

Longicorn (Batocera rubus L.) The bandicoots lurked in the

shadows, and seldom came into the light. Several centipedes

(Scolopendra sp.) moved about in the throng of insects in the drain

taking toll here and there. There were numerous carabid beetles

até JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XE

(Pheropsophus catcirei Dej.) hurriedly seizing their prey and retir-

ing immediately to deal with it. How many other insect feeders

were lurking around, is difficult to imagine. Some bats occasion-

ally visited the light, but there was evidently enough food in the

air without hovering round lamps.

Flying ants seemed to predominate. Beetles, perhaps came

next in numerical order, most of which were minute. Of the less

minute forms the cockchaters (Melolonthidae) were there in their

hundreds. The Carabidae were well represented particularly by a

black species commonly found under stones. A straggler among

the Coleoptera was a Rhinoceros Beetle (Oryctes rhinoceros L.),

but its life was short for a passing car reduced it to a ‘flat skin’.

The moths were well represented by a large number of Muicrole-

pidoptera. Among the larger forms were specimens of Euproctis

sp. and a few of the peculiar family Hepialidae, moths with long

heavy bodies and clumsy flight (Phassus sp.). The Orthoptera,

grasshoppers and Grillids, were fairly plentiful. The mole Cricket

(Gryllotalpa sp.) a member of the ‘under world’, also hung around. —

The Rhynchota, or garden bugs and members of the Homoptera,

mostly minute, were present in goodly numbers. A curious point

about the Cotton Bug (Dysdercus cingulatus Fab.) is that though

during the day thousands are about in the neighbourhood, very

few were attracted by the light.

Near midnight I decided to retire; so I collected my belongings

and went to bed after ridding myself of as many insects as I could.

Next morning I visited the scene of the previous night, but there

was nothing to betray the activity that had taken place. On

arrival at the office with my ‘bag’, the insect department foresaw

a busy day, there were over a hundred specimens to set. Of

course, I could have multiplied this figure an hundredfold, but it

would have meant much duplication.

It will not be out of place to compare the catch of this night

with that of the next. Except for a considerable reduction in

flying ants, most of the insects mentioned above were there.

There was a noted increase in the number of cockchafers and.

scarabs. Of Acanthophorus only one turned up. A pair of beetles

closely allied to Acanthophorus was also secured. They were

Macrotoma crenata Fabr. This was the first time I secured this

cerambycid in Salsette. Small mantids were occasional. As the

weather was drier the frogs seemed fewer in numbers. The shrew

was back accompanied by friends; the Bandicoot lurked in the

shadows.

- The ‘Dance of Life’ around a street light at the break of the

rains and for some time after is mingled with jubilation and

tragedy. Jubilation because it is the setting free of millions from

the pupal life, tragedy because the majority perish—they have

hardly begun life when it is snatched away from them.

bomBay NaTuRAL History Society, : C. McCANN.

BoMRBAY,

i /uwe: (7. -LQ40-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 217

XXIX.—SOME INDIAN SPIDERS: THEIR SEASON OF

PROSPERITY.

As a class spiders occur throughout the year. There are,

however, certain periods when they are at the height of their

prosperity. Ecological experience reveals that, in India (especially

Western India) the best part of the year for spider collection is

during the few months following the rainy season. It is now

most of the families of spiders are active and industrious. The

scorching summer seems to be a time of distress to them. So

also the torrential rains dwindle their number to an appreciable

extent by washing away their delicate webs.

There are certain factors that favour the growth of spider

population during the period after rainy months and before intense

summer.

With a few exceptions spiders are in general moisture-loving

creatures. Many of them are arboreal and wholly dependent upon

plants for their abode. In India the real ‘spring’ season is soon

after the heavy rains. The vegetation is exuberant during August

and September. The increase in vegetation and the recession of

destructive rains afford ample facilities for these animals to con-

struct their webs among the plants and peacefully propagate their

species. Food also is in plenty during this season. Attracted by

the numerous wild flowers which appear now, insects like bees,

and flies come to the plants in large numbers and get easily

entrapped in the spiders’ webs.

The following are some of the common families of spiders which

prosper during the season referred to.

Among the arboreal groups of spiders the most important family

that flourishes during the months of September and October is that

of the Argyopideae. Attached to the boughs and branches of trees

the giant wood spiders (Nephila maculata) are busily engaged in

constructing their extensive snares. Along fences and thickets the

-beautiful Argyope thrives. Wherever there is vegetation the

garden spiders (Epeira diadema) are present in hundreds, very

active building their delicate webs. Walking along an _ open

country side, during evening time, a collector can see numerous

members of Argyroperians, Araneus, Tetragnatha and_ other

Argyopids: carrying on their web construction in full swing.

These spiders remain a feature of every country part throughout

the cold season. With the approah of summer, however, when

the atmosphere is no longer hygroscopic but dry and the annual

vegetative growths parched, the Argyopid community also dwindle

little by little and confine themselves to the ‘greens’ by the margins

of pools, tanks and rivers or other moist localities.

Oxyopideae, which generally live among grass and_ other

small plants, increase and decrease in population with the

growth of such plants after the rains and their drying away in

summer. During summer many Oxyopids shift themselves to the

watered fields of rice and other cultivation. A great number of

them is however destroyed during the summer harvest. May, June

and July are months of famine for them. Only with the onset of

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

the following monsoon and the reappearance of grass in the lawns

do they revive.

Closely allied to the Oxyopids in their habits are the

Psechrids. They can be easily distinguished from the former by

their difference in shape, the extraordinary length of the anterior

two pairs of legs, and the absence of spines on the body. With

the increase of grass and other plant growths during monsoon

and after, these spiders also multiply and spend their days among

axils of leaves or spikes of grasses. They are extremely common

among the inflorescence of Cyperaceae and Amaranthaceae. Just

as the Oxyopids they also decrease in number with the withering

away of vegetation and resort to the scanty flora in damp localities

during summer. |

Of Sparassideae and Clubionideae, the former seems to have

more liking for moist conditions than the latter. Sparassids like

Palystes and Sparassus are very fond of broad and_ succulent

leaves for the construction of their patch like webs. During the —

monsoon, and prior to the advance of sultry weather and the conse-

quent dwindling down of wild plants, they thrive in large numbers

everywhere. In summer, however, there is marked decrease in

their number, and they are only found on the leaves of watered

garden plants like Cucurbita, Water-melons, Plantain suckers, etc.

The Clubionids also present seasonal variation and the members

found in the monsoon time are healthier and larger than the summer

brood. From the fact that many Clubionids reside among green

leaves there is reason to believe that they have a liking for moisture.

Herseliids also seem to thrive better under moist conditions rather

than in the height of summer. During the months of August and

September we find plenty of them on the bark of trees—trees with

fissured bark like Pithecolobium saman, mango trees, etc. During

the hot season their number shows a definite reduction. There

are however certain species which are found on old dry walls and

which thrive equally well both in summer and in winter.

Pholcids, tender, long-legged spiders found in the roofs and

rafters of old houses do not seem to be affected by seasonal vari-

ation.

~ Many Attids or jumping spiders also prosper unaffected bv

change of season; but those species which hunt among vegetation

are affected in a similar way as the Oxyopids and Psechrids.

With a few exceptions the entire group of Lycosids require

moisture for thriving. Shortly after the rains they are abundant -

among the low-lying, water-logged parts of any compound. They

always like cool places and therefore they distribute themselves

in damp and moist localities, beside water, among putrefying dead

leaves and rubbish on open grounds, under stones and in damp

soil.. In moist fields, laid fallow, their number .is enormous.

During winter mornings, thousands of their patch webs can be seen

on open lawns, and the members themselves running here and

there with great agility. With the advent of summer they diminish in

prosperity and get confined to moist areas beside fields and

pools. :

Eresids seem to be common during winter and summer alike.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 219

The webs of the Indian colonial Eresids—Stegodyphus—are found

to remain intact for more than two years and the members are

active throughout the period.

Although spiders, as a group, are described as_ ubiquitous,

Nature has her own influence upon their community. Spiders

withstand climatic and seasonal variations to a greater extent than

many other lower animals. They persist through Spring, Summer,

Autumn and Winter; but it needs be mentioned that moist condi-

tions are preferred by most of them.

More careful and perseverant field work will surely reveal more

facts about the ‘life of spiders’. The ‘breeding time’ of spiders is

also an interesting subject for further exploration.

Bompay, tT. V2 SUBRAHMANY AM.

September 13, 1940.

XXX.—THEFT OF A WATCH BY A FIDDLER CRAB.

This is a story told by an Ajman Badawin to Lt.-Col. H. R. P.

Dickson on 25-6-40 of the wonderful tracking powers of all mem-

bers of the Murra tribe, and in the presence of one Muhammad

al Murri.

‘Muhammad al Murri, before he came along to the K. O. C.

guards hut at Burgan, had been staying with Sheikh Sabah al

Nasir as subah at his camp at Mungaf near the sea shore. One

day Sheikh Sabah’s motor driver complained that his wrist watch

had been stolen from him while he was having a bathe. He

explained how that the tide was going out when he went down,

and he undressed and put his clothes on the sand and his wrist

watch with them, and went into the sea. He had not noticed

anyone come aiong the shore although he had not paid much

attention. When he came out and got dressed he found his watch

had completely disappeared and there was no sign of it anywhere.

Muhammad al Murri was present in the tent and heard the

story. The driver did not ask him to find it for him or say any-

thing to him.

Shortly afterwards, the Murri, being rather interested, walked

down to the shore. The tide was now lower, but quite easily

he found the place where the clothes had been put on the sand,

and around which, and to and from it, down to the water were

the driver’s foot marks. After wandering about for a_ bit he

could see no trace of any other human being having been near,

the only marks there were, were those of crabs which had been

running about on the sand along the shore. One track which

he noticed, came towards where the clothes had lain, but he did

not think anything of this, and came to the conclusion that the

driver was a liar, and had himself lost his watch on some previous

occasion. The Murri then returned to camp.

Next morning however, he again went down to the same spot.

This time the tide was high, and all marks had gone. He sat

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FRIST. SOCIET Vol xi

down near the shore and waited till the tide went out a bit, and

until one by one the crabs came out of their holes and began to

run around on the sand. (I might add here that these are rather

small crabs with one claw much larger than the other, and they

each build a sand tower just on one side of their hole.)

The Murri then walked down towards them, and they all dis-

appeared rapidly into their holes. After looking at their tracks

for a bit, he suddenly recognized from among them all, the track

of the one which he had seen the previous day in the vicinity of

the spot where the driver’s clothes lay. He followed it carefully

for about 1oo yards to its hole. He then began to dig, and sure

enough, down its hole he found the wrist watch.’ |

This I know is a true story. The point of the story is, that to

any ordinary individual all crab tracks would appear the same.

Yet the Murri had been able to distinguish the track of a particular

crab which he had seen the previous day, from among many

dozens of others.

Since this happened, Muhammad al Murri was sent for by

the Military Governor of Kuwait, Sheikh Ali al Khalifa, to discover

the thief in a robbery case. This case is still in progress, but the

foot-prints in the sand round the tent were identified by him. It

will be interesting to see if he is correct. :

Note.—The Murra tribe is famous all over Arabia for their

wonderful tracking lore. They inhabit the northern edge of the

Rub’—al Khali.

Kuwait, PERSIAN GULF, VIOLET, DICKSON:

july ©, 1940.

PROCEEDINGS OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

The Annual General Meeting of the Society was held at the

iter. ©. I, Lecture Hall, Electric House on Thursday the 18th

April 1940 at 6-15 p.m.; Rt. Revd. R, D. Acland, M.a., presiding.

AGENDA.

1. Reading of the Annual Report of the Committee.

2. Presentation of the Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts for the

past year.

3. Election of the Committee.

The Honorary Secretary announced the election of 33 new members since

the last meeting held on 18th April 1939 :— .

Mrs. Camar Tyabji, Bombay; His Highness the Marawat Sir Ram Singhji

Bahadur, K.C,S.I., -Partabgarh State; Mr. M. Zinkin, I.c:s., Sholapur; H. H.

the Maharaja Jagaddependra Narayan Bhup Bahadur, Cooch Bahadur; Maha-

raja Pateshwari Prasad Singh of Balrampur, District Gonda, Oudh; Mr. C. G.

Baron, Shillong; Mr. N. D’O. Finnis, Quetta; Mrs. C. M. Van Allen, Bombay ;

Mis EH. E. Ormerod, Bombay; Mr. J.-. Lockhart; Bombay; Mr. A. G.

Sandeman, Meerut; Mr. J. S. Anderson, Bombay; Major Allen Block,

Allahahad; Mr. Q. F. Rahman, 1.s.e., Moradabad; Mr. B. IL. Rawat, M.sc.,

Ph.p., Ajmer; Mr. V. M. Vasu, Porbander; Mr. M. St. J. Kelly, Lohardagar,

ip ky; Mr. 6. W2 Budd, 1.c.s.; Mirpurkhas;- Mr. .E. €C,.. Cameron,

Nilgiris; Mr. B. IF. Patuck,- Bombay; Mrs. M. D. Wright, Amraoti;

Mr. D. Nilsson, Bombay; Mr. T. J. Phillips, Waziristan; Major F. H. W.

Ross-Lewin, Bombay; Major W. L. D. Veitch, R.£., Roorkee; Mr. John

Leslie, Calcutta; Mr. F. Potter, Bombay; His Excellency Sir Maurice

Hallett, K.¢.s.1., C.I.E., I.c.s., United Provinces; His Excellency the Governor

of Bengal; Major J. M. Bruce-Steer, Bombay; Capt. Jafferali Khan G. Agha,

Dharwar; His Excellency the Governor of Madras; Major R. C. Nicholas,

Poona.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY.

Orrice BEARERS——1G40.

The following gentlemen were elected to serve on the Managing Committce

for the ensuing year :—

President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.C.1.E., D.L.

Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., ¢.c.1.£.; Rev. Fr.

feeeke Caius. + S.J., -F-L.S-,; atid. Rt., Revd. R..-D. Acland; .a.

Executive Committee—Mr. Salim A. Ali, Mr. Farrokh FE. Bharucha,

Mi Ay Eorrington, Mr. J.B. Greaves; M.t.a.; Mr.’ M. J: Hackney, Mr. R. E.

Hawkins, Mr. D. G. Hill, Dr. M; Shariff;: ».sc.,. ph.p., F.u.s.; Lt.-Col. W. C.

Spackman, 1.M.S..;. Lt.-Col..5. S.. Sokhey, 1.m.s.; Mr. F. Wadia, and Mr. H. M.

McGusty (Hon. Secretary and Treasurer).

Advisory Committee—Dr.~- C. F. C. Beeson, ».sc., M.A., UF.S.; Lt.-Col.

ee Burton, wa,” (Retd\; Mr. CH. Donald, ¥.z.s.; Dr: F. H. Gravely,

cores: ME ©. M5? ringlissi{B.E.M.B.0.U.,; -F:z.S. 5’ Nir: Ri.) ©.. Mofris, F:R:G,S;,,

zs. , Major, E.G... Phythian Adams, ¥F:z:S., HA. (Retd.); Dr. Baini Prashad,

Wacom Vite Cs Psimitiy 1FS.5, Lt.-Col. C. G: Voogood, °c.1.E:,. p.S.0. :

Mr. J. H. Williams.

Srojf.—_5.. tt..Prater, M-L.A., J.P:, C.M-.Z.S. (Curator); and C. McCann, F.t.s.

(Assistant Curator).

The proceedings concluded with an interesting lecture by Mr. S. H. Prater

on ‘Camouflage in Nature and in War’. ay ry

222 fOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

FOR THE YEAR ENDING 31st DECEMBER 1930:

ADMINISTRATION.

President.—H. E. Sir Roger Lumley, G.c:r-E., p.1,

Vice-Presidents.—H. H. The Maharao of Cutch, G.c.s.1., G.c.1.E.; Rev.

Ir. J. &. Caius, s.3., F.L.S.;° Rt, Revd. R. D:-Acland, ea:

Executive Committee.-—Mr. Farrokh E. Bharucha, Mr. A. Forrington,

Mr. J. B. Greaves, M.t.a.; Mr. M. J. Hackney, Mr. R. E. Hawkins, Mr. D. G.

Hill, F.R:G:S., J.P.; Lt.-Col. W..C: Spackman, “1.mM.s:; Lt:-Col. S: 0S) Solshese

I.a.s.; Mr. F. Wadia, Mr. H. M. McGusty (Hon. Secretary and Treasurer),

Bombay.

Advisory Commiitee.—Dr. C. F. C. Beeson, D.Sc., M.a., LF.s., Dehra Dun;

I.t.-Col. (R..W. Burton, 1.a., (Retd.), Bangalore; Mr. ©. Hi Donald) f.z-ce

Dharamsala; Dr. F. H. Gravely, p.sc., Madras; Mr. C. M. Inglis, B.E., M.B.O.U.,

F.Z.S., Darjeeling; Mr. R. C. Morris, F.R.G.S., F.Z.S., Coimbatore; Major E.G.

Phythian Adams, ¥F.z.s., 1.4., (Retd.), Nilgiriss; Dr. Bainti Prashad) pises

Calcutta; Mr. H. C. Smith, 1r:s., Maymyo; Lt.-Col. C. G. Toogood, c:1.5%

D.s.o., Fort Sandeman; Mr. J. H. Williams, Coimbatore.

Staff-—s. TH. Prater, M.L.A., J.P., €.M.Z.E., (Curator); C. MeCann, ¥.L.s.,.(Asae

Curator).

THE HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT

FOR THE YEAR 1930.

The Society’s Journal.—The Fortieth Volume of the Journal

was completed during the year and two numbers of Volume xii

were published.

MAMMALS.

Mr. Theodore Hubback contributed an interesting article on

the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros (Dicerorhinus sumatrensis).

His note, based mainly on personal observations, summarises what

is known about the habits of this rhinoceros, the terrain in which

it is found, its food, and the many legendary beliefs and superstitions

attaching to the species. Mr. Hubback’s paper is supplemented by

additional notes by Mr. S. H. Prater on the genera, species and races

of the Asiatic Two-horned Rhinoceros, as described by various

authors. He summarises the available data regarding the external

physical characters of the species and discusses the basis of the

various beliefs and legends recorded by Mr. Hubback. Of general

interest is the theory that traces the origin of the unicorn, from

which the rhinoceros inherited its fabled attributes, not to a four-

footed beast such as the oryx, or the wild ass but to Cerastes—the

Horned Viper, which figures prominently in Assyrian and Hebrew

Religion and Art, and which poetic fervour and imagination endowed

with wings, limbs and claws. If the poisonous viper gave origin to

the belief in the Unicorn—then the supposed efficacy of the horn

of the Unicorn, and of its successor the Rhinoceros—against poison

is associated with the ancient well-known belief that poison

counteracts poison; while the fabled power of a virgin over the

unicorn and the rhinoceros may be traceable to ‘the Woman’s

domination over the Serpent’ proclaimed in the Bible. These

wondrous attributes have passed from the Horned Viper to the

unicorn and from the unicorn to the rhinoceros.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 293

Mr. Hubback’s article ends with a plea for the more rigid

protection of the rhinoceros, which is now on ‘the threshold of

extinction’. Its extermination must inevitably result from absence

of undisturbed conditions, which is now the case. A species, which

has survived from past geological epochs to our day, is finding itself

unable at last to withstand the intrusion of modern Man into its

domain. The only hope that remains of saving these animals from

extinction in Malaya and Burma, adds Mr. Hubback, is to constitute

inviolable sanctuaries in their own habitat, where a suitable en-

vironment is known to exist. An appropriate pendant to Mr.

Hubback’s comment is Mr. D’Arcy Weatherbe’s memorandum on

the Kahilu Sanctuary in Burma, which deals with the reports of

the survival of the rarest of all Rhinoceros——-the Lesser One-horned

Rhinoceros (Rk. sondaicus) within its limits. In 1929 a fragment of

a skull and in 1933 a complete skull, both of which undoubtedly

belong to this species, were obtained in this area and presented to

the Society. Mr. Weatherbe shows that genuine evidence is lack-

ing of the continued existence of this rare rhinoceros in the sanc-

tuary. Further, he makes clear that terms and conditions under

which this sanctuary has been established render ineffective what

might otherwise have been a permanent and valuable refuge for

wild life. In the present temper of the legislatures the possibility of

enacting suitable legislation for the establishment of inviolable Sanc-

tuaries appears remote. Nevertheless such sanctuaries are a

sine qua non and the present half measures introduced by Govern-

ment will do little to achieve their purpose. An offset to this sorry

position is the record of the work of the Nilgiri Game Association—

1879-1939 by Major E. G. Phythian Adams. The Association is

to be congratulated upon its achievements during the 60 years of

its being. The result of its activities show what can be done by.

private effort, when proper official backing is forthcoming.

Sambhar and chital in the areas controlled by the Association have

not only maintained their numbers but have very appreciably in-

creased, while the Nilgiri Tahr, reduced to a bare dozen when the

Association was formed, now exceed 500 head. Starting with a

fauna, in the case of some species, on the verge of extermination,

the Association has by careful control built up as fine a stock of

game as is to be found anywhere in India. The recent action of the

Madras Government asking this Association to surrender half the

shooting and fishing fees, is therefore all the more to be deplored

and, if insisted on, will impair considerably the Association’s efforts

and reduce to impotence what is perhaps the most successful

organization of its kind in the East. It is hoped that wiser

counsels will prevail, and that the Association will continue to

receive in full, the support which it deserves.

BIRDS.

Among the many notes and articles on Indian Birds is Mr.

Salim Ali’s Report on the Birds of Central India which is based

on surveys carried out in the Central Indian States of Bhopal,

Gwalior, Indore and Dhar. The financial grants generously proffered

994° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST) SOCIDTY, Vols um

by the Governments of the States concerned have made this valuable

work possible. The area covered by the survey had not been

systematically studied previously. While no fresh discoveries were

expected, the material collected provides useful data for determining

the racial status and distribution of species in correlation with parallel

data obtained in surveys carried out in other provinces of India.

Mr. Ali has done his work with his usual efficiency and thorough-

ness. We have once again to thank Mr. Whistler for his work on

the material obtained. We should like to take this opportunity to

express our sorrow and our sympathy with Mr. Ali on his recent

loss. The death of his wife has removed from his side a comrade

who shared in his work, braving the discomforts that attended

it, to give him her help, care and companionship.

Central Indian bird life features again in Mr. C. E. Hewitson’s

‘Bird Year in Betul’ which presents a picture of the bird life of the

district from month to month and provides a model which other

students of local faunas might well follow.

With the publication of Part VI, the serial by Messrs. Salim

Ali and Humayun Abdulali on the Birds of Bombay and. Salsette

is concluded. The work has been’ generally commended. It

provides students and laymen not only with an up-to-date working

list, but with a readable and interesting account of the. local bird

life, deriving much of its merit from well written descriptions of

the breeding and general habits of the species. As previously

indicated, it is intended to publish the serial in pamphlet form in

conjunction with other pamphlets on the fauna of Bombay and

Salsette, issued by the Natural History Section of the Prince of

Wales Museum.

Mr. C. McCann’s paper on the Blamineos based on observations

made during an expedition to the Rann of Cutch is an original and

interesting study of the habits of this species. One interesting

fact revealed is that the existence of the breeding colony depends

upon the brief outburst of a brackish water plant (Ruppia

vostellata) in the Rann, which is initiated by the flooding of the

area by rivers from the mainland, the seeds providing the food

for the young. Another interesting discovery is the early deserting

of the young by the majority of parent birds; the guardianship

of the chicks being left to a few adults who act as ‘sentries’ and,

finally, the march of the chicks across the desert in the wake of the

receding water—a tragic retreat in which hundreds perish. Where

exactly these chicks go to on leaving the Rann and their subse-

quent history still remains to be discovered. It would also be

interesting to study specimens of these birds at a stage exhibiting.

the passage from the brown juvenile plumage to the adult white

and crimson. The question, as to whether the pink plumage 1S

attained by moult or canescence requires further study in the field.

REPTILES AND FISHEs.

Dr. Hora continued his serial on the Game Fishes of India.

Parts VI, VII and VIII were published during the year. Parts

VI and VII describe two Fresh Water Sharks—the Goonch

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 225

(Bangurius bungarius), which has the best title to the name, and

the Mulley, Wallago—now Weallagonia attu. § In Part VIII, Dr.

Hora deals with the mahseers or large-scaled barbels of India.

How many different species now go under the name Barbus tor—

the Mahseer, we do not know. Dr. Hora’s study is an attempt to

answer this question and his present paper deals with the mahseer

found in the Himalayan Streams—from Kashmir to Darjeeling.

To this fish he gives Hamilton’s specific name Barbus putitora,

Subsequent parts will deal with Mahseer from other areas in India

and will, it is hoped, provide a clearer idea of true status of the

various fishes now generally confused under the name Barbus tor.

Mahseer—trom the standpoint of their breeding habits—form

the subject of a paper by Dr, Hamid Khan. His study of the sex

organs of specimens examined by him leads to the conclusion that

Mahseer spawn three times a year and that all the eggs in the

ovaries are discharged at each spawning season. The author’s

interesting investigations help to emphasize the need of Dr. Hora’s

work: since it is not known whether the conclusion relative to

breeding habits of Mahseer were drawn from the studies of one or

more species.

Another sporting fish which received special attention in the

Journal during the year is trout. Little attention has been given

to the disease of these fish in the various areas in which they

have been introduced and established in India. The subject is

one of considerable importance to the development of trout

fisheries in this country. Dr. Hamid Khan in his paper discusses

diseases encountered at the Mahili Hatchery, Punjab, 1.e., fin-rot,

goitre, inflammation of the intestines, and fungus and gives an

account of the remedial measures employed. The diseases of

trout were also investigated in the Harwan Hatchery at Kashmir,

where a very large number of fish died in 1934. An investigation

was then undertaken by the Zoological Survey of India at the

instance of this Society. The results of the investigation are

published in Mr. Gulam M. Malik’s paper in volume xli, No. 2.

It is shown that the heavy mortality was due to lipoid or fatty

degeneration of the liver, induced by the fatty foods and developed

in epidemic form owing to shortage of water, insanitary conditions

of the pens and overcrowding. Mr. Malik’s paper is supplemented

with notes by Brigadier A. Campbell Ross, who contributes

an interesting article on Trout Fishing in Kashmir. His recom-

mendations, iraced on experience of nearly 20 years, merit the

serious attention of the Game Preservation Department of the

State. Much improvement could be effected if the efforts of the

Department were now directed more to the quality of the fish than

to the quantity. The author holds that overstocking of the streams

and the resulting shortage of food has caused deterioration. A

reduction in the numbers of trout is recommended. A second

point needing attention, is the enormous stock of other species of

fishes present in rivers and streams. While their fry provide food

for the trout, the adults themselves reduce the food supply, inter-

fere with the growth of weed and cause unhealthy overcrowding.

The need for a reduction in their numbers is stressed. Lastly and

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

most important of all is the improvement in the natural food supply

available to the trout. As most of the rivers are now stocked to

capacity it is recommended that a large proportion of the money

now spent on trout hatcheries may be devoted with greater advan-

tage to breeding of food supplies. This in our opinion, is a most

cogent point, covering as it does the damage done to food supplies

by coarse fish, and the necessity of increasing the Trout food

supply. Any one with any experience of Trout culture knows that

an excess of coarse fish in the water is a serious matter.

The economic aspect of Indian fisheries also forms the subject

of two. papers by Dr. S. B. Setna on the Marine Fisheries of

Bombay. In an article on Bombay’s Fishing Industry the author

discusses the inadequacy of the supply and the generally neglected

condition of the industry, which at the present time is carried out

solely by certain impoverished castes and does not attract the

educated elements of the population or external capital. The

primitive methods employed limit the fishing field to a few miles

from the coast: facilities for landing and marketing of fish are

poor; while the meagre earnings of the fishermen provide little

incentive to enterprise. The Government of Bombay are to be

congratulated therefore on the attempt at improving at least one

aspect of the Industry by a practical demonstration of the effective-

ness of more rapid methods of transport. The work done in

Bombay in this respect is the subject of a second article by

Dr. Setna which gives the results attained by introducing fast

power-propelled launches for bringing in the catches to Bombay.

Seven hundred tons of fish over and above the accustomed quantities

were brought to the Bombay market in prime condition, and the

radius from which the city draws its supplies was increased by

2-3 hundred miles. The success attending this experiment led to

a rapid development of power transport and has brought into being

quite a fleet of private-owned launches to the benefit of the industry.

But increased supplies in Bombay has led to a corresponding

decline in the fish available at the fish curing yards and at other

coastal ports and no fundamental improvement can be expected

until an improvement can be made in the present primitive method

of exploitation. If more fish is to be obtained then fishing

cperations must extend over a wider field, and if the Industry is

to develop better then more adequate facilities for the landing,

storage and marketing of fishes must be provided. The author

discusses measures which should be taken to secure a more general

development of the local fisheries which, if followed, should materi-

ally benefit an industry of first rate importance to this maritime

Province.

Another important section of Indian fisheries was dealt with

in Dr. Chopra’s paper on Food Prawns and Crabs of India Ga

which the author discusses the various species available in the

markets of large towns. The value of the fisheries is not generally

realized by the public. The author estimates the yield of the

prawn fisheries of India at, at least 3 crores of rupees per annum.

Impressive though it may seem, the figure falls into insignificance

when compared with other smaller countries where shell fisheries

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 227

are conducted on scientific lines. The author discusses the various

methods employed in the capture and marketing of Shell fishes.

INSECTS.

During the year we published Parts VI and VII of Mr. Mosely’s

serial on Indian Caddis Flies which deal with the Sericostomatidae.

A number of new genera and species are described, and the papers

as usual are illustrated with a very large number of fine plates.

Mr. D. G. Sevastopulo’s notes and observations on the Early

Stages of Indian Lepidoptera were issued in three papers during the

year.

Butterflies of Burma form the subject of two papers. Capt.

W. C. Carrot lists the species taken by him in the Shan States—

an interesting area with an abundant and varied butterfly fauna;

while in the December number, we published Part I of Notes on New

and Interesting Butterflies from Burma by the late Major-General

Sir Harry Tytler. General Tytler’s long service in many parts of

the East gave him opportunity to develop his hent for Natural

History. His chief interest lay in Butterflies and he brought

together one of the finest collections ever made.in India. He

published a number of papers on Indian butterflies in the Society’s

Journal. The editing of Part II of Tytler’s Notes has been taken

over by Mr. G. A. Talbot, F.R.E.s., of the British Museum.

Messrs. C. Cherian and M. S. Kylasam published their studies

on the Laphygma exigua and its natural enemies. The cater-

pillars of this moth, which has a world-wide distribution, are well

known as pests of crops. In India lucerne, onion, chillies and

many other plants suffer from their depredations and the present

paper deals with the species in a new role—as a pest of tobacco,

and gives the result of investigations conducted to discover suitable

predators and parasites which might effectively provide a control

over these pests.

BOTANY,

During the year we commenced publication of a_ serial on

Beautiful Indian Climbers and Shrubs under the joint authorship

Ger, N. Lb. Bor and his colleague Mr. M. B. Raizada of the

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun. Two parts were issued

dealing with Ipomoea and Aristolochia. Mr. G. Singh’s beauti-

ful coloured illustrations are a feature of the work which will be

issued as a companion volume to Beautiful Indian Trees by Blatter

and Millard. The first edition of the latter work published by

the Societv in 1938 was sold within 8 months. Unfortunately

under present war conditions the issue of a second edition would

prove too expensive and must be postponed till better times prevail.

Another serial commenced during the year, deals with Com-

mon Indian Herbs by Prof. M. Sayeedud-Din of the Osmania

University. The serial will describe and illustrate a number of

the common species found in India and give supplementary notes on

their anatomical characters.

228. JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL HIST. SOCTHEGY, Wolwielg

Father Caius continued his interesting serial on Indian Medicinal

and Poisonous Plants. Three papers were published dealing with

the Crucifers, the Capparids and the Flacourtiads.

In another paper Father Caius publishes the results of his survey

of the local trade in Gum Arabic with a view to ascertain the

source of the commodity and the uses it is commonly put to.

A contribution of particular interest to botanists is Mr. C.

McCann’s Additions to the Description of Irerea indica, a rare

species found only once since its discovery in 1864. The author

provides a detailed description of the fruit, seeds and other parts

of the plant.

That Nature Photography is steadily increasing in popularity

in this country was evidenced by the very large number of excellent

pictures shown at the special Wild Life Photographic Exhibition

organized by the Society during the year. Camera hunters will

find much to interest and stimulate them in the two beautifully

illustrated articles written by two of the most successful camera

hunters in this country, Major R.S.P. Bates who wrote on ‘Bird

Photography in India’ and Mr. Theodore Hubback who contri-

buted an article on Wild Life Photography in a Malayan Jungle.

Both articles contain valuable hints and advice and both are accom-

panied by fine examples of Camera work.

Forthcoming Publications.—We have been to much trouble te

ascertain whether a reprint of the Snake Chart would be welcome.

This chart was issued some twenty years ago to hospitals, dis-

pensaries, schools and colleges throughout the country and the

reply to enquiries has ‘been so encouraging that the chart 1s

already under weigh, and will appear very shortly. It is already

more than paid for. As a companion volume we have decided

to issue a fifth edition. of Wall’s book on the Poisonous Terrestrial

Snakes of India, but it will be revised in the light of recent dis-

coveries. The book will, we believe, fill a very real need, and

the price will be kept as low as possible.

Common Indian Birds.—Some years ago we published a chart of-

Common Indian Birds. What we did not publish was a commentary

on each bird.

We now intend to publish a popular book, showing 200 birds,

in colour, with a commentary on each bird ye Mr. Salim Ali.

This book will, we hope, ‘Catch ’em Young’, and help to

inspire an interest in Natural History which, where it exists, has

little at present on which to batten.

Revenue Account.—Once again we have managed to balance

cur budget, and we are able to record a-surplus revenue of

Rs. 4,466-13-11 as compared with Rs. 3,341-4-9 in 1938.

Total income was Rs. 37,091-9-0 and expenses were

Rs. 332,624-11-1; but it must be borne in mind that we have to

thank H. E.H. the Nizam, H. H: ‘the Gaekwan of Barodasand

H. H. the Maharaja of Patiala for the present state of our finances,

as our regular income is not sufficient to cover expenses.

Membership.--67 members resigned during the year and 26 new

members were elected, making a total membership of 845 as against

886 at the end of 1938.

PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 229

Income from publications shows a drop, as the Tree Book was

sold out fairly early in the year. We have a number of orders

booked, and with a little more encouragement a second edition will

be undertaken.

Staff.—The Committee wish to record their appreciation of the

good work done by the Curator and his staff during the past year.

April 10, 1940. MMe MceGwust Y

Honorary Secretary.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EDITORS : H. M. MCGUSTY, J. F. CAIUS AND S. H. PRATER, 6 APOLLO STREET,

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“I

: “THE : ie a : 3

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CONTENTS OF VOLOME XLII, No. 2

PAGE

Some BrautteuL InpIAN CuLimeeRS AND Suruss. Part VI. By

NMOS Bone Mido hDISe., Hilles:, s1-8.s), cand™ M._B. Raizada, M.Sc.

(With one coloured and three black and white plates and three

text-figures) sles one fer ee oe Bi ee 2S

SomE ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF TIE WERNAY-CuTTING EXPEDITION OF

1938/39 TO NORTHERN Burma. By Major J. K. Staniord, ©.B.E.,

M.C., F.R.G.S., 1.0.8, (Retd.) (With two plates) 242

Tne Wuate SHarK (Rhineodon typus Smith) in Indian Coastal Waters

with notes on its wanderings in other areas. By S. H. Prater,

c.M.z.S. (With one map and seven plates) 2 255

Some Common INbIAN HERBS) WITH NOTES ON THEIR ANATOMICAL

cHARACTERS. By M. Sayeedud-Din. Part VI. (With iwo plates) ... 280

Tue Earty Staces or INDIAN Lepipoprera. Part VI. By D. G.

Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. ah vas “ 283

PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’s Birp Sanctuaries. By W. W. A. Phillips,

neh SHenEsZ.Sie (Vets six plates) a : : 295

A CONTRIFUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND PHYSIOLOGICAL

Anatomy or InpIAN Marsu aND Aquatic Piants. By J. F. R.

D’ALMEIDA, B.a., M.Sc. (With two plates) tA - 298

Tur Game FisuHes oF Inpia. Part XII. By Sunder Lal Hora, D.sSc.,

BERGENS.. oF IZtS.,, oF RsA.S-B.,) F.N.1.,, and K.'S! Misra, -m:sc., (With

one coloured plate and seven text-figures) i 305

A New Species or Coteus. By K. Cuerian Jacor, L.ag., F.L.S. (With

a_ tlate) rei és an es 320

MaRINE SHELLS OF Mapras. By M. D. Cricuton. (With four plates) ... e2R

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE I*LORA OF THE PUNJAB AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL

REGIONS. (Pari ll. (By Or. Ls Ss Sabnis, BA. (Hons.) D.St., F.A.SC.,

I.A.S. a Lo a 342

THe MEDICINAL AND Poisonous LaniatEs oF Inpia. By Rev. Fr. J. F.

CAvusweoS:foueF-k.S: aun es 380

On THE Foop-PLants oF INDIAN Aguaristidae AND Noctuidae (Heterocera).

iby DeGs Sevastopulo, F.R.E.S. he ate a nee 421

OBITUARY :—

FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS (1865-1940) 431

REVIEW :—

hed The Fauna of British India including the remainder of the Oriental

¢. Region, Diptera. Vol. VI. Family Calliphoridae. By R. Senior

b- White, Daphne Aubertin and John Smart as! eae bea

. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :—

. I. Rivers as barriers to the distribution of Gibbons. By

4 Re EH. Parsons a uae we 434

a, Ii. A pale colour form of the Panther. By H. A. Fooks. (With

a a photo) a 435

III. A Brown form of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos

thibetanus). By Botha Van _ Ingen ee na) 5430

Ly:

Xx Vii.

XVIII.

».4 0.

XX.

DOE

XNIT.

> OSSIA s

XXIV.

XXV.

RXV

XXVIT.

CONTENTS: OF Vol. Dali ho

The Indian

1.A. (Retd.)

Village Dogs Hunting.

Wild” Dog. “By Hee=Coln RoW. -Bugton,

Keelan An See

By | ae Philip siere

On the occurrence of the Chaffinch (Fringilla coelebs Linn.)

in Waziristan. -By TI. J. Phillips

By C. McCann

Sandgrouse coming to water at mid-day.

Nicholas

By Vee:

Vitality of a Hyaena (Hyaena striata).

Vultures and Palms. ah re

By Maion kG.

Searcity of Sandgrouse during the cold weather 1939-1940.

By vEt.-Col. Ey O Brien

Habits of the Seesee Partridge (Ammoperdix griseoguiaris

griseogularis). By T. J. Phillips

Curious nesting site of the Red-wattlec Lapwing (Lobivanel-

lus indicus indicus .Bodd.) By C. McCann. (With «a

photo) ae ie oan ae ane

By J.-C: Higegms 23

By KR. J. Clough

Records of Swinhoe’s Snipe in Assam.

Occurrence of Swinhoe’s Snipe in Bengal.

Moulting of Common Teal subsequent to migration to India.

By the Secretary to Heir Apparent of Bikaner. (With a

photo) os ks

Occurrence of the Stiff-tailed Duck at Nowshera, N.-W.F.P.

By Lt.-Col. i. B Field

Injury, toa. Crocodile. By:

(With a photo)

R. K. Dharmakumarsinhji.

By D. C. Sevastopulo

By Carl L. Huhbbs

By M. A. Wynter-

Food of Lizards.

A New Family of Fishes.

Addenda to the list of Simla Butterflies.

Blyth, .a.

Butterflies attracted by moist earth. By D. G. Sevastopulo

Supplementary Notes on the life history of the Moth

(Brahmea wallichii). By R. E. Parsons, F.R.E.S.

Larva of Theretra lycetus Cr. parasitized by Tachinid Flies.

By D. G. Sevastopulo

Lagerstroemia indica as a Food-plant of Actias selene. By

D. G. Sevastopulo 3a

The death expedition of Hibiscus caterpillars.

By D. G. Sevastopulo

(A correction)

Abnormal seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. N. O. Ana-

cardiaceae. By G. A. Kapadia, . m:se-3(With) ai vtext-

figure) Fe ae ae

Some Wild Flowers of Kashmir and their indigenous use.

By Samsar Chand Koul

449

450

452

Journ. BomBay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ong

“

sopecavee

MUSSAANDA FRONDOSA Linn.

Paperchase Tree or Dhoby’s Tree (Nat. Size)

93°4 per cent.

JOURNAL

OF THE

Bombay Natural History Society.

—-

1941. VoL. XLII. No. 2.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS.

Nee DOR} MEAL Io1SC, F.liS2, IkF.S

Ge)

Forest Botanist,

AND

M. B. Ralzapa, M.SC.,

Assistant Botanist,

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun.

ParT VI.

(Continued from Vol, xlii, No. 1 (1940)5 pa 12):

(With 1 coloured and 3 black and white plates, and 3 text-figures).

Rubiaceae

A very large family of over 4,500 species, comprising herbs,

shrubs, climbers, and large trees. A small number are epiphytes.

Many beautiful shrubs belonging to this family are cultivated in

our Indian gardens for their handsome, occasionally fragrant,

flowers.

The leaves are opposite or whorled, stipulate, usualiy entire,

with pinnate nervation. The stipules are interpetiolar, that is, the

two adjacent stipules are joined together across the node, forming

a half sheath, simple or divided into lobes or fringed. The flowers

are variously arranged, sometimes in globular heads, sometimes

in corymbose cymes or panicles, axillary or terminal. Calyx often

campanulate, adnate to the ovary, truncate or with 5 lobes. Corolla

gamopetalous, seated on the top of the ovary, more or less

tubular with spreading lobes; lobes 4-10, imbricate or valvate.

Stamens as many as the lobes seated on the corolla and alternate

with the lobes. Disk present, annular or lobed; lobes as many

as the ovary cells. Ovary inferior, 2- or more-celled with axile,

basal or apical placentation. Ovules one to many. Fruit a

capsule, berry or drupe.

234 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The family takes its name from Rubia cordifolia, a well-known

Himalayan plant, which used to be the source of madder before

the days of synthetic dyes. It is still largely used by the hill

tribes to dye thread.

Apart from plants of ornamental value there are many species

of Rubiaceae which are of economic importance. Quinine, so

widely used in malarial cases, is a product of Cinchona ledgeriana

and other species of Cinchona, which are indigenous in South

America,

The drug, quinine, is of such importance in all tropical malarial

countries that it will be of interest to retail briefly in narrative

the history of this plant and its introduction into India. <A great

deal of the information contained in this account has been obtained

from Travels in Peru and India by C. R. Markham (afterwards

Sir Clements Markham), who had a great deal to do with the

introduction of this genus of plants into India. His book may

be recommended as a first class travel book, full of curious informa-

tion apart from its worth as botanical history.

The genus Cinchona was erected by Linnaeus in honour of the

Countess of Chinchon, of whom more later. As there has been

some dispute regarding the correct spelling of this name, it will

perhaps be better to settle the matter at once. Some hold that

the spelling should be Chinchona, on the grounds that Cinchona

implies a mark of disrespect to the Counts of Chinchon, the

hereditary Alcaides of the Alcazar of Segovia.

A reference to the Species Plantarum of Linnaeus, Vol. I,

page 172, shows that the famous Swede spelled the name Cinchona,

a spelling which, following the rules of International Botanical

Nomenclature, must stand. Linnaeus mentions one _ species,

Cinchona officinalis, and in addition informs us that it is also

called Quinquina and ‘habitat in Loxa Peruviae’.

The name ‘quinquina’ is the Peruvian name for the tree and

means ‘bark of bark’, a circumstance that Markham uses to refute

the idea prevalent at the time that the Peruvians had no knowledge

of the febrifugal properties of what afterwards came to be known

in the trade as Peruvian bark. The reasons of this belief were

that this bark was not found in the wallets of the Peruvian doctors

nor did they communicate their knowledge of its virtues to their

conquerors. This, however, can be easily explained by their hatred

for the Spanish invader.

Whether the inhabitants of Peru knew of the febrifugal pro-

perties of the bark of quinquina or not, it is certain that thé

Spaniards must have known of them before 1638. In that year

the wife of Luis Geronimo Fernandez de Cabrera Bobadilla y

Mendoza, fourth Count of Chinchon, lay iJl of intermittent fevers

in the palace at-Lima in Peru. ‘The Corregidor of Loxa, Dom

Lopez de Canizares, on hearing of her illness, sent a parcel of

powdered quinquina to her physician, Juan de Vega, who was

also captain of the armoury, assuring him that it was a sovereign

and never-failing remedy for tertiaria’ (Markham). The gallant

captain fortunately was able, despite his duties at the armoury,

to administer the drug to the Countess, and the result was a

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 235

complete cure. As we have already seen Linnaeus immortalized

the lady by calling the genus Cinchona after her, doubtless influ-

enced by the extraordinary belief of those days that a person of

rank conferred an honour upon a drug by kindly consenting to

pee cured by it. The lords of Chinchon are, however, said to

have made history in another direction by giving Charles 1 of

Poeland in 1623 a supper of ‘certaine trouts of extraordinary

greatnesse’.

Foliowing the cure of this important .personage the Jesuits

-were entirely responsible for the introduction of Peruvian bark

into Europe. In 1670 it appears to have been largely used with

success in Rome to cure fevers of all kinds. Apparently it was

at that time known as ‘Jesuits’ bark’ and as such was naturally

avoided by all good Protestants. Gradually, however, prejudice

was overcome and by 1726 the bark was held in high repute in

all European countries as a cure for various fevers.

The popularity of Peruvian bark naturally led to the destruction

of hundreds of thousands of trees to provide for the European

trade so that in time the trees were threatened with extinction.

The Dutch apparently were the first to take steps to introduce

the tree into their colonies and Cinchona plants were landed in

Java in 1854. Sir Clements Markham led an expedition from

England to the Andes in,1855, and the seeds and plants of

Cinchona obtained by him and his assistants reached Kew in 1860;

and the same year Markham landed in Bombay with 125 seedlings.

These were planted in the Nilgiris but all died. Others, however,

arrived from Kew and extraordinary progress was made, so that

by 1862 there were something like 30,000 plants established. From

these beginnings the cultivation of Cinchona spread all over India

and has reached enormous proportions. In 1937-38 the total

amount of quinine products sold in Bengal was in the neighbour-

hood of 30,000 Ibs.

Ipecacuanha, which contains among other alkaloids the

valuable emetine, largely used as a specific in cases of amoebic

dysentery, is obtained from Cephaelis (Psychotria) ipecacuanha

Rich. This plant has not had nearly so important a career as

the noble Cinchona, as it only came to light through the travels of

a Portuguese priest, Manoel Tristaon, in Brazil during the

sixteenth century. The properties of the drug became known in

Europe during the 17th century. The plant was introduced into

India in 1866.

In addition to Rubia cordifolia, mentioned above, another

genus Morinda, is well-known as a source of fast dyes. The

colours obtained from it range from yellow to red, purple and

chocolate.

Coffee is obtained from Coffea arabica Linn., an African plant,

now largely cultivated in South India. The well-known tanning

material, called Gambier in the trade, is furnished by the climber,

Uncaria gambir Roxb. |

The climbing genus Uncaria (from uncus, a hook) climbs by

means of axillary hook-shaped tendrils. Paederia foetida, a com-

mon jungle plant in India, is a twiner.

236 - JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. BIST. SOCIETY, Vols OG

Little is known of the mechanism of pollination of the species

of this large family. In Ixora the anthers are pressed against the

style in the bud. Before the flower bud opens the anthers dehisce

and large quantities of pollen are left adhering to the tip of the

2-lobed style. The stigmatic surfaces of the stylar lobes are

pressed together at this time and effectively prévent self-fertilisation.

The unexpanded style is supposed to act as a perching rod for

insects which carry away the pollen to older flowers. Subsequently

the stigmatic lobes become recurved and expose the receptive

surfaces to a visitor carrying pollen from another flower. This

genus which has very highly coloured flowers would appear to

favour cross fertilisation.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

Shrubs without thorns.

Flowers with one calyx lobe expanded into

a white leaf-like structure ; flowers orange

or pale yellow ss he a!) 1. Mussaenda,

Flowers with calyx lobes not so expanded.

Plant foetid when bruised, leaves small. ae 2, Serissa.

Plant not foetid when bruised.

Flowers white.

Flowers fragrant... Ah ... 3+. Gardenia.

Flowers not fragrant ek ot ae Coeds

Flowers coloured.

Flowers red, yellow or orange.

Corolla salver-shaped.

Corolla lobes pointed ... Ne ia we Ona’

Corolla lobes rounded oa 6. Rondeletia.

Corolla tubular aoe 7. Hamelia.

Flowers mauve or white ce ne 8. Hamiltonia.

Thorny shrub with greenish flowers Bee .. 9. Catesbaea.

PART a)

1. Mussaenda Linn.

(mussaenda is the Sinhalese name for the species of this genus).

Shrubs or undershrubs, sometimes scandent, with opposite or

ternately whorled leaves. Stipules free or joined together, persistent

or deciduous. Flowers usually yellow in terminal cymes. Calyx

oblong, top-shaped or globose, with 5 lobes, one of which is expanded

in a large white or coloured leaf. Corolla tubular below, funnel-

shaped above; threat villous; lobes five, valvate in the bud, with

everted margins, spreading in the open flower. Stamens in the

tube or throat; filaments very short; anthers linear. Ovary 2-celled ;

ovules many on peltate fleshy placentae. Fruit a berry. Seeds

many, pitted.

KEY TO THE SPECIES OF MUSSAENDA.

Flowers pale yellow oes as ba ... MM. luteola.

Flowers orange red... Jag one uth M. frondosa.

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIsT. SOc,

M.N. Baks|

Photo by

Mussaenda luteola Del.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

ba |

SOME BEAUTIFUL -INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 3

Mussaenda luteola Del.

(luteolus means yellowish in Latin, and refers to the colour of the

foliaceous sepal of this species).

Fig. 1.—Mussaenda luteola Del. x 1/1.

Description.—A small, erect, twiggy slender shrub. Branches

green, somewhat compressed, covered with a hoary, appressed

pubescence. Leaves 1.5-2 in. long, petiolate, elliptic-lanceolate or

oblong-lanceolate in shape, acuminate at the tip, narrowed at the

base; membranous, olive-green above, pale below, sparsely hairy

above, covered on the nerves below with short appressed pubes-

cence; petiole short. Stipules subulate.

Inflorescence of few flowered corymbs. Calyx tube 5-angled,

-I in. long, shortly hairy, 5-lobed; lobes subulate .2 in. long except

one which is often produced and expanded into an elliptic-acuminate

of ovate foliar structure, .75-1 in. long, yellowish in colour, seated

on a ‘petiole’ .4 in. long. Corolla tube 1 in. long, densely velvety

pubescent at the mouth, greenish, pubescent, swollen about 1/3

the way down at the insertion of the stamens, 5-lobed; lobes pale

238 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

yellow in colour, broadly ovate, long acuminate. Stamens 5,

sessile; anthers linear, included. Ovary 2-celled; ovules numer-

ous. Style slender, glabrous, divided at the top into two stigmatic

lobes.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Iruits.—This shrub seldom

fruits un Dehra.

Distribulion.—Native of tropical Africa, but now commonly

cultivated in gardens throughout the plains of India.

Gardening.—A pretty bushy shrub with dense dull-green foliage

and pale yellow foliaceous sepal. Propagated usually by layers,

as cuttings are less successful... According to J. DaeHooker %@

was first introduced into Europe about 1860 by Capt. Grant from

the head-waters of the Nile.

Mussaenda frondosa Linn.

Paperchase Tree or Dhoby's* Tree.

(frondosa is a Latin word meaning leafy).

Description. erect shrub. Branches green, angled when

young, covered with a coarse brown pubescence. Leaves opposite,

shortly and stoutly petioled, ovate or elliptic in shape, obtusely

acute or acuminate at the tip, narrowed or rounded at the base,

membranous, glabrous or sparsely hairy above, softly hairy on

the lower surface, 6-9 in. long, by 3-4 in. wide; petiole stout,

-5 alii Ones coarsely hairy. Stipules large, broadly ovate-obtuse,

often splitting at the apex into two lobes, covered with longish

hairs.

Inflorescence in terminal cymes supported by two reduced leaves.

Peduncles stout, very hairy; bracts and bracteoles present. | Indi-

vidual flowers subsessile. Calyx tube .2 in. long, adnate to the

ovary, glabrous or sparsely hairy, oblong in shape, 5-lcbed; lobes

linear or subulate, .4 in. long, ciliate with long hairs. “One loge

is occasionally produced into a hairy petiole, .75 in. long, to which

is attached a leaf-like, white, elliptic-lanceolate appendage, 1 in.

long or more. Corolla tube cylindrical, slender below, widened

above the position of the stamens, covered with silky hairs, pale

green in colour, yellowish hairy at the mouth, 5-lobed; lobes thick,

fleshy, ovate-acute, yellowish green outside, inside of a beautiful

orange-red colour, covered with a minute golden glandular excre-

tion. Stamens 5, linear, sessile, included within the ¢landular

hairy tube about half way down; the filaments are slightly adnate

to the tube for the whole of their length, making the anthers

sessile, but they can be easily separated. Ovary 2-celled; ovules

numerous. Style short; stigmas 2.

Flowers.—Hot and rainy season. Fruits at the end of the

rains.

eae mmenre os Ors in Assam, Upper Burma, South India

and Ceylon.

Gardening.—This is one of the commonest shrubs to be found in

Indian gardens. The white foliaceous sepal in contrast to the deep

green colour of the foliage makes it an ornamental and conspicuous

Areatyy It is advisable to prune it in the cold weather when it is

JoURN. BOMBAY Nat. Hist. SOc.

Photo by M.N. Bakshi

Mussaenda frondosa, Linn.

New Forest, Dehra Dun.

ia ih a a a is a i

_2YSYDT *N "TAT = ———————

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRI'BS 239

deciduous. It is popularly known as the ‘Paperchase’ tree or

Dhoby’s tree on account of the fancied resemblance of the white

foliaceous leaf to handkerchiefs or bits of paper. Easily raised by

cuttings. .

2. Serissa Comm.

(Bailey’ remarks that the generic name comes from the Indian name

of this plant. On the other hand, Roxburgh says that this plant

was introduced from China and hence there is no Indian name for it).

A branchy shrub. Leaves opposite, subsessile, subcoriaceous,

ovate-acute, foetid when bruised. Stipules cuspidate, interpetiolar,

persistent. Inflorescence of solitary or fascicled flowers, axillary or

terminal, sessile. Hypanthium obconic, ending in 4-6 lobes which

are subulate-lanceolate in shape, persistent. Corolla infundibuliform,

hairy outside and in the throat; lobes 4-6, short, induplicate-valvate

in the bud. Stamens 4-6, inserted at the base of the tube; filaments

very slender; anthers linear-oblong, included. Ovary 2-celled;

ovules 1 to each cell, basal. Style slender, ending in two subulate

stigmatic lobes. Fruit fleshy, containing two seeds.

Serissa foetida Lamk.

(foetidus means evil smelling in Latin, and refers to the unpleasant

odour of the leaves and flowers when bruised).

Fig. 2.—Serissa foetida Lamk. xX 1/1.

Description.—A shrub with many glabrous branches. Young

branches quadrangular, brown, covered with sparse hairs, becom-

ing round, greyish in colour, and glabrous. Leaves small, .3-.75 in.

ce cere

’ The Standard Cyclopedia of Horticulture.

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

long by .2 in. wide, oblong or oblong-lanceolate in shape, acute

at both ends, olive-green above, paler beneath, coriaceous in

texture; nerves 3-4 main pairs, ascending obliquely, prominent

below, hardly visible on the upper surface; petiole .o5 in. long.

Stipules interpetiolar, sheathing at the base, divided above into

several setaceous lobes.

Inflorescence of terminal fascicles of flowers, with an involucre

of leaves. Flowers seated on very short pedicels; bracteoles broad

and membranous at the base, connate into a sheath surrounding

the flower, ending above in 2 long sharp, setaceous, ciliate lobes.

Calyx tube very short, 4-5-(rarely 6-8-) lobed; lobes .1 in, long,

lanceolate-acute, with ciliate margins. Corolla tube .2 in. long,

cylindrical at the base, funnel-shaped above, hairy within; lobes

4-5, less than .1 in. long, ovate-obtuse. Stamens 5, inserted in

the lower third of the tube or above; filaments short; anthers

linear-acute, about .1 in, long, included ‘or slightly emergenm

Ovary 2-celled; ovules t in each cell, basal; style slender ending

in 2 stigmatic lobes. Fruit a berry with 2 seeds.

Flowers.—Practically all the year round.

Distribution.-—Indigenous to China and Japan. It has long

been cultivated in gardens in India.

Gardening.—A small shrub about 2 ft. high. It is nearly

always in bloom with its sparkling rather small white flowers

which, like the leaves, when bruised emit a foetid stench. Single-

and double-flowered forms are both quite common in gardens.

According to Aiton’s Hortus Kewensis’ it was introduced into

England. in 1787. Propagated by cuttings.

Medicinal uses.—The stem and leaves are said to-be used by

the Chinese for the treatment of carbuncles and cancet.

3. Gardenia Linn.

(A genus erected by Linnaeus in honour of Dr. Alexander Garden

of Charleston S.C., one of his correspondents).

Trees or shrubs, thorny or not. Leaves opposite, rarely ternate;

stipules connate or not. Flowers solitary, fascicled or collected

into cymes, usually large. Calyx lobes usually long, persistent in

fruit. Corolla tube cylindrical or campanulate, 5-12-lobed; lobes

twisted in the bud. Stamens as numerous as the lobes of the corolla

and alternate with them; anthers linear, inserted on the tube,

included, sessile or subsessile. Ovary 1-celled; ovules in two

series on parietal placentae. Fruit fleshy with a leathery epicarp. .

Gardenia florida florida Linn. (G. jasminoides Ellis),

Cape Jasmine.

(florida is a Latin word meaning many-flowered).

Description.—A shrub reaching 6 ft. in height. Young

branches brown, becoming covered with a greyish bark, striate.

Leaves opposite or ternate, oblong-elliptic or obovate-lanceolate in

shape, obtusely acuminate, wedge-shaped and decurrent at. the

base, shining, 3-6 in. long by .5-2 in. wide. Stipules about .5 in.

long, acute, membranous.

SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS 241

Inflorescence of terminal solitary, white, very oes oe

seated on 6-winged pedicels, 37 inion: Calyx tube Lome,

bearing 6 longitudinal wings, 6-lobed; lobes up to Pe if long,

oblong, acute, persistent. Corolla tube 1.75 in. long, glabrous

inside and out, 6-lobed; lobes up to 1 in. long, obovate, obtuse or

Fig. 3.—Gardenia florida Linn. X 1/1.

rounded at the top, narrowed at the base, fleshy. Stamens 6, long

exserted; filamenis short; anthers .6 in: long, linear-obtuse.

Ovary incompletely 2 2-celled; ovules very numerous on 2 placentas.

But 1-1:75 in. long, 6-075 in. wide, ovoid or elliptic, surmounted

by the Salat -lobes, winged on 6 ridges.

Flowers.—March-April. I’ruits.—Cold_ season.

Distribution.—Native of China, now widely cultivated in gardens

throughout ee

andsome, dark green, glossy

foliage. It ariiiees at the beginning of the het season numerous,

double, creamy-white, strongly and sweetly scented flowers which

resemble those of a double Camellia. It usually grows to about

6 ft. or so but may be kept to any convenient size by pruning.

Easily propagated by cuttings during the rains. It is suitable

for hedges and cut flowers.

Medicinal and economic uses.—The pulp of the fruit gives a

yellow dye. A decoction of the leaves and roots with or without

sugar, is used to alleviate fevers

SOME ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS OF THE VERNAY-

CUTTING EXPEDITION OF 1938/39 TO NORTHERN BURMA.

Major J.. K.° STANFORD, ©. B4Es, MIC) FIRsG)S,,

Indian Civil Service (Retired).

(With two plates).

It has been suggested that I should write a brief account for

readers of the Journal of the expedition which Mr. Arthur S. Vernay

and Mr. Suydam Cutting of New York led to the Laukkaung

subdivision. of the Mvitkyina district in the cold weather of 1938/

1939. A full account from the ornithological standpoint of

this expedition, the other members of which were Captain Kingdon

Ward, F.R.G.Ss. and Dr. Harold Anthony, Mammal Curator of

the American Museum of Natural History is appearing in the

pages of the Ibis. We were most ably assisted by four skinners

under Mr. Joseph Gabriel, whose services were lent to us by the

authorities of the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. We also

received invaluable local assistance from Mr. R. E. McGuire, I.c.s.,

and the Assistant Superintendent at Laukkaung, Mr. J. W.

McGuinness, Burma Frontier Service and many of their

subordinates, as we did from the Rev. L. R, Dudrow and numerous

officers of the Burma Frontier Force.

Captain Kingdon Ward and I left Myitkyina on November 16

and marched 11 stages to Htawgaw with 80 mule-loads of stores

and equipment. From there he went on to Gangfang (5,000 feet)

on the upper reaches of the Ngawchang stream to establish a

base camp while I returned to Myitkyina to meet the other members

of the party. This preliminary trip, made in perfect weather just

after the conclusion of the rains, was a very fortunate one, as on

it without moving from the mule-path and within the space of

a few days we obtained a number of very rare birds including four

specimens of Harpactes wardi, (the dark Trogon which had been

once previously obtained by K. W. in the Seinghku Wang in the

far north of Burma,) Emberiza tristrami, a small dark bunting

which was new to the avifauna of India, Pteruthius rufiventer, and

a specimen of the rare sandlark of Tibet, Alaudula rufescens; a

number of hill-birds were found at remarkably low altitudes in

the N’Mai Valley, and the steep Pyepat ridge above Laukkaung

which had yielded several rare birds to me in previous briefer trips

over it, produced a series of the little Green Tit Babbler (Pseudo-

minla cinerea) and two rare finches, Procarduelis nipalensis and

Propyrrhula subhimachala. In addition to this, I obtained an avocet

on a village pond near Myitkyina, and a series of twelve dusky

ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS: VERNAY-CUTTING EXPEDITION 243

thrushes (7'. obscurus) which were apparently migrating. I am

no botanist and have no hope of attempting to describe to readers

of the Journal the very numerous botanical discoveries made by

Captain Kingdon Ward, but I cannot forget his excitement at

finding a new Cypripedium on the Pyepat ridge which had only

once previously been found 600 miles further: south in the Dawnas

of Tenasserim. Throughout the journey, his great experience of

travel, his eye for fruiting trees, and, beyond all, his painstaking

work on the ‘stomach-contents’ of birds were of the highest value

to me.

On December 12 Messrs. Vernay, Cutting and Anthony arrived

at Myitkyina and we set off next day for Laukkaung where a

week later we met the advance party who had returned from

Gangfang. We secured some notable birds on the second journey

including a scarlet finch (H. sipahi) and a specimen of the rare

white-headed black bulbul, a shy and elusive bird which I had pursued

unsuccessfully in these hills for 3 or 4 years. I was also lucky

enough to secure four martins (D. cashmuiriensis) of which one

or two large flocks seemed to haunt the hillside near Laukkaung.

I shall, however, always regret losing a large fruit-eating bat,

as big as a woodcock, which gave me two easy chances at dusk

near Tamu on the N’Mai:

‘What is hit is history

and what is missed is mystery.’

This adage, alas! was too often in my mind all along; the owls,

in particular, and the raptorial birds eluded us more or less through-

out the trip.

We stayed for Christmas at Htawgaw and here several more

rare birds were obtained. I shot a black finch (Pyrrhoplectes

epauletta) and some Tibetan siskins, and also obtained a fine series

of black bulbuls in two colour-phases. These, like most other

birds in. Htawgaw, were coming in in large numbers to flowering

leucospectrum (dead nettle) and the dark grey birds obtained were

all females and the black birds. males.

We then moved on to Gangfang but halted for three days on

the way to photograph an immense and picturesque gathering of

Kachins, Chinghpaws, Marus, Lashis and Lisus which had come

in to Gamhkawn for a feast and a congress organised by the

Baptist Kachin Mission. Here numerous laughing-thrushes were

seen on dead nettle and two of the rare striated laughing-thrushes

were obtained. We reached Gangfang, our base-camp at the

junction of the Ngawchang and Hpawte streams, on January 1,

Dr. Anthony obtaining a specimen of Emberiza cia along the

path.

While at Gangfang fresh takin-droppings were brought in from

the hills behind Vijawlaw and a party consisting of Messrs. Vernay,

Cutting and Kingdon Ward went after them without success,

though a specimen of the rare Myzornis pyrrhoura was obtained.

The writer camped alone on a stream above Hpawshi and spent

three days after a bear in magnificent but very steep oak forest

at the head of this stream.’ A fine male black bear was eventually

obtained, and a skinner also shot, close to camp, a specimen of the

244 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XLT

rare shortwing (Brachypteryx stellatus). This forest seemed how-

ever Curiously empty and bird life, apart from a few hill partridges,

very scarce, though the Lashis sometimes contrived to call up a

number of small birds by uttering the four-fold note of the spotted

owlet on a bamboo pipe. This note 1s used by both Lashi and

Lisus throughout these hills. I never got above 9,500 feet on

this trip but a pheasant which I believe to have been a mondl was

heard and the villagers here had many traps out for tragopan on

cleared ground under the oak-trees. While we were at Gangfang,

a Lisu brought in from Vijawlaw a live specimen of the slender-

billed scimitar babbler (NXiphiramphus superciliaris), new to ae

Burma avifauna and the only one we saw throughout the trip.

On January 14 we started for Imaw Bum, with a long train

of ceolies in heavy rain which powdered the hills around with

snow as low as 7,000 feet. On the second day we camped at

8,c0o feet in moss-covered oak forest in which we saw many of

the dark Leioptila pulchella, the Nepal cutia (Cutia nipalensis), and

a flock of Blyth’s suthora (Suthera poliotis).

On the following morning we crossed the Nyetmaw _ Pass

(10,200 feet) into the Imaw hasin, three blood pheasants ([thaginis

c. Rkuseri) being obtained on the way and a specimen of the rare

yellow-browed tit (Syluviparus modestus) which was found, later,

to be not uncommon in this forest.

North of the pass we came at once into heavy snow and the

temperatures at 9,500 feet. for the next week were extremely low.

Bird life was scarce but the few birds met with made up in rarity

what they lacked in numbers; the environs of one small alpine

meadow, about an acre in extent, in which stood a few crab apple

trees, produced the following: the allied grosbeak, the brown

suthora, the great parrotbill (Conostoma aemodium) the dark

rose-finch, (Carpodacus edwardsi), the lack-faced laughing

thrush, the Nepal tree creeper (Certhia himalayana) and_ the

yellow-billed magpie (Urocissa fl. flavirostris). We also obtained

at about 10,500 feet a specimen of the white-throated redstart

(Phoenicurus schisticeps) and one of a flock of the little Suthoru

fulvifrons, a parrotbill of the high bamboo. Captain Kingdon

Ward also shot a white-bellied dipper on the snow and icebound

stream which flanks Imaw Bum and saw a Himalayan Kingfisher.

A pair of very wild dippers seen by me on the same stream were,

I think, the brown dipper (Cinclus cinclus). |

The snow stopped us above 10,500 feet and we did. not attempt

the ascent of Imaw Bum. We saw no large mammals, though

a few tracks (those possibly of the small panda and also of some

ungulate) were seen in the snow.

A forest-fire, deliberately lit by Chinese traders, greatly disturbed

the eastern face of this valley while we were here.

On January 26, the expedition divided; Messrs. Vernay, Cutting

and Kingdon Ward crossed the northern edge of the Imaw ridge

at 11,000 feet to Luktang and so down to the Ngawchang and

round again to Htawgaw. They were, for the greater part of

this trip, collecting at altitudes below 4,o00 feet but met with

several rare birds including the first Burmese specimen of the

ahen. BOMBAY Nat. HIsT. Soc. PLATE Tf.

Imaw Bum from near the Chimili. Typical Tragopan country.

An unknown valley near Imaw Bum.

JOURN.

BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc.

Takin country at 12,000’ near Chimili Pass.

View up the Hpawte Valley towards Chimili Pass.

ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS; VERNAY-CUTTING EXPEDITION 245

Himalayan crossbill (Loxia curvirostra). Dr. Anthony and myself

recrossed the Nyetmaw Pass and spent a week in the forest south

of it at 8,700 feet ; the feature of this camp were the huge, grotesquely

writhen, trees of Rhododendron magnificum, whose mossy trunks

attracted many birds and whose huge leaves, two and a half feet

long, provided shelters for our coolies. Birds on the south side

of the pass were much more numerous and among them we met

almost daily tits of three species, including Chinese black-headed

tit (degithaliscus bonvaloti), many hoary barwings (Ixops nipa-

lensis), Herpornis xantholeuca and vast numbers of stripe-throated

yuhinas (Yuhina gularis). Other birds which had hitherto been

accounted extremely rare in this part of Burma were the golden-

breasted fulvetta (Lioparus chrysotis), the little chestnut-throated

shrike-babbler (Pteruthius melanolis) and the nutcracker. The

bulk of the birds here were feeding on aralia berries, the trees of

which were in great abundance. On the last two days a pair of the

beautiful white-spotted laughing thrush (Garrulax ocellatus) were

shot.in bamboo and a Trogon at 8,500 feet which turned out to be

a new high altitude form of the red-headed trogon (Harpactes

erythrocephalus).

Once again as we found throughout the trip, bird life above

g,ooo feet was extremely scarce even in quite undisturbed forest

land. At about 10,000 feet we saw tracks which were either of

serow or gooral, and very numerous mouse-hare holes: pig un-

doubtedly occurred as high as our camp, and the only mouse-hare

met with was trapped at that altitude. Dr. Anthony ‘hi-jacked’

at night with a lamp but the only mammal obtained in this way

was a fine specimen of the large flying-squirrel.

We returned to the base camp on January 31, -and two days

later set off for the Chimili Pass. ‘At Gangfang I obtained a

solitary Ibisbill which had been seen on the river in January. We

spent one night at Hpawte, a big Lisu village standing on a bare

rock-strewn hillside and here, among the hundreds of little bunt-

ings which thronged the grass and bracken, I managed to secure

a specimen of the rare rufous-breasted hedge-sparrow (Prunella

strophiata), a dark and very wary bird which was not uncommon

in bracken and rocks elsewhere, and also two or three of the equally

rare Manipur Fulvetta. This latter is found at much lower altitudes

than Oustalet’s Fulvetta which is the common bird of the cane

above 10,000 feet.

We camped next night at 10,500 feet about two hours march

from the Chimili Pass: As elsewhere at such an altitude it was

possible to be out for’many hours between 10,000 and 12,000 feet

and think oneself lucky to see one bird, but we found the avifauna

of the Chimili hills very similar to that of the Imaw hills forty

miles away. All the three rare parrotbills, (Conostoma aemodium,

S. unicolor and fulvifrons) were obtained at between 11,000 and

12,c00 feet, and a flock of tits passed daily within a few yards of

camp. These tits included Parus ater, rufonuchalis and dichrous,

also Aegithaliscus bonvaloti. We also obtained three of the little-

known: shrike-babbler (Pteruthius xanthochloris), A yellow-browed

tit (Sylviparus modestus) was seen in a pine tree with a flock of

246 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Parus at about 11,500 feet. The common bird of the cane and the

upper limit of the tree was the beautiful little Oustalet’s fulvetta

(f°. vinipeclus). I saw no pheasants but a pair of Temminck’s

tragopans were brought in by a Lashi and on the last morning I

again heard the strange loud cry which I took to be that of a

monai. Every morning at dawn we used to hear the forlorn note

of the spotted owlet, and a pair of jungle crows were frequently

seen near camp. A pair of black eagles flew one evening along

the ridge at 12,000 feet and quartered over the great cliff which

flanks the Hpawte stream headwaters. I also saw a buzzard at

this altitude. The larger mammals were again very scarce here

though snow stopped us exploring the 2 big valleys north and south

of the pass-road where takin undoubtedly occur.

It snowed very heavily on our last three days in this camp

but we were surprised to find that life in a single-fly tent warmed

with a hurricane lamp was not intolerable at that altitude. The

skinners however suffered severely and also our cook, a Mugh

from Chittagong, into whose philosophy no dream of snow had

ever entered.

After a week here we were recalled to Gangfang to meet the

rest of the expedition. “A fine red serow, shot by Lisus im (ine

snow behind Vijawlaw, was brought into camp at Hpawte on the

journey back.

On our return to Gangfang, it was decided to abandon our

original proposal to visit the Sajyang Pass and the high hills at

the. headwaters of the Ngawchang stream. New birds were secured

daily which included a solitary snipe and Elwes’s crake on a

tiny pond close to the base-camp. Teal were seen apparently on

migration and large flocks of Tibetan Siskins and Nepal House

Martins.

We then spent a few days at 7,500 feet in the abandoned

cantonment of Hpimaw. Spring was now upon us and the Hpimaw

pass road was almost blocked with several feet of snow. Birds

obtained at this camp included a fine series of bull-finches (P.

erythaca), the black woodpecker (of the very large form forrestt)

and a dusky thrush (Turdus n. eunomus). I spent much time

on the pass-road with indifferent success but saw here a pair of

jays and a pair of allied grosbeaks (Perissospiza icteroides). |

subsequently saw jays at between 8,ooc and 10,000 feet in two

other places but they eluded me throughout the trip. They were

probably Rippon’s jay which Lord Cranbrook obtained in the

Adung. I also saw close to me at 9,000 feet an immense wild-boar

and hoolocks were heard at about this altitude on the day we left.

One xare bird which escaped me here was Emberiza elegans, a

dark bunting with a conspicuous yellow head. <A Lisu had brought

in one to us at Gangfang, and | had a good view with glasses of

another at Hpimaw, but it was nearly a month later when I managed

to shoot two at Htawgaw which I had seen four or five times, As

this bird was observed or obtained at four widely-separated camps

it cannot be uncommon in these hilis but it is quite new to the

indian avifauna.

We then returned to Htawgaw “ie marched southwards to 4

SS ———————— —

ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS: VERNAY-CUTTING EXPEDITION 247

camp near the Panwa Pass. At Hpare a fine male Lady Amherst

pheasant (Chrysolophus amherstiae) was brought in by villagers

and Dr. Anthony also saw a wolf, unfortunately just too far to

shoot. Wolves undoubtedly occur in small numbers in Yunnan

and the villagers in the neighbourhood of the Hparé and Panwa

passes say they come over at infrequent intervals. There is a

record of two being shot near the Spimaw Pass by sepoys after

the Four Years War. The country now became much more open

and our camp at Changyinhku was on the edge of scattered oak

and alder forest, with great patches of scarlet flowering Rhododen-

dron delavayt. ‘This forest was full of birds we had not met with

before, and on the alder cones we obtained Himalayan crossbills

and Tibetan siskins while the oak forest held woodpeckers of four

or five species, tree creepers, the smaJl minivet and nuthatches.

At one patch of flowering rhododendron the birds seen searching

for the nectar included jungle crows, red-billed magpies, Chinese

barbets, yuhinas of two species, rose-finches and the little scarlet

Dabry’s sunbird, also two forms of pied wood-pecker and cinnamon

sparrows. Under the oaks we got Emberiza cia, and others on

the open meadows near the pass, and saw many Stone’s pheasants

(Phasianus elegans). This pheasant, in all its notes and ways

most closely resembling the pheasants of home, was the only one

we had any opportunity to observe or shoot throughout the trip.

The bare round hills of Changyinhku, where there were occasional

patches of potato cultivation, also held many skylarks (Alauda

arvensis}. These were mostly in pairs and the males were singing

as were stonechats, and white wagtails. I have little doubt all

three nest. there.

Close to the pass I obtained three woodcocks, two of which were

feeding at a stream in open meadows near noon. Two of these

birds, a male and a female, were by their organs, about to breed,

and I have no doubt that it is here, if anywhere in Burma, that the

first Woodcocks’ eggs will be obtained. On the short grass near

the pass my orderly also obtained a single water pipit (A. spinoletta)

though the majority of the pipits here were Indian tree-pipits (A.

hodgsont).

On March 12, Messrs. Vernay and Cutting departed for

Myitkyina and the rest of the expedition returned to Hpare. We

spent three very wet days on the way in the oak forest near

Zuklang at 8,500 feet and found it alive with wrens. We obtained

a single chestnut-headed wren (Tesia castaneocoronata), which was

not uncommon, and three of the rare long-tailed wren (Spelaeornis

souliei}. As a rule these birds were either quite invisible or offered

a momentary chance at about thirty inches range.

On a bramble-covered hillside on the way to Hpare I saw

Rippon’s bullfinch, the black finch and the red-headed rose-finch

at close quarters but they were difficult to shoot and _ still more

difficult to retrieve though I managed to obtain a single specimen

here of Procarduelis nipalensis.

Captain Kingdon Ward and myself then did a final camp close

to the Hparé Pass. We saw here a blood pheasant and jays and

‘obtained some of the tits and tree creepers we had got near the

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL IST: (SOCIETY, Vol. KV

Chimili, as also specimens of the Manipur Fulvetta which were

about to breed. I had the good fortune to have a momentary

glimpse of two fine male tragopans and a mouse-hare, but was

stupid enough to miss at fairly close range with a shot gun and

S. G., a head-on chance at a Michie’s deer, on the hillside at

9,500 feet close to the Hpare Pass. Two specimens in the iron-

grey winter coat had been brought in to us by natives but this

was the first.chance° any member of the expedition had had of

observing one. In flight it looked completely black with a very

noticeable white ‘flag’. The ordinary red barking deer certainly

eccurred up to 7,000 feet in the country traversed by the expedition

and was seen or obtained both near Changyinhku and Gangfang.

We also saw many sambhur tracks and picked up an immense

shed horn at over 9,000 feet: one stag was seen but not obtained.

On the last day I obtained the female of a pair of Ward’s trogon

which was ahout to breed and also shot a pair of the red-headed

trogon at approximately the same altitude a mile away. A mole,

a creature which Dr. Anthony had made many attempts to trap,

was brought in by a Lashi from the pass and on our return to

Hparé we found that Dr. Anthony had been extremely successful

in obtaining a series of a rare Nectogale, a water shrew which

the villagers caught by damming streams and poisoning them

with aconite. Another mole was “caught in a mouse-trap on the

Pyepat ridge on the way home.

The return journey was uneventful, except for an immense

eathering of black bulbuls on the Pyepat ridge. We obtained

here both the dark and whiteheaded forms, as also the brown

and scaly-breasted wrens: I saw enough to convince me _ that

the Pyepat ridge and the ee of Death’ which adjoins it

together form as fine a natural sanctuary for birds as any that

exists in Burma. Blyth’s parrotbill, the golden-breasted fulvetta,

and the striated laughing-thrush were all obtained at Pyepat, as

also one of a pair of the rare and silent Columba pulchricollis,

Tree creepers were seen but not obtained.

At Laukkaung imimense numbers of the common _ rose-finch

were seen feec ie on wild raspberries and still more on the journey

oon n the N’ Mai valley. On the way down from Chipwi I paid

a brief visit to the.caves about four miles away of which I had

ees sensational accounts from previous travellers in these hills.

They are not by any means as extensive as I had expected the

entrance is a hole about 3 feet high and the largest cavern is

about 30 yards long by 30 feet high. They harboured an immense

congregation of bats and we secured a good series of two forms

for Dr, Anthony:

At Tanga, on the journey down, two very large flocks of

Short-toed Larks were encountered on the small Open space by

the rest-house. They kept flying away south and returning, but

we managed to secure five. They were Calandrella brachydactyla,

which I had once previously obtained near Myitkyina itself.

We reached Myitkyina on April 12. We had collected 1,000

mammals and 1505 birds. The mammals were mainly small ones

and, though many were new to Burma, and others of extreme

ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS: VERNAY-CUTTING EXPEDITION 249

fanicy, it is impossible for me to define here the actual- results,

with which Dr. Anthony expressed himself well satisfied. The

birds consist of 299 species (not counting racial forms in some of

which we got 2 in different parts of the hills. Of these 53 I had

not previously met with in Burma and of 23 I could not find any

published Burma records.

Need ed DH

The following are the more important birds obtained. The nomenclature

is that used by Dr. Ernst Mayer. Of those marked* there are no previously

published Burrna records.

Urocissa f]. flavirestris.

6 specimens between 5,500 and g,500 It.

A rare hill and forest form of U. erythrorhyncha.

Nucifraga caryocatactes yunnanensis.

m at 8,700 ft.

Parus ater emodius.

2 at 10,500 ft.

Parus rufonuchalis beavani.

Gerais.9,500: to I1,000-ft.

Parus d. dichrous.*

4 at 10,500 ft.

Sylviparus m. modestus.

14 between 8,500 and 10,500 ft.

Aegithaliscus iouschistos bonvaloti.

6 between 7,000 and 10,500 ft.

Coaostoma emodium.*

3 between 9,200 and 11,000 ft.

Paradoxornis unicolor.

7 between g,200 and 11,000 ft.

Paradoxornis p. poliotis.

10 between 8,000 and g,ooo ft.

Paradoxornis fuivifrons albifacies .*

2 at 10,500 ft. in cane.

Sitta h. himalayensis.

8 specimens. The common nuthatch above 8,ooo ft.

Garrulax ocellata similis.*

2 in oak-forest at 8,700 ft.

Garrulax rufogularis.

Hespecimen.

Trochalopterum subunicolor.

8 specimens. Common at 7,000 ft. on Pyepat ridge.

250 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST.SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Trochalopterum affine oustaleti.

21 specimens. The common Laughing-Thrush up to 9,500 ft.

6 specimens. 5,000 to 7,500 ft.

Babax I. lanceolatus.

Grammatoptila striata austeni. |

I specimen. a rare or very shy bird. |

Xiphiramphus superciiiaris forresti.*

2 ‘specimens (© ? 7,000) it.) a

Alcippe cinerea.

3 Specimens: common on Pyepat ridge at 7,000 ft.

Fulvetta vinipectus perstriata.

22 specimens. the common small bird of the cane above gooo ft. |

Fulvetta cineriiceps manipurensis.

8 specimens. a bird of scrub jungle between 5000 and 8000 ft.

Fulvetta chrysotis forresti. |

4 specimens: usually seen with Suthora poliotis at about 7000-8000 ft.

Leioptila des zodinsi.* }

I specimen at Htawgaw. (6000 ft).

Leioptila pulchelila ceruleotincta.

23 specimens. Common from 7,000 to 9,000 ft.

Actinodura nipalensis saturatior.

26 specimens. Common from 8000 ft. in oak and rhododendron forest.

Yuhina g. gularis.

25 specimens, the commonest bird of the oak forest above 8,ooo ft. |

Yuhina diademata. a

5 specimens.

Yuhina occipitalis obscurior.*

4 specimens.

Yuhina nigrimentum. i a

I specimen. "

Yuhina bakeri.*

I specimen.

Cutia nipalensis.

13 specimens. Usually in cak forest above 7,000 ft.

Pteruthius erythropterus yunnanensis.*

Q specimens.

Pteruthius m. melanotis.

8 specimens, mainly in oak forest above 8,000 ft.

Pteruthius xanthochloris pallidus.*

3 Specimens—1io0,000 to 11,000 ft.

ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS: VERNAY-CUTTING EXPEDITION 251

Pteruthius r. rufiventer.*

6 specimens, 6,000 to 8,700 ft.

Microscelis sp.

31 specimens, comprising black, dark-grey and whiteheaded forms.

Certhia discolor shanensis.

3 specimens in oak and alder forest at 7,200 ft.

Certhia nipalensis.*

5 Specimens, 8,000 to 10,000 ft.

Troglodytes t. nipalensis.

4 Specimens.

Spelzornis souliei.

3 specimens at 8,000 ft.

Speleornis longicaudatus kauriensis

2 specimens.

Pneepyga a. albiventer.

“ 3 Specimens 7,000 ft.

Cinclus cinclus.*

I at 9,200 ft. near _Imaw Bum.

Brachypteryx stellatus.*

1 at 7,000 ft. in bamboo.

Microcichla s. scouleri.

I specimen.

Phenicurus frontalis.

16. The common redstart of the middle hills between

Phenicurus schisticeps.*

2. specimens, 1 at 10,500 ft.

Tarsiger chrysaeus.

2 specimens. Others seen at 7,000-8,000 ft.

Tarsiger cyanurus.

28 specimens: one of the few common birds of the

7,000 ft.

Tarsiger indicus yunnanensis.

II specimens, 9,000 to 10,000 ft. in cane.

Turdus rubrocanus gouldi.

7 specimens, and others seen 5,000 to 7,000 ft.

Turdus naumanni eunomus.

2 specimens.

Turdus obscurus.

4,500 and 7,000 ft.

road from 4,000 toa

12, all in November and December along the mule-road.

Turdus dixoni.

8 specimens all along the mule-road.

252. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Turdus m. mollissimus.

I specimen.

Prunella strophiata.

2 specimens: not uncommon in rocks and bracken at 7,000 ft.

Cyornis concretus cyaneus.

I specimen.

Horeites fortipes.

3 Specimens: common in spring 6,000-7,000 ft.

Phylloscopus proregulus.

5 Specimens.

Phylloscopus pulcher.

I specimen.

phylloscopus subaffinis.

15 Specimens.

Perissospiza icteroides.

3 specimens at 9,200 ft. .

Pyrrhula erythaca.

13. Common on budding willow etc. at 7,000 to 8,oo00 ft. in February.

Pyrrhoplectes epauletta.

I, in a flock at 6,000 ft. -Others seen at 7,000 ft.

Loxia curvirostra.

3 specimens, 5,000 to 7,200 ft.

Hoematospiza sipahi.

One shot, another seen at 5,000 ft.

Propyrrhula subhimachala.

4 specimens, not uncommon above 6,000 ft.

Carpodacus edwardsii.

Io specimens from 7,000 to 9,500 ft.

Procarduelis nipatensis.

2 specimens, one at 7,000 ft.

Spinus thibetanus.

4 specimens: several large flocks seen 5,000 to 7,000 ft.,

Emberiza tristrami,

I at 6,000 ft. on Pyepat ridge.

Emberiza cia.*

2 near Panwa pass, 7,000 ft.

Emberiza elegans.

3 obtained at Gangfang and Htawgaw and seen in two other places all

above 5,000 ft.

Delichon nipalensis.

7 specimens. Large flocks near Gangfang at 5,000 ft. :

ORNITHOLOGICAL RESULTS: VERNAY-CUTTING EXPEDITION 253

Delichon dasypus cashmiriensis.

3 out of a large flock frequently seen at 4,o00 ft. near Lankkaung.

Anthus spinoletta japonicus.*

One near Panwa pass at 7,500 ft.

Alauda arvescens.

I4 specimens. In pairs singing near Panwa pass.

Calandrella rufescens.*

I specimen.

Calandrella brachydactyla.

1 specimen.

Aethopyga dabryi.

7 specimens. Common at 7,200 ft. near Panwa pass.

Diczum concolor.

I specimen in N’Mai Valley.

Pitta oatesi.

I specimen.

Hy popicus hyperythrus.

I specimen at 7,200 ft. near the Panwa pass.

Dryobates major.

5 specimens.

Dryobates darjillensis.

5 specimens.

Dryobates cathparius.

4 specimens.

Blythipicus pyrrhotis.

2 specimens at 6,000 to 7,000 ft.

Thriponax javanensis.

I specimen at 7,000 ft.

Pyrotrogon wardi.

5 specimens, 5,000-7,000 ft.

Chetura gigantea.

I specimen.

Buteo burmanicus.

I specimen.

Accipiter gentilis.

I specimen at 250 ft.

Accipiter trivirgatus.

2 specimens at 5,000 ft.

Accipiter virgatus,

I specimen at 5,000 ft.

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

Columba pulchricollis.

2 and others seen on Pyepat ridge, 7,000 ft.

Phasianus colchicus.

6 specimens.

Chrysolophus amherstiz.

I specimen.

Ithaginis cruentus kuseri.

3 specimens 9,500 ft.

Porzana bicolor.

1 at 5,000 ft.

Recurvirostra avocetta.

1 near Waingmaw.

ibidorhyncha struthersii.

1 near Gangfang, 5,000 ft.

Capella solitaria.

1 near Gangfang.

XLI1

*ANOWMOC §UINACN. TAT S29” AA tn = PEMA A A TH 9999 9479 20%9 fr DADA FF ~ aes

“9661 ArenIga.q yyZ ‘Aequiog wWo1F sojtur SI szou Surysy ur 4yysnes (,9 /1Z) YIEUS sTeUMA

THE WHALE SHARK (RHINEODON TYPUS SMITH) IN

INDIAN COASTAL WATERS.

WITH NOTES ON ITS WANDERINGS IN OTHER AREAS.

S. H. PRATER, C.M.Z.S.

. Curator, Bombay Natural History Society.

(With 1 map and 7 plates).

CONTENTS,

PAGE

{ntroduction bis tH Bae Se fie 225

Distribution of the Whale Shark in Indian Coastal Waters nh 256

West Coast of India os thes ae es - 256

Ceylon se ine Ae oe ee ihe ae 258

East Coast of India os ane Lie eae a 259

Table of Records es oe = se se ae 260

Food of Whale Sharks nae 3 es 261

Influence of Plankton outbursts on movements of Whale Shar ke one. 262

Influence of Surface Currents on the movements of Whale Sharks ... 264

Seasonal movements of Whale Sharks in other areas... oe 266

Centres from which Whale Sharks migrate ot oe bi 268

Local Names oes ai =a ee ee ae 270

Description ant rae Sa ie ee sae 271

Colouration ce a ee ae i a 212

“& es cS a - i er nC 272

Tile of Measurements ae an ae ae oe 273

Whale Sharks and Remoras ats seh re an 243

Harpooning and Captures of Whale ears ste y te 274

Summary se Ae Ass Ss bal ee 277

Literature cited 3? 8 Mies De ite a 278

INTRODUCTION.

The Whale Shark (Rhineodon typus), the largest of existing

sharks, grows to a length of over 50 ft. It ranges through the

tropical and sub-tropical waters of the Pacific, Indian and Atlantic

Oceans. Mr. E. W. Gudger (1934) has brought together, from

numerous sources, records of whale sharks, captured or seen

in the wide area of their distribution. As regards the coastal waters

of India, his paper adds considerably to the single record noted

by Day in his volume on Fishes in the Fauna of British India

series. Enquiries subsequent to the capture of a whale shark off

the Ratnagiri coast in October 1938, have enabled me to add a

number of new records to the list made by Gudger. The following

notes on the occurrence and distribution of whale sharks in

the coastal waters of India include previous records noted by

256 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Gudger, supplemented with the data now made available. I have

numbered the records in the order in which they are listed in the

table which appears on p. 260.

DISTRIBUTION OF THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS.

WEstT Coast oF INDIA.

Sind. 3

No. 1. In his introductory note to the Order, Selachoidea,

Day (1889) refers to Dr, Buist’s (1850) note on shark-fishing at

Karachi, where an export trade in sharks’ fins was then, and is

yet carried on. Dr. Buist describes the methods employed in the

capture of a ‘basking shark’, known to the local fishermen as

the mhor, which is usually found floating or asleep on or near the

surface of the sea: .Dr. Buist’s informant told him) that’ the

mhor is often 40 to 60 ft. in. length, with a capacious mouth

reaching 4 ft. in width. As a result of enquiries made at Karachi,

I ascertained that fishermen still know of a fish called mhor which,

as Buist describes, is occasionally harpooned while basking on the

surface of the sea. My correspondent was unable to give any

figures as to the actual number of mhor caught. He was told by

the fishermen that in some years they took several of these sharks

and in others they were not seen at all, but as a mhor realised

about Rs. 15 from the oil obtained from its liver, it was hardly

worthwhile making special efforts to capture them.

The question arises what species of shark is known as the mhor?

Gudger (loc. cit.) commenting on Buist’s description of the

general characters and habits of the fish concludes that the mhor

is none other than the whale shark. He says:—

‘though no mention of spots is made, its gigantic size and cavernous

mouth would seem to make it the Whale Shark, which like Cetorhinus, the

true Basking Shark, is frequently found at the surface of the water. Further

more Cetorhinus, which has a comparatively small mouth, has (so far as I

know) never been taken in the North Indian Ocean. It is primarily a cold

water shark. The Mhor must have been the Whale Shark’.

While Buist made no reference to spots---an obvious and striking

character in the colouration of the whale shark—the term mhor,

the local name for the fish, is in itself descriptive of this character

(vide notes on local names p. 270). Apart from this, actual confirma-

tion of Gudger’s views as to the identity of the mhor is now obtained

by the recent captures of so called ‘Basking Sharks’ at Karachi,

which proved to be whale sharks.

The history of these captures is as follows :—

No. 2. Mr. B.-D. Ashworth, in a letter to the Times of India,

(kindly forwarded to me by the Editor) enclosed two photographs

of a Whale Shark caught at Karachi in April 1932. The fish was

harpooned by fishermen from a small boat and, after a protracted

struggle, was brought under control and killed with an axe. The

axe marks on the fish’s head can be seen in the photo (Plate II,

No.7): 7

No. 3. On the. 27th March 1937, Capt... Heyzate: of ‘the! ist

Bttn., Royal West Kent Regiment and Lt. Heirsch, Royal Scot’s

Fusiliers harpooned a whale shark, 18 ft. in length, off Cape

JOURN. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc, PLATE II

Photo by B. D. Ashworth.

1. Whale Shark caught at Karachi, April, 1932.

2. Whale Shark (18 ft.) harpooned by Capt. Heygate and Lt. J. L. Heisch

off Cape Monze, Karachi, 27th March, 1937.

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THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 257

Monze, some 20 miles north of Karachi. The shark was towed

into Karachi harbour. The photo shows the fish after it was

beached (Plate II, No. 2).

No. 4. In April of the same year, the two Aiea named above,

harpooned a scond specimen some three miles off Karachi. The

harpoon worked loose and the fish got away. They were however

able to get a good view of the shark, when it was swimming on

the surface of the sea, and again when beneath their boat. They

‘state, in a note sent to me, that it was identical with their first

capture having the ‘same spotted skin and spade-shaped head’.

Bombay Province.

No. 5. On October 3rd, 1936, a whale shark, caught

in the fishing nets near Jaygad, Ratnagiri, about 100 miles

south of Bombay, was brought ashore by the fishermen. Mr, P. K.

Gogote, the local correspondent of the Times of India, sent a photo-

graph of the fish to this paper with a note saying that the fish was

over 20 ft. in length. He adds—

‘the special feature of this fish was that it could not be cut, i.e. the cut

effected showed no trace owing to the rejoining of the skin’.

Owing to the elasticity of the skin and the deep underlying layers

of fat, any incisions made in the body of this fish rapidly close up

and leave little or no trace. The unexpected result so impressed

the fisherfolk, that they returned the fish to the sea rather than be

held accountable for its life. Mr. Gogote says that it was towed

into deep water and released ‘owing to superstitious fears.’ <A

photo of the fish, originally published in the Times of India, is

reproduced here. (Plate III).

INo- 16) ,On Sunday, February 13th, 1938, a whale shark, 21’ 6”

in length, was caught by fishermen 15 miles from Bombay. It had

fouled their nets and was towed into Sassoon Dock, Bombay. I was

informed of the capture of this fish by, Dra s.,(B. Setna, Hisheries

Officer, Bombay. When we arrived at the dock a oreat crowd of

people had already assembled round the shark, which had been

dragged up the slip way. An enterprising cooly mukadum (over-

seer) had covered it with a tarpaulin and was now demanding a fee

of 1 anna from all who desired to see the ‘god’ under the canvas. To

impress doubters, preliminary homage had been paid to the deity,

with a sprinkling of flowers and turmeric powder, and the burning of

incense sticks. It is a common practice when whales or large fish are

cast up upon our coasts or taken out of the sea. The derelict becomes

“massa dev’ the fish-god and receives homage from all believers to

the material gain of the presiding genius. A complete plaster

mou!d was taken of this fish, over 2,000 lbs. of plaster being used

in the process. Its cast is now exhibited in the Fish eailery, of

the Prince of Wales Museum. To present the correct contours

and to overcome as far as possible the distortion of form arising

from a heavy body pressed against the ground, the undersurface

of the fish and parts of the mid-body were remodelled. The cast

is as true and accurate a representation of this rare fish as is obtaina-

ble (Plate I). The Museum is greatly indebted to Mr. J. R. Kaka

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

who presented this fish to the Museum, to Dr. S. B. Setna and to

the Port Trust Authorities for the assistance which they gave to

the Museum staff.

No. 7. On Tuesday, 16th January 1940, a whale shark (male)

18 ft. in length was landed at Chowpatty beach, Bombay. It was

seen on the night of the 15th several miles out at sea, floating on

the surface: Mhesshark subsequently fouled the nets of the fisher-

men who secured it and hauled it ashore. (Plates IV and V).

Travancore Coast.

No. 8. Mr. R. Shankara Narayan Pillay (1929), in his list

of the fishes taken in Travancore between 1901 and 1915, says that

a whale shark, measuring 29 ft. in length was stranded at Tri-

vandrum in 1900,

No. 9. Mr. Pillay also referred (loc. cit.) to the cast of a 13 ft.

7 ins. specimen, now exhibited in the fish gallery of the Trivandrum

Museum. Mr. R. V. Poduval, the Curator of the Museum has

since sent me the history of this shark. It was caught in fishing

nets off Travancore in February 1909.

No. 10. In a letter, Mr. Poduval provides a further record of

the capture of a whale shark in March 1934, when a specimen,

13 ft. in length, was captured off Trivandrum. He adds that the

capture of small specimens like this is by no means uncommon.

CEYLON.

No. 11. The earliest reference to the occurrence of the whale

shark in the coastal waters of Ceylon, which I have been

able to find, is by Sir Emerson Tennant (1801). Writing of the

export trade in sharks’ fins from the gulf of Mannar, he says that

the skin of the ‘Basking Shark’ is also sent to be converted into

shagreen’. The basking shark referred to by Tennant could be

none other than whale shark, as we have no evidence of the

occurrence of the true basking shark (Cetorhinus) in these warmer

Seas.

No. 12. The second reference is by Capt. James Stewart (1862).

In his account of the Pearl Fisheries of Ceylon he says that sharks

are common and that on two occasions his attention was called

to ‘spotted ones’ of such monstruous size as to make the common

sharks at their sides look like ‘pilot fish’. The ‘spots’ and the

size again indicate that Stewart’s monster sharks were whale

sharks.

No. 13. Haley (1883) recorded the capture of a whale

shark, 23! 9” long, which was taken in the fishing nets at Moratuva,

12 miles south of Colombo on the 11th January, 1883. The specimen

was mounted and is now exhibited in the Colombo Museum. This

is the record referred to by Day in his Fauna volumes, then the

only example known from the Indian waters.

No. 14. The capture of a second specimen 18’ long was again

recorded by Haley (1884), It was taken off Negombo, north of

Colombo. The skin was sent to the British Museum and is now

exhibited there.

No. 15. A third capture from Ceylon, a 14’ 5” example, taken

‘ONS svp9g1] 9

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THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 259

off Bampalapittya (a southern suburb of Colombo), was recorded

by Thurston (1894).

— No. 16. To these records of the actual taking of whale sharks

in the seas round Ceylon, we can now add a fourth. Mr. P. E.

Deraniyagala (1936), Acting Director of the Colombo Museum,

in an article on Big Game Fishing off Ceylon says, that on the

1oth July, 1935 the S. S. Katori Maru ran into a whale shark off

the Ceylon Coast. According to the Captain the specimen was

40’ long.

‘It was the size of a whale, differing from that animal in shape, spotted

like a leopard in a very beautiful manner. It came along under the stern

of the ship during a calm, we had a magnificent opportunity of viewing it.

It had a large dorsal fin, which it moved about with great rapidity when

angry, in consequence of the large stones we threw down upon it, rashly for

it possessed sufficient strength to have broken the rudder and to stove in the

stern of the ship. Several large fish (seemingly dog-fsh), about a cubit in

length and upwards, were gamboling about the monster entering its mouth at

pleasure and returning to the water again. The mouth was very large. Dorsal

fin black or dark brown. Tail also boldly covered with brown spots like a

leopard. Head, lizard-shaped.’

Mr. Deraniyagala in his letter to me says, that since his article

appeared in print, there was at least one other Rhineodon struck

by a ship in Ceylon waters, but unfortunately he had kept no

record of sit.

No. 17. Gudger (1940) records the ramming of a whale shark

by the Dutch Ship ‘Johan van Oldenbarnvelt’ about 15-18 miles off

Colombo on the 24th November, 1932: Second Officer H. W.

Hemmes, who reported the incident, says that :—

‘The bow of the ship had pierced into the body of the shark for about three

feet. The part of the ship with the tail hanging was on our starboard side and

was about 25 ft. long. The fish was bleeding, but was apparently dead. When

the ship got clear of the fish, the body dropped down into the water.’

BAsp Coast Or INDIA:

No. 18. Foley’s (1835) account of an unusual sea-monster

in the Bay of Bengal, is, as far as I know, the earliest

published reference to this shark. On a voyage to Madras, when

his ship was presumably nearing port, he saw what he des-

cribes as an ‘unusual sea monster’ of the size of a whale, but

differing from that animal in shape. He refers to its large mouth

and to its body covered with brown spots like a leopard. Foley’s

description is sufficient to establish the identity of his monster.

No. 19. The second record from the Bay of Bengal is by

Thurston (1890). He writes of a specimen 20! long which was

washed ashore at Madras in February 1889. In a subsequent pub-

lication (1894) he corrected the measurement to 22’.

No. 20. The third record from the Bay of Bengal was noted

by R. E. Lloyd (1908) who reported the harpooning of a whale

shark swimming on the surface at the mouth of the Hoogly, on

March 23, 1908. The specimen was presented to the Indian

Museum, Calcutta.

The various records of whale sharks from the coastal waters

of India are shown below in tabular form. Records previously

noted by Gudger (1934) are marked with an asterisk.

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.

XLIT

RECORDS OF WHALE SHARKS IN THE COASTAL WATERS OF INDIA

AND CEYLON.

West Coast of India and Ceylon

Recorded by

Dr. Buist, 1850.

S.-H. Brates

5. Hy Prater

Hailey, 1883.

. 1890.

Thurston, 1890.

Tennant, 1861.

Stewart, 1862.

Deraniyagala.

W. E. Gudger,

Locality Date No Reported by

any

Slee Karachi. 1%. ht a nee

2 As ... | April, 1922 ne 1 |B. D. Ashworth.

3 ae ...| 27th March, 1937. 1 1 Capt. Heygate::- 5

Aa eat ...| April, 1937. Plena i es x

5. Bombay .| 13th February,

1938 cee) 14), Dta. be oethaes ah

6. se .. | lst January, 1940. 1 | J. Jacobs ngs

7. Jaygad .| 3rd October, 1936, 1 Boos. Goszote oe

*8, Travancore. ee 1900. 1 sis S. N. Pillay,

1929.

*9. ae February, 1909 janet S. N= Rillay

1929.

10. = March, 1934 Saale dol Ke Podtval ise

*11. Mofatuva,

Cyclon... | January, 18637231" 1

*12. Negombo,

Ceylon .. 1880 1

#13. Colompboo sn. February, 1889 1

14. Off Ceylon... Sai

215. Guliiot Man-

nar “ as eae

16. Off Ceylon... =: 1

17. Off Colombo. | 24th November,

1932 wes ]

r oS . 1940

Total, West Coast. ... |14+ |

| Reported by

Recorded by

Locality Date No.

*18. Madras... | February,. 1889 Me 1

iy. : ae eee

*20. Mouth of |

Hoogly ...| 23rd March, 1908.. / 1

Thurston, 1890.

Foley, 1835.

Lloyd, 1908.

eee

Total, East Coast | 3

A reference to the table printed above shows firstly, that practi-

cally all the recorded occurrences of whale sharks in our coastal

waters are from the West Coast of India and Ceylon. During the

long period over which these records extend, there are only three

records from the East Coast and fourteen actual records from the

West Coast of India and Ceylon, exclusive of references to specimens

seen in this area.

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 261

The second fact which emerges is, that practically all the records

fall between the months of January and April. in considering the

distribution of the Whale Shark in our coastal waters two factors

le then to be accounted for—

Their seasonal appearance on our coasts between January

ek April.

2. Their occurrence mainly on the West Coast a India and

Ceylon.

To my mind, these factors provide important clues to an under-

standing of the movements and wanderings of these fishes. I am

of opinion that the appearance of whale sharks on our coasts,

during the particular season when they occur, is associated with

the special abundance of their food at this particular period.

Secondly that, the limitation of their range, mainly tc the west

coast of India and Ceylon, is due to the particular direction and

movements of surface currents in the Bay of Bengal and the Arabian

Sea at this period. Before taking up the evidence in support of

these views, it 1s necessary to consider briefly the food and feeding

habits of the Whale Shark.

Foop OF WHALE SHARKS.

Gudger (1915) has brought together such observations as have

been made on the food of the Whale Shark. Because of its minute

teeth, it was first thought that these great sharks were purely

herbivorous. The large masses of algae found in the stomach

led Wright (1870) to this conclusion. It is now definitely known

that the Whale Shark, like the Basking Shark, feeds on plankton,

strained out of the water by its peculiar gill apparatus. In some

sharks, fringe-like structures, located on the pharyngeal walls, are

modified to form what are known as ‘gill-rakers’. In the Basking

Shark and the Whale Shark, the gill-rakers are remarkably speci-

alised to form a highly complex straining apparatus. They are

_ closely set.in a row on the inner extremity of the gill-arches, and,

as they project into the inner cleft, leading to the gullet, they

function effectively as a strain or sieve to food or water entering

the alimentary tract. Their function is thus similar to’ the function

of the long hair-like fringes on the baleen plates of the whale-bone

whales, and as such they provide a striking example of parallelism—

of the evolution of similar structures, designed to serve the same

ends in totally unrelated groups of animals.

The manner of feeding of these great sharks is_ simple.

Smith’s (1849) account of the feeding habits of the Whale Shark

is similar in every way to the description of the feeding habits of

the Basking Shark. Both sharks swim or float leisurely with the

mass of drifting plankton, and with widely open mouth, take

in great quantities of water, and with it, the myriads of floating

organisms it contains. On the closure of the mouth, the water

is forced out through the gill-clefts, leaving the food natoniae: to

the inner walls of the gullet and to the sieve-like gill-rakers.

262. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, XLIT

During the process, masses of algae and other flotsam may be

taken in. The stomach of the specimen landed at Sasson dock,

Bombay, contained a mass of green algae. Kishinouye (1901)

records that an oaken pole was found in the stomach of a specimen

caught near Japan. The diet of the basking shark is known to

consist almost entirely of zoo-plankton—of shrimp-like crustaceans,

- and other minute animal organisms, which swim about on the surface

of the sea, and which, at certain seasons, constitute the dominating

element of the plankton. Whale sharks also derive their nourish-

ment from minute crustacean and other animal forms which, as

will be presently shown, form the dominating element in the plank-

ton of our off-shore waters when these sharks visit our coasts.

INFLUENCE OF PLANKTON OUTBURSTS ON MOVEMENTS OF

WHALE SHARKS,

Arabian Sea. Such investigations as have been made of plankton

in Indian waters show, that in the Arabian Sea and the Bay of

Bengal, plankton productivity is wholly dominated by the alternation

of the north-east and south-west monsoon and, that plankton

outbursts are far more seasonal in our seas than in most

tropical waters. Writing of plankton on the Malabar Coast,

Hornell and Nayudu (1923) have shown that on this coast there

are two peak periods of productivity. There is a maximum produc-

tion of plant forms (phyto-plankton) between May and September,

in response to conditions brought about by the south-west mon-

soon; while a second outburst, takes place between January and

February, favoured by conditions produced by the north-east

monsoon. Factors favouring the first outburst are the vast quanti-

ties or organic and inorganic matter washed into the sea by the

south-west monsoon floods, which bring to the surface waters the

manurial elements necessary for plankton growth. Reduced salinity,

occasioned by the out-flow of these flood waters, also brings about

that increased stability which 1s favourable to plankton growth.

The calm conditions which prevail during the north-east monsoon,

while they again favour the growth of phyto-plankton, appear to

be also favourable to the development of animal organisms

(zoo-plankton), which, during this season, constitute the dominat-

ing element of the plankton. Sewell (1913) states, that

a study of the plankton constituent in Indian seas leads to

the conclusion that, compared with temperate seas (North-Atlantic),

marine animal organisms occur at a somewhat later period, and

that there seems to be a general tendency for marine organisms

to have their breeding season during the cold weather rather than

during the hot months of the year. The reason suggested is the

disturbed conditions of the sea during the south-west monsoon.

Hornell and Nayudu’s investigations of the off-shore plankton

on the Malabar Coast support this view and reveal the abundance

of zoo-plankton during the cold weather. They write :—

‘In November copepods begin to appear in much greater numbers than at

any time. since the preceding May, and finding an abundance of food, multiply

very rapidly, with them in November, appear swarms of Napuli and a host

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 263

of other rapacious organisms to feed upon the diatoms and dino-flagellates.

This miscellaneous assemblage remains the characteristic feature of the off-shore

plankton till the rains im May kill or drive away from the shore these forms

and replace them with swarms of diatoms. (Italics are mine.)

It is shown that there is clearly a super-abundance of zoo-plankton

in the off-shore waters of the Malabar Coast between January and

April, when whale sharks appear. Conditions on the Malabar

Coast are repeated on the Bombay Coast. Through the courtesy

of Dr. Lele of the Royal Institute of Science, Bombay, I had the

opportunity of consulting an unpublished thesis by a Miss A. P. Gae,

recording month to month plankton investigations carried out at

Bombay between October 1932 and March 1934. ‘These investiga-

tions, again reveal an abundance of zoo-plankton between January

and March, enriched, the author observes, by forms not present at

other seasons of the year. The investigations revealed that cope-

pods, in particular, swarm in myriads during these months. We

have no data of plankton on the Sind Coast; but the seas in the

neighbourhood of Karachi must receive a considerable quantity of

nutrient matter brought by the river Indus, and probably provide

a rich field for the development of plant forms and the succeeding

invasion of animal organisms.

These optimum conditions of food supply are repeated off the

west coast of Ceylon and in certain tracts of the Arabian Sea

during the North-East Monsoon. Thompson and H. Carey Gilson

(1937) in their report on chemical and physical investigations in

the Arabian Sea, carried out by the John Murray Expedition,

express the view that, with the resumption of calm conditions in

September, there is a considerable growth of phyto-plankton, parti-

cularly where upward water movements cause a renewal of nutrient-

salts in the surface layers. This occurs principally near Seychelles

and in the strong currents near the African coast about Lat. 1.3° N.,

which sweep northwards to the Gulf of Aden and the coast of

Arabia. Note, that the two areas where whale sharks have been

recorded from the Arabian Sea, i.e., Seychelles and the mouth of

the Gulf of Aden are, as the authors show, areas of great plankton

productivity. Recorded occurrences from the Straits of Babel

Mandeb and the southern extremity of the Red Sea have probably

a similar explanation.

Equally significant is the fact, that whale sharks have never

been recorded from the Persian and Mekran coasts. This has been

described by Sewell as an area of scanty plankton production—a

‘desert area’ as far as plankton is concerned.

Plankton productivity in the Bay of Bengal. Menon (1931) has

shown, that owing to the more limited influence of the south-

west monsoon, favourable conditions for the production of

plankton are not produced on the East Coast till September, when

productivity “commences, reaching its peak in January. From

thence on there is a slight decline followed by an abrupt rise in

March, which reaches its maximum in May. ‘These phyto-plankton

outbursts are, as always, followed by a rich influx of zoo-plankton,

which, commencing in October, reaches maximum conditions in

December, January and February and then commences to decline.

264 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

It has been shown, that between December and March, the

off-shore waters of India and Ceylon provide, a super-abundant

harvest of animal organisms, which become the dominating element

in the plankton. The abundance of this drifting food attracts to

our coastal waters, during this season, numerous surface feeding

fishes, such as devil rays, sail fish, etc., and, among them, whale

sharks, whose appearance on our coasts coincides with this season

of plenty. There follows the second point for consideration :—If

whale sharks visit our waters because of the abundant food supply

why do they confine themselves mainly to the West Coast?

THE INFLUENCE OF SURFACE CURRENTS ON THE MOVEMENTS OF

WHALE SHARKS.

Why are whale sharks so rare on the East Coast, where at

the time of their migration, food conditions are as favourable as

on the West Coast? Why again have they never been observed in

the eastern reaches of the Bay of Bengal, or along the coasts of

Burma and Tenasserim? Data provided by Sewell (1913) show

that plankton decidedly increases in these waters from early Nov-

ember to the beginning of January, and that the plankton is very

rich in animal organisms, which provide food for these sharks.

Yet, during a period extending over a century, we have only three

records from the East Coast, and none from the shores of Burma

and Tenasserim. The explanation, I believe, is to be found in the

direction and movements of the surface currents in the Bay of

Bengal and along the coasts of India and Ceylon at the time when

whale sharks commence their seasonal visitation to our waters.

Gudger (1934), in explaining the appearance of whale sharks on

the coasts of India, says that during the northern summer (i.e. June

to August) there is a monsoon drift from the south-west to the

north-east, which might carry whale sharks from the Seychelles

Archipelago, where they are known to be permanently resident,

to India. The answer to this is, that whale sharks do not visit

our coasts between June and August, when the south-west monsoon

is established. As shown by the records, their visits are timed

between January and March, during the north-east monsoon.

Sewell (1937) has indicated, that the north-east monsoon is a period

when the bulk of the waters of the Arabian Sea converge upon the

African coast. The movement of these sharks from Seychelles to

India, at this season, would be contrary both to wind and surface

currents. The sharks which visit the coasts of India during the

north-east monsoon, if they follow the drift of the currents, must

come to us not from the West but from the East. This, an

alternative route suggested by Gudger, is the correct one. Sewell

(loc. cit.) states, that with the establishment of the north-east

monsoon (about December), there is a strong flow of water from

the Pacific into the Indian Ocean through the Straits of Sumatra.

This current known as the north-east monsoon drift, moves across

the Andaman Sea and the lower reaches of the Bay of Bengal and

sweeps by the south coast of Ceylon. Whale sharks, moving with

this drift, would arrive off the south coast of Ceylon. From

Jeurn., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

SURFACE CURRENTS OF THE Bay OF BENGAL: (after Sewell).

How whale sharks following the flow of the north-east monsoon drift and

of coastal currents are brought from the Pacific to the West Coast of India and

Ceylon. It will be noted that the waters which converge upon the East Coast of

India and Ceylon do not come from the Pacific but from the head of the Bay

of Bengal.—Route followed by fish shown in dotted lines.

nee — ee ee es ——

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN’ COASTAL WATERS 265

this area a coastal current, which sweeps up the west coast of

Ceylon, at this time of the year, would bring them to the Gulf of

Mannar; from the Gulf, their progress northward, along the west

coast of India, would again be aided by the coastal current, which

at this season, begins to run from south to north. This north flow-

ing coastal current would bring these sharks to the coasts of

Travancore, Bombay and Sind.

The question arises, why whale sharks, if they come from the

Straits of Sumatra, across the Bay of Bengal, do not first converge

upon the east coast of India and Ceylon. ‘he answer here again

is to be found ita the direction and movements of surface currents

in the Bay of Bengal, at the time of their westerly migration.

Sewell (1938), has given in some detail, an account of the move-

ments of surface currents in the Bay of Bengal at various periods

of the year. A reference to his map, which is reproduced here,

will indicate that the north-east monsoon drift from the Straits

of Sumatra does not How towards the east coast of India. It runs

in lower latitudes. It crosses the lower reaches of the Bay of

Bengal and flows past the south of Ceylon. The waters, which

impinge upon the Coromandel coast at this time of the year, (i.e.

December to February), do not come from the Straits of Sumatra

at all. They come from the head of the Bay, where, owing to the

north-east monsoon winds, the surface waters are driven off the

coasts of Burma, westwards across the Bay, to the northern section

of the Coromandel coast. There, due to the rotation of the earth,

and the configuration of the coast, the westward flowing current

divides; one branch flows northwards, producing at the head of

the Bay a cyclonical circulation; the other fows southwards along

the Madras coast and the east coast of Ceylon, then, rounding

the island, the current flows up the west coast of the island to the

Gulf of Mannar.

Whale sharks arriving at the south of Ceylon with the north-

east monsoon drift would be aided by the northward movement of

this coastal current up the west coast of the Island. On the other

hand, progress up the east coast of Ceylon and India, as is seen,

would be contrary to the flow of the coastal currents which at this

time of the year run down the east coast of India and Ceylon from

north to south.

We have one record of a*whale shark off the Madras coast in

February, and one in March, from the mouth of the Hoogly. A

directional change which takes place in the surface currents in

the Bay of Bengal, late in February or early in March, may explain

these records. Sewell (loc. cit.) shows, that a decided change

now takes place in the directional! flow of the surface currents.

Between February and March, a double cyclonal circulation sets in

at the head waters of the Bay of Bengal, and a current sweeps up

from below Ceylon up the Coromandel coast to the coast of

Bengal. The reversal in the direction of the current at this time

of the year, might easily bring whale sharks up the Madras coast

to the mouth of the Hoogly. |

It is impossible to assuine, that the movements of so powerful

a fish as the whale shark are controlled entirely by the direction

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

of the wind and the surface currents. But knowing the nature of

their food, and their peculiar feeding habits, one might say, that

these sharks, like some other surface feeding fishes,—sun fishes

for example,—in the calm weather which prevails in our seas

during the north-east monsoon, float with the currents in order to

follow more easily their drifting food. It is clear, that a general

convergence upon the coasts of India, from the surrounding Seas,

would not explain the peculiar and limited distribution of these

fish on the coasts of India. The actual distribution of whale

sharks on the coasts of India, the concordance of this distribution

with the direction and flow of surface currents, during the season

when they appear, is clear evidence of the influence of current upon

their movements. The direction of surface currents explains how

these sharks, coming to us with the inflow of waters from the

Pacific, converge upon the west coast of India and Ceylon; why

they are so rare upon the east coast, and why they have never

been recorded from the coasts of Burma and Tenasserim. The

purpose of their migration is indicated in the abundance of their

food in these waters at this season. It is a time of the year when

these waters contain an abundance of zoo-plankton.

SEASONAL MOVEMENTS OF WHALE SHARKS IN OTHER AREAS.

This seasonal movement of whale sharks to the coastal waters

of India is apparently repeated in other areas. It is known that

whale sharks, in numbers, visit the seas off the coast of Hondo,

Japan, every summer. Again, at Seychelles, it has been observed

that whale sharks visit the inshore waters every year between May

and August. ‘As on the coast of India, the movement appears to

be associated with the particular abundance of planktonic food in

the areas visited. I have not been able to consult any papers

dealing, with plankton productivity in the seas off Japan. Plankton

conditions in Seychelles, an area of high productivity have not been

studied between May and August. Nevertheless, there is inter-

pretative evidence to indicate that the visits of whale sharks,

both to Japanese waters, and to the inshore waters of Seychelles

take place during periods of high plankton productivity. Whale

sharks, it has been observed, visit the Japanese waters at a time

when the bonito fishing is at its height. At Seychelles, it was

noted, that the whale sharks come inshore between May and August

with numbers of horse-mackerel and great shoals of sardines and

other small fry. In the Bay of California, whale sharks were

again observed at certain seasons in company with tunny.

Gudger explains the association of whale sharks with bonito,

tunny and horse-mackerel (Carangidae) as the natural tendency

of these smaller fishes to shelter or follow in the wake of giant

fishes. Bonito and tunny, as is well known, will even follow pass-

ing ships. Be this as it may, the point relevant to the present dis- |

cussion is the reason for the presence of these carnivorous fishes in

great numbers in the areas visited by these sharks. The presence

of highly predatory fishes like tunny, bonito and horse-mackerel |

in large numbers may be connected with breeding activities; but

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 367

may also be due to an equal preponderance | of | sardines,

herrings, mackerel, and other small fry upon which they. feed;

and great assemblages of these small fishes. can be ascribed to

the existence of a super abundance of plankton. Hornell and

Nayudu (loc. cit.) have shown how the visit of myriads of sardines

to the inshore waters of the Malabar Coast coincides with a peak

period of plankton productivity. Gadsden (1899) shows how

in the seas round Aden in April, countless millions of small fishes

appear, accompanied by troops of larger fishes chiefly, tunny, and

albacore, and seer, which spend their time in preying upon the smaller

fry. The presence of these smaller fishes in great numbers, in

the Gulf of Aden is again explained by the abundance of plankton

during this period, as is ev idenced by the researches of the Murray

Expedition, It is probable that whale sharks and hordes of smaller

fish are attracted seasonally to Japanese waters by an abundant

harvest of plankton, and the bonito, which swarm at this season,

by the abundance of their prey.

Similar circumstances’ account probably for the abundance

of whale shark, tuna and small fish off the coast of California about

which Gudger (1940) writes. He says ‘The small fish go in schools

and are followed by both tuna and whale sharks’, The Bay of

California and the west coast of America in general is known to

be an area of rich plankton productivity.

From what has been written it will be’ seen that seasonal

visits of whale sharks take place in various parts of the world; parti-

cularly in areas, such as the coasts of India, where plankton

productivity is more definitely seasonal. The basking shark

(Cetorhinus), which recalls the whale shark in its habits, also

appears to undertake similar seasonal migrations. These move-

ments, says Norman (1937), are as yet imperfectly understood,

but there appears to be a regular annual migration along the west

coast of Ireland to the Western Isles of Scotland and thence

northwards, the shark approaching Ireland during the spring and

reaching Norway during August. It is not improbable that the

seasonal movements of these basking sharks are associated with

the abundance of planktonic food in the area of their wanderings

during this particular time of the year. The period of their migra-

tion coincides with the great spring outburst of plankton which

in these highly productive waters is generally maintained till late

in the summer; the plant outburst being shortly followed by the

usual invasion of animal forms, Like the Whale Shark—the Bask-

ing Shark in its quest for its food follows the course of warm

surface currents, in this instance the branch of the Gulf Stream

which sweeping up the west coast of Ireland flows between the

Faeroe and the Shetland Islands to the coast of Norway,

_ Seasonal migrations for purposes of feeding, aided by the flow

of favourable warm currents, thus provide an explanation of whale

sharks excursions into areas far from their natural habitat. These

sharks, essentially fish of warm seas, have been recorded. from

as far north as New York and the Seas of Japan and from as far

south as the Cape of Good Hope.

We must consider the coasts of India, and all suck areas where

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLil

the occurrence of whale sharks is sporadic or seasonal as areas

of nominal distribution, and as such, distinct from areas, where

whale sharks are permanently resident.

CENTRES FROM WHICH WHALE SHARKS MIGRATE.

A study of the occurrence of whale sharks in the various parts

of the world, brought together in Gudger’s valuable paper, reveals

an interesting fact. These sharks have been observed ail the year

round only in the island-studded seas of archipelagoes, where alone

they are known to be permanently resident. In the Pacific, there

are three centres in which whale sharks are known to occur all the

year round. These are the East Indian Archipelago, the Philippine

Archipelago, and the Islands at the mouth of the Bay of California,

In the Indian Ocean, there is but one such area—the Seychelles

Archipelago. In the Atlantic—the island studded seas of the

Carribean and the Gulf of Florida are the only areas where these

sharks are recorded as being permanently resident. We can then

look upon these island seas as productive centres of distribution;

centres from which a certain number of whale sharks, driven by

exigencies of food supply or other causes, migrate regularly or

irregularly into waters where food is plentiful, aided in their migra-

tion by favourable currents flowing outward from these sheltered

seas.

From the circumstances of their distribution on our coasts, we

know that the north-east monsoon drift brings the whale sharks

to the coasts of India. This drift 1s caused by an inflow of waters

from the Pacific, which come via the East Indian Archipelago, and

enter the Indian Ocean through the Straits of Sumatra. Similarly,

whale sharks from the Philippines, following the Kuoro Sivo

current, would be brought to the coasts of Japan. These Archi-

pelagoes, the Philippines and East Indies, appear to be the centres

from which whale sharks, aided by the flow of currents, migrate

seasonally to the waters of Japan and to the coasts of India. The

same factors may provide the explanation for the occurrences of

whale sharks along the west coast of Mexico, Panama and Peru.

These areas of nominal distribution may derive their source from the

Islands of the Gulf of California, where whale sharks are known

to be permanenly resident. The Mexican coastai current would

provide the aegis of the southward movement,

In the Indian Ocean, the Seychelles Archipelago would be the

centre from which the whale sharks, recorded from the Gulf of

Aden, and the Cape of Good Hope, travelled, assisted, in the former

instance, by the northward flow of the East African coastal current,

and in the latter by the westward flow of the Aghulas current,

which sweeps past the Cape of Good Hope. In the Atlantic, the

islands of the Carribean Sea and the Gulf of Florida are apparently

the centres from which whale sharks migrate periodically along

the eastern coasts of the United States, or southwards to Brazil

and to the West Coast of Africa, which, like the west coast of

America, 18 a region of rich plankton productivity.

Judging from their appearance on the coast of India, it would

appear that the numbers taking part in these migrations vary.

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN. COASTAL WATERS 269

The visiting sharks are more numerous in certain years than in

others.

The records of their world distribution further indicate, that

these sharks, in the course of their migrations, follow the coast

lines, or take advantage of chains of islands. They are not fish which

roam the open seas. All records are from coastal or confined waters.

It is significant that they have never been encountered in the mid

ocean steamer lanes, which criss-cross the oceans of the world,

where these great surface swimming fishes would not have failed

to have been observed at some time or other. Gudger (1940}

has brought together various records of the ramming of whale

sharks by ships at sea. All these records are from coastal waters

or from confined or archipellagian seas.

The fact of these seasonal movements being established, the

question arises whether whale sharks, after their journeys in quest

of food, return to the places from which they came. We know that

whale sharks, after a temporary appearance in our coastal waters,

disappear from our coasts during the disturbed conditions of the

south-west monsoon. Do they spend this period of their absence

roving the stormy seas? ‘The suggestion seems unlikely, in the

case of a coast hugging fish, which selects the sheltered waters of

island seas for a permanent habitat. On the other hand, does this

period of absence from our shore coincide with their breeding time

and do these sharks return to-their spawning grounds? If so, where

do they breed? We know them to be permanently resident only in

certain archipelagoes. Not only are they most numerous in such

areas but they have been seen assembled there in great schools.

Two such assemblages have been recorded from the East Indian

Archipelago-—one, off the coast of Papua; the other was_ seen,

in the month of September, in the Straits of Buton. Schools have

been observed also in the Philippine Archipelago. The basking

shark, which, is a kin to the whale shark in most of its habits,

at’ certain times assembles in schools of 60 to 100. Norman

(loc. cit.) suggests that these assemblages may be associated with

breeding. Unfortunately, we know nothing about the breeding of

the whale shark or of the basking shark. The young of these

fishes have never been taken. But it is safe to assume that these

archipelagoes, where these sharks are most numerous, and where

they are found throughout the year, are also their breeding grounds.

Wanderings for food followed by assemblages for spawning is not

an uncommon habit among fishes. Many species of fish with

circumscribed breeding areas, after temporary wanderings for food-

getting, return to their breeding grounds to spawn, and it is proba-

ble that whale sharks belong to this class and return to their spawi-

ing grounds. Gudger in discussing the place of origin of the whale

shark and the mode of tts dispersal, indicates the Philippine Archi-

pelago as the centre from which the species originated—the centre

from which, with the aid of favourable currents, it has extended its

range and permanently established itself in various parts of the

world. It would appear that this dispersal was brought about,

in the first instance, by the circumscribed area of the breeding

habitat and the need for finding food and space for an increasing

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

population, and, that wanderings, associated with food getting

initiated and brought about ae dispersal. The fish in the course

of: their wanderings established themselves wherever suitable con-

ditions of life prevailed, i.e., in other.archipelagoes. These archipe-

jJagoes in their turn became centres of productive distribution from

which, at appropriate seasons and aided by suitable currents, whale

sharks wander for food returning whence they came for purpose

of spawning,

LocaL NAMES.

The many local names for the whale shark indicate that the

fish is well known on the west coast of India and in Ceylon. In

the following list an attempt has been made to give the derivation

and meaning of. the names used.

Sind.. Mhor. The name mhor is an Arabic word meaning

‘stamp’ or ‘seal’. Its application to the whale shark probably has

reference to the spots or ‘stamp-like’ markings which ornament its

head and. body.

Bombay. Karanj (Marathi). Derived from Sanscrit karanga

meaning a tree. The name is also applied in Bombay to the tree

Pongamia. glabra., whose seeds produce a medicinal oil. I aim

not able to suggest a reason for the application of this name to

the whale shark. Local fishermen use oil extracted from the liver

of the shark for medicinal purposes. ‘The name may have some

such significance.

Bhariat (Marathi). Bhari: meaning great or big.

..Travancore. Coast... Pulli-udoombu (Tamil). Mr. Poduval,

Curator of the Trivandrum Museum, says that the term means

‘spotted reptile’; pulli meaning spotted; while the term udoombu

is commonly applied to the Monitor Lizard (Varanus) and may have

been suggested by the ‘lizard-like’ shape of the head.

Makara shiravu (Malayalam). Mr. Narayan Rao, Superintend-

ent of Fisheries, Travancore, tells me that this is the most common

name for this fish in Travancore. His explanation of the derivation

of the term is interesting, as it provides confirmation of the seasonal

migrations of these sharks to the Malabar Coast. Makara is

the 6th month of the Malabar Era, which corresponds more or less

to a period commencing with the middle of January and ending

with the middle of February in the Roman Calendar. | Shiravu

means shark. Interpreted, the name would be ‘January-February’

shark. The period of occurrence sometimes provides the local name

for a fish. On the Norwegian coast, the Piked-Whale or Lesser

Rorqual (Balaenoptera aculirostra) is called the ‘Summer Whale’

because it appears more frequently during that season.

~ Osman Shira (Moplah). Poduval states in a letter that this is

also one of the names by which the fish is known in Travancore.

It is used by the Moplah fishermen.

Ceylon. Muni-muthu-mora (Singhalese). Muni means ‘corpse’

and miuthu-=pearl, and mora=shark; translated, the name would

mean ‘corpse-like-pearl-spotted shark’. ‘Cornse-like’ from the whale

shark’s habit of floating on the water, while ‘pearl-spotted’ has

reference to the markings,

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“THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 271

DESCRIPTION,

Smith’s (1849) description fully covers the externa! appearance of

the fish. Certain details may be amplified. Reference should be

made to the marked concavity of the inter-orbital space (Plate VI),

It is this concavity which masks the flat wedge-shaped form of

the head giving it when seen or photographed in profile a deceptive

fusiform appearance. The nasal flaps are well developed and

extend in a crescentic fold from the nostril to under the rim of the

lip (Plate VII).

Body keels. Smith’s description is as follows :—

‘Sides of body irregular from two distinct longitudinal keels which com-

mence together a little in front and considerably above the extremity of the

first branchiae, and recede a little from each other as they proceed backward :

of these the lowermost pursues a waved direction and at last is lost or coalesces

with the keel on each side of the caudal fin. The upper. again pursues a more

direct course, becomes forked posteriorly, and both its branches terminate under

and anterior to the dorsal fin’.

‘In Smith’s plate of Rhineodon typicus (Plate 26, Illustrations of

South African Zoology) the two lateral keels are well shown and

the bifurcation of the upper keel is illustrated. In both specimens

I had the opportunity of examining in Bombay, 3 distinct keels

were present on either side of the body. A dorso-lateral keel,

commencing above the branchiae and extending to below the second

dorsal, and a median keel commencing anterior to the first dorsal

and extending to the region of the tail. The third, the lowest

keel, is the strongest and most pronounced. It commences behind

the last gill-slit and reaches to the tail, coalescing there with

the keels on its axis. Apparently, there is some variation in the

disposition of keels. The three keels may remain distinct, or the

upper and median keel may coalesce anteriorly, as in Smith’s

South African example.

Claspers. Both specimens stranded in Bombay were males. In

the larger of the two specimens (21! 6”) the claspers are well

developed and extend backwards as far as the hind edge’ of the

ventral. In the second specimen, a smaller shark (r8! 7”) the

~ claspers fall short of the posterior edge of the ventrals and’ cor-

respond in this respect with the description by Mulle and Henle

(1841) of the 15’ example exhibited in the Paris Museum.

COLOURATION.

Such observations as have been made on the colouration of

whale sharks reveal a certain variation, understandable in a fish

of so wide a range. The data are too meagre to connect such

variation with geographical distribution. But in reading the notes

on colouration one is struck by the fact that in aJl the examples

from the Central and Eastern Pacific and the Atlantic the prevailing

tone of the upper surface of the body is described by various

observers as brown or some shade of brown. This colouration is

noted in examples from Cape Inubo, Japan (Kishinouye 1901),

the Gulf of Panama (G. Chierchia 1884), the Gulf of California

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

(Gill, 1902) and in examples from Florida Bay (Gudger 1915) and

Bean (1g02). On the other hand, in colour descriptions of specimens

taken in the Indian Ocean the prevailing tone of the dorsal surface

ranges from deep bluish-grey to lavender purple. This was the

colouring of the speciinen taken at the Cape of Good Hope (Smith

1849), and of the example taken at the mouth of the Hoogly, Bay

of Bengal (Lloyd 1908). A deep purplish blue was again the

colour of the two specimens which I examined in Bombay. The

colour of the dorsal surface of the Bombay specimen agreed with

Smith’s description of the Cape of Good Hope example. The under

surface of the body in both Bombay specimens was ‘dead white’—

not ‘reddish white’. The same fiush of red or pink, which Smith

noted, appeared under the head and on the margins~of the fins.

The dorsal surface and the head were covered with a profusion

of white spots. On the body, these spots are arranged in a

regular series of vertical rows. In the Bombay specimens, there

were 27 of these rows. In each alternate row, the spots are

fainter and tend to coalesce into linear markings (vide Plate I), so

that, as a whole, the markings tend to present a pattern of rows

of large, well spaced spots, alternating with linear bands. The

anterior dorsal fin was spotted and faintly marked with transverse

lines produced by a coalescing of spots. Second dorsal, without

spots. Pectorals profusely and caudals sparsely spotted. The pre-

sence of these markings provide a further indication of the shore

haunting habits of this fish, markings of this nature being, as a

rule, absent from species which live in the open sea.

SIZE.

The fargest specimen obtained so far on the Indian coasts

measured 29 ft. and the smallest about 13 ft. Mr, Poduval, Curator

of the Trivandrum Museum, informs me that captures of still

smaller specimens are quite familiar to the fishermen. The whale

shark is known to attain a length of 60’, this being the dimension

of a specimen captured on the east coast of the Gulf of Siam

(Smith 1925). All examples taken or stranded on our coasts are

then, far from full-grown. The probable explanation is that the

smaller sharks enter the shallower waters where they are more

likely to be caught or stranded—most of the records from our

coasts are the result of captures by fishermen, and fishing in our

waters is largely limited to a zone a few miles from the coast. Such

large specimens as have been observed on our coasts have been

observed from ships at sea. There is the 40’ specimen, which was

run down by a steamer off the Ceylon coast and Captain Foley’s

observation of a monster, ‘as big as a whale’ which was _ seen

from a ship approaching Madras. The larger whale sharks avoid-

ing the shallower inshore waters run less risk of capture in fishing

nets or of stranding.

I give below detailed measurements of the two examples taken

at Bombay, and include measurements recorded by other writers

of whale sharks taken on our coasts,

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 273

TaBLE OF MEASUREMENTS.

DETAILED MEASUREMENTS OF WHALE SHARKS TAKEN ON THE

COASTS OF INDIA

Prater. | Prater. ‘Thurston. Hailey.

— Bombay | Bombay Madras — Ceylon

T940557 1989 1894 1883

Body Kiecinisa|) tt. Ins.) Ftyins.|' Et, Ins.

Length over all 2s 18 <7 21-6 2220 23. 9

Girth behind pectorals... nee Si 7, aes + 13F a0)

Mouth to base of Ist dorsal ae Sry 9.6 9 10 10 0

Distance between Ist and ond

dorsal ae 1.8 en Bes 2 8

2nd dorsal to root of caudal ao 1 10 2. A Pe

Fins

First dorsal, anterior edge ae 8 Tot 110 | 1 10

5, base aos | 1 10 Pn Ona ee

x height | ie 15 e | +r

Second dorsal, anterior edge 0 101! OP ie Oo | Og

base Oe 0 11 a | ee

Pectoral, anterior edge... Soa al or SG Beare se a

, base 2.2 1 10 1s a aes,

Ventrals, anterior a 0 10 10 wee Kw)

base ey eae was on

Anal, anterior edge Os 0 8 a 0 9

,, base. 0 6 0-6 see 0 9

Caudal, upper lobe 309 aa 0 Sime) 3 0

a lower lobe ete) ZnS Ze 0 ae

Head

Width of ont y 28 2.68 2.6 2 oy

Width between nostrils og awn es

Width of head 1 ft. in front of Ist

gill-slit 4 4 4 6 ; se

Diameter of eye 0 lt 0- Ori 0 14

spiracle 0 1: Oa :

Distance, eye to tip of snout 0 61 0 10 0 10 ‘

Tip of snout to Ist gill-slit 2 101 3.43 3 4 ve

Gill-slits

Length of lst gill-slit ... eA ie) del et

- 2nd, 1 10 IAS 3a a Agra |

» Srdets,, 1 S 1 9 de 9

; ath =, 138 1 8 ie, Ong

” sth, 1 AG oey/ as,

REMORAS OR SUCKER FISHES AND WHALE SHARKS.

Remoras or

selves to sharks and other marine animals,

“objects.

sucker fishes are commonly known to attach them-

or even to floating

They do not attach themselves solely to the external surface

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY, NATURAL HIST. SOCIE’Y; Vol. XG

of the fish but are often found in the mouth or under the gill covers,

With the whale shark the interior of the mouth is a common place

of attachment. The whale shark landed at Sassoon dock, Bombay,

had a Sucker-Fish (Remora remora) cleaving to its palate, well

inside the mouth. Several of these fishes escaped from the mouth

of the second Bombay specimen as it was being beached. Chiercha

also records the finding of several remoras adhering to the inside

of the mouth of a whale shark taken in the Gulf of Panama. The

whale sharks’ habit of feeding open mouthed give the remoras an

opportunity of freely leaving and returning to their cavernous perch.

In his account of the ramming of a whale shark off the coast of

Ceylon (p. 259) the skipper speaks of ‘several large fish (seemingly

dog-fish), about a cubit in length, which were gamboling about the

monster entering the mouth at pleasure and returning to it again’.

His ‘dog-fish’ were obviously remoras, which in their association

with whale sharks obtain comfortable carriage to feeding grounds

where there is always an abundance of small fish to prey upon. That

they sometimes pay for their temerity in selecting the mouth of

the giant as a place of attachment is shown in Kishinouye’s finding

of a remora in the stomach of a whale shark taken off the coast

of Japan. The fish was probably inadvertently swallowed by its

‘host’.

HARPOONING AND CAPTURE OF WHALE SHARKS IN INDIAN

COASTAL WATERS.

Dr. Buist..(1850) gives an account of the harpooning of whale

sharks at Karachi. He published an illustration of the type of

harpoon used, which is reproduced here. He

states that the fish, once struck, is allowed to

run till tired out and beaten with a club till

stunned. The following is Lt. J. L. Heisch’s

account of the two whale sharks harpooned

by him at Karachi in March and April 1936:—

‘The waters of Karachi have some reputation for

the large fish they contain, and encouraged by tales

said to come up and bask on the surface, Capt.

Heygate of the Royal West Kent regiment and myself

decided to see if it was possible to harpoon them.

SSSssss We arranged to hire a bundar boat for two days.

= 5 ; It was captained by a venerable gentleman with a

grey beard, who persuaded us that he had harpooned

very large fish for very many years. He was assisted

ably by five adonis. We succeeded in reducing the

crew to five with some difficulty, the old man _ being

, anxious to take more, since, as he said ‘Big shark

Line, 600 fathoms very dangerous’. We felt however that he was merely

cane shaft, 8 ft. trying to impress, and two sahibs, one bearer and

iron shaft, 1 ft. 6 ins. six fishermen, seemed more than enough for comfort.

Barb 5 ins. in a boat so small. We had no experience of the type

of tackle we should need, but the fishermen produced

two large iron harpoons, which, with their heavy wooden handles, looked as

if. they would pierce and hold anything. These were laid out in the bows

with a large quantity of stout rope attached. We had planned to start at

2 a.m. on 27th of March and try to reach Cape Monze, some 20 miles north of

of rays and sharks of considerable size, which were

‘THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS 275

Karachi, in time to spend most of the day looking for big fish. Cape Monze

is said to be one of the best grounds to find them. As it happened we did

not finally get away until about 6-30 a.m. owing to the roughness of the

sea, which forced us to put back on our first attempt. When we did start,

it was still rough, and by no means comfortable in our small boat. Another

disadvantage was the difficulty of spotting the fish. The sea went down by

degrees, much to the relief of our bearer who had retired to the side and

stayed there, after heroically preparing breakfast. By noon, with the stiff

breeze blowing, Karachi looked very far away. Upto this time we had seen

nothing except a whale blowing some distance away. A little later we saw

a large bat-ray jump, an amazing sight, for though it was too tar away to

estimate its size, it must have been jumping ten feet clear of the water, and

made a tremendous splash on landing. Nothing had appeared for us to har-

poon, however, and we began to realise that our chances of meeting a shark

or a ray basking were rather less than we had supposed. We accordingly

made for a fishing ground some four miles off the coast and about 12 miles

north of Karachi. Here we somewhat ignominiously let down our lines and

caught small fish with inordinate pleasure. We gave this up at about 3 p.m.,

and sailed towards the coast with the intention of camping for the night.

The sea was now quite smooth, and porpoises were to be seen playing between

us and the land, which was about 2 miles away. When we were within

200 yards of them, this peaceful scene was disturbed by a shout by our leok-out

man up the mast. The rest of the crew were on to the target at about the

same time, for all at once everyone was shouting and rushing about the boat.

‘The sahibs, however, perhaps less experienced in marine matters, sat in

simple dignity and waited to be told what it was all about. Suddenly we saw

bearing down upon us two fins, about 12 feet apart the forward one hardly

visible, and the rear one rising to a sharp point a foot or so above the water.

It was plain that the impossible had happened and we had met a shark. More-

over a big one as far as could be seen, and one that slept peacefully on the

surface. The shark was now about fifty yards to our right front, and moving

very slowly across our path. Meanwhile the old captain, looking less venerable

and very fierce, had stationed himself in the bows with a harpoon, while the

crew stood by to lower sail if we succeeded. As we bore down on the fish,

the atmosphere became electric. It seemed that it must talke alarm and dive

too soon. But fortunately this shark was blessed with an almost infinite

capacity for sleep, and in another moment would have bumped our bows with

its head. However, when he was about a yard from the boat, and heading

straight for it, our old man plunged the harpoon in just behind the head,

and since the fish was so close, put his weight behind it. It took a_ good

half hour to dig that harpoon out. Now the shark woke up with a vengeance.

Out went the rope and down came the sail. The rope ran out quickly to

about fifty yards, and was made fast. For about 15 minutes he put up a

grand fight, swimming deep, and he towed our 20 feet boat with ease. When

he wanted te go somewhere, he went, and we went toc in no uncertain manner.

Once he came to the surface with a terrific struggle, leaping nearly clear of

the water and beating up a foam with his tail. He was bleeding freely, and

seemed to be much larger than the tiger and hammer-head sharks’ found in

these waters. After this effort there was less struggle, and he became a dead

weight. Little by little, with the combined effort of the crew, the ropé was

pulled in with no active resistance, until we could see the huge bulk beneath

the boat. We got a distinct shock when we looked over the side for it was

only a foot or two shorter, and the tail looked formidable. It was a handsome

brute in the water, with a dark skin and white green spots. We could now

see its head which looked square, and its body seemed broader than that of

the common shark. In fact it looked odd, but we were not disposed to grumble.

We pulled him in a little closer, and put in another harpoon. The shark then

broke surface just by the boat, beating the water with its tail. This moment

had its excitement, as the size of the brute made its struggles seem more

dangerous than they were. It was at its last gasp however, and soon the

fishermen were able to administer the coup de grdce with long knives. We

lashed our catch to the side of the boat, and towed it in to shore, where we

dragged the body as far up the beach as we could. It was impossible to pull

it right out of the water, but we were able to take our first photograph. Most

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL FIST. (SOCIB EY ©Vol. scion

unfortunately the camera jammed while the fight was in process. The head

was spade-shaped with the eyes set right forward on the extreme corner.

Opening the mouth was like lifting the lid of a box. There were no teeth

deserving the name, but rows of very tiny ones of the roughness of coarse

sandpaper but sharper to the touch. The skin was also very rough when

rubbed the wrong way, quite smooth with the grain. It was dark and spotted

with white. There were two dorsal fins, both comparatively small and rounded

at the point. Ridges parallel with the curve of the back extend along either

side of the body, giving it, for all its bulk, a streamlined effect. The tail fin

is vertical when the fish swims and the top half in this case was about three

feet in length, the lower half much smaller. It is the point of this fin which

is most easily visible when the fish is basking. Two powerful flippers are

situated just behind the gills on each side. The iengith of the shark from tip

to tail was 18 ft. We eventually took it back to Karachi and hoisted it on

a crane. The weight was then estimated at about two tons. Unfortunately

we had no idea at the time that this was a whale shark, and rare in these

waters, and allowed the fishermen to take the carcase away. They can sell

the oil and get, I believe, about Rs. 20 for it. They do not see these fish

often enough to make a trade. Sometimes they see one a year, sometimes

none. We were more fortunate, for strangely enough on our next trip a few

weeks later, we harpooned a similar type of shark, about 3 miles off

Karachi. We were in a larger boat and could not approach closer than 10 feet

or so. The harpoon had to be thrown this time and later proved insecure.

We spotted the fish by the tail fin again, and had a good view of it on the

surface and swimming just beneath the boat. We could see the same spotted

skin and spade-shaped head. This time we had a short but spirited performance.

We were towed for 10 minutes in a very rough sea, and twice our 40 foot

fishing boat was turned completely round. However, the constant jerking with

the rise and fall of the bows eventually worked the harpoon free. One is

naturally cautious in estimating the size of any fish that gets away. I think

one could safely say that it was not smaller than the first, and seemed more

powerful. The best times of day to find these fish, and others which come up

to bask, are between 5 a.m. and 10 a.m., and again from 3 p.m. to 6 p.m.

On both occasions all our fun started at 3-30 p.m. There are a large number

of ray about if one can find them. We had a shot at one smallish one, about

4 feet across, but the harpoon missed. It is an amusing game, this harpooning,

‘ and one fight per trip, makes it worthwhile. We feel though, that ours is a

fine example of beginners’ luck.’

The methods employed in hunting the great basking shark

(Cetorhinus) off the coast of Ireland are very similar. For the

benefit of those interested in the hunting of these monster sharks

Couch’s graphic description of the harpooning of the basking shark

(Norman, 1937) is published below:—

‘The boat . . . approaches the fish with a man in the bow ready to harpoon

it; the line attached to the harpoon is 200 fathoms long, and is coiled up in

the bow; a’ man stands by with a hatchet, ready to cut it, should it get

entangled or foul of anything in running out. When the fish is struck, he

will at the first dart carry out from 7o to 150 or z00 fathoms of line; he

makes this rush to the bottom, where he rolls himself, and rubs his wound

against the ground to free himself from the harpoon. The fishermen generally

allow him an hour to tire himself before they begin to haul upon the harpoon

line; they coil up the slack of it again, ready for him to make another rush,

and play him in this way, sometimes for eight or nine hours, before they

can get him to come to surface; and when he does so they are ready to

strike him with two or three more harpoons; and when these are fixed in

him, they are able to pull him alongside the vessel with the harpoon lines ;

they then stretch him fore and aft along the vessel’s side, and get a jowl

rope round his head, and the bight of a hawser round his tail; they then.

give him two deep cuts, one one each side of the tail with a hatchet. In his

agony and his efforts to get free, he works his tail so hard, that he snaps

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASFAL WATERS yr?

the bone across where the cuts were made; they then cut flesh holes in the

body of the fish on both sides, that will take a Jarge rope through them;

they then reeve ropes through these holes, and by hauling taut on the side

of the fish next the vessel, and slacking away rope to the other side of the

fish, it will cant him over on his back. They then split down the stomach,

take out the liver, which is the only part they use for oil, and let the rest

of the fish go adrift.’

; {hese fish are most powerful in the water, and if harpooned in

the shoulder they are very hard to kill, often carrying off the whole harpoon

line; but experienced harpooners strike them in the body near the dornal fin,

rather Jow down, where it will ge through into the intestines, or near the

vertebrae towards the tail. They must be struck with great caution, as they

will stave in the boat with a blow of their tail, if it is.at all within their reach’.

Captures of whale sharks on our coasts result commonly from

these monster fishes fouling the fishing nets. Mr. S. R. Kaka gives

the following account of the capture of the specimen presented by

him to the Prince of Wales Museum :—

‘My sailing boat, with a crew of six fishermen, which I am running on

experimental fishing, left Bombay for deep sea fishing, but dtie to a heavy

storm on the 7th instant (Feb. 1938) they were forced to take refuge at

Alibaugh. Whilst returning on the rath, they halted at a place about 15 miles

from Bombay and on finding the depth of water to be 11 fathoms, they cast

the nets for fish. Here they encountered the thrilling -incident. When the

men tried to haul up the net in the noon, they found it impossible due to

tremendous weight of the monster which had got entangled within. As

it felt the net being drawn, the monster started moving in the opposite direction,

and here a tug-of-war between the men and monster ensued. ‘Towards evening,

after a desperate struggle lasting some hours, the men, succeeded in drawing

the shark clese to the boat and captured it alive by fastening slip knots with

ropes round its neck and tail and so tied it up alongside the boat. They

then sailed for Bombay and arrived at Sassoon Dock on the 13th morning. The

shark, however, died en route just a few hours before tanding, and it required

sixty men to haule up to the shore.’

From what has been written it will be seen that the whale shark

is a peculiarly inoffensive creature, Its only reaction to attack is

the effort to escape, and any danger in hunting these sharks

could only arise from the struggles of the animal to get away.

Like the basking shark, the whale shark is apparently indifferent

to the approach of a boat thus offering every opportunity for the

effective placement of the harpoon.

SUMMARY.

Whale sharks visit the coastal waters of India between

January and April, attracted by the abundance of zoo-plankton in

these waters during this time of the year. Their’ occurrence

mainly on the West Coast of India and Ceylon cannot be explained

by a general shoreward movement from the surrounding’ seas.

It is due to the directional movements of. surface currents in the

Bay of Bengal and the Arabian Sea at this period. Coming with

the inflow of water from the Pacific, which sets in through the

Straits of Sumatra with the establishment of the north-east mon-

soon, whale sharks follow the north-east monsoon drift, which

flowing across the lower reaches of the Bay of Bengal, brings

278. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

them to the south of Ceylon. From thence their journey along

the west coast of Ceylon and India is aided by northward flowing

coastal currents. Their comparative rarity on the East Coast ot

India and Ceylon is explained by the absence of favourable cur-

ients. The waters which converge upon the Coromandel Coast

come from the head waters of the Bay of Bengal and not from

the Straits of Sumatra, through which the whale sharks enter Indian

seas. ‘lhe whale sharks which visit our coast via the Straits of

Sumatra probably come to us from the East Indian Archipelago,

where they are known to be permanently resident. Similar seasonal!

migrations of whale sharks take place from the Philippine Archi-

pelago to the seas off Cape Inubo, Japan, aided in this instance

by the north-eastward tow .of the isuro Sivo current. It is

proposed that the various archipelagoes in the Pacific, Indian and

Atlantic Oceans, where whale sharks are permanently established,

are centres from which numbers of these sharks, following the

drift of favourable currents, migrate at appropriate seasons into

areas where peak periods of plankton productivity provide them

with an abundance of food; their appearance in these areas of

nominal distribution being more regular wherever plankton pro-

ductivity is more definitely seasonal. The archipelagoes, where

alone whale sharks are known to be permanently resident, are

breeding grounds to which these fishes return after their wander-

ings. A limited breeding habitat has impelled the spread of the

species through the three Oceans, the sharks following the drift of

warm surface currents in search of food, have established them-

selves wherever suitable conditions prevailed. The newly acquired

places of permanent habitat became in their turn centres of pro-

ductive distribution from which the geographical range of the fish

has been extended,

LITERATURE CITED,

Bean, B. A.—1902. A Rare Whale Shark. ‘Science’, xv, p. 353.

Buist, George.—1850. On Shark Fishing at Iurrachee. Proc, Zool. Soc.

London, pt. Xvill, pp. 100-102.

Chierchia, G.—1884. The Voyage of the ‘Vetior Pisani’. ‘Nature’, xxx,

p. 365.

Daye F.—1889. Fauna of British India, Fishes, vol. i, p. 5.

Deraniyagala, P. E.—1936. Big Game Fishing off Ceylon. Country Life,

2. May, p. xxx.

Foley, W.—1835. An Unusual Sea Monster in the Bay (of Bengal). Journ.

ilsiatic Soc., Bengal, iv, pp. 62-63.

Gadsden, F. O.—1899. ‘Fishing in Indian Waters’, pt. iii, Aden and its

adjacent waters. Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. vol. xii, p. 539-540.

Gill, Theodore.—1g02. The Whale Shark (Rhineodon typicus). ‘Science’,

XV, pp. 825-826.

Gudger, E. W.—1915. Natural History of the Whale Shark (Rhineodon

typus Smith). Zoologica: Sct. Contribs. N. Y. Zool. Soc. i, (No. 1g);

PP. 343-389, 14 figs.

Gudger, EK. W.—1834. The Geographical Distribution of the Whale Shark

(Rhineodon typus). Proc. Zool. Soc. London, pt. 4, pp. 864-891.

Gudger, E. W.—1940. Whale Sharks rammed by Ocean Vessels. The New

England Naturalist, No. 7, pp. 1-10.

Haly, A. 1883.—On the Occurrence of Rhineodon typicus Smith on the West

Coast of Ceylon. Ann. and Mag. Nat. Hist. ser. 5, xii, pp. 48-40.

Haly, A. 1884.—On Rhineodon typicus. Rept. Director, Colombo Mus. for

1883, in Ceylon Administrative Reports for 1889 (p. 14).

THE WHALE SHARK IN INDIAN COASTAL WATERS d%9

Hornell, J. and Ramaswami Nayudu, M.—1923. A Contribution to the Life

History of the Indian Sardine, with notes on the Plankton of the Malabar

Coast. Madras Fish, Bull. xvii, pp. 129-197.

Kishinouye, K.—1901. A Rare Shark, Rhineodon pentalinealus, nov. spec.

Anat. Anz. xxiv, pp. 694-695.

Lloyd, R. E.—1g08. The Occurrence of Rhineodon typicus at the Head of

the Bay of Bengal. Records Ind. Mus. ii, p. 306.

Menon, K. S.—1931. A Preliminary Account of the Madras Plankton. Rec.

Indian Mus, xxxiii, pp. 489-516.

Norman, J. R. and Fraser, F. C.—1937. Giant Fishes, Whales and Dolphins

(Basking Shark, p. 20).

Pillay, R. Shunker Narayan—1g29. List of Fishes taken in Travancore

from 1got-1915. Journ, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. xxxili, p. 351.

Sewell, R. B. S.—1g913. Notes on the Biological Work of the R. I. M.S. S.,

‘Investigation’ during Survey Seasons, 1got-11 and igti-12. Journ, and Proc.

Asiatic Soc. Bengal. vol. ix, Nos. 8-9. pp. 329-390.

Sewell, R. B. S.—1937. The Oceans around India, an outline of Field

Sciences of India. Ind. Sci. Congress Assoc. Silver Jubilee Session (1938)

pp. 17-41.

Sewell, R. B. S.—1938. Geographic and Oceanographic Research in Indian

Waters. Mem. Asiatic Sos., Bengal, vol. ix, No. 2.

Smith, Andrew.—1840. Pisces, vol. iv. Illustrations of the Zoology of South

Africa, London. (Rhineodon typus, pl. xxvi, and description.)

Steuart, James.—1862. Notes'on Ceylon, etc., London. (Whale Shark, p. 156.)

Tennant, Sir Emmerson.—1801. The Natural History of Ceylon, p. 3265.

Thurston, Edgar.—18g90. Inspection of Ceylon Peart Banks. Notes on the

Pearl and Chank Fisheries and Marine Fisheries of the Gulf of Manaar. Bull.

Madras Govt. Cent. Mus. 1890. (Rhineodon typicus, pp. 99-100. )

Thurston, Edgar.—1894. Inspection of Ceylon Pearl Bank. Bull. Madras

Govt. Mus. No. 1 (Whale Shark, pp. 36-38, pl. iii, -A.)

en E. Perceval.—1870. Six Months in the Seychelles. Dublin, pt. i

pp. 04-05.

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS WITH NOTES ON

THEIR ANATOMICAL CHARACTERS.

M. SAYEEDUD-Din,

Prof. of Botany, Osmania University, Hyderabad Deccan.

(With two plates).

(Continued from page 163 of Vol. xlii, No. ‘1).

VI.—LOCHNERA PUSILLA K. Schum.

(APOCYNACEAE),

SYNONYMY AND SYSTEMATIC DESCRIPTION.

-Lochnera pusilla K. Schum. in Engl. & Prantl, Pflanzenf. V. 4,

Pt. (1895) p. 145; Cookes EI” Pres yBomb. (\V. stl? Reet aaron

Gamble. Fl. Pres; Madras, Pt. V, 809; Syn :. Vinca pusilla Miu

HF .B.1., V. Il, 640;. Dalz. & ‘Gibs:~ Bomb. JE 1), .144 iri eae

Ceyl. V.. }II,. 1303;>'Watt.:. Dict, (Econsp, Pred: imds Vicia ete eee

243.. Vinea parviflora Retz.; Roxb. Kl. Ind» [lar }Cathavantiius

pusiilus 1G. Don, (Gen, Syste Nee oS,

A much-branched annual herb, branches spreading from the

base, stem and branches quadrangular. Leaves 14-3 in. long,

opposite, lanceolate, acute, glabrous, membranous, margins rough;

axillary glands long, subulate. Flowers small, white, mostly

solitary, axillary, on short stalks. Calyx-segments 5, lanceolate-

subulate. Corolla salver-shaped; tube slender, inflated above the

stamens; mouth constricted, hairy; lobes 5, obiong-obovate.

Stamens 5, on the corolla-tube; anthers elliptic or ovate-lanceolate,

acute. Pollen grains furrowed, rectangular when dry, and spherical

when moistened. Disk replaced by two linear glands. Carpels 2,

free; ovules numerous, 2-seriate; style filiform; stigma capitate,

with a reflexed hyaline frill at base, and a minute 2-lobed apiculus.

Fruit of two slender divergent, striate follicles 1}-2 in. long. Seeds

numerous, small, oblong, with many muriculate ribs (Pilate I).

Flowers Aug.—Nov. Mayuranathan (7) mentions the flowering

season as Nov.-March, which is rather unusual for other parts of

India. Medicinal (Kirtikar, 6).

INDIAN NAMES.

Sanghaphuli, Sankaphi, Sangkhi (Sans.); Kapavila (Malayalam),

HABITAT.

Common in Deccan (Dalz, & Gibson, 3). Poona, Gujarat

(Cooke, 1). Plains Districts of the Circars, Deccan and Carnatic, up

to 2,000 ft., a common weed, more scarce on W. Coast (Gamble, 5).

Puate |

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

| Z,

p—

Sayeedud-Din—Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.

For explanation see end of article.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

Sayeedud-Din—Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.

For explanation see end of article.

SOME COMMON INDIAN HERBS 2811

A weed of cultivated ground (Mayuranathan, 7). A common weed

in the beginning of the rainy season (Sayeedud-Din, 8).

Distribution: India (W. Himalaya, Upper Gangetic Plain; W.

Peninsula) ; Ceylon.

ANATOMICAL NOTES.

Structure of the leaf. (Plate II, Figs,.1 & 2). The leaf-structure

is bifacial. Stomata occur on both the sides, but are much more

numerous on the lower side. They are surrounded by two or more

ordinary epidermal cells, and lie in a level with the epidermis. The

epidermal cells on the upper side are larger than on the lower.

These observations conform to those recorded by Solereder (g) 1n

other species. No special features have been observed in the. meso-

phyll, viz., gelatinization of the cell-walls of the spongy tissue or

sclerosed palisade cells.

Oxalate of lime occurs in the form of ordinary solitary crystals.

The hairy covering (Plate II, Figs. 2 & 3) consists of simple

unicellular and uniseriate hairs. Some are very small, resembling

papillae. Glandular hairs are absent.

In the stem non-articulated thick-walled laticiferous tubes are

found in abundance mostly in the cortical region (Plate II, Fig. 7),

but in the leaf they occur in the veins, and run freely in the meso-

phyll, as in Vinca major (Solereder, 9). The thick-walled tubes

by taking up a faint colour of safranin are apt to create some

confusion, but chemical reactions show that the walls are composed

of cellulose. The contents do not show any reaction for starch.

Structure of the petiole and stem (Plate II, Figs. 4-6). The

petiole contains a single arc-shaped bicollateral bundle. Stomata

which occur in the furrows are accompanied by two or more subsi-

diary cells parallel to the pore, that is they are of the Rubiaceous

aype. Ihe epidermis of the ridges 1s composed of thick-walled

cells. The cortex is composed of chlorenchyma and collenchyma,

and as will be naturally expected the latter is more confined to

the ridges. Intraxylary phloem is present in the form of isolated

bundles at the margin of the pith.

CONCLUSIONS.

The chief features revealed by the study of this plant are

characteristic of the family Apocynaceae to which it belongs. As

it is closely allied to Asclepiadaceae many features are in common,

The following is a brief summary of the characteristic features of

Lochnera pusilla:

: 1. In the leaf the stomata are surrounded by ordinary

epidermal cells, but in the stem they are surrounded by two or

more subsidiary cells parallel to the pore, thus revealing the

Rubiaceous type of stomatal apparatus.

2. Oxalate of lime occurs in the stem as well as in the leaves

in the form of solitary crystals.

3. The hairy covering consists of simple unicellular and

uniseriate hairs.

4. Occurrence of non-articulated thick-walled laticiferous tubes.

282 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

5. Ihe petiole contains a single, bicollateral arc-shaped bundle.

In the stem intraxylary phloem is present in the form of isolated

bundles at the margin of the pith.

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

Tam thankful to Mr. Sri Ramloo for the drawings which were

made under my supervision, and to Mr. Moinuddin for the trouble |

which he took in preparing several microscopic slides,

LITERATURE CONSULTED.

1: Cooke, T.—The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay, vol. ii, Pt. 1,

Pp. 129 (1904).

2. Hooker, J. D.—The Flora of British India, vol. iii, p. 640 (1882).

3. Dalzell, N. A. and Gibson, A.—The Bombay Flora, p. 144 (1861).

4. Engler, A. and Prantl, K.—Die Naturlichen Pflanzenfamilien, vol. iv,

Ps 2 (TSOs).

5. Gamble, J. S.—Flora of the Presidency of Madras, Pt. 5, p. 809

(1623).

6. Kirtikar, K. R. and Basu, B. D.—IJndian Medicinal Plants, 2nd edition,

vol. ii, p. 1560.

7, Mayuranathan, P. V.—The Flowering Plants of the Madras City and

its Immediate Neighbourhood, p. 171 (1929).

8. Sayeedud-Din, M.—‘A Further Contribution to Some of the Common

Flowering Plants of the Hyderabad State; their distribution and economic

importance. Dicotyledons’. J.B.N.H.S., vol. xl, No. 2, p. 203 (1938).

g. Solereder, H.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl. Kd.,

vol. i, pp. 528-533; vol. ii, pp. 983-987.

10. Trimen, H.—Flora of Ceylon, vol. iti, p. 130.

11. Watt, G.—Dictionary of the Economic Products of India, vol. iv,

Pt. 4, p. 243.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Lochnera pusilla K. Schum.

PATE 1.

Fig. 1.—Black and white drawing of Lochnera pusilla K. Schum, (Nat. size).

Fig. 2.—Corolla opened out. (X10).

Fig. 3.—Pistil with calyx attached. (X10).

lig. 4.--Pollen grain in dry condition. (X40).

lig. 5.—Pollen grain, moistened. (xX 40),

PLATE

Fig. 1.---Leaf-epidermis, showing stomata surrounded by ordinary epidermal

cells, + -)( 255)

Fig. 2.—T. S. Leaf, showing two unicellular hairs on the upper epidermis,

a stoma on the lower epidermis, palisade and spongy tissue. (215).

Fig. 3.—A latex-tube from the leaf. (215).

Fig. 4.—An uniseriate hair from leaf-epidermis. (X 215).

Fig. 5.—Stem-epidermis, showing stomata surrounded by subsidiary cells.

(X 215).

Fig. 6.—T. S. Petiole, showing an arc-shaped vascular bundle, diagrammatic.

( X 50). ,

Fig. 7.—T. S. Stem. L. laticiferous tubes in cortex; P. intraxylary phloem

in groups. (%X 215).

(To be continued).

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA.

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.&.E.S.

Part VI.

(Continued from page 44 of this volume).

RHOPALOCERA,

SATYRIDAE.

Mycalesis visala Moore, visala

Moore, Lep. Ind., i, 189, pl. 64, figs. 1, 1a-11. 18g0-g2.

Ovum spherical, the base slightly flattened, pearly white,

minutely punctate. Deposited 6-viiil-go. Hatched g-viil-4o.

Newly hatched larva white, the head black. Head with a short

tooth projecting subdorsally. Anal somite ending in two. short

processes. A tew hairs. After feeding the body becomes green

and later a dark crimson dorsal stripe appears on the posterior

third of the body, this stripe broadens considerably on the anal

somite and extends along the anal processes. Moulted 12-vili-qo.

2nd instar—Similar. The cephalic and anal processes propor-

tionately rather larger. Under a lens there is a faint yellowish

white subdorsal line and the dorsum is sprinkled with minute

yellow dots. Moulted 14-vili-qo.

3rd instar—Similar. Moulted 16-viti-qo.

qth instar—Head blackish brown, the backs of the processes

dull greenish. Body dull green, shagreened with minute yellowish

white dots. A dark dorsal stripe, becoming dull crimson on the

roth somite and continuing up the anal processes. <A pale sub-

dorsal and sublateral line. Legs and prolegs green. Head and

body finely pubescent. Moulted 19-vili-4o.

Final instar—Head blackish brown, the backs of the processes

dull pinkish buff, and with four brownish spots frontally forming

a semicircle. Body pinkish buff, granular and finely pubescent. A

dark dorsal stripe, without any trace of crimson. A_ yellowish

subdorsal stripe, edged below with darker, and a yellowish sublat-

eral stripe. A series of oblique dark stripes arising subdorsally

and ending in the lateral area. ist pair of legs. blackish brown,

the others and the prolegs pinkish buff. Anal processes and

venter pinkish buff. As the larva ages, the colour darkens to

purplish brown, the markings remaining unchanged. Immediately

before pupation the markings fade and the larva becomes a bright

green, Pupated 24-Vviil-4o.

There is probably a green form of larva also, but I have not

bred it.

Pupa bright apple green in colour. 2nd to 5th abdominal

somites with paired subdorsal yellow dots. A subtornal yellow dot

284 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLil

on the wing case. Under a lens, the abdomen with very minute

yellow speckling. Head straight in front. Thorax slightly keeled.

Wing cases slightly dilated across the dorsum. Cremaster long and

pinkish in colour. A female emerged 30-vili-4o.

Food-plant—Grasses.

Described from larvae bred from ova from a Calcutta caught

female.

LYCAENIDAE.

Tarucus nara ‘oll.

Head pale brown, retractile and very small. Body flattened

and with the lateral edge slightly scalloped by the intersegmental

divisions. Ground colour very pale green, in some cases more or

less tinged with purplish. A white dorsal stripe beginning from

the 2nd somite, and sometimes edged, either wholly or partly, with

crimson, and sometimes with a central crimson line, which may be

confined to the first few somites or extend the whole length of

the dorsal stripe. The green forms with a_subdorsal pattern

formed of four white specks on each somite, the purple with a

subdorsal series of single -crimson dots. <A lateral line, white

in the green forms, crimson in the purple. Body densely. covered

with minute white granules and white pubescence. Legs and

prolegs green. Venter green, even in the purple~ forms. “at

gland and tubercles not prominent.

Ants do not seem necessary to the larva’s wellbeing as, although

thickly attended when found, some lived for a week before enter iene

without their attentions.

Pupa.on a thin carpet of white silk and supported by a girdle.

Of the usual Lycaenid shape. Colour yellowish green, the wing

cases less tinged with yellow, and more or less speckled and

shaded with black, some pupae having no more than a dorsal and

spiracular series of black specks, whilst others are almost completely

black shaded.

Food-plant—Zizyphus Jujuba. The larva feeds on the under-

surface of the leaf, leaving a semi-transparent track about an

eighth of an inch wide.

Described from a number of full-fed larvae found in Calewtin

24-x-4o, one of which pupated 26-x-4o and a male emerged 2-xi-4o.

Bingham quotes de Niceville’s description of the larva of

T. theophrastus F., of which species nara was previously considered

a subspecies, which tallies substantially with mine He adds that

the ants attending the larvae have been identified by Dr. A. Forel

as Camponotus rubripes Drury (sylvaticus Fabr., subspecies

compressus Fabr.) and Phidole latinoda Roger.

Ziseeria trochilus Freyer, putli Koll.

Bingham, Fauna Brit. Ind., Butterflies, 11, 366. 1907.

Head. black, small and retractile. The usual woodlouse-shaped

Lycaenid larva with the segments rather deeply cut. Colour bright

grass green with a darker green dorsal stripe edged with paler and

a white sublateral line. A series of very faint oblique pale lines

subdorsally. Body thickly covered with white DE SIESER Ant

gland and tubercles small and inconspicuous.

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 285

-- Ants do not seem essential to the larva’s development as mine

lived for ten days without their attentions and pupated successfully.

Pupa formed on a leaf of the food-plant on a carpet of white

silk and supported by a girdle. Green with a darker dorsal stripe

along the abdomen. Thorax domed. The anal end rounded and

slightly flattened. With the exception of the wing cases, densely

clothed with longish white hair.

Food-plant—Rhynchosia mimima DC. (Leguminosae).

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 12-x-4o,

pupated 15-x-4go, and a male emerged 19-x-4o.

Bingham, quoting de Niceville, writes: —‘Larva when full-

grown a little over a quarter of an inch in length, onisciform as

usual; the head very small, black and shining, entirely hidden

when at rest, being covered by the second segment; the colour

of the body grass-green, with a dark green dorsal line from the

third to the twelfth segment; two subdorsal series of short parallel

streaks, each pair being divided from the next by the segmental

constriction, these streaks paler than the ground colour; an almost

pure white lateral line below the spiracles, which is the most con-

spicuous of all the markings; the segmental constrictions rather

deep; the whole surface of the body shagreened, being covered

with very small whitish tubercles, from which spring very short

colourless hairs. Dr. George King, Superintendent of the Royal

Botanical Gardens, Sibpur, near Calcutta, has identified its food-

plant as Heliotropium strigosum, Willd. Professor A. Forel

identified the ant as Pheidole quadrispinosu, Jerdon. Pupa about

three-sixteenths of an inch in length, pale green, of the usual

Lycaenid shape, densely covered everywhere, except on the wing-

cases with somewhat long white hairs.’

HETEROCERA.

SYNTOMIDAE.

Syntomis passalis F.

Ovum white, unsculptured, spherical with the base slightly

flattened. Laid in a large batch but with the individual ova not

touching each other. Deposited 24-vili-go. Hatched 29-vill-4o.

Larva with the head bright reddish chestnut, rather small.

Ground colour of the body deep blackish purple. Each somite

with a transverse series of six rosettes of short blackish-grey spinous

hair, arising from blackish warts. Legs bright reddish chestnut.

Prolegs purple.

Pupa in a slight cocoon of brown silk interwoven with a few of

the larval hairs; the bulk of the hairs, however, are not shed: and

remain attached to the cast skin. Dark reddish brown, the

abdominal somites with a central ring of conjoined black spots.

Wing cases black with the veins red-brown. Leg cases red-brown

streaked with black. Antenna cases red-brown but unstreaked.

Apex of the abdomen blunt and densely clothed with hooked golden-

brown hairs.

Food-plant—Dahlia and Orange Cosmos,

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Described from a number of full-fed larvae bred from ova

from a Calcutta caught female, one of which pupated 8-x-4o and a

male emerged 16-x-4o.

ARCTIIDAE.

Amsacta lineola F.

Ovum creamy white, spherical with the base slightly flattened.

Minutely punctate. Laid in fairly large batches, the ova touching

each other. Hatched on the fourth day.

Larva with the head honey brown, the clypeus filled in with

smoky black and with a smoky black stripe outlining it. Body

with a broad black dorsal stripe with a median pale line on the

thoracic somites. The lateral area brownish grey. Hair fairly

short, that on the dorsum black and arising from a double dorsal

series of small and a subdorsal series of larger dull blackish blue

warts; on the lateral area grey and arising from a lateral and

sublateral series of greyish warts. Spiracles white and set in a

broad pinkish ring. Venter blackish. Prolegs honey brown.

Legs blackish.

Food-plant—Orange Cosmos.

Described from a full-fed larva bred from ova deposited by a

Caleutta caught female in August 1940. The larva died when

preparing for pupation.

LYMANTRUDAE.

Laelia exclamationis Koll.

Butlr., ti. Wet., .i1,0123; pl. 138) aie, On iSscor

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind.. Moths, 1, 442. 1892.

Head dull brownish, the clypeus filled in with blackish. Ground

colour of body blackish, a pale brownish subdorsal stripe, the

sub-spiracular area greyish brown. Densely clad with brownish

grey hairs arising from a subdorsal, supra- and sub-spiracular,

and sublateral series of greyish brown warts. 4th to 7th somites

each with a dense dorsal brush of silky hairs, dark brown in colour

but appearing an almost silvery brown in certain lhghts. t1th

somite with a similar dorsal brush. Legs pale brown. Venter and

prolegs greyish brown. Spiracles white.

Pupa in a cocoon of brown silk mixed with larval hair. Wing,

leg and antenna cases bright chestnut brown, the thorax and

dorsum darker, the ventral surface of the abdomen paler. Thorax

and first five abdominal somites with scar-like dorsal ridges of a

pale brown granular appearance.

Food-plant—Coarse grasses.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 2-x-4o, spun

4-x-40, and a male emerged 14-x-4o.

Hampson’s description 1s ‘Larva brown, with tufts of long grey

and brown hair; dorsal tuft of short brown hair on 3rd to 6th

somites; a subdorsal series of very short orange tufts, three to

each somite; a lateral pale line.’ Butler writes ‘Larva blackish:

head pale buff; two dorsal stripes of contiguous vellow and _ red

spots interrupted on each segment by a whity-brown spot or

tubercle bearing long hairs, on the fifth to eighth segments these

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 287

tubercles are very large, prominent and woolly, and bear long

hairs; those on the thirteenth segment are not prominent, but

bear long tapering pencils of hair; the tenth and eleventh segments

bear a small central dorsal carmine tubercle; an imperfect rose-pink

stripe bearing tubercles of the same colour emitting pale brown

hairs; a broad lateral rose-pink band, on and below which are small

tubercles bearing white hairs; ventral surface yellow, streaked in

front and at the sides with black; legs shining vermilion-red.

Length of preserved larva 28 millim.’ The figure appears to have

been drawn from a blown larva.

NOTODONTIDAE.

Turnaca acuta WIk.

Ovum spherical, chalky white freckled with ochreous. Micro-

pyle a dark spot. Laid in small batches or in twos and _ threes.

Ist instar larva—Head yellowish brown. Body green with

three dark brown lateral lines. Head and body with sparse black

hairs. Shape rather broad anteriorly, tapering towards the rear.

Ova laid by a female in Calcutta 6-vili-go, hatched 11-vili-4o.

The female refused to lay until a bamboo leaf was put in the box.

In spite of Seitz’ suggestion that the larvae feed on Monocotyledons,

they refused various species of grasses, bamboos and palms and

died without feeding.

LIMACODIDAE.

Thosea loesa Moore.

Hamps., Fauna Brit. Ind., Moths, 1, 379. 1892.

Hering Seitz, Indo-Austr. Bombyces, x, 712.

Head green, marked with brown round the jaws, retractile.

ist. somite retractile. Shape oval and flattened. Colour bright

grass green. A narrow white dorsal stripe, edged with an inter- _

rupted dark blue line and running through a pink spot on the 7th

somite. A series of eight subdorsal red spots. A subdorsal series

of nine tufts consisting of four or five very short green bristles.

A lateral series of eleven scoli, increasing in size from front to

rear, first and second very short, crimson with black bristles and

directed forwards, third to ninth longer, green tipped with pink and

with green bristles and pointing sideways, tenth and eleventh

similar but directed backwards.

Cocoon almost spherical, shghtly longer than broad. Dark

brown in colour veined with lighter, of the usual hard Limacodid

type. One cocoon was almost black. Empty pupa skin yellowish

brown.

Food-plant—Areca Palm.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 6-x-4o, spun

g-x-40, and a male emerged 4-xi-4o.

Hampson’s_ description, which is given under the name

sinensis, is as follows :—‘Yellow or green, with a white or yellow

dorsal stripe, sometimes with a red spot at middle, subdorsal and

sublateral series of spinous tubercles reddish towards tips. Cocoon

purplish grey.’ Seitz gives substantially the same description and

adds that the larva lives on a great number of cultivated plants.

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Altha nivea Wk.

Head retractile, pale greenish marked round the jaws with

brown. 1st somite retractile and edged with black anteriorly.

Body pale green, a paler narrow dorsal and subdorsal stripe, a

similar lateral stripe and one between it and the subdorsal. A

yellow sublateral stripe defining the ventral area. Body oval,

highly convex, without visible segmentation. The skin translucent

in appearance and slightly granular in texture but without hairs or

tubercles. The markings appear to be well below the surface of

the skin and vary in intensity with the angle from which the larva

is viewed. Spiracles round, yellow with a yellow ring.

Cocoon hard, compact, chocolate brown in colour and flecked

with buff specks, particularly towards the front. These specks

are white when the cocoon is newly spun. Shape round, slightly

longer than broad. Empty pupa skin yellowish brown in colour.

_ Food-plant—Tinospora cordifolia Miers (Menispermaceae).

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 21-viii-4o,

spun 23-vill-4c, and a female emerged 9-ix-4o.

PSYCHIDAE.

Amatissa cuprea Moore.

Brahmachari, fotrn. Bomb: Wat. sBlasiz «Soc; xl, 5677/1938:

Head dark brown, streaked and speckled with paler. First

three somites dark brown, mottled with paler, and with a dorsal,

subdorsal and sublateral pale stripe. Abdominal somites very

slightly chitinised and pinkish grey in colour. A whitish lateral

line. Anal claspers and flap more heavily chitinised and yellow

brown in colour. Abdominal prolegs very small. Legs brown

marked with paler and increasing in size from rst to 3rd pair.

Male pupa reddish brown, rather slender. The abdominal

somites with the posterior edge rather wider than the anterior

edge of the somite following and forming a ridge round it. roth

to 12th somites each with a transverse spined ridge posteriorly.

End of the abdomen turned under and the cremaster consisting

of two. short cone-shaped processes each ending in a_ sharp

point. Female pupa rather- paler in colour, the usual type of

chitinised maggot without leg, antenna or wing cases, broader

behind and tapering anteriorly.

Case cylindrical, tapering from mouth to apex, and made of

greyish silk covered with minute fragments of vegetable matter.

Larger pieces of leaf and twig are also attached, these are fixed

by the upper end, the lower hanging loose. Before pupation a

slender peduncle, about a quarter of an inch long, is spun fixing

the case to a leaf or twig. As usual, the imago emerges from

the bottom of the case.

Food-plant—-Found on Ipomoea palmata, but fed readily on

Lagerstroemia. indica. Brahmachari records it as a_ pest on

Banana in Southern - India.

Described from a larva and pupae from cases found in

Calcutta 28-ix-40, from another of which a male emerged 5-x-40.

Brahmachari describes the larva as having the head and

thoracic somites grey in colour with patches of brown, the abdomen

THE BARLEY STAGES. OF “INDIAN: LEPIDOPTERA 289

of darker hue. He gives a figure of the male pupa, but does

not shew the expanded abdominal rings nor the spinous ridges

and makes no mention of them in the text.

NOCTUIDAE.

Beara dichromella Wk.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., ii, 116. 1882-83.

Head reddish brown, marked with darker above. 1st to 3rd

somites with the dorsum greyish white with a longitudinal and

transverse black lines. 4th somite with the dorsum black with

a crescent-shaped yellow mark. 5th somite with a black dorsal

hump. 6th to roth somites with a broad creamy yellow dorsal

stripe with a purplish black median line. rith somite with a black

dorsal hump edged on each side and. posteriorly with orange.

12th and 13th somites orange yellow. The lateral area black

with two indistinct and broken yellowish lines. A broken orange

sublateral stripe from 2nd to toth somite. Sparse white hairs

arising from white specks. Spiracles black ringed with white.

Venter greyish green. Legs and prolegs greyish green.

Cocoon of papery yellow silk. Supported by a = short stalk

spun about two-thirds from the front of the cocoon. Canoe-

shaped, the front sloping backwards and_ slightly ridged and

rising into a backward pointing curved projection. A small point

about the middle and the posterior end terminating in a_ small

double point. The imago escapes through a slit in front.

Food-plant—Zizyphus Jujuba.

‘Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 28-x-4o,

spun 30-x-4o and a female emerged 6-x1-40.

Moore’s description is as follows :—‘Larva pale purple, with

a purple-red dorsal tubercle on sixth and another on_ twelfth

segment; anterior segments with minute black-bordered white

tubercular spots, and two lateral rows of similar spots on all the

segments, from each of these and the dorsal tubercles project

short fine whitish hairs; a dorsal yellow band from anterior to

posterior tubercle. Cocoon pale purplish-red, attached by a

silken peduncle to a leaf or twig, truncated and with a conical

projection at one end. Feeds on Celtis orientalis.’

Chalciope hyppasia Cr.

Ovum spherical, olive green speckled with rusty red. The

micropyle sunken and with sculptured ridges running from micro-

pyle to base. Laid singly. Hatched on the third day.

Newly hatched larva very long and slender. «1st and 2nd pairs

of abdominal prolegs absent. Resting position and mode of pro-

gression very Geometer-like. Head yellowish brown, body

brownish green. :

Half-grown larva with the ground colour greenish and_ three

lateral purple brown lines. Venter with a dark median stripe and

two purple brown lines on either side.

Full-grown larva—Head with the central portion yellowish

with three purple brown lines, a semi-circular olive brown patch

striped with yellowish on either side. Ground colour of the body

pale yellow with the following longitudinal stripes composed of

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

minute dots—a dorsal lavender line in continuation of the central

dark line of the head, a dark violet brown subdorsal stripe with

an internal lavender line in continuation of the inner edge of the

dark lateral patch of the head, a dark violet brown lateral stripe

with a double lavender line between it and the subdorsal stripe,—

and with a clearer yellow stripe containing a double rust-red line

below it. rith and 12th somites each with a black subdorsal

dot. Venter sprinkled with minute reddish brown dots, a dark

median stripe and indications of two slightly darker stripes on

either side. Spiracles black. Legs yellow brown. Prolegs like

the body.

Pupa in a slight cocoon of white silk spun among’ leaves.

Pale purplish brown and covered with a white bloom. Apex of

abdomen blunt with a ring of short teeth round it and ending: in

a few hooked spines.

Food-plant—Rhynchosia minima DC. (Leguminosae).

Described from a full-fed larva, bred from ova from a Calcutta

caught female, 20-x-4o, pupated 25-x-40, and a male emerged

3-X1-40.

Ophideres fullonica L.

Moore,. Dvdns: 700). S0c.2xi,2 04.47 pl acie, ies a ata:

Elamps., Mauna Brit. Inds. Moths) i, 15600. 71304

2nd instar—Head and body black. A white lateral streak on

the oth and 1oth somites. Resting attitude with the legs and

prolegs gripping close together and the body between looped, the

hinder part held erect.

The ocelli on the 5th and 6th somites are indicated in the 3rd

instar by orange red crescents. The rest of the adult markings

developing in the 4th and 5th instars.

Full-grown larva—Head velvety black. Ground colour of body

velvety black. Sublateral area sprinkled with minute white dots,

which join into an irregular streak from the 5th somite backwards.

Ist somite with a subdorsal line of minute white dots. 2nd somite

with a pair of minute bright blue subdorsal specks anteriorly and

a transverse median line of six similar specks. 3rd somite with

a median transverse line of six bright blue specks. 4th

somite with a divided creamy white lateral blotch with

three minute blue specks above and three below arranged

in the form of a triangle. 5th and 6th somites each with a black

lateral ocellus surrounded by a wide ring, creamy white above

and orange red below, and containing a bright blue spot as pupil.

Two minute blue specks above and two below each ocellus. <A

deep maroon subdorsal stripe with a black central stripe, starting

on the 5th somite in some larvae and on the 6th in others and

extending to the anal. flap: 7th to roth somites each with a

subdorsal triangle of minute blue specks and with two similar

specks in front of each spiracle. oth and 1oth somites with an

irregular and very broken creamy white lateral blotch. 1oth and

t1th somites with a creamy white sublateral streak in continuation

of the sublateral speckling. t1th somite rising into a short cone

dorsally, the apex maroon and interrupting the black ground colour

THE EARLY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA 291

between the maroon subdorsal stripes, and with a creamy white

stripe along the sides. Two bright blue dorsal dots in front of

and one on each side of the maroon apex. 12th somite with three

lateral and one subdorsal bright blue speck and marked with

creamy white posteriorly. Spiracles orange red and set in bright

maroon patches that increase in size from front to rear. Legs

black banded with maroon. Prolegs black with the apex maroon,

the rst pair partially aborted, 2nd pair dotted externally with

creamy white, 3rd and 4th pairs with a creamy white stripe.

Venter black, some specimens with a double maroon median stripe.

Pupa in a cocoon of thin white silk spun between leaves. Dark

purple mahogany, coarsely punctate and very highly polished. The

apex of the abdomen with the cuticle wrinkled longitudinally and

the cremaster consisting of four longish hooked spines with four

shorter ones round them.

Food-plant—Tinospora cordifolia Miers (Menispermaceae).

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 24-viil-4o,

pupated 27-vili-g4o, and a male emerged 4-ix-4o.

Hampson’s description, which is presumably based on Moore’s

but makes no mention of the fact, is as follows :—‘11th somite

dilated and surmounted by a tubercle; colour dark purplish brown,

the dorsum brown from 6th to rith somites; legs red; spiracular

scarlet patches largest posteriorly and with some irregular white

markings round them, on somite g in the form of an oblique white

bar; a yellow subdorsal mark on 4th somite; black ocelli with

yellow iris and white pupils on 5th and 6th somites, and two yellow

patches on 11th somite.’

Argadesa materna L.

Ovum spherical, the base flattened. Pale yellow green without

sculpturing and very small for the size of the insect. Laid singly

or in twos and threes on the food-plant.

Ist instar—Head brownish green. rst somite with a brownish

green dorsal plate. Body yellowish green and rather oily in

appearance. A few short black hairs. tst pair of prolegs

completely aborted. Resting attitude with the true legs and abdo-

minal prolegs gripping, the forepart of the body between them

looped and the posterior portion held erect.

2nd instar—Head and body blackish brown. 2nd to 6th somites

each with a pair of orange red lateral specks and a_subdorsal

orange red speck on each somite from 4th to 6th.

The adult markings develop in the subsequent instars.

Full-grown larva—Head black. Ground colour of body blackish

brown. A double dorsal and double subdorsal red brown line, the

latter interrupted by the ocelli on somites 5 and 6. tst somite

with two black-ringed bright blue dots at the base of the leg, an

anterior lateral and posterior subdorsal black-ringed blue dot. 2nd

and 3rd somites each with a pair of black-ringed blue dots sub-

dorsally in front and a transverse series of six similar dots centrally.

4th somite with a sublateral and subdorsal triangle of three black-

ringed blue dots. 2nd to 4th somites each with a double orange

red sublateral speck. 4th somite with an orange red_ subdorsal

292. JOURNAL, BOMBAY. NATURAE HIST. SOCKET V) Vol. xen

spot. 4th and 5th somites with a small cream-coloured dorsal spot.

5th and 6th somites with a lateral ocellus; this consists of a black

spot, the lower part of which contains a blue crescent-shaped

mark edged above with reddish, and which is surrounded by a

broad ring, the upper anterior quarter creamy white, the rest

orange red, and the whole ringed with black. Sublateral area

speckled with white. Two black-ringed blue dots above and two

below each ocellus. 7th to roth somites each with a_ subdorsal

and sublateral triangle of three black-ringed blue dots. A sub-

dorsal line of whitish specks backwards from the 7th somite. t1oth

and rith somites each with a cream-coloured dorsal spot. 11th

somite rising into a cone, with a double yellowish pink blotch on

each side and marked with cream behind, a black-ringed blue dot

on either side of the apex and two more in front. 12th somite

with a lateral triangle of black-ringed blue dots, a dorsal and sub-

dorsal yellowish pink blotch with a black-ringed blue dot between,

them. Spiracles black. Legs and prolegs blackish brown, the rst

pair of prolegs completely aborted. Venter black brown with a

dark median stripe, edged on each side with paler, and expanding

into a black spot between each pair of prolegs, and with a dark

stripe separating the ventral and sublateral areas. 2nd and 4rd

somites with a pair of black-ringed blue dots in front of each

leg, and 3rd to 5th and oth with a submedian triangle of three

similar dots, roth and rith somites also with similar markings but

the apical dot very much separated from the two basal.

Another form is very similar in markings but with the ground

colour velvety black and without the double dorsal and subdorsal

lines. 11th and 12th somites with the markings cream instead of

yellowish pink.

A third form has the head clay brown. The ground colour of

the body clay brown with a darker dorsal stripe. The ocelli brown-

ish purple with an indistinct pinkish crescent-shaped mark for pupil

and surrounded by a double black ring, the upper quarter between

the rings crimson, edged above and below with white, the other three

quarters purplish brown. 7th to t1th somites with a dark subdorsal

stripe with a central line of whitish dots. The sublateral area

from the sth somite backwards pinkish instead of speckled with

white. Other markings similar to the first form.

Pupa in a thin cocoon of white silk spun between leaves. Rich

mahogany brown, minutely punctate and very highly polished.

The intersegmental areas of the abdomen darker. The spiracles

almost black. The apex of the abdomen with the cuticle wrinkled

into a honeycomb pattern and with the cremaster consisting of

two longish hooked spines with a very short hooked spine on either

side.

Food-plant—Tinospora cordifolia Miers (Menispermaceae).

Described from a number of full-fed larvae found in Calcutta

24-Vili-40, one of which pupated 27-vili-go and a female emerged

4-1X-4o. | .

Hyblaea puera Cr.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 81, pl. 154, fig. 2a. 1884-87.

THE EAREY STAGES OF INDIAN LEPIDOPTERA °° 383

iamps., fauna Brit. Indz.,, Moths, iw, 372.) 1894.

Head smooth, bright reddish chestnut. rst somite with a

chestnut dorsal plate with a white median line through it. A

broad golden fulvous dorsal stripe with a white median line and

edged on each side with white. A broad whitish lateral line, the

area between it and the subdorsal line golden fulvous with a large

quadrate black spot on the forepart of each somite, the thoracic

somites with this area almost entirely black. 4th to rith somites

each with a white-ringed black dot posteriorly immediately below

the subdorsal line. 11th somite with a transverse yellowish white

stripe between the subdorsal lines. 12th somite with a similar, but

narrower, stripe with two black dots immediately in front of it.

13th somite with the anal plate yellowish brown with black dots.

The area below the lateral line greenish yellow with two yellow

lines. Venter greenish yellow. Legs pale chestnut brown. Pro-

legs yellowish green. Spiracles pale brown ringed with black.

A few hairs. Lives in a spun together leaf and ejects a brownish

fluid from the mouth when disturbed.

Pupa in a folded leaf lined with white silk. Rather slender,

bright reddish chestnut. The cremaster fairly long and ending in

a bunch of hooked spines, which are aitached to the silk of the

cocoon.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 18-viii-4o;

pupated 20-vill-4o and a male emerged 26-vili-4o.

Moore’s description is ‘Larva with a few short silky hairs;

dark purplish. grey above, olive-green below; with dorsal and

lateral white lines, a subdorsal row of minute white dots and

rings; a row of black dots on lateral line; head and second seg-

ment, and front legs black. Pupa dark purple-brown. Feeds on

Bignoniaceae.’ His plate shews a larva with the upper half deep

violet and the lower yellow green. Hampson’s description is

based on that of Moore.

(GEOMETRIDAE.

Petelia medardaria Herr.-Schaff.

Moore, Lep. Ceyl., iii, 396, pl. 193, fig. 2b. 1884-87.

Head yellowish green, marked at the sides and on the vertex

with brown. Ground colour of body bright green. A pinkish

buff subdorsal stripe and an indistinct triple yellowish dorsal line.

Spiracles red. Legs yellowish brown. Prolegs green, the feet

reddish brown. Venter green frosted with white. Turns purple

before pupation.

Pupa subterranean. Dark olive green in colour, the ventral

surface of the abdomen slightly tinged with yellow. Cremaster a

single stout spike, ending in several hooked spines.

Food-plant—Zizvphus Jujuba.

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 24-x-4o,

buried itself 27-x-4o, and a female emerged 3-xi-4o.

Moore gives the following description :—‘Larva with to legs;

smooth; purplish red, with slender longitudinal black lines;

spiracles white. Pupa red, greenish in front, segments ringed

with yellow.’

$04 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIi

Scopula emissaria W1Ik., emissaria.

Head slightly flattened in front, pale greenish brown with a

paler sub-median stripe. Body yellowish green with a darker green

dorsal stripe. Thoracic somites with an indistinct subdorsal and

lateral whitish stripe. Spiracles black. Legs and prolegs greenish.

Shape very long and = slender, broadening slightly posteriorly.

Resting attitude straight, but when alarmed the anterior portion of

the body is coiled up.

Pupa in a slight web spun, in captivity, among litter. Slender,

bright green with a slightly darker green dorsal stripe along the

abdomen. Spiracles dark chestnut. Cremaster and last somite

chestnut brown, the cremaster consisting of a bunch of hooked

spines.

Food-plant—Aeschynomene indica Linn. (Leguminosae).

Described from a full-fed larva found in Calcutta 4-vili-4o,

pupated 6-vill-go, and a female emerged 10-vili-4o.

(To be continued.)

PHOTOGRAPHING iN CEYLON’S BIRD SANCTUARIES.

Wei AC PHILIPS. FLeSa) F.Z.S,

With 6 plates).

i )

For the better protection of the bird-life of the Island of Ceylon,

a number of areas have been proclaimed, during the past few

years, as sanctuaries—wherein no animal life, other than fish,

may be wantonly destroyed or disturbed. Most of these areas

are either brackish lagoons, near the sea coast, or large artificial

irrigation reservoirs, commonly called ‘tanks’, scattered about the

dry-zone provinces. All of them teem with bird-life, large and

small, and all of them are of absorbing interest to the naturalist

and to the bird-photographer. To the latter, however, it is the

‘tank’ sanctuaries that are of the greatest interest, for it is in

them that he is able to come to intimate terms with so many of

the Jarger wading birds—the storks, herons, spoonbills, ibises ete.

and here too, he can see, at close quarters, that most grotesque and

famous bird, the pelican—the Asiatic spotted-billed pelican——soaring

with effortless flight far overhead or balancing himself, clumsily,

on the top of some lofty tree.

Of all the sanctuaries that I have visited, Giant’s Tank, on

the. Indo-Ceylon Railway, in the north-west of the Island and

Kkumana, tucked away, far from the beaten track, in the jungles

of the south-east, have proved the most interesting and the most

productive of good photographic results.

Equipped with several hessian ‘hides’, a boat and my cameras,

I have spent many vastly entertaining days watching the fascinat-

ing cavalcades of bird-life that flow, unceasingly, past the well-

concealed ‘hide’, planted in the midst of a common nesting ground

of those numerous species that seek the seclusion of flood-girt

heroneries in which to raise their families.

At Giant’s Tank, one of the largest of our sanctuaries,

storks breed earlier than at any other place known to me. By

Christmas-time, well-grown young are often in the nests but some-

times, when the rains are late, eggs are still being laid or nest-

building is yet taking place at that date. The nests, when built,

are congregated together in a large area, of several acres in extent,

on flat-topped bushes standing in 4 ft. or so of water, at the

end of the enormous tank. From a distance, the bushes are densely

dotted with white, as with masses of marvellous white blooms,

but, on closer approach, these flower-like dots resolve themselves

into a vast concourse of birds, taking their ease on the bush-tops.

Egrets, pond-herons and night-herons are on the outer ramparts ;

the larger species—white-ibises, with their curious, black, scimitar-

like beaks; spoonbills, with their shovel-shaped bills; darters,

with their long snaky necks; grey herons; purple herons: shags ;

296 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

cormorants; more egrets and lastly, in the inner-most keep, open-

billed storks by the acre, are sitting or standing upon their nests

or engaged in their other lawful vocations.

Our arrival causes a diversion. With a roar of wings, vast

numbers of birds fly up, to wheel screaming their protests into

the unheeding air. The open-billed storks are, however, moderately

tame and soon cease to take more than a passing interest in our

movements. We erect our ‘hides’ and leave them in position for

the remainder of the day—to return the following morning to take

our photographs.

The open-billed storks are the most noteworthy of the birds

in this sanctuary. They are large white storks, with black flight

feathers like the European storks, and most curious beaks—the

mandibles not meeting each other closely, as in_ self-respecting

beaks, but having a wide gap between them for the greater part

of their length—caused, it is said, by the constant attrition due to

the crushing of the shells of the fresh-water molluscs on which

these storks feed. Undoubtedly the gap tends to widen, the older

the stork becomes—the nestlings have no signs of it.

Smaller in size but of even greater interest, is the Kumana

sanctuary in the remote jungles of the south-east corner of the

Island. This sanctuary is a permanent, fresh-water lagoon.

Tree-girt, it 1s surrounded and protected by a dense ring of man-

groves and bull-rushes, which effectively screen from view all

signs of bird-life until the barrier ring is penetrated.

In this sanctuary, the most notable residents are the pelicans

and the handsome painted storks. One would reasonably expect

pelicans to nest, swan-like, on islets or in reed-beds or at least

on low-growing bushes. But no! they choose the branches of

tall trees and sometimes build their nests even as much as 4o

or 50 ft. above the water-level. They are weird, grotesque-

looking birds but very sociable with their own kin. Dozens of

pairs nest in the Kumana Sanctuary, on the tops of the lofty trees.

Generally, their stick nests are in small groups of three or four,

either balanced in a line along a stout branch or bunched together,

touching one another, so that the brooding birds may gossip

away the weary hows, discussing the day’s topics and the short-

comings of their neighbours. Beside them sit their mates, await-

ing their turn upon the eggs or lazing away the day till the

night-fishing recalls them.

It is amusing to watch a pelican alight on the topmost twig

of some high tree; the twig bends, with the unaccustomed weight,

and much flapping, with the outstretched wings, and much clutch-

ing, with fully webbed feet, is required before steadiness and a

well-balanced seat are acquired.

But of all the multitude of birds gathered together, in this

small sanctuary, with the common object of propagating their

species, the sedate and dignified painted storks are, to me, the

most. attractive and the most fascinating. Large amuaearS nest

in the trees at the far end of the swamp, amongst or below the

pelicans but above the lesser folk—the night-herons, egrets,

pond-herons and the little black cormorants. Their nests are

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Photo by

The Spoonbill with his shovel-shaped beak.

W.W. A. Phillips

JOURN. BOMBAY NAatT. HIST. Soc, PLATE IV. |

Photo by W.W. A. Phillips

Pelican balanced on a tree-top.

| JOURN, BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc, PEATE WV.

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PHOTOGRAPHING IN CEYLON’S BIRD SANCTUARIES 297

ludicrously small for such large birds but evidently they are quite

adeyuate for their purpose. To watch and _ photograph

these handsome storks, from the close proximity of a well-placed

‘hide’, is a delight. Their colours blend wonderfully—the flamingo-

pink of the back plumes and wings fades into the delicate pinkish-

white of the upper plumage; the iridescent greenish black of the

wing-coverts blends with the glossy black of the flight feathers

and tail and these, together with the bright orange of the bill,

head and face, make up a colour scheme most pleasing to behold.

- During the heat of the day, these storks rise up from brooding

their eggs and stand, with wings outstretched and bills half open,

panting with the heat. In this statuesque posture they remain

for five or ten minutes cooling themselves down and, at the same

time, shading their eggs or their small young from the direct rays

of the burning sun. ‘Also, incidentally, they display themselves to

perfection to the unseen watcher.

To bring back permanent records of this wonderful wealth of

bird-life, has been one of the principal objects of my visits to

‘these remote sanctuaries. This object has been achieved for, in

addition to securing pictures of pelicans and painted storks, photo-

graphs of spoonbills, white ibises, greater and lesser egrets, white-

necked storks, grey herons and purple herons, pond herons and

night herons, cormorants, shags, darters, little cormorants, blue

coot and teal have been secured as the birds have sat brooding

or feeding their young.

Bird photography is always a fascinating pursuit, whatever

the species that is being photographed. But I am inclined to

think that, on a short trip, the most satisfying results are to be

obtained in our ‘tank’, sanctuaries where the teeming and varied

bird-life gives one so much scope for photographing species after

species, all within a few yards of one another. To watch the

various individuals engaged, quite unconscious of the photographer’s

presence, in their own peculiar domestic activities, is a pleasure

that never fades.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE STUDY OF THE BIOLOGY AND

PHYSIOLOGICAL ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH AND

AQUATIC PLANTS.

J. F.. R. D’ ALMEIDA; BYAY, MSE:;

St. Xavier’s College, Bombay.

(lVith two plates).

INTRODUCTION.

General Remarks.—In the present series of articles the writer

has embodied investigations made in the course of his studies on

Indian marsh and aquatic plants. The majority of these fall in

the category of plants which have been regarded by various botanists

as amphibious or semi-aquatic, or as helophytes or marsh plants.

It is proposed to put forward in these notes a few facts which

will throw some light on the biology and physiological anatomy

of the Indian plants belonging to these two important ecological

groups; for, with the exception of a recent contribution by Biswas

and Calder (4), there seems to be very little information available.

Special attention has been paid to the morphological and

anatomical differences induced by growth in water and in air, and

to the differences observable in the same plant during its aquatic

and land stages. Such a study is not a new one. Several writers

such as Costantin (5, 6, 7, 8, 9), Schenck (26, 27), Askenasy (2) and

Gluck (17) have proved that the plant is extremely plastic, and

that external factors, chiefly the presence or absence of water in

the soil or about the plant, can bring about numerous morphological

and anatomical changes. Such a comparative study acquires a

special significance in the case of the plants described in these

pages in view of the fact that in India, as Saxton (24; 25) has

pointed out, two different sets of conditions prevail during the year

at any given spot, and these constitute two or three entirely

different habitats, with the result that in one and the same spot

different plants belonging to different ecological groups may thrive

at different times of the year. Thus during the first period

which starts with the burst of the rains mesophytic plants may

flourish; if, at the end of this period the soil becomes water-logged —

or covered with water, swamp conditions or aquatic conditions

prevail giving rise to marsh or aquatic vegetation. After the

rains the water rapidly dries up, so that about a month after the

end of the monsoons a period of intense drought sets in, and in

places which during the rains are either water-logged or under

water, a xerophytic vegetation finally establishes itself. The effect

of the change of conditions on our waterside plants must therefore

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BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 299

be to induce rapid and profound morphological and anatomical

modifications, so that the same plant which at one period has

hydrophytic or helophytic adaptations, may in the next period

be rapidly transformed into a typical terrestrial plant, or, should

the plant survive long through the dry season, into a_ typical

xerophyte.

As far as the writer is aware this aspect of our Indian waterside

plants dealing with the morphological and anatomical modifications

induced by periodic changes in the environment has received scant

attention from Indian botanists. The papers read by the writer

before the Botanical Section of the Indian Science Congress -in

Meeowanad 1934, (10) Il, 12; 13, 14,15) were merely intended to

indicate the lines along which further useful work on the subject

Of marsh and aquatic plants could be pursued. Since then there

have appeared two contributions by Mullan (21, 22) on investiga-

tions done by him on certain Indian amphibious plants.

Arrangement and Method.—In the course of this work, as it is

not always possible to separate the true water plants from marsh

plants, the terms aquatic or ‘water plants will te deemed to

include also marsh plants. The plants are dealt with family by

family. In each family an attempt is made to co-ordinate informa-

tion regarding the occurrence of its aquatic representatives in the

world as well as in India. Then follows a description of the

plants which form the special subject matter of our study.

These descriptions are substantiated “by observations in the

field, experiments conducted in certain cases, and anatomical

examination. As far as possible, the whole is illustrated by photo-

graphs and diagrams presenting the special morphological or

biological features on which stress is laid in the description, and

by camera lucida drawings or photomicrographs showing the anato-

mical structure of the tissues or organs described. The interpreta-

tions of the various structures observed and described, as well as

the conclusions drawn therefrom, are embodied in the description

of each plant. Facts appearing in one description have been

restated in another. This seems to be unavoidable, unless other

important considerations are sacrificed; such as, for instance,

avoiding excessive cross reference.

For purposes of anatomical examination fresh material was for

the most part employed and hand sections taken. Such a method

was found to be both practicable and convenient. The paraffin

method has its drawbacks when employed in the case of plants

having large air-spaces, owing to the difficulty of driving away

air from the tissues and the resistance offered to the penetration’

of parattin to all parts of the tissues. It was also found that in

the case of plants living in water, unless a very delicate fixative

was employed, plasmolysis of the cells inevitably took place

resulting in their shrinkage and the consequent obliteration of the

original structure of the tissues. Moreover, the utility and con-

venience of hand sections is obvious in those cases where it is

desirable to trace the development of tissues or to observe the

effects of the environment on various parts of the plant. As these

changes are very gradual and cover long distances on the stem

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

or root, they cannot all be detected within the short lengths of

tissue employed in the preparation of microtome blocks. For this

purpose it is necessary to take serial sections at considerable

distances apart, and this. is best done by means of hand sections.

In a few cases, however, microtome sections gave good results.

DESCRIPTION.

MALVACEAE.

The Malvaceae include 35 genera, and over 700 species distributed chiefly in

the warmer regions of both hemispheres. Of these, only two genera are known

to have aquatic representatives, viz. Althaea Tourn., a genus of 15 species

inhabiting the temperate regions of the Old World, and Malachra Linn. con-

sisting of 6 species natives of the warmer regions of America and of the West

Indies. Two of these are naturalized in Asia and Africa.

KEY TO THE GENERA.

A. Branches of style as many as carpels.

Involucral bracts 6-9, connate at base.

Flowers axillary, solitary or clustered, or

athanged -ineterminal. racemes. aee.seatee ccna eee et eee 1 Althaea

B. Branches of style twice as many as carpels.

Involucral bracts 4, large leafy. ;

Flowers densely capitate iAw.t: 210. echo e maga tee kee een eee ee ee 2 Malachra

The genus Althaea, so far as our information goes, has only one aquatic

representative, viz. Althaea officinalis Linn., the Marsh Mallow. This plant

occurs in marshes, especially in maritime districts in Europe, extending to

England and Ireland and eastwards to India. In America it is said to occur

only as an escape. In India it is found wild in Kashmir. As its distribution

in this country is limited, and it is more a plant of the temperate regions we

will not take it up for special study.

The whole genus Malachra, on the other hand is reputed to be aquatic;

its members being usually found in marshy places within the tropics. One

species, Malachra capitata L., is widely distributed in India. It is dealt with

in detail below.

Malachva :capttata Linn: «Syst, .ed412,, 1l4(1767),. 458.

=M. conglomerata Turcz.

=M. alceaefolia Jacq.

= Vf mexicana, schrad.

=M. rotundifolia Schrank.

Vernacular Names.—Bombay: Ranbhendi; Marathi: Ranbhendi; Pore-

___bundar: Pardeshibhindo,

Malachra capitata L. is a native of Tropical America, cosmopolitan in the

tropics. Though not indigenous, the plant is completely naturalized and a

weed in many places in India. Judging from the fact that it has not been

mentioned by Roxburgh, Wallick or Wight it must be a recent introduction.

It is now plentiful throughout the damp tracts of India, and is very common

in waste places in Bombay and Salsette, especially by the sides of tanks,

pools of water, and rice-fields.

About sixty years ago the plant attracted considerable attention in Bombay

as a possible source of fibre that might compete with the Bengal Jute (31).

Though the efforts then made to cultivate the plant were pronounced a failure,

the reports on the quality of the samples of fibre obtained from it would

justify a fresh interest being evinced in the plant.

The rigid sturdy habit of the plant and its frequent occurrence on soil

which is not water-logged would make one least suspect it to have aquatic

tendencies. But Malachra capitata usually grows on ground that is liable to

be inundated in the rains, so that often plants are found standing with their

stems partly under water to various depths, and these plants show certain

modifications due to the environment.

To determine the influence of the environment two plants of almost the

same size were transplanted in pots. In about the middle of July one of

PLATE II

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BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 304

these was immersed to a depth of 15 cm. in a tub of water, while the other

was left to grow as a land plant. Two months later the differences between

the two plants were recorded and the plants photographed (Plate I, fig. 1), While

no change had taken place in the control plant, the plant growing in water

showed a number of adaptations which are more clearly represented in diagram-

maatic form (Plate I, fig.:2).

The stem was swollen up to a little above water level, and the submerged

portion was covered with-a large number of white lenticels (1) which

extended to a little above the surface of the water. These lenticels

were very strongly developed on the stem just below and above water level,

where they showed protruding masses of soft white tissue. In addition to

this, long white roots (hk) spread out horizontally from the submerged portion

of the stem into the surrounding water. It was observed in the course of

the experiment that the lenticels first made their appearance, and a little later

the lateral roots were seen to be given out through the lenticels. A similar

sequence of lenticels and roots has been observed in other plants (19). In all

such cases it seems obvious that the extraordinary development of lenticels is

the first expression of the immersion in water, and the growth of lateral roots

a subsequent manifestation thereof. These lateral water roots bore, among

others, delicate branches (b) which bent upwards towards the surface of the

water. The lateral underground roots also sent up erect branches (c) which

likewise grew up to the water surface. As a matter of fact, in nature,

wherever the plant grows in water-logged areas, large numbers of similar

roots may be seen peeping out of the soil, and they strongly suggest comparison

with the pneumatophores of certain mangroves, like Avicennia. This phenomenon

of roots being directed upwards is not a case of negative geotropism. — It is

due rather to their sensitiveness to gases (aerotropism) induced by the air above

the soil or, in the case of soil which is completely covered by water, by the

more aerated surface layers of the water towards which the roots bend and

grow and from which they probably also draw their supplies of oxygen. These

roots are therefore, like pneumatophores, respiratory in function. Aeration,

no doubt, first takes place through the lenticels, but when the lateral roots

are given out these also help in the process. But respiration must not be taken

to be the exclusive function of these water roots. Their profuse branching which

subsequently takes place in all directions as the result of prolonged submergence

and the extremely fine divisions of the rootlets thus produced makes them

well adapted also for absorbing nutrient solutions from the surrounding medium ;

lastly the presence of chlorophyll in some of the older roots points to the

photosynthetic role of such roots.

A comparative anatomy of plants growing under ordinary terrestrial and

marsh conditions shows differences in their histological structures.

The transverse section of the young stem of a plant growing out of water

(Plate II, fig. 3) shows an epidermis (Ep.) of more or less tabular cells. The

cortex is distinguishable into two parts :—(a) an outer zone of small collenchyma-

tous cells (Hyp) and (b) an inner zone of much larger parenchymatous elements

(Cort) with triangular spaces between them. Two or three layers (Chl)

immediately abutting on the epidermis are not collenchymatous and contain

chloroplasts. The innermost layer or two of the cortex also contains chloroplasts.

Isolated cells (m) in the parenchymatous cortex have their cell-walls transformed

into mucilage. As regards the vascular ring it need only be mentioned that,

as the stem grows older, the portions cf the medullary rays lying in the phloem

broaden outwards as in the case of other Malvaceae. The pith also consists

of parenchyma with triangular intercellular spaces. Isclated miucilage cells

also occur in the pith. Serial sections of older stems reveal that, while the

vascular cylinder is increasing in diameter, the cells of the inner zone of the

cortex collapse (becoming at first flattened in a tangential direction) and finally

disappear; later on the greater part of the collenchyma also disintegrates in

a similar manner; but the two or three sub-epidermal layers which contain

chlorophyll grains always persist. Owing to the growth in diameter. of the

vascular cylinder the latter comes almost into contact with the superficial

layers which are expanding less rapidly. As a result the spaces occupied by

the intervening cortical cells which have been destroyed beccme obliterated or

reduced tc mere crevices which are seen to extend in a tangential direction.

In Plate II, fig. 4 the destroyed cells of the cortex are seen as a narrow shaded

302° JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Aisi. SOCIELY i Vole kien

band (4) between the chlorophyllous sub-epidermal layers (Chl) and the stele

(St). The phellogen (Phel) which arises much later in the development of the

plant has its origin in the epidermis. In its formation an epidermal cell

divides into two cells; the inner of these remains merismatic whilst the outer

becomes suberized. In this way a thin band of cork is developed which

replaces the epidermis. Apparently no phelloderm is formed.

The transverse section of the submerged portion of the stem of a plant.

growing in water (Plate II, fig. 5) shows lysegenously formed lacunae (a.s.) in the

region of the inner parenchymatous cortex, the outer collenchymatous band of

cells remaining connected with the central portion of the stem by radial bridges

of tissue (br) which correspond to portions of the cortex which have escaped

disintegration. In the stem of Malachra growing as a land plant we have seen

that owing to the more rapid growth of the vascular cylinder the latter comes

almost into contact with the superficial layers. The occurrence then of large

lacunae in the case of the stem of a plant growing: in water can only be

understood on the assumption that the growth of the superficial layers (includ-

ing the collenchyma), which seems to receive an ‘extra stimulus by immersion

in water, keeps pace with the growth in diameter of the vascular cylinder.

We have already noted the extraordinary development of lenticels on the

submerged parts of the stem. Like the normal lenticels occurring on the

aerial parts these (Fig. 5, /) are seen to be developed from a phellogen which

is continuous with the ordinary cork-forming airtel loaen (Phel) derived from the

epidermis, but’ ihe complementary tissue differs from that of normal lenticels

(1) in being more pronouncedly formed, (2) in the cells being more loosely

applied to one another, (3) in their having living contents, and (4) in the cell

walls not being brown and suberized, although they may be somewhat altered

(since they stain yellow with chlor-zinc-iode). This hypertrophy of the lenticels

in adaptation to water which has also been observed in some other plants (16)

is a phenomenon similar to that which takes place on a larger scale when the

ordinary cork-tissue is replaced by massive air-containing tissue called aerenchyma

which is so marked a feature of certain marsh plants on which Lewakoffski

(20), Schenck (27), Rosanoff (23), Scott and Wager (29), Schrenk (28), Witte (32),

Batten (3) and others have worked. R

It has been suggested (18) that the stimulus that causes the phellogen to

develop aerenchyma in lieu of cork is the lack of oxygen in the inner tissues,

or ‘as Arber (1) puts it. ‘the. presence’ of. Some minimum) oxygens

possibly a necessary condition for the process of suberisation, which is inhibited

when the oxygen-content of the cell-sap falls below a certain point’. This

explanation does not seem to meet the case of lenticels, at any rate. It is

well known that the surface waters contain more dissolved air, and conse-

quently more oxygen, than the layers deeper down, and that dissolved air is

richer. in oxygen; than. atmospheric air. Phe fact that.in, this;;as \inj other

plants growing under marshy conditions, normal lenticels are concentrated at

the water level, and lenticels are rarely, if ever, present lower down the stem,

seems to suggest that for the production of lenticels a minimal amount of

oxygen is necessary and that the further growth of lenticels is in proportion

to the amount of this gas in the surrounding medium. On the other hand,

as the aerial lenticels have suberized complementary cells and suberisation is

absent in the submerged lenticels it would appear that suberisation of the

lenticel tissue is correlated to the exterior condition of humidity, the drier

the condition the more suberised the walls, and vice-versa.

Both the aerial and the submerged lenticels serve their purpose efficiently.

The aerial lenticel permits of a direct access of atmospheric air to the inner

tissues which, at the same time are kept “from drying up by the loose plug

of powdery suberised complementary tissue, while the living cells of the

submerged lenticels are adapted for taking in dissolved air from the water

which bathes them.

The transverse section of a young adventitious floating root which is

given off from a submerged stem (Plate II, fig. 6) has a solid stele of xylem (X)

surrounded by phloem (Ph), and a lacunar cortex. The young soil root has also

a similar structure, the sizes of the lacunae depending upon the extent of

humidity of the soil. An old soil root growing in water-logged soil (Plate II,

fig. 7) or in ground covered with water shows large lysegenously formed air

spaces situated between the outermost cortical region which develops cork and the

BIOLOGY & ANATOMY OF INDIAN MARSH & AQUATIC PLANTS 303

vascular cylinder. In soil roots growing under land conditions, however, these

cortical air-spaces are obliterated, as in the case of the aerial stem, and the

cork layers and the vascular cylinder are so juxtaposed as to make it appear

that the cork-forming phellogen—which is actually superficial in origin—is

derived from a deeper layer of cells situated immediately outside the pericyclic

group of bast fibres. Another feature which distinguishes old soil roots grow-

ing in water-logged soil from those which live under dry land conditions is

that in the former the peripheral region of wood shows large radially arranged

gaps due to what appears to be a mucilaginous disorganization of cell groups

in this part of the wood. Such gaps are not seen in the wood of roots growing

under drier conditions.

REFERENCES.

1. Arber, A., 1920.—Water Plants. Cambridge 1920.

2. Askenasy, E., 1870.—Ueber den Einfluss des Wachstumsmediums auf die

Gestalt der Pflanzen. Zeity. Jahvg. 28, 1870, pp. 193-201, 209-19. 225-31, 2 pls.

3. Batten, I., 1918.—Observations on the Ecology of _Epilobium hirsutum.

Votm. “Ecoiogy, | Viol. NI, 1918; pp: “161-77:

4. Biswas, -K. and Calder C. C., 1937.—Hand-Book of Common Water and

Marsh Plants of India and Burma, 1936. Health Bulletin, No. 24, Malaria

Bureau, No. 11, Delhi, 1937.

5. Costantin, J., 1884.—Recherches sur la structure de la tige des. plantes

aguatiques... Amn. Sc: Nat. VI: Sér. Bot. xix, 1884, pp: 287-331, 4 pls.

6. Costantin, J., 1885.—Observations critiques sur l’épiderme des feuilles

des végétaux aquatiques. Bull. Soc. Bot. France., XXXII (Ser. II. T. VIT), 1885,

pp. 83-8.

7--Costantin, J.,, 188s5.—-Recherchés. ‘sur la,.Sagittaire. Bull. Soc. Bot.

nance, XMM (Ser. Ii °E.. Vil); 1885; pp. 218-23:

8. Costantin, J., 1885.—Influence du milieu aquatique sur les stomates.

Ele SOC. Bot. de France, Vs XXXII (Sér, If.) LT. VIT),* 1885, pp. 259-64.

g. Costantin, J., 18%6.—Etudes sur les feuilles des plantes aquatiques. Ann.

NomNateSéy Vit (Bot. V.se."1S86, pp. O4-162, 42 pls.

to. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1926.—The influence of an aquatic medium on

plants not necessarily aquatic. Abstract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1926,

Obes. SCCLION, ap: 214.

11, d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—A note on the pneumatophores of Coix

lachryma—-Jobi L. Abstract in Proceedings ind. Sc. Congy., 1934. Bot. Sec.,

(Don yee }

12. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—A note on the aerenchyma of Sesbania

aculeata Poir. Absiract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1934, Bot. Seciion,

BP 3i 351 4~

13. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—On the behaviour of the tubers of Eleocharis

plantaginea R. Br. Abstract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1934, Bot. Section,

po 314:

14. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934.—A note on the structure and functions of

the diaphragms occurring in the assimilating shoots of Eleocharis plantaginea

R. Br. Abstract in Proceedings Ind. Sc. Congr., 1934, Bot. Section, p. aa.

15. d’Almeida, J. F. R., 1934. On the development of secondary aerating

tissues in the stem of Sphenoclea zeylanica Gaertn. ‘Abstract in Proceelings Ind.

Se. Congr., 1934, Bot. Section, pp. 314-15.

16. Devaux, M. H., 1890.—Hypertrophie des Lenticelles chez la Pomme

de Terre et chez quelques autres Plantes. Bull. Soc. Bot. Fr., Sér. 2; tom

Xili, p. 48, 1890.

_ 17. Gluck, H., 1911.—Biologische und morphologische Untersuchungen _tiber

Wasser-und Sumpfgewachse III. Die Uferflora. XXxiV-+644 pp., 8 pls., ros

text-figs. Jena, IgI1. ;

18. Goebel, K., 1891-1893. — Pflanzenbiolegische Schilderungen. Teil IT.

Marburg, 1891-1893.

19. Klebahn, H., 1891.—Ueber Wurzelanlagen. unter’ Lenticellen — bei

Herminiera Elaphroxylon und Solanum Dulcamara. Nebst. einen Ahnang iiber

die Wurzelkndllchen der ersteren Flora. N. R. Jahrg. 49 (G. R Jahrg 74)

1891, pp. 125-39, 1 pl. Ry ies oe ce are

20. Lewakoffski, N., 1873.—Ueber den Einfluss des Wassers

auf da:

Wachsthum der Stengel und Wurzeln einger Pflanzen. (Gelehrte oan

Schriften

304 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL’ HIST. “SOCIETY, Vol-- XL

der k. Universitat in Kasan, 1873.) Abstracted in Just’s Bot. Jahresbericht,

Jahrg. I, 1873, p. 594.

21. Mullan. D. P., 1936.—On the Anatomy of Ipomoea aquatica Forsk., with

special reference to the development of aerenchyma as a result of injury—

Journ. Ind. Bot. Soc, Vol.g XV, No. 1, 1036,, ppe.39-50: .

22. Mullan, D. P., 1940.—On the alterations in the tissues of Melochia

corchorifolia Linn. and Corchorus capsularis Linn. on a change of environment—

Journ, Bom. Nai. Hist. Soc., Vol. XLI, No. 4, 1940, pp. 877-80.

23. Rosanoff, S., 1871.—Ueber den Bau der Schwimmorgan von Desmanthus

natans Willd. Bot. Zeit. Jahrg. 29, 1871, pp. 829-38.

24. Saxton, W. T., 1922.—Mixed formations in time; a new concept in

Oecology. Journ. Ind. Bot., Vol. III., pp. 30-33, 1922.

25. Saxton, W .T., 1924.—Phases of Vegetation under Monsoon conditions.

Jour. Ecol., Nols ll gp. 1-¢8).1022;

- 26. Schenck, H., 1884.—Ueber Strukturanderungen submers vegetirender

Landpflanzen. Ber. Deutsch. Bot. Gesellsch. Bd: II., pp. 481-86, 1. pl. 1884.

27. Schenck, H., 1889.—Ueber das Aerenchym, ein dem Kork homologes

Gewebe bei Sumpflanzen. Pringsheim’s Jahrb. f. wissen. Bot. Bd. XX. 1880,

Pp. 526-74. ?

28. Schrenk, J., 1889.—On the Floating-tissue of Nesaea verticillata (L),

Hi Bs -K. Bull Torr. Bot. Clad. Volee XV 21880,) pp. 315-828.

29. Scott, D. H. and Wager, H., 1888.—On the Floating-Roots of Sesbania

aculeata Pers. Ann. Bot.’Vol. 1, 1887-1888, pp. 307-14.

30. Solereder, Hans, 1908.—Systematic Anatomy of the Dicotyledons, Engl.

Translation by Boodle and Fritsch. Oxford, 1908.

31. Watt, George, 1891.—Dictionaty of the’ Economic Products. of India:

Vol. V. M. 60, 61, Malachra Linn. pp. 109-13.. London and Calcutta, 1891.

32. Witte, H. Von., :906.—Ueber das Vorkommen eines aerenchymatischen

Gewebes bei Lysimachia vulgaris L. Botaniska Studier, Tillagnade F. R.

Kjellman, Uppsala, 1906, pp. 265-74.

EXPLANATION OF PLATES,

PLaTE I

Fig. 1.—-Photograph of two plants of Malachra capitata L. grown: one-

(left) in water, the other (right) as a land plant. In the first the stem has

swollen up and adventitious roots have developed on the submerged portion.

The control plant to the right is quite normal. The scale is in inches.

PLaTE II

Fig. 2.—A habit drawing of Malachra capitata L. growing in water.

1, lenticels; b, aerotropic roots borne on the horizontal roots h arising from the

submerged portion of the stem; c, aerotropic roots sent up by the lateral under-

ground roots. For clearness sake only a few roots are shown.

Fig. 3.—Portion of the transverse section of a young stem of Malachra

capitata L. Ep, epidermis; Hyp, collenchyma; Chl, sub-epidermal chlorophyllous

layers; Cort. inner parenchymatous cortex; m, mucilage cell. (x 45).

Fig. 4.—Portion of the transverse section of an older stem of Malachra

capitata L. growing as a land plant, A, destroyed cells of the cortex; Chl,

chlorophyllous sub-epidermal layers; St, portion of the stele represented in the

fig. by the medullary rays (m.v.) and a portion of the hard bast (B); Phel,

epidermal cells dividing to form the phellogen, (x 45).

Fig. 5.—Portion of the transverse section of the submerged part of a

stem of Malachra capitata L. growing in water. I, lenticel; Phel, cork-forming

phellogen derived from the epidermis; Chl, sub-epidermal chlorophyllous layers ;

Hyp, collenchyma; a.s. air-space; br, remains of the parenchymatous cortex

forming bridges of tissue separating the air-spaces; m.r., medullary ray; B,

hardasbast:--n(X" 20).

Fig. 6.—Portion of the transverse section of an adventitious root of

Malachra capitata L. given off from the submerged portion of the stem. J,

lacunae im: (the cortex’; Xs xylem; (22, phloem (>< 45):

Fig. 7.—Portion of the transverse section of a ground root of Malachra

capitata L. growing in water-logged soil. C, cork; a.s., air-space formed in

the cortex; m.v. medullary rays; B, hard bast. (x 62).

- (To be continued).

‘PUETIPIOOW SIdAIONODVX4H (SN TIHOOSSIT) SNaUva |

‘asajedany ay] JO Ipeyy pue ssowessy ay) Jo IeyOg aYT

: "20S ‘ISIE] ‘WeN Aequiog -‘usnof

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA

SUNDER) War EORA,: :SC17 FR. SeE.,) F:Z.S.. DyR.A.S. Bi, PON. L.,

Assistant Superintendent,

AND

K..S. MISRA,° M-SC.,

Laboratory Assistant,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

(With one colour plate and seven text-figures).

(Continued from page 88 of Vol. xlii, No. 1).

XII.—TuHE MAHSEERS OR THE LARGE-SCALED BARBELS OF INDIA.

5. Phe Extra-Indian Distribution of the Bokar of the Assamese

and J<ath of the Nepalese, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis

McClelland.

CONTENTS.

PaGE

Introduction ae ae A a8 a me, 305

Synonymy 306

Status of the Chinese Seeeics of Gana Weber & te Beton.

and the Systematic Position of Poropuntius Smith Phe ae ila

Variations and Bionomics Se os tae a tne 314

Tables of Measurements and _ Scale-counts ae bea 316

Acknowledgments Pt we ee ae on ee LOLS

List of References re 5 ee nee ie ae mols

Explanation of Plate ae ve 2 a ase Sold

INTRODUCTION.

In the list of synonymy of Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis

McClelland given in the preceding article (12, p. 81)? only Indian

references to the species were included, and it was stated that its

extra-Indian records could be deait with in the next article. A

careful study of the current literature on Lissochilus has shown

that a heterogenous assemblage of species of the Barbus-group is

at present included under this. generic denomination. Though it

is not within the scope of the present series of articles to discuss

the systematic position of all such forms, in order to define the

generic limits of the Boxar of the Assamese it has been found

necessary to make a few general comments on some of the allied

species, especially those having affinities with the Indian fauna.

1 Published with permission of Director, Zoological Survey of India.

* Numerals in thick type within brackets refer to the serial numbers of

the various publications listed at the end of the paper.

306. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETI

A number of species of Lissochilus described from Southern China,

Siam, Burma, the Malay Peninsula and the Archipelago seem to

us to be identical with the Nepalese KaT.i, and have, therefore,

to be regarded as synonyms of B. (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis.

The list of synonymy given below and the discussion that follows

indicate briefly our views concerning the systematic position of

such forms. As a result of a careful examination of a large amount

of material of Lissochilus, we have also discussed the value of

certain specific characters generally relied upon for separating the

species of this genus.

SyYNONYMY. !

' Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland.

1898. Barbus Dukai, Boulenger, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist., (6) XII; pp. 201

(S. Shan States, Burma.)

1904. Barbus soroides, Duncker, Mitt. Naturhist. Mus. Hamburg, XXII,

p. 178, pl. i, fig. 7. (Sumatra and Pahang, Malay Peninsula.)

1916. Lissochilus dukai, Weber & de _ Beaufort, Fish. Indo-Austral.

Archipel., III, p. 168. (Sumatra.)

Lissochilus sumatranus, Weber & de Beaufort, ibid., p. 169, figs. 68,

69. (Sumatra.)

1918. Barbus dukai, Annandale, Rec. Ind. Mus., XIV, p. 35. (S. Shan

States, Burma.)

1923. Barbus (Lissochilus) dukai, Hora, Journ. Nat. Hist. Soc. Siam, V1,

Peel 55e1 (oiatn:)

21925. Barbus caldwelli, Nichols, Amer. Mus. Novitates, Nio: 5185) 1pemeee

(Fukien and Hainan, China.)

21928. Barbus (Spinibarbus) caldwelli, Nichols, Bull. Amer: Mus. Nat. Hist.,

LVIII, art. 1, p: 12, fig 3) (Pukien and* Mainan,) Chima.)

Barbus hexastichus, Prashad & Mukerji, Rec. Ind. Mus., XXXI,

p. 200, text-fig. 7. (Indawgyi Lake, Burma).

Lissochilus caldwelli, Lin, Lingnan Sci. Journ. Canton, XII, p. 214.

1934. Lissochilus dukai, Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

Ibe. ANSE 19h a L0)5

1934. Lissochilus hutchinsonit, Fowler, ibid., p. 120, figs. 76, 77. (Siam.)

1936. Lissochilus dukai, Suvatti, Index Fish. Siam, p. 55. (Siam).

1936. Lissochilus hutchinsoni, Suvatti, ibid., p. 55. (Siam.)

1936. Lissochilus sumatranus, Suvatti, ibid., p. 55. (Siam.)

1937. Lissochilus tweediet, Herre & Myers, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore,

No:?-135° 1p: 467, pl. -v...(Perak,, -‘ayies))

1937. Lissochilus dukai, Fowler, Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia,

LPROCK eps 188., (Siam?)

1938. Lissochilus dukat, Fowler, Fisheries Bull., No. 1, p. 66. (Malay

Peninsula.)

1940. Lissochilus henderson, Herre, Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, No. 16,

Pee eLON sleeve

1916.

The first extra-Indian record of Lissochilus hexagonolepis

(= Barbus dukai Day) is by Boulenger (3, p. 201) from Nampandet,

5. Shan States, Burma; he had two specimens in which the

number of scales along the lateral line varied from 26 to 28. The

species was next recorded” by Duncker (4, p: 178, pl. a5) few

from the Malay Peninsula and Sumatra as Barbus soroides. He

examined. 12 specimens in all and noted that the number of scales

+ In the list, references are included only of the extra-Indian records of

the species.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 307

along the lateral line varied from 26 to 29, while the number of

predorsal scales was found to be g in all of them.

Text-fig. 1.—Lateral view of Barbus soroides Duncker. (After Duncker).

His figure of the species leaves no doubt that he was dealing

with a true Kati. The identity of this species with that of Day’s

B. dukai was pointed out by Weber aud de Beaufort (23, p. 168), who

also described another new species of Lissochilus, ‘L. sumatranus,

from Sumatra. The description of this new species was based on

a single specimen, 148 mm. in length; it was distinguished from

LL, dukai by the smaller number of scales along the lateral line

Text-fig. 2.—Lateral view of Lissochilus swmatranus Weber and de Beaufort,

and of a specimen of Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland from the

Siju Cave, Gare Hills, Assam, showing black pigmentation on the lobes of

the caudal fin.

| u. Lissochilus sumatvanus Weber and de Beaufort. (After Weber and

| de Beaufort.); 5b. A specimen of Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland

ie from .Assam. X2//3.

(24-25 in L. sumatranus versus 26-29 in L. dukai). Hora (12,

p. 82) has already shown in the case of the Indian specimens of

B. hexagonolepis that the scales along the lateral line may vary

308. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETI

from 22 to 32, and in consequence no reliance can be placed on

small variations in this character.

The only other striking point about L. sumatranus is the black

colour of both the lobes of the caudal fin, but this feature is also

partly shared by a specimen from the Siju Cave (2000 ft. from

entrance), Garo Hills, Assam, in which the lobes of the caudal fin

are darkish and there is a faint lunate dark band in the distal half

of the dorsal fin. Suvatti (22, p. 55) recorded L. sumatranus from

3 localities in Siam, presumably on colouration and smaller number

of scales along the lateral line. Without an examination of the

Siamese examples, it is not possible to make any further observations

on Suvatti’s record of L. sumatranus from Siam, but a careful

study of Weber and de Beaufort’s description of the species and

its comparison with the Indian specimens of Lissochilus have left

no doubt in our minds that L. sumatranus is a synonym of L.

hexagonolepis.

Annandale (1, p. 35) in :1918 ‘and Hora (10, pi_155)) am 1922

recorded the species from Burma and Siam respectively without

any comments, but we have examined their material and find that

it was correctly identified.

Text-fig. 3.--Lateral view of Barbus caldweili Nichols. (After Nichols.)

In 1925, Nichols (19, p. 2) described a species of Barbus,

B. caldwelli, from Fukien, China, characterized by 24 scales along

the lateral line and ‘left side of snout only with a band of small,

crowded, warty points above the maxillary’. Later, he (20, p. 12,

fiz. 3) figured the species and included it in the subgenus Spini-

barbus Oshima, but Lin (15, pp. 210, 214) placed it in the genus

Lissochilus. From the description and figure of this species we

are inclined to regard it a very close ally of L. hexagonolepis, if

not absolutely identical with it. We have included references to

L. caldwelli in the synonymy with a query so as to elicit further

information about this form.

In 1934, Fowler (5, p. 120) described ‘L. hutchinson trom

Nakon Sritamarat, Siam, from a specimen 148 mm. in length

and stated ‘Closely related to Lissochilus sumatranus Weber and

de Beaufort, but that species figured and described with black

ends to its caudal lobes, color uniform and ventral nearly reaching

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 309

anal.’ This species is provided with 23 scales along the lateral

line and 7 before the base of the dorsal fin. The membranes

between the rays of the dorsal fin are stated to be dusky medially

while those of the anal are dusky to blackish.

x —— =)

==)

Text-fig. 4.—Lateral view of Lissochilus hutchinsoni Fowler, and of a

specimen of Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland, showing the dusky

colour of the interspinous membranes of the dorsal fin, etc.

a. Lissochilus hutchinsoni Fowler. (After Fowler.); b. A specimen of

Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland from Balipara Frontier Tract,

Assam. X - ca 3)/5.

We have noted that in fresh specimens the membranes of the

dorsal, anal and caudal fins are dusky, but they never form a dark

blotch on the anal fin as shown in Fowler’s figure. The intensity

of the colour-markings 1s an individual variation generally dependent

on the nature of the habitat and, in consequence, we do not attach

any specific value to it. Attention may also be directed to the fact

that the individuals of the same species are generally more brightly

coloured in Burma and the Far East as compared with those

residing in the Indian waters. In the present state of our knowl-

edge we regard L. hutchinsoni as a synonym of L. hexagonolepis.

Fowler also recorded L. dukai from Siam.

Ine1937, Herre and Myers (8, p. 61) described L. tweedtei from

fhe River Yum, Perak, F.M.S.; the description is based on 4 \

specimens from 64 to 92 mm. in length. This species is provided

with 26 scales along the lateral line and 8 predorsal scales and is

distinguished from the other species of the genus ‘in the very

broad, sharp, horny edge to the lower jaw and the almost complete

suppression or reduction of the lower lip.’ This species is evidently

based on very young specimens and the character of the lower

310 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

jaw and lip, as judged from the large number of Indian specimens

of Lissochilus of all sizes examined by us, is not very constant.

It not only varies with the nature of the environment but is also

Text-fig. 5.—Lateral view of Lissochilus tweediei Herre and Myers. (After

Herre and Myers.)

liable to be affected by preserving fluid (23, p. 168). We have

not found any other distinguishing feature in its description for

separating it specifically from L. hexagonolepis.

Text-fig. 6.—Lateral view of a paratype of Lissochilus hendersoni Herre.

Nat. Size.

Recently Herre (6, p. to) described another species of Lisse-

chilus, L. hendersoni, from Malaya (Penang Island). His descrip-

‘tion is based on 28 specimens from 59-70 mm. in length. This

species is also based on juvenile examples in which the number

of scales along the lateral line is 23 and the predorsal scales are

5-6. We have examined paratypes of this species and find that

it cannot be separated specifically from the young of L. hexagono-

lepis. There are.23-24 scales along the lateral lme and ‘6-7 betore

the base of the dorsal fin. Its so-called strong dorsal spine is

not quite as strong as the spines of certain Indian Specimens

collected from the streams flowing through the limestone rocks.

We showed such specimens to Dr. Herre during his recent visit

to Calcutta and generally discussed with him the status of the

extra-Indian species of Lissochilus described from the. Malay

Peninsula. He informed us that when describing L. tweediei and

L, hendersoni he was not aware of the fact that these fishes

attained a huge size and a weight of many pounds. In view of

the great range of variation exhibited by the Indian specimens

of L. hexagonolepis he was also of the opinion that all the Malayan

species referred to above should be treated as synonyms of L.

hexagonolepis.

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 311

STATUS OF THE CHINESE SPECIES OF Lissochilus WrEBER & DE

BEAUFORT AND THE SYSTEMATIC PosITION OF Poropuntius SMITH.

There is a group of Chinese, Barbus-like forms which have

been assigned by various authors to Lissochilus. In recent years

Herre and Myers (/, pp. 242-247); Myers (18, pp.. 257, 258) and

Lin (15, pp. 209-215) have discussed the systematic position of

these species, but as we have not examined any specimen from

China we are not in a position to deal with the matter further,

except to make a few general comments on the information con-

tained in the published accounts.

Herre and Myers, and Myers included the following 9g species

from China in the genus Lissochilus :

Lissochilus labiatus (Regan).

Lissochilus monticola (Ginther).

Lissochilus hemispinus (Nichols).

Lissochilus barbodon (Nichols and Pope).

Lissochilus kreyenbergii (Regan).

Lissochilus formosanus (Regan).

Lissochilus invergatus (Oshima).

Lissochilus fasciatus (Steindachner).

Lissochilus paradoxus (Giinther).

Con ombh WN

Lin did not include species Nos. 6, 7 and g in his synoptic

table of the genus, but added L. styant (Boulenger), L. rendahlh

(Lin) and L. caldwelli (Nichols) to the genus Lissochilus. Later,

he (16, p. 307) described another species in this genus—L. clivosius.

We have already referred (vide supra, p. 308) to the systematic

position of L. caldwelli and indicated its close affinity to L. hexa-

gonolepis. In the remaining species the number of scales along

the lateral line is generally 4o or more. They are not stated to

grow to a very large size and most of them are characterized by

the possession of short vertical bars across the body. The nature

of the dorsal spine (weak or strong; smooth or serrated), and

the character of the lower jaw and lips are variable. Reliable

information regarding the position and extent of the tubercles on

the snout of the: Chinese species is not available. In L. styani

they are: stated to be present onthe tip of the snout while in

true Lissochilus they are between the maxillaries and the eyes.

While agreeing with Herre and Myers that in recognising genera

among the Cyprinidae a difference of to scales in the count along

the lateral line is not a valid generic character, we feel that this

difference coupled with the geographical position of the two groups

merits some sort of distinction. Species of Lissochilus of the

hexagonolepis-type are not only large-scaled but aiso grow to a

large size and are mostly confined to the Brahmaputra and Chindwin

drainages in India, Burma, Siam, Malay Peninsula and_ the

Archipelago. The species with the small scales are mostly con-

fined to Southern China. In his treatment of the Cyprinoid genera

with a procumbent predorsal spine, Hora (11, pp. 311-310)

recognised groups on geographical distribution and assigned them

subgeneric ranks. We consider that a somewhat similar procedure

ee meet the need of the situation here, for the time being at

east.

312. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

There is yet another group of species usually referred to

Lissochilus for which H. M. Smith (21, p. 14) had proposed the

name Poropuntius and remarked:

‘This genus resembles Lissochilus from Southern Asia and Sumatra, in

having the lower jaw covered with a horny sheath and a deep sulcus separating

it from the lower lip. The pores on the snout in Lissochilus are surmounted

by horny tubercles which extend to below the eye, and the last simple dorsal

ray is weakly ossified and not denticulated. here is no rostral groove.’

The type-species of the genus, P. normani, was described from

Siam from a single specimen 10.5 cm. in length; it is characterized

by the possession of 31 scales along the lateral line and 11 before

the dorsal fin. Another species of this type was described by de

Beaufort (2, p. 34) from johore, Malay Peninsula, and placed in

the genus Lissochilus, L. smedleyi. He observed that:

‘This species is closely allied to Poropuntius normani, recently described

by H. Smith (Proc. U. S--Nat.'\Mus.,. Vol: 79," 1031; -p>7 15) icom* Sianeli

species differs from L. smedleyi in the following points: 14 scales round

caudal peduncle, interorbital space flat, osseous part of dorsal spine equal to

head less snout, ventrals and pectorals subequal 1.25 in head.’

Before considering the generic validity of Poropuntius reference

may be made to other species of Barbus of the Poropuntius-type.

In 1923, one of us (10, p. 155) referred three specimens from Koh

Chang, Siam, to Barbus deauratus Cuvier & Valenciennes,’ and

included them in the subgenus Lissochilus. Evidently no import-

ance was then attached to their serrated dorsal spine or the position

1 There seems to be a certain amount ef confusion regarding the nature

of the dorsal spine of Barbus deauratus. Cuvier and Valenciennes (Hist. Nat.

Poiss., vol. xvi, p. .188,«1842) moted that. ‘le rayon de la dorsale est gréie,

lisse’. The length of the specimen (? specimens) examined by them is stated

to be ‘quatre pouces et demi’. Giinther (Cat. Fish. Brit. Mus., vol. vii, p. 128,

1868) gave a very brief description of the species after Walenciennes and

noted that ‘The osseous dorsal ray is slender and smooth.’ Sauvage [Nouv.

Archiv. Mus. Hist. Nat. Paris; (2), vol. iv, -p. 183, pl. vi, fig. 5, 188i

redescribed the species from a specimen 125 mm. in length, and made the

following statement regarding the dorsal fin:

‘Dorsale placée plus prés de l’extrémité du museau que de l’origine de

la caudale, insérée au-dessus des ventrales; troisieme rayon osseux, faiblement

dentelé, aussi long que la téte, sans le museau.’

The Koh Chang specimens assigned by me (10, p. 155) to B. (Lissochilus)

deauratus possess strongly denticulated dorsal spine and in other respects also

agree very closely with Smith’s (21, p. 14) description of Poropuntius norman.

Suvatti (22; pp. 55, 56) recorded both L. deauratus and P. normant from

Siam but it is not stated how he distinguished the two species. The presumption

is that Suvatti’s specimens of L. deauratus from the Pattani River, Khau

Banthat, Ko Chang and Pak Chong are characterized by a smooth dorsal

spine.

It is not possible under the present conditions to get any further information

regarding the nature of the dorsal spine in the type-specimen of B. deauratus.

If on a re-examination the dorsal spine is found to be smooth and the

anterior part of the snout is free from pores, then it will be synonymous

with B. (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis, but if the dorsal spine is denticulated

and the pores cover the anterior part of the snout, then it will be congeneric

with P. normant. Mr. Misra, relying on the descriptions of Valenciennes and

Giinther, is of the opinion that B. deauratus is a synonym of B. hexagonolepis,

the range of which will be thus extended to Cochin-China also.

Sua OR A

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 313

of the tubercles on the snout. We find that H. M. Smith’s

description of P. normani agrees very closely with the specimens

of L. deauratus in the collection of the Zoological Survey of India.

Text-fig. 7. Lissochilus Weber and de Beaufort, and Poropuntius Smith,

to show position of tubercles on the snout.

a. Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland from Tavoy. Nat, Size ;

b. Barbus (Poropuntius) normani Smith. X_ 3.

Barbus clavatus McClelland, redescribed by one of us (9, p. 185)

from Assam is also a Poropuntius, though in the description no

mention is made of the tubercles on the snout. We have now

examined large series of specimens from different localities in

Assam, and find that the presence of tubercles in the anterior part

of the snout is a constant feature of the species. It is provided

with 40-42 scales along the lateral line and 14 1n front of the dorsal

fin. <A variety of this species, B. clavatus burtont, was described

by Mukerji (17, p. 64) from the Myitkyina District, Burma. This

variety was distinguished from the typical form by ‘its longer

snout, shorter third spine of the dorsal fin, fewer scales along

the lateral line, in a transverse series and before the dorsal fin, and

by the colouration which is more dark than bright and silvery’,

Attention may here be directed to the fact that in South India also

there are certain species of Barbus (sensu lato), B. mvysorensis

Jerdon for example, in which the snout is covered with horny

tubercles and the number of scales along the lateral line is in the

neighbourhood of go. We have not investigated the exact generic

limits of these fishes, but they seem to bear close affinities to

certain Chinese species referred to above.

From the foregoing account it is clear that Poropuntius is

fairly widely distributed in South-Eastern Asia—Assam (2 sclavaiis;

it; 40-42), Burma (P: clavatus burton; Li. 1. 35-38), Siam, Cochin-

China, «Malay Peninsula (P.°-deatratus; L. 1. en) kand » Malay.

Peninsula (P. .smedleyi, L. |. 27-28). It is remarkable that the

314 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

scales become larger and fewer as we travel away from India to

the east and south. The same conclusion was reached by us

(13, pp. 268; -260) "im our “studies son Barbus (Puntius) ticto and

Rohtee cotio (14, pp. 166-171), and the same is true of the large

series of specimens examined by us of Lissochilus hexagonolepis.

As to the significance of this change in lepidosis, we are not in

a position to give any explanation.

An examination of a large number of specimens of Lissochilus

and Poropuntius has convinced us that both the names can be

regarded as valid subgenera which can be distinguished on the

character of the dorsal spine and on the position of the tubercles

on the head. Whether the Poropuntius-type of Barbus is

represented in the Chinese and South Indian species referred to

above requires further elucidation. In the absence of any Chinese

material we refrain from discussing this matter further, but there

seems a possibility that some of the Chinese species may belong

to Poropuntius, and in that case some earlier generic name, such

as Lissochilichthys Oshima and Acrossocheilus Oshima will have

precedence:

As regards Lissochilus, we propose to restrict it to comparatively

large-scaled Barbels of the hexagonolepis-type with from 22 to 32

scales along the lateral line, a smooth dorsal spine and with the

tubercles not extending to the tip of the snout. In the present

state of our knowledge there seems to be only one widely distributed

species of this genus.

VARIATIONS AND BIONOMICS.

The head is proportionately larger in young specimens and its

length with reference to the standard length varies from 3.27 1

a specimen 76.5 mm. long to 4.32 in a specimen 208 mm. long.

The height of the head and its width also vary in the same way.

Similarly the eyes are considerably larger in young specimens.

The tubercles on the snout begin to appear at a very young age;

we have noted two tubercles above the origin of maxillary barbels

in a specimen 27 mm. in standard length. The arrangement and

number of tubercles vary considerably even in specimens from the

same locality, and it seems probable that sexual differences may

be responsible for this variation. The barbels are also propor-

tionately longer: in young specimens. In the preceding article of

this series reference has already been made to the great variation

exhibited by the dorsal spine, and the same has been found to be

true in the case of the extra-Indian specimens. The size and

strength of the dorsal spine seems to vary with locality. The

lepidosis varies with age and locality, there may be 22-32 scales

along the lateral line, 7-11 predorsal scales, 12-14 _ scales

round caudal peduncle and 23 to 34 series of scales between the

lateral line and the base of the pelvic fin.

Reference has been made in the earlier article to the great vari-

ation in colouration exhibited by this species. In the two colour

illustrations reproduced here some further differences may be noted.

In a specimen from Pegu, 204 mm. in standard length, Mr. D. E. B.

Manning noted that the back was of a deep olive colour followed on

)

THE GAME #ISHES OF INDIA 315

the sides by a band of light prussian blue below which the body was

silvery white. The head was of a reddish brown colour, somewhat

lighter in the opercular region. In the sub- and post-opercular

regions and along the edges of the scales the colour was light

cadmium. The iris was light cadmium orange. The dorsal and the

caudal fins were of a light reddish brown while the other fins were

of a light purplish grey colour. Mr. Manning characterised this

species as the ‘Olive Mahseer’ and noted that he caught the fish in

the Pathi stream, a feeder of the Sittanp river. ‘A: clear granite

boulder stream which holds mahseer up to about two pounds in

weight. The fish take a dry spoon freely. Burmese name in the

locality is Nga-Dank-Ma’. Mr. Manning noted its great resem-

blance to the ‘Gold’ or ‘Red Mahseer’ of the Tavoy District, but

stated that it ‘is perhaps not quite so golden and it appears to have

25 scales along the lateral line’.

In the ‘Red Mahseer’ of the Tavoy District, Mi. Manning noted

that the back was darkish greeny brown which looked purple while

under water. Below this up to the lateral line the scales were

golden with deep antwerp blue bases and madder brown margins.

In the region of the lateral line the scales were of a lighter golden

colour. The lower part of the body was silvery white and_ the

scales were encircled with brown spots. The sides of the head

were tight golden yellow while the opercular region was_ reddish

golden yellow. The iris was light orange yellow. The dorsal

fin was yellowish brown while the other fins were of a light raw

umber colour. The bases of the pectoral, pelvic and anal fins were

pinkish.

Mr. Manning supplied the following notes on the habitat and

bionomics of the ‘Red Mahseer’ :—

‘Very common in the clear rocky streams of Tavoy and Mergui. They

run very small and the best I have ever seen could not. have been over

20 pounds. The average is nearer 7 pounds as a limit in most streams, The

fish normally lie up in the deep still pools and only exceptionally will they be

taken in rapid water. Shoals roam round the pools preferring those that are

deep and black and rocky. The fish do not normally lie in the rocky fast

headwaters but drop down to the slow deep rocky pools.

‘They run up to spawn about the end of May to June ahd stay up till

the end of September when they go down on one ot the late rises. At these

times they are found in the rocky swift headwater streams. Throughout the

year they appear to be in grand condition and appear to be very fat in

comparison with the Indian mahseer.

‘They take best in the hot weather and I suggest that this is a matter

of scarcity of food and nothing else. In the rains and early cold weather

the food is plentiful. All the fish in Tavoy take better in the hot weather.

‘Food.--They are very partial to thingan (Hopea odorata) leaves which blow

down in plenty in November to January with the morning north-east winds.

At such times the Karens catch them with leaves baited on to hooks which

are allowed to dangle on the surface from fixed rods. I have seen them

jumping out of the water to get the leaves of a Ficus tree which had_ fallen.

All the leaves within about 6 inches of the water were stripped. They also

eat small fish, insects, etc., but the main part of their diet appears to be

green food. They take spoons freely preferring a_ silver and gold or silver

and copper spoon in my opinion. I have never taken them on a fly.

‘There appear to be two different mahseer from the pores over the mouth.

This is thought to be a matter of sex and Burmans tell me that the female

has very numerous pores and the male but few.’

eau

Volk

SOCIETY,

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316

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATL

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MEASUREMENTS IN MILLIMETRES AND SCALE-COUNTS OF SPECIMENS OF BARBUS (LISSOCHILUS)

HEXAGONOLEPIS McCLELLAND FROM MALAY PENINSULA AND SIAM

Siam

Nakon

Srita-

marat

Penang

Island

W. of Ginting

Sempak, Selangor

|R. Mertang,

Negri

Sambilan

Malay Peninsula

Kuala Terla,

Pahang

Sepia,

Pahang

R. Ketil, Kelantan

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 317

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818 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XETT

ACKNOWLEDGMENTS.

The entire cost of illustrating this article has been borne by

the Bombay Natural History Society and for this we are greatly

indebted to the authorities of that institution. The colour draw-

ings have been made from specimens, sketches and notes supplied

by Mr. D. E. B. Manning, Divisional Forest Officer, Burma. We

are very grateful to Mr. Manning for his kindness in this matter.

The illustrations were prepared by Babu B. Bagchi with his usual

skill and care under our supervision.

List OF REFERENCES.

1. Annandale, N.—‘Fish and Fisheries of the Inlé Lake.’ Rec. Ind. Mus.,

vol. xiv, p. 35 (1918).

2.. Beaufort, L. F. de—‘On some New or Rare Species of Ostariophysi

from the Malay Peninsula and a New Species of Betta from Borneo.’ Bull.

Raffles Mus. Singapore, No. 8, p. 34 (1933).

3. Boulenger, G. A.—‘List of Fishes collected by Mr. E. W. Oates in the

Southern Shan States, and presented by him to the British Museum.’ Ann.

Mag. Nat. Hist.,. (6), vol. xii; ps 2or (1808)!

4. Duncker, G.—Die Fische der Malayischen Halbinsel.’ Mitt. Naturhist.

Mus. Hamburs, vol. xxi, p. 178, pli aoe. 710907).

5. Fowler, H. W.—‘Zoological Results of the Third De Schauensee Siamese

Expedition, Part 1.—Fishes.’ Proc. Acad. Nat. Sci. Philadelphia, vol. 1xxxvi,

p. 120 (1934).

6. Herre, A. W. C, T.—‘New species of fishes from the Malay Peninsula

and Borneo.’ Bull. Raffles Mus. Singapore, No. 16, p. 10 (1940).

7. Herre, A. W. and Myers, G. S.—‘Fishes from Southeastern China and

Hainan.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ. Canton, vol. x, pp. 242-247 (1931).

8. Herre, A. W. C. T. and Myers, G. S. ‘A Contribution to the Ichthyology

of the Malay Peninsula. Part II. Fresh-water Fishes.’ Bull. Raffles Mus.

Singapore, No. 13, p. 61 (1937).

9. Hora, S. L.—‘Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some _ observations

on those of the Naga Hills.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xxii, p. 185, pl. ix, fig. 1

(1921).

10. Hora, S. L.—On a Collection of Fish from Siam.’ Journ. Nat. Hist.

Soe, Siant, vol. viz. sp. 155-(1923).

11. Hora, S. L.— ‘Systematic Position, Geographical Distribution and Evolu-

tion of the Cyprinoid genera with a procumbent predorsal spine.’ Rec. Ind.

Mus., vol. xxxix, pp. 311-319 (1937).

12. Hora, S. L.—The Game Fishes of India. XI. The Mahseers or the

Large-scaled Barbels of India. 4. The Bokar of the Assamese and Katli

of the Nepalese, Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland.’ Journ.

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xlii, pp. 78-88 (1940).

13. Hora, S. L., Misra, K. S. and Malik, G. M.—‘A Study of variations

in Barbus (Puntius) ticto (Hamilton)’. Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xli, pp. 263-279

(1939).

14. Hora, S. L. and Misra, K. S.—‘Notes on Fishes in the Indian Museum.

XL, On Fishes of the genus Rohtee Sykes.’ Rec. Ind. Mus., vol. xlii,

pp. 166-171 (1940). :

15. Lin, S. Y.—Contribution to a study of Cyprinidae of Kwangtung and

adjacent provinces.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ. Canton, vol. xii, pp. 209-215 (1933).

16. Lin, S. Y.—‘Notes on a new genus, three new and two little known

species of fishes from Kwangtung and Kwangsi Provinces.’ Lingnan Sci.

Journ. Canton, vol: xiv; 7p, 307 (1935):

17. Mukerji, D. D.—‘Report on Burmese Fishes Collected by Lt.-Col.

R. W. Burton from the tributary streams of the Mali Hka river of the

Myitkyina District (Upper Burma).’ Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol.

XEXVI, p04) pl. a, ne. a F(193),

v8. Myers, G. S.—‘On the fishes described by Koller from Hainan in

1926 and 1927.’ Lingnan Sci. Journ, Canton, vol. x, pp. 257, 258 (1931).

THE GAME FISHES OF INDIA 319

1g. Nichols, J. T.—‘Some Chinese Fresh-water Fishes.’ Amer. Mus.

Novitates, No. 185, p. 2 (1925).

20. Nichols, J. T.—‘Chinese Fresh-water Fishes in the American Museum

of Natural History’s Collections.” Bull. Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist., vol. viii,

Atte Isr 2, tis. 3 (1928).

21. Smith, H. M.—‘Description of new genera and_ species of Siamese

Imishes.. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.; vol. Ixxix, art. 7, p. 14 (1931).

22. Suvatti, C.—Index to Fishes of Siam, p. 55 (Bangkok, 1936).

23. Weber, M. and Beaufort, L. F. de—The Fishes of the Indo-Australian

Archipelage, vol. iii, pp. 167-169 (Leiden, 1916).

EXPLANATION OF PLATES.

Barbus (Lissochilus) hexagonolepis McClelland.

The two colour drawings reproduced on this plate were made from sketches,

notes and specimens supplied by Mr. D. E. B. Manning, Divisional [Forest

Officer, Burma, and portray variation in colouration exhibited by the species

in different waters.

The upper illustration is from a specimen of the ‘Olive Mahseer’ of the

Pegu District, while the lower one represents the ‘Gold’ or ‘Red Mahseer’ of

the Tavoy District. However, both the colour varieties represent the same

species and show that much reliance cannot be placed on colouration alone in

distinguishing species of the large-scaled Barbels of India.

For details of colouration see pp. 314, 315 above,

Ao NEW “SPECIESCOFR* CORES

K. “@SERIAN “JACOB, (EAS. | RALAS)

| (With a plate),

Coleus vettiveroides K. C. Jacob, sp. nov. Labiatae—Ocimoideae.

Ab alits speciebus differt radicibus, ‘quae sunt aromaticae dum sint integrae.’

Herba succulenta, 45 em.-53 cm. altitudine, fruticosa, ramis aliquantulum

decumbentibus. Truncus 1.25 cm. diametro, leniter sub-purpureus, pubescens,

cum albis, brevibus capillis, axis primaria plus minus quadrilateralis, ramis

fere teretibus. Folia opposita; petioli 4-6 cm. longi, pubescentes, subpurpurei,

ventro sulcato dorsoque tereti; lamina crassa, fere rotunda, 8-10 cm. longa,

y-12 cm. lata, superiori superficie sparse pubescens, inferiori superficie dense

pubescens ; nervi palmati; nervi praecipui 12, insuper demersi, desuper valde

elati et prominentes ; superficies rugosa; margines dentati. Radices fibrosae ;

35 ¢m.-50 cm, longae si arenoso solo crescant, stramineo colore, post unum

alterumve diem nigri evadentes, aromaticae dum sint recentes.

Plantae flores nemo unquam_ vidit.

Coleus osmirrhizon Elliot nomen tantum in Herbarium Madras (Coimbatore)

No. 40, 797;

Herb succulent, 45 cm.-53 cm. in height, bushy with slightly decumbent

branches; stem 1.25 cm. in diameter, slightly purplish, pubescent with white

short hairs, main stem more or less four-sided and branches nearly terete ;

leaves opposite ; petioles 4 cm.-6 cm. long, pubescent, purplish, ventrally furrowed,

dorsally rounded (terete); lamina thick, nearly rounded, 8 cm.-1o cm. long,

g cm.-12 cm. broad, sparsely pubescent on the upper surface and densely

pubescent below; nerves palmate, main nerves 12, sunk above and very much

raised and prominent below; surface puckered; margins dentate. Roots

fibrous, 35 cm.-50 cm. jong when grown in sandy areas, straw-coloured, turning

dark after a day or two, aromatic when fresh.

The plant has so far been seen only under cultivation at Shiyali, Tanjore

District; Palni in Madura District; Conjeeveram in Chingleput District, etc.,

in the Madras Presidency and it has not been seen in flower anywhere at any

time. The plants were specially grown at Shiyali in Tanjore District, South

India, a natural habitat and at Coimbatore. All attempts at inducing flowering

have failed at both places. There is a specimen. of this plant in the Madras

Herbarium at Coimbatore labelled Coleus osmirrhizon Elliot. Tamil: Kuru

Veru, collected at Mahabalipuram, Chingleput District, by T. Abboy Naidu

on the 25th May, 1879. This name (Coleus osmirrhizon Elliot) could not be

traced in any of the literature available here. The Curator of the Herbarium,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Sibpur, Calcutta, considers it as only a manuscript

name. This specimen also is without flowers.

There is a good deal of confusion in the local names of the scented roots

of Vetiveria sizanioides Nash. (a grass) and those of this species of Coleus,

the specific name of which has not been determined. With a view to clarify

this confusion, a questionnaire was sent to some of the most important places

where these two reots are very well known focally, and information obtained

through the Agricultural Departmental Officers. Four local names, viz.,

Vetti ver, Kuru ver, Velamichai ver and Ramacham were reported to be in

common use for these two scented roots. The consensus of opinion

is that Vetti ver and Kuru ver are synonyms and are used for the roots of

the Coleus species and Velamichai ver and Ramacham are two linguistic names

for the grass, Vetiveria sizanioides Nash., the former in Tamil Districts, and

the later in Malayalam speaking Districts and States.

“fe peoids ‘Fr aysiay ‘plo syuow AINOF ynoqe jurjg

"Aou “ds ‘qooef “9 “yy saplosaatjaa snajoj

9 recon cangysanenanneucnnangurrenonmesinana

"00G "3SIHT ‘JBN Avquog ‘uimor

A NEW SPECIES OF COLEUS 321

The roots of this Coleus species are known as Vettiver in Tanjore, North

Arcot, Coimbatore, Madura, Tinnevelly and Ramnad Districts. The same root

is Known as Kuru ver in Chingleput, Yanjore, North Arcot and parts of

Madura Districts. Vetti ver and Kuru ver are synonymously used in Tanjore,

North Arcot and parts of Madura Districts.

In Shiyal Taluq of the Tanjore District where this Coleus species is

extensively cultivated on the sandy banks of the Coleroon river, the names

Vetti ver and Kuru ver are synonymously used. At Paini in Madura District

where it is under cultivation in sandy garden lands it goes by the name Vetti-

ver and at Conjeeveram in Chingleput District where it is cultivated on the

banks of the Vegavathi river it is known as Kuruver.

The. fresh fragrant roots of Vettiver (Kuruver) are used trom time im-

memorial in the decoration of the idols in the South Indian temples of the

Tamil Districts and also in the ladies’ toilet for dressing hair.

The well-known Khus-khus or Cuscus of Commerce is known as Velamichai

Ors, Velamichaver in all the Tamil Districts, viz., .Vanyore; North Arcot,

Madura, Tinnevelly, Coimbatore, etc. In parts of Tinnevelly District it is also

known as Lamacham or Ramacham ver. Ramacham is the well-known name

for this root unmistakably used throughout the Malayalam speaking area. It

is called Vetti ver at Vellaikulam in Chingleput District adjoining the Telugu

area.

The fragrant dried roots of the Khus-khus are used for making mats,

chick-thatties, fancy fans and ‘Kavadies’. It is also employed in the adulteration

of Vettiver at Srivilliputtur, Ramnad District. These roots are scented only

at certain seasons of the year (Madras Agricultural Department Year Book

1918, pp. 67-69). It is extensively cultivated on the coastal regions of the

Ponnani Taluq of the Malabar District. It is also grown to a limited extent

at Srivilliputtur in Ramnad District mainly for adulterating with the roots

of Vettiver (Coleus sp.). This grass is found commonly in swampy or moist

situations in Mysore, South Kanara, Malabar, Coimbatore, Chingleput, South

Arcot, Nellore, Kistna, Godaveri, Vizagapatam and other Districts. But

the extraction of Khus-khus at the proper season and the manufacture of

chick-thatties, fans, ete., are carried on as a cottage industry by the moplah

community (Malayalam speaking Muhammadans) of the Ponnani taluq in the

Malabar District.

The dried roots of this grass retain the pleasant and strong aroma for a

very long time even for some years, while only fresh roots of Vettiver

(Coleus sp.) are scented and made use of since they become odourless as they

dry up in the course of 3 or 4 days. The fresh Vettiver roots are straw-

coloured but soon become dark as they dry up, while those of Khus-khus retain

the straw colour even after drying.

In the Telugu Districts of this Presidency starting from the Chingleput

District right up to Ganiam, Khus-khus roots are known as Vetti ver. The

idols in the Telugu temples are not generally decorated with any scented roots.

Since Khus-khus is known as Vetti ver, the products of Khus-khus, viz.,

chick-thatties, fans, ete., are also known as Vettiver thatties, fans, etc., in

these parts.

It has already been shown that Khus-khus and Vettiver (also known = as

JXuruver) are the roots of two different kinds of plants but are recognised by

different conflicting names in different localities of this Province. This misnomer

in the local name has been carried so far that the local name of the Coleus

species was given to a species of grass, Vetiveria odorata Virey., as early as

1827. Hooker, in the Flora ef British India, puts Vetiveria as a subgenus

of Andropogon and cailed this plant Andropogon squarrosus V.inn. f., but

Gamble, in the Flora of the Presidency of Madras, names this grass as Vetiveria

cisamtotdes Nash. The local name of this Coleus has become the generic

name oi a group of grasses, one of which has scented roots.

The origin of ithe name Vettiver for Khus-khus in Telugu parts is not

known. The following explanation is suggested :—

T. Abboy Naidu’s specimen of this Coleus was collected in the year

187qa, near Madras and is known as Kuruver, Telugu area begins with

Madras. This Coleus, therefore, might have been known to Telugus

as Kuruaver. ite Telugus who visit the famous South Indian temples might

have become familiar with Vettiver roots which are used to decorate the

322 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

idols in those temples. It is likely that they might have been ignorant of

the two different names Kuruver and Vettiver for the same plant. They

might have hence thought that Vettiver might be the roots of the Khus-khus

plant which are also scented. During the time of the East India Company,

Samalkota, in Telugu country, was a centre of botanical study and the name

Vettiver might have been first introduced into botanical works somewhere

here.

Vettiver or Kuruver (Coleus sp.) is largely cultivated on the river banks

in sandy loams. It is propagated by planting young shoots and plants are

ready for ‘lifting in about 4 months when the roots would have attained the

maximum length and possessed with best aroma. Jt needs heavy manuring

and constant watering.

This species of Coleus which has not so far been correctly named is designated

as Coleus vettiveroides K. C. Jacob. The specific name vettiveroides is after

the most popular Tamil name of the plant in places where it is largely

cultivated.

Type in Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore: Madras Herbarium No. 85,676.

My thanks are due to Father A. Rapinat, 5. J., Professor of Botany,

St. Joseph’s College, Trichinopoly, for kindly rendering the English description

into Latin, to Rao Bahadur G. N. Rangaswami Ayyangar, F.N.I., 1.A.S.,

Geneticist and Principal, Agricultural College, Coimbatore, and Dr. N. L. Bor,

Forest Botanist, Dehra Dun, for their valuable suggestions.

BIBLIOGRAPHY.

Gamble, J..5., Flora of the Presidency of Madras, p. 1732.

Hooker,,J. D.,. Flora of ‘British India,” Voli? Vil, p= 186;

Thiselton-Dyer, W. T., Flora of Tropical. Africa, Vol. V, pp. 422-444:

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS.

Mi 1D CRICHTON:

(With 4 plates),

Melvill and Standen! computed the total of Madras marine

mollusca at slightly over 7oo of which, approximately, 470 were

univalves and 230 bivalves. It should be noted, however, that

the collections examined by them when compiling their catalogue

included specimens from the neighbourhood of Pamban, a distance

of 235 miles by sea from Madras, where coral formation predo-

minates in marked contrast to the unrelieved sand of the southern

portion of the East Coast of India. As there are many mollusca

peculiar to coral-reef conditions which are not found elsewhere

there would appear to be reason—if only as a matter of local

interest—for keeping separate a record of species which are known

to make their homes, in some cases it may be only as temporary

visitors, within sound of the surf of the Coromandel Coast.

I have had opportunities of collecting at many places along

the shores of this coast besides dredging down to 6 or 8 fathoms

off Pondicherry, Cuddalore, Porto Novo, and Negapatam, and to

a greater depth at Madras, and am satisfied that the forms found

at “Madras may be regarded as typical of the entire coast, say from

Point Calimere (Lat to" 18’ N:)) to Cocanada (Lat. 17° 'N.). The

territory covered by these notes, however, will be confined to the

strip of sea-board in the immediate vicinity of Madras, extending

about thirty miles from Ennur towards Covelong in the south.

Apart from the harbour area the coast presents an unbroken vista

of yellow sand except where intersected by the channels of the

backwater at Ennur and of the Cooum and Adyar, two small

rivers whose egress is barred periodically by great banks of sand

piled up during the dry months following each north-east monsoon.

Consequently the mollusca comprise chiefly the dwellers in sand

and mud, the only rock habitations being those provided by a

hand of man, such as the blocks of concrete and stone placed a

breakwaters for the protection of the harbour walls and the revet-

ment immediately north of Royapuram Bay. The total number

of species known to Madras exceeds 700, approximately 500

univalves and 230 bivalves. This total is constantly being added

to. The mollusca here enumerated should be taken merely as a

general indication of some of the species to be found.

THE LITTORAL ZONE.

The number of living mollusca within reach of the seeker along

the shore is limited, not only by the absence of such Pv ouriie

molluscan haunts as reefs and rock- fringed pools but also by the

* The marine mollusca of Madras and the jmmediate neighbourhood.

f. Conchol., vol, 9, pp. 30-85 (1898).

324°, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiSd SOGIE DY aavioln vom

restricted collecting area available between high and low water

mark, the average rise and fall of ithe tide being under 3 feet with

a maximum of 4.5 feet. Even so, a diligent search within wading

depth will bring to light a fair range of species varying more or

less regularly in seasonal! rotation throughout the year.. The most

noticeable of these visitors is the lively tapering Bullia vittata (L.)

with large water-charged foot and narrow and inadequate operculum

which, with the rarer B. livida Reeve, may he seen in considerable

numbers on the firm wet sand at low tide, particularly at Parry’s

Beach to the south of the harbour. This, on occasion, feeds on

the little’ round-backed crab (Philvra) whose arrival synchronizes

with that of Bullia; after an initial “hand off’, the crab submits ie

being seized without any further effort at resistance and is soon

drawn within the muscular folds of the mantle. So determined is

the hold on its victim that the Bulla can be pulled almost completely

out of the shell without losing its grip. This mollusc dwells with

us for several months each year, during which time its family

increases and grows up rapidly. The shell of B. lvida, although

resembling that of B. vittata both in shape and design, except

that the spiral band of tubercles below the sutures of the latter

consists of two or three rows whereas in B, livida it is usually

single, will be easily recognized by a richer colouring and thickened

outer lip, in addition to which the operculum is squarely oval and

more or less fills the aperture. B. tranquebarica (Réding) is a

third local representative of this genus of the family Nassaridae,

and its triangulate operculum with serrated edge completes the

three types of operculum associated with this family.

Farther south, at St. Thomé and heyond, olive-shells are to

be found at all seasons, both Oliva oliva (L.) and O. ispidula (L.),

the latter in an infinite variety of colours and markings. Early in

February each year large colonies of Oliva gibbosa (Born), 10

mature form, are to be found for a brief season near the shore at

Ellot’s Beach, the raised ridges of their mole-like burrows in the

sand indicating their position. This handsome shell attains a

length of some 3 inches and hears a .close resemblance to O.

nebulosa Lam., both in pattern and colouring. The latter, how-

ever, 1S narrower with a more tapering spire. Unlike O, gibbosa

it is very rarely taken near the shore although commonly dredged

in from 6 to 10 fathoms in all stages of erowth:

The Olives are also carnivorous and show a partiality for the

shy little mole-crab (Hippa asiatica Edwards). I have more than

once witnessed the unequal contest with the victim struggling

valiantly but helpless in the pincers-like grip of O. hispidula, whilst

the swift incoming waves have swept the pair several times up

and along and onan the gently sloping beach and finally into

deeper water without being able to break them apart. Qne cannot

help feeling a sympathy for this strange, gentle creature, known

locally as ‘eel-lee’, which spends the entire day digging ‘icelt inte

the wet sand with feverish haste as each receding wave leaves

the ill-protected Jittle body exposed to the pounce of Brahminy

Kites and crows ever on the look-out for: the tasty morsel. Provid-

ence’s only compensation would appear to be the allotment of a

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE I

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS.

1. Cardium assinile Reeve. 2. Tellina foliacea Lin.

3. Lellina angulata Gmelin. Tellina timorensis Lam.

5. Psammobia aniethystus Wood. 6. Siliqua radiata (Lin.).

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. PLATE 1}

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS.

1. Argonauta hians (Solander). 2. Spirula spirula (Lin.). 3. NXenophora solaris (Lin.).

4. Natica lineata (Rod.). 5. N. didyma (Rod.). 6. N. didyma (Rod.).

(normal shell). var. with scalariform

whorls.

8. B. crumena (Lam.). 9. Gyrineum natator (Bolten).

Oy:

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 32

Very biicl Span ‘andyits troubles, thereloré, are soon over. Let

us hope that under cover of darkness there may exist compensa-

tions of a more materaal kind!

Rapana bulbosa (Lillwyn) (Plate TH, fig, 6} ts sometimes swept

shorewards during stormy weather and may be found clinging to

an old shell or root of sea-weed, the young ones adhering to each

other in clusters. Nussarius and Natica (Plate Il, figs. 4, 5, 6)

may also be taken.

Amongst the bivalves which feed near the shore are found four

or five kinds of wedge-shell, the finest being the magnificent Donax

scortum L., strongly fashioned with deep corrugations and rich

purple iiterior. The tiny D, dussumieri Bertin may be found during

brief periods about February and August each year. Large quan-

tities of this brilliantly variegated little shell congregate an inch

or so under the surface at ebb of tide; when exposed they quickly

dive out of sight, sharp end first, into the wet sand. The com-

monest is D. cuneatus L. in a range of colouring, radiating from

the umboes, which includes pale blue, yellow, brown, and a harsh

liver-green. The young are in evidence in October in the shelter

of Ennur backwater, while in February and March the half-grown

and adult shells may be found together in large numbers between

tide marks at St, Thomé and Ennur. In calm water the circular

orifice of the upper or lower siphon may be observed just above

the surface of the sand, indicating the presence of the shell buried

an inch or so below. Fully grown shells measure from 4o to 43 mm.

in length. Other all-the-year-round frequenters of the intertidal

region include Sunetta scripta (L.), beautifully and variously

patterned in purples, browns, mauves, gold, and ivory. These

make their début about December and their growth may be followed

month after month until the foliowing autumn when they attain a

full stature of some 33 mm. Several other brightly patterned

species of the Venus family are also found,

Mactra cygnus Gm., whose thin but strongly formed shells, in

a good range of colours, are usually to be found scattered on the

beach, visits the shallows for a brief period only during the south-

west monsoon, the young shells beginning to appear about April.

Mactra mera Rv:,. M. striatula L., and young M. turgida Gm.

are not uncommon towards the end of the north-east monsoon.

The shells are seldom found complete, i.e. with both valves joined

together or ‘mudi’(q@-.) as our’ young helpers concisely describe

this desirable condition, unless taken alive.

Of the Garidae, Soletellina diphos (L.) should be looked for

iunmediately south of the Adyar during the first violent storms of

the north-east monsoon when it is dislodged from its sandy bed

and flung ashore. Unless freshly collected the valves soon become

separated, the thick greenish yellow periostracum cracks and peels

away and the hot sun quickly bleaches the rich purple colouring

of the shell. The young may be found earlier in the year in the

extensive backwaters at Ennur and Covelong which are periodically

open to the inflow of the sea.

The fan-oyster (Pinna) is another dweller in or near the channel

of the Adyar river to seaward; live specimens are sometimes

$26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL: HiST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

uprooted from their burrows during the north-east gales. Pinna

grows to a large size, P. pectinata L. (=hanleyi Ry.) and P.

attenuata Ry. having both been found at Madras up to over one

foot in length. A specimen of the latter, taken at Tuticorin,

measures 194 inches. <A third species, P. vexillum Born, of dark

colour and = spreading shape and provided with a_ short, strong

byssus, is occasionally delivered up during stormy weather a few

miles farther south; mature shells of this species are of heavy,

stout structure and are easily recognized. It may be remarked

that the Madras P. pectinata does not, as a rule, show any external

sign of the byssus, usually associated with Pinna, although, on

close examination, two or three fine silken threads will be found

issuing from the byssal opening immediately above the foot of the

animal. It seems possible that these particular individuals, living

in sand, without stones or other suitable anchorage available, had

no use for a byssus. Pinna breeds about May or June to judge

by a 20 mm. juvenile collected towards the end of June. Siliqua

radiata, the sunset-shell, is very seldom taken alive or even with

periostracum, but the spread-out empty valves, brilliantly rayed

with blue and white, are abundant on the wet sands at ebb-tide.

Towards the end of the year, after a period of gales, large

numbers of living Pecten tranquebaricus Gm. and Pinctada

chemnitsii (Phil.) are sometimes washed ashore at Ennur.

SHORE COLLECTING.

High-water mark throughout the year will reward the diligent

seeker with a varying and fascinating harvest, chiefly of the smaller

sort. There are many sharp little eyes at our service among the

children of certain villages by the sea who have learnt to know

what the changu-dorai wants and what he does not want. Amongst

such helpers IT remember with special gratitude Chinapen, Pichi-

karen, Sammykins and his sister C ravnerstoroy from these high-tide

gatherings could be named upwards of one hundred species, but a

selection must suffice.

The gastropod Aglossates are well represented. Of these the

brilliant Pyramidella ierebelian (Miller), with deep-chestnut spiral

bands, grows to a full inch. The genus Turbonilla, of the same

family, is represented by five or six species, including the white

I. coromandelica (Melv. & St.), growing to-21 mm. With the

aid of a magnifying glass may be clearly seen the peculiar develop-

ment of the shell, the spiral growth of which begins in a sinistral

direction therea after twisting at right angles and “finally developing

in a normal dextral manner. The allied family of Eulimidae is

represented by polished shells of the genera Fulima, Balcis, and

Niso. ‘The last is represented by two species, one of which, Niso

pyvamidelloides Nevill, just over half an inch in height and

recognizable by its double spiral band of rich chestnut-brown,

is among Madras’s loveliest shells. Balcis is of snow-white colour, a

typical feature of many species being a pacar backward bend

which is very noticeable in B. martini (A. Ad.). Eulima is usually

spirally banded with brown; the local species E. bivittata (H. & A,

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 327

Ad.) grows to about ? in. in height. Some Eulimids are parasitic

on ‘sea-cucumbers’ to which they attach themselves so firmly

that considerable force is required to dislodge them. These shells

are washed up during the south-west currents between March and

August each year,

Another attractive genus is the familiar wentletrap or Epilonium,

of which a dozen or more species may be gathered during the

same season; also two species of the little Ringicula, and the

iridescent Minolia impressa (Nevill). These last three, and other

small fry such as Bullina, Pupa, Cylichna, should be sought for

amongst the scum and weeds of high-water mark on the seaward

bend of the estuary at Ennur as well as in deep cracks in the

water-sodden timbers of old catamarans.

The Scaphopoda are represented at Madras by two species of

Cadulus and by six or seven of the well- known Dentalium or

elephant’s tusk-shell. Beach specimens of the latter are usually

broken and should not be collected unless the posterior or smaller

end is intact, the margin of the small opening being often notched

on the convex side. In addition, several species are furnished

with a small supplemental tube protruding from the apical end,

easily broken. Besides the smooth forms, D. octangulatum Don.

may be found with seven, eight, and nine main ribs. A six-ribbed

shell of stout oclangulatum form and one of 16 ribs, have still to

be identified.

The Class Cephalopoda comprises creatures of the type of

squid, octopus, etc., in which the shell is internal or absent. The

calcareous ‘cuttlefish bones’ which litter our beaches at all times

belong to Sepia and Sepiella. Sepia prashadi Winckworth whose

pink-backed shells, up to t10 mm. in length, are to be found from

January to early in April each year, has only recently been des-

cribed. Sepia andreanoides Hoyle (Doralosepion) also occurs,

measuring 2} inches, of similar colouring towards the spine but

narrower in shape and with the dorsal. longitudinal depressions

undeveloped; rare here, it is common on Khor Maksar beach at

Aden. Loligo is very common; a live individual must be secured in

order to obtain a specimen of its transparent and perishable ‘pen’.

The shells of the three external shell-bearing Cephalopods arc

also to be found at Madras. Those of the deep-sea Spirula spirula

(L.) (Plate HI, fig.2) and of Nautilus ponpilius L. are thrown up

in stormy weather, the latter always in fragmentary condition. I

once picked up a young Nautilus shell measuring 1 inch in length

about eight miles south of Elliot’s Beach and I have also found

one Argonauta hians Sol. (Plate II, fig. 1) in what appears to

be fresh condition. This indication of the presence of a Nautilid

nursery off the Coromandel Coast must not be accepted too readily

as these shells are very buoyant and may be brought to our shores

from other parts by monsoonal currents.

The arrival of large numbers of the seed pods of Carapa obovata,

also stated to be C. moluccensis, during the early months of each

year when north-easterly winds have already been blowing for

two or three months, may be cited as an instance of the carrying

power of the winds and sea currents. The Carapa tree grows

328 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

in the tidal forests and mangrove swamps of Malaya, on the Aracan

Coast of Upper Burma and, doubtless, in the Nicobars and

Andamans and it seems likely that some of the pods which reach

Madras may have come from the last-named place which is a

known habitat of Nautilus. The nearest location of Carapa to

Madras is fully 200 miles to the north, in the Guntur forest division,

so that in any case the pods in question must have travelled by sea

for a considerable distance.

The Carapa pods should be examined as they frequently harbour

a nest of ship-worms (Teredo) which, as free-swimming fry, have

attached themselves to the floating homes so conveniently offered

and dug themselves in to such good purpose that during the long

sca voyage they have developed and grown to full capacity, sup-

planting the kernel and filling the entire shell with a closely packed

twist of their strange tubular casings. Inside these tubes will be

found the palettes and shells of Yeredo clava Gm. Similarly,

waterlogged branches or pieces of timber often house Martesia

ne should not be passed by unchallenged.

Amongst the less common tamellibranchs should be recorded

the watering-pot shell (Brechites), with aberrant valves which fail

to function in a normal manner at an early age, the unhappy

inhabitant thus being left to ‘think again’. The result is an amazing

travesty consisting of a cylindrical tube, 4 or 5 inches long, terminat-

ing at the lower extremity in a perforated convex shield “surrounded

by. a frilled border of tubes branching out like the petals of a flowe:

the perforated centre being reminiscent of the rose of a watering-

pot. An examination of the tube, immediately above the rose,

will locate the useless bivalve shell embedded in situ. Cucurbitula

cymbium (Spengler) is another lamellibranch whose shell is even

more effectively disguised. Cucurbitula creates for its burrow a

pear-shaped encasement, moulded of sand and shelly matter, gener-

ally attached to another shell or piece of loose coral wherein to

pursue undisturbed its placid philosophy of life-—‘non omnia pos-

sumus omnes’,

The months of May to August, when southerly winds prevail,

provide us with an interesting series of juveniles in the, eanhes

stages of shell development, i.e. at the commencement of the

enlargement of their homes from the embryo or veliger stage.

A powerful magnifying glass is essential in order to be able to

note and appreciate the delicate beauty of these-embryonic shells.

During the periods of storm, particularly in the autumn, Aviculids

(Pteriidae) may be found still clinging to the branches of sea-fans

which have been torn from the ocean bed, the shells varying in

tone between yellow and red according to the colour of the particular

Gorgoniid adopted for their life-long dwelling place. At these

times some of the larger worn and broken shells which are washed

ashore, such as Ficus, (Plate Ill, figs? -1 and 2) Tiurritella, eter

usually contain a family of the flat slipper limpet, Crepidula walshii

Herrm., as many as a dozen often being crowded together into

a wholly inadequate space, the neat circular baby shells clinging

to the backs of their elders. The apices of the young shells show

clearly the original spiral formation. It is advisable to boil these

PLATE Ii

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS.

4. Murex tribulus Lin. 5« Af. trapa Rod. 6. Rapana bulbosa (Dill.).

7. Xancus pyrum (Lin.).

Height G2 ; diameter sie.

Journ., Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS.

1. Conus textile Lin. 2. €. betulinus- Lin. 3. C. ‘amadis Lan,

4. Turris indica Rod. 5. Turricula javana (Lin.).

S. 1. antis) (Rod. ):

PLATE

—

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 329

out in order to avoid damaging the delicate edge of the inner plate.

Colonies of Crucibulum extinctorium auct., a close relative of

Crepidula but of a limpet or cup-like shape and with the inner

plate formed into a twisted poke or cone, are also often to be

found adhering to the outer surface of dead or living shells. This

possesses a clearly recurved apex which, however, is usually blunted

or worn away. ‘The shell varies greatly in Shape according to its

environment and not infrequently eae a coloured spiral decoration ;

it may also show a grooved or striated pattern impressed from

the sculptured surface of .the shell on which it has grown.

No record of the shells of the shore should omit mention of

that sapphire harvest of the monsoon when the violet sea snails

(lanthinidae) are cast ashore, sometimes in prodigious numbers

and still alive with their efficient floats attached, the delicate shells

flung from the crests of the crashing waves and seldom suffering

hurt because of their lightness and buoyancy. It requires several

days of strong onshore winds to bring them from their ocean base

and—this is important—one must be present when the miracle

takes place; by next day the wind will have scattered the shells

far and wide and scarcely a trace will remain. The two commoner

species of Ianthina which visit Madras are of very distinctive forms.

I. roseola Rv, is squat in shape, the aperture three- quarters square

and the shell of a heavier and stronger structure than J. tricolor Rv.,

whose larger aperture extends to a point at the base and has an

outer lip of cupid’s bow shape. ‘The latter is seldom seen, although

in March, 1939, I witnessed a large influx of them in all stages of

growth from; Ss, min.-Up,t@ 35 mm. in height, many iof the larger

size having closely arranged egg-pouches, ‘of a pale mauve colour,

hanging from the underside of the float.

In spite of their enforced migration, a highly efhcient organization

manifests itself by the presence of small jellyfishes (Siphonophora)

which bear them company during the long voyage and upon which

they feed. Many of these are also violet in tint or else a sea-green,

examples being the thin circular Porpita, Velella with sail-like

projection set diagonally across its raft, and the Portuguese man-o’-

war (Physalia), all of which are invariably found on the shore in

large numbers along with Janthina. Young eres sometimes

drift to the shore in the early months of the year; even the tiniest

of these, barely 2 mm. in height, is provided with its float several

times the size of the shell. At the time of low tide the white, frothy

appearance of the float bubbles and the brilliant blue shells sparkle

in the sunshine on the smooth wet sand. At similar seasons, and

apparently forming a unit of the flotilla, may also be found the

acrobatic little Glaucus marinus (Du Pont)—but this is a shell-less

mollusc and therefore outside the scope of these notes.

THe Fisiinc-NEtTS

It is worth while to be at hand when the great seine nets or

periyavalai, taken a mile or so out to sea by Masula boat, are

hauled in to shore. These frequently provide something new

or desirable if one is quick enough, and lucky enough, not to miss

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol XLII

the prize as it slides elusively out of sight to be lost irremediably

in the mass of scft palpitating bodies of fishes of all shapes and

sizes, cuttles, medusae, crabs, and sea-snakes which are brought

in with each haul. Incidentally, the collector would be well advised

not to stand in the sea in the vicinity of the jellyfish which have

to be cast out of the nets particularly during March and April.

The slightest contact will set up a painful irritation and the affected

part should immediately be rubbed down with sand and sea-water.

A local cure is the application of tamarind paste. The villagers’

name for jellyfish is sori, meaning itching. By means of these nets

and particularly from a similar but smaller type of net known

as turt which is used for ground trawling, being operated from

two catamarans out to sea, many of our larger shells, usually in

living condition, may be secured. I here mention some of these

without adopting any particular order.

Harpa conoidalis Lam. is the sole representative of the family

Harpidae. The shell is sturdy, richly decorated, and gloriously

polished within. The inhabitant, at any effort to draw it forth,

detaches the hinder and deeper coloured portion of its foot, which

is left in one’s hand in a most disconcerting way, much as the

gecko with its tail. This solid fleshy attachment is fitted into a

groove running along the posterior edge of the foot proper and

comes away with very little pressure, leaving a clean undamaged

socket which reminds one of the spring-back binding of a certain

type of loose-leaf album. The amputation can be, and is, performed

without adventitious aid, as occurred with a fully grown specimen

which was being kept under observation in a bowl of sea-water ;

this individual climbed over the edge of the bow! and tumbled

out leaving the lobular appendage behind. On another occasion

this part detached itself and fell to the ground when a specimen

was being transferred from one bucket to another, the shell being

held mouth downwards and without any contact with the inmate.

My largest specimen of this shell, collected at Madras, measures

g5 mm. in height and 68 mm. in diameter.

The Conidae, with narrow operculum which is not always easy

to locate, provide at least half-a-dozen species. C. figulinus L. is

the common form with thick brown shell, but Conus amadis L.

(Plate IV, fig. 3) 1s of outstanding beauty both in colour and

brilliance of polish, varying considerably in design and fairly plenti-

ful. C. betulinus L., (Plate IV, fig. 2) with thick periostracum

and decorated with rows of dark brown spots, is of massive pro-

portions and grows to above 4 inches in height, with a circum-

ference of twice that measurement. My largest specimen measures

T10 mm. in height. i

The Ficidae or fig-shells number three species, all of them with

delicately graved reticulate pattern and thin outer lip whose fragile

edge, in the growing shell, requires the greatest care in cleaning

to avoid chipping.

The Muricidae are well represented, many being provided

with formidable defence works such as Murex UIr ZINeEUS

(Réding), with mouth edged with coral pink and_ the spiny

M. tridulus L. (Plate III, fig. 4). Some tribulus deveiop a distinctive

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 331

sculpture, the main feature of which is the number of transverse

ridges between each of the major spines which varies from five to

eight instead of the usual three. In addition the tubercles on

the body-whorls of the former are closer set and more numerous;

until young specimens of the former type have been found it

must be assumed that the variation is merely a late development

Or the same’ species... M. irapa Roding (Plate Ill, fig. 5), a third

variety of the type found at Madras is distinguished by its elongate

spire but, particularly, by a prominent denticle in the anterior

portion of the outer lip which can he traced back in the varices

to the earliest whorls of the sheli. The delicate Murex pinnatus

Swainson, with feathery fin-like varices, is also worthy ot special

mention. ;

Cymatiidae, of which some half-a-dozen species may be secured,

are of strangely irregular shape and furnished with fringes of strong

bristle-like hairs along the crests of the varices.

The Tonnidae are represented by four species of which Tonna

dolium (L.)=maculata (Lam.) comes ashore in large numbers.

The protoconch is a tiny, smooth, amber-coloured spiral globe

and bears no resemblance to the developed shell, but will be readily

recognized by an examination of the apex of a mature specimen.

A series of this shell showing the different stages of growth, the

thickening and strengthening of the shell -and the development

and final fading away of the colour pattern as the supply of pigment

becomes inadequate for the adornment of the expanded surface,

can easily be formed. This method of collecting might, indeed,

be applied to many of the spiral shells to add an instructive interest

to the collection.

Amongst the Pectinidae is the beautiful Amusium pleuronectes

(L.), known as the ‘sun and moon shell’, with the left or upper valve

of livid hue and the other a dead white. This lamellibranch gets

caught up in the nets a few miles south of Elliot’s Beach, off

Tiruavamoor, the adults arriving early in February, apparently

for spawning as the spat and growing shells are in evidence from

early March until June. Full-grown specimens measure up to

83 mm. both in length and height. Amusium, in common with

other members of the Pectinidae, is active in its movements and,

if placed in a large basin of sea-water may be seen to dart about

with an amazing quickness of action. The animal is provided with

a hundred or so eyes of different sizes, round and _ staring like

those of a doll, which are placed at odd intervals among the waving

filaments which fringe the edge of the upper mantle just inside

the rim of the shell. I have counted up to 106 such eyes in one

individual. P. pyxidatus (Born) has about 30 and P. tranquebaricus

Gm. upwards of 50 eyes fringing both mantles to the auricle

extremities.

Madras can claim about forty species of the family Veneridae

among which three Paphia, commonly brought in from the deeper

sea during the latter months of the year), deserve special mention

by reason of their colouring and _ brilliant sheen, namely

P. alapapilionis Réding (85 mm.), P. textile (Gm.) (66 mm.), and

P. gallus (Gm.), also known as P. malabaricu (57 mm.); the

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL ‘BIST. “SOCIETY, Vo}. XLII

measurements given in brackets are the lengths of the largest

specimens so far coilected by the writer. Several specimens of

P. undulata (Born), distinguishable from textile by well marked,

irregular, concentric ridges, have been found recently after a lapse

of many years. Similar occurrences of the intermittent appearance

of a particular species, after an apparent interval of years, are

evident from time to time}; a further example may be cited this

year (1940) in the case of Nenophoru solaris (L.) (Plate II, fig. 3),

sixteen live specimens having been brought up in the catamaran

drag nets during the month. of July although no specimens had

been recorded during the past five years.

Mactridae, too, are plentiful, amongst which Muactra

turgida Gm., swollen out as its name implies and with umboes

violet-tinged, is notable for tts size, as is also the gapimew@

Cultellus maximus (Gm.) (Plate I, fig. 4), of the Svlenidae, which

exceeds 5 inches in length.

Volva sowerbyana (Weink.), a small relative of the Cypraeidae,

is rarely taken in live condition. The mantle fringe is dotted with

bright spots of deep orange colour and the shell itself has an

attractive sheen which, however, soon wears off.

Hydatina velum (Gm.), light as a bubble and measuring up to

46 mm. in height and 4 inches in circumference, is brought to

shore in fair numbers about July and again towards the end of the

year. To see the animal fully exserted and expanded, with frills

and flounces most attractively fringed with purple, fills one with

amazement that so much can come out of so little. To tuck itself

in again requires delicate adjustment and takes time.

The true Cassis is not known at Madras but there are four

species of the genus Phalium. ‘These have brightly decorated shells,

particularly Phalium areola (L.). P. glaucum (L.) has also a very

handsome shell which grows to 4 inches or more in height. The

animal is beautifully coloured in orange, brown, etc., the mantle

being bordered with a brown edge. This is capable of expelling

a purple fluid which will soon discolour a bucket of water.

Of the Strombidae, which are well represented in the Gulf

of Manaar, four species have found their way as far north as

Madras; Strombus succinctus L., whose shells, with expanding

outer lip and measuring about 2 inches in height, are very occasion-

ally brought in. These are invariably tenanted by hermit crabs,

no living specimen having so far been taken. The young: shells

up to # in. are not infrequently found on the shore. Madras’s other

Strombs are S. sibbaldu Sow., (?) S. uittatus L., and -Rumela

canceliata (Lam.), a most attractive little shell of about 1 inch.

A few miles south is located the local chank bed, to judge by

the number of Vancus pyrum (L.) (Plate IU, fig, 7), brought in.

These are of the Tanjore tribe, fully turbinate and with flesh-tone

colouring within. <A large specimen, taken in a fisherman’s net off

Warikuppam, the village immediately south of Elliot’s Beach,

measures gt inches in height and 153 inches in circumference, and

weighs 2} Ibs. This is a truly handsome shell although not so

highly prized for the bangle industry as the purer white and more

spindle- shaped X. rapa (Lam.) of Tuticorin. Young shells of both

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 333

these species are as a rule brightly decorated with closely set rows

of brown spots. The egg-case of this mollusc is occasionally washed

up during the early part of the year, in shape reminiscent of a goat’s

horn, with numerous segmental divisions stuffed with embryonic

shells. The nipple-like protoconch persists in the full-grown shell

as also in Tudicla spirillus (L.), of the same family, which is also

found in this locality.

Few collectors can boast the possession of a sinistral chank.

This well-known variety commands fancy prices partly on account

of its scarcity but chiefly because it possesses a religious significance

in Hinduism and Buddhism, which ensures a keen demand locally

at all times. At long intervals one of these desiderata comes on

to the market, the price realized for a medium-sized specimen

being usually about Rs. 500 to Rs. 800, although much higher sums

have been paid. Unfortunately there is no record of the number

of sinistral chanks taken off the east coast of India, the Tanjore

Chank Fishing-rights having been leased out by Government to

contractors except for two or three seasons only when it was worked

departmentally. During these years, out of a total catch of 57,324

shells, there is no record of a sinistral chank having been taken.

The Tinnevelly Chank Fishery at Tuticorin has remained under

strict Government control for many years. The records in this

Department show that only two sinistral, or valampuri. (meaning

‘right twist’) chanks were taken during the twenty-four years from

1914—one in 1930 and one in 1937—out of a total annual catch

which, in recent years, has averaged between 300,000 and 400,000

shells. The fortunate diver who brings in a specimen receives a

reward of one thousand times the price of a normal shell, which, at

the present rate of one anna per shell, would amount to Rs. 62-8 as.

From what I can gather it would appear that the sinistral variety

of X. rapa of the Gulf of Manaar-is much scarcer than that of

X. pyrum, the Tanjore or Madras species.

The only other freak sinistral shell that I have seen from South

Indian waters was a specimen of Marginella angustata Sowerby.

Two species of Triphora in which the sinistral condition 1s normal

may be found at Madras.

Many minor freak formations may be found such as in Murex

fribulus L. (Plate Il, fig. 4), whose normally straight canal is

sometimes sinuous or twisted, and Natica didyma (Réd ing) (idate ti:

fig. 5). with scalariform whorls. Thais bufo (Lam.) develops a

remarkable thickening of the columellar lip which may even engulf

the apex of the shell and was made a separate species by Lamarck

under the name callosa. In another category are the malformations

due, for the most part, to some early fracture and subsequent repair

ala has interrupted the orderly growth of the shell or disturbed

the normal position of the varices or other processes, such as occur

in Murex and Volema. From a similar cause damage to the

mantle may affect the supply of pigment resulting in the colour-

pattern of the shell changing or even vanishing altogether. I have

examples of these in Natica alapapilionts (Réding) and Tonna

dolium (L.). Albinism is of frequent occurrence amongst some

of the brightly coloured bivalves such as Tellinidae as well as in

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIETY, Vol; XETI

certain gastropods, for example Drillia crenularis (Lam.) and

Turricula tornata (Dillwyn). I have also seen a striking example

in Conus amadis Gm., which normally boasts a resplendent coat of

brown and _ gold.

Our only Volute is Cymbium, the melon-shell, which grows

to nearly a foot in height and twice this measurement in circum-

ference. The animal wears a handsome mantle decorated with

yellow and dark-brown stripes, depicted on the shell! in the earlier

stages of growth, while the interior of the shell has a beautiful satiny

sheen. These are fairly plentiful, particularly towards the end of

the year.

The best collecting period from the nets is from December to

February when the mature molluscs apparently return each year

to their spawning grounds in the shallower depths reached by the

smaller trawling nets, say, perhaps, of tro to 15 fathoms.

DREDGING.

To explore with a dredge the sea bed of Royapuram Bay, and

such depths as can be dragged by hand from a small boat yields

a rich harvest of various dwellers in mud and sand.

With the first haul one is almost certain to see Babylonia spirata

(L.), a powerfully built mollusc which, when dropped into the

Kilner jar, immediately begins to throw its weight about in its

endeavour to force an escape, much to the discomfiture of its

fellow-captives. The aperture of the shell is usually of a highly

glazed porcellanous white but a variation also exists in which

the mouth and columella area are coloured a fulvous yellow. The

two varieties are very distinct. Furthermore, the shell normally

has a deeply excavated umbilical opening but specimens are not

uncommon where the lower part of the columellar lip has folded

backwards and spread over this opening until the umbilicus is

completely obscured. The mature shell is generally about 2 inches

in height but specimens are found exceeding 24 inches. B. zgeylanica

(Brug.), a scarcer member of the family, is remarkable for the

bright violet colouring within the umbilical opening of the shell and

the two richly coloured red-brown bands which decorate the upper

side of the leaf-shaped foot of the animal.

Several species of Mitra, including Vexillum, and of Cancellaria

will be found as well as the very striking staircase-shell,

Architectonica, with its variations in design, its brightly coloured

decorations and peculiar pegged operculum.

Volema pugilina (Born), one of the largest shells of the coast,

is obtainable here and, at the other extreme as regards size,

Phacoides macassari (Prashad), a tiny spherical bivalve of extra-

ordinarily deep sculpture, which barely fills the 5 millimeter gauge

in any direction.

The Conidae and Terebridae, of the tribe Toxoglossa, whose

members are provided with a poison-gland, occupy an important

place amongst the Madras mollusca. In addition to the Coninae,

whose sole genus Conus (Plate IV, figs. 1, 2, and 3) we have

Ti,

already noted, the Conidae family is divided into the sub-families

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 335

Brachytominae, Cytharinae, and Turrinae, the shells having a sinus

or slit at the upper end of the labrum which at one time earned

for them the descriptive group-name of Pleurotomatidae. Madras

can claim over fifty species of these ‘silt-lips’, many of them

obtainable by dredge.

The local Terebridae, numbering some eighteen species

(Plate IV, figs. 6, 7, and 8), display considerable diversity in design

and colour pattern. In size they vary from the } in. Terebra

ienictim eEiitds «(Os ae heieht sols -close “upone “59 anches/ in

T. commaculata (Gm.) (Plate IV, fig. 6). Many of these are fairly

plentiful at a depth of from 15 to 20 fathoms, both out from the

harbour and farther south. T. triseriata Gray, remarkable alike

for its attenuated form and delicate sculpture, is one of the scarcest

of the Madras shells whereas T, eximia Dh., reputedly a shell of

some rarity, apparently pays seasonal visits to Madras waters a

few miles south of Elliot’s Beach, the empty shells, in fairly fresh

condition, but generally with a hermit crab in possession, being

not infrequently brought up in the fishing-nets during the north-

east monsoon season. There are two varieties of T. eximua with

three and four narrow bands respectively between the main spiral

bands. No living specimen has yet been taken locally and my

efforts to locate their place of settlement have resulted only in the

capture of a dead specimen obtained at a depth of 15 fathoms.

The shells measure up to slightly over 24 inches in height.

Marginella ventricosa Fischer with deep olive-green shell which

soon fades to a dove grey on exposure to the air, 1s a gem which

should he preserved as long as possible in the home aquarium

in order to mark the bejewelled decoration of mantle and tentacles.

M. angustata Sowerby, of brilliant polish, is plentiful in all stages

of growth.

Philine is an interesting creature, to outward appearance a lump

of white, rather solid, jelly. Careful dissection is necessary here

in order to expose, without fracture, the gossamer-thin shell within

and the gizzard plates which are so well fitted for crunching the

shells of smaller mollusca for food. It may happen that a tiny

shell is actually in place for cracking at the moment of capture.

Sinum, a relative of Natica, also has the shell hidden within the

flesh and likewise requires delicate handling. Ancilla is unable

to retire wholly within its smooth ivory-like shell but in this respect

cannot be compared with the internal shells of Philine and Sinum.

Arcidae are in abundance and in varied forms which include

the hirsute Barbatia, the strange twisted Trisidos tortuosa L. and,

in the mud deposit off the East Quay, at a depth of 6 fathoms,

Cucullaea concamera (Brug.), which is provided with a cup-like

compartment in each valve for the attachment of the anterior

adductor muscle. Glycymeris, a relative of Arca, is also plentiful.

The nut-shell (Nucula) with nacreous interior and ‘the tiny

Nuculana, whose shells are never to be found on the shore in fresh

condition, are obtainable in Royapuram Bay in 6 to 8 fathoms. Two

varieties of Nucula are common, one with smooth rims and the

other with the interior of the margins finely serrated. Aloidis, better

known by its synonym Corbula, with misfit valve, is another of

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

the smaller lamellibranchs, several species of which will be taken

from the same fishing-ground.

Tellinidae are well represented, also cockles |[Cardium (Plate I,

fig. 1) and Cardita|, the razor-fish (Ensis), Cultellus (Plate I, fig. 4),

and Pandora. Cardium asiaticum Brug., odd valves of which are

common on the beach, in live condition has the radiating ridges

set with sharp-pointed spines and delicate laminae which are absent

in beach specimens. :

Among the sea-urchins there are two species, Temnopleurus

toreumaticus and Salmacis rubricincta (?), which play host respect-

ively to species of Eulima and Stylifer, whose minute shells may

be found attached between the ‘spines. The MHolothurians or

sea-cucumbers should not be thrown back without inspection. — If

the long-fingéred starfish, Linckia, should make its appearance

it should be searched carefully for a small Capulid of the genus

Thyca, though I must confess that it has so far eluded me.

THE HARBOUR,

Residents of Madras may he surprised to jearn that upwards of

fifty different species live in the harbour, some preferring a site

to seaward although battered constantly by the waves, others

choosing the tranquil waters within.

The harbour floor consists of a slimy, soft mud which is practi-

cally devoid of mollusc life with the exception of very occasional

specimens of Pandora, Paphia, and Cancellaria, which can_ be

obtained under pleasanter conditions out to sea. The large buoys

or ships’ moorings in the centre of the harbour are also disappoint-

ing, being overcrowded by Mytilus viridis L. to the exclusion of

aught else.. The collector is recommended to steer ‘his boat to the

inner quay on the northern side where good ‘hags’ can be secured

amongst the submerged agglomeration of seaweeds, sponges,

hydroids, and other sea-growths rooted to the wooden piles. The

Lamellibranchia are almost exclusively of the fixed type, that is

either cemented to the piles or to each other, or anchored by a

byssus. Amongst the former are the massive Chama and Spondylus

whose rough surfaces often bear strong outgrowing spines, the

interiors being flushed with purple-rose. Of the byssus-forming

mollusca a fairly representative collection can be formed, amongst

which will be counted three or four species of Arcidae, of which

Arca lateralis Ry. develops an interior plate or shelf-like septum

although not so pronounced as in the case of Cucullaea concamera.

Others are the oysters and mussels including the allied forms

Anomia, Septifer, Malleus, and Isognomon, the last with a hinge

reminiscent of a ‘zip’ fastener. Lima lima (L.), whose fringe of

red and white filaments in constant motion is fascinating to watch,

is provided with a beautiful pure white laminated shell.

The Gastropoda are about equal to the bivalves in numbers.

Euchelus asper (Gm.) with rounded whorls, a Trochid of solid

mother-o’-pearl, flourishes in large numbers throughout the year

along with the fattened and sharply ridged sub-variety tricarinata.

Gyrineum natatoer (Réding) (Plate IT, fig. 9), a neatly sculptured

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 337

Cymatiid shell attaining a height of at least 2 inches, will also be

found in abundance, particularly during the early months of the

year. Species of Engina, Pyrene, Drupa, and Thais (Plate III,

fiz. 3) also live here.

Of the dozen species of cowry known to Madras, three at least

make their homes here, viz. Cypraea arabica L., C. pallida Gray,

and C. ocellata L. The last-named, decorated with brightly coloured

ocelli, is a brilliant shell which it would be difficult to recognize

in beach-worn specimens. Others attracted to this rich pasturage

include the keyhole limpet, Diodora lima (Sow.) and the scarcer

Amalthea tricarinata (Gm.). The latter challenges close scrutiny,

being almost indistinguishable in its brown jacket, clinging limpet-

like to a pearl oyster or gigantic mussel.

During the cold-weather months of 1938-9, large numbers

of the small limpet-shaped brachiopod Discinisca indica Dall

appeared. At low tide in the same area a Chiton should be looked

for just above the sea level. This belongs to the genus

Acanthochitona and may exceed 1, mech in length. -It can. be

recognized by the tufts of strong bristles (eighteen in number) which

decorate the margin or girdle. Numerous specimens of Cypraea

arabica, already found on the piles, some reaching a basal measure-

ment of 3 inches, and an occasional immature shell will also be found

at low water, lurking in the deep fissures in the north wall which

is also the home of Mitra caeligena Rv.

Higher up on the harbour wall, near and above the sea mark,

are to be found Littorina undulata (L.), in vast quantities, of varied

pattern and colour, and the local Planaxis sulcatus (Born) which

is smaller than the Pamban and Tuticorin shell. A Siphonaria, that

strange pulmonate of limpet form, will also be found here and the

true limpet, Patella -(Cellana).

The limpets, of which there are two or, possibly, three species,

and several species of Thais thrive on the rocks outside the harbour

walls where the boisterous and unexpected wave rejoicés to catch the

unwary mortal. Small chitons, Plaxiphora indica Thiele, may be

taken clinging to the barnacle-roughened walls or lying closely

hidden under the sea moss which covers the submerged concrete

blocks of the breakwaters. This moss also provides cover for the

dainty little Pyrene terpsichore (Sow.). Venerupis macrophylla

Dh. should be looked for in chinks in the rocks where it lies securely

wedged, although at times also found among the algae.

An opportunity should be watched for to explore the pools

at the base of the blocks of concrete piled up in the fork at the

northern end of the East Quay. Suitable conditions of low tide,

combined with a westerly wind to check the incoming swell, will

be met with during July. This exclusive site possesses a distinctive

fauna which includes several mollusca not to be found elsewhere

-at Madras. Pride of place must be given to a large colony of Turbo

argvrostoma L. clinging to the outer rocks at or just below sea-

level; these are in such numbers that a handful of three or four

at a time can be gathered. Nervita albicilla L. and Nerita chamae-

leon L. will be noticed higher up on the rocks. Nerites have the

nocturnal wandering habits of land-snails and are best collected

338), JOURNAL, BOMBAY ‘NATURAL FIST.) SOCIETY Vol, Lit

after dark, but the seeker by torchlight will find his task no easy

one in this rough patch of country. It is strange that the shells

of Turbo and Nerita are never found on the Madras shore, but this

may be accounted for by the viscid nature of the soft mud of the

harbour channel into which any old or dead shells must fall and

sink deeply.

At one point occurs an unsuspected crop of coral (Pocillopora)

within the thick stems of which will be discovered specimens of

Gastrochaena and Lithophaga; in another pool a densely rooted

seaweed furnishes a_ secluded retreat for Arca avellana Lam.

Groups of a tiny Arca symmetrica Rv. will be found nested together

in the hollowed undersurface of submerged stones. Numbers of

the richly coloured Thais rudolphi Lam (Plate III, fig. 3), con-

gregate at the head of narrow fissures in the rocks while Thais

intermedia Kiener (=hippocastanum auct.) and two or three species

of Drupa, and other rock climbers noticed elsewhere, are plenti-

fully represented.

Cypraea arabica is particularly abundant, three distinct forms

of the shell being present; two with dorsum of the flattened shape

usual to Madras, one narrow and the other broad, the ratio of

width to height ranging from ‘54 to ‘69, and a third with humped

back sometimes separated as histrio Gm.

A straying Bursa granularis (Réding) or Murex torrefactus Sow.

is indicative of other desirable things which may be clinging to

the underside of the rocks deep in the sea. How to get at them

is the problem! Here, if anywhere, should be the haunt of Haliotis

if an unconfirmed report that it has actually been taken at Madras

is true.

The rock-oyster (Ostrea forskalii Gm.) will be noticed growing

thickly at about tide level both inside and outside the harbour.

A hammer and chisel will be found necessary in order to obtain

a complete specimen. The empty valves adhering to the walls

and rocks offer a favourite resting place to the small Nerita already

mentioned.

The end of the projecting South Wall provides a swarming

ground for countless numbers of small Littorinidae, particularly

Littorina malaccana Ph. and Littorina ventricosa Ph., as well as

a tiny reddish-brown Assiminea (?) which spreads like a fine gravel

over the spray-drenched areas.

THE BACKWATERS.

In the backwaters at Ennur, as well as in the Adyar basin, will

be found representatives of several genera which, although at

home under brackish conditions, are so closely connected with

the sea as to justify inclusion amongst their purely marine kindred.

Of such are several of the Tellinidae, including the blood-red

Tellina cuspis Hanley (at times, but rarely, a shining white),

Neritina, fluviatile forms. of _ Nassarius, Cerithidea, and _ the

brightly and variously coloured button shells, Umbonium vestiarium

(L.), which are fully grown about April-May. In their turn some sea-

dwellers find their way into this territory for feeding and breeding

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 339

purposes. These include several species of Arca, a small cockle,

oysters, Donax, Volema, Oliva, and Natica; the egg-ribbon of

Natica is in evidence from April onwards. Other marine molluscs

to be taken here include Turritella duplicata (L.), Conus figulinus

L., Paphia gallus (Gm.), and the diminutive Nuculana mauritiana

(Sow.). The last group may be regarded as chance visitors swept

in by the tide before the closing of the sea channel; nevertheless

they accommodate themselves to the changed conditions in which

they find themselves and appear to thrive. This is particularly

the case at Ennur where the wide channel admits a free inflow of

the sea during the greater part of the year. In April or May,

shortly after the banking sand has closed the entrance, many

imprisoned molluscs may be collected. These instinctively make

their way in the direction of the sea and will be found in the

shallowing end of the closed channel or stranded on the wet sand

and mud exposed by the sinking water. Mature specimens of the

brightly coloured Bursa crumena (Lam.) (Plate II, fig. 8) and Tonna

dolium (L.) are usually in evidence. It was here that I obtained

my largest Rapana bulbosa (Dillwyn) (Plate III, fig. 6) measuring

3h” in height. This will also be an opportunity for collecting

Pinna pectinata L. which ordinarily is difficult to locate in the

deeper and swiftly flowing waters of the open channel.

In these peaceful retreats the sea-hare pursues its quiet way.

Aplysia fimbriata ‘Ad. & Rvy., which is the form commonly to be found

at Ennur, exceeds 7 inches in length, its heavy, lumpy body being

mottled with patches of grey and a dull sage-green, the darker

shadings bearing a distinctive mosaic pattern. The Adyar sea-

hare, probabiy a form of Aplysia tigrina Rang, with hood and

mantle-folds richly ornamented in a close-set intertwining or maze-

like pattern of bright olive-green on a grey background, is a

gorgeous creature of leisurely movement whose general appearance

conveys an impression of a prosperous and well ordered life. The

internal ‘shell’? or shield of Aplysia is a transparent membranaceous

affair measuring upwards of 2 inches in height and rather less

across; the Ennur species has a more sloping shoulder than the

other. Bursatella, sometimes misnamed Notarchus, adorned with

jewel-like ocelli and variously coloured in deep brown, grey, or a

bright golden-rust, is a close relative of Aplysia and makes its

appearance in large numbers during the spawning season both

in the Adyar and at Ennur. A microscopic spiral shell of nautiloid

contour is present in the embryo.

At this season, in February and March, the weed-grown shallows

will be found to be teeming with jife in a wide variety of forms.

Particularly so ts this the case in the Adyar waters. The ubiquitous

Cerithidea cingulata (Gm.) will be observed browsing in this rich

feeding-ground and in the mud at the roots of the mossy weeds

there may be collected a fair range of gapers, including several

varieties of Laternula, whose paper-like, hyaline shells of a frosted

whiteness require the greatest care in handling. These carry a

fracture-like scar traversing both umbos but should not be discarded

on this account, the condition apparently being normal. Standella

pellucida (Gm.) is also present, its lurking-place revealed by the

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL WATST= SOCIETY, Viely Xeen

pie

attenuated siphon which protrudes 4 or 5 inches from the

mud.

Periodically, with each spawning, the sea-grass and weeds will

be found crowded with myriads of the small Finella virgata (Phil.)

which reach a ‘fledgling’ stage in the course of two or three

weeks and suddenly and mysteriously disappear. In the same way

swarms of juvenile Natica, Umbonium, and Nassarius, may be

noticed shortly after hatching, at odd times in different pools,

throughout this period. These aiso quickly achieve a state of

independence and disappear suddenly but are later easily retrieved

from the river mud and sand at a depth of from 4 to 8 inches.

The sea-grass harbours also the jewel-like Smaragdia oualaniensis

(Lesson) and Neritina siquijorensis Récluz, both attractively adorned

with variegated mosaic-like patterns. Nevitina should also be

locked for adhering to the inside of an old oyster or other shell

and on stones in the Adyar above Elphinstone Bridge. On mud-

covered bricks and bits of masonry lying in the edge of the water

at the.S.-E. corner of the Adyar pool may be found Cyclostrema

bushi Dautzenberg and Fischer, besides two species of Assiminea

and the small Modiolus undulatus (Dunker). Young oysters, both

Ostrea madrasensis Preston and O, forskalii Gm., may also be

noticed in large numbers astride the shells of Cerithidea cingulata,

to which particular species they show a remarkable constancy,

inevitably to become am embarrassment to hoth parties as the

newcomer quickly outgrows its allotment. These top-heavy shells

are often tenanted by hermit-crabs which soon become figures of

misery as they stagger about under the increasing burdens which

they have to bear until they are no longer able to join their more

nimble brethren at the feast among the tender tips of the growing

weeds.

At Ennur the larger Arcidae and Telescopium lelescopium (L.),

a ponderous Potamidid of 5 inches, the interior of which is smoothed

over with a thick layer of plum coloured enamel, are fairly common

in the soft exposed mud. The latter are particularly plentiful in

the northern reaches of the backwaters at Covelong. where the

black mud acquires a slimy consistency to its liking.

A number of other species can be gleaned from the sand and

mud with the aid of a sieve. In-this manner we have secured .at

Ennur specimens of the lively little razor-shell, Neosolen aquaedul-

ciovris Ghosh, and both at Ennur and Adyar several species of

Nassarius and Tellina, which lie closely hidden a few inches below

the surface of the mud, the familiar window-pane oyster (Placenta

placenta}, some of the smaller Trochidae such as Euchelus and

Minolia, and the % in. Odostomia attenuata (A. Ad.) in amazing

quantities considering that the empty shell is of the rarest occurrence.

This last is seldom seen alive on the surface. Its method of pro-

gression is laborious, first advancing the small blood-red foot about

a millimetre at a time, taking a grip on the sand and then hauling

the shell along, repeating the process with a distinct pause at each

stage of the completed movement in what can only be described as

a furtive manner. :

_ During the dry-weather months of March to May each year

MARINE SHELLS OF MADRAS 34d

the exposed surfaces of the sand-banks of the Adyar are scattered

over with the thick shells of the popular edible ‘mat-tee’ (Meretrix

casta) and other clams belonging to the Venus family. The empty

valves of Sanguinolaria and the small slender Solen annandalei

should also be looked for at the same time. ‘The latter runs from

barely 1 inch’in length early in February to fully 3-inches in July.

These bear a general resemblance to a broader and stoutly formed

4-inch shell, possibly Solen lamarckit Deshayes, which is brought

in from the sea between August and October, young specimens in

January/February.

Still later, in the months immediately preceding the south-west

monsoon, a visit to Ennur will reward the collector with a very

fair series of Littorina, both L. scabra (L.), whose colour-phases

range over a choice of shades in yellow, brown, purple, and red,

and the more attenuated L. melunostoma Gray, which may be

gathered from the little white mangroves and marsh herbs of the

muddy fiats.

One should not omit to record the brachiopod Lingula which

is to be found deep in the mud at the St. Thomé end of the Adyar

basin. The brilliant colouring and sheen, the swivel-action of the

hinge and the cilia in constant movement combine to make it a

most fascinating creature to watch.

I should like to express my apprectation of the assistance so

readily given at all times by the Museum and the Fisheries

Department authorities in Madras as well as by Mr. R, Winckworth,

of London, to whom I am also indebted for many identifications

and the revision of the names of most of the shells enumerated in

these notes. My thanks are also due to Mr. Sadasivan Chetty of

Madras who kindly took the photographs illustrating this article.

A CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF THE PUNJAB

AND THE ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS

Dr. 7. S. SABNIS, B.A. (Hons.), D-sc:,

BAATSC.,) IsA.S.,

Econonuc Botanist to Government, United Provinces, Cawnpore.

Parr 1;

(Continued from Vol. xli, No. 1, 149).

XL. ANACARDIACEAE,

106. Ruus L.

190. Rhus semialata Murray.

Locality. —Rawalpindi (Jerram 8090! alt. 4,500 ft.).

Distribution.—Temperate Himalaya; from Bahahal to Sikkim, alt. 3-6,000 ft. ;

Khasia Hiils, alt. 3-5,000 ft.

i91. Rhus rhodanthema Ingl.

Locality.—Lahore (Mustoe 11706 !).

Flowers.—March; Bright crimson.

192. Rhus copallina L. Sp. Pl. 260.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (*Parker 6771 !).

Flowers.—December.

* Introduced from Cuba.

Distribution.—N. America.

193. Rhus faevigata L. Sp. Pl. ed. Il, 1672.

Ag. ‘Hort. Gdns. (Parker 386337).

Locality.—Lahore

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—S. Africa.

107 5= PISTACIAE,

194, Pistacia integerrima Stewart in Brandis For. Flor. 122, t. XXII.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 31045 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Cultivated. North-Western Frontier; Peshawar valley and

Salt Range; Western Himalaya; alt. 1,200-8,o00 ft., from the Indus to Kumaon,

usually on hot slopes.

108. Scuinus L,

195. Schinus terebinthifolius Raddi, in Mem. Mod. XVIII. Fis. (1820) 399.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14364 !).

Flowers.—October.

Distribution.—Brazil.

| oo

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS — 343

196. Schinus molle L. Sp. Pl. 388.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38638!, 11458).

Flowers.—February-May.

Distribution.—Tropical America.

197. Schinus dependens Orteg. Hort. Matr. Dec. 102.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14875 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution,—Brazil.

109. OpinA ROXB,

198. Odina Woodier Roxb. I. Ind. HTH, 293.

Locality.x— Gurdaspur (Fane 4859!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 514 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.-—India ; Ceylon.

XE) LEGUMINOSAE.

ri. PAPILIONACEAE.

110. ARGYROLOBIUM ECKL. & ZEYL,

199, Argyrolobium flaccidum Jaub. & Spach.

Locality.—Dalhousie (49 !).

Distribution.—India.

Tit. CROTALARIA L.

200. Crotalaria Burhia Hamilt. in Wall. Cat. 5380.

Locality.—Lahore—Kot Lakhpat (Parker 14348!); Rawalpindi (

Flowers.—October.

Distribulion.—Afghanistan, Baluchistan, N.-W. India, Gujarat,

Sind.

201. Crotalaria prostrata Roxb. Hort. Beng. 54.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 567 !).

Distribution.—India. Ceylon, Java.

-202. Crotalaria alata Hamilt. ex. Roxb. in Don. Prodr. 241.

Locality. Kangra (Jameson 33667!, 33068!); Hoshiarpur (Ait.

Distribution.

Java; N.-W. India.

203. Crotalaria sericea Retz.

Locatity.x—Gurdaspur (Drum. 2!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 576 !).

Flowers.—October-November.

Distribution.—N.-W. India.

204. Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk. Dict. II, 201.

V ariety.—neglecta.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 279 !).

Flowers.—August.

Ait; “691 1).

Rajputana,

532 |).

Distribution.—Malay isles; Afghanistan; China; Australia. India—Rajput-

ana, Sind, N.-W. India to Ceylon and Burma.

112. TRIGONELLA L.

205. Trigonetla Foenum-graecum L.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2550!; 2902!); Rawalpindi (363 !).

Flowers.—-April.

Distribution.—S. Europe and Orient, widely cultivated. N.-W.

India.

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST: SOCIETY, Vol. XLIt

113. Merivonus) JUSS:

206, Melilotus parviflora Desf.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Hussand (Ait. 370!, 369!, 308!); Lahore (2933!;

Stewart 2557!, 2602 !). :

Flowers.—March-May.

Distribution.—Orient, Europe and introduced in many other regions. India.

207. Melilotus alba Lamk. Dict. IV, 63.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag.. Hort, Gdns. (* Parker 21718 }).

Flowers.—March; White.

* Grown tor fodder.

Distribution.—Europe; Orient; Siberia. India.

208. Melilotus indica All. kl. Pedem I (1785) 308.

Locality —Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 21716 !).

Flowers.—March; Yellow.

* Grown for fodder.

Distribution.—Europe; S. Persia; Afghanistan; Baluchistaa and introduced

in many other localities.

209. Melilotus corylifolia Linn.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 371 !).

Flowers.—April; Weed.

114. Mepicaco L.

210. Medicago falcata L.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (*Ait. 364 !).

Flowers.—April.

* Cultivated for fodder (lucern).

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Orient; and all through Europe. N.-W. India.

211. Medicago laciniata All.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 367!, 1037 !).

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.--Abyssinia; Egypt; Baluchistan. India.

212. Medicago denticulata Willd.

Locality.x—Lahore (* Parker 21715 !, Stewart 2552!), Rawalpindi (Ait. 366!).

Fiowers.—March.

* Cold weather weed in grassy places.

Distribution.—Europe ; Abyssinia; Baluchistan; Orient; China; Japan;

Siberia. India.

213. Medicago Minima Lamk.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Barrakow (Ait. 365 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Orient ; Mediterranean region; Abyssinia; Europe.

India.

115. Cyamopsis DC.

214. Cyamopsis psoralioides DC. :

Locality.—Rawalpindi—F uttehgunj (Ait. 372 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India—Rajputana, Sind.

Quite wild and not cultivated N.-W. of the Jhelum river.

116. INDIGOFERA L.

215. Indigofera echinata Willd,

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Googerkhaw (Ait. 374!).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—Guinea. India—Western Peininsula. Ceylon.

216. Indigofera cordifolia Heyne.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 140!).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan; Nubia; Malay Isles; N. Australia.

India.

217. Indigofera hirsuta L.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 533 !).

Distribution.—Tropical America; Java; Philippines; N. Australia. India.

218. Indigofera tinctorla L.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 295 !).

Distribution.—Tropical regions, cultivated for local use.

219. Indigofera hebepetala Benth. Mss.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram 8274!).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—India—Himalayas, from Kashmir to Siklxim, alt. 6-15,000 ft.

220. Indigofera pulchella Roxb. Hort. Beng. 57.

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 530!).

Distribution.—Throughout the Himalayas and hills of India proper, ascend-

ing to 5,000 ft., in Kumaon.

117. Psoratea L.

221. Psoralea plicata Delile.

Locality.—Lahore—Chang (* Parker 13790!); Lahore 2903!; Hissar (Duthie

5234 !).

Flowers.—August-September. Petals pale yellow, tipped with purple.

Disiribution.—Arabia ; Egypt; Tropical Africa. India—Plains of the Punjab.

118. EysenHarbTIA H. B. & K.

222. Eysenhardtia amorphoides H. B. & K. Nov. Gen. et. Sp. VI, 480.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 38771 !, 21023 !).

- Flowers.—March-August.

* Seed from Mexico. Petals all free. St. 9, 1, Anthers uniform. Ovary

2-ovulate. A shrub 6 ft. high. Leaves absolutely gland-dotted.

Distribution.—Mexico.

119. AmorpHa L,

223. Amorpha fruticosa L. Sp. Pl. 713.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38840!, 13639!, 13638!, 13637 !,

12946 !).

Flowers.—June-August.

Distribution.—N. America.

340 JOURNAL, BUMBAY NATURAL HIS?, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

120. Mitvtettia WT. & ARN.

224. Miilettia ovalifoliaKurz in Journ. Asiat. Soc. Beng. xu, 2, 68, excl.

Syn. W. & A.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 11400!, 14372 !, 12969!, 38862!) ;

Kavi Park (Parker 38640 !).

Flowers.—April-August.

Distribution.—Burma.

Tone TEPHROSIA PERS.

‘225. Tephrosia tenuis Wall. Cat. 5970.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 145!); Barrokow (Ait. 375 !).

Flowers.—August-September.

Distribution.—Laccadives. India—plains of Sind, Rajputana, the Punjab,

Konkan.

226. Tephrosia purpurea Pers. Syn. Pl. IL (1807) 329.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 579!).

Flowers.—October.

Distribution.—India—Rajputana. Ceylon. Everywhere in the tropics.

227. Tephrosia Hamiltonii J. Ik. Drum. in Gamble. Fl. Madras (1918) 320.

Locality.—Pabbi Hills (Parker 24514!, 24516!).

Flowers.—December.

Distribution.—India.

122. StspaniA PERS.

228. Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 6770!, 0775 !).

Flowers.—December.

A small tree—z2o ft. high.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in tropics of Old World.

229, Sesbania aculeata Pers.

Tucalety —Multan (Holland 26316!; 36130); Lz

14327 !, 14328.,- 14329!); Rawalpindi: (Aits 186)! 775754).

Flowers. —July-October.

Grows up to 8.9 ft. high.

Distribution.—Tropics of the Old World. India—Rajputana, Sind.

123. ASTRAGALUS L.

230. Astragalus prolixus Sieber Pl. Aegypt. Exsic,

Locality.—Lahore ‘2910!; (Stewart Tepe !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Cape Verde Islands; Egypt, Arabia. India—Piains of Sind

and Punjab.

231. Astragalus Aitchisoni Baker.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1040!).

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—India—Punjab.

232. Astragalus tribuloides Delile.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2527 !); Rawalpindi (Ait. 379!); Lyallpur (Inayat).

Flowers.—March-May.

Distribution.—Canaries through Egypt to Afghanistan. India—Plains of the

Punjab.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 347

233. Astragalus pyrrhotrichus Boiss. Diag. LX, 73.

Locality.—Near Peshawar (Collett 57!); Rawalpindi—between Huzroo and

Attsel on plains (* Ait. 1043 !).

* Not common.

Disiribution.—Afghanistan. India—the Punjab.

234. Astragalus Psilocentros Fisch. in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mosc. (18§3) II,

405 = polyacanthus.

Locality.—Pabbi, west of Jhelum (Lambert 39880, alt. 1,100 ft.); Rawalpindi

(Ait. 378 !).:

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—India—Himalayan region.

235. Astragalus composum Bth. ex Bunge, Astrag. II, 3.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 376!); Near Peshawar (Collett 57).

Flowers.—April.

Distribugon.—Afghanistan.

124. ‘TAVERNIERA DC,

236. Taverniera nummuiaria DC. Prodr. II, 3309.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (23990!, 6153!); (Ait. 146!, 380!).

Flowers.—April-August-December.

Distribution.—Orient ; Afghanistan; Baluchistan. India—Plains of Sind and

the Punjab.

125. Onosrycuis GAERTN,

237. Onobrychis Stewartii Baker.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 377 1).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—India—the Punjab.

126. LespebEza MICH,

238. Lespedeza sericea Mig. Ann. Mus. Lug. Bat. III, 49.

Locality.—Dalhousie (244!, 245!, 246!,-247!; Drum’s ccllection); Rawalpindi

—Barrakow and Triete (Ait. 383 !).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—China; Japan; N. Australia. India—the Punjab.

239. Lespedeza eriocarpa DC.

Locality.—Dalhousie (34!; Drum’s Herb.); Rawalpindi—Murree (Ait. 1048!

alt. 7,000 ft.).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—India—the Punjab.

127. ALHacr DESV.

240. Alhagi camelorum Fisch. Ind. Hort. Gorenk. ed. 2 (1812) 72.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker * 13640!, 13135!, 13809!,

13808 !); Chang (Parker 13783 !).

Flowers.—April-September.

* Wild.

Distribution.—Egypt; Arabia. India—Sind, Rajputana, N. and N.-W. Pro-

vinces. Baluchistan.

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

128. Zornta GMEL.

241. Zornia diphylla Pers.

Lecality.—Dalhousie (Drum, 33 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Everywhere in the Tropics. | India——Plains from the Himalayas

Ceylon and Burma.

129. Uraria DESY,

242. Uraria neglecta Prain in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. LXVI, 382, 1897.

Locelity.--Hoshiarpur (Ait. 463 !).

Distribution.—India.

130. Atysicarpus NECK,

243, Alysicarpus lJongifolius W. & A. Prodr, 233.

war

Locality.—Lahore (2950).

Distribution.—Plains, scattered throughout India proper.

131. Ouceintia BENTH.

244. Ougeinia dalbergioides Benth. Pl. Jungh. 216.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Holland 45329!); (Mardainali 337 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Hilly tracts of Northern India and Konkan, ascending to 4,000

ft. in Kumaon.

132. Desmopium DESV.

245. Desmadium ltaxiflorum DC. Prodr. II, 335.

Localitykx—Dalhousie (Drum. 4616!).

Distribution.—Java; Borneo; Philippines. India.

246. Desmodium podocarpum DC. Prodr. II, 336.

Locality.x—Dalhousie (Drum. 59!).

Flowers.—September. Ae

Distribution.—China; Japan. India—temperate and tropical Himalayas. alt.

2,000-7,000 ft., from Simla and Gharwal to Khasia and Sikkim.

247, Desmodium tiliaefolium G. Don Gen. Syst. II, 297.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Triete (Ait. 382!).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—All along the Himalayas from the upper Punjab to Tavoy.

Temperate and tropical zones, ascending to 9,000 ft. .

2i8. Desmodium gangeticum DC. Prodr. II], 327.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 471 !).

Distribution.—Tropical Africa; Malay Isles; Philippines; China, introduced

in West Indies. — India.

1333 PABRUSCEL:

249. Abrus precatorius L.

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 519 !).

Distribution.—India—Himalayas to Ceylon and Siam. Cosmopolitan in

the Tropics, often planted.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 349

134. CiIcER (L.

250. Cicer arietinum L.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2554 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—India—Commonly cultivated in northern provinces and Nilgiris.

Cultivated in various temperate and tropical countries.

135. Vicia L.

251. Vicia hirsuta Koch. Synops. rot.

Locality,—Peshawar College (Quizilbash 23 !); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 575 !).

Distribution.—Europe ; Orient. India—N.-W. Provinces.

252. Vicia pallida Turcz.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Hussanal (Ait. 389 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Siberia. India.

253 ~=—* Vicia Griffithii Baker.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Futtehgunj (Ait. 10461 !); Hussanal (Ait. 389!, 1045 !).

Flowers.-—March.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India.

254. Vicia sativa L.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 21705 !, 21706 !); near Peshawar

(Collett); Lahore (Stewart 2529!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 385!, 387!, 386 !).

Flowers.—March-April.

* Weed in wheat crop.

Distribution.—India—N.-W. Provinces, probably cultivated.

255. Vicia bithynica L. Syst. ed. x, 1166.

Locality.x—Gurdaspur (Drum. 11!).

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—Mediterranean region. P

136. LatHuyrus L,

256. Lathyrus Aphaca L.; DC. Prodr. Tf, 372.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 391!); Lahore (Stewart 2915 !).

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—Europe ; Orient: Abyssinia. India—spread through the N.

Provinces, ascending from the plains of Bengal to the temperate zone in Hazara,

Kashmir and Kumaon.

257. Lathyrus sativus [..; DC. Prodr. IT, 373.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 91!); Barrakow (Ait. 393 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—-Europe ; Orient; Tropical Africa. India—spread through the

N. Provinces, ascending from the plains of Bengal to Kumaon.

258. Lathyrus sphaericus Retz.; D.C. Prodr. II, 372.

Locality.—Gurdaspur (Drum. 9!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 1047 !).

Flowers.—February ; Colour—vermilion.

Distribution.—Europe ; Orient: Abyssinia. India—N.-W. Provinces, ascend-

ing from Bundelkhand and the Punjab to 5,500 ft. in Kumaon.

259. Lathyrus inconspicuus L.; DC. Prodr. TP, 372.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 394 !).

Flowers.—-April.

Distribution Mesopotamia; Syria; Afghanistan; Baluchistan. India—Sind,

- the Punjab.

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL “HIST. SOCIETY) Vol. XLT

137. Mucuna ADANS.

260. Mucuna pruriens DC. Prodr. II, 405.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 470!).

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in the Tropics. India—from the Himalayas, in

the. plains to Ceylon and Burma.

138. ERYTHRINA L.

261. Erythrina Crista-galli L. Mant 1, 99.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 13735!, 13131!).

Flowers.—May. Bright pink.

* Almost spine-less form. A small tree 20 ft. high. Bark rough corky.

In winter shoots die back for 18 in. apparently naturally and not owing to

frost.

Distribution.—Brazil.

262. Erythrina Blakei Hort.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 13666 !).

Flowers.—May.

* Grown in N. Indian gardens as FE. Blakei. Seems to be a hybrid or form

of E. herbacea L.

139. Butea ROXB,

263. Butea frondosa Roxb. Cor. Pl. 21, t. 21.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 124 }).

Distribution.—Plains from the Himalayas to Ceylon and Burma, ascending

to 4,000 ft. in the North-west, Rajputana, Sind.

140. PHASEOLUS L,

264. Phaseolus aconitifolius Jacq. Obs. III, t. 52.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Huzzoo (Ait. 570!).

Flowers.—October.

Distribution.—Himalayas to Ceylon, tropical region, upto 4,000 ft. in the

north-west; native of India, generally cultivated.

141. AtyLosia W. & A.

265. Atylesia scarabaeoides Benth. Pl. Jungh. 243.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 631 !).

Distribution.—China; Malaya; Mauritius; Madagascar. Universally spread

in the plains throughout India.

266. Atylosia crassa Prain in Journ. As. Soc. Beng. 268, Lxvi, 45432.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Rajgarh (Parker 6504 !).

Flowers.—December.

Distribution.—Java; Philippines. India—N.-W. Provinces, Bengal, S. India,

Assam, Burma.

142. CAjJANUS DC.

267. Cajanus indicus Spreng. Syst. IIT, 248.

Locality. ~—Hoshiarpur (2 Ait ses 82s

* Seems indigenous in the low hills at Hoshiarpur with small leaves.

Distribution.—Everywhere in the tropics; probably native of the Old World.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 351

143. RuyNcHosta LOUR.

268. Rhynchosia minima DC. Prodr. II, 385.

Locality.—-Jullandar—* Phillaur Plantation (7712!); Hissar (Duthie 3953!,

2908 !); Lahore (Stewart 2618!); Lyallpur (Inayat!); Multan!; Rawalpindi (Ait.

214!, 135!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 81 !).

Flowers.—-August-February.

* Abundant in the P, Plantations. Stems sometimes woody at the base.

Distrvibulion.—Cosmopolitan in the Tropics; Cape; United States; Ceylon.

India—Rajputana, Sind and everywhere in the plains.

269. Rhynchosia sericea Spanoghe in [.innaea, xv, 105.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 465 !). ~

Distribution.—Malaya. India.

144. Fiemincia ROXB.

270. Flemingia fruticulosa Wall. Cat. n. 5754=Strobilifera.

Locality.—-Dalhousie—(4742!; Drum.’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Malaya. India.

271. Flemingia congesta Roxb. Hort. Beng. 56.

Variety.—semialata.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Parker 7711 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—Malay Isles; China; Philippines; India. Ceylon.

145. Davperctia L. f.

272. Dalbergia Sissoo Roxb. Hort. Beng. 53.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 395 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan; Baluchistan. Plains throughout India ascending

to 5,000 ft. in the Central Himalaya.

146. Poncamta VENT.

273. Pongamia glabra Vent. Jard. Malm. t. 28.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14363 !, 13806!, 14362!, *13732!,

13731!, 13662!, 38644!, 13119!); Hoshiarpur (Holland 11138!); (Ait. 478!).

Flowers.—April-May. Fruits.—January.

* Leaflets of different shape from ordinary form. Flowers much earlier

at Lahore and is not easy to grow from seed. Suffers from cold and damp

in winter, whereas ordinary Pongamia very hardy. Flowers more _ highly

coloured, and petals and ovary more hairy (from Parker’s notes).

Distribution.—Malaya Isles; N. Australia; Polynesia; Seychelles. India~-

Central and East Himalayas to Ceylon and Malacca.

147. Derris LOUR.

274. Derris robusta Benth. in Journ. Linn. Soc. IV, Suppl. 104.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38782 !, 38783!, 13734!, 13733:

Flowers.—April-August.

Distribution.—India— Eastern Himalayas, Western Peninsula. Ceylon.

148. SopHora L.

275. Sophora mollis Grah. in Wall. Cat. 5335.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 396 !).

Flowers.—May.

Deron india Plains and low hills of the north-west; Hazara and

Salt Range to Kumaon and Nepal, ascending to 4,000 ft.

302 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vole Xi

276. Sophora secundiflora Lag. ex DC. Cat. Hort. Monsp. (1813) 148.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 18074!, 18073!, 131261).

Fruits.—April-July.

Distribution.—Mexico.

149. CASTANOSPERMUM A. CUNN,

277. Castanospermum australe A. Cunn. & Fraser, in Hook. f. I, 556.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13810 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Australia.

2. CAESALPINEAE.

150. CAESALPINIA L,

278. Caesalpinia pulcherrima Swartz Obs. 160.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 13614 !).

Flowers.—January

Distribution.—Universally cultivated throughout India and elsewhere in the

Tropics; the native country is not clearly known.

279. Caesalpinia sepiaria Roxb. Hort. Beng. 32.

Locality.—-Hoshiarpur (Ait. 601 !).

Distribution.—Malay Isles; China; Japan; and introduced in Tropical

America. India.

280. Caesatpinia Gilliesii Wall. ex Hook. Bot. Misc. i (1830) 129.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13611!, 13113 !).

Flowers.—April-July.

Distribution.—South America.

281. Caesalpinia coriaria Willd. Sp. Pl. ii. ; 532.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 14861 !).

Flowers.—November.

* Suffers from frost.

Distribution.—South America.

151. GrLepitscnuta CLAYTON.

282. Gleditschia triacanthos L.. Sp. Pl. 1056.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag.- Hort. Gdns. (Parker 143671!, 14366!, 12977 !).

Flowers.—April,

Distribution.—North America.

152. PARKINSONIA L,

283. Parkinsonia aculeata L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 375.

Locality.—Kangra (Bisram 53113!); Lahore—Forest Office (Parker 12992 !).

Flowes.—April. Fruits.—May.

Distribution.—Universally cultivated and often naturalized. A native of

Tropical America.

153. Cassia L,

284. Cassia Fistula L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 377.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 397!); Gurdaspur (Bisram 846 !).

Klowers.—July.

Distribution.—China ; Malay Isles; Ceylon. India.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 393

285. Cassia Sophera L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 379-

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 24335 !, 24336!, 24337 !); Ag. Hort.

Gdns. (Parker 13736!); Gurdaspur (Drum. 61 !).

Flowers.—May-December.

286. Cassia Sophera L. var. purpurea Roxb. Hort. Beng. 31.

‘Locality.x—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 25743!, 24334!, 24333 !)-

Flowers.—-December.

Distribution.—As in C. Sophera L..

287. Cassia Tora L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 376.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (* Parker 14378 !); Ait. 513!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 1891 !).

Flowers.—August-September.

* Abundant on grazing grounds and not eaten by cattle.

Distvibution.—India. Ceylon; and the Tropics generally.

288. Cassia bicapsularis L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 376.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 37195!, 37194 !).

Fruits.—January.

Distribution.—Tropical America.

289. Cassia laevigata Willd. Enum. Hort. Beng. 441.

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (* Parker 19330!, 19329 !).

Flowers.—May.

* Cultivated.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in the Tropics.

290. Cassia didymobotrya Fresen. in Flora, XXII (1839) 53.

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 1933 !).

Distribution.—Abyssinia. Cultivated.

291. Cassia corymbosa Lam. Encyc. i, 644.

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 24234 !).

Fruits.—December.

Distribution.—America. Cultivated.

292, Cassia mimosvides L. Sp. Pl. 379.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Barrakow (Ait. 398 !).

Fruits. —August. .

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in the Tropics; probably native in Asia only.

Distribution.—Southern Europe, Orient.

154. CERATONIA L.

293. Ceratonia siliqua L. Sp. Pl. 1026.

Locality.—Ferozepore—Fazilka (Parker 14374!, 14373!, 14375!).

Flowers.—October.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in the Tropics, Ceylon, India.

155. Bavuninia L.

294. Bauhinia racemosa Lam. Dict. I, 390.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 473 !).

Distribution.—Ceylon, China, Malay Isles, Timor. Throughout India.

295. Bauhinia Vahlii W. & A. Prodr., 297.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 517 !).

Distribution.—Throughout India in hilly districts,

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY: NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

296. Bauhinia candicans Benth. in Mart. Fl. Bras. XV. ii, 201.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38773 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Brazil.

297. Bauhinia cerymbosa Roxb. Hort, Beng. 31. FI. Ind. ii, 329.

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—China.

156. ScHotia JACQ.

2908. Schotia brachypetala Sond. in Linnaea, XXIII (1850) 309.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13139 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—South Africa.

157. PipTaDENIA BENTH.

299. Piptadenia nitida Berth. in Journ. Bot. iv (1842) 336.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 39654!, 39655 !, 39656 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Brazil.

3. MIMOSEAE.

158. Prosopis L.

300. Prosopis spicigera L. Mantiss (1767) 68.

Locality.x—Hissar (Duthie 3962 !).

Flowers.—October.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Persia. India—-Punjab, Rajputana, Sind.

Bundelkhand and dry regions of W. Peninsula, Baluchistan.

301. Prosopis juliflora DC. Prodr. II, 447.

Variety.—glandulosa Sarg.

Locality.—Lahore—Forest Office (* Parker ae }, 53133); 120731; a2945))))

Changa Manga (7904 !).

Flowers.—April-May ; Fruits.—May-June.

* Original seed from Mexico.

Distribution.—Tropical America.

302. Prosopis juliflera DC. Prod. II, 447.

Variety.—velutina Sarg.

Locality.—Lahore—Forest Office (* Parker 17188!, 17187!, 17186!, 23988 !).

Flowers.—June-July.

* Evergreen, seed from Mexico.

303. Prosepis alba Gieseb. in Goett. Abh XIX (1874)

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 408 !).

Original seed from Buenos Ayres.

Distribution.—Argentine.

159. DicHrostacHys DC.

304. Dichrostachys nutans Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. IV (1842) 353.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38637!, 37128!, 37127 !).

Flowers.—January-May.

Distribution,-Tropical Africa,

FLORA. OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 35:

160. DersmantHus WILLD.

305. Desmanthus virgatus Willd. Sp. Pl. iv, 1047.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 7776!, 7777!, 4460!).

Flowers.—November.

* A naturalized weed.

Distribution.—North America. Western India.

161. Mimosa L,

306. Mimosa rubicaulis Lam. Encyc. Menth. V. i. (1783) 20.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram 7897! alt. 3,000-5,000 ft., 7718!) ; (Ait. 147 !);

Hoshiarpur (Ait. 282!).

Flowers.—May-June.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. Throughout India.

307. Mimosa acerba Benth. in Hook.—Journ. Bot. iv (1842) 378.

Locality.—-Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 21894 !).

Flowers.—August.

Cultivated ; Original seed from Argentina.

Distribution.—Brazil.

308. Mimosa hamata Willd. Sp. Pl. v 4. (1805) 1033.

Locality.—Hissar (Duthie 396!); Lahore—-Changa Manga (Parker 201149 !).

Flowers.—October.

Cultivated.

Distribution.—India—W. Peninsula.

309. Mimosa himalayana Gamble. in Kew Bull. 1920, 4.

Locality.—-Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 24425!, 24424!, 24426!).

Flowers.—December.

Distribution.—India.

162. LerucaENA BENTH.

310. Leucaena glauca Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. iv. 416.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14376 !).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Spread throughout India, as it is through Tropical Asia and

Africa, but probably indigenous in Tropical America.

163. Acacia WILLD.

311. Acacia Farnesiana Willd. Sp. Pl. V. 4 (1805) 1083.

Locality.—Rawa'pindi (Ait. 570 !).

Flowers—December.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in the Tropics, often planted.

312. Acacia arabica Willd. Sp. Pl. V. 4 (1805) 1085.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38848!); Changa Manga—

(Parker 18077!, 18078!, 18079!, 18080!, 18032!, 18034!, 18035!, 18036!,

18037!, 18033!, 18038!); Multan (Monro 35!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 148!). '

Flowers.—April-September.

Grown from seed supplied by Vilmorin Paris as A. Nilotica. In Lahore it

flowers at the same time as the local variety and has the same pods (Parker).

Distribution.—Ceylon, Arabia, Egypt, Tropical Africa, Natal. Throughout

the greater part of India. — } ode

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

313. Acacia eburnea Willd. Sp. Pl. V. 4 (1805) ro8r.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 48!, 399!; Panker 24015 !).

Flowers.—April-September.

Distribution.—Arabia, Afghanistan. Throughout India in dry districts,

Ceylon.

314 Acacia ieucophloea Willd. Sp. Pl. V. 4 (1805) 1083.

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 14326!, 14325!); Hoshiarpur

(Ait 6529:1)3

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Malay Isles, Timor. Throughout India in dry districts.

315. Acacia Catechu Willd. Sp. Pl. V. 4 (1805) 1070.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 524!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 188!).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—India (Punjab, N.-W. Himalayas, Central India, Berar,

Gurgaon, Burma); often planted.

316. Acacia modesta Wall. Pl. As. Rar. t. 130.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (7716!; Ait. 400!).

Flowers.—April-December.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India (Western and Central Himalayas).

317. Acacia torta Craib in Kew. Bull. 1915, 410=Mimosa torta.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 516!).

Distribution.—Asia and Tropical Africa.

318. Acacia aneura F. Muell in Linnaea XXVI_ (1853-55) 627.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38631 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Australia.

319. Acacia auriculaeformis A. Cunn. ex. Benth, in Hook Lond. Journ.

Bott (1842) 1377.

Locality —Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 37258!, 17192 !).

Flowers.—October ; Fruits.—January.

Distribution.—Australia.

320. Acacia bonariensis Gill. in Hook. Bot. Misc. iii (1833) 207.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38632!, 37257!, 33099!).

Flowers.—May-August.

Seed from Formosa.

Distribution.—Argentine.

321. Acacia confusa Merrill in Philipp. Journ. Sec. v, 27 (ro10).

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38632!, 37257!, 21044 !).

Flowers.—-April-May ; Fruits.—January.

Distribution.—Philippine Islands.

322. Acacia constricta Benth. in A. Gray. Pl. Wright i. 66.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14884 !).

Flowers.—April; Sweet scented.

A struggling shrub. Introduced from Mexico.

Distribution.—North Mexico.

323. Acacia filicina Willd. Sp. Pl. iv. 1072.

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (* Parker 24231!); Ag. MHort. Gdns.

(Parker 13647!, 13646!, 13645!, 136441, 12943!. .11444 !).

Flowers.—-April-June. Fruits. —December-February.

* Cultivated. A shrub 6 ft. high; seed from Mexico. -

Distribution.—Mexico.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS

dot

324. Acacia homalophylla A. Cunn. ex Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. i (1842)

365.

Locality.x—-Lahore—Ag, Hort. Gdns, (Parker 14885!, 11548).

Flowers.—January.

Distribution. —Australia.

325. Acacia sphaerocephala Cham. Schlecht in Linnaea V_ (1830) 594.

Locality.—Lahore—Government House Gdns, (* Parker 15039!).

Flowers.—May.

* Spines 23 in. long and 3 in. broad, Extraordinarily large.

Distribution.—Mexico.

526. Acacia spadicigera Cham. & Schlecht in Linnaea V (1830) 594.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 15041 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Jamaica.

164. CALLIANDRA BENTH.

327. Calliandra grandiflora Benth. in Hook Journ. Bot. IT (1840) 1309.

Locality.—Lahore--Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38887!, 13670!, 11457 !).

Flowers.—May-August ; Fruits.—February.

Distribution.-—Tropical America.

165. Avpizzia DURAZZ.

328. Albizzia Lebbeck Benth. in Hook, Lond. Journ. Bot. V. 3 (1844) 87.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 240!, 4or!).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—-Tropical and subtropical Asia and Africa. Throughout India.

Usually planted.

329. Albizzia cdoratissima Benth. in Hook. Journ. Bot. V. 3 (1844) 8&8.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Saligraon Parker ae) Gurdaspur-Dhunera

° I 8 1753 P

(Bisram 302 !).

Fruits.—February.

Distribution.—Throughout India. Ceylon.

330. Albizzia mollis Boiv. in’ Eneye. XIX. Siecle, 11, 33.

Locality.-—Dalhousie 3,000-5,o00 ft. (Drum. 22 !).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa.

331. Albizzia stipulata Boiv. in Encyc. du xix Siecle, V 2, 33.

Locality.—Dalhousie.

Distribution.—S.-E. Asia. Throughout India.

166. Pirnkcotosium MART,

332. Pithecolobium dulce Benth. in Hook. Journ. 1844, 199.

Ag. Hort. Gdns.—(Parker > 13125!); Forest

Locality—Lahore

(arker= 148820 ** 17188!)

Flowers.—-April-May ; Fruits.—July.

* Grown from Mexican seed.

* * Seed from Esperanza, Sonora, Mexico. A frost-hardy form.

Distribution.—A native of Tropical Africa. Ceylon; Malay -Isles;

pines. Cultivated throughout India, but not indigenous.

Office

Philip-

358 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

XLII. ROSACEAE.

167.- PRUNUS. LZ:

333. Prunus communis Huds.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. !).

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—India.—W. temperate Himalaya, cultivated, or indigenous

from Gharwal to Kashmir, alt. 5-7,000 ft.

168. SPIRAEA L.

334. Spiraea prunifolia Sieb & Zucc. Fl. Jap. I, 131.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14879!, 11455 !).

Flowers.—February. 2-3 ft. high.

Distribulion.—Japan.

169. Rusus L.

335. Rubus fruticosus L. Sp. Pl. 493.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—(Jerram 8086!, 8085 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—Europe.

170. Rosa L.

336. Rosa multiflora Thunb. Fl. Jap. 214.

Locality.—Lahore.—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 12955 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Japan ; China.

i7i. byRus [:

337. Pyrus communis L. Sp. Pl. 479.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 12991 !).

Flowers.—April.

A French variety which ripens its fruits in the plains. Most do not.

Distribution.—N. Persia westwards to S. Europe. India—Cultivated in the

N.-W. Himalayas, alt., 2-8,000 ft.

172. CRATAEGUS<L.

338, Crataegus saligna Greene, Pittonia III, 99.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14845!, 14244!).

Distribution.—North America.

173. COTONEASTER L.

339. Cotoneaster microphylla Wall. Cat. 662 A.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram 8064!, 6,500 ft.)

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 4-8,o00 ft.

XLII]. SAXIFRAGACEAE.

174. DEurzia LAUNB.

340. Deutzia staminea R. Br. in Wall. Pl. As. Rar 82, t. 191.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—alt. 5,500 ft. (Jerrum 7902 !).

Flowers.—May. ;

Distribution.—India—temperate W. Himalayas to Kashmir, alt. 5-9,000 f1.,

common.

#LORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 359

XLIV. HAMAMELIDACEAE.

175. Farrotia C.d, MEY.

341. Parrotia Jacquemontiana Dene. in Jacq Voy. Bot. t. 82.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi 8,o00 ft. (Ait, 121!),

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India—Kashmir, alt. 5-9,o00 ft.,

common.

XLV. COMBRETACEAE.

176. JTERMINALIA L.

342. Terminalia belerica Roxb. Cor. Pl. V, 2 (1798) 54, t, 108.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 488 !).

Distribution.—-Ceylon, Malaya. Throughout India except

region of the west.

Sind and desert

343. Terminalia Arjuna Bedd. FI. Sylyv. t. 28.

Locality.--Hoshiarpur (Ait. 538!).

Distribution.—India—sub-Himalayan tracts of the N.-W. Provinces, W.

Peninsula; Ceylon.

177. ANoGEIssuS WALL.

344. Anogeissus latifoiia Wall. Cat. (1828) 4o15.

Locality.x—_Kangra_ 9733!

Flowers.—November.

Distribution.—Throughout the greater part of India; Ceylon.

178. COMBRETUM L.,

345, Combretum coccineum Lamk Encyc. I 734.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13674 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Madagascar ; Mauritius.

179. CALLISTEMON [.Br,

346. Callistemon coccineus F. Muell Fragm. I, 13.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 137381 !).

Flowers.—April. Deep crimson.

Distribution.—Australia.

XLVI. MYRTACEAE.

180. MeEtaLtEuca L.

347. Melaleuca Leucadendron L.

Locality.—Lahore—Ravi Park (Parker 38643!); Ag. Hort.

13128 !).

Flowers.—April-May.

Distribution.—Malay Islands to Australia.

Gdns, (Parker .

181. Eucatyptus L’ HERIT.

348. Eucalyptus bicolor A. Cunn. ex Hook. in Mitch. Journ, Austral. 390.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 11445!, 11547! 38680!, 38679 !,

* 38678 !); Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22420 !).

Flowers.—May.

* From French seed sown in April.

Distribution.—Australia.

360. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

349. Eucalyptus affinis Deane & Maiden in Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales

XXIV 454.

Locality,—Cahore (Parker 22462"):

Seedling grown in Lahore from Australian seed.

Distribution —Australia.

350. Eucalyptus Bosistoana F. Muell.

Locality.x—Lahore (* Parker 22459!).

* Seedling grown in Lahore from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

351. Eucalyptus cornuta Labill .Voy. I, 403 t. 20.

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22481 !).

Distribution.—Australia.

352. Eucalyptus foecunda Schau. Lehm. PI. Preiss I, 130.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38672!, 38671!, 386701,

14866 !).

Flowers.—May.

* Seed from W. Australian Forest Dept., sown April 1912, planted August

1912. Flowering as a shrub 3 ft. high in February 1916.

Distribution.—Australia.

353. Eucalyptus gomphocephala DC. Prod. III, 220.

Locality.—-Lahore—Lawrence Gdns, (Parker 22482 !).

Distribution.—Australia.

354. Eucalyptus crebra FF. Muell. in Journ. Linn. Soc. III (1859) 87.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38865!); Lawrence Gdns.

(Parker 22429!); Changa Manga (Parker 14871 !, 14870!); Amritsar—Ram Bagh

(Parker 4479!, 22430!); Kangra (Parker 22438!); Gurdaspur—Madhopur

(Parker 14342!, 14343!, 14344!, 14339!, 14340!, 14341).

Flowers. —November-May. .

Distribution.—-Australia.

355. Eucalyptus Leucoxyfon IF. Muell. in Trans. Vict. Inst. I (1855) 33.

Locality.—Lahore (Parker 4439!); Lawrence Gdns. (* Parker 22470!).

Distribution.—Australia.

356. Eucalyptus microcorys F. Muell. Fragm. Tya5oc,

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22483 !).

Distribution.—Australia.

357. Eucalyptus hemiphloia F. Muell. Fragm. II, 62.

Locality.—Lahore—(Parker 22492!); Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38668!) ;

Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22491!); Kot. Lakhpat (Parker 14338!, 14345 !).

Distribution.—Australia.

358. Eucalyptus siderophioia Benth. FI. Austral III, 220.

Locality.x—Lahore—(** Parker 4454!; Changa Manga—Parker 5956!, 4478!,

22477!);. Lawrence Gdns. (*Parker 22478 !).

Flowers.—April.

* Seedling from Vilmorin’s seed.

** Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

-ELORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 36:

359. Eucalyptus Kirtoniana F. Muell. Fucalyptogr. DEC. I (1879) in obs:,

Sub. E. resinifera.

Locality:—Lahore (* Parker 22506, 6112!, ** 44g97!;- Lawrence Gdns.

* Parker 22505!, 22504!). | ie

Flowers.—December.

* From sucker shoots. ** Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

360. Eucalyptus patentinervis Rk. T. Baker in Proc. Linn. Soc. N. S. Wales

XXIV—6o2.

Locality.—Lahore (* Parker 22461 !).

* Seedlings from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

361. Eucalyptus radis Endl. in Enum PI. Hueg. 4o.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker -.6377!, 38842!, 38841 !);

(* Mustoe 580 !). eee ;

Flowers.—August.

* Sown spring 1911. Flower buds September 1913,

Distribution.—Australia.

362. Eucalyptus rostrata Schlecht in Linnaea XX (1847) 665.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38771

Lawrence Gdns, (Parker 224471, 22448 !). .

Flowers.—May-August.

* Seed from France as ‘Foeld Bay’.

Distribution.—Australia.

1, 388441, *38065 !),

363. Eucalyptus platyphylla /. Muell in Journ. Linn. Soc. (1859) 93.

Locality.—‘ahore

(Parker 19340 !).

Flowers.—April-May.

Distribution.—Australia.

Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 21039 !, 38682 !);

“fy

Changa Manga

364. Eucalyptus microtheca I’. Muell in Journ. Linn, Soc. III, (4858) 87,

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22469 !); Changa’ Manga (Parker

D7 1S4 ye t71S3 i) 17182 |r 181 | 17180 }). we.

Flowers.—July-August.

From seed supplied by the Bot. Gdns, Sydney.

Distribution.—Australia.

365. Eucalyptus polyanthemos Schau. in Walp. Rep. I, g2q.

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrenve Gdns, (* Parker 22468!; 4438 !).

From Vilmorin’s seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

366. Eucalyptus melanophloia I’. Muell. in Journ. Linn. Soc, Il (1859) 93.

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22442!); Changa Manga (Parker

224431, 224441, 44771 !). | busts

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.— Australia.

367. Eucalyptus tereticorais Sm. Bot. N. Holl. 41.

. Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 6rs0 !}; Ae Hort. ~ Gdns.

(Parker 38843!, 38693!); Changa Manga (Parker 22456 !).

Flowers.—April-August.

Distribution.—Australia.

362. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Voi. XLit

368. Eucalyptus paniculata Sm. in Trans. Linn Soc. III (1797) 287.

Locality.—-Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 3868!) ; Changa Manga (Parker

224221, 22421!, 5957!); Kot Lakhpat (Parker 14868 !).

Flowers.—February-May.

Distribution.—Australia.

369. Eucalyptus loxcphleba Benth. FI. Austral. III, 252.

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns, (* Parker 22485!, 4451 !).

* Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

370. Eucalyptus ochrophloia I’. Muell. Fragm. XI. 36.

Locality.—Lahore—(Parker 4452!); Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38683!,

38684 !).

Flowers.—May.

* Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

371. Eucalyptus oleosa F. Muell. Prag. Uk 366:

Locality.x—Lahore (* Parker 4453 !); Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 1544 !).

* Seedling from seed from W. Australia Forest Dept.

Flowering 4 ft. high.

Distribution.—Australia.

372. Eucalyptus citriodora Hook. in Mitch. Journ. Trop. Austral. 235.

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22489 !).

Flowers—May.

Distribution.—Australia.

373. Eucalyptus platypus Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 849.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (* Parker 11546 !).

Flowers.—February ; flowering 3 ft. high.

Distribution.—Australia.

374. Eucalyptus redunca Schau. in Lehm. PI. Preiss I, 127.

Locality.—Lahore (* Parker 22471 !, 4442 !).

* Seedling from seed from Vilmorin.

Distribution.—Australia.

375. Eucalyptus resinifera Sm. in White, Journ. Voy. N.-S. Wales 231.

Locality.—Lahore—Lawrence Gdns. (* Parker 22480!).

Distribution —Australia.

376. Eucalyptus salmonophloia F. Muell. Fragm XI, 11.

Locality.—Lahore (* Parker 4441 !).

* Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

377. Eucalyptus salubris F. Fragm. XI, II.

Locality.—Lahore (Parker 22460!, 22496!, 4443!).

Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.——Australia.

378. Eucalyptus Trabuti Vilm.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Gdns. Overseer 39760!, 39761!, 39762 !,

39763 !); (Parker 38866! ; 38772!; 38770!); Lawrence Gdns. (* Parker 22465 !).’

Flowers.—April-August.

* Seedling from Vilmcrin’s seed,

FLORA OF PUNJAB. AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 363

379, Eucalyptus uncinata Turcz. in Bull. Soc. Nat. Mose. XXII (1849) II, 23.

Locality.—ULahore (* Parker 4437 !).

* Seedling from Vilmorin’s seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

380. Eucalyptus populifolia Hook. Ic. Pl. t. 879.

Locality.--Lahore—Lawrence Gdns, (* Parker 22487!, 22486!, 4449 !).

Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

381, Eucalyptus exerta Ff. Muell in Journ. Linn, Soc. HI (1859) 85.

Locality.—Lahore (Parker 22463!, 4459!). :

Seedling from Australian seed.

Distribution.—Australia.

382. Eucalyptus melliojora A. Cunn. ex Schau in Walp, Rep. UH, 924,

Locality.—-Lahore—-Lawrence Gdns. (Parker 22484!).

Distribution.—Australia.

182. Psibium L.

383. Psidium cattleianum Sabine in Trans. Hort. Soc. IV, 1822, 317. t. a1.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13725 !).

flowers.—April.

Distribiution.—Brazil,

384, Psidium pumilum Vahl. Symb. Bot. II, 56.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 13668!, 15046.!).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Tropical America.

i83/ Myrrus Li):

385, Myrtus communis L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 471.

Localityx—Rawalpindi (Ait. 403 !).

Flowers.—-May.

Distribution.—A native of S. Europe.

184. Eucrenta L. .

285. Eugenia Jambolana Lam. Encyc. I!I Method (1789) 198.:

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 124!).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—Ceylon ; Malaya; Australia. Throughout India.

387. Eugenia bracteata Roxb. Hort. Beng. (1814) 3%.

Locality.--Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (6779!; Parker 13116!).

Flowers.—April. — l’ruits.-—December. i. ee

Distribution.—-S, India. Ceylon.

388. Eugenia uniflora L.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13737 hor:

Fruits.—April. 7

- Distribution.—A native of S. America, becoming naturalized in Ceylon and

parts of India. - 123

864. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

XLVII. LYTHRACEAE.

185. AMMANNIA L.

389. Ammannia bacciicra L. Sp. Pl. (1762) 175.

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 611 !).

Distribution.—Tropical Africa; Afghanistan; Ceylon; China; Malaya;

Australia. Throughout India in moist places.

186. Wooprorpbia SALISB.

390. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb. Parad. Lond. (1806) t. 42.

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum’s Hort. 296!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 404!).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa; Madagascar; China; Japan; Sumatra.

Throughout India. Ceylon; Baluchistan.

187. NEsAEA COMM.

391. Nesaea myrtifolia Chas.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13132!, 67781; 67771, 137881).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Brazil,

188. Lawsonia L.

392. Lawsonia alba Lamk. Ill. t. 296, fig. 2.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13671!); Multan (Monro 312!).

Flowers.—April-June.

Distribution.—-Kabul; Persia. Cultivated in many tropical and warm _ tem-

perate regions. Throughout India, very common, cultivated; perhaps wild in

W. India.

189. Lacerstrormia L,

393. Lagerstroemia Flos-Reginae Retz. Obs. V. 25.

Locality.—Gurdaspur (Fane 4857 !).

Flowers.,—June.

Distribution.—Malaya, China. India—from Bombay southwards.

394. Lagerstroemia iloribunda Jack. in Mal. Misc. I, 38.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Porder 38831 !, *14365 !).

Flowers.--August-October.

* Colour—rose fading to white.

Distribution.—Siam ; Malaya; China.

395. Lagerstroemia anisoptera Kcehne.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38634!, 37122 !).

Flowers.—January-May; Colour white.

XLVIIT. ONAGRACEAE.

190. Epimtonium L.

396. Epilobium roseum Schreb.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 71!).

Flowers.—September. aes tere

' Distribution.—West Asia; Europe. India—temperate - Himalaya, at

5-11,000 ft., common.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 365

19gt. TrRapa L,

397. Trapa bispinosa Roxb. Cor. Pl. 234.

Variety.—incisa Wall.

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 422 !).

Distribution.—S.-E. Asia, Malaya, Tropical Africa. Throughout India culti-

vated. Ceylon.

XLIX. SAMYDACEAE.

192. Casearta JACQ.

398. Casearia tomentosa Roxb. FI. Ind. II (1832) qar.

Locality.—-Hoshiarpur (Ait, 503 !).

Distribution.—Ceylon; Malaya; N, Australia. Throughout India. °

L. PASSIFLORACEAE.

193. PASSIFLORA L,

399. Passiflora lunata Willd. Sp. Pl. IIT, 612.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 15038 !).

Flowers.—October.

Distribution.—Tropical America.

400. Passiflora caerulea-racemosa Sab.

Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (Parker 19327!).

Flowers.—May; Purple.

Cultivated.

Li. CUCURBITACEAE,

194. TRICHOSANTHES L,

401. Trichosanthes cucumerina L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 1008.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 509).

Distribution.--Ceylon; Malaya; N. Australia. Throughout India.

195. Momorpica L.

402. Momordica dioica Roxb. FI. Ind. III, 709.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 408!, 196!, 195!, 194!); Hissar (Duthie 4036 !).

Flowers.—July-September,

Distribution.—Ceylon; Malaya Throughout India.

196. Cucumis L.

403. Cucumistrigonus Roxb. Fl. Ind. II, 722.

Locality.—Rawalpind: (Ait. 192 !).

Flowers.-—September.

Distribution,—Ceylon ; Malaya; N. Australia; Afghanistan; Persia. Through-

out India.

404, Cucumis Melo L. Sp. Pl. (1753) iort.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 4091).

Flowers.—July-September.

Distribution.—Throughout India cultivated. Cultivated in most hot countries,

366° JOURNAL,. BOMBAY NATURAL. HIST. SOCIBT Vs Vol XRT

197. CitruLLUS SCHRADER.

405. Citrulius Colocynthis Schrader in Linnaea V. 12 (1838) 414.

Locality.—Sandy grounds near Jaito (Duthie 4034 !).

Flowers.—August. if

Distribution.—Ceylon; W. Asia; Arabia; Baluchistan. Throughout India,

wild or sparingly cultivated.

406. Citrullus vulgaris Schrader in Linnaea 1848, 412.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 410!); Lahore (2943 Brandis Herb).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—Throughout India, cultivated. In all warm countries of the

world, cultivated.

198. CEPHALANDRA SCHKADER.

407. Cephalandra indica Naud. in Ann. Sc. Ser. 5, V, 16.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 38822 !).

Flowers.—August.

Naturalized in these gardens.

Distribution.—Malaya, Africa. Throughout India, common.

LI. CACTACEAE.

199. OpunTiA TOURN.

408. Opuntia Dillenii Haw. Suppl. Pl. Succ. 79.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1067 !).

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—S, America.

Lill... FIGCOIDEAE:

200; - TRIANTHEMA .L.

409. Trianthema crystallina Vahl. Symb. I, 32.

Locality.x—Multan 31!; Lahore (Cleghorn 2646! ; Stewart 2900). Rawalpindi-—

on salt ground (Ait. 580 !).

Flowers.—October.

On clayey hard soil. Fodder for goats.

Distribution.—Throughout Africa. India—Punjab.

410. Trianthema pentandra L. Mant. 79.

Locality.—Hissar (Duthie 4041!); Lahore (2662! Brandis Herb); Multan

(Monro 2e1!). Rawalpindi (Ait. 411!, 412 !).

Flowers.—April-August.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa. India—Punjab, N.-W. Provinces, Sind, W.

Peninsula.

201. MonuuGco, 2:

411. Mollugo hitta Thunb. Fl. Cap. 120.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2566!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 605!); Multan (Monro

Baal):

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Throughout India, common. Ceylon; warmer regions of the

world.

412. Mollugo nudicaulis Lamk. Dict. IV, 234.

Locality.---Multan (Monro 31!, 232!); Rawalpindi—Barrakow (Ait. 413 !).

Flowers.—October. } -

Distribution.—Ceylon ; New Caledonia; Tropical Africa and Cuba. India—

Punjab and hotter and drier parts,

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 367

LIV. UMBELLIFERAE.

202. Carum L.

413. Carum Bulbocastarum G. D. J. Koch. in Nov. Ait. Acad. Caes. Leop.

(1825) 121.

Locality.—Peshawar—College (Quizilbash 55 !).

Distributton.—Baluchistan ; N. Asia; Europe; N. Africa.

414, Carum ancthifolium Benth. in gen. Pl. I, 80.

Locality.—Dalhousie (179! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—India—Almora, alt. 5,000 ft. ; Nepal.

203. ANETHUM TOURN.

415. Anethum graveolens L. Sp. Pl. 263.

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2546!).

Distribution.—Cultivated in S$. Europe and W. Asia. Throughout tropical

and subtropical India.

204. FoENicuLumM ADANS.,

416. Foeniculum vulgare Gaertn. Fruct. I, 105, t. 23, fig. 5.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 417!).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Commonly cultivated throughout India, alt. 0-6,o00 ft., often

appearing wild.

205. OENANTHE L.,

417. Oenanthe stolonifera Wall. Cat. 585.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 118!).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Java; China and Japan. Northern India from Kashmir and

the Punjab to Assam, alt. o-5,000 ft. frequent; common in the plains of

Bengal.

206. HerErac.EuUM L.

418, Heracleum candicans Wall. Cat. 573.

Locality.--Dalhousie (Drum 328!); Kangra (Jamesan 3354 !).

Flowers.—February.

Distribution.—India—Kashmir to Kumaon alt. 6-12,000 ft., common.

207. CorIANDRUM L.,

419. Coriandrum sativum L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 414!); Lahore (Stewart 2547 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Throughout India, cultivated.

208. CaucaLis L.

420. Caucalis leptophylla L.

Locality.—Peshawar College (Quizilbash 18 !).

Distribution.—W. Asia; S. Europe; N. Africa. India—Punjab.

209. PSAMMOGETON EDGW,

421. Psammogeton biternatum Edgew. in Trans. Linn. Soc. XX, 57.

Locality.— Lyallpur—(Inayat !).

Distribution.—Baluchistan ; Kabul; Persia. India—Punjab, Sind,

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCTEIT VY. Vol Xeelt

422. Psammogcton canescens Valle.

Locality.—Peshawar (1028!); Lahore (2904).

Flowers,—March-April.

LV. ARALIACEAE.

210. HeEptapLturuM GAERTN.

423. Heptapleurum yenu'osum Seem. Rev. Heder. 44.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait.).

Distribution.—Malaya ; Tropical Australia. Throughout India.

211. HeEDERA L.

424, Hedera Helix L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 138! alt. 5000); Patiala State (Jannujee 10!).

Distribution.--W.. Europe to Japan.

LVI. CORNACEAE.

212. 1CORNUS wie

425. Cornus oblonga Wall. Roxb. FI. Ind. ed. Carey & Wall. I, 432.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Dhirkot alt. 3500-4500 (Jerram 7475! 7474!, 74731,

7354).

Flowers.—-March. oe

Distribution.—India—Jhelum to Nepal, alt. 4-7,000 ft. frequent; Bhutan.

LVII. CAPRIFOLIACEAE:

213. VIBURNUM L.

426. Viburnum cotinifolium Don. Prodr. 141.

Locality.—Dalhousie (4627! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—India—Kashmir to Kumaon alt. 6-11,000 ft.

427. Viburnum stellulatum Wall. Pi. As. Rar II, 54, t. 169.

Locality.—Dalhousie (4626! Drum’s Herb.); Rawalpindi alt. over 6,000 ft.

(Jerram 8269 !).

Flowers.—July.

Distribution.—India—Temp. Himalaya alt. 6-11,e00 ft., Kashmir to Sikkim,

common.

428. Viburnum coriaceum Blume. Bijd., 656.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—alt. 3,500-4,500 ft. (Jerram—7469!, 7470!).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Java. India

Temperate Himalaya; N. Burma.

214. Lonicera L.

429, Lonicera quinquelocularis Hardwick in As. Res. VI, 351.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Jerram 7782 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution._-India—temperate Himalayas, Kashmir to Kumaon _ ait.

8-13,000 ft., frequent.

430. Lenicera sempervirens L. Sp. Pl. 173.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 11459 !).

Flowers.—Yebruary.

Distribution.—North America,

“FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED’ HILL REGIONS 369

LVIII. RUBIACEAE.

215. STEPHEGYNE KORTH.

431, Stephegyne parvifolia Korth in Verh. Gesch. Nat. Bot. 161.

Localitv.— Kangra (9739 !).

Flowers,—June,

Distribution.—Throughout drier parts of India, Ceylon.

216. WENDLANDIA BARTL.

432. Wendlandia exerta DC. Prodr. IV, 411.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Lehtrar 9744!); Kangra (9740!).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India—dry forests of tropical Himalaya, Orissa, C. India,

N. Deccan, Konkan.

433. Wendlandia puberula DC. Prodr. IV, 412.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Alt. 4,300 ft. Jerram, 723 !).

Distribution.—India—dry forests of tropical Himalaya, from Gharwal to

Nepal, alt. o0-4,000 ft.).

217, IRANDIA ‘LL.

434. Randiatetrasperma Roxb. FI. Ind. I, 709 (Gardenia).

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Seribari 4,500 ft. (Jerram 7891 !).

Distribution.—India—-Kashmir and subtropical Himalaya; Sikkim; Bhootan

218. GARDENIA JL.

435. Gardenia Thunbergia L. f. Suppl. 162.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13608 !, 13623 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—South Africa.

219.. PAVETTA “L.

436. Pavetta indica L. Sp. Pl. (1753) 110.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Kam Rat (Jerram 6752 !).

Distribution,—Malay Archipelago; S. China; N. Australia. Throughout India.

220. HamiLtonia ROXB,

437. Hamiltonia suaveolens Roxb. Hort. Beng. 15.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1061 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution,—China. India—+tropical and subtropical Himalayas, C. India,

W. Peninsula.

221. Leptopermis WALL,

438, Leptedermis lanceolata Wall. in Roxb. FI. Ind, ed. Carey & Wall. IT,

IQEs

Locality.—Dalhousie (Drum’s Herb. 383!, 384!).

Distribution.—India—Temperate Himalaya.

439. Leptodermis parkeri Dunn. in Kew Bull. 1920, 206,

Locality.--Dalhousie (385! Drum’s Herb.),

Distribution.—India.

aig: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY. “Vol. Xn

222. SERISSA COMM.

440. Serissa foetida Lamk. Illustr. II, 211.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 12962 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—China, Japan.

223. SPERMACOCE L,

441, Spermacoce hispida L. Sp. Pi. (1753). 102.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 606 !).

Distribution.—S. China; Malay Archipelago. | Throughout India.

224. Gattum L.

442. Galium Aparine L.

Locality.—-Hoshiarpur (Ait. 353!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 194 !).

Hlowers.—March.

Distribution.—Europe ; N. Africa; N. and W. Central Asia. India—Temperate

Himalaya.

443. Galium tricorne With.

Locality.—Peshawar College (Quizilbash 9 !).

Distribution.—Central and S. Europe, N. Africa; W. Asia. India—Western

Himalaya.

LIX. -VALERIANAGEAE,

225. Fepia GAERTN.

444, Fedia sclerocarpa Fisch. & Mey.

Locality.—-Hoshiarpur (*Ait. / 628 Nye

* A common garden weed at! Hoshiarpur, Jhelum and Rawalpindi.

LX. DIPSACEAE.

226. Scapiosa L.

445. Scabiosa Olivieri Coult. Dips. 36 t. 2, fig. to.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 425 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan to Armania and Arabia. India—W. Punjab.

LXI. COMPOSITAE.

227. WVeERNONIA SCHRER,

446. Vernonia cinerea Less. in Linnaea IV, 291, and VI, 673.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 203 !).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Tropical Asia, Africa, Australia. Throughout India.

228. Eupatorium L.

447. Eupatorium conyzoides Vahl. Symb. Bot. III, 06.

Locality.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14846!; 13726 !).

'Flowers.—May.

Seed from Mexico. Large perennial, more or less shrubby below, and

grows vigorously.

Distribution.—Tropical and N. America,

FLORA ,OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED: HILL REGIONS 371

229. Sorimaco L.

448. Solidago Virga-aurea L.

Locality.—Dalhousie (387! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Europe; Temperate Asia and America; Hongkong. India—

Temperate Himalaya.

230. CyATHOCLINE CASS.

449, Cyathocline lyrata Cass. in Ann. Sc. Nat., Ser. I, XVII. (1829) 420.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (*Parker 21711); Rawalpindi (Ait. 459 !).

Flowers.—November.

* Weed in moist places.

Distribution.—India.

231. GRANGEA FORSK.,

450. Grangea maderaspatana Poir. Encyc. Method. Suppl. V. (1811) 825.

Locality.—Gurdaspur (453! Drum’s Herb).

Distribution,—-Ceylon ; tropicai and subtropical Asia and Africa. Throughout

India.

232. Myriactis -LESS.

451. Myriactis nepalensis Less.

Locality.--Dalhousie (411! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Central Asia. India—Temperate Himalaya.

233. ASTER L.

452. Aster Thomsoni Clarke Comp. Ind. 48.

Locality.—Dalhousie (389! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—India—W. Himalaya.

234. ERIGERON L.,

453. Erigeron linifolius Willd. Sp. Pl. IIT, 1955.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 126!).

Flowers.—June. Weed.

Distribution.—Caledonia.

454. Erigeron canadensis L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 198!); Lahore—Changa Manga (Monro!).

Flowers.—August-September.

Distribution.—All warm countries; Assumed to be a native of N. America.

India—W. Himalaya and the Punjab.

455. Erigeron alpinus L.

Locality.—Dalhousie (394! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Mountains of the N. Temperate Zone. India—throughout the

temperate and Alpine W. Himalaya.

235. Biumea DC.

456. Blumea Wightiana DC. in Wight Contrib. 14.

Locality.—-Peshawar College (Quizilbash 351!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 1073 !).

Distribution.—Malay Islands; China; Australia; tropical Africa. Through-

out the plains of India. F

372 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

236. LaGcEra SCH: BIP.

457. Laggera aurita Schultz-Bip. in Herb. Hohenacke.

Locality.x—Lahore (2936 !).

Flowers,—April.

Distribution.—Tropical Africa. Throughout the plains of India.

237. PrLucHuEa CASS,

458. Pluchea lanceolata Oliv. Fl. Trop. Afr. IIT, 3209.

‘Locality.—Lahore—Changa Manga (Kanji Lal 1122!); Lahore—(Parker

97241; Stewart 2555!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 427 !).

Flowers.—-January-May-June,

Distribution,—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan; N. Africa. India.

225.6 WE ACOw Ie.

459. Filago germanica L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 437!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 346!); Lyallpur (Inayat !);

Lahore (Stewart ‘2564 !).

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.-—India—Plains and Mountains of N.-W, Provinces. Westwards

to Canaries.

239. Iriroca CASS.

460. Ifloga Fontanesii Cass. in Dict. Sc. Nat. XXIII, 14.

Locaiity.—Rawalpindi—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 1071 !); Lahore (Stewart 2569 !).

Flowers.—March. . es

Distribution.—India—Upper Gangetic Plains, from Saharanpur to the

Krontier. Westwards to Canaries.

240. LEoONTOPODIUM Br.

461. Leontopodium alpinum Cass.

Locality.—Dalhousie (15302 Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Al|ps of Europe and Central Asia. India-Alpine Himalaya.

241, GNAPHALIUM L.

462. Gnaphalium luteo-album L.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 43!, 135 !).

Flowers.--February-March.

Distribution.—Most hot and warm temperate countries, Throughout India.

242. CaESULIA ROXB.

463. Caesulia axillaris Roxb. Hort. Beng. 62.

Locality,x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 609 !).

Distribution,—Throughout Northern India.

24ge 2 [NUPA, eke

464. Inula Cappa DC. Prodr. V, 469.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Lehtrar 97109).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Java; China. India—Temperate Himalaya.

244. Vicoa CASS

465. Vicoa vestita Benth. in Gen. Pl. II, 335.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 428!); Lahore (Stewart 2923!, 2924!, 2928!,

25571, 2558!, 2559 !).

Flowers.—April-May.

Distribution,—Afghanistan. Drier parts of India.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 373

245. Furtcarta GAERTN.

466. Pulicaria crispa Benth, in Gen. Pl. II, 3306.

Locality.—Lahore—Kot Lakhpat (Parker 17178!, 17179!, 17197!); Rawai-

pindi (Ait. 434!); Lahore (Stewart 2556!, 2609!).

Flowers.-—March-May.

Distribution.—Arabia ; Africa; the Canary and Cape Verde Islands. India—-

the Punjab, Upper Gangetic Plain and eastwards to Bihar.

246. XANTHIUM L.

467. Xanthium Strumarium L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Googerlkkh (Ait. 58 !).

Flowers.—June-October.

Distribution.—Throughout the hotter parts of India and Ceylon, usually

near houses; ascending in W. Himalaya to 5,000 [t.

247. SIEGESBECKIA L,

468. Siegesbeckia orientalis L.

Locality.—Dalhousie (15588! Drum’s Herb.); Rawalpindi Barrakow (Ait.

431 !).

Flowers.—September.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in warm climates. Throughout India, ascending

to 5,000 ft. in the Himalaya.

248. Eciiera LL,

469. Eclipta alba Hassk.

. Locality.—-Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 38817!); Dalhousie (15591!

Drum’s Herb.) ;~ Lahore—(j3003!- Brandis Herb.; Stewart. 2598!; Cleghorn

2650 !).

Flowers.—August-October.

Distribution.—Cosmopolitan in warm climates. Throughout India, ascending

to 6,000 ft. in the Himalaya.

249. BLAINVILLEA CASS.

470, Bilainvillea latifolia DC. Wight Contrib. 17.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 200!).

Flowers.—September. .

Distribution.--Ceylon ; tropical Asia; Africa and Australia. W. India and

Deccan ascending to 5,000 ft. in Kumaon.

250. Crna JUSS.

471. Cenia turbinata Pers. Syn. II, 465.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur_ (Ait.).

Probably an escape. An African ynel

Distribution.—South Africa.

2b ii. ~Centipepa LOUR.

472. Centipeda orbicularis our. FI. Coch.

Locailty.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 637 !).

Distribution.—Ceylon ; Afghanistan; E. tropical Asia; Australia and the

Pacific Islands. Throughcut the plains of India in moist places.

252. ARTEMIsIA L.

473, Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kit. Pl. Rar. Hung, I, 66, t. 65.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 582 !).

Flowers.—October.

' Distribution.—Japan ; Afghanistan to Central Europe. India—Upper Gangetic

Plain and westwards to Sind and the Punjab, W. Himalaya, 5-7,000 ft.

374 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

2535 S SENECIO AL;

474. Senecio Corono;ifolius Desf.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1069 !).

Flowers.—March.

Distribution.—Afghanistan and westwards to Spain. India—W. Himalaya.

254. Ecuisors L.

475. Echinops echinatus DC. in Wight Contrib. 24.

Locality.—Lahore (2627!; Stewart 2590!).

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan. India—Upper Gangetic Plain, N.-W. Himalaya,

the Punjab, Bihar, Sind, Rajputana, the Deccan.

25s. Cousinia CASS.

476. Cousinia minuta Boiss. FI. Orient. III, 480.

Locality.—Peshawar College (Quizilbash 41!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 4411).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan and Persia. India

the Punjab.

2562" *CNICUS GL.

477. Cnicus arvensis Hoffm.

College (Quizilbash 7!); Lahore (2926! Brandis Herb! ;

Locality.—-Peshawar

Stewart 2608 !).

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—N. Asia and westwards — to

Gangetic Plains, the Punjab, W. Himalaya.

the Atlantic. India—Bengal,

478. Cnicus argyracantaus DC. Prodr. 640 (Cirsium).

Locality. —Gurdaspur—Seya-purkandi (Bisram 839 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India—Temperate Himalaya.

257. SAUSSUREA DC,

479. Saussurea candicans Clarke Comp. Ind. 232.

Locality.—-Hoshiarpur (Ait. 580 !).

Distribution.—Afghanistan. Subtropical and temperate W. India and the

Himalaya. \

480. Saussurea albescens Hook f. & T. in Clarke Comp. Ind. 233.

Locality.—Dalhousie (15593! Drum’s Herb.). :

Distribution.—India—W. and C. Himalaya.

258. WVOLUTARELLA: CASS,

481. Volutarella divaricata Benth. in Gen. Pl. II, 476, excl. some syns.

_Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2591!, 2505 !).

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan. India.

259. CENTAUREA L.

482. Centaurea cyanus L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (* Ait. 440!).

Flowers.—April.

* May be an escape from gardens.

Distribution.-Caucasus and westwards to Atlantic. In corn fields and

cultivated places of N.-W. India, sporadic.

OE nn. te 9

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS . 47%

483. Centaurea Calcitrapa L.

Locality.—Peshawar—College (Quizilbash 33 !).

Distribution.—W. Asia and Europe, introduced in most parts of the world.

N.-W. India.

260. CaRTHAMUS L.

484, Carthamus oxyacantha Bieb.

Locahity.—Multan (Monro 4oz1!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 443 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—India—the Punjab. Westwards to Caucasus. Perhaps a wild

form of the Safflower, C. tinctorius (Clarke).

261. GERBERA GRONOYV.

485. Gerbera lanuginosa Benth. in Gen. PI. II, 497.

Locality.x—Rawalpindi (Ait. 134!).

Flowers.—August.

Distribution.—-India—W. Himalaya.

262. Cricnorium LL.

486. Cichorium Intybus L.

Locality.x—Lahore (Stewart 2604!); Peshawar College (Quizilbash 51 !).

Flowers.— April.

Distribution.—N.-W. India. Westwards to the Atlantic.

263. Korrpinta PALL.

487. Koelpinia linaria Pall.

Locality.—Peshawar (Quizilbash 43!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 1071!, 439!).

Flowérs.— May. .

Distribution.—C. and W. Asia, N. Africa, S. Russia. India—the Punjab,

Kashmir.

2604. Creris L.

488. Crepis foetida L.

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 429 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—India—the Punjab and W. Himalaya. Westwards to Atlantic.

489. Crepis japonica Benth. Fl. Hongk. 194.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 496!).

Distribution.—-Ceylon; Malay Peninsula; China; Japan; Afghanistan;

Mauritius. Throughout India. 7

265;, PEACTUGA,, Le,

490. Lactuca dissecta Don. Frodr. 164.

Locality.— Rawalpindi (Ait. 457!, 450!, 452!).

Flowers.—March-April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan. India—Temperate Himalaya.

266. PicripiumM DESF.,

491. Picridium tingitatum Desf. Bois. FI. Orient. III, 827.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 1070 !).

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Baluchistan; Persia; Arabia; and N. Africa to

the Canaries, S. Europe. India—the Punjab.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. sOCIETY, Vol. XLII

267. “SONCcHUS “LL:

492. Sonchus oleraceus L. -

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 447 !).

Fiowers.—April.

Distribution.—Throughout India.

493. Sonchus arvensis L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi (Ait. 445!, 202!, 149!, 448!); Lahore (Brandis 2608 !).

I lowers.—March-September.

_ Distribution.—Throughout India.

268. LaunaEa CASS,

494, Launaea asplenifolia DC. Prodr. VII, 181 (Microrhynchus).

Locality.—Lahore (Stewart 2611).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Plains of India.

495, Launaea chondrilloides DC. Prodr. VH, 183 (Zollikoferia).

Locality.—-Rawalpindi (Ait. 455 !).

Flowers.—-March-April.

Distribution.—Afghanistan ; Persia; Arabia; Egypt. India—Punjab, Sind

Rajputana.

496. Launaea nudicaulis Less. Synops. 13g (Microrhynchus).

Locality.—Peshawar, College (Quizilbash 31 !); Lahore (2920! Brandis Herb.) ;

* Multan (281); Lahore (Stewart 2842!, 2563!); Phaltal (15!); Rawalpindi (Ait.

454 !). ;

‘lowers.—March-April.

* Grows on sandy soil. Fodder for goats only. Used here also as medicine

for eyes.

_Distribution.—Afghanistan and westwards to the Atlantic. Plains of India.

LXIT. CAMPANULACEAE.

269. CAMPANULA L.

497. Campacula canescens Wall. Cat. 1289.

Locality.—Uahore (Stewart 2826!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. -354!); Rawalpindi (Ait.

460 !). :

Flowers.—~March.

Distribution.—Throughout India. Ceylon.

498, Campanula colorata Wall. Cat.. 1287.

Locality.—Dalhousie (13907!, 13908! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Kabul. India—temperate Himalaya 3-10,000 ft. | Western

Ghats 5-7,000 ft.).

LXITI. ERICACEAE.

270. -) PIERIS: LD: DON.

499, Pieris ovalifolia D.Don in Edinb. Phil. Journ. XVII (1834), 159. >

Locality.x—Dalhousie (4701! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—Japan. India—temperate Himalaya; Burma.

LXIV. PLUMBAGINACEAE.,

271. PLumBaco L,

500. Plumbago capensis Thunb. Prodi. Pl. Cap. 33.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13118 !).”

’ Flowers.—April. ;

Distribution.—S. Africa.

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 377

LXV. PRIMULACEAE.

272. -'PRIMULA L.

500. Primula erosa Wall. Cat. 611.

Locality.x—Dalhousie (13917!, 13916! Drum’s Herb.):

Distribution.—India—temperate Himalaya, alt. 4,500-9,500 ft.

273. ANDROSACE L.

502. Androsace saxifragacfolia Bunge Enum. PI. Chin. Bor. 53.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 500!).

Distrijution.—N.-E. China; Japan; Loochoo Islands. India—Gangetic Platts

to the Punjab and ascending the Himalayas to 4,000 ft.

503. Androsace lanuginosa Wall. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Wall. & Carey, IT, 15.

Locality.—Dalhousie (13914! Drum’s Herb.).

Distribution.—India—W. Himalaya.

274. ANaGALLIS TOURNEF,

504. Anagallis arvensis L.

Locaiity.x—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns, (Parker 21019!, 20999!); Rawalpindi

80007) 1t, (Ait. 461 !)-

Flowers.—-March-October.

Distribution.—Ceylon ; Europe; W. Asia and introduced into imost temperate

regions. India—Bengal, N.-W. Provinces, Central India, Himalaya, Nilgiri

Hills.

LXVI. MYRSINACEAE.

275. ANIVRSINE, 115,

505. Myrsine semiserrata Wall. in Roxb. Fl. Ind. ed. Carey & Wall. II, 293.

Locality.—Rawalpindi—Charihan 6,000 ft. (Jerram 7784!, 7783 !).

Flowers.—April.

Distribution.—Himalayas, Burma.

276. Arvbist1A SWARTZ.

506. Ardisia solanacea Roxb. Cor. Pl. 27. t. 27.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 13143!, 131441).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Ceylon, Malaya, China. Throughout India, alt. o0-5,000 ft.

507. Ardisia Pickeringia Terr. & Gray ex DC. Prodr. VIII, 124.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14368!, 11454!).

Flowers.—November-February.

Distribution.—Philippine Islands.

277. REPTONIA 1. DC,

508. Reptonia buxifolia A. DC. Prodr. VIII, 153.

Locality.—Peshawar—Nizampur (8219 !).

Distribution.—-Afghanistan ; Muscat.

LXVII. SAPOTACEAE.

278. Muimusors L.

509. Mimusops Elengi L.

Locality.—Multan-Harani Bagh (Monro 314!).

Distribution.—Cultivated in the Tropics. India

quently cultivated.

Deccan; in N. India fre-

378

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HiS?. SOCIETY: Vol. XLH

510. Mimusops hexandra Roxb. Cor. Pl. I, 16, t. 15 and FI. Ind. II, 238.

Locality.—Multan & Jalalpur (Monro 409 !).

Flowers.—June.

and

Distribution.—India—Deccan common; extending north to Gujrat, Banda

Circars; cultivated in N.-W. India. Ceylon common.

LXVIII. EBENACEAE.

279. Diospyros L.

511. Diospyros cordifoiia Roxb. Cor. Pl. I, 38, t. 50 and FI. Ind., II, 538.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 563!).

Distribution.—Burma; Malay Archipelago; Tropical Australia.

512. Diospyros tomentosa Roxb. Hort. Beng. 4o and FI. Ind. II, 532.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur !.

Fruits.—October.

Distribution.—India.

LXIX. OLEACEAE.

280. JASMINUM L.

513. Jasminum Sambac Ait Hort. Kew I, 8.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Mustoe 6369 !).

Flowers.—June.

Distribution.—Much cultivated throughout India and in the Tropics of beth

hemispheres.

514. Jasminum pubescens Willd. Sp. Pl. I, 37.

Locality.—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 596!).

Distribution.—Burma; Ceylon; China. Throughout India.

515. Jasminum arborescens Roxb. Hort. Beng. 3 and FI. Ind. ed. Carey &

Wall. I, 94.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 6367 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Throughout India, in the hot lower hills, alt. 500-3,000 ft.,

common.

Deccan Peninsula common, cultivated in Sind, N.-W.

516. Jasminumrigidum Zenker Pl. Ind. 5, t. 6.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Mustoe 6380!).

Flowers.—-April.

Distribution.—India—Deccan Peninsula. Ceylon.

517, Jasminum auriculatum Vahl. Symb. III, 1.

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (Ait. 561!).

Distribution.—Ceylon common; Siam and Mauritius cultivated. India—

India, Bengal.

518. Jasminum humile L.

Locality.—Rawalpindi 4,000-6,000 ft. (Jerram 7894 !).

Flowers.—May.

Distribution.—Ceylon and Nepal common, Kabul cultivated widely. India—

India and subtropical Himalaya common, alt. 2-5,o00 ft. common.

519. Jasminum officinale L.

Locality.—Dalhousie (4844! Drum’s Herb.);/ Rawalpindi 5,000 ft. (Jerram

8091 !). ;

Flowers. —June. \

Distribution.—Kabul ; a ear China; Europe, etc. Often cultivated in India.

{ ,

FLORA OF PUNJAB AND ASSOCIATED HILL REGIONS 379

281. FRaxinus L.

520. Fraxinus oxyphylla Bieb. Fl. Taur. Cauc. Il, 450.

Locality.—Lahore—Ag. Hort. Gdns. (Parker 14247!, 12970!, 13811 !, 13664!).

Flowers.—April-May.

Distribution.—Tauria.

282. Onea L.

521. Olea cuspidata Wall. Cat, 2817.

Locality.--Rawalpindi (P. 5891!, Ait. 205!); Hoshiarpur (Ait. 204 !).

Flowers.—September. Fruits.—November.

Distribution.—Kabul; Baluchistan. India—N.-W. Himalaya and Kashmir,

alt. 2-6,o00 ft. frequent.

522. Olea europaea L. Sp. Pl. 8.

Locality.x—Hoshiarpur (*Parker 14377!); Rawalpindi (Ait. 462 !).

Flowers.—July.

* It is 5 ft. in girth near the base but, as in Lanore, gets covered with

woolly blight.

Distribution.—Mediterranean region; Orient.

(To be continued)

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES

OF INDIA,

lial GALS iS wee. S

The LapiatAze are herbs or under-shrubs with stems usually

quadrangular bearing the leaves on the flat side. They form a

large family of 3,300 species grouped in 200 genera. They are

distributed over both hemispheres, especially in temperate regions,

being particularly ¢ ibundant in the Mediterranean area.

This important Order has but few poisonous members, and

includes a number of medicinal and sub-medicinal plants of great

value. In the lists of drugs supplied to herbalists the Labiates are

very strongly represented. They mostly exhibit aromatic or bitter-

aromatic, stimulant, and astringent properties; and they are used

as tonics, emmenagogues, diaphoretics, and antispasmodics.

Many members yield essential oils when distilled. Alkaloids—-

Eetonicine, stachydrine, turicine—, and glucosides—hyssopin—have

been isolated.

The medicinal and poisonous Labiates of the world belong to

84 genera :—ACROCEPHALUS (Malay Archipelago to tropical Africa) ;

ACROTOME (southern and tropical Africa); AEOLANTHUS (Africa)

AGASTACHE (North America); AJUGA (palaeotemperate regions) ;

AMARACUS (eastern Mediterranean); ANisocHILus (Asia, Africa);

ANISOMELES (Indo-Malayan region); AUDiBERTIA (North America);

PaLtLota (Europe, Mediterranean region; western Asia); BETONICA

(cosmopolitan); BRUNELLA (cosmopolitan); CALAMINTHA (northern

iemperate regions; tropical mountains); COLEBROOKEA (India);

CoLrus (palaeotropical regions) ; Cunita (America) ; DRACOCEPHALUM

(northern temperate regions); DysopHyLia (eastern Asia, Australia) ;

ELsHoitzia (Asia, Europe, Abyssinia); ENbOSTEMON (southern and

tropical Africa); ErRemMostacuys (central and western Asia); ERYTH-

ROCHLAMYS (tropical Africa); GALEopsIs (northern temperate regions) ;

GENIOSPORUM (Africa, Madagascar, Indo-Malayan region);

GrecHomMa (Old World); GLEcHON (Brazil, Paraguay); GOMPHOs-

(Indo-Malayan region, China); HEpDEomMA (America);

rarm Africa) ; “HYMENOCRATER (western Asia); Hypris

Hyssopus (Europe, Mediterranean region, Asia) ;

Igoza (southern and tropical Africa); LALLEMANTIA ectenn Asia) ;

LamiuM (Europe, Asia, extratropical Africa); Lasiocorys (Africa) ;

LavANnDULA (Mediterranean region to India); LronotTis (tropical

and southern Africa); LEoNuRUS (Europe, Asia; tropical regions) ;

Leucas (tropical regions; Africa, Asia); LopHaNTuus (central Asia;

China); Lycopus (northern temperate regions); MARRUBIUM

(Europe, North Africa, temperate Asia); MARSYPIANTHES (warm

America); Metissa (Europe, western Asia); MELITTIS (Europe) ;

Mentua (Old World); MERIANDRA (Himalaya; Abyssinia); Micro-

MERIA (cosmopolitan); Monarpa (North America}; MonaRDELLA

TEMMA

HOSLUNDIA (Vv

(warm America) ;

ote

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 38h

(Western North America); Moscuosma (palaeotropical regions) ;

Mosta (Himalava to Japan); Nepeta (northern hemisphere);

Ocimum (tropical and warm temperate regions); Or1iGANUM (Europe;

Mediterranean region) ; ORTHOSIPHON (Indo-Malayan region; tropical

Africa); OrosTrcia (western Asia; Abyssinia); PELTOpON (Brazil,

Paraguay); PERILLA (India to Japan); PEROwskta (western Asia);

PHLomis (northern palaeotemperate regions}; PuysostEcia (North

America); PLatystoma (tropical Asia; Africa); PLECTRANTHUS

(palaeotropical regions; eastern Asia); Pococyng (California) ;

PoGOSTEMON (Indo-Malayan region); PycNantHemMumM (North

America); Rosmarinus (Mediterranean region); RoyLea (Himalaya) ;

SALVIA (tropical and temperate regions); SATUREIA (warm regions) ;

SCUTELLARIA (cosmopolitan, except South Africa); SOLENOSTEMON

(western Africa); SpHACELE (warm America; Hawaiian Isles);

STACHYS (cosmopolitan, except Australia) ; SYNCOLOSTEMON (southern

Africa); TETRADENIA (tropical Asia; Australia); TEUCRIUM (cosmo-

politan); THympra (south-eastern Europe; western Asia); THymus

(Old World); TrRicHostema (North America}; Zataria (Persia,

Afghanistan); ZizipHora (Mediterranean region; central Asia).

The medicinal and poisonous Labiates of India are included in

the following 49 genera:—ACROCEPHALUS, AJUGA, ANISOCHILUS,

ANISOMELES, BRUNELLA, CALAMINTHA, COLEBROOKEA, COLEUS,

DRACOCEPHALUM, DySOPHYLLA, ELSHOLTZIA, EREMOSTACHYS, GALE-

OPSIS, GENIOSPORUM, GOMPHOSTEMMA, HYMENOCRATER, HyPTIs,

Hyssopus, LALLEMANTIA, LAamMiumM, LAVANDULA, LEONOTIS, LEONURUS,

Leucas, Lycopus, MarruspiuM, MeEtissa, MEnTHA, MERIANDRA,

MICROMERIA, MoscHosMA, NEPETA, OCIMUM, ORIGANUM, ORTHOSI-

FHON, OTOSTEGIA, PERILLA, PEROWSKIA, PLATYSTOMA, POGOSTEMON,

ROYLEA, SALVIA, SATUREIA, SCUTELLARIA, STACHYS, TEUCRIUM,

THYMUS, ZATARIA, ZIZIPHORA.

I. Perfect stamens 4, rarely 2, declinate. Anther-cells

confluent. Ovary 4-partite. Nutlets dry. Basal scar

small.

A. Lower lip of corolla 1-lobed; stamens usually

exserted; basal scar of nuilets not oblique.

1. Lower lip of corolla flat or nearly so.

a. Calyx deflexed in fruit, upper lobe recurved,

margin decurrent on the tube.

i. Corolla-tube not exceeding the calyx,

stigma 2-fid ... oe a ... OCIMUM,

ii. Corolla-tube exceeding the calyx, stigma

entire shi ie sé ... ORTHOSIPHON.

b. Calyx sub-erect or declinate in fruit, upper

lobe not recurved, margins not decurrent.

i. Flowers in globose heads or in simple

spikes or racemes.

a. Calyx narrowly tubular in fruit.

* Calyx suberect, upper lip 1-lobed,

lower lip entire or 4-toothed ... ACROCEPHALUS,

** Calyx usually declinate, upper lip

1-lobed, with the lateral and lower

teeth free, or the lateral teeth united

with the upper lobe rg ... GENIOSPORUM.

B. Calyx widely campanulate in fruit ... PLatystoma.

ii, Flowers in paniculate racemes ... .» MoscHosma.

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

2. Lower lip of corolla conspicuously concave, or

boat-shaped.

a. Corolla distinctly 2-lipped, lower lip longer

than the upper.

i. Upper lip of calyx rounded, deflexed; or

the calyx subequally 5-toothed ... COLEUS.

ii. Upper lip of calyx beaked or truncate,

curved downwards to close the mouth, or

the calyx 1-lipped, the upper lip absent .... ANISOCHILUS.

b. Corolla 5-lobed, the lowest lobe shorter or

equalling the other lobes aS eeELYeDIS:

B. Lower lip of corolla 3-fid; stamens included; basal

scar of nutlets oblique Wy ut ... LAVANDULA.

II. Perfect stamens 4 with the upper pair longest or 2

straight diverging or ascending. Anthers 1- or 2-celled.

A. Stamens 2; anterior perfect, anther-cells parallel... LYyCOPUS.

B. Stamens 4.

1. Stamens subequal not didynamous.

a. Anthers 1-celled.

i. Calyx 5-toothed, teeth neither feathery nor

longer than the tube.

a. Corolla sub-2-lipped, lower lip longer .... POGOSTEMON.

B. Corolla equally 4-fid Bre ... DYSOPHYLLA.

il. Calyx 5-partite, segments feathery, longer

than the tube

b. Anthers 2-celled.

COLEBROOKEA.

i. Fruiting calyx 2-lipped; corolla 5-lobed ... PERILLA.

ii. Fruiting calyx 5-toothed ; corolla 4-lobed .... MENTHA.

2. Stamens didynamous.

a. Anther-cells at repel confluent, (2-celled when

young :

b. Anther- cells never ieonauent.

i. Calyx 5-nerved

. Calyx 15-nerved

a, Stamens exserted

B Stamens ascending under the hood

ili, Calyx 10-13-nerved

a. Corolla subequally 4-lobed, or obscure-

ly 2-lipped; calyx-throat villous, mouth

closed by the villi.

* Whirls = many-flowered, capitate ;

bracts conspicuous forming an_in-

volucre cee .. ORIGANOM.

** Whorls few-flowered, not capitate ;

bracts minute, not forming an

involucre Be .. PuyMus.

8. Corolla distinctly a-lipped, calyx-throat

glabrous or hairy, mouth not closed.

* Corolla-tube straight.

{| Calyx sub-equally 5-toothed, or

obscurely 2-lipped; corolla-tube

not exceeding the calyx.

+ Calyx usually ro-nerved (leaves

linear-oblong in Indian

species) SATURETA.

tt Calyx usually 13- -nerved (leaves

broadly ovate in Indian

ELSHOLTZIA.

ZATARIA.

Hyssopus.

HyMENOCRATER.

species) soe .» MICROMERIA.

"4 Calyx distinctly 2-lipped, corolla-

tube exceeding the calyx ..; CALAMINTHA.

** Corolla-tube recurved and ascending MELISSA,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES

III. Perfect stamens 2, ascending, parallel. Anther-cells

linear, solitary or separated by a filiform connective.

A. Anther-cells equal, contiguous, pendulous from a

small connective an sie at si

B. Anther-cells equal, distant, eters from a long

connective

C. Anther-cells very wacaucl or solitary on a pone

connective

D. Anthers connate at the margin ...

IV. Perfect stamens 4 with the upper pair longest, rarely

2, ascending or diverging. Anthers 2-celled, cells at

length diverging. Ovary 4-partite.

A. Calyx tubular, 5-toothed

B. Calyx 2-lipped, upper lip much ne ter

C. Calyx 2-lipped, lateral lobes of upper lip on the

face of the midlobe ae a

V. Perfect stamens 4, ascending, lower pair longest.

5-1o-nerved. Upper lip of corolla _ erect,

spreading, trifi

A. Calyx deeply 2-lipped ;

closed by the lips.

1. Lips of oe entire,

plate

2. Upper lip Ba eal 3- toothed,

lower lip 2-toothed

B. Calyx tubular or campanulate, 5-10-toothed,

obscurely 2-lipped, mouth not closed.

1. Upper lip of corolla flat, not hooded.

a. Stamens included. in the corolla-tube.

_ b. Stamens exserted from the corolla-tube

2. Upper lip of corolla hooded.

a. Calyx with a very widely cues ae with

sinuate margin

b. Calyx limb not expanded, “g-lobed,

toothed.

i. Anther-cells hairy.

Calyx

mouth of fruiting calyx

upper lip with a_ broad-

‘without any plate,

or 5-10-

a. Anther-cells transverse; nutlets com-

pressed wie bere fi

B. Anther-cells not transverse; nutlets

triquetrous

ii. Anther-cells glabrous.

a. Calyx-teeth much shorter than the

tube.

*Calyx 8-10-toothed.

4] Upper lip of corolla shorter than

the lower es

“i Upper lip of corolla longer than

the lower x

** Calyx 5-toothed, or lobed.

. 9 Upper filaments not. appendiculate

at the base.

+ Anther-cells not

(leaves not sected)

++ Anther-ceils transverse, (leaves

much sected)

1 Upper filaments appendiculate at

the base ;

6B. Calyx- teeth or - lobes as long as or

longer than the tube - oes

transverse,

lower

OF INDIA

. PEROWSKIA.

. MERIANDRA.

£. USALVIA:

ZIZIPHORA.

NEPETA.

DRACOCEPHALUM

. LALLEMANTIA.

. SCUTELLARIA.

. BRUNEILA.

... MARRUBIUM.

... ANISOMELES.

. OTOSTEGIA.

. GALEOPSIS.

. LAMIUM.

LeEucas.

. LEONOTIS.

STACHYS.

. LEONURUS.

. EREMOSTACHYS.

. ROYLEA.

383

384. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. ‘SOCIETY. Vol. wxXsenn

V. Stamens straight or ascending. Nutlets with a small

basal scar or areola, rugose with a thick and slightly

fleshy pericarp Se aa Bee ... GOMPHOSTEMMA,

VI. Stamens 4, ascending ; calyx ro-nerved. Ovary 4-

lobed. Nutlets with a large, oblique or lateral areola.

A. Corolla 1-lipped, upper lip absent, lower 5-lobed .... TEucRIUM.

B. Corolla 2-lipped, upper entire or 2-fid, lower 3-

lobed = a =n a ae AUCH

ACROCEPHALUS.

PP as

The genus numbers 4o species, spreading sfrom the Malay.

Archipelago to Africa.

A. lilacinus Oliv. is a Gold Coast remedy for headache.

ascends to 5,000 ft. in the Himalayas.

The plant is used as an expectorant in Sind.

Sindi: Ustukudus—-.

AJUGA.

The genus consists of 30 palaeotemperate species.

A, Iva Schreb. is used medicinally in Europe; 4. Chamaepitys

Schreb, in Europe and the M’Zab; A. reptans Linn. in Europe and

North America; A. ophrydis Burch. in South Africa.

Ajuga bracteosa Wall. is a small herb inhabiting the North-

West Frontier Province, Kashmir, Punjab, Kumaon, and Nepal.

It extends to Afghanistan, Tibet, China, Japan, and Abyssinia.

In the Punjab the leaves are given in the treatment of fevers

as a substitute for cinchona. The plant is considered a_ bitter

astringent and an aromatic tonic, specially useful in ague.

On the Salt Range it is used to kill lice, and is regarded as

depurative.

Jhelum: Wauriboti—; NKumaon: Ratpatha—-; Sutlej: Karku, Nilkantihi-— ;

Trans-Indus : Khurbanri—.

ANISOCHILUS.

The genus consists of 20 species, inhabiting the tropical areas

of Asia and Africa.

Anisochilus carnosus Wall. is an erect annual herb found all

over the country, from Western Himalaya to Burma and South

India, and Ceylon.

The fresh juice of the leaves mixed with sugar-candy is given

by the Tamil doctors in cynanche; and mixed with sugar and

gingelly-oil, is used as a cooling liniment for the head.

eee

Dr esi K. Mukerjee-—A Revision of the Labiatae of the Indian Em the.

Records Bot, Survey of India; vol, XIV, M0./°1 4) Togo: :

LE MEDICINAL AND POTSONOUS, LACTATES OF INDIA 385

The plant is a mild stimulant, expectorant, particularly useful

in the cough of childhood. The juice of the leaves mixed with

sugar and human milk is in Mysore a popular domestic remedy

for coughs in children.

The juice of the leaves 1s commonly used in catarrh.

The plant yields a volatile oil which is credited with stimulant,

diaphoretic, and expectorant properties.

Bombay: Choraonva, Kapurli—; Canarese: Doddapatri— ; Deccan: Ajvan,

anjiri— ; indi: Panjiri—; evati: Ajama, Ajmamupatru, Ubhoratavelio— ;

Panj ; Hindi: Panjiri—; Gujerati: Ajama, Ajmam ruy UI tavel

Malayalam: Chomara, Kattukurkka, Kurkka, Patukurkka—; Marathi:

Choraonva, Kapurli— ; Pondicherry : Lavande—; Sinhalese : Galkapprawalliya— ;

Tanal: Warppuravalli—; Telugu: Iurpuravaili, Omamu-aku, Rogachettu—.

ANISOMELES.

The genus consists of 6 Indo-Malayan species, spreading to

Australia.

A. indica O. Ktze is used medicinally in Annam, the Philippine

Islands, and La Reunion; A. malabarica R. Br. also is used in

La Reunion.

Leaves broadly ovate. Nutlets black eas = ~ A. indica.

Leaves oblong-lanceolate. Nutlets pale brown = A, malabariea.

1. Anisomeles indicaO,. Ktze is found throughout India, ascend-

ing to 6,000 feet in the Himalayas. It is distributed to Ceylon,

the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, the Philippine Islands, and

China.

The plant has carminative, astringent, and tonic properties. It

yields an essential oil which, in Ceylon, is used in uterine affections.

Bombay: Gopali—; Cantonese: Ts’in ts’0—; Chinese: Ch'ien Ts'ao— ;

Malaya: Hee chin choo—; Sinhalese: Yak-wanassa— ; Tagalog : Valingharap—.

2. Anisomeles malabarica R. Br. is found in’ the Deccan

peninsula, and is a well-known plant in Southern India, whence it

spreads to Ceylon, Malaya, and Mauritius.

In Southern India, few plants are held in higher esteem, or

are more frequently employed in native practice, than this. An

infusion of the aromatic bitter leaves is in common use in affections

of the stomach and bowels, catarrhal affections and intermittent

fevers.

In addition to its internal use in the cure of fevers, patients

are made to inhale the vapour of a hot infusion so as to induce

copious diaphoresis. An infusion of the leaves is given to children

in colic, dyspepsia and fever arising from teething. A decoction

of the plant, or the essential oil distilled from the leaves, is used

externally in rheumatism.

In La Reunion the plant is considered sudorific and antipyretic.

It is given for rheumatism.

In Mauritius is credited with antispasmodic and emmenagogue

properties. It is given for flatulence, and in hysteria.

An infusion of the leaves of this plant is given on the west

coast to children in colic, dyspepsia and fever arising from teething.

386 FOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL (BIST. SOCIETY, W olin

The infusion acts as a diaphoretic: An infusion (1 in- 10)

was tried in fever accompanying teething and was found useful

(Koman).

Bombay : Chodhara—; Canarese: Karitumbe—; Deccan: Mogbirekapatta— ;

English: Malabar Catmint—; Gujerat: Gholochodharc, Makhmalichodharo— ;

Malayalam: Karintumpa, Femarutti, Peruntumpa—; Marathi: Chodhara,

Pandrachodhara, Sundara, Sundraphal—; Mauritius: Menthe musquée_ des

Malabars, Boutankoushum, Pémayretti—; Sanskrit: Oshthaphala, Vaikuntha— ;

Tamil: Irattaippeymarutti, Peymarutti, Peyverutti, Sadumbai—; Telugu:

Chinnaranabheri, Magabira, Mogabheri—.

BRUNELLA.

This genus includes 5 more or less cosmopolitan species.

B, vulgaris Linn. is used medicinally in Europe, China, and

Malaya.

Brunella vulgaris Linn. occurs in the temperate Himalaya from

Kashmir to Bhutan from 4,o00 to 11,000 feet, in the Khasia Hills

at 4,000-6,o00 feet, and on the hills of South India:° Nilgiris,

Pulneys, and Travancore mountains. It inhabits most of the tem-

perate regions of the Northern Hemisphere, and is to be found in

Australia.

The herb is aromatic and carminative; reputed useful in the

treatment of haemorrhages and diarrhoea. It is estéemed~ by

herbalists for relaxed throats.

‘The decoction of Prunell’, says Gerarde, ‘made with wine and

water, doth join together and make whole and sound all wounds,

both inward and outward ’ “There 1s “not a+ better “Wound

herbe in the world * The whole herb has astringent, styptic,

and tonic properties.

Self-Heal is still in use in modern herbal treatment as a useful

astringent for inward and outward use.

An infusion of the herb, made from 1 oz, to a pint of, boiling

water, and taken in doses of a wineglassful, is considered a. general

strengthener. Sweetened with honey, it is good for a sore and

relaxed throat or ulcerated mouth, for both of which purposes it

also makes a good gargle. For internal bleeding and for piles,

the infusion is also used as an injection. It is a household remedy

in Germany. |

The Swiss peasants use the plant as a vulnerary.

Regarded by the Punjab Himalayan hill tribes as expectorant

and antispasmodic (Stewart). The green leaves smeared with

castor oil and warmed over the fire are applied externally to the

anus in cases of painful piles. :

The plant is used for fevers and coughs in China and Malaya,

and is considered there anti-rheumatic, alterative, and tonic.

The Flambeau Ojibwe Indians of North America use the root

to make a tea to drink before going hunting; it is supposed to

sharpen their powers of observation. They also use the root mixed

with others for a female remedy.

The whites of Wisconsin use the roct as a pungent and bitter

tonic and antispasmodic; they credit it with vermifuge properties,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 387

and regard it as slightly diuretic. The root has also been used

for obstructions of the liver, cramps and fits.

Arabic: Anas-ul-rawah—; Chinese: Hsia K’u ‘Ts’ao—; Enghsh: All-heal,

Brown-wort, Brunel, Brunella, Bumble-bees, Carpenter-grass, Carpenter’s

Herb, Fly Flowers, Heart of the Earth, Herb Carpenter, Hercules’ All-heal,

Hercules’ Wound-wort, Hook-heal, London Bottles, Pick Pocket, Pimpernel,

Prince’s Feather, Proud Carpenter, Prunella, Self-heal, Sickle-wort, Slough-

heal— ;_ French: Bonnerette, Bonnette, Brunelle, Brunellier, Brunette, Char-

bonniére, Herbe au charpentier, Paquerette, Petite consoude, Petite consyre,

Prunelle—; German: Braunelle, Braunheil—; Hindi: Dharu—; Italian:

Brunella—; Malaya: Lo han tsao, Look ham chow—; North America: Blue

Curls, Carpenter Weed, Heal-all, Heart of the Earth, Self-heal—; Ojibwe:

Basi’ bigdk—; Persian: Ustekhadus—; Punjab: Austakhadus—; Roumanian :

Busuioc de camp, Busuioc marunt—; Sind: Ustukhudus—; Spanish: Brunela,

Consuelda menor—; Urdu: Ustekhadus—; Yorkshire: Black Man—.

CALAMINTHA.

The genus numbers 60 species, scattered over the northern

temperate regions and the mountains of the Tropics.

C. grandiflora Moench, C. Nepeta Savi., C. officinalis Moench are

used medicinally in Europe.

The flowered plant of C. officinalis Moench is official in France.

Calamintha Clinopodium Benth. is found in the western tem-

perate Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, at 4,000-12,000 feet.

It is distributed to northern and western Asia, Europe, North

Africa, and Canada.

The plant is cephalic, astringent, carminative, and tonic to the

heart.

Arabic: Asaba-el-fatiyat—; Catalan: Alfabrega boscana—; French :

Clinopode—; Spanish: Albahaca silvestre major, Angelotes, Clinopodio, Pie de

cama, Perilla de cama—.

(CCOLEBROOKEA.

A Himalayan genus, comprising only one species.

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. is one of the commonest and

most abundant plants in the lower Himalaya. It occurs all over

India, in the hilly parts, from Peshawar to Burma, and Simla to

Travancore.

A preparation from the root is used by the Santals in epilepsy.

The leaves are applied to wounds and bruises.

The down on the stem and leaves is used by the Paharias of

Sikkim to extract worms from bad sores on their legs.

Bombay: Bahmani, Bhamini, Dasai, Dasari, Dussarica—; Canarese:

Tuggigidda— ; Dehra-Dun: Binde, Bindu—; Garhwal: Binda, Bindu—; Hind: :

Binda, Bindu, Pansra—; Jaunsay: Bambher, Lulri—; Khond: Darigopi,

Merata—; Kumaon: Binda, Bindu, Dulshat—; Matheran: Bhaman—j,

Melghat: Chotabhandara—; Nepal: Dosul—; Punjab: Barmera, Basuti,

Briali, Dashane, Duss, Phisbekkar, Sampru, Shakardana, Suali—; Ramninagar :

Bhuriruderi— ; Saharanpur: Bintalakri, Kalabansa—-; Santali: PBarsakapor,

Bhainsa—; Saora: Jolidi—; Trans-Indus; Shakardania—; Uriya: Bosiki,

Darigopi-—,

COLEUS.

This genus consists of 150 palaeotropical species.

C, Amboinicus Lour, is used medicinatly in Cambodia, the Malay

Archipelago, and the Philippine Islands; C. atropurpureus Benth.

in the Philippine Islands; C. Bojeri Benth. in Madagascar;

C. dysentericus Baker in Nyassaland, Nigeria, and Madagascar;

C. floribundus Baker in Ubanghi-Shari.

Coleus Amboinicus Lour., a native of the Moluccas, is cultivated

in gardens throughout India, and Ceylon. It occurs wild in

Rajputana.

The leaves are said to have a specific action on the bladder and

to be useful in urinary diseases, vaginal discharges, etc. The juice

mixed with sugar is given in cases of colic in children, and acts

as a powerful aromatic carminative.

In spite of its intoxicating properties the people of Bengal

employ it in colic and dyspepsia.

The expressed juice of the leaves is considered an anodyne and

astringent, and applied over and around the eyelids, in cases of

conjunctivitis.

In Ceylon a decoction of the leaves is given for asthma, chronic

colohs, €tc:

Tn Cochin-China the juice of the leaves is considered carminative

and is given to children suffering from wind colic. The decoction

is given for asthma, chronic bronchitis, epilepsy, and convulsions.

The leaves are official in Holland.

Bengal: Paterchur—; Bombay: Owa, Pathorchur, Pathurchur—; Cambodia :

Chi trasak damrey—; Hindi: Pathorchur—; Malay Archipelago: Daoen. Koet-

jing, Djinten—; Marathi: Panacha ova, Patharchur—; Philippines : Oregano— $;

Sanskrit: Pashanabhedi— ; Sinhalese: Wapprawalliya—; Tagalog: Suganda—.

DRACOCEPHALUM,

The genus consists of 40 species, inhabiting the temperate

regions of the Northern Hemisphere.

Dracocephalum Moldavica Linn. is found in the western tem-

perate Himalaya and Kashmir, at altitudes of 7,000 to 8,000 feet.

It extends to northern Asia and Europe.

In Patna the seeds are used ground up in fevers, and as

demulcent.

The seeds afford an opaque mucilage when soaked in water.

The drug is esteemed in Persia as a carminative and tonic.

In Europe the plant is considered tonic, astringent, and vulnerary.

Arabic: Asaba-el-fatiyat, Baklat-el-utrujuya—; Hindustani: Tukhm- ferunj-

mishk-—; Persian: —Badrendj-bouyih, — Badrendj-buya, — Karanfalihostani— ;

Spanish: Melisa de Moldavia, Torongil de Turquia—; Tabriz: Badirash-bu—;

Teheran: Badranj-buya—.

DvYSOPHYLLA.

lhe genus consists of 20 species, inhabiting eastern Asia and

Australia,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 389

Dysophylla auricularia Biume is found in’ Sikkim, eastern

Bengal, Assam, Burma, Singbhum, Poona, and South India. It

is distributed to Ceylon, the Malay peninsula and islands, the

Philippine Islands, and China.

The herb is a Malayan remedy for colic. The leaves are powd-

ered with lime and rubbed on the abdomen.

Malay: Ekor kuching, Poko awi tana

ELSHOLTZIA.

The genus consists of 30 species distributed over Asia, Europe,

and Abyssinia.

Elsholtzia cristata Willd. is to be found from Kashmir to

Mishmi at 1,200-g,o0c feet. It has been of late introduced in

the Nilgiris. It spreads to Tibet, China, Japan, northern Asia,

and Europe. *

In China and Cochin-China the plant 1s used as a medicine,

a pot herb, and a condiment. In Annam. the flowering tops are

given as a diuretic. In Japan the leaves are used for tea. In a

general way, like other Labiates, the drug is regarded by the

Chinese as carminative, stomachic, and astringent.

Cantonese: Heung ue—; Chinese: Hsiang Ju—; Malaya: Heong yee—.

EREMOSTACHYS

The genus numbers 40 species, natives of Central and Western

Asia<

Bracts and bracteoles spine-tipped, equalling calyx ; bracteoies

connate below in groups of 3 i no de. acaninocaly®:,

Bracts and bracteoles not spiny, much shorter than calyx, all

free ea tae ace ee .. £. Vicaryi.

1. Eremostachys acanthocalyx Boiss. is found in West

Punjab and Baluchistan, whence it extends to Baluchistan,

The Baluchis consider the plant poisonous,

KNiranit: Bishkhaf—.

Eremostachys Vicaryi Benth. occurs in Western Punjab

and is common on the Salt Range, ascending to 2,500. feet. It is

also found at Peshawar and in Baluchistan.

In the Punjab the seeds are given as a cooling medicine.

The plant is said to be used in the Eusufzai near Peshawar for

poisoning: fish.

Kila Saifulla: Khurzbin—; Pad fills: Bischkhaf—; Pinjab: Gurgunna,

Khalatra, Rewandchini—.

GALEOPSIS.

A genus of 7 palaeotemperate species, inhabiting the Northern

Hemisphere

G. ochroleuca Lam. is official in the Pharmacopoeia of Austria.

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

Galeopsis Tetrahit Linn. occurs in Sikkim and Kashmir. It

is distributed over Tibet, North and West Asia, Europe; and has

been introduced into North America.

The plant is well spoken of as an expectorant, and in phthisical

complaints. An infusion of the whole plant is used in the treat-

ment of pulmonary troubles. It has also been employed as an

anti-spasmodic resolvent, and a detergent.

English: Bastard Hemp, Bee-nettle, Blind Nettle, Dai-nettle, Day-nettle,

Dea-Netle, De-Nettles, Deye-Nettle, Dog Nettle, Donnine-thell, Female Hems,

Glidewort, Hemp Nettle, Holyrope, Nettle Hemp, Stinging Nettle, Sting Nettle— ;

Forest Potawatomi : Mena’ kwiasktk— ; North America : Common Hemp Nettle—.

GENIOSPORUM.

The genus includes 15 species scattered over Africa, Madagascar,

and the Indo-Malayan region.

Geniosporum prostratum Benth. is found in sandy ground

from the Konkan southwards, especially near the sea, and in the

warmer parts of Ceylon.

In Pondicherry this plant 1s credited with febrifugal properties.

Pondicherry : Nazelnagai—.

(GOMPHOSTEMMA.

A genus of 25 Indo-Malayan species spreading to China.

Gomphostemma crinitum Wall. occurs in Assam, Burma, and

the Malay Peninsula.

var. Griffithii Prain, which is found in Tenasserim and Malaya,

is administered in the form of decoction after confinements.

Malay: Munjulong bukit—.

HYMENOCRATER.

The genus consists of 9 species, natives cf Western Asia,

Hymenocrater sessilifolius Benth. occurs in Baluchistan and

Afghanistan.

In Baluchistan the leaves are left overnight soaking in water,

and the infusion is given as a morning drink to children.

Baluchistan : Sursanda—.

Hyptis.

This large genus numbers 300 species, natives of warm America.

The following species are used medicinally in Madagascar and

West Tropical Africa.—H. pectinata Poit., HI. spicigera Lam.—;

in Guiana—H, verticillata Jacq.—; in Brazil—H. canescens Benth.,

AH. fasciculata Benth., H. fruticosa Salzm., H. graveolens Salzm.,

H, pectinata Poit., H. spicata Poit., H. suaveolens Poit.,

H, umbrosa Salzm—.

Flowers not in globose heads.

Calyx 3 mm. Jong in fruit a ak .. H. peéctinata

Calyx &%-10 mm. long in fruit aoe see -» H, suaveolens

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 391

1. Hyptis pectinata Poit. is found in Bengal, Assam, and the

Madras Presidency. It is distributed over tropical Africa and

Asia.

In Ashanti and South Nigeria the plant is a medicine for young

children, and used in connection with childbirth. Poultices of the

leaves are applied for chest complaints.

In -North -Nigeria the leaf is used for fever..- It--is boiled: for

horses to inhale the vapour for diseases accompanied by mucous

catarrh.

In Madagascar the plant is considered aromatic, tonic, anthel-

mintic, antispasmodic, emmenagogue, and odontalgic. It is mostly

used to expel worms in children. <A decoction or infusion of the

flower heads is given in fever, and for chest troubles.

Adangme: Wadokeng—; Angola: Quibumbo, Quimbumba, ~Quinbumbo,

Quinbungu—; Ashanti: Piaa—; Awuna: Awusa-kadi—; Betsileo: Afolava— $;

Dagomba: Baeba—; Ga: Suruwie—; Hausa: Kimba-kimba, Kimbar

awaki, Kimbar dawaki—; Hova: Rombatsahona, Sangasanganandevolahy— ;

Sakalave: Sangasanganimarina—; T'wi: Opea, Peaba—; Yoruba: Jogbo—.

2. Hyptis suaveolens Poit. occurs in the Deccan, in Chota

Nagpur, Bengal, Assam, Burma, and the Andaman and Nicobar

islands. It is distributed to the Malay Archipelago, the Philippine

Islands, Formosa, Indo-China, Siam, and tropical Africa.

In Orissa the plant is pounded and applied to parasitical

cutaneous diseases.

--.In West Tropical Africa an infusion of dried leaves is taken

for fever. The plant is tied round the head for headache or

applied to cure boils, and the juice of the pressed leaves along

with lime juice is drunk for colic and stomach-ache.

In Brazil an infusion is used as a carminative and as a sudorific

in catarrhal conditions.

Colombia: Botén morado, Chavito, Mastrantillo, Mastranto de perro,

Mastranto de sabana, Yerba de las muelas, Yerba de la reuma—; Malay:

Malbar hutan, Sapulut, Selasik hutan—j; Mal Paharia: Purudo—; Mandingo:

Fure-jambo—; Mexico: Chan—; Panama: Purgaperro, Salvia—; Santali:

Gangatulsi— ; Tagalog: Pansipansiyan, Soobcabayo—; Timne: Bupt-bupi—

Uriya: Gangatulsi, Purodo—; Venezuela: Mastranto—; Visayan: Locoloco— ;

Yoruba: Jogbo—.

Hyssopus.

Hyssopus officinalis Linn., the sole representative of the genus,

is found in the Western Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, at

8,000-11,000 feet. It spreads to Western Asia, and grows wild

in middle and southern Europe.

Hyssop is classed by the Arabians amongst their anthelmintics,

stimulants, and deobstruents. In Europe it has long been known

as a tonic and stimulant, and was at one time in great repute as

a remedy for nervous diseases. Pliny also thought it useful in

chest affections, and Celsus regarded it as an anthelmintic.

Hyssop tea is a grateful drink, well adapted to improve the

tone of a feeble stomach, being brewed with the green tops of

the herb. The same parts of the plant are sometimes boiled in

392 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AUST SOCTE DY. Vol mun

soup to be given for asthma. To make Hyssop tea, one drachm

of the dried herb should be infused in a pint of boiling water, and

allowed to become cool. Then a wineglassful is to be given as a

dose two or three times a day. It is of use im the ailments of

women.

A distilled water of Hyssop is deemed a good pectoral medicine.

The essential oil, in doses of one to two drops, promotes expect-

oration in bronchial catarrh and asthma.

The green herb, bruised and applied, will heal cuts promptly.

If it be steeped in boiling water and applied hot to the part, it

will quickly remove the blackness consequent upon a bruise or

blow, especially in the case of ‘black’ or blood-shot eyes. In

America an infusion of the leaves is used externally for the relief

of muscular rheumatism, as also for bruises and discoloured

contusions.

The juice of the leaves made into a syrup with sugar and honey

is used as a vermifuge for roundworms.

A decoction of fe flowers of this plant from Persia was given

in cases of asthma and chronic bronchitis and found to be a useful

remedy in those complaints (Koman).

The flower-tops are official in France, Portugal, and Sweden;

the leaves too are official in France.

Arabic: Zufah-e-Yabis, Zufah-ul-retih— ; Catalan: Hisop—; Danish : Isop— ;

Dutch: Hysop—; English: Hyssop— ; Evench: Herbe sacrée, Hysope—;

German: Apothekerhysop, Eiserich, Gartenrispe, Hyssop, Isipo, Isop, Ispern,

Issel, Josephskraut, WKlosteruesopp, Lufftskraut, Ysop—; Greek: Hysopos—;

Hebrew: Esof—; Hindi: Zufah yabis—; Italian: Isopo, Issopo—; Languedoc :

Mariarmo—; Persian: Zufah-e-ikhuskka, Zufah-e-tar, Zufah-e-yabis—; Polish:

Isopek—; Portuguese: Hissopo—; Roumanian: Cimbru cel brun, Isop— ;

Russian: Issop—; Spanish: Hisopo—; Swedish: Isop—; Urdu: Zufah yabis—.

LLALLEMANTIA,

The genus consists of 4 species, inhabiting Western Asia.

Lallemantia Royleana Benth. occurs in the North West Pro-

vince, the Punjab plains and hills, and Baluchistan; extending to

Afghanistan, Persia, and Turkestan.

The plant is largely grown on account of its mucilaginous seeds,

which are considered cooling and sedative, and are extensively

employed in the preparation of a mucilaginous beverage. In Persia

they are used for cough, and as a stimulant and aphrodisiac.

In the Punjab the seeds are used as cooling and_ sedative

remedies.

Bombay: ~ Tukkhmibalangu—; Hamadan: Balingan—; Harboi Hills:

Fuchkin, Yakhtali— ; Hindi: Ghareikashmalu, Tukhinit balangu, Tukhmlealanga— ;

Kashmir: Tukhmibalunga— ; Punjab: Ghareikashmalu, Tukhmbalangu, Tulkhm-

malanga, Tukmalanga—; Persian: Tukhmibalangu— ; Urdu: Balanga

LAMIUM.

al he genus includes 40 species distributed over Europe, North

Africa, aud temperate Asia,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 393

Lamium album Linn. occurs in Kashmir, the Punjab, Kumaon,

and Hazara. It is scattered: over northern and western Asia,

North Africa, and Europe.

_. The root is used medicinally in China. In Spain it is con-

sidered astringent and is used as a resolvent and vulnerary.

Catalan: Ortiga morta—; Chinese: Hsu Tuan—; English: Archangel, Bee

Nettle, Blind Nettle, Day Nettle, Dead Nettle, Deaf Nettle, Dee Nettle, Dumb

Nettle, Dummy Nettle, Dunny Nettle, Nettle, Snake Flower, Stingy Nettle,

Suck-bottle, Suckie Sue, White Archangel, White Deadnettle, White Nettle—;

French: Archangélique, Galéopsis, Lamier blanc, Lamion, Marachemin, Ortie

blanche, Ortie morte, Pied de poule, Sucots blanes—; German: Bienenhuetel,

Biemensang, Dahnnessel, Dangel, Daudelblume, Eddernessel, Eisblume, Gageneier.

Heddernessel, Honigsugel, Huehnernessel, Hundnessel, Loeffelblume, Sengenessel,

Suegede, Taubnesset, Taunessel, Urinblume, Wasserblume, Weisse Betonie,

Weisser Ganzert, Weisser Kuckyock, Weisse Suegete, Wurmnessel—; Italian :

Lamio bianco-—-; Russian: Sadovui dyagil—; Spanish: Ortiga blanca, Ortiga

muerta, Ortiga muerta blanca—.

: LAVANDULA.

The genus consists of 20 species spreading from the Mediterra-

nean co India.

Ey dentata’ kinn,, Ee Spica, De. ee Stoechas Wvion., Ly vera

DC, are used medicinally in Europe.

Lavandula bipinnata O. Ktze. occurs in Chota Nagpur, Mount

Abu, Konkan, Jubbulpore, Khandesh, and the Deccan.

It is reported that the villagers and shepherds of the Barda

Hills in Kathiawar use the plant as a medicine.

The plant is supposed to act as an antidote against snake

poison. ‘The roots are rubbed with water and the solution or the

paste is applied over the sting or the bite of poisonous animals.

The powdered leaves are given for inhalation to the person who

has been bitten by a serpent in order to prevent him from falling

into sleep.

Gujerali: Aasmanigalgoto, Sarpnocharo—.

LEONOTIS.

The genus consists of 15 tropical and South African species.

L, dysophylla Benth., L, Leonitis R. Br., L. ‘Leonurus R. Br.,

I. imicrophylla Skan., LL. mollis Benth. are used medicinally in

South ‘Africa; L. africana Brig, is used in Angola and Northern

Nigeria; ‘L. nepelacfolia R. Br. in Northern Nigeria, Madagascar,

and Brazil.

Leonotis nepetaefolia R. Br. is found, either cultivated or

naturalized, in the Punjab and all the hotter provinces of northern

and southern India, whence it spreads to Ceylon. It ts distributed

to tropical Asia, Africa, and America. |

In Chota Nagpur the ashes of the flower-heads are applied to

burns and scalds; in. Bombay they are mixed with curds and

applied to ringworm and other itchy diseases of the skin.

The plant is used medicinally by the Mundas of Chota Nagpur.

The whorl, in flower or in seed, is pounded and fried in Koron}

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL Hist. SOCIETY, Vol. XLilt

oil; this is rubbed on itch, also on head sores of small children.

When a mother’s breasts swell and milk does not pass through

the nipples, the crushed root is rubbed on the breast (Encyclopoedia

Mundarica). |

In Loanda a decoction of the plant is used in diseases of the

abdomen. 7

In Northern Nigeria the leaf pounded with natron is applied

locally for swellings and ulcers supposed to be of syphilitic origin ;

the fresh leaves are applied for headache. A decoction is used to

steam the head to relieve catarrh, fever, etc., and is taken also

internally as a tonic and febrifuge, and for gastro-intestinal troubles.

The plant is put amongst stored corn to keep away vermin.

In Madagascar the plant is considered emmenagogue, febrifuge,

depurative, narcotic, bitter, and laxative; used in skin diseases,

amenorrhoea, and fever.

In Porto Rico a decoction of the leaves is used as a tonic; the

juice is also expressed and taken with limejuice and rum as a

febrifuge.

The leaves are used in Brazil in the treatment of rheumatic

affections.

Bengal: WHejurchei—; Bombay: Matijer, Matisul—;. Brazil: Cordao do

frade—; Ceylon: Kasitumpai—; Ffik: Ubiom—; Fulani: Hore gujjo—;

Guyerati : Matijer, Matisul— ; ‘Hausa : Chika saura, Jam’barawo,

Kam mutum, Tutar’yan sarki—; Hindi: Baraguma, Hejurchei— ;

Krobo: Nyeddo—; Lagos: Iku ekun—; Loanda: Maluvo, Maluvo-iamcofico,

Maluvo-iamgilla, Maluvo-m’angilla—; Mano: Seto a yi—; Marathi: Dipmal,

Ekri— ; Mauritius: Dacca, Léonure—; Mundari: Agiajanum, Gharia, Hatuseng-

gelsui, Senggelsui— ; Porto Rico: Molonillo, Rascamonho— ; Sakalave: Kilanjan-

anahary—; Santali: Daredhompo, Janumdhompe, jonumdhompo-—; Sinhalese :

Mahayakwanassa— ; Telugu: Beri, Hanumantabira, Mulugolimidi, Ranabheri

Uriya: Kontosidho— ; Uruguay: Una del diablo—; Yoruba: Iku ekun—.

’

LEONURUS.

The genus consists of & species inhabiting Europe, Asia, and

tropical regions.

L. macranthus Maxim. aad L. sibiricus Linn. are used medicin-

ally in China, and L. sibiricus is also used in Malaya; L. Cardiaca

Linn. is used in Europe.

Upper lip of corolla densely villous, midlobe of lower

lip entire Sige er a wate we Ln, Cardigca

Upper lip of corolla tomentose, midlobe of lower lip

obcordate or 2-fid ... ae Ad Si pe das. SUDITICH'S.

1. Leonurus Cardiaca Linn. is found in Kumaon, Kashmir, the

Punjab, Hazatfa, and the Kurrum Walley.) 1t is distmbuteds te

western and northern Asia, and to Europe.

Says Culpeper: ‘There is no better herb to take melancholy

vapours from the heart, and to strengthen it. It may be kept in

a syrup or conserve; it maketh mothers joyful, and settles the

womb, therefore it is called Motherwort. It is of use for the trembl-

ing of the heart, fainting and swooning. The powder, to the

quantity of a spoonful, drank in wine, helps women in sore travail,

as also for the suffocating or rising of the mother. It provokes

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 395

urine and women’s courses, cleanses the chest of cold phlegm,

kills the worms in the belly. It is of use to digest and disperse

them that settle in the veins, joints, and sinews of the body, and

to help cramps and convulsions.’

The herb is diaphoretic, aromatic, and stomachic.

Contact with the plant causes a dermatitis in susceptible

individuals.

Catalan : Ma de Santa Maria—; English: Motherwort—; French: Agripaume,

Cardiaire, Cardiale, Cardiaque, Cheneuse, Creneuse, Herbe aux tonneliers,

Léonure, Patte de sorcier—; German: Herzgespann, Loewenschwanz— ; Italian :

Cardiaca—; Portuguese: Cardiaca—; Roumanian: Cione, Creasta cocosulin,

Jarba flocoasa, Talpa gascei—; Russian: Pustirnik—; Spanish: Agripalma,

Cardiaca, Cola de lebn—; United States: Lion’s Ear, Lion’s Tail, Motherwort,

Throwwort—.

2. Leonurus sibiricus Linn. is found in the plains of India

from Bengal and Sylhet to Coorg. It is distributed to tropical

Asia, Africa, and America.

The root and leaves are bitter and used as a febrifuge.

In Chinese medicine the seeds are considered to be constructive

and aphrodisiac. The dried plant is prescribed as a tonic, altera-

tive, vulnerary, and general remedy in puerperal and mentrual

diseases. |

Cantonese: Ch’ung wai—; Chinese: Ch’ung Wei, I Mu, K’uen Ts’ao— 5

Malaya: Choong wai, Kwan chor seranting, Tebung aga—; Patna: Guma— ;

Tagalog: Camariangsongsong—.

LEUCAS.

The genus includes about too Asiatic and African species.

LL. aspera Spreng. is used medicinally in the Philippine Islands;

L. decurvata Baker in Nyasaland; R. deflexa Hook. fil. in Gold

Coast; L. martinicensis R. Br. in Northern Nigeria, South Africa,

and Brazil.

A. Calyx-mouth. oblique.

I. Mouth of calyx much produced below .. L. urticaefolia.

II. Mouth of calyx produced above

Calyx-teeth very short

a. Calyx-mouth not villous within.

1. Calyx smooth below, ribbed and hispid

above aor ste ae son Le aspera,

2. Calyx smooth throughout or nearly so.

Calyx-mouth very oblique ... L. linifolia.

b. Calyx-mouth villous within

Ta, weaves lineal, less than? 13 mm. broad,

whorls less than 2.5 cm. diam.; bracts

linear, 6 mm, long noe ne ... L. geylanica.

. Leaves ovate, more than 13 mm. broad,

i. Whorls 3.5 cm. diam.; bracts lanceol-

ave, 15-2.5)acm.. Jong aos os ew Cephalotes.

ii. Whorls 2.3 cm. diam.; bracts linear-

lanceolate or subulate, 6-g mm. long .... L. martinicensis

B. Calyx-teeth stellately spreading in fruit, whorls term-

inal and axillary.

Hairs on the stem erect or spreading. Calyx

5-10 mm. long L. stelligera.

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIit

1. Leucas aspera Spreng. occurs more or less throughout India,

in the plaias. It extends to Indo-China, the Philippine Islands,

Java, and Mauritius,

The leaves are said to be useful in chronic rheumatism. The

juice is applied in psoriasis and other chronic skin eruptions.

In North Bengal the flowers are given warmed in a little honey

for coughs and colds to children. The juice of the leaves is applied

to disperse paintul swellings.

In Mauritius the plant is used as an emollient and pectoral.

Caius and Mhaskar have shown experimentally that the plant

is not an antidote to snake venom.

Bengal: Chotahalkusa—; Bombay: Tamba—,; JDeccan: Thurduribaji— ;

Hindi: Chotahalkusa— ; La Reunion: Herbe & mouches, Herbe Tombe, Tombe— ;

Mauritius : Madame Tombé, Marrube blanc, Couma, Halkasa, Poualla toumi— ;

Mundari :Gomaara— ; Sadani : Gumhasag— ; Tagalog : Carucansoli,

Pansipans!, Solasolasian—; Tamil: Tumbai—; Telugu: Tummachettu—;

Visayan: Paipaisi, Pansipansi, Paypaysi—.

2. Leucas Cephalotes Spreng. is found throughout India from

Sind to Assam, and Kashmir to Deccan; scattered over all plains

districts of the Madras Presidency, It extends to Afghanistan.

The plant is considered a mild stimulant and diaphoretic, and

is considerably used in fevers and coughs.

The fresh juice is used in certain localities as an external applica-

tion in scabies. The flowers are administered in the form of a

syrup as a domestic remedy for coughs and colds.

The seeds yield an oil, which is used medicinally in Chota

Nagpur.

Vhe leaves, in combination with other drugs, are prescribed

for scorpion sting (Vagbhata); but they are not an antidote to

scorpion venom (Caius and Mhaskar).

Bengal: Barahalkasa, Ghalaghase—; Gangpur: Nakiara, Nakingara—;

Gujerati: Doshinokubo, Khetraukubo, Kubi, Kubo—; Hindi: Deldéna, Dhur-

pisag, Goma, Guma, Motapati—; Khandesh: Kedari—; Marathi: Devkumbha,

Kumbha, Shetvad, Tumba—; Mundari: Bananaki, Gomanaki—; Punjab:

Chatra, Guldoda, Maldoda, Phuman, Sisalius—; Sanskrit: Chatraka, Chhatrani,

Chitrakshupa, Chitrapatrika, Drona, Dronapushpi, Kaundinya, Kshavapatri,

Kumbhayoni, Kumbhayonika, Kurumba, urumbika, Palindi, Phalepushpa,

Shvasanaka, Supushpi, Vrikshasaraka— ; Santali: Andiadhuruparak, Andiadura

parak—; Telugu: Peddatumni, Tumni—.

3. Leucas linifolia Spreng. is met with in the plains, more or

less throughout India. It is distributed to Malaya and Mauritius.

The natives of Central India believe that the leaves, when

roasted and eaten with salt, have febrifugal properties.

The fresh juice is employed as a remedy against headaches

and colds.

At Lakhimpur in Assam it is used for loss of appetite. The

leaves are wrapped up in a plantain leaf, heated, and then eaten.

The first effect of this treatment is that the appetite decreases to

such an extent that the patient is unable to take any food at all,

on the second day it passes off and he takes food with avidity

(Carter).

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 397

In the North West, the leaves are bruised and a _ teaspoonful

of juice given, which is snuffed up the nostrils as a remedy against

snake-bite.

The leaves are equally useless in the treatment of snake-bite

whether given internally, or used as an errhine or a collyrium, or

applied locally to the part bitten (Mhaskar and Caius).

Assam: Dron—; Bengal: Halkasa, Halkussa—; Deccan: Goma—; Gond :

Gumi, Kumbha—; Gujerati: Jhinanpannikubo—; Hindi: Guma, Halkusa,

Kumbha—; Lakhimpur: Guma—; La Reunion: Herbe a mouches, Herbe

Tombe, Tombe—; Marathi: Kuva—; Philippines: Parnipansi—; Sanskrit:

Dronapushpi, Kumbhi, Rudrapushpa— ; Sundribuns : Guma, Hal-ktsa— ; Telugu ;

Pulatumni—; Urdu: Guma—.

4. Leucas martinicensis R. Br. is found all over South India.

It is distributed to the Malay Peninsula, tropical Africa, and tropical

America.

In Gambia the whole plant is made into an infusion and used

as a wash in fevers.

In Northern Nigeria the plant is burnt for the purpose of expell-

ing mosquitoes. An infusion is used for simple gastro-intestinal

troubles and for colds, and as a wash or steam for fevers.

The infusion is need in Brazil as a bath for hysterical fits and

for pain in the joints.

Betsileo: Wifilanjambola—; Brazil: Catinga da Mulata—-; Fulani: Erisku,

Hore gujjo, Risku—; Gambia: Wild Tea Bush—; Flausa: Kam’harawo— ;

Hova: Wanjananahary—; Katsina: Sarakuwar sauro—; Sokoto: Sarakuwar

sauro— ; Zaria: *Dai’doyar gona—

5. Leucas stelligera Wall. is found in the Konkan, Canara,

Mysore, and the Nilgiris.

The plant has stimulant, carminative, and emmenagogue pro-

perties.

_ Gujerati: Dungaraukubo—; Laos: Jang nog gan—; Marathi: Barumbi,

Guma—; Matheran: Borambi, Guma, Matasul—.

6. Leucas urticaefolia R. Br. occurs from Baluchistan and

the Punjab to Behar, Sind, Gujerat, Rajputana, Central and South

India, mostly in the plains. It is distributed to Arabia, Nubia,

and Abyssinia.

At Gomawal in Baluchistan the plant is used as a cure for

fever.

Gujerat : Kubo—.

Leucas zeylanica R. Br. occurs in Assam, Chittagong, and

South India, whence it spreads to Ceylon. It extends to the Malay

Peninsula and Se ulegra and to China.

In Malaya the herb is used as a cure for scabies.

In Ceylon the leaves are bruised and a teaspoonful of the Juice

given, which is sniffed up as a remedy in snake-bite. The juice

is also employed in headache and colds.

The leaves are useless as an errhine in the treatment of snake-

bite (Mhaskar and Caius).

Malay: Katumbit—; Sinhalese; Gattatumba, Getatumba—,

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

LYCOPUS.

This genus includes ro species of the northern temperate regions.

L. sinuatus Ell. and L, virginicus Linn. are used medicinally

in the United States of America.

Lycopus europaeus Linn. is found in Kashmir. It is distributed

to Europe, West, North, and Central Asia.

The leaves are used externally as a- poultice to cleanse foul

wounds. |

It is used in the Punjab as a cooling drug.

It has been employed in Europe as a substitute for quinine.

English: Gipsywort—; French: Marube aquatique—; German: Wolfsfuss— ;

Kashmir: Gandamgundu, Jalnim—,; Spanish: Marrubio acuatico, Pie de lobo—.

MARRUBIUM.

The genus includes 30 species, natives of Europe, North Africa,

and temperate Asia.

M. Alysson Linn. is used medicinally in Spain; M. vulgare Linn,

in Europe, California, and South Africa.

Marrubium vulgare Linn. occurs in Kashmir, the North West

Frontier Province, and Baluchistan, whence it extends to Afghan-

istan, Europe, and North Africa.

The dried leaves and flowering tops are carminative. expectorant,

laxative, aperient, diaphoretic, stimulant, and_ tonic.

The herb is a bitter tonic, expectorant, and diuretic. It is per-

haps the most popular of herbal pectoral remedies in England.

It is exceedingly valuable in coughs, cold, and pulmonary affections.

In many parts it is brewed and sold as Horehound Ale, making

an appetising and healthful beverage. Also a candy is prepared,

and if properly made, is no doubt efficacious.

The infusion is much used in Europe as a domestic remedy for

bronchitis with profuse expectoration. It is tonic, and in large

doses, purgative.

The Europeans in South Africa use an infusion in febrile con-

ditions, and especially in typhoid fever.

In America it is generally used in catarrhal states of the air

passages.

The plant is especially esteemed by the Spanish-Californians as

a remedy for colds and lung troubles.

In Mexico a preparation made from the leaves is used for

rheumatism; it is added to mescal and applied as a liniment.

Afrikaans: Koorsbossie—; Arabic: Faracioun, Farasiym, Hashishatelkalb,

Sufelard—; Brahui: Borkash—; Catalan: Malroig, Malrubé, Malrubi blanch,

Malrubins, Marreus—; Danish: WHvidmarru, Hvidrubike, Rubike—; Dutch:

Gemeene malrove—; English: Common Horehound, Hoarhound, Horehound,

White Hoarhound—; French: Blanc roubi, Blanc rubi, Bonhomme, Bon riblet,

Bon rubi, Grand bonhomme, Herbe vierge, Marchemin, Marinclin, Marrochemin, -

Marrochen, Marrube, Marrube blanc, Marrube bonhomme, Marrube commun, Mont

blanc—; German: Andornkraut, Berghopfen, Chinakraut, Gotteshuelfe, Gottver-

gess, Gutverges, Kuckskraut, Lungenkraute, Maeuseoehrchen, Marienwurzelkraut,

Markobell, Nagelkraut, Siebennagelspitzer, Wasserdorn, Weisse Leuchte,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 399

Weisser Andorn, Weisser Anton, Weisser Daurand, Weisser Dorand, Weisser

Gottvergess, Weisser Winderthon, Weissleuchterkraut—; Greek: Prasion— =;

Hindi: Paharigandana—; Italian: Erba apiola, Marrobio, Marrobio bianco— ;

Kurdish; Qutainah—; Languedoc: Maltraste, Maribbe—; Malta: White Hore-

hound, Marrobio, Robbio, Erba apiola, Marrubija, Marrubjabajda—; Persian:

Afnanesar—; Polish: Szanta biala—; Portuguese: Marroio, Marroio branco—;

Provence: Bouan rible, Mentastre, Marroufe, .Marrubi, Moun blanc—;

Roumanian: Catusnica, Catusnica selbatica, Iarba flocoasa, Iarba mitei, Iarba

vintului—; Russian: Marrub, Schandra—; South Africa: Horehound, Marvel,

White Horehound—; Spanish: Marrubio, Marrubio blanco—; Swedish:

Andorn—; Urdu; Farasiym—; Uruguay: Malva rubia, Marrubio, Yuyo del

sapo—.

MELISSA.

A genus of 4 species, natives of Europe and Western Asia.

M. officinalis Linn. is used medicinally in Europe. Its flower-

heads and leaves are official in Austria, Belgium, Brazil, Denmark,

France, Germany, Hungary, Italy, Norway, Portugal, Spain,

Switzerland, Turkey, and Yugoslavia.

Melissa parviflora Benth. occurs in the temperate Himalaya,

from Garhwal to Sikkim and Mishmi, and in the Khasia Hills. ft

is distributed to Java.

The plant is a good substitute for M. officinalis.

Arabic: Baklatelutrujiya, Mufarehulkalab—; Hindi: Bililotan—; Persian:

Badrunjboya— ; Urdu: Baranjboya—.

MENTHA.

The genus includes 25 Old World species.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe:—

M. aquatica Linn., M. arvensis Linn., M. cardiaca J. G, Baker,

M. gentilis Linn,, M. piperita Linn., M. Pulegium Linn., M, rotundi-

folia Huds., M. sativa Linn., M. sylvesiris Linn., M. viridis Linn,—;

in China, Indo-China, and Malaya—M. arvensis Linn.—; in

Madagascar-—Mentha spp.—; in South Africa-—M. aquatica Linn.,

M. capensis Thunb., M. crispa Linn., M. longifolia Huds.—; in

North America—M. aquatica Linn., M. piperita Linn., M.

sylvestris Linn .—.

1. Leaves sessile, lanceolate to oblong, coarsely dentate,

smooth above, glandular below and oe, MES UErtdeS:

Leaves petioled, coarsely serrate, smooth above, rarely

sparingly hairy on the nerves below fee ML Mpuperata

3. Leaves nearly sessile, sharply toothed, upper surface

hoary pubescent, lower white tomentose — ... Re OMersyivestris,

4. Leaves narrowed below, stalked, ovate, oblong, lance-

olate, toothed ag ... M. arvensis.

1. Mentha arvensis Linn. is a herb of the Western Himalaya,

found in Kashmir, the Punjab, Kumaon, and Garhwal. It is

distributed to Afghanistan, West and North Asia, China, and Europe.

The dried plant is refrigerant, stomachic, diuretic, and stimulant.

It possesses antispasmodic and emmenagogue properties. It is

used in jaundice, and is frequently given to stop vomiting.

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

In China the leaves and stems are made into infusion, and used

as carminative, sudorific, and antispasmodic.

_In Annam the plant is considered an excellent diaphoretic. An

infusion is given in fevers, indigestion, and cephalalgia. The juice

of the leaves is applied to the sting or bite of poisonous animals.

The leaves pounded with salt are applied to the whitlow.

It is said that the effect of this plant, when animals eat it, is

to prevent coagulation of their milk, so that it can hardly be made

to yield cheese.

Annam: Bac ha, Bac ha tay, Ke to, Kim tien bac ha, Nam ha, Thuy to,

To lan—-; Arabic: Fodanajihindi, Fotanajehindi, Habakjabuli, Habaqulhind,

Naanaaehindi, Naanaaulhind—; Bengal: Podina—; Bombay: Pudinah— ;

Burma: Bhudina—; Canarese: Chetnimaragu, Maraga—; Chinese: Po Ho—;

English: Chinese Mint, Corn Mint, Marsh Mint—; French: Baume des champs,

Menthe des champs, Menthe du Japon, Pouliot thym—; Guam: Yerba buena— ;

Gujerati: Phudno, Pudina—; Hindi: Pudinah—; Languedoc: Faun _ pulegi— ;

Malaya: Pok ho—; Malayalam: Putiyina Marathi: Pudina—; Persian:

Filfilmun, Pudinah—; Sind: Pfudnah—,; Sinhalese: Odutalan—; Spanish:

Yerba buena—; Tamil: Pudina, Yechakkirai—; Telugu: Igaenglikura,

Pudina—; Tongking: Ba Kha—; Urdu: Pudinchkohi—.

2. Mentha piperita Linn. is cultivated in Indian gardens. It is

found spontaneous and cultivated in most temperate regions of

Europe, Asia, and North America.

The leaves and the tops of the flowering plant are carminative,

stimulant, nervine, antispasmodic, analgesic, anodyne.

In Europe the herb is considered stimulant, stomachic, carmina-

tive; and is used for allaying nausea, flatulence, sickness, vomiting,

and as an infants’ cordial. :

Its bruised fresh leaves, if applied, will relieve local pains and

headache. A hot infusion, taken as tea, soothes stomach-ache,

allays sickness, and stays colicky diarrhoea. This will also subdue

menstrual colic.

_ This is one of the three plants used by the Menomini Indians

of North America in the cure of pneumonia, the others being wild

mint and catnep. The compound is drunk in the form of a tea

and is also used as a poultice.

A volatile oil obtained from the plant is well-known in medicine

for its antiseptic, stimulant, and carminative properties; and

peppermint oil is the most extensively used of all the volatile oils,

both medicinally and commercially.

The oil itself is often given on sugar and added to pills, also

a spirit made from the oil, but the preparation in most general

use 1s Peppermint Water, which is the oil and water distilled

together. In flatulent colic, spirit of Peppermint in hot water is

a good household remedy, also the oil given in doses of one or

two drops on sugar.

The local anaesthetic action of Peppermint Oil is exceptionally

strong. It is also powerfully antiseptic, the two properties making

it valuable in the relief of toothache and in the treatment of cavities

in the teeth.

Rats dislike Peppermint, a fact that is made use of by ratcatchers,

who, when clearing a building of rats, will block up most of their

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 401

holes with rags soaked in oil of Peppermint, and drive them by

ferrets through the remaining holes into bags.

Arabic: Nana—; Berber: Nemdar, Timedja, Timersitin—; Bogota:

Yerba buena—; Brazil: Hortela pimenta—; Catalan: Menta _ piperita—;

Chinese: Po Ho—; Danish: Pebermynte—; Dutch: Pepermint—; English:

Brandy Mint, Peppermint—; French: Menthe, Menthe anglaise, Menthe d’

Angleterre, ‘Menthe officinale, Menthe poivrée—; German: Edelmindkraut,

Edelminze, Hausminze, Odernunze, Pfefferminze, Pfeffermuenze—; Hungarian :

Borsos menta—; Italian: Menta piperita—; Menomini: Dakixkomik— ;

Mexico: Menta piperita—; North America: Brandy Mint, Lamb Mint,

Lammint, Peppermint—-; Norwegian: Peppermynte—; Polish: Pepparmynta— ;

Portuguese: Hortelana pimentosa, Hortelao apimentada, Hortelao pimenta— ;

Russian: Myata perechnaya—; Spanish: Menta inglesa, Menta pimentada,

Menta piperita, Yerba buena de sabor de pimienta—; Swedish: Pepparmynt— ;

Turkish: Nana—; Uruguay: Menta—; Yugoslavia: Paprena metvica, Nana—.

3. Mentha sylvestris Linn. is met with in the temperate Western

Himalaya and Western Tibet, at altitudes of 4,000 to 12,000 feet ;

in Kashmir, Kumaon, Garhwal, and the Punjab. It is distributed

to Afghanistan, Western and Central Asia, and temperate Europe.

It is frequently cultivated in gardens in the plains of India.

The dried leaves and flower heads are carminative, and stimulant.

The leaves and a decoction of the plant are considerably used

by the natives of the Himalaya as a carminative. They are also

employed as an astringent, and for rheumatic pains.

The leaves soaked in water give an infusion which is drunk

as a cooling medicine in Shahrig. Trans-Indus, a decoction is

used in fever and heat apoplexy.

In the Konkan the plant is much used as a domestic remedy on

account of its mildly stimulant and carminative properties.

The herb. is used as a carminative and stimulant in Europe.

The dry herb yields about 1 per cent of essential oil, endowed with

the same carminative and stimulant properties.

Arabic: Fudanajhabak, Fudanajnaanna—,; Baluchi: Purchink—; Bombay :

Pudina, Vartalau—; Brahui: Purchink—; Burma: Boodeema—; Catalan:

Menta borda—; Egypt: Habag—; English: Horsemint—; French: Mentastre,

Menthe sauvage—; Hindi: Podina—; Khowas: Wealni—; North-Western

Provinces: Padina—; Punjab: Baburi, Belanne, Koshu, Pudnakushna, Vien,

Yura—; Pushtu: Shamshabai—; Sanskrit: Ajirnahara, Pudina, Rochani,

Ruchishya, Shakashobaana, Sugandhipatra, Vantihara, Vyanjana—; Shahrig :

Shinshobae, Velanac, Vialangi— ; Spanish: Mastranzo nevado, Menta silvestre— ;

Urdu: Pudina—; Uruguay: Menta—; Zhob: Shinshobae—. _ ,

4. Mentha viridis Linn. is commonly grown in native gardens

all over the plains of India.

The seeds are mucilaginous. The leaves are given in fever

and bronchitis, and a decoction is used as lotion in aphthae.

In Europe the herb is considered stimulant, carminative, and

antispasmodic. It is added to many compounds on account of

its carminative properties and its pleasant taste. For infantile

troubles generally the sweetened infusion is an excellent remedy.

A distilled water is made which will relieve hiccough and flatulence

as well as the giddiness of indigestion.

The oil is less used than that of Peppermint.

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

A homoeopathic tincture prepared from the fresh plant in flower

has been found serviceable in strangury, gravel, and as a local

application in painful haemorrhoids. Its principal employment is

for its febrifuge and diuretic properties.

Bengal: Pundia—; Bombay: Pahadipudina, Pudina—; Brazil: Hortela com-

mum—; Catalan: Herba sana, Menta comuna—; English: Brown Mint, Fish

Mint, Garden Mint, Green Mint, Lamb Mint, Mackerel Mint, Our Lady’s

Mint, Sage of Bethlehem, Spearmint, Spire Mint—; French: Baume vert,

Menthe a épis, Menthe de Notre-Dame, Menthe romaine, Menthe verte— =;

German: Frauenmuenze, Gruene Muenze. Roemische Minze—; Gujerati:

Phudino— ; Hindi: Paharipudina, Podina—; Italian: Menta romana—; Malta:

Spearmint, Menta comune, Naghnieh—; Marathi: Pudina—; Mexico: Herba-

buena—; North-Western Provinces: Paharipudina—; Persian: Nagbo, Pudneh,

Shahsufiam—,; Pishin: Nana—; Portuguese: WUortelao, Ortelao vulgare— ;

Punjab: Paharipodina, Pudina, Pudinakuhi, Pudna—; Quetta: Nana—;

Roumanian: Izma, Minta—; Sind: Phudina, Pudina—; Sinhalese : Meenchi— ;

Spanish: Costo, Erba Santa Maria, Menta romana, Yerba buena—; Telugu :

Pudina—.

MERIANDRA.

This genus consists of 2 species, one Himalayan, and one

Abyssinian.

Shrub finely tomentose or hoary. Spikes with distant

clusters of flowers see ae Pe ... M. bengalensis.

Shrub flocculently woolly. Spikes uninterrupted ... M. strobilifera.

1. Meriandra bengalensis Benth., a native of Abyssinia, is

cultivated in most of the provinces in India.

An infusion of the leaves is a useful application to aphthae and

sore throats. It diminishes or arrests the secretion of milk.

Bombay: Kafurkapatta, Sesti—; Deccan: Kafurkapatta—; English:

Bengal Sage—; /Tindi: Kafurkapat—; Tamil: Sayayilai—; Telugu: Simakar-

puramu—.

2. Meriandra strobilifera Benth. is found in the western

temperate Himalaya, from Simla to Kumaon, at altitudes of 5,000

to 6,000 feet.

The decoction, when made strong, is a good lotion for ulcers

and heals raw abrasions of the skin. It dries up the breast milk.

MICROMERIA.

The genus includes 130 cosmopolitan species.

M, Douglas) Benth. is used popularly as an emmenagogue

along the Pacific Coast.

Micromeria capitellata Benth. occurs in Kumaon and Dehra

Dun, the Upper Gangetic Plain, Chota Nagpur, Bthar, the Western

Ghats, the Northern Circars, and the Nilgiris.

It is a fairly good substitute for Mentha piperita,

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 403

MOSCHOSMA.

The genus consists of 6 palaeotropical species.

Moschosma polystachium Benth. is found in Gujerat, Konkan,

Deccan, Bengal, Bihar, and Burma. It extends to Ceylon, Java,

the Philippine Islands, China, Australia, and tropical Africa.

In the Gold Coast Colony the juice of the plant is squeezed

into the nostrils of children to cure headache.

Ashanti: Nwansing nwansing— ; Belsileo: Karanjamboay, Karanjanamboay—

Hausa: Kimbar rafi—; Tamil: Sanakki poondu—.

NEPETA.

The genus includes 150 species, natives of temperate Europe,

North Africa, and Asia.

The following species are used medicinally tm Europe-—wN.

Cataria Linn., N. glechoma Benth., N. italica Linn.—; in China—

N. glechoma Benth., N. japonica Maxim., N. tenuifolia Benth.— ;

in Annam and Malaya—N. tenuifolia Benth, .—j; in the United States

of America—N. glechoma Benth.—.

I. Flowers in continuous spikes or heads; basal clusters

rarely distinct wise ae oe, ao eV welt piica:

II. Flowers in distinct clusters either axillary, or forming

interrupted spikes or panicles.

A. Whorls all sessile.

1. Leaves as broad as long; hoary on both sides ... N. glomerulosa.

2. Leaves longer than broad, upper surface not hoary ... N. ciliaris.

B. Whorls peduncled, the Jower conspicuously so.

1. Stem and branches stout; leaf-apex acute or

acuminate; corolla dotted with purple ... N. Cataria.

2. Stem .and branches slender; leaf-apex obtuse;

corolla blue-purple te oe oF. ue N.. vderals.

Nepeta Cataria Linn. is found in Kashmir, the North-Western

Frontier Province, the Kurrum Valley, Baluchistan, and Afghan-

istan. It is distributed to Western Europe.

The dried leaves and flowering tops are carminative, tonic,

diaphoretic, refrigerant and slightly emmenagogue, specially anti-

spasmodic, and mildly stimulating.

Producing free perspiration, Catnep Tea is very useful in colds.

It is a valuable drink in every case of fever, because of its action

in inducing sleep, and producing perspiration without increasing

the heat of the system. It is good in restlessness, colic, insanity,

and nervousness, and is used as a mild nervine for children, one

of its chief uses being, indeed, in the treatment of children’s ail-

ments.

The infusion of 1 oz. to a pint of boiling water may be taken

by adults in doses of two tablespoonfuls, by children in two or three

teaspoonfuls frequently, to relieve pain and flatulence. The tea

may be drunk freely, but if taken in very large doses when warm,

404 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

it frequently acts as an emetic, It has proved efficacious in nerv-

ous headaches and as an emmenagogue, though for the latter

purpose, it is preferable to use Catnep, not as a warm tea, but

to express the juice of the green herb and take it in tablespoonful

doses, three times a day.

An injection of the tea also relieves headache, hysteria, and

colicky pains.

Catmint is one of the‘ ingredients in the Menomini Indian cure

for pneumonia, the others being wild mint and peppermint. The

compound its drunk in the form of a tea, and is also used as a

poultice on the chest.

The Flambeau Ojibwe brew a tea of catmint leaves for a blood

purifier. The mint water obtained by steeping the herb in luke-

warm water is used to bathe a patient, to raise the body temperature.

Catalan: Herba gatera, Menta de gat, Nepta—; Dutch: Kattekruid, Nip—;

English: Catmint, Catnep, Nep—; Flambeau Ojibwe: Tci’name’wick—;

French: Cataire, Chataire, Herbe aux chats, Menthe de chat—; German:

Katzenminze, Katzennessel, Katzensterz, Neptenkraut, Steinminze, Steinnessel— ;

- Italian: Cattaia, Cattaria, Erba gatta, Gattaria, Nepitella—; Menomini:

Ka’saka muski’ki— ; North America: Catmint, Catnep, Catnip—; Roumanian :

Catusnic, Catusnica—; Russian: Kashachya myata—; Spanish: Menta gatera,

Menta de gatos, Yerba gatera, Yerba de gatos—; Swedish: Kattmynta—.

2. Nepeta ciliaris Benth. is found in temperate western Hima-

lava, from Kashmir to Garhwal, at altitudes of 6,000 to 8,000 feet.

It is given in sherbet for fever and cough.

Punjab: Zufa yabis—; Sind: Jufa—.

3. Nepeta elliptica Royle occurs in western temperate Himalaya,

from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes of 5,000 to 8,000 feet.

An infusion of seeds in cold water is used in dysentery by the

Punjabis.

Punjab : Tukhmmalanga—.

4. Nepeta glomerulosa Boiss. is found from the Punjab frontier

‘to Baluchistan, whence it extends to Afghanistan and Persia.

It is a cure for pneumonia in Bolan, for itch in Sanjawi.

It is commonly used for indigestion.

Bolan: Simsok—; Brahui: Simsok—; Chiltan: Bhinjanbutai, Chanjan-

butai—; Quetta-Pishin: Chinjanbutae—; Sanjawi: Chamjanbot—.

5. Nepeta ruderalis Hook. fil. occurs in the hilly parts of

Bengal, Bihar, the Punjab, Kumaon, the North-West Frontier

Province, Rajputana, Central India, Konkan, and Deccan. It is

distributed to Afghanistan.

It is largely used in fevers, and as a cardiac tonic. The decoc-

tion is used as a gargle in sore throat.

In Nepal it is taken internally as a remedy for gonorrhoea.

Nepal: Niasbo—; Punjab: Badranj boya, Bebrang khatai, Billi lotan—.

"itE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 405

OcIMUM.

The genus numbers 60 species, inhabiting the tropical and

warm temperate regions of the world.

The following species are used |

cum Linn., QO. gratissimum Linn.—+ in China and Indo-China—

O. basi! Rene: Linn.—; in Japan and Malaya—O. crispum Thunb.— ;

in the Philippine Islands—O. basilicum Linn., QO. gratissumum

Linn., O. sanctum Linn.—; in Guiana— O. micranthwn Willd.—;

in Brazil—O. canum Sims., O. gratissimum Linn., O. micranthum

Willd.-—; in La Reunion—O, basilicum Linn., O. Se

Linn..—; in Ethiopia and Abyssinia—O. gratissimum Linn.—; in

Guinea and the Gold Coast—O. canum Sims., O. basilicum linen

viride Willd.—; in Sierra Leone and Liberia—O. viride Willd.—;

in Ubangi-Shari: O. canum Sims.—.

The flower tops of O. basilicum Linn, are official in France.

A. Pedicels as long as or longer than the calyx; 2 lower

calyx-teeth longer than the upper lip ye .. O. sanctum.

B. Pedicels shorter than the calyx.

I. iain calyx-teeth longer than the upper lip.

Bracts stalked 10 Cantar.

b. Bracts stalked. Fruiting calyx very shortly pedicelled O. basilicum.

II. Lower calyx-teeth shorter than the upper lip ae OF gratissimunt.

1.Ocimum basilicum Linn, grows throughout India. It is

cultivated throughout the greater part of India, Ceylon, and Burma.

It extends to the Malay Peninsula and Archipelago, Formosa,

China, and Polynesia.

Diaphoretic and expectorant properties are ascribed to this plant,

which ‘is considered digestive and pectoral in La Reunion.

The roots are used for the bowel complaints of children.

‘The leaves are useful in the treatment of croup, for which the

juice warmed with honey is given.

The expressed juice of the leaves forms the basis of a celebrated

nostrum for the cure of ringworm; and the bruised leaves are

applied to parts stung by scorpions to lessen the pain. The

powdered dried leaves are said to be an effectual means of dislodg-

ing’ maggots.

The juice of the leaves or of the whole plant is dropped into

the ears for the cure of headache and dullness of hearing. Mixed

with ginger and black pepper it 1s given in the cold stage of inter-

mittent fever.

The flowers possess stimulant, diuretic, and demulcent properties.

The seeds are largely employ ed; especially by the Mohammedans

of Eastern Bengal, infused in Sater to form a refreshing and

cooling drink. When steeped in water they become immediately

coated with a semi-transparent mucilage, and then form a mucila-

ginous jelly.

The seeds are much used medicinally in some parts of India,

especially in the treatment of gonorrhoea and nephritic affections,

and are regarded also as useful for dysentery and diarrhoea, especi-

ally in children for the diarrhoea of dentition. A cold infusion is

said to relieve the after-pains of parturition.

4066 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL-HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

The seeds washed and pounded are used in poultices for un-

healthy sores and sinuses. They are also given internally with

sherbet in cases of habitual constipation, internal piles, and fevers.

An infusion of the leaves is used in fevers by the natives of

Gambia, where i: 1s a popular common cooling drink.

In Guinea the decoction of the leaves and the stems is given

in fevers, neuralgia, catarrh, and renal troubles; it is also used

as a lotion for sore eyes.

In Annam an infusion of the plant is considered antiemetic and

antidiarrhaeic, It is given for cephalalgia and gouty joints, and

used as a gargle for foul breath. An infusion of the seeds is given

in fevers. The seeds are chewed in cases of snake-bite, one portion

is swallowed and the other portion applied to the bitten part.

The leaf is not an antidote to snake venom. In the treatment

of snake-bite it is equally useless as a collyrium, an errhine, and

a local application to the part bitten (Mhaskar and Caius).

Annam: Huong nbung, Nhat thong chi, Rau e lon trong, Rau e tia, Rau

e trang, Rau que—; Arabic: Asaba-ul-teteyat, Badarwaj, Badruj, Baklut-ul-zub,

Habaq, Habbok, Hebak, Hibag, Rihan, Schogor, Shahasfaram—,; Baluchi :

Nazbu—; Bengal: Babuitulsi, Debunsha, Khubkalam, Pashanabeddie— ;

Bombay : Takmeria—; Brahui: Niazpu—; Canarese: Kamkusturi, Ramkasturi,

Sajjebiya—; Cantonese: Hiang Hoa Tsao—; Catalan: Alfabrega de fulla

ampla, Alfabrega de fulla petita—; Chinese: Hsun Ts’ao, Lo le—; Culion:

Camange—; Deccan: Salzat, Subjah, Subze, Tirunitru—; Dutch: Basilienkruid,

Basilikum—; Kgypt: Rihan, Sa’atar hendy—-; English: Basil, Common Basil,

Common Sweet Basil, Garden Basil, Roman Basil, Sweet Basil—; French:

Basilic, Basilic des cuisinieres, Basilic cultivé, Basilic aux sauces, Grand basilic,

Herbe royale—; Fulani: Soukora—; Gambia: Patmagi—; German: Basilien-

kraut, Basilikum, Koenigskraut— ; Greek : Basilikos, Okimon—; Guam: Atbaha-

kat—; Gujerat: Damaro, Damro, Nasabo, Sabje—; Hamadan: Tukhm-i-

raihan—; Hausa: Deidoya, Dodoya, Doidoya—; Hindi: Babuitulsi, Babul,

Bahari, Barbar, Kaltulsi, Niyakshbo, Rihan, Sabzah, Tukhmerihan—; Ho:

Loba—; Irag: Raihan—; Jtalian: Basilico, Bassilico, Ocimo, Ozzimo— ;

Kathiawar: Marvo—; Kurdish: Ruhan—; Lagos: Efirin wewe—; Languedoc :

Embaimo—; La Reunion: Grand basilic—; Las Bela: Drar khatori—; Malay :

Kemangi, Pokoh, Pokoh-pokoh hitam, Ruku, Ruku-ruku, Ruku-ruku_ itam,

Selaseh hitam, Selaseh puteh, Selasih, Selasii antan—; Malayaiam: Pachcha,

Tirunitru—; Malinke: Sosscoguena, Soughenfira—; Marathi: Marya,

Sabja, Sabza, Tukhamariya—; Mauritius: Basilic a grandes feuilles—; Peking:

Gai K’ang—; Persian: Dabanshah, Firanjmushk, Nazbu, Rehan-e-dash,

Reyhane sibze, Tur-eh-korasani, Ungusht-kunizuckan—; Polish: Bazylik—;

Porebunder: Marvi, Takmario—; Porto Rico: Albahaca—; Portuguese :

Alfabaca, Mangericoo—; Punjao: Babri. Baburi, Purrunj mushk, Nigand,

Niyazbo, Panr, Rehan, Tulsi—; Roumanian: Busuioc—; Russian: Bazilik— $;

Sanskrit: Ajaganothika, Apetarakhsasi, Asurasa, Barba, Barbara, Barbari,

Karahi, Kharapushpa, Manjariki, Munjariki, Surabhi, Surasa, Tulasidvesha,

Tungi, Varvara—; Santali: Bharbari, Dimbubaha, Malibuha—; Serbian: Bosi-

lek, Bosiliak—; Sind: Nazbo, Sabajhi—; Sinhalese: Hintala, Sawandatala,

Suwandutala— ; Spanish: Albahaca, Albahaca tina, Albahaca de hoja ancha— ;

Tagalog: Solasi, Sulasi—; Tamil: Tirnutpatchi, Tirunitru—; Telugu: Bhutu-

lasi, Rudrajada, Vepudupachcha, Yibudipatri—; Tongking: Hung gioi—;

Urdu: Janglitulasi— ; Uriya: Dhalatulasi—; Visayan: Bonac, Calooy, Canela— ;

Yemen: Hehak, Raihan—.

2. Ocimum canum Sims is found on the plains and lower hills

of India, from Assam, Bengal, Bihar, and Central India,. to the

south Deccan and Ceylon. It is distributed to Java, Western Asia,

tropical Africa, Madagascar; and is cultivated in America.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 463

Among the Santals, during fever when the extremities are cold,

the leaves made into a paste are applied to the finger—and _toe-

nails. The same preparation is used as a cure for parasitical

diseases of the skin.

In Jodhpur the seeds are drunk in milk as a tonic; and a

decoction of them with potash in water is used as a cooling drink

in fever. A bunch of the plant hung in the corner of a room is

said to attract mosquitoes and keep the rest of the room free

from them.

In Persia the mucilaginous seeds are given for lung and chest

complaints.

In French Guinea the herb is especially used by women before

parturition, or as an emmenagogue, the leaves cooked with ground-

nuts taken in small quantity.

In Ubangi Shari the decoction of the leaves is given to women

after they have been delivered, as also to the new ay born infant.

The leaves ground in oil are applied to the temples for headache.

Boiled with yam or maize flower they yield a pleasantly-flavoured

soup which is eaten as a cure for cough, and bronchitis.

The plant is commonly grown in gardens in Tropical West

Africa and used as ‘tea leaf’ for fevers, often given to children,

or as a bath for febrile patients, the patient sitting and pouring

it over the head, or with clothing opened out over a pot in which

abundance of the plant is boiled. In Gold Coast the juice of the

leaves is sometimes squeezed into the patient’s eyes. At Accra a

decoction is also given for dysentery, or as a mouth-wash to

relieve tooth-ache.

For haemorrhage from the nose, the Sutos either inhale the

smoke from burning the dried leaf or apply an ointment made

with the powdered leaf.

In Madagascar the leaves and the seeds are considered aromatic,

tonic, febrifuge, anticatarrhal, expectorant, st ernutatory, anti-

rheumatismal. For malaria the seeds are ground in an infusion

of the leaves. The juice and the powder obtained by pounding

together the seeds and the leaves are taken as an errhine in migraine.

Adangme: Danwe—; dwuna: Ahame, Defeisui—; Bambara: Chukula— ;

Bengal: Bharbari—: Benin: Thiri—; Bombay: Ramtulsi—; Canarese: Nayi-

tulasi, Ramatulasi—; Hfik: Amana, Mfang—; English: American Basil, Hairy

Basil, Hoary Basil, Hoary Tulsi, White Basil—; Espiritu Santo: Neruk—;

Ewe: Ahame, Defetsui—; French: Basilic papers Basilic commun— ;

Fulani: Katchukatchunga, Sukora, Urngol—; Ga: Kowe—; Gbari: Jemijemi— ;

Gbhaya: Wélé—; Golungo Alto: Machericao, N-xilica— ; (ne : Atbahakat— ;

Hamadan: Tukhm-i-sherbati—; Hausa: ‘Da‘ddoya, ’Dai’doya, ’Dai’doyar

masar, *Do’dowa, “Do ‘doya, “Dwai’dwaiya, Sarakuwar sauro, ’Yar_ kan

masallachi—; Ho: Loba—; Jodhpur: Bapji—; Jukun: Afyinu, Shinu—;

Kanuri: Kabur—; Kaolak: Guguniece—; Koranko: Sogoi—; Krobo:

Danwe— ; Lagos: Efirin nla, Efirin oshu—; Limba: Fufurufuru—; Madagascar :

Kiranjay—; Malay: Kemangi—; Malayalam: Katturamatulasi—; Malinke :

Su-kola— ; Mandingo: Sisejambo—; Manja: Sahagna—; Mbi: Gouroulou— $;

Moorish: Gumuguei—; Old Calabar: lyino—; Oloke Meji: Efinrin marag-

bosanyan—; Persian: Badrudge ibieze, Reyhane kuhi, “Tukhm-chirbati— ;

_ Porto Rico: Abahaca cimarrona—; Sadani: Garaighasi—: Sango: Tété—,

Sanskrit: Ajaka, Arjaka, Gambhira, Gandhapanirjjaka, Jambira, WKathinjara,

Kshudraparna, Kshudratulasi, Kuthera, Mukharjaka, Ugagandha—; Santalt:

Bharbhari-—; Sierra Leone: Patnage—; Sinhalese; Hintalla-—j; Spanish:

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL. HiST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Albahaca—; Suto: Mmavwatwane—; Tamil: Ganjamkorai, Kanjankxorai,

Naitulasi—; Telugu: WKukkatulasi—; Timne: An-soro, E-soro, Koe suru—;

Tivi: Kangulaku— ; Togbo : Biroulou—; Twi: Emeng—; Woloff : Ngumgume— ;

Yoruba: Aruntantan, Lfinrin aja, Efinrin ata, Efinrin marugboshanyan, Efinrin

wewe—. )

3. Ocimum gratissimum Linn. is’ found throughout India and

Ceylon, often cultivated. It is distributed to Java, tropical Africa

and America.

Aromatic baths or fumigations prepared witi the plant are

advised in the treatment of rheumatism and paralysis. In the

aphthae of children a strong decoction has been found effectual.

A decoction of the leaves is of value in cases of seminal weak-

ness, and is an esteemed remedy in gonorrhoea.

The seeds are given in headaches and neuralgia.

In China the leaves and flowers are used as a sudor ific in dis-

eases of ithe lungs.

Considered digestive and pectoral in La Reunion. On the Gold

Coast the leaves are mashed and used as an enema by newly deli-

vered women. It is also used for young infants.

A very popular remedy in Madagascar. It is considered aro-

matic, digestive, tonic, pectoral, antiemetic, antispasmodic, anti-

neuralgic, The Betsileo chew the leaves for toothache, and_ sniff

the juice of the leaves or the powdered seeds in headache.

Arabic: Furanjmishk—; Bengal: Ramtulshi, Ramtulsi—; Betsileo

Romba—; Bombay: Ramatulasa, Rantulsi, Tulsi—; .Chinese: Tzeu Sou—;

Deccan: Ramtulsi—; English: Large Basil, Lemon Basil, Shrubby Basil—;

Ewe: Waiblorsi—; French: Basilic crépu—: Gujerati: Avachibavachi, Ram-

tulasi— ; Hindi: Bantulsi, Malatulsi, Ramtulsi—; La Reunion: Baumier, Gros

braume—; Malay : Ruku-ruku hitam, Selaseh besar—; Malayalam: Kattutrittavu,

RKamatulasi— ; Marathi: Ramatulasi, Ranatulasu—; Mauritius: Basilic, Toulashi,

Toulsi—; Mundari: Dimbubaha—; Persian: Palangmishk—; Porebunder :

Ramtulasi— ; Punjab: Banjere—; Sadani: Dimbu—; Sanskrit: Ajaka, Dosha-

kleshi, Nidralu, Ramatulasi, Shophahari, Sugandhi, Sukslimapatraka, Sumulxha,

Suprassanaka, Suvakra, Vanabarbarika, Vishaghna, Vriddhatulasi—, Sinhalese :

Gastala, Kiritala, Otala—; Tanul: Elumichantulasi, Peruntulasi, Ramtulasi— ;

Lankay: Romba—; Telugu: Nimmatulasi, Ramatulasi—; Urdu: Ramtulasi— ;

Uriya: Ramotulosi, Sondabhogohulono—; Visayan: Coloncogon—; Yemen:

Hobokbok, Shajaret eszir, Vusab—.

4. Ocimum sanctum Linn. is found throughout India, Burma,

and Ceylon, and distributed to the Malay Archipelago, Australia,

the islands of the Pacific, Western Asia, and Arabia.

The root is given in decoction as a diaphoretic in malarial

fevers.

The leaves have expectorant properties, and their juice is used

in eatarrh and bronchitis. This preparation also is applied to the

skin in ring-worm and other cutaneous diseases. An infusion of

the leaves is used as a stomachic in the gastric disorders of

children, and in hepatic affections. The dried leaves are powdered

and employed as a snuff in ozaena. They are also an effectual

means of dislodging maggots. The juice dropped into the ear

is said to be a good remedy for earache.

The leaves are a South Indian substitute for tea. In the Tamii

country the flower-tops are ground with sesamum oil and given

internally to help the expulsion of the foetus.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA — 409

In Arabia the leaves are given together with pepper in tertian

and quartan fevers.

The seeds are mucilaginous and demulcent, and are given in

disorders of the genito-urinary system.

In Ceylon the herb is used in decoctions for cough and catarrh,

sometimes chewed as a substitute for betel.

The fresh roots are ground with water and applied to the sting's

of wasps and bees and the bites of worms and leeches. The

bruised fresh roots, stems, and leaves are applied to the bites of

mosquitoes (Roberts).

Every part of the plant finds its application in the treatment

of snake-bite and scorpion sting; but Caius and Mhaskar have

shown experimentaily that every part of it is equally useless in

the antidotal and symptomatic treatment of snake-bite and scorpion

sting.

The juice of the leaves or decoction of the same is considered

to possess diaphoretic, antiperiodic and stimulating expectorant

properties. A compound decoction of O. sanctum, Tinospora cord!-

folia, and Evolvulus alsinoides was given in cases of malarial fever

with no benefit (Koman).

Arabic: Dohsch, Schadjant eszirr, Vusab—; Badaga: MKapputulasi—;

Bengal: Kalatulsi, Kural, Tulshi, Tulsi—; Bombay: Tulas, Tulasa—; Burma:

Lun—; Canarese: Kalatulasi, Karitulasi, Sritulasi, Tulasi-—; Deccan: Tulsi— ;

English: Holy Basil, Monk’s Basil, Rough Basil, Sacred Basil—; Gujeratt:

Talasi— ; Hindi: Baranda, Kalatulsi, Krishnatulsi, Tulsi, Varanda—; Ilocano:

Biday—; Konkani: Tulsi—; Malay: Oku, Ruku-ruku merah, Selaseh hitam— ;

Malayalam: Krishnatulasi, Kunnakam, Nallatrittavu, Punya, Sivatulasi,

Surasam, Trittavu, Tulasi—; Marathi: Tulasa, Tulasichajadha—; Pampangan :

Locoloco—; Philippines: Albahaca—; Portuguese: Mangericao—; Punjab:

Bantulsi, Tulsi—; Queensland: Bulla-bulla, Mooda—; Sanskrit: Ajaka, Arjaka,

Amrita, Apetarakshasi, Bahupatri, Bharati, Bhutaghni, Bhutaka, Bhutapatri,

Brinda, Devadundubhi, Divya, Gandhaharini, Gauri, Gramya, Haripriya,

Kathinjara, Kayastha, Krishnamula, Krishnatulasi, Kutheraka, Laxmi, Madhavi,

Maiashreshtha, Manjari, Papaghni, Parnasa, Patrapushpa, Pavani, Pavitra,

Pretarakshasi, Punya, Sarasa, Shrikrishnavallabha, Shyama, Subhaga, Sugandha,

Sulabha, Surabhi, Suradundubhi, Surasa, Suravallari, Suravalli, Surejya,

Suvaha, Tivra, Tridashamanjari, Tulasi, Vaishnavi, Vishnupatni, Vishnuvallabha,

Vrinda— ; Sinhalese: Madurutala, Mudurutulla— ; Spanish : Albahaca morada— ;

Tagalog: Balanoi, Locoloco—; Tamil: Alangai, Karuttulasi, Kulimittan, Kullai,

Kumuli, Malgodai, Malmurugu, Mudi, Nediyon, Pirundam, — Sirttulay,

Surasa, Surasam, Suriyagarandai, Savadugundi, Suvi, Tulasi, Tulavam, Tulay— ;

Telugu: Brynda, Gaggera, Krishnatulasi, MKukkatulasi, Nallagaggera, Nalla-

tulasi, Tellatulasi, Tulasi—.

ORIGANUM.

The genus consists of 7 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region.

O, dictamnus Linn., O. hirtum Link., O. Majcrana Linn.,

O. virens Hoff. and Link, O. vulgare Linn. are used medicinally in

Europe; O. vulgare Linn. is also used in China and Malaya.

1.The 2 longest stamens and sometimes all 4 projecting

beyond the corolla 3 ae af . O. Majorana.

2. Stamens 4 in unequal pairs slightly protruding .. O. vulgare.

1. Origanum Majorana Linn., a native of Europe, North Africa

and Asia Minor, is extensively cultivated in India.

The herb is carminative and stomachic; useful in measles.

ATO “JOURNAL, BOMBAY (NATURAL AIST. SOCLEDY MV o), exalt

The leaves and seeds are considered astringent and a remedy

for colic. The essential oil from the leaves is used for hot fomenta-

tions in acute diarrhoea.

In Europe an infusion made from the fresh plant is given to

relieve nervous headaches; and externally the herb is applied in

bags as a hot fomentation to painful swellings and rheumatism,

as likewise for colic. The volatile oil 1s considered an excellent

external application for sprains, bruises, etc.

Arabic: Mardakusch, Merdkouche, Mizunjush—; Bogotaéd: Mejorana— ;

Bengal: Murru—; Catalan: Moraduix, Moradux—; Deccan: Murwa—; Dutch:

Marjolein—; Egypt: Bardaquesh, Mardaqush—; English: Sweet-knotted

Marjoram, .Sweet Marjoram—; French: Marjolaine a coquille, Marjolaine des

jardins, Marjolaine d’Orient, Origan marjolaine—; German: Badkraut, Blau-

doste, Blauer Tarant, Blaudunst, Costenzkraut, Doschte, Dost, Felddoste,

Frauendosten, Kostenskraut, Kunerle, Kuttelkraut, Majoran, Maraun,

Margrankraut, Marieleine, Masaran, Maseran, Masoran, Meiran,

Meyran, Muellerkraut, Ohrkraut, Schusterkraut, Sommermajoram,

Thorant, Walddosten, Wohigemut, Wurstkraut— ; Greek : Amarakon, Masuran— ;

Hindi: Murwa—; TItalian: Maggiorana, Marjorana, Persa—-; Kumaon:

Bantulsi— ; Languedoc: Majourana, Majourena, Majurena, Mayran—; Malta:

Sweet Marjoram, Maggiorana, Persia, Mertkux—; North America: Knotted

Marjoram, Marjoram, Sweet Marjoram—; Roumanian: Maghiran—j;

Russian: Mayoran—; Sanskrit: Ajanmasurabhipatra, Bahuvirya, Gandhapatra,

Jambira, Kharapatra, Kulasaurabha, Maricha, Maru, Marubaka, Maruta,

Marutaka, Phani, Phanijjaka, Prasthakusuma, Prasthapushpa, Samirana,

Shitalaka, Suravha—; Sind: Murwo—; Spanish: Almoradux, Mejorana— ,

Tamil: Marru—; Urdu: Marvakhusha—; Yemen: Mardakush—.

2, Origanum vulgare Linn. occurs pientifully in the Himalaya,

from Kashmir to Sikkim, between altitudes of 7,000 and 12,000 feet.

It is distributed to Europe, North Africa, western and northern

Asia.

The herb is carminative, anodyne, stomachic, and emmenagogue.

In China it is considered an excellent refrigerant.

Externally, the dried leaves and flower-tops may be applied in

bags as a hot fomentation to painful swellings and rheumatism,

as well as for colic. An infusion made from the fresh plant will

relieve nervous headache.

The whole herb is medicinal and contains a volatile oil, which

is separated by distillation. Perspiration may be produced by a

warm infusion, and this is useful in the commencement of measles

to bring out the eruption; it is also taken to promote the menstrual

flow, when suppressed by cold; it ts also valuable in spasms, colic,

and to give relief from pain in dyspeptic complaints.

The oil is stimulant and rubefacient, and often used as a. lini-

ment; it is given as a stimulant and tonic in colic, diarrhoea, and

hysteria. It is also applied in chronic rheumatism, tooth-ache,

and ear-ache. oot

Arabic: Buklutulgezal, Mirzanjosha, Sutur—; Bohemian: Dobramyssl— =;

Catalan: Orenga—; Chinese: Ching Chieh, Yin Ch’en—; Danish: Tost, Vild

merian—; Dutch: Orego—; English: Common Marjoram, Organ, Organy,

Origany, Wild Marjoram—; French: Grande marjolaine, Grande marjolaine

batarde, Grande marjolaine sauvage, Grand origan, Marjolaine d’Angleterre,

Marjolaine bdtarde, Marjolaine sauvage, Pied de lit, Origan, Origan commun,

Origan vulgaire—; German: Blauer Orant, Brauner Dosten, Dosten, Wilder

Majoran— ; Greek: Origanos— ; Hindi: Mirzanjosh, Sathra—j; Italian: Origano,

LHE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 4l1

Regano—; Malaya: Yan chan—; Malta: Common Marjoram, Pot Marjoram,

Regamo, Acciughero, Riegnu—; Marathi: Marva, Mayarona—; North America:

Common Marjoram, Origanum, Pot Marjoram, Wild Marioram, Winter

Marjoram, Winter-sweet—; Norwegian: Vild merican—; Persian: Mizangosch,

Mirzanjosha, Oushneh—; Polish: Lebiotka—; Portuguese : Ouregao, Ouregos— ;

Punjab: Mirzanjosh—; Russian: Dushitsa—; Spanish: Oregano—; Swedish:

Dosta— ; Telugu: Mridumaruvamu—; Urdu: Mirzanjosha—.

ORTHOSIPHON.

The genus includes 50 species, natives of Indo-Malaya and

tropical Africa.

Orthosiphon stamineus Benth. occurs in Assam, Burma, the

Nicobar Islands, and South India. It is distributed to the Malay

Archipelago, the Philippine Islands, and Australia.

In Java the leaves are made into a tea, and used in the treat-

ment of diseases of the kidneys and bladder. They are official

in Holland.

English: Cat’s Whiskers, Java Tea—; French: Barbiflore, Thé de Java—;

Matay Archipelago: Koemis Koetjing, Remock djoeng—.

OTOSTEGIA.

The genus consists of 10 species, inhabitants of Western Asia

and Abyssinia.

1. Leaves spine-tipped; calyx naked within wet On Attojert,

2. Leaves not spine-tipped; calyx bearded within ... O. limbata.

1. Otostegia Aucheri Boiss. occurs in Baluchistan, whence it

spreads to southern Persia.

At Kohlu in Baluchistan the drug is administered in suppressed

small-pox if the pox do not appear, after which the pox appear

(Hughes-Buller).

Baluchi: Samar, Shinisg—; Brahui: Sadikh, Samar

; Kohlu: Suraghzai

2. Otostegia limbata Hook. fil. is found on the lower hills of

the Punjab, west of the Jhelum to the Salt Range.

The juice of the leaves is applied to children’s gums, and to

ophthalmia in man and beast (Stewart).

Hazara: Chitiboi—; Punjab: Agzhan, Awanibuti, Bui, Jandi, Kandiari,

Lana, Phutkanda—.

PERILLA.

The genus consists of 3 species, spreading from India to Japan.

Perilla ocimoides Linn. is found from Kashmir to Bhotan at

altitudes of 1,000 to 10,000 feet; also in the Khasia Mountains

from 3,000 to 6,000 feet; it is cultivated in Chittagong; from

Champaran it extends to Burma, and is distributed to Indo-China,

China, and Japan.

In China and Indo-China the leaves, the stems and the seeds

are considered resolvent, diaphoretic, and cephalic. They are

412 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

prescribed in cephalalgia, hypochondriasis and mania. The leaves are

eaten raw or cooked, or administered as an infusion; the seeds are

either toasted or dispensed in the form of a decoction.

The plant is a popular remedy in Annam, where it is used as

«a sedative, an antispasmodic, and an antidote. At Vinh the herb,

without the roots, 1s made into a decoction and taken on an empty

stomach for sunstroke. At Nghe-an the decoction is used as a

uterine stimulant. At Nam-o it 1s combined with an equal amount

of Ocimum sp., and used as a fumigant.

Annam: Bach to, Rau hung, Thai am mau, Tu to, Xich to—; Chinese:

Sou Yeh—; Hindi: Bhanjira—; Kumaon: Bhangara, Jhutela—; Naga:

Kenia— ; Vinh: Tia to, Tu to—.

PEROWSKIA.

The genus consists of 4 species, natives of Central Asia._

1. Leaves linear-oblong, incised or pinnatisect. Calyx

closed with long cottony wool see ...P. abrotanoides.

2. Leaves oblong-ovate or lanceolate, crenate-serrate or

incised. Calyx hispid ae oes ... P. atriplicifolia.

1. Perowskia abrotanoides Karel. is met with in the Western

Himalaya at altitudes of 8,000 to 13,000 feet, and in Baluchistan;

lt is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, and Turkestan.

At Ziarat the plant is used as a cooling medicine. The flowers

are soaked in water; and this is very cooling when applied to the

body of a patient suffering from fever,

Brahui: Gwari drani—; Pushtu: Shanshohai—; Seistan: Maur—.

2. Perowskia atriplicifolia Benth. occurs in Kashmir at

7,500-10,000 feet, and in Baluchistan, whence it spreads to Afghan-

istan.

In Baluchistan the plant is used as a cooling medicine.

Baluchistan: Gwaree dumoo, Gwaridrane, Tirk—; Waziristan: Sansobe—.

PLATYSTOMA.

The genus consists of 4 species, natives of tropical Asia and

Africa.

Platystoma africanum Beauv. occurs in Bombay, Dharwar,

North Kanara, and Mysore. It inhabits tropical Africa.

In. Northern Nigeria it 1s’ used for fever, feverish chills or

rheumatic symptoms. In Gold Coast the leaves and seeds are a

remedy for children’s coughs, and are also chewed with salt to

cure sore throat. The juice is squeezed into the eyes to cure

headache and fever. The leaves are used in Southern Nigeria as

a local haemostatic.

Ashanti: Asiresidie, Saman meng—; Benin: Eborukhu—; Ewe: Sesebli— ;

Hausa: Kimbar-rafi—; Nzima: Siresireke—; Twi: Asirisiri—.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 433

POGOSTEMON.

The genus consists of 36 Indomalayan species.

A. Bracts ovate, imbricating, more or less concealing the

calyx.

1. Stems and leaves nearly glabrous. lowers purple ... P. parviflorus.

2. Stems and leaves below hoary-puberalous. Flowers

pink or white ae a a sia we £. plectrantheides.

B. Bracts narrow, lanceolate, not imbricating, not con-

cealing the calyx.

1. Spikes more or less continuous, about 1 cm. broad ... P. purpurascens,

2. Spikes much interrupted, 5-6 mm. broad ... .. P. Heyneanus.

1. Pogostemon Heyneanus Benth. (=P. Patchouli Hook, fil.)

occurs in Kanara, the Western Ghats, and the Nilgiris. It extends

to Ceylon, and is distributed to Java and the Philippine Islands.

The plant is diuretic, carminative, and insecticide. It yields an

essential oil largely employed in perfumery.

Bengal: Pachapat—; Bombay: Patchpan—; Dutch: Patchoeli—; English :

Patchouli— ; French: Patchouli Gujerati: Patchpanadi—; Hindi: Pacholi,

Peholi— ; Malaya: Bur kalif, Poko nilam—; Marathi: Mali, Patcha, Patchpan— ;

Sind: Panel—; Sinhalese: Gang-kolang-kola—; Spanish: Pachuli—; Straits

Settlements: Tilam wangi—,; Visayan: Cablan—.

2. Pogostemon parviflorus Benth. occurs more or less through-

out India.

The fresh leaves, bruised, are applied as a cataplasm in order

to clean wounds and promote healthy granulation. In Satara the

juice is given in colic and fever.

The root is a reputed remedy for haemorrhage, and has been

given successfully in uterine haemorrhage.

The roots are used in the Ratnagiri District as an antidote for

the poison of Echis carinata, a common snake in that district. The

plant, in combination with other drugs, is prescribed as an antidote

to snake and scorpion venoms; but Caius and Mhaskar have shown

experimentally that no part of the plant is an antidote to either

snake or scorpion venom.

Bombay: Pangla, Phang, Phangla-—; MWonkani: Pangla—; Marathi:

Pangli—; Matheran: Pangli—.

3. Pogostemon plectranthoides Desf, is found in the Western

Himalaya, Lower Bengal and Upper Burma, Bihar, Gujerat,

Konkan, and South India.

The properties are said to be the same as those of P. parvi-

florus.

Bengal: Jin—; Deccan: Pangla—; Garhwal: Lujra—; Khond: Ishwarjata— ;

Konkani: Pangla—; Haldwani: Kalabasinga—; Ramnagar: Rudera—;

Telugu: Kusurijang—; Uriya: Dumobadotoko, Gondripulu, Poksunga—.

- 4. Pogostemon purpurascens Dalz. is found in South India,

Manipur, and Burma.

It is used as a substitute for P. parviflorus.

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

ROYLEA.

Roylea elegans Wall., the only species, is found in the sub-

tropical Western Himalaya from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes

between 2,000 and 5,000 feet.

An infusion of the leaves is drunk for contusions produced by

blows, and about Kumaon the same preparation is used as a bitter

tonic and febrifuge.

Garhwal: Karui, Titpati—; Hindi: Patkarru—; Jaunsar: WKaranoi— ;

Kumaon: Kauri, Titpatti—; Punjab: Kaur, Kauri—.

SALVIA.

The genus numbers 550 species, inhabiting the tropical and

temperate regions of the world.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—

S. aethiopis Linn., S. canariensis Linn., S. gluttnosa Linn.,

S. Grahami Benth., S...hispanica Linn.,. S. _Horminum Linn.,

S. officinalis Linn., S. pratensis Linn., S. Sclarea Linn., S. triloba

Linn, “fil;, S. Verbenaca: Linn... S. verticillata, Winns. wiriats

Linn.—; in China—S. japonica Thunb., S. miltiorhiza Bunge.,

S. plebeja R. Br.—; in Malaya—S. miltiorhiza Bunge—; in North

America—S, lanceolata Bruce, S. officinalis Linn., S. Verbenaca

Linn.—; Mexico—S. polystachya Ort., S. hispanica Linn.—; in

Colombo—S. palaefolia H. B. K.—; in Madagascar—sS. leucodermis

Bak.—; in La Reunion—S. gerardiana Benth.—; in Mauritius—S.

coccinea Juss.—; in South Africa—S. africana Linn., S. aurea Linn.,

S. coccinea Juss., S. paniculata Linn., S. repens Burch., S. rugosa

Thunb., S. runcinata Linn, fil., S. scabra Thunb., S. sisymbrifolia

Skan., S. stenophylla Burch., S. triangularis, Thunb.—.

I. Small shrubs or —undershrubs; — leaf-blade usually

.5-2 cm. long

1. Corolla 15-25 mm. long ee ae a1) De NGADUII Ca:

2, Corolla 5 mm. long a =: ae .. S. aegyptiaca.

II. Herbs; leaf-blades usually much exceeding 2 cm.

A. Leaves more or less thick, rugose or rugulose; calyx

teeth more or less spinous.

1. All leaves more or less sessile, oblanceolate ... S. lanata.

2. All or lower leaves petiolate, ovate to oblong.

a. Calyx 20-25 mm. long, in fruit.

i. Leaves subentire or serrate; bracts usually

whitish we Ras: Bes ... S. macrosiphon.

ii. Leaves coarsely dentate or lobed; bracts

usually green Be a . S. spinosa.

b. Calyx 10-15 mm. in fruit. Perennial . S. Moorcroftiana.

B. Leaves membranous, neither rugose nor rugulose ;

calyx teeth not spinous.

1. Corolla 5 mm. long, white or lilac. Annual ... S. plebefa.

2. Corolla 25-30 mm. long, yellow tes ... S. glutinosa.

1. Salvia aegyptiaca Linn. occurs in the Punjab plains, Sind,

and Baluchistan, whence it spreads westwards to Afghanistan. It

is distributed to Persia and North Africa.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 415

At Pab, in Jhalawan, the plant is used as a cure for eye diseases.

in Sind the seeds are used as demulcent in diarrhoea, gonorrhoea,

and haemorrhoids.

Arabic: Ra ’al, Raale, Sadjaret el ghasal, Shajaret-el-ghazal—; Baluchi:

J g J g ;

Kohi maur—; Bolan: Chamimar, Chammamaor—; Egypt: Ra ’al, Shegeret-

el-ghazal—; Pab: Maur—; Punjab: Tukhmmalanga—; Tank: Paska,

Rangboti—.

2. Salvia cabulica Benth. extends from the Punjab frontier to

Baluchistan and Afghanistan.

In Baluchistan the plant is considered a cure for fever, also for

colds and lung diseases.

Baluchistan : Mateto—.

3. Salvia glutinosa Linn. occurs in the North-West Frontier

Province, Kashmir. the Punjab, Kumaon, Gharwal, Sikkim, and

Bhootan. It is distributed to Tibet, Western Asia, and Europe.

In some parts of Europe an infusion of the leaves and flower

tops is used as a diaphoretic, stimulant, and stomachic. It is an

excellent lotion for ulcers, and to heal raw abrasions of the skin.

Spanish: Cetro de Jupiter—.

. Salvia lanata Roxh. is found in the Western Himalaya, from

4 : ; )

Murree to Kumaon, at altitudes of 5,000 to 8,ooo feet.

‘It 1s a good substitute for S, Moorcroftiana.

5. Salvia macrosiphon Boiss. extends from the Punjab frontier

to Baluchistan, Afghanistan and Persia.

At Pre Ghal, in Waziristan, the plant is used as a poultice for

evangrene.

6. Salvia Moorcroftiana Wall. is found in the Western

Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes of 6,000 to

g,000 feet.

The root is given in cough, and the seeds are used as an emetic.

The leaves are a medicine for guinea-worm and itch, and in the

form of poultice applied to wounds. At Lahore, the seeds are

given in colic and dysentery, and are applied to boils. The seeds

are given for haemorrhoids.

Punjab: Gurgumma, Halu, Kallijarri, Laphra, Papra, Shobri, Thut—.

7. Salvia plebeia R. Br. is found throughout India. It is

distributed to China, the Malay Islands and Australia.

The seeds are used as demulcent in gonorrhoea, menorrhagia,

diarrhoea, and haemorrhoids.

The herb is used as a diuretic, astringent, and anthelmintic in

China.

Bengal: Bhutulsi, Khokaburadi—; Bombay: Kammarkas—; Chinese:

Ching Chieh, Ho Shih—;- Punjab: Samundarsok, Sathi—; Sind: Kiuro,

Summundursok—.

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

8. Salvia spinosa Linn. occurs in Baluchistan, and is distributed

to Mesopotamia, Syria, and Arabia.

At Burj, in Toba Achakzai, the seed is powdered and applied

to the teeth to cure tooth-ache.

Egypt: Na’eyme, Shadjeret-el-gemal, Ta’elbe, Tha’alaba—; Mosul:

Hamham— ; Pushtw: Ganacha—; Quetta-Pishin: Ganacha—.

SATUREIA.

The genus numbers 130 species dispersed through the warm

regions of the world.

S. hortensis Linn., S. montana Linn., and S. Thymbra Linn.

are used medicinally in Europe. |

Satureia hortensis Linn. occurs in Kashmir. It is distributed

to Afghanistan, Western Asia, Europe, America, and South Africa.

The herb is aromatic and carminative. The leaves and flower-

tops are used as a stimulant. }

Catalan: Sajulida, Sajurida—; Dutch: Boonenkruid—; English: Summer

Savory—; French: Herbe de Saint Julien, Sadrée, Sarriéte, Sarriette, Sarriette

des jardins, Sauriette, Savorée, Savourée—; German: Bohnenkraut—,; Italian:

Santoreggia, Satureja—; Portuguese: Segurelha—; Roumanian: Galbinare— ;

Russian: Chaber—; Spanish: Ajedrea, Tomillo real—.

SCUTELLARIA.

The genus includes 200 cosmopolitan species.

S. canescens Nutt., S. cordifolia Muehl., S. galericulata Linn.,

S. integrifolia Linn., S. laterifiora have, at some time or other,

been used medicinally and also as a source of ‘scutelarin’—; S.

haicalensis Georg. 1s used in China.

Scutellaria galericulata Linn. is found in Kashmir. It inhabits

Central and Northern Asia, Europe, North Africa, and North

America.

If a decoction of the plant is made with 2 ounces of the herb

to 8 ounces of water, and is taken for some weeks continuously in

recent epilepsy, or when the disease has only functional causes,

it will often prove very beneficial. Likewise, this decoction, in

common with an extract of the herb, has been given curatively

for intermittent fever and ague, as well as for some depressed and

disordered states of the nervous system.

A homoeopathic tincture has been successfully given in cases

of the epileptiform ‘petit mal’.

The crushed plant is applied fresh to old ulcers.

The Flambeau Ojibwe, of North America, use the plant for

medicine having something to do with heart trouble.

Dutch: Glidkruid—; English: Blue Scullcap, Greater Scullcap, Helmet

Flower, Hooded Willow Herb, Hoodwort—; flambeau Ojibwe: Tcatcabont

‘ksik—; French: Grande toque, Scutellaire en toque, Toque—; German:

Helmkraut, Stumpfhelmkraut—; North America: Hooded Scullcap, Marsh

Skulleap-—; Spanish: Escutelaria—.

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA 417

STACHYS.

The genus consists of 200 cosmopolitan species, absent from

Australia.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—S. annua

Einn., 5. servensis Winn., S» Betonica Linn., S. germanica Linn.,

S. hirta Linn., S. maritima Linn., S. palustris Linn., S. recta Linn.,

S. sylvatica Linn.—; in China—S. aspera Michx., S. Sieboldi

Mig.—; in Colombia—-S. bogotensis H. B. K.---.

I. Stems and leaves beneath densely white wooliy .. S. parviflora.

II. Stems and leaves densely or sparingly hairy, but not

woolly.

1. Leaves petioled; corolla-tube exserted.

a. Petiole 2 cm. or shorter, margin crenate ep Sstevold:,

b. Petiole 4 cm. or longer, margin serrate hos sylvarica:

2. Leaves sessile; corolla-tube included _e .. 9. palustris.

1. Stachys palustris Linn. grows in Kashmir. It is found in

Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and North America.

The plant has always had in Europe a great reputation as a

vulnerary.

In modern herbal medicine the herb, collected when just coming

into flower and dried, is employed for its antiseptic and antispas-

modic properties. It relieves gout, cramp and pains in the joints,

and vertigo. The bruised leaves when applied to a wound will

stop bleeding and heal the wound. The fresh juice is made into a

syrup and taken internally to stop haemorrhages, diarrhoea, and >

dysentery.

In North America the plant is used as a vulnerary, antispasmodic,

emetic, and emmenagogue.

English: All-Heal, Clown’s Woundwort, Downy Woundwort, Husbandman’s

Woundwort, March Woundwort, Marsh Woundwort, Opopanewort, P'anaij— ;

French: Crapaudine, Epiaire des marais, Ortie morte, Ortie rouge, Stachys des

marais—; North America: Clown’s All-heal, Clown’s Woundwort, Dead-nettle,

Hedge-nettle, Marsh Woundwort, Rough-weed—-.

2. Stachys parviflora Benth. is found in the Punjab plains and

hills; it extends to Afghanistan.

In the Salt Range the bruised stems are applied to the guinea-

worm.

Punjab: Baggibuti, Kirimar—; Pushtu: Speraghunai—.

3. Stachys Sieboldi Mig. occurs in Upper Burma; it extends

to China.

The plant is used medicinally in China as a febrifuge, astringent,

and vulnerary.

Chinese: Ts’ao Shih Ts’an—.

4. Stachys sylvatica Linn. is found in Kashmir; it extends to

Northern Asia and Europe.

An old authority has it that this herb ‘stamped with vinegar

and applied in manner of a pultis, taketh away wens and hard

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

swellings, and inflammation of the kernels under the eares and jawes’,

and also that the distilled water of the flowers ‘is used to make

the heart merry, to make a good colour in the face, and to make

the vital spirits more fresh and lively’.

The plant is credited in France with tonic, emmenagogue, and

diuretic properties.

English: Hedge Woundwort—; French: Epiaire des bois, Ortie A crapaud,

Ortie morte des bois, Ortie puante, Stachys des bois—.

TEUCRIUM.

The genus includes 100 cosmopolitan species.

The following species are used medicinally in Europe—T. Botrys

Linn., Tf. .Chamaedrys Tann.,- 1. fruticans Uinn,, 7-2 eamajoreng

Pers., J. ‘marum: Linn., 7. montanum -Linns,, T; “Pohum Linn,

T. pyrenaicum Linn., T. scordium Linn., T. scorodonmia Linn.—;

in South Africa—T. capense Thunb., T. riparium Hochst.—.

1. Leaves small, subsessile, ovate or obovate, cuneate-

attenuated, obtuse ase veh ae ... lL. Stocksianum.

2. Leaves small, sessile, oblong, obtuse ee nae hs, SSCOVAIUM.

1. Teucrium scordium Linn. is found in Kashmir; it extends to

Afghanistan, Northern and Western Asia, Europe, and North

Africa.

The herb is considered in Europe antiseptic, diaphoretic, and

stimulant. An infusion gives excellent results in all inflammatory

diseases.

In Spain the flower tops and the leaves are considered aromatic,

bitter, astringent, and are mostly used as diaphoretics and vermi-

fuges.

Arabic: Skordeon—; Bohemian: Wodnj czessner—; Catalan: Escordi—;

Danish: Skordium—; Dutch: Waterlook—; English: Water Germander— ;

French: Germandrée aquatique, Germandrée d’eau, Scordium—; German:

Batengel, Knoblauch gamander, Lachenknoblauch, Lachinsknopfloch, Laeuse-

kraut, Moosknoblauch, Peterskraut, Rosslauch, Schlagkraut, Schorseken,

Scordienkraut, Sonnenschiit, Wasserbathengel, Wasserknol Greek :

Seordion, Scordochorto—; Hungarian: Vizi foghadyma—; Italian: Scordio—;

Lithuanian: Embutti—; Polish: Czosnkowc ziele—; Portuguese: Escordio— ;

Russian: Dikiy tchesnok, Scordiya, Zayatchiy tchesnok—; Spanish: Escordio,

Escordio oficinal—.

2. Teucrium Stocksianum Boiss. occurs in the Western Punjab,

the North-Western Frontier Province, Baluchistan, and Afghanistan.

In the Harboi Hills the herb is given in cases of pain at the

heart. At Kirani, near Quetta, it is used as a cure for fever.

In Persian Baluchistan the plant is boiled and allowed to stand

all night; the water is then drunk as a remedy for colds.

Baluchistan: Kalpora, Kalporag—; Waziristan: Kastorai—.-

THYMUS.

_ The genus consists of 33 species, inhabiting the temperate sles tus

of the world.

T. mastichina Linn., T. serpyllum Linn., and T. vulgaris are

used medicinally in Europe. 7

THE MEDICINAL AND POISONOUS LABIATES OF INDIA _ 419

Thymus serpyllum Linn. is found in the Western temperate

Himalaya, from Kashmir to Kumaon, at altitudes between 5,000

and 13,000 feet. It is distributed to Northern and Western Asia,

Europe, and North Africa.

In the Punjab the herb is given in weak vision, complaints of

the stomach and the liver, suppression of urine and menstruation

(Honigberger). On the Chenab the seeds are given as a vermifuge

(Stewart).

The oil is sometimes applied as a remedy in toothache.

In Europe the herb is considered antispasmodic, carminative,

and tonic. An infusion is given in convulsive coughs, whooping

coughs, catarrh, and sore throat; it is good for nervous or hysterical

headaches, for flatulence, and the headache which follows inebriation,

The infusion is also profitably applied for healing skin eruptions

of various characters.

In Persia the leaves are considered carminative. In Teheran

they are given for ‘too much water in the stomach’.

Arabic: Saatar-—; Catalan: Farigola de montanya, Serpoll—; Danish:

Vildtimian-—— ; Dutch: Quendel, Wilde Thym—; English: Bank Thyme, Brother-

wort, Creeping Thyme, Hill-wort, Horse Thyme, Mother of Thyme, Pella

Mountain, Penny Mountain, Piliol, Puliali Mountain, Running Thyme, Serpell,

Shepherd’s Wild Thyme, Wild English Thyme, Wild Thyme—; TI rench:

Mignotise des Génevoix, Pillolet, Piolet, Poleur, Pote, Pouilleux, Pouliet,

Pouliot batard, Serpolet, Serpoule, Thym batard, Thym rouge, Thym sauvage,

Thym serpolet—; German: Ameisenkraut, Bienenkraut, Choelm, Citronen-

quendel, Demutkraut, Fallboll, Feldkoehm, Feldkuemme!, Feldquendel, Feld-

thymian, Gundelkraut, Gundling, Gunnerle, Heidequendel, Heublume, Huehner-

klee, Huehnerkull, Immenkraut, Jungfernzucht, Kandelkraut, Karwendel, Kin-

delkraut, Kingle, Koschmes, Kostenskraut, Kudelkraut, Kuechenpolei, Kueken-

kuemmel, Kuenlein, Kulkraut, Kundelkraut, Kunerle, Kutelkraut Magaro,

Marienbettstroh, Mattenkolen, Neugelenk, Quandel, OQuangelchen, Quendel,

Quengel, Raenderpolei, Rainkuemmel, Rainpolei, Schmergel, Simio, Steinquendel,

Thymchen, Thyrmann, Tuemchen, Unsererlieben-frauenbettstroh, Zymis— ;

Greek : Erpylos—; Hindi: Banajwain—; Italian: Pepolino, Sermollino, Serpillo,

Serpolino, Serpollo—; Languedoc: Faligouleto, Ferigouleto—; North-Western

Provinces: Banajwain—; Persia: Djusha, Seetere, Zatar—; Polish: Mauer-

zanka— ; Portuguese: Serpao, Serpi!, Serpilhi, Serpol— ; Punjab: Kalandarzatar,

Marizha, Masho, Rangsbur, Shakei—; Roumanian : Cimbru de camp, Cimbrusor,

Serpun, Serpunel—; Russian: Bogorodskaya trava, Chaber, Chabietz— ; Spantsh :

Serpol— ; Swedish: Backtimjan, Bracktimian—; Teheran: JosShan shirazi— ;

Turkish: Sateriberri—; Urdu: Hasha—; Yemen: Saatar—.

ZATARIA.

Zataria multiflora Boiss. is found in Baluchistan, whence it

spreads to Afghanistan and Persia.

In Jhalawan the plant is used as a cure for stomach-ache.

Baluchistan: Isghand, Izgun—; Hamadan: Zatar—; Jhalawan: Izghand—.

Urdu: Saatar—.

ZIZIPHORA.

The genus includes 12 species, natives of the Mediterranean

region and Central Asia.

1. Much-branched, at the base more or less suffruticose .... Z. clinopodioides.

2. An annual herb we: ve oo ... @. tenuior.

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

1. Ziziphora clinopodioides M. Bieb. is found in Baluchistan.

It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia, the Caucasus, Armenia,

and Syria. :

At Jelga in Baluchistan the whole of the piant is dried and

kept, and a decoction is used to cure typhus fever; also leaves are

soaked in water at night and the infusion is drunk in the morning

in cases of heat. In the Harboi Hills the juice is used as a tonic

after recovery from fever.

Baluchi: Purchink— ; Harboi Hills : Purchink— ; Persian: Pudina—; Pushtu:

Maurai—; Ziarat Hills: Maurai—.

2. Ziziphora tenuior Linn. occurs in the North-West Frontier

Province, and Baluchistan. It is distributed to Afghanistan, Persia,

Asia Minor, Turkestan, Soongaria, and Siberia.

The herb is used in Baluchistan to allay fever. In Teheran it

is employed as a cordial and stomachic.

The seeds powdered and mixed with butter milk are used to

cure dysentery in Kila Abdulla. They are used as a cure for

fevers in Kharan.

Arabic : Mishkatar-el-mashih— ; Hindubagh: Maurai—; Iraq: Za ’tar—;

Kalat : Mashnapurchink— ; Kharan : Kohipurchink— ; Khawas : Tukhammelanga,

Kila Abdulla: Kahkuti, Tukhammalangai—; Kurdish:

Tukhumimalayan— ;

Rang—; Tank: Paparboti— ;

Jata, Pung—; Quetta-Pishin: Kahkuti— ; Shiriz :

Teheran: Kakuti—.

ON THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE

AND NOCTUIDAE (HETEROCERA).

D. G. SEVASTOPULO, F.R.E.S.

The present is a companion to my paper On the Food-plants of

Indian Bombyces (Heterocera), (1940, Journ, Bomb, Nat. Hist.

Soc., xli, 817-827). The authorities consulted and abbreviations

used are the same as in the previous paper, except that all refer-

ences to the Illustrations of Typical Specimens of Lepidoptera

Hetevocera in the Collection of the British Museum apply to

vol. ix, vol. vii containing no reference to any Agaristid or Noctuid

larva. Hampson’s Catalogue of the Lepidoptera Phalaenae does

not include the sub-families Noctuinae, Hypeninae and Hyblaeinae,

whilst Seitz’ Indo-Australian Noctuidae comes to an end half way

through the Catocalinae. 1 have followed Seitz in regard to

nomenclature and the arrangement of sub-families.

AGARISTIDAE.

Eusemia Dalm.

E. vetula Geyer—Dioscorea, Smilax (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

E. bisma Moore—Dioscorea oppositifolia (Lep. Phal.), Dioscorea and Batatas

(Seitz). (Possibly Bananas is meant). (non-Indian).

Scrobigera Jord.

S. proxima Wlk.—Cissus (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Mimeusemia Btlr.

M. basalis Wlik.—Dillenia (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Ophthalmis Hbn.

O. milete Cr.—Cissus (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian).

Seudyra Stretch.

S. transiens Wlik.—Vitis.

A number of the Australian and American species of the family feed on

Vitis, others on Loranthus, Casuarina, Clarkea, Epilobium and Aenothera.

NOCTUIDAE.

ACRONICTINAE.

Diphtherocome Warr.

D. orion Esp.—Oak, Birch, Beech, etc. (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

Trisula Moore.

T. variegata Moore—Ficus religiosa (Fauna, Seitz).

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Acronicta Treit.

Nothing appears to be known of the Indian species; but European species

feed on Ash, Privet, Alder, Hawthorn, Polygonum, Salix, Plum, Veronica,

Rose, Birch, Oak, Pear, Horse-chestnut, Sycamore, Beech, Cornus, Rubus,

Poplar, Elm, Myrica, etc.

Simyra Treit.

S. nervosa Schiff.—Spurge, Sorrel (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

S. albovenosa Goeze—Phragmites, Carex, Typha (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

MoMINAE.

Moma Hbn.

M. ludifica L.—Sorbus aucuparia, Crataegus oxyacantha (Lep. Phal.). (non-

Indian).

BRYOPHILINAE.

Bryophila Treit.

B. nilgiria Moore—Lichens (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Other non-Indian species also on Lichens.

EUXOINAE.

Euxoa Hbn.

E. segetum Schiff.—Roots of Brassica, Rumex, Chrysanthemum (Lep. Phal.),

on roots of low plants (Seitz).

E. corticea Schiff.—Chenopodium, Rumex, Trifolium, etc. (Lep. Phal.),

various low plants (Seitz).

E. spinifera Hbn.—Grasses (Lep. Phal., mihi).

Rhyacia Hbn.

R. ypsilon Rott.—General feeder (Lep. Phal.), polyphagous on low plants

(Seitz). - ate

R. subsequa Schiff.—Various low plants (Seitz).

R. pronuba L.—Brassica, Taraxacum, Rumex, etc. (Lep. Phal.), all low

plants (Seitz). |

R. orbona Hufn.—Grasses, Ranunculus, Primula, etc. (Lep. Phal.). (non-

Indian).

R. c-nigrum L.—General feeder (I.ep. Phal.), low plants generally (Seitz).

R. deraiota Hamps.—Menispermum, Viola, etc. (Ill. Het., Lep. Phal.),

various low plants (Seitz).

R. dahii Hbn.—Rumex, Primula, Plantago, etc. (Lep. Phal.).

R. ravida Schiff.—Taraxacum, Stellaria, etc. (Lep. Phal.), various low plants

(Seitz).

R. flammatra Schiff.—Taraxacum, Fragaria (Lep. Phal.), various low plants

(Seitz).

R. saucia Hbn.—Numerous low plants (Seitz).

Other non-Indian members of the genus feed on Salix, Rubus, Betula and

Calluna.

Eurois Hbn.

E. prasina Schiff_—Rumex, Birch, Rubus, ete. (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

Triphaena Hbn.

Non-Indian members of the genus feed on Birch, Hawthorn, Salix, Rumex,

Primula, Stellaria, Rubus and grasses.

HADENINAE.

Barathra Hbn.

B. brassicae L.—Brassica, Rumex, Chenopodium, ete. (Lep. Phal.), all low

plants (Seitz). |

THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE & NOCTUIDAE 423

Scotogramma Smith.

S. trifolii Rott.—Atriplex, Chenopodium (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

S. nana Hfn.—Hippocrepis comosa, Coronilla minima (Lep. Phal.). (non-

Indian).

Polia Treit.

Non-Indian members of the genus of the section to which the Indian species

belong feed on Chenopodium, Salsola, Mesembryanthemum, Oak, Birch, Solidago,

Genista, Polygonum, Stellaria, Lonicera, Rumex, Plantago, Tritolium, Cytisus,

Anthyllis, Pteris, Chrysanthemum, Sonchus, Achiliea, Vaccinium, Grasses, Willow,

Elm, Urtica, Brassica, Scabiosa, Taraxacum, ‘Tussilago, Delphinium and

Lactuca. The section Harmodia, none of which are Indian, feeds on Caryophyl-

laceae, mostly in the seed-pods.

Hadena Schrank.

H. reticulata Vill.—Silene, Rumex, Primula, etc. (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

Tiracola Moore.

T. plagiata Wik.—Emilia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna; Lep. Phal:, Seitz).

Xylomania Hamps.

Non-Indian species feed on Lotus, Polygonum and Wild Gooseberry.

Monima Hbn.

M. incerta Hfn.—Oak, Poplar, Hawthorn (ep. Phal.), various trees and

shrubs (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Salix, Birch, Aspen, Rose, Elm, Carduus and Lysi-

machia.

Brithys Hbn.—Liliaceae (Seitz).

B. crini F.—Amaryllis (Lep. Ceyl.), Liliaceae (Lep. Phal.), Amaryllideae

(mihi).

Polytela Guen.

P. cliens F!dr.—Pancratium tortuosum (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

P. gloriosae F.—Amaryllis (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz, mihi),

Gloriosa superba (Lep. Phal., mihi), Gloriosa (Seitz).

Cerapteryx Curt.

C. graminis L.—Grasses (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

Hyphilare Hbn.—Grasses (Seitz).

H. l-album L.—Grasses (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Sideridis Hbn.

vitellina Hbn.—Grasses (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

comma L.—Grasses (Lep. Phal.), various fen grasses (Seitz).

unipuncta Haw.—Grasses, Cereals (Lep. Phal.).

insularis Btlr.—Grasses (mihi).

nnn

CUCULLIANAE.

Cucullia Schrank.

Non-Indian species on Artemisia, Chamomile, Scnchus, Lactuca, Aster,

Linosyris, Pyrethrum, Anthemis, Tanacetum, Campanula, Hesperis, Solidago,

Scrophularia and Verbascum.

Euscotia Btlr.

EK. inextricata Moore—Berberis (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

424 JOL'RNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Dichoniopsis Warr.

D. obliquisigna Hamps.—Oak (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Crino Hbn.—Low plants (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Humulus, Lonicera, Cherry, Galium, Origanum,

Achillea, Cyclamen, WValeriana, Hieraceum, Leontodon.

Amathes Hbn.

Non-Indian species on Rubus, Salix, Rumex, Primula, Birch and Poplar.

Cosmia Treit.—When young on the catkins or flowers of trees, afterwards

on various low plants. (Seitz).

C. giluago Esp.—Seeds of elm, particularly Wych-elm, not Poplar (Seitz),

seeds of Elm (Lep. Phal.).

Non-Indian species on Beech, Poplar, Maple, Salix, Tilia.

AMPHIPYRINAE,

Pyrois Hbn.

Non-Indian species on Elm, Euonymus, Cytisus, Cistus and Lavatera.

Amphipyra Treit.

A. tragopoginis I..—Plantago, Hawthorn, Aquilegia, etc. (Lep. Phal.), a

variety of low growing plants (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Oak, Birch, Elm, Sallow, Dandelion, Hieracium

and other low-growing plants.

Mania Treit.-—Various shrubs and plants (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Salix, Rubus, Primula, Ivy.

Dipterygia Steph.—Low plants (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Rumex and Polygonum.

Parastichtis Hbn.—Grasses (Seitz).

.P. funerea Hein.—Grasses (Lep. Phal.).

Non-Indian species on Grasses, Primula and Rumex.

Oligia Hbn.—Stems and roots of grasses (Seitz).

Trachea Treit—Low plants (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Atriplex, Rumex, Polygonum, ‘Taraxacum, Grasses.

Euplexia Steph.—Various low plants (Seitz).

E. lucipara L.—Ranunculus, Ligustrum, Ash, etc. (Lep. Phal.}. (non-

Indian).

Conservula Grote.

C. v-brunneum Guen.—Bracken (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Eriopus Treit—Known species on Ferns (Seitz).

E. juventina Cr.—Pteris aquilina (Lep. PhalJ., Seitz).

E. latreillet Treit.—Ceterach officinarum and Notochloena marante (Lep.

Phal.), Ceterach officinarum and other ferns (Seitz).

Calogramma Guen.—Liliaceae (Seitz).

C. festiva Don.—Liliaceae (Lep. Phal., Seitz, mihi).

tHE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN. AGARISTIDAE G NOCTUIDAE ~ 425

Prodenia Guen., |

P, litura F.—Lantana, etc. (Lep. Ceyl.), Lantana (Lep. Phai., Fauna, Seitz),

Antirrhinum, Zinnia, Spinach, Lettuce, Castor and Caladium (mihi).

Spodoptera Guen.

S. pecten Guen.— Bukoot’ (Lep.. Phal., Seitz}, Grasses (mihi).

S. cuitunm: Guen.—Grasses (mihi).

S. maturttia Bsd.—Rice (Lep. Phal.), cereals, rice (Seitz), grasses (mihi),

Laphygma Guen.

L. apertura Wik.—Drosera (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

“L. exigua Hbn.-—Plantago, low growing herbs, Lucerne, Cotton (Lep. Phal.),

various low-growing plants, Lucerne, Cotton (Seitz), Lucerne, Indigo, Onions,

Chillies, Gingelly, Cowpea, Brinjal, Radish, Amaranthus, Turmeric, Maize,

Castor, Sesbania aculeata, S. grandiflora. Eleusine coracana, Coriander,

Sorghum, Cotton, Tobacco, Gisekia pharnaceoides (1939, Cherian and Kylasam,

Journ. Bomb.’ Nat. Hist. Soc.,° xli, 253).

Athetis Hbn.—Low-growing herbage and grasses (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Stellaria, Rumex, Viola, Grasses, Plantago, Taraxacum,

Pulmonaria, Corn, Peas, Sedum, Salix, Rubus.

Acosmetia Steph.—Low-growing plants (Seitz).

A. caliginosa Hbn.—Serratula tinctoria, Sanguisorba, Rumex (Lep. Phal.).

(non-I[ndian).

Proxenus Herr.—Schatf.

P, hospes Frr.—Plantago and low-growing herbs (Lep. Phal.). (non-Indian).

Prospalta Wk.

P. dolorosa Wlk.—Conyza balsamitera (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

P. capensis Guen.—Acanthads (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.), Acanthus

(Seitz), Marigold, Cosmos (mihi).

P. pallidipennis Warr.—Coreopsis (mihi).

Gortyna Treit.--In the roots and stems of marsh plants (Seitz),

G. leucostigma Hbn.—In stems of Cladium mariscus and Iris pseudacorus,

etc. (Lep. Phal.), in roots and stems of large water-plants such as Iris pseudacorus

and Cladium mariscus (Seitz).

Hydroecia Guen.—In the stems of various low plants (Seitz).

Non-Indian species in the stems of Petasites, Equisetum, Rumex, Valeriana,

Peucedanum, Cynara, Cardunculus.

Pyrrhia Hbn.

P. umbra Hfn.—Ononis or Geranium pratense, in Assam Siegesbeckia orien-

talis (Lep. Phal.), on flowers and seeds of Ononis spinosa (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Melissa, Salvia, Dictamnus, Centaurea, and Succisa.

Calymnia Hbn.

Non-Indian species on Elm, Pear, Plum, Oak, Salix.,

Mudaria Moore.

M. cornifrons Moore.—Sillk-cotton (Bombax malabaricum) (Fauna, Lep. Phal.,

Seitz).

Phragmatiphila Hamps.

Non-Indian species in the stems of Carex and Typha.

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLU

Sphetta WIk.

S. apicalis Wik.-—Diospyros, Nephelium erectum (Lep. Ceyl.).

Sesamia Guen.—In the stems of Gramineae (Seitz),

S. mferens Wik.—In the stems of Sugar-cane (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

S. crelica Led.—In stems of Maize (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

S. uniformis Dudg.—In stems of Sugar-cane (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

ERASTRIANAE.

Usually on low plants and grasses; a few on lichens or on coccidae (Seitz)

Penisa Warr.—Lichen (Seitz).

P. erythroglauca Hamps.—A minute lichen (Lep, Phal., Seitz).

P, -oblataria Wik.—Lichens (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Eublemmoides Beth.—Baker.

Ek. subangulata Hamps.—The Coccid Maskellia zonata Green (Lep. Phal.,

Seitz).

Coccidiphaga Spul.—Coccidae on various trees (Seitz).

C, scitula Rmbr.—On the eggs of Coccidae on Fig-trees, Oleanders and

Yuccas (Lep. Phal., Seitz), at the Cape on Lecanium hesperidum (Lep. Phal.).

Porphyrinia Hbn.

P. ostrina Hbn.—Carduus and Helichrysum (Lep. Phal.), Carlina and

Helichrysum (Seitz).

P. parva Hbn.—In the flower shoots of Inula montana and. I. viscosa,

Centaurea calcitrapa, and in India in the flowers of Kukraunda (Lep. Phal.,

Seitzjck 2s aie

P. amabilts Moore—On the Lac-insect Tachardia lacca (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Autoba Wik.—On various low plants, some few on Coccidae (Seitz).

A. vinotincta Hamps.—Coccidiphagous, on a_ species of Lecanium (Lep.

Phal.,: Seitz):

A. pulvinaniae Oliff.—On the eggs, adult females and ovisacs of the salt-

bush scale Pulvinaria maskelli (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian).

A. coccidiphaga Hamps.—On various Coccids, such as Lecanium and Pul-

vinaria (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

A. abrupia Wik.—Ficus parasiticus (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz), Ficus

(Fauna).

A. dubia Btlr.—On the Coccids Lecanium oleae, L. hesperidum and L. testudo,

and Eriococcus eucalypti (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian).

Phyllophila Guen.

Non-Indian species on Santolina and Artemisia.

Amyna Guen.

A. punctum F.—Croton ftiglium and C. aromaticum (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Lithacodia Hbn.—Known species on Grasses (Seitz).

-Eustrotia Hbn.—Carex and grasses (Seitz).

Tarache Hbn.—Low plants (Seitz).

T. urania Friy.—Althaea cannabina (Lep. Pha!l.). | (nen-Indian).

T, lucida Hfn.—Malva, Convolvulus (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE @ NOCTUIDAE 437

MELICLEPTRIINAE.

Chloridea Westw.

C. dipsacea 1L.—Linaria, Centauréa,; Ononis, etc: (Lep. Phal.), flowers of

oo plants, especially Ononis and Linaria (Seitz).

. peltigera Schiff.—Ononis, Pyrethrum, Arenaria, etc. (Lep. Phal.), Howers

of various low plants (Seitz).

C. assulta Guen.—Physalis peruviana (I. Elet;, Lep: Pliat.; Seitz);

C. obsoleta F.—Rosebuds (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Corn, Cotton, Tomatoes,

Rosa, Reseda, Calamintha, etc. (Lep. Phal.), flowers of many plants (Seitz),

flowers of Carnation, Antirrhinum, Cosmos, Chrystnthemum (mihi).

Melicleptria Hbn.

M. scutosa Schiff.—Artemisia (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

EUTELIANAE.

They keep rather exclusively—as far as it is known-—to the different

Anacardiineae (Seitz).

Bombotelia Hamps.

B. jocosatrix Guen.—Terminalia belerica (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal.; Seitz).

B. dorsipuncta’ Hamps.—Semecarpus (Lep. Phal., Seitz). (non-Indian).

Eutelia Hbn.

E. tripartita Semp.—Spondias (Lep. Phal., Seitz). _.

E. adulatrix Hbn.—-Rhus cotinus, Pistacia (Lep. Phal.).

Anuga Guen.

A. constricta Guen.—Semecarpus (Lep. Phal., Seitz),

Paectes Hbn.

P, subapicalis Wilk.—Shorea robusta (radian ae Reacaice Institute Report

for October 1940).

STICTOPTERINAE.

Stictoptera Guen.

S. subobliqua Wik.—Garcinia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Lophoptera Guen.

L. illucida Wlk.—Shorea robusta (Indian Lac fedseatels Institute Report for

October 1940).

SARROTHRIPINAE.

Sarrothripus Curt.

S. revayana Scop.—Oak, Willow (Lep. Phal.)e

Plotheia Wk.

P. decrescens Wik.—Coftee (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Risoba Moore.

R. obstructa Moore—Quisqualis (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna), Quisqualis and Ster-

culia (Lep. Phal.).

ACONTIANAE.

Earias Hbn.

E. fabia Stoll.—In bolls of the Cotton plant (Seitz).

E. insulana Bsd.—Ceratonia siliqua, ERS OVE herbaceum (Lep. Phal.),

bolls of the Cotton plant (Seitz).

Non-Indian species on Populus and Salix,

498 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIS?t. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

Carea Wk.

C. varipes Wik.—Eugenia xanthocarpa (Lep. Ceyl.).

Beara Wilk.

Bb. dichromella Wik.—Celtis orientalis (Lep. Ceyl.), Zizyphus jujuba (mihi).

Westermannia Hbn.

W; superba Hbn. Terminalia (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, 'Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Acontia O.

A. malvae Esp.—Malva moschata, Lavatera olbia (Lep. Phal.).

A. graellst Feisth.—Lavatera olbia (Lep. Phal.).

CATOCALINAE,

Catocala Schrank.

C. nupta L.—Salix, Poplar, Ash (Lep. Phal.).

Non-Indian species on Oak, Birch, Sloe in addition.

Ephesia Hbn.

Kk. dotata Wik.—Quercus alba (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Non-Indian species also on Wild Cherry, Plum, Dog-wood, Crataegus

Scrub Oak, Apple, Sloe.

Cocytodes Guen. ;

C. coerulea Guen.—Bochmeria (Ill Het.), Great Himalayan Nettle

Boehmeria (Lep. Phal.).

Lagoptera Guen.

‘L.. honesta Hbn.—‘Baucal’ (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Anua WIk.

A, coronata F.—Quisqualis indica (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., mihi).

A. indiscriminata. Hamps.—Eucalyptus Carea and other Myrtaceae (IIL.

Het., Lep. Phal., Seitz),

A, tirhaca Cr.—Pistacia lentiscus, Cistus, Rhus _ coriaria (Lep. Phal.).

Ercheia WIk.

E, diversipennis Wlk.—Grass (Lep. Phal., Seitz).

Achaea Hbn.

A. mezentia Cr.—Canthium (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal., Seitz).

A, mercatoria F.—Ricinus communis (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz). .

A. -melicerta Drury.—Ricinus communis (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal., Seitz,

mihi).

Parallelia Hbn.

P. onelia Guen.—Phyllanthus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phat., Seitz).

P, joviana Stoll.—Phyllanthus (Lep. Cey!., Fauna, Lep. Phal., ’ Seitz).

P. algira L.—Bramble, Sloe, ete. (Lep. Phal.), Ricinus communis (mihi).

P. palumba Guen.—Citrus decumanus (Lep. Ceyl.).

Attatha Moore.

A. regalis Moore—Streblus (Lep. Phal.).

A. ino Druty.—Pipul (Lep. Phal.).

THE FOOD-PLANTS OF INDIAN AGARISTIDAE & NOCTUIDAE 429

Grammodes Guen.

G. geometrica F. Polygonum persicaria, Cistus salvifolia (Lep. Phal.).

G. stolida F.—Paliurus aculeatus, Rubus fruticosus, Coriaria miyrtifolia,

Quercus (Lep. Phal.).

Chalciope Hbn.

C. hyppasta Cr.—Rhynchosia minima (mihi).

Hypaetra Guen.

H, discolor F.—Callicarpa maesa (Lep. Phal.).

Mocis Hhbn.

M. frugalis F.—Zingiberaceae (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.).

M. undata F.—Desmodium (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.).

Clytie Hbn.

C. illunaris Whn.—Tamarix gallica (Lep. Phat.) (non-Indian).

Pericyma Herr.—Schaff.

P. umbrina Guen.—A small thorny shrub (Lep. Phal.).

P. glaucinans Guen.—A leguminous tree (Lep. Phal.).

P. albidentaria Frr.—Alhagi camelorum (Lep. Phal.) (non-Indian).

PHYTOMETRINAE.

Syngrapha Hbn.

S. circumflexa L.—Potato, etc. (Lep. Phal.).

Non-Indian species on Larch, Salix, Betula, Erica, Calluna and Urtica.

Phytometra Haw.

P, ni Hbn.—Nettle, Solanum, etc. (Lep. Phal.).

P. daubet Bsd.—Sonchus maritimus (Lep. Phal.).

P. chalcytes Esp.—Urtica, Salvia, Echium, Marrubium, in India on Ficus

(Lep. Phal.), Ficus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

P. confusa Steph. Achillea millefolium, Matricaria chamomilla (Lep.. Phal.).

P. mgriluna Wik.—Acalypha (Lep. Ceyl., Lep. Phal.).

P. jessica Btlr.—Antirrhinum flowers (mihi).

P. peponis F.—Cucurbitaceae (Lep. Ceyl.,. Fauna, Lep. Phal.).

P. orichalcea F.—Coreopsis (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna, Lep. Phal.).

Non-Indian species on Brassica, Tomato, Reseda,. Taraxacum, Rumex,

Crepis, Chenopodium, Trifolium, Senecio, Mentha, Grasses, Carex, Typha,

Sparganium, Iris, Alisma, Hollyhock, Isopyrum, Thalictrum, Lamium, Urtica,

Lonicera, Sonchus, Geranium, Malva, Eupatorium, Aconitum, Pulmonaria,

Lycopsis, Spiraea, Humulus, Arctium.

Abrostola Ochs.

Non-Indian species on Vaccinium, Urtica, Epilobium, Humulus, Lamium.

NOcTUINAE.

Cosmophila Bsd.

C. fulvida Guen.—Waltheria indica (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

C. erosa Hbn.—Hibiscus (Lep. Ceyl., Fatna),- Hollyhock (mihi).

Othreis Hbn.

O. ancilla Cr.—Menispermum (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

430 ‘JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

Ophideres Bsd.

0. fullonica’ L.—Tinospora cordifolia (Menispermaceae) (mihi).

Argadesa Moore.

A. materna L.—Tinospora cordifolia (mihi).

Maenas Hbn.

M. salaminia ¥.—Ménispermaceae (Lep. Ceyl.), Menispermum (Fauna).

Khadira Moore.

K. aurantia Moore.—Menispermaceae (Lep. Ceyl.).

Hylodes Guen.

H. caranea Cr.—Acanthads (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

Pandesma Guen.

P. mundata Wik.—Alhizzia (IN. Het., Fauna).

Lacera Guen.

L. alope Cr.—Pisonia, Canthium (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

Ischyja Hbn.

I, manha Cr.—Terminalia, Cinnamonia, etc, (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

Azazia WIk.

A. rubricans Bsd.—Phaseolus (Lep. Ceyl.).

Hypocala Guen.

H. moorei Btlr.—Diospyros (Lep. Ceyl.).

Culasta Moore.

C. minuticornis Guen.—Cocculus macrocarpus (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

Plusiodonta Guen.

P. coelonota Koll.—Cocculus macrocarpus (Lep. Ceyl.).

Tinolius Wik. |

T. eburneiguita Wik.—Thunbergia alata (Lep. Ceyl.).

Pasipeda Wik.

P. satellitia Moore—-Thunbergia alata (Lep. Cevl.).

HyYPENINAE.

Hypena Schrank.

H. proboscidalis L.—Nettle (mihi).

HYBLAEINAE.

Hyblaea F.

H. puera Cr.—Bignoniaceae (Lep. Ceyl., Fauna).

Obie UA Ry.

FREDERICK VICTOR EVANS

1865-1940

Frederick Victor Evans was born on May 16, 1865, and

died on the 3rd April, 1940, of acute myocarditis. He was buried

in St. Ludnos Cemetery, situated on the top of the Great Orme

Head, Llandudno. Of family history there is little to record. His

father, Samuel Evans, came from an old Shropshire farming family,

dating back to 1604, ‘and died a widower in 1872, leaving a young

family of five children of which Frederick was the second son; a

younger brother and sister predeceased him. Owing to the death

of both parents, education was limited and of a private character.

He went to India with his eldest brother in the year 1886 and

after gaining some Indian commercial experience branched out for

himself and, with his partner, founded the firm of Evans Fraser & Co.

about the year 1892. Retiring from active work in India about the

year 1908, he returned to England.

_ I understand that he was one of the original founders and

trustees of the Commercial Gymkhana, Wodehouse Road, Bombay.

In latter years, whiist in Bombay, he found recreation in shikar

about the Thana Creek and nearby districts and was fond of

camp life. Fishing too took up a lot of his time, and led to his

practical support to local fishing clubs and their interest in

developing the Lonavla Lakes belonging to the Tata Hydro-electric

Scheme into possible fishing areas. Yachting was also one of his

joys and with his partner and their sailing boat the ‘Piwit’ won

several prizes in the Bombay Yacht Club open events.

His interest in the Bombay Natural History Society began some

vears later. It was about this period that he began stamp collecting,

specializing in the stamps of British India and the Indian Native

States and nearby countries, he left a very interesting and valuable

collection.

He married a widow very late in life and had no children.

He lived a very retired life in England and if there is any

meaning in the term ‘a Spiritual Home’ his certainly was in India,

which he loved very much.

Mr. Evans showed his love for India and the city ‘of Bombay

in a very practical manner. He was elected a Vice Patron of the

Bombay Natural History Society in the year 1928 in recognition

of the very generous assistance and support which he gave to the

Society. He made several substantial contributions amounting to

well over Rs. 15,000 to the Society, which were expended on the

Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum, and

maintained at his own expense, for over a period of 10 years, the

services of a modeller for the preparation of a series of casts of

local marine and fresh water fishes. As a result of this generosity

432 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

the Society was able to prepare the beautiful series of models in wax

and papier mache of local fishes now exhibited in the Fish Gallery of

the Prince of Wales Museum, Bombay. Mr. Evans also presented to

the Museum the series of beautiful and expensive models illustrating

insects in relation to disease. His interest in Bombay is further

revealed in the fine collection of pictures and paintings of old Bombay,

now exhibited in the Art Section of the Prince of Wales Museum.

The Society’s Journal also benefited by Mr. Evans’ generous offer

to meet the cost of many of the coloured and black and white plates

produced with the serial on Wiid Animals of the Indian Empire.

His generosity also made it possible for us to publish the very

large number of fine illustrations issued with Mr. Mosley’s serial

on Caddis Flies. Mr. Evans presented the Society with a fine

collection of books on Bombay and Western India—many of them

rare and valuable editions. His name lives in the good he has

done for the city he loved so well.

At the request of Mr. C. McCann, in appreciation of the generous

help and encouragement extended to him in pursuit of his natural

history studies by Mr. Evans, the late Fr. E. Blatter named a new

species of plant as Kaunpfera Evansii in his honour. Likewise

Mr. H. N. Dixon named a new moss obtained by Mr. McCann

from the Naga Hills, Assam, as Isopterygium Evansui.

REVIEW

THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA INCLUDING THE REMAINDER

OF THE ORIENTAL REGION. Diptera. Vol. VI—Family Calliphoridae.

By Rk. Senior White, Daphne Aubertin and John Smart. (london, March 28,

1940.) Price 18 shillings.

As is detailed in the preface, the history of this volume has been one of

delays due to the changes in official posts of the original authors. The

major part of the work was carried out by Mr. R. Senior White, partly in

collaboration with Major W. S. Patton, I.m.s., who, it was hoped, would have

been able to collaborate in completing a volume on the Muscidae. Unfortunately

Major Patton’s other engagements made it impossible for him to undertake the

work, and the senior author of the present volume with the collaboration of the

second author and later with the help of the third author has managed to

complete only the account of the family Calliphoridae.

The work deals with the subfamilies Calliphorinae, Chrysomyiinae, Rhiniinae

and Sarcophaginae of the family Calliphoridae of Calyptrate Flies. 214 species

of 37 genera are dealt with in the work, and a departure is made from the

other volumes of the series, in that species described from the entire Oriental

Region are dealt with in the work. This is due to two reasons, firstly because

species of this family are very widely distributed, and secondly ‘compared with

the more attractive groups of insects, so little collecting has been done, that

the Editor agreed to the above extension of plan’. The authors hope that

when Assam and Burma are adequately worked out, many of the species now

known from farther Eastern areas alone and included in this volume will prove

to be Indian in the ‘Fauna’ sense.

The descriptions of the various species are very detailed, and keys to the

subfamilies, genera and species should enable most workers to identify Indian

insects of the family without much difficulty. The large number of figures of

the various species will also greatly facilitate the task of identification.

As an introduction to the systematic part, the external anatomy of these

flies is dealt with in fair detail (pp. 1-16), while a short account of the internal

anatomy, particularly the alimentary and reproductive systems, is also given

(pp. 16-18). Pages 18-25 of the introductory chapter are devoted to the early

stages, bionomics, and connection of these flies with diseases. Collecting

and mounting are also dealt with at the end of the same chapter.

The volume contains detailed accounts of the species described up to 1936

and included inthe Zoological Record for the year, but six species described

during 1937, 1938 and 1939 are also listed in an appendix on p. 282.

The publication of this volume will be welcomed by Dipterists in the

country, and the senior author of the volume deserves the thanks of all workers

for having completed a difficult task under rather trying conditions.

Bas

MISCELEANE ONS NOTES

-IL—RIVERS AS BARRIERS TO THE DISTRIBUTION OF

GIBBONS.

There is a curious fact about the Gibbon (Hylobates hoolock)

which IT do not think has been placed on record. It is their apparent

aversion to water in any large quantities. My observation shows

that they seem to dislike having to swim in order to cross a river

of any size, or, of course, it may be that it is a dislike of coming

to.earth fromthe trees?

In four years experience in an area of the Sadiya Frontier Tract

in Assam, bounded on the south by the Lohit River and by the

Brahmaputra after the latter’s confluence with the Lohit, on the

west by the. Subansini River, and on the east by the Dibang River,

I never came across a single one of these animals. This. area is

quite suitable for Gibbons to inhabit, as it consists mostly of thick

rain forest and, if they had been present, I feel certain I would

either have seen or heard them, for I toured there very extensively

every year. Immediately south of this area, i.e. on the south

bank of the Lohit-Brahmaputra it is possible to see and_ hear

them almost every day in the jungle at Rangdoi and Kenua and

particularly on the Rongdoi-Laikoaghat road. Hence this Gibbon

is present on the south bank of the Lohit-Brahmaputra System;

but not on the north bank! It is apparent that these rivers form

a complete barrier to the spread of this animal into the area

mentioned. |

It is possible that it is also absent east of the Dibang; but I

am not sure of this and cannot say anything about the area west

of the Subansiri. The tract of country where I found them absent

is very large. It extends for over a hundred miles along the

Himalayan (Abor) foothills and has an average width of about

twelve miles or more. These foothills to the north of this tract

are also quite suitable; but here again the animal is absent. The

ordinary common reddish-brown monkey is common both inside this

area and also on the south of the Lohit-Brahmaputra outside it.

DIBRUGARH, R. E. PARSONS,

LAKHIMPUR [DjySTRICT, Indian Police,

Assam, January 9, 1941. F.R.E.S.

[Rivers when they are wide enough definitely form natural

barriers to certain groups of monkeys. Macaques readily take

to water, but gibbons and leaf monkeys (Semnopithecus) appear

to have an aversion to water and are usually baulked by a river.

Nevertheless both gibbons and leaf monkeys can swim. Mr. McCann

tells us that when on the Chindwin Expedition, he put a baby

gibbon on a raft to prevent it becoming a nuisance, but it deliber-

ately jumped into the river and swam ashore.—-Eps.]

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 435

i ==ASPALE COLOUR FORM OF THE PANTHER.

With a photo).

BS ie

» A normally coloured panther is shown on the right for comparison.

I enclose a snap of a leopard shot in Dumraon State at the

beginning of last year by a Mr, Lessanovitch of Calcutta. The

animal is a female, and measured 6/ 2” between -pegs. The eyes

were a bright sky blue with no signs of pink, and the only black

hairs were at the very tip of the tail.

These latter are not to be found now; so I presume that thev

must have fallen out during the process of curing. The ground

colour of the skin is a pale rich buff, and the spots a dull orange.

There appears to be only one other instance of a leopard of

this colour from the Hazaribagh district which is not very far

from the State in which the present animal was shot.

CALCUTTA, H. A. FOOKS.

January 16, 1941.

{The most usual form of colour variation in panthers is a

tendency to melanism; black panthers are fairly common. Mare

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST (SOCIETY, Vol. ie

rarely the opposite phenomenon—albinism, partial or complete, is

seen. The instance recorded above is such a case of semi-albinism.

It is interesting to note that this is the second record of its kind

from Behar. A specimen from Hazaribagh, presented to the British

Museum by Mr. (R. FE. S. Thomas; ‘is desczibed by Pococka Goud:

Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xxxiv, p. 69) as having the ground

colour paler than usual with tan spots.—Ebs. | .

Ill.—A BROWN FORM OF THE HIMALAYAN BLACK BEAR

(SELENARCTOS VHIBETANU'S):

A brown example of the Himalayan Black Bear (Selenarctos

thibetanus), the property of General Sri Rudra Shum Shere Jung

Bahadur Rana of Nepal, was secured in the jungles of a Himalayan

valley in Nepal territory.

The general coloration of this bear was a rich brown resembling

the Russian Brown Bear (Ursus arctos), muzzle a light brown, and

a pale chest mark. From the characters of the dentition there

is no mistaking this bear skin for the Himalayan Red or Isabelline

Bear (U. arctos isabellinus).

We have had several specimens of the cinamon-coloured variety

of the Sloth Bear, which are not uncommon. H. H. The Maha-

raja of Dewas Senior has a large male of this colour alive in his

ZOO,

VAN INGEN AND VAN INGEN, BOTHA VAN INGEN.

Mysore, S. Inpia,

January 23, 1941.

| Pocock in his monograph on the Black and Brown Bears ol

Europe and Asia (Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist, Soc., vol. xxxvi,

p. 110) gives two records of brown specimens of the Black Bear:

one of these was an example of the Baluchistan race (S. t. gedrosi-

anus), which came from Mekran, and which Blanford, on account

of its colouring, originally mistook for a Brown Bear. The second

was a specimen shot by Major Stockley in the Kashmir Valley,

which again was mistaken for a ‘red’ bear. Messrs. Van Ingen

sent the skull of the Black Bear referred to in his note to’ the

Society and we have verified the correctness of the identification.—

Eps. |

IV.—THE INDIAN WILD DOG.

Under the head ‘Fluctuating Population’ in the article on the

Indian Wild Dog, at page 713 of Volume xli, the possibility of

rabies being a contributing cause is mentioned; and it is remarked

that record of only one case of rabies could be found,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4.37

I have now come across an instance in a book Mauled by a

Tiger by Arthur W. Strachan (1933). The Author writes :—

‘I know of no instance of these beasts having made a concerted

attack upon human beings, or even cattle, but on rare

occasions single individuals affected with rabies have en-

deavoured to bite natives, and I once shot one in the

last stages of this dread disease. It had ‘treed’ a coolie,

but it could not possibly have bitten him as its lower jaw

was completely paralysed and hung open.’

5, Benson Cross Roap, R. W. BURTON,

BANGALORE, Hb -Ook:

Apnl 5, 1641.

Vo NUIEEAGE DOGS HUNTING,

In the fascinating article by Burton—‘The Indian Wild Dog’—

in your latest Journal, I was interested to read the portion dealing

with ‘red colour pariah dogs’ mentioned by Forsyth in his High-

lands of Central India. 1 have never been so fortunate as to shoot

in the C. P., so cannot add anything to the subject of wild dogs

of those parts, and even the Cuon of these parts, the Terai, and

Siwalik hills have never obligingly revealed themselves to me.

The mention, however of the ‘red colour pariah dogs’—which

presumably means ‘domesticated’ or ‘semi-domesticated’ village

dogs, calls to mind a most interesting sight which I witnessed in

the Timli (East) Reserved Forest (Dehra Dun Divn:), one evening

last November. I had done a prowl through a bit of the Timli

village zemindari forest, on the off chance for shot at jungle fowl,

but had had no luck, and I had emerged on to the too’ fire line

separating the reserved forest from the village land when I saw four

village ‘pie’ dogs walking up a stony ‘rao’ or dry nullah from

the village. They stopped when they reached the edge of the

reserve forest. Here they stood with their heads close together, it

seemed, and appeared to confer for some time. At this moment, a

slight movement on my part made them aware of me, and the sudden

change in the attitude of these four dogs (two were biack with an

odd white ‘sock’ or so, each, one was black-and-white pied, while

the last was raffa-coloured—all smooth-coated), was remarkable—

each pretending to be unaware of the others, one cocking his leg

against a handy root, while another had a sudden urge to do a spot

of ‘fleaing’ but all had their eyes on me, a hostile and unwinking

stare!!. I now emerged into the open, and as my way to the

waiting car lay past where the dogs were, I calmly approached,

slipping Ill confess, the cartridges back into my gun, as I did

so. ‘Noné made any eifort to efface him/herself and as I came

opposite them, one, the largest ‘black’ growled in no friendly

manner, but made no advance and I passed them (the dog's), by

noting that all had their ‘hackles’ raised and all still eyed me

narrowly. As soon as I was out of sight of the dogs, I quietly

slipped behind the tall grass and sal scrub and _ silently observed

4388 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

the dogs. They remained as I’d just seen them, for a minute or

so and then without hurry they separated, the ‘ratha’ and one

‘black’ together carrying on up the nullah, while the ‘piebald’ and

the other ‘black’ turned off the nullah at right angles and dis-

appeared into the forest. The former two went off at a steady

lollop up the ravine, but the latter remained unhurried, and moved

very silently.

I’ve heard since that these village dogs hunt in similar—and

larger-—parties and like Cuon—but possibly to a smaller extent—

do damage to the herds of chital, and also pull down an occa-

sional sambhar hind. The young of peafowl, jungle fowl and

partridge must also suffer from these village dogs.

I wonder whether any of the other members have seen anything

similar. There are, of course the dogs which hunt with the Kamjars

or gipsies, but those are trained (?) and hunt with their owners.

It couldn’t have been a case of a bitch ‘in season’ with three

beaux—this spirit of easy harmony and understanding and con-

ferring together would not have been apparent—to say the least!

and the family Canis is not so bashful as to retire into forest fast-

ness for his courtship. Any way, I will appreciate your own views

and those of any member who may have seen a similar event.

ARGADIAS, [oie Wi Po KEEVAN.

DEHRA Dun, U.P.,

October 15, 1940.

VI.—VITALITY OF A HYAENA (HYAENA STRIATA)

~ While out on a Gasht today a striped hyaena got up in front of

the forward platoon who shot it. I don’t know how rare these

are up here, but I have never heard of one before, though some of

the men say they are very common. But on the other hand some

of them thought it was a panther, and others said it was in the

habit of killing camels. It seemed in good condition except that

one of its hind feet was missing from some previous injury; but

I cannot think what they live on here as the hills are bare and

barren. All flocks are driven in at night, and though a dead camel

would do it well, dead camels are not as common as all that... The

vitality of this animal was amazing. It was hit by a °303 bullet

at close range and apparently the bullet broke up, because there

was a huge hole in the belly out of which the liver and stomach

(?) were protruding when found. In addition a piece of intestine

ten feet long had come out where the hyaena was first hit and this

it had apparently bitten off for it was found on the ground. After

biting it off the hyaena had gone down a very steep nullah about

two hundred feet, and a hundred feet up the other side where it was

finished off. There was a very broad blood trail all the way, and

it is astonishing that an animal could lose so much blood and

still continue to run. We took the head and neck and the tail,

but had to leave the rest owing to lack of time. While skinning

the head we found a leech about 134” long in one of the nostrils.

MIRANSHAH, Tia). Pine eeSr

N. Waziristan, N.W.F.P., Tochi Scouts.

December, 1940.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439

VIL—ON THE OCCURRENCE OF. THE CHAFFINCH

(FRINGILLA COELEBS [LINN.]) IN WAZIRISTAN,

These are far commoner visitors to India than is generally

supposed. On the 16th February this year (1940), there were two

or three cock birds here, and early in March there were about half

a dozen of each sex; but I had not then a copy of the Fauna and

consequently took little notice of them, except that they seemed

duller than the English bird. For the same reason I cannot be

sure, but I think they were then singing, rather a weak little song.

I have been unable to get.dust shot so 1 am afraid this specimen

also is a bit battered. He was sitting on a branch calling, which

was what drew my attention to him though I had seen him a

few days before. _

MIRANSHAH, es EES.

NeW AZIRISTAN, - NV UE. PY, Tocht Scouts.

December, 1940.

|The specimen of the Chatfinch was sent to us by Mr. Phillips.

We. have been able to verify the identification. It was

obtained by him at Datta Khel 4,o00 ft. in the Muranshah

District, North Waziristan. In the New Fauna one previous record

is given. This is a specimen obtained by Capt, C. H. T. Whitehead

at Hangu, 25 miles north of Kohat.—Eps. ]

ViIIlL.—VULTURES AND PALMS.

Going to and fro by train to work and home again, I often

wonder “how many people have given a thought to, or observed

the gradual, but sure disappearance of palm trees, particularly ot

the Brab Palms (Borassus flabellifer L.) on either side of the

railway track, and beyond. This gradual disappearance of the

palms is most noticeable after leaving Bandra station (going north),

and is not entirely due to the development of the suburbs, but also

to the presence of targe numbers of white-backed vultures (Pseudo-

gybs bengalensis) in attendance on the Bandra slaughter house. The

crowns of the palms afford most convenient roost for the vultures,

which naturally use them. Though vultures ‘shoot’ out their

excrements to a considerable distance, they do not always fall clear

of the palms. In course of time the crowns of the palms are

smeared white with the acrid excreta. The leaves gradually get

‘burnt’ and dry up, and it is not long before the crown dies, leaving

a bare ‘pole’ standing. Rot soon lays the stem low. The vultures

are now forced to find a fresh roost. Thus, one by one the palms

are gradually disappearing. It is only the tallest palms that are

thus affected. As vultures generally do not roost for the night

below a certain height, the young palms escape till they become

tall enough. |

It is surprising to find in what a short time the vultures kiil

the palms. A few random observations showed that certain palms

succumbed after two and three years of use, while others dragged

on for a couple of years or so more. Palms with slanting stems

440 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HiS?. SOCIETY, Vol. XLIl

seemed to survive a little longer than those with vertical stems.

Palms, which had been abandoned as roosts, sometimes recovered

after a while.

Coconut palms (Cocos nucifera LL.) are also used as_ roosts,

but on the whole are less affected, as they do not usually reach

the same height as ‘brabs’, and the fronds are less adaptable to

carrying a number of these large birds.

This is not a plea to destroy the vultures, they are by far

too useful as scavengers, in spite of their ugly appearance and

habits, but is merely intended as a record to show how trees

may be destroyed by the excreta of some birds.

Incidentally the life and distribution of two insectivorous birds,

the Palm Swift [Tachornis bat. batasiensis (Gray)| and the Swallow

Shrike (Artamus fuscus Vieillot.) are bound together with the

distribution of the Brab Palm, which both these birds use as roosts

andanesting sites, “lire disappearance of the palms from Salsette

may result in the disappearance of these birds, but I do not think

there is any immediate danger of this taking place—Nature will,

I think, take care of that.

BomsBay NatruraL History SOcIgETY, C. McCANN.

BomBay,

December 2, 1940.

IX.—SANDGROUSE COMING TO WATER AT MIDDAY.

It may be of interest to your readers to know that whilst in

British Somaliland recently I noticed the Pin-tailed Sandgrouse

(Pterocles alchata) flighting in and watering at 1-30 p.m. This

struck me as very unusual for a species which normally waters

in the early morning and occasionally in the evening. I would

mention that the place where these birds were bathing was the

only water hole for several miles.

ADEN, R, C, (NICHOLAS,

September 30, 104ce: Major.

X.—SCARCITY OF SANDGROUSE DURING THE COLD

WEATHER 1939-1940,

Have any of your members remarked on the scarcity of the

Common Sandgrouse (Pterocles exusius) this year? During the

cold weather of 1939-40 I was at Ramdurg, S. M. Country, and

shot about 100 sandgrouse. I spent last Christmas there and

had previously warned my old shikari to look out for good places

for sandgrouse, but on my arrival he reported that he could not

find any. I went to an old haunt of these birds, but there was

not one to be seen. [The uplands round Mudhol are typical places

for sandgrouse, but I have seen very few. It is not a matter of

scarcity of water as there are rivers here and at Ramdurg where

the birds drink.

MuDHUL, E, .O BRIEN;

S. M. Country, Lt.-Colonel.

January 16, 1941.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4d

XH ABERS OF THE SHEESHEE PARTRIDGE (AMMOPERDIX

GRISEOGULARIS GRISEOGULARIS).

With reference to’ the habits of the Seesee Partridge, as noted

in the Fauna, J think that Stuart Baker is mistaken about the

double whistle call. « They are the commonest game birds here by

a long way, and I have never heard it, nor have any of our men

whom I have asked. The only noise I have heard them utter is

a soft chuck chuck from one to another in the covey, and the noise

from which they get their names is the see see noise they make

with their wings as they take off-—a high pitched squeak like a

badly oiled bearing. Another habit of theirs is not mentioned.

In the heat of the day they seem to leave the plains and go: to

rocky outcrops where they hide in deep cracks and crevices, alwavs

preferring these cracks to even the shadiest stones. Also when

wounded they aiways run to the nearest hole or crack in a rock,

if there is one anywhere ‘near by. They do not hide up in the

middle of the day to the same extent in the cold weather, but even

unwounded birds, when frightened, will fly into a hole in a cliff, and

under these circumstances I have put out seven or eight birds in

the cold weather out of one rock. Protective colouration is very

highly developed in these birds, and I have had ten men searching

an area of bare stony sand for three or four minutes before finding

a dead bird lying there back upwards. So without a dog a wounded

bird out of sight is as good as lost.

Big coveys of twenty birds or so are difficult to approach, because

when they disappear over a ridge they almost invariably leave a

sentry; but two or three birds together practically never do this,

and if one runs forward they can usually be found just ‘below the

crest of the ridge or in the nullah below. —

MirANSHAH, 1. J... PHILLIPS,

N. WaAzIRISTAN, Tocht Scouts.

N.-W.F.P., December 1940. |

Sif-—-CURIOUS NESMNG SITE OF THE RED=WATTLED

LAPWING (LOBIVANELLUS INDICUS INDICUS BODD.)

(With a photo)

Mr. K. Bocker sent me a couple of photographs of a Red-

wattled Lapwing’s nest which had been placed ‘on a heap of

ballast between two railway tracks in Ghosrana Station yard (Alwar

State)’. The nest contained three eggs. Mr. Bocker commenting

on the behaviour of the bird wrote, ‘Every time a train came in the

bird flew up, only to return to its domestic duties immediately the

train left... The photographs were taken early in September.

The position of the nest between two frequently used railway

tracks, and in a station yard, is certainly rather unusual for a

bird which is generally very careful to hide its nesting position.

‘Another point of interest is that this lapwing generally has its nest

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

near water, on the banks of lakes or in the beds of rivers. | Accord-

ing to the Fauna this species usually lays in April and May, but

eggs have been found in June and July. In this instance the bird

laid in Septemiber, several weeks later than usual.

BomBAy NATURAL HIstToRy SOCIETY,

Bomsay, C. McCANN.

November 13, 1940.

XII.—RECORDS OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE IN ASSAM.

Swinhoe’s snipe (Capella megala) are not the rarity that they were

some years ago, but they are still comparatively uncommon. It may

be of interest to record that three have been shot in the neighbour-

hood of Shillong recently. I killed the first in a valley some three

miles west of the station on September 15. Major W. L. Neal,

I.M.S., shot the second, 13 miles west of Shillong on September 28.

I shot the third on the high plateau south of Shillong on October 30.

The first and last were solitary birds. The second was lying

close to another snipe which we failed to bag.

BRIGHTWELL, |-7C. HIGGINS:

SHILLONG, ASSAM, 7

November 8, 1940.

XIV.—OCCURRENCE OF SWINHOE’S SNIPE IN BENGAL.

In view of the paucity of published records of the occurrence

of Swinhoe’s Snipe (Capella megala) in North India, it may be of

interest to record that a specimen, sent to you herewith, turned up

in a bag of 33 couple, consisting of 56 pintail snipe, 9g fantail snipe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4.43

and the Swinhoe, made by me on September 29 last, a few miles

from Naihati, which is some 24 miles north of Calcutta.

The ground consisted of young paddy with swampy grassy

patches here and there, which had not been cultivated, and the birds

-were also found sheltering from the sun in the shade of bushes

and patches of jungle dotted about in and around the paddy.

The Swinhoe which, in the preliminary separation of the bag

by looking at the undersides of the wings, had been placed amongst

the pintails, attracted attention on account of its large size; a

closer examination and a look at the tail disclosed its identity.

Besides the quite distinctive tail, this particular specimen seemed

to me to differ from most pintail snipe in the following respects :—

1. It was definitely large, even for a pintail; so much so that

it attracted special attention.

2. the legs seemed to be rather longer.

The bill appears to me to be longer and more slender than

is the case with most pintails, while the knob at the

extremity of the upper mandible, although present, does

not seem to be quite so pronounced.

These are personal impressions only, however, and the differences

mentioned are certainly not sufficiently pronounced to enable identi-

fication without an examination of the tail, except for which, the

bird is extraordinarily like a pintail snipe.

This is the first Swinhoe’s snipe to turn up in a total of over

16,600 snipe representing an aggregate of bags made since season

1926-27, practically all within a radius of about 4o miles from

Calcutta, in which I have been personally interested and all of

which have definitely ben carefully examined for unusual species

and varieties.

ISS)

CALCUTTA, Ry J. CLOUGH.

November 23, 1940.

XV.—MOULTING OF COMMON TEAL SUBSEQUENT TO

MIGRATION TO INDIA.

(With a photo).

I am sending you by this evening’s train a teal shot yesterday

in Bikaner, i.e., on October 4, this year.

2. It is not certain, but in all probability, it was not shot

flying on account of its wing condition, but must have been shot

on the water when picking up wounded birds.

oy 1 send; some photographs which have been taken, in

case the bird does not arrive in good enough condition. How-

ever, I think, you will be able to see the condition of its wings at

anv rate. There is no doubt that the bird could not have migrated

with its wings in their present condition. Such a long flight would

have been impossible, in this condition, it was really quite

unable to fly. Last year the lake was completely dry, so it could

not have been a wounded bird left behind from the previous year.

4. The only feasible explanation is that it migrated and arrived

at.the end of August or early in September in the lake, and for

444 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

some unnatural and extraordinary reason, moulted after arriving

here. A lot of feathers on both wings are in a growing state and

still bluish in colour and soft.

5. I should be much obliged by your kindly letting me know

what you think is really the case. Particularly, whether the teal,

which appears to be a young bird, could have migrated in its

present wing condition, or whether it could fly, even slowly, in

this condition.

BIKANIR, SECRETARY LO

October 3, 1040. HEIR APPARENT OF BIKANIR.

[We have examined the teal (Nettion creca) which was in

complete moult. The Anatidae (Ducks and Geese), unlike most

birds—-moult all their wing quills simultaneously and not pair by

pair. They thus become completely flightless for a period.

Mr. Salim Ali who was concerned with the carrying out of

scientific bird surveys on behalf of the Society writes as follows :——

‘Till I caught several such flightless teals and shovellers for

ringing on the Ghana Jheel in Bharatpur last October (1939), I

did not know that some of our migrant ducks underwent the complete

post-nuptial or autumn moult after flying thousands of miles to

their winter quarters on their old remiges (wing quills). This

condition is not recorded anywhere in Indian bird books, as far as

I know.

‘Most of our winter visitors have already finished moulting

their wing and tail quills before they arrive in our midst. This

is, as one would expect, considering the long and hazardous journey

over the Himalayan barrier that must be accomplished, to reach

their winter quarters in India,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 445

‘Some individuals among the ducks, however, seem to be in

such a hurry to get back to their winter quarters—(they often arrive

as early as August or September) that they forsake their breeding

grounds before the autumn moult has begun and go through this

process at this end. Such birds, presumably, are yearlings that

will not breed till the second season. They cannot be, at least

the ones 1 examined were not—juveniles of the same season.’—EDs. |

XVI.—OCCURRENCE OF THE STIFF-TAILED DUCK AT

NOWSHERA, N.-W.F.P.

As an old member of your Society, I thought you would like

to know that we shot a Stitf-tailed Duck (Erismatura leucocephala)

on the Kabul River on November 31, 1940. We were going down-

stream in a boat when we suddenly came on the bird below a rapid.

It refused to fly off the water although we passed it quite close,

but as the boat was going very fast, and we thought we should

not get a further chance we shot it on the water. It appeared

to be on examination either a female or young male. The tail was

very scraggy but very distinctive, also was the beak. .I compared

it with Stuart Baker’s book, and it undoubtedly was a Stiff-tailed

Duck. |

I thought it might be of interest to you. It was a lone bird.

THE MALL, F. F. FIELD,

NOWSHERA, Lt.-Colonel.

December 2, 1940.

Vit INJURY TO 2 CROCODILE.

(With a photo).

The accompanying photo of a Marsh crocodile (C. palustris)

is of interest. Having shot the crocodile, I found the mouth parts

completely disfigured by a former bullet wound. The injuries involved

both the upper and lower jaw which, as will be seen from the

photo, were partly shot away. How the animal fed under these

14a

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

circumstances is a mystery. The wounds had healed perfectly and

the reptile was in good condition.

NILAMBAG PALACE, R. K. DHARMAKUMARSINHYJI.

BHAVNAGAR,

September 27, 1940.

XVIUI.—FOOD OF LIZARDS.

I was very interested to see the record (Journ. Bomb. Nat. Hist.

Soc., vol. xl; p. 49) of three larvae of Pardsa lepidagers «not

‘Gam.’} being taken from a Calotes. I recorded the eating -of

this ks by Hemidactylus sp. in 1936 (Proc. R. Ent. Soc. Lond.

(A) 11: g1-2). Lizards seem to pay little attention to the colouring

of aie larv ae they eat and I have fed Hemidactylus sp. on the larvae

of Polytela glorivsae F. and Chilasa clytia L., both typically apose-

matic in appearance, the one being purple-black in colour blotched

and spotted with orange and white, the other black and cream

with large rose pink spots. MHairiness seems to afford protection

as neither the larva of Pericalli ricint F. nor of Trabala vishnu

Lef. were eaten. (1939, mili Proc Kk inl. Soe. honda ie ae

33-4):

CALCUTTA, DY Ga SEVASTOPRUL@;

December 30, 1940.

XIX.—A NEW FAMILY OF FISHES!

The discovery of a new vertebrate, so distinct from all previously

known species as to warrant the erection of a new family for its

reception, remains a zoological event of outstanding importance.

Double significance 1 is attached to the find, when, as in the discovery

under review, the new species may rightly be claimed to be one

of the most highly specialized and bizarrely modified members of

its class.

Early in 1937, while studying fish life in brackish waters of the

Bombay Province, C. V. Kulkarni encountered small, surface-

swimming specimens which he first took to be the young of some

goby or cyprinid fish, but which later turned out to be mature

adults of an unknown species. When submitted to ichthyologists

in India and America, the novelty was pronounced a new type,

referable to the Order of small fishes known as Cyprinodontes.

‘it was interpreted as a distant relative of the common Indian species,

Oryzias melastigma, and was presumed to have been evolved

from some such fish. It has gone so far on its own special line

of evolution, however, that it “seemed unwise to SASS the new

type 1 in the same family (Cyprinodontidae).

Dr, “George (5S. Myers and .the: reviewer were both struck by

the extreme likeness of the Indian novelty to the tropical: American

genus Tomeurus. Even in the features of extreme specialization,

the resemblance appeared so close that. at first examination the two

fish seemed to be close relatives. It seemed impossible that Nature

1 On the Systematic Position, Structural Modifications, .Bionomics > and

Development of a Remarkable New Family of Cyprinodont Fishes ffom the

Bombay Province, India. By C.-V.. Kulkarni. fFec, Ind. Mus., vol. xlii,

PP. 379-423, figs. 1-20, 1940. ee mes rs

ve Oram

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 447

could have twice molded a fish into such an extreme form. On

more penetrating scrutiny, however, some fundamental, hidden

differences came to view, so that both of us concluded that T’omeurus

and the then-unnamed Indian genus arose independently from the

cyprinodont groups that are respectively characteristic of the two

regions.

In designating the new fish Horaichthys setnai, Mr. Kulkarni

has jointly commemorated the names of Dr. Sunder Lal Hora,

India’s distinguished ichthyologist, and Dr. S. B, Setna, Fisheries

Officer of Bombay. Though not unduly long as scientific cognomens

go, this name is slightly longer than the fish. One wonders how

this thin, translucent wisp-like inch of fish can be so packed with

specializations.

Horaichthys is peculiar in many ways. The small dorsal fin

is set far back, almost against the caudal fin. The anal fin is

much elongated. The anterior anal rays make a lobe on the

females, and in the male are set apart to fabricate a marvellously

complex structure, with special hooks and appendages and skeletal

supports,—all of which are described in admirable detail. This

structure is termed a gonopodium, from its resemblance to the

similar though less extreme structure which serves as an intromittent

organ in the Poeciludae, a family of viviparous American cyprinod-

onts. The organs in the two groups are said to be homologous,

as they are comprised essentially of rays 3, 4 and 5 of the anal fin,

but this view can hardly be accepted by those who interpret unity

of descent as a criterion of homology. In Horaichthys the gono-

podium is utilized to transfer spermatophores (sperm-filled bundles)

from male to female. These, the first true spermatophores to be

recorded in fishes, are provided with a complex head of spines

by which the sperm bundle is attached to the skin of the female,

in the region of the genital opening. After attachment the wall

of the bundle swells at a point near the spines and discharges its

contents of male germ cells. The spermatozoa swim into the

oviduct and there fertilize the eggs for some days. Dermal folds

and ridges on the female (‘genital pads’) seem to aid in the attach-

ment of the spermatophores. The usual lack of a right pelvic fin

(a wholly unique feature) might be thought to serve the samc

function, though the author, in a Lamarckian view that seems

rather strange today, states that ‘it may be presumed that by such

constant striking [of the gonopodium], the right fin has in the

course of time been reduced and ultimately lost.’

Following wise suggestions from Dr. Hora, the author withheld

the description of this marvellous little fish until it was possible

to study its structural modifications, habitat, feeding and mating

habits, deposition of eggs, and the structure and development of

the egg and ‘larva’ (postlarva). All these observations were made

in detail, with an eye that sees below the surface. For the com-

pletion of this outstanding contribution to their science, the

ichthyologists of the world owe thanks to Mr. Kulkarni and his

Indian associates.

ANN ARBOR, MicuHican, U-S.A., CARMEL. HUBBS:

October 4, 1940, University of Michigan.

448° JOURNAL, BOMBAY-NATURAE HIST. SOCIETY, Voll XEM

XX.—ADDENDA TO THE LIST OF SIMLA BUTTERFLIES.

(Journal, Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., vol. xli, p. 716)

Parnassius simo simo, Gray.

Bight ¢ from the Shipki La, 14,000’, in July 1o4o.

Baitia butleri butleri, Moore.

Qo 6 trom the Shipki La, i jcoo'. ae fully, soe:

Euploea mulciber mulciber, Cramer.

6 caught in Chota Simla -ape7,0co0o*, tom vustiseS roo:

Hesperia alpina alpina, Ersch.

Several specimens from the Shipki La, 1,400/, in July, 1940.

BisHOP COTTON M. A. WYNTER-BLYTH, .a.

PREPARATORY SCHOOL,

Sma, E.

November 8, 1940.

XX1=BUTTERFLIES ATTRACT ED BY \MOISi ev RawHe

(Misceilaneous Note No. xx, Journal, vol. xlii, p. 206).

Collenette, in a paper which I have not yot with me, suggested

that perspiration was a potent source of attraction in South America.

He also remarked that most patches of damp earth or sand would

attract butterflies if one or two dead ones were placed on it as

decoys. In Shillong I found Terias spp. very common on patches

of damp earth.

CALCUITA, DG. SEVASTORULO.

December 30, 1940.

XXIT.—SUPPLEMENTARY NOTES ON THE LIFE

HISTORY OF THE MOTH (BRAHMEA WALLICHII

I have a few notes to add to the admirable life histories of

the large moth Brahmea wallichi, Gray which have been published

during the last few years; viz., Journ. Bombay Nat. Hist. Society,

vol. xxvill, page 593 by Graham, and Journ. Darjeeling Nat. Hist.

Soc. No. 1 June: 1938: by Scott; |

I-obtained a female of this species, a rather battered and

deformed: specimen, on the trunk of a fir tree at Laitlyngkot ‘in

the Khasia and Jaintia Hills on May 25, 1940. It had laid seven

eggs on the bark of the tree singly, and it looked as if an attemp.

had been made to insert the eggs into cracks in the bark. It laid

a further five eggs in the box in which it was put. The colour of

these particular eggs were quite a deep yellow and had no «ther

markings that I could see. I was on my way to Darjeeling at the

lime so the eggs were not observed very closely until some ten

days later when it was noticed that they had turned a deep mauve

colour. Shortly after the larvae emerged. It is noted by Lt.-Col.

Scott that in Shillong the food plant is Ligustrum robustum Blume

and by Major Graham as Fraxinus macracantha. I could find

neither of these in Darjeeling. I did however find Ligustrum con-

fusum Dene and made vain attempts to make the larvae eat it;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 449

but they resolutely refused and most of them died. Fraxinus

floribunda Wall is a fairly common tree in Darjeeling and_ this

was tried with success. They fed well after this. The point of

interest is that although the larvae will eat two species of the

genus I*raxinus they will not eat a second species of Ligustrum.

I also observed that sometimes the empty ege shells were

entirely eaten, but were only partially eaten in other instances. |

did not however note that the cast skins were eaten. I found

that they were left untouched in all cases.

I was unfortunate with the surviving larvae however. I managed

to rear them to the penultimate instar when they all died as a

result of being unable to cast the last skin. From my observations

it iS apparent that where the humidity 1s very high, as it is in

Darjeeling during the monsoon, the larvae are very delicate,

especially if they are not kept well ventilated—in the open air if

possible. I was unable to do this not being in my own home.

The high humidity seemed to prevent the old skin from drying

sufficiently for it to be shed. It appeared to stick to the spiracles.

I had a good deal of difficulty with each instar except the first,

when the skins were in the process of being changed, as a matter

of fact; but the last was the worst. The larvae were inclined to be

lethargic and did not eat well when it was cold. The height of

Laitlyngkot is 6,000 feet. It 1s apparent that to rear the larvae

of this species successfully it is necessary to keep them as dry

as possible when in captivity and very well ventilated.

ASSAM, R. E, PARSONS,

November 3, 1940. Indian Police,

F.R.E.S.

XXIIL.—LARVA OF THERETRA LYCETUS CR.

PARASITIZED BY TACHINID FLIES.

With reference to Mr. McCann’s note on the same subject in

the last issue of the Journal, I have several times had a similar

experience with larvae of Rhyncholaba acteus Cr. The very

noticeable caking of the underlying soil is, presumably due to the

amount of fluid contained in the body of these large larvae.

CALCuUrIaA D, GASEVASTOPULO,

December 30, 1940.

XNIV.—LAGERSTROEMIA INDICA AS A FOOD-PLANT OF

ACTIAS SELENE,

(Miscellaneous Note No. xxii, Journal, vol. xlit, p. 208)

I have found this shrub most useful in rearing many species of

larvae whose proper food-plant I did not know. The Saturniid

Philosamia cynthia Drury eats it readily, and in Shillong I found

cocoons of Dictyoploca simla Westw. on it in numbers. Probably

most Saturniids would eat it. Of the other families, almost all

Lymantriids will eat it, as will many Limacodids.

CALCUGDA, DD. GaSe VASTOPULO,

December 30, 1940.

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

XXV.—THE DEATH EXPEDITION OF pees

CATERPILLARS.

(A Correction).

There seems to be a mistake in the identification of the species

referred to in this article (Journ. Bomb. Nai. Hist, Soc., vol. xlii,

p. 164}. Crocallis (presumably Treit.) is the name of a genus of.

Geometrine moths with smooth, looper caterpillars very different

from the hairy larvae shewn in the plate. It is difficult to make

an identification from the information given in the note, but I

feel fairly confident that the larva in question is Eupterote geminata

Wik. This is a common species in Calcuita and the larvae are

often to be found abundantly on various trees and shrubs, the

branches of which they cover with a coating of silk.

CALCUTTA, Di G. SEVASTORULO:

December 30, 1940.

XXNVIL—ABNORMAL SEEDLING OF MANGIFERA INDICA,

LINN. NiO. MNACARDIAGE ME,

(With a text figure),

Mange scedlings were raised for the class work. Among these

an abnormal seedling was noticed.

A normal seedling consists of a main tap-root with its branches,

two cotyledons, and a shoot (epicotyl) bearing young immature

leaves.

In the abnormal seedling (Fig, 1) abnormalities were present

in the root and the shoot region, while the cotyledons only remained

normai. Instead of a single tap-root with its branches, it was

noticed that several roots were given out. In all there were

eighteen roots of various lengths. The shoot system consisted

of a main primary normal shoot and five axillary secondary shoots.

The main primary shoot was stout and it remained enclosed inside

the endocarp. At the base of this shoot, in the axils of the cotyle-

dons, five secondary shoots were present—one in one axil and four

in the other. OF these four axillary secondary shoots, one showed

fasciation of three.axes. The union of the axes was unequal. At

the base, all the three axes were united. Higher up the outer

axis got separated while the inner one was composed of two

united axes. The latter also was separated again at the apex.

Of these four secondary axillary shoots, two were longer than the

rest. On-the longer “shoots, young tender leaves) were «present,

while on the two short shoots, only rudimentary leaves resembling

scales were present.

When this seedling was uprooted the only part that was above

eround consisted of the two longer shoots, one with normal axis

and the other with the fasciated axis. The remaining shoots and

cotyledons remained inside the endocarp.

Abnormalities in the seedlings of Mango have been recorded

by Masters (3), Khanna (r) and Sen and Mallik (5).

The abnormal seedling described in this note differs from the

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 4514

ohe cited by Masters (3) in the following respects: (i) Adventitious

roots are not manifested on the cotyledons. (11) There is absence

of an increased number of embryos. According to Khanna (1)

embryonic shoots were given off from the part just near the

endocarp as well as from the. extreme part of the cotyledons.

Such is not the case with this seedling. It also differs from one

described by Sen and Mallik (5) in that there is absence of a

single tap-root.

These axillary secondary shoots were the result of the occur-

rence of buds in the axils of the cotyledons. The presence of the

buds in the axils of cotyledons and the development of shoots from

them 1s of rare occurrence. Similar type of instances are recorded

A -ccrr”

Ape

Fig. 1. Abnormal Seedling of Mangifera indica Linn. showing :—

(a) endocarp: (b) cotyledons: (c) roots: (d) main primary normal shoot :

(e) single axillary secondary shoot: (f) four axillary secondary shoot No. 1-4:

(g) fasciation of three axes of shoot No. 2.

in Cassia Tora, Impatiens Balsamina, Vicia faba, Tropaeolum

majus, Ricinus communis, and some others by Tiwary (7) and

inmCicey, aneunum by Singh *(6); The present case differs from

that of Tiwary (7) in that there is absence of fasciated shoot.

According to Singh (6) if the plant is decapitated close to the

cotyledons, either in the seedling stage or a little later, axillary

shoots are invariably developed in due course, There is nothing

like decapitation in this case.

452. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLit

Sachs (4) and Lopriore (2) produced at will fasciated shoots

in the axils of the cotyledons of the Scarlet Runner (Phaseolus

multifiorus) by excising the main axis of the plumule at an early

stage; if this mutilation is performed at a later stage, no fasciation

results. Worsdell (8) repeated these experiments with marked

success. He produced fasciated shoots in the axils of the cotyledons

of majority of seedlings. In every case the shoot was only affected

at the base. The rest of the shoot showed the normal growth.

The present case agrees with those of Sachs in having fasciated

shoots; but this is a natural phenomenon and not the result of

mutilation.

BuAUDDIN COLLEGE, G. A. KAPADIA, -m.sc.

AHMEDABAD,

December 1940.

LATERATURE CITED:

1, Khanna, L. P. (1932) ‘Cotyledonary vegetative veproduction in Margo’.

Bom. Nat. Hist. Soc. Jour’, vole xxxvae puso,

2. Lopriore (1904) ‘Kunstlich erzeugte Verbanderung bei Phaseolus multi-

florus’. Berichte deutsch. Bot. Ges., Bd. xxii, pp. 394-6 (as quoted by Worsdell).

Worsdell).

3. Masters, M. T. (1869) ‘Vegetable Teratology’, Ray Society Publication,

p» 159 and 365.

4. Sachs (1859) ‘“Physiologische Versuche tiber die Keimung des Schmink-

bohnes’. Sitzungsher. Kais. Akad. Wiss. Wein., Bd. lvii, p. 57 (as quoted by

Worsdeil).

5- Sen, P. K. and Mallik, P. C. (1940) ‘Embryo of the Indian Mangoes’.

Proce dnd.w St: (Cons -B0t. Abie gNO.mAS,, emi:

6. Singh, T. C. N. (1930) (foottnote) Jour. Bom. Nat. His. Soc., vol. xxxin,

D, 7a2s

ie Tiwary, N. K. (1930) ‘A Note on the occurrence of buds in the axils of

the cotyledons’. four. Bom. Nat. His. Soc., vol. xxxili, p. 731.

8. Worsdell, W. C. (1915) ‘The Principles of Plant-Teratology’.. Ray Society

Publication, “vol. 1, p. 2954

XXVII.—SOME WILD FLOWERS OF KASHMIR

AND THEIR INDIGENOUS USE.

One of the beauties of the charming valleys of Kashmir is their

wild flowers. I mean those vallevs which are above the tree-belt

where shepherds make their homes during the summer months.

Where there is less grazing, the flowers thrive and we see beds

of floral vegetation in diverse colours. Sometimes we see islets

right in the middle of a torrent, covered with pink, yellow or

orange flowers.

Almost all the flowers of these high altitudes have medicinal

qualities. There is a great scope for a scientist or a medical man

to analyse these herbs. There are some men who know the uses

of certain herbs, but they are loath to impart this knowledge to

others. When they die this knowledge also dies with them.

The most esteemed of all these herbs is Saussurea sacra. This

is commonly known as Jog-Padshah. It grows above 14,000 ft.

in crevices between rocks and slabs with very little earth in them.

The herb is like a fleecy ball, exactly like a cat’s head without ears.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 453

The flowers are tiny, of purple colour in pappus. The leaves are

lower down and are in large numbers. It appears shining like

a star. It grows on the Harmukh, in the Sonasar pass, and from

Romesh Thong (the Sunset Peak) to Tatakoti. It grows in large

quantities. We saw a large bed of these flowers round Makor Nag,

when, in 1937, the C. M. S. School masters climbed fhe. last-

mentioned peak. There are many who have never seen this flower.

I met a Sadhu fast year in the Nishat Bagh and he told me that

he had spent months round about Khrew and Tar-Sar trying to

find the herb. He said that he wanted to collect plants enough

to give him juice weighing two seers! (almost an impossibility).

It is believed that the head of the herb when powdered and

drunk with boiled milk, abates fever and cures internal disorders.

It is also used for snake-bites, and as a poultice for boils.

Two other plants found at almost the same height are

Allardia glabra and Pleurospermum. The former grows on sandy

soil among rocks, and creeps along the ground. The flower ts

like a daisy. The flowers of the disk are yellow, while those of

the ray are purple or pink. The latter flower resembles hemlock

(Mohora Kach) more or less. The plant is about 7” high. Both

those specimens were found near the Kila peak (Harmoukh) and

the Sonasar Nag peak. The drug which the physicians esteem

most is Macrotomia Benthami, known as Kahzaban. There is no

decoction prescribed by native physicians in which this drug is not

used. An infusion of the leaves is believed to be good for heart

trouble. A jam is prepared from the flowers of this plant. The

flowers are pounded and mixed with double the weight of sugar

and exposed for forty days in a jar in the sun. It is said that

the root burnt and mixed with ghee cures burns.

Mertensia tibitica is a small plant with dark blue flowers hav-

ing a long corolla tube. It grows at a height of about 13,000 ft.

It has been found ‘on Aphorwat, Yechini Pass (Kunsar Nag)

Mahadive, and Hamsadwar.

Sedum wersti grows among rocks. The flowers. are pink.

dies leaves “are sessile. opposite, * broad and ‘thick. Jt 4s

called ‘Dandas’ and the chewing of the stem is believed to cure

toothache. It grows on Aphorwat, Mahadive, Gangabal and

Harmoukh. Rheum webbianum is commonly known as Pamba hak.

The leaves are boiled and cooked with fish or without. The root

is pounded and mixed with oil to cure wounds. It is then called

Pamba tsalan. The petiole of the leaf and young shoots are

generally red and the former is boiled in sugar for eating purposes.

It grows on Mahadive and high margs.

Polygonum amblexicaule bears red flowers on the top of the

plant. The leaves lower down are long and narrow. The root

is called montsaran and is used to stop bleeding.

Jurinea macrocephala. This plant is found at a height of about

12,000 ft. The leaves are radical, ashy-coloured, long and deeply

lobed. The flower is like that of a thistle surrounded by leaves.

The root is used as incense when mixed with other scented drugs,

such as camphor etc. It is called Dhup.

Saussurea Lappa. This is the famous plant known as Koth.

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. XLII

The leaves are long and broad resembling those of pumpkin leaves.

The petioles have small wings attached to them. A group of 3

or more thistle-like flowers grow at the top of the stem. They are

of a dark colour. Here and there we found the plant at Erin

Nallah, Kanital, and Kishen Ganga valley. There are many places

where the forest department is cultivating this useful plant. In

1927 we saw a large tract at Gossai in Grurais valley where this

drug was being cultivated.

The root of the plant is supposed to be very useful. Its mention

in Yagupavit ceremony shows that its use was known from the

earliest times. When a new well is dug a piece of the root is put

into the water to clean it. One part Koth and two parts cane

sugar is supposed to cure ulcer of the stomach. The dose is as

large as half a pea.

“t is also powdered and in.sesamum oil rubbed on a rheumatic

limb. Its uses in China are manifold. It also serves the purpose

of naphthalin. Aconitum heterophyllum (Monkshood) is a flower

of high margs. The leaf is more or less Cordate with toothed

edges.’ The ‘plant is°l)| =" by pattis. mathe) rootwecontainsaiae

tubers one big and the other small. Hence the other name for

it is nar mada (male and female). The tuber is ground and used

as medicine for fever: It if as good as Quinine. It grows in

Gurais, Gosai and Purmandal.

Aconitum Chasmanthum is called ‘Mohand’. The flowers are

collected and made into a kind of ‘Khamir’ jam. Double the

weight of sugar is pounded with the flowers and kept in a jar in

the sun for 4o days. It is a tonic and good for rheumatism. A

large dose is poisonous. It is generally taken in winter months.

It grows in Tosa Maidan, Purmandal and Danzeb. The root is

ground, mixed with oil and rubbed on a rheumatic limb.

Fritillaria Roylei is known by the name of Shithkdr (cures 80

diseases). The root is bulbous. ] saw a shepherd boy roasting

the bulb in ashes and eating it. It cures stomach trouble. The

bulb when dry is mixed with curds and applied to burns. It grows

in Gulmarg and Mahadive.

NaTURAL HisTORY DEPARTMENT, SAMSAR CHAND KOUL.

C. M.S: Hicu ScHoor,

SRINAGAR, KASHMIR,

December 30, 1940.

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY V. M. PHILIP AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS, 18 CHURCH ROAD,

VEPERY, MADRAS

EDITORS: H. M. MCGUSTY, J. F. CAIUS AND S. H. PRATER, 6 APOLLO STREET,

FORT, BOMBAY

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