JUUKINAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

\PRIL 2004

VOL 101 (1)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 023.

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Gayatri W Ugra, Ph D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Editorial Board

M R Almeida, D Litt.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Ajith Kumar, Ph. D.

National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,

Hebbal, Bangalore

M.K Chandrashekaran, Ph. D., D Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research,

Bangalore

Anwaruddm Choudhury, Ph D

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Raghvendra Gadagkar, Ph D

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Y.V. Jhala, Ph D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K Ullas Karanth, Ph D

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bangalore, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph. D., D. Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G S Rawat, Ph D

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K. Rema Devi, Ph D

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J.S Singh, Ph D

Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

S Subramanya, Ph D

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bangalore

R. Sukumar, Ph. D

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph D

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore

Nigel Collar, Ph D

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph D.

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

Qamar Qureshi, M. Sc.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

T.J. Roberts, Ph D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Editorial Assistant: Vibhuti Dedhia, M Sc.

Layout and Typesetting V. Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 101 (1): APRIL 2004

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA

By C. Srinivasulu

THE FIRST RECORDINGS OF CALLS OF THE JERDON’S COURSER RHINOPTILUS BITORQUATUS (BLYTH),

FAMILY GLAREOLIDAE

By Panchapakesan Jeganathan and Simon R. Wotton

THE AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS OF SOUTHERN INDIA

By Wiliam A. Noble

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF THE WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS IN PENINSULAR INDIA

By M.K. Ranjitsinh, S.C. Verma, S.A. Akhtar, Vinod Patil, K. Sivakumar and

S. Bhanubhakude

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT {ELEPHAS MAXIMUS)

By PA. Rees

A MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS OF AREAS ACROSS THE INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT: SPECIES PROPORTION OF FAMILY PAPILIONIDAE AS AN INDICATOR

By Arun P. Singh and Rajiv Pandey

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED STORK (EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS) AND

WHITE-NECKED STORK (C ICON 1 A EPISCOPUS ) IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, INDIA

By Farah Ishtiaq, Asad R. Rahmani, Salim Javed and Malcolm C. Coulter

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF SOME SOUTH INDIAN BUTTERFLY SPECIES

J.B. Atluri, C. Subba Reddi and S.P. Venkata Ramana

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK,

BORIVLI, MUMBAI (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE ANDSPHINGIDAE)

By V. Shubhalaxmi and Naresh Chaturvedi

1

3

26

29

64

71

79

90

96

106

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF WOLF SPIDER (ARANEAE: LYCOSIDAE) FROM CROP FIELDS OF THE SUNDARBAN

ESTUARY, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

By S.C. Majumder 121

NEW ORB-WEAVING SPIDERS OF THE GENUS CYRTOPHORA SIMON (ARANEAE: ARANEIDAE) FROM

BANGLADESH

By V. Biswas and D. Raychaudhuri 124

TWO NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS HAMILTON-BUCHANAN (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR,

INDIA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF PUNTIUS SPECIES FROM THE STATE

By W. Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 130

A NEW NEMACHEILINE FISH OF THE GENUS SCHISTURA MCCLELLAND (CYPRINIFORMES: BALITORIDAE)

FROM MANIPUR, INDIA

By W. Vishwanath and K. Shanta 138

CEROPEGIA ANANTII (ASCLEPIADACEAE), A NEW SPECIES FROM WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

By S.R. Yadav, M.M. Sardesai and S.P. Gaikwad 141

REVIEWS

1 FLORA OF THE DISTRICT GARH WAL, NORTHWEST HIMALAYA (WITH ETHNOBOTANICAL NOTES)

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 144

2. THE FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 145

3. MEDICINAL PLANTS IN ANDHRA PRADESH (INDIA)

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 147

4. MEDICINAL PLANTS IN INDIA

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida

148

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Sighting of Caracal in the Chambal Ravines of Bhind

District, Madhya Pradesh

By Faiyaz A, Khudsar 149

2. Occurrence of Indian Wolf Cam's lupus pallipes in

the Pench Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh

By G. Areendran and M.K. Pasha 149

3. Death of a Blue Bull Boselaphus tragocamelus due

to snakebite

By Anil Kumar Chhangani 150

4 Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak in Mundanthurai,

Tamil Nadu

By J. Mangalaraj Johnson 151

5. Mortality of wild animals in road accidents in

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary, Rajasthan, India

By Anil Kumar Chhangani 151

BIRDS

6. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga Pallas and

Northern Shoveller Anas clypeata Linn. — Two rare

records from Kerala

By C. Sashi Kumar 154

7. Marsh Harrier Circus aeruginosus pre-roosting on

trees in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan

By Ashok Verma 155

8. Blue-winged Parakeet Psittacula columboides,

Family Psittacidae, feeding on Loranthus leaves

By Sharad Apte 155

9. Sighting of the Oriental Bay-Owl Phodilus badius

saturatus in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary. Western

Arunachal Pradesh

By Aparajita Datta 156

10. Albinism in White-breasted Kingfisher Halcyon

smyrnensis (Linne) from India

By C. Srinivasulu 157

1 1. Duetting calls of the Heart-spotted Woodpeckers

Hemicircus canente (Lesson)

By V. Santharam 157

1 2. Woodpecker holes used for nesting by secondary

cavity-nesters in the Western Ghats, India

By V. Santharam 158

13. Sighting of Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis

and Franklin’s Prinia Prinia hodgsonii in Sirkali,

Nagapattinam District, Tamil Nadu

By G. Agoramoorthy and D. Vernier 159

14. Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer feedingBlack

Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus chicks

By Joanna Van Gruisen 159

15. Rediscovery of the Yellow-throated Bulbul

Pycnonotus xantholaemus in the Anaimalai Hills,

Western Ghats, South India

By Wolfgang Beisenherz 160

16. Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica at

Mt. Abu, Rajasthan

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and DhirendraDevarshi . 161

17. New sight records of Pied Tit Parus nuchalis in

Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 162

1 8. Additions to ' The Birds of Goa’ (Lainer 1 999)

By Heinz Lainer 163

REPTILES

19. Further Chelonian records from Mizoram in

northeastern India

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 165

20. First record of the Copperhead Snake Elaphe radiata

from Madhya Pradesh

By H.S. Negi 166

FISHES

21 New record of an endemic species, Puntius

ophicepbalus (Cypriniformes: Cyprinidae) from

Tamil Nadu part of Western Ghats

By M. Arunachalam, J. A. Johnson, C. Vijayakumar,

P. Sivakumar, A. Manimekalan, R. Soranam and

A. Sankaranarayanan 166

22. Sexual dimorphism of the Pig Face Bream Lethrinus

rubrioperculatus (Sato) from southwest coast of

India

By S. Rantachandran, K.P. Philip, Y. Tharumar

and M. Narayanan 168

INSECTS

23 . Record of Strumigenys emmae (Emery) (Formicidae:

Myrmicinae) from Bangalore, Karnataka and a key

to Indian species

By Thresiamma Varghese 170

24. On the occurrence of Marumba cristata (Butler

1875), Lepidoptera: Sphingidae. in Shimla, Himachal

Pradesh

By Peter Smetacek 171

25. Pleurona falcata Walker, an addition to the Noctuid

fauna of the Indian mainland

By Peter Smetacek 172

26. Corymica Walker, Lepidoptera: Geometridae, in the

Kumaon Himalaya, with the description of a new

form of C deducata caustolomaria Moore

By Peter Smetacek 173

27. Additional records of butterflies from Maharashtra

By Basil W. Wirth 176

28. Studies on the Odonata (Insecta) from a backwater

swamp of Northern Kerala

By Muhamed Jafer Palot

and V.P. Soniya 177

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

29. The Pulmonate Snail Opeas gracile (Hutton),

Stylommatophora: Subulinidae: Opeatinae —

A new record from Jammu province, Jammu and

Kashmir State

By SurendraNath and Sunita 180

30. Extention of distribution of the Thomisid Spider

Platythomisus sudeepi Biswas, Thomisidae:

Araneae, from north Kanara, Karnataka

By D.B Bastawade, Krushnamegh Kunte and

Ashok Captain 181

31. Redescription of Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely

from Kerala, India, Araneae: Tetragnathidae

By K. Sunil Jose, Samson Davis, A.V. Sudhikumar

and PA. Sebastian 182

ii

32. On two interesting marine crabs (Decapoda:

Brachyura) from Mandvi, Kutch

By B.F. Chhapgar, Bhawanisingh G. Desai and

Satish J. Patel 184

33 . Little known biodiversity of subterranean freshwater

habitats in India, with special reference to crustacean

fauna

By Y. Ranga Reddy 186

BOTANY

34. Hypericum gaitii Haines (Hypericaceae), a new

record for southern peninsular India

By K. Sri Rama Murthy. S. Sandhya Rani and

T. Pullaiah 189

35. Amendment to an endemic species Dalbergia

tinnevelliensis Thoth., Family Fabaceae on its

rediscovery from Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve, India

By M.B. Viswanathan, S. Ramakrishnan,

B. Jeyasuresh, N. Andal and M. Venkatesan 191

36. Two distributional records of Caesalpiniaceae for

Tamil Nadu

By C. Murugan and V.S. Manickam 194

37. Chionanthus ramiflorus Roxb. var. peninsularis

Ravikumar& Lakshmanan, an extended distribution

to Andaman & Nicobar Islands

By R. Sumathi, J. Jayanthi, PV. Sreekumar and

1) Narasimhan 195

38. Thottea paucifida Ding Hou, Family Aristolochiaceae,

a new record for India

By R. Sumathi, Vinod Maina and G.S. Lakra 195

39. Juncus spumosus Noltie (Juncaceae), a new record

for India

By M. Bhaumik and M.K. Pathak 196

40. Five new records of plants from Tamil Nadu

By V.S. Manickam, V. Sundaresan, G.J. Jothi and

C. Murugan 198

Cover Photograph: Black-necked Stork

Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus by Asad R. Rahmani

ERRATA

Vo I 100, No. 2 & 3

Page 530, Column 2, Line 6. for December 1 3, 1 993 read December 13,1 933

iii

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

Editorial

Reaching 1 00 years, whether in human life or an institute’s life, is a reason for celebration.

The Bombay Natural History Society celebrated 1 00 years of existence in 1 983 with some memorable

functions and presentations. Another milestone in the history of BNHS was reached in 2003 when the

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society completed 100 volumes. There are not many

journals in the world, certainly not many in India, which have survived 100 years.

The Journal was started in 1 886 with E.H. Aitken and R. A. Sterndale as the first editors. From

Vol. 3, H.M. Phipson started editing the Journal. From the records available to us, 23 people have

served as editors of the Journal , sometimes alone but generally in various combinations. Stalwarts

like W.S. Millard, N.B. Kinnear, S.H. Prater, Salim Ali, P.M. Sanderson, H. Santapau, H. Abdulali and

J.C. Daniel have been editors of this prestigious Journal. Interestingly, among all the editors,

Mr. Daniel had the longest innings, 40 years! His name first appeared in Vol. 62, 1965. Earlier, there

used to be four issues per volume, and four issues of a particular volume were not necessarily published

in a calendar year. Therefore, although the Journal was started in 1 886, it completed 1 00 volumes in

2003. From Vol. 55, 1958, three issues per calendar year were published. We intend to continue this

practice.

We have a distinguished list of names on our editorial board, each expert in his or her own field,

some with more than 20 years of field research, and writing experiences. As we publish articles on all

aspects of natural history, including new descriptions, we need a large editorial board that can peer-

review the papers. From this volume, we have also added a team of consultant editors for further

editorial inputs. Besides the editorial team and consultant editors, we also have a list of experts whom

we will consult from time to time for peer-reviewing manuscripts. We intend to publish their names in

the third issue of each volume. Our main purpose at the end of the day is to publish good scientific

papers, and quickly.

One of the complaints, and a genuine one for that matter, is that the Journal takes very long to

publish an accepted paper. 1 think it is a sort of compliment to us. We receive many good papers and

it is difficult to reject them, and secondly, due to the prestige of the Journal , many contributors are

willing to wait for 2-3 years to see their papers in JBNHS rather than elsewhere. However, at the

same time, the long publication time discourages many talented young scientists who do not send

papers to us. In order to reduce this time lag, we have requested our editorial board to be very

selective in accepting a paper. We are also planning to increase the size of the next couple of issues to

clear up our pending papers, and from next year, our aim is to see that an accepted paper is published

within 12 months after its acceptance.

We have also decided to place abstracts of major papers on our website: www.bnhs.org. We are

also planning on-line publishing, but this will be done only when we are sure that we will not lose

Journal subscribers.

Presently, members have to pay only Rs. 150/- for the subscription of the Journal. Looking at

the quality of the Journal, and increase in the publication cost and postal rates, I am sure subscribers

would be happy to pay a higher subscription. We will inform you when the Society takes the decision

to raise the subscription to the Journal.

The abbreviation of a journal becomes its brand name, to be quoted in scientific papers. JBNHS

is a well-known acronym all over the world. Although there is the Bahrain Natural History Society,

also called BNHS, I do not know whether they also publish a journal called ‘ JBNHS’. I hope not. I am

still unable to understand how Natural in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. came to be written in lower case.

Nonetheless, from Vol. 101, it will be written in upper and lowercases, and the abbreviation will be

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

,

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

3-25

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH, INDIA1

C. Srinivasulu2

'Accepted July, 2001 ;

2Wildlife Biology Section. Department of Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad 500 007, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Emai 1 : hyd2_masawa@sancharnet. i n

Being a part of a large and contiguous forest tract in the Deccan Plateau, the Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary is an

important Protected Area with high avian diversity. Altogether, 294 species belonging to 53 families were

recorded during a two-year period between 1997 and 1999. Historical comparisons have also been drawn,

and some species that were not recorded during this survey are discussed. The status of the Black-shouldered

Woodpecker, Spotted Creeper and Little Spiderhunter is also discussed. It is proposed that further surveys

in adjacent areas will yield interesting results and will be of considerable importance in recognizing this

region as an Important Bird Area in Andhra Pradesh.

Adilabad district, avifauna, Andhra Pradesh

Key words: Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary,

INTRODUCTION

Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary is one of the oldest and

faunistically most diverse Protected Areas in Andhra

Pradesh. The first documentation of avian diversity from

the Utnoor Forest was done in 1930-31 by Salim Ali

during the Hyderabad State Ornithological Survey (Ali

and Whistler 1933a, b, c; 1934a, b). In early 1978, a

party of the Zoological Survey of India collected birds

from four different sites in Adilabad district, of which

three, namely Birsaipet, Itikyal, and Kadam are within

the Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary (Majumdar 1984).

Although the Forest Department staff and some

members of the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra

Pradesh have documented birds from this region, the

lack of a comprehensive checklist is quite evident.

Keeping this in view, I maintained a record of bird

sightings during field trips carried out while studying wild

cervids for my doctoral research. This paper presents

the first detailed systematic account of the avian diversity

of Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary.

STUDY AREA

Established in 1965, Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary

(19° 05'- 19° 20' N and 78° 32'-79° 12' E) covers an area

of 893 sq. km, making it one of the largest and oldest

gazetted wildlife sanctuaries in Andhra Pradesh. Located

in Adilabad district, it is situated 45 km from Mancherial,

70 km from Nirmal and 260 km from Hyderabad. The

general topography of the area is undulating, with hills on

the northern boundary and a gentle slope towards the

Godavari river flowing 6- 1 2 km from the southern boundary

of the Sanctuary (Fig. 1 ).

The major peaks are Mamidepalligutta (664 m),

Mysemgutta (553 m) and Thattlakonda (443 m). Very

few waterbodies dot the area, the major ones being

restricted to the northern region of the Sanctuary

between Birsaipet and Utnoor. On the southern side,

the Kadam Reservoir and the associated canal network

forms the lifeline of the Sanctuary. There are a number

of large and small shallow waterbodies along the southern

boundary, though not strictly within the Sanctuary limits.

A few seasonal streams also crisscross the Sanctuary.

The forest is of Southern Tropical Dry Deciduous

type with Tectona grandis, Terminalia tomentosa ,

Terminalia arjuna, Anogeissus latifolia, Boswellia

serrata, Cleisanthus collinus , Lannea Coromandel ica ,

Diospyros melanoxylon and Bombay, ceiba , being

predominant (Champion and Seth 1 968). Patches of natural

clumps of bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus are also found

in the Sanctuary. Three reserve forests, namely Itikyal,

Kadam and Kawal falling underNirmal and Janaram Forest

Divisions comprise the Sanctuary. The major vegetation

compositions in these reserve forests are teak mixed

miscellaneous forest and teak mixed bamboo forest. Teak

mixed bamboo forest is more dominant (55%) than the

teak mixed miscellaneous forest (40%) while the remaining

areas are teak plantations, scrub areas or village enclosures.

A road connecting Mancherial with Nirmal and Adilabad

divides the Sanctuary into three zones. Cultivated areas

and human habitation are found in the villages named in

the Methodology section, in and around the Sanctuary.

METHODOLOGY

Regular monthly surveys following the imaginary

grid method and line transect method by Gaston ( 1 973)

were carried out from March 1 997 to March 1 999, and

bird records were maintained for the following selected

areas of the Sanctuary: Utnoor, Birsaipet, Rampur,

Udhumpur, Laxmipur, Dosthnagar, Kadam, Itikyal,

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Kalleda, Narlapur, Indhanpally, Janaram, Kawal,

Alinagar, Dongapally, Tapalapur and Tadlapet. Forested

tracts within a radius of 2 to 8 km from these areas

were selected for observations. Identification was based

on Ali and Ripley (1983) and Ali (1996). Based on the

number of sightings and occurrence, the status of a given

species was assigned as common (encountered daily in

relatively large numbers), uncommon (encountered daily

but in small numbers) and rare (encountered less than

15 times a year).

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

A total of 294 species belonging to 185 genera,

53 families and 17 orders were recorded (Table 1). Of

these 49% (144 species) are common, 33% (98 species)

are uncommon and 1 8% (52 species) are rare. Of these

45% ( 1 33 species) are resident breeders,

1 7% (49 species) are residents that possibly breed within

the Sanctuary, 17% (49 species) are winter migrants,

8% (23 species) are seasonal or local migrants,

12% (36 species) are rare, while the rest are stragglers

(4 species contributing 1%). Significant sight records

were Jerdon’s Baza ( Aviceda jerdoni), Great Black

Woodpecker ( Dryocopus javensis). Spotted Creeper

( Salpornis spilonotus) and Little Spiderhunter

( Arachnothera longirostra).

Among the common species, 75% (108 species)

are resident breeders, 3% (5 species) probably breed

within the Sanctuary, 3% (4 species) are resident with

no breeding records, 12% (17 species) are winter

migrants, 6% (9 species) are probably residents or local

migrants, and 0.69% (1 species) of undetermined

resident status. Of the uncommon species,

28% (27 species) are resident breeders,

21% (21 species) are those that probably breed,

9% (9 species) are resident with no breeding records,

26% (26 species) are winter migrants, and

1 5% ( 1 5 species) are either seasonal or local migrants.

Among the rare species, 56% (29 species) are of

undetermined rare status, 17% (9 species) winter

migrants, 6% (3 species) either seasonal or local

migrants, 10% (5 species) stragglers, 1.0% (5 species)

probable resident breeders, and one species (2%) that

is, Black-shouldered Woodpecker ( Chrysocolaptes

festivus ) is a rare resident breeder.

In the annotated checklist that follows, systematic

listing is based on the Synopsis (Ripley 1982) and the

common and scientific names follow Manakadan and

Pittie (2001).

1 . Little Grebe Tachybaptus ruficollis (Pallas)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects shallow

waterbodies near human settlements and near Kadam

Reservoir. Ali and Whistler ( 1 934b) recorded this species

from Utnoor.

2. Great Cormorant

Phalacrocorax carbo (Linne)

Rare. Two records near Kadam Reservoir.

4

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 1: Avian diversity of Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary,

Adilabad district, Andhra Pradesh

3. Indian Shag Phalacrocorax

fuscicollis Stephens

Rare. Recorded twice during the study period.

Once each from the vicinity of Kadam Reservoir and

Indhanpally Tank.

4. Little Cormorant

Phalacrocorax itiger (VieiSlot)

Common. Recorded in fair numbers near Kadam

Reservoir and its associated canal network, and also

from smaller pools inside the Sanctuary. Breeding not

recorded.

5. Grey Heron Ardea cinerea Linne

Uncommon. Probably a resident, though breeding

not recorded within the Sanctuary. Regularly seen along

the shallow waterbodies between Janaram and Kadam.

Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded this species from

Utnoor.

6. Purple Heron Ardea purpurea Linne

Uncommon. Probably a resident, though breeding

not recorded within the Sanctuary. A few individuals

regularly recorded along the shallow waterbodies

between Indhanpally and Kadam. Salim Ali collected a

female specimen from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1934b).

7. Large Egret Casmerodius albus (Linne)

Uncommon. Affects shallow waterbodies

between Indhanpally and Kadam, and to a lesser extent

those between Janaram and Tadlapet. Totally absent

from July to September-October. Breeding not recorded

from or around the Sanctuary.

8. Indian Pond-heron Ardeola grayii (Sykes)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects water edges,

paddy fields, small streams and canals inside the

Sanctuary. Breeding colonies recorded in the groves on

fringe villages of Janaram, Indhanpally, Kadam, Utnoor,

and Itikyal. Shares nesting trees with Little Egret and

Cattle Egret. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded it from

Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) found it to be common and

collected a male from Kadam.

9. Cattle Egret Bubulcus ibis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Large numbers affect

the agro-ecosystem along the fringe villages. Seen

following livestock that graze within the Sanctuary.

Locals report that it follows the Indian Gaur (Bos gaur '

too. Breeding colonies recorded in the groves of fringe

villages of Janaram, Indhanpally, Kadam, Utnoor, and

Tadlapet. Ali and Whistler ( 1 934b) recorded this species

from Utnoor.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

5

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

10. Median Egret Mesophoyx intermedia (Wagler)

Common. Seen along with the Little Egret

affecting waterbodies between Indhanpally and Kadam.

Probably a local migrant, observed in good numbers

between September and February, up to March.

11. Little Egret Egretta garzetta (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. As numerous as

Cattle Egret. Affects all waterbodies near human

settlements as well as in forested tracts. Breeding

colonies recorded in the groves of fringe villages of

Janaram, Indhanpally, Kadam, Utnoor, Tadlapet, Itikyal

and Birsaipet.

12. Black-crowned Night-heron

Nycticorax nycticorax (Linne)

Uncommon. Very few individuals have been

recorded in waterbodies along the Kadam Reservoir

and associated canals. Although breeding was not

recorded within the Sanctuary, subadult birds were

regularly encountered. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

13. Chestnut Bittern

Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin)

Rare. Recorded thrice in the vegetation on the

southwestern edge of Kadam Reservoir.

14. Yellow Bittern Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin)

Uncommon. Infrequently observed near Kadam

Reservoir and large shallow waterbodies along the

southern boundary of the Sanctuary. Breeding not

observed.

15. Painted Stork Mycteria leucocephala (Pennant)

Uncommon. About 4-10 birds observed feeding

busily in Indhanpally Tank between July and September.

Sightings of juvenile individuals may indicate the

presence of a breeding colony within 1 50-200 km radius

of the Sanctuary.

16. Asian Openbill-Stork Anastomus oscitans

(Boddaert)

Common. Regularly seen in large numbers (up to

70-80 individuals) in Indhanpally Tank. No breeding records

within the Sanctuary, although juveniles were regularly

sighted, indicating the presence of a breeding colony nearby.

Majumdar (1984) collected a female from Kadam.

17. White-necked Stork

Ciconia episcopus (Boddaert)

Uncommon. Five records along the Kadam river

downstream from Kadam Dam, other than a pair that was

regularly observed in teak plantations between Indhanpally,

Narlapur and Kalleda from October to February.

18. Oriental White Ibis

Threskiornis melanocephalus (Latham)

Uncommon. Recorded between July and

September along large shallow waterbodies between

Indhanpally and Kadam.

19. Black Ibis Pseudibis papillosa (Temminck)

Common. Regularly recorded in good numbers in

paddy fields along the southern boundary of the

Sanctuary, and also between Birsaipet and Utnoor. No

breeding colony was recorded within or along the

boundary of the Sanctuary.

20. Glossy Ibis Plegadis falcinellus (Linne)

Rare; Two records (3 and 8 individuals each),

between Indhanpally and Kadam.

21. Eurasian Spoonbill Platalea leucorodia Linne

Uncommon. Recorded from September to

February along large shallow waterbodies between

Indhanpally and Kadam.

22. Bar-headed Goose Anser indicus (Latham)

Rare. Two records on the edge of the Kadam

Reservoir.

23. Lesser Whistling-duck

Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield)

Common and resident. Affects all shallow

waterbodies along the southern boundary of the

Sanctuary, and has also been recorded from small

rainwater inundated pools within the forest. Although

no nests were recorded, it probably breeds within the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1934b) report its

occurrence in Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) found it to be

not very common and collected two females from

Birsaipet.

24. Large Whistling-duck

Dendrocygna bicolor (Vieillot)

Rare. Recorded once (6 individuals) in November

1 998 from Indhanpally Tank.

25. Brahminy Shelduck Tadorna ferruginea (Pallas)

Uncommon. Migratory. 2 to 6 individuals from

Kadam river downstream from Kadam Dam. Majumdar

( 1 984) collected a pair of these birds from Kadam.

26. Northern Pintail Anas acuta Linne

Common. Migratory. About 1 5 individuals regularly

6

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

recorded affecting large shallow waterbodies along the

southern boundary of the Sanctuary.

27. Common Teal Anas crecca Linne

Common. Migratory. About 10 individuals

recorded during winters of 1997 and 1999 in the

indhanpally Tank.

28. Spot-billed Duck

Anas poecilorhyncha J. R. Forester

Common. Resident breeder. Over 20 individuals

regularly recorded affecting large shallow waterbodies

along the southern boundary of the Sanctuary. Regularly

recorded breeding in a tank just outside Janaram and

also at Indhanpally Tank. Majumdar (1984) found it to

be common and collected a male specimen from

Kadam.

29. Gadwall Anas strepera Linne

Rare. Migratory. Recorded once (2 individuals)

from the Indhanpally Tank during November 1997.

30. Eurasian Wigeon Anas penelope Linne

Rare. Migratory. Recorded twice (one and two

individuals, respectively) from the Indhanpally Tank

during November 1997.

31. Garganey Anas querquedula Linne

Common. Migratory. Over 20 individuals regularly

recorded affecting the large shallow waterbodies

along the southern boundary of the Sanctuary and

also between Rampur and Utnoor. Ali and Whistler

(1934b) recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar

(1984) reported it to be very common near Birsaipet

where he collected two male and three female

specimens.

32. Northern Shoveller Anas clypeata Linne

Uncommon. Migratory. Recorded throughout

the winter of 1998-99 ranging from 3-18 individuals

at Indhanpally Tank. Salim Ali mentions having

observed it on 15.x. 1924 at Utnoor (Ali and Whistler

1934b).

33. Red-crested Pochard

Rhodonessa rufina (Pallas)

Uncommon. Migratory. Recorded throughout the

winter of 1997-98 and 1998-99, ranging from 2-6

individuals at Indhanpally Tank.

34. Common Pochard Aythya ferina (Linne)

Rare. Migratory. Recorded once (a pair) in

December 1998 at Indhanpally Tank.

35. Ferruginous Pochard

Aythya nyroca (Giildenstadt)

Rare. Migratory. Recorded once (a pair) in

November 1998 at Indhanpally Tank.

36. Tufted Pochard Aythya fidigula (Linne)

Rare. Migratory. Recorded once (5 individuals) in

December 1998 at Indhanpally Tank.

37. Cotton Teal Nettapus coromandelianus (Gmelin)

Common. Local migrant. Observed (at least a pair)

in all large shallow waterbodies of the Sanctuary.

Maximum number recorded at any given time were 27

individuals. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded this

species from Utnoor.

38. Comb Duck Sarkidiornis melanotos (Pennant)

Uncommon. Local migrant. Regularly recorded

from 2 to 28 individuals in all the study years at

Indhanpally Tank. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded

this species from Utnoor.

39. Black-shouldered Kite

Elanus caeru/etis (Desfontaines)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open patches

of the forest and also along the agricultural lands of the

fringe villages. Majumdar (1984) found it to be very

common and collected a male, a female and two female

specimens from Kadam, Itikyal, and Birsaipet respectively.

40. Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni (Blyth)

Rare. Once sighted near Alinagar exclosure in the

core area of the Sanctuary.

41. Oriental Honey-buzzard

Pern is ptilorhynchus (Tern mi nek)

Uncommon. Affects open forest patches. Number

of sightings less in summer and monsoon than in winter

when it was frequently observed. No records of

breeding within the Sanctuary.

42. Black Kite Milvus ntigrans (Boddaert)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded in good

numbers, and nests were recorded in the vicinity of

human settlements.

43. Brahminy Kite Haliastur indns (Boddaert)

Common. Resident breeder. Restricted in distribution

to Kadam Reservoir area. Occasionally also recorded

along the canal and natural streams criss-crossing the

Sanctuary. Nests were observed near the Reservoir area

and young were recorded from July-August onwards. Ali

and Whistler ( 1 934b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

7

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

44. Shikra Accipiter badius (Gindin)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open wooded

areas of the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

found it to be common in certain areas and collected a

male specimen from Itikyal, and a pair from Kadam.

45. Crested Goshawk

Accipiter trivirgatus (Temniinck)

Rare. Twice sighted in teak mixed bamboo forest

near Rampur during winter of 1 998.

46. Besra Sparrow-hawk

Accipiter virgatus (Temniinck)

Rare. One bird sighted near Kalleda in November

1998.

47. Long-legged Buzzard

Buteo ruftnus (Cretzschmar)

Rare. One bird sighted in December 1997

near the teak plantation area adjacent to Laxmipur

exclosure.

48. White-eyed Buzzard

Butastiir teesa (Franklin)

Rare. Once sighted in February 1999 near

Nalakonda, Shivar Pedda Vagu area. Ali and Whistler

(1934b) recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar

(1984) found it to be common near Itikyal and collected

3 male specimens from the same area.

49. Changeable Hawk-eagle

Spizaetus cirrhatus (Gmelin)

Common. Frequently seen along the gaps created

by roads criss-crossing the Sanctuary. Although no nests

were sighted it presumably breeds within the Sanctuary,

as it is seen all year round. Majumdar ( 1984) found it to

be common near Birsaipet, where he collected a female

specimen.

50. Tawny Eagle Aquila rapax Temniinck

Common. Seen in good numbers throughout the

Sanctuary. No breeding was recorded.

51. Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga Pallas

Rare. Once sighted near the southern edge of the

Kadam Reservoir in January 1999.

52. Lesser Spotted Eagle Aquila pomarina Brehm

Rare. Two sightings, first near northern edge of

the Dam on the Kadam Reservoir in November 1998,

and another along the main canal of Kadam Reservoir

in January 1999.

53. Black Eagle Ictinaetus malayensis (Temminck)

Rare. Once sighted near Kalleda Vagu (Pedda

Vagu) in May 1998.

54. Red-headed Vulture Sarcogyps calvus (Scopoli)

Rare. Six individuals sighted feeding on carcass

of cow along with other vulture species on the edge of

Kadam Reservoir in January 1998.

55. Eurasian Griffon Gyps fulvus (Hablizl)

Uncommon. Twenty-one individuals have been

recorded in 3 sightings on the edges of Kadam Reservoir.

Ali and Whistler ( 1 934b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

56. Long-billed Vulture Gyps indicus (Scopoli)

Uncommon. Thirty-eight individuals have been

recorded in 3 sightings on the edge of Kadam Reservoir

and one near Tadlapet. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

57 Indian White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis

(Gmelin)

Uncommon. Not frequently seen, probable

resident. Thirty-two to forty birds have been

recorded in a total of seven sightings all along the fringes

of the Sanctuary. No sightings since August 1999. Ali

and Whistler (1934b) recorded this species from

Utnoor.

58. Egyptian Vulture

Neophron percnopterus (Linne)

Uncommon. A pair was frequently seen near

Kadam Reservoir area till August 1999.

59. Pallid Harrier

Circus macrourus (S. G. Gmelin)

Uncommon. Regularly seen affecting open forests

and agriculture fields.

60. Montagu’s Harrier Circus pygargus (Linne)

Rare. Pair seen in January 1999, near a check-

dam near Udhumpur.

61. Pied Harrier Circus melanoleucos (Pennant)

Uncommon. Regularly seen along agriculture fields

downstream of Kadam Dam and twice sighted in the

open valley near Rampur.

62. Western Marsh-harrier

Circus aeruginosus (Linne)

Rare. Recorded twice in the agriculture fields

downstream of the Kadam Dam during the winter of

1998-99.

8

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

63. Short-toed Snake-eagle

Circaetus gallicus (Gmelin)

Common. Regularly seen affecting open forests

and also cultivated fields. Probably a breeder, though

no nests were recorded.

64. Crested Serpent-eagle

Spilornis cheela (Latham)

Common. Seen in fairly good numbers affecting

teak plantations and natural teak mixed miscellaneous

forests. Although no nests were recorded, it probably

breeds within the Sanctuary. Majumdar (1 984) reported

it to be widely distributed and collected a female

specimen from Birsaipet.

65. Osprey Pandion haliaetus (Linne)

Rare. Recorded twice (December 1997 and

February 1998) fishing on the Kadam Reservoir.

66. Laggar Falco jugger J. E. Gray

Rare. Once sighted near the village enclosure of

Laxmipur.

67. Peregrine Falcon Falco peregrinus Tunstall

Rare. Three records during winter in the vicinity

of Kadam Reservoir.

68. Red-headed Falcon Falco chicquera Daudin

Common. Regularly seen affecting open forests

and cultivated fields, especially along the village

enclosures between Indhanpally and Kadam on the

southern boundary, and Birsaipet and Utnoor on the

northern side of the Sanctuary. Breeding not recorded.

69. Common Kestrel Falco tinnunculus Linne

Common. Regularly seen affecting open forests,

teak plantations and village enclosures within the

Sanctuary. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be rare and

collected a female specimen from Itikyal.

70. Painted Francolin

Francolinus pictus (Jardine & Selby)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded along the

scrub and forest edge mainly near Birsaipet, Kalleda

and Itikyal. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded this

species from Utnoor.

71 . Grey Francolin

Francolinus pondicerianus (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded along the

scrub, agriculture fields and forest edge throughout the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler ( 1 934b) reported this species

to be absent from Utnoor.

72. Common Quail Coturnix coturnix (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded along the

scrub, agriculture fields and forest edge throughout the

Sanctuary.

73. Rain Quail Coturnix coromandelica (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded to affect

scrub, fallow and cultivated fields, and forest edge

especially along the human settlements throughout the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded this

species from Utnoor.

74. Blue-breasted Quail Coturnix chinensis (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Recorded in small

numbers affecting fallow and scrubland throughout the

fringe areas of the Sanctuary.

75. Jungle Bush-quail Perdicula asiatica (Latham)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded in good

numbers along the open scrub, agriculture fields and in

the rocky habitat in the vicinity of village enclosures.

Salim Ali collected a couple of male specimens from

Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1934b). Majumdar (1984)

collected a male specimen from Itikyal.

76. Rock Bush-quail Perdicula argoondalt (Sykes)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Recorded in small

numbers along the northern areas of the Sanctuary.

77. Red Spurfowl Galloperdix spadicea (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Females on nests

were observed in teak mixed bamboo forest patches

between January and March. Fairly well represented

throughout the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

78. Painted Spurfowl

Galloperdix lunulata (Valenciennes)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Frequently met

with in teak mixed miscellaneous and teak mixed

bamboo forest patches within the Sanctuary.

79. Red Junglefowl Gallus gall us (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. A few individuals

noted in teak mixed miscellaneous forests near

Dongapally, Rampur and Alampally areas.

80. Grey Junglefowl

Gallus sonneratii (Temminck)

Common. Resident breeder. Found in good

numbers throughout the undisturbed or less disturbed

areas of the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

9

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

81. Indian Peafowl Pavo cristatus Linne

Common. Resident breeder. Fairly good numbers

throughout the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

82. Small Buttonquail Turnix sylvatica (Desfontaines)

Rare. Twice sighted between Birsaipet and

Utnoor. Probably a resident breeder.

83. Yellow-legged Buttonquail Turnix tanki Blyth

Uncommon. Occasional sightings along

agriculture fields and scrub openings. It probably breeds

within the Sanctuary.

84. Common Buttonquail Turnix suscitator (Gnielin)

Uncommon. Occasionally sighted in a few localities

between Rampur and Utnoor, and between Indhanpally

and Kadam. It probably breeds within the Sanctuary.

Majumdar (1 984) reported it to be not very common and

collected a female specimen from Birsaipet.

85. Spotted Crake Porznna fused (Linne)

Rare. Once sighted near Kadam Reservoir.

Probably a straggler or has been overlooked due to its

secretive nature.

86. White-breasted Waterhen

Amaurornis phoenicurus (Pennant)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects stream beds,

canals, shallow waterbodies, and the vicinity of the

Kadam Reservoir.

87. Watercock Gallicre x cinerea (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder but recorded in small

numbers. Observed from Kadam Reservoir and its

adjoining area, from all shallow waterbodies scattered

along the southern boundary, and from a seasonal stream

between Birsaipet and Utnoor.

88. Common Moorhen GaUinula cliloropus (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Recorded in

moderate numbers all through the year in large shallow

waterbodies along the southern boundary. Numbers

increase during the winter season. Ali and Whistler

(1934b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

89. Purple Moorhen Porphyria porphyria (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Fewer in number than

the Common Moorhen. Recorded from all shallow

waterbodies scattered along the southern boundary.

Numbers increase during the winter season. Ali and

Whistler ( 1 934b) reported this species as not uncommon

in Utnoor.

l 0

90. Common Coot Fulica atra Linne

Common. Resident breeder. A few individuals have

been recorded throughout the year from large shallow

waterbodies and Kadam Reservoir. Populations increase

considerably during winter. Majumdar ( 1 984) found it to

be common and collected a male specimen from Birsaipet.

91. Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Hydrophasianus c/tirurgus (Scopoli)

Uncommon within the Sanctuary limits, but a

common resident breeder recorded in good numbers

from the smaller shallow waterbodies scattered between

Indhanpally and Kadam. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

92 Bronze-winged Jacana

Metopidius indicus (Latham)

More common than the Pheasant-tailed Jacana.

Resident breeder, very frequently seen on all the

waterbodies within the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler

( 1 934b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

93. Greater Painted-snipe

Rostratula benghalensis (Linne)

Rare. A single male was observed in February

1 998 near Indhanpally tank. Ali and Whistler ( 1 934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

94 Red-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus indicus (Boddaert)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently observed

in scrub forest areas and adjacent village enclo-

sures. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded this species

from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) found it to be very

common and collected a female specimen from

Itikyal.

95. River Lapwing Vanellus duvaucelii (Lesson)

Uncommon. Frequently observed along Kadam

and its network of canals.

96. Yellow-wattled Lapwing

Vanellus nudabaricus (Boddaert)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open scrub

forest and adjacent village enclosures. Ali and Whistler

(1934b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

97. Pacific Golden Plover

Pluvialis fulva (Gmelin)

Rare. Once sighted (6 individuals) downstream of

the Kadam Dam in December 1998. Probably stragglers.

Ali and Whistler (1934b) reported it to be absent from

Utnoor.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

98. Greater Sand Plover

Charadrius leschenaultii Lesson

Rare. Once seen in November 1998 near

Indhanpally Tank. Probably a straggler.

99. Little Ringed Plover Charadrius dub i us Scopoli

Common. Winter migrant. Recorded from all the

waterbodies within the Sanctuary, more common along

the Kadam and associated canals. Majumdar (1984)

reported it to be not very common and collected a female

specimen from Itikyal.

1 00. Kentish Plover Charadrius alexandrinus Linne

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Infrequently recorded

from large shallow waterbodies along the southern

boundary of the Sanctuary. Majumdar ( 1 984) collected

a pair from Kadam.

101. Eurasian Curlew Numenius arquata (Linne)

Rare. One pair sighted in flight near Kadam

Reservoir in December 1998. Probably stragglers.

102. Black-tailed Godwit Limosa limosa (Linne)

Rare. Two individuals sighted near paddy fields

near the Kadam Reservoir in November 1998. No

sightings within the Sanctuary limits.

103. Common Redshank Tringa totanus (Linne)

Common. Winter migrant. Seen along all larger

shallow waterbodies within the Sanctuary.

104. Marsh Sandpiper

Tringa stagnatilis (Bechstein)

Common. Winter migrant. Seen along larger

shallow waterbodies near Tadlapet, Indhanpally to

Kadam, and Utnoor.

105. Common Greenshank

Tringa nebularia (Gunner)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Seen in small

numbers along shallow waterbodies between Kadam

and Indhanpally. Majumdar ( 1 984) collected one female

specimen each from Itikyal and Birsaipet.

106. Wood Sandpiper Tringa glareola Linne

Common. Winter migrant. Seen along large shallow

waterbodies between Kadam and Indhanpally. Ali and

Whistler ( 1 934b) recorded this species from Utnoor and

its adjoining area.

107. Common Sandpiper Actitis liypoleucos Linne

Common. Winter migrant. Seen in fairly good

numbers affecting all waterbodies within the Sanctuary.

108. Common Snipe Gallinago gallinago (Linne)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Frequently observed

in small numbers at Indhanpally Tank and Kadam

Reservoir. Salim Ali reports flushing a pair on April 8,

1932 among reeds bordering a tank at Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1934b).

109. Little Stint Calidris minuta (Leisler)

Common. Regularly seen in fairly good numbers

affecting large waterbodies within the Sanctuary. Along

smaller waterbodies up to 1 2 individuals were observed.

1 1 0. Temminck’s Stint Calidris temminckii (Leisler)

Common. Regularly seen in mixed flocks with little

stint. Confined to large waterbodies. Very few individuals

were sighted along smaller waterbodies.

111. Black-winged Stilt

Himantopus himantopus (Linne)

Common. Winter migrant. Regularly recorded in

flocks up to 76 individuals affecting large shallow

waterbodies and paddy fields between Janaram and

Kadam, and also in the vicinity of Utnoor. Ali and

Whistler (1934b) did not record this species from

Utnoor.

112. Stone Curlew Burhinus oedicnemus (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Affects open scrub

strewn with boulders. Young ones were observed

between March and May.

113. Great Stone-plover

Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier)

Uncommon. One pair regularly noted along the

Kadam river downstream of the Kadam Dam. Possibly

breeds within the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler ( 1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor and its environs.

114. Indian Courser

Cursorius coromandelicus (Gmelin)

Uncommon. Regularly seen in small flocks up to

six individuals affecting scrub areas of the Sanctuary.

1 1 5. Small Pratincole

Glareola l act e a (Temminck)

Rare. Twice recorded in flocks of 8 and 1 1

individuals in November 1998. Majumdar (1984)

collected a pair of specimens from Kadam.

116. Brown-headed Gull

Larus brunniceplialus Jerdon

Rare. Thrice sighted between October and

December 1998 near Kadam Reservoir.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

11

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

117. Whiskered Tern Chlidonias hybridus (Pallas)

Uncommon. One to six individuals regularly sighted

near Kadam Reservoir.

118. River Tern Sterna aurantia J.E. Gray

Common. Regularly sighted near Kadam

Reservoir and all along the major canals in the Sanctuary.

1 19. Little Tern Sterna albifrons Pallas

Rare. Once sighted in March 1998 near Kadam

Reservoir. Identified by its small size, black cap and

orange bill.

120. Chestnut-bellied Sandgrouse

Pt erodes ex ns t us Temminck

Uncommon. A few individuals regularly sighted

along the cultivated or fallow tracts of village enclosures

within the Sanctuary. Probably a breeder within the

Sanctuary.

121. Painted Sandgrouse Pterocles indicus (Gmelin)

Rare. Twice sighted in flight, identified by the lack

of pin feathers. Ali and Whistler (1934b) recorded this

species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) found it to be

not very common and collected a pair from Itikyal.

122. Orange-breasted Green-pigeon

Treron bicincta (Jerdon)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in

small flocks affecting teak mixed miscellaneous forest

and teak mixed bamboo forest patches between Rampur

and Birsaipet. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very

common and collected two male specimens from

Birsaipet.

123. Yellow-legged Green-pigeon

Treron pboenicoptera (Latham)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in

small flocks of 2 to 8 individuals affecting teak mixed

miscellaneous forest patches. Majumdar (1984) found

it to be common and collected a male and three female

specimens from Kadam, and a female specimen from

Birsaipet.

124. Green Imperial-pigeon Ducula aenea (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in

small flocks of 2 to 6 individuals all along the thick,

forested tracts.

125. Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia Gmelin

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen

around villages and fallow fields. Nests observed in

towns.

1 2

126. Eurasian Collared-dove

Streptopelia decaocto (Frivaldszky)

Common. Resident breeder. Ubiquitous in villages,

cultivated and fallow fields. Ali and Whistler (1934b)

recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

found it to be very common and collected a pair of

specimens from Itikyal.

127. Red Collared-dove

Streptopelia tranquebarica (Hermann)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen

around villages and fallow fields. Salim Ali reports

sighting of this species from Nirmal in 1925 (Ali and

Whistler 1934b).

128. Spotted Dove Streptopelia chinensis (Scopoli)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen affecting

cultivated or fallow fields, and around village enclosures.

Ali and Whistler ( 1 934b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar ( 1 984) found it to be very common and collected

a female specimen from Kadam.

129. Little Brown Dove

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen near

cultivated or fallow fields, open scrub and teak mixed

miscellaneous forests. Majumdar (1984) reported it to

be very common and collected a female specimen from

Kadam.

130. Alexandrine Parakeet

Psittacula eupatria (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly observed

in large flocks affecting jowar and maize crops especially

areas between Rampur and Utnoor. Ali and Whistler

(1934a) recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar

(1984) found it to be common and collected a female

specimen from Itikyal.

131. Rose-ringed Parakeet

Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in large

flocks affecting jowar, bajra and maize crops grown in

cultivated tracts of village enclosures. Up to 10,000

individuals roost in 5 ha teak plantation near Dosthnagar.

Ali and Whistler (1 934a) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) found it to be common and collected

two pairs of specimens from Itikyal.

132. Plum-headed Parakeet

Psittacula cyanocephala (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Frequently sighted

in good numbers affecting maize, jowar and bajra fields

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

between Birsaipet and Utnoor, and near Tadlapet. Salim

Ali collected a male specimen from Utnoor environs

(Ali and Whistler 1934a). Majumdar (1984) found it to

be very common and collected three male and five

female specimens from Itikyal, and two male specimens

from Kadam.

133. Pied Crested Cuckoo

Clamator jacobinus (Boddaert)

Common. Resident; although not noted, probably

a breeder. Regularly seen throughout the year with

augmentation in numbers between late May to October.

134. Brainfever Bird Hierococcyx varius (Vahl)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

year. One pair observed copulating in early March 1 999.

Probably a brood parasite on Turdoides sp. nests. Ali

and Whistler ( 1 934a) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) collected one and two specimens (all

male) from Birsaipet and Itikyal respectively.

135. Common Cuckoo Cuculus canorus Linne

Rare. Occasionally heard, but never sighted in

summer.

136. Indian Plaintive Cuckoo

Cacomantis passerinus (Vahl)

Uncommon. Resident, breeding not observed.

Regularly seen in teak mixed miscellaneous forests.

137. Drongo Cuckoo Surniculus lugubris (Horsfield)

Rare. A single record from Kalleda Teak

Plantation area in November 1998.

138. Asian Koel Eudynamys scolopacea (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen year-round

throughout the Sanctuary, call more vociferous during

the monsoon. Ali and Whistler (1934a) recorded this

species from Utnoor.

139. Small Green-billed Malkoha

Pit aen icopli aeus viridirostris ( Je r d o n )

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently sighted

affecting mixed miscellaneous forest patches.

140. Sirkeer Cuckoo

Phaenicophaeus leschenaultii Lesson

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Seen along the forest

edges. Courtship observed between April and May. Ali

and Whistler ( 1 934a) recorded this species from Utnoor.

141. Great Coucal Centropus sinensis (Stephens)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary. Mating pairs were observed from August to

September. Ali and Whistler (1934a) collected a male

specimen from Utnoor.

142. Barn Owl Tyto alba (Scopoli)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Infrequently seen

in open patches around village enclosures. Salim Ali

reported sighting of this species at Talamadri village on

October 14, 1925 (Ali and Whistler 1934a).

143. Collared Scops-owl Otus bakkamoena Pennant

Common. Resident breeder. Affecting both natural

teak mixed miscellaneous forest and teak plantation

areas. Ali and Whistler (1934a) did not record this

species from Utnoor.

144. Eurasian Eagle-owl Bubo bubo (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

along rocky outcrops within the Sanctuary. Majumdar

(1984) found it to be uncommon and collected a male

specimen from Itikyal.

145. Brown Fish-owl Ketupa zeylonensis (Temminck)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen along

well-wooded forest patches. Near Kadam Reservoir and

associated canals. One nest was observed in a cavity of

Samanea saman on the outskirts of Kadam village.

146. Jungle Owlet Glaucidium radiatum (Tickell)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects teak mixed

miscellaneous forest patches and teak plantation areas.

Salim Ali collected an unsexed specimen from Utnoor

(Ali and Whistler 1934a).

147. Spotted Owlet Athene brama (Temminck)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

and heard in villages and scrub areas. Ali and Whistler

(1934a) recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar

(1984) found it to be very common and collected one

female from Itikyal and two females from Kadam.

148. Mottled Wood-owl Strix ocellata (Lesson)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Frequently seen in

villages and scrub areas.

1 49. Short-eared Owl Asio flammeus (Pontoppidan)

Rare. Once recorded near Laxminagar hamlet in

January 1999.

150. Indian Jungle Nightjar

Caprintulgus indicus Latham

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen

throughout the Sanctuary.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

13

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

151. Common Indian Nightjar

Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen at

night feeding over roads criss-crossing the Sanctuary.

Majumdar (1984) found it to be very common and

collected three males and one female from Itikyal, and

a female from Birsaipet.

1 52. Franklin’s Nightjar

Caprimulgus affinis Horsfield

Uncommon. Very few sightings within the Sanctuary.

Probably breeds within the Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected

a pair of specimens from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1934a).

153. Alpine Swift Tachymarptis melba (Linne)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Flocks regularly seen

from September to January.

1 54. House Swift Apus affinis (J.E. Gray)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

year, a large breeding colony recorded under the bridge

across Kadam river below the Kadam Dam. Majumdar

( 1 984) reported it to be very common and collected two

males and three females from Itikyal, and one female

from Kadam.

155. Asian Palm-swift

Cypsiurus balasiensis (J.E. Gray)

Common. Not a resident within the Sanctuary, but

affects the villages on the fringes between Tadlapet and

Tapalapur, Janaram and Indhanpally, and in the vicinity

of Utnoor. Young ones noted from March to April, but

no nests were located. Salim Ali collected a male and a

juvenile (unsexed) specimen from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1934a). Majumdar (1984) found it to be

common and collected a male specimen from Kadam.

156. Crested Tree-swift

Hemiprocne coronata (Tickell)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Seen frequenting

open patches in teak mixed miscellaneous forest. Salim

Ali collected a pair of specimens from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1934a).

157. Lesser Pied Kingfisher Ceryle ruilis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

year along large and small waterbodies and paddy fields.

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be not common, and

collected a female specimen from Itikyal.

158. Small Blue Kingfisher Alcedo atthis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen along the

waterbodies and paddy fields throughout the Sanctuary.

1 4

Salim Ali collected a female specimen from Utnoor (Ali

and Whistler 1934a.). Majumdar (1984) found it to be

very common and collected two female specimens from

Birsaipet.

159. White-breasted Kingfisher

Halcyon smyrnensis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary. Majumdar ( 1 984) found it to be very common

and collected a male specimen from Itikyal.

160. Chestnut-headed Bee-eater

Merops leschenaulti Vieillot

Uncommon. Resident with local movements,

breeding not recorded. Seen throughout the year in small

numbers near Kadam Reservoir. Augmentation in

numbers noted from September to December indicating

seasonal local movements.

161. Blue-tailed Bee-eater

Merops philippinus Linne

Uncommon. Resident with local movements,

breeding not recorded. Frequently seen near Kadam

Reservoir and also along the associated canal

network.

162. Small Bee-eater Merops orientalis Latham

Common. Resident breeder. Affects cultivated

and scrub tracts of the Sanctuary and is regularly

seen along teak mixed miscellaneous forest especially

along forest streams. Salim Ali collected a male

specimen from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1934a).

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very common and

collected five male and two female specimens from

Itikyal.

163. Indian Roller Coracias benghalensis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary, more common along cultivated and scrub

tracts. Nests observed in tree hollows. Ali and Whistler

(1934a) reported this species to be abundant in the

leafless deciduous forest in Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

found it to be common and collected a male specimen

from Itikyal.

164. Hoopoe Upupa epops Linne

Common. Resident breeder. Although no nests

were recorded, individuals carrying nesting material

were observed. Seen throughout the Sanctuary, but more

common along cultivated tracts and patches of teak

plantation. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be not

common, and collected a male specimen from Itikyal

and a female specimen from Kadam.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

165. Indian Grey Hornbill

Ocyceros birostris (Scopoli)

Common. Resident with probable breeding

status. Recorded in pairs affecting mixed miscella-

neous forested tracts near village enclosures. No nests

were sighted during the study period. Ali and

Whistler (1934a) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) found it to be common and collected

one male specimen from Itikyal, and a pair from

Kadam.

166. Brown-headed Barbet

Megalaima zeylanica (Gmelin)

Uncommon. Resident, breeding not recorded.

Occasionally sighted along the forested tracts adjacent

to cultivated fields and also in teak mixed miscellaneous

forest patches.

167. Coppersmith Barbet

Megalaima haemacepliala (P.L.S. Muller)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen in all types of

forest patches within the Sanctuary.

168. Eurasian Wryneck Jynx torquilla Linne

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Occasionally

recorded from open scrub and teak mixed miscellaneous

forest tracts from October to December.

169. Rufous Woodpecker

Celeus brachyurus (Vieillot)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Observed affect-

ing teak plantations, Teak Mixed Bamboo Forests

and teak mixed miscellaneous forest patches.

Fewer in numbers than other resident woodpecker

species.

170. Little Scaly-bellied Green Woodpecker

Picas xanthopygaeus (J.E. Gray & G.R. Gray)

Rare. Resident and probably a breeder within

the Sanctuary; although no nests were noted. Usually

seen singly affecting teak mixed miscellaneous forest

and teak plantation patches between Rampur and

Birsaipet. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be not very

common and collected a female specimen from

Birsaipet.

171. Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker

Dinopium benghalense (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen almost

throughout the Sanctuary. Majumdar ( 1 984) reported it

to be very common and collected one male and two

female specimens from Itikyal, a male from Kadam,

and a female from Birsaipet.

172. Great Black Woodpecker

Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield)

Rare. Probably a resident breeder. First recorded

by the author in teak mixed miscellaneous forest near

Rampur in February 1997, subsequently a few more

individuals were sighted (Srinivasulu et al. 200 1 ). It has

been reported to be common from Surat Dangs to

Western Ghats and Hills of Tamil Nadu (Ali and Ripley

1 987). Occasional sightings, from Bastar (Ali 1951) and

Udanti (Bharos 1992), Central India and Jyothimamidi

in Vishakapatnam district, Eastern Ghats (Ripley etal.

1 987), indicate that small populations exist sporadically

between the Eastern Ghats and the Satpura Hills.

173. Yellow-fronted Pied Woodpecker

Dendrocopos mahrattensis (Latham)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Always seen in

pairs throughout the Sanctuary. Majumdar ( 1 984) found

it to be common and collected a pair of specimens from

Itikyal.

174. Brown-capped Pygmy Woodpecker

Dendrocopos nanus (Vigors)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Always seen in

pairs in almost all the forest types within the Sanctuary.

Salim Ali reports sighting of a juvenile just out of nest

being fed by its parents between Icchoda and Utnoor

on March 31, 1932 (Ali and Whistler 1934a). Majumdar

(1984) found it to be common and collected a pair of

specimens from Birsaipet.

175. Black-shouldered Woodpecker

Chrysocolaptes festivus (Boddaert)

Rare. Probably a resident breeder. Occasionally

sighted in pairs or singly in teak mixed miscellaneous

forest and teak plantation patches near Kadam,

Udhumpur, Rampur, Birsaipet and Kalleda. Majumdar

(1984) reported it to be rare and collected a female

specimen from Kadam.

176. Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura (Linne)

Rare. Sighted thrice from November to January

in 1997 and 1998.

177. Singing Bush-lark Mirafra cantillans Blyth

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder.

Occasionally sighted affecting fallow and open scrub

areas of the Sanctuary.

178. Jerdon’s Bush-lark Mirafra affinis Blyth

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Regularly

observed near cultivated and fallow fields, and open scrub

patches of the Sanctuary.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

15

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

179. Red-winged Bush-lark

Mirafra erythroptera Blyth

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently sighted

affecting fallow and cultivated fields, and open scrub

patches of the Sanctuary.

180. Ashy-crowned Fineh-lark

Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently sighted in

pairs and small parties affecting fallow fields and open

scrub areas of the Sanctuary. Majumdar ( 1 984) reported

it to be very common and collected a pair of specimens

from Itikyal.

181. Rufous-tailed Fineh-lark

Amntomanes phoenicurus (Franklin)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently sighted

affecting open scrub areas, and fallow and cultivated

tracts of the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933c)

recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

reported it to be not uncommon and collected a male

specimen from Kadam.

182. Greater Short-toed Lark

Calandrella brachydactyla (Leisler)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen along

fallow and open scrub patches. Seen in good numbers

from November to March.

183. Sykes’s Crested Lark Galerida deva (Sykes)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen near

open scrub areas and fallow fields along the village

enclosures in the Sanctuary.

184. Eastern Skylark Alauda gulgula Franklin

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently sighted in

the open scrub areas, and fallow and cultivated tracts

of the Sanctuary. Numbers swell from October to

March, indicating local movements.

185. Dusky Crag-inartin Hirundo concolor Sykes

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Seen

regularly near Kadam Reservoir.

186. Common Swallow Hirundo rustica Linne

Common. Winter migrant. Large congregations

observed to affect cultivated tracts within and around

the Sanctuary from November to December.

187. Wire-tailed Swallow Hirundo smithii Leach

Common. Small resident population near Kadam

and Itikyal regions. Numbers swell during winter months,

indicating local movements. No breeding was noted.

1 6

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be rather uncommon

and collected a pair of specimens from Birsaipet.

188. Streak-throated Swallow

Hirundo fluvicola Blyth

Uncommon. Probably a resident, breeding not

recorded. Occasionally sighted near Kadam Reservoir

and Kalleda, affects cultivated tracts and village

outskirts.

189. Red-rumped Swallow Hirundo daurica Linne

Common. Resident breeder. Seen in association

with Flouse Swift near Kadam, Itikyal, Birsaipet and

Utnoor. Numbers swell during winter months indicating

local migration. Ali and Whistler ( 1 933c) recorded this

species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) reported

occurrence of two sub species, namely the common

H.d. nipalensis and the rather uncommon H.d.

erythropygia. Fie collected two male and six female

specimens of the former and two male specimens of

the latter from Kadam.

190. Southern Grey Shrike

Lanins meridionalis Temminck

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

along open scrub and in the vicinity of village enclosures.

Ali and Whistler (1933b) quoting from Ali’s diary of

1 925, state that this species was common near Talamadri,

but add that it was not met with anywhere within 50

miles of Utnoor between April 1-10, 1932.

191. Bay-backed Shrike

Lanins vittatus Valenciennes

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently affects

open scrub and fallow fields within the Sanctuary. Ali

and Whistler ( 1 933b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

192. Rufous-backed Shrike Lanius schacli Linne

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

along open scrub, fallow fields and teak plantations

within the Sanctuary. Majumdar (1984) found it to be

common and collected one male and four female

specimens from Itikyal.

193. Brown Shrike Lanius crisiatus Linne

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Occasionally sighted

in fallow fields, open scrub and teak plantations from

November to January. Salim Ali collected a specimen

(unsexed) from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933b).

1 94. Eurasian Golden Oriole Oriolus oriolus (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen singly

or in pairs in all types of forest within the Sanctuary. Ali

J. Bombay Nat. Flist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

and Whistler (1933b) reported this species to be fairly

common in Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) found it to be

common and collected a male specimen each from

Itikyal and Kadam.

195. Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis Linne

Rare. Winter migrant. Thrice sighted from

December to January within the Sanctuary near Rampur,

Birsaipet and Udhumpur.

196. Black-headed Oriole

Oriolus xanthornus (Linne)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Sightings

very few, but throughout the year. Seen in teak mixed

miscellaneous forest and teak mixed bamboo forest patches

in the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933b) reported this

species to be fairly common in Utnoor and its environs.

197. Black Drongo Dicrurus macrocercus Vieillot

Common. Resident breeder. Very frequently seen

in all types of forest patches, cultivated, fallow and open

scrub areas of the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933b)

reported it to be scarce, adding that Salim Ali collected

a female specimen from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

reported it to be very common and collected a male

specimen each from Itikyal and Kadam.

198. Ashy Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus Vieillot

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Very few sighted in

teak mixed bamboo forest and teak plantation patches.

Seldom seen in scrub areas. Majumdar (1984) reported

it to be not very common and collected a male specimen

from Birsaipet.

199. White-bellied Drongo

Dicrurus caerulescens (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly sighted in

teak mixed miscellaneous forest patches and around

village fringes in the core area of the Sanctuary. Salim

Ali collected a female specimen from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1933b).

200. Greater Racket-tailed Drongo

Dicrurus paradiseus (Linne)

Uncommon. Resident, probably breeding.

Occasionally sighted in Teak Mixed Bamboo Forest and

teak plantation patches of the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler

(1933b) did not record this species from Utnoor.

201. Ashy Woodswallow Artamus fuscus Vieillot

Common. Resident, no nesting recorded but

probably breeds within the Sanctuary. Regularly seen

near village fringes and open scrub.

202. Grey-headed Starling

Sturnus malabaricus (Gmelin)

Uncommon. Resident, probably breeds within the

Sanctuary. Affects open scrub near teak plantations.

Populations swell during winter months, indicating local

migration. Majumdar (1984) reports sighting of this

species.

203. Brahminy Starling

Sturnus p ago durum (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen frequently

near cultivation and in open scrub. Salim Ali collec-

ted a male from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933b).

Majumdar ( 1 984) found it to be common and collected

a male and two females from Itikyal, five males

and a female from Kadam, and a female from

Birsaipet.

204. Rosy Starling Sturnus roseus (Linne)

Common. Winter migrant. Regularly seen from

August to February in medium to large flocks along

cultivation, scrub and teak mixed miscellaneous forest

patches.

205. Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris Linne

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Unlike Rosy Starling,

these were sighted only on a few occasions along

cultivation and open scrub patches.

206. Asian Pied Myna Sturnus contra Linne

Common. Resident breeder. Affects cultivation,

open scrub, and teak mixed forest patches especially

along waterbodies, more common between Birsaipet and

Utnoor.

207. Common Myna Acridothcres tristis (Linne)

Common. Ubiquitous resident breeder. Affects all

types of forest patches within the Sanctuary. Ali and

Whistler (1933b) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) reports it to be very common and

collected a female specimen from Itikyal.

208. Jungle Myna Acridotheres fuscus (Wagler)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder.

Infrequent sightings in teak mixed miscellaneous forest

patches in areas of Janaram and Nirmal Forest Division

comprising the Sanctuary.

209. Indian Treepie

Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects teak

mixed miscellaneous forest, teak mixed bamboo

forest, teak plantation, scrub patches and near

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

17

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

villages. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very

common and collected two male specimens from

Itikyal.

210. House Crow Corvus splendens Vieillot

Common. Resident breeder. Encountered

throughout the Sanctuary.

211. Jungle Crow Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler

Common. Resident breeder. Although not a match

in numbers to the Common Crow, it is frequently seen

throughout the Sanctuary.

212. Common Woodshrike

Tephrodornis pondicerianus (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects teak

plantation, teak mixed miscellaneous forest and teak

mixed bamboo forest patches. Ali and Whistler (1933b)

recorded this species from areas adjoining Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) found it to be common and collected

a male specimen from Itikyal.

213. Large Cuckoo-shrike Coracina macei (Lesson)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen in

teak plantation and teak mixed miscellaneous forest

patches of the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933b)

recorded this species from Utnoor.

214. Black-headed Cuckoo-shrike

Coracina melanoptera Ruppell

Common. Resident breeder. Affects patches of

teak mixed miscellaneous forest and bamboo plantation

in the Sanctuary.

215. Scarlet Minivet

Pericrocotus flammeus (Forster)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects teak

plantation and teak mixed miscellaneous forest in the

Sanctuary.

216. Small Minivet

Pericrocotus cinnamomeus (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen regularly in teak

plantation and teak mixed miscellaneous forest in the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933b) recorded this

species from Utnoor.

217. White-bellied Minivet

Pericrocotus erythropygius (Jerdon)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Regularly

seen in scrub and teak mixed miscellaneous forest in

the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933b) did not record

this species from Utnoor.

1 8

218. Common Iora Aegithina tiphia (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects all types of

forest in the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933a) did not

record this species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

reports it to be very common and collected a male

specimen from Itikyal.

219. Gold-fronted Chloropsis

Chloropsis aurifrons (Temminck)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in

all types of forest in the Sanctuary.

220. Jerdon’s Chloropsis

Chloropsis cochinchinensis (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in all

types of forest in the Sanctuary.

221. Red-whiskered Bulbul

Pycnonotus jocosus (Linne)

Rare. Sighted six times near Utnoor and Birsaipet

regions. Ali and Whistler (1933a) reported it to be

conspicuously absent from Utnoor.

222. Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in all

types of forest in the Sanctuary. Majumdar (1984)

reported it to be very common and collected three males

and five females from Itikyal.

223. White-browed Bulbul

Pycnonotus luteolus (Lesson)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in all

types of forest in the Sanctuary.

224. Spotted Babbler

Pellorneum ruficeps Swainson

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Occasionally

sighted in teak mixed bamboo forest and teak plantation.

Ali and Whistler (1933a) did not come across this species

from Utnoor.

225. Rufous-bellied Babbler

Dumetia hyperythra (Franklin)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open scrub

and teak mixed miscellaneous forest in the Sanctuary.

Salim Ali collected a male from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler

1933a).

226. Yellow-eyed Babbler

Chrysomma sinense (Gmelin)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open scrub,

near villages, teak mixed miscellaneous forest and teak

plantation within the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933a)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

recorded this species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

found it to be common and collected three males and

one female from Kadam, and one female from Birsaipet.

227. Common Babbler Turdoides caudatus (Dumont)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary.

228. Large Grey Babbler

Turdoides malcolmi (Sykes)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open scrub,

fallow fields and teak mixed miscellaneous forest.

Ali and Whistler ( 1 933a) reported it as absent from Utnoor.

229. Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus (Dumont)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933a) recorded this

species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) found it to be

common and collected two male specimens from Itikyal,

a male and six females from Kadam, and a male from

Birsaipet.

230. White-headed Babbler

Turdoides affinis (Jerdon)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary, but seems to prefer open scrub, cultivated

fields and teak mixed miscellaneous forest over other

types of habitat.

231. Asian Brown Flycatcher

Muscicapa dauurica Pallas

Uncommon. Probably a seasonal local migrant.

Frequently encountered during winter in well-wooded

tracts of the Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected two males

and one female from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933a).

232. Brown-breasted Flycatcher

Muscicapa muttui (Layard)

Rare. Probably a straggler. A total of eight

sightings, all from teak mixed bamboo forest, during the

study period. Ali and Whistler (1933a) did not record

this species from Utnoor.

233. Red-throated Flycatcher

Ficedula parva (Bechstein)

Uncommon. Probably a seasonal local migrant.

Frequently encountered during winter in well-wooded

tracts of the Sanctuary.

234. Ultramarine Flycatcher

Ficedula superciliaris Jerdon

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Frequently

encountered in all types of forest within the Sanctuary.

235. Tickell’s Blue-flycatcher

Cyornis tickelliae Blyth

Common. Resident breeder. Affects well-wooded

forested tracts with bamboo and good undergrowth. Ali

and Whistler (1933a) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very common and

collected one male and two females from Birsaipet.

236. Verditer Flycatcher

Eumyias thalassina (Swainson)

Common. Winter migrant. Frequently seen along

well-wooded forested tracts with good undergrowth. Ali

and Whistler (1933a) did not record this species from

Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) collected a male from

Birsaipet.

237. Grey-headed Flycatcher

Culicicapa ceylonensis (Swainson)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Regularly

sighted in well-wooded forested tracts with good

undergrowth. Ali and Whistler (1933a) did not record

this species from Utnoor.

238. White-browed Fantail-flycatcher

Rhipidura aureola Lesson

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder.

Regularly met with in patches of teak mixed

miscellaneous, teak mixed bamboo and teak plantation.

Salim Ali collected a female from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1933a). Majumdar (1984) reported it to be

rather uncommon and collected a male and two females

from Birsaipet.

239. White-throated Fantail-flycatcher

Rhipidura albicollis (Vieillot)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Affects all types

of forest patches within the Sanctuary. Salim Ali

collected a male from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933a).

240. Asian Paradise-flycatcher

Terpsiphone paradisi (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

throughout the Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected a pair of

specimens from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933a).

Majumdar ( 1 984) found it to be common and collected

a male and two females from Birsaipet.

241. Black-naped Monarch-Bycatcher

Hypothymis azurea (Boddaert)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Frequently met with

in well-wooded patches with good bamboo and

undergrowth during winter season. Salim Ali

collected an adult male specimen from Utnoor (Ali and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

19

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Whistler 1933a). Majumdar (1984) collected a female

specimen from Itikyal and two male specimens from

Birsaipet.

242. Streaked Fantail-warbler

Cisticola juncidis (Rafinesque)

Common. Resident breeder. More commonly

found along cultivated and fallow fields and open

scrub in the Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected two

male specimens from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1 933b).

243. Franklin’s Prinia

Prinia hodgsonii Blyth

Common. Resident breeder. Seen frequently

throughout the Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected

a male specimen from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler

1933b).

244. Rufous-fronted Prinia

Prinia buchanani Blyth

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder.

Frequently met with in small groups hopping on forest

floor near Birsaipet, Utnoor, Kadam and Kalleda. Ali

and Whistler (1933b) did not record this species from

Utnoor.

245. Plain Prinia Prinia inornata Sykes

Common. Resident breeder. Affects cultivation

and open scrub in nearby villages.

246. Ashy Prinia Prinia socialis Sykes

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently met with

in all types of forest especially near streams, cultivated

fields and open scrub. Salim Ali collected a female

specimen from near Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933b).

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be fairly common and

collected a female specimen from Kadam and two male

specimens from Birsaipet.

247. Jungle Prinia Prinia sylvatica Jerdon

Common. Resident breeder. Affects well-wooded

and open scrub areas with good undergrowth. Salim Ali

collected a female (?) specimen from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1933b).

248. Common Tailorbird

Orthotomus sutorius (Pennant)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

throughout the Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933b)

reported it to be fairly common near Nirmal. Majumdar

(1984) reported it to be fairly common and collected

two males and four females from Itikyal, a pair from

Birsaipet, and a male from Kadam.

2 0

249. Bristled Grass-warbler

Chaetornis striatus (Jerdon)

Rare. Once sighted in November 1997 near

Kadam Reservoir.

250. Indian Great Reed Warbler

Acrocephalus stentoreus (Hemprich & Ehrenberg)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Infrequently met with

near large waterbodies among reeds.

251. Blyth’s Reed-warbler

Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth

Common. Winter migrant. Frequently met with

throughout the Sanctuary near large waterbodies with

reeds. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be rather

uncommon and collected a pair of specimens from

Itikyal, and three males and a female from Kadam.

252. Booted Warbler

Hippolais caligata (Lichtenstein)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Infrequently seen in

open scrub and teak mixed miscellaneous forest

throughout the Sanctuary.

253. Common Lesser Whitethroat

Sylvia curruca (Linne)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Frequently seen in

open scrub throughout the Sanctuary. Majumdar (1984)

reported it to be rather uncommon and collected a male

and two females from Itikyal, and a female from Kadam.

254. Tickell’s Warbler

Phylloscopus affinis (Tickell)

Rare. One record from Rampur in January 1998.

255. Common Chiffchaff

Phylloscopus collybita (Vieillot)

Common. Winter migrant. Frequently seen with

in shrubs and undergrowth throughout the Sanctuary,

up to last week of March.

256. Greenish Leaf-warbler

Phylloscopus trochiloides (Sundevall)

Uncommon. Infrequently seen in all types of forest

patches within the Sanctuary.

257. Oriental Magpie-robin

Copsychus saularis (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary. Seasonal fluctuation in their numbers,

suggests local movements. Salim Ali reported sighting

of a pair on March 30, 1932 near Nirmal (Ali and

Whistler 1 933a). Majumdar ( 1 984) reported it to be very

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

common and collected three pairs from Itikyal, a male

each from Kadam and Birsaipet.

258. White-rumped Shama

Copsychus malabaricus (Scopoli)

Rare. A total of six sightings throughout the study

period.

259. Black Redstart

Phoenicurus ochruros (Gmelin)

Rare. A total of 1 5 sightings during the study

period. Ali and Whistler (1933a) recorded this species

from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be rather

uncommon and collected three males and a female from

Itikyal, and a female from Birsaipet.

260. Common Stonechat Saxicola torquata (Linne)

Common. Winter migrant. Frequently seen in open

scrub, fallow fields and teak mixed miscellaneous forest

patches. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be fairly

common and collected a male from Kadam.

261 Pied Bushchat Saxicola caprata (Linne)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Regularly

seen throughout the Sanctuary with numbers increasing

during winter with the influx of the northern, migrant

race S.c. bicolor. Breeding recorded in April. Salim Ali

collected a male from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933a).

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be rather common and

collected two females from Itikyal and a male from

Birsaipet.

262. Indian Robin Saxicoloides fulicata (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen

throughout the Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected a male

and a female of this species from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1933a). Majumdar (1984) reported it to be

exceedingly common and collected ten male and eight

female specimens from Itikyal, and a male from Kadam.

263. Blue Rock-thrush Monticola solitarius (Linne)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Frequently seen along

open scrub and teak mixed miscellaneous forest

interspersed with hillocks. Salim Ali collected a male

from Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933a).

264. Orange-headed Thrush

Zoo th era citrina (Latham)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen in

teak mixed miscellaneous forest, teak mixed bamboo

forest and teak plantation. Copulating pairs were

observed during June 1998. Salim Ali collected a pair of

specimens from areas adjoining Utnoor (Ali and Whistler

1933a). Majumdar (1984) reported it to be not common

and collected a pair from Birsaipet.

265. Eurasian Blackbird Tardus merula Linne

Uncommon. Probably a seasonal local migrant.

Frequently met with in open scrub, nearby cultivated

and fallow fields, and teak mixed miscellaneous forest.

266. Great Tit Par us major Linne

Common. Resident breeder. Regularly seen

affecting well-wooded tracts of the Sanctuary, more

commonly in the vicinity of Pembi and Itikyal areas. Ali

and Whistler ( 1 933a) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar ( 1 984) found it to be common and collected

six males and five females from Itikyal, and a male from

Birsaipet.

267. Black-lured Yellow Tit

Par us xanthogenys Vigors

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Infrequently seen

in well-wooded areas of the Sanctuary preferring hilly

tracts. Salim Ali collected a specimen (unsexed) from

Utnoor (Ali and Whistler 1933a).

268. Chestnut-bellied Nuthatch

Sitta castanea Lesson

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder.

Frequently seen in teak plantation patches, in a mango

orchard (near Kadam) and forest nursery (Tadlapet and

Kadam).

269. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch

Sitta frontalis Swainson

Rare. Probably a resident breeder. Met with twice,

near Rampur and Alinagar, during November 1997 and

January 1998.

270. Spotted Creeper Salpornis spilonotus (Franklin)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder.

Infrequently seen in teak mixed miscellaneous forest

and teak plantation patches near Alinagar, Donga- pally,

Rampur, Udhumpur, Dosthnagar, Kalleda, Indhanpaily,

Birsaipet and Itikyal areas. Ali and Whistler (1933a)

did not come across this species at Utnoor. Majumdar

(1984) reported it for the first time from Adilabad district

and collected two females from Kotpally near the border

of Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra. Recently, this

species was reported from Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary in

May 1997 (Pittie 1997).

27 1 . Oriental Tree Pipit Anthus hodgsoni Richmond

Rare. Twice sighted in small flocks (4 and 9 birds)

in January 1998 and February 1999 near Birsaipet and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

21

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Rampur areas. Majumdar ( 1 984) reported it to be rather

uncommon and collected a male specimen from

Birsaipet.

272. Paddyfield Pipit

Anthus rufulus Vieillot

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen in

open scrub, cultivated and fallow fields within the

Sanctuary.

273. Forest Wagtail

Dendronanthus indicus (Gmelin)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Infrequently seen in

teak mixed miscellaneous forest and teak plantation

patches.

274. Yellow Wagtail Motacilla flava Linne

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Two subspecies,

M.f. thunbergi (grey-headed race) and the less common

M.f. beema (blue-headed race) recorded near water

edges throughout the Sanctuary.

275. Citrine Wagtail Motacilla citreola Pallas

Common. Winter migrant. Seen in small flocks near

water edges throughout the Sanctuary.

276. Grey Wagtail Motacilla cinerea Tunstall

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Infrequently met with

near stream beds and water edges throughout the

Sanctuary. Salim Ali collected one female from Utnoor

(Ali and Whistler 1933c).

277. White Wagtail Motacilla alba Linne

Common. Winter migrant. Seen along edges of

waterbodies, stream beds, and cultivated and fallow

fields. Majumdar (1984) found it to be common, and

collected a female from Birsaipet.

278. Large Pied Wagtail

Motacilla maderaspatensis Gmelin

Common. Resident breeder. Affects open scrub,

cultivated and fallow fields, and nearby village enclosures

throughout the Sanctuary. Nests were observed during

March to April and were located near waterbodies, holes

in the Kadam Dam, bridges and also in wells. Majumdar

(1984) found it to be common and collected a male

specimen from Itikyal.

279. Thick-billed Flowerpecker

Dicaeum agile (Tickell)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933c) recorded it from

Utnoor.

2 2

280. Tickell’s Flowerpecker

Dicaeum erythrorhynchos (Latham)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary. Ali and Whistler (1933c) reported it as not

common from areas adjoining Utnoor.

281. Purple-rumped Sunbird

Nectarinia zeylonica (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary, but sightings were fewer in thick teak mixed

bamboo forest. Salim Ali reports a sighting on October

15, 1925 from Nirmal (Ali and Whistler 1933c).

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be quite common and

collected a female specimen from Kadam.

282. Purple Sunbird Nectarinia asiatica (Latham)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects teak mixed

miscellaneous forest, teak plantation patches, nurseries,

orchards, cultivated and fallow fields, and also near

human habitations. Majumdar (1984) reported it to be

very common and collected a pair of specimens from

Itikyal.

283. Little Spiderhunter

Arachnothera longirostra (Latham)

Uncommon. Probably a resident breeder. Flocks

of 3 to 8 individuals regularly seen in mixed feeding flocks

with sunbirds, white-eyes and flycatchers near Alinagar

and Rampur areas especially along the core area

boundary.

284. Oriental White-eye

Zosterops palpebrosus (Temminck)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen

throughout the Sanctuary, affecting teak mixed

miscellaneous forest, teak plantation patches, nurseries

and orchards. Ali and Whistler (1933c) recorded this

species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984) reported it to

be rather uncommon and collected two male specimens

from Kadam.

285. House Sparrow Passer domesticus (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Ubiquitous in the

Sanctuary, more common near human habitations.

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very common and

collected a female specimen from Kadam.

286. Yellow-throated Sparrow

Petronia xantltocollis (Burton)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Infrequently seen

near cultivated tracts within the Sanctuary. Salim Ali

collected a male specimen from areas adjoining Utnoor

(Ali and Whistler 1933c). Majumdar (1984) reported it

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

to be very common and collected 19 males and 12

females from Itikyal, and a male and two females from

Birsaipet.

287. Baya Weaver Ploceus philippinus (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Affects all forest

types throughout the Sanctuary, being more common

near cultivated fields, human habitations and stream

beds. Practice nests were found deep inside the teak

mixed bamboo forests too. Salim Ali collected one male

fromUtnoor(Ali and Whistler 1933c). Majumdar(1984)

reports it to be not common, and collected 1 8 males and

14 females from Kadam.

288. Streaked Weaver Ploceus manyar (Horsfield)

Uncommon. Resident breeder. Regularly seen

along the well-wooded tracts of the Sanctuary, especially

in the vicinity of Kadam Reservoir.

289. Red Munia Amandava amandava (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Frequently seen along

the cultivated tracts of the Sanctuary, especially between

Rampur and Utnoor. Salim Ali collected a male, a female

and two immature specimens from Utnoor (Ali and

Whistler 1 933c). Majumdar ( 1 984) reports it to be quite

common and collected a female from Kadam.

290. White-throated Munia

Lonchura malabarica (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary near cultivated tracts and open scrub. Ali

and Whistler (1933c) recorded this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very common and

collected two females from Itikyal and a pair from

Kadam.

291 . White-rumped Munia Lonchura striata (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary near cultivated tracts.

292. Spotted Munia Lonchura punctulata (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen throughout the

Sanctuary, affecting open scrub, teak mixed

miscellaneous forest and cultivated patches. Ali and

Whistler ( 1 933c) did not record this species from Utnoor.

Majumdar (1984) reported it to be very common, and

collected two males and four females from Itikyal and

a pair from Kadam.

293. Black-headed Munia

Lonchura malacca (Linne)

Common. Resident breeder. Seen restricted to

paddies and other cultivated tracts within the Sanctuary.

294. Common Rosefinch Carpodacus erylhrinus

(Pallas)

Uncommon. Winter migrant. Seen a few times in

teak mixed miscellaneous forest patches near Rampur,

Janaram and Indhanpally. Ali and Whistler ( 1 933c) did

not record this species from Utnoor. Majumdar (1984)

reported it as rather uncommon, and collected a male

and four females from Itikyal.

Ali and Whistler ( 1 933a, b, c; 1 934a, b) recorded

about 1 1 1 species from Utnoor, and 1 6 species that were

reported later or during the present survey as

conspicuously absent here (Table 2). Majumdar ( 1 984)

reported a total of 95 species from Birsaipet, Kadam

and Itikyal. A total of nine species that were recorded

earlier by Ali (1933-34) and Majumdar (1984) but not

during the present survey are Darter Anhinga

melanogaster (Pennant), Little Green Heron Butorides

striatus (Linne), Pintail Snipe Gallinago stemira

(Bonaparte), Green Sandpiper Tringa ochropus Linne,

Stork-billed Kingfisher Halcyon capensis (Linne),

Bluethroat Luscinia svecica (Linne), Desert Wheatear

Oenanthe deserti (Temminck) between Utnoor and

Nirmal, Green Munia Amandava formosa

(Latham) and Red-headed Bunting Emberiza bruniceps

Brandt.

CONCLUSIONS

The secure and dense teak mixed forest, teak

mixed bamboo forest and teak plantations interspersed

with miscellaneous species provide good habitat for rich

avifaunal diversity in Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary. The bird

diversity at Kawal represents 90% of the families and

57% of the species reported from Andhra Pradesh

(Taher and Pittie 1989, 1994). The Sanctuary is

contiguous with a vast tract of forest between the

Godavari river basin in the south, the Wardha river basin

in the north and Indravathi river basin in the northeast

to east. Sighting of rarer bird species (e.g. Dryocopus

javensis, Chrysocolaptes festivus, Salpornis

spilonotus , Arachnothera longirostra ) indicates that

regular thorough surveys will yield interesting

information on distribution patterns of some species that

were either not reported earlier from this region or are

sparsely distributed through central India. Although

reported earlier from nearby areas, both the Forest Owlet

Heteroglaux blewitti and Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus

bitorquatus were not sighted during the present survey,

or in the Eturnagaram Wildlife Sanctuary (Srinivasulu

under prep.) further downstream the Godavari river.

The habitat at Kawal is increasingly coming under biotic

pressure due to the escalating human population in and

around the Sanctuary. Unprecedented changes in the

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

23

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 2: List of species not recorded by Ali (1933-34) but seen later or during the present survey

‘Order of appearance same as in the annotated checklist

habitat due to anthropogenic activities such as forest

clearing for agriculture will affect the avifaunal diversity

considerably, as has been observed elsewhere in Andhra

Pradesh (Vasudeva Rao et al. 1 997).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work is an offshoot of my doctoral project

carried out under the guidance of Dr. V. Nagulu, of

Osmania University, whom 1 thank immensely. Prof.

J.V. Ramana Rao encouraged me throughout. Financial

support by the Council for Scientific and Industrial

Research, New Delhi is acknowledged. I thank the Head,

Department of Zoology, Osmania University,

Hyderabad, Shri T. Ramakrishna, IFS [Chief Wildlife

REFER

Ali, S. & H. Whistler (193 3a): The Hyderabad State Ornithological

Survey. Part 1 J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(2): 356-390.

Ali, S. & H. Whistler ( 1 933b): The Hyderabad State Ornithological

Survey. Part 2. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(3): 707-725.

Ali, S. & H. Whistler (1933c): The Hyderabad State Ornithological

Survey. Part 3. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 36(4): 898-919.

Ali, S. & H. Whistler (1934a): The Hyderabad State Ornithological

Survey. Part 4. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(1): 124-142.

Ali, S. & H. Whistler (1934b): The Hyderabad State Ornithological

Survey Part 5. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 37(2): 425-454.

Ali, S. (1951): Discovery of the so-named ‘Malabar’ Black

Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis hodgsonii (Jerdon) in Bastar

(East Madhya Pradesh). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 49(4):

787-788.

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. 12th Edn. Bombay Natural

Warden] and Shri A.V. Joseph, IFS [Conservator of

Forests (Wildlife Management)] of Andhra Pradesh

Forest Department, for permission. I also thank the

Divisional Forest Officer (Wildlife Management -

Janaram Division) and other staff, especially G.

Ravinder (Forest Range Officer - Wildlife) and

Linganna, at Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary, without whose

help this study might have not been possible. I am

profoundly thankful to Mr. Aasheesh Pittie for his

valuable comments on the first draft of the manuscript;

the referee for improving the paper; Dr. V. Vasudeva

Rao who accompanied me during many of the surveys;

Dr. V. Santharam for information on the distribution of

woodpeckers; my wife, Ms. Bhargavi for help in data

compilation.

3 N C E S

History Society, Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Bharos, A.M.K. (1992): Occurrence ofthe Indian Black Woodpecker

Dryocopus javensis (Horsfield). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2):

255.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A Revised Survey of Forest

Types of India. Govt, of India, New Delhi.

Gaston, A.J. (1973): Methods for estimating bird populations.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 72(2): 272-281.

Majumdar, N. (1984): On acollection ofbirds from Adilabad district,

Andhra Pradesh. Rec. zool. Surv. Ind., Misc. Pub. Occ. Paper

2 4

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

No. 65. 63 pp.

Manakadan, Ranjit & Aasheesh Pittie(2001): Standardised common

and scientific names of the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai. Buceros 6(1): 1-37.

Pittie, A. (1997): Birding notes. Pitta 74: 4.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of Birds of India and Pakistan.

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, pp. 652

Ripley, S.D., B.M. Beehler& K.S.R. Krishna Raju (1987): Birds of

Vishakapatnam Ghats, Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 84(3): 540-559.

Srinivasulu, C. (under prep ): Avifauna of Eturnagaram Wildlife

Sanctuary, Andhra Pradesh.

Srinivasulu, C., V. Vasudeva Rao, G. Ravinder & V. Nagulu (2001 ):

New site record of Indian great black woodpecker Dryocopus

javensis (Horsfield) from Andhra Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist

Soc. 98(2): 280-281.

Taher, S.A. & A. Pittie (1989): A Checklist of Birds of Andhra

Pradesh. Published by Authors, Hyderabad. 39 pp.

Taher, S.A. & A. Pittie ( 1994): Additions to “A Checklist of Birds

of Andhra Pradesh.” Maynra 11: 1-5.

Vasudeva Rao, V., V. Nagulu, M. Anjaneyulu, Bhargavi Srinivasulu,

C. Srinivasulu & J. V. Ramana Rao ( 1 997): Status of avifauna of

Rajiv Gandhi National Park, Andhra Pradesh. India. Pavo 35(1

& 2): 85-100.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

25

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

26-28

THE FIRST RECORDINGS OF CALLS OF THE JERDON’S COURSER

RHINOPTIL US BITORQUATUS (BLYTH), FAMILY GLAREOLIDAE1

Panchapak.es an Jeganathan2 and Simon R. Wotton ’

'Accepted December, 2002

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

3Royal Society for the Protection of Birds, The Lodge, Sandy, Bedfordshire, SGI 9 2DL, UK.

Email: [email protected]

The call of the Critically Endangered Jerdon’s Courser ( Rhinoptilus bitorquatus ) was unknown until now.

The short disyllabic call attributed to the Jerdon’s Courser was recorded and identified within the

Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary during dawn and dusk. Details of the calling period, duration of the

call and spectrogram are given.

Key words: Jerdon’s Courser, Rhinoptilus bitorquatus , call recording, call description, spectrogram

INTRODUCTION

Jerdon’s Courser Rhinoptilus bitorquatus

(Charadriiformes: Glareolidae) is a nocturnal cursorial

bird that has been categorized as Critically Endangered

on the IUCN Red List (Hilton-Taylor 2000), because it

is believed to have a small and declining population. It

was thought to be extinct for more than 80 years until

its rediscovery in 1986 (Bhushan 1986). Since then, it

has been seen in only a few restricted areas of the

scrub jungle in Andhra Pradesh, India (BirdLife

International 2001). Jerdon’s Coursers are difficult to

see because of their nocturnal habits, and this has

hampered efforts to survey the population size and

distribution of the species. Many areas in and around

the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary have

habitats that are superficially similar to places where

Jerdon’s Coursers are known to occur. A new method

has been developed for detecting their presence by

placing tracking strips upon which the birds leave their

distinctive footprints (Jeganathan etal. 2002). Surveys

using this method have recently detected the species in

some new areas, but more rapid surveys might be

possible if the bird’s calls could be recognized. The only

published reports on the calls of the Jerdon’s Courser

are “a plaintive cry” (Ali and Ripley 1983), “very sad;

a single note and very soft” (Bhushan 1990), “not very

vocal; plaintive cry: he-he-he-he-he” (Kazmierczak and

van Perlo 2000) and “kwick- kweek- kwick- kweek-

kweek- kweek- kweek”, as described by some bird

trappers (Samant and Elangovan 1997). The latter

description, however, was thought to be more likely that

of the Stone-curlew Burhinus oedicnemus (Samant

and Elangovan 1 997). This paper describes a successful

effort at identifying and recording calls of the Jerdon’s

Courser.

METHODS

Since the Jerdon’s Courser is nocturnal, efforts

were made to listen for, and record, its calls during

dawn and dusk in the places where it was known

to occur in the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary,

near Reddipalle, Cuddapah district, Andhra Pradesh,

India (Jeganathan et al. 2002). Calls were monitored

from about sunset to about 80 minutes after sunset,

and from about 80 minutes before sunrise up to

sunrise.

To discriminate the Jerdon’s Courser calls from

those of the other birds in the Sanctuary, it was

necessary to eliminate the calls of other species.

Other crepuscular and nocturnal species that are

now known to occur within the Sri Lankamaleswara

Wildlife Sanctuary are Red-wattled Lapwing Vanellus

indicus. Stone-curlew, Eurasian Eagle-owl Bubo bubo ,

Collared Scops-owl Otus bakkamoena. Spotted Owlet

Athene brama, Indian Jungle Nightjar Caprimulgus

indicus , Jerdon’s Nightjar Caprimulgus atripennis,

Common Indian Nightjar Caprimulgus asiaticus and

Franklin’s Nightjar Caprimulgus affinis. Since the

beginning of the study, the calls of these species

have been recorded and catalogued along with the calls

of other species occurring in the Sanctuary, which

could possibly be confused with that of the Jerdon’s

Courser.

The recording equipment used was a Marantz

PMD222 tape recorder with an Audio Technica

AT815 unidirectional microphone, with no sound

filters. Searches, listening and recording were carried

out mainly during clear still nights. Recordings of

calls were analyzed using the Canary 1.2.4 sound

analysis package (Charif et al. 1993) on a Power

Macintosh.

FIRST RECORDINGS OF CALLS OF THE JERDON'S COURSER

RESULTS

A call of the type that was later attributed to the

Jerdon’s Courser was heard (by PJ) on February 17,

200 1 , within the core area for Jerdon’s Courser sightings

in the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. A

Jerdon’s Courser was sighted in the direction of the call

a few seconds after it was heard. Unfortunately, it was

not possible to get a recording of this call. Identical calls

were heard again on June 19, October 22 and October

25, 2001 , but no birds were seen and no recordings were

obtained.

The first recording of the call was obtained on

November 1 2, 200 1 at 1 8 1 2 hrs local time and again on

November 13, 2001, at 1820 hrs, although the calling

bird was not seen on either occasion. On November

14, 2001 the call was heard again twice, at 1816 hrs

and a Jerdon’s Courser was seen briefly (by SW) where

the call was heard from. The bird flew off when

illuminated by a spotlight and called twice in flight. Final

confirmation that the call was made by a Jerdon’s

Courser was obtained on May 1 7, 2002 at 1 8 1 8 hrs (by

PJ), when a Jerdon’s Courser was observed while it

was calling, before dusk in ample sunlight. The distance

between the observer and the bird was not more than

50 m in all of these instances.

Description of the call: The short disyllabic call

consists of a high-pitched first syllable, and rapidly

descending second syllable, which can be rendered as

either “kwik-koo ... kwik-koo ... kwik-koo ... kwik-

koo...” or “yak-wak ... yak-wak ... yak-wak ... yak-

wak...”. We refer to each pair of syllables as a call.

Birds have been heard to give between 2 and 16 calls

in a sequence at a rate of about one call per second.

On one occasion, the first syllable of the single call was

heard several times and then the bird spontaneously

called, “kwik...kwik...kwik...kwik...kwik... kwik-

koo.. .kwik-koo...”.

The calling period is quite brief, starting 45-50

minutes after sunset and continuing for a few minutes

to about 20 minutes. Calls were often heard from more

than one place. At the most, they were heard from three

different places up to about 200 m apart within a period

of a few minutes. The possibility of the same bird moving

and calling in such a case was unlikely, because of the

pattern of calling in some instances. It has been

estimated that the call can be heard from a distance of

200 to 250 m. It appears that the birds call mainly at

dusk, but the frequency of calling is likely to depend

upon the time of year and the weather.

Figure 1 shows a spectrogram of a single Jerdon’s

Courser call, consisting of two repeated syllables, each

separated by an interval of 60 milliseconds (mS). The

majority of the energy within the Jerdon’s Courser call

occurs between 1 and 4 kHz, with the syllables showing

three distinct bands throughout the frequency range. In

effect, there are three notes at three different

frequencies (1 kHz, 2 kHz, 3.5 kHz), which make up

each syllable. The calls are repeated in a series with

gaps of about 500 mS between the end of one call and

the beginning of the next (Fig. 2).

DISCUSSION

The call recorded by us does not resemble closely

any of the previous verbal descriptions. These may refer

to calls not detected by us so far, or the previous

identifications may have been mistaken. The identified

call of the Jerdon’s Courser may be of value as it could

Fig. 1 : Spectrogram (time v. frequency) of a complete Jerdon's

Courser call showing 2 syllables separated by an interval.

The spectrogram was produced by Canary 1.2.4, grid

resolutions 5.8 ms, 10.77 Hz. [Y-axis=kHz, X-axis=S],

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

27

FIRST RECORDINGS OF CALLS OF THE JERDON'S COURSER

6 5-

6 0-

5.5-

5 0-

4.5-

Fig 2: Spectrogram of a series of six Jerdon’s Courser calls. The spectrogram was produced by

Canary 1.2.4, grid resolutions 5.8 ms, 10.77 Hz. [Y-axis=kHz, X-axis=S],

help to find the bird in new areas and estimate its

population size. It appears that Jerdon’s Coursers call

mainly at dusk and it may be possible to survey their

distribution by listening for the calls. However, initial

observations indicate that the short period during which

the birds call and the variation among evenings in

whether they call at all would make it difficult to survey

large areas.

Experiments are in progress using standard

playback methods (e.g. Mosher et al. 1990; Haug and

Diduik 1 993) to determine whether tape playback could

be used to elicit calls over a longer period. It is hoped to

determine the effects of time of the year, time of day

and weather on the bird’s response to playback.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The research project was funded by the Darwin

Initiative and carried out by the Bombay Natural History

Society, Royal Society for the Protection of Birds and

University of Reading. We are grateful to the Andhra

Pradesh Forest Department for giving permission to

work in the Sri Lankamaleswara Wildlife Sanctuary. We

thank N. Rahim for help with the fieldwork. Nigel

Butcher and Gillian Gilbert provided advice and

comments. Chris Bowden, Rhys Green, Ken Norris,

Debbie Pain and Asad R. Rahmani are fellow members

of the Jerdon’s Courser project team, and provided

advice and comments.

REFERENCES

Ali S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh. Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Oxford University Press, Bombay. 737 pp.

Bhushan, B. (1986): Rediscovery of the Jerdon’s Courser Cursorius

bitorquatus. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 83: 1-14.

Bhushan, B. (1990): Jerdon’s Courser rediscovery and survey. In:

Status and Ecology of the Lesser and Bengal Floricans,

Chapter XII, pp. 127-134. ENDSP Project. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay.

Birdlife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: The

BirdLife International Red Data Book. BirdLife International,

Cambridge, UK. pp. 1454-1457.

Charif, R.A., S. Mitchell & C.W. Clark (1993): Canary User’s

Manual. Cornell Laboratory of Ornithology, Ithaca, N.Y.

pp. 229.

Haug, E.A. & A.B. Didiuk (1993): Use of recorded calls to detect

burrowing owls. J. Field Ornithol. 64(2): 188-194.

Hilton-Taylor, C. (compiler) (2000): IUCN Red List of

Threatened Species. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland and

Cambridge, UK.

Jeganathan, P., R.E. Green, C.G.R. Bowden, K. Norris, D. Pain &

A.R. Rahmani (2002): Use of tracking strips and automatic

cameras for detecting critically endangered Jerdon’s Coursers

Rhinoptilus bitorquatus in scrub jungle in Andhra Pradesh.

Oryx 36(2) : 182-188.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to Birds of

the Indian Subcontinent. Om Book Service, New Delhi.

Mosher, J.A., M.R. Fuller & M. Kopeny (1990): Surveying

woodland raptors by broadcast of conspecific vocalizations.

J. Field Ornithol. 61(4): 453-461 .

Samant, J.S. & V. Elangovan (1997): Avifauna of the Eastern Ghats

with special reference to the Jerdon’s Courser Cursorius

bitorquatus. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Unpublished report.

2 8

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

29-63

THE AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

OF SOUTHERN INDIA1

William A. Noble2

'Accepted March 2002

261 578 Rockway Terrace, Bend, Oregon, 97702-2306, USA

There has been much debate as to why grassy landscapes have persisted in portions of the Nilgiris above

1,200 m. While there is no doubt that firing (especially by the tribal Todas) led to grassland formation and

maintenance, we can now conclude with some confidence that climatic changes during the Pleistocene also

contributed to the existence of grasslands over long periods. This is confirmed by the results of varied

palynological studies (examination of pollen grains) by Blasco, Gupta, Menon, Thanikaimoni, and Vishnu-

Mittre in marshy low-lying (= bog) areas within the Upland Nilgiri Island. The most likely, ideal grasslands

for continued persistence, probably during the Pleistocene and for possibly millions of years earlier (now,

only suggestive), are the high rainfall grasslands of the far western Nilgiris. The harsh climatic controls in

these grasslands frequently created environmental conditions in which only grass and not tree species

could dominate. The appendices to this paper are designed to help us obtain a greater understanding of the

complexity of environmental, cultural, and especially vegetational factors that have endured in the Nilgiris

since the Pleistocene ended.

Altogether, they also demonstrate the uniqueness of the Nilgiri Upland Island.

Key words: Upland Island, Pleistocene, Vegetation, Complexity, Grassland, High Rainfall Grassland

Nilgiri Environmental Factors

The region discussed is located where the Western

and Eastern Ghats of India converge at their southern

ends to form the Nilgiri massif. This mountainous block

that is tilted toward the east, with several peaks rising

above 2,400 m (8,000 ft), is clearly defined by its

precipitous western slopes and the Moyar and Bhavani

rivers which flow in fault strike valleys within the lower

terrain to the north and south of the block. The Nilgiris

form the largest charnokitic mass in southern India and,

interestingly, due to the lighter composition of chamokite,

are amazing in having far more ancient rock that has

risen far above the younger rocks of the plains below.

The main focus in this contribution is upon the grasslands

which are, or were until contact times when the British

first started to live in the upper and cooler climate, in

that portion of the region here referred to as the Upland

Island lying above 1,200 m. At the start, some

consideration is given to different possible causes that

may contribute to the presence of grasslands. According

to Ranganathan (1938: 523) there is a “wilting effect

due to plants exposed to the morning sun being unable

to draw water from the frozen soil” as an explanation

for why grasses grew together in such stark contrast to

the nearby sholas (low canopy evergreen forests) of

the upper Nilgiris. Ranganathan reasoned that micro-

environments related to the trees within sholas remained

above freezing point. Because more energy is radiated

out at night on open grasslands, it is particularly at the

earth’s surface that temperatures might drop below

0 °C. Plants needing to transpire more in response to

rapidly increased heating by insolation after sunrise are

unable to draw up sufficient moisture due to surface

freezing, and thus they wilt. There can be no doubt that

fires followed by grazing have also had an impact, as

Bor (1938: 608) concluded: “I believe that the shola

forest is the relic of an evergreen forest climax which

has been pushed back to its last stronghold by fire and

grazing. The grassland I consider to be a biotic climax

rendered stable by fire and grazing and only one more

proof of the stability of grassland under such condition.”

Among the complex influences upon vegetation which

exist in the Nilgiri Upland Island, it seems reasonable to

draw a parallel with the treeless balds of the

Appalachians in the United States, as conceptualized

by Billings and Mark (1957: 140): “The balds are then

essentially forest margin or ecotone phenomena existing

near the tolerance limits of the principal forest

dominants.” It is noteworthy that most upper Nilgiri plants

are tropical and not temperate in nature, and so we must

think of plants spreading upwards into stressful limits.

Quite apart from the shock of widespread morning frost

and the burning heat of fires, the tolerance limits of upper

Nilgiri plant species are severely tried by strong, gusty

wind, sometimes over 110 km per hour, heavy rain,

drought sometimes prolonged for weeks, exposure to a

bright tropical sun that can soon burn the human skin,

and cooling from the enfolding, clinging damp mist (the

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

last two sometimes experienced within 30 minutes).

Along with the spread of glaciers to lower elevations in

the Himalaya during the later Pleistocene (De Terra

and Paterson 1939), some evidence is now forthcoming

for sufficient climatic change farther south to cause

grasslands to form and persist.

Before continuing with vegetative changes during

and after the Pleistocene, a comment regarding the

writer’s use of the term grassland is in order. Blasco

and Lengerke (1989: 59-61) use “common savanna”

and “high rainfall savanna” instead of grassland, and

quite correctly so in terms of their view that grasses on

the Nilgiri Upland Island are typically accompanied by

a host of herbs and shrubs. While recognizing this fact,

the writer prefers to use grassland because, historically,

the British colonials did. They also conceptualized

grassland by using the term downs, the Nilgiri downs

reminding them of open grassy tracts in their homeland.

Secondly, considering the original tropical sabana of

Cuba, from which the word savanna is derived, the more

specific use of savanna for a landscape with grasses

and scattered trees seems appropriate. While

rhododendron and other tree species scattered on Nilgiri

grassland form limited savanna areas in that sense, it is

the overwhelming presence of low-lying grasses over

larger tracts (sometimes over 90% of the terrain) that

visually gains the upper hand. Grasses have for long

formed a significant part of the vegetation in the Nilgiri

Upland Island lying above 1200 m, and that over 10%

of the grasses are endemic is suggestive of evolutionary

processes that have gone on for millions of years

(Appendix 1).

Possible Changes over 40,000 Years

The palynological evidence provided by Vishnu-

Mittre and Gupta (1972) and Gupta (1971, 1989),

involving bogs and study of pollen grains from soil profiles

in a bog at Kakathope on the upper Nilgiris, tentatively

suggests the past presence of grasslands — in the

above-mentioned sense — over a long period. However,

the evidence is tempered by later samplings that indicate

a lack of tree pollen accumulation, or even the absence

of tree pollen, in sites 1-4 km from the sholas which

were investigated. Bera and Gupta (1992: 243) cite

i. insect pollination and ii. outer fringe plants preventing

the escape of pollen grains as the main factors preventing

greater spread of tree pollen. In contrast to a past

consensus that grasslands resulted from firing by

humans, we can now subscribe to the idea that

grasslands have existed far longer, but should be

cautioned in our thinking by the realization that sholas

have, in all likelihood, simultaneously existed to a greater

degree than the pollen record might reveal. A cooler

and drier climatic regime probably existed from about

40 to 35,000 years Before the Present (BP), and the

evidence indicates that there was widespread grassland

on the upper Nilgiris. Along with dominant grass and

sedge pollen grains, there was evidence for a variety of

herbs and shrubs. It was impossible to identify actual

species from the pollen grains gathered from different

depths in soil profiles, but plant genera could be identified.

Herbs of the genera Campanula , Chenopodium,

Geranium , Justicia and Lilium, shrubs of the genus

Berberis, and a few sporadic trees of the genera Ilex

and Rhododendron appear to have spread in from the

north (Appendix 2). What is even more significant are

species that did not move down into the Peninsula from

the north. Thus, the oaks ( Quercus ) and pines ( Pinus )

of Meghalaya never managed to spread southward.

Latitudinal variation and insufficient change in

climate as a result of glaciation appear to have jointly

operated to prevent the spread of other temperate plant

species from the north. The species of genera Berberis,

Ilex, and Rhododendron that did come are currently

hardy, quite capable of surviving as lone sentinels on

grassland. Significantly, pollen grains prove that

Strobilanthes shrubs were also present.

Pollen grains from between 35,000 and 1 5,000 BP

indicate an increase of shrubs and the spread of thickets

over grassland. Cool and dry climatic conditions probably

persisted, with a shift toward greater aridity. The summer

westerly monsoon may have greatly weakened (or not

have existed?), and did the easterly monsoon become

stronger (Sukumar et al. 1993: 704-705)? There was a

decline in the pollen grains of grasses and sedges, while

those of the Compositae, Dipsacaceae, Leguminosae,

Malvaceae, and Rosaceae families, and the genus

Jasminum (or Ligustrum instead?) notably increased.

Strobilanthes also appears as a dominant group. Pollen

grains identified with the genus Portulaca were present,

but no related species survives today. While pollen grains

of the genera Campanula, Geranium, and Justicia

declined, those of Chenopodium and Lilium continued

to be present in about the same quantity. The pollen

grains of Berberis, Ilex, and Rhododendron are also

present, with the last declining as time went by. Among

shrubs, there is some evidence of the genus Sarcococca,

and a better representation of Lonicera. Sporadic pollen

grains of the geneva Artemisia and Impatiens were also

present. Ultimately, there were indications of widespread

heaths with some scattered trees. The presence of

Impatiens pollen grains suggests plant ancestry going

back to Madagascar (Appendix 2). There seems some

potential of there being grassland over millions of years,

as the Indian Peninsula Shield drifted northwards within

the Cretaceous to Tertiary periods (between 85 and 30

30

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

million years ago), and eventually smashed into the

northern continental mass of Laurasia. Along with the

high degree of endemism among Nilgiri grasses, a high

degree of plant endemism has occurred among the

genera Impatiens and Strobilanthes (Appendix 3). In

all of India, it is in the Nilgiris that the greatest

evolutionary diversity and multiplicity of species has

occurred in these two genera.

The climate probably became warmer and more

humid between 15,000 and 7,000 BP. Was there a

strengthening of a summer westerly monsoon, eventually

somewhat akin to that which now occurs, in this period?

There is some evidence for the summer monsoon

reaching a peak at about 11,000 BP, and for a

progressively drier period to 6,000 BP (Sukumar et al.

1993: 705). The greater presence of tree pollen grains

in related soil horizons indicates the spread of shola with

evergreen tree genera Elaeocarpus, Euonymus, and

Gordonia. The spread of sholas also tends to be

supported by the marked increase of pollen grains of

the genus Peperomia, now a common epiphyte in the

sholas. It seems unlikely, however, because of a strong

continued presence of grass and sedge pollen grains,

that the Nilgiri Upland Island was ever covered entirely

by sholas.

From about 7,000 BP and continuing into the Post-

Contact Era, starting in the early 1 820s when the British

came, a decline in the pollen grains of shola species

indicates a reduction in the areal extent of sholas and

an increase in grasslands. There are intervals with a

marked decline of Peperomia pollen grains, which

contrast with a marked increase of Impatiens pollen

grains. While pollen grains of the genus Jasminum (or

Ligustruml), so abundant in the earlier heaths, are

conspicuously absent, those of the families Compositae,

Dipsocaceae, Malvaceae, and the genus Geranium are

present. In contrast to the earlier heaths, too, there is a

lack of Berberis, Ilex, and Rhododendron pollen grains.

Might this be due to fires on open grasslands increasingly

destroying these genera? Climatic change may, in part

at least, be responsible for the increasing shift from

sholas to grasslands. A stage to at least 6000 BP, and

probably beyond, may be due to increased drying. A

weakened westerly monsoon may have again been

established by 6000 BP. About 600 BP, and

approximately between 1200 and 1400 AD, there

appears to have been a warmer and moister period than

that which exists at present (Sukumar etal. 1993: 705).

It is thus, perhaps, no coincidence that there is an

abundance of archaeological evidence (partially seen

by the author during 1994 field work in the area) for

more people living in the Mysore Ditch, just to the north

of the Nilgiris, in that period. The possible role of lightning

strikes or spontaneous combustion during dry seasons

in starting fires and thereby increasing the areal extent

of grasslands, leading to an increase of grass pollen

grains in Nilgiri waterlogged soils, have not been

investigated. Human hunter-gatherers setting fires for

millennia might have contributed to shola destruction,

but there is still no archaeological proof of this.

The Past 3,000 Years

A more conservative time span of 3,000 years

provides us with a still more revealing and possibly more

accurate glimpse of the past. The pioneering effort of

Vimala Menon (1966-1967) is most useful because of

its zone-by-zone analysis of a soil profile in a bog at

Pykara, west ofOotacamund in the Nilgiris. The profile

extends to a depth of 1 .7 m and is divided into 1 5 zones.

From zone 1 at the bottom to zone 15 at the top, the

percentages of grass pollen grains are: 83, 61, 54, 53,

60, 49 (the lowest), 55, 53, 59, 78, 83, 79, 85 (the highest),

80, and 71 . The evidence (count of 2,368 pollen grains)

thus indicates a dominance by grasses through most of

the period. The spores of ferns are the next largest group

(spore count of 340). Although many ferns prefer

shadowy, cool and moist environments, suggesting shola,

some thrive in shade provided by the rocks and plants

of open grassland. We must remember, too, that ferns

give off many spores, which can profoundly affect the

rate of their accumulation in a soil profile. Sedges

(Cyperaceae, pollen count of 159) come next. The

following families (with pollen counts) are represented:

Liliaceae ( 1 23), Compositae ( 1 00), Balsaminaceae (96),

Scrophulariaceae (63), Xyridaceae (62),

Chenopodiaceae (2 1 ), Gentianaceae ( 1 5), Umbelliferae

(12), Cruciferae (12), and Caprifoliaceae (II). These

generally indicate the presence of grassland with herbs

and shrubs, while pollen grains from trees are

conspicuously lacking. The occasional pollen grains of

these families probably represent species living in sholas:

Araceae, Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Meliaceae,

Orchidaceae, Thymeleaceae, and Urticaceae.

Blasco and Thanikaimoni (1974) studied pollen

grains from profiles in sediments down to 3.8 m at Pykara

and down to 2. 1 m at Parson’s Valley, south of Pykara.

They divided the pollen grains examined into four

separate ecological groups: i. herbaceous (grass mainly,

but other herbs as well), ii. forest border (forest-grassland

ecotone), iii. tree /shrub savanna (trees/shrubs growing

on the grassland), and iv. forest (shola). With one

exception (decrease of herbaceous pollen grains and

increase of forest border pollen grains from the 1 .3 to

1 .9 m depth at Pykara, into the wetter period c. 600 BP),

the graph profiles of herbaceous pollen grains

consistently ranged far higher than the graph profiles

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

31

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

for the three other groups. Next came the forest border

group, then the tree/shrub group, and, lastly, the forest

group (Appendix 2). The pollen grains of shola species

in the families Celastraceae, Lauraceae, and Myrtaceae

were relatively rare, and those of Araliaceae,

Elaeocarpaceae, Sapotaceae, Symplocaceae, and the

genus Ilex were also recorded. While the pollen grains

from both places in general ranged from 65 to 80 percent

for plants of the open grassland, the pollen grains of

forest species were at a low of about 5 percent. Thus,

the overall findings parallel those of Menon (1966-67).

Unfortunately, Menon (1966-67) and Blasco and

Thanikaimoni ( 1 974) have no radiocarbon dates for any

parts of their profiles. However, Blasco and

Thanikaimoni (1974) used comparable evidence from

the Palnis to devise a dating system. Interpolating with

a 1 770 AD date for a sample at about 30 cm below the

surface and a 1050 BP date for a sample at about

130 cm below the surface in the same locality, they

postulate a going back to some 3,000 to 4,000 BP, for

layers 3 to 4 m below the surface in the Nilgiris and

Palnis. Considering the evidence covered, we are

confronted with the possibility of there being extensive

natural grasslands on the Nilgiri Upland Island for

thousands of years, and more likely for at least the past

3000 years. So strong is the cumulative evidence that

we no longer need to primarily use the annual burning

of grasslands to explain their presence. There is no

denying, however, that the annual burning of grasslands

contributed to their spread. While we have no

archaeological proof for the burning of grasslands over

thousands of years, their seeming presence for so long

now raises the possibility of there being humans on the

upper Nilgiris far longer than was hitherto proven.

While a characteristic polished Neolithic pointed

butt stone implement found in the Mysore Ditch just

north of the Nilgiri massif may indicate the presence of

humans there by 1000 BC, there is no such indication

for the Nilgiri Upland Island. From the evidence yielded

thus far from prehistoric sites, among which are the

walled stone circles on the tops of peaks, we have no

proof of the presence of humans prior to 1 AD (Noble

1989: 127-130). The most logical choice of a people

who could have been around for long are the Todas,

who are a main element making the Nilgiri Upland Island

distinctive. After watching a Toda gather the roots of

so-called Toda potatoes ( Ceropegia pusilla Wt.), eating

some of them myself in 1 994, and realizing the variety

of other foodstuffs which can be gathered, one

concludes that Toda ancestors could have been gatherers

on the Nilgiri Upland Island and outer slopes. However,

ever since 1 603, when the priest Yacome Finicio wrote

his account of a visit to the Nilgiris, we know that the

Todas were buffalo herders from then and into post-

contact times (Rivers 1906: 721-730). The historic

record shows that they burned the grasslands each year

(Appendix 4). Fires set for even 300 years must have

contributed to the spread of grasslands, to the detriment

of the sholas. We have no idea as to when the distinctive

Kota farmers settled on the upper Nilgiris. They are

artisans who can still make knives and pots, and there is

some potential for their ancestors being the makers of

the effigy pots and knives buried at the centre of the

stone circles. Ancestors of Badaga farmers, a third

distinctive group on the upper Nilgiris and now far

outnumbering the other two, probably lived on the upper

Nilgiris for centuries before the fall of the Vijayanagar

Empire in 1 565 AD. Badagas continue a strong tradition

of being ruled from Ummatur in Mysore (later absorbed

by Karnataka). After the ruler there was overcome by

Krishnadevaraya around 1510-1512, a Vijayanagar

representative called Wodeyaraya who lived at

Konakorai on the upper Nilgiris married the Lingayat

Muddu Gowri. At nearby Nedugula, there is still an

ancestral temple dedicated to Muddu Gowri (Francis

1908: 333-334, Mulley 1997: 5). While the Badagas used

to annually migrate to hundis (seasonal livestock

stations) in the western Nilgiris, and typically fired nearby

grasslands prior to moving back eastward before the

onset of westerly monsoon rains, the Kotas to a lesser

degree also seasonally occupied grasslands and fired

them (Noble 1977). The Forest Department eventually

prohibited the annual firing and migration into the

grasslands, and these activities for the most part came

to an end in the 1 960s. The Department also engaged in

the planting of trees, and by now black wattle ( Acacia

mearnsii Willd.), blue gum {Eucalyptus globulus Labill.j

trees, indigenous to Australia, and Mexican pine ( Pinus

patula L.) grow over thousands of hectares once

dominated by grasses. By 1987, eucalyptus alone

covered about 12,000 ha (Meher-Homji 1987-1988: 159).

Mexican pines have typically been planted in frost pockets

where the other two species failed.

High Rainfall Sholas and Grasslands

Because the high rainfall sholas and grasslands of

the far western Nilgiris are the most ideal candidates

for natural grassland occurrence going far back into the

Pleistocene, they now receive brief coverage. These

little known but ecologically distinctive sholas and

grasslands are, for the most part, located in a zone

running from a northerly to southerly direction, following

the western escarpment, and then, for a shorter distance,

the southerly escarpment. Included are the Pandiar cliffs,

all the area surrounding Nilgiri Peak, the Mukerti Peak

area, the three Western Catchments, Bangitapal Rest

32

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

House and adjacent area, areas next to the cliffs in the

Nadgani and Sispara areas, and then an area running

alongside steep southerly slopes to and somewhat

eastward from the Bison Swamp area. These areas have

received the highest rainfall in the Indian Peninsula during

the westerly monsoon. If we consider the 10,867 mm

(424", or 35.3ft) of rain which fell in Western Catchment

Three during 1961, the heaviest rainfall of 7 1 3 mm (28")

ever recorded in a 24 hour period at Western Catchment

Three, on July 7, 1 958, and the heaviest rainfall of 1 ,283

mm (50") ever recorded in a 48-hour period at Mukerti

Ridge Top, on July 12 and 13, 1943 (Lengerke 1977:

1 74, 1 88; Blasco and Lengerke 1 989: 39), we can grasp

how unusual these high rainfall areas are.

So harsh is the environment to humans that Toda

and Badaga pastoralists made it a regular practice to

migrate eastwards, away from the high rainfall and

adjacent areas before the westerly monsoon set in. In

contrast to the high rainfall and great frequency of

clouds, mainly in the period of the westerly monsoon

and during the easterly monsoon as well, there are also

periods of drought and intense insolation during the year.

In response to the variable and frequently harsh

climatic conditions, and associated soils leached by high

rainfall, grassland typically dominates. While there are

sholas in protected valleys and depressions, high rainfall

grasslands sometimes dominate up to both banks of

streams and over low-lying terrain. Interestingly, a

description by Rao ( 1 974: 214) reveals how some Nilgiri

landscapes compare with those in the very high rainfall

Cherrapunji area of northeastern India: “...the situation

at Cherrapunji, until recently famed as the wettest place

on earth, needs special notice. The area looks

disappointingly bleak and bare of wooded vegetation,

due to the poor soil cover; all the soil being leached out

by the heavy rains, leaving behind smooth, bare rocks.

For vast distances all around, only dwarf grass growth

is visible. It is only in the comparatively sheltered

depressions, as at Mamloo and Moswmai, where there

is a deposit of soil and humus, that there are small islands

of wooded vegetation, in an otherwise vast sea of

grassland.”

High Rainfall Sholas: According to Blasco and

Lengerke (1989: 54-61), high rainfall sholas are

composed of a dense growth of trees, often dwarfed,

forming a shorter canopy up to c. 10 m from the

ground.

1 he dominant tree species is often a black plum

Syzygium calophyllifolium Walp. [trop.]. Other trees,

all tropical species, are cinnamon ( Cinnamomum

macrocarpum Hook, and C. perrottetii Meissn.),

another black plum ( Syzygium densiflorum Wall. ex.

Wt. & Am.), apple bladder-nut ( Turpinia

cochinchinensis Merr.), white milk tree ( Isonandra

perrottetiana DC.), and mock-olive (Elaeocarpus

recurvatus Corner). The less frequent Nilgiri magnolia

( Michelia nilagirica Zenk. [trop.]), spindle ( Euonymus

crenulatus Wall, [temp.]), and cryptocarya

( Cryptocarya lawsoni Gamb.ftrop.]) trees also grow

in these sholas. Epiphytes are more common. In addition

to a variety of orchids, pepper-elder ( Peperomia reflexa

A. Dietr.) is a very common epiphyte.

As an evolutionary adaptation to the rigorous

climatic conditions, two balsams are often epiphytic

{Impatiens orchioides Bedd. & laticornis Fischer) on

boulders and trees, whereas one ( neo-barnesii Fischer)

has become a full-fledged epiphyte on trees. It typically

grows on branches with moss and pepper-elder, on trees

sometimes located above 2400 m and close to or down

the western escarpment.

High Rainfall Grasslands: The high rainfall grasslands

have Isachne kunthiana Miq. and Themedct trianda

Forsk. grasses. Arundinella purpurea Flockst. is the

commonest grass in some areas. Among the plants most

frequently growing in these grasslands are common

anemone ( Anemone rivularis Ham.), balsams

( Impatiens spp.), creat ( Andrographis lawsoni

Gamb.), everlasting ( Anaphalis spp.), kurunji

{Strobi/anthes spp.), Nilgiri privet ( Ligustrum perrottetii

DC), teasel ( Dipsacus leschenaultii Coult.), wood

germander ( Teucrium wightii Hook.), stunted black

plum ( Syzygium spp.) and rhododendron (basically the

Rhododendron arborewn Sm. of the Himalaya, now

considered subsp. nilagiricum (Zenk.) Tagg by

Matthew). The high rainfall grasslands offer the ideal

habitat for Nilgiri Tahr (Hemitragus hylocrius Blyth),

animals that prefer living on and close to cliffs. The

grasslands are sometimes still burned over in the dry

season, despite regulations to the contrary, and it is

noteworthy that tahrs relish young grasses that sprout

after firing. Thus, they often tend to congregate in such

areas. Attempts by the Forest Department to plant trees

in high rainfall grasslands have typically ended in failure.

Row upon row of dead young plants now stand out on

them.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The writer is indebted to Dr. A. N. Henry, former

Co-Director ofthe Botanical Survey of India, who very

kindly checked the list of Nilgiri endemics more than

once for accuracy, additions and deletions. He is also

indebted to Dr. Tarun Chhabra, dentist in Ootacamund

and an accepted member of the Toda tribe, for providing

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

33

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

the latest data on Nilgiri balsams and orchids. We are

thankful to Dr. Chhabra for his rediscovery of some

rare balsams, for we now have the relief of knowing

that they survive and are doing well. He is an avid trekker

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Appendix 1: A Representative List of Nilgiri Grasses above 1,200 m

Based upon listings in Bor (1960), Sharma et al. (1977) (only the Gramineae section), with additional assistance

from the Gramineae section in the three Floras: Fyson 1931 : 650-681 ; Gamble 1967: vol 3, 1171-1290 [this section

done entirely by C.E.C. Fischer] and Matthew 1999: Pt 3:1442-1604, along with notes made by H.S. Suresh,

Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore, India.

‘Endemic; # Most probably introduced

Gramineae (smaller grasses)

Agrostis peninsularis Hook., 1 ,800-2,100 m, Kodanad, Nanjanad, Sispara; insufficiently collected and possibly rare, according

to Bor.

Agrostis pilosula Trin var. filifolia Bor, 1,800-2,300 m, little known.

Agrostis pilosula Trin. var pilosula, 2,000-2,500 m, Doddabetta, Mudimund, Ootacamund, and Sispara.

*Agrostis schmidii (Hook f.) Bor, 2,400 m, Ootacamund (no specimen in MH).

#Agrostis stolonifera L., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; widespread in Europe, Asia, N. America, introduced to the Nilgiris; common,

an important fodder grass.

Andropogon lividus Thw., 2,200-2,400 m, purple grass, Kollimund, Mudimund, Ootacamund, Sispara; often in burnt areas,

valuable fodder grass.

* Andropogon longipes Hack., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; hardly known

Andropogon polyptychus Steud. var deccanensis Bor, 2,300 m; common perennial around Bison Swamp, in upper Nilgiri

marshes, on moister slopes near them; mainly in the far west, the dominating grass in some areas.

#Anthoxanthum borii Jain & Pal, 2,000-2,400 m, common, widespread in low-lying ground, especially meadows.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

35

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Andropogon odoratum L., 2,400-2,575 m, sweet vernal grass, Doddabetta and Ootacamund; widespread from Europe to

temperate Asia, introduced to Nilgiris, sometimes cultivated; has a fragrant odour, can be used as hay, but is not very

acceptable to livestock

Apluda mutica L., 1,000-2,400 m, Coonoor, Gudalur, Kundhas, Marappalam-Burliar, Mudumalai, Naduvattam, Ootacamund;

common, growing in forests and open country; when young it is good fodder for buffaloes.

UAnstida adscensionis L., 850-2,400 m, six-weeks triple awn, Avarihalla R.F., Keti, Ootacamund, Sirur; widely distributed in

Old and New Worlds, but probably introduced to Nilgiris; common and widespread except in the wettest of places; eaten by

livestock when young, but avoided when in flower.

Arthraxon lanceolatus (Roxb.) Hochst., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; unknown.

Arthraxon quartinianus (A. Rich.) Nash, 1,800-2,400 m, Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pykara; grows in swampy places, by

roadsides, a pioneer on land no longer cultivated; often eaten by livestock.

Arundinella ciliata Nees, 900-2,050 m, Cherambadi, Ebanad, Gudalur-Naduvattam, Kotagiri-Aravenu, Pakasuramalai; on

slopes by rocky edges.

Arundinella mesophylla Nees ex Steud., mainly above 1,200 m, Bikkapattimund, widespread, especially east of Doddabetta;

on bare slopes by rocky edges.

* Arundinella purpurea Hochst. var laxa Bor, 2,100 m, Sispara, very distinctive and with long pedicels.

* Arundinella purpurea Hochst. var. purpurea , 2,000-2,100 m, Avalanche, Mukerti,

Pakasuramalai, Pykara; thus far the only aluminum accumulator known in this family; good fodder grass.

Arundinella setosa Trin. var. lanifera Fisch., 1,200-2,400 m., Gudalur Ghat, Naduvattam,

Ootacamund, Pykara; a widespread, very variable species, fairly common, good for fodder.

* Arundinella setosa Trin. var. nilagiriana Subbarao et Kumari, 1,850 m, at Koilbetta, near Ebanad; like A s. var. lanifera, but

has hirsute glumes instead.

Arundinella vaginata Bor, 600 to 2,100m, with long, villous, basal sheaths; sometimes abundant, on grassy slopes, in marshes.

Arundo conspicua Forst., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; virtually unknown.

#Avena sativa L., 2,200 m, Nanjanad; oats introduced from Europe, first a weed there alongside barley and wheat, then

domesticated around 1,000 BC; now marginally cultivated in the Nilgiris and often a weed.

#Avena sterilis L., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; seldom cultivated, and mainly a weed introduced from the Mediterranean.

ttAxonopus affinis Chase, 1,000-1,660 m, Coonoor Ghat, Ouchterlony Valley; carpet grass introduced from the New World,

excellent for fodder.

Bothriochloa bladhii Retz, 2,400 m, Ootacamund; somewhat coarse and good for fodder.

Bothriochloa foulkesii Henr., 1,900-2,400 m, Mudimund, Ootacamund, Porthimund, Pykara; near water and in marshes.

UBothriochloa insculpta A. Camus, 1 ,650-2,400 m, Kateri Falls, Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pakasaramalai, Pykara; common

on downs, from tropical East Africa, it now grows over the Western Ghats and is used for fodder.

Brachiaria semiundulata Stapf, 1,200-2,00 m, Coonoor, Naduvattam, Nanjanad, Ootacamund, Ouchterlony Valley, Pykara;

common, on exposed slopes, with large glabrous spikelets.

#Brachypodium sylvaticum P. Beauv., 1,800-2,400 m, perennial slender grass, Coonoor, Naduvattam, Ootacamund,

Pakasuramalai, Pykara; grows in Europe and on temperate mountains in tropical Asia, but was probably introduced to the

Nilgiris.

36

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

#Briza maxima L., 1,800-2,500 m, large quaking grass, Doddabetta, Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pykara, Upper Bhavani;

common, from the Mediterranean, but an escape.

#Briza minor L., 1,800-2,400 m, small quaking grass, Coonoor, Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pykara; common, also introduced

from the Mediterranean.

#Bromus an/ensis L., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; Hubbard — cultivated for hay on poor soils in Europe; introduced to the Nilgiris

and now growing wild.

# Bromus catharticus Vahl., 1,900-2,400 m, Coonoor, Ootacamund, Upper Tiger Shola; native to South America, introduced

as a fodder grass, but now a common escape.

# Bromus ramosus Huds., 1,900-2,400 m, Ootacamund and Pykara; common from Europe into mountains of Central Asia,

but was probably introduced into the Nilgiris; grows in shola glades and shady places.

Capillipedium huegelii Stapf, 1,200-1,800 m, Kariashola, Naduvattam, Sundapatti; common annual or perennial, wide

ranging, often aromatic

Chrysopogon hackelii Fischer, 1,000-1,800 m, Gudalur-Nadugani, Naduvattam; a common, robust grass of mountainous

areas.

Chrysopogon orientalis A. Camus, 1 ,000-1 ,800 m, Ebanad, Gudalur, Naduvattam; common, conspicuous owing to its bright

red and purple glumes, eaten by livestock.

Chrysopogon verticillatus Trin., mainly above 1,200 m, in mountains of Tamil Nadu and Orissa; stout, hardly acceptable to

livestock when fully grown, but commonly eaten when young.

Chrysopogon zeylanicus Thw., 1,800-2,400 m, Aravankadu, Avarihalla R. F., Kotagiri, Naduvattam, Ootacamund,

Pakasuramalai, Parkside R.F., Pykara, Sispara; large, with green and purple spikelets, widespread and common on the

downs, higher peaks.

Coelachne perpusilla Thw., 2,300 m, Porthimund, may be common; very delicate and trailing marshland lover.

#Cortaderia selloana Asch. & Graebn., 2,400 m, Pampas grass, Ootacamund; an ornamental from South America.

Cymbopogon flexuosus Wats. var. flexuosus Bor, 700-2,400 m, Burliar, Coonoor, Gudalur-Naduvattam,

Mudumalai, Ootacamund, Pakasuramalai, Pykara; common tall (1 5m) perennial, the source of lemon grass oil, sometimes

cultivated.

Cymbopogon martinii Wats., 1,900 m and below, geranium grass, Pykara; a common perennial, sometimes cultivated for

rusa oil in two forms: 1) motia, palmarusa oil and 2) sofia, ginger grass oil.

Cymbopogon nardus Rendle var. confertiflorus Stapf ex Bor, 800-1,500 m, tall (1.5 m) wild citronella grass, sometimes

cultivated; mainly on outer eastern Nilgiri slopes, sometimes dominating on savannas.

Cymbopogon polyneuros Stapf, 1,900-2,500 m, Doddabetta, Mukurti, Ootacamund, Pykara; also tall (1.5m), with oil having

a pleasant odour, but not used commercially.

Cynodon dactylon Pers., 1,400-1,900 m, Bermuda or dog’s tooth grass, now worldwide and a troublesome weed in more

than 80 countries; Ebanad, Ouchterlony Valley, and Pykara; a common perennial creeping grass, highly nutritious, especially

for horses; as a lawn grass it can withstand only moderate grazing.

Cyrtococcum deccanense Bor, 1,600-1,700 m, Coonoor, Gudalur Ghat, Kateri Falls; loves damp places, grows well in

shade.

Cyrtococcum longipes A. Camus, 800-1,800 m, Carcoor Ghat and Naduvattam; in damp and shady places.

# Cyrtococcum patens A. Camus, 800-2,050 m, Pakasuramalai and Segur; widespread in Southeast Asia, probably introduced

to the Nilgiris.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

37

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

#Dactylis glomerata L., 2,100-2,400 m, only species in the genus, Nanjanad and Ootacamund; perennial grass in North

Africa, Europe, and temperate Asia; introduced, important fodder grass on Government hill farms, now a common escape

Dichanthium oliganthum (Steud.) Cope, 1 ,900-2,100 m, Avalanche, Bikkapattimund, Mudimund, Naduvattam, Pykara, Sispara;

widespread, roadsides, grassy slopes; whole plant villous, with a very aromatic and volatile scent.

*Dichanthium pallidum (Hook f.) Stapf ex Fisch., elevational factors unknown, rare and collected by Foulkes (no specimen

in MH).

Digitaria ciliaris Koel., 850-2,100 m, Anaikatti, Benne R.F., Deepdale R.F, Gudalur, Nanjanad, Northern Hay R.F.,

Pakasuramalai, Sirur-Ebanad; pan-Tropical weed, common, good fodder grass, alongside roads and on open ground.

Digitaria longiflora Pers., 1,000-2,000 m, Aravankadu, Gudalur, Kunnacombai R.F., Pakasuramalai; another pan-Tropical

weed, common creeping grass alongside roads and in open spaces, often eaten by livestock.

Digitaria temata Stapf, 2,100-2,400 m, Nanjanad and Ootacamund; in the wild from Africa to the Far East, common in

wastelands, but with little fodder value; a handsome grass with silver racemes and purple fruits.

Digitaria wallichiana Stapf, 1,200-2,200 m, Gudalur Ghat, Kunnacombai R.F., Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pakasuramalai;

commonly eaten by livestock.

#Ehrharta abyssinica Hochst., introduced from Africa, collected by Schmidt in about 1830; little is known about it in the Nilgiris.

#Eleusine coracana Gaertn., 1 ,200-1 ,900 m, still grown widely by the Badagas finger millet cultivated in Africa for over 5000

years and introduced to India about 3000 years ago; harvested grain stores well for a long time, stalks also provide hay for

livestock.

Eleusine indica Gaertn., 1 ,000-2,000 m, Mudumalai and Parkside R.F.; spread from India and now a noxious weed worldwide;

annual, rapidly colonizing open spaces, and thus a good soil binder.

Eragrostis gangetica Steud., 850-2,400 m, Anaikatty, Coonoor, Kilkotagiri, Kotagiri, Kunnucombai, Naduvattam, Ootacamund,

Pakasuramalai, Parkside R.F., Segur; common annual also spreading in stream beds, eaten by cattle but not good for fodder.

Eragrostis nigra Nees ex Steud., 1,550-2,575 m, Carrington-Kinnakorai, Coonoor, Doddabetta, Kunnacombai R.F.,

Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pykara, Sirur-Ebanad, Upper Bhavani; widely common, growing on exposed rocks and in

wastelands.

Eragrostis pilosa P. Beauv., 1,800-2,400 m, hairy or Indian love grass, Naduvattam, Ootacamund; common, grazed in some

areas but rejected by livestock in others.

Eragrostis tenuifolia Hochst. ex Steud., 1000-2400 m, Gudalur, Kunnacombai R.F., Ootacamund, Pykara; common weed,

seeking fallow earth.

Eragrostis unioloides Nees ex Steud., 950-2,400 m, Avalanche, Bikkapattimund, Bokkapuram R.F., Coonoor, Ebanad,

Gudalur Ghat, Kunnacombai, Mudamalai, Nanjanad, Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pakasuramalai; common and widely

distributed, sometimes growing in water or damp places.

*Enochrysis rangacharii Fisch., at 1,830 m, fairly common near Pykara; only Indian representative of an otherwise wholly

tropical African and American genus.

Eulalia phaeothrix O. Ktze., 1,500-2,200 m, Kotagiri, Mudimund, Pakasuramalai, Pykara, Sirur-Ebanad; common on the

downs, sometimes a dominant.

Festuca ovina L., 2,400-2,575 m, sheep’s fescue, Doddabetta, Ootacamund; worldwide temperate and tropical mountains;

a hardy and wiry grass relished by sheep.

Garnotia arundinacea Hook., 1,000-1,900 m, Balmadies Estate, Coonoor, Gudalur, Kateri Falls, Naduvattam, Upper Tiger

Shola; trailing grass fond of shady places.

38

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AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Gamotia courtallensis Thw., 1,500 m and above, Adderly Estate; common, in shady woods and nullahs (valleys), on moist

ground or attached to rocks.

Gamotia schmidii Hook., 1,400 m, little known perennial with flattened leaf sheaths.

#Glyceria spicata Guss., 1,650-2,400 m, Kateri Falls, Nanjanad, Ootacamund; from the Mediterranean and now wild;

floating meadow grass, thus seeking wet areas.

Helictotrichon asperum Bor, 1,800-2,500 m, Doddabetta, Kodanad, Mudimund, Naduvattam, Ootacamund, Pykara; common

and widespread.

*Helictotnchon polyneurum (Hook.) Henr., 2,400 m, Doddabetta (Gamble 12993); fairly common, a distinctive looking

grass.

Heteropogon contortus P. Beauv., 910-2,400 m, spear grass, Avarihalla R.F., Kodanad-Kotagiri, Ootacamund, Sirur-Ebanad;

common, widespread, colonising in wasteland and on the downs, grazed upon when young.

#Hordeum vulgare L., mostly above 1,700 m, barley, once widely grown by the Badagas but now very limited in its cultivation.

Cultivated in the Middle East before 6000 BC and spread in India after 3000 BC.

Isachne boumeorum Fischer, 1,200-2,500 m, Doddabetta, Gudalur Ghat, Naduvattam; endemic to the Western Ghats; in

sholas, rock crevices, on bare slopes.

Isachne deccanensis Bor, 2,440 m, on downs near Ootacamund (no specimen in MH); endemic to the Nilgiris and Palnis.

Isachne elegans Dalz., 1,500-2,400 m, Ootacamund; possibly rare in the Nilgiris, in marshes and moist places.

Isachne globosa Kuntze, 1,000-2,025 m, Coonoor, Ebanad-Anaikatty, Gudalur, Kottaicombai, Pykara; common grass

in wet places, gregarious in marshes, readily grazed by livestock; also a troublesome weed in rice fields at lower

elevations.

Isachne kunthiana Miq. var. kunthiana Bor, 1,900-2,500 m, Avalanche, Doddabetta, Mudimund Kothaban R.F., Ootacamund,

Pakasuramalai, Pykara, common in high south Indian marshes.

Isachne kunthiana Miq. var. latifolia Hook., 1800-2400 m, Avalanche, Naduvattam, Ootacamund; also common in high

altitude marshes.

*lsachne oreades (Domin) Bor, close to 1,200 m, only in the Gudalur Ghat area, recorded in a swamp within shola.

Isachne walked Wight & Arn., 1,800-2,025 m, Carrington-Kinnakorai, Coonoor, Pakasuramalai; a tall perennial grass,

common in high Nilgiris.

Ischaemum commutatum Hack., 1,800-2,400 m, Coonoor, Naduvattam, Nanjanad, Ootacamund, Pykara; widely distributed,

growing on stream banks and on steep slopes.

Ischaemum indicum Merrill var. indicum , 1,000-2,400 m, Bikkatti, Ebanad-Anaikatty, Mudumalai, Kunnacombai-Kundah,

Ootacamund, Pakasuramalai, Pykara; sometimes the most common grass on open downs.

Ischaemum nilagincum Hack., 950-2,000 m, Coonoor, Gudalur-Nadugani, Kalhatti, Kolikarai, Northern Hay R.F., Runneymede,

Sirur-Kukkal; often by streams.

Ischaemum timorense Kunth, 700-1,500 m, Gudalur Ghat, in damp places and eaten by livestock.

Jansenella gdffithiana Bor, 1,600 m, only species in this genus of India-Burma (Myanmar), Naduvattam; common, on

marshes, stream banks, grassy peaks, grazed by livestock.

Leersia hexandra Sw., 2,400 m and far below, throughout Tropics, Ootacamund; common perennial in a variety of moist

habitats, often forming extensive colonies; eaten by cattle and buffaloes.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

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AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

#Lolium perenne L., 2,400 m, introduced worldwide and to Ootacamund; widespread naturally from Europe to temperate

Asia, cultivated perennial rye grass and now an escape; valued for grazing and hay, but can be poisonous when infected by

fungi.

it-Lolium temulentum L., 2,100 m, Nanjanad; genetically developed introduction native to the Mediterranean, now an escape;

a weed in cultivated areas, its seeds when infected with a fungus can poison livestock.

#Miscanthus nepalensis Hack., 2,000-2,400 m, Keti, Ootacamund; introduced from the Himalaya or northeast India; a tall

ornamental perennial.

Oplismenus compositus P. Beauv., 1,100-2,400 m, Gudalur Ghat, Naduvattam, Nonesuch Estate, Ootacamund,

Pakasuramalai, Sirur-Ebanad; perennial, common in moist places within sholas, sometimes in gregarious patches.

Oplismenus undulatifolius P. Beauv., 1,875-2,400 m, Avalanche, Ootacamund, T. R. Bazaar; a shola grass.

Panicum gardneri Thw., 1,000-2,025 m, Carriot shola, Coonoor, Naduvattam, Sholurmattam; common in sholas, a silvery

hyaline margin of glumes and lower lemma is diagnostic.

#Panicum maximum Jacq., 2000-2400 m, Guinea grass, Bengalmattam, Ootacamund; from Africa; commonly cultivated for

fodder, an occasional escape.

#Panicum repens L., 1 ,900-2,00 m, Coonoor, Manjanakora, Ootacamund, Pakasuramalai, Pykara; torpedo grass throughout

tropics and subtropics and one of the most widely distributed grasses in the world, in all kinds of habitats, but prefers

perennially moist places; sometimes a pest in cultivated fields.

#Panicum sumatrense Roth et Schult., straddling 1,200 m, once cultivated widely by the Badagas for grain and fodder, but

now in great decline; little millet, once identified as miliare Lam., progenitor a mystery, was a very ancient cultivar from China

into Europe.

Paspalum canarae Steud., 1,800 m, Naduvattam; common annual, in sandy, moist places.

#Paspalum dilatatum Poir, 1,800-2,400 m, Dallis grass, Carrington, Coonoor, Naduvattam, Ootacamund; introduced from

South America; an excellent pasture grass, important for fodder, can withstand grazing and moderate frost.

ttPaspalum scrobiculatum L., 600-1,900 m, Pakasuramalai, Pykara, lower eastern and southern slopes; koda or kodra millet,

common wild perennial throughout India to 1,600 m, is seldom cultivated now; as a cultivar, seen only among the Kurumbas;

often grows wild in wasteland and moist places, grazed by livestock; seedheads liable to ergot infection, making them poisonous.

#Pennisetum ciandestinum Hochst., 2,100-2,400 m, Kikuyu grass, Nanjanad, Ootacamund; introduced from eastern Africa

in 1926; vigorous, stoloniferous growth; good pasture and fodder grass, used for lawns and as a soil binder on slopes; now

a widespread escape.

#Pennisetum villosum R. Br., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; introduced from the Middle East, now growing wild as well; frequently

raised as an ornamental.

#Phalaris aquatica Cent., 2,400 m, Ootacamund; native to the Mediterranean, but introduced and cultivated as a pasture grass.

Poa annua L., 1,900-2,400 m, annual meadow grass, Aravenu, Coonoor, Keti, Nanjanad, Ootacamund; fairly common,

growing widely in India at higher elevations.

*Poa gamblei Bor, above 2,500 m, and therefore on the highest peaks; fairly common.

#Rhynchelytrum repens C. E. Hubb., 1,450 m, Kateri-Kundah; native of tropical Africa, introduced to gardens and now an

escape; not a fodder grass.

Rottboellia exaltata L., 1,675m, Sirur-Kukalthorai; widely distributed annual, in moist places, provides hay.

Sacciolepis indica A. Chase, 1,650-1,925 m, Avalanche, Ebanad-Sirur; Kateri Falls, Keti, Kodanad; common grass in

marshy places, sometimes up to 1 m tall.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Sehima nervosum Stapf, 1,850 m, Ebanad; locally common perennial grass, in dry, sandy, rocky places; good for fodder.

Setaria glauca (L.) P. Beauv., 1,000-2,400 m, Anaikatty, Benne R.F., Devarshola, Doddabetta, Edapalli, Kottaicombai,

Kunnacombai R.F., Mudumalai, Mukerti, Ootacamund, Pakasuramalai, Pykara, Sirur-Kukkal; fairly common, widely distributed,

an acceptable fodder grass.

# Setaria italica (L.) P. Beauv., mostly above 1 ,100 m, once widely cultivated by the Badagas but now in great decline; foxtail

millet, progenitor not firmly established, a sacred plant in China by 2,700 BC, and a very early cultivar over a vast region into

Europe.

Setaria tomentosa Kunth., 950-2,010 m, Gudalur Ghat, Kundah, Kunnacombai, Kunjapanai, Northern Hay R.F.; widespread

in the plains; at higher elevations in ditches near roads, mostly in moist and shady places.

Sporobolus diander (Retz.) P. Beauv., 1,000-2,400 m, Benne R.F., Carrington, Coonoor, Gudalur, Mudumalai, Ootacamund;

good pasture grass.

Sporobolus piliferus Kunth, 1,900 m and lower, Bikkapattimund, Coonoor; often colonises broken ground and is grazed by

livestock.

Themeda quadrivalvis O. Ktze. var. quadrivalvis , 1 ,500-2,400 m, Anaikatty-Ebanad, Ootacamund; widely distributed, preferred

by buffaloes.

Themeda trianda Forsk., 1,000-2,400 m, widespread in grassy areas, very common perennial in the Old World tropics and

subtropics; good for grazing livestock when young.

Tripogon bromoides Roem. & Schult., 1,600-2,400 m; common on rocky surfaces, walls, and in crevices.

Tripogon capillatus Jaub. & Spach, 900-1,300 m, widespread in the Western Ghats; often epiphytic amidst the mosses of

shola trees and on old walls.

Tripogon jacquemontii Stapf, 2,200-2,600 m, Coonoor Peak and higher; often gregarious, in barren places.

Tripogon wightii Hook., 1,000-1,800 m, endemic to southern India.

#Triticum spp. 1,200-2,200 m, once widely cultivated and now rarely so; wheat greatly in need of study, with varieties

introduced by the British; domesticated by 6,500 BC in the Middle East.

#Vulpia megalura Rydb., 2,400 m, North American grass, now growing near Ootacamund.

ttVulpia myuros Gmel., 2,000-2,500 m, mouse-tailed fescue, Doddabetta, Keti, Nanjanad, Ootacamund, Pykara, Upper

Bhavani; widespread from Europe into temperate Asia; introduced, now runs wild and grows as a weed in cultivated areas

Zenkeria elegans Trin., 1,700-1,930 m, Aravenu-Kotagiri, Bokkapuram R.F., Coonoor, Kodanad R.F., Mandalore R.F.; little

known perennial, widespread in southern India; first recorded for the Nilgiris by Gamble

Zenkeria stapfii Henr., above 1,200 m, southern India and Sri Lanka; earliest record in the Nilgiris by Perrottet and little

known there.

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AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Appendix 2: Nilgiri Plants in their International (Generic) and

Local (Species) Environmental Settings

The following lists are greatly modified revisions based upon nuclear data and organization in Blasco and

Thanikaimoni (1974), Gupta (1971, 1989), Mani (1974), Meher-Homji (1967, 1975), Menon (1966-67),

Shankarnarayan (1958), and Vishnu-Mittre and Gupta (1972). The floras by Fyson (1932), Gamble (1967),

Mathew (1999), and Sharma et al. (1977) were constantly referred to. The international distributions of

plant genera were found in Shaw and Willis (1973). There was no attempt to make the lists complete, but

an effort was made to cover representative families and genera of plants of the Nilgiris. Different groups

of plants focused upon in suggestive listings enable us to consider how the overall vegetation of the Nilgiri

upland island has varied through time, and to think about the significance of specific plants in the region.

Because they play such a significant role in making the Nilgiris botanically distinctive, there is more

coverage of the balsam, orchid and strobilanthes plants.

Note. The number within parentheses following the genus represents the number of species of that genus being

covered.

NON-GRASS SPECIES ON GRASSLAND

Some plants and their ancestors probably spread in during the Pleistocene:

ACANTHACEAE

Justicia (300, tropics and subtropics): latispica, nilgherrensis, simplex, herbs growing widely in Indo-Malaya and

Ethiopia, common in open grassland of the downs.

BUXACEAE

Sarcococca (about 20, Himalaya to China, Taiwan, and the Philippines): trinervia, shrub, very common all over the

downs, also on Eastern Ghats.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula (300, North Hemisphere, temperate, especially the Mediterranean and tropical mountains): fulgens,

herb, also in Khasi Hills, Nepal, Sikkim.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Lonicera (200, North America, Eurasia, Africa, Himalaya, to Malaysia and the Philippines): ligustrina, untidy shrub,

also in Nepal, Khasi Hills.

CARYOPHYLLACEAE

Stellaria (120, cosmopolitan): media and saxatilis, herbs, now common weeds, on grasslands as well.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium (about 150, temperate parts of the world): ambrosioides, erect or prostrate herb, a common weed,

Nilgiris and Shevaroys.

COMPOSITAE

Artemisia (400, mainly in temperate Northern Hemisphere, common in northeast China, western US and on Russian

steppes; South Africa, South America): vulgaris, tall aromatic herb, shrub, South Indian mountains to Himalaya; apparently

truly wild in Nilgiris though commonly cultivated.

Cnicus (about 150, mostly in northern temperate climates): wallichii, Common Indian Thistle with stem over 1 m high,

open downs, flowers in June, from Himalaya — Nepal, Sikkim and Bhutan.

Senecio (up to 3000, cosmopolitan, varied: climbers, xerophytes, succulents, herbs, shrubs, to trees):

corymbosus, climber on downs; lavandulaefolius, herb on open downs; wighti, swamp ragwort, also growing in Khasi

Hills.

CRUCIFERAE

Cardamine (160, cosmopolitan, but chiefly temperate): hirsuta. Hairy Bitter-cress, annual herb, common on the

downs, generally in all temperate Eurasian countries, including England, and all temperate parts of India.

42

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AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

CYPERACEAE

Carex (up to 2000, cosmopolitan, especially in temperate parts of the world, with many alpine and marsh dwelling

species): lindleyana, herb, sedge, on exposed dry land, Sri Lanka to Khasi Hills, China, Japan, nubigena , another sedge,

in damp places, not in water, widespread, Malaya, China, Japan, Sri Lanka, Western Ghats to Khasi Hills, Himalaya

DIPSACACEAE

Dipsacus (86, in Eurasia, especially in the Mediterranean, tropical Africa): leschenaultii, teasel, a large herb on the

downs,

DROSERACEAE

Drosera (100, tropical and temperate, especially Australia and New Zealand), with enfolding sticky leaves enabling

plants to ingest trapped insects): burmanii, Common Sundew, all India, tiny herb in damp places, widespread in Nilgiris;

peltata, moon-leaf sundew, all India, tiny herb, everywhere on damp Nilgiri downs.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon (400, tropical and subtropical, c. 30 in Japan and c, 8 in North America, with septangulare in eastern US

and the Scottish Hebrides): collinum , Hat-pin Flower or small grey-head, small herb, common in wet places, South India

and Sri Lanka.

GENTIANACEAE

Exacum (40, palaeotropical, at least 20 in India): perrottetii and wightianum, both herbs.

Gentiana (400, cosmopolitan, excluding Africa, chiefly alpine): pedicellata, common herb on Nilgiri downs, also in

Himalaya (Kashmir to Bhutan), Khasi Hills to Java and China.

GERANIACEAE

Geranium (400, cosmopolitan, especially temperate parts of the world): nepalense, Crane’s Bill, common herb on

downs, Kashmir, Himalaya and Khasi Hills.

GUTTIFERAE

Hypericum (400, in tropical and temperate mountains): mysorense, St. John’s Wort, shrub on grasslands, abundant

everywhere on the downs, especially on poorer soils, sometimes covering entire slopes, only in South Indian mountains.

HAEMODORACEAE

Ophiopogon (20, Himalaya to Japan and Philippines): intermedius [founded on a Nepal plant and indistinguishable

from it?], Lily of the Wood, herb, at lower levels, Kotagari included, Western Ghats, Himalaya and Khasi Hills.

HYPOXIDACEAE

Curculigo (10, tropical up into temperate mountain regions): orchioides, Yellow Ground Star, small perennial herb in

moist places, Himalaya, Khasi Hills and Western Ghats.

Hypoxis (100, Africa, Indo-Malaya, East Asia, Australia, America): aurea, small herb scattered in grasslands, Kashmir

to South India, Java, China and Japan.

Molineria (7, Indo-Malaya): trichocarpa, another small herb, common on the higher downs, especially in loosened soil

areas.

LABIATAE

Micromeria (100, cosmopolitan): biflora, Lemon-scented Thyme, herb, common over higher grassy slopes, Himalaya,

Kashmir to Bhutan and on higher mountains of South India; capitellata, has taller stem and larger leaves, western Himalaya

to mountains of South India.

Teucrium (300, cosmopolitan, but especially the Mediterranean): wightii, thick stemmed herb in rocky places on

higher downs.

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia (120, tropical and temperate regions, all in the latter being aquatic; many species remarkable for small

bladders which trap and then enable digestion of small creatures): graminifolia, Common Blue Bladderwort; scandens,

Yellow Bladderwort, both common small herbs in marshes within the downs.

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AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

LILIACEAE

Lilium (80, mainly in northern temperate regions): neilgherrense, the Nilgiri Lily, once common on downs,

stems to 1 m, white flowers, only in extreme southern India — Anamalai, Biligirirangan, Nilgiri, Palni and Tinnevelly

Hills.

LOBELIACEAE

Lobelia (about 250, cosmopolitan, mostly tropical and subtropical, especially America; giant lobelias in Africa and

Asia): leschenaultiana, giant lobelia, biennial subshrub with pale yellow flowers, common everywhere, higher grasslands

as well, but also in shola fringes; Sri Lanka, Indian Peninsula into Southeast Asia.

OLEACEAE

Ligustrum (about 50, Europe to northern Iran, East Asia, Indo-Malaya to New Guinea and Australia); perrottetii, privet,

usually a shrub but a tree in eastern areas, in clumps on the western downs, doing well near water.

ORCHIDACEAE

The international disthbutions of the genera in this section are provided later under Shola Species.

Aerides crispum , an epiphyte in sholas, especially near Coonoor, called the Pink Rock Orchid because it is so often

seen growing on exposed rocks, Western Ghats, Palnis as well.

Habenaria cephalotes , heyneana , and longicomiculata, ground orchids amidst grasses.

Peristylus richardianus and spiralis , ground orchids, widespread on grasslands.

Satyrium nepalense, ground orchid, on grasslands and in marshes, abundant during westerly monsoon; widespread

from Sri Lanka northward to the Himalaya and east into Burma.

Spiranthes sinensis, Lady’s Tresses, terrestrial orchid, on open dry grasslands and in swamps; sinensis var. wightiana,

especially in the Kotagiri area.

PAPILIONACEAE

Crotalaria (550, 100 undescribed?, at least 80 in India, tropics and subtropics, variable — procumbent creepers, to

erect herbs, to shrubs and trees), genus named after the way seeds rattle in ripened pods [Gk. krotalon = a child’s rattle]; on

the higher downs, these species are liable to be encountered with attractive yellow flowers; leschenaultii, small bush with long

flower spikes; scabrella, procumbent herb to shrub with flower spikes; wightiana, bushy shrub with rising flower spikes.

Indigofera (700, warm parts of the world, but especially South Africa): cassioides, shrub on open downs; pedicellate,

common prostrate herb on higher downs; both species in Peninsula mountains, including the Western Ghats.

Sophora (50, tropical and warm temperate regions): glauca, shrub on downs, and especially on drier hillsides;

mountains of South India, but not in the Palnis or Maharashtra State.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala (about 550, cosmopolitan, excluding New Zealand, Polynesia and the Arctic), sibihca, milkwort, a common

herb on the higher downs, sometimes dominant, Mudimund and Ootacamund; Himalaya, Kashmir eastward to Khasi Hills,

China, Siberia and Japan.

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca (200, tropics and subtropics): in Nilgiris(?), none now.

PRIMULACEAE

Lysimachia (200, cosmopolitan, especially East Asia and North America): Candida subsp. obovata, a slender herb

amidst grasses; deltoides, in Kundah grasslands; leschenaultii, small perennial herb, on higher downs, prefers open

marshy meadows; procumbens, creeping Jenny, a trailing herb, closely allied to a European species.

RANUNCULACEAE

Anemone (150, cosmopolitan): rivularis, a perennial herb, all over the Nilgiris, luxurious in damp places and dwarfed

with dryness, to 4,000 m in Sikkim.

44

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Ranunculus (400, cosmopolitan, temperate and cold regions, tropical mountains): reniformis, a common perennial

herb in damp places on open downs, showy bright yellow flowers, only in mountains of south India.

RHAMNACEAE

Rhamnus (110, cosmopolitan): virgatus, Indian Buckthorn, spiny and stunted shrub, uncommon in upper Nilgiris; in

temperate Himalaya and from China to Japan.

ROSACEAE

Cotoneaster ( 50, mainly North Hemisphere, temperate regions): buxifolia, small tree to shrub, hard and tough wood,

sometimes amidst grasses; in Western Ghats and Palnis.

Potentilla (500, nearly cosmopolitan, but mostly in Northern Hemisphere, temperate to Arctic areas): leschenaultiana,

herb, yellow flowers, common in open grassland; sundaica, herb, bright yellow flowers, higher grasslands, especially in

moist areas.

Rosa (250, Northern Hemisphere, temperate realms and tropical mountains): leschenaultiana, Nilgiri Dog Rose,

abundant and often found in shola fringes as well.

Rubus (250, cosmopolitan, especially in temperate areas of Northern Hemisphere, with about 3000 segregates and

forms of fmticosus, the Blackberry): ellipticus, Yellow Raspberry, in Western Ghats but not Maharashtra, also in temperate -

tropical Himalaya, Khasi Hills, Burma and Yunan; rugosus, Purple Raspberry, rare on Bombay Ghats, but in Himalaya,

Nepal, Sikkim, Burma and Malaya; both species widespread on downs and in shola borders.

SANTALACEAE

Osyris (6 or 7, Mediterranean and Africa to India): wightiana, evergreen shrub on open downs and in sholas, only in

higher mountains of India and Sri Lanka.

Thesium (325, Europe, Africa and Asia to Australia): wightianum, yellow procumbent perennial herb, parasitic on roots

of other plants, common in higher grasslands.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Pedicularis (500, mostly Northern Hemisphere, especially in mountains of Central and East Asia): perrottetii, Nilgiri

Lousewort, perennial herb, remarkable for its large white flowers to 10 cm, mainly in the Kundah grasslands, seen in the

vicinity of Avalanche, Mukerti and Nilgiri peaks, also in the Anamalais, not the Palnis; zeylanica, Pink Rattle, perennial herb,

semi-parasitic, red flowers, in damp places on higher grasslands, near Kotagiri and Ootacamund, only in Sri Lanka and

South India mountains, Palnis included

SOLANACEAE

Solanum (1,700, tropical and temperate regions): violaceum subsp. multiflomm, prickly low bush, common on the

downs, from Ootacamund to Pykara; wightii, erect herbaceous plant with large lavender blue flowers, easily seen near

Coonoor, also living up to higher downs.

UMBELLIFERAE

Bupleurum (150, Europe, Asia, Africa, and North America): distichophyllum, short herb, grass-like, common on higher

downs; mucronatum, common hare’s ear, stout, branched herb, also over downs; plantaginifolium, Giant Hare’s Ear, tall

perennial herb to over 1 m high, only in mountains of South India, on Doddabetta, Elk Hill and Snowdon.

Heracleum (70, temperate areas in Northern Hemisphere and tropical mountains): candolleanum, large leafy herb,

common on higher grasslands; ceylanicum, tall herb, attractive Queen Anne's lace with white flowers, in the higher low-

lying marshes, spreading during monsoonal rains, and on the highest peaks; hookerianum, erect herb with leaves flat on

the ground, widespread in higher grasslands and on to highest peaks; rigens, tall herb, common on drier high grasslands.

Pimpinella (150, Africa, Eurasia, 1 sp. Pacific North America, a few in South America): candolleana, Cow Parsnip,

common herb on open downs, crushed leaves faintly smelling of anise, Nilgiris and Palnis.

VALERIANACEAE

Valeriana (over 200, Eurasia, South Africa, temperate North America, Andes): hookenana, herb, common on higher

downs; leschenaultii, herb, also on highest downs, Doddabetta to Lakkadi and Pykara.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

45

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

VIOLACEAE

Viola (500, cosmopolitan, chiefly northern temperate regions, but many in the Andes): hamiltoniana, Marsh Violet,

prefers wet areas; betonicifolia subsp. betonicifolia, Spear-leafed Violet, amidst grasses; pilosa, Common Wood Violet, in

sholas as well; all small perennial herbs on the downs.

XYRIDACEAE

Xyris (250, tropical and subtropical, but mostly American): capensis var. schoenoides, common herb in sunny and

moist areas within grasslands, Nilgiris, Palnis and Shevaroys.

NOTE. BECAUSE SOME OF THE PLANTS OR THEIR ANCESTORS MAY HAVE COME FROM MADAGASCAR

BEFORE THE INDIAN PENINSULA SPLIT AWAY AND MOVED NORTHWARDS IN THE CRETACEOUS PERIOD,

THE WORD MADAGASCAR SUGGESTS A POSSIBLE AFFINITY. SOME OF THE PLANTS LISTED BELOW

PROBABLY EVOLVED IN THE NILGIRIS.

ACANTHACEAE

Andrographis (20, tropical Asia, mostly in India), affinis, neesiana, products, subshrubs, widespread on Nilgiri

grasslands, often abundant in steep, rocky places; Nilgiris a center of evolution.

Strobilanthes (over 400, Asia, Sri Lanka to Japan, the Philippines and Australia, prominently in Western Ghats of

India): kunthianus, common multi-branched compact shrub to 2 m tall, on open grassland in flowering years, pale

blue to mauve flowers, a multiennial with recorded flowerings in approximately 12 year intervals causing spectacular floral

displays and its absence during the long intervals; people who have seen flowering Kurunji displays on mountain

slopes remember them with awe, in Palnis as well; sessilis, small erect herb with stems only 30 to 45 cm tall, blue-purple

to mauve flowers, a perennial flowering each year, Ootacamund to Pykara, Avalanche and into the Kundahs, not in

Palnis.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Ceropegia (160, Canary Islands, tropical Africa and South Africa, notably Madagascar, tropical and subtropical Asia):

ciliata, small herb amid grasses, climber on shrubs, also in Palnis; elegans, herb, runs in grass or climbs on to shrubs,

mostly east of Doddabetta to Kotagiri, southward from Nilgiris to Sri Lanka; pusilla, common, larger herb amid grasses of

the downs, roots are called Toda potatoes, also in Anairnalais but not Palnis.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens (about 550, both tropical and temperate, Eurasia and Africa, especially Madagascar and mountains of Sri

Lanka, southern India): chinensis, Chinese Balsam, herb, stem unbranched to 50 cm tall, opposing leaves, mauve-pink to

white flowers, common and widespread all over Nilgiris, also on the downs, but especially in damp places, perhaps the

most widely distributed of all the balsams, higher areas in Western Ghats and down to 900 m, Bhutan, Assam, Khasi Hills

and eastward to Burma and into China; tomentosa, annual erect herb with red-tinged stems, small rose-pink flowers,

sometimes abundant in marshes on the downs, also thriving next to streams, widespread, Thalakundah, Pykara and Upper

Bhavani — Western Ghats, Palnis as well.

COMPOSITAE

Anaphalis (35, Europe, Asia and Americas), 10 species in Nilgiris, herbs: aristata, aromatic flowers and sticky leaves,

on downs, in drier places; lawii, common everywhere, often on poorer soils; leptophylla, white everlasting, in damp places

on the downs; wightiana, common on downs, in damp and cooler niches.

Youngia (about 40, temperate and tropical Asia; originally from temperate Southeast Asia?): fuscipappa, more primitive

herb, Avalanche, Sispara and south into Sri Lanka; japonica subsp. genuina, Japanese Hawk’s Beard, herb, Western

Ghats to Ashambu Hills in India — Indo-Malaya to Japan and Korea.

CYPERACEAE

Fimbristylis (300, tropical and subtropical, especially Indo-Malaya and Australia): uliginosa, common sedge on open

downs, Ootacamund to Pykara and on tallest peaks, only Nilgiris and Palnis; look for dew glistening on the white styles in

the early morning.

Kyllinga (60, tropical and subtropical, especially Africa): melanosperma (or Carex melanospermus?), perennial

sedge on downs, Ootacamund to Pykara and Upper Bhavani, South Africa and Madagascar, Sri Lanka, Indo-

Malaya.

46

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Pycreus (109, tropical and subtropical): unioloides var. angulatus (or Carex unioloides ?), sedge, prefers marshes,

stem to 1 m, Nilgiris and Palnis.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Glochidion (300, Madagascar and tropical America [few], tropical Asia to Australia and Polynesia [many]): neilgherrense ,

small and untidy tree, male flowers with strong honey scent and female flowers with no scent, common species on downs,

but also grows in sholas.

HALORAGACEAE

Laurembergia (4, tropical South America, tropical Africa, Madagascar, Indo-Malaya): brevipes, a small marsh herb,

widespread on higher downs, Western Ghats, Nilgiris and Palnis; hirsuta , hairy herb on damp banks in grassy areas,

Doddabetta to Sispara, Western Ghats, Nilgiris but not Palnis.

MELASTOMACEAE

Osbeckia (100, tropics from Africa to Australia; India with a large share of the species): brachystemon, small herb,

widespread, amidst grasses; leschenaultiana, Red Osbeckia with red branches, purple flowers, a common shrub from

Ootacamund to Pykara and Sispara.

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis (28, mainly western Europe, Africa, Madagascar): arvensis, Common Pimpernel, widespread on downs,

flowers close in dull or cold weather.

RUBIACEAE

Hedyotis (150, tropical Asia): articularia, widespread shrub on downs, from Ootacamund to Bangitapal and Mudimund,

concentrating near streams; stylosa , shrub on downs, Ootacamund to Pykara and Sispara; verticillaris, herb on higher

western downs, sometimes abundant near streams, plant often stemless and flat on the ground, long parallel-ribbed

leaves forming a rosette.

COMMON PLANTS PROBABLY INTRODUCED BY HUMANS

COMPOSITAE

Eupatorium (1200, mostly America, a few in Europe, Asia and Africa): glandulosum, Goat Weed or the Curse of the

Nilgiris, first introduced to a garden in Ootacamund after 1900, but now an escape all over.

DENNSTAEDTIACEAE

Ptendium (1, cosmopolitan, and thus all over the world):) aquilinum, bracken, possibly introduced by the British.

OXALIDACEAE

Oxalis (800, cosmopolitan, but mainly Central and South America, South Africa, herbaceous weeds, troublesome in

cultivated areas and elsewhere): latifolia, from Mexico to Peru, now a widespread escape; pes-caprae, native of the Cape of

Good Hope and probably introduced early by settling British, now a curse amid cultivated potatoes because of its tubers;

purpurea, native of South Africa, probably introduced for British gardens in the early 1800s and now a weed in gardens;

spiralis, from the Chilean Andes, another garden escape; tetraphylla, from Mexico, widespread garden escape, most

troublesome in gardens.

PAPILIONOIDEAE

Cytisus (about 30, Atlantic Islands, Europe, Mediterranean): multiflorus, White Broom, bush, native to Algeria

but introduced from the Iberian Peninsula; scoparius, Yellow Broom, another bush, introduced from Scotland and

England.

Ulex (20, Europe, North Africa): europaeus, Common Gorse, probably introduced from Britain.

PLANTAGINACEAE

Plantago (265, cosmopolitan): lanceolata, Ribwort Plantain, a scattered weed.

VERBENACEAE

Lantana (150, tropical America, West Indies, tropical Africa and South Africa): camara, thorny tropical American shrub,

common from plains to 2,100 m, gregarious and typically growing in patches, possibly the most widespread problem plant

of India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

47

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

SHOLA FRINGE (FOREST— GRASSLAND ECOTONE) SPECIES

ACANTHACEAE

Strobilanthes asper, erect shrub to 6 m tall, purple-white flowers with a strong scent, within sholas but often more

abundant in their borders, no defined period for dying off, Ouchterlony Valley into the precipitous western edge and higher

downs beyond, not in, Palnis; foliosus, large gregarious shrub to 4 m tall, sometimes forming extensive masses, with pale

blue flowers, often in flower and apparently a perennial, not dying out at set intervals, common in sholas and their borders,

Coonoor to Ootacamund, Naduvattam and Sispara, also in Palnis; urceolaris, an erect shrub to 1 m tall with long internodes

when in sholas, very low shrub with low branching in open grassland, sometimes abundant in borders, pale blue flowers,

periodicity of dying remains unknown, near Ootacamund and in higher areas, also in Palnis; zenkenanus, gregarious

shrub, mauve to pale violet flowers, periodicity of dying remains unknown, thrives within sholas and is locally abundant in

borders and out into grasslands, bright green leaves larger on plants in shade, recorded at Coonoor and Doddabetta and

mostly living in higher sholas, in Palnis as well.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

Ilex (400, cosmopolitan, except North America): wightiana, common tree in sholas, sometimes a dominant, near

streams everywhere, flourishes in the open, forming small rounded trees; only on South Indian mountains, recommended

for shola regeneration.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens henslowiana, shrub to 2 m high, flowers white tinged pink, gregarious and forming clumps in moist shady

places, also in shola borders and alongside streams, only in Sri Lanka and mountains of extreme southern India; leschenaultii,

common balsam shrub, well-branched and very leafy to 1 m high and taller within darkened shola interiors, white flowers with

a pink tinge, flowering year-round, common near Ootacamund within sholas and in their borders, widespread in area and

elevation, Doddabetta to Pykara and the Kundahs, down to the Ouchterlony Valley, only in the Western Ghats, not the Palnis.

BERBERIDACEAE

Berberis (450, widespread in Eurasia, North Africa, North and South America): tinctoria, Common Nilgiri Barberry,

within and bordering sholas, variable in size and form, thorny shrub to 3,200 m in the temperate Himalaya.

Mahonia (70, Indo-Malaya, mainly Himalaya to Japan, North and South America): leschenaultii, Holly-leaf Barberry,

common large shrub in shola borders, higher elevations, closely related to nepalensis in the temperate Himalaya.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Lonicera (200, North America, Eurasia, South to North Africa, Himalaya, Malaysia, and to Philippines): leschenaultii,

common, tangled climber, especially abundant in shola borders; ligustrina, compact shrub, uncommon, preferring shaded

parts of shola borders; both being honeysuckles.

Viburnum (200, temperate and subtropical, especially Asia and North America, 16 in Malaysia): cylindricum, common

small evergreen tree in shola borders, widely distributed from Sri Lanka to the Himalaya and western China, Southeast

Asia; erubescens, shrub with forked white-barked branches and crimson leaf stalks, common in shola borders, higher

elevations, including Doddabetta and Ootacamund.

COMPOSITAE

Senecio (covered already, see above): neelgherryanus, Nilgiri Ragwort, herb, spreading from shola borders into

nearby grasslands; walked, with vines growing up into shola trees bordering grasslands.

Vernonia (1000, America, Africa, Asia and Australia, very common in grassy areas): bourdillonii, small shrub;

conyzoides, sturdy herb; malabanca, stout shrub; pectiniformis, shrub; while all may grow on grasslands, they commonly

thrive in shola borders.

DAPHNIPHYLLACEAE

Daphniphyllum (10, Indo-Malaya to Taiwan and Japan): neilgherrense, widespread tree, common in sholas and their

borders, but sometimes spreading into degraded open areas nearby; in Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, to Java and Korea as well.

ELAEAGNACEAE

Elaeagnus (45, mainly Northern Hemisphere, Eursa to North America): kologa, undershrub to climber over tall trees,

common in shola borders; mountains of Sri Lanka, Indo-Malaya and China.

48

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

ERICACEAE

Gaultheria (200, circum-Pacific and west to western Himalaya and south Indian hills): fragrantissima, very common

shrub in shola borders, but spreading into grasslands, with leaves crushed for its oil; in Nepal and Bhutan to 2,600 m.

Rhododendron (over 1 ,000, mainly in northern temperate regions, with South China into the Himalaya being the

world’s main region of diversity; a lesser centre in North America; about 300 in highland New Guinea): arboreum subsp.

nilagiricum , the ideal small tree coloniser and pyrophyte in the mountains of South India, spreading from sholas and their

borders into grasslands.

ICACINACEAE

Gomphandra (33, tropical Asia to Solomon Islands): coriacea, small tree or shrub, common within sholas and in their

borders.

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus (15, tropical Africa and Asia, Australia): angulosus, Hill Mallow, tall and coarse perennial herb, often

near streams, in shola borders, flowering in the coldest months, also spreading on to grasslands, Ootacamund to Kotagiri

and below Kodanad; only in higher mountains of Sri Lanka and extreme south India.

MYRTACEAE

Rhodomyrtus (20, in mountains from Sri Lanka to Philippines, New Caledonia and Australia): tomentosa , hill guava,

bush to small tree, thriving best on to open terrain from shola borders in mountains from Sri Lanka to Singapore.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum (300, Old World tropics and subtropics, over 50 in India, wild jasmine): bignoniaceum, erect shrub with

bright yellow flowers, near sholas and all over the downs; breviloban, large climbing shrub, far up on to tree crowns, with

terminal bunches of white flowers; cordifolium , shrub climbing up small trees, has large leaves and scentless white

flowers; all adapted to shola borders.

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala (about 550, cosmopolitan, excluding New Zealand, Polynesia and the Arctic): arillata, Red-eye or Common

Milkwort, yellow flowers, abundant shrub in shade of sholas, especially along borders, Coonoor, Kodanad and Ootacamund;

at higher elevations from Sri Lanka to Bhutan, southern China and the Philippines.

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis (250, cosmopolitan, chiefly in temperate regions): munroana, gregarious climber with vines reaching up

into tree crowns, shola border the ideal niche with solar energy promoting growth, Sispara area; wlghtiana , woody climber

with vines forming intertwined masses, Sholurmattam, near Ootacamund and to Avalanche; both only in southern India.

Ranunculus (400, cosmopolitan, temperate and cold regions, tropical mountains): diffusus , erect glossy herb with large

yellow flowers, in moist exposed ground, stream banks and shola borders; also lives from the Himalaya to Burma and

China.

RHAMNACEAE

Rhamnus (110, cosmopolitan): wightii, a large shola shrub or tree also growing on the downs, yellow flowers,

common in shola borders, widespread over the higher Nilgiris; only in Sri Lanka and southern India.

ROSACEAE

Photinia (60, Indo-Malaya, mainly Himalaya to Japan, North America): integrifolia var. sublanceolata , large evergreen

tree in sholas and smaller on grasslands, a pioneer species inclined to spread out from shola borders.

Potentilla indica, small prostrate perennial herb, yellow flowers and ripened red berries, flowering all year, locally

abundant on shola floors, especially in borders and moist places, common all over Nilgiris; Sri Lanka, Western Ghats,

Afghanistan, India, Himalaya, east to Malaysia, China and Japan.

RUBIACEAE

Psychotria (700, mostly warm regions): nilgiriensis var. nilgiriensis , shrub to small tree, at higher elevations,

on Doddabetta, common in sholas and spreading from their borders on to the downs; restricted to South Indian

mountains.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

49

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

SAPINDACEAE

Dodonaea (60, widespread in tropics and subtropics, especially Australia): viscosa var. angustifolia, shrub to small

tree, all over India, from plains high into the mountains, increasing in size with upward elevation, in shola borders and out

onto drier grasslands.

TERNSTROEMIACEAE

Ternstroemia (100, in the tropics): japonica, common, evergreen tree to shrub, in sholas and their borders, but also a

shade tree on open grassland; in parts of the Western Ghats, but not in the Palnis or Maharashtra, also in mountains from

Khasi Hills to Sumatra, China and Japan.

Out from shola borders, there may be varied mixes of fringe (forest-grassland ecotone) species and shola species to produce a true

SAVANNA (SABANA) WITH TREES WELL REPRESENTED. HOWEVER, AN ABRUPT SHIR FROM SHOLA FRINGE TO GRASSLAND IS CHARACTERISTIC OF NlLGIRI VEGETATION,

AND SAVANNAS THUS TEND TO BE LIMITED IN AREAL EXTENT. WHEN ANNUAL FIRINGS OF LANDSCAPES WERE PREVALENT, FIRE (AND ATTENDANT DEGENERATION OF

DAMAGED TREES THROUGH DISEASE) TENDED TO SLOWLY DESTROY TREE SPECIES UNTIL GRASSLAND DOMINATED. BECAUSE RHODODENDRONS WERE SUCH EXCEPTIONAL

PYROPHYTES, THEY OFTEN BECAME LONE SENTINELS ON THE GRASSLANDS. T HEY COULD EVEN SURVIVE WHEN OVER EIGHTY PERCENT OF THEIR TRUNK DIAMETERS WERE

BURNED AWAY BY FLAMES. WlTH THE ELIMINATION OF ANNUAL FIRINGS, SAVANNAS OF LIMITED AREAL EXTENT MAY RAPIDLY DEVELOP INTO SHOLAS.

SHOLA SPECIES

ACANTHACEAE

Strobilanthes luridus, extensive straggling giant shrub to 6 m tall, remarkable lurid purple to blue, sometimes white,

flowers in erect spikes to 25 cm long — at bases, lateral on old wood, flowering every year, forming dense undergrowth in

sholas, widespread from Coonoor (Lamb's Rock road) to Naduvattam and Sispara, also in Palnis; micranthus , giant shrub

to 10 m tall, with thick branches, stems so soft as to be almost herbaceous, large leaves, dark purple flowers, periods to

dying off 15 years(?), within higher sholas (most likely seen in Governor’s Shola and near Ootacamund), also in Palnis;

perrottetianus , large shrub, soft with red-purple hairs, pale blue-pink or lilac flowers, dies in 10 year periods (?), Coonoor,

Doddabetta, Pykara and Sispara down to the Ouchterlony Valley, not in the Palnis.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

Ilex denticulata, Nilgiri Holly, sometimes a large tree, common in sholas; only in mountains of South India and Sri

Lanka.

ARACEAE

Arisaema (150, East Africa, tropical Asia, Atlantic North America to Mexico): leschenaultii, Common Cobra Flower,

herb, in shady and cool places, thus mostly in sholas, Western Ghats; tortuosum, Rat’s-tail Cobra Flower, widespread herb,

in shade, mountains of India, from Shimla southward.

ARALIACEAE

Pentapanex (15, Himalaya to Taiwan, Java, Australia, South America): leschenaultii , well-branched tree or shrub,

occasionally epiphytic, at higher elevations, widespread from Western Ghats to Himalaya, Burma and western China.

Schefflera (200, tropics and subtropics, including cloud forests): racemosa, medium-sized tree, common, often near

streams, only in the Indian Peninsula and Sri Lanka.

BALSAMINACEAE

Impatiens campanulatus, shrub to 1.5 m high, white flowers with red throats, sometimes forming clumps on floor in

very moist and shady places, also grows where water drips on rocks, near Coonoor — only in the Western Ghats, Palnis as

well; fruticosa, erect, much branched shrub to 2.5 m tali, pink flowers with long spurs to 4 cm, particularly near streams

within sholas, widely distributed from Coonoor to Kotagiri, Bikkapatti, Ebanad, Pykara and Naduvattam — Western Ghats,

not the Palnis; latifolia, a herb up to 50 cm tall, grooved stems, deep rose to purple flowers, on moist shaded ground within

sholas, also doing well next to streams, widespread from Doddabetta to Coonoor and Naduvattam — only in Sri Lanka and

mountains of the Indian Peninsula; modesta, Sweet Seventeen, small herb, mauve-pink flowers, in shaded interiors,

Pykara and Naduvattam — restricted to portions of the Western Ghats, not the Palnis; pusilla, small herb, only 10 to 17 cm

high, flowers white with purple marks, widely distributed, from Doddabetta to Naduvattam, Mudimund and Bangihalla, highly

variable, distinct form rosmarinifolia being bushier with broader leaves and greenish thin flowers, in contrast to the commoner

form with longer and narrower leaves — only in southern Western Ghats, not the Palnis; scabriuscula, small herb, only 10

to 26 cm tall, branched from the base, white to pink flowers, no vestige of a spur, Naduvattam, Pykara and Sholur — from

South Canara and Coorg to the Wynaad and upper Nilgiris only.

50

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER N1LGIRIS

Like some orchids, there are balsams which prefer to live on rocks, e.g. Impatiens acaulis, small herb with stems

from 5 to 30 cm, pink or white flowers to 4 cm wide, on wet rocks in western escarpment zone, Naduvattam to Sispara, near

Avalanche and in the Kundahs, the Nilgiris and also Shevaroys below Shevaroyan; scapiflora, small herb with flowers near

the top of the stem and leaves from the base, pink flowers, on wet rocks, widespread from Pykara to Mudimund and along

the western escarpment south from Naduvattam — only in the Western Ghats, not Palnis.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

Viburnum punctatum, small evergreen tree, white to light yellow flowers, common in lower parts of the Upland Island,

not Ootacamund but lower downs to the west, Western Ghats from Karnataka south, Palnis as well

CELASTRACEAE

Euonymus (176, with greatest numbers in the Himalaya, China and Japan): crenulatus , Spindle Tree or shrub,

common near ground in shola interiors, especially near Pykara, red flowers at lower and pink flowers at higher altitudes.

Microtropis (70, Indo-Malaya to China, Mexico and Central America): microcarpa , shrub to tree, Ootacamund to Kotagiri,

Western Ghats and Palnis; ramiflora, medium-sized evergreen tree, common, excellent for shola regeneration, also in Sri

Lanka.

COMPOSITAE

Vernonia (1000, America, Africa, Asia and Australia, very common in grassy areas): conyzoides, herb, in Ootacamund

and at higher levels; monasis, tree, conspicuous in April and May when its abundant flowers give off a scent; pectiniformis,

common shola shrub, from Ootacamund to the Kundahs.

CRUCIFERAE

Cardamine (160, cosmopolitan, but chiefly temperate): africana, small perennial herb, common on shady and moist

shola floors, higher mountains of Sri Lanka and India; in tropical mountains of Africa, Asia and America.

CYATHEACEAE

Cyathea (600, tropical and subtropical regions, but especially in mountains of wet tropics): schmidiana and spinulosa,

two representative tree ferns living in the Nilgiris, typically in moist, darker shola interiors; the first recorded at Avalanche,

Coonoor, Kilkotagiri and Ootacamund, the second at Bikkapattimund and Coonoor

ELAEOCARPACEAE

Elaeocarpus (200, from Indo-Malaya to East Asia, Australia and into the Pacific; in tropical cloud-forests as well):

glandulosus , Nilgiri Mock-olive Tree, often planted near villages, edible green fruit, in mid-level evergreen forests at Coonoor

and Kotagiri, example of a species growing at subtropical mountain levels; munronii, Stately Tree, dark green fruit, Coonoor

Sholurmattam, Naduvattam, Kinnakorai, i.e., lower portions of the Upland Island; recurvatus, tree, dark green fruit, common

within sholas from Doddabetta to Avalanche and Mukerti.

ERICACEAE

Vaccinium (400, mainly temperate North Hemisphere, but also in tropical mountains, in South Africa but not the rest

of Africa, Madagascar): leschenaultii, common shola tree with purple young leaves in April and May, only in mountains of Sri

Lanka and South India.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Macaranga (280, tropics, Madagascar, Indo-Malaya to Australia and Pacific, many species having hollow stems

inhabited by ants): indica, tree, another mid-level evergreen species, Devala and Sholurmattam, fast growing and often in

secondary forest, scattered from Sikkim to the Nilgiris.

FLACOURTIACEAE

Hydnocarpus (40, Indo-Malaya to Australia): alpina, tree in dense mid-level evergreen forest, dark green to almost

black foliage and brilliant red young leaves, often forming solid stands in moist valleys, as in forest below Coonoor.

ICACINACEAE

Nothapodytes (4, Sri Lanka to Taiwan and western Malaysia): nimmoniana, common in higher sholas everywhere,

compact shrub to tree, excellent for shola regeneration; Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, Nilgiris, Palnis, also Assam, Burma to

Thailand and Taiwan.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

51

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

LAURACEAE

Actinodaphne (65, Indo-Malaya and East Asia): salicina , small evergreen tree, in Sispara area and Kundahs.

Cinnamomum (250, Indo-Malaya to East Asia; tropical cloud forests as well): wightii, large and tall shola tree, brown

flowers, coppery new growth, common, from Doddabetta to Kollimund; only in Western Ghats, Palnis as well.

Cryptocarya (250, tropical, except Central Africa and subtropics): lawsoni, widespread in higher sholas, stout tree in

the Kundahs; mostly in Western Ghats and not in the Palnis.

Litsaea (400, warm Asia and to Korea, Japan; Australia and America): quinqueflora, small tree, scattered in sholas,

Avalanche to Coonoor and Sholurmattam; wightiana, large evergreen tree, everywhere in higher sholas, young leaves

reddish, later develop characteristic galls; both species confined to the Indian Peninsula, Palnis as well.

Persea (150, tropics): macrantha, large tree, leaves often with characteristic galls, black to dark green fruit, widespread

in lower sholas, to 2,100 m, Coonoor and below; Eastern Ghats, Palnis to Ashambu Hills.

Phoebe (70, Indo-Malaya, tropical America and West Indies; tropical cloud forests as well): wightii, common tree in

higher sholas, sometimes a dominant, fresh foliage copper coloured, flowers and fruit all year; southern Indian hills,

including the Palnis.

MAGNOLIACEAE

Michelia (50, tropical Asia and China): nilagihca, common tree, widespread in higher sholas, beautiful cream-coloured

and fragrant flowers in August-September, Kotagiri to Ootacamund and the Kundahs; southernmost mountains, including

the Palnis.

MELIOSMACEAE [= SABIACEAE]

Meliosma (100, warm Asia and America; in tropical cloud forests as well): pinnata subsp. amottiana, deciduous tree

in borders, 12 m tall in shola interiors but only 6 m on open grasslands, cream coloured flowers with a sweet honey smell

- en masse and covering trees when in bloom, Ebanad to Ootacamund and Sispara Ghat, also in mid-level evergreen

forests near Coonoor, Kotagiri and Pykara; simplicifolia subsp. pungens, Spiraea Tree, widespread evergreen, higher

elevation replacement of the prior species, usually small, but larger in shola interiors, cream coloured fragrant flowers; both

only in Western Ghats, Palnis as well.

MYRSINACEAE

Myrsine (7, Azore, Africa to China): wightiana, common tree in higher sholas, usually small but occasionally large;

Western Ghats, Nilgiris and Palnis, also in Nepal, Bhutan, Assam and the Khasi hills.

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium (500, palaeotropical): cumini, wild tree and sometimes cultivated for its fruit, at lower, elevations, in sholas

near Coonoor and Kotagiri, fruit gathered and sold, also spread from Indo-Malaya to Australia; densifiorum, common tall

tree, sometimes dominant, Nilgiris, Palnis and Shevaroys; calophyllifolium, only in Nilgiris and on Adam’s Peak in Sri

Lanka, mainly over higher western Nilgiris, one of the largest shola trees, eventually [at over 18 m] an emergent; montanum,

numbered among the largest of shola trees, widespread.

OLEACEAE

Ligustrum ( c . 50, Europe to northern Iran, East Asia, Indo-Malaya to New Guinea and Australia): perrottetii, small

evergreen tree, Kotigiri, Kalhatti to Upper Bhavani; only Nilgiris, Palnis and Shevaroys.

ORCHIDACEAE

Nilgiri orchids are herbaceous plants that may be terrestrial (rooted in the ground), sometimes requiring shade far in

the interiors of sholas, or epiphytic (roots supported by host shrubs or trees, but not exploiting them for sustenance).

Epiphyte orchids often do well amidst mosses on branches that are moistened or even drenched by incoming clouds and

mist, thus living in what are generally called cloud forests. Some species of terrestrial or epiphytic orchids also occupy

exposed rock surfaces. Few people realize that it is in rainy periods during the westerly monsoon and the reverse monsoon,

reaching a climax in some areas during September, that many flowering orchids present magnificent floral displays that are

beyond imagination in the dry period. What seems barren and colourless then has vividly coloured palettes inspiring awe

and reverence after the rains have come. The Nilgiri Upland Island has a host of orchids, only the related genera of these

orchids will in their international distribution be covered under three corresponding headings: 1) terrestrial orchids,

2) epiphytic orchids, and 3) orchid genera having at least one species that may inhabit rock surfaces.

52

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Terrestrial Orchids: Anoectochilus (25, tropical Asia, Australia, Polynesia); Brachycorythis (32, tropical and South Africa,

tropical Asia); Calanthe (120, warm parts of the world); Cheirostylis (22, tropical Africa, Asia, Pacific); Coeloglossum (2, temperate

Asia, North America); Cymbidium (40, tropical Asia, Australia); Disperis (75, tropical and South Africa, Indo-Malaya); Eulophia

(200, pantropic); Habenaria (600, tropical and warm countries, Old and New Worlds); Pachystoma (11, China, Indo-Malaya,

North Australia, New Caledonia); Pecteilis (4, Indo-Malaya, East Asia); Peristylus (60, China, Taiwan, India to Australia, Polynesia);

Satyrium (115, tropical Africa and South Africa, Indo-Malaya, Tibet, and China); Seidenfia (300, cosmopolitan, except New

Zealand); and Spiranthes (25, cosmopolitan, except Central and tropical South America, tropical and South Africa).

Epiphytic Orchids: Aerides (40, India, Japan, Vietnam, Malaysia, not New Guinea); Bulbophyllum (900, tropical and

temperate Southern Hemisphere); Cirrhopetalum (70, tropical Africa, Indo-Malaya to Tahiti), Coelogyne (200, West China,

Indo-Malaya, Pacific); Cymbidium (see above); Dendrobium (1,400, tropical Asia to Australia and Polynesia); Diplocentrum

(2, only in India); Ena (3.75, tropical Asia, Australia, Polynesia); Gastrochilus (20, India, East Asia, West Malaysia); Liparis

(250, cosmopolitan, except New Zealand); Luisia (30, tropical Asia to Japan and Polynesia); Oberonia (330, palaeotropical);

Porpax (10, India into Thailand); Robiquetia (20, India, Southeast Asia, Malaysia, to Solomons and Fiji); Schoenorchis (20,

China, Indo-Malaya, Solomons, Fiji); Sirhookera (27, probably only 1, India, Sri Lanka); Thrixspermum (100, Indo-Malaya,

Southeast Asia to Taiwan, Australia and Polynesia); Trias (6, India, Southeast Asia); Trichoglottis (60, Taiwan, Indo-Malaya,

Polynesia); Vanda (60, China, Indo-Malaya, Mariana Islands).

Orchid Genera with atleast one species that may inhabit Rock Surfaces: Aerides, Coelogyne, Cymbidium,

Gastrochilus, Habenaria, Schoenorchis, Vanda.

Orchids Living Within Sholas: Aerides ringens, Rose Tree Orchid, always in shade, pink flowers before the westerly

monsoon, all over the Nilgiris; Western Ghats.

Calanthe sylvatica, Ground Orchid, deep purple flowers, in deep shade, widespread to above 2,000 m, eastern Africa

to Western Ghats, including the Palnis, Himalaya eastward to Japan; triplicata, Big Wood Orchid, ground orchid with tall

racemes of white flowers, in deep shade, sometimes common and forming large patches, Kotagiri and Kodanad, in

Longwood Shola, Coonoor and Doddabetta to Avalanche and Naduvattam, Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, Palnis, to Malaya,

Australia and the Pacific.

Cheirosotylis flabellata, Small Ground Orchid with white flowers, lover of shade, where there is decaying organic

matter, common on Snowdon, near Ootacamund, Coonoor to Kalhatti and Pakasuramalai; Sri Lanka and southern India,

including the Palnis.

Cirrhopetalum gamblei, flowers are yellow-green with purple spots, epiphyte in the Kundahs and Naduvattam, near

western escarpment, Kalhatti, Naduvattam and Pakasuramalai; Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, also the Palnis.

Coelogyne nervosa, Lesser Plantain Ground Orchid, white flowers, Coonoor to Sispara, Kotagiri to Ootacamund

and Naduvattam; odoratissima, Sweet-scented Plantain Ground Orchid, yellow flowers, commonly growing in dense masses

on trees, widespread, Doddabetta to Avalanche, Bangitapal and Lakkadi; Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, but not in the

Palnis.

Dendrobium nanum, epiphyte with white flowers, in Naduvattam area, Western Ghats.

Disperis neilgherrensis, ground orchid with purple flowers, Coonoor and Ootacamund to Avalanche and Naduvattam;

South India generally, extinct in the Palnis?

Eria nana, especially common on tree boughs with damp moss, transparent flowers, on slopes of Snowdon near

Ootacamund, to Avalanche and Naduvattam, in Western Ghats and Palnis; polystachya, pale yellow flowers, Devarshola

and Naduvattam; reticosa, orange yellow flowers with white tips, common in sholas, Coonoor and Kodanad to Ootacamund

and Pykara; last two are epiphytes in Sri Lanka and Western Ghats, but not in the Palnis.

Eulophia spectabilis, large ground orchid with leaf blades 30 to 40 cm long, yellow flowers, in the Catherine Falls

valley; tropical Himalaya to Western Ghats and Sri Lanka, eastward to Indonesia and New Guinea.

Gastrochilus acaulis, green-blotched purple flowers, epiphyte near Kotagiri and in the Catherine Falls valley; Sri

Lanka, Western Ghats, Palnis as well.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

53

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Liparis atropurpurea , epiphyte in darkened interiors, dark purple flowers, higher elevations, Pykara, Avalanche,

Mukerti and the Kundahs — Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, Palnis; elliptica , epiphyte in shade, ascending white, green

or yellow flowers, Kotagiri and Doddabetta — Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, Palnis, Nepal eastward to Indonesia and

Taiwan.

Oberonia brunoniana, pale yellow flowers, from Ootacanuind to Pykara, Naduvattam and Bangitapal; platycaulon,

white or pale yellow flowers, Mukerti Peak area and in the Kundahs, Ootacamund to Naduvattam; verticillata, light orange

flowers, common, Bikkapattimund, Pykara to Avalanche: wightiana, common on trees, sometimes forming dense masses,

pale yellow-green flowers, all over the higher Nilgiris; all are epiphytes, Western Ghats, Palnis as well, two latter species

also in Sri Lanka.

Pecteilis gigantea. Robust Ground Orchid, to over a metre tall, fragrant white flowers, Ootacamund to Nadgani; tropical

Flimalaya to Western Ghats, Palnis as well, and as far as China.

Seidenfia densiflora, in deep shade, purple flowers, from Kotagiri and Ootacamund to Pykara and Bison Swamp;

rheedii , Common Ground Orchid, thriving on humus in deep shade, yellow to rusty flowers, in the Naduvattam area; both

ground orchids, Sri Lanka, Western Ghats, Palnis as well, and Indian Peninsula.

PEPEROMIACEAE

Peperomia (over 1000, tropics and subtropics, especially America, many being epiphytes): tetraphylla, Pepper-elder,

abundant, small epiphytic herb on branches, often amidst mosses and in shade, Coonoor, Kotagiri, Pykara and Upper

Bhavani; Himalaya, Khasi Hills and into Burma, China, Australia, Africa and America.

PIPERACEAE

Piper (2000, tropical): mullesua, Ootacamund, common in Longwood Shola, near Kotagiri; schmidtii, Toda Pepper,

prefers shade like the others, in sholas near Ootacamund, widespread; wightii, Coonoor and lower places; wild pepper

species, rooting in host trees as vines spread upwards, Western Ghats.

PITTOSPORACEAE

Pittosporum (150, tropical and subtropical Africa, Asia, Australia, New Zealand, Pacific): neelgherrense,

small tree, widespread; tetraspermum, Common Yellow Sticky-seed, small tree, widespread; Western Ghats, Palnis as well

RANUNCULACEAE

Ranunculus (400, cosmopolitan, temperate and cold regions, tropical mountains): wallichianus, Common Buttercup,

gregarious herb spreading by runners, in moist and shaded ground, especially within shola interiors, flowers orange to

yellow, Kotagiri, Ootacamund and Naduvattam; only in hills of southern India and Sri Lanka.

RHAMNACEAE

Rhamnus virgatus, Indian Buckthorn, normally erect but a spiny and stunted shrub iri dry places, a part of forest

undergrowth, widespread; southern India, temperate Himalaya and to western China.

ROSACEAE

Fragaria (15, North America, Chile, Eurasia and South India): nilgerrensis, White Strawberry, white to yellow flowers,

common in shady places, mainly sholas, Kotagiri to Ootacamund, Pykara and Upper Bhavani; India, eastern Himalaya to

western China.

Photinia lindleyana , Lindley’s Rowan, small tree with crooked branches, Ootacamund, Pykara and the Kundahs, not

in Palnis.

RUBIACEAE

Ixora (400 sp , tropical) notoniana , short and slender tree, white tinged with pink to red flowers, common from inner

darkened parts to shola borders, widespread over lower parts of the Upland Island; only in mountains of extreme southern

India.

Lasianthus (150, Indo-Malaya; 15 sp., trop. Africa): acuminatus, shrub, like coffee bushes, to 6 m from shola floor,

abundant and sometimes dominant, widespread with distribution paralleling that of the following species: venulosis , well-

branched shrub, common in the shade of trees, sometimes dominant, yellow white flowers, widespread and into highest

areas as well; both only in the mountains of extreme southern India.

54

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Pavetta (400, palaeotropical) breviflora, small tree to shrub, to 8 m tall, white flowers, undergrowth on shola floors,

widespread in higher areas; only in Western Ghats

Psychotria (700, mostly warm regions); bisulcata , shrub, starry green flowers, in shade, next to Lamb’s Rock Road,

Kodanad and widespread, to tops of peaks; glandulosa , large shrub to small tree, green-white flowers, in shade, widespread

but at lower elevations; both only in the Western Ghats.

RUTACEAE

Euodia (45, tropical Africa, Asia, Australia and Pacific): lunur-ankenda, small tree, yellow-green flowers, everywhere in

sholas, in places to high elevations; Sri Lanka, southern Indian hills, Khasi Hills and east to Java.

Toddalia (1, tropical Africa, Madagascar, tropical Asia): asiatica var. floribunda, rambling woody climber, as thick as a

human arm at ground level, twigs armed with curved prickles, cream coloured flowers, common in sholas, Coonoor, Pykara

to the Kundahs; widely in India and to China and Java.

SAPOTACEAE

Isonandra (10, Sri Lanka, southern India, Malay Peninsula, Borneo): perrottetiana, tree, yellow and fragrant flowers,

locally abundant in sholas at higher elevations, particularly in the Kundahs; confined to Western Ghats.

Xantolis (100, Tropics): tomentosa , tree with thorns, cream coloured flowers, sometimes a dominant in sholas,

flushing a blaze of scarlet when leaves are young in December; var elongioides, over a wide elevation range, from Sirur to

Ootacamund, confined to southern India.

STAPHYLEACEAE

Turpinia (about 35, Sri Lanka, Indo-Malaya to Japan, central and tropical South America): nepalensis , one of the

commonest shola trees, sometimes dominant, small pale yellow to cream coloured flowers, sometimes part of a substorey

but also an emergent, all over and thriving in the higher elevations, ideal for shola regeneration; Western Ghats, southeast

Himalaya, Assam, Burma to Malaya, Yunnan in China.

SYMPLOCACEAE

Symplocos (350, tropical and subtropical, Asia into Australia, Polynesia and America, often at higher altitudes):

foliosa, tree with smooth grey bark and silky young leaves, white flowers, mainly in higher western sholas from Doddabetta

to Pykara and Avalanche — only in Western Ghats and into southern Kerala; laurina, a carpet of yellow leaves below the

small tree or shrub reveal its presence in a shola, white flowers with a yellow tinge, mainly east of Doddabetta and into mid-

level evergreen forests near Coonoor and Kotagiri — South India mountains and from Sikkim to the Khasi Hills and on to

China, Japan and Australia; obtusa. moderate sized to large tree, white flowers, around Doddabetta and over the higher

southwestern Kundahs, only on southern Indian hills

TERNSTROEMIACEAE

Eurya (130, Indo-Malaya to East Asia, and into the Pacific): nitida, perhaps a shrub near Ootacamund, but also a large

interior shola tree, white flowers, common over higher areas; mountains in Sri Lanka, India and to Southeast Asia, China

and Japan.

THEACEAE

Gordonia (40, Indo-Malaya to Taiwan; 1 sp. in southeastern US): obtusa, moderate-sized evergreen tree; beautiful

large cream to white flowers with many yellow stamens in middle, reminding one of tea flowers, showy, forming carpets on

ground below when falling; fairly common and especially near water, Ootacamund — in the swamp below Havelock Road

and in sholas on the downs, Coonoor and Pykara, but more common east of Doddabetta; only in Western Ghats, Palnis as

well.

THYMELEACEAE

Gnidia (100, tropical Africa and South Africa, Madagascar, southwestern Arabia, western portion of Indian Peninsula

and Sri Lanka): glauca, well-branched shrub or small tree, yellow flowers, in Nilgiri sholas, widespread, with considerable

elevation range, but more common in the lower parts of the Upland Island; var. stsparensis, shrub, mainly the Kundahs,

Palghat Hills just to the south of the Nilgiris, Ebanad - Sirur and into old Mysore just to the north; widely ranging in Sri Lanka,

peninsular India and in Africa, from Malawi to Ethiopia, the Sudan and Mozambique.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

55

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

URTICACEAE

Chamabaina (2, Indo-Malaya to Taiwan): cuspidata herb with male and female flowers, flowering in August, uncommon,

only from Naduvattam to Terrace Estate and along the western escarpment with moist sholas, also on moist ground next to

streams.

Droguetia (12, tropical Africa and South Africa, Madagascar, Arabia, South India, Java): iners subsp. urticoides , herb,

cream flowers green-tinged throughout the year, gregarious, forming dense mats in moist and shady places on ground

within shoals, widespread and in highest areas; mountains of South India and Java.

Elatostema (200, tropics, Old World): acuminatum, in gorge opposite Bangitapal bungalow, also Coonoor and Sispara,

Sri Lanka, South India, Khasi Hills into Malaya; lineolatum, Naduvattam and western escarpment to Sispara, Sri Lanka,

South India, tropical Himalaya to Khasi Hills; sessile, in sholas from Ootacamund to Coonoor, Naduvattam and Avalanche

— southern India, Himalaya, from Chamba to Sylhet (Bangladesh) and much farther eastward to Malaya and Japan, also

tropical Africa; surculosum, sometimes epiphytic on tree trunks, widespread form Coonoor to Doddabetta and Naduvattam

to Avalanche — Sri Lanka, southern India, Himalaya from Shimla (Himachal Pradesh) to Nagaland; all four are herb to

undershrub species, with cream flowers, thriving in deep shade within moist evergreen sholas and on moistened rocks in

stream valleys.

Girardinia (8, tropical Africa, Madagascar, Indo-Malaya, East Asia): palmata, Nilgiri Nettle, herb to shrub, spreading on

ground in shade, avoid long stinging hairs on leaves, flowers also armed with numerous stinging hairs, widespread and

common, Kotagiri, Coonoor and Ootacamund to Naduvattam; confined to hills of extreme southern India.

Laportea (23, tropical and subtropical, South Africa, Madagascar, temperate East Asia, eastern North America):

crenulata, Elephant or Fever or Devil Nettle, stout shrub to small tree with soft stems, bark white and smooth with fibres

useful for cordage, sting from hairs on leaves very painful and lasting, more so when plant is flowering, sometimes also

induces violent sneezing and fever — only in Western Ghats(?); terminalis, Milder Stinging Nettle, herb in deep shade,

locally abundant, green-white flowers, stingers on stems and leaves, Kotagiri, Ootacamund to Naduvattam and Avalanche

— in mountains of Sri Lanka, South India, Kumaon to Bhutan in the Himalaya, Tibet and to Malaysia and Central China.

Lecanthus (1 tropical Africa, 1 Indo-Malaya into East Asia, 1 Fiji): peduncularis, low-lying succulent herb, in moist and

shaded places, Ootacamund to Pykara and Naduvattam; Africa, India, Southeast Asia, into Java, southern China and

Taiwan.

Pilea (400, Tropics): wightii, Soft Nettle, annual or perennial herb forming mats on deeply shaded evergreen shola

floors, without stinging hairs, flowers cream with green tinge, locally abundant, highest areas Doddabetta and Bikkapattimund;

Sri Lanka, southern Indian hills, temperate Himalaya and mountains to Java.

56

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Appendix 3: Nilgiri Endemic Species and Endemic Varieties

Based upon listings or first descriptions in Abraham and Mehrotra (1982); Balasubramanian (1972); Bhargavan

and Mohanan (1982); Blasco (1970); Fyson (1932); Gamble (1967); Henry, Vivekananthan, and Nair (1978);

Joseph and Vajravelu (1981); Karunakaran (1991); Manilal and Kumar (1984 a,b); Mohanan and Balakrishnan

(1991); Nair (1991); Nair etal. (1982); Nayar(1980); Rathakrishnan and Chithra (1984); Shetty and Vivekananthan

(1981); Subbha Rao and Kumari (1975); Subbha Rao, Kumari, and Chandrasekharan (1973); and Vajravelu,

Rathakrishnan, and Bhargavan (1983).

MH = Madras Herbarium, Coimbatore; CNH = Central National Herbarium, Kolkata (= Calcutta).

(*) Endemic to the Kundah hills in the western Nilgiris (+) Nilgiri endemics elsewhere which also live in the

Kundahs

ACANTHACEAE

*Andrographis lawsoni Gamble, low shrubs in grassland, dark brownish-purple flowers, fairly common; Upper Bhavani

to Bangihalla, Toda hamlet of Koshti, 2,000-2,300 m.

Andrographis lobeloides Wt., procumbent herb, small leaves, large brown flowers; fairly common on grassland,

Coonoor and Ootacamund to Pykara, 1,800-2,400 m.

Andrographis stellulata Cl., erect herb, leaves stigose above and tomentose below, pale pink flowers, rare, at about

1,800 m.

+Strobilanthes amabalis Cl., sticky shrub, pink flowers, (?)10-year period, fairly common, 1,000-1,800 m.

+Strobilanthes lanatum Nees, beautiful erect shrub, green parts covered with yellow wool, pale blue flowers, dying-off

intervals of perhaps 6 or 7 years, on higher Kundah grasslands, spectacular in spreading out on to sheer rocky cliffs of the

western escarpment, Ootacamund to Sispara.

+Strobilanthes papillosus T. Anders., large shrub with big blue flowers, dying out periodicity unknown, only in the

higher sholas and perhaps best known from flowerings at Doddabetta and Sispara in 1883, now rare.

+Strobilanthes wightianus Nees, low gregarious shrub, pale blue flowers every year, fairly common, 1,800-

2,400 m.

+Strobilanthes sessilis Nees var. sessiloides Wt., small undershrub, flowering annually or at short intervals throughout

the year, mauve flowers, 2,000-2,600 m.

*Strobilanthes violacea, large shrub with beautiful blue to purple flowers, common but rarely in bloom and therefore

believed to have long periods (13 years?) before dying out, only thriving within the highest sholas and on grasslands near

Bangitappal and Sispara (in MH).

*Thunbergia bicolor { Wt.) Lindau, large climber, little known, Sispara Ghat, c. 1,500 m.

APIACEAE

+Heracleum hookerianum Wt. & Am., large herb with leaves on the ground, fairly common on grasslands, Snowdon

to Avalanche.

AQUIFOLIACEAE

*//ex gardneriana Wt., Sispara Ghat, a scarce shrub or small tree, at c.1,800 m (no specimen in MH).

ARACEAE

*Arisaema translucens Fisch., herb, Thaishola, at c. 1,600 m (in MH).

Arisaema tuberculatum Fisch., rare and virtually unknown, 2,100-2,250 m.

+Arisaema tylophorum Fisch., fairly common, 1,800 m and above.

ARALIACEAE

*Schefflera rostrata Harms., shrub to large tree in sholas, fairly common, above 2,100 m.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

+Baeolepis nervosa (Wt. and Am.) Decne, climbing undershrub, the only endemic genus of the Nilgiri montane flora

and the only species in the genus, fairly common; easterly Nilgiris, in forests below Coonoor and from Wellington to Kotagiri

and Kodanad, 1,500-2,250 m.

Caralluma nilagiriana Kumari and Subbha Rao, between Ebanad and Anaikatti, near 900 m.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

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AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

ASPLENIACEAE

Asplenium exiguum Bedd., fern collected from the river bank above Kalhatty Falls (1,100 m), in c.1860 by Beddome,

later collected again on rocks close to the original site; also found on way to Adaripatti, at 1500 m.

BALSAM IN AC EAE

+lmpatiens clavicornu Turcz, white orchid balsam, small herb to c. 30 cm high, single stem and leaves from the base,

white flowers, sometimes abundant in the grasses of the downs, flowering July to September with monsoonal rains, like so

many of the balsams and orchids; widespread, Coonoor to Doddabetta, Pykara and Mudimund, 1,800-2,400 m.

Impatiens cuspidata Wt., well-branched shrub, often over I m tall, stem and branches covered with blue-white powder,

pale pink flowers, common alongside Lamb’s Rock Road from Coonoor, widely distributed within sholas to Kodanad and

Sispara, 1,500-2,100 m; also, according to Dr. Tarun Chhabra, “a variety with brighter pink flowers in the Sispara area."

Impatiens debilis Turcz., herb with small pink flowers, rare; rediscovered lately by Chhabra in the Sispara area.

*lmpatiens denisonii Bedd., herb, pink flowers, on wet rocks, Sispara Ghat, rare, 900-1,500 m; rediscovered by

Chhabra in 2002.

*lmpatiens laticornis Fisch., very small herb to 15 cm tall, white flowers with yellow to orange hairs or pink with

magenta hairs, to 4 cm across, now an epiphyte on wet rocks or tree trunks, still thriving best in deep shade of sholas,

Naduvattam to Sispara and particularly in the western escarpment zone, elsewhere in Kundahs above 2,400 m, rare;

rediscovered by Chhabra near Mukerti and in the Western Catchments, and seen by him many times over the years.

*lmpatiens lawsoni Hook, a small herb, remarkable for surviving on wet rocks in the dense shade of wet sholas, only

in the Kundahs, rare; “with many, many variations” according to Chhabra, who has found this species in the areas of

Bangitappal, Mukerti and Nilgiri peaks, and in the Western Catchments.

*lmpatiens levingei (Hook.) Gamble, small herb, with leaves and stems rising from the base, leaves nearly round,

carmine flowers, prefers living on wet rocks, seen next to Lamb's Rock Road near Coonoor, Hulikal and slope below the

Toda hamlet of Pishkwasht, widespread in the lower levels of the Upland Island

* Impatiens munronii Wt., undershrub in the dense shade of sholas, sparingly branched and up to 60 cm tall, flowers

a mixture of green, white and pink, Sispara Sholas, but Chhabra also found it past Nadgani, off the path from Bangitappal

to Sispara, 1,500-1,900 m

*lmpatiens neo-barnesii Fisch., most extraordinary of the balsams, having evolved into an epiphyte on moss-covered

tree trunks and branches exposed to heavy rain and mist from Malabar, leaves and flowers hanging down, very fragile cream

to white flowers, wing petals curled into a tube from which water drips, in deep shade of very wet sholas or scattered trees

in the Kundahs — only in a limited portion of the western escarpment zone (start looking from near the top of Mukerti),

typically ranging to 2,450 m, rare; more recently (1970) recorded in Nilgiri Peak R.F. and also rediscovered by Chhabra in

2001, near Bangitappal and Pandiar, and in the Western Catchments; he notes that this species “has an earlier climax in

flowering, in August rather than September” (no specimen in MH).

* Impatiens nilgirica Fisch., very small herb, stem and leaves rising from base, stems from 16 to 30 cm tall, leaves

rounded, pink flowers, in grass on the Kundahs, Avalanche to Mukerti Peak, also on rocks, up to the tops of peaks, rare;

rediscovered by Chhabra (photograph of the flower by Chhabra on the front cover of Sanctuary , 1997, No. 2; in MH).

+*lmpatiens orchioides Bedd., very small herb with white flowers, normally on ground in wet sholas, but occasionally

epiphytic on a mass of branches — only at high elevations near Avalanche and in the western escarpment zone of the

Kundahs, fairly common to 2,450 m; found by Chhabra near Mukerti, Bangitappal and in the Western Catchments.

*lmpatiens rufescens (Wt. & Arn.) Benth., Pink Marsh Balsam, small herb, stems rising and forming clumps, rose pink

flowers, on Wenlock Downs, banks of the Pykara River and in swamps within the downs, rare; "its range extends to the

Mukerti area” Chhabra.

+*lmpatiens tenella (Wt. & Arn.) Heyne, slender small herb, flat pink to rosy flowers, growing in moist sholas from

Naduvattam and in the western escarpment zone to Sispara, at c. 1,800 m.

BERBER IDACEAE

Berberis nilghiriensis Ahrendt., rare and hardly known.

CAPRIFOLIACEAE

+ Viburnum hebanthum Wt. & Am., a small spreading tree with bright green foliage, in the same habitats as erubescens,

often on the outskirts of sholas; known from Ootacamund to Pykara, 1,800-2,400 m.

CELASTRACEAE

Microtropis densiflora Wt., mostly on outer slopes of the far western Nilgiris, below Sispara and in dense forest; found

near Pykara in 1971.

+Microtropis ovalifolia Wt., fairly common shrub, Coonoor, Pykara, and generally near streams in the western Nilgiris,

1,800-2,400 m.

58

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

COMPOSITAE

+Anaphalis neelgerryana (Sch.-Bip. ex DC) DC., low, much-branched shrub with small leaves, preferring dry and

exposed places, fairly common, above 2,100 m.

+Anaphalis notoniana DC., herb with thick soft leaves, fairly common; Church Hill in Ootacamand, Doddabetta, hill

behind Avalanche, above 2,100 m.

*Helichrysum wightii (Hook.) Cl. ex Hook., herb with woody rootstock in grasslands between Bangitappal and

Sispara, its woolly leaves sometimes colouring the landscape a silvery white above Sispara, at about 2,200 m (Specimen

in MH).

*Myriactis wightii DC var. bellidioides Hook, f., scapigerous herb in grassland within the Bangitappal Valley, Bangihalla

(in MH).

*Senecio kundiacus Fisch., herb in grasslands, rare (no specimen in MH).

*Senecio lawsonii Gamble, slender herb in grasslands, fairly common; Bangihalla, between Avalanche and Sispara,

Bangitappal, Sispara; collected by Shetty at Bangihalla and Sispara after 85 years, 2,000-2,300 m (in MH).

+Senecio lessingianus (Wt. & Am.) Cl. , in the western escarpment zone and above Neduvattam, fairly common, above

1,800 m.

+Senecio polycephalus (DC.) Cl., erect herb, fairly common on grasslands, Snowdon slopes, above 1,800 m.

*Youngia nilgiriensis Babe., herb in grasslands, a more primitive species, apparently a relict, possibly ancestral type

from which Section Meomeris arose, known from Sispara area at c. 2,060 m, rare (no specimen in MH)

CONVOLVULACEAE

+Argyreia nellygherya Choisy, a large climber, to 1,800 m.

CYPERACEAE

Ascopholis gamblei Fisch., erect herb, collected at Ootacamund, rare (no specimen in MH).

Carex pseudo-aperta Boeck ex Kuek., at about 1,800 m, rare.

Fimbristylis latinucifera Govindarajulu, near Pykara, at c. 1,950 m.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon pectinatum Ruhl., rare, only in the collection of Perrottet(?).

+ Eriocaulon robustum Steud., White-tailed Hatpin Flower, Coonoor and banks of the Pykara River, mostly above

1,500 m

EUPHORBIACEAE

*Glochidion sisparense Gamble, tree, Sispara, at c. 1,500 m (no specimen in MH).

*Phyllanthus fimbriatus (Wt.) Muell. Arg., glabrous shrubs in evergreen forests, Carrington to Kinnakorai, Sispara

Ghat, at c. 2,000 m (in MH).

Phyllanthus megacarpa (Gamble) Kumari and Chandrabose, rare, near Devala in the Wynaad, at c. 900 m (not

located since type collection).

GENTIANACEAE

+Swertia trichotoma (Wt. & Am. ex Wt.) Wall., ex. Cl. Wall., tall leafy herb, fairly common, to 2,150 m.

GRAMINEAE (Smaller Grasses)

Agrostis schmidii (Hook, f.) Fisch., at Ootacamund (no specimen in MH).

Andropogon longipes Hack.

+Andropogon polyptychus Steud., in upper Nilgiri marshes, mainly in far west.

*Arundinella purpurea Hochst. ex Steud. var. laxa Bor, very distinct variety with long pedicels, Sispara.

Arundinella purpurea Hochst. var. purpurea, the only aluminum accumulator in the family.

Arundinella setosa Trin. var. nilagiriana Subbarao et Kumari, at Koilbetta, near Ebanad; like A. s. var. lanifera, but has

hirsute glumes instead (in MH).

+Cymbopogon polyneuros (Steud.) Stapf, Doddabetta, Mukurti, Ootacamund and Pykara, this grass contains an oil

with a pleasant odour but is not used commercially, 1,900-2,500 m.

Dichanthium pallidum (Hook f.) Stapf ex Fisch. (no specimen in MH).

Eriochrysis rangacharii Fisch., fairly common near Pykara; only Indian representative of an otherwise wholly tropical

African and American genus (in MH).

Helictotrichon polyneurum (Hook, f.) Henr., Doddabetta, distinctive looking, fairly common, 2,400 m.

Isachne deccanensis Bor, on downs near Ootacamund (no specimen in MH).

Isachne oreades (Domin) Bor, only in the Gudalur Ghat area (in a swamp within woods).

Poa gamblei Bor, fairly common, above 2,500 m.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

59

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

GUTTIFERAE

Hypericum japonicum Thumb, var. major Fyson, a trailing weak-stemmed herb, on western grasslands, rare (no

specimen in MH).

LABIATAE

Leucas rosmarinifolia Benth., a fairly common bush with a flattop, often on roadsides, northeastward from Ootacamund,

to Kotagiri, including the area with the Toda hamlet of Pishkwasht.

Orthosiphon rubicundus Benth. var. hohenackeri Hook, f., a herb with many branches, at about 1,850 m.

LAMIACEAE

Pogostemon nilagiricus Gamble, rare, soft herbaceous plant, on outskirts of sholas and on neglected broken ground,

from Coonoor to Lovedale and Ootacamund (no specimen in MH).

+Pogostemon paludosus Benth., in wet places near Ootacamund and at Sispara, rare, 1,800 m and above, rare.

+ Teucrium wightii Hook, f., fairly common, a stout-stemmed herb with thick, soft leaves, from Ootacamund to Dodabettta,

mostly above 2,100 m.

LAURACEAE

Actinodaphne lanata Meisn., tree with lanceolate leaves, in sholas, 1,500-1,800 m.

+Cinnamomum perrottetii Meisn., fairly common shrub or small tree in sholas near Bangitappal and Avalanche,

above 1,800 m.

LORANTHACEAE

Dendrophthoe neelgherrensis (Wt. & Am.) Tieghem., Scarlet Loranthus, named after the dense bunches of slender

crimson-scarlet flowers, Ootacamund to Naduvattam, 1,050-2,400 m.

MELASTOMACEAE

*Memecylon flavescens Gamble, tree or large shrub with many branches, in sholas near streams, Avalanche and

Sispara; collected by Vivekananthan from the type locality after about 83 years, 2,000-2,300 m (in MH).

Memecylon lawsoni Gamble, near Devala in southeast Wynaad, at c. 900 m (in MH).

*Memecylon sisparense Gamble, large shrub or small tree, from Sispara Ghat, at about 1,500 m (in MH).

+Sonerila elegans Wt., an erect herb with thick stems and mauve flowers, at Sispara and in other parts of the western

Nilgiris, 1,800 m and above.

MIMOSACEAE

+ Acacia hohenackeri Craib., a climbing shrub with small recurved prickles, Coonoor, Kundahs, collected at Bimka

Shola in 1970, rare.

MYRSINACEAE

*Embelia gardneriana Wt., a climbing shrub, Sispara Ghat, at about 1,600 m (in MH).

MYRTACEAE

*Syzygium benthamianum (Wt. ex Duthie) Gamble, small tree or large shrub, Sispara, 1,800 m (no specimen in MH).

ORCHIDACEAE

Eria albiflora Rolfe, pure white flowers, Ootacamund and T. R. Bazaar, 2,000-2,400 m, collected in 1899 by Barber, at

Ootacamund, and more recently from the Nilgiris and the Silent Valley, rare (in MH).

+Eria mysorensis Lindl., small epiphyte, white flowers tipped with pink, flowering peak in September, Kodanad shola,

western slopes of the Nilgiris, Naduvattam, 1,800 m.

Habenaria denticulata Reichb., very rare (no specimen in MH).

Habenaria fimbriata Wt., white flowers, 1,500-2,100 m, rare (no specimen in MH).

Habenaria polydon Hook., now extinct? (no specimen in MH).

Liparus indiraii Manilal et Kumar, in Silent Valley, named after Indira Gandhi (in CNH).

Oberonia bisaccata Manilal et Kumar, found near Research Centre, Silent Valley (in MH).

Porpax chandrasekharanii Bhargavan et Mohanan, discovered in Silent Valley (in MH).

+Robiquetia jospehiana Manilal & Sathish, Chembotti, Naduvattam and Silent Valley; according to Chhabra, also in

the Sispara area.

*Spiranthes sinensis (Pers.) Ames var wightiana Lindl., terrestrial and endangered, flowers in a dense cylindrical

spike, in the Bangitappal to Sispara area (in MH).

60

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Thrixspermum muscaeflorum Rao & Jos /ar nilagiricum Jos & Vaj., very small epiphytic orchid, common on slender

branches of small trees, near Kundah River in Tamil Nadu, first discovery of the genus in South India (in CNH and MH)

Trias stocksii Benth. ex. Hook.f., Silent Valley and Chandanathode in the Western Ghats.

Vanda wightii Reichb. f., the type location remains unknown, very rare (no specimen in MH).

OXALIDACEAE

*Biophytum polyphyllum Munro, in sholas, herb with very long leaves having minute leaflets (30 to 50 pairs), fairly

common, above Sispara, Thaishola, Carrington to Kinnakorai, 1,800-2,200 m.

PAPILIONACEAE

Alysicarpus beddomei Schindl., on Pakasuramalai, at about 2,030 m, rare.

+Crotalaria barbata (Wt. & Arn,) Grah. ex Wt. & Arn., sturdy shrub with erect flower spikes, bright yellow flowers, in

sholas, fairly common, near Pykara and on Snowdon slopes, above 2,000 m.

Crotalaria candicans Wt. & Arn, erect tree, 3 to 4 m tall, very leafy, regular upward-sloping branches ending in large

panicles of pure yellow flowers, thrives on steep slopes and on the downs, creating spectacular sights with mass bloomings,

as seen on top of Sigur Ghat in July to September, fairly common, Coonoor, Kateri, Kodanad, Kottabetta and Madinad, to

about 1,850 m.

+Crotalaria formosa (Wt. & Arn.) Grah., low-growing shrub with dense, short, thick flower racemes, yellow flowers,

fairly common in sholas and on grasslands, on Snowdon slopes near Ootacamund, Doddabetta to Avalanche and Pykara,

above 2,100 m.

Dalbergia gardneriana Benth., fairly common, a climbing shrub with white flowers, Coonoor, Kalhatti and Sholurmattam,

1,500-2,150 m.

PIPERACEAE

* Piper pykarhense C. DC., presumed found near the Pykara River, biotic disturbance due to dam building may have

caused this species to become extinct.

POACEAE [BAMBUSEAE = LARGER GRASSES)]

+Arundinaria wightiana Nees var. hispida Gamble, widespread, growing’ next to shola streams at higher elevations,

essential for final roofing phase of Toda hut construction, 2,100-2,300 m.

Silentvalleya nairii Nair, new genus, tufted perennial grass, discovered in the Silent Valley (in MH and CNH); related to

genera Diplachne P. Beauv., Gouinia in America and Lophacme in Africa.

ROSACEAE

*Photinia serratifolia (Desf.) Kalkman var. tomentosa (Gamble) Vivek and Shetty, small tree in sholas; Avalanche,

Bangitappal, Lakkadi, toward Sispara, in the highest southwestern Kundahs; collected by Shetty from the type locality after

80 years, 2,000-2,200 m.

+Rubus rugosus Sm. var. thwaitesii Focke, a large prickly shrub with purple-black fruit, common on Doddabetta and

other high elevations, often above 2,400 m.

RUBIACEAE

*Hedyotis hirsutissima Bedd., low-growing, shrub with stout stems and branches, in rock crevices and on southwestern

grasslands, pale lilac flowers, fairly common, Bangitappal to Sispara and the Kundahs, collected by Shetty at type location

after 80 years, 2,000-2,300 m (in MH).

Hedyotis silent-valleyensis Vaj., Rath, and Bharg., on one grassy slope, Silent Valley (in MH and CNH).

*Hedyotis sisparensis Gage, an undershrub with quadrangular branches and pale leaves, near Sispara, at about

2,200 m, rare (no specmen in MH),

+Lasianthus cili itus Wt., a stout shrub, with prominent leaf-nerves, in deep shade of sholas edging the western

escarpment, also belt w Kodanad and next to Lamb’s Rock Road, to about 2,200 m (in MH).

Ophiorrhiza ini.arnata Fisch., in pandanus swamp, near Nadgani in the Wynaad, about 900 m (no specimen

in MH).

Ophiorrhiza pykarensis Gamble, erect and slender undershrub with small leaves and pale blue or lilac flowers, in a

shola at Pykara Fal's, rare, possibly extinct, about 1,900 m (not collected since the type collection).

Pavetta breviflora DC. var. ciliolata Gamble, Coonoor, Thai Shola and Snowdon R.F 1,500-2,100 m.

*Pavetta hohenackeri Brem., glabrous shrub near Sispara, 2,200 m, rare (no specimen in MH).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

61

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

RUTACEAE

*Melicope indica Wt., shrub to small tree with opposite leaves, in sholas and near streams, fairly common,

Avalanche and Kundahs, Toda hamlet of Koshti, Lakkadi (collected there by Shetty after 80 years), Sispara, 2,000-

2,300 m.

SYMPLOCACEAE

*Symplocos microphylla Wt., shrub on grasslands, tree in sholas, beyond Avalanche, Kudiakad, Sispara, Upper

Bhavani to Bangihalla, 2,000-2,300 m (in MH).

Appendix 4: Record of Fires and Grassland Formation

Hough 1829: 72-73.

.... During the dry season, i.e. from December to May, they [Todas] burn the grass, which, in the darkness of the night,

presents a grand spectacle, the sides of the entire hill being illuminated at the same time; but it greatly disfigures the

scenery by day, as in a few hours a verdant mountain is transformed, in appearance, to a barren, sombre rock. This

improves the grass for the buffaloes, making it coarse, and causing it to grow in tufts: but it is hereby rendered unfit for

smaller cattle and sheep, of which, however, the Thodawurs [Todas] keep none....

Harkness 1832: 62.

After nightfall, the scenery around us was grand beyond description. Much of the grass, fern and heather, being frost

bitten and withered, the Tudas [Todas] had taken this opportunity, before the setting-in of the rains, to fire it; and many of the

ridges of mountains now presented an undulating and apparently endless line of flame.

Ouchterlony 1848: 56.

.... The grass upon which they [Todas] pasture their buffaloes is of coarse rank description, fit only for those hardy and

powerful animals; but by burning it down, as is their practice, just before the rains set in, when they are about to migrate to

another mund [common name for a Toda hamlet], a fine tender young grass, highly nutritious as pasture, has replaced the

ashes of the old grass by the time they return to the mund, round which they have set their fires.

King 1870-71: 25.

.... During the dry season — that is, from the beginning of January to the end of April — they [Todas] are in the habit of

setting fire to the grass, with a view of promoting its better growth; another Kaffir [African name for livestock keepers]

custom, and one, moreover, the beautiful effect of which at night will be remembered by all who have ever seen it on so large

a scale.

Marshall 1873: 53.

.... Wherever, in fact, rich soil and a perennial supply of moisture may be found, there are the ever silent woods; for the

periods of annual drought are long: the monsoon rain flows quickly off the hard surface of the exposed hills, and the

scorched grass containing the young saplings is yearly fired.

Duff 1876: 17

We waited to give the weather time to reconsider itself, but in vain, and then slowly descended [down the side of

Mukerti Peak] ... and crossing great tracts of hillside over which a fire had just passed — the wasteful custom of burning the

surface with a view to obtain a good bite of grass being in full force here.

Grigg 1880: 10.

.... It is, however, to be remembered that the present park-like appearance of the higher plateau, with its down and

woodlands, is also, in a great measure, due to the annual recurrence of fires which sweep over the hills, burning the grass

and outlying shrub and even the smaller sholas, and checking the larger woods in their persistent efforts to extend their

domain further along the sides of the valleys.

Jennings 1881: 8-9.

The country [between Ootacamund and Neduvattam] is undulating and grassy, bare of timber except in such hollow

places as afford the necessary moisture and shelter. In these spots there are lovely groups of trees, and often a

delicious undergrowth of ferns — veritable oases in a desert of uninteresting slopes, covered at this season with burnt-up

grass.

62

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS

Francis 1908: 212.

In the case of the Kundahs and the Downs, an exception to the usual forest rules was made, after much discussion,

in 1905, in that the annual burning of the grass was permitted. These areas are chiefly of value as great grazing grounds;

and it was considered that burning was essential to the production of the young green grass so desired by the grazers and

did no appreciable harm to the sholas as long as it was done early in the year while the undergrowth and bracken in and

round them was still green and if precautions were taken to prevent the fire from spreading to an inflammable growth which

ran up into them.

Champion 1935: 141.

In the dry season in February-March the grasslands get very dry and inflammable and the greater part of them are

burnt annually. This has happened as far back as we have any information and has unquestionably exerted a very great

influence on the present distribution of the very fine tender evergreen forest. Burning completely stops regeneration of

practically every tree species except Rhododendron and every fire eats in a little all along the periphery of the sholas. ..

Grazers (Pastoralists) have occupied the plateau for a very long time and have burnt the grass for the sake of the early flush

of new growth that follows a fire, and it is unquestionable that the forest occupies a far smaller proportion of the area than

it once did.

Ranganathan 1938: 527-528.

Burning the grass is an immemorial custom of the Todas which has been officially recognized and is now being

officially regulated.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

63

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

64-70

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF THE WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS

IN PENINSULAR INDIA1

M.K. Ranjitsinh2, S.C. Verma3, S.A. Akhtar4, Vinod Paul4, K. Sivakumar5, S. Bhanubhakude5

'Accepted December, 2002

2‘Krishnasar’, 5, Tiger Lane, Off W6 Lane, Sainik Farms, Near Saket, Delhi 1 10 062, India.

3Bastar Society for Conservation of Nature, ‘Jeevan Sadan’, Nayapara, Jagdalpur 494 001, Chhattisgarh, India.

4Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

’Wildlife Institute of India, RO. Box 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

Most of the Wild Buffalo Bubalus bubalis populations in India have been genetically swamped out through

inter-breeding with domestic populations. However, genetically pure species of the Wild Buffalo confined in

the four protected areas especially set up for them in Peninsular India, for the last two decades, are their main

hope. The population of the endangered Asiatic Wild Buffalo in Central India is restricted to two protected

areas and their numbers are less than 75. The major reasons for the decline of Wild Buffalo population in

peninsular India are agricultural encroachments, poaching, cattle grazing, insurgency and collection of non-

timber forest produce. The population is under severe threat due to depletion of suitable swamp grassland

habitat, large-scale poaching and communal hunting. Management interventions for long-term conservation

of the Wild Buffalo were inadequate. Some suggestions are provided to improve the effectiveness of the

conservation efforts in peninsular India to protect the existing populations of this species in the Indravati

National Park and Tiger Reserve, and Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary.

Key words: Wild Buffalo, Bubalus bubalis , conservation, Udanti Sanctuary, Indravati National Park and

Tiger Reserve

INTRODUCTION

The Wild Buffalo Bubalus bubalis is one of the

largest and highly endangered land mammals in the

Subcontinent. In the last bastion of the Wild Buffalo,

Assam, the population is now almost confined to four

protected areas. In Dibru-Saikhowa and Pabha

Sanctuaries, the few surviving animals are affected by

genetic “swamping out” through inter-breeding with the

domestic buffalo; the population in Kaziranga has also

been affected. There is a marked deterioration in size

of the Wild Buffalo here in the last four decades, further

confirmed by the markedly less pronounced occurrence

of the characteristics which distinguish the wild from

the domestic (Ranjitsinh 1997). In Manas, the laxity of

control due to terrorist incursions in the past decade has

resulted both in the reduction of numbers and in genetic

swamping out in the much more numerous southern

population, which will inevitably have an effect upon

the rest of the herds in the adjacent central part of the

Reserve — the Uchila Range and along the Manas-

Beki River.

The main hope for genetically pure Wild Buffalo,

therefore, lies in the peninsular population that has been

confined for the last two decades in the four protected

areas especially set up for them in Chhattisgarh -Udanti

Sanctuary, Bhairamgarh Sanctuary, Pamed Sanctuary

and the Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve.

Genetic swamping out has not occurred here for

various reasons - vast, very thinly populated malaria -

infected forests, where tribals traditionally did not keep

domestic buffaloes for fear of the female buffaloes being

commandeered away and the domestic bulls killed by

wild ones. Due to the great difference in size between

the domestic and the wild, in cases where inter-breeding

did occur in this area, it resulted almost invariably in the

death of the mother or the calf, or both, at the time of

birth. In Assam, the difference between the domestic

and the wild buffalo is much less pronounced and

progressively so with the initiation of genetic swamping.

There are more domestic buffaloes than any other

livestock species in the world. Their most common use

is, significantly not as milch cattle, but as draught animals

where size and strength are most important. Thus, the

degeneration, let alone disappearance, of the wild buffalo

through genetic swamping should be of particular

concern, the animal being the most important large wild

mammal in the world today, and vis-a-vis human welfare,

an invaluable gene pool.

Earlier surveys (Mooney 1 930, Daniel and Grubh

1966, Divekar 1976, Divekar etal. 1979, Divekar and

Bhushan 1 988) concentrated on the status and ecology

of the species. Other studies focussed on the

morphological features and behavioural characteristics

of the species (Gee 1953, Inverarity 1895, Lall 1953,

Noronha 1954a, b). The study of Daniel and Grubh

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

resulted in the species being declared endangered and

it was placed on the IUCN Red Data Book (1982).

Even during the earlier surveys, the population of about

200 to 250 animals in 640 sq. km of the best buffalo

habitat was considered to be low (Daniel and Grubh

1966). Considering the rate of habitat degradation in

peninsular India and the time of last survey, which took

place a decade back, a survey to assess the current

status of Wild Buffalo and its habitat was realized and

initiated.

STUDY AREA

Udanti Sanctuary

Udanti Sanctuary is situated in the Raipur district

of Chhattisgarh State of India. The habitat of the

Sanctuary is representative of mixed dry deciduous

forest (Champion and Seth 1968). Some important

woody plants are Shorea robusta, Diospyros

melanoxylon , Buchanania lanzan , Terminalia

tomentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Stereospermum

suaveolens, Pterocarpus marsupium , Cassia fistula,

Ougeinia oojeinensis, Madhuca indica, etc. Almost

the entire ground is covered with grasses. Heteropogon

contortus, Imperata cylindrica, Bothriochloa

odorata, B. pertusa, Dichanthium annulatum , and

Themeda quadrivalvis are the major grass species,

which are disturbed by humans as well as overgrazed

by domestic cattle. The Sanctuary is mostly flat, but the

northern part is hilly. The main drainage system is the

Udanti river and its tributaries. The Udanti river is not

perennial, but small pools always retain water even in

summer. Soil in this region is generally loamy and well

drained. Gonds, Bujjia and Umar are the major tribes

living in these areas.

Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve

The Indravati National Park is situated in the

districts of Bastar and Dantewada of Chhattisgarh State.

The habitat of the Park is mixed deciduous forest

interspersed with various open pockets of abandoned

arable land (Champion and Seth 1968). Some important

woody plants are Diospyros melanoxylon,

Buchanania lanzan, Tectona grandis, Terminalia

tomentosa, Anogeissus latifolia, Stereospermum

suaveolens, Pterocarpus marsupium. Cassia fistula,

Ougeinia oojeinensis, Cleistanthus collinus, and

Gmelina arborea. Hill slopes and riverbanks are

covered with bamboo Dendrocalamus strictus.

However, the vegetation varies from place to place

(Pandey 1988). Most of the grasslands, which are the

result of abandoned arable lands and accumulation of

water in shallow ‘troughs’ in the monsoon, are the ideal

habitats for wild animals. Due to prevailing successional

stages, these patches are being encroached on by woody

plants as a result of compaction of soil due to repeated

fires and trampling by livestock. There was no

appreciable growth of Ficus sp., which might be due to

edaphic factors. The dominant grass species are

Heteropogon contortus, Imperata cylindrica,

Bothriochloa odorata, B. pertusa, Dichanthium

annulatum, Themeda quadrivalvis, T. triandra,

Eragrostis spp., Chrysopogon fulvus, and Vetiveria

zizanioides. Wild Buffalo preferred Cyperus

corymbosus, Cynodon dactylon, Themeda

quadrivalvis, and Coix spp., among others.

In both the protected areas, as in the rest of India,

there are three distinct seasons. The temperature,

humidity and precipitation vary so greatly that they

regulate the growth of vegetation and also the habits of

the wild animals. Rain commences by the second week

of June and continues till September. The average

rainfall was 182 cm. The highest temperature (45 °C)

was recorded in May 1973 and the minimum (2.8 °C)

was recorded in January 1945 at Jagdalpur. Humidity is

between 22% and 87%. Wind velocity is maximum in

July and minimum in January. During the survey period,

the maximum temperature was about 43 °C.

METHODS

Udanti Sanctuary

Udanti Sanctuary was surveyed from May 10-13,

2000. The survey was carried out in all the forest

compartments (water pools and forest roads) where wild

buffaloes were reported earlier. A 100 x 1000 m (10

hectare) transect was laid for estimating the Wild Buffalo

population by looking for dung density as well as hoof

marks. To avoid confusion while differentiating hoof

marks, the size (length and width) of the hoof marks of

both wild and domestic buffaloes were measured after

sighting the animal directly. Any hoof marks larger than

14 x 13 cm were considered as that of the Wild Buffalo.

Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve

The Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve

was surveyed from May 14-17, 2000. The survey

commenced from Bijapur and ended at the same place

via Somanpalli, Pharsegarh (night halt); Pilur, Jalavagu,

Sopmarka, Badekakler, Chhotekakler, Arepalli, Sendra,

Mattimarka (on the Indravati River and a halt on an

island); Sendra, Pengunda (night halt); Netikakler,

Karkawada, Godnugur, Durepalli and Kutru. During the

survey, we checked most of the artificial water pools,

visited the areas where Wild Buffalo were sighted earlier

and had discussions with the people of the area.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

65

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In the two protected areas, Udanti Sanctuary and

Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve, where the

wild buffalo still survives, this survey was able to assess

about 42-44 buffaloes in Udanti and 25-30 buffaloes in

Indravati, the total number being less than 75. In the

Indravati National Park, the population is split into

three disparate clusters, with possibly little or no inter-

breeding, giving rise to a spectre of severe inbreeding

amongst the three separate clusters. These three

clusters are:

1. The Salepalli - Pillur cluster: Comprising a

solitary bull and a herd of five to six animals. This is in

the southeastern part of the Park.

2. The Tekmetta cluster: Comprising a solitary

bull and a herd of five to six animals. This is in the

southwestern part of the National Park, which is the

remotest and least disturbed part of the Park. It is

comprised of hills and valleys adjoining the eastern flank

of the Indravati, providing the most disturbance free

habitat with the most readily available access to

perennial water — the Indravati. Significantly, however,

the hilly terrain is not a particularly suitable habitat for

the buffalo. Here, we assessed the presence of 10-15

animals in three or four groups as well as solitary

individuals. This area, which is the site of the proposed

Bhopalpatnam dam, holds the best hope for the survival

of the Wild Buffalo in the Indravati National Park.

3. The Pengunda - Netikakler cluster:

Comprising nine animals; one solitary, a herd comprising

of a bull, two adult cows, a sub-adult and calf, and

another group of a cow, sub-adult and calf. This cluster

is in the northeastern part of the Park.

The extent of persecution of the buffalo was

evident from the behaviour pattern of the animals. Wild

Buffaloes are highly averse to human disturbance and

have sought refuge in the remotest habitats, the solitary

bulls that seek domestic buffalo for mating being an

exception. In both Indravati and Udanti, wild buffaloes

have become entirely nocturnal from their normal diurnal

habits. They seek the remotest forests for daytime

resting, travelling long distances from their feeding

ground. What is more, they appear to have forsaken

their usual midday immersion in water and a drink of

water, even during the height of summer. Even at night,

they now avoid artificial tanks, such as the Modakvaya

near Pengunda, frequented by livestock and fishermen,

preferring to skirt the tank to walk six or more kilometres

each way each night in summer, to reach the safe and

quieter Indravati river and then back to their feeding

grounds. The survey team could see only one solitary

bull, of the Tekmetta cluster, at 0430 hrs after waiting

the whole night on an island in the Indravati. It had come

for an early morning drink before lying up for the day.

Fresh footprints of all the three clusters of buffaloes

were seen.

In Udanti Sanctuary, the Wild Buffalo population

is now restricted to a very small area of 80 sq. km,

possibly because of the persistent habitat disturbances.

In all, seven Wild Buffaloes were sighted between 1 800

and 1900 hrs on May 12, 2000 and the next day. Of

these, one was a solitary bull and others were in a herd,

comprising two adult females, one adult male, two

yearlings and a calf about one month old. Seven more

Wild Buffaloes were also identified on the basis of hoof

marks near the water pools and the transect area. Since

domestic buffaloes were present throughout the

Sanctuary, there were limitations to differentiating the

hoof marks between wild and domestic buffalo. All the

water pools had old and dried (hardened) hoof marks

of both domestic and wild buffalo. Transect counts

confirmed the presence of at least two herds of Wild

Buffaloes based on hoof mark tracing and dung cakes

(wild buffalo having larger dung cakes). Four fresh and

19 old dung cakes were observed in the 10 hectare

transect area. However, small sized dung deposits

provided confusing results, as young ones of Wild

Buffaloes may have deposited the smaller dung cakes.

Dung and hoof mark counting may be a good method

for estimating the status of Wild Buffaloes if the

area is devoid of domestic buffaloes. The team could

hardly come to a definite conclusion on the population

size.

Secondly, information collected from the local and

forest field staff revealed that the number of Wild

Buffaloes range between 42 and 44. Demography of

known herds shows that there was good recruitment in

this population.

The normal behaviour of the wild buffalo in this

sanctuary has changed. A herd arrived at the pond for

drinking water at 1805 hrs in the Nagesh Tank. They

spent around 50 minutes in the pond area. During this

period, they browsed in the nearby grassy patches and

wallowed in the pond. The one month old calf always

remained near its mother. The entire herd remained

together and some of the members were vigilant and

constantly looked around. The herd was alert and under

stress throughout the observation period and this can

most probably be attributed to human disturbance. A

huge solitary bull sighted by the team was standing under

a Diospyros melanoxylon tree at 1855 hrs and staring

at the team’s vehicle, though it made no move. A few

minutes earlier, it had caused a forest guard to seek

safety up a tree, from where he was rescued by the

survey team.

66

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STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

People

Of the 80 families living in Karlajhar and Nagesh

villages in Udanti, approximately 50 people participated

in the discussion with us. Gonds, Bhujjia and Kamar are

the major tribes living in these villages. Generally, these

people are farmers raising kharif crops and they keep a

large number of cattle, which are reportedly

unproductive. During the summer season, they are

engaged in non-timber forest produce (NTFP) collection,

mainly tendu Diospyros melanoxylon leaves and also

earn income through road construction, deepening of

village ponds, as forest firewatchers. They revealed that

there are no good schools, transport or medical facilities

near by. Although they showed keen interest in the

conservation of the wild buffalo, they complained that

the occasional raid of their crops by wild buffaloes,

especially kulthi and madia, two locally grown pulses,

affected them. They realised that the population of the

wild buffalo is decreasing. However, they were unable

or unwilling to give reasons for this decline.

Indravati National Park holds resident populations

of three tribal groups, namely Gonds, Marias and Murias.

They generally depend on monsoon-based sustenance

agriculture and plant kharif crops, besides keeping a

large number of livestock including some buffaloes.

They are also hunters, and hunt almost all the wild

vertebrates using nets, traps and indigenous weapons,

such as axe, spear, bow and arrow. We noticed

unrestricted movement of the people inside the protected

areas (PAs) armed with bows and arrows. They also

perform communal hunting ( Paradh ) when people from

one or more villages get together and flush out all the

wild animals towards a long chain of nets raised on

bamboo poles. Forest officials and the survey team

stopped one such big Paradh while returning from

Karkawada to Kerpe on May 1 7, 2000. The team seized

seven nets (a net = 2 x 1 0 m in size) and bamboo poles,

axe and spear from the hunters. Approximately 40 people,

including some young boys, were involved in the

Paradh. During the summer, apart from hunting, the

local people are engaged in collection of Non Timber

Forest Produce (NTFP), mainly tendu Diospyros

melanoxylon and mahuwa Madhuca indica. Although

the income from this is estimated to be less than

Rs. 200/capita/annum, the disturbance and damage

caused has adverse effects on the entire tract of the

protected area (PA). Unavailability of work and

unrestricted movement inside PAs during summer has

led the people to engage in large scale hunting. The

negative perception about conservation of wild buffalo

and other wildlife is due to possible attack from these

animals. In the past, there were incidents of conflict

between humans and the wild buffalo. On May 2, 2000,

a solitary wild buffalo bull killed one person near

Phulgundam village.

Availability of Water

In Udanti Sanctuary, water is retained in a few

pools in the Udanti river in summer. There are four

artificial tanks spaced out in the main Wild Buffalo

habitat, which also retain water in summer. However,

the presence of domestic buffaloes and other livestock

deters the Wild Buffalo and other animals from utilizing

almost all the water sources barring two, during daylight.

Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve is a high

rainfall area. However, the soil being porous sandy loam

its water retention capacity is low. In the past, depressions

and troughs in the soil enabled accumulation of shallow

water and growth of marshy grasslands suitable for animals

like the Wild Buffalo and the Barasingha. Incessant fires

have not only destroyed the grass, especially the more

palatable perennial Andropogon varieties, but also led to

the hardening of the soil, which is further compacted by

the hoof marks of livestock attracted by the flush of grass

following the burning. Gradually, the marshy grasslands

have become hard ground covered by short, annual, less

nutritious Heteropogon grasses, gradually being overtaken

by tree growth.

What was indeed most surprising was the lack of

perennial water. The Indravati river, circumscribing as

it does a loop covering two sides of the Protected Area,

is the only natural perennial water source. In the rest of

the vast area, there are a few artificial tanks and a few

pools in the Davil Vagu and Kaker river, all occupied by

livestock in summer. Even in the Pillur tank, there were

no recent Wild Buffalo hoof prints to be seen. The lack

of water during the peak of summer is a major drawback

for wildlife in the Indravati National Park. It also

facilitates ambush at water holes and Paradh operations.

Threats and Recommendations

The following adverse factors and threats were

observed and perceived:

1 . Communal hunting called Paradh is universally

practised throughout Indravati National Park, persistently

and methodically in the dry season. No animal is safe

from this operation.

2. Fire, mostly repeated fires, were seen to have

affected about 95% of the National Park. This deliberate

burning is for Paradh , collection of the NTFP, especially

tendu leaves and for grazing purposes.

3. Extensive grazing and related fires, and

disturbance, habitat degradation and threat of contagion

of livestock-borne diseases. However, the livestock

population in itself is not high and there are few domestic

buffaloes even now.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

67

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

4. Extensive and continuous anthropogenic

disturbance.

5. Existence of 53 villages, though small in

population, spread all over in a jig-saw puzzle formation,

have an overall adverse impact. Almost all are revenue

villages.

6. Lack of adequate number of permanent

waterbodies. Barring the Indravati, all existing water

points pose a danger to wild animals in summer.

7. Presence of Naxalites. Though these groups

are largely pro-forest and pro-wildlife, their occurrence

in the Indravati Tiger Reserve is both the reason and an

excuse for many failings in management. Wireless sets

have been snatched in 1988, government buildings

destroyed, culverts and roads not allowed to be built

and the Field Director attacked.

8. Routine patrolling and law enforcement is thus

greatly hampered and a fear psychosis affects the staff.

9. Lack of adequate and appropriate manpower

and infrastructure support, resulting in failings in

management.

Conservation measures

1 . Final notification of the Indravati National Park

and Tiger Reserve must take place immediately. It has

been proposed to extend the National Park over

uninhabited forests southeast towards Bijapur. Those

portions of the Indravati National Park which are

Reserved Forests, together with the Reserved Forest

portions of the proposed extension mentioned above,

can forthwith be declared a national park as no

acquisition of rights proceedings are required.

2. NTFP collection for non-commercial use only

should be continued, as per the management plan, in the

sanctuary portion only. All NTFP collection for

commercial purpose must stop forthwith in these PAs.

3. An updated management plan has to be

prepared for the Indravati Tiger Reserve and the Udanti-

Sitanadi Protected Areas complex.

4. In view of the severe pressures being inflicted

upon the surviving Wild Buffalo in Indravati National

Park, the Udanti-Sitanadi population assumes additional

importance. A ‘corridor’ linking Udanti and Sitanadi

Sanctuaries has long been proposed. This must be

established in the form of a sanctuary extension and the

Udanti-Sitanadi Complex together with the ‘corridor’

be managed as one ecological entity.

5. The Reserved Forests of Udanti south of the

Raipur-Deobhog Road and at least the adjacent reserved

forest of the eastern parts of the Sitanadi Sanctuary

which have no habitations, together with the uninhabited

Reserved Forests of the proposed corridor, should

become a national park, and the rest finally declared as

a sanctuary.

6. Fire application and long lines of strong, high

nets during Paradh must stop. While the authorities must

show determination to stop this at any cost, persuasion

and alternatives should also be proferred. The pujaris

of various villages should be persuaded to change over

to symbolic Paradhs in the form of a ritual and the

meat requirements, in the form of live buffaloes and

goats, could be provided by the Park authorities. It is

certainly worth attempting.

7. The Wild Buffalo needs large tracts of

undisturbed forests with grassy openings, preferably

moist and marshy patches, and close proximity of

perennial water. This must be ensured in all management

applications and the disturbance factor must not be

ignored.

8. Currently, the 19 km stretch of the Indravati

river extending from below Bendrai Gutta hill to above

Mattimarka village, constituting the border between

Maharashtra and Chhattisgarh, happens to be the most

remote and uninhabited stretch of a river anywhere in

Chhattisgarh and there are no habitations in the adjacent

forests which comprise of the Kutru Reserved Forest.

This tract with its frontage on the Indravati is the most

promising habitat where a last ditch effort can be made,

as the focal point of protection efforts and inputs,

including constant monitoring. This area affords perhaps

the last hope of saving the peninsular Wild Buffalo.

9. The 53 existing villages within the Indravati

National Park and others in the buffer area are

encroaching upon forests and expanding their cultivation

illegally. These encroachers must be evicted.

10. In view of the grave danger of extinction as

well as genetic degeneration through interbreeding with

domestic buffaloes, the peninsular buffalo may be the

only hope for the survival of the pure strain of Wild

Buffalo. A special project should be started jointly by

the Central Government and the State Governments of

Chhattisgarh and Maharashtra, to define and implement

immediate and long-term actions. A special fund would

have to be provided by the Central Government, but the

infrastructural, logistical and other support and inputs

would have to come from the two States. Subsequently,

if the buffalo numbers increase and some movement of

wild buffaloes to Orissa and Andhra Pradesh occurs,

these States should also be involved.

1 1 . The buffaloes in Indravati National Park are

in three distinct clusters, as mentioned. Three small

protection units or special parties need to be established,

each under a selected forester or deputy ranger and

comprising of local persons of knowledge and

commitment, whose sole job would be to save these

three clusters of wild buffalo and their habitat from

68

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

poaching, harassment and fire. They would continuously

monitor the movements of the animals and would be

personally responsible for their safety. The units must

be adequately equipped, regularly supervised, and

rewarded when successful in their work.

12. Traditionally domestic buffaloes are not kept

in Wild Buffalo habitats, a trend to be encouraged and

domestic buffaloes relocated outside the main buffalo

habitats in the Indravati, and from Udanti in particular.

13. Paucity of water in peak summer is a serious

drawback. However, the tanks that have been made

have been so disturbed by man and livestock that wild

buffaloes do not use many of them, Modakvaya lake

being one example. These remote tanks meant for

wildlife away from human habitations must be kept free

of human disturbance.

14. Fire, which is deliberate, universal and repeated,

must be controlled. Stoppage of Paradh and the

commercial collection of NTFP would itself reduce the

incidence of fire greatly. For the rest, incentives to the

locals would have to be given annually on performance

in both putting out and preventing fires.

15. Dialogue with the locals, their leaders and even

the ‘Naxalites’ to convince them of the reasons of

management actions and, to ascertain and provide the

genuine basic requirements of the local people, including

alternatives. Their participation in conservation action

must be obtained to the extent possible, and in this

endeavour NGOs like the Bastar Society for

Conservation of Nature (BASCON), would be most

helpful.

16. While no coercion need be done, inhabitants

of the smaller and more remote of the 53 villages within

the Park can be approached to ascertain whether they

would wish to resettle either outside the Park, or even

move over to a larger village within it. The attempt should

first be made in the habitats of the three remaining

clusters of wild buffaloes. Those habitations that wish

to move should be given an option of where to go, given

one and a half times the land that they legally possess

and other compensations, and be provided vehicular

transport to shift their belongings. But it may be ensured

that an entire habitation is shifted, not just a few members

of it, and after shifting they should not come back and

lake possession of their previous holdings as well. This

is a very sensitive issue and should only be attempted in

cooperation with the local leaders and politicians.

17. Eco-development should be taken up in the

buffer area of the Park, the aim being to reduce the

biotic pressure, and move away from the Park by

providing alternatives.

18. An anti-poaching camp should be posted at

Pharsegadh for Indravati and provided with mini-trucks.

Park staff, including forest guards, should be trained in

the wildlife guard training school at Bandhavgarh.

19. Prophylactic inoculation is done sporadically

in pursuance of the Supreme Court orders. This must

be more regular and widespread.

20. Continuous monitoring and applied research to

assist management and ensure a scientific presence,

involving local universities and institutions.

2 1 . Coordination and regular contact between the

field management personnel in adjacent areas of Madhya

Pradesh, Maharashtra, Orissa and Andhra Pradesh.

22. The Bhopalpatnam dam site is almost in the

centre of the 19 km stretch of the Indravati. If the dam

is allowed, it will mean the destruction of this magnificent

habitat and of the last hope of the survival of the buffalo

in the Indravati National Park and Tiger Reserve.

23. The Udanti-Sitanadi complex is under the threat

of mining. This must be prevented at all cost and this

complex of PAs with the corridor in between and suitable

adjacent areas should now be made into a Tiger Reserve

under Project Tiger.

24. As a safeguard against extinction in the wild, a

capture, translocation or captive breeding/reintroduction

programme may have to be contemplated, as a last resort.

A suitable site would be the large enclosure in Sukhpar,

Kanha National Park, which could then be a haven for

the species. In any case, expertise would have to be

developed within the Indravati National Park

management to enable transquilisation, treatment and

local translocation of Wild Buffalo which might have

been wounded, or where it may be necessary to shift

unsafe or single animals from one part of the Park to

another.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Chhattisgarh Forest Department for

organizing this survey. Thanks are due to Shri S.K.S.

Chauhan, Ex-Field Director, Indravati Tiger Reserve.

Thanks are also due to Messrs. Debashish Das,

D. Banerjee, M.A. Rahim, N.A. Netam, T.B. Singh,

Kaushlendra Kumar, C.P. Rai, Manish Singh, Rajendra

Pambhoi, Mahadeo Singh Rana, Mahipal Singh Dhurve,

Manish Rastogi and Ms. Deepali Rastogi for their

involvement and future input for the conservation of

the Wild Buffalo. We thank Mr. PK. Mishra APCCF

and CWLW M.P., Shri S.K. Mukherjee Director,

Wildlife Institute of India (WII), Dr. PK. Mathur,

Scientist SG, WII, Dr. Asad R. Rahmani, Director,

BNHS, Mr. J.C. Daniel, Hon. Secretary, BNHS for all

the help and guidance. The survey team thanks all the

local people for their sincere interaction and sharing

information.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

69

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF WILD BUFFALO IN PENINSULAR INDIA

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70

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

71-78

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

(, ELEPHAS MAXIMUS )'

P.A. Rees2

'Accepted December, 2001

2School of Environment & Life Sciences, Peel Building, University of Salford, Salford, England, M5 4WT.

Email: [email protected]

Limited detailed information is available on the social behaviour of the Asian Elephant. This paper describes

hitherto unreported submissive behaviours exhibited by captive Asian Elephants. These behaviours are

rare and have only been observed on a small number of occasions during over 400 hours of observations

made over two and a half years. When approached by an adult bull, some adult cows were observed to

decline the head and bow down, lowering the head to ground level. This occurred when the bull was in

musth, or when he had been separated from the cows for many days. On other occasions, cows kneeled on

the rear legs and, in extreme cases, lay prone. A cow was also observed bowing low to a very young calf

soon after birth and when his mother was far away. This behaviour may have been intended to reassure the

calf that the cow was not a threat. The appeasement of aggression by submission to ritualised mounting was

also observed. These behaviours are similar to those observed in some mammalian species, particularly

ungulates.

Key words: Elephas maximus, elephant, appeasement, behaviour

INTRODUCTION

Ritualised appeasement behaviour is known from

a wide range of mammalian species and includes

exposure of vulnerable parts of the body, lowering of

the head and body, lying down, sexual presentation, and

submission to mounting (Ewer 1 973).

Early descriptions of aggression in elephants were

concerned with the fighting behaviour of adults

(Carrington 1958; Kuhme 1961, 1963). Estes ( 1 99 1 ) has

categorised defensive/ submissive displays in African

Elephants ( Loxodonta africana) as: avoidance (turning

away, backing up, running away), flattening ears, arching

back, raising tail, agitated trunk movements, touching

temporal gland, throwing dust, pawing, foot-swinging,

swaying, and exaggerated feeding behaviour. In an

agonistic encounter between two bulls, the smaller

animal flattens its ears, keeps its head lowered, moves

backward and sideways and makes writhing trunk

movements.

Langbauer Jr. (2000) has summarised apprehension

and submissive behaviour in elephants as: jaw out, face

check, trunk twitch, trunk curl, swaying, tail up, back in

(Kiihme 1961; Douglas-Hamilton 1972; Payne and

Langbauer Jr. 1992; Poole 1999).

This paper describes hitherto unreported sub-

missive behaviours exhibited by captive Asian Elephants.

They include declining the head, bowing the head

low to the ground, kneeling on the rear legs, lying

prone and submission to ritualised mounting. These

behaviours are rare and have only been observed

on a few occasions. However, similar behaviours

have been observed in other mammal species (Estes

1991).

Head held low is a submissive posture in Buffalo

( Syncerus caffer ), Giraffe ( Giraffe Camelopardalis ),

Rhinos ( Diceros bicornis and Ceratotherium simian),

Warthog ( Phacochoerus aethiopicus ), zebras and

asses (Equidae), and is almost universal in the antelope

species (Bovidae). Subordinate Chimpanzees ( Pan

troglodytes) have been observed bowing to alpha males

(de Waal 1996). A kneeling posture, representing an

intention to lie down, occurs in the Black Wildebeest

(Connochaetes gnou), however, in some species,

kneeling is associated with aggression or dominance.

Bull Buffaloes ( S . caffer) kneel, and rub the face and

chin on the ground in an aggressive display. Pfeffer

(1967) has described an appeasement ceremony in the

Mouflon ( Ovis amnion), which consists of the superior

animal kneeling to be licked by the inferior. Lying-out

(lying prone) occurs in Connochaetes and in Sable

(Hippotragus niger). Lowering the hindquarters is a

submissive behaviour in the Spotted Hyena ( Crocuta

crocuta) as is lying prone in the Brown Hyena ( Hyaena

brunnea) and in hippos ( Hippopotamus amphibius),

resembling the posture of oestrus females during

copulation. Ritualised mounting by dominant animals is

well known in primates, e.g. baboons (Cercopithecidae)

(Cohnenares 1991 ).

METHODS

The subjects of this study were members of a herd

of Asian elephants held at the North of England

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

Zoological Society’s National Elephant Centre (Chester

Zoo) in Cheshire, England. At the beginning of the study,

the herd consisted of one adult (tuskless) bull, 5 adult

cows, a juvenile bull and a calf. Two calves were

subsequently born in 2000 (Table 1 ).

During the day, the herd was confined within an

outdoor enclosure surrounded by a dry moat. At night,

the animals were housed in an elephant house in which

the adult bull was kept separate from the others.

Sometimes the adult bull was confined to a separate

bull pen during the day. This meant that on occasions

the bull and cows were kept completely separate for

many days, apart from brief contacts through steel bars.

Data on appeasement behaviour were collected

ad libitum during a long-term study of the social

dynamics of the herd. The herd was observed for a

total of 420 hours on 93 days over two and a half years,

between the beginning of January 1999 and the end of

June 2001 .

Most of the observations were made while the

elephants were outside. All instances of unusual

behaviour were recorded by typing descriptions into a

Psion Series 5 handheld computer, and, where possible,

by still photography (using a 35 mm camera with a

200 mm or 300 mm lens) and on videotape (using an 8

mm Sony Handycam SC5).

RESULTS

Observations of novel appeasement behaviour

made during this study are summarized in Table 2. The

most significant elements ofthis behaviour are ritualized

bowing, kneeling on the rear legs, and lying prone. In

addition, observations of submission to ritualised

mounting behaviour are described. Some, but by no

means all, of this behaviour occurred when the adult

bull was in musth.

Ritualised bowing

Adult cows were sometimes observed to decline

the head slightly in the presence of the adult bull. During

this behaviour, the cow sometimes rubbed her head

against his.

In extreme cases, the cow bent down to the ground

with one leg tucked under the body, lowering the head

to the ground (Fig. 1 , 2a). During this behaviour the bull

was sometimes seen touching the cow with his trunk

and head. On two occasions, bowing behaviour by adult

cows to the adult bull was exhibited after an extended

period of separation from the bull.

The bowing behaviour was also exhibited by Sheba

the adult cow towards the calf PoChin (Fig. 2b). In this

context, she may have been signaling the absence of a

threat to the calf. Sheba was the only adult in the herd

that did not show aggression towards the young calf

(usually kicking) during the first few days of his life,

apart from his mother. Sheba appeared to exhibit this

behaviour when the calf needed reassurance e.g.

immediately after birth, when separated from his mother

by a long distance, and on his first day outside the

elephant house. Sheba acted as an allomother to PoChin

from birth by guarding him (especially when asleep) and

allowing him to comfort suckle.

Kuhme (1963) described kneeling behaviour in

captive African elephants, which occurred at the end of

a hostile encounter. The appeasing elephant would kneel

with ears spread wide in front of its partner, or a dog or

a hostile human.

Fig. 1: Kumara bowing to Chang (based on Fig 2a and other photographs taken during the study)

72

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

Fig. 2b: Sheba bowing to PoChin with his mother, Jangoli, standing nearby

Table 1 : The composition of the elephant herd at Chester Zoo

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

73

Table 2: Novel appeasement behaviours observed within the herd

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

n.a. not applicable

? time unknown or uncertain

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

Kneeling on rear legs and lying prone

When approached by a bull from the rear, adult

cows sometimes crouched or kneeled on one of their

hind legs in a posture resembling that adopted during

courtship immediately before allowing mounting

(Figs 3a-c). This may be a ritualised sexual submissive

behaviour. In extreme cases, the cow lay down briefly

in a prone position and then stood up (Fig. 4d).

Elephants rarely lie down on the ground, and then

usually on their side. Lying prone is not a posture that

elephants normally adopt when resting, so it is reasonable

to assume that this behaviour has a special significance

as a signal to others.

All the incidents involving the appeasement of

Chang by the adult cows Sheba and Kumara using this

behaviour occurred either when he was in musth (and

in a more aggressive state) or after a prolonged period

of separation from the cows. Under these circumstances,

it might be expected that submissive individuals would

need to confirm their status to a dominant animal.

The most impressive sequence of submissive

behaviour was recorded from Kumara in response to the

presence of Chang on August 2, 2000 (Table 3 and Figs

4a-d). This incident began with Kumara declining her head

when Chang approached and culminated in her lying prone

briefly as he walked behind and away from her.

Submission to mounting

On two separate days, the adult cow Kumara was

observed submitting to mounting by the adult bull Chang

while his penis was sheathed. These mountings were

associated with aggressive behaviour.

Incident 1 (February 19, 1999): Chang and Upali

pursued and pushed Kumara for a period of 24 minutes.

After harassing her for eight minutes, Chang mounted

Kumara with his penis sheathed. Fourteen minutes later,

after holding her down on the ground, he mounted her

again with his penis erect, but failed to penetrate her.

During the incident Kumara vocalised frequently,

defecated and urinated three times each, including during

and after both mountings.

Incident 2 (February 28, 1 999): Over a three hour

period, Chang intermittently pursued and pushed

Kumara. Chang mounted her twice with his penis

sheathed (with an interval of approximately one hour).

After the second mounting Upali attacked Kumara, and

Jangoli attempted to intervene by obstructing Chang.

During the incident Kumara vocalised five times, and

urinated seven times, including during both mountings.

After the first mounting, Kumara also defecated.

In the other 59 adult mountings observed, Chang’s

penis was always descended prior to mounting and erect

during attempts at intromission. During normal sexual

behaviour cows did not usually vocalise, urinate or

defecate during courtship.

The aggressive behaviour exhibited by Chang

during these encounters with Kumara suggests that these

mountings were not sexual in nature and may have been

a display of dominance. Kumara’s allowing him to mount

may have been an expression of submission. This

interpretation is supported by historical evidence of the

relationship between the two animals.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

75

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

Figs 3a-c: a. Chang (left) approaches Maya from the rear, b. Maya sits down when harassed by Chang,

c. Upali (right) joins Chang in harassing Maya

76

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

77

Figs 4a-d. Sequence of photographs of Kumara appeasing Chang taken over a period of 14 min, a. Kumara (left) bowing to Chang (1115 hrs), b. Kumara (left)

rubbing her head against Chang (1116 hrs), c. Kumara (right) bowing to Chang (1124 hrs), d. Kumara (left) lying prone briefly as Chang (middle) walks behind

her from left to right (1129 hrs)

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT

The two elephants first met in May 1989 when

Kumara was moved to Chester, when Chang was

7.5 years old and Kumara was approximately 22 years

old. Kumara regularly attacked Chang when he was

young, but as he grew larger, he began to retaliate. At

the time of this study, Kumara bore extensive scars on

her back resulting from previous attacks by Chang (Jones,

pers. comm.).

DISCUSSION

Previously unreported appeasement behaviours

were displayed by adult female Asian Elephants in

situations where they were being attacked or harassed

by bulls, or following extended periods of separation

from the adult bull. Similar behaviour appeared to be

used by an adult cow to signal the absence of threat to

a young, unrelated calf.

Lowering the head is an anti-threat appeasement

behaviour in elephants (Manning 1972), since aggressive

animals generally hold the head high. Lying down may

also be categorised as an anti-threat behaviour.

Crouching down and kneeling on the rear legs may be

intended to appease an aggressor by arousing a

conflicting, sexual tendency. In the few incidents of

submission to mounting that were observed, this

appeared to prevent further aggression, at least

temporarily.

Appeasement behaviours in Asian elephants may

serve the function of allowing subordinate animals to

remain within a social group. It is interesting that the

adult bull showed considerable aggression towards

Kumara at the beginning of the study, but two and a

half years later there was little sign of antagonism

between them.

It is not surprising that the appeasement behaviours

reported here exist in the Asian Elephant, as they are similar

to behaviours displayed by many ungulate species. Neither

is it surprising that appeasement behaviour of this type has

not previously been reported from the wild. Studies of

captive Rhesus Macaques ( Macaca mulatto) have shown

that submission and appeasement gestures increase in

crowded conditions (de Waal 1996). Such behaviour is

more likely to be observed in a captive environment,

because animals that behave antagonistically towards each

other cannot easily avoid contact.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The North of England Zoological Society (NEZS)

kindly permitted me to conduct this study and provided

library facilities. Financial support was partly provided

by grants from the NEZS and the University of Salford.

Mick Jones, Head of the Elephant Section, Chester Zoo,

kindly provided information regarding the history of the

relationships between herd members.

REFERENCES

Carrington, R. (1958): Elephants. Chatto & Windus, London.

272 pp.

Colmenares, F. (1991 ): Greeting behaviour between male baboons:

Oestrus females, rivalry, and negotiation. Anim. Behav. 41:

29-60.

de Waal, F. ( 1 996): Good natured. The origins of right and wrong in

humans and other animals. Harvard University Press,

Cambridge, Massachusetts. 296 pp.

Douglas-Hamilton, I. (1972): On the ecology and behaviour of the

African elephant. D. Phil. Thesis, Oxford University.

Estes, R.D. (1991): The Behaviour Guide to African Mammals,

including Hoofed Mammals, Carnivores. Primates. University

of California Press, Berkeley and Los Angeles, California.

611 pp.

Ewer, R.F. (1973): Ethology of mammals. Paul Elek (Scientific Books)

. Ltd , London. 41 8 pp.

Kuhme, V.W. (1961): Beobachtungen am Afrikanischen Elefanten

( Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1979) in Gefangenschaft

Z. Tierpsychol. 18: 285-296.

Kuhme, V.W. (1963): Erganzende Beobachtungen an Afrikanischen

Elefanten ( Loxodonta africana Blumenbach 1979) im

Freigehege. Z Tierpsychol. 20: 66-79.

Langbauer Jr, W.R. (2000): Elephant communication. Zoo Biol,

19: 425-445.

Manning, A. (1972): An Introduction to Animal Behaviour (2nd

Edn). Edward Arnold (Publishers) Limited, London. 294 pp.

Payne, K.B. & W.R. Langbauer Jr. (1992): Elephant communication.

Pp. 1 16-23. In: Elephants (Ed.: Shoshani, J.), Weldon Owen,

San Francisco.

Pfeffer, P. (1967): Le mouflon de Corse (Ovis ammon musimon

Schreber 1782). Mammalia 3 1 (Suppl.): 1-262.

Poole, J.H. (1999): Signals and assessment in African elephants:

evidence from playback experiments. Anim. Behav. 58: 185-

93.

78

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101(1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

79-89

A MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS OF AREAS

ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT: SPECIES PROPORTION

OF FAMILY PAPILIONIDAE AS AN INDICATOR1

Arun. P. Singh 2 and Rajiv Pandey3

'Accepted July, 2002

Entomology Division, Forest Research Institute (ICFRE), PO. New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India.

Email:[email protected]

Statistical Division, Forest Research Institute (ICFRE), P.O. New Forest, Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India.

Email: [email protected]

The proportions of species in many of the five butterfly families (Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae,

Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae) found across the Indian subcontinent show a relatively invariant relationship

with the overall butterfly species richness, at both local and regional scales. This relationship suggests that

it is possible to use the species total of a single butterfly family best suited to estimate the overall species

richness of all other butterflies in an area. Family Papilionidae is a logical choice over others for ease of

sampling. Also, there is a strong positive correlation between Papilionidae species richness and the overall

species richness of all other butterflies across all other areas, and the proportion of this family is reasonably

invariant. The mean proportion (7%) of this family can thus be used to estimate the overall butterfly species

richness of an area across the Indian subcontinent for which the Papilionidae species total is known.

Key words: Butterflies, Papilionidae, Indian subcontinent, species richness, spatial distribution

INTRODUCTION

The Indian subcontinent, which includes the area from

Baluchistan (Pakistan) eastwards through India up to

Myanmar and Sri Lanka, as well as the higher trans-

Himalayan zone, is habitat for more than 1,439 species

(Evans 1932, Haribal 1 992) of butterflies representing 7.2-

11.1% of the total world species [13,000 (Owen 1971) -

20,000 (Vane- Wright 1978)]. Amongst these, about 100

species are endemic to the Subcontinent (Smetacek 1 996)

and at least 26 taxa are today “globally threatened” (IUCN

1990). Identification and prioritisation of areas of

conservation concern, i.e. butterfly biodiversity hotspots,

are usually based on local endemic and relict taxa, their

biogeographical affinities and globally threatened and rare

status. However, prioritisation and selection of such areas

requires estimation of various ecological indices [e.g.

Shannon diversity index, Pielou’s evenness index. Similarity

index (Ludwig and Reynolds 1 988)] which depend on the

‘absolute species richness’ of the species of the area. Data

on the absolute butterfly species richness of most areas

across the Subcontinent is non-existent. Traditional methods

of deriving species richness by collecting and counting all

the species in an area require much time, effort and

resources, which were not easily available, and hence

such studies have not been carried out in India. There is a

need to evolve easy and cost effective methods to estimate

the butterfly species richness of areas of concern.

Beccaloni and Gaston (1995) have proposed such

a method to predict butterfly species richness of areas

in the lesser known tropical forests of Central and South

America, with the help of known species totals of only

a single sub-family (Nymphalidae: Ithomiinae) also

called the indicator group. This method is based on

the fact that the proportions of species in many of the

14 subfamilies and families occurring in these forests

show a relatively invariant relationship with the overall

species richness of the area, on both local as well as

regional scales. Besides, the species richness of this

indicator group also has a strong positive correlation with

the overall species richness of all the butterflies across

the areas and the proportion (4.5%) of this group is

reasonably invariant across tropical forests of central and

south America. Keeping in mind the findings of Beccaloni

and Gaston (1995), the present study was conducted to

determine if proportions of butterfly species in families

distributed over the Indian subcontinent are also invariant

with respect to (i) species richness, (ii) spatial scale,

(iii) forest type and (iv) butterfly subregional distribution

in the Subcontinent. This study further tries to determine

the potential indicator group amongst the 5 major families

found in the subregion that can be used to estimate the

species richness of other butterflies found in different

areas in the Subcontinent.

METHODS

The Indian subregions

The Indian subcontinent (study area) forms a major

part of the Oriental region, occupying its extreme

MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

northwestern limits. It has been divided into 9 butterfly

subregions (Evans 1932, Wynter-Blyth 1957) as in

Fig. 1 . (i) Baluchistan or BA (northern limit up to Safed

Koh: 26° 00'-34° 00’ N and 62° 00’-70° 00' E) and (ii)

Chitral or CL (72° 00' Eand 36° 00' N) including Chitral,

Hunza, Baltistan and Ladakh in both Pakistan and India

(iii) western Himalayas or WH (Kashmir: 74° 00' E and

36° 00' N to Kumaon: 80° 00' E and 29° 00' N) in India,

(iv) Central Himalayas or CH (Nepal: 80° 00'-88° 00' E

to 30° 00'-27° 00' N), (v) Northeast India (includes

eastern Himalayas from Sikkim: 88° 00' E and 29° 00' N

to Arunachal Pradesh: 96° 00' E and 28° 00' N in India

through Bhutan and parts of Bangladesh) and north

Myanmar (up to Shan States: 97° 00'- 100° 00' E to

28° 00'-20° 00’ N) or NEI & NM, (vi) south Myanmar

or SM(Karenni Hills: 97° 00' Eand 19° 00' N to Victoria

Point: 98° 00' E and 10° 00' N), (vii) Peninsular India

or PI (Plains and hills of India south of the Himalayas,

east of the Indus and west of Brahmaputra), (viii) Sri

Lanka or SL, (ix) Andaman & Nicobar Islands or A&N

of India. Butterfly species found in Baluchistan, Chitral

and higher reaches (1 ,000-5,1 00 m) of the Himalaya (east,

central and west) have strong Palaearctic affinities

(Central Asian and Chinese subdivisions), whereas

butterflies found in the Peninsular Indian, Malaysian and

Indo-Chinese subdivisions have strong Oriental affinities.

The drier low-lying areas of PI (Deccan and

Indogangetic plains) also show affinity with the African

region (Evans 1932, Wynter-Blyth 1957).

Methodology

Species totals of all the 5 commonly recognised

butterfly families [Hesperiidae, Papilionidae, Pieridae,

Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae (Ackery 1984)]. found

in the Indian subcontinent were gathered. Literature

spanning 1 1 7 years ( 1 882- 1 999) across 69 areas of the

Subcontinent was reviewed. However, in this paper,

familywise species totals of only 56 areas, collected

Fig. 1: Nine butterfly subregions of the Indian subcontinent and locations of collection sites

80

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

from 45 different sources of literature, have been used,

as only these were based on comprehensive surveys

for which (i) all the 5 butterfly families were sampled

(ii) had a minimum collecting effort of > 2 years (51

areas), (iii) showed no preference to a particular group

for collection, (iv) covered all the 9 Indian butterfly

subregions and (v) all the 14 major forest types

(Champion and Seth 1968) found in the Subcontinent.

The scientific names of butterflies used in the old records

were updated and the species correctly placed in their

respective families, based on the new nomenclature

(Ackery 1984). The data was then analysed to derive

the proportions of butterfly species in the 5 families from

the 56 sites. The areas from which the data were used

varied from smallest to the biggest site (sites < districts

< states < sub-regions < the entire Subcontinent), and

have been ranked on a spatial scale of 1-7, in an

increasing order (Table 1 ). The details of the areas, their

relative size, major vegetation types, collecting

(sampling) effort and source of information are given

in Table 1 . Data on the number of butterfly species per

family found in each of these areas is summarised in

Table 2. [For one site “Khasia and Jaintia hills” in

northeast India, the species totals of 4 families had been

published by the authors, leaving out the total for

Hesperiidae, although collections for all the 5 major

families were done. Hence, the regional proportion of

Hesperiidae (22.2%) for northeast India was taken as

an approximate estimate for this site and added to the

actual species total (464) of the other 4 families

collected (which thus represented 77.8% of the total

butterfly species found in this area) to derive the total

species richness of this area i.e. 596 species. In this

study, the smallest area in the Subcontinent was New

Forest, Dehra Dun (4.40 sq. km), which lies in the

Tropical Moist Deciduous forest zone of the western

Himalaya.

However, the type of data used in this study is

prone to error, including unequal sampling effort across

areas. Under-recording of species is likely to affect

the butterfly totals of the least rich areas more than

those of the richest areas. At the site level, however,

under-recording is likely to be greatest at the richest area.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Patterns in Species Richness

The proportions of at least 3 out of the 5 families

(Papilionidae, Lycaenidae and Nymphalidae) are more

or less independent of the total species richness, or size

of the area, or forest type, or butterfly subregion, in the

Indian subcontinent (Table 2; Figs. 2, 3). The

comparatively invariant relationship exhibited by these

families is simpler than the relationships shown by

families Hesperiidae and Pieridae. The proportion of

Hesperiidae increases with the total species richness,

whereas that of Pieridae decreases (Fig. 2). This

variation for these two families is more pronounced

across the continuous mountainous subregions

[Baluchi stan-Chitral-Himalayas (western-central-

eastern)-Hills of Myanmar (north-south)] (Fig 1). The

proportion of Hesperiidae, in general, increases from

Baluchistan towards south Myanmar [BA(11.8) - CL

(8.4) - WH (15.1) -CH (20.1) - NEI & NM (21.9) -

SM (24.0)], whereas that of Pieridae decreases across

the same region [BA (21.8) CL (18.1) - WH (10.1) -

CH (9.9) - NEI & NM (5.9) - SM (5.1); Table 2],

As proportions of the first 3 families are invariant

and show a simple relation to the total species richness,

it is possible to use the known species totals of the most

suitable of these three groups in an area to estimate the

total butterfly species richness of that area. Also, none

of these 3 groups show ‘saturation’ (Beccaloni and

Gaston 1 995), as their proportions do not decrease with

the increase in total species richness. Therefore, all three

are potential indicator groups.

Selecting an indicator group

For a group to be an indicator, there should be low

variance in the relationship between the species richness

of this group and that of the group we wish to predict

(Beccaloni and Gaston 1995). Amongst the 3 families

identified as potential indicators, Papilionidae (x = 7.030 1 ;

SD = 1.1879; n = 51; CV = 16.90) and Lycaenidae

(x = 29.0 1 5 1 ; SD = 3 .6779; n = 5 1 ; CV = 1 2.68) have

low variance values (s2 < x) for proportion (arcsin

transformed) of species in families across the

Subcontinent, as compared to Nymphalidae (x = 33 .4740;

SD = 05.9583; n = 51; CV = 17.80) which exhibits a

comparatively large variance (s2 > x) across the same

region. Thus, families Lycaenidae and Papilionidae are

more suitable potential indicator groups than

Nymphalidae for predicting species richness across the

Subcontinent.

Why choose Papilionidae over Lycaenidae as

indicators?

Papilionidae (commonly called Swallowtails) are

taxonomically and ecologically well known in the Indian

subcontinent, and the distribution of practically all the

species is known. In contrast, many of the species in

Family Lycaenidae are very difficult to identify and very

little is known about their life history and ecology

because of their obscure habits. Swallowtails (as the

name suggests, most of them have tails on their hind

wings) are (i) large in size (wing span: 5-19 cm for

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

83

Table 1: Details of the areas taken in this study and sources from which the butterfly totals in Table II were obtained ( contd .)

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

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Fig. 2: Relationship between the proportions of species in a given butterfly family (arcsine transformed) and

overall butterfly species richness of collection sites (n=56) across the Indian subcontinent

Indian species) (ii) very active and strong fliers during

daylight, when they can be observed flying, or feeding

on flower nectar, or mud puddling, but seldom concealing

themselves in foliage or settling down to rest, and are

also (iii) eyecatching and colourful, with contrasting

black as their base colour. In contrast, most of the

Lycaenidae are (i) very small or medium sized (wing

span: 1.5-6 cm. for Indian species) (ii) cannot be easily

identified in flight or even at rest, as allied species of the

same genus have similar patterns on the underside of

the wings and (iii) are not active fliers like Papilionidae,

as they are unable to fly for long stretches and soon

settle down to rest(Haribal 1992, Wynter-Blyth 1957).

Also, Papilionidae with 94 species (7.01%) is also a

smaller group to monitor than Lycaenidae with 459

species (29.22%) (Table 2). All these unique characters

of Papilionidae make it an easier group to observe,

identify and sample than Lycaenidae.

Besides, the average life span of adult Indian

Papilionids ranges from 20-30 days to a maximum of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

85

MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

■ Hesperidae(r * 0.32, p=C. 15)

— — ■ Paplllonidae (r = - 0.09, p=0.53)

— - — - Pieridae (r - - 0.35, p=0.01)

Lycaenidae (r = 0.15, p=0.28)

2 3 4 5 6

Spatial Scale

Fig. 3: Relationship between the proportion (%) of species

in different families of butterflies and the spatial distribution

of collection sites (n=56). Geographical scale (sq. km)

1. <10, 2. >10 to 100, 3. >100 to 1000, 4. >1000 to 10,000,

5. >10,000 to 1,00,000, 6. >1,00,000 to 10,00,000,

7. >10,00,000

4 months (Haribal 1992). Their flight period in the plains

ranges from January to December with many

overlapping generations, whereas in the hills they fly

during summer, between April to September, and have

1-3 generations (Wynter-Blyth 1957), thus Papilionidae

can be sampled for a longer period in the year.

Papilionidae are found in all types of habitats (gardens,

forests, open areas, etc.) from the low lying Indian plains

to as high as 5,100 m above msl in the Himalaya

(Common Blue Apollo Parnassius hardwickei Gray)

Percentage

Fig. 5: Distribution of the Papilionidae proportions of different

collection sites (n=56) across the Indian subcontinent

(Wynter-Blyth 1957). A large proportion (14.5%) of the

worldwide total of 650 Papilionid species is known to

occur in the Indian subcontinent (Haribal 1992).

Papilionid species richness in the Indian subcontinent

peaks in NEI & NM where a large concentration is

found [Sikkim (55 species in 7,299 sq. km: Haribal 1992);

North-east India (62 species in 3,68,000 sq. km) and

Myanmar (66 species in 6,76,577 sq. km): Wynter-Blyth

1957],

Are Papilionidae good indicators for predicting

species richness?

A strong positive relationship exists between

Papilionidae species richness and the overall species

richness (of all the other butterfly families) across

56 different areas over the entire Indian subcontinent,

and varying on different spatial scales [(1-7; Table 1)

and ( r = 0.980, n =56,/? < 0.01; Fig. 4). The histogram

Number of Papilionidae species

Fig. 4: Plot of butterfly species richness (excluding

Papilionidae) versus Papilionidae species richness for sites

(n=56) across the Indian subcontinent

Fig. 6: Relationship between the number of Papilionidae

observed and expected to occur in different sites across the

Subcontinent (expected values based on the assumption

that Papilionidae constitute an invariant proportion of the

total butterfly species found across the entire Subcontinent)

86

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

Table 2 Total butterfly species richness of areas in the Indian subcontinent and the proportion of species recorded in the families

Values in parenthesis are species totals for nine butterfly sub-regions and the whole of the Indian subcontinent so far known

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

87

MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS ACROSS THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT

(Fig. 5) demonstrates that the variance of Papilionidae

proportions across these areas is reasonably low, with

Papilionidae constituting 6-8% of the butterfly species

in 28 out of 56 areas (and 6. 5-7. 5% in 18 out of

56 areas) in the Subcontinent.

Five areas [Mhow, Chitral, Chin-Lushai (Mizo)

Hills, Darjeeling Hills and Nagalapuram (Nagari) Hills;

Table 2] could have been excluded from this analysis,

thereby increasing the level of correlation. The first three

have the lowest proportions of Papilionidae (Mhow 3 .6%,

Chitral 4.3% and Chin Lushai 4.7%) of all areas. Data

of Mhow and Chin-Lushai suffer from sampling error

as less than one year of collecting effort was

undertaken. However, data from Chitral also includes a

large number of Palaearctic species besides the Oriental

species (as this region has strong affinities with the

Palaearctic region), which are likely to decrease the

proportion of Oriental species. The last two areas, on

the other hand, have the highest proportions of

Papilionidae of all areas [Nagalapuram Hills (10.3%)

and Darjeeling (11.1 %)]. Data from Nagalapuram Hills

(with only 1 .5 years of sampling) is also under-sampled,

particularly for Nymphalidae (Table 2). On the other

hand, the exact sampling period for Darjeeling district is

not mentioned in the original text (Maude 1 949) but the

data reflects low sampling of species from this area,

particularly those of the families Hesperiidae and

Lycaenidae (Table 1).

A combined data set for sites, districts, states and

regions was tested against random draw model in which

the proportion of Papilionidae in each area was assumed

to equal that for the whole of the Subcontinent (6.5%).

Correlation between the number of Papilionid species

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

90-95

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED STORK

{EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS) AND WHITE-NECKED STORK

(CICONIA EP1SCOPUS) IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, INDIA1

Farah Ishtiaq2'3'6, Asad R. Rahmani3, Salim Javed25 and Malcolm C. Coulter4

'Accepted August, 2001

"Department of Wildlife Science, Aligarh Muslim University, Aligarh 202 002, Uttar Pradesh, India.

"Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

4P.O. Box 480, Chocorua, New Hampshire 03817, USA. Email: [email protected]

"Present Address: Environmental Research & Wildlife Development Agency, PO Box 45553, Abu Dhabi, United Arab Emirates.

Email: [email protected]

Present Address: Genetics Program, NMNH, Smithsonian Institution, 3001 Connecticut Avenue,

NW, Washington, DC 20008, USA. Email: [email protected]

Studies conducted in the Keoladeo National Park during 1994-1997 on nest-site selection in the Black-

necked Stork ( Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus ) and White-necked Stork ( Ciconia episcopus) showed that

girth at breast height (GBH), height and canopy spread were the major factors governing the placement of

nests. There were significant differences between the height, canopy spread, and GBH of nesting and non-

nesting trees used by the two stork species. The Black-necked Stork nested on top canopies of tall Babool

Acacia nilotica trees with high GBH, while the White-necked Stork nested on Mitragyna parvifolia , in the

dense middle foliage.

Key words: black-necked stork, Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus , white-necked stork, Ciconia episcopus , nest-

site, Keoladeo National Park, India

INTRODUCTION

Selection of a safe nesting site is among the prime

concerns of all birds because nest location is a major

factor that governs the successful rearing of chicks. The

selected site should provide protection against predation

of eggs and nestlings. If the chicks were altricial an

appropriate site would provide protection against difficult

environmental conditions (Walsberg and King 1978),

avian predators and structurally support the nest (Burger

1974). Selection of a nesting tree, height of the nest,

location of the nest on the tree, and social and vegetation

factors influence nesting (Beaver et al. 1980; Burger

and Gochfeld 1981; Parsons 1982; Clark et al. 1983;

Donazar et al. 1993; Thompson and Slack 1982). This

study on the Black-necked and White-necked Storks

was conducted during a study of their breeding and feeding

ecology in Keoladeo National Park at Bharatpur, India.

The White-necked Stork Ciconia episcopus

forages in shallow wetlands up to 20 cm deep to flooded

grassland (Ishtiaq 1998). It feeds on small fishes,

earthworms and amphibians. These shallow feeding sites

are ephemeral in nature and the White-necked Stork

uses sites outside as well as inside the Keoladeo National

Park. The Black-necked Stork Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus feeds in deep water up to 35 cm. It is a

generalist, feeding on a wide variety of large items,

including fishes. Common Coot Fulica atra , Northern

Shoveller Anas clypeata , Pheasant-tailed Jacana

Hydrophasianus chirurgus and snakes (Ishtiaq 1998).

It feeds inside and outside the Park.

In northern India, the nesting season of the White-

necked Stork begins before the onset of monsoon, which

varies, but usually begins in June and lasts through

September. Black-necked Stork starts breeding by the

end of September up to January (after the monsoon).

Like other wading birds, the breeding success of the

Black-necked Stork depends on the amount of rainfall

and time of water released inside the Keoladeo National

Park. Monsoon acts as a trigger for breeding and water

brings about 1 9 million fingerlings(Vijayan 1991), which

are well grown by the time the Black-necked Stork starts

nesting. The rejuvenation of the insect and earthworm

supply due to the monsoon provides food for the White-

necked Stork.

The status of the White-necked Stork in the Park

was neglected in the past, and no nest counts had been

conducted within the Park. The population of the Black-

necked Stork, in contrast, has been well studied,

and is stable at about six pairs (Rahmani 1 989). The present

study was the first investigation of nest-site selection in

both the stork species in Keoladeo National Park.

STUDY AREA

The Keoladeo National Park is located at

Bharatpur, Rajasthan (27° 7.6' to 27° 12.2' N,

77° 33.9' E) (Vijayan 1991), and has an area of

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED AND WHITE-NECKED STORK

29 sq. km. Eight sq. km of the wetland is divided into

1 5 (A-O) compartments (blocks) by earthen dykes and

the remaining constitute terrestrial habitats. The boundary

of the Park is demarcated by a masonry wall and is

surrounded by 1 8 villages. Although grazing of domestic

cattle and buffalo has been banned, the villagers are

still allowed to collect fodder from the Park during April-

June.

The climate of Bharatpur is tropical, sub-humid to

semiarid, and it experiences climatic extremes from a

hot, dry summer (April-June) to a cool winter

(November-January) and short monsoon (July-

September) and post-monsoon (September-October)

seasons. The flora of Bharatpur has been intensively

studied (Prasad et al. 1996), and is a mixture of

xerophytic and semi-xerophytic species including

Acacia ni/otica, Prosopis cineraria and Salvadora

oleoides.

Keoladeo National Park is located at the

confluence of two rivers, the Banganga and Gambhir,

which bring water to the Ajanbund reservoir. Water is

brought to the Park through the Ghana canal in July and

August, and the bund is emptied in October. The flow

of water in the Park is regulated by sluice gates. Vijayan

(1991 ) has studied the ecology of this monsoonal wetland

in detail for ten years.

METHODS

During the study period from 1 994- 1 997, nests of

the Black-necked and White-necked Storks were

identified by following adults collecting nesting material,

to the nesting tree. Each nesting tree was sampled for

vegetation structure to analyse selection strategies.

Sampling of nest trees was done using belt transects

6 m (3 m on both sides) wide and 30 m long in four

directions from the nesting tree. All the trees within this

transect were identified up to species level.

Measurements were taken from each nest tree for girth

at breast height (GBH) >30 cm, height >2 m, tree species

and canopy spread. Sampling of nesting trees was done

after the breeding season to minimize disturbance.

Nest material and nest dimensions were also

recorded. The variables measured were as follows:

1. Nesting tree species: structure of the tree and its

ability to support the nest.

2. Tree height: the height of the tree was estimated

visually.

3. Girth at breast height (GBH): The diameter of the

tree at the height of 1 .5 m.

4. Canopy spread: the length and breadth of the canopy

of the nesting tree was measured.

5 . Water depth : depth of water around the nesting tree

that protects the nest from predators. The water

depth was recorded at least three times during the

nesting season.

6. Distance to feeding area: the nearest block

unoccupied by a conspecific nest and holding

water.

7. Distance to Park boundary: the shortest distance to

the Park boundary from the nesting tree; this allows

a measure of the number of trips made by the adults

as they go for feeding after the sudden rise in water

level soon after the water is released, as well as

proximity to human activity.

8. Distance to water source outside the Park: the

presence of wetlands outside the Park boundary as

a measure of proximity to foraging areas.

9. Distance to road: the road nearest to the nesting

tree, to know the distance from human disturbance,

especially grass-cutters.

10. Distance to nest: the distance to the nest of other

nesting species that could be potential predators,

such as raptors, large owls.

Analyses

We used a multi-variate ordination technique,

Principal Component Analysis (PCA). PCA was

performed on the nesting data to determine the important

factor(s) responsible for nest site selection in Black-

necked and White-necked Storks. All analyses were

performed on STATA5.0 (STATA Corp. 1997) and

SPSS 6. 1 (Norussis 1 994). We did a logistic regression

on the nest-site selection variables and t-tests on

differences between nesting and non-nesting trees of

White-necked and Black-necked Storks.

RESULTS

Nest characteristics of the White-necked Stork

A total of 15 nests of White-necked Storks were

counted during 1994-1997. However, not much

information was gathered during 1 994 as breeding was

over by the time we started the study. Nests were found

on two tree species. The White-necked Storks used

Mitragyna parvifolia (12 nests) inside the Park, and

Da/bergia sissoo when outside the Park (3 nests). The

mean height of the nests from the ground was (mean

±s.d.) 4.5 ±1.3 m (n=6). All the nests were located in

the dense middle strata of the tree. The mean depth of

four nests was 14.74 ±10.50 cm, mean length was

93.45 ±4 1 . 19 cm and mean breadth was 67.97 ±39.93 cm

(mean ±s.d.).

Both sexes take part in nest construction and

incubation. In the White-necked Stork, both male and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

91

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED AND WHITE-NECKED STORK

female brought nesting material, including green leaves

of Mitragyna parvifolia, Prosopis j ul if! or a, Capparis

decidua, Panicum paludosum , Paspalum distichum,

Kirgnelia reticulata, Syzigium cumini and dry blades

of Khus grass ( Vetiveria zizanioides).

Nest characteristics of the Black-necked Stork

During the study period, six pairs of Black-necked

Stork were seen inside the Park. The nesting trees of

the Black-necked Stork for most of the pairs in Keoladeo

National Park remained unchanged during the study

period (Ishtiaq 1998). A total of 12 nests were

constructed during 1 994- 1 996; all the nesting trees were

surrounded by water. In 1 994, three nests were located

while in 1 995, four nests were found, and in 1 996, five

nests were located of which one pair had reconstructed

the nest in the same year on a different tree. Four species

of nesting trees were identified; Acacia nilotica

(7 nests), Acacia leucoph/oea (2 nests), Mitragyna

parvifolia (1 nest), and Prosopis cineraria (2 nests).

Acacia nilotica was most commonly used among all

the tree species and all nests were on the top canopy,

12-15 m high. Some of the trees used for nesting were

covered with climbers such as Cryptostegia

grandiflora. This species with its thorn and dense

growth provides good support and protection to the nest

from potential predators, such as Jungle Cat Felis chaus.

Nest dimensions could not be taken for each nest owing

to the height of the tree while some nests were

constructed on an inaccessible branch. The mean nest

depth was 133.84 ±32.66 cm, mean length was 109.3

±39.99 cm, and mean breadth was 19.5 ±12.62 cm

(mean ±s.d.).

Both the sexes of Black-necked Stork participated

in bringing nesting material, like Cryptostegia grandiflora,

tufts of Vetiveria zizanioides , Acacia nilotica, Mitragyna

parvifolia, grasses like Paspalum distichum, and a few

bulbs of water hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes.

Nest-site selection in White-necked Stork

The principal component analysis for nest-site

characteristics in White-necked Stork extracted three

factors with Eigen values greater than 1 .0. Loading of

nest site characteristic variables on the three compo-

nents can be interpreted as the relative importance of

different factors. The first three components explained

98% of the total variation in nest site selection

(Table 1 ), while the first component accounted for 51%

of the total variance. The first component has high

positive loadings for GBH (trees with high basal area),

water sources outside the Park, and distance to road

and distance to the Park boundary from the nesting tree

(e.g., protection from disturbance). The second

component accounted for an additional 36% of the total

variance. This component has high loadings for canopy

spread (e.g., dense foliage), distance to nest of other

species and water source inside the Park (e.g., shorter

distances to feeding sites). The third component

accounted for 11% of the total variance. On this

component, tree height was highly positively correlated.

Nest-site selection in Black-necked Stork

Principal component analysis performed on all the

variables showed three main factors (Table 2). The first

three principal components explained 70% of the

variation in nest site characteristics. The first component

accounted for 30% of the total variance. The first

principal component has high loadings for canopy spread,

GBH, distance to road, distance to nest, and tree height.

These high values suggest that the most important

factors are size of the tree and avoidance of disturbance

around the nesting site. The second component

accounted for an additional 27% of the total variance.

This component has high loading for land area, park

boundary and distance to road. The high values

correspond to increase in distance to land area and from

the Park boundary to avoid disturbance by villagers. The

third component accounted for 1 3% of the total variance.

The water level is highly positively correlated on the

third component, but no single factor made a prominent

contribution.

Difference between nesting and non-nesting trees

of Black-necked and White-necked Storks

In both the species, t-tests showed significant

difference between height, canopy spread, and GBH of

nesting and non-nesting trees. Nesting and non-nesting

trees differed highly significantly for both species

Table 1: Principal Component Analysis results of habitat

variables of White-necked Stork nest site

92

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED AND WHITE-NECKED STORK

Table 2: Principal Component Analysis results of habitat

variables of Black-necked Stork nest site

(see details in Table 3). We found that most of the nesting

trees were significantly taller and bigger than the non-

nesting trees.

DISCUSSION

In both species, nest-site selection involves a joint

selection by male and female (Ishtiaq 1998). In both

species, the major factors for selecting the nesting sites

were found to be tree height, GBH and the canopy

spread. All the nesting trees were tall with large GBH

and dense canopy spreads, which provided protection

from predation. The nests of Black-necked Stork were

on the top canopy, from where most of the surrounding

area was visible, and from which take-off and landing

for these large birds was easy. This contrasts with the

White-necked Stork, which preferred to nest in the

middle, dense and hidden strata of the tree. The nesting

trees of the White-necked Stork were mostly surrounded

by the Acacia nilotica woodland and flooded

grasslands.

All the nests of White-necked Stork found in the

Park were located on Mitragyna parvifolia trees, while

outside the Park Dalbergia sissoo was used. The main

reason for this could be that the wood of Mitragyna

parvifolia is used by locals for many purposes and

therefore has a high market value; hence it is not common

outside the Park. In fact, due to its high commercial

value it has often been illegally removed from the Park.

Nests of the White-necked Stork on Mitragyna

parvifolia are well hidden, as its foliage is denser than

that of Dalbergia sissoo. Given a chance, the storks

would nest on Mitragyna parvifolia , but in its absence

outside the protected area, Dalbergia sissoo was the

alternative as it had the advantage of height.

The Black-necked Stork uses Acacia nilotica

probably due to the presence of thorns, which makes its

nests inaccessible to many predators. Whenever

Mitragyna parvifolia was selected as a nesting-site,

the trees were either very tall or dense or covered by

the climber Cryptostegia grandiflora that has dense

thorns. Their nests were located on an inaccessible

branch, making them difficult for any ground predator

to reach.

The selection of nest-site is an important task

in solitary as well as colonial breeders. Solitary breeders

have different strategies for avoiding risk of predation

and thus selection of safe nesting sites is important for

successful breeding (Frederick and Collopy 1989).

As expected, water level is a significant factor in

determining the nest-site selection in Black-necked Stork.

One pair of Black-necked Storks was observed

attempting to nest in the Ajanbund area for two

Table 3: Comparison between nesting and non-nesting trees of Black-necked Stork and White-necked Stork

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

93

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED AND WHITE-NECKED STORK

consecutive years during monsoon. As soon as the water

was drained, the pair abandoned the nest and selected

another site. Presence of water around the nesting tree

reduces the risk of predation by ground predators like

the Jungle Cat Felis chans. It also reduces the

accessibility to locals who frequently visit the Park to

cut grass, sometimes very close.

Presence of water around the nesting sites of

White-necked Stork was not important, as they need

shallow water sites for foraging. During the initial months

of nesting, water was found around all the nesting trees,

but it gradually dried up by the time chicks had fledged

and were ready to leave the nest. Another reason could

be that birds usually prefer their nesting sites within the

foraging site so as to reduce the number of trips to the

nest. Closer feeding sites also help in increased vigilance

of the nest and minimise chances of predation.

The relationship between changes in water level

and foraging of wading birds has been demonstrated

for a number of species (Kushlan 1978). The Wood

Stork Mycteria americana started nesting when the

water reached a certain level (Kahl 1964). In the

White-necked Stork, nest-site selection and egg-laying

occur before the onset of the monsoon when the

water level is ideal for foraging inside the Park. But

soon after the rains when the area is flooded, the foraging

site is affected, as this species needs shallow feeding

grounds.

Some nests of White-necked Stork were found

near the Park boundary, which was perhaps due to the

preference for feeding areas outside the Park. These

are shallow water bodies like roadside puddles and pools,

and provide ample opportunity to the stork to increase

its foraging efficiency as the nesting coincides with the

time of release of water inside the Park. The release of

water results in a sudden rise in its level, disturbing the

traditional foraging sites of many shallow water birds,

forcing them to move out in search of food which is

easily found along the roadside puddles and pools. These

small waterbodies provide an ideal habitat for the White-

necked Stork as well.

Nest predation has a significant role in the evolution

of many aspects of avian nesting behaviour (Lack 1 968,

Burger 1 982). Among Ciconiiformes, there is almost no

group or individual nest defence behaviour, and even

low predation is apparently capable of destroy-

ing very large colonies (Baker 1940; Sheilds and Parnell

1986; Rodgers 1987). We never saw predation on

Black-necked and White-necked Stork nests during the

study period. White-necked Storks nest during the

monsoon, when no migratory raptor species is present,

and by the time the large raptors (Greater Spotted

Eagle Aquila clanga. Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila

heliaca ) start coming, stork chicks are fledged and

leave their nesting sites. Late-nesting storks often suffer

loss of chicks by eagle predation, this has been

reported by Naoroji ( 1 990) and observed by us several

times in the colony of Painted Storks Mycteria

leucocepha/a.

In Keoladeo National Park, the abundance of food

and near absence of raptors during summer, and the

controlled regulation of the water level in the wetland

(blocks) help in successful breeding of the storks each

year. For nesting trees, which were not surrounded by

water, there was no potential predator for the White-

necked Storks except perhaps the Jungle Cat. We never

observed any mortality due to predation on this solitary

species.

There was intraspecific competition for nest-sites

in the Park, and the White-backed Vulture Gyps

bengalensis was the only other species directly

competing with storks for nest-sites. For two years, a

pair of Black-necked Stork was forced to leave a half-

constructed nest due to the presence of vultures. In the

case of White-necked Stork as well, vultures once

successfully expelled the storks from the selected site

(Ishtiaq 1998).

Birds often re-use their nesting site based on their

past experiences (Butler 1 993). We found that two nests

were re-used by the White-necked and Black-necked

Stork in consecutive years.

Bird populations are regulated by territorial

behaviour (Lack 1968; Fretwell and Lucas 1970;

Patterson 1980). Based on the movement of individuals,

it was found that the Black-necked Stork is a highly

territorial bird, and a pair does not allow other pairs or

solitary individuals in its territory. A nearly stable

population of six adult pairs of Black-necked Storks and

the presence of sub-adults during the non-breeding

season in the Park suggests that all the potential

territories are already occupied and there would be quick

replacement if an individual or a pair disappears or dies.

Based on the ecology of Black-necked and White-

necked Storks, it can be concluded that the two species

utilise different habitats owing to their feeding

preferences and behaviour. The Black-necked pre-

ferred to nest slightly later in the season when the

food supply was plentiful and prey were large. They

also nested on tall trees with high Girth at Breast Height

(GBH) and canopy to support a comparatively large

platform for the nest. The nesting ecology of the White-

necked Stork is different, as it prefers to feed on small

food items in shallow water bodies (sites that are

numerous soon after the monsoon) and the nests are

usually made in the middle, dense part of the tree with

high GBH.

94

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED AND WHITE-NECKED STORK

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the US Fish & Wildlife Service and

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Govt of India for

sponsoring the Stork Ecology Project through which this

study was conducted. We greatly appreciate the co-

REFER

Baker, R.H. (1940): Crow predation on heron nesting colonies.

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Beaver, D.L., R.G. Osborn & T.W. Custer (1980): Nest-site and

colony characteristics of wading birds in selected Atlantic

coast colonies. Wilson Bull. 92(2): 200-220.

Burger, J. (1974): Determinants of colony and nest-site selection in

the silver grebe (Podiceps occipitalus) and Rolland’s grebe

(Rollandia rolland). Condor 76: 301-306.

Burger, J. ( 1982): The role of reproductive success in colony site

selection and abandonment in black skimmer Rynchops niger.

Auk 99: 109-115.

Burger, J. & M. Gochfeld ( 1 98 1 ): Nest site selection by Kelp gulls

in southern. Africa. Condor 83: 243-25 1 .

Butler, R.H. ( 1 993): Time of breeding in relation to food availability

to female great blue herons. The Auk 1 10: 643-701 .

Clark, L„ R.E. Ricklefs & R.W. Schreiber (1983): Nest-site selection

by the red-tailed tropicbird. Auk 100: 953-959.

Donazar, J.A., F. Hiraldo & J. Bustamante (1993). Factors

influencing nest site selection, breeding density and breeding

success in the bearded vulture (Gvpaetus barbalus). J. Applied

Ecology 30: 504-5 1 4.

Frederick, RC. &. M.W. Collopy (1989): The role of predation in

determining reproductive success of colonially nesting wading

birds in the Florida everglades. Condor 91 : 860-867.

Fretwell, S.D. & H.L. Lucas (1970): On territorial behaviour and

other factors influencing habitat distribution in birds. Acta

Biotheoretica 19: 16-36.

Ishtiaq, F. ( 1 998): Comparative ecology and behaviour of storks in

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. Ph.D. Thesis.

Aligarh Muslim University. 165 pp. (unpubl.)

Kahl, M.P. (1964): The food ecology of the wood stork Mycteria

americana. Ecol. Monogr. 34: 97-117.

Kushlan, J .A. (1978): Feeding ecology of wading birds. Pp. 249-

operation of the Rajasthan Forest Department, especially

the staff of Keoladeo National Park (KNP) and

Ms. Shruti Sharma, Director, KNP, for help extended

during the study period. We also owe sincere thanks to

Dr. Pamela Rasmussen and Dr. Joanna Burger for

valuable comments on the manuscript.

N C E S

296. In: Wading Birds (Eds: Sprunt IV. A.. J.C. Ogden &

S. Winkler) New York, USA: National Audubon Society.

Lack, D (1968): Ecological adaptations for feeding in birds. Methuen

& Co., London.

Naoroji. R. (1990): Predation by Aquila eagles on nesting storks

and herons in Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur. J Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 87: 37-46.

Norussis (1994): SPSS 6. 1 SPSS Inc. 444 North Michigan Avenue,

Chicago, IL 6061 1 .

Parsons, K.C. (1982): Nest-site habitat and hatching success of

gulls. Colonial Waterbirds 5: 131-138.

Patterson, I.J. (1980): Territorial behaviour and the limitations of

population density. The Ardea 68: 53-62.

Prasad, V.P, Daniel Mayson, E. Marburger & C.R. Ajith Kumar

(1996): Illustrated Flora of Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur,

Rajasthan. Bombay Natural History Society, OUP. 435 pp.

Rahmani, A.R. (1989): Status of blacknecked stork Ephippiorhynchus

asiaticus in Indian subcontinent. Forktail 5: 99-1 10.

Rodgers, J.A. Jr. (1987): On the antipredation advantages of

colonial ity: a word of caution. Wilson Bull. 99: 269-270.

Shields, M. A. & J. Parnell ( 1 986): Fish crow predation on eggs of

the white ibis at Battery Island. North Carolina. Auk 103:

531-539.

STATA Corp. (1997): Stata Statistical Software: Release 5.0 College

Station, TX; Stata Corporation.

Thompson, B.C. & R.D. Slack (1982). Physical aspects of colony

selection by least terns on the Texas coast. Colonial Waterbirds

5: 161-168.

Vijayan, V.S. (1991): The Ecology of Keoladeo National Park. Final

Report 1981-1991. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

Walsberg, G.E. & J.R. King (1978): The energetic consequences of

incubation for two passerine species. Auk 95: 644-655.

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

95

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

96-105

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF SOME SOUTH

INDIAN BUTTERFLY SPECIES'

J.B. Atluri2, C. Subba Reddi3 and S.P. Venkata Ramana2

'Accepted July 2002

department of Botany, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

department of Environmental Sciences, Andhra University, Visakhapatnam 530 003, India.

Life history parameters, such as pattern of egg laying, hatching, larval and pupal period and the total period

from egg to emergence of adult of 14 butterfly species, distributed at Visakhapatnam are described. Larval

performance with respect to consumption index (Cl) and growth rate (GR), and estimation of nutritional

indices like approximate digestibility (AD), efficiency of conversion of digested food (ECD) and efficiency of

conversion of ingested food (EC1) is presented.

Acraea terpsicore and Anaphaeis aurota lay eggs in clusters, and the other 12 species lay single eggs. The

hatching, larval and pupal periods, and ultimately the total period for the development of egg to the emergence

of adult are longer (40-48 days) in Pachliopta hector and P. aristolochiae than in other Papilionids, and

taxonomic groups. The larvae of each of the 14 species pass through five instars, and the last two instars

have a major share of the total food consumed over the entire larval period. The consumption index (Cl)

values of these two instars ranged from 0.60 to 3.50. Among the five instars, the first shows the highest Cl

in all the 14 species and the values tend to decrease progressively through the successive instars. The AD

values and food consumption are inversely related. The AD value is highest in the first instar and lowest in

the fifth instar, the values ranging from 86 to 99.5%. The ECD values show a general decrease from the early

to the late instars. The ECI values range from 1 9-60% for Anaphaeis aurota and from 2-34% for others, with

most falling between 1 0% and 20%.

Key words: Butterflies, life history, larval performance, nutritional indices, conservation

Therefore, detailed life history studies to assess the

performance of larvae with respect to food consumption,

utilisation and growth are necessary. Here, we report

the results from assays of pre-adult stages (egg, larva,

pupa and egg to adult), and the food consumption,

utilisation and growth indices of larvae of 14 butterfly

species based on laboratory studies conducted in the

Andhra University, Visakhapatnam.

METHODS

Study Locality:

The present study was carried out from 1 996-1998

at Visakhapatnam, located on the east coast of India in

the State of Andhra Pradesh between 1 7° 42' N and

82° 1 8' E. The climate is typically coastal, dominated

by two monsoons, the southwest (June-September) and

the northeast (December-February). The period from

October through November is cyclone prone. Total

annual rainfall ranges between 100-150 cm with most

of the precipitation occurring during June-October. The

maximum temperature varies between 35-40 °C

experienced mostly in May-June, and the minimum

between 18-20°C experienced mostly in January-

February. During the rainy season, many herbs and

INTRODUCTION

Over billions of years, evolution has established a

balance in the ecological functioning of various

organisms. However, as human societies developed and

flourished, considerable disturbance and destruction of

habitats of various organisms, resulted in the decline and

extinction of several species. Butterflies considered as

beneficial insects are no exception to the adverse effects

of human civilizations. They are important natural

resources as they (1) help in pollination, a key process

in natural propagation, (2) are important ecological

indicators as they are closely associated with plants both

as adults and as larvae, (3) have an important place in

the web of life, and (4) enhance the aesthetic value of

the environment by their exquisite wing colours. Hence,

there is an increasing global interest in conserving and

managing butterflies (New et al. 1995). A complete

understanding of the requirements of butterflies is the

key to their successful conservation and management,

but such knowledge on Indian butterflies is woefully

inadequate (Gay et al. 1992).

Butterflies are holonietabolous, and their

reproductive output depends on the combined effect of

larvae and adult derived nutrients (Boggs 1981).

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

shrubs appear, and the suburban vegetation is

mainly deciduous scrub jungle. The whole area is

subject to human disturbance because of urban

expansion.

Breeding season, oviposition and larval host

plants of the butterflies were observed at two sites:

(1) the Andhra University campus spread over

0.5 sq. km, it enjoys both wild and cultivated flora, and

(2) the Indira Gandhi Zoological Park and its

neighbourhood with semi-protected forest area, spread

over one sq. km. Representative samples of butterflies

were collected at 10 day intervals from both the sites,

by stalking or chasing the fast flying species or by gently

sweeping the low flying species. The specimens

collected were identified from Wynter-Blyth (1957);

Varshney ( 1 980, 1 985) was referred to for nomenclature.

For each of the 14 butterflies species of the present

study, ovipositing activity was observed and larval host

plants recorded.

Laboratory study

Life History: The breeding females were

watched during the breeding season, and the fresh eggs

laid were collected in petri dishes (9.5 cm diameter)

along with the plant material on which they were laid.

These were incubated at room temperature ( c . 28 °C)

in the laboratory. Irrespective of the number of eggs

laid, only one leaf was kept in each petri dish and

watched at 6 hour intervals to record the hatching time.

The intervals were shortened if necessary after

preliminary observations. The larvae that hatched were

also observed at fixed intervals for moulting until they

pupated. Based on the number of moults, the number

of instars for each species was determined. As the

larvae completed their first or second instar stage,

each was maintained in a larger petri dish (15.5 cm)

to facilitate free movement. The egg, individual

larval instar, pupal and egg to adult duration were

recorded. Five replicates were maintained for each

species.

Food consumption and utilisation: Food was

changed daily and the petri dishes were kept clean by

removing the food remains and faecal matter, which

were later weighed and disposed of. For every instar,

its initial and final weight was taken and the weight gain

noted. After preliminary observations of food consumed

by the larvae, 5-10 leaves were weighed and given to

the larvae. The total food consumed by the larvae was

calculated at the end of each instar period. Mean and

standard deviations were estimated for food consumed,

weight of faeces and weight gained by the larvae. The

following parameters were estimated as in Waldbauer

(1968).

Wt. of food consumed

Cl (Consumption =

index) Wt. of instar x

Number of feeding days

Wt. gain of instar

GR (Growth rate) =

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

In all, 14 butterfly species have been examined

for their oviposition, plant species used for ovipositing,

and pattern of egg laying (Table 1 ). Egg, larval and pupal

duration, and total egg to adult development time are

summarized in Table 2. Food consumption, growth and

utilization indices are given Tables 3-8.

Egg laying pattern and hatching duration

Of the 14 species of butterflies studied, 12 species

lay single eggs, and the other two in clusters. Anaphaeis

aurota (Family Pieridae) and Acraea terpsicore (Family

Acraeidae) are cluster layers. The nymphalid Junonia

lemonias, the two danaids, the six papilionids and the

other three pierids are all single egg layers. Single egg

laying habit dominates over cluster laying habit among

butterfly species of most geographical areas (Thompson

and Pellmyr 1991). Though the number of species

examined in the present study is low, this study suggests

a similar tendency. Based on the information provided

by Ford (1957), Stamp (1980) estimated that 2.5% of

the butterfly species in India are cluster layers, while

the others lay single eggs. However, some reports show

the influence of ecological conditions on egg laying

pattern (Larsen 1988; Davies and Gilbert 1985). As

such, a closer study is required on the pattern of egg

laying in different ecological situations.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

97

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

Table 1: List of the 14 butterfly species studied, their oviposition plants and egg laying patterns

According to Chew and Robbins ( 1 984), the species

with a single egg laying habit generally use small plants as

larval hosts, but this is not true in Acraea terpsicore which

lays eggs in clusters of 4-6 on the herbaceous Hybanthus

erwaespermus. While single egg laying habit is

advantageous to exploit isolated plants, preventing the

possibility of larval starvation, egg clustering improves larval

host resource exploitation (Davies and Gilbert 1 985).

The hatching or incubation period is 3-4 days in 9 of

the 14 species, 4-5 in 3 species, and 6-7 days in 2 species.

In temperate species, the hatching period is reported to

differ between cluster and single egg layers, the former

being longer (Stamp 1980). Such a difference is not

apparent in these 14 tropical species. In fact, Pachliopta

hector and P. aristolochiae that lay single eggs have a

longer incubation period of 6-7 days than the cluster laying

Acraea terpsicore (3-4 days) and Anaphaeis aurota

(4-5 days). It thus appears that the incubation period may

depend on the size of the egg rather than on the egg laying

pattern, the bigger eggs taking a relatively longer period.

This requires to be tested under similar conditions of

incubation.

Larval and pupal duration, and total development

time

The durations of the different instars of the 14

butterfly species appear to be similar. The duration of

instar I varied between 2-3 days, of instar II and III

each 2-4 days, of instar IV 2-5 days, and instar V 3-7

days. Only the fifth instar of two papilionids Pachliopta

hector and P. aristolochiae have a relatively longer

duration of 6-7 days. The total larval period ranged

between 1 1-20 days. The pupal period of six species,

namely Acraea terpsicore , Danaus chrysippus,

Junonia lemonias, Anaphaeis aurota , Catopsilia

pyranthe and Eurema hecabe was short ranging from

6-8 days, and the remaining eight species had a longer

period of 9-16 days. The period of egg to adult

development time also had two groups, one showing a

shorter period of 20-30 days and the other a longer period

of 25-48 days (Table 2). The longest period was for

Pachliopta aristolochiae (40-48 days), and for

P. hector (39-47 days), and the shortest period of

20-27 days was observed in Junonia lemonias and

Eurema hecabe. In Papua New Guinea, the world’s

largest butterfly Ornithoptera alexandrae

(Papilionidae) has an egg to adult development time

spanning over 122 days (Parsons 1984c), the lycaenids

Philiris helena, P agatha, P. intensa and P. zisk have

30 days each (Parsons 1 984a). The nymphalid Taeniaris

myops has 54 days, and T. arotaus 60 days (Parsons

1984b). Relevant data from other regions in India are

required for a meaningful comparison and interpretation.

However, temperature influences instar duration

98

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Table 2: Duration in days of different stages in the life history of the 14 butterfly species under study

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

99

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

Table 3: Instarwise food consumption and growth of 14 butterfly species

100

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

Table 3: Instarwise food consumption and growth of 14 butterfly species (contd.)

states that egg to adult development time is much shorter

in the tropics.

Food consumption and utilization

The data on the proportion of food consumed by

the five instars of each of the 14 butterfly species

indicates that the fourth or fifth instar had a major share

of the total amount of food consumed over the entire

larval period. Similar findings have been reported for

other species (David and Gardiner 1962; Waldbauer

1968; Mathavan and Pandian 1975; Scriber and Slansky

1981; Palanichamy et al. 1982; Selvasundaram 1992;

Ghosh and Gonchaudhuri 1996). The increase in

consumption might be a strategy to compensate for the

energy requirement in the non-feeding pupal stage (Delvi

and Pandian 1972; Pandian 1973). The consumption

low conversion efficiency (EC1) (Table 4). The values

of consumption index (Cl) of any instar of the 1 4 species

are within the ranges reported for Lepidoptera in general

(Slansky and Scriber 1985) and correspond well with

the values of swallowtails (Scriber and Feeny 1979;

Scriber 1986).

The value of GR of the 14 butterfly species

decreased progressively in general and was highest in

instar 1, and lowest in instar V (Table 5). A similar trend

has been recorded for the moth Pericallia ricini (Ghosh

and Gonchaudhuri 1 996). Penultimate instars had a higher

growth rate than the final instars in some swallowtails

and moths (Scriber and Feeny 1979). The GRs of

penultimate and final instars now obtained are in line

with the above decreasing trend. The larvae reared on

tree foliage show higher growth rates than the larvae

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

101

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

Table 4: Values of Consumption Index (Cl) for successive instars of 14 butterfly species

Table 5: Values of Growth Rate (GR) for successive instars of 14 butterfly species

GR

102

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

maintained on herbaceous foliage (Scriber and Feeny

1979). The host plant Polyalthia longifolia utilised by

Graphium agamemnon and G. doson, and Citrus

limon utilised by Papilio polytes and Princeps

demoleus are tree species, whereas Aristolochia indica

and A. bracteolata used by Pachliopta hector and

P. aristolochiae, and Hybanthus ennaespermus used

by Acraea terpsicore are herbaceous. While the growth

rates of Pachliopta aristolochiae larval instars II to V

are greater than those of other tree foliage feeders, those

of Pachliopta hector are not different from other tree

foliage feeders, hence the data is considered inadequate

to consider the issue of different growth rates on the

two kinds of foliage.

The values of approximate digestibility (AD) of

the 14 butterfly species declined as the larvae aged

(Table 6). The larvae may have consumed a larger

proportion of indigestible crude fibre as they grew older

which caused AD values to decrease along the

successive instars (see Slansky and Scriber 1985). This

decrease could also be the reason of the decreased

growth rate (GR) described earlier. The AD values are

inversely related to the food consumed by different

instars. It is highest in instar I, the corresponding

percentages of each of the 14 species are: Pachliopta

aristolochiae 0.41, 98; P. hector 0.59, 99; Papilio

polytes 0.61, 99; Princeps demoleus 0.46, 99;

Graphium agamemnon 0.40, 99; G. doson 0.29, 99;

Anaphaeis aurota 0.53, 97; Calotis danae 0.93, 98;

Acraea terpsicore 0.37, 97; Catopsilia pyranthe 0.23,

98; Eurema hecabe 0.72, 99; Junonia lemonias 0.47,

99; Danaus chrysippus 0.39, 97; and Euploea core

O. 53, 98. The AD is lowest in instar V, the corresponding

percentages are Pachliopta aristolochiae 75.03, 84;

P. hector 53.49, 87; Papilio polytes 41 . 1 5, 86; Princeps

demoleus 52.02, 82; Graphium agamemnon 41 . 1 5, 82;

G. doson 47.4 1 , 84; Anaphaeis aurota 44.5, 70; Calotis

danae 68.5, 76; Acraea terpsicore 61.38, 86;

Catopsilia pyranthe 67.10, 69; Eurema hecabe 36.80,

81; Junonia lemonias 62.68, 87; Danaus chrysippus

64.10, 84; Euploea core 65.16, 85. Such a relationship

between approximate digestibility and food consumption

is also evident from the data compiled by Waldbauer

(1968). The AD values of the 14 species ranging

between 86.0 to 99.5% appear to be higher than those

reported for several lepidopteran larvae (see Pandian

and Marian 1986; Ghosh and Gonchaudhuri 1996). The

larvae were given tender leaves daily. Tender leaves

are usually rich in nitrogen and the larvae may have

assimilated them more efficiently resulting in high values

of AD. The values of efficiency of conversion of

digested food (ECD) showed a general increase from

Table 6: Values of Approximate Digestibility (AD) for successive instars of 14 butterfly species

AD (%)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

103

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

Table 7: Values of Efficiency of conversion of digested food (ECD) for successive instars of 14 butterfly species

ECD (%)

104

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF BUTTERFLY SPECIES

early to late instars, and the values are very low

compared to AD values, indicating poor utilisation of

the digested food (Table 7).

The values of efficiency of conversion of consumed

food (ECI) of Anaphaeis aurota ranged between 19-

60% and those of the other 13 species varied between

2-34%; most of these values fall between 1 0% and 20%.

These values indicate low conversion efficiency, but are

comparable with the ECI values reported for swallowtails

(Scriber and Slansky 1981). Excised foliage was used

for rearing the larvae, and such foliage is likely to be

deficient in water. Since leaf water content is directly

related to conversion efficiency (Muthukrishnan 1990)

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Delvi, MR. & T.J. Pandian ( 1 972): Rates of feeding and assimilation

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Ford, E.B. (1957): Butterflies. Collins. London. 368 pp.

Gay, T., I.D. Kehimkar & J.C. Punetha ( 1 992): Common Butterflies

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Ghosh, D. & S. Gonchaudhuri ( 1 996): Biology and food utilisation

efficiency of Pericallia ricini (Fab.) (Lepidoptera: Arctiidae) in

Tripura. Uttar Pradesh. J. Zool. 16(3): 119-122.

Larsen, T.B. ( 1 988): Differing oviposition and larval feeding strategies

in two Colotis butterflies sharing the same food plant.

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Mathavan, S. & T.J. Pandian ( 1975): Effect of temperature on food

utilisation in the monarch butterfly Danaus chrysippus. Oikos

26: 60-64.

Muthukrishnan, J. (1990): Bioenergetics in insect plant interactions.

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New, T.R., R.M. Pyle, J.A. Thomas, C.D. Thomas & PC. Hammond

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40: 57-83.

Owen, D.F. (1971): Tropical Butterflies. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

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Palanichamy, S.R. Ponnuchamy & T. Thangaraj (1982): Effect of

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Pandian, T.J. (1973): Food intake and energy expenditure patterns

in two insect primary consumers. Curr. Sci. 42: 423-425.

Pandian, T.J. & M.P. Marian (1986): Prediction of assimilation

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the larvae had to spend energy to produce metabolic

water, which may have resulted in low conversion

efficiency. While it is indicated that the ECI values across

the instars show a decreasing trend, and follow the

pattern of decline in AD (Waldbauer 1968), the ECI

pattern of the 1 4 species does not conform to the above

relation (Table 8). The ECIs showed definite trend of

increase or decrease across the instars, thus supporting

the predicted inconsistency in ECI pattern (Slansky and

Scriber 1985) also recorded in the moth Pericallia ricini

(Ghosh and Gonchaudhuri 1 996). The various nutritional

indices of the 14 butterfly species will enable a proper

understanding of the trophic interactions of these species.

NC E S

95: 641-665.

Parsons, M.J. (1984a): Life histories of four species of Philiris

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from Papua New Guinea. J Lepid. Soc. 39: 69-84.

Parsons, M.J. (1984c): The biology and conservation of Ornithoplera

alexandrae. Pp. 327-33 1 . In: The Biology of Butterflies (Eds:

Vane-Wright, R.I. & P.R. Ackery), Academic Press, London.

Scriber J.M. (1986): Origins of the regional feeding abilities in the

tiger swallowtail butterfly ecological monophagy and the Papilio

glaucus australis subspecies in Florida. Oecologia 71: 94-103.

Scriber, J. M. & P. Feeny (1979): Growth of herbivorous caterpillars

in relation to feeding specialization and to the growth form of

their food plants. Ecology 60: 829-850.

Scriber, J.M. & F.J. Slansky (1981): The nutritional ecology of

immature insects. Ann. Rev. Entomol. 26: 183-211.

Selvasundaram, R. (1992): Food utilisation and bioenergetics of

Caloptilia theivora ( Walsingham) (Lepidoptera: Gracillaridae)

infesting tea. Hexapoda 4(2): 1 19-128.

Slansky, F. & J.M. Scriber (1985): Food consumption and utilization.

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Biochemistry and Pharmacology (Eds: Kerkut, G.A. & L.I.

Gilbert), Pergamon, Oxford.

Stamp, N.E. (1980): Egg deposition patterns in butterflies. Why do

some species cluster their eggs rather than deposit them singly?

Amer. Nat. 115: 367-380.

Thompson, J.N. & J.N. Pellmyr (1991): Evolution of oviposition

behaviour and host preference in Lepidoptera. Ann Rev.

Entomol. 36: 65-89.

Varshney, R.K. ( 1980): Revised nomenclature fortaxa in Wynter-

Blyth’s book on the butterflies of Indian region. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 76: 33-40.

Varshney, R.K. (1985): Revised nomenclature for taxa in Wynter-

Blyth’s book on the butterflies of Indian region-II. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 82: 309-321.

Waldbauer, G.P. (1968): The consumption and utilization of food

by insects. Pp. 229-288. In: Advances in Insect Physiology

(Eds: Beament, J.W.L., J.E. Treherne & V.B. Wigglesworth),

Academic Press, London and New York.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

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Journal! of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

106-120

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS

OF SANJAY GANDHI NATIONAL PARK, BORIVLI, MUMBAI

(LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE AND SPHINGIDAE)1

V. Shubhalaxmi and Naresh Chaturvedi2

'Accepted January 2003

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

S.B, Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]. in

Ecological studies were conducted on the moths of Sanjay Gandhi National Park, with special reference to

the Families Satumiidae and Sphingidae. Three species of Emperor moths and 32 species of Hawkmoths

were recorded, of these the life histories of 26 species were studied (3 Saturnids, 23 Sphingids). For Family

Saturniidae, 10 new larval food plants have been added to the 80 known species for 2 Emperor moths. For

Family Sphingidae, 33 new larval food plants have been added to the 1 1 1 known species for 20 Hawkmoths.

A brief overview of the larval food plants in terms

covered in this paper.

Keywords: Satumiidae, Sphingidae, Emperor moths,

specialists, generalists, indicator species

INTRODUCTION

Ecological studies on the moths of Sanjay Gandhi

National Park (SGNP), Mumbai, with special reference

to Families Satumiidae and Sphingidae, were conducted

from 1993 to 2001. Three species of Emperor moths

and 32 species of Hawkmoths were recorded. SGNP

is a unique national park, in that it is surrounded by a

metropolis like Mumbai. It is constantly under heavy

biotic pressure from humans. This National Park lies in

the Western Ghats, a crucial area with rich biodiversity.

Though most of the flora and fauna have been well

documented, very 1 ittle was known about the insect fauna

of the Park. An ecological study of the moths was

initiated, for which the Families Satumiidae (Emperor

moths) and Sphingidae (Hawkmoths) were selected.

Ecological data on the moths of Maharashtra region is

scanty, and there are many lacunae in the information

on their life histories, including larval food plants, which

vary for different habitats. Thus, a food plant recorded

for a particular moth species in southern India may differ

from that found in western India (e.g. Carissa

carandas). Detailed life histories of 3 Saturnids and

23 Sphingids were successfully recorded.

Emperor Moths: Family Saturniidae

Saturnids are known as Emperor moths or non-

mulberry silkmoths (Arora and Gupta 1979). The largest

moth in Asia is a Saturnid, the Atlas moth, with a

wingspan of 29 cm. Besides their size and exuberant

beauty, they are also known for their non-feeding adults

and gregarious caterpillars. Others, like Tasar, Muga

of preferences, abundance and resource sharing are

Hawkmoths, Saturnids, Sphingids, larval food plants,

and Eri moths are known for silk production and are

commercially exploited by the silk industry.

Hawkmoths: Family Sphingidae

Sphingids are also known as Sphinx moths for the

sphinx-like posture adopted by the caterpillars when

threatened. They are best known for their long migratory

flight; some have even been encountered at mid-sea

(Kehimkar 1997). The stout, cigar-shaped body and

long, narrow forewings of the adult are distinctive. The

long proboscis makes Hawkmoths ideal pollinators

for flowers which have a long tubular corolla (Barlow

1982).

STUDY AREA

The c. 103 sq. km area of SGNP is spread

over the Greater Bombay (44.50 sq. km) and Thane

(58.64 sq. km) districts of Maharashtra State. It is

situated c. 40 km north of Mumbai city and c. 8 km

from the Arabian Sea. The Park has four types of

habitats ranging from mangroves to evergreen forests

of the Western Ghats. Most of the trees are deciduous,

and some evergreen. The forest has diverse flora ranging

from tall trees to shrubs and herbs.

Apart from SGNP, the study was also carried out

on the adjoining 1 .5 sq. km land of the Bombay Natural

History Society (BNHS) adjacent to the Goregaon end

of the Park. The vegetation on the BNHS land is

southern moist-mixed deciduous and the topography is

mainly hilly, intersected with rocky streambeds of

seasonal rain-fed streams (Patil 1993).

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

METHODOLOGY

To study the larval food plants, moth caterpillars

found in the wild were reared on identified food plants.

In the case of generalist (polyphagous) species, the

preference levels were also observed. The scattered

data on known larval food plants was compiled.

Vegetation analysis of the larval food plants in the study

area was conducted during two periods, monsoon (July)

and non-monsoon (March). The main objectives were:

(i) To assess the abundance of larval food plants in the

study area in terms of availability for caterpillars, (ii) To

grade the food plants as ‘very common’, ‘common’ and

‘not common’ according to their relative abundance.

HOST-PLANT RELATIONSHIPS

According to Scott (1933), the distribution of moths

and the number of individuals of any species in any

locality, is intimately connected with their choice of food

plants, thus the disappearance of a plant may lead to

the disappearance of a species feeding on it. Hence,

the food plants could be considered as indicator species.

According to Speight and Wain House (1989), plants

that are abundant and widely distributed host more insect

species than plants with restricted distribution. Hence,

insect diversity can be broadly predicted from the

abundance of a particular plant species. This association

indicates that insects and plants have co-evolved in

nature. Moreover, host plant selection is governed

primarily by chemoreception, therefore, the emergence

of specific insect/host plant relationships is most likely

to have resulted from evolutionary changes in the

insects’ chemosensory systems. According to Jenny

(1984), adaptation to the nutritional quality of the new

host plant is a secondary process.

Some moth species are specialist (monophagous),

i.e. they lay eggs on a single plant species only, while others

are generalist (polyphagous), i.e. they lay eggs on more

than one plant species. Saturnid species tend to be

generalists. In the Oriental region, they have been recorded

to feed on the following 52 plant families: Anacardiaceae,

Annonaceae, Apocynaceae, Aquifoliaceae, Araliaceae,

Asclepiadaceae, Barringtoniaceae, Berberidaceae,

Betulaceae, Bischofiaceae, Burseraceae, Caricaceae,

Combretaceae, Coriariaceae, Corylaceae, Cyperaceae,

Daphniphyllaceae, Dilleniaceae, Dipterocarpaceae,

Ericaceae, Euphorbiaceae, Fagaceae, Juglandaceae,

Labiatae, Lauraceae, Leeaceae, Leguminosae, Lythraceae,

Magnoliaceae, Malvaceae, Meliaceae, Moringaceae,

Myrsinaceae, Myrtaceae, Naucleaceae, Oleaceae,

Oxalidaceae, Palmae, Rhamnaceae, Rosaceae,

Rubiaceae, Rutaceae, Salicaceae, Sapindaceae,

Simaroubaceae, Staphyleaceae, Symplocaceae, Theaceae,

Umbelliferae, Verbenaceae, Vitidaceae and

Xanthophyllaceae.

Sphingids are also generalists to some extent. Earlier

workers, such as Scott (1933) recorded food plants for

1 24 species of Sphingids, which cover a wide range of

58 families of plants extending from Dilleniaceae to

Gramineae. Family Rubiaceae is the most preferred,

with about 30 species feeding on it, followed by Vitaceae

and Araceae with 16 species. Further, Beeson (1941)

added that altogether 60 families ranging from large trees

to herbs and even grasses are larval food plants of

Sphingids.

The study recorded 15 larval food plants for

3 Saturnids and 44 for 23 Sphingids. Since 4 larval food

plant species were common to both, the total number

recorded was 55 plant species belonging to 24 families.

Of these, 37 larval food plants from 17 families were

new records for 22 moth species (2 Saturnids and 20

Sphingids).

PROFILE OF LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

The diversity of larval food plants in terms of the

type (tree, shrub or herb), habit (deciduous or evergreen)

and seasonality (perennial or seasonal) is discussed here.

It was observed that trees were the most dominant type,

followed by shrubs and climbers, while herbs were poorly

represented (Fig. 1 ). 78% of the larval food plants were

perennial and 22% were seasonal. Among the perennial

larval food plants, 46% were deciduous and 32% were

evergreen.

For Saturnids, 15 tree species were identified as

larval food plants, of which 73% were deciduous and

27% were evergreen. For Sphingids, 44 plant species

were identified, of which 41% were trees, 30% shrubs,

20% climbers and 9% herbs. Among the trees, 39%

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

107

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

108

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

Vitaceae Acanthaceae

Tiliaceae 5% 40/ Anacardiaceae

c, , 2% 1 _ r 2%

Slerculiaceae Apocynaceae

4% —

Araceae

4%

Balsaminaceae

2%

Nyctaginaceae

2%

Lythraceae

4°/oLeeaceae

4%

Convolvulaceae

9%

Dioscoreaceae

Fabaceae Euphorbiaceae 2%

7% 2%

Fig. 2: Families of larval food plants

species supporting 8 species of Sphingids and 1 Saturnid

(see Fig. 2).

RESOURCE SHARING

Resource sharing, i.e. utilization of larval food plants

by the moth species is described here. From Table 1 it can

be concluded that of the 24 plant families foraged by

Saturniidae and Sphingidae (subfamilies Sphinginae and

Macroglossinae), 10 families were foraged by Saturniidae

(3 species) while 16 plant families were foraged by

subfamily Sphinginae (9 species) and 23 by

Macroglossinae ( 1 4 species). Both Satumids and Sphingids

shared four plant families, Apocynaceae, Bombacaceae,

Boraginaceae and Rubiaceae. The data showed that

Sphingids utilized 81% of the resources, while Satumids

used only 19%. Among the subfamilies of Sphingids,

Macroglossinae accounted for 48%, and Sphinginae 33%.

were deciduous, 34% evergreen and 27% annuals

including climbers and herbs. The list of all recorded

larval food plants along with their families and moth

species is given in Table 1 .

It can be summarised from Table 1 that of the

listed 24 plant families of larval food plants:

• 11 families had only one host plant species

• 7 families had 2 species

• 3 families had 4 species

• 3 families had 3, 5 and 10 species respectively.

Family Rubiaceae was the largest, with 10 plant

LARVAL FOOD PLANT PREFERENCES

Most of the Saturnid and Sphingid caterpillars were

generalist feeders, but a few species behaved like

specialist feeders, in that they fed only on one host plant,

despite the availability of their known food plants in the

area. Such species are termed as ‘acting specialist' here,

and there were two categories among them:

1 . Moth species that preferred to lay eggs on a

single larval food plant, ignoring the other known food

plants found in the study area.

Table 2: List of Generalist and Specialist Species

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

109

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

2. Moth species whose preferred larval food plant

is not documented from the study area, and is observed

feeding on a single allied species. Nephele hespera is

the single example in this category.

Among Saturnids, 2 species were generalist and

one was an acting specialist, while in Sphingids,

15 species were generalist, 3 were specialists and 5

were acting specialist (Table 2).

Details of individual moth species, along with their

larval food plants, have been discussed here. In case of

a generalist moth species, the food preferences levels

were given as ‘Most preferred’, ‘Preferred’ and ‘Less

preferred’. The plant preference was assessed from

the number of caterpillars observed feeding on it. A

compiled list of known food plants, recorded plants

and new larval food plants along with their moth species

is given in Table 3. Some exotic plant species present

on the fringes of the study area were seen to be hosts

for a few moth species. Additionally, 2 larval food

plants, Arisaema murrayi and Pavetta crassicaulis

mentioned in Table 3 were found outside the study

area ( 1 50-350 km away) on the hills of Mahableshwar

and Malshej Ghat. Such plants are marked with an

asterisk.

Under each moth species, the following details of

the larval food plant has been given:

KFP = Number of Known food plants,

RFP = Number of Recorded food plants,

NR = New records.

Further, under each plant family, details have been

given in following format:

■ Type of plant, status of plant in the study area,

■ Number of caterpillars reared on the plant and

■ Preference level of caterpillars (only for generalist

species )

■ Whether the larval food plant recorded during the

study was a new record.

FAMILY SATURN II DAE

As recoded by Hampson ( 1 896), Fellowes-Manson

(1920), Beeson (1941), Arora and Gupta (1979),

Barlow and D’Abrera (1982), and Chaturvedi (1999),

there are 80 known larval food plants for 3 Saturnids,

which have been now updated to 90. Details of

the larval food plants is mentioned under each

species:

1. Indian Moon Moth

Actias selene Hubner 1816

KFP: 27, RFP: 01, NR: 0

Anacardiaceae

1. Lannea coromandelica (Floutt.) Merr.:

Deciduous tree. Not Common, 05.

2. Tasar Silk Moth

Antheraea papftia Hubner 1818

KFP: 38, RFP: 10, NR: 05

Apocynaceae

1. Carissa congesta Wt.: Evergreen shrub.

Common, 02, Less preferred, New record.

Bombacaceae

2. Bombax ceiba Linn: Deciduous tree, Common,

01, Less Preferred.

Burseraceae

3. Garuga pinnata Roxb.: Deciduous tree,

Common, 03, Less Preferred.

Conibretaceae

4. Anogeissus latifolia (DC) Wall, ex Bedd.:

Deciduous tree, Not common, 01, Less preferred, New

record.

5. Terminalia catappa Linn.: Deciduous tree,

planted inside the study area, 15, Most Preferred.

6. Terminalia bell erica Roxb.: Deciduous tree,

Not Common, 05, Preferred.

7. Terminalia crenulata Roth.: Deciduous tree.

Not common, 03, Preferred, New record.

Euphorbiaceae

8. Bridelia retusa (Linn.) Spreng: Deciduous tree.

Not common, 02, Less Preferred, New Record.

Rhamnaceae

9. Zizyphus mauritiana Lamk.: Evergreen tree.

Not common, 12, Most Preferred.

10. Zizyphus rugosa Lamk.: Evergreen tree, Not

common, 01, Less Preferred, New Record.

3. Atlas Moth Attacus atlas Linnaeus 1766

KFP: 19, RFP: 04, NR: 04.

Apocynaceae

1 . Holarrhena antidysenterica : Deciduous tree,

Not common, 03, Preferred, New Record.

Lythraceae

*2. Lagerstroemia speciosa Retz.: Deciduous

tree. Not found inside the study area, 1 2, Most Preferred,

New Record.

3. Lagerstroemia lanceolata Wall: Deciduous

tree, Not common, 2, Less Preferred, New Record.

Rubiaceae

4. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth: Evergreen

tree. Common, 05, Less Preferred, New Record.

FAMILY SPHINGIDAE

As per Hampson (1896), Scott (1933, 1983),

Beeson (1941), Barlow and D’Abrera (1982) and

Smetacek (1994) there were 111 known food plants,

which have now increased to 144. Details of the

larval food plants have been mentioned under each

species.

110

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

1. Convolvulus Hawkmoth

Agrius convolvuli Linnaeus 1758

KFP: 06, RFP: 05, NR: 05.

Convolvulaceae

1. Ipomoea sinensis (Des.) Choicy: Annual

climber, Not common, 01, Less preferred, New

Record.

*2. Ipomoea cairica Linn.: Perennial climber, Not

found inside the study area, 05, Most Preferred, New

Record.

*3. Ipomoea carnea Jacq.: Evergreen shrub,

Common outside the study area, 02, Preferred, New

Record.

*4. Ipomoea aqnatica Forsk.: Evergreen runner,

Common outside the study area, 02, Less Preferred,

New Record.

5. Ipomoea hederacea (Jacq.): Annual climber,

common, 01, Less preferred, New Record.

2. Dark Death’s Head Hawkmoth

Acherontia lacbesis Fabricius 1798

KFP: 25, RFP: 07, NR: 06.

Acanthaceae

1 . Barleria prionitis Linn.: Annual herb, Common,

02, Preferred, New Record.

2. Carvia callosa : Annual shrub. Common, 01,

Less preferred. New Record.

Boraginaceae

3. Cordia dichotoma Forst. f : Deciduous tree.

Not common, 01, Less preferred, New Record.

Convolvulaceae

*4. Ipomoea carnea Jacq.: Evergreen shrub,

Common outside the study area, 01, Less Preferred,

New Record.

*5. Ipomoea aquatica Forsk.: Evergreen runner,

Common outside the study area, 01, Less Preferred,

New Record.

Oleaceae

*6. Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn.: Deciduous

shrub, Common outside the study area, 0 1 , Less Preferred.

Solanaceae

7. Solanum violaceum Ortega: Deciduous shrub.

Not common, 01, Less Preferred, New Record.

3. Dark Psilogramma

Psilogramma ntenep/iron Cramer 1780

KFP: 14, RFP: 02, NR: 01.

Bignoniaceae

1. Oroxylum indicum (Linn.) Vent.: Deciduous

tree, Not common, 01, Less preferred. New Record.

2. *Spathodea campanulata Beauv.: Evergreen

tree. Common outside the study area, 01, Less

preferred.

4. Shorthorn Sphinx Clonis phalaris Cramer 1777

KFP: 08, RFP: 04, NR: 03.

Fabaceae

1. Pueraria tuberosa (Roxb.) DC.: Deciduous

climber, Not common, 10, Most Preferred, New

Record.

2. Dcilbergia lanceolarici Linn.f.: Deciduous tree.

Not common, 02, Preferred, New Record.

3. Dalbergia Jatifolia Roxb.: Deciduous tree, Not

common, 02, Preferred, New Record.

4. Pterocarpus marsupium Roxb.: Deciduous

tree, Not common, 01, Less Preferred.

5. Dentate Grey Sphinx

Poly pty chits dent at us Cramer 1777

KFP: 02, RFP: 02, NR: 01.

Bombacaceae

1 . Bombax ceiba Linn.: Deciduous tree, Common,

01, Less Preferred, New Record.

Boraginaceae

1. Cordia dichotoma Forst. F: Deciduous tree,

Not common, 08, Most preferred.

6. Spotted Marumba Marumba dyras Walker 1856

KFP: 10, RFP: 5, NR: 03.

Bombacaceae

1 . Bombax ceiba Linn.: Deciduous tree. Common,

10, Most Preferred.

Euphorbiaceae

2. Br ide I ia retusa (L'mn.) Spreng.: Deciduous tree.

Not common, 02, Less Preferred, New Record.

Sterculiaceae

3. Firmiana color ata (Roxb.) R.Br.: Deciduous

tree. Not common, 50, Most Preferred, New Record.

4. Helicteres isora Linn.: Deciduous shrub. Very

common, 10, Most Preferred.

Tiliaceae

5. Grewia inequalis Bl.: Deciduous tree, Common,

04, Less Preferred, New Record.

7. Brown Tip Marumba

Marumba indicus Walker 1856

KFP: 05, RFP: 01, NR: 01.

Sterculiaceae

1. Firmiana colorata (Roxb.) R. Br.: Deciduous

tree. Not common, 25 (caterpillars reared at a time from

an egg clutch), New Record.

8. Coffee Bee Hawkmoth

Cephanodes hylas hylas Linnaeus 1771

KFP: 13, RFP: 08, NR: 05.

Rubiaceae

1. Catunaregam spinarum (L.) Tiruveng:

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

111

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

Evergreen shrub, Not common, 02, Less Preferred.

2. Gardenia lucida Roxb.: Evergreen tree , Not

common, 03, Most Preferred, New Record.

3. * Gardenia florida Linn.: Evergreen shrub,

Common outside the study area, 05, Most Preferred.

4. Haldina cordifo!ia( Roxb.) Ridsdale: Evergreen

tree. Not common, 02, Less Preferred.

5. Hymenodictyon orixense (Roxb.) Mabb.:

Evergreen tree. Not common, 03, Most Preferred, New

Record.

6. Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth.: Evergreen

tree. Common, 03, Most Preferred, New Record.

7. *Pavetta crassicaulis Bremek.: Deciduous

tree, Not common, 01, Less Preferred, New Record.

8. Pavetta siphonantha Dalz.: Deciduous tree,

Not common, 01, Less Preferred.

9. Oleander Hawkmoth

Dapltnis nerii Linnaeus 1758

KFP: 05, RFP: 02, NR: 01.

Apocynaceae

* 1 . Alstonia scholaris R.Br.: Evergreen tree, Not

found in the study area, 0 1 , Less preferred, New Record.

2. Tabernaemontana coronaria Wild.: Perennial

shrub, Not found inside the study area, 06, Most Preferred.

10. Carissa Hawkmoth

Nephele hespera Fabricius 1775

KFP: 01, RFP: 01, NR: 01.

Apocynaceae

1. Carissa congesta Wt.: Evergreen shrub,

Common, 16, New Record.

11. Turntail Hawkmoth

Neogurelca hyas Walker 1856

KFP: 03, RFP: 01, NR: 0.

Rubiaceae

1. Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Roxb.:

Evergreen tree. Common, 05.

12. Little Hummingbird Moth

Macroglossum gyrans Walker 1856

KFP: 01, RFP: 01, NR: 0.

Rubiaceae

1. Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Roxb.:

Evergreen tree. Common, 3 1 .

13. Hourglass Hummingbird Moth

Macroglossum particolor Rothschild & Jordan 1903

KFP: 01, RFP: 01, NR: 0.

Rubiaceae

1. Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Roxb.:

Evergreen tree, Common, 02.

14. Large Hummingbird Moth

Macroglossum belis Linnaeus 1758

KFP: 04, RFP: 02, NR: 02.

Rubiaceae

1 . Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Roxb.:

Evergreen tree, Common, 04, Most preferred, New

Record.

2. Spermadictyon suaveolens Roxb.: Evergreen

tree, Not found in the study area, 03, Less preferred,

New Record.

15. Yellow Banded Hummingbird Moth

Macroglossum sitiene Walker 1856

KFP: 01, RFP: 01, NR: 01.

Rubiaceae

1. Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Roxb.:

Evergreen tree. Common, 02.

16. Hogweed Hawkmoth

Hippotion boerltaviae Fabricius 1775

KFP: 06, REP: 01, NR: 0.

Nyctaginaceae

1. Boerhavia diffusa Linn.: Annual herb, Not

common, 01 .

17. Large Yam Hawkmoth

Theretra nessus Drury 1773

KFP: 05, RFP: 01, NR: 01.

Dioscoreaceae

1. Dioscorea hispida Dennst.: Annual herb. Not

common, 01, New Record.

18. Grapevine Black Hawkmoth

Tlieretra clotho clotho Drury 1773

KFP: 05, RFP: 05, NR: 05.

Araceae

1 . Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott.) Engler:

Annual herb, Common, 01, Less Preferred, New

Record.

Leeaceae

2. Leea asiatica (Linn.) Ridsdale: Annual herb,

Very common, 02, Preferred, New Record.

Vitaceae

3 . Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.: Annual

climber. Very common, 05, Most preferred, New Record.

4. Cayratia triflora (Linn.) Domin: Annual

climber. Not common, 01, Less preferred. New Record.

5. Cissus elongata Roxb.: Annual climber, Not

common, 02, Preferred, New Record.

19. Levant Hawkmoth

Theretra alecto alecto Linnaeus 1758

KFP: 06, RFP: 02, NR: 02.

112

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMQTHS OF SGNP

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

113

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Table 3: List of Larval Food Plants (contd.)

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

115

Moth Species Known Food Plants Food Plants Recorded Moth Species Known Food Plants Food Plants Recorded

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

117

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

Rubiaccae

1. Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Roxb.:

Evergreen tree. Common, 02. preferred. New Record.

Vitaceae

2. Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.: Annual

climber, Very common, 02, New Record.

20. Golden Striped Sphinx

Theretra lycetus Cramer 1775

KFP: 04, RFP: 02, NR: 02.

Leeaceae

1. Leea asiatica (Linn.) Ridsdale: Annual herb,

Very common, 14, Most Preferred, New Record.

2. Leea macrophylla Roxb. ex Hornem: Annual

herb. Not common, 04, Preferred, New Record.

21. Silver Striped Hawkmoth

Theretra oldenlandiae Fabricius 1775

KFP: 11, RFP: 02, NR: 02.

Balsaniinaceae

1. Impatiens balsamina Linn.: Annual herb.

Common, 01, Less Preferred, New Record.

Vitaceae

2. Ampelocissus latifolia (Roxb.) Planch.: Annual

climber. Very common, 02, Preferred, New Record.

22. Copper Hawkmoth

Theretra castanea Moore 1872

KFP: 04, RFP: 02, NR: 02.

Araceae

1 . Arisaema murrayi Hook: Annual herb. Not

found in the study area, 1 6, Most preferred. New Record.

2. Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott.) Engler:

Annual herb. Common, 01, Preferred, New Record.

23. Little Yam Hawkmoth

Pergesa acteus Cramer 1779

KFP: 07, RFP: 02, NR: 02

Araceae

1 . Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott.) Engler:

Annual herb, Common, 04, Most preferred. New

Record.

Leeaceae

2. Leea asiatica (Linn.) Ridsdale: Annual herb.

Very common, 01, Less Preferred, New Record.

The larval food plants were recorded from the

study area as well as from other areas (Table 3). For

Family Saturniidae, of the 80 known food plants, 1 7 are

found in the study area, of which we recorded only 5

along with 10 new larval food plants. For Family

Sphingidae, of the 1 1 1 known food plants, 49 are found

in the study area, of which we recorded 1 1 along with

33 new larval food plants. The ratio of known to new

food plants for each family is 80:10 for Saturnids and

11 1:33 forSphingids.

ABUNDANCE OF LARVAL FOOD PLANTS

As the study area has predominantly deciduous

vegetation, analysis was carried out in order to assess

the food availability in different seasons. The vegetation

analysis of the recorded larval food plants was conducted

in two seasons, Monsoon (July) and Non-Monsoon

(March) so that both seasonal and perennial food plants

were covered.

The monsoon survey showed that most of the food

plants were seasonal climbers and shrubs. Leea asiatica,

L. macrophylla , Amorphophallus commutatus,

Ampelocissus latifolia and Pueraria tuberosa were

available during the monsoon in the study area. These

perennial plants had very short life cycles that

synchronized with the end of the monsoon. The

abundance of the seasonal plants exceeded that of the

perennial food plants in the study area. All the recorded

larval food plants could not be covered in the vegetation

analysis, as they did not fall within the range of the

quadrats laid out. Altogether, 22 larval food plants were

recorded, of which 6 were deciduous, 1 0 were evergreen

and 6 were seasonal. As per Fig. 3, it was observed

that during monsoon, the herb Leea asiatica was most

abundant, followed by a shrub Helicteres isora, climber

Ampelocissus latifolia and herb Amorphophallus

commutatus. Except Helicteres isora , the others were

seasonal plants. Eleven larval food plants, which were

poorly represented in the survey, were listed as ‘Others’

in Fig. 3. These included Hymenodictyon orixense,

Terminal ia crenulata, Haldina cordifolia, Leea

macrophylla, Pueraria tuberosa, Pavetta siphonanthci,

Zizyphus mauritiana, Mitragyma parvifolia. Gardenia

lucida, Cordia dichotoma and Zizyphus rugosa.

The survey of food plants in the non-monsoon

season showed low diversity. It was observed that most

of the food plants recorded were evergreen with mature

leaves, except Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa and

Carissa congesta that had tender leaves, which was

foraged by the caterpillars. The survey documented 6

species of larval food plants (see Fig. 4), which were

solely foraged by Sphingids. These were all evergreen

trees, except for the shrub Helicteres isora, which was

deciduous. Of the 6 species, 3 were dominant,

contributing 95% of the total larval food plants. The most

dominant was Helicteres isora , followed by the

evergreen Carissa congesta and Morinda tinctoria.

The other evergreen plants, Hymenodictyon orixense,

and Haldina cordifolia and Gardenia lucida among

‘Others’ in Fig. 4 constituted the remainder.

118

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

A latifolia

10%

Fig. 3: Abundance of Larval Food Plants (Wet Season)

C. congests

31%

H. orixense

4 %

Others

3 %

M. tinctoria

23%

H isora

41%

Fig. 4 Abundance of Larval Food Plants (Dry Season)

DISCUSSION

Seasonal occurrence of larval food plants was

found to determine the moth species feeding on the

plants. Since Sphingids feed on seasonal as well as

perennial plants, they were found throughout the year,

while Saturnids, which mainly feed on deciduous trees

in the larval stage suffered a setback. Family Sphingidae

utilizes a variety of larval food plants, ranging from

climbers to trees, whereas Saturniidae exclusively

preferred trees. The variation observed for Sphingidae

was not only in the diversity, but also in the abundance

of food plants.

The study supports the views of Speight and Wain

House (1989), who stated that food plants that are

abundant and widely distributed are host to more insect

species than those with restricted distribution. For

Sphingidae, the plant family Rubiaceae, which supports

maximum moth species i.e. 8., being common and

perennial, was available throughout the year, especially

for Macroglossum gyrans, which was also found round

the year.

The finding also reflected the views of Jermy

( 1 984), who stated that insect diversity could be broadly

predicted from the abundance of a particular plant

species. This association clearly proves that insects and

plants have co-evolved. In the study area, 33 new larval

food plants supported 20 species of Sphingid

Hawkmoths, showing clearly the relation between moth

diversity and abundance of the food plants. With the

new and present records the number of larval food plants

for Family Saturniidae has increased from 80 to 90 and

for Family Sphingidae from 1 1 1 to 1 44.

The study also supports Scott ( 1 933) who theorised

that the selection of certain food plants by moths appears

to be not very reliable. Though the occurrence of moth

species is solely dependent on the availability of food

plants, the range of any species of hawkmoth (e.g.

Marumba dyras ) is by no means coincidental with that

of its food plants, while some common species (e.g.

Macroglossum belis ) may be found where their food

plants are available, others (e.g. Pergesa acteus) are

found only in very restricted areas, though their food

plant covers a wide range. One species was common

(e.g. Theretra clotho ) and widespread; while another

closely allied (e.g. Theretra alecto ) species feeding on

the same plant was rare and restricted.

In generalist moth species, it was observed that

while a few species were selective about their larval

food plants, some showed ‘acting specialist’ behaviour.

In Family Saturniidae, Actias selene was the acting

specialist because it preferred Lannea coromandelica

over Lager stroemia lanceolata, a known food plant

from the study area, while Nephele hespera from

Family Sphingidae known to prefer Carissa carandas ,

which was restricted to the southern part of the country,

preferred Carissa congesta, an allied plant species in

the study area. In generalist species, moths preferred

new larval food plants over the known e.g. Marumba

indicus, which had 4 known larval food plants from the

study area, preferred a new larval food plant. Also,

Theretra clotho ignored its only known larval food plant

for 5 new larval food plants, while Neogurelca hyas

preferred one to its 3 known larval food plants. Since

the known larval food plants were compiled from

different parts of the country, it could be concluded that

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

119

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SGNP

geographical location and climatic variation possibly

influences larval food plant selection of Satumids and

Sphingids.

Lastly as per Scott (1933), the specialist and acting

specialist species, such as Nephele hespera and

REFER

Arora, G.S. & l.J. Gupta (1979): Taxonomic studies of some of the

Indian non-mulberry silkmoths (Lepidoptera: Saturniidae:

Saturniinae). Mem. zool. Surv. India 16: 1-63.

Barlow, H.S. & Bernard D’ Abrera ( 1 982): An Introduction to the

Moths of South East Asia. The Malayan Natural History

Society, Kuala Lumpur, Malaysia.

Beeson, C.F.S. (1941): The ecology and control of the forest insects

of India and neighbouring countries. Govt, of India. Dehradun.

Pp. 695-701

Chaturvedi, Naresh (1999): A new larval food plant for Tasar Silk

Moth Antheraea paphia Linn. Indian Forester 125(2): 233.

Fellowes C.E. Manson (1920): The life history of rare and little

known sphingidae (Hawkmoths) of the Oriental region,,./

Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 27: 745-753.

Hampson, G.H. ( 1 896): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma: Moths, 1. Taylor and Francis, London.

Macroglossum gyrans, would be treated as indicator

species, which exclusively preferred single plant species

i.e. Carissa congesta and Morinda tinctoria var.

tomentosa and could be used in habitat monitoring

programmes of the study area.

N C E S

Jermy, T. (1984): Evolution of Insect-Host Plant Relationships. The

American Naturalist 124: 609-630.

Kehimkar, I.D. (1997). Moths of India — An introduction, NCSTC-

Hombill Series, Mumbai.

Patil, Neelam (1993): Plant-Insect Interaction. M.Sc. Thesis,

Mumbai University, Mumbai.

Scott, F.B. (1933): Notes on the food plants of Indian Hawkmoths.

J. Bombay, nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 938-943.

Scott, F.B. (1983): Notes on Indian Hawkmoths. In: A Century of

Natural History (Ed: Daniel, J.C.). Bombay Natural History

Society and Oxford University Press. Pp. 618-631.

Smetacek, P. (1994): The hawkmoths of Kumaon, N. India: A

probable case of faunal drift. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Calcutta.

156: 1-55.

Speight, M.R & D. Wain House (1989). Ecology and Management

of forest insects. Clarendon Press, Oxford.

120

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

121-123

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF WOLF SPIDER (ARANEAE: LYCOSIDAE) FROM

CROP FIELDS OF THE SUNDARBAN ESTUARY, WEST BENGAL, INDIA1

S.C. Majumder2

'Accepted July, 2001

2Sundarban Field Research Station, Zoological Survey of India, Canning Town, South 24 Parganas, Pin 743 329,

West Bengal, India.

One new species of wolf spider Arctosa sandeshkhaliensis sp. nov. from the crop fields of Sundarban

estuary has been described and illustrated.

Key words: Spiders, Lycosidae, Arctosa sandeshkhaliensis sp. nov., Sundarban

INTRODUCTION

The unique and fascinating Sundarban is the

largest natural mangrove block in the world. Various

workers, including Tikader and Malhotra (1980),

Majumder and Tikader (1991), Biswas and Biswas ( 1 992)

have studied the taxonomy of spiders from Sundarban.

Tikader and Malhotra ( 1 980) described one new species

and reported four species of wolf spider from the

Sundarban estuarine region. Majumder and Tikader

(1991) described one and reported 3 species of sac

spiders from this area. Biswas and Biswas (1992)

reported only one species of wolf spider from Sundarban

area. In the present study, a new species Arctosa

sandeshkhaliensis has been identified. The types of

the new species are deposited in the National Collection

of Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Spiders were collected from different crop fields

of the Sundarban estuarine ecosystem, namely

Hasnabad, Hengalgunj, Sandeshkhali and Gosaba. The

spiders were collected by hand and placed in vials which

were brought to the laboratory. The specimens were

transferred to 70% alcohol in a petri dish for 6-12 hours

for relaxation of body parts. All specimens were

preserved in 70% alcohol (single specimen in each vial)

for further studies as in Tikader ( 1 987).

Arctosa sandeshkhaliensis sp. nov.

(Figs 1-6)

General Description: Holotype: female:

Cephalothorax and legs yellowish-brown, abdomen

blackish (in preserved specimens).

Measurements (in mm): Total length 6.30,

carapace length 3.50, width 3.20, abdominal length 2.80,

width 2.50, legs as in Table 1 .

Cephalothorax: Carapace slightly longer than wide,

narrowed anteriorly and wider at the middle; cephalic region

slightly raised. Anterior margin of the cephalothorax straight

with the anterolateral corner raised and conical with a few

long yellowish-brown hairs. Thoracic region provided with

a deeply distinct longitudinal fovea. Eyes pearly white

encircled by black patches. Anterior row of eyes straight,

smaller in structure. The eyes of the second and third rows

similar in structure and larger than those of the first row

(Fig. 1). Ocular quadrate longer than wide; wider

posteriorly and narrowed anteriorly. Sternum oval, pointed

behind. Chelicerae longer than wide, inner margin with 4

teeth, outer margin with 2 teeth (Fig. 2). Maxillae longer

than wide, reddish-brown, anterior end wider and

scopulated, posterior end narrowed, labium wider than long

(Fig. 3). Legs long, not so strong, covered with hair and

spines. Tibia with ventral spines; tarsal scopulae distinct.

Leg formula 4 2 13.

Abdomen: Longer than wide, oval, dorsum

covered with fine pubescence, blunt posteriorly. Venter

yellow with brown longitudinal band. Epigyne bifurcated

into anterior and posterior plates (Fig. 4). Internal

genitalia provided with coiled copulatory sac and

copulatory openings divided into two parts (Fig. 5).

Allotype: male: Similar to female except that the

male palp is without retrolateral apophysis, cymbium long

and semilunar in shape with narrower anteriorly without

basal spur, tegulum rounded and convex with flower-

like regular apophysis, embolus narrowed and elongated,

abdomen with whitish patches on dorsum (Fig. 6).

Measurements (in mm): Total length 5.60,

Carapace length 3.40, width 2.20, abdomen length 3.15,

width 2.10, legs as in Table 2, palp as in Table 3.

Material examined: Holotype: 9, Allotype: Id1,

in 70% Alcohol in separate vials, genitalia in microvial

with holotype. Coll. S.C. Majumder, 16 & 1 7.i. 1 994,

N.C., ZSI (H.Q.), Regn. No. 5472/18 & 5473/18.

Type Locality: Durgamandap, Sandeshkhali,

North 24 Parganas, West Bengal.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-6: Arctosa sandeshkhaliensis sp. nov., 1. Dorsal view of female, legs omitted,

2. Chelicera showing arrangement of teeth, 3. Maxillae and labium, ventral aspect, 4. Epigyne, ventral aspect,

5. Internal genitalia, dorsal aspect, 6. Male palp, lateral aspect

Table 1 : Measurements (in mm) of leg segments of Arctosa sandeshkhaliensis sp. nov. (Female)

Distribution: Sundarban areas (Sandeshkhali,

North 24 Parganas), West Bengal, India.

Discussion: This species resembles Arctosa

khudiensis Tikader & Malhotra in general appearance,

but differs from it in the following particulars.

1. Cephalothorax not parallel sided, wider at the

middle, abdomen blunt posteriorly, whereas in

A. khudiensis Tikader and Malhotra cephalothorax more

or less parallel sided and not wider at the middle,

abdomen not blunt posteriorly.

2. The eyes of the second row similar in structure

with those of the third row, whereas in A. khudiensis eyes

of the second row larger than those of the third row.

3. Epigyne structurally different.

122

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 2: Measurements (in mm) of leg segments of Arctosa sandeshkhaliensis sp. nov. (Male)

Etymology: The species is named after the type

locality Sandeshkhali.

ACKNO WLEDG EM ENTS

I thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata and Shri K.N. Reddy, Officer-

REFER

Biswas, B.K. & K. Biswas (1992): Fauna of West Bengal: Araneae,

Spiders. State Fauna, Series, Fauna of West Bengal. Zoological

Society of India 3(3): 357-500.

Majumder, S.C. & B.K. Tikader ( 1991 ): Studies on some spiders of

the Family Clubonidae from India. Rec. zool. Surv. India,

in-charge, Sundarban Field Research Station,

Canning, West Bengal for kind permission to carry

out the work and also Dr. B.K. Biswas Scientist

SE & Officer-in-charge, Arachnida Station, Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata for confirming the new

species.

N C E S

Occ. Pap. 102: 1-175.

Tikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook of Indian Spiders. Zoological

Survey of India. Pp. 1-251.

Tikader, B.K. & M.S. Malhotra (1980): Fauna of India. Spiders

(Lycosidae). 2(2): 259-446.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

123

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

124-129

NEW ORB-WEAVING SPIDERS OF THE GENUS CYRTOPHORA SIMON

(ARANEAE: ARANEIDAE) FROM BANGLADESH1

V. Biswas2 and D. Raychaudhuri3

'Accepted July, 2001

department of Zoology, Government P.C. College, Bagerhat 9301, Bangladesh.

Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India.

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

Two new species of orb-weaving spiders of the Genus Cyrtophora Simon, C. nareshi and C. lahirii are

described and illustrated. Another, C. cicatrosa (Stoliczka) is reported as a new record for the country. A key

to the species is also given.

Key words: Spider, new species, new record, Cyrtophora , Araneae, Araneidae, Bangladesh

INTRODUCTION

Spiders of the Family Araneidae (=Argiopidae) are

poorly known in Bangladesh, though Chowdhury and

Nagari (1981), Chowdhury and Pal ( 1984), Biswas et al.

(1993), Okuma et al. (1993), Begum and Biswas (1997),

and Biswas and Raychaudhuri (1998) have made some

valuable contributions. Spider fauna of neighbouring

countries, like Burma (Thorell 1895), India (Pocock

1 900; Tikader 1 970, 1 982; Tikader and Bal 1981; Tikader

and Biswas 1981 ; Saha et al. 1995; Biswas et al. 1997)

and Pakistan (Dyal 1935) are well documented.

The Genus Cyrtophora Simon, recorded since

1 988 from Bangladesh, is composed of three species of

which two C. lahirii and C. nareshi are new to science,

while C. cicatrosa (Stoliczka) was hitherto unknown

from Bangladesh.

The types are at present in the collection of the

Department of Zoology, Government P.C. College,

Bagerhat, Bangladesh and will be deposited in the

Museum of the Department of Zoology, University of

Dhaka, Bangladesh.

MATERIAL AND M ETHODS

Collection of spider specimens was done following

Kaston ( 1 972), Mackie ( 1 978) and Tikader ( 1 987). The

collected materials were studied using a Stereozoom

Binocular Microscope (Model, Zeiss-SV8) and all

the measurements (in mm) were taken with an

eyepiece.

The species were identified following Tikader

(1982, 1987), Chen and Zhang (1989), Zhao (1993),

Yaginuma ( 1 986), Davies ( 1 988) and Yin et al. ( 1 997)

and confirmed by the Zoological Survey of India,

Kolkata.

Genus: Cyrtophora Simon 1864

1864. Cyrtophora Simon, Hist. Nat. des Araign.,

7:261.

1890. Euetria: Thorell, Annali. Mus. civ.

Genova, 28: 109.

1921. Cyrtophora : Gravely, Rec. Indian Mus.,

22(4): 413.

1962. Cyrtophora: Tikader, J. Linn. Soc., 44(300):

561.

1993. Cyrtophora: Okuma et al., Illust. Mongr.

Rice-field spiders, Bangladesh: 29.

1997. Cyrtophora: Platnick, Advances in Spider

Taxonomy (1992-95): 498.

Key to the species

1 . Abdomen anteriorly with 4 conical humps, posteriorly sloped

and rectangularly produced (Fig. 1); sternum with long,

slender, white band (Fig. 4); epigyne and internal genitalia as

in Figs 5 and 6 cicatrosa

— Abdomen without above characteristics; sternum with V and

U-shaped area 2

2. Abdomen parallel-sided (Fig. 7); cephalic region never raised

or produced (Fig. 7); sternum broadly triangular, medially

with a U-shaped longitudinal reticulate area (Fig. 10); inner

and outer margins of chelicerae with 2 and 3 teeth (Fig. 8)

respectively; epigyne as in Fig. 1 1 nareshi sp. nov.

Abdomen postero-medially wide (Fig. 13); cephalic region

strongly raised and produced (Fig. 1 3); sternum heart-shaped,

medially with a V-shaped area (Fig. 16); each of inner and

outer margins of chelicerae with 2 teeth (Fig. 14); epigyne as

in Fig. 17 lahirii sp. nov.

Cyrtophora cicatrosa (Stoliczka)

(Figs 1-6)

1869. Epeira ( Nephila ) cicatrosa Stoliczka,

J. Asiatic Soc. Beng. 33: 242.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1900. Araneus cicatrosa : Pocock, Fauna Brit.

India, Arach.: 226.

1935. Cyrtophora cicatrosa'. Dyal, Bull. Zool.

Panjab Univ. 1: 175.

1962. Cyrtophora cicatrosa : Tikader, J. Linn.

Soc. 44(300): 563.

1982. Cyrtophora cicatrosa: Tikader, Fauna of

India, Araneae: Spiders 2(1): 178.

1997. Cyrtophora cicatrosa: Biswas et al.,

Entomon 22(3 & 4): 230.

Material examined: 1 ?, Khulna, 10.x. 1993, Coll.

V. Biswas; 2 9 9,Manikganj, 1 2.v. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas;

1 9, Rajshahi, 3.iii. 1992, Coll. V. Biswas.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Khulna, Manikganj,

Rajshahi, Jessore; India; Pakistan; Burma (Myanmar);

Malaysia; New Guinea; Australia (Tikader 1982).

Cyrtophora nareshi sp. nov.

(Figs 7-12)

Holotype (Female): Measurements (in mm): Total

body length 6.00; carapace length 2.00, width 2.10;

abdominal length 4.00, width 4.1 0. Legs as in Table 1 .

Colour (specimens preserved in alcohol):

Cephalothorax yellow-green; legs brown-yellow with

white markings. Abdomen decorated with various

markings. Abdomen dark yellow.

Carapace: Longer than wide, anteriorly narrowing,

posteriorly wide; dorsum with white, median decorated

area (Fig. 7); cephalic region slightly raised; eyes brown

and pearly-white, dissimilar; lateral eyes larger than

others; anterior row recurved and posterior row

procurved; anteromedians situated on a protuberance;

ocular-quad longer than w ide, anteriorly narrowing and

posteriorly wide; chelicerae brown, long, nearly parallel

sided, inner and outer margins of chelicerae with

2 and 3 teeth respectively (Fig. 8); maxillae brown, long,

boat-shaped, medially wide, scopulate (Fig. 9); labium

pale brown, pot-like, wider than long, scopulate (Fig. 9);

sternum brown, with U-shaped, white reticulate

longitudinal area, nearly heart-shaped, bluntly pointed,

sparsely spined posteriorly, anterior margin concave

(Fig. 10); legs long and slender, clothed with hairs and

spines; leg formula 124 3 and measurements as in Table 1 .

Abdomen: Elongate, oval, parallel sided, posterior

extremity narrow; dorsum with brown and white, few

Figs 1-6: Cyrtophora cicatrosa (Stoliczka), 1. Female dorsal view (legs omitted),

2. Chelicerae, 3. Maxillae and Labium, 4. Sternum, 5. Epigynum, 6 Internal genitalia

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

125

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1: Leg segments of Cyrtophora nareshi sp. nov. 9 measurements (in mm)

sigilla and brown spots; epigyne and internal genitalia

as in Figs 1 1 and 12.

Specimens examined: Holotype ?,3.iii.l992, Coll.

V. Biswas. Paratype; 1 9 , other data same as holotype.

Type locality: Digha, Rajshahi, Bangladesh.

Male: Unknown.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Rajshahi (known only

from the type locality).

Etymology: The species is named after Prof.

Naresh Chandra Dutta, Department of Zoology,

University of Calcutta, India, who was a source of

inspiration.

Figs 7-12: Cyrtophora nareshi sp. nov., 7. Female dorsal view (legs omitted), 8. Chelicerae, 9. Maxillae and Labium,

10. Sternum, 11, Epigynum, 12. Internal genitalia

126

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Remarks: The new species is close to

Cyrtophora lahirii sp. nov. but differs as follows:

1. Cephalothorax with deep and distinct fovea,

whereas in C. lahirii sp. nov. fovea absent.

2. Abdomen dorsally reticulate, but in C. lahirii

sp. nov. it is nearly alveolate.

3. Sternum medially reticulate, whereas in

C. lahirii sp. nov. it is white medially.

4. Outer margin of chelicerae with 3 teeth, but in

C. lahirii it is 2 in number.

5. Epigyne of both the species structurally different.

Cyrtophora lahirii sp. nov.

(Figs 13-18)

Holotype (Female): Measurements (in mm). Total

length 6. 1 0; carapace length 2.20, width 2.00; abdominal

length 3.8, width 4.10. Legs as in Table 2.

Colour (specimens preserved in alcohol):

Cephalothorax yellow-brown; legs light brown with

brown bands; abdomen brown with white patches.

Carapace: Longer than wide, wider posteriorly;

cephalic region raised, produced, sphere shaped.

i i

Figs 13-18: Cyrtophora lahirii sp. nov., 13. Female dorsal view (legs omitted), 14. Chelicerae, 15. Maxillae and Labium,

16. Sternum, 17. Epigynum, 18. Internal genitalia

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

127

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 2 Leg segments of Cyrtophora lahirii sp. nov 9 measurements (in mm)

with 2 deeply distinct cervical furrows (Fig. 13); eyes

brown, similar; anterior row recurved and posterior

row procurved; lateral eyes close and placed marginally;

ocular quad squarish; chelicerae long, cylindrical,

inner and outer margins with 2 teeth each (Fig. 14);

maxillae long, longer than wide and scopulate

anteriorly (Fig. 15); labium brown, bowl-shaped and

scopulate anteriorly (Fig. 15); sternum dark-brown,

heart-shaped, with a white V-shaped longitudinal

region, anterior margin concave; legs long, slender, leg

formula 2 14 3 and measurements as in Table 2.

Abdomen. Broadly oval, longer than wide,

narrowing at both ends (Fig. 13); dorsum decorated;

ventrally pale, with a longitudinal brown patch extending

from epigastric furrow up to the spinnerets; epigyne as

in Fig. 17.

Specimens examined: Holotype: ?, 12.V.1993,

Coll. V. Biswas; Paratypes: 1 ?, other data same as

holotype and 1?, Narail, Bangladesh, 5.vii.l992,

Coll. V. Biswas.

Type locality: Magura, Bangladesh

Male: Unknown.

REFER

Begum, A. & V. Biswas ( 1997): A list of spider fauna of Barisal-

Division, Bangladesh (Araneae: Arachnida) Bangladesh J

Zool. 25(2): 207-210.

Biswas, V. & D. Raychaudhuri (1998): Spiders of the genus Cyclosa

Menge (Araneae: Araneidae) from Bangladesh. Entomon

23(1): 45-53.

Biswas, V., H R. Khan, N.Q. Kamal & A. Begum (1993): A

preliminary study of the rice-field spiders in Jhenidah,

Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Zool 21: 85-92.

Biswas, V., S. Saha & D. Raychaudhuri (1997): Araneidae and

Theridiidae of Buxa Tiger Reserve. West Bengal: Genera

Leucauge White, Cyrtophora Stoliczka and Theridula

Emerton. Entomon 22 (3 & 4): 229-233.

Chen, Z.F. & Z.H. Zhang (1989): Fauna of Zhejiang, Araneida.

Zhejiang Sci. and Tech. Pub. House. 356 pp.

Chowdhury, S.H. & S. Nagari (1981): Rice-field spiders from

Chittagong. Proc. Zool. Soc., Bangladesh, pp. 53-72.

Chowdhury, S.H. & S.K. Pal (1984): Further report on rice-field

spiders from Bangladesh. Chittagong Univ. Studies, ll, 8: 25-

39.

Davies, V.T. (1988): An illustrated guide to the genera of orb-w-eaving

spiders in Australia. Mem Qld. Mus 25(2): 273-332.

Distribution: Bangladesh: Magura, Narail.

Etymology: The species has been named after

Dr. Pulak Lahiri, Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calcutta, India, for his extreme interest in

the work.

Remarks: The new species at best may be

related to a Chinese species Cyrtophora guangxiensis

Yin et al. (Yin et al. 1990) in having cephalic region

greatly produced, cervical furrows deeply distinct and

ovoid abdomen. The species stands distinct in having

fovea and markedly different epigynum. The species

also does not show any resemblance in general

appearance as well as epigyne and internal genitalia,

which are different from those of its Indian congeners.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. Animesh Bal, Scientist SE and

Dr. S.C. Majumder, Scientist SD, Zoological Survey of

India, Kolkata, for confirming the identification and the

Head, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta,

for laboratory facilities.

;nces

Dyal, S. (1935): Fauna of Lahore-4. Bull. Dept Zool., Panjab Univ.

1: 191-252.

Kaston, B.J. (1972): How to know the spiders. 2nd Edn. Wm. C.

Brown Pub. Company, Dubuque, Iowa. 289 pp.

Mackie, J. (1978): An introduction to the study of spiders. Brit.

Arachnol. Soc. Leaflet No I : 1-10.

Okuma, C., N.Q. Kamal, Y. Hirashima. Z. Alam & T. Ogata (1993):

Illustrated Monograph on the rice-field spiders of Bangladesh.

IPSA-JAICA, Salna, Gazipur: 1-93.

Pocock, R.I. (1900): The Fauna of British India, Arachnida. Taylor

& Francis, London. 279 pp.

Saha, S„ V. Biswas, S.C. Majumder & D. Raychaudhuri (1995):

Araneidae of Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal. Acta arachnol,

44(1): 11-14.

Thorell, T. (1895): Descriptive Catalogue of the spiders of Burma.

British Museum of Natural History, London. 406 pp.

Tikader, B.K. (1970): Spiders of Sikkim. Rec. zool. Surv. India

64(1-4): 1-84.

Tikader, B.K. (1982): Fauna of India, Spiders Il( 1 ), (Araneidae =

Argiopidae). Zoological Survey of India. Pp. 1-293.

Tikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook on Indian spiders. Director,

Zoological Survey of India. 251 pp.

128

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Tikader, B.K. & A. Bal(1981): Studies on some orb-weaving spiders

of the genera Neoscona Simon and Araneus Clerk of the

Family Araneidae (=Argiopidae) from India. Rec. zool. Surv

India, Occ. Pap. No. 24: 1-60.

Tikader, B.K. & Bijan Biswas ( 1981 ): Spider fauna of Calcutta and

Vicinity. Rec. zool. Surv India, Occ Pap. No. 30: 1-149.

Yaginuma, T. (1986): Spiders of Japan in colour. (New Edn.),

Hoikusha Pub. Co., Osaka. 305 pp.

Yin, C.M., J.F. Wang, L. Xie & X. Peng ( 1990): Spiders in China

(Arachnida: Araneae). Hunan Normal University Press,

Hunan. 256 pp.

Yin, C.M., J.F. Wang, M.S. Zhu, L.P. Xie, X.J. Peng & Y.H. Bao

( 1 997): The Fauna Sinica (Arachnida: Araneae: Araneidae).

Science-Press, Beijing. 460 pp.

Zhao, J.Z. (1993): Spiders in the cotton fields in China. Wuhan

Press, China. 552 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

129

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

130-137

TWO NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS HAMILTON-BUCHANAN

(CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA,

WITH AN ACCOUNT OF PUNTIUS SPECIES FROM THE STATE'

W. VlSHWANATH AND JULIANA LaISRAM2

'Accepted February, 2001

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal 795 003, Manipur, India.

Email: [email protected]

This paper gives the diagnostic characters of ten species and detailed description of two new species of the

genus Puntius Hamilton-Buchanan from Manipur. P. javanicus and P stoliczkanus are recorded for the first time

from the state. P. ornatus sp. nov. differs from P phutunio in banding pattern (a single dark transverse band at

the 18th-20th lateral line scale around caudal peduncle vs. four dark bands on body). P bizonatus sp. nov. also

differs from P phutunio in body form and banding pattern (two dark transverse bands vs. four on the body). A

key to the species of Puntius of Manipur is provided.

Key words: Fish, genus Puntius , Manipur, Puntius ornatus sp. nov, Puntius bizonatus sp. nov.

INTRODUCTION

Hora (1921) listed and gave a brief systematic

account of eight species of Barbus Cuvier from

Manipur, of which only four are now included in the

genus Puntius Hamilton-Buchanan. They are: P sarana

(Val.), P. ticto ticto (Ham.-Buch.), P. conchonius

(Ham.-Buch.) and P. phutunio (Ham.-Buch.). He

identified P. phutunio based on the field notebook of

Dr. Annandale. Later reports on the fishes of Manipur

by Menon (1952), and Menon (1954) did not include

additional species of the genus. Vishwanath and Singh

(1986) described P. jayarami Vishwanath & Tombi.

Menon et al. (2000) compared specimens of fishes

collected from Loktak lake, supposedly identified as

P. phutunio by Hora (1921) with typical P. phutunio

collected by W. Rainboth and A. Rahman from Rangpur,

Dharala river in Bangladesh. The Manipur specimen

turned out to be new and was described as

P manipurensis by Menon et al. (2000). P. chola

(Ham.-Buch.) and P. sophore (Ham.-Buch.) were first

reported by Vishwanath et al. (1998) from Chatrickong

and Lokchao rivers in Manipur. A recent survey of the

fishes of Manipur included twelve species of Puntius ,

including two new species. P. stoliczkanus (Day) is

recorded for the first time from the State. P. javanicus

(Bleeker) is an introduced species. This paper gives

detailed descriptions of the two new species and

diagnostic characters of ten species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Type specimens of the two new species, namely

Puntius ornatus and P. bizonatus are deposited in the

Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).

Measurements and counts follow Jayaram (1999). The

body proportions are expressed as percentages of

standard length (SL) and head length (HL). For the

paratypes, the mean values are given first, followed in

parentheses by range as percentages.

Abbreviations used: JL = Juliana Laisram, KNS =

K. Nebeshwor Sharma, MSS = M. Shantakumar

Sharma; KBD = K. Bimola Devi; R = river; WV = W.

Vishwanath.

Key to species

1 . Barbels absent 2

— Barbels present 8

2. Dark circular band around caudal peduncle 3

— No dark circular band around caudal peduncle 4

3. One black band forming a ring around caudal peduncle

P. ornatus

— One black band forming a ring around caudal peduncle and

one transverse band on 3,d-4,h lateral line scale

P. bizonatus

4. Dorsal spine smooth P. sophore

— Dorsal spine serrated posteriorly 5

5. Lateral line complete P. stoliczkanus

— Lateral line incomplete 6

6. Scales from dorsal fin origin to lateral line 3, pores on lateral

line 3 to 5 P. manipurensis

— Scales from dorsal fin origin to lateral line more than 3, pores

on lateral line 5 or more 7

7. Dorsal fin tipped with black P. conchonius

— Dorsal fin not tipped with black P. ticto ticto

8. Barbels 1 pair, body marked with two conspicuous dark

blotches, first behind operculum and second near base of

caudal fin P. chola

Barbels 2 pairs, body without dark blotches 9

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

9. Dorsal spine finely serrated posteriorly 10

— Dorsal spine strongly serrated posteriorly 1 1

10. Scales from dorsal fin origin to lateral line 6 .... P orphoides

— Scales from dorsal fin origin to lateral line 5 P. sarana

11. Lateral transverse scales 5/1/3 Pjayarami

— Lateral transverse scales 6/1/4 P.javanicus

Puntius bizonatus sp. nov.

(Fig- 1)

Holotype: MUMF 3017., 35.8 mm SL. Lokchao R.,

Moreh. 24-26.iii.1999, WV & party.

Paratypes: MUMF 3017A/5., 26.9-39.4 mm

SL., Lokchao R., Moreh, same collection data as

holotype.

Description: D. iii, 8; R i, 13; V. i, 8; A. iii, 5;

C. 9+8. Proportional measurements and counts are in

Table 1 . A small sized Puntius with two dark transverse

bands across the body. Body deep, 37(36.5-39.6)% of

SL. Barbels absent. Both dorsal and ventral profiles

slightly curved. Mouth small, subterminal and crescentic,

snout smooth (23-26% HL), eyes moderate, visible from

ventral side, scales large. Origin of dorsal fin slightly

behind that of ventral origin, its last simple ray serrated

and shorter than body depth. Pectoral fin does not reach

anterior origin of ventral fin and the latter does not reach

anal origin. Dorsal fin inserted midway between tip of

snout and base of caudal fin. It has a few black streaks

with the last simple ray osseous and serrated. Other

fins dusky. Caudal fin deeply forked. Lateral line

incomplete, 4-9 piercing scales; 2 1 in longitudinal series

and 8 in rows. Branchiostegal rays 3. Pharyngeal teeth

in 3 rows 2, 3, 5-5, 3, 2. Gill rakers 5+15-18.

Colour: Silvery white. Two vertical black bands

on body; the anterior at the third to fourth scales of

lateral line; the other on the caudal peduncle, 4-5 scales

ahead of the caudal fin rays. Dorsal fin reddish, streaked

with black. Pectoral and pelvic fins dusky, anal fin

reddish, caudal with dark margin. Scales have blackish

streaks on the dorsal part of body.

Distribution: India: Lokchao R., Moreh,

Manipur.

Etymology: This species is named after the bizonal

bands on its body.

Remarks: It is abundantly found only in the

Chindwin drainage in Manipur. The beautiful bizonal

bands give the fish an attractive appearance, which may

prove to be a good aquarium fish. P. bizonatus is similar

to P. phutunio in having dark bands on body, finely

serrated osseous dorsal fin ray. However, it differs in

having only two bands, one on 3rd-4th scale of lateral

line and another at caudal peduncle vs. four bands on

P. phutunio. The former also has a shorter snout length

(5.9 vs. 7.8% of SL) and narrower inter-orbital space

(9.9 vs. 11.3% of SL).

The species under description differs from

P. cumingi'xn having a lateral line series of 22 vs. 19-21,

lateral transverse scales of 4/1/2 vs. 3‘/2-4/l/3'/2,

circumpeduncular scales of 12 vs. 8-10, pre-anal scales

of 14-1 5 vs. 10-1 1, pre-pelvic scales of 8-10 vs. 5-6, gill

rakers of 5+15-18 vs. 9+13. P. cumingi however, is

distributed only in Sri Lanka. It differs from P. puntio in

having two bands vs. one, one osseous and serrated last

simple dorsal fin ray vs. weakly osseous and smooth

one, incomplete lateral line of 5-7 pores vs. a complete

one. P. bizonatus differs from P. ge/ius in having two

bands vs. three bands, lateral line series of 22 vs. 23-24,

lateral transverse scales of 4/1/2 vs. 4-5/1/3-4,

circumpeduncular scales of 12 vs. 6-8, pre-anal scales

of 1 4- 1 5 vs. 13 and pre-pelvic scales of 8- 1 0 vs. 6 scales.

Comparison of the new species with its related species

is given in Table 2.

Maximum SL: 39.4 mm

Fig. 1 : Puntius bizonatus sp. nov.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

131

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1 : Morphometric data of P. omatus sp. nov., P. phutunio (Ham.) and P. bizonatus sp. nov.

in % SL (except SL given in mm)

Puntius omatus sp. nov.

(Fig. 2)

Holotype: MUMF 3028, 42.0 mm. SL, Lokchao R.,

Moreh, 24.iii. 1999, WV and party.

Paratypes: MUMF 3028 A/7., 30.9-42.0 mm SL,

same collection data as holotype. MUMF 3028B/2.,

45.1 mm SL, Lokchao R., Moreh, 14.vii.2000, KNS &

MSS.

Description: D. iii, 8; P. i, 11-12; V. i, 8; A. iii, 5-

6; C. 9+8. Proportional measurements and counts are

given in Table 1 . A small sized Puntius with a wide

rounded dark band around caudal peduncle. Body

moderately deep, its depth longer than head length

(35.9% in SL). Both dorsal and ventral profile slightly

curved. Mouth small, subterminal and crescentic, without

any barbels. Eyes and scales moderate, eyes visible from

ventral surface, snout smooth. Caudal peduncle slender.

Dorsal fin inserted nearer caudal fin base than snout

tip, its last simple ray osseous, serrated posteriorly, shorter

than body depth. Pectoral fin inserted in a line vertical

to the gill opening, does not reach anterior origin of

132

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2: Puntius omatus sp. nov.

ventral fin and the latter does not reach anal opening.

Caudal fin deeply forked. Lateral line with 5-21 pores.

Scales on lateral line series 23-24. Predorsal scales 8 or

9. Gill rakers 5+18, pharyngeal teeth low and weak, in

three rows 2,3,5 - 5,3,2. Branchiostegal rays 3.

Colour: Silvery, flanks sometimes shot with

reddish tinge. Wide rounded dark band around caudal

peduncle, middle portion of band darker and rounded.

Dorsal fin orange, tipped with black and a few rows of

streaks. Pectoral and pelvic fins dusky. Anal fin

yellowish, caudal with a dark margin. The scales are

edged with black in the dorsal part of the body.

Distribution: India: Lokchao R., Moreh, Manipur.

Etymology: This species is named after its

ornamental band around the caudal peduncle.

Remarks: The species is small, but attractive, and

can be a popular aquarium fish. P. omatus sp. nov. is

similar to P phutunio in having finely serrated and

osseous last simple dorsal fin ray and in the absence of

barbels. However, the new species is different in banding

pattern, namely a single dark transverse band encircling

the caudal peduncle (18-20th scale of lateral line) vs.

four dark bands: first over pectoral, second from below

dorsal spine, third from posterior end of dorsal and fourth

across caudal peduncle. It also differs from P. phutunio

in having a more slender caudal peduncle (depth of

caudal peduncle 9. 9(8. 4-1 1 .5)% of SL vs. 16.2% of SL).

P. omatus may have a complete or incomplete lateral

line, whereas P. phutunio always has an incomplete

lateral line.

Puntius omatus differs from P cumingi in having

a single band forming a ring around the caudal peduncle

vs. two bands, lateral line series of 20-25 vs. 19-21,

lateral transverse scale of AVJMl'A vs. V/i-MMV/i,

circumpeduncular scales of 11-12 vs. 8-10, pre-anal

scales of 1 8 vs. 1 0- 1 1 . It differs from P. gelius in having

a single band vs. three bands, circumpeduncular scale

of 1 1-12 vs. 6-8, pre-anal scales of 18 vs. 13, and pre-

pelvic scales of 1 1 vs. 6. It greatly differs from P puntio,

which also has a single band around the caudal peduncle,

having an osseous, serrated last unbranched dorsal fin

ray vs. weakly osseous and smooth last unbranched

dorsal fin ray. It also differs from P. puntio in having a

variably incomplete lateral line vs. a complete lateral

line. Comparison of the new species with its related

species is given in Table 2.

Maximum SL: 42 mm.

Comparative Material: Puntius phutunio, ZSI

F 1 0929/ 1 , Rocky streams around Kamaing, Myitkyina

district, Upper Burma, December 23-30, 1926,

B. Chopra.

Puntius chola (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Cyprinus chola Hamilton-Buchanan, 1 822, Fish.

Ganges : 3 12, 389 (type locality: North eastern part of

Bengal)

Material examined: MUMF 3020/2., 44.6-

61.9 mm SL, Kharungpat, 2 1 .viii. 1 998, KBD; MUMF

3021/1 ., 71.3 mm SL, Lokchao R„ Moreh, 24-26. iii. 1999,

WV & party.

Local Name: Phabou nga (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: A Puntius with a deep and

compressed body. A single maxillary pair of barbels

present. Last simple dorsal ray moderately strong and

smooth. Lateral line complete with 24-28 scales. Scales

from dorsal fin origin to lateral line 6 and those from

lateral line to pelvic fin origin 4. Predorsal scales 11,

circumpeduncular scales 14, pre-pelvic scales 1 1, pre-

anal scales 19.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

133

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Colour: Body silvery, with olive green dorsally, a

black blotch at the far end of the caudal peduncle

between 21st and 23rd lateral line scales and another at

the base of anterior dorsal fin ray. A dark blotch may or

may not be present behind operculum.

Distribution: India: Throughout; Bangladesh,

Myanmar, Pakistan, Sri Lanka, Nepal.

Remarks: The bright colouration of this fish

especially during breeding season gives good ornamental

value. Vishwanath et al. (1998) reported it from

Chatrickong river in Manipur for the first time.

Puntius conchonius (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Cyprinus conchonius Hamilton-Buchanan. Fish.

Ganges'. 3 1 7, 389; Cuv. and Val. xvi, p. 394.

Material examined: MUMF 3027/3., 44.6-

47.8 mm SL, Barak R., 5 .vi i i . 1 999, KNS.

Local name: Phabou nga (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: A Puntius with no barbels, incomplete

lateral line, pores ending after 7-12 scales, 5 scales

between origin of dorsal fin and lateral line and 4

between lateral line and root of pelvic fin. Predorsal

scales 8, circumpeduncular scales 12, pre-pelvic

scales 12, pre-anal scales 18. Body comparatively deep

(39.7-44.2% SL). Last simple dorsal ray osseous, mode-

rately strong and serrated, its height less than head length.

Colour: A big black blotch on the caudal peduncle

and a faint one near the operculum, which may be

absent. Fins yellow and red. Dorsal fin tipped with a

black blotch.

Distribution: india: Brahmaputra, Barak, Ganga,

Mahanadi, Cauvery rivers. Pakistan: Punjab.

Remarks: Very similar to P. stoliczkanus Day

but differs in having incomplete lateral line and dorsal

fin tipped with a black blotch. It is an ornamental fish

commonly known as Rosy Barb.

Puntius javanicus (Bleeker)

Barbus gonionotus Bleeker, Verb. Bat. Gen. xiii.

(1849) 1850, Ichth. Midden Oost -Java, p. 15.

Material examined: MUMF 303 1/1 ., 191 .8 mm

SL, cultivated species.

Local name: Japan puthi (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: A medium sized Puntius with four

barbels, complete lateral line with 30 pores. Scales from

dorsal fin origin to lateral line 6 and from lateral line to

pelvic fin origin 4, predorsal scales 1 1 , circumpeduncular

scales 19, pre-pelvic scales 1 5, pre-anal scales 25, last

unbranched dorsal ray strong, osseous and serrated.

Depth of body high (40.3% SL). Anal and dorsal fins

emarginate.

Colour: Flanks are bright golden with a darker

tinge dorsally. Fins reddish.

Remarks: This moderately sized fish is an

introduced species to Manipur. It is rarely sold in the

market. Eschmeyer (1998) puts this species under

Barbus Cuvier.

Puntius jayarami Vishwanath & Tombi

Puntius jayarami Vishwanath & Tombi, 1986.

Rec. zool. Surv. India, 83 (1&2): 129, Fig. I (type

locality: Chakpi stream, Chakpikarong, Manipur);

Jayaram 1991, Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper No.

135: 124 (revision)

Material examined: MUMF 3023/2., 82.9-

92.7 mm SL, Lokchao R., Moreh, 24-26.iii.1999, WV

and party.

Local name: Heikak nga / Naphet nga.

Diagnosis: A Puntius species with four barbels,

complete lateral line with 28-30 pores, 5 scales from

lateral line to origin of dorsal fin and 3 from lateral line

to origin of pelvic fin. Predorsal scales 10,

circumpeduncular scales 13-14, pre-pelvic scales 17,

pre-anal scales 27, last unbranched dorsal ray osseous,

strong and denticulate. Snout pointed. Eyes moderate.

Colour: Silvery with reddish fins.

Distribution: india: Manipur river, Manipur.

Puntius manipurensis Menon,

Rema Devi & Vishwanath

Puntius manipurensis Menon, Rema Devi &

Vishwanath 2000. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(2):

263-268.

Material examined: MUMF 3026/2., 38.8-

45.4 mm SL., Manipur R„ 15.ix.1998, WV. MUMF

3027/2., 3 1 . 1 -34.2 mm SL, Canchipur, 1 6.vii. 1 999, JL.

Local name: Ngakha meingangbi (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: A Puntius with no barbels, incomplete

lateral line. Perforated scales 3-5. 20 scales in lateral

line series and 8 lateral transverse rows of scales.

Predorsal scales 9, circumpeduncular scales 8, pre-pelvic

scales 10, pre-anal scales 16, last unbranched dorsal

ray osseous, serrated.

Colour: Body dark silvery, with two black blotches,

one at the 3rd-4th scale near the operculum and the other

at the 17th scale near the caudal peduncle; these are

less distinct than in P. ticto. The fins and caudal peduncle

scarlet red in colour; males are more brightly coloured.

Their scales, especially on the dorsal part of body have

black dots. Females exhibit a subdued pink on the body

and fins.

Distribution: india: Manipur valley.

134

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Table 2: Morphometry and distribution of some banded Puntius species

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

135

Distribution Sri Lanka India: West Bengal. India: Orissa, West Widely India: Lokchao R. India: Lokchao R.

Burma (now Myanmar) Bengal, Assam distributed Manipur Manipur

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Remarks: Although not of much food value

because of its small size, it holds a good prospect as an

ornamental fish. In the breeding season, i.e. July-August,

the males give chase to the female.

Puntius orphoides (Valenciennes)

Barbus orphoides Valenciennes, 1 842, Hist. nat.

Poiss., 16 : 193 (type locality: Java)

Materials examined: MUMF 3025/2., 77.9-

78.0 mm, Lokchao R., Moreh, 24-26.iii.1999, WV and

party.

Local name: Nganoi/Ngahou (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: A Puntius species with four barbels,

lateral line complete with 28-29 pores. Scales from

dorsal fin origin to lateral line 6 and from lateral line to

pelvic fin origin 4, predorsal scales 11-12, prepelvic

scales 12-14. Last unbranched dorsal ray osseous, strong

and serrated, circumpeduncular scales 14-16. Depth of

body 33-36% of SL. Anal and dorsal fins not

emarginated.

Colour: Silvery with reddish fins.

Distribution: india: Loktak lake, Imphal, Manipur.

Borneo, Java, Malaya, Myanmar, Thailand.

Remarks: Once reported to be plentiful in the

central plain. At present very rare in the valley. A fish

of good food value.

Puntius sarana (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Cyprinus sarana Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822,

Fish. Ganges : 307 (type locality: ponds and rivers of

Bengal).

Materials examined: MUMF 3024/1., 195 mm,

Jiri R., Jiribam, 1 9.ix. 1 998, WV and party.

Local Name: Nganoi/Ngahou (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: Body deep and compressed, its depth

34.2% of standard length. Barbels two pairs, rostral as

long as orbit, maxillary longer. Dorsal fin inserted slightly

ahead of the middle of the body. Dorsal spine osseous

and finely serrated posteriorly. Lateral line complete with

32 scales. 5 scales above lateral line row and 4 below

it. Predorsal scales 9, circumpeduncular scales 1 6, pre-

pelvic scales 19, pre-anal scales 27.

Colour: Silvery white, olivaceous dorsally. Body

with a golden reflection, cheeks golden. Fins dusky

brown to orange.

Distribution: Afghanistan. Pakistan. India:

Ganga-Brahmaputra drainage, peninsular India north of

Krishna river.

Remarks: Found only in Barak drainage in

Manipur. Eschmeyer ( 1 998) puts this species under genus

Barbus Cuvier.

Puntius sophore (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Cyprinus sophore Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822,

Fish. Ganges : 3 1 0, 389 (type locality: ponds and rivers

of Gangetic Provinces)

Material examined: MUMF 3021/1., 71.3 mm

SL, Lokchao R, Moreh. 24-26. iii. 1999, WV & party.

Local name: Phabou nga (Manipuri), Nga-khon-

ma (Burmese)

Diagnosis: This species has a relatively deep body,

its dorsal profile more convex than ventral. Head short,

mouth terminal. Dorsal fin inserted equidistant between

tip of snout and base of caudal fin. Dorsal spine osseous

and smooth, lateral line complete with 23-24 pores,

4 scales above lateral line and 3 from lateral line to pelvic

fin origin. Predorsal scales 8-10, circumpeduncular scales

12, pre-pelvic scales 12, pre-anal scales 16-17, barbels

absent.

Colour: Silvery, back grey-green to brownish;

flanks with a somewhat bluish lustre, underside white.

A deep black round blotch at base of caudal fin between

22nd and 24th scales and another at the base of anterior

dorsal ray.

Distribution: india: Chatrickong river, Manipur

valley; Pakistan; Bangladesh; Myanmar; Yunnan.

Remarks: Puntius sophore is very similar to

P. chola but it can be easily distinguished from the latter

as it has no barbels. The fish exhibits bright colouration

with a reddish longitudinal band along the sides during

the breeding season. It can be a good aquarium fish.

Talwar and Jhingran (1991) reported that the fish

matures at 7-8 cm in SL. The authors also reported that

the species has medicinal value in Tamil Nadu.

Vishwanath et al. (1998) reported it for the first time

from Chatrickong and Lokchao rivers in Manipur.

Puntius stoliczkanus (Day)

Barbus mcClellandi Day, Proc. Zool. Soc. 1 869,

p. 619 (not Cuv. and Val.)

Barbus stoliczkanus Day, Journal Asiatic Soc.

Bengal , 1871, pt. ii. p. 328.

Material examined: MUMF 3018/4., 48.5-

51.4 mm SL, Lokchao R., Moreh. 24-26.iii.1999, WV

& party, MUMF 3019/2., 43.1-50.6 mm SL, Litan

stream., WV.

Local name: Phabou nga (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: A Puntius with no barbels, body

comparatively deep, about 42% SL. Complete lateral

line with 20-24 scales, 4 scales from lateral line to origin

of dorsal and 4 from lateral line to anterior root of pelvic

fin. Last unbranched dorsal ray osseous, serrated. A

large spot at the caudal peduncle.

136

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Colour: Body silvery, the spot at the caudal

peduncle large and black.

Distribution: india: Chindwin drainage, Manipur;

MYANMAR: PutaO.

Remarks: P stoliczkanus is reported from the

state of Manipur and from India for the first time in this

paper.

Puntius ticto ticto (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Cyprinus ticto ticto Hamilton-Buchanan, 1822,

Fish. Ganges : 314, 398, pi. 8, fig. 87 (type locality: south-

east part of Bengal).

Material examined: MUMF 3030/1., 47.5 mm

SL, Imphal valley, 1 9.viii. 1 998, JL.

Local name: Ngakha (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: This Puntius has a compressed body.

Dorsal fin inserted nearer caudal fin base than the tip of

the snout. Dorsal spine serrated posteriorly. Predorsal

scales 1 0, circumpeduncular scales 1 1 , pre-pelvic scales

1 4, pre-anal scales 20. Caudal fin forked. Barbels absent,

lateral line incomplete. Perforated scales 7 anteriorly,

26 scales in lateral series and 1 1 on lateral transverse

rows. Two black blotches, one near gill opening and

another at the posterior portion of anal fin base. The

latter blotch is found further forward than in all other

Puntius species having two blotches. Anterior spot is

always present.

Colour: Body silvery with two black blotches, one

at the base of caudal fin and another at the edge of

operculum. In freshly dead specimens, fins and flanks

are reddish. The operculum is shot with golden red during

the breeding season.

Distribution: Widely distributed in India,

Bangladesh, Sri Lanka, Pakistan and Myanmar.

Remarks: Hora (1921) reported the fish to be the

commonest Puntius in the Manipur Valley. Though small

in size, it has high food value among the locals.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to the UGC-Special

Assistance Programme and ICAR-NATP on freshwater

fishes for financial assistance.

REFER

Eschmeyer, W.N. (1998): Catalog of Fishes'. Cal. Acad. Sci., California.

2905 pp.

Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some

observations on those of the Naga Hills. Rec. Ind. Mus. 22(3):

165-214.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of Indian region.

Narendra Publ. House, New Delhi. 551 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. (1954): Further observations on the fish fauna of

the Manipur State. Rec. Ind Mus. 52(1): 21-26.

Menon, A.G.K., K. Rema Devi & W. Vishwanath (2000): A new

species of cyprinid fish of the genus Puntius Hamilton-

Buchanan from Manipur, India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

ENC E S

97(2): 263-268.

Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On a small collection offish from Manipur.

Rec. Ind Mus. 50: 265-270.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran ( 1991 ): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd.,

New Delhi, 2 volumes: xix +1158.

Vishwanath, W., W. Manojkumar, L. Kosygin & K.S. Selim (1998):

Biodiversity of freshwater fishes of Manipur, India. Ital. J.

Zool. 65, Suppl. : 321-324.

Vishwanath, W. & H.T. Singh (1986): A new species of the genus

Puntius (Hamilton-Buchanan) from Manipur. Rec. zool. Surv.

India 83(1&2): 129-133.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

137

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

138-140

A NEW NEMACHEILINE FISH OF THE GENUS SCHISTURA MCCLELLAND

(CYPRJNIFORMES: BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1

W. VlSHWANATH AND K. SHANTA

'Accepted November, 2000

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur, Imphal 795 003, Manipur, India.

Email: vnath [email protected]

A new freshwater nemacheiline fish Schistura macrocephalus is described here based on 15 specimens

collected from the Khuga river (Chindwin drainage) of Manipur, India. The species has a wide head and

body with inflated cheeks and is distinct in having an adipose crest extending between dorsal and caudal

fins, 8 branched dorsal fin rays, 15-16 dark transverse bars on body, incomplete lateral line.

Key words: Nemacheiline fish, Schistura macrocephalus sp. nov., Manipur

INTRODUCTION

Manipur state, in the northeastern corner of India,

has numerous hill streams, the central plain and eastern

part drained by the Chindwin drainage, and the western

part by the Brahmaputra drainage. The state, thus, has

a rich loach fauna. Chaudhuri (1912) described

Schistura manipurensis from Ukhrul district. Hora

(1921) described S. kanjupkhulensis, S. prashadi,

S. sikmaiensis from the state. Hora (1937) while writing

on a small collection of fish from the upper Chindwin

drainage reported the occurrence of S. vinciguerrae

in the Namya river at Kongan Thana, Kabo or Shan

village, Myanmar. However, the place is now within the

boundary of Manipur, India. Menon (1987) also reported

the occurrence of S. peguensis in the State.

Khuga river originates in the hills of Churachandpur

district of Manipur and flows northwards to join the

Loktak Lake. A collection of fishes from the river

included 1 5 specimens of Schistura , which do not fit

into the hitherto described species of the genus. The

fish is described here. Counts and measurements follow

Kottelat (1990). Type specimens are deposited in the

Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF), Imphal,

Manipur.

Schistura macrocephalus sp. nov.

(Figs 1-2)

Material examined: Holotype: MUMF 5013,

67.0 mm SL, Khuga R. in Churachandpur District,

Manipur, 8.iv.2000. Coll. K. Shanta Devi.

Paratypes: MUMF 5001-5008, 8 exs, 60.0-

88.3 mm SL, Khuga R. in Churachandpur district,

Manipur, 20.iii.2000. Coll. K. Shanta Devi. MUMF 5009-

5014, 6 exs, 62-69 mm SL, collection data same as

holotype.

Diagnosis: A species with the following

combination of characters: presence of adipose crest

between dorsal and caudal fins, inflated cheeks and

swollen anterior body part in males, upper lip without

median incision, lower lip interrupted in the middle,

presence of processus dentiformes, a median notch in

lower jaw, branched dorsal fin rays 8, axillary pelvic

lobe, incomplete lateral line.

Description: D. iii, 8; A. iii, 5; C. 9+8; P. i, 8; V.

i, 6. Body elongate. Body slightly compressed

posteriorly. Head depressed, snout broadly rounded and

blunt. Anterior nostrils pierced in the front side of a

flaplike tube, lower lip interrupted in the middle,

processus dentiformes present. A median notch in lower

jaw. Cheeks greatly inflated in males. Axillary pelvic

lobe present. Pelvic fin origin under last simple or first

branched dorsal rays. Distal margins of dorsal fin

convex. Caudal fin emarginate. Dorsal adipose crest

extends from posterior extremity of dorsal fin base to

caudal origin. Lateral line incomplete, reaching at

least to anal fin base. In males, it lies in thick skin, making

it difficult to locate. Females have a distinct lateral

line.

Sexual dimorphism: Male specimens have

swollen anterior body, triangular head with greatly

inflated cheeks. Lateral line indistinct due to thick

skin.

Colour: Body with 15-16 dark bars on a dull

brown background. Bars faintly marked regularly. Bars

in front of dorsal fin conspicuously thinner than those

behind, usually united in pairs at their upper extremity

and less well marked, the bars are wider than interspaces

and are well marked behind dorsal fin. Black bar at the

base of caudal fin. Head brown, lighter on ventral

surface. Black spot at base of simple rays to second

branched dorsal rays, and second dark blotch at base of

branched rays 2-8.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Schistura macrocephalus sp. nov. (female)

Table 1 : Comparison of Morphometric Characters of Schistura macrocephalus sp. nov. with

Schistura altichsta (as % of SL, except TL and SL)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

139

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Distribution: India: Khuga river (Chindwin basin),

Manipur.

Etymology: The species name is based on its large

and broad head.

DISCUSSION

The species is similar to Schisturci alticrista

Kottelat ( 1 990) from Nam Mae Yunnan basin, a tributary

of Salween river in Thailand, in having adipose crest

between dorsal and caudal fins. The new species,

however, can be easily distinguished from S. alticrista

in having fewer branched dorsal fin rays (8 vs. 9 'A);

greater number of dark transverse bars on body (15-16

vs. 8-9); wider body [body width at dorsal origin 17.5

( 1 5.5-20.2)% vs. 1 1 .6 ( 1 1 .3-1 2. 1 )% of SL; body width

at anal origin 13.1(10.1-18.4%) vs. 6.8(6.2-7.5)% of

SL],

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research, New Delhi for financial

assistance through NATP - Germplasm Inventory,

Evaluation and Gene Banking of Freshwater Fishes in

Mission Mode Project.

REFER

Chaudhuri, B.L. (1912): Description of some new species of

freshwater fishes from North India. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 437-

444. pis. 38-41.

Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and Fisheries of Manipur with some

observations on those of Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22:

166-214, pis. 38-41.

Hora, S.L. (1937): Notes on the fishes of Indian Museum, 332. On

a small collection offish from the Upper Chindwin drainage.

ENCES

Rec. Indian Mus. : 39: 33 1 -350.

Kottelat, M. (1990): Indochinese nemacheilines, a revision of

nemacheiline loaches (Pisces: Cypriniformes) of Thailand,

Burma, Laos, Cambodia and southern Vietnam. Verlag

Dr. Friedrich Pfeil, Munchen, Germany, 262 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. (1987): The Fauna of India and adjacent countries,

Pisces, IV. Teleostei Cobitoidea, Part 1, Homalopteridae.

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, 259 pp, 16 pis.

140

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

141-143

CEROPEGIA ANANTII (ASCLEPIADACEAE), A NEW SPECIES

FROM WESTERN GHATS, INDIA1

S.R. Yadav, M.M. Sardesai and S.P. Gaikwad2

'Accepted March, 20(31

department of Botany. Shivaji University, Kolhapur 416 004, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected], [email protected], [email protected]

Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and Gaikwad sp. nov., discovered from Salva Hill in Western Ghats

(Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra State), is described with illustrations.

Key words: Ceropegia anantii , new species, Asclepiadaceae, Western Ghats

The genus Ceropegia L. (Asclepiadaceae) is

represented in India by about 48 species (Jagtap and

Singh 1999) of which 28 are endemic to the country

(Ansari 1984; Ahmedullah andNayar 1 986; Jagtap and

Singh 1999). Western Ghats is an important centre for

diversification of Ceropegia and harbours about

35 species of which 22 are endemic to the region (Yadav

1996). The majority of the endemic species are

restricted to small areas and some of them are known

only from their type localities. Many of them are on the

way to extinction. An interesting species of Ceropegia

allied to C. attenuata L. was collected from Salva Hills

in September 1998, which is described and illustrated

here.

Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and

Gaikwad sp. nov.

Ceropegia attenuata proxime affinis sed corollae

lobo ad basim utrinque atro-brunneus maculatus, corolla

tubo anguste, ad basim abrupte ampliata et lucis

fenestrum distincte differt. Typus: India, Maharashtra,

ditionis Sindhudurg, Collinum Salva, Yadav-495A

(Holotypus CAL), Yadav-495B (Isotypus K), Yadav-

495C (Isotypus BSI), Yadav-495D (Isotypus Blatt.),

Yadav-495E (Isotypus SUK).

Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and Gaikwad

sp. nov. is closely allied to C. attenuata L. but differs

in having a dark brown spot on basal portion on either

side of corolla lobe, narrow corolla tube with abruptly

dilated basal part and distinctive light windows

(Table 1).

Type: India, Maharashtra State, Sindhudurg

district, Salva Hills, Yadav-495A (Holotype CAL),

Yadav-495B (Isotype K), Yadav-495C (Isotype BSI),

Yadav-495D (Isotype Blatt.), Yadav-495E (Isotype

SUK).

Perennial erect herb. Rootstock tuberous, tubers

2-3 cm in diameter, depressed, roots fibrous. Stem

sparingly hairy, terete, usually unbranched, 1 5-40 cm in

height, 1-2 mm in diameter. Leaves opposite, subsessile,

minutely puberulous, linear, 4-8 x 0.3-0. 5 cm, acute at

apex, tapering at base, scabrous on upper surface,

glabrous on lower surface except the midrib, margins

minutely hairy. Flowers solitary, axillary or extra axillary;

pedicel 4-6 x 0.6-0. 8 mm, pubescent; bracts solitary,

attached a little above the middle of pedicel, linear,

2. 3-2. 6 x 0.3-0. 4 mm, acute. Sepals 5-7 x 0.7-0. 8 mm,

linear, subacute, pubescent. Corolla 4-6.5 cm long,

straight, greenish-yellow; corolla tube 1-2.5 cm long,

abruptly dilated at the base, glabrous, greenish outside,

the lower inflated portion dark purple in throat and

striated with purple lines in lower portion; corolla lobes

up to 1 .3-3.5 cm long, connate at tips, forming a long

beak, greenish-white, pubescent inside, each lobe with

dark spot on either side in basal part of corolla lobe.

Gynostegial corona cupular, consisting of 5 deeply bifid

lobes, densely ciliate on the margins; staminal corona

of 5 linear lobes, connivent, erect, 4-5 mm long. Pollen

masses yellow, attached to the brown pollen carriers

by short caudicles, each pollinarium 0.3-0.35 x 0.2-

0.25 mm. Follicles single or double, up to 6-7 x 0.2-

0.25 cm, straight, tapering to a fine point, erect. Seeds

4x1.5 mm, ovate, oblong; coma 1-1.5 cm long, white,

silky.

FI. & Fr.: August-November.

Local Name: Ghayal.

Distribution: Restricted to flat tops of Salva

Hills in Sindhudurg district of Maharashtra State.

About 300 individuals were located in September

1998.

Etymology: The species is named after Prof.

Anant R. Kulkami, Mumbai for his valuable contribution

to botany, especially angiosperm systematics.

Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and Gaikwad

sp. nov. is closely allied to C. attenuata L. but differs in

the following characters (Figs 1-2):

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and Gaikwad sp. nov., a. Habit, b. Flower,

c. L.S. of flower showing light windows, d. Corona, e. Pollinanum, f. Follicles, g. Seed with coma

Table 1 : Differences in characters in Ceropegia anantii and Ceropegia attenuata

S. No. Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and Ceropegia attenuata L.

Gaikwad sp. nov.

1. Grows on plateaus at higher altitudes

2. Leaves narrowly linear

3. Narrow corolla tube abruptly dilated at base

4. Dilated corolla tube with brown rim in upper portion

Corolla tube with dark brown spot on basal portion

on either side of corolla lobe

Corolla lobes cohering from base to apex

Grows on coastal plains of lateritic plateaus at lower altitudes

Leaves linear to lanceolate

Corolla tube gradually dilated at base

Dilated corolla tube without brown rim in upper portion

Corolla tube without dark brown spots

Corolla lobes free except at apex

142

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2: Ceropegia anantii Yadav, Sardesai and Gaikwad sp. nov.,

1. Flowers, 2. L.S. of flower showing light windows;

Ceropegia attenuata Hook., 3. Flower, 4. L.S. of flower showing light windows

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS diagnosis, the Head, Department of Botany for

laboratory facilities, Mr. Girish Potdar for illustrations

We thank Dr. M.K. Vasudeva Rao, Botanical and Department of Science and Technology for financial

Survey of India, Western Circle, Pune for Latin assistance.

REFERENCES

Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar (1986): Endemic plants of Indian region. Vol. I, Peninsular India. Botanical Survey of India.

Pp. 1-261.

Ansari, M.Y. (1984): Asclepiadaceae: Genus Ceropegia L. Fascicles of Flora of India 16: 1-34.

Jagtap, A.P. & N.P. Singh (1999): Asclepiadaceae & Periplocaceae. Fascicles of Flora of India 24.

Yadav, S.R (1996): Flytrap flowers of the Western Ghats. Hornbill (I): 2-7 .

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

143

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

144-148

REVIEWS

1 . FLORA OF THE DISTRICT GARHWAL, NORTHWEST HIMALAYA (WITH

ETHNOBOTANICAL NOTES) By R.D. Gaur. Pp. xvi + 8 1 1 (28 x 21 .5 cm). Published by

TransMedia, Srinagar (Garhwal), India, 1999. Price Rs. 1600/- ($ 100).

This is a valuable book on flowering plants of the

Garhwal Himalaya written by an expert. The book

includes 2,035 species belonging to 978 genera and 1 89

families, one of them being described for the first time.

The book is based on the classification proposed by

Cronquist, with a few modifications, in contrast to most

of our Indian Floras that are based on Bentham and

Hooker's classification, according to which the major

herbaria in India are arranged. It contains keys to

families, genera and species, and under the text of each

species mentions: 1. The correct name of the species

with the basionym and important synonyms, 2. Common

names, 3. Short descriptions, 4. Phenology, 5. Relative

abundance, 6. Range of Distribution, 7. Number of

voucher specimen deposited in the Garhwal University

Herbarium and 8. Ethnobotanical uses.

The introduction gives 1 . Geographic features,

2. Climate, 3. Inhabitants: People and wildlife,

4. Vegetation analysis, 5. Cultigens and aliens,

6. Dynamics of vegetation, 7. List of rare and threatened

plants, 8. Short history of previous explorations,

9. Methodology and 10. Statistical analysis of the Flora.

This is a very useful study as the only other work

on this region is the flora of chamoli by B.D. Naithani

(Vols I & II, 1984-85). However, like the earlier work,

this volume also has no illustrations.

In the list of 164 rare and 47 endangered species

are listed 16 rare plants, which are not so rare in

other parts of the country, and four of the species listed

as endangered are found in abundance in southern

India.

The floristic analysis mentions 1 0 dominant families,

of which Poaceae (78 spp.), Asteraceae (73 spp.),

Leguininosae (72 spp.), Lamiaceae (33 spp.),

Orchidaceae (28 spp.), and Rubiaceae (25 spp.) are

noteworthy.

The author has updated the nomenclature, as far

as possible, as per the ICBN rules. However, a fresh

look at the following nomenclatural cases and some

explanations are warranted (see Table).

I would also like to make the following comments:

1. Tinospora cordifolia ( Wi lid.) Hook. f. &

Thoms.: The correct name for this species is T. glabra

(Burm. f.) Merrill.

2. Cannabis sativa Linn.: The high alkaloid

containing Indian plant is considered as the subspecies

indica in comparison with the fibre-yielding non-

alkaloidal typical subspecies of the West.

3. Cardamine scutata Thunb. ssp. flexuosa

(Withering) Hara: Hara’s varietal name seems to have

priority over Withering’s and the name of the author in

parenthesis may be an error.

4. Moringa oleifera Lamk. is nomen illegitimatum

on account of its carrying an earl ier synonym when it was

first published, making the name applicable to that taxon.

5. Symplocos cochinchinensis ssp. laurina

(Retz.) Nooteboom var. laurina : Nomenclature of this

taxon has been mauled and muddled. Myrtus laurinus

Retz. (1789) cited in synonymy has priority over Dicalyx

cochinchinensis Lour. ( 1 790) and therefore the specific

epithet laurina cannot be reduced to an infraspecific

taxon under cochinchinensis.

Page Name accepted

Prior name available

101

Parietaria micrantha Ledeb. (1829)

Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus (1835)

Alternanthera pungens H.B.K. (1817)

Persicaria tenella (Bl.) Hara var. kavagoeana (Makino) Hara

Grewia optiva Drum, ex Burret (1926)

Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medik. ssp. tetraphyllus (Roxb.) Borss.

Casearia elliptica Willd (1800)

Lagerstroemia reginae Roxb. (1795)

Hydrocortyle nepalensis Hook. (1823)

Holarrhena pubescens (Buch.-Ham) Wall.

(Based on name of 1821)

Eusteralis cruciata (Benth.) Panigrahi (Based on name of 1830).

P debilis Forst. f. (1786)

Q. incana Roxb. (1832)

A. repens (L.) Link

(Based on Achyranthes repens L. 1753)

Polygonum tenella Bl. (1825)

G. oppositifolia Buch.-Ham. (1825)

Hibiscus manihot Linn. (1753)

Anavigna lanceolata Lamk. (1783)

L. speciosa (L.) Pers.

H. javanica Thunb. (1798)

Echites antidysenterica Roxb. ex

Fleming (1810)

Mentha quadnfolia D. Don (1825)

REVIEWS

6. Brassica rapa L. ssp. campestris (L.)

Clapham.: If B. rapa L. and B. campestris L. are

considered distinct at sub-species level, then

B. campestris L. ssp. rapa Hook.f & Anders (1872)

has priority over B. rapa L. ssp. campestris (L.)

Clapham (1962).

7. Embelia tsjarium-cottam (R. & S.) A. DC. is nomen

dubium, wh ich is not properly typified yet and may belong to

some other plant. The correct name for the species known

under this name is E. basal (R. & S.) A. DC. (see Almeida,

FI. Maharashtra, Vol. 3).

8. Balliospermum montanum ( Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

has been changed to B. solanifolium (Burm.f.) Suresh

(see Nicolson et al.. Interpret. Hort. Mai. R 1988).

9. The species known as Bridelia retnsa (L.) Spr.

in our Indian Floras is now called B. airy-shawii , for

which the correct name may be B. spinosa Willd.

10. Correct name for Buchanania lanzen Spr. is

B. cochinchinensis (Lour.) Almeida (see FI.

Maharashtra, Vol. 1).

11. Correct name for Coleus forskohlii (Willd.)

Briquet is Solenocarpus barbatus (Andr.) Codd.

Solenopteris Thonn. is the earliest generic name for

Coleus Lour., if treated as a separate genus from

Plectranthus L’Herit.

12. Nomenclature of Artemisia nilagirica var.

septentrionalis (Clarke) Panigrahi has been confused

by adding A. vulgaris var. nilagirica Clarke to its

synonymy.

13. Amorphophallus paeoniifolius Nicolson is

not synonymous with A. campanulatus Blume ex Decne

as presumed initially by Nicolson. Sivadasan later

reduced A. campanulatus Blume to the varietal rank

under A. paeoniifolius (Dennst.) Nicolson, which also

remains doubtful.

14. Rechecking is required for the nomenclature

of Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott and its variety

curvatum (Roxb.) Engler. From the synonyms cited, it

appears that what is referred to as variety curvatum

may be a typical variety and that which is referred to as

A. tortuosum var. tortuosum may have to be correctly

called A. tortuosum var. helleborifolium (Schott.)

Engler as done by Nair ( 1 978).

15. The correct generic name for Indocourtosia

Bennet & Raizada is Courtosinia Sojak and that for

Indocourtosia cyperoides (Roxb) Bennet & Raizada

is Courtosinia cyperoides (Roxb.) comb. nov.

Regarding the price of the book, I would only like

to state that a book that is priced at more than a rupee

per page of printed matter is over-priced, unless it is

illustrated with colour photographs, which naturally

increases the cost of printing.

M.R. ALMEIDA

2. THE FLORA OF THE PALNI HILLS (in 3 parts): Pt I (Polypetalae) pp. xcvi + 1-576;

Pt II (Gamopetalae and Monochlamydae) pp. iii + 576-1196; Pt III (Monocotyledones)

pp. iii + 1197-1880 (26 x 20 cm) by K.M. Matthew. Published for Rapinat Herbarium at

SCTP Offset Press, Christianpet, Vellore, India, 1 999. Price (set of 3) Rs. 600/ £ 1 00/ $ 1 75.

This Flora, consisting of three parts, is the second

phase covering the montane counterpart of flora of

tamilnadu, the first phase being flora of tamilnadu

carnatic, covering the lowlands. The total work done

over a quarter of a century from 1976 to 1999, has

resulted in the publication of twelve volumes. This Flora

describes about 2,500 species based on about 15,000

fresh herbarium collections spread over 323 days of

fieldwork.

In the third part of this Flora, the author has taken

the help of two other taxonomists to revise some families,

namely Gunnar Seidenfaden for Orchidaceae and K.T.

Mathew for Juncaceae, Eriocaulaceae, Cyperaceae,

Graminae and Gymnospermae.

Rev. Fr. K.M. Matthew, after trying his hand at

revision of Family Cornaceae for flora malesiana with

a ZWO fellowship from the Dutch Government at The

Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands, returned to India

in 1974 and prepared a scheme for the revision of the

comprehensive illustrated flora of Tamil nadu. Since

then, he has collected more than 50,000 herbarium

specimens. When he started the work on flora of

Tamil nadu carnatic, Fr. Mathew felt that the days of

general plant collection were over and the era of

monographic work had begun. But over a period of time,

he has not only begun to believe in the value of fresh

collections, but is proud of his freshly collected

herbarium. He admits that he has rightly opted for floristic

work, leaving the monographic, which some of his

colleagues at Leiden wanted him to pursue. One thing

is certain, Rev. Fr Matthew has shown that with

dedication you can accomplish much, despite limited

assistance.

However, at the conclusion of flora of palni hills,

his achievements are one new combination

Chamaecrista kleinii (Hook.f.) K.M. Matthew at

species level and two new combinations at the

intraspecific level, namely Commiphora caudata (Wt.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

145

REVIEWS

& Arn.) Engler var. pubescens (Wt. & Arn.) K.M.

Matthew and Solatium violaceum Ortega ssp.

multiflorum (C.B. Clarke) Matthew. He depends too

much on the opinions of other experts and cannot form

an independent opinion, and that is why he has left the

identities of many taxa undecided, although he has come

close to identification of their allies.

The text of the Flora, after keys to families

(according to Bentham and Hooker’s system of

classification), genera and species, is in the following

format:

1. Correct botanical name of the species,

followed by basionym and synonyms,

followed by local and English names.

2. Description of species.

3. Distribution and altitudes of occurrence.

4. Phenology.

5. Phytogeography.

6. Exsiccata.

7. Conservation notes.

The following appendices appear at the end of Part III:

I. Cultivated species of the Palni hills.

II. Field itineraries on Palni hills.

III. Alphabetical list of books referred to in the

Flora.

IV. Alphabetical list of periodicals referred to in

the Flora

V. Journals in the herbarium (RHT) library.

VI. Germination data of native species (255

spp.).

Appendix VI may be the most attractive among

the Appendices. I wonder if Appendices III and IV are

lists of the books and periodicals referred to, or books

and periodicals cited in the Volume.

In many cases, however, all the heads mentioned

above are not strictly adhered to. In Part I, for example,

there are 788 species. Of these, 143 have no data on

phenology. Plants not described number 257, and many

have merely one or two lines of description (probably

because they have been described in flora of Tamil

nadu carnatic earlier, for which the reference is given,

making it mandatory to have that Flora at hand while

usingthis one).

Many species are included based on Anglande’s

unedited drawings, which are cited in references. Such

species are not described. There is no evidence that the

figures Anglande made are from plants collected from

Palni hills or brought from other localities. Examples of

such plates are Lonicera caprifolium L. (t. 281),

Lonicera etruca Santi (t. 282), and Lonicera

:■ ’riclymemim L. (t. 286).

The following species are based on specimens at

146

Kew and other places, not on recent collections, and

one would believe that Matthew has extensively

surveyed the area, and they are presumably locally

extinct:

1 . Lasianthgus stigilobus Hook.

2. Blumea hieracifolia var. macrostachya (DC.)

Hook.f.

3. Carpesium cernuum L.

4. Pratia nummularia (Lamk.) Braun & Aschers

5. Rhododendron policum L.

6. Tylophora macrantha Hook.f

7. Tylophora pauciflora W. & A.

8. Argyreia pilosa Arn.

9. Barleria longifolia L.

10. Acrocephalus palniensis Mukherjee

11. Etnex spinosus (L.) Compel.

12. Dendrophthoe memecylifolia (W. & A.) Danser

13. Delechampia indica Wt.

14. Eriocaulon melaleucum Mart.

15. Cyperus elatus L.

16. Fimbristylis bisumbellata (Forsk.) Bubani

17. Fimbristylis eragrostis (Nees) Hance

18. Fimbristylis squarrosa Vahl

19. Liphocarpha sphacellata (Vahl) Kunth

20. Mariscus cyperoides A. Dietr.

As mentioned earlier, Matthew relies heavily on

help from other botanists without verifying the

nomenclature himself and following his own judgement.

I would cite an example here of Tylophora tetrapetala

(Dennst.) Suresh in Nicolson et al., which is a wrong

and illegitimate name. Many Indian works, which have

brought nomenclatural changes as per ICBN rules are

not noticed or neglected. For example, Ramamurthy (in

FI. Hassan Dist. p. 340, 1976) equates Excoecaria

robusta Hook.f with E. crenulata Wight, which is

overlooked in the Flora. In the note under Drypetes

roxburghii (Wall.) Hurusawa, Dr. Matthew states, “The

case of retaining this species under the genus

Putranjiva (Etym.: Life of the son), owing to its fertility

properties, is strong.” This note was uncalled for.

Matthew accepted Bowles and Steam’s reduction of

Atragene japonica Thunb. (1784) to a varietal rank

under Anemone hupehensis Lemoire ex Boynton

(1931), without explaining why Thunberg’s prior name

could not be accepted as Anemone japonica (Thunb.)

Almeida (comb. nov.). Hibiscus furcatus Willd. (1809)

has been placed in synonymy of Hibiscus hispidissimus

Griffith ( 1 854) without assigning any reason. In Pinaceae,

in Gymnospermae, which has been revised by both

K.M. Matthew and K.T. Mathew following two

synonyms, as per citations, seem to have come from

the same publication. Which one of them has come from

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

REVIEWS

the reference cited I leave to the readers to find out:

Pinus kesia Royle ex Gordon in Loudon, Gard.

Mag. (London) 16: 8, 1840.

Pinus khasya Royle, Gard. Mag. (London) 16: 8,

1840.

K.T. Mathew seems to be not in the habit of citing

basionyms and synonyms if he can avoid them. One

has the feeling that he is sure about his accepted name

and does not think there is any scope for further

nomenclatural correction. However, in the few places

where he has cited the synonyms he is in troubled

waters, as in the case of Scirpus quinquangularis

Vahl, Cyperus uniloides R. Br. and Scirpus

michelianus Linn. Under Carex lindleyana Nees ex

Wt. ( 1 834) he has given two more varieties. Additional

varieties are provided with segregating key, while the

typical variety has been left out. It appears from the

exsiccata cited under typical and the note at the end of

infraspecific taxa that the typical variety is a distinct

variety from the other two and it cannot be fitted in the

key given to the other two.

As already mentioned, Orchidaceae has been

revised by Gunnar Seidenfaden. I am surprised to find

some confusion in nomenclature in his part of the work

too. Under Br achy cory this iantha (Wt.) Summerh.

(which is based on Platanthera iantha Wt. (1851) there

are three names highlighted in bold type in the synonymy

along with Platanthera obcordata Lindl. (Gen. & Sp.

Orchid. PI. 290, 1 835). If we consider the bold lettered

synonyms a typographical error, the correct name for

this species should be Brachycorythis obcordata

(Lindl.) comb. nov. which I propose here. At the end of

the test of this species, Seidenfaden mentions the type

(of the species?) as specimens from Nilgiris (Wight, s.n.,

K, BM). I believe that types pertain to a name and not

to a species. There has to be a type for each name. If

there are five heterotypic synonyms there should be five

different types. Platanthera iantha must have a type.

If there are two specimens of this species, one at

Kew (K) and another at the British Museum (BM), one

of them can be a Holotype (or Lectotype) and other

may be called Isotype or Paratype (or Syntype). Similarly,

Platanthera affinis Wt. must have a separate type;

P. ga/eandra Rech.f must have yet another type and

Platanthera obcordata Lindl. may be typified by

Wallich Cat. no. 7050A or 7050B and Habenaria

galeandra Benth. var. nilagirica Hook.f must have a

different type.

Under Peristylis exilis Wight, Seidenfaden cites

contrasting synonyms as mentioned below:

Habenaria aristata (Lindl.) Hook.f.

Peristylis aristatus auct. non Lindl.

Seidenfaden also accepts Habenaria virens

(Lindl.) Hunt & Summerhayes when there is an existing

homonym by Abywickrama. His argument that Hunt

and Summerhayes did not mention Habenaria virens

(Lindl.) Abyw. (1959), possibly because Abywickrama’s

transfer was considered invalid due to wrong citation of

basionym, is not appropriate in this case because the

later homonym of Hunt and Summerhayes cannot be

validated as per ICBN rules. The name Seidenfia

rheedii (Sw.) Szlachetko is based on Malaxis rheedii

Sw., which is supposed to have included Epidendrum

resupinaturn in the synonymy which renders Swarfs

name illegitimate. Therefore, the next available valid name

for this species is Microstylis versicolor Lindl. (Gen.

& Sp. Orchid. PL 21, 1830) and the correct name for

this species should be Seidenfia versicolor (Lindl.)

Almeida (comb. nov.).

The price of the book Rs. 600 is at least half the

market value today (not quarter as claimed by author).

I congratulate Rev. Fr. Matthew for successfully

completing his plan and compliment him for undertaking

the publishing work and providing his Floras to

researchers and scientific communities at such low

rates.

M.R. ALMEIDA

3. MEDICINAL PLANTS IN ANDHRA PRADESH (INDIA) by T. Pullaiah. Pp. iii + 262

(23.0 x 15.5 cm). Published by Regency Publishers (20/36 - G, Old Market, West Patel

Nagar, New Delhi 1 1 0 008). Price Rs. 700/-.

This book lists 409 species of medicinal plants

found in Andhra Pradesh, arranged in alphabetical order

of scientific plant names. The author’s un-named and

undated preface mainly describes the location of Andhra

Pradesh, with three lines of explanation regarding the

arrangement of entries of the species in the book and

acknowledgement of the author to his wife for help in

preparation of the manuscript. It gives 121 line drawings

of species listed and 14 plates consisting of 68 coloured

photographs of medicinal plants. The text gives accepted

names of species (occasionally with a few synonyms),

family to which the species belongs, short description

(3-5 lines), occurrence and distribution, flowering and

fruiting seasons, propagation by seed or cuttings, and

medicinal uses, which are reproduced from earlier

published literature.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

147

REVIEWS

The book cites 17 bibliographic references,

followed by 12 names of companies dealing in the

medicinal plant trade. One of them, Nicolas Piramal India

Ltd, denied the statement when contacted by the

reviewer for confirmation. Many of the plant names in

the book are outdated and the book has several wrong

names of medicinal plants based on wrong identification.

One species has been listed under two different

synonyms, Cascabela thevetia (L.) Lippold (p. 66) and

under Thevetia peruviana (L.) Merr. (p. 238). The

description and uses mentioned under the conspecific

names are quite different.

Under Embelia tsjarium-cottam DC. the medicinal

uses mentioned are similar to Embelia ribes and the seeds

are used as substitute for that species. This is certainly a

wrong and confused statement. It has been now

conclusively shown that the plant so far known as Embelia

tsjarium-cottam is actually Embelia basaal (R. & S.) A.

DC. and the seeds of this species are sold under the name

E. ribes. It is yet to be confirmed that seeds of E. ribes

Burm.f. also contain Embelin, an antihelminthic principle

found in Embelia basaal (R. & S.) A. DC.

Indigofera tinctoria L. and I. sumatrana Gaertn.

have been equated. However, the two plants are

believed to be distinct species, /. sumatrana Gaertn.

contains a toxic compound that causes itching and

irritation when handled with bare hands while isolating

blue dye.

Under Moringa pterigosperma Gaertn. after

Moringa o/eifera, auct. non Lamk. is cited. Actually

M. oleifera Lamk. is an illegitimate synonym of

M. pterygosperma Gaertn. The name is illegitimate

because Lamark, in the original publication, cited

another binomial under his name making the name

applicable to a different species cited by him under the

new name.

The book does not have indexes, and plants

known by their synonyms cannot be located. It has

line drawings and a few photographs of plants,

but is not comparable in text and price with the

Glossary of Indian Medicinal Plants, which gives

well documented information and is much cheaper.

M.R. ALMEIDA

4. MEDICINAL PLANTS IN INDIA. Vols. I & II. by T. Pullaiah. Pp. iii + 861 (23.0 x 1 5.5 cm).

Published by Regency Publishers (20/36 - G, Old Market, West Patel Nagar, New Delhi

1 1 0 008). Price Rs. 1 ,500/- (set of 2).

The four page Introduction gives information on

Vedic period and Ayurveda, concluding with information

on the herbal market. According to the author, there

are 17,500 angiosperms in India, 7,500 of them are

medicinal and 950 are with new claims made through

recent research. Looking at these figures, one can

imagine that the number of Indian medicinal plants dealt

with (580) are comparatively few. The text is arranged

in the same manner as in the author’s medicinal plants

in andhra pradesh, that is in alphabetical order of

scientific names of the plants, and gives secondary

information gathered from old sources of literature, of

which there is a bibliography. Information in the book is

also in the same pattern as medicinal plants in andhra

pradesh and 409 plants listed are reproduced along with

68 additional diagrams. This book also has several

outdated names.

Mussaenda frondosa L. is a species from Sri

Lanka and occurs in India only under cultivation as an

ornamental. The wild native plant, which goes under

this name, is M. glabra Hutchinson.

Justicia procumbens L. (p. 320) and Rostellularia

procumbens (L.) Nees (447), and Anthocephalus

chinensis (Lamk.) A. Rich ex Walp. (p. 62) and

Neolamarkia cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser (p. 377), found

under two entries are one and the same species.

Mcirsilea quadrifolia L. (p. 348) is only reported

from Kashmir in India. The common Marsilea species

with wider distribution and containing the active principle

Marsilin causing paralysis of nervous system is Marsilea

min uta Linn.

The line drawing given as Phyllanthus amarus is

certainly not of that species. It may be P. urinaria Linn.

Similarly, the commonly used “Aritha” or “Ritha” is

Sapindus trifoliatus Linn. (syn. Sapindus laurifolius

Vahl) not S. emarginatus Vahl.

The list of herbal drug manufacturers has gone up

to 79 in this book, and it concludes with two indexes —

Index to the Sanskrit names and Index to the trade

names. The lists are in alphabetical order, but there is

no index to botanical synonyms used in the text and

therefore the names known under earlier synonyms

cannot be located.

There are 22 colour plates of 99 photographs and

1 86 line drawings, covering 86 1 species of medicinal plants.

The price at Rs. 1 500/- is not justifiable by any standard.

M.R. ALMEIDA

148

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

149-198

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . SIGHTING OF CARACAL IN THE CHAMBAL RAVINES OF BHIND DISTRICT,

MADHYA PRADESH

While surveying the Bhind district of Madhya

Pradesh, to capture crop-raidingNilgai, for translocation

to the Kuno Wildlife Sanctuary (as part of a prey base

supplementation for the proposed Asiatic Lion

Reintroduction Project), I saw two Caracals ( Caracal

caracal ) at an interval of about 15 days. The first

sighting was on March 26, 2001 at 1630 hrs while 1 was

standing on a hillock in the ravines. The Caracal was

stalking and its tufted ears were conspicuous. The second

sighting was on April 1 1 , 200 1 at 1930 hrs while I was

coming back from the ravines and a Caracal came right

in front of the vehicle. A few faculty members of the

Wildlife Institute of India and the DFO, Kuno Wildlife

Sanctuary, also saw it.

The study area included five villages, namely Bijpuri,

Lavan, Chandupura, Karke ka pura and Gopalpura. The

area surrounding these villages (2-4 sq. km) is privately

owned, i.e. revenue land, and is being used for

agriculture. The entire area has ravines.

The major plant species are Prosopis cineraria ,

Capparis decidua , C. sepiaria, C. zeylanica , Acacia

leucophloea , A. nilotica , Azadirachta indica ,

Salvadora ole aides. Balanites aegvptiaca , Zizyphus

mauritiana and Z. nwnmularia (Khudsar et al. 2001).

The area has diverse fauna, such as the Caracal,

Pangolin ( Manis crassicaudata). Small Indian Civet

( Viverricula indica ), Indian Porcupine ( Hystrix indica).

Wolf ( Canis lupus). Jackal ( Canis aureus). Hedgehog,

Chinkara ( Gazella bennetii). Nilgai ( Boselaphus

tragocamelus). Hare and many species of birds.

After observing many bird kills, especially dove

and partridge, and also scats with bird feathers, I asked

the villagers of Bijpuri about the presence ofthe Caracal,

locally called Seyahgosh, by showing a photograph.

They confirmed its presence and informed that it mostly

stayed in porcupine burrows. Prater (1971) also

suggested that Caracals keep their kittens in porcupine

burrows. They become more visible during the monsoon;

perhaps they are not able to stay in the burrow.

Caracal is an endangered small cat, listed in CITES

Appendix-I (Nowell and Jackson 1996), and in

Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1 972.

April 4, 2002 FAIYAZ A. KHUDSAR

A-4 (Aggarwal Sadan)

Old Govindpura, Krishna Nagar,

New Delhi 110 051, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Khudsar, F.A., S.P. Goyal, N.RS. Chauhan, R. Chellam, K. Jagdish,

A.J.T. Johnsingh, J.S. Chauhan & S.K. Mittal (2001): A

pilot study to standardize techniques for capturing nilgai

using drop-net and translocating them to Kuno Wildlife

Sanctuary. Technical Report. Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehra Dun, India. 19 pp.

Nowell, K. & P. Jackson (Eds) (1996): Wild cats, status survey and

conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland. 382 pp.

Prater, S.H. ( 1 97 1 ): The Book of Indian Animals. 3rd Edn. Bombay

Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 78.

2. OCCURRENCE OF INDIAN WOLF CANIS LUPUS PALLIPES

IN THE PENCH TIGER RESERVE, MADHYA PRADESH

In December 1997, we were moving around the

Pench Tiger Reserve at sunset, when a herd of cattle to

the right of our vehicle panicked and ran towards us. To

our surprise, we saw three wolves chasing the cattle.

The wolves were startled when our vehicle halted with

a screech. The first animal was a male, larger than the

other two following it. They stood for a minute and moved

away to the nearby Cleistanthus forest. We got down

to follow the wolves, but they disappeared quickly into

the forest. Though we had heard about the presence of

wolves near the villages around the Pench Tiger

Reserve, this was our first sighting.

After this incident, there were no sightings by the

villagers until the afternoon of March 23, 1999 when

two wolves were reported seen close to Bodki village,

8 km from the Tiger Reserve. The wolves were stalking

goats grazing close to a crop field, as we watched from

our vehicle from a distance of c. 1 00 m. The wolves felt

our presence and ran away towards the forest. We

followed them for about 1 5 minutes along the road, as

they moved ahead of our vehicle. We were fortunate to

get the animals on video for a few minutes. Again, on

April 29, 1999, the villagers of Karmajhiri reported that

a pack of wolves had lifted five goats from their village

in the morning. One goat had managed to escape and

the half eaten carcasses of the other four were left near

the village field.

Playfair (1891) reported the destruction of human

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

life by wolves in the Hoshangabad and Narsinghpur

districts of Madhya Pradesh. Shahi ( 1 982) reported the

presence of wolves in six districts of Madhya Pradesh.

After 13 years, Bharos (1996) reported their presence

in Rewa, while Ranjitsinh (1998) reported the sighting

of a female wolf in Raisen and Sidhi districts. In the

same year, K. Yoganand of Wildlife Institute of India

reported the presence of wolves and sighting of their

scats and tracks on the fringes of Panna National Park,

Panna district, Madhya Pradesh. This is the first report

from Seoni district.

In Pench Tiger Reserve, Wild Dogs or Dholes

(Cuon a/pinus) are observed to occupy the forest, while

wolves remain on the fringes, close to human settlements.

The Pench Tiger Reserve supports major Carnivora,

such as Tiger ( Panthera tigris ), Leopard ( Panthera

pardus ), Indian Jackal ( Canis aureus), Wild Dog,

Indian Wolf ( Canis lupus), Indian Fox ( Vulpes

bengalensis) and Striped Hyena ( Hyaena hyaena).

The Indian Wolf seems to be widely distributed in

Madhya Pradesh. The presence of wolves in Pench

Tiger Reserve poses an intriguing question as the forest

area is occupied by other canids, like the Wild Dog and

REFER

Bharos, A.M.K. (1996): Occurrence of the wolf (Canis lupus

Linnaeus) in Rewa district (M.R). J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

93(1): 81.

Playfair, H.A. (1891): The destruction of life by wolves in the

Hoshangabad and Narsingpur districts. J Bombay nat Hist.

Soc. 6(2): 265-268.

Ranjitsinh. M.K.. ( 1 998): Occurrence of the wolf Canis lupus paUipes

Linn, in Sidhi district Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Indian Jackal, which are common. Yoganand and

Johnsingh (2000) have also reported the co-existence

of Dhole and Wolf in Panna, based on temporal and

spatial segregation, wherein the Wolf occupies the forest

fringes and the Wild Dog the forested area.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Mr. K. Yoganand, Ms. Ambika,

Ms. Neha Samuel and Ms. Livleen Kahlon for critical

scrutiny and comments on the draft.

March 27, 2002 *G. AREENDRAN

**M.K. PASHA

Wildlife Institute of India,

Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

*Present Address: IGCMC, WWF-India,

1 72-B, Lodhi Estate,

New Delhi 1 10 003, India.

**Present Address: Wildlife Trust of India,

C-644, New Friends Colony,

New Delhi 1 1 0 00 1 , India.

ACES

Soc 95(2): 328.

Shahi. S.P. ( 1 982): Status of the grey wolf (Canis lupus pallipes) in

India — A Preliminary Survey. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

79(3): 493-502.

Yoganand, K. & A.J.T. Johnsingh (2000): Range overlap in

dhole (Cuon alpinus pallipes) and wolf (Canis lupus Linn.)

(Family: Canidae), in India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(3):

418-419.

3. DEATH OF A BLUE BULL BOSELAPHUS TRAGOCAMELUS DUE TO SNAKEBITE

Gura Bishnoi is a protected area covering 422 sq.

km of area, c. 1 5 km southeast of Jodhpur (26° 78' N,

73° 08' E). There are 24 villages in this protected area,

of which some are predominantly Bishnoi community

areas.

On the morning of September 9, 2001, I visited

Khajarli, the place where a legendary group of Bishnois

died trying to protect the Khejri ( Prosopis cineraria).

On the way, we stopped at Khajarli pond to observe

Chinkara Gazel/a bennetti, Blackbuck Antilope

cervicapra and a variety of birds. We were standing

on the bank of the pond and watching wildlife when we

heard an unusual animal sound in the nearby Prosopis

juliflora plantation. We rushed in the direction of the

sound, and saw a 1.5- 1.8 m long Indian cobra ( Naja

naja) crossing the path. Further, there was a male Blue

Bull Boselaphus tragocamelus on a crippled hind leg,

which prevented it from walking or running properly.

After 10-12 minutes, the animal began to tremble and

fell to the ground. People working in the fields nearby

also came to the spot. One of the old Bishnoi farmers

looked at the male Blue Bull and said that it was another

case of snakebite by the black snake usually seen in the

area. The Blue Bull’s mouth was foaming with saliva

and its left leg was swollen, when it finally died an hour

later.

January 7, 2002 ANIL KUMAR CHHANGANI

Department of Zoology,

JNV University, Jodhpur 342 005,

Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

150

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4. BARKING DEER MUNTIACUS MUNTJAK IN MUNDANTHURAI, TAMIL NADU

A note by Ray et al. (2000) states that the authors

saw Barking Deer once in Deer Valley, and twice in

Kadayam, that Barking Deer had apparently moved into

Deer Valley from Kadayam and are new additions to

the fauna of the Mundanthurai Sanctuary.

Barking Deer is a common nocturnal of the Deer

Valley. When I was Warden, Mundanthurai, I named

the area Deer Valley, as four deer species, i.e. Spotted

Deer, Sambar, Barking Deer and Mouse Deer were

seen there.

The Forest Working Plans of Lasrado, Rajasingh

and Wilson refer to Barking Deer. J. Wilson writes about

the long tongue of the Barking Deer. Besides, old shooting

records, a wildlife map of Mundanthurai by M.A.

Badshah, and the Tiger Reserve Proposal to the

Government of India by Saroj Raj Choudhry mention

this deer’s presence in the area. Choudhry (1984) did a

pellet group sampling of Deer Valley.

In 1973, T. Jeyadev, Chief Conservator, on seeing

the footprints and droppings of barking deer in a fenced

and failed sandalwood plot in Koiltheri in his field

inspection notes wrote succinctly, “We, however, have

nice neem plants, thanks to the Barking Deer”. Sandal

was raised with neem as hosts; Barking Deer nibbled

off sandal seedlings, leaving the neem plants alone

(Jeyadev 1973).

I had taken Dr. Krishnaswamy with Dr. Mural i

Chandrasekaran to Kannikatty Forest Rest house in

1977. We had seen a Barking Deer, the darker variety,

opposite a Gluta travancorica sample plot established

in 1914. Dr. Krishnaswamy has recorded this in the

Forest Rest House book (Entry for 1997).

Barking deer is not a new addition to the fauna of

the Sanctuary. It was always there. While the excitement

of seeing an animal for the first time in the wild is

understandable, authors are advised to refrain from

rushing to hurried conclusions, like this imaginary

mammalian movement.

February 26, 2003 J. MANGALARAJ JOHNSON

4, Shiv Apts, 759, 65th Street,

10th Sector, K.K. Nagar,

Chennai 600 078,

Tamil Nadu, India.

REFERENCES

Choudhry, S.R. (1984): Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve Proposals. A

report to the Government of India.

Jeyadev, T. (1973): Koiltheri Sandalwood Plantation Journal. Chief

Conservator of Forests field inspection notes.

Ray, Jayanti, Justus Joshua & J. Ronald (2000): Sighting of barking

deer (Muntiacus miintjac) in Kalakad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve, Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 97(1): 139-

140.

5. MORTALITY OF WILD ANIMALS IN ROAD ACCIDENTS

IN KUMBHALGARH WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, RAJASTHAN, INDIA

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary is spread over

585 sq. km, and lies between 20° 5' - 23° 3'N, and

73° 15' - 73° 45' E, c. 200 km south of Jodhpur in the

west Aravalli hills of Rajasthan, India (Fig. 1). The

altitude varies from c. 274 to 849 m above msl. The

Sanctuary is characterized by a distinct winter, summer

and monsoon. During summer, the temperature

fluctuates between 30 and 35 °C, and may reach 46 °C

during May and June. The mean winter temperature is

5 °C; it may go down to 2 °C during December-January.

Average annual rainfall is recorded as 725 mm, while

the minimum is 403 mm and maximum is 950 mm.

The forest is mainly dry deciduous or woodland

type, dominated by gorya dhawa ( Anogeissus latifolia ),

salar ( Boswellia serrata), gol ( Lannea

coromandelica), kherni ( Wrightia tinctoria), dhawa

(Anogeissus pendula), kumbat (Acacia Senegal), khair

(Acacia catechu), ber (Zizyphus mauritiana), and dhak

(Butea monosperma). The undergrowth mainly consists

of jharber (Zizyphus nummular ia), adusa (Adhatoda

zeylanica), gangan (Grewia tenex), franger (Grewia

flavescens), kanter (Capparis sepiaria), and lantana.

Some climbers and grasses are also found.

The main fauna of the Sanctuary includes Leopard

(Panthera pardus). Hyena (Hyaena hyaena). Wolf

(Canis lupus), Jackal (Canis aureus), Sloth Bear

(Melursus ursinus), Four-horned Antelope (Tetracerus

quadricornis), Chinkara (Gazella bennettii),

Porcupine (Hystrix indica), Sambar (Cervus

unicolor), Blue Bull (Boselaphus tragocamelus).

Common Palm Civet (Paradoxurus hermaphroditus).

Jungle Cat (Felis chaus), Fox (Vulpes bengalensis).

Crocodile (Crocodylus palustris) and Rock Python

(Python molurus).

Road kill data was collected during a long-term

study on the eco-behavioural diversity of the Hanuman

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

151

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Location of Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary

in the Aravalli Hills

Langur ( Semnopithecus entellus) in and around

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary. Two state highways

(about 25 km long) and 3 ancillary roads (30 km long)

pass through the Sanctuary. Between December 1995

and August 1999, while driving on the highway to and

from the study area, the location and species of each

road kill was recorded. Occasionally, road kills were

also reported by forest officials and drivers. This

information was verified and included in the study. The

recording efforts remained more or less constant

throughout the study. Road kills generally dis-

appeared from the road within a few hours to a day,

with scavengers operating in the area. This study is

limited to larger animals, like mammals, birds and

reptiles, though frog and invertebrate kills were common.

During the tourist season and monsoon, the number of

road accidents was high. To estimate the percent

mortality, the monthly road kills were calculated from

the data collected during December 1 995 to December

1998.

A total of 374 road kills (Table 1 ) were observed

and recorded in and around Kumbhalgarh Wildlife

Sanctuary. Of these, 80% occurred on highways. They

were common along sharp turns, slopes, near water holes

and on small tracks, which were preferred by animals

for crossing roads. Altogether 43 species of animals

were found killed in road accidents. Of these, 49% were

birds, 39.5% were mammals and 1 1 .5% were reptiles.

The most common victim was the Hanuman langur,

followed by the common palm civet and squirrel

( Funambulus pennanti).

Doves and babblers were the common bird species

in the road kills (Table 1). Of the total reptile kills, the

Checkered Keelback ( Xenochrophis piscator ) was the

main victim.

Maximum road kills (13.9%) were observed in

August during monsoon and minimum (3.2%) in June

during summer. Fewer road kills were recorded between

January and July (Fig. 2).

Some vehicle - animal collisions also involve

material damage and human casualties. Nine collisions

between vehicles and blue bull were recorded during

this study. In several accidents, the drivers successfully

avoided hitting an animal, but in the process lost control

of the vehicle. On an average, one animal collision

occurred every month on the roads in and around the

Sanctuary. Deliberate killing of animals by drivers was

also recorded.

The most commonly killed mammals were

nocturnal species, like common palm civet and jackal.

Wild boar and blue bull usually got killed in the evenings

when they crossed the road, as they moved out of the

Sanctuary to raid crop fields (Chhangani and Mohnot

1997).

Home ranges of the study troops of Hanuman

Langur cross over the highway located in our study area.

Road accidents have also been observed in other study

sites by Mohnot ( 1 974), Rajpurohit ( 1 987), Agoramoorthy

(1987), Chhangani and Mohnot(1997), and Rajpurohit

and Chhangani ( 1 997).

Large numbers of Hanuman Langur are killed in

road accidents. Of the total langurs killed, about 25%

were victims of road accidents (Chhangani 2000). The

world famous Ranakpur temple is visited by a large

number of tourists, who offer food to langurs, which

keep close to the temple (Chhangani 2000). The langurs

expect food from every passing vehicle, so they do not

give way to speeding vehicles, and are killed by them.

Provisioning of langurs along the roads is common due

to religious sentiments. Many times, during fights and

other interactions between bisexual troops and all-male

bands, these animals while running and chasing each

other suddenly come in front of a vehicle, get hit and

often die instantaneously.

Langurs also use the roads for walking, running

and foraging for vegetation along the roadside. Besides,

152

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Animal kills recorded in road accidents in Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary from December 1995 to 1998

Common name Scientific Name Nos.

Killed

Mammals

these busy roads help them to avoid predators, like the

Panther, Wolf and Jackal that usually avoid coming on

the roads in the day.

Amongst birds, doves and babblers were the worst

affected (38% of total kills) as they usually feed on the

Months

Fig. 2: Percent road kills in different months in and around

Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary (Dec. 1995 to Dec. 1998)

Reptiles

road. They are attracted to the seeds and grains that

fall from transport vehicles, and dead insects and ants

crushed on the roads during monsoon. Birds are run

over or hit when taking off suddenly. A large proportion

(16%) of birds killed were vultures and crows. These

scavengers get hit while feeding on dead animals on the

road. Among the reptiles, the Checkered Keelback are

most affected. They are killed in the monsoon mostly

on roads and near water holes, because of their

amphibious habit (R.C. Sharma pers. comm.). The road

kill problems of Kumbhalgarh Wildlife Sanctuary are

similar to those in Spain and in African protected areas

(Lopez 1993, Lopez and Roviralta 1993, Broekhuysen

1 965, Lewis 1 989, Drews 1991).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study is a part of the Indo-US Primate Project,

a collaborative programme of the Ministry of

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

153

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Environment and Forests, Government of India, and the

U.S. Fish & Wildlife Service (Grant Agreement No.

INT/FWS-22). I would like to thank Prof. S.M. Mohnot,

Director, Indo-US Primate Project and the State Forest

Department staff and officials of Kumbhalgarh Wildlife

Sanctuary, especially A.C.F. Shri Lalit Singh Ranawat,

and Shri Sukhdave and Shri Madan Mali, Field

REFER

Agoramoorthy, G. (1987): Reproductive Behaviour in Hanuman

langur, Presbytis entellus. Ph D. Thesis. Jodhpur University.

Brockhuysen, G. (1965): An analysis of bird casualties on the road

in the southwestern Cape Province, South Africa. L 'Oiseau.

Rev. Ornithol. 35: 35-5 1 .

Chhangani, A.K. (2000): Ecobehavioural diversity of langurs.

Presbytis entellus living in different ecosystems. Unpublished

Ph.D. Thesis. TNV University, Jodhpur.

Chhangani, A.K. & S.M. Mohnot (1997): Kumbhalgarh Wildlife

Sanctuary under stress. Nat. Symp. Public Participation Env.

Protection. Dec. 1997. JNV University, Jodhpur. Pp. 15.

Drews, C. (1991): Road kills in Mikumi National Park. Miombo.

Newsl. Wild. Cons. Soc., Tanzania 7: 6-7.

Lewis, A.D. (1989): Road kills and other records of mainly smaller

mammals from Kenya: Data for a Kenyan mammal atlas. East

Afr. Nat Hist. Soc. Bull. 19: 20-22.

Lopez, J. (1993): Metodologia yresulyados del proyecto de

seguimiento de la mortalidad de vertebrados en carreteras

Assistants, for their support during this study.

April 1 8, 2002 ANIL KUMAR CHHANGANI

Indo-US Primate Project

Department of Zoology, JNV University,

Jodhpur 342 005, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

ENCES

(P.M.V.C./C.O.D.A.). In: II SimposiaNacional sobre Carreteras

y Medio Ambiente, Asociacion Tecnica de Carreteras ( AIPCR),

Madrid.

Lopez, J. & F. Roviralta (1993): Banco de datos y centra de

documentacion acerca de la mortalidad de vertebrados en

carreteras. In: II Simposia Nacional sobre Carreteras y Medio

Ambiente. Asociacion Tecnica de Carreteras (AIPCR), Madrid.

Mohnot, S.M. (1974): Ecology and behaviour of the common Indian

langur, Presbytis entellus. Ph.D. thesis. University of Jodhpur,

Jodhpur.

Rajpurohit, L.S. (1987): Male Social Organisation in Hanuman langur

(Presbytis entellus). Ph.D. thesis. University of Jodhpur, Jodhpur.

Rajpurohit, L.S. & A.K. Chhangani (1997): Males’ number

decreasing in langurs (Presbytis entellus) around Jodhpur (India).

Abstracts - Is' Goettinger Freilandtage on Primate Socio -

Ecology: Causes and Consequences of Variation in the Members

of Males Per Group, German Primate Centre (DPZ), Goettingen

(Germany), Primate Report 48(2): 30.

6. GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE AQUILA CLANGA PALLAS AND NORTHERN SHOVELLER

ANAS CLYPEATA LINN. — TWO RARE RECORDS FROM KERALA

On January 11, 2001, while conducting the

waterfowl census at the Kattampally wetlands near

Kannur, a Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga was

seen. The raptor was observed for almost one hour, in

good light, as it soared overhead. It was a dark brown

bird having broad wings with splayed out primaries,

underwing-coverts darker than the flight feathers, white

spots on the upperwing forming a thin wingbar and white

uppertail-coverts. These features suggested that the bird

was an immature. The author is familiar with this species

with many sightings at Bharatpur. Kattampally is one of

the major wetlands of Kerala and hosts large

congregations of migratory and resident water-fowl. On

November 20, 1 998, the author along with N.K. Satyan

had seen a soaring Aquila eagle being mobbed by a

Brahminy Kite Haliastur indus , but specific

identification was not possible as the raptor was too far

away.

The only published record of the Greater Spotted

Eagle in Kerala is a single undated sighting by

Srivastava et al. ( 1 995), quoted by BirdLife International

(2001).

At Kattampally, on March 27, 2001, 4 male

Northern Shovellers Anas clypeata were spotted by

P.C. Rajeevan and the author among a group of more

than 500 Garganey Anas querquedula and Northern

Pintail Anas acuta.

An early record of this species from Kerala is that

of a specimen received by A.O. Hume from Wynaad

(Kinnear and Whistler 1930).

April 2, 2002 C. SASHI KUMAR

9, Subhash Nagar,

Kannur 670 002,

Kerala, India.

REFERENCES

BirdLife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife International Red Data Book. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife International.

Kinnear, Norman B. & H. Whistler (1930): "The Vcrnay scientific survey of the Eastern Ghats. Ornithological Section’. Part XVI. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc 39 461-462.

Srivastava, K.K., A.K. Bhardwaj, C.J. Abraham & V.J. Zacharias (1995): Status and habitats of raptors in Periyar. Indian Forester 119: 816-

827.

154

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. MARSH HARRIER CIRCUS AERUGINOSUS PRE-ROOSTING

ON TREES rN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

The Keoladeo National Park (27° 7.6' to

27° 12.2' N, 77° 29.5' to 77° 33.2' E) in Rajasthan is a

known roost of Marsh Harriers (Samant el al. 1995).

During the present study ( 1 997-99) more than 1 50 Marsh

Harriers were recorded roosting in the grasslands of

the Park.

The harriers roost communally on the ground

outside the breeding season (Newton 1979). The Marsh

Harriers were observed roosting communally in the

southeast corner of the Park on the ground among tall

grasses in Block-G (locally called Koladehar). They

started arriving at the roost area about an hour before

sunset and pre-roosted on trees lining the roost area.

This behaviour is unusual, as they have never been

recorded pre-roosting on trees elsewhere. They

generally pre-roost on bare ground before settling in the

actual roosting site (Clarke 1996, Donald 1905).

By pre-roosting in the open, harriers probably

attract their roosting allies to a particular roost to increase

the roost size, as has been seen in other species (Zahavi

1971). Roosting communally in big flocks has its own

advantages (Ward and Zahavi 1973). Pre-roosting on

tree-tops by Marsh Harriers in the Park may be for the

same reason, as the grass here is very tall (about 2.5 m).

Pre-roosting on the ground would not be beneficial, as

they would not be visible to their conspecifics. Another

possible reason for pre-roosting on trees could be to

REFER

Clarke, R. (1996): Preliminary observations on the importance of a

large communal roost of wintering harriers in Gu jarat (N.W.

India) and comparison with a roost in Senegal (W. Africa).

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 44-50.

Donald, C.H. (1905): A congregation of harriers. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 16: 504-505.

Newton, I. (1979): Population ecology of raptors. T. & A.D. Poyser

Ltd., England.

avoid the mammalian predators lurking around, such as

the Jungle Cat Felis chans. Jackal Cams aureus , and

Striped Hyena Hyaena hyaena, that are frequently

sighted in the grassland.

During the winters of 1 997-98 and 1 998-99, 74%

of the pre-roosting (n = 3753) was recorded on trees.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the Rajasthan Forest Department for

permission to work in the Park, Ms. Shruti Sharma,

Director, Keoladeo National Park for kindly extending

facilities and the US Fish and Wildlife Service for funding

the project, especially Mr. David Ferguson for help and

encouragement. I thank Mr. J.C. Daniel, Honorary

Secretary, BNHS, Dr. A.R. Rahmani, Director, BNHS

and Dr. Vibhu Prakash for encouragement and critical

comments on the manuscript.

November 7, 200 1 ASHOK VERMA

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Present Address: Sarafa Bazaar,

Rekha Naanga Street,

Bharatpur 321 001, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

ENCES

Samant, J.S., V. Prakash & Rjshad Naoroji (1995): Ecology and

Behaviour of Resident Raptors with special reference to

Endangered Species. Final Report 1990-93. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay. Pp. 92.

Ward. P. & A. Zahavi (1973): The importance of certain assemblages

as “information centers” for food finding. Ibis 115: 517-534.

Zahavi, A. (1971): The function of pre-roost gatherings and

communal roosts. Ibis 113: 106-109.

8. BLUE-WINGED PARAKEET PSITTACULA COLUMBOIDES,

FAMILY PSITTACIDAE, FEEDING ON LORANTHUS LEAVES

On March 5, 2001, I was birding near Doodha

Sagar in Mahaveer Wildlife Sanctuary, Goa when I saw

a Blue-winged Parakeet ( Psittacula columboides) and

Indian Hanging-parrot ( Loriculus vernalis ) on an

Arjuna tree ( Terminalia arjuna).

On close observation, I found that both the species

were feeding on the green leaves of a parasitic plant on

the Arjuna tree. The half chewed leaves were collected

and later identified as Loranthus longiflorus . On March

6, 200 1 , the same activity was observed in Castle Rock

village on the Goa - Karnataka border, Joyda taluka,

Uttar Kannada district, Karnataka.

August 20, 2001 SHARAD APTE

1 766, Ushahakal, Ganesh Nagar,

Dr. Ambedkar Road,

Sangli 416 416,

Maharashtra, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

155

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. SIGHTING OF THE ORIENTAL BAY-OWL PHODILUS BADIUS SATURATUS

IN PAKHUI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, WESTERN ARUNACHAL PRADESH

The Oriental Bay-Owl (Pliodilus badius) has been

considered a rare resident throughout its range in the

Indian subcontinent, which consists of three disjunct

areas (Ali and Ripley 1983, Hussain and Khan 1997).

While there have been several recent records of the

southern subspecies assimilis from the Anaimalai Hills

and the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve,

southern India (Kannan 1993, Mudappa 1998, Raman

2001), there have been no recent reports of the

subspecies soturatus from either north-east India, or

from western Arunachal Pradesh.

I sighted an individual of the Oriental Bay-Owl in

Seijusa in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary (WS) on January

18, 1999. Pakhui WS is located in western Arunachal

Pradesh, near the Assam- Arunachal Pradesh border, and

covers an area of 862 sq. km, with an altitudinal variation

from 100 to 2,000 m. The major vegetation type of

Pakhui WS is tropical semi-evergreen forest. There are

adjacent tracts of intact forest areas, logged forests,

plantations and agricultural settlements. Extensive loss

of forest cover and degradation has occurred mainly in

some areas in adjacent Assam. Around 267 bird species

have been recorded from this area, and six other species

of owls have been reported (Datta etal. 1998). The main

threats to the existence of these forests are logging and

settlements, hunting. Minor disturbances are extraction

of cane, agar ( Aquillaria agallocha ), and other minor

forest produce.

The owl was sighted at an altitude of c. 300 m,

which was c. 500 m from the Forest Department Range

offices and 50 m from a frequently used forest trail.

Locals and forest staff often move through the area to

cut firewood and poles for construction, and to collect

food and medicinal plants, mushrooms and black

dammar ( Canarium resiniferum).

I first spotted the owl at 0815 hrs and watched it

for the next half hour. It was facing me with closed eyes,

perched on a horizontal branch of a small understorey

tree c. 5 m from the ground. As the species was

unfamiliar to me, I sketched and photographed it

REFER

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): A Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact edition. Oxford University Press, 737 pp.

Datta, A., P. Singh, R.M. Athreya & S. Karthikeyan (1998): Birds

of Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary in western Arunachal Pradesh.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 38: 91-96.

Hussain, S.A. & M.A.R. Khan (1997): A new subspecies of bay

owl ( Phodilus badius) Horsfield from peninsular India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 74: 334-335.

Fig. 1: Oriental bay-owl perched on an understorey tree

in Pakhui Wildlife Sanctuary, Arunachal Pradesh

(Fig. 1). It seemed quite unperturbed, though we were

standing and watching it from such close quarters. It

remained motionless for half an hour. The owl opened

its eyes once or twice, but otherwise ignored our

presence. Interestingly, earlier daytime sightings of this

bird have reported that it could be observed for quite

some time, because it did not fly away immediately on

being disturbed (Kannan 1993, Mudappa 1998).

The Bay-Owl seems rare and ranges from foothill

forests up to 1,500 m in NE India. The subspecies

saturatus is reported from Nepal, Sikkim, Nagaland,

Manipur, and Assam, north and south of the

Brahmaputra river (Ali and Ripley 1983), and also

South-East Asia. However, the present observation is

the first record for Arunachal Pradesh.

December 12, 2002 APARAJITA DATTA

Wildlife Institute of India,

Chandrabani, P.O. Box 1 8,

Dehradun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

Present Address: do Nature Conservation India

3076/5, 4th cross, Gokulam Park, Mysore 570 002.

Email: [email protected]

ENCES

Kannan, R. (1993): Rediscovery of the Oriental bay owl Phodilus

badius in peninsular India. Forktaii 8: 48-149.

Mudappa, D. (1998): Sight record of the Oriental bay owl ( Phodilus

badius ripleyi ) in the Anaimalai Hills, southern Western Ghats,

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95: 343.

Raman, T.R.S. (2001): Observations on the Oriental bay owl

Phodilus badius and range extension in the Western Ghats,

India. Forktaii 17: 110-111.

156

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

10. ALBINISM IN WHITE-BREASTED KINGFISHER HALCYON SMYRNENSIS (LINNE)

FROM INDIA

On August 7, 1999, my attention was drawn

towards a white bird that flew past our speeding jeep

between Sambajiguda and Jamini villages in Jainur

mandal, Adilabad district of Andhra Pradesh, north of

Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary (19° 05'-19° 20' N and

78° 32'-79° 12' E). A thorough search of the area

resulted in the sighting of an albino White-breasted

Kingfisher Halcyon smyrnensis (Linne) that was

observed from 1218 to 1226 hrs. It was frequently

chasing another individual of the same species with loud

cackling calls. The birds remained in the vicinity of a

small stream flowing between fallow fields and scrub.

Alarmed at being followed constantly, the birds flew

towards a nearby hillock where they could not be

located. Photographs taken are not of printable quality,

but fortunately the bird was successfully videographed.

Albinism among avians is not an uncommon feature

and has been reported for many species earlier (Pittie, A.

pers. comm.). Albinism in White-breasted Kingfisher

has been reported from Sri Lanka (Gunawardana 1 993)

and Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur (Rahmani, A.R.

pers. comm.). This is the second report of the same

from India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. V. Nagulu and the Head, Department

of Zoology, for encouragement and facilities; Chief

Wildlife Warden (Andhra Pradesh Forest Department)

for permission; Divisional Forest Officer and other

staff of Kawal Wildlife Sanctuary for hospitality

and help; and Aasheesh Pittie for valuable discussions.

Fellowship grant by CSIR, New Delhi is acknowledged.

June 5, 2002 C. SRINIVASULU

Wildlife Biology Section,

Department of Zoology, Osmania University,

Hyderabad 500 007,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCE

Gunawardana, J. (1993): Description of an albino white-breasted kingfisher ( Halcyon smyrnensis ). Ceylon Bird Club Notes, June:

56-57.

1 1 . DUETTING CALLS OF THE HEART-SPOTTED WOODPECKERS

HEMIC1RCUS CANENTE (LESSON)

The various calls of the Heart-spotted Woodpecker

(Hemicircus canente ) have been summarized by Short

(1982), and Ali and Ripley (1983). In both these standard

references, there is no mention of a duetting call-note,

which I have heard frequently during my study of

woodpeckers at the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife Sanctuary

in Kerala. Both these works mention a “twee twee

twee” call-note (originally described by Betts 1934),

which is sometimes “extended into a trill of seven or

eight notes.” Short (1982) has interpreted this call as

being equivalent to the aggressive trill call of the related

Gray and Buff Woodpecker ( H . concretus), which is

found in Southeast Asia. This call of H. concretus

contains a series of fast-repeated “pit” call-notes. He

also commented that the “twee twee twee” call-note is

similar to the thin, plaintive “su-sie”, a call given with a

short bow, repeated up to 10-12 times.

I would describe the “twee twee twee” notes

referred to by Betts, as the “duetting” notes and these

are quite different from the “su-sie” call-notes. During

my study at Peechi (1991-1993), I have recorded the

duetting calls on at least 32 different dates. These calls

are a fast repeated series of “twee twee twee”, quite

loud and sharp, and audible at fairly considerable

distances from the birds (c. 200-250 m). These duets

go on for anything between 5-6 seconds to about a

minute, non-stop. Often, both birds of the pair are

present next to one another or are within a few metres

of each other when the calls are uttered. Most often,

the calls are given from a perch, but they are also

occasionally heard when one of the birds flies to join its

mate from a nearby tree or branch. I have seen duetting

birds often sitting next to one another. The birds assume

an upright posture with their wings slightly drooped and

often face each other while calling.

Duetting calls were heard mostly between

September and December (59%), and rarely after

February ( 1 3%). I have heard the birds duet near their

nests. On one occasion, a male which came to relieve

its incubating mate, called from a nearby tree. The

female promptly responded by flying out of the nest-

hole, and they duetted for 5-6 seconds. After this, the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

157

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

male entered the nest-hole and the female flew away.

In contrast, the “su-sie” calls are uttered even

when the birds are alone and they are accompanied by

bows and cocking the head. Though several such calls

are repeated, this is done slowly, one at a time with an

interval of one or two seconds each.

In my opinion, the duetting calls of the heart-spotted

woodpecker could serve two purposes: the first, as a

recognition call, perhaps also to maintain the pair bond,

and second, being loud and sharp, as a territorial call.

This species, as well as the related Gray and Buff

Woodpecker, are known to drum uncommonly (Short

1982). 1 too heard the Heart-spotted Woodpecker

drumming only on two occasions in the entire study period

of 18 months. The drumming was weak and rather

REFER

Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley (1983): A Handbook of Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition, Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Betts, F.N. (1934): South Indian woodpeckers. J Bombay nat Hist

inaudible. The duet calls may act as a substitute for the

drumming and may serve to announce the occupation

of a territory.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was supported by the Wildlife

Conservation Society, New York, USA.

March 2 1 , 2002 V. SANTHARAM

Institute of Bird Studies and Natural History,

Rishi Valley 517 532,

Chittoor district,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

Emai 1 : santharam_vs@rediffmai 1 .com

NCES

Soc. 37: 197-203.

Short, L.L. ( 1 982): Woodpeckers of the world. Delware Museum of

Natural History, Greenville, Delware, U.S.A.

12. WOODPECKER HOLES USED FOR NESTING BY SECONDARY CAVITY-

NESTERS IN THE WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

The use of woodpecker holes by secondary cavity-

nesting birds is well known (Short 1 979). Yet no specific

information exists for the Western Ghats, India. During

a study of woodpeckers at the Peechi-Vazhani Wildlife

Sanctuary, Kerala, I came across eight species of

secondary cavity-nesting birds using old holes of five

woodpecker species (Table 1).

There was a close relation between the size

(weight) of the bird and the diameter of the nest hole

entrance. All the birds weighing more than 100 gm

nested in the nest-holes of the Greater Golden-backed

Woodpecker, whose mean nest-hole diameter was

12.7 cm, while the smallest bird (Yellow-throated

Sparrow) nested more frequently in the nest-cavities of

the Brown-capped Pygmy Woodpecker. This choice may

be related to competition. Birds nesting in large cavities

stand a greater chance of eviction by a larger competitor.

In addition, bees were seen occupying two nests

of the Greater Golden-backed Woodpecker and one of

the Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker. Yellow-throated

Table 1 : Details of secondary cavity-nesters occupying woodpecker nests

Woodpecker species

MG = Chrysocolaptes lucidus (Greater Golden-backed Woodpecker), SB = Picus xanthopygaeus (Little Scaly-bellied Green

Woodpecker), YN = Picus chlorolophus (Small Yellow-naped Woodpecker), MA = Dendrocopos mahrattensis (Yellow-fronted

Pied Woodpecker), PY = Dendrocopos nanus (Brown-capped Pygmy Woodpecker), *Nest entrance diameter estimate

in cm (Santharam 1995), **Body-weight of the bird (Ali and Ripley 1983).

158

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Sparrows were the most aggressive and persistent

competitors. They attempted to evict Brown-capped

Pygmy Woodpeckers even before the latter completed

their nesting, and in one instance before the excavation

was complete. In most cases, nest-holes were almost

immediately occupied (within a week) after the

woodpeckers vacated nests. There was a demand for fresh

holes because these are safer, harbouring fewer parasites

and known to fewer competitors and predators (Short 1 979,

Van Balen etal. 1982, Sedgwick and Knopf 1992).

REFER

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Compact Edition. OUP, Bombay.

Santharam, V. (1995): Ecology of sympatric woodpecker species

of Western Ghats, India. Ph. D. Thesis, Pondicherry

University (Unpublished).

Sedgwick, J.A. & F.L. Knopf ( 1 992): Cavity turnover and equilibrium

cavity densities in a Cottonwood bottomland. J. Wildl.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

This study was supported by the Wildlife

Conservation Society, New York, USA.

November 7, 2001 V. SANTHARAM

Institute of Bird Studies

and Natural History,

Rishi Valley 517 352,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

Emai I : santharam_vs@rediffmai I .com

ENCES

Manage. 56: 477-484.

Short, L. L. ( 1 979): Burdens of the picid hole excavating habit. Wilson

Bull. 91: 16-28.

Van Balen, J.H., C.J.H. Booy, J.A. Van Franekar & E.R. Osieck

(1982): Studies on hole-nesting birds in natural nest sites. 1 .

Availability and occupation of natural nest sites. Ardea 70:

1-24.

13. SIGHTING OF BLACK-NAPED ORIOLE ORIOLUS CHINENSIS AND

FRANKLIN’S PRINIA PRINIA HODGSON II m SIRKALI, NAGAPATTINAM

DISTRICT, TAMIL NADU

Between January 26 and February 10, 2000, we

carried out a survey of birds around villages in Sirkali

taluka, Nagapattinam district, in the state of Tamil Nadu,

south India. The habitats surveyed included wooded

areas along rivers, grasslands, paddy fields, freshwater

lakes, and coastal swamps. The villages are located along

the Bay of Bengal coast, which is a major migratory

route for birds leading to Point Calimere and onwards

to Sri Lanka. We recorded a total of 113 species of

birds, and two species, the Black-naped Oriole ( Oriolus

chinensis) and Franklin’s Prinia ( Prinia hodgsonii),

were recorded for the first time from this area. The

Black-naped Oriole was seen in a wooded area at a

farm in Thittai village. It appears to be a rare winter

visitor to India (Grimmett ef a/. 1999). Ali (1996) states

that this species is an occasional winter visitor to the

Peninsula, northeast India and Bangladesh. The

Franklin’s Prinia was very vocal as it rested on top of a

bent grass blade in the paddy fields at sunset. The dark

grey hood was almost like the Sardinian Warbler Sylvia

melanocephala, and it contrasted markedly with the

white belly unbarred by a grey breast-band. Its fantail

was bordered with white spots disposed in scale. This

species has not been seen in the area (Grimmett et al.

1 999) and there is no mention of it in Ali ( 1 996).

November 1 2, 200 1 G. AGORAMOORTHY

Sun Yat-sen University,

P.O. Box 59-157, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.

D. VERNIER

S.M. Govindasamy Nayakkar Memorial Foundation,

4 Thittai Road, Thenpathy 609 111,

Sirkali taluka, Nagapattinam district,

Tamil Nadu State, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. 12"' Edn. Bombay Natural Grimmett, R , C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1999): Pocket Guide to the

History Society, Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 364. Birds of the Indian Subcontinent. Christopher Helm. Pp. 558.

14. RED- VENTED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS CAFER FEEDING BLACK DRONGO

DICRURUS MACROCERCUS CHICKS

On a monsoon visit to the Panna Tiger Reserve in

Madhya Pradesh, India between July 4 and 15, 2001

we were amazed at the number of bird species nesting

in a half acre patch around our research camp, near the

Hinauta entrance barrier. Among those feeding their

nestlings at that time were Indian Rollers ( Coracias

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

159

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

benghalensis ), Eurasian Golden Orioles ( Oriolus

oriolus), Black-headed Cuckoo-shrikes ( Corcicina

melanoptera), White-browed Fantail-flycatchers

( Rhipidura aureola ), Red-vented Bulbuls ( Pycnonotus

cafer ) and Black Drongos ( Dicrurus macrocercus).

Yellow-eyed Babblers ( Chrysomma sinense ) were

building a nest, and by July 1 4 three eggs had been laid.

Rufous-backed Shrikes ( Lanius schach ) were also

around, feeding chicks that had recently left their nest.

This patch contained approximately thirteen large

and small Teak trees ( Tectona grandis), eight

Lagerstroemia parviflora trees, three Diospyros

melanoxylon and one Terminalia alata, besides a few

Zizyphus and Lagerstroemia bushes. The Rollers were

nesting in a cavity in the Terminalia , the Orioles had

hung their basket nest on the lower branches of the

largest of the Diospyros and the Babbler was weaving

its cone in a small Zizyphus bush. The others chose the

shelter of two of the Lagerstroemia for their nest - the

Fantail-flycatcher, Bulbul and Cuckoo-shrike shared the

same 10 m high tree in ascending order, and the Drongo

was in another similar sized tree, c. 20 m away. Ali and

Ripley (compact handbook of the birds of india and

Pakistan, Oxford University Press, New Delhi, 1987)

say that some species, including orioles and bulbuls,

“commonly build in the same tree as holds a Black

Drongo’s nest” as the latter is particularly forceful in its

protection from other species. Perhaps this accounts

for what seemed to be a relatively high density of nests

in such a small patch. The White-browed Fantail-

flycatcher is also a pugnacious defender of its territory.

Exact dates of hatching of the chicks are not

recorded. By July 4, the Roller, Drongo and Oriole were

all feeding chicks. The roller’s chicks could not be seen

and the adults proved too shy to watch closely. The

Oriole’s three chicks were still small and unfeathered,

but the Drongo’s three were already partially fledged.

The fantails were first seen feeding on July 9 and the

three chicks had probably only recently hatched.

The Cuckoo-shrikes’ 'nest was spotted on July 1 1,

although the adults had been seen carrying food a few

days earlier. The bulbuls were first seen feeding only

on July 1 5, and it seemed likely that these chicks were

also recently hatched.

The Black Drongos were nesting at the fork of a

branch approximately 4 m from the ground. Although I

had been watching the nest off and on since my arrival

and even spent time photographing them, I only saw the

Bulbul come to the Drongo nest in the early morning of

July 8. 1 cannot say for sure that it began on this day, as

I was watching opportunistically and could possibly have

missed it earlier. But the Drongo parents - both were

feeding the chicks - were aggressive in chasing the

Bulbul off when it came near the nest. The Bulbul

developed a strategy of waiting nearby until both Drongo

parents had fed their chicks, and then slipping in

unobtrusively before they returned with the next food

supply. Its arrival at the nest would herald a round of

begging and it would feed a Drongo chick. On this first

day, 1 also saw the Bulbul chase off the Yellow-eyed

Babbler that was moving close to the nest tree. The

Bulbul continued to feed the Drongo chicks every day

after this, and we were able to photograph and film it

doing so. By the evening of July 9, the two larger Drongo

chicks were outside the nest and hopping along the

branch; on July 10 these two were moving among the

upper and lower branches of the tree, although all three

were in or next to the nest by evening. The Bulbul

continued to partake in the feeding. By midday of July

1 1 , the third chick had also left the nest and from July 1 2

onwards, all three had left the nest tree and were moving

in the neighbouring Teak trees which afforded them more

cover — also from the rain. The Bulbul continued to

bring food and feed them and the chicks continued to

beg when they saw it nearby. The Drongo parents

appeared to have got used to this arrangement too, and

1 saw no more aggression directed towards the Bulbul

by them. Indeed, on July 12 evening, two of the chicks

were sitting fairly close together and I saw one of the

Drongo adults and the Bulbul on either side, hardly two

feet apart, feeding almost simultaneously. The Bulbul

was still following the three Drongo chicks around (by

now there was no doubt of their parentage) and feeding

them when we departed on July 15.

August 9, 200 1 JOANNA VAN GRUISEN

B-4/1 98 Safdarjung Enclave

New Delhi 1 10 029, India.

15. REDISCOVERY OF THE YELLOW-THROATED BULBUL PYCNONOTUS

XANTHOLAEMUSYN THE ANAIMALAI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS, SOUTH INDIA

The Yellow-throated Bulbul ( Pycnonotus

xantholaemus ) is uncommon and patchily distributed

in South India (Grimmett et al. 1998, Ali and Ripley

1971)- The species is classified as vulnerable because

of extensive removal of its prime habitat, fuelwood

extraction and quarrying (BirdLife International 2000,

Collar et al. 1994).

In the Anaimalai Hills, the Yellow-throated Bulbul

160

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

was reported once by the Pollachi-Valparai road, just

above Aliyar Dam (Kannan 1 992), but could not be found

again in subsequent searches (Kannan 1998). Whistler

and Kinnear (1932; also cited in Ali and Ripley 1971)

mention a record of 1886 in the Anaimalai Hills by

W. Davison. Unfortunately, the cited reference (Ibis,

1886, p. 146) is wrong, so we could not examine that

location for the occurrence of the Yellow-throated

Bulbul.

The favoured habitats of the Yellow-throated

Bulbul are hill scrub and deciduous forests (Ali 1942).

Thus, the Yellow-throated Bulbul should only be

expected on the drier eastern slopes of the Anaimalai

Hills. In studies of the avifauna of the western and

central parts of the Anaimalai Hills, in which tropical

rainforest, tea gardens or cardamom and coffee

plantations are dominating, the Yellow-throated Bulbul

was therefore missed (Kannan 1998, Vijayan 1978, Ali

1969, Stonor 1946).

We looked for the Yellow-throated Bulbul in March,

2001 on the eastern slopes of the Anaimalai Hills. We

found two birds some kilometres south of the location

where Kannan (1992) observed it, near the open

REFER

Ali, S. (1942): The Birds of Mysore Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc 43: 318-341 .

Ali, S. (1969): Birds of Kerala. Oxford University Press, Bombay.

Pp. 311.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1971): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 6. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Pp. 94-

95.

BirdLife International (2000): Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx

Edicions & BirdLife, Barcelona, Cambridge, UK. Pp. 420.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994): Birds to

watch 2. BirdLife Conservation Series No 4. BirdLife,

Cambridge, UK. Pp. 234, 281.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): The Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 697-698.

channel, which supplies the Aliyar Dam with water from

the western side of the Anaimalai Hills. The birds

behaved like a pair: sitting side by side, feeding together,

and following each other. Some days later, we located

three more specimens on the steep slopes of the hills

near the road Pollachi-Valparai. It seemed to us that

two of these birds, again possibly paired, were hunting

the third one out of their territory.

In the same area, three more species of bulbuls

were found; the Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus

jocosus, the Red-vented Bulbul P. cafer, and the Yellow-

browed Bulbul P. luteolus. The Yellow-throated Bulbul

had the lowest relative abundance of the four congeneric

species. At Horsley Hills (Andhra Pradesh), the same

bulbuls were recorded as sympatric by Subramanya and

Prasad ( 1 996), but there the Yellow-throated Bulbul was

the most abundant species.

August 3, 2001 WOLFGANG BEISENHERZ

University of Bielefeld,

Department of Biology,Universitatsstr 25,

33615 Bielefeld, Germany.

Email; Didaktik@Biologie. Uni-Bielefeld. DE

EN C E S

Kannan. R. (1992): The yellowthroated bulbul ( Pycnonotus

xantholaemus ) in the Anamalai Hills. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 32: 19.

Kannan, R. (1998): Avifauna of the Anaimalai Hills (Western Ghats)

of Southern India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95: 193-214

Stonor, C.R. (1946): Field Notes on the Birds of the Anaimalai

Hills (Cochin). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 46: 119-125.

Subramanya, S. & J.N. Prasad (1996): Yellow-throated bulbuls at

Horsley Hills. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 93: 55-58.

Vijayan, V.S. (1978): Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary and its

adjacent areas. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 75: 888-900.

Whistler, H. & N.B. Kinnear (1932): The Vernay scientific survey

of the Eastern Ghats (Ornithological section). Pt II. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 35: 737-760.

16. ASIAN BROWN FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA DA UURICA AT MT. ABU,

RAJASTHAN

In the early afternoon of March 25, 2001 we found

an Asian brown flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica near

Sunset Point, Mt. Abu. The bird was busy catching

insects attracted to a blossoming mango tree. It was

oblivious to our presence and its attention was upon the

tree for about ten minutes. It was quite easy to observe

the bird as it made sallies to catch the insects in the

lower tree canopy.

Being familiar with the species in south India, we

were able to identify it easily. It was brownish-grey

above and off-white below (including undertail coverts),

and had a uniform pale brown-grey wash across the

breast and flanks. The whitish eye-ring around the

striking large eyes and lore were prominent and distinctive

even in the shade of the tree. The throat was

conspicuously white. The bill was black, with the basal

half of the lower mandible conspicuously pale. The legs

and feet were blackish.

According to Ali and Ripley ( 1 996), it is a partial

migrant having a disjunct breeding range and its

movements are imperfectly understood. As some birds

reach their breeding grounds in the Himalaya in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

161

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

April, the bird we observed was most likely on

passage.

As far as we have been able to ascertain, this

individual is the first record for Rajasthan. The Asian

Brown Flycatcher is not recorded from Rajasthan (Ali

and Ripley 1 996, Grimmett et al. 1998). A record from

central Rajasthan (Kazmierczak and van Perlo 2000)

can be discounted as there is no basis to believe the

species to be a summer visitor. If the species occurs in

REFER

Ali, S.. & S.D Ripley ( 1 996): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 7, 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Pp. 145.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Insripp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Rajasthan, it is most likely a rare passage migrant

August 9, 200 1 HARK1RAT SINGH SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India.

DHIRENDRA DEVARSHI

C-8, Prithviraj Road,

Jaipur 302 001,

Rajasthan, India.

E N C E S

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London. Pp. 633-634.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds

of the Indian Subcontinent. Pica Press, Robertsbridge.

Pp. 234-236.

17. NEW SIGHT RECORDS OF PIED TIT PARUS NUCHAL1S IN RAJASTHAN

The pied tit Parus nuchalis is endemic in India,

confined to Rajasthan and Gujarat (Adam 1 873, Ali and

Ripley 1987, Hussain et al. 1992, Tiwari and Rahmani

1996, Tiwari 2001). According to Tiwari (2001), it is

distributed in seven districts of Rajasthan, namely Pali,

Jodhpur, Jalor, Sirohi, Ajmer, Jaipur and Nagaur.

While surveying the biodiversity of protected areas

(PAs) and other regions of mega-biodiversity in

Rajasthan State, I came across this endemic bird thrice

in two more districts of Rajasthan (Table 1).

Table 1: Pied Tit sightings in Rajasthan

Sajjangarh Sanctuary has dry deciduous forests,

with thorny and other shrubs like Anogeissus pendula,

Acacia nilotica , A. leucophloea, A. Senegal,

Dichrostachys cinerea and Euphorbia caducifolia

in the foothill zone and middle slopes. Boswellia serrata

and Lannea coromandelica are common tree species

in the upper reaches of the Sanctuary.

162

Deola is a small village situated at the northwestern

outskirts of Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary in Kotra

tehsil, Udaipur district. There are dense forest patches

in Kotra tehsil, but the environs of Deola village are

highly degraded. Thorny species are not very common

in this area, except Anona squamosa and Jatropha

cure as.

The pied tit has also been observed by Raza Tehsin

(pers. comm.) in Jamunia-ki-Nal, near Udaipur city. This

is a moist valley with a semi-perennial stream. The

adjacent hills bear thorny forests.

Ruliayana village is very near Harshnath

hill, the highest point in Sikar district. This area is

surrounded by many protected forest blocks, namely

Deogarh, Rewasa-Jheen Mata, Bhoya-Dungri, and

Raghunathgarh, which have thorny dry deciduous

and scrub forests. Anogeissus pendula, Acacia

nilotica, A. leucophloea, A. Senegal, and Euphorbia

caducifolia are common here. Prosopis juliflora and

Acacia tortilis are also present at many places,

especially near the foothills.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Shri R.G. Soni, PCCF; Shri D.P. Sharma,

CF; Shri M.R. Punia, DFO; Shri O.C. Chandel, DFO;

Shri R.S. Shekhawat, DFO; Shri Rahul Bhatnagar,

Dy. CWLW; Shri Bhima Ram Choudhary, RFO for

facilities.

April 2, 2002 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Adam, R.M. (1873): Notes on the Birds of Sambhar Lake and its

vicinity. Stray Feathers 7: 361-404.

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi. Vol. No. 9.

Hussain, S.A., S.A. Akhtar & J.K. Tiwari (1992): Status and

distribution of White-winged Black Tit Pams nuchalis in Kutch,

Gujarat, India. Bird Conservation International, U.K., Vol. 2,

pp. 115-122.

Tiwari, J.K. & A.R. Rahmani (1996): Current status and nesting

behaviour of the White-winged Black Tit Parus nuchalis in

Kutch, Gujarat, India. Forktait (12): 95-102.

Tiwari, J.K. (2001 ): Status and distribution of the White-naped Tit

Parus nuchalis in Gujarat and Rajasthan. J Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 98(1): 26-30.

18. ADDITIONS TO ‘THE BIRDS OF GOA’ (LAINER 1999)

In ‘The Birds of Goa’ (Lainer 1999a, b), records

up to July 1997 were incorporated. The present note

includes all ‘new sightings’ made since then (up to July

12, 2001) and corrects two inadvertent omissions. All

observations, if not attributed otherwise, are by the

author. For easy reference and in continuance of the

original paper, the number in brackets after the serial

number refers to the ‘Synopsis number’ as used by Ali

and Ripley (1995). The common and scientific names

follow Manakadan and Pittie (2001). Unconfirmed

records of birds that are difficult to identity in the field

are appended.

ADDITIONS TO THE SYSTEMATIC LIST

383. (9) Wedge-tailed Shearwater

Puffinus pacificus (Gmelin)

During one of my regular seabird watches, I

observed a single pale morph specimen skimming low

over the waves almost a kilometre off the coast of

Anjuna (Bardez) on September 20, 1 998. Another pale

morph was spotted c. 300 m offshore in perfect viewing

conditions on July 12, 2001. Both birds were moving

purposefully in a southerly direction.

384. (73) Greater Flamingo

Phoenicopterus ruber Linnaeus

Frost, Manville and the author observed a single

bird in a saline lagoon on Divar (Tiswadi), a large island

in the inland-estuary of the Mandovi river, on November

3 and 4, 2000.

385. (155/156) Common Buzzard

Buteo buteo Linnaeus

Apparently a scarce, but regular winter visitor.

There are dozens of records by reliable British, Dutch

and Scandinavian bird watchers, in whose countries the

Common Buzzard is a common sight. Pitt (1995)

observed the first specimen at Baga (Bardez) in

December 1994. 1 have seen single birds on three

occasions in March and October, 1998. The Common

Buzzard seems to favour the coastal belt, though there

are two records from the midland plateau region and

one from the Western Ghats strip.

386. (171) Lesser Spotted Eagle

Aquila pomarina Brehm

A near adult specimen of this raptor was seen in

November and December 1998 in the Neura wetlands

(Tiswadi). Six immature birds were recorded from

wetlands of the North Goa coastal belt, in October and

November 1999 by Frost and this author. There are

numerous sightings of doubtful value by visiting British

and Scandinavian birders, nearly all from the coastal

belt.

387. (220) Amur Falcon

Falco amurensis Radde

Earlier known as the Red-legged Falcon

F. vespertinus amurensis , the first sighting was of an

adult male specimen at the coastal Dona Paula plateau

(Tiswadi), in November 1 997 (Lynes 1 999). Since then,

males, females and juveniles have been recorded by

various observers and this author at Terakol (Pernem),

Baga, Saligao, Fort Aguada (Bardez); Chorao,

Carambolim and Corlim (Tiswadi), every year between

November 8 and December 3.

388. (3 1 3) Small Buttonquail

Turnix sylvatica (Desfontaines)

On December 9, 1 998, a single bird was observed

foraging under bushes on a grassy, lateritic plateau

between Arpora, Parra and Verla-Canca (Bardez),

hardly 3 km from the coast (Frost pers. comm.).

389. (437) Great Stone Plover

Esacus recurvirostris (Cuvier)

Two birds were seen by Frost, Manville and the

author in flooded fallow paddy fields on Divar, on

October 8, 1 998 and a single bird on January 1 7, 200 1 in

a prawn farm on Chorao, both riverine islands in the

inland-estuary of the Mandovi.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

163

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

390. (415) Rufous-necked Stint

Calidris ruficollis (Pallas)

A single bird was spotted among c. 1 000 waders,

on Divar island (Tiswadi), on September 1 7, 1999 (Frost

and Lainer, under prep.). This first sighting was

confirmed when two birds with remnants of the breeding

plumage were recorded on August 3, 2000, on the same

mudflats and by the same observers. Further sightings

of up to two birds on December 13, 2000, 1 7th January

and 2nd February, 2001 at Shiroda (Ponda) and Divar

suggest that this very easily overlooked species might

be a more or less regular winter visitor.

391. (418) Long-toed Stint

Calidris subminuta (Middendorff)

British bird watchers reported that two birds were

present in freshly ploughed, irrigated paddy fields next

to the inland-estuary of Mandovi river, at Sta. Cruz

(Tiswadi) for two weeks in mid-November 2000 (Holt

pers. comm.). In the morning of November 24, 2000, 1

recorded two birds in the same locality, while Frost (pers.

comm.) observed 7 specimens in the late afternoon. On

December 13, 2000, a loose group of more than 8 birds

was sighted in freshly ploughed paddy fields at Shiroda

(Ponda). A specimen moulting into breeding plumage

was seen in a saltpan in the inland-estuary of the Mandovi,

between Panaji and Ribandar (Tiswadi) on April 29,

2000 by Frost and this author.

392. (459) White-winged Black Tern

Clilidonias leucopterus (Temminck)

One bird, moulting from adult summer to winter

plumage, was sighted on Morjim beach (Pernem), on

August 1 8, 1 998. Up to 5 birds in various stages of moult

and in first summer plumage frequented mudflats on

Divar Island between mid-September and the first week

of October. All records were by Frost, Manville and

this author.

393. (459a) Black Tern Clilidonias niger (Linn.)

A juvenile specimen was observed in the company

of a White-winged Black Tern, two whiskered terns

and a gull-billed tern on mudflats of Divar Island

(Tiswadi) on September 13, 1999, and on mudflats in

the estuary of the Chapora river (Bardez/Pernem), on

October 15, 1999, by Frost and this author. The few

previous records in India are either from inland waters

or from the East Coast (Grimmett et al. 1998).

394. (581) Lesser Cuckoo

Cuculus poliocephalus Latham

This cuckoo, previously relegated to the Appendix

as unconfirmed, was collected by Saha and Dasgupta

(1992) in the Bhagwan Mahavir Wildlife Sanctuary, in

September 1 977. More recently, Frost, Manville and this

author recorded a female or immature bird in the Bondla

Wildlife Sanctuary, on October 29, 1999.

395. (759) Oriental Broad-billed Roller

Eurystomus orientalis (Linnaeus)

On March 14, 2001, Frost (pers. comm.) with a

small party of visiting British bird watchers observed

two, possibly three, birds in semi-evergreen foothill forest

in the Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary (Canacona).

396. (940) Bay-backed Shrike

Lanins vittatus Valenciennes

An immature bird, moulting into adult plumage, was

seen on a wide cultivated forest clearing in the Cotigao

Wildlife Sanctuary, in mid-October and mid-November

1998, by Frost and this author. There are 8 sightings by

visiting bird watchers at Arambol, Morjim (Pernem);

Anjuna-Vagator, Baga (Bardez) and Carambolim

(Tiswadi), the earliest dating back to December 1995

(Welland 2000). All of these were in November,

December and January.

397. (943) Rufous-tailed Shrike

Lanius isabellinus Hem. & Ehr.

Holt (1996) observed a first-winter bird of the

subspecies isabellinus near Santa Cruz (Tiswadi) in

December 1996. Since then a number of sightings of

the same race have been reported by Frost (pers. comm.)

and visiting birders, from Baga (Bardez), Chorao and

Divar (Tiswadi), during early November to early

February.

398. (1036) White-bellied Treepie

Dendrocitta leucogastra Gould

On April 20, 2001 a single specimen was spotted

in very dense, but not tall evergreen forest, right on the

eastern border of Goa towards Uttar Kanara

(Karnataka), near the village of Kuveshi and above

Dudhsagar waterfalls by Frost, Manville and this

author.

399. (1748) Tickell’s Thrush

Turdus unicolor (Tickell)

A male specimen was collected by Saha and

Dasgupta (1992) in the Cotigao Wildlife Sanctuary, in

February 1978.

400. (2044) Red-headed Bunting

Emberiza bruniceps Brandt

A single male was observed in the Neura wetlands

(Tiswadi), in mid-December 1998 (Frost and Lainer,

164

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

under prep.).

Additions to the Appendix

8. (32) Lesser Frigatebird

Fregata arid (G.R. Gray)

One juvenile bird seen c. 1.5 km off the Anjuna

(Bardez) coast, on September 18, 1998.

9. (412) Red Knot

Calidris canutus (Linnaeus)

A single bird seen among Sanderlings Calidris alba

and Greater Sand Plover Charadrius leschenaultii on

Morjim (Pernem) beach, on September 18, 1998.

December 1 8, 200 1 HEINZ LAINER

Praias de St. Antonio, Anjuna 403 509, Goa.

REFERENCES

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 995): A Pictorial Guide to the Birds of the

Indian Subcontinent. Bombay Natural History Society /

Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 183 pp.

Frost, G. & H. Lainer (under prep): Sighting of an Eastern Little (or

Red-necked) Stint Calidris ruficollis (Pallas) on India’s West

Coast

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London.

888 pp.

Holt, P. (1996): Sunbirder Tour to Goa, 6-20 December, 1996.

(Unpublished).

Lainer, H. (1999a): The Birds of Goa (Part I). J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 96(2): 203-220.

Lainer, H. (1999b): The Birds of Goa (Part II). J. Bombay nat. Hist

Soc. 96(3): 405-423.

Lynes, M. ( 1999): Notes on birds recorded in Goa, November 1998

and December 1998 - January 1999. (Unpublished).

Manakadan, Ranjit & Aasheesh Pittie (200 1 ): Standardised common

and scientific names of the Birds of the Indian Subcontinent.

Buceros 6(1): 1-37.

Pitt, M.J. (1995): Goa, India, December 1994. (Unpublished),

Saha, B.C. & J.M. Dasgupta ( 1992): Birds of Goa. Rec. zool. Soc.

India , Occ. Paper No. 143.

Welland, M. (2000): Notes on birds recorded in Goa, December

1995 - January 1996 and November - December 1996.

Unpublished.

1 9. FURTHER CHELONIAN RECORDS FROM MIZORAM

IN NORTHEASTERN INDIA

The turtles and tortoises of Mizoram State in

northeastern India were virtually unknown till recently

(Choudhury 200 1 , Pawar and Choudhury 2000). In these

works, however, the Champhai district in eastern

Mizoram was not covered. The district was formerly

part of Aizawl district. The entire area is hilly; the highest

peak is Lengteng (2,141 m above msl). A field trip was

made in February 200 1 , during which two species were

recorded which have been summarised below.

Brown Hill or Asian Brown Tortoise

Manouria emys (Schlegel & Muller 1840)

Two preserved shells were seen and examined at

Lamzawl village, 1,000 m above msl. Both were

reportedly obtained from the top of Lengteng (around

2,000 m above msl) (23° 50' N, 93° 15' E) and their

meat eaten. The measurements are given in Table 1.

Earlier records from Mizoram were from Phura

and Sangau in Saiha district (Choudhury 2001), and

Dampa and Ngengpui Sanctuaries (Pawar and

Choudhury 2000), all in western and southern Mizoram.

These were the first records from the entire eastern

part, that too from higher elevations (Fig. 1 ). The plastron

pattern of these two specimens resembled the

subspecies phayrei as did the specimens in Pawar and

Choudhury (2000). However, those examined in

Choudhury (2001) were similar to emys-phayrei

Fig. 1 Map of Mizoram showing the places mentioned

in the text

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

165

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Measurements of specimens mentioned in the text (in cm)

SCL=straight carapace length; CCL=curved carapace length; SCW=straight carapace width; CCW=curved carapace width;

PL=plastron length; (gt)=greatest; (n-n)=notch to notch; PW=plastron width.

intergrades. This significant variation in a relatively small

area was noteworthy.

Indian Black Turtle

Melanochelys trijuga (Schweigger 1812)

A live turtle was examined atNgopa town, 1,100m

above msl. It was reportedly obtained from the nearby

Tuivai river (around 450 m above msl; 23° 53' N,

93° 10' E) and kept as a pet. The river also marks the

boundary between Aizawl and Champhai districts in that

stretch. The measurements are given in Table 1 .

Earlier records from Mizoram were from Ngengpui

Sanctuary and adjacent areas of south Mizoram (Pawar

and Choudhury 2000). The present record was the first

from the entire northern and eastern part of the State

(Fig. 1).

I would also like to correct a printing error in

Choudhury (2001). In Tables 1 and 2, (gt) and (n-n)

were only meant for PL and not SCW or CCW as

printed (see headers).

I would like to thank N.R. Pradhan,

H. Tlangkhuma, Zomawia, Hakim and the Range Officer

of Murlen for help during my field study.

July 8, 2002 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

c/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

REFERENCES

Choudhury, A. U. (2001): Some chelonian records from Mizoram. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 98(2): 184-190.

Pawar, S & B.C. Choudhury (2000): An inventory of chelonians from Mizoram, North-east India: new records and some observations on

threats. Hamadiyad 25: 144-158.

20. FIRST RECORD OF THE COPPERHEAD SNAKE ELAPHE RADIATA FROM

MADHYA PRADESH

The Copperhead Snake Elaphe radiata (Schlegel)

has hitherto been reported only in Eastern Himalayas,

northeast Orissa and Bengal. It has never been reported

from Central India. However, during field excursions in

Kanha National Park (22° 17' N, 80° 30' E) situated in

the Mandla and Balaghat districts of Madhya Pradesh,

1 spotted this snake twice.

The first time was on July 26, 2001 at c. 1130 hrs

in the Supkhar locality of the National Park. The dead

snake was photographed and measured. It was 2.13 m

in length. The specimen which has been preserved in

the museum of the Kanha National Park was identified

by Mr. Eric D’Cunha as Elaphe radiata and confirmed

by Mr. J.C. Daniel on November 9, 2001 .

Another specimen was spotted during August in

Parsatola locality with Mr. B.R. Nagpure, Range Officer,

Kisli. These records not only extend the range of Elaphe

radiata to eastern Madhya Pradesh, but also add a new

reptile species to the fauna of Madhya Pradesh.

I thank Mr. Eric D’Cunha and Mr. J.C. Daniel for

identifying the snake.

April 16,2002 H.S. NEGI

Kanha Tiger Reserve,

Mandla 481 661,

Madhya Pradesh, India.

21. NEW RECORD OF AN ENDEMIC SPECIES, PUNTIUS OPHICEPHALUS

(C YPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM TAMIL NADU PART OF WESTERN GHATS

Puntius ophicephalus, a rare barb having very drainage of Kerala. It is characterized by an elongated

restricted distribution, is known only from the Periyar Channa-Wke body. Raj (1941) described this species

166

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig T Puntius ophicephalus

from Kallar stream, a tributary of Pambiyar river

(adjoining Periyar lake), Kerala. Later, Silas (1951)

recorded it from a tributary of Manimala river ( Periyar

river basin) at the base of Peermedu hills. For a long

time, there was no further record of the species from

these areas. Recently, Zacharias et al. (1996)

rediscovered this species from Malapara at Periyar

Tiger Reserve. So far, the distribution of the species

had been restricted to the Periyar river basin, Kerala

and it has been considered endemic to this basin.

During a recent survey on fish habitats in the Western

Ghats streams, a fairly good number of Puntius

ophicephalus was collected from an east flowing

stream, Surlitheertham, a tributary of Vaigai river, Tamil

Nadu.

Description: D 111/7; P 1/12-13; V 1/8; A 11/5;

C 19; L. tr. scales IVi 3 'A. Body elongate, dorsal and

ventral equally arched; its depth 3.83 to 4.52 times in

standard length. Head short and dorsally compressed,

head length 3.93 to 4.32 times in standard length. Mouth

sub-inferior, lips moderately developed and lower labial

fold interrupted. Barbels two pairs, maxillary pair longer

than rostral pair, its length 1 .07 to 1 .39 times in eye

diameter. Dorsal fin inserted nearer to tip of snout than

the caudal fin base. Ventral fin originates just behind

the origin of dorsal fin. Lateral line straight and complete,

with 42-44 scales; predorsal scales 15. Further

morphometric characters are given in Table 1.

Colour: In life; dorsal black, flanks rich golden

colour. Opercle has a mark of dark olivaceous-green

on cheek. Eyes green. A dark band runs along the lateral

line, which is composed of concentrated fine black spots

on the base of lateral line. Belly and abdomen silvery

white. Pectoral fins dark green with orange tinge. Dorsal

pelvic, anal and caudal fins orange. After preservation:

dorsal blackish-brown up to lateral line, dark above and

lighter lateral; ventral pale yellowish-white. All fins are

dull white.

Habitat and Ecology: The Surlitheertham stream

is a tributary of the east flowing Vaigai river. The

sampling site is located 7 km from Kambam town in

Table 1 : Morphometric data of Puntius ophicephalus

Theni district (8° 5 F 39.0" N, 77° 1 8' 40.2" E). It is an

important local picnic spot. Downstream it is highly

disturbed by bathing and pilgrimage activities.

Specimens were collected around 4 km above the falls

at an altitude of 545 m above msl, with a riparian cover

of 40%. Not a single specimen could be collected in the

downstream area. P. ophicephalus prefers larger pools

and riffle habitats in forested streams. Adults prefer

pools with thick vegetational cover. It hides in the

bedrocks and boulder undercut. Juveniles prefer riffle

(swift flowing) habitats.

Distribution: Periyar drainage in Kerala. Kallar,

a tributary of Pambiyar river south of Pachakani

estate ( Jayaram 1 999); Mundakayam stream, a tributary

of Manimala river at the base of Peermedu Hills

(Menon 1999) and Malapara stream in Periyar Tiger

Reserve (Zacharias et al. 1 996). This species has been

recorded for the first time from the east flowing

Surlitheertham stream in Vaigai river (east flowing), in

Tamil Nadu.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

167

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The senior author (M.A.) is grateful to the Director,

National Bureau of Fish Genetic Resources, Lucknow

for financial assistance under ICAR/NATP Project. J.A.

Johnson thanks the Dept, of Science and Technology, New

Delhi for the Young Scientist Fellowship. C. Vijayakumar

thanks the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research

(CS1R) for a Senior Research Fellowship. We also thank

Dr. P.T. Cherian, Officer-in-charge and Dr. K. Rema Devi,

Scientist from the Zoological Survey of India, Southern

Regional Station, Chennai for their cooperation.

July 24, 2002 M. ARUNACHALAM

J.A. JOHNSON

C. VIJAYAKUMAR

P. SIVAKUMAR

A. MANIMEKALAN

R. SORANAM

A. SANK ARAN ARAYAN AN

Sri Paramakalyani Centre

for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412,

Tamil Nadu, India.

REFERENCES

Jayaram, K.C. ( 1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian region.

Narendra Publishing 1 louse, Delhi, India. Pp 55 1 .

Menon, A.G.K. (1999): Checklist - Freshwater fishes of

India. Rec zool Surv. India , Occ. Paper No. 175.

Pp. 366.

Raj, B.S. ( 1941 ): Two new cyprinid fishes from Travancore, South

India, with remarks on Barbus (Puntius) micropogon. Rec.

Indian Mus. 43. 375-386.

Silas, E.G. ( 1951 ): Fishes from High Range of Travancore. J. Bombay

nat. Hist Soc. 50: 323-330.

Zacharias. V.J., A.K.. Bhardwaj & P.C. Jacob (1996): Fish fauna of

Periyar Tiger Reserve. J Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 93: 39-43.

22. SEXUAL DIMORPHISM OF THE PIG FACE BREAM

LETHRINUS RUBRIOPERCULATUS (SATO) FROM SOUTHWEST COAST OF INDIA

Heterosexual animals often exhibit sexual

dimorphism in their morphology. However, since it is

not uncommon or taxonomically important, only a few

observations have been made on sexual dimorphism in

freshwater fishes, such as Puntius filamentosus

(Thobias 1974), Tetraodon travancoricus ( Inasu 1993)

and marine fishes, such as Narcine timlei (Waghray

1985), Priacanthus hamrur (Tessy and Inasu 1998a),

and Pomadasys maculatus (Tessy and Inasu 1998b).

Lethrinus rubrioperculatus (Sato), a carnivore, inhabits

the coastal seas and is commercially exploited in the

southwest coast. Day (1958) described the genus

Lethrinus based on 8 species. Fischer and Bianchi

(1984) described 18 species of Lethrinus, but sexual

dimorphism was not described for any of them.

During a study on the biology of perches on the

southwest coast, about 43 specimens of the Pig Face

Bream Lethrinus rubrioperculatus were caught in an

area 8° 26' N-76° 5 1 1 E to 7° 4 1 ' N-77° 1 1 E (Vizhinjam

to Kanyakumari) within a depth range of 39-54 m.

Samples were collected by a bottom trawl (mesh size

30 mm at the cod end) by the trawler Matsya Varshini

during January - March, 2001 .

Morphometric parameters such as Total Length,

Standard Length, Head Length, Caudal Peduncle Length,

Caudal Peduncle Width, Eye Diameter and Inter-orbital

width were measured and compared in the two sexes.

Sexual dimorphism was exhibited by Lethrinus

rubrioperculatus (Sato) (Figs la, lb). The females are

larger than the males in all the observed morphometric

parameters. Moreover, body weight is greater than the

males of the same age group (Table !)•

Table 1 Mean morphometric parameters (in cm)

of Lethrinus rubrioperculatus (Sato)

The upper jaw of males extends forward and is

broader than in females (Figs 2a, 2b). The

dermosphenoticum in males is conspicuously protruding,

whereas it is flattened and not so protruding in females

(Figs 2a, 2b). There are two rows of large scales

dorsoventrally located above the pectoral fin base in

males, while there is a single row of scales in females

(Figs 2a, 2b).

The posterior part of the soft rays of the dorsal fin

is more filamentous and protrudes above the upper

margin in males, while it is not so filamentous and

168

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Lethrinus rubrioperculatus (Sato) a: Male; b: Female

Fig. 3: Dorsal and anal fin soft rays of

Lethrinus rubrioperculatus, a: Male; b. Female

in females. The scales at the point of commencement

of lateral line also differ between the sexes (Fig. 2).

The distance between lateral line and caudal peduncle

profile, and the caudal peduncle width and length are

greater in females than in males (Table 1).

Contrary to our observations, the soft rays of dorsal

and anal fin were recorded to be more filamentous in

females in Priacanthus hamrur (Tessy and Inasu

1998a) and Pomadasys maculatus (Tessy and Inasu

1998b).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. V.S. Somvanshi, Director General,

Fishery Survey of India for facilities and encouragement.

S. Ramachandran thanks the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research (ICAR) for financial assistance.

Fig. 2: Morphological difference in the head of

Lethrinus rubrioperculatus, a Male; b: Female

protruding in females (Figs 3a, 3b). Soft rays of pectoral

fin and anal fin are also more filamentous in males than

in females. Interspinous membrane in females occupies

a larger area between the two soft rays than in males

(Figs 3a, 3b).

Inter-orbital width and eye diameter is greater in

females than in males (Table 1 ). The opercular margin

of males has a sharply marked edge, while it is rounded

June 6, 2001 S. RAMACHANDRAN

K.P. PHILIP

Y. THARUMAR

Cochin Base of Fishery Survey of India,

Post Box No. 853, Kochangadi,

Cochin 682 005, Kerala, India.

M. NARAYANAN

St. Xavier’s College,

Palayamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1958): The Fishes of India. Today & Tomorrow’s Book

Agency, Delhi. Pp. 778.

Fischer, W. & G. Bianchi (Eds) (1984): FAO species identification

sheet for fishery purposes. Western Indian Oceans, (Fishing

Area 5 1 ) Vol. II, FAO, Rome.

Inasu, N.D. (1993): Sexual dimorphism of freshwater puffer fish

Tetraodon (Monotretus) travancoricus Hora & Nair, collected

from Trichur district, Central Kerala. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 90: 523-524.

Tessy J., Mandy&N.D. Inasu ( 1 998a): Sexual dimorphism of marine

perch Priacanthus hamrur. J Bombay nat Hist Soc. 95(1):

132-134.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

169

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Tessy J., Mandy & N.D. Inasu (1998b): Sexual dimorphism in a

marine perch Pomadasys maculatus (Bloch). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 95(3): 514-517.

Thobias, M R. (1974): Observations on the morphological variations

in Puntius filamentosus (Val.). Family Cyprinidae, with a

redescription of the species. Journ. Inland Fish. Soc. India :

45-50.

Waghray, Sarala ( 1 985): Olfactory organ and its sexual dimorphism

in the electric ray Narcine timlei (Day). Indian J. Fish. 32(1):

148-151.

23. RECORD OF STR UMIGENYS EMMA E (EMERY) (FORMICIDAE: MYRMICINAE)

FROM BANGALORE, KARNATAKA AND A KEY TO INDIAN SPECIES

Strumigenys - the largest Dacetine genus -

comprises c. 169 species that are distributed in all the

zoogeograph ical regions except the Palearctic (Bolton

1995). Only two species of Strumigenys have so far

been reported from India (Bolton 1995; Bingham 1903),

namely S. godeffroyi Mayr and S. smythiesii Forel

which were originally described in the genus Epitritus

Emery, and later placed in genus Quadristruma by

Brown ( 1 949). Quadristruma is a small genus containing

only two species, Q. eurycera (Emery) and Q. emmae

(Emery). Bolton (1983) considered that the genus

Quadristruma Brown differs from Strumigenys only

in the number of antennal segments and suggested that

Quadristruma Brown would eventually fall into

synonymy with Strumigenys Smith. Q. eurycera is

known only from New Guinea. Q. emmae has been

recorded widely from tropical and temperate regions of

the world, and is thought to be of Afrotropical origin

(Bolton 1983).

Bolton (1999) ultimately synonymized

Quadristruma with Strumigenys and included

Q. emmae and Q. eurycera in Strumigenys. There is

a single record of Q. emmae from India, but no locality

is mentioned (Bolton 1983). 1 now report Strumigenys

emmae from Bangalore, India.

Strumigenys emmae (Emery)

(Fig. 1 a-b)

Diagnostic features: Total length 1.86 mm (Fig.

la), HL: 0.48 mm, HW: 0.39, Cl: 81.25, ML: 0.15,

Ml: 31.25, SL: 0.21, SI: 52.5, AL: 0.48 and PW: 0.22.

Mandibles linear, strongly curved and each with a

strong fork of two long spiniform teeth in a vertical series.

Anterior clypeal margin broad, projecting well beyond

the mandibular bases on each side with numerous, small,

spatulate to spoon-shaped hairs (Fig. 1 b). Antennae 4-

segmented, the scape narrow basally, but broadeningto

mid-length, then narrowing again to the apex. Eyes very

small, situated just above the ventral scrobe margin.

Pronotum more or less flat dorsal ly, anteriorly rounding

into the sides. Metanotal grooves absent. Dorsal alitrunk

and upper half of the propodeal declivity reticulate-

punctate. Pronota! humeri each with a straight clavate

Fig 1: Strumigenys emmae worker, a. Body in profile,

b Head in front view

hair. In profile, pedicel segments with spongiform

appendages. Base of first gastral tergite with a continuous

row of basal costulae. Petiole, post petiole and gaster with

short, narrowly clavate hairs. Colour yellowish-brown.

Material Examined: 1 worker, india, Karnataka,

Bangalore, Indian Institute of Science Campus, Coll:

Deepalakshmi & Charusheela, 1997.

Distribution: Flawaii, Guam, Florida, Puerto Rico,

West Indies, Cuba, Surinam, Sumatra, Singapore and

New Guinea (Brown 1 949), Philippines, New Hebrides

and Austral ia ( Wi Ison and Taylor 1 967) Bahamas (Kempf

1972), West Africa and Ghana (Bolton 1973), India,

Malaysia, Sulawesi and Equatorial Guinea (Bolton 1983).

Remarks: S. emmae (Emery) is distinguished

from other Myrmicinae by its 4 segmented antennae.

Key to Indian species of Strumigenys Smith

(Modified from Bingham 1903)

1. Antennae with 4 segments, mandible with 2 teeth, length

less than 2 mm emmae (Emery)

Antennae with 6 segments, mandible with 3 teeth, length

more than 2 mm 2

2. Pronotum punctured, opaque, mandible with 3 teeth of

which the apical is smallest godeffroyi Mayr

170

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

— Pronotum not punctured, smooth and shining, mandible

with 3 teeth smythiesii Forel

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. Raghavendra Gadagkar, for

providing facilities and encouraging me to undertake this

work. 1 also thank Dr. Barry Bolton for sending his

reprints which were relevant for this study and

REFER

Bingham, C.T. (1903): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Hymenoptera, Vol. IF Ants and Cuckoo-wasps

(London).

Bolton, B. (1973): The ant genera of West Africa: a synonymic

synopsis with keys. Bull Br Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Entomol. 27:

317-368.

Bolton, B. (1983): The Afrotropical Dacetine ants. Bull Br Mus.

(Nat. Hist.) Entomol 46: 267-416.

Bolton, B. (1995): A new general Catalogue of the ants of the World

(Cambridge, MA.: Harvard University Press), 504 pp.

Prof. T.C. Narendran for critically examining the

manuscript.

July 6, 2001 THRESIAMMA VARGHESE

Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science,

Bangalore 560 012,

Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

E N C E S

Bolton, B. (1999): Ant genera of the Tribe Dacetonini

(Hymenoptera: Formicidae). J. Nat. Hist. 33: 1639-1689.

Brown, W.L. (1949): Revision of the ant tribe Dacetini. III. Epitritus

Emery and Quadristruma new genus. Trans. Am. Entomol.

Soc. 75: 143-151.

Kempf, W.W. (1972): Catalogo abreviado das formigas da regiao

Neotropical. Stud. Entomol. (N.S.) 15: 3-344,

Wilson, E.O. & R.W. Taylor (1967): The ants of Polynesia

(Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Pac Insects Monogr.

14: 1-109.

24. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF MARUMBA CRISTATA (BUTLER 1 875),

LEPIDOPTERA: SPHINGIDAE, IN SHIMLA, HIMACHAL PRADESH

In an earlier paper on the Hawkmoths

(Sphingidae) of the Kumaon Himalaya (Smetacek

1994), Marumba cristata (Butler) was noted as a new

record for the area. Prior to that study, D’ Abrera ( 1 986),

Bell and Scott (1937) and Hampson ( 1 892) had recorded

this moth from Sikkim eastwards, with a global

distribution extending to “China, Taiwan, Peninsular

Malaya, Sumatra, Borneo, ?Java and ?Palawan”

(D’Abrera 1986). Along this range the latter author

recognized four subspecies.

Bell and Scott (1937) bred a large number of

Hawkmoths in India. One of the sites where this work

was carried out was Mussoorie and the Dun valley in

theGarhwal Himalaya prior to 1937. They did not obtain

M. cristata in that area, nor did the earlier collectors,

such as Rev. J.H. Hocking, Mr. Graham-Young, Majors

Yerbury and Harford in Garhwal and present day

Himachal Pradesh. In the Himalaya west of Nepal,

Mussoorie, Shimla, Kulu and Dharamsala were by far

the best worked localities for moths, with fewer records

from other localities such as Almora, Nainital, Dalhousie

and Murree. Major Harford, in particular, collected

Hawkmoths in Shimla but did not record M. cristata

there, although he obtained rarities such as Thamnoecha

uniformis Butler and Langia zenzeroides Moore.

In a paper on the Hawkmoths of Kumaon

(Smetacek 1994), I suggested that this moth might have

extended its range to Kumaon in the period subsequent

to Bell and Scott’s (1937) study. However, since

Kumaon is east of the localities surveyed in the previous

studies mentioned above, there was a possibility that

M. cristata had been established in Kumaon for

centuries, as a detailed study of the moth fauna of this

area had not been undertaken earlier. The confirmation

of the possibility of cristata' s recent range extension,

obviously, would lie in its appearance in localities

surveyed in the second half of the 19th and first half of

the 20th centuries.

On July 17, 1993,1 found the right forewing of a

specimen of Marumba cristata (4. 1 cm long) on a hotel

balcony on the western outskirts of Shimla town. The

moth had evidently been attracted by the outdoor lights,

which had been left on all night, and had fallen prey to

a bird or gecko there. The wing bears over ten beak or

tooth marks along the costa and at the base, none of

which punctured the wing. The wing is whole and in

good condition except the discal area where some scales

have been rubbed off. Most of the markings beyond

the discal line are clearly distinguishable, enabling it to

be definitely placed as a wing of M. cristata.

I was unable to visit Shimla subsequently at a

suitable season. This single record is of importance, even

if the specimen was merely a straggler, since previous

workers had not recorded it there. Therefore, it appears

to have moved into the area recently, i.e. since Bell and

Scott (1937) completed their studies in Mussoorie.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

171

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Moving from east to west, Mussoorie is roughly

100 km west of Bhimtal in Kumaon. Bhimtal is the

westernmost site recorded for cristata (Smetacek 1 994).

This species has not been recorded from Mussoorie,

but its appearance in Shimla (roughly 1 00 km northwest

of Mussoorie and 200 km west of Bhimtal) suggests

the existence of cristata in the area between Bhimtal

and Shimla, probably around Mussoorie.

In Kumaon, cristata has been recorded in all

the three ranges of the Himalaya. In the outermost

range, where populations have been monitored for over

two decades, it is a common, well-established species,

REFER

Bell, T.R.D. & F.B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British India

including Ceylon and Burma. Moths Vol. V. Taylor & Francis,

Fondon.

D’Abrera, B. (1986): Sphingidae Mundi. E.W. Classey Ftd.,

Faringdon, U.K.

which can become very common if there are no forest

fires and rainfall is heavy for several consecutive

years.

The present record confirms that at least some

Hawkmoths have extended their range westwards along

the Himalaya during the second half of the twentieth

century.

February 7, 2002 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal P.O.,

Nainital 263 136,

Uttaranchal, India.

E N C E S

Hampson, G.F. (1892): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Moths Vol. I. Taylor & Francis, Fondon.

Smetacek, P. (1994): An annotated list of the hawkmoths

(Fepidoptera: Sphingidae) of Kumaon, N. India: a probable case

of faunal drift. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper 156 : 1-55.

25. PLEURONA FALCATA WALKER, AN ADDITION TO THE NOCTUID FAUNA

OF THE INDIAN MAINLAND

In the Indian sub-region, the species Pleurona

falcata Walker (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae) has been

reported from Burma (Myanmar) and the Andaman

Islands (Hampson 1894), but not from the Indian

mainland. A single specimen was recorded by this

author in the Kumaon Himalaya. This record extends

the known distribution of this moth considerably

westwards and northwards. It was previously known

from tropical areas, but the present record is from

c. 29° 20’ 43" N.

The following is a description of the specimen:

Pleurona Walker

1866. Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus. Lond. 35: 564.

Pleurona falcata Walker

1866. Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus. Lond. 35: 564.

Material Examined: 1 ex. (female): 20.xi . 1 998,

Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Kumaon 1,500 m at MV light.

Leg. & coll. Peter Smetacek.

Forewing Length: 17 mm.

Expanse: 38 mm (Hampson 1894 & mihi).

Distribution: Burma, Andamans (Hampson 1894).

Remarks: This taxon should not be confused with

Chilkasa falcata Swinhoe, which Hampson (1894)

included under Pleurona, proposing the new name

Pleurona perhamata, since Pleurona falcata was

preoccupied by the species being discussed here. The

genus Chilkasa Swinhoe was subsequently resurrected

in recent works such as Barlow ( 1 982); hence Chilkasa

172

falcata is a valid name but does not refer to the species

being discussed here.

The specimen is in perfect condition. It matches

the description and Fig. 310 in Hampson (1894) except

in the following points:

1 . The ground colour on the recto surface is dark

purplish-brown, not bright red-brown.

2. On the hindwing recto, the series of submarginal

specks mentioned by Hampson are part of a crenulate

line.

3 . On the hindwing verso, the medial and postmedial

lines are clear and sharply defined, not indistinct.

4. On the hindwing verso, the submarginal line is

crenulate from the inner margin for two thirds of its

length and the remaining third is straight to the costa.

The breeding status of this moth in the Bhimtal

valley is uncertain, since this is the only specimen

recorded in over two decades of monitoring moth

populations at this site. However, it is certainly from a

breeding population within Indian borders, since it is

inconceivable that the present specimen could have

passed its early stages in Myanmar and then traveled to

Bhimtal. It is more likely that breeding populations of

this moth will be found at low elevation along the

Himalaya, at least as far west as Kumaon, particularly

in the Terai and Bhabar zones, since this moth is primarily

a tropical species.

It seems that the present specimen was a straggler

from low elevation attempting to disperse the species.

Its appearance in late November further indicates that

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

it is a low elevation species, since there are very few

locally established moths on the wing at that time at

1,500 m elevation.

In recent years, a number of typically Indo-

Malayan Lepidoptera have been added to the known

fauna oftheKumaon Himalaya (Smetacek 1994, 1995,

1998). While the paucity of comparative material from

the 19th and first half of the 20th centuries from this

area makes it uncertain whether the new records are

recent arrivals or have been established here since the

records began, in some cases it has been possible to

suggest that some hawkmoths and at least one butterfly

REFER

Barlow, H. (1982): An Introduction to the Moths of SE Asia.

Malayan Nature Society, Kuala Lumpur.

Hampson. G.F. ( 1 894): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma, Moths II Taylor and Francis, London.

Smetacek, P. (1994): An Annotated List of the hawkmoths of

Kumaon, N. India (Lepidoptera: Sphingidae): A Probable

Case of Faunal Drift. Rec. zool. Surv India, Occ. Paper 156:

(Smetacek 1994, 1995) are recent arrivals. In the case

of Pleurona falcata , 1 would venture to suggest that it

is a relatively recent arrival, probably sometime during

the 20th century, since extensive work by a number of

workers in the eastern Himalaya and the hills of

northeast India during the 1 9th and 20th centuries failed

to discover this moth.

February 7, 2002 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal P.O.,

Nainital 263 136,

Uttaranchal, India.

; N C E s

1-55.

Smetacek, P. (1995): A new altitudinal and range record for the

Copper Flash butterfly Rapala pherelimus Hewitson

(Lycaenidae). J Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 92: 127-128.

Smetacek, P. (1998): On an unusual Endoclyta (Lepidoptera:

Hepialidae) from Kumaon, in the northwest Himalaya, India.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 95: 136-137.

26. CORYMICA WALKER, LEPIDOPTERA: GEOMETRIDAE, IN THE KUMAON

HIMALAYA, WITH THE DESCRIPTION OF A NEW FORM OF C. DEDUCATA

CAUSTOLOMARIA MOORE

Corymica Walker is a small genus of Geometrid

moths that occurs from the Indian subcontinent

northward to Korea and Japan, and eastward to

Sulawesi and Papua New Guinea. These moths are

predominantly yellow, with relatively long palps and a

distinctively shaped forewing, whose chief features are

an acute apex and a dorsal margin with the distal half

highly excised. Only males bear a large hyaline fovea

near the base of the forewing.

Hampson ( 1 895) and Prout (1915) assigned three

species to the genus, while Wehrli (1940) took

vesicular ia Walker out of the synonymy in which these

two authors placed it, and treated it as a valid species,

raising the number of species to four. Wehrl i ( 1 940) also

suggested that the taxa treated as subspecies of

specularia Moore would probably prove to be a good

species, which would increase the total number of

species in the genus.

Hitherto, no moths of this genus had been reported

from the Kumaon Himalaya, although vitrigera Butler

was described from Dharamsala in Himachal Pradesh.

This taxon was treated as a subspecies of C. specularia

by Prout (1915) and as a synonym of the same by

Hampson (1895), whose typical form is known from

Bengal and the eastern Himalaya. So vitrigera or

specularia was to be expected in the Kumaon

Himalaya, which lies between the two type localities.

However, in view of the observation by Wehrli

(1940) on the subspecies of specularia , it is possible

that vitrigera is, in fact, a good species, in which case

both specularia and vitrigera may occur in Kumaon,

the latter probably in the main Himalayan range, since

the type locality, Dharamsala, is in the main range.

Location

The present study was carried out in the Kumaon

Himalaya in the state of Uttaranchal. All records are

from the Jones Estate in the Bhimtal Valley, 24 km from

the district headquarters of Nainital. The elevation is

c. 1,500 m above msl. The site lies in the outermost

range of the Himalaya and constitutes the micro-

watershed between the Bhimtal and Sattal lake systems.

The area is well forested, with the Himalayan oak

( Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus) and chir pine

( Pinas roxburghii Sarg.) as nodal species, interspersed

with elements of low elevation deciduous species, such

as Sapium insigne Trim, and Erythrina L. spp. Other

species include Mallotus philippinenis Muell. Arg.,

Bauhinia L. spp., Phyllanthus L. sp., Pistacia L. and

Ricinus L. In addition, a large number of exotic trees

and shrubs, such as tea Nerium L., and mango

Mangifera L. make the area botanically diverse.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

173

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Climate

The climate is subtropical, with a maximum

summer temperature of c. 36 °C in late May and June

and a minimum of 0 °C in January, although in some

years the temperature does not fall below 6 °C. Rainfall

is heavy, especially during the southwest monsoon from

June to September. Relative humidity during this period

is around 40%, while in March and April, it is generally

less than 1 5%. Relative humidity mentioned in this paper

was measured indoors unless otherwise mentioned, since

it tends to vary greatly outdoors over short periods of

time.

Flying Time

Members of the Genus Corymica have been

recorded in different years between March 1 and April

6 and again from J une 2 continuously to November 1 4.

During the warmer period of the year, these moths are

not on the wing during most of April and May, when

relative humidity varies between 1% and 20%, except

on overcast days when it rises to 30% outdoors for a

short while. It appears that these moths are not on the

wing when humidity is less than 1 0%.

Attractants

Moth populations have been monitored at the main

study site in Jones Estate near Bhimtal for three decades.

To study Corymica, the main attractant used was

artificial light, a petromax during the early 1970s, and

ordinary tungsten filament lamps of 60 W and 100 W,

but most often mercury vapour lamps of 125 W or

160 W. These moths have not been recorded at flowers

or other sources of sugar.

Resting attitude

All members of this genus rest with the wings

outspread. The forewings are contorted along their

length, so that the costa is held furthest off the substrate

and the remainder of the forewings slopes down to the

hindwings, which are held level and close to the substrate.

In this position, they seem to resemble a dried yellow

leaf, curled along the edge, although the imitation is only

a rough one and is not convincing if the moth is viewed

away from a suitable backdrop.

These moths are proficient walkers and, upon

settling, often walk a few centimetres with the wings

outspread until they are satisfied and then settle down.

It seems possible that they move about in order to settle

in a certain position relative to the light source.

Flight

I he flight is weak and fluttering. These moths are

incapable of gliding flight. They settle frequently. After

settling, if they are disturbed, they fly off but settle again

a short distance away after a brief flight, usually lasting

less than half a minute.

Systematics

Four specimens of Corymica specular ia collected

during the 1 970s were taken by the Late Fred Smetacek

Sr. The remaining specimens were taken by the author.

All specimens are in the author’s collection.

Corymica Walker

1860. Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus. 20: 230.

Corymica arnearia Walker

1860. Cat. Lep. Flet. Brit. Mus. 20: 231.

Material examined: 2 exs. : 16.vii. 1998 (female);

4. viii.2000 (male).

Forewing Length: 13 mm (mihi).

Expanse: 28 mm (male) (Hampson 1 895); 30 mm

(mihi).

Distribution: Khasis (Meghalaya); Thyetmyo;

Upper Tenasserim (Myanmar); Borneo (Hampson

1 895); N. India to Borneo, W. China, Korea, Nagasaki

(Japan) (Prout 1915); also eastern marches of Tibet;

5. China; Taiwan and Hainan. Flight period June (Wehrli

1940).

Remarks: The type specimen is from Sarawak

and there appears to be no reported variation over this

moth’s vast range.

The present record extends the known distribution

of the species westwards to Kumaon. On the whole, it

appears to be a low elevation species, with records from

Nagasaki in Japan and Guangdong in China.

It is noteworthy that only females have been

recorded at Jones Estate. These two specimens are

almost certainly individuals that journeyed quite far from

their normal breeding grounds in the course of dispersing

the species. The main population will probably be found

in the Bhabar belt along the foot of the Himalaya and

Jones Estate, at 1,500 m, is probably as high as the

species ventures.

The specimens examined match Hampson’s ( 1 895)

description, except in the matter of the medial spot on

the forewing costa noted by him, which is lacking in the

specimen examined, as well as in the illustration in

Hampson (Fig. 101). There is a dark speck at the end

of the cell on each wing in the specimens examined,

which is not mentioned by Hampson (1895), although

these specks appear in the illustration (Fig. 101) in the

same work. The medial spot on the inner margin of the

forewing is elongate in the specimens examined

and encloses a very small white speck, much smaller

than in the illustrations in Hampson (1895) and

Seitz (1915).

174

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Corymica deducata Walker

1866. Cat. Lep. Het. Brit. Mus. 35: 1569.

Material examined: 3 exs.: caustolomaria

Moore: 26.vii.2000, 30. vi i .2000 (females), wirthi nov.:

Holotype 20.x. 1 998 (male); paratype 1 9.x. 2003 female.

Leg. et coll. Peter Smetacek.

Forewing Length: 13 mm.

Expanse: 26 mm (Hampson 1 895): 28 mm (mihi)

Distribution: Sikkim, Khasis (Meghalaya);

Travancore (Kerala) (Hampson 1895); N. India to

Korea, Japan and Formosa (Taiwan) (Prout 1915); also

Sulawesi (Wehrli 1940).

Remarks: A new record for Kumaon. The type

of deducata is from Sulawesi. Wehrli (1940), quoting

an uncited work of Prout, suggested that caustolomaria

is the Indian race of the species. He also noted that

specimens from Hainan examined by him belonged to

caustolomaria.

The species occurs in two forms in Kumaon. The

typical form with a yellow ground colour and rufous

markings is recorded in July (summer brood), while wirthi

forma nov. is superficially very different, with the ground

colour brown with fuscous markings and not a trace of

yellow or rufous on both surfaces of the wings. On the

verso surface, the costa of both wings is broadly paler,

as is the inner margin of the forewing. The markings

are identical to typical caustolomaria on both surfaces.

It is the autumn form and appears not to have been

recorded from anywhere in this insect's vast range. A

similar difference in seasonal forms is evident in the

European taxon Eilicrinia cordiaria Hiibner, which is

closely related to Corymica.

Wehrli (1940) noted that caustolomaria is on the

wing in June and July in Hainan, and July in Korea.

From this, it would appear to be univoltine in the northern

part of its range, which rules out the very existence of

an autumn form. However, it is possible that wirthi exists

in Kerala, although there is no record of it so far. Wehrli

(1940) noted that it is a rather rare species, so the lack

of records is not unusual and wirthi might yet be

discovered in Kerala. On the other hand, if it requires a

degree of cold not found in Kerala, it might turn out to

be restricted to the Himalaya.

The new form is named after Basil Wirth of

Reading, U.K., who has worked on Indian Lepidoptera

for nearly half a century.

Corymica specularia Moore

1867, Proc. zool. Soc. Lond.: 649, pi. 33, fig. 1 1 .

Material examined: 20 exs.: 1 .iii. 1 974 (female);

1 0.iii. 1 977 (female); 6.iv. 1 999 (female); 1 3 .iv. 1 98 1

(male); 20. iv. 1992; 1 .viii. 1973 (female); 1 .viii. 1 992

(female); 7. viii. 1997 (female); 10. viii. 1995

(male+female)x2; 1 2.viii. 1 977 (female); 1 6.viii. 1 995

(female); 27. viii. 1983 (female); 29. viii. 1983 (female);

30. viii. 1981 (female); 8.ix.l983 (female); 15. ix. 1992

(female); I 8. ix. 1998 (male); 10.x. 1998 (female);

14. xi. 1998 (female).

Forewing Length. 16-20 mm.

Expanse: Males 30-34 mm, females 38 mm (vide

Hampson 1 895); males 34 mm, females to 42 mm (mihi).

Distribution: Japan; Dharamsala (Himachal

Pradesh); Sikkim; Nilgiris (Tamil Nadu); Sri Lanka

(Hampson 1895). Widespread in India, Japan (Prout

1915). Various localities in China, India, Japan (Wehrli

1940).

Remarks: This is the commonest member of the

genus at the study site. In addition to the above

specimens, this species has been recorded in June and

July. It is on the wing in November only during warm

years, such as 1998 and 1999. In 2000, which was a

rather cool year due to the prolonged southwest

monsoon, the moth was not recorded after October 1 8,

while in 1998 it was recorded nearly a full month later

on November 14. The above statement takes into

consideration the possibility that the species was on the

wing in November 2000, but was not attracted to the

MV light at the study site, since not only specularia but

no moths were attracted during most of the winter of

2000-2001, unlike 1998-1999 and 1999-2000. So far, no

seasonal variation has been noted in this species.

The taxon vitrigera Butler, which was treated as

a subspecies of specularia by Prout (1915) and Wehrli

(1940) and as synonym of specularia by Hampson

(1895) was described from specimens from Dharamsala

in Himachal Pradesh, northwest of Jones Estate.

Dharamsala is in the main Himalayan range, while Jones

Estate is in the outermost range. Therefore, the genus

probably occurs throughout the Himalayan range as far

west as Dharamsala. However, 1 have not recorded it

from any other location in Kumaon or Garhwal so far.

None of the specimens examined in the present

study are vitrigera. The type of specularia is from

“Bengal”, so specularia occurs at least as far west as

the Bhimtal valley where Jones Estate is situated. Unless

it turns out that vitrigera is distributed along the main

range and specularia along the foothills, vitrigera

appears to have a rather restricted range.

Discussion

The present study extends the known distribution

of Corymica cirnearia, C. deducata caustolomaria

and C. specularia specularia westwards to the

Kumaon Himalaya. The two former taxa are rather rare

at 1,500 m, although they are perhaps commoner at

lower elevations. It is worthy of note that only females

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

175

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of arnearia have been recorded from Jones Estate so

far. These individuals probably wandered so high in the

process of dispersing the species. In the case of

specularia , it appears to be well established at this

elevation and will probably be found to occur even higher.

The specimens examined in this study have been

collected over a period of nearly thirty years. It will be

noted that there are no records of arnearia and

deducata caustolomaria prior to 1998. This should not

be interpreted to imply that these two taxa were absent

from the area prior to 1 998, but that they were probably

overlooked earlier, although I am more or less certain

that they were not attracted to the artificial light at the

main study site between 1993 and 1997, when I paid

more attention to members of this family. It can safely

be stated that both these species appear sporadically at

1,500 m, although they might be well established in a

locality not very far from the main study site.

Hitherto, seasonal variation had not been noted in

this genus. The form wirthi nov. of C. deducata

caustolomaria differs from the typical form in much

REFER

Hampson, G.F. (1895): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Moths Vol. III. Taylor & Francis, London.

Prout, L.B. (1915): In: Seitz, A. ( ed. ): Die Gross-Schmetterlinge der

Erde. Die Palaearktischen Spanner. Band IV. Alfred Kernen,

Stuttgart.

the same way as the spring form of the European moth

Eilicrinia cordiaria Hiibner gen. vern.

roeslerstammaria Staudinger differs from the typical

summer form. As in the case of Corymica, not all

species belonging to Eilicrinia Hiibner are seasonally

dimorphic. The two genera are usually placed close

together. I have treated wirthi nov. as a seasonal form

of caustolomaria rather than as an aberration, despite

the paucity of specimens and other supportive data. Given

the similar trend in Eilicrinia and the rarity of this

species over its entire range, it seems best to proceed in

this manner.

It is possible that vitrigera will be found in the

main Himalayan range in Kumaon eventually and that

C. specularia specularia occurs further west along

the outer ranges of the Himalaya.

February 1 1 , 2002 PETER SMETACEK

Jones Estate, Bhimtal P.O.,

Nainital263 136,

Uttaranchal, India.

NCES

Seitz, A. (ed.) (1915): Die Gross-Schmetterlinge der Erde. Die

Palaearktischen Spanner. Band IV. Alfred Kernen, Stuttgart.

Wehrli, E. (1940): In: Seitz, A. (ed.) (1954): Die Gross-

Schmetterlinge der Erde. Die Palaearktischen Spanner.

Supplement zu Band IV. Alfred Kernen, Stuttgart.

27. ADDITIONAL RECORDS OF BUTTERFLIES FROM MAHARASHTRA

I would like to add the following butterflies to the

list of those already known to occur in Maharashtra,

within the erstwhile Bombay Presidency Area.

Euploea klugi kollari : The species occurred

regularly in the Colaba area of Mumbai from where I

took 3 males and 2 females. Further, 1 took 2 males

from Nalasopara and Tulsi Lake, north of Mumbai. At

the time I did not consider klugi to be a great rarity, as

we seemed to see them quite often. In those days, I

never took many examples of the same species, being

something of a conservationist, even before conservation

became an issue. For this reason, I have only two

females, as it is so similar to E. core. Being somewhat

inexperienced then, I was unable to distinguish between

core and klugi females in the field. I am certain that

there was a small breeding colony in Colaba, as there

were plenty of milkweed ( Calotropis ) plants close

by. We were able to observe Danais chrysippus,

D. genuta and Euploea core core in all their stages of

development. My good friend of many years, Fr. A.E.

Bean has also recorded a single male from Lonavala,

Maharashtra.

All the klugi kollari were taken between May

and October 1957 to 1961 . As I have not been back to

the area since then, I do not know if a breeding population

still exists at Colaba. However, the occurrence of klugi

at Nalasopara and especially Tulsi Fake, an area that I

believe may now be protected should provide us with

some hope. [Nalasopara is now built up, but Tulsi Lake

is within the protected San jay Gandhi National Park —

Eds]

Neopithecops zalmora dharma: I took a single

male of this species in Mahabaleshwar on 2 1.x. 1961.

At that time, I was unaware that this species had never

been taken in the area before. Both Wynter-Blyth ( 1 957)

and Evans ( 1 932) report it from Sri Lanka, South India

to Bengal and Kumaon to Burma (now Myanmar). It

was only when I read Eliot and Kawazoes’ book, blue

butterflies of the lycaenopsis group that I realised I

might have something very special. Col. John Eliot was

good enough to confirm the identity of the specimen in

question a couple of years ago.

Fr. Bean, who has taken zalmora in other areas,

has usually found it flying with Megisba ma/aya. The

176

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

specimen I took in Mahabaleshwar was flying with

malaya thwaitsei.

I would suggest that the species does occur in

Maharashtra even if it is extremely rare. As it is a very

weak flier and found so far inland, I would certainly not

consider it to be a ‘wind blow’.

Appias warili. I mentioned this species in an

article in the JBNHS some 40 odd years ago. I took a

single male at Colaba on 5 .vi i. 1 95 7, but feel that this

specimen may well have been wind blown from much

further south.

May 1,2001 BASIL W. WIR1H

5, Settrington Close,

Lower Earley, Reading RG6 3XJ,

United Kingdom.

REFERENCES

Evans, W.H. (1932): The identification of Indian Butterflies. 2nd Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region.

Edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 1-454, Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. xx + 523,

32 pi. 72 pi.

28. STUDIES ON THE ODONATA (INSECTA) FROM A BACKWATER SWAMP

OF NORTHERN KERALA

Our present knowledge on the odonate fauna

of estuarine and brackish water environments in

India is confined to the state of Orissa and West

Bengal on the east coast (Fraser and Drover 1921,

Prasad and Ghosh 1982, 1988). Studies on odonates

from the brackish water areas of the west coast of

India have not been attempted earlier. Hence, this

study was taken up at Chemballikundu, a backwater

swamp in north Kerala from August 1 999 to September

2000.

Chemballikundu swamp is a floodplain parallel

to the Ezhimala hills, formed by rivers Ramapuram,

Peruvamba and Kavaayi in Kannur district, situated

at 12° 31' N and 75° 14' E. The area receives a mean

annual rainfall of 3,000 mm, mainly from the

southwest monsoon, from June to September. Maxi-

mum and minimum temperatures of 33.4 °C and

18.7 °C are experienced in April and December

respectively.

Due to the variation in salinity over the seasons,

the vegetation of the area is diverse, comprising of

species such as Nymphaea nouchali , Nymphoides

indicus , Limnophylla heterophylla and Hydrilla

verticillata, mixed with tall reeds like Mariscus

javanicus, Fimbristylis ovata, F. ferruginea and

F. aestivalis. The embankments along the marshes and

mudflats are covered with patches of mangrove species

like Avicennia officinalis, A. marina, Excoecaria

agallocha, Aegiceras corniculatum, Achrosticum

aureum and Acanthus ilicifolius. The varying micro-

habitats provide good foraging and breeding grounds

for many insects. The water is saline, except for a brief

period during monsoon. Collections were made during

October 1999 (post-monsoon), February-April 2000

(pre-monsoon) and July-September 2000 (monsoon), to

record seasonal variation and other related data. The

odonates collected or observed are categorised as

follows:

A = Abundant: More than 1 5 observed during each

visit/season

C = Common: More than 8 observed during each

visit/season

UC = Uncommon: Not more than 4 observed during

each visit/season

R = Rare: Less than 4 observed during each visit/

season

NF = Not Found: Not observed during the season.

A total of 21 species of odonates under 19 genera

belonging to 3 families were recorded from the wetlands

of Chemballikundu. The suborders Zygoptera

(damselflies) and Anisoptera (dragonflies) were

represented by 8 and 13 species respectively. All

the species are new reports from the area, and also

from the estuarine ecosystem of western India, whereas

Aciagrion occidentale and Mortonagrion varralli are

new additions to the estuarine Odonata of India.

The seasonal collection showed a diversity of 20

species in post monsoon, 12 species in monsoon and 9

species in pre-monsoon. The low species diversity in

summer may be due to high salinity resulting from the

lowering of water level for aquacultural practices. In

summer, the aquatic vegetation and reed beds dry up

and the entire ecosystem changes till the onset of the

Southwest monsoon. Species such as Pseudagrion

microcephalum , Mortonagrion varralli , Orthetrum

sabina sabina, Brachythemis contaminata.

Diplacodes trivialis, Pantala flavescens and Tholymis

tillargavjexe recorded throughout the survey, indicating

multivoltinity. The species were identified from the fauna

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

177

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

of British India series (Fraser 1933-36). The

nomenclature follows Fraser (1957), and Prasad and

Varshney (1995). A detailed systematic account with

data on collection, status and habitat of the species

recorded and notes on behaviour, and ecology of some

species is given below.

Breeding activities: Intense breeding activity

was observed mostly during monsoon and post-

monsoon. During July 2000, Diplacodes trivialis was

observed in wheel position and Tholymis tillarga

ovipositing on the open water surface. September

was favourable for damselflies for mating and

oviposition. Many pairs of Pseudagrion

microcephalum and Ceriagrion cerinorubellum were

seen in tandem, ovipositing on Nymphaea nouchali

leaves, intermittently resting on the tall Fimbristylis

grasses. Pairs of Rhyothemis variegata variegata

were observed in tandem, hovering over the vegetation

during September.

Emergence: Swarms of newly emerged

Diplacodes trivialis were observed among the sedges

bordering the bunds in monsoon (July, 2000).

Interestingly, they were not seen during the September

survey. Exuviae and emerging swarms of Trithemis

pallidinervis were seen in September among the

mangrove thickets.

Roosting: A small roosting population of Tholymis

tillarga was observed on Aegiceras corniculatum, a

small mangrove shrub near the marshland, at around

1900 hrs in July 2000. Mass roosting of Pantala

flavescens was seen on the tall Fimbristylis grasses

and Hygrophila plants lining the creeks towards dusk

(1910 hrs), in July. Mort onagri on varralli were seen

roosting among the shoreline grasses.

Accompanying behaviour: A small group of 8

individuals of Brachythemis contaminata was observed

accompanying one of the authors (MJP) during the

collection trip. The swarm moved parallel to him, at a

height of about 60 cm. When the author stopped to net

them, they dispersed; some hovered, some perched on

grass. When he resumed wading through the swamp,

they followed him. This continued over a distance of

c. 200 m. Swarms of Trithemis pallidinervis also

exhibited similar behaviour along the trek path lining the

wetlands in September.

Predators: The Chemballikundu wetlands

are known for diversity of birds (Jafer 2000). A flock

of Blue-tailed Bee-eater (Merops philippinus), and

Black Drongo ( Dicrurus macrocercns ) were seen

capturing larger species of odonates like Pantala

flavescens and Tramea limbata similata , especially in

July and September, when the prey species were

abundant.

Systematic Account

Suborder: Zygoptera

Superfamily: Coenagrionoidea

Family: Coenagrionidae

Subfamily: Pseudagrioninae

1. Ceriagrion cerinorubellum (Brauer 1865)

Material examined: 1M, IF; 1 .x.1999. 2M, 2F;

14.ix.2000.

Field notes: Abundant among sedges along with

Pseudagrion microcephalum immediately after the

monsoon. Many pairs observed in tandem, ovipositing

on the floating leaves of Nymphaea nouchali , during

September, 2000.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: C, Post-

monsoon: A.

2. Ceriagrion coromandelianum (Fabricius 1798)

Material examined: 1M; 1.x. 1999.

Field notes: Common during the monsoon,

frequents reed beds and aquatic grasses.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: R, Post-

monsoon: C.

3. Pseudagrion microcephalum (Ram bur 1842)

Material examined: 1M, IF; 1.x. 1999. IF;

2. i. 2000. 2F; 21 .vii.2000. 2M, 3F; 14.xi.2000.

Field notes: Most common. Males regularly

collected throughout the survey from the bund lines,

observed slowly sailing through the tall reeds. Abundant

immediately after monsoon. Pairs found in tandem and

wheel position, also seen ovipositing on Limnophylla

heterophylla and Nymphaea nouchali leaves, in

tandem.

Status: Pre-monsoon: C, Monsoon: A, Post-

monsoon: A.

Subfamily: Ischnurinae

4. Aciagrion occidentale Laidlaw, 1919

Material examined: IF; 14. ix. 2000.

Field notes: Common during post-monsoon,

mixing with Mortonagrion varralli among the sedges.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: NF, Post

monsoon: C.

5. Ischnura aurora aurora (Brauer 1865)

Material examined: IM; 1. x.1999. 1M; 14.ix.2000.

Field notes: Common. Observed only during post-

monsoon. Mainly found among the sedges lining the

aquacultural ponds.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: NF, Post-

monsoon: C.

178

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. Iscltnura senegalensis (Ram bur 1842)

Material examined: IF; 1 8. ii .2000.

Field notes: Common during pre-monsoon.

Status: Pre-monsoon: C, Monsoon: NF, Post-

monsoon: NF.

Subfamily: Agriocnemidinae

7. Agriocnemis pygmaea (Rambur 1842)

Material: 1M; 1.x. 1999.

Field notes: Common during post-monsoon.

Frequents grasslands on the banks of the swamp.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: NF, Post-

monsoon: C.

8. Mortonagrion varralli Fraser 1920

Material examined: 1M; 2. i. 2000. 4M;

23.vii.2000. 3M, 2F; 14.ix.2000.

Field notes: Abundant. Found among the

littoral vegetation in good numbers towards dusk

throughout the survey.

Status: Pre-monsoon: C, Monsoon: C, Post-

monsoon: A.

Suborder: Anisoptera

Superfamily: Aeshnoidea

Family: Gomphidae

Subfamily: Linden iinae

9. lctinogomphus rapax (Rambur 1842)

Field notes: Uncommon. Frequents paddy fields,

reed beds and other aquatic vegetation during the

monsoon and post-monsoon.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: UC, Post-

monsoon: R.

Family: Libellulidae

Subfamily: Libellulinae

10. Orthetrum sabina sabina (Drury 1770)

Material examined: 1M; 2. i. 2000.

Field notes: Common. Observed throughout

the season, hovering over the mangrove vegetation.

Status: Pre-monsoon: C, Monsoon: C, Post-

monsoon: C.

Subfamily: Sympetrinae

1 1 . Acisoma panorpoides panorpoides Rambur 1842

Material examined: 1M; 1.x. 1999.

Field notes: Uncommon. A single specimen

collected in October from tall Fimbristylis grass.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: NF, Post-

monsoon: UC.

12. Brachythemis contaminata (Fabricius 1793)

Materia! examined: 2M, IF; 1.x. 1999; IF;

14. ix. 2000.

Field notes: Commonly observed throughout the

study, among the emerging macrophytes of the creeks.

Abundant after monsoon.

Status: Pre-monsoon: R, Monsoon: C, Post-

monsoon: A.

13. Crocothemis servilia servilia (Drury 1770)

Material examined: 1M; 1.x 1999.

Field notes: Common. Found throughout the

study, except in summer, in and around paddy fields.

Status: Pre-monsoon: R, Monsoon: C, Post-

monsoon: C.

14. Diplacodes trivial is (Rambur 1842)

Material examined: 2M, 2F; 1.x. 1999. IF;

2 1 .vii.2000. IF; 14.ix.2000.

Field notes: Abundant. Observed throughout the

survey along the shoreline vegetation. During July,

unusually large numbers of teneral forms were found

congregating on the shore. Breeding pairs were seen in

July.

Status: Pre-monsoon: UC, Monsoon: A, Post-

monsoon: UC.

15. Neurothemis tidlia tullia (Drury 1773)

Field notes: Uncommon. Frequents reed beds and

paddy fields, especially during monsoon.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: R, Post-

monsoon: UC.

Subfamily: Trithemistinae

16. Trithemis pallidinervis (Kirby 1889)

Material examined: 1M, 2F; 14.x. 2000.

Field notes: Abundant during September. Swarms

of this species found fluttering around the thickets of

grass near aquaculture ponds.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: A, Post-

monsoon: A.

Subfamily: Trameinae

1 7. Rhyotliemis variegata variegata (Linnaeus 1763)

Material examined: IF; 14. ix. 2000.

Field Notes: Abundant, swarms active during the

post-monsoon. Breeding activities observed during

September.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

179

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: A, Post-

monsoon: A.

18. Pantala flavescens (Fabricius 1798)

Material examined: IF; 23.vii.2000. 1M;

14.ix.2000.

Field notes: Swarms of this species observed

throughout the survey. Activities intense during post-

monsoon.

Status: Pre-monsoon: C, Monsoon: UC, Post-

monsoon: A.

19. Tramea limbata similata Rambur 1842

Material examined: 1M; 14. ix. 2000.

Field notes: Common in September. Found soaring

over the wetlands along with Pantala flavescens.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: C, Post-

monsoon: C.

20. Tholymis tillarga (Fabricius 1798)

Material examined: IF; 1.x. 1999, 1M; 21 .vii.2000.

Field notes: Observed throughout the survey.

Abundant in monsoon. Found patrolling all along the

wetland area with great speed and agility towards dusk.

Many specimens found hanging on the twigs of

Aegiceras corniculatum at c. 1 840 hrs on a rainy day.

Status: Pre-monsoon: C, Monsoon: A, Post-

monsoon: C.

21. Macrodiplax cora (Brauer 1867)

Material examined: 1M; l.x.1999.

Field notes: Rare. A single specimen collected

immediately after the monsoon.

Status: Pre-monsoon: NF, Monsoon: NF, Post-

monsoon: R.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. J.R.B. Alfred, Director, Zoological

Survey of India and Sri. C. Radhakrishnan, Jt. Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Western Ghats Field

Research Station, Calicut for providing facilities and

encouragement.

July 30, 200 1 MUHAMED J AFER PALOT

V.P. SONIYA*

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Ghats Field Research Station,

Annie Hall Road,

Calicut 673 002,

Kerala, India.

*Present Address: Zoological Survey of India,

Freshwater Biological Station,

1-1-300/B, AshokNagar,

Hyderabad 500 020,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

REFERENCES

Fraser, F.C. (1933-1936): The Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma. Odonata. Vol. I-III. Taylor & Francis,

London.

Fraser, F.C. ( 1 957): A reclassification of the order Odonata. Royal

Zool Soc NSW. Handbook No. 12. Pp. 58.

Fraser, F.C. & C. Drover (1921): The Dragonflies of Barkuda Island.

Rec. Indian Mus. 24: 303-3 1 1 .

Jafer Palot. M. (2000): Habitat use of birds of North Malabar

coast with special reference to White-bellied Sea Eagle,

Haliaeetus leucogaster. Ph D. Thesis, University of Calicut,

Kerala.

Prasad, M. & S.K. Ghosh (1982): Studies on the Estuarine Odonata

from 24 Parganas district of West Bengal, with a note on the

reproductive behaviour in Urothemis signata signata (Rambur)

(Odonata: Insecta). J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 79(2): 290-295.

Prasad, M. & S.K. Ghosh ( 1 988): A contribution on the estuarine

odonates of East India. Rec. zool Surv. India 85(2): 197-216.

Prasad, M. & A.K. Varshney (1995): A checklist of the Odonata of

India including data on larval stages. Oriental Ins. 29:

385-428.

29. THE PULMONATE SNAIL OPE AS GRAC1LE (HUTTON),

STYLOMMATOPHORA: SUBULINIDAE: OPEATINAE — A NEW RECORD

FROM JAMMU PROVINCE, JAMMU AND KASHMIR STATE

In the literature on the malacofauna of Jammu

Province of Jammu and Kashmir State (Theobald 1 878,

Verma et al. 1996, and Duda et al. 1999) the

stylommatophore gastropods reported from Jammu

Province are: Ena ( Subzebrinus ) arcuatus Pfeiffer

(Family Enidae), Anadenus altivagus (Theobald)

(Family Arionidae), Bensonia jammuensis (Theobald),

B. monticola (Hutton), Euanstenia monticola (Hutton),

Syama splendens (Hutton) (Family Ariophantidae),

Umax maximus Ferrusac (Family Limacidae) and

Planispira sp. (Family Helicidae).

While collecting molluscs of Jammu and Kashmir

State, we obtained several specimens of the pulmonate

snail Opeas gracile (Hutton) (Subulinidae: Opeatinae)

180

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

from a garden in Roop Nagar on the outskirts of Jammu

city. As this species has not been reported from Jammu

Province earlier, this is a new record.

Gude (1914) reported Opeas gracile (Hutton)

from Kashmir without giving its exact distribution in the

region. The present report extends the range of the

species as well as of the Family Subulinidae to Jammu

Province for the first time, as Opeas gracile (Hutton)

is the sole representative of Subulinidae in this

region.

We thank Shri. S.C. Mitra, Asst. Zoologist and

Officer-in-Charge, Mollusca Sect., Zoological Soc. of India

SI, Kolkata for confirming the identity of the specimen.

June 1 4, 200 1 SURENDRA NATH

SUNITA

Department of Zoology,

Government Camp College for Kashmir Migrants,

P.B. 140, G.P.O. Jammu (Tawi) 180 001,

Jammu & Kashmir, India.

REFERENCES

Duda, RL., A.K. Verma& PS. Pathani (1999): Notes on the habitat

ecology and barriers to dispersal of some gastropod molluscs

of J&K State. Adv. Fish Wildl. Ecol. Biol. 2: 190-195.

Gude, G.K. (1914): The Fauna of British India — Mollusca, Vol. II.

(Trochomorphidae; Janellidae). Taylor & Francis, London.

Theobald, W. (1878): Notes on the land and freshwater shells of

Kashmir, more particularly of the J'nelum Valley, below

Srinagar and hills of North Kashmir. J. Asiat. Soc. Bengal

47(2)\ 141-149.

Verma, A.K. & PL. Duda ( 1996): On the distribution and ecology

of some gastropod molluscs of the Jammu Province of J&K

State. Adv. Fish Wildl. Ecol. Biol. F. 229-234.

30. EXTENSION OF DISTRIBUTION OF THE THOMISID SPIDER PLATYTHOMISUS

SUDEEPI BISWAS, THOMISIDAE: ARANEAE, FROM NORTH KANARA,

KARNATAKA

Thomisid spiders, commonly known as crab-

spiders, have been studied by Tikader (1960-95). His

work on the fauna of India, thomisidae (pt. 1) (1980)

covers 1 15 species under 25 genera nominated, so far,

from the Indian subcontinent. Platythomisus sudeepi

Biswas, an uncommon Thomisid spider, was identified

on the basis of a fine photograph by Ashok Captain.

The identification was made with the keys, descriptions

and illustrations from this fauna (pp. 1 72-1 74).

The type locality for P. sudeepi Biswas is Pollibetta,

Coorg district, Karnataka (15° 12'N, 75° 80' E). The types

(2 9 ?) of this species have been deposited in the

National Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

The description given in the fauna tallies with the

photograph, except for the red abdominal colour as

against the deep brown, and three conspicuous black

bands, which also vary in size and shape. The

photograph was taken at Castle Rock, North Kanara,

Karnataka near the state border of Goa

(14° 28' N, 74° 20' E), c. 280-300 km north of the type

locality.

The genus Platythomisus Dolesch constitutes only

two nominated species: Platythomisus bazarus Tikader

from Nayabazar, West Sikkim and P. sudeepi Biswas

from Pollibeta, Coorg, Karnataka in India. The present

report from North Kanara is the second report of

this Indomalayan genus from the Western Ghats

and reduces the vast gap between the two earlier

records.

The Thomisids are non-orb-weaving jumping

spiders that hunt their prey by direct attacks through

the foliage and flowers and mainly devour diurnal insects.

They move their legs, specially the first two pairs,

sideways like crabs; their bodies are also dorsoventrally

flattened, due to which they are termed crab-spiders.

They usually possess bright and beautiful body

colouration (Tikader 1980), which varies greatly even

within the same species in the same locality. The body

colours in Arachnids depend upon the nature of their

food (insects and other invertebrates).

We thank Dr. M.S. Pradhan, Officer-in-Charge,

Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

Pune and Dr. H.V. Ghate, Head, Zoology Department,

Modern College, Pune, for help and facilities.

June 6, 200 1 D.B. BASTAWADE

KRUSHNAMEGH KUNTE

ASHOK CAPTAIN

Zoological Survey of India,

Western Regional Station,

Akurdi, Pune 41 1 044,

Maharashtra, India.

REFERENCE

Biswas, A.T. (1977): A new species of spider of the genus Platythomisus Simon (Thomisidae) from Coorg, Karnataka, India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 74(2): 332-334.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

181

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3 1 . REDESCRIPTION OF TETRAGNATHA VIRIDORUFA GRAVELY

FROM KERALA, INDIA, ARANEAE: TETRAGNATHIDAE

Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely, a common

species in the forests and paddy fields of Kerala, was

first reported by Gravely (1921) from Barkuda Islands,

Orissa. As a predominant predatory spider in our

agricultural fields, T. viridorufa bears much importance

in biocontrol studies. However, as there is no detailed

illustration in Gravely’s description, its identification

is usually difficult. During our study on the spiders

of Ernakulam district in Kerala, we came across several

specimens of T. viridorufa. A detailed description

and illustration of T. viridorufa collected is given

here.

Collection and preservation of the spiders was

done following Tikader ( 1987). The material was studied

using a Stereozoom binocular microscope, model Leica

MS-5. All measurements are in millimetres, made with

an eyepiece graticule.

Abbreviations used are as follows: ALE = Anterior

lateral eye, AME = Anterior median eye, PLE =

Posterior lateral eye, PME = Posterior median eye;

Spination: dvpr = dorsal-ventral-prolateral-retrolateral,

MOQ = Median ocular quadrangle, L = Length,

W = Width, H = Height, SR = Semicircular ridge,

TT = Truncate tooth.

Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely

(Figs 1-19)

1921 Tetragnatha viridorufa : Gravely, Rec. Ind.

Mus. 22: 4 1 1 and 434

1987 Tetragnatha viridorufa : Tikader,

Handbook of Indian spiders : 222

Cephalothorax reddish-brown, longer than broad.

Abdomen elongate, yellowish-brown in male, dorsum

reddish and lateral sides bright greenish in female. Legs

longer, slender and yellowish-brown.

Measurements (in mm): Male: Total length:

10.75; Cephalothorax 3 L, 1.5 W, 1 .0 H; Abdomen 7.6 L,

1.2 W, 1.0 H. Female: Total length: 10.40;

Cephalothorax 3.2 L, 1.9 W, 1.0 H; Abdomen 7.1 L,

1.7 W, 1.1 H.

Cephalothorax

Male: Reddish-brown, longer than broad. Cephalic

region rounded anteriorly, broadest basally and slightly

concave dorsally. Cephalic region separated from

thoracic region by a short indentation. Eyes eight in two

rows, both rows recurved, MOQ slightly wider at the

anterior end. Anterior eye row longer than posterior.

Eye separation AME-AME 0.12, AME-ALE = 0.22,

PME-PME = 0.10, PME-PLE = 0.15; Eye diameter

AME 0.1 8, ALE = 0.1 5, PME = 0.17, PLE = 0.15. Eye

row length: AE = 0.98, PE = 0.94. Cheliceral length = 4,

fang = 3.2. Sternum, Labium, Maxillae as in female.

Chelicerae long, slender and widely divergent; first dorsal

spine and subapical spine subequal in length, the former

being slightly shorter and thicker than latter and much

longer than other spines. Fang armed with a strong

truncate tooth on the inner side of the basal bend.

Legs yellowish-brown, long and slender. Metatarsus

I / Tarsus I = 6.73. Leg formula 12 4 3. Palp yellow,

bulb transverse; length of the palp longer than femur III,

about one half of femur I. Cymbium as long as tibia,

broader at the apical half; paracymbium cleft apically,

four times longer than broad. Apex of conductor thin

and shortly curved upwards. Embolus elongate and thin

(Figs 17-19).

Female: Reddish-brown, longer than broad. Fovea

distinct and deep, with two lateral furrows converging

to it from anterior end. Eyes eight in two rows, both

rows recurved, anterior row longer than posterior row.

Ocular quadrangle longer than broad, slightly wider at

the anterior end. Clypeus height 1.3 times AME

diameter. Sternum longer than wide, brownish-yellow,

pointed behind. Labium longer than wide, similar in

colour to sternum, apical end bluntly rounded, basal end

with lateral indentations. Maxillae yellowish-brown,

longer than wide; distal end with lateral projections

having a longitudinal ridge midventrally (Fig. 4).

Chelicerae with 15 teeth on the outer margin and

13 teeth on the inner margin. 7 basal teeth on outer

margin and 6 basal teeth on the inner margin are smaller

and closely set. Chelicerae long, slender and widely

divergent; first dorsal and ventral teeth much larger than

others (Figs 8-12). A semicircular ridge extends

between first dorsal and ventral spine (Fig. 1 1). Fang

unarmed. Eye diameter ALE = 0.13, AME = 0.15,

PLE = 0.13 PME = 0.14. Eye separation ALE-

AME = 0.22, AME-AME = 0.13, PME-PLE = 0.18,

PME-PME = 0.11, AME-PME = 0.12. Eye row length

AE = 1.02, PE = 0.91. Length of ocular quadrangle

0.36. Cheliceral length = 4. Legs longer, slender and

yellowish-brown. Leg formula 12 4 3. Spination

of Tibia I dvpr = 2-2-5-4, Femur I dvpr = 1 -2-9-5

(Fig. 5)

Abdomen

Male: Abdomen yellowish-brown, elongate and

cylindrical. Abdominal tip rounded, not exerted

182

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

0.5 mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 1-19: Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely: 9 1 . Dorsal view, 2. Lateral view, 3. Abdomen - Ventral view,

4. Sternum with labium and maxillae, 5. Femur I, 6. Epigynal fold, 7. Internal Genitalia, 8. Chelicerae - Dorsal view,

9. Chelicerae - Ventral view, 10. Chelicerae - Lateral view, 11. Chelicerae - Anterior end enlarged - ventral view,

12. Semicircular ridge - Lateral view, 13. d Chelicerae - Dorsal view, 14. d Chelicerae - Ventral view,

15. d Chelicerae - Lateral view, 16. d Chelicerae - Anterior end enlarged - Lateral view, 17. d Palp - Dorsal view,

18 d Palp - Ventral view, 19. d Palp - Lateral view.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

183

1 mm , 1 mm

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1 : Measurements in mm for Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely ( d )

Table 2: Measurements in mm for Tetragnatha viridorufa Gravely (9)

beyond spinnerets. Lateral margins smooth except

three posterotransverse striations near spinnerets.

Venter yellowish, book lungs brown, longer than

broad. A transverse black patch in front of spinnerets

ventral ly.

Female: Elongate, dorsum reddish and lateral sides

bright greenish. Abdominal tip blackish, slightly projecting

beyond spinnerets. Venter yellowish-brown. Epigynal

fold short, distal fold wider than long, with a conical tip.

(Figs 1-3)

Distribution: India: Villivakulam, Chingleput

district; Barkuda island, Ganjam district; Balugaon and

Balighai, Puri district, Orissa; Ernakulam, Thattakkad

Bird Sanctuary, Bhoothathankettu; Kerala.

Natural History: Nocturnal, collected from

coconut leaves hiding under the leaves; colouration of

the abdomen helps in concealing its presence.

Material examined: India: 2 ? 9, d\ Moolampilly

Is., Ernakulam, 26.ii.2001, Habitat: coastal ecosystem.

Coll. K. Sunil Jose.

2 ? ? , 2 ? 9 , Bhoothathankettu, Kothamangalam,

5.xii.2000. Habitat: Evergreen forest, Coll. K. Sunil Jose.

1 d, 2 9 9 , Thattakkad Bird Sanctuary, 10.iv.2001 .

Habitat: Evergreen forest, Coll. Samson Davis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Principal Rev. Fr. George Koyikara

C.M.I., Sacred Heart College, Thevara, Kochi for

providing facilities.

December 7, 2001 K. SUNIL JOSE

Department of Zoology,

St. Albert’s H.S.S., Kochi 682 0 1 8,

Kerala, India.

SAMSON DAVIS

A.V. SUDHIKUMAR

P.A. SEBASTIAN

Sacred Heart College, Thevara,

Kochi 682 013, Kerala, India.

REFERENCES

Gravely, F.H. ( 1921 ): Some Indian spiders of the subfamily Tetragnathidae. Rec. Indian Mus. 22: 399-421 and 423-459.

I ikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook of Indian spiders. Zoological Survey of India. Pp. 25 1 .

32. ON TWO INTERESTING MARINE CRABS (DECAPODA: BRACHYURA)

FROM MANDVI, KUTCH

In connection with studies on animal-sediment

relationship, involving burrows made by polychaetes,

crustaceans and molluscs, crabs were collected by one

of us (BGD) from the intertidal zone around Mandvi

region (22° 55' N, 69° 20' E) in the Gulf of Kutch. A

total of seven species were collected and identified as

follows:

1. Matuta lunaris (Forskal), 2. Matuta planipes

Fabricius, 3. Portunus tenuipes (De Haan),

4. Ocypoda ceratophthalma (Pallas), 5. Ocypoda

platytarsis Milne-Edwards, 6. Ocypoda rotundata

Miers, and 7. Plagusia depressa var. squamosa

(Herbst).

Chhapgar (1957a, b, 1958, 1961, 1968, 1979),

184

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Chhapgar and Borgaonkar (1985) and Chhapgar and

Mundkur (1995), in studies on marine crabs of the

erstwhile Bombay State, had recorded species 1 , 2, 4, 6

and 7 from the above list. The other two, namely

Portunus tenuipes (De Haan) and Ocypoda platytarsis

Milne-Edwards appear to be new records for the region.

Portunus tenuipes (De Haan)

This is the only Indian species of Portunus in which

the front is cut into three teeth (all the others have four

teeth). The length of the carapace is about two-thirds

its breadth. The antero-lateral borders are cut into nine

teeth, of which the last is a long spine thrice as long as

the other teeth.

The arm of the chelipeds has three spines on its

anterior border and one at the far end of the posterior

border. There is a strong spine on the inner angle of the

wrist, and a much weaker one on the outer angle. The

hand has a spine near the wrist-joint and another just

behind its joint with the finger.

Alcock’s ( 1 899) key states “posterior angles of

carapace square” for P. tenuipes. His description is:

“Posterior border slightly curved and meets the postero-

lateral border at a well-marked angle which is sometimes

slightly turned up.” In the specimen examined by us, the

postero-lateral borders appear to continue as a smooth

curve with the posterior border. Below this level,

however, the front edge of the abdomen does show an

acute spiny angle.

In view of the smooth curving of the postero-lateral

borders into the posterior border and the distribution of

P. tenuipes from the Andamans, as given by Alcock, it

was first thought unlikely that the crab was P tenuipes.

However, the presence of only three teeth on the front is

so characteristic of this species that this character, together

with the morphological features tallying with Alcock’s

description as P. tenuipes , leads us to identify this crab.

Breadth of carapace (with spines) 59 mm

Breadth of carapace (without spines) 40 mm

Length of carapace 30 mm

0.1 mm

Fig. 1: Tip of first male abdominal appendage of

llyoplax gangeticus

Alcock has not described the colouration of

P. tenuipes. Our specimen (after prolonged

preservation) shows extensive irregular white spots

characteristic of P. pelagicus, but on a light buff orange

background, on the carapace and the arm of the

chelipeds. The finger and thumb of both the claws are

crimson red along their distal half.

The presence of this species from the Arabian

Sea is of interest.

Ocypoda platytarsis Milne-Edwards

This species resembles O. ceratophthalma , but

differs from it in the absence of brushes of hairs on the

anterior surface of the propodites of any of the legs.

The dactyli are dorsoventrally compressed and

broadened, and are also fluted (Alcock 1900).

The stridulating ridge on the inner surface of the

palm is entirely granular. (In O. ceratophthalma, this

ridge consists of tubercles gradually passing into

granules.) The upper edge of the inner surface of the

ischium of the large claw, against which the stridulating

ridge is rubbed to produce sound, is only raised and rough,

there being no specialised structure.

The orbits of the eyes are hardly oblique.

Breadth of carapace: 51 mm

This crab is common along both the coasts of the

Indian Peninsula as well as in Sri Lanka.

In the note on llyoplax gangeticus (Kemp) by

Chhapgar and Borgaonkar (1985), description of the first

abdominal appendage was inadvertently left out. The

tips of the appendages end in a straight edge, somewhat

like a ploughshare. Behind this, on one side are about

eight close set setae; the other side bears distal ly spaced

setae (Fig. 1).

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENI

Financial assistance to SJP and BGD from

Department of Science and Technology, Government

of India for Project No. ESS/23/049/96 is gratefully

acknowledged.

July 27, 2001 B.F. CHHAPGAR

Taraporevala Marine Biological Station,

Taraporevala Aquarium,

Mumbai 400 002,

Maharashtra, India.

BHAWANISINGH G. DESAI

SATISH J. PATEL

Department of Geology,

M.S. University of Baroda,

Vadodara 390 002,

Gujarat, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

185

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Alcock, A. ( 1 899): Materials for a carcinological fauna of India. Journ.

As. Soc. Bengal Ixviii: 1-104.

Alcock., A. ( 1 900): Materials for a carcinological fauna of India. Journ.

As. Soc. Bengal Ixix: 279-456.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1957a): On the marine crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura)

of Bombay State. Pt I. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc. 54(2): 399-439.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1957b): On the marine crabs (Decapoda: Brachyura)

of Bombay State. Pt II. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 54(3):

503-549.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1958): Additions to the crab fauna of Bombay State.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc 55(3): 582-585.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1961): Extension of range of the crab Acanthonyx

limbatus Milne-Edwards to Indian waters. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 58(2): 529.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1968): More additions to the crab fauna of Bombay

State. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc. 65(3): 608-617.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1979): Colour during life of the crab Atergatis roseus

(Ruppell). J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 76(2): 370-371.

Chhapgar, B.F. & S.S. Borgaonkar (1985): Extension of range

of the estuarine crab Ilyoplax gangeticus (Kemp) to the

west coast of India. J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 82(1): 226-228.

Chhapgar, B.F. & T. Mundkur (1995): Occurrence of the crab

Euxanthus exsculptus (Herbst) in Gujarat. J Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 92(2): 286.

33. LITTLE KNOWN BIODIVERSITY OF SUBTERRANEAN FRESHWATER

HABITATS IN INDIA, WITH SPECIAL REFERENCE TO CRUSTACEAN FAUNA

The United Nations Convention on Biological

Diversity (CBD), which came into force on December 29,

1 993, has evoked a tremendous, determined response from

the world’s scientific community, as well as governments,

to save the earth’s fast-depleting biodiversity. Though

the term biodiversity encompasses the total variability

of life in the biosphere, it is often viewed in the restricted

sense of epigean flora and fauna, both terrestrial and

aquatic. Paradoxically, however, the vast and varied

hypogean biodiversity has received little attention,

especially in South Asia, including India. This is partly

due to the widespread misconception that groundwater

is azoic, except for some harmless bacteria.

Elsewhere in the world (see Botosaneanu 1986),

however, the hypogean/subterranean biotope has been

found to support rich faunal diversity, comprising almost

all the free-living invertebrate groups and some

vertebrates as well. For example, Pesce (1985), while

reviewing the Italian groundwater fauna (stygofauna),

met with the following significant stygobiont groups:

cyclopid and harpacticoid copepods, ostracods,

thermosbaenaceans, mysids, amphipods, isopods,

syncarids, decapods, water mites, nematodes,

gastropods, tricladid turbellarians, and amphipods. Other

groups of organisms that are mostly stygoxenous or

stygophilous, include Bacteria, Protozoa, Rotifera,

Cladocera, Archiannelida, Oligochaeta, Gastrotricha,

Bivalvia, and insect larvae. Further, the subterranean

environment may reveal insights into biological

adaptation and speciation (Barr 1968, Rouch 1986). Even

the reconstruction of the earth’s history is interpreted in

terms of the occurrence of certain ancient stygofaunal

elements (Schminke 1974, 1981).

In India, the faunal diversity of the subterranean

freshwater biotope, i.e. Husmann’s(1971) ‘kernel zone’

of groundwater, has received scant attention from

taxonomists and systematists. Hence, this note is meant

to update the poorly known Indian stygocrustacean

fauna, and to underscore the need to start highly

rewarding stygobiological research in the country.

Two methods were used to collect the animals from

the subterranean fresh waters:

Direct filtration: Bore-well water was filtered

for 3 to 4 hrs by tying a plankton net made of bolting silk

(mesh size 70 pm) to the inlet delivery tube of overhead

storage tanks in residential areas or by manually holding

the net against water pumped from agricultural bore

wells for c. 30 min. The filtrate was fixed in 1 0% formalin

and preserved in 5% formalin solution.

Coring and filtration: Plastic tubes (open at both

ends) 70 cm long and 4 cm wide, and/or metal corer, were

employed in sandy or gravelly hyporheic zones of rivers.

The cores taken from the sediment surface to a depth of

1 0-30 cm were pooled into a bucket and vigorously stirred

with filtered habitat water. The supernatant was filtered

through plankton net, and the filtrate fixed and preserved

as mentioned above. Other details such as dissection, and

drawing, are as given in Reddy (2001 ).

Checklist of the known Stygocrustaceans in India

Amphipoda

Indoniphargus indicus (Chilton 1923) appears

to be the first record of a true stygobiont, freshwater

crustacean in India; it was found in wells, springs and

mine pits in Bengal, Orissa, and Bihar (Botosaneanu

1986). No further amphipod species are known from

the subterranean freshwater in India to date.

Isopoda

Nichollsia kashiense Chopra & Tiwari 1950

(Fig. 7): Wells at Benaras and Lahagara in Uttar Pradesh.

Nichollsia menoniYmari, 1955: Well at Monghyr

in Bihar.

186

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs 1-4: Some copepod representatives of the subterranean freshwater in India: 1. Rangabradya indica , female, dorsal,

scale = 0.1 mm; 2. Parastenocaris gayatri, male, dorsal, scale = 0.1 mm; 3. Leptastacus n. sp., male, dorsal (original), scale

= 0.1 mm; 4. Thermocyclops oblongatus, female, dorsal, scale = 0.5 mm. Abbreviations, a = antennule; c = cephalothorax;

f = caudal furca; g = genital somite; r = rostrum.

Figs 5-8: Some non-copepod crustaceans of the subterranean freshwater in India: 5. Habrobathynella schminkei, female,

lateral, scale = 0.2 mm; 6. Troglindicus phreaticus, male, lateral, scale = 0.5 mm; 7. Nichollsia kashiense, male, dorsal,

scale = 5.0 mm; 8. Cypretta fontinalis, female, left valve, dorsal, scale = 0.3 mm. Abbreviations: al = antennule; a2 = antenna;

c = cephalothorax; f = furca; h = head; I = labrum; m = mandible; ml = maxillule; mx = maxilla, p = pleotelson; pi = pleon;

pr = preon; prd = pereopods; pld = pleopods; th. 1-7 = thoracopods 1-7; th. 8 = thoracopod 8; u = uropod.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

187

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Decapoda

Macrobrachium cavernicola (Kemp 1924):

Streams and pools in Siju Cave, Garo Hills, and a cave

near Cherrapunji, Meghalaya (Kemp 1924).

Troglindicus phreaticus Sankolli & Shenoy, 1979

(Fig. 6): Fort Well near All-weather Port, Ratnagiri,

Maharashtra (Sankolli and Shenoy 1979).

Mysidacea (from Botosaneanu 1986)

Spelaeomysis longipes (Pillai and Mariamma

1963): well at Kottayam, Kerala.

Ostracoda (from Botosaneanu 1986)

Cypretta fontinalis Hartmann 1964 (Fig. 8): Well

at Junagadh, Gujarat (Vicror and Fernando 1 978).

Copepoda

Cyclopid and harpacticoid copepods represent a

very significant and highly speciose crustacean group

in subterranean freshwaters as in epigean waters.

During a survey of the Indian stygofauna, conducted by

the Zoological Institute of the University of L’Aquila,

Italy (December 1982 to January 1983), Pesce and Pace

( 1 984) recorded for the first time four cyclopid species

in freshwater wells near New Delhi: Thermocyclops

oblongcitus (G.O. Sars 1927) (Fig. 4), Eucyclops

serrulatus (Fischer 1851), Mesocyclops aspericornis

(Daday 1906), and Tropocyclops prasinus (Fischer

1860).

As for the harpacticoids, Elaphoidella crassa

Chappuis 1954 is the first subterranean freshwater taxon

in India; it was reported from Maosmae cave near

Cherrapunji by Chappuis (1954). Karanovic and Pesce

(2001) have described a second species, Rangabradya

indica Karanovic and Pesce 2001 (Fig. 1), from a

freshwater well at Guntur.

Bathynellacea

The order Bathynellacea, which contains primitive

and very ancient freshwater syncarid crustaceans

(ancestry dating back to the Carboniferous or even

earlier; see Schminke 1974), has been reported by Reddy

(in press, a) for the first time in South Asia. Reddy (in

press, b) has also discovered a eustygobiont

parabathynellid, Habrobathynella nagarjunai Reddy,

in a well on the Nagarjuna University campus, Guntur.

Paradoxically, the vast interstitial, hyporheic zone

of the Indian streams and rivers, which is but an extension

of the subterranean freshwater biotope (stygobion), has

remained practically unexplored till now, as confirmed

by G.C. Rao (pers. comm.), a noted marine

meiobenthologist in India. Reddy (2001 , in press, a) has

recorded in three peninsular rivers, i.e. Krishna, Godavari,

and Pennar, ten harpacticoid and two bathynellacean

species, seven of which are new to science:

Copepoda Harpacticoida

Parastenocaris gayatri Reddy 2001 (Fig. 2)

Parastenocaris savita Reddy 2001

Parastenocaris sandhya Reddy 2001

Parastenocaris curvispinus Enckell 1970

Parastenocaris n. sp.

Leptastacus n. sp. (Fig. 3)

Mesochra w>olskii Jakubisiak 1933

Nitokra lacustris (Schmankevitsch 1875)

Cletocamptus deitersi (Richard 1 897)

Onychocamptus mohammed (Blanchard &

Richard 1891)

Syncarida Bathynellacea

Habrobathynella schminkei Reddy (Fig. 5)

Habrobathynella n. sp.

With its highly diversified geomorphology,

hydrography, and climate, the Indian subterranean

freshwater biotope is quite likely to support rich faunal

diversity as elsewhere, and thus holds enormous

serendipitous potential for taxonomists and systematists.

(Literally, specimens of many groundwater taxa, which

are not yet known to science, are being continually

consumed by man through raw water, or let into the

sewers.) Considering that this special habitat has already

become endangered owing, inter alia, to

overexploitation and pollution of the water table, the

national funding agencies would do well to encourage

scientists to unearth the stygofaunal diversity in the

country and delve into its adaptational biology.

Stygobiology deserves to be treated as a distinct branch

of science.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Dr. K.K. Tiwari, former Director,

Zoological Survey of India, for his comments on an

earlier draft of the manuscript and for literature on

isopods. Thanks are also due to my colleagues for their

advice and/or literature: Dr. D. Defaye and Prof.C.

Juberthie, France, Prof. G.L. Pesce, Italy, Prof. H.K.

Schminke, Germany, Dr. T. Karanovic, Australia, Dr. K.N.

Sankolli, Dr. G.C. Rao, and Dr. K. Ravindranath, India.

March 13,2002 Y. RANG A REDDY

Department of Zoology,

Nagarjuna University,

Nagarjunanagar 522 5 1 0,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

[email protected]

188

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Barr, T.C. (1968): Cave ecology and evolution of troglodytes. In :

Evolutionary Biology 2 (Eds: Dobzhansky, Th., M.K. Hechj

& Wm. C. Steere). North Holland Publishing Co., Amsterdam.

Pp. 35-102.

Botosaneanu, L. (ed.) (1986): Stygofauna Mundi a faunistic

distributional and ecological synthesis of the world fauna

inhabiting subterranean waters (including the marine interstitial).

E.J. Brill/Dr. W. Backhuys, Leiden. Pp. 1-740.

Chappuis. PA. (1954): Copepods Harpacticoi'des des Indes et de

I’lran. Bull. Soc Hist Nat. Toulouse 89(3/4): 213-224.

Chopra, B. & K.K. Tiwari (1950): On a new genus of phreatoicid

isopod from wells in Banaras. Rec. Indian Mus 47: 277-289,

Pis. 17, 18.

I Iusmann, S. ( 1 97 1 ): Ecological studies on freshwater meiobenthon

in layers of sand and gravel In: Proceedings of the First

International Conference on Meiofauna (Ed.: Hulings, N.C.).

Smithson. Contr. Zool 76: 161-169.

Karanovic, T. & G.L. Pesce (2001 ): A new genus and a new species

of the family Ectinosomatidae (Crustacea: Copepoda:

Harpacticoida) from the groundwaters of India. Ann. Limnol.

37(4): 281-292.

Kemp, S. (1924): Rec. Ind. Mus. 26: 42, PI. 3, figs. 1-4.

Pesce, G.L. (1985): The groundwater fauna of Italy: a synthesis.

Stygologia 1(2): 129-159.

Pesce, G.L. & R. Pace (1984): Thermocyclops oblongatus (Sars)

(Crustacea, Copepoda): a new cyclopid for the fauna of India,

and zoogeography of the species. Proc. Indian natn. Sci. Acad.,

34. HYPERICUM GAIT1I HAINES (HYPE

SOUTHERN PENINSULAR INDIA

The genus Hypericum with about 400 species is

cosmopolitan in distribution. 25 species of the genus have

been reported from India (Sharmaand Sanjappa 1993),

of which 5 species are so far known to occur in southern

peninsular India.

While working on the flora of Eastern Ghats,

we collected an interesting species of Hypericum

from the slopes of Galikonda hills of Visakhapatnam

district, Andhra Pradesh. After critical study it was

identified as Hypericum gciitii Haines and found to be

a new record for southern peninsular India. This taxon

has not been reported so far from Andhra Pradesh

(Pullaiah and Chennaiah 1997). With this report, its

distribution extends from east to south. A detailed

description and illustration of this species is provided

here.

Hypericum gaitii Haines in J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

n.s. 15: 311. 1919 & Bot. Bihar & Orissa 1: 52.1925.

Saxena & Brahmam FI. Orissa 1 : 111-112. 1 994. Sharma

& Sanjappa FI. India 3: 58 f. 59.1997.

Much branched glabrous shrub, 0.8-2 m tall; stem

chartaceous, terete, reddish brown, internodes long,

conspicuous. Leaves simple, opposite, decussate, elliptic-

oblong, to oblong-lanceolate, rarely oblanceolate, 1 .5-6

B50 (2): 133-138.

Reddy, Y.R. (2001): Discovery of Parastenocarididae (Crustacea,

Harpacticoida) in India, with the description of three new

species of Parastenocaris Kessler, 1913, from the River Krishna

at Vijayawada. Crustaceana 74(8): 705-733.

Reddy, Y.R. (in press, a): Existence of the Order Bathynellacea

(Crustacea, Syncarida) in South Asia: a new species of the

genus Habrobathynella Schminke from River Pennar near

Cuddapah, South India. J. Bombay nat. Hist Soc.

Reddy, Y.R. (in press, b): Habrobathynella nagarjunai n. sp., the

second representative of Bathynellacea (Crustacea, Syncarida)

from Groundwaters of South India. Hydrobiologia.

Rouch, R. ( 1 986): Sur l’ecologie des eaux souterraines dans le karst.

Stygologia 2(4): 352-399.

Sankolli, K.N. & S. Shenoy (1979): On a new genus and a species

of a subterranean prawn Troglindicus phreaticus (Caridea,

Palaemonidae). Bull Fish. Fac. Konkan Agri. Univ., India 1(1):

83-91.

Schminke, H.K. (1974): Mesozoic intercontinental relationships as

evidenced by bathynellid Crustacea (Syncarida: Malacostraca).

Syst. Zool. 23: 157-164.

Schminke, H.K. (1981): Perspectives in the study of the

zoogeography of interstitial Crustacea: Bathynellacea

(Syncarida) and Parastenocarididae (Copepoda). Int J. Speleol.

11: 83-89.

Tiwari, K.K. (1958): Another new species of Nichollsia (Crustacea,

Isopoda, Phrcatoicoidea). Rec. Indian Mus. 53: 379-381.

CACEAE), A NEW RECORD FOR

x 0.3- 1 .8 cm, glabrous, pale and black glandular beneath,

apex subacute to acute, margin entire, base sub

amplexicaul, midnerve and lateral nerves reddish-brown,

lateral nerves 3 pairs, basal lateral nerves running

towards apex, petiole 0. Flowers yellow, bisexual, 2-5 in

dichotomous cymes, 2-3.5 cm across, pedicel 7-12 mm

long; bracts elliptic-lanceolate, up to 1 1 mm long. Sepals

5, green, free, imbricate, 8-1 0 x 4-6 mm, ovate or ovate-

lanceolate, persistent in fruit. Petals obliquely obovate,

3 x 1.7 cm, prominently veined, black-glandular punctate,

distantly serrulate. Stamens numerous, combined into

5 bunches, c. 25 each, epipetalous; filaments linear, 5 to

1 .8 cm long, anthers yellow, 1 mm long. Ovary glabrous,

ellipsoid, 7 mm long, 5- to 7-locular, broadly oblong,

ovules many per locule on axile placentation; styles 5,

rarely 6-7, 1 .2 cm long, basal ly connate, persistent; stigma

capitate. Capsule ellipsoid or conical, dehiscing along

placenta, 1 .2-1.5 cm long, tipped with persistent style;

seeds numerous, brown, polished, 0.1 mm long, linear to

oblong, acute to subacute at both ends, scalariform

reticulate.

FI.: February-May,

Fr: April-June.

Ecology: Rare on slopes of exposed hills.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

189

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Hypericum gaitii Haines, A. Fruiting twig, B. Flowering twig, C. Bract, D. Sepal, E. Petal,

F. Petal with staminal bundle, G. One staminal bunch, H. I. & J. Anthers, K. Pistil, L. Seed.

Specimens examined: Galikonda lulls c. 1,250 m

above msl, Visakhapatnam district, Andhra Pradesh,

KSM 21945 & 21956

Distribution: Bihar, Orissa, Andhra Pradesh and

Madhya Pradesh - endemic.

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENT

We thank the Department of Science and

Technology, New Delhi for financial support. We also

Wank Dr. M. Brahmam, RRL, Bhubaneswar, Orissa

for confirming the identity of the specimen.

November 1 3, 200 1 K. SRI RAMA MURTHY*

S. SANDHYA RANI

T. PULLAIAH

Department of Botany,

Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur 5 1 5 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

^Present Address: Department of Botany,

Andhra Loyola College, Vijayawada 520 008,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

190

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Sharma, B.D. & M. Sanjappa (1993): Flora of India. Portulacaceae - Pulliah, T. & E. Chennaiah(1997): Flora of Andhra Pradesh. Vol. 1.

Ixonanthaceae, Vol. 3. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

35. AMENDMENT TO AN ENDEMIC SPECIES DALBERGIA TINNE VELLIENSIS

THOTH., FAMILY FABACEAE ON ITS REDISCOVERY FROM KALAKKAD-

MUN D ANTHURA I TIGER RESERVE, INDIA

Thothathri (1976) described Dalbergia

tinnevelliensis sp. nov. from a fruiting specimen

collected by Fischer in January 1917 (4045, CAL) from

Mundanthurai, Tirunelveli district. This species is endemic

to Tamil Nadu (Thothathri 1 987). During the inventory

in the buffer zone of the Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve (KMTR), specimens of the species were

collected in flowering and fruiting condition after a lapse

of about 83 years. The description has been amended

on the basis of these new collections. Illustration and

other related details are provided to facilitate

identification and conservation of the species.

Dalbergia tinnevelliensis Thoth. in Ceylon J. Sci.

(Bio. Sci.) 12(1): 47. 1976

Shrub or tree, up to 5 m high; stems woody,

lenticellate, glabrous; branchlets rigid, ending in thorns;

thorns 0.6- 1 .7 x 0. 1 5-0.2 cm, glabrous. Leaves alternate,

imparipinnate, 2.5-12.6 x 1-4 cm, in short clusters,

stipulate; stipules caducous; leaflets 7-17 in each pinna,

obovate, 1-2.7 x 0.5-1 .3 cm, acutely obtuse at base when

young, cuneately obtuse at base when mature, entire at

margin, obtusely retuse or emarginate at apex,

subcoriaceous, pale green above, glaucous beneath;

rachis puberulous; midvein prominent; lateral veins

indistinct; petiolules c. 1.0 x 0.6 mm, puberulous.

Inflorescence in axillary racemose panicles, 1.5-2. 5 x

1 .7- 2 cm. Flowers bisexual, 5-merous, zygomorphic, 4-

4.3 x 3. 7-3. 9 mm; bracts oblong-lanceolate, c. 1.5 x

0.3 mm, puberulous outside, glabrous inside; bracteoles

lanceolate, c. 0.9 x 0.3 mm, puberulous outside, glabrous

within; pedicels c. 1.2 x 0.3 mm, puberulous. Calyx

campanulate, brown, connate at base, 5-toothed above,

glabrous, ciliate above middle; tube c. 2.0 x 1.5 mm;

teeth unequal, upper 4 smaller, lower one larger; upper

ones ovate, c. 1.1 x 0.9 mm, entire at margin, 2 teeth

obtuse at apex, 2 teeth acute at apex; larger one oblong-

lanceolate, entire at margin, acute at apex, hairy on midrib

outside, c. 1.3 x 0.4 mm. Petals 5, whitish yellow;

standard orbicular, 3.5-4. 1 x 3. 2-3. 8 mm, slightly auricled

at base, entire at margin, retuse at apex; wings 2, oblong,

2.8- 3 x 1 - 1 . 1 mm, adnate above, auricled at base, entire

at margin, obtuse at apex; claw c. 0.5 x 0.2 mm; keels 2,

oblong-obovate, 2.5-3 x 1-1.2 mm, obliquely auricled at

base, entire at margin, adnate above, obtuse at apex;

claw 0.5-0. 7 x 0.2-0.25 mm. Stamens 9, monadelphous,

whitish yellow; staminal column free above, connate up

to 1.2 x 1.2 mm; middle one longer, c. 1.5 x 0.2 mm;

laterals 4, 2 each on either side, c. 1.2 x 0.2 mm;

marginals 4, shorter than laterals, 2 each on either side,

c. 1 x 0.2 mm; anthers basifixed, rectangular in shape,

c. 0.25 x 0.5 mm, transverse. Ovary brown, stipitate,

oblong, c. 3.25 x 1 mm; stipe c. 1 x 0.4 mm; ovules 4;

style c. 0.35 x 0.25 mm; stigma terminal. Pod greenish

- pale brown, indehiscent, flat, oblong-elliptic, 3. 6-5. 9 x

1.2- 1.7 cm, acutely cuneate at base, entire and ribbed

at margin, obtusely acute and rarely mucronate at apex,

faintly reticulate, glabrous, 1 - or 2-seeded, stipitate; stipe

2-5.2 x 0.4-0. 8 mm. Seeds 1 or 2, attached marginally,

pale to dark brown when mature, reniform, 12.5-12.8 x

6. 6-6. 9 mm.

The distinguishing features between Dalbergia

coromandeliana Prain and D. tinnevelliensis Thoth.

are given in Table 1 .

Specimens examined: India, Tamil Nadu,

Tirunelveli district, Kalakkad-Mundanthurai Tiger

Reserve (KMTR): Ambasamudram Range, Singampatti

beat, c. 250 m: 9 . i i i .200 1 , M.B. Viswanathan and

S. Ramakrishnan 10336 & 10384; 1 0 . i i i .200 1 ,

M.B. Viswanathan and S. Ramakrishnan 10430;

15.111.2001, M.B. Viswanathan and S. Ramakrishnan

10459; 1 6 . i i i .200 1 , M.B. Viswanathan and

S. Ramakrishnan 10514; 17. iii. 2001, M.B. Viswanathan

and S. Ramakrishnan 10569; 19. iii. 2001,

M.B. Viswanathan and S. Ramakrishnan 10589;

3 . i v.200 1 , M.B. Viswanathan and M. Venkatesan

12470; 8.V.2001, M.B. Viswanathan and M. Venkatesan

13540; Kadayam Range, Ambur beat: c. 240 m:

24.iv.2001, M.B. Viswanathan and S. Ramakrishnan

13105; Kalakkad Range, Kalakkad beat, c. 300 m:

9. 111. 2001 , M.B. Viswanathan and B. Jeyasuresh 1 0055

& 10079; 18. iii. 2001, M.B. Viswanathan and

B. Jeyasuresh 10087; 21 .iii. 2001, M.B. Viswanathan and

B. Jeyasuresh 10726; 8.iv.2001, M.B. Viswanathan and

B. Jeyasuresh 10769; Papanasam Range, Aladiyur beat,

c. 200 m: 16. iii. 2001, M.B. Viswanathan and N. Andal

10692.

Habitat: Southern tropical thorn forest with trees

of Allophylus serratus , Grewia rhamnifolia , Sapindus

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

191

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Figs. 1-19: Dalbergia tinnevelliensis: 1. A flowering twig; 2. A fruiting twig; 3. Leaflet; 4. Inflorescence; 5 Bract;

6. Bracteole; 7. Flower; 8. Clayx; 9. Calyx split open; 10. Standard; 11. Wings; 12. Keels; 13. Staminal column;

14. Stamen; 15. Ovary; 16. L.S. of Ovary; 17. C.S. of Ovary; 18. Pod; and 19 Seed

emarginatus and Zizyphus xylopyrus, shrubs like

Canthium parvifloruni, Capparis grandiflora,

Dichrostachys cinerea, Osyris quadripartita,

Securinega leucopyrus and Zizyphus oenoplia, herbs

such as Adiantutn incisum, Aristida setacea, Justicia

glauca, Barleria prionitis, Boerhavia diffusa,

Commelina benghalensis, C. longifolia , Cyperus

kyllinga, Digitaria setigera, Evolvulus alsinoides,

Malvastrum coromandelianum, Mollugo pentaphylla

and Orthosiphon thymiflorus, and climbers Argyreia

192

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Distinguishing features between Dalbergia coromandeliana and D. tinnevelliensis

hirsuta, Cocculus hirsutus and Jasminum

angustifolium var. sessiliflorum. In some areas, thickets

formed by this species can be seen with sporadic

presence of the parasitic Dendrophthoe falcata , Family

Loranthaceae, on its branches.

Note: Thothathri (1976) opined that branchlets

have a tendency to form axillary thorns, whereas all the

specimens examined by us had the branchlets ends

transformed into thorns.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first author thanks the Forest Department of

Tamil Nadu for funding under FREEP of the World

Bank. Authors S.R., B.J., N.A., and M.V. are grateful

for Junior Research Fellowships. All authors thank

Dr. Sukhdev Thakur I.F.S., Chief Wildlife Warden,

Chennai, Dr. V.K. Melkani I.F.S., Field Director and

Conservator of Forests and Mr. Sugato Dutt I.F.S., Eco-

development Officer, Project Tiger, Kalakkad-

Mundanthurai Tiger Reserve, Tirunelveli, for permission

to collect plant specimens for authenticity and Messrs

M. Muthuramakrishnan, K. Manikumaran, G. Ramesh

Babu and C. Vanarajan for cooperation in the field, Mr.

S.S. Mariappan for diagram and Mr. S.H. Ramkumar

for technical assistance.

June 18, 2002 M.B. VISWANATHAN

S. RAMAKRISHNAN

B. JEYASURESH

N. ANDAL

M. VENKATESAN

Sri Paramakalyani Centre

for Environmental Sciences,

Manonmaniam Sundaranar University,

Alwarkurichi 627 412,

Tamil Nadu, India.

Email: [email protected]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

193

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Thothathri, K. (1976): Studies in Leguminosae. 21 . A new species Thothathrj, K. (1987): Taxonomic revision of the tribe Dalbergieae

of Dalbergia from South India. Ceylon J. Sci. (Biol. Sci.) in the Indian subcontinent. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta,

12(1): 47-48. pp. 127-129.

36. TWO DISTRIBUTIONAL RECORDS OF CAESALPINIACEAE FOR

TAMIL NADU

During a botanical exploration on Tirunelveli hills

and the adjoining regions, the authors collected interesting

specimens of genus Caesalpinia L. and Cassia L.

(Caesalpiniaceae).

Study of the literature confirmed the specimens

as Caesalpinia major (Medik.) Dandy & Exell and

Cassia sericea Sw. The identification was confirmed

by the Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore. So far,

they are not recorded from Tamil Nadu, so this

constitutes a first record for the state. The nomenclature,

diagnostic features, phenology, collection site, field

numbers and distribution of the taxa have been provided.

The voucher specimens have been deposited in

St. Xavier’s College Herbarium (XCH), St. Xavier’s

College, Palayamkottai.

Caesalpinia major (Medik) Dandy & Exell,

J. Bot. 76.180.1938; Fosberg, Taxon 22: 162.1793;

Halltink, Reinwardtia 9:39. 1974; Verdecourt, Man. New

Guinea Legum. 26.1979; Rudd in Dassanayake &

Fosberg, Rev. Handb, FI. Ceylon. 7:49.1991. Bennet,

Nam. Cha. Flow. PI. India and Adj. Regions, 88. 1987.

Guilandina bonduc L. Sp. PI. ed. 2, 1: 545. 1762, Pro-

parte non, L., 1753. Bonduc majus Medik., Theod. Spec.

43, t.3, Sup. 1 786, excl. syn. L. Type: Frutex globulorum

Rumph., Herb. Amboin. 5:89, t.48. 1747. Caesalpinia

bonduc sensu auct. Roxb. FI. India 2: 362. 1832, non

Guilandina bonduc L. 1753; Baker in Hook, f., FI.

Brit. India 2: 255. 1 878; Guilandina major {DC.) Small,

FI. Southeast U.S. 591, 1331. 1903; Skeels, Science,

New Ser. 37: 922. 1913. Caesalpinia globurum (sic)

Bakh. f. & Van Royen, Blumea 12: 62. 1963; Backer &

Bakh. f., FI. Java 1: 545. 1963. C. jayabo Maza. ex

Merr. In Interp. Herb. Amb. 261; Gamble, FI. Pres.

Madras 1 : 394. 1997. (reprint).

Armed stragglers; branch lets pubescent, recurved

prickles. Leaves alternate, imparipinnate; leaflets 6-8

pairs, opposite, elliptic-ovate, 6-11 x 3.5 cm,

membranous, glossy, glabrous except midrib, sub-sessile.

Flowers yellow in axillary simple/rarely branched

racemes. Calyx gibbous, brown. Ovules 2-4, parietal.

Style included. Pod obovoid, prickled, beaked at apex.

Seeds 1-3.

FI. & Fr: August-November.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu, Tirunelveli

district, Karayar, Manickam, 16910, 17153 (XCH).

Remarks: Occasionally found in the moist

deciduous forests.

Distribution: India (Tamil Nadu, Kerala,

Karnataka, Andhra Pradesh and Maharashtra), Sri

Lanka, Malay Islands, Polynesia, West Indies.

Cassia sericea Sw., FI. Ind. Occ. 2(1): 274.1798;

Griseb. FI. Brit. W. Indies. Ib.3: 209.1860; Singh, Bull.

Bot. Surv. India 2 1 : 203 .1981; Saldanha, FI. Karnataka

1:386.1984.

Subshrub to 1 m; branchlets pubescent. Leaves

alternate, paripinnate; leaflets 3-4 pairs, ovate-oblong,

2-4 x 1-2.5 cm, pubescent, apex apiculate. Flowers

yellow, in axillary short racemes. Sepals free, obovate.

Antheriferous stamens 7. Pod flat, 4 cm long. Seeds

7-9.

FI. & Fr.: November- January.

Specimens Examined: Tamil Nadu, Tirunelveli

district, Palayamkottai, near N.G.O. "B’ Colony,

Murugan 20495 (XCH)

Remarks: Occasionally found along the

roadsides.

Distribution: Native of tropical South America,

naturalising in Tamil Nadu, Karnataka and Maharashtra

states of India.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the University Grants Commission, India

for financial assistance, the Chief Conservator of Forests,

Chennai for permission to undertake field studies and

Dr. V. Chelladurai and Dr. R. Gopalan for

encouragement.

November 1 5, 2001 C. MURUGAN

V.S. MANICKAM

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,

Department of Botany, St. Xavier’s College,

Palayamkottai 627 002,

Tamil Nadu, India.

194

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

37. CHIONANTHUS RAMIFLOR US ROXB. VAR. PENINSULA RIS RAVIKUM AR &

LAKSHMANAN, AN EXTENDED DISTRIBUTION TO ANDAMAN & NICOBAR

ISLANDS

The genus Chionanthus L., Family Oleaceae, is

primarily tropical, with a few species in temperate China

and North America. In India, it is represented by 10

species (Srivastava and Kapoor 1991).

During the study of the herbarium specimens

deposited in PBL, a sheet of Chionanthus ramiflorus

Roxb. with notes "‘partieci Itirly large fruit” written by

Ruth Kiew was found. On further scrutiny, it was

identified as C. ramiflorus var. peninsular is Ravikumar

& Lakshmanan which is so far known to occur along

streams of evergreen forests and sholas in the Western

Ghats (Ravikumar and Lakshmanan 1989). Flence,

this is a case of extended distribution in India from

the Western Ghats to the Andaman and Nicobar

Islands.

A brief description and illustration is provided to

enable identification of this species.

Chionanthus ramiflorus Roxb. var. peninsular is

Ravikumar et Lakshmanan Bull. Bot. Surv. India, 31(1-

4): 163. 1989.

Trees. Leaves elliptic or elliptic-lanceolate, cuneate

at base, acute or shortly acuminate at apex, 2. 5- 1.3 x

1 .2-6 cm., entire to undulate along margins, coriaceous,

glabrous, light green above, pale green beneath; lateral

veins 8-12 pairs; petiole 1-3.5 cm., glabrous.

Infructescence 11-14 cm long, stout. Fruits ellipsoid,

oblique, acute to short acuminate at apex, 3-3.5 x 1 .4-

1.7 cm, smooth, glossy green when young, brownish-

black when mature. Seeds 1-2 in number; stalk 4-8 mm

long, stout, jointed.

Specimen examined: North Nicobar, Car

Nicobar, Tee Top, Sea level, 25. ii. 1976, N.G.Nair3534

(PBL ).

Fig. 1: Chionanthus ramiflorus Roxb. var. peninsularis

Ravikumar & Lakshmanan, a. Habit

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Dr.N.P. Singh, Director, Botanical Survey

of India, Kolkata for facilities and encouragement.

November 15, 2001 R. SUMATH1

J. JAYANTHI

P.V. SREEKUMAR

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

Port Blair 744 102, P.B. 602, Haddo, India.

D. NARASIMHAN

Department of Botany,

Madras Christian College,

Chennai 600 059, Tamil Nadu, India.

REFERENCES

Ravikumar, K.. & V. Lakshmanan ( 1 989): A new variety of Chionanthus ramiflorus Roxb. (Oleaceae) from South India. Bull Bot Surv India

31(1-4): 163-165.

Srivastava, S.K. & S.L. Kapoor ( 1991 ): Chionanthus Linn. (Oleaceae) in India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot 15(1): 129-141

38. THOTTEA PAUCIFIDA DING HOU, FAMILY ARISTOLOCHIACEAE,

A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

Thottea is an Indo-Malayan genus with distinctive

leaf architecture. It is chiefly distributed in shady places

of tropical low land forests. About 26 species have been

reported worldwide of which 4 occur in India (Ding Hou

in FI. Malesiana 10: 73. 1984). In Andaman and Nicobar

Islands, it is represented by a single species Thottea

tomentosa (Bl.) Ding Hou. (Vasudeva Rao 1986,

Mathew 1988.)

An unidentified species of Thottea collected from

Rutland of South Andaman was found deposited in PBL.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan.-Apr. 2004

195

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Thottea paucifida, A. Habit, B. Twig with capsule,

C. Seed

The species was later identified as Thottea paucifida

Ding Hou; earlier know to occur in Borneo. Ding Hou

in his revision of Family Aristolochiaceae states that it

has been collected just once from the banks of a stream

flowing through stands of Rubber and other trees.

This species is reported for the first time in

India from the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

A brief description and illustration is provided for

identification.

Thottea paucifida Ding Hou, Blumea 27: 324.

1981; Flora Malesiana 10: 73. 1984.

Undershrubs. Leaves alternate coriaceous, elliptic

to slightly obovate, 4-10 x 2-4.5 cm, cuneate, obtuse to

slightly cordate at base, margin entire, apex acute to

obtuse, densely villous below, glabrous above. Basal

nerves 3; lateral nerves 4-5 pairs, elevated below,

reticulate, obscure above. Petiole c. 3.5 mm long,

angular, twisted at apex, glabrous. Seeds ellipsoid,

c. 3 x 1.5 mm, transversely rugose.

Note: Ding Hou in his revision states “Capsules

Unknown”. Capsules and seeds are described here for

the first time.

Specimen examined: South Andaman, Rutland,

1 9.vii. 1 986. J.L. Ellis, 12305 (PBL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We thank Dr. N.P. Singh, Director, Botanical

Survey of India, Kolkata for providing encouragement

and facilities.

June 8, 2002 R. SUMATHI

VINOD MAINA

G.S. LAKRA

Botanical Survey of India,

Andaman & Nicobar Circle,

P.B. 602, Haddo,

Port Blair 744 102,

India.

REFERENCES

Mathew, S.P. (1988): A supplementary report on the flora and Vasudeva Rao, M.K. (1986): A preliminary report on the

vegetation of Bay Islands, India. J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 22(2): angiosperms of Andaman & Nicobar Islands. J. Econ. Tax.

249-272. Bot. 8(1): 107-184.

39. JUNCUS SPUMOSUSNOLTIE (JUNCACEAE), A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

During plant exploration in Dibang Valley,

Arunachal Pradesh, we collected an interesting species

of Juncus, which was kindly identified by Dr. F.

Miyamoto of Tokyo University of Agriculture, Japan, to

be Juncus spumosus Noltie. He also pointed out that

the species constituted a new record for India.

A brief description and line drawing based on our

own collections and relevant data are given to facilitate

identification in the field.

Material Examined: Dibang Valley, Mayodia

Pass, 2635 m, 20.viii.2000, M. Bhaumik & M.K. Pathak

2904 - CAL)

Juncus spumosus Noltie in Edinburg J. Bot.

51(2): 139. 1994.

Rhizomaceous herb, borne singly, sometimes with

one or two offspring. Rhizome short, knobby. Stem 30-

75 cm long, terete, arching over. Stem leaves 3-5, 7-

1 8.5 cm long, 1 .5-5 mm broad, channeled throughout or

at least on upper part, k V’ shaped in cross section. Leaf

sheaths gradually narrowed into blades. Ligules absent.

Inflorescence terminal, 13-21 headed, 3-12 flowered

with chestnut brown to deep glossy brown capitula.

196

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1: Juncus spumosus Noltie, A. Habit, B. Part of inflorescence, C. Flower, D. Bract, E. Outer perianth, F. Inner perianth,

G. Stamen, H. Capsule, I. Cross Section of leaf, basal part, J. Cross section of leaf, upper part, K. Cross section of stem,

L. Cross section of capsule

Bract 1 .5-2 x 1 .5 mm, ovate, membranous. Flowers 8 x

3.5 mm, bracteate, shortly pedicellate, chaffy brown to

deep brown. Outer tepals 3, 2.5 x 1 mm, boat shaped

with prominent mid-vein, chaffy brown. Inner tepals 3,

3-3.5 x 1 mm, boat shaped with prominent mid-vein,

acute, chaffy brown. Stamens 6, exerted, exceeding the

tepals, straw coloured. Filament 3.5 mm long, filiform

with broad bases. Anther lobe 1 x 0.5 mm, basifixed.

Gynaecium 7 x 4.5 mm, ovate, deep glossy brown; style

2 mm, stigma triforked, mildly twisted with granular

deposition. Seeds 2-tailed, 0.5-0.75 mm long.

Distribution: India-Arunachal Pradesh; Bhutan,

China.

Notes: The plants were found bearing flowers and

immature fruit at the time of collection. They were

growing on moist, open, sandy hill slopes in association

with Chimonobambusa callosa (Munro) Nakai,

Eriophorum comosum (Wall.) Wall, ex Nees,

Gaultheria spp., Rubus calophyllus C.B. Clarke and

R. lineatus Reinw. The area experiences heavy rainfall

and is snow bound during winter.

Though the species grows within the protected

Dibang Dihang Biosphere Reserve, its habitat is

threatened due to regular landslides and road

reconstruction. Only a small population of about fifteen

plants was found confined in the said locality.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey

of India, to Dr. M. Sanjappa and Dr. S.K. Verma for

help and encouragement.

November 1 5, 200 1 M. BHAUMIK*

M.K. PATHAK

Botanical Survey of India,

P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

*Present Address: Botanical Survey of India,

Eastern Circle, Lower New Colony,

Shillong 793 003, Meghalaya, India.

Email: drmanas [email protected]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (1), Jan. -Apr. 2004

197

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

40. FIVE NEW RECORDS OF PLANTS FROM TAMIL NADU

During a botanical exploration in Tirunelveli hills,

Tamil Nadu, we came across five plant species, hitherto

unreported from Tamil Nadu (Henry etal. 1987, Hooker

1872-1897). The nomenclature, brief diagnostic

characters, phenology, collection site, field numbers and

notes on the ecology and distribution of these taxa have

been recorded.

Canthium pergracile Bourd. in J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 12: 352, t.4., 1915. (Rubiaceae)

Trees. Leaves elliptic. Flowers green - pale

yellow.

FI. & Fr.: June-August.

Specimens examined: Manickam et al.,

Papanasam hills, 12905, 15793, 16179 (XCH),

Sundaresan et al., Puliarai, 17024 (XCH).

Remarks: Rare in evergreen forests up to

1,000 m.

Distribution: Southern Western Ghats (India).

Hedy otis wynaadensis (Gamble) Rolla Rao &

Hemadri in Ind. Forester 99: 372-380. 1973. (Rubiaceae)

Large shrubs. Leaves oblong - oblanceolate.

Flowers white.

FI. & Fr.: June-August.

Specimen examined: Manickam et al.,

Papanasam hills, 17068 (XCH).

Remarks: Rare in moist deciduous forests at

350 m along stream banks.

Distribution: Western Ghats, India.

J as mi man roxburghianum Wall, ex Clarke, FI.

Brit. India 3: 595. 1 887. (Oleaceae)

Climbing shrubs. Leaves ovate - elliptic or

lanceolate. Flowers white.

FI. & Fr.: July-September.

Specimen examined: Sundaresan et al.,

Papanasam hills, 16882 (XCH).

Remarks: Rare in deciduous forests at 200 m.

Distribution: South India.

Litsea mysorensis Gamble in Kew Bull. 1925: 130.

1925 & FI. Pres. Madras, 2: 865. 1957 [repr. ed],

(Lauraceae)

Trees. Leaves linear - lanceolate. Flowers white.

FI. & Fr.: July-August.

Specimens examined: Manickam et al., Upper

Kothayar, 13578, 13585 (XCH).

Remarks: Rare in open evergreen forests at

1,450 m.

Distribution: Western Ghats (India).

Meyna laxiflora Robyns in Bull. Jard. Bot. Brux.

1 1 : 228. 1 928. (Rubiaceae)

Large shrubs. Leaves ovate - oblong. Flowers green.

FI. & Fr.: April-June.

Specimen examined: Sundaresan et al.,

Papanasam hills, 15751 (XCH)

Remarks: Found rarely in moist deciduous forests

at 600 m.

Distribution: India and Java.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. R. Gopalan, Systematic Botanist,

Botanical Survey of India, Southern Circle, Coimbatore

for confirming the taxa and University Grants

Commission for financial aid.

June 1 8, 2002 V.S. MANICKAM

V. SUNDARESAN*

G.J. JOTHI

C. MURUGAN

Centre for Biodiversity and Biotechnology,

St. Xavier’s College, Palayamkottai 627 003,

Tamil Nadu, India.

*Present address: Central Institute of Medicinal

and Aromatic Plants (CIMAP),

Lucknow 226 016, Uttar Pradesh, India.

REFERENCES

Gamble, J.S.J 1921 -1925): Flora of the Presidency of Madras. Adlard

& Sons, L,ondon.

Henry, A.N., G.R. Kumari & V. Chithra (1987): Flora of Tamil

Nadu, India. I : Analysis. Vol. 2. BSI, Coimbatore.

Hooker, J.D. (1872-1897): The Flora of British India. Vols. 1-7.

Reeve & Co., London.

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN 0006-6982

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

BIRDS OF KAWAL WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, ANDHRA PRADESH,

By C. Srinivasulu 3

THE FIRST RECORDINGS OF CALLS OF THE JERDON’S COURSER RHINOPTILUS BITORQUATUS

(BLYTH), FAMILY GLAREOLIDAE

By Panchapakesan Jeganathan and Simon R. Wotton 26

THE AFTERMATH OF THE PLEISTOCENE IN THE UPPER NILGIRIS OF SOUTHERN INDIA

By Wiliam A. Noble /.. 29

STATUS AND CONSERVATION OF THE WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS IN PENINSULAR INDIA

By M.K. Ranjitsinh, S.C. Verma, S.A. Akhtar, VinodPatil, K. Sivakumar and

S . Bhanubhakude 64

UNREPORTED APPEASEMENT BEHAVIOURS IN THE ASIAN ELEPHANT (ELEPH AS MAXIMUS)

By PA. Rees , 71

A MODEL FOR ESTIMATING BUTTERFLY SPECIES RICHNESS OF AREAS ACROSS THE INDIAN

SUBCONTINENT: SPECIES PROPORTION OF FAMILY PAPILIONIDAE AS AN INDICATOR

By Arun P. Singh and Rajiv Pandey 79

NEST-SITE CHARACTERISTICS OF BLACK-NECKED STORK (EPHIPPIORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS)

AND WHITE-NECKED STORK ( CICONIA EPISCOPUS) IN KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK,

BHARATPUR, INDIA

By Farah Ishtiaq, Asad R. Rahmani, Salim Javed and Malcolm C. Coulter 90

LIFE HISTORY PARAMETERS AND LARVAL PERFORMANCE OF SOME SOUTH INDIAN

BUTTERFLY SPECIES

J.B. Atluri, C. Subba Reddi and S.P Venkata Ramana 96

LARVAL FOOD PLANTS OF EMPEROR MOTHS AND HAWKMOTHS OF SANJAY GANDHI

NATIONAL PARK, BORIVLI, MUMBAI (LEPIDOPTERA: SATURNIIDAE AND SPHINGIDAE)

By V. Shubhalaxmi andNaresh Chaturvedi 1 06

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF WOLF SPIDER (ARANEAE: LYCOSIDAE) FROM CROP FIELDS OF THE

SUNDARBAN ESTUARY, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

ByS.C.Majumder 121

NEW ORB-WEAVING SPIDERS OF THE GENUS CYRTOPHORA SIMON (ARANEAE: ARANEIDAE)

FROM BANGLADESH

By V. Biswas and D. Raychaudhuri 124

TWO NEW SPECIES OF PUNTIUS HAMILTON-BUCHANAN (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE)

FROM MANIPUR, INDIA, WITH AN ACCOUNT OF PUNTIUS SPECIES FROM THE STATE

By W. Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 130

A NEW NEMACHEILINE FISH OF THE GENUS SCHISTURA MCCLELLAND (CYPRINIFORMES:

BALITORIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA

By W. Vishwanath and K. Shanta 138

CEROPEGIA ANANTII (ASCLEPIADACEAE), A NEW SPECIES FROM WESTERN GHATS, INDIA

By S.R. Yadav, M.M. Sardesai and S.P. Gaikwad 141

REVIEWS V 144

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES \ 149

INDIA

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Rachel Reuben

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

Website: www.bnlis.org; Email: [email protected]

| JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

AUGUST 2004

VOL 101 (2)

JOURNAL OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 023.

Executive Editor

Asad R Rahmani, Ph D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

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Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Editorial Board

M R. Almeida, D Litt.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Ajith Kumar, Ph D

National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,

Hebbal, Bangalore

M K. Chandrashekaran, Ph D., D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research,

Bangalore

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph D

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D. Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Raghavendra Gadagkar, Ph. D.

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Y.V. Jhala, Ph D

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K. Ullas Karanth, Ph D.

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bangalore, Karnataka

T.C Narendran, Ph. D, D Sc.

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K Rema Devi, Ph. D

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J S. Singh, Ph. D.

Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

S. Subramanya, Ph. D

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bangalore

R Sukumar, Ph D

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Romulus Whitaker, B Sc

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph. D

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore

Nigel Collar, Ph D.

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph. D

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

QamarQureshi, M. Phil

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

T J. Roberts, Ph. D.

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

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VOLUME 101 (2): AUGUST 2004 l ^AR 2 2 2QQ$ ■ )

CONTENTS ^^j-ARlEt

EDITORIAL 199

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALEMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY PART 1 : GASTROPODA

By Deepak Apte 201

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE ( ARACHNIDA: SCHIZOMIDA) ON THE BASIS OF

TYPES DEPOSITED BY F.H. GRAVELY ( 1 9 1 1 - 1 925 ) IN THE NATIONAL COLLECTION, ZSI, KOLKATA

By D.B. Bastawade 211

DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOMASS CONSUMED AND SCATS PRODUCED IN CAPTIVE

ASIATIC LIONS (PANTHERA LEO PERSICA ) AND LEOPARDS (PANTHERA PARDOS)

By S. Mukherjee and S.P. Goyal 221

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF FERNS AND THEIR RELATION TO INSECT INFESTATION FROM DARJEELING

FOOTHILLS AND PLAINS

By A. Mukhopadhyay and D. Thapa 224

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS, NORTHEAST INDIA

By A. Christy Williams and A. J.T. Johnsingh 227

KEMMANGUNDI REVISITED: NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS, KARNATAKA,

SOUTH INDIA

By S. Thejaswi 235

THE IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS ORCAELLA BREVIROSTR1S OF CHILIKA LAGOON, INDIA

By R.K. Sinlia 244

ECOBIOLOGY OF INDIAN WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS ARNEE L. IN UDANTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

CHHATTISGARH, INDIA

By P.C. Kotwal and Rajendra Prasad Mishra 252

AN EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS IN KERALA

By A. Veeramani, P.S. Easa andE.A. Jayson 255

WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER FICEDULA SUBRUBRA

(HARTERT & STEINBACHER)

By Ashfaq Ahmed Zam and Asad R. Rahmani 261

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

By Peter Smetacek 269

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

EXISTENCE OF THE ORDER BATHYNELLACEA (CRUSTACEA, SYNCARIDA) IN SOUTH ASIA: A NEW SPECIES

OF GENUS HABROBA THYNELLA SCHMINKE 1973, FROM RIVER PENN A R, SOUTH INDIA

By Y. Ranga Reddy 277

A NEW SPECIES OF USCANA GIRAULT (TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE: HYMENOPTERA) FROM THE EGGS OF FIELD

BRUCHIDS

By H.R, Pajni and P.K. Tewan 285

A NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS PEUCETIA THORELL (OXYOPIDAE: ARANEAE) FROM DIGHA,

MIDNAPORE, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

By Sumana Saha and Dinendra Raychaudhuri 288

BRA CHI ARIA M ARSE LIN I SP.NOV. A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA

By Nitin D. Gawade and B.G. Gavade 291

A NEW SPECIES OF SP/RULINA (= ARTHROSPIRA) MAHAJANI MAHAJAN FROM KHARGONE, MADHYA

PRADESH

By S.K. Mahajan 294

A NEW SPECIES OF THE BLIND FISH HORA G/MVYSMENON (SILUROIDEA: CLARIIDAE) FROM PARAPPUKARA

(TRICHUR DISTRICT) AND A NEW REPORT OF HORA G LAN IS KRISHNA/ MENON FROM ETTUMANLIR

(KOTTA YAM DISTRICT), KERALA

By K.K. Subhash Babu and C.K.G. Nayar 296

REVIEWS

1. MALARIA IN THE THAR DESERT: FACTS, FIGURES AND FUTURE

Reviewed by Rachel Reuben 299

2. FRESHWATER FISHES OF PENINSULAR INDIA

Reviewed by Ranj it Manakadan 300

3. FLORA OF UDUPI

Reviewed by M.R. Almeida 301

4. ON THE SPADE-NOSED SHARK, SCOLIODONLA TIC A UDUS

Reviewed by B.F. Chhapgar 302

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Record of a Leopard Panthera pardus in Pulicat

Lake

By V. Kannan and Ranjit Manakadan 304

2. Occurrence of Short-nosed Fruit Bat Cynopterus

sphinx (Vahl) in villages ofTamil Nadu State, India

By Govindasamy Agoramoorthy and

Minna J. Hsu 304

3. A note on distinguishing Gerbillus gleadowi and

Gerbillus nanus based on their footprints in the

Thar Desert, India

By Shomen Mukherjee and S.P. Goyal 305

4. Rhinoceros rugosus — a name for the Indian

Rhinoceros

By Kees Rookmaaker 308

BIRDS

5. Observations on chick mortality in Darter Anhinga

melanogaster in Gir forest

By B.J. Pathak, S. Vijayan and B.P. Pati 310

6. Sighting of White-bellied Heron Ardea insignis Hume

in Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary

By Mrigen Baruah, Gagen Chettri and Prasanta

Bordoloi 311

7. Black Stork Ciconia nigra in and around Gir forest,

Gujarat

By B.J. Pathak, S. Vijayan, B.P. Pati and

M.K. Belim Hanif 311

8. Sighting of the Greater Adjutant-Stork Leptoptilos

dubius in Vikramshila Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary,

Bihar, India

By Sunil K. Choudhury, Sushant Dey,

Subhasis Dey and Arun Mitra 313

9. Sighting of Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca

from Mumbai, Maharashtra

By Ashok Verma 314

10. Status of White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetus

leucogaster in Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra

By Vishwas Katdare, Ram Mone and Pramod Joshi 314

11 Does the White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetus

leucogaster feed on cattle dung?

By V. Kannan and Ranjit Manakadan 316

12. Unusually high mortality of cranes in areas adjoining

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan

By Gargi Rana and Vibhu Prakash 317

13. Broad-billed Sandpiper Limicola falcinellus: an

addition to the avifauna of Rajasthan

By Harkiral Singh Sangha and Manoj Kulshreshtha 3 1 8

14. Nesting of terns on Vengurla Rocks, District

Sindhudurg, Maharashtra

By Vishwas Katdare, Ram Mone and Sachin Palkar 3 1 8

15. Common Hoopoe ( Upupa epops) feeding on Prinia

(Prinia sp.) corpse

By Girish A. Jathar 319

16. Indian Pitta Pitta brachyura in the Thar Desert

By Himmat Singh 319

17. Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris in Arunachal

Pradesh, India

By R Suresh Kumar 320

18. Sight record of Horned Lark Eremophila alpestris

near Delhi

By Martin Kelsey 321

19. Nidification of the Common Raven Corvus corax

in the Thar Desert

By Harkirat Singh Sangha and Rishad Naoroji 321

20. Unusual numbers of Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike

Coracina melanoptera at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu

By S. Thejaswi 323

21 . On the behaviour and habitat preference of Stoliczka’s

Bushchat Saxicola macrorhyncha (Stoliczka)

By M.K. Himmatsinhji 323

22 Occurrence of the Grey Bushchat Saxicola ferrea

(Gray) nearNanjanagud, Mysore district, Karnataka

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 324

23. Eurasian Linnet (Carduelis cannabina ), Chaffinch

( Fringilla coelebs) and Brambling (Fringilla

montifringilla) in Kangra, Himachal Pradesh

By Jan Willem Den Besten 325

24. Records of some new avian species in the Thar

Desert of Rajasthan

By Anil Kumar 326

INSECTS

25. Sight record of polyphenic forms of Appias albina

darada C. & R. Felder (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) in

the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve

By C.F. Binoy and George Mathew 328

26. On a misidentification of the Mud Dauber Wasp

parasite Macrosiagon ferrugineum (Fabricius)

(Coleoptera: Rhipiphoridae) in India

By Zachary H. Falin 329

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

27. Observations on Lingula anatina (Lamarck 1801 )

from Karwar waters, Karnataka, India

By S. Veena and V.N. Nayak 330

n

BOTANY

28. Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl. (Leguminosae:

Papiliorudeae)- a new report for Arunachal Pradesh

By M.K Pathak and M. Bhaumik

29. Memecylon wightii Thw. ( Melastomataceae), a new

record for Maharashtra State

By Balkrishna G. Gavade

331

30. Leptolejeimea balansae Steph (Hepaticae

Jungermanmales) - a new record of Bryoflora from

the Indian mainland

By A. E D Daniels and P. Daniel 333

Cover Photograph: Kashmir Flycatcher

Ficedula sitbrubrci by Ashfaq Ahmed Zam

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We ARE GRATEFUL TO THE MINISTRY OF SCIENCE AND TECHNOLOGY,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

Editorial

Towards globalization of biodiversity

Charles S. Elton is considered the father of the biology of invasive species. His seminal book the ecology of

invasions by animals and plants, first published in 1958, is still considered a classic and compulsory reading for

anyone interested in this fast growing branch of ecology. Dispersal is a natural process, a part of evolution and

ecology. In the case of plants, it generally takes place through seeds or spores, while in vertebrates it is mostly

through the movement of adult animals. Few immigrants survive the hazards of the 'new world’, competition from

the native species and stochastic forces. Only a small percentage becomes naturalized, most die off due to natural

causes. Some naturalized species do become invasive (Mack et al. 2000). It is these species we will discuss in this

editorial.

All along our evolutionary history and travel, we human beings have helped in the spread of non-indigenous

species into new territories. Perhaps some of the first species to travel to new territories with us were the goats,

dogs and cereals. For millennia, we have served as both accidental and deliberate dispersal agents. This phenomenon

is increasing exponentially with the increase in international travel and commerce. Non-indigenous species are

appearing in new areas at a rate never seen in the history of this planet. This is resulting in the creation of

homogenous ecosystems, with the same species of plants and animals everywhere. Distances are disappearing,

barriers are breaking down and the world is becoming a global village - we are seeing the globalization of

biodiversity. Or, to put it better, the globalization of monocultures. We find Eucalyptus spp. plantations everywhere,

and most of the tropical wetlands are choked with Water Hyacinth Eichhornia crassipes.

In India, the environmental and socio-economic impacts of alien invasive species such as the Water Hyacinth,

Fantana Lantana camara, Mesquite Prosopis chilensis , Water Fettuce Pistia sp., Scotch Broom Cytisus scoparius ,

and Congress Grass Parthenium hysterophorus , are evident to foresters and conservationists. Estimates of

economic damage caused by invasives are not available for India. The cost of control of such invaders in USA

exceeds $138 billion per year (Mack et al. 2000). Globally, almost 20% of the vertebrates thought to be in danger of

extinction are threatened in some way by invasive species. The single biggest tragedy is the probably the loss of

at least 200 of the 300 endemic cichlid species in Lake Victoria as a result of the introduction of the Nile Perch Lates

niloticus to the lake (Lowe-McConnell 1993). In India, the impact of Tilapia , a fish brought from Africa, on the

native fish fauna is not properly studied. This invasive species was deliberately introduced in the Western Ghats

where some of the most endangered and endemic fish fauna are found. Since 1 800, invasive species have entirely

or partially caused the majority of bird extinctions ( BirdLife International 2000). Virtually all these extinctions were

of island birds lacking natural defences against introduced predators particularly rats, cats and mongooses.

Introduced competitors, herbivores and plants impact on 72, 71 and 69 globally threatened species respectively.

The highly restricted-range Narcondam Hombill Aceros narcondami , found only on the 7.5 sq. km Narcondam

Island, is negatively impacted through over-grazing by the semi-feral goats which are damaging forest regeneration.

If these feral goats are not eliminated, it is estimated that in another 80 years there would not be enough old Ficus

trees for these hombills to nests (Ravi Sankaran, pers. comm. 2002). The negative impact of introduced Chital

Axis axis on forest ecosystems on the islands of Andaman and Nicobar is well known and needs immediate action.

The impacts of various invasive species need urgent attention from the Government of India, as the problem

is growing with the accelerated rate of species movements through trade, transport, travel and ballast water. The

latter is considered to be the most important vector for trans-oceanic and inter-oceanic movements of invasive

marine organisms. Good scientific knowledge and understanding of how alien species become harmful to ecosystems

and to species is a prerequisite for adequate mitigation measures. This is a branch of ecology on which not much

attention has been given by Indian scientists and conservationists. We do not even have a clear-cut policy on the

introduction of non-indigenous species. Australia has recently adopted a national weed policy aimed at reducing

the impact of plant invaders and South Africa is determined to clear all the invasive woody species from its river

catchments in a 20 year programme (Mack et al. 2000). The National Wildlife Action Plan 2002-2016 (Ministry of

Environment and Forests 2002) devotes one line to the problem of invasive species, while the draft National

Environment Policy: 2004 of the Ministry of Environment and Forests is silent on this issue.

Article 8(h) of the Convention on Biological Diversity requires parties “as far as possible and as appropriate,

[to] prevent the introduction of, control or eradicate those alien species which threaten ecosystems, habitats or

species”.

Invasive species are also known to cause major economic losses in agriculture, forestry and several other

segments of Indian economy and these losses should be systematically assessed through appropriate criteria and

indicators. Some rough estimates, based on some simplistic and selective criteria, indicate economic and

environmental losses to exceed US $ 115 billion per year (Pimentel et al. 2001 ). These estimates, however, require

validation based on proper socio-economic surveys conducted for this purpose (Rana 2004).

We have many laws which are supposed to prevent the introduction, accidental or intentional, of non-native

species. Some of the laws are as follows:

The Destructive Insects and Pests Act, 1914 (amendments in 2001 )

The Plants, Fruits and Seeds Order, 1989 (amendments in 2001 )

The Seeds Act, 1966 (and the Seeds Rules, 1968)

EXIM Policy 2002-2007

Indian Livestock Importation Act, 1 898 (amendments in 200 1 )

The Fisheries Act, 1897 (along with State Fisheries Acts)

The Protection of Plants Varieties & Fanners Rights Act, 200 1

However, these laws are either flawed or outdated, and generally not seriously implemented. The National

Biodiversity Strategy and Action Plan (2004) recommends enactment of legislation to establish an autonomous

Quarantine Authority of India, to control the entry of alien invasive species. Considering that the scope of dealing

with invasive alien species is multi-dimensional and requires multi-disciplinary inputs, there is an urgent need for

establishing the National Invasive Species Council.

ASAD R. RAHMANI

Further Reading

BirdLife International (2000): Threatened Birds of the World. Lynx Edicions and Birdlife International, Barcelona and

Cambridge, UK.

Ei ton, C.S. ( 1958): The Ecology of Invasions by Animals and Plants. Methuen, London.

Lowe-McConnell, R.H. (1993): Fish faunas of the African Great Lakes: origin, diversity, and vulnerability. Conservation

Biology 7: 634-643.

Mack, R.N., D. Simberloff, W.M. Lonsdale, FI. Evans, M. Clout & F.A. Bazzaz(2000): Biotic invasions: Causes, Epidemiology,

Global Consequences, and Control. Ecological Applications 10(3): 689-710

Ministry of Environment and Forests (2002): National Wildlife Action Plan: 2002-2016. Ministry of Environment and

Forests, Government of India. New Delhi, pp 46.

Rana, R.S. (2004): Invasive alien species and biodiversity: Indian Perspective. In: National Biodiversity Strategy and Action

Plan (Ed.: Kothari, Ashish). Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India and Kalpavriksh, New Delhi

and Pune.

Pimentel. D , S. McNair, J. Janecka, J Wightman, C. Simmonds, C. O’Connell, E. Wong, L. Russel, .1. Zern,

T. Aquino & T. Tsomondo (2001 ): Economic and environmental threats of alien plant, animal and microbe invasions.

Agric. Ecosys. Environ 84: 1-20.

200

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

201-210

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

PART 1: GASTROPODA'

Deepak Apte2

'Accepted June 2001

Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House. S B Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email bn [email protected] in

Studies were conducted in Point Calimere, located on the Coromandel coast in the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu

Point Calimere has diverse habitats, including sandy shores, mangroves and salt pans. Large numbers of molluscs are

dragged out by fishing nets, and killed in thousands. Volva sowerbyana, Tudicla spiralis , Strombus plicatus sibbaldi and

Conus milne-edwardsi were recorded for the first time from this area C. milne-edwardsi was recorded after 80 years

along the Indian coast, from which there is only one published record, in Mumbai in 191 2

Key words: Point Calimere, Gastropoda, Mollusca

INTRODUCTION

The Indian coastline is rich in molluscan diversity.

Some literature is available on this diversity, notable among

which are the works of Crichton (1941), Gravely ( 1 94 1 , 1 942 ),

Subrahmanyam et a I ( 1952), Kundu ( 1965a, b), Subba Rao

( 1971, 1977, 1980), Rajgopal and Mukherjee ( 1978, 1982),

Mookherjee (1985), Subba Rao et al. (1984, 1 986, 1 993 ) and

Apte (1993). The only comprehensive work on the molluscan

fauna of the southeastern coast of India is by Satyamurthi

(1952. 1956). However, recent work on these molluscs was

found to be inadequate. To update the stams of molluscan

diversity, several surveys were conducted on the southeast

coast of India from 1990-1999. The present paper is part of

this survey.

STUDY AREA

Point Calimere is located on the Coromandel coast in

the Thanjavur district of Tamil Nadu (10° 18'N, 79°51'E). Itis

bordered by the Bay of Bengal on the east and Palk Strait on

the south. Point Calimere is represented by sandy shores,

mangroves and salt pans. Mudflats are also seen near the old

lighthouse. Tidal action is very high; thus shells with delicate

sculpture are virtually absent, or the sculpture is eroded or

absent.

Duration; The survey was conducted during December

18-28, 1998 and December 22-28, 1 999 The present paper does

not report the entire gastropod fauna of Point Calimere, but

only the dominant species.

Threats; Large numbers of molluscs are dragged by

fishing nets, and get killed in thousands. The important

species dragged are Turntella cicut cingula , T. attenuate i,

Phalium areola , Murex trapa , M. badius , Rapana bulbosa ,

Hemifusus pugilinus, Oliva oliva , O. gibbosa, Xancus rapa ,

Bursa spinosa , Tonna dolium , T fasciata , Ficus variegata

and F fecoides. Of these, Xancus rapa is sold in shops and

the others are crushed to produce shell grit. Besides

gastropods, several species of bivalves are also dragged out,

the important ones being Pecten tranquebaricus , Placenta

placenta , Pinctada vulgaris , Pinna atropurpurea , P bicolor

and P vexillum.

New records: Some interesting records are marked with

an asterisk (*). Two specimens of Volva sowerbyana were

collected from sand bars close to the jetty This is probably

the first report of this species on the southeastern coast of

India. Point Calimere is a new site for Tudicla spiralis (several

individuals, both live and dead), Strombus plicatus sibbaldi

(one specimen) and Conus milne-edwardsi (one specimen).

Family: Calvptraeidae

Calyptraea extinctorium Lamarck

Description: Shell fragile, conical with pointed apex,

shell surface smooth. Internal folded appendage conspicuous

and attached to the internal wall of the shell. Colour:

Whitish or dull brown marked with reddish lines. Status:

Common.

Crepidula walshi Herrmannsen

Description: Shell Hat, elongate-ovate. Upper surface

with concentric striae. Colour: White. Status: Common.

Family: Trochidae

Umbonium vestiarium (Linn.)

Description: Small shell with smooth and highly glossy

surface. Body whorl broad, angular. Spires depressed.

Umbilicus filled with thick callus. Aperture ovate. Colour:

Exhibits wide range of colour variation. Usually pale yellowish-

brown with numerous white, red, brown trans-spiral lines.

Status: Common.

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

T roc hus radiatus Gmelin

Description: Smaller than T. stellalus. More conical in

shape. Surface sculptured by spiral rows of tubercles. Upper

row of tubercles on each whorl larger than others. Columella

smooth, without denticles. Colour: Yellowish-white ground

colour with broad trans-spiral reddish/crimson bands, which

usually get broken into irregular spots on basal portion of

body whorl. Status: Common.

Trochus stellatus Gmelin

Description: Shells large, heavy and top-shaped.

Surface highly granulated. Lips serrated. Sides of the shells

slightly arched, giving a somewhat rounded external

appearance. Tubercles on the lowest spire of each whorl

enlarged compared to T. radiatus. Columella denticulate.

Colour: Dull green to brown with broad radial reddish bands.

Status: Common.

Family: Turbinidae

Liotia cidaris (Reeve)

Description: Veiy small in size with low spires. Entire

surface strongly ribbed. Body whorl with strong nodules.

Mouth ovate. Umbilicus partly filled with white callus. Colour:

White with brown nodules. Status: Uncommon.

Turbo intercostalis Menke

Description: Shell thick and large with stout spiral ridges

on the surface. Trans-spiral grooves prominent on ridges,

umbilicus open. Colour: Greenish-brown with irregular yellow

patches. Status: Uncommon.

Astraea semicostata (Kiener)

Description: Shell resembles Trochus. Base flat with

fewer, but sharply elevated spires. Each whorl at the base

bears a spiral row of spinous processes. Trans-spiral ribs on

each whorl weakly developed. Finely and concentrically

grooved base. Umbilicus filled by callus. Colour: Beached

specimens usually white, fresh specimens dull brown to yellow

brown. Status: Common.

Phasianella nivosa Reeve

Description: Shells smooth, glossy, shape similar to

that of Littorina. Colour: Brownish-red with coloured spiral

lines. A prominent single row of dark brown spots on each

whorl. Status: Rare.

Family: Neritidae

Nerita alhicilla Linn.

Description: Large shell compared to Nerita oiyzarum.

Spires flat, depressed below extremity of outer lip. Coluntellar

region tuberculated. Body whorl finely ribbed. Outer lip

abnormally thickened. Colour: Variable, but commonly whitish,

irregularly blotched with greenish-black. Status: Common.

Edible.

Family: Architectonidae

Architectonica laevigata (Lamarck)

Description: Shell moderately large and more elevated

than other species in this family. Surface finely grooved. Basal

surface bears a raised outer marginal band, which is traversed

by a single median spiral groove. Colour: Light purple/pink

with a row of brown dots along the spiral ridges. Status:

Common.

Torinia dorsuosa (Hinds)

Description: Shell resembles Umbonium. Shell flat with

convexly arched upper surface. Granular spiral nbs. Lowermost

spiral rib on each whorl strongest. Umbilicus circular with

toothed margin. Colour: Pale brown. Status: Common.

Family: Cypraeidae

Volva sowerhyana Weinkauff*

Description: Shell ventricose with both ends prolonged

into canals. Lip margins thickened. Teeth absent. Colour: Flesh

pink. Beached specimens bleached white. Status: Common.

Family: Strombidae

Lambis lambis (Linn.)

Description: Shell very large and heavy with thick callus

zone. Outer lip bears 7 finger-like channelled processes.

Anterior canal long and pointed. Shell covered by horny

penostracum. Shoulder angular and strongly nodulated near

suture. Colour: Chestnut to cream yellow with brown markmgs.

Callus and inner part smooth and white or cream in colour.

Status: Common.

Strombus plicatus sibbaldi Sowerby*

Description: Among the smaller species. Spires very

tall and slender on large body whorl. Each spire with two

strong vertical ribs, with many fine riblets. Both lips strongly

serrated on inner margin. Colour: White with brown mottling.

Aperture white with light brown transverse striae. Status:

Rare.

Family: Tonnidae

Toima fasciata Bruguiere

Description: Large shell. Body whorl ovately inflated

with short conical spire. Sutures sunk in impressed grooves.

Numerous broad and flattened spiral ribs present on entire

surface. Columella slightly twisted. Umbilicus greatly reduced.

202

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Colour: White with 4 broad, widely separated, brownish-

yellow bands. Status: Common.

Tonna doliitm Linn.

Description: Moderately large Tun with thin and

globular body whorl. Spires flat and conical. Surface bears

strong spiral ribs. Fine riblets also present between main ribs.

Columella obliquely striated. Colour: White ground colour

with alternately arranged white spots on mam ribs. Status:

Abundant.

Family: Ficidae

Ficus ficoides (Lamarck)

Description: Moderately large Tun with thin and fragile

body whorl. Spues flat and conical. Surface spnally sculptured

by strong ribs. Colour: Light brown with dark brown

markings. Status: Common.

Ficus variegata Roding

Description: Moderately large, fragile and delicate shell.

Body whorl very large with slightly elevated spires. Shell

surface finely serrated. Colour: Light brown with dark brown

and reddish mottling. Status: Common.

Family: Cassidae

Phalium areola (Lamarck)

Description: Moderately large shell. Spires sharply

pointed. Well-developed varices present, one on each whorl.

Body whorl with blunt, smooth, angular shoulder. Suture

slightly impressed. Aperture moderately wide. Canal short

and curved dorsally. Outer lip on inner margin strongly

toothed. Colour: Creamy white with 4-5 spiral rows of large

squarish dark brown or deep orange spots. Status: Common.

Phalium glaucum (Linn.)

Description: Shell large, with strongly inflated body

whorl. Spires short and conical. Body whorl smooth and

glossy. Whorls with strong, angular shoulders beset with a

row of sharply pointed tubercles. Outer lip thickened and

highly denticulate on inner margin. Colour: Creamy white

with light brown mottling. Interior of aperture dark brown.

Status: Common.

Phalium canaliculatum (Bruguiere)

Description: A small, fragile shell. Surface bears strong,

regular spiral ridges. Suture sunk in deep, broad grooves.

Columellar lip strongly plicate. Upper end of columellar lip

with a few transverse ridges. Outer lip thickened and toothed

within. Colour: White with yellowish-brown spots. Status:

common.

Family: Bursidae

Bursa granularis Roding

Description: Similar in appearance to Bursa

tuberculata Outer surface spirally tuberculated. Surface also

with two pair of varices on each side. Posterior canal well-

defined. Outer lip with strong teeth. Columella strongly folded.

Colour: Dark reddish-brown with red brown tubercles. Status.

Common.

Bursa spinosa (Lamarck)

Description: Moderately large shell. Varices

tuberculated. Body whorl bears fine, close set, spiral ribs which

have a granular surface. Shell dorsoventrally compressed.

Each whorl bears two varices, one on each side, forming a

continuous ridge. These varices with strong, well-developed

spines. Outer lip on inner margin strongly toothed, giving a

frilled appearance. Colour: Pale brown, with some darker

brown markings. Status: Common.

Bursa margaritula (Deshayes)

Description: Shell small, broader in proportion to height.

Varices strongly developed and traversed by granular surface.

Columella with strong folds. Posterior canal deflected to right.

Colour: Dark yellow brown with red brown tubercles. Status:

Common.

Family: Cymatiidae

Cymatium cingulatum (Lamarck)

Description: Shell moderately large with conical,

elevated spire. Anterior canal strongly twisted. Surface with

strong spiral ribs. Outer lip on inner side toothed. Colour:

Pale yellow brown. Status: Common.

Cymatium rhinoceros (Lamarck)

Description: Shell large, thick and heavy. Surface with

thick and raised varices, of which two on body whorl are very

prominent. Whorls angularly shouldered. Colour: Yellowish-

brown with varices bearing orange patches. Status: Common.

Family: Natieidae

Natica maculosa Lamarck

Description: Moderately larger than N. picta with

slightly elevated spires. Colour: Pale brown with faint brown

or yellow trans-spiral lines. Dots less compactly arranged.

Status: Common.

Natica traillii Reeve

Description: Shell small and globular. Umbilicus deep.

Colour: Whitish with reddish-brown, irregular trans-spiral

lines. Status: Common.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

203

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

ISatica lineata Lamarck

Description: Shell moderately large, globular, with

inflated body whorl. Apex sharply pointed. Surface smooth

and glossy The most elegantly shaped shell among moon

snails. Columella with callosity. Colour: Shell ashy white with

close set, trans-spiral yellow or orange wavy lines. Upper few

whorls pale blue or violet Status: Common.

ISatica didytnci (Roding)

Description: Moderately large shell. Surface with fine

trans-spiral striae. Body whorl very large with small or almost

flat spires. Columellar border thickly callused and divided by

transverse groove. Colour: Pale brown with callus and interior

of the aperture both dark brown. Status: Common.

IS Utica rufa (Born)

Description: Shell large, thick and solid. Columella

covered with thick callus. Aperture semicircular. Colour: Dull

brown with one or two broad, brown spiral bands. Status:

Common.

Polynices mantilla (Linn.)

Description: A moderately large shell. Surface smooth

and glossy. Spires reduced, with large ovoid and elongated

body whorl. Aperture obliquely inclined. Umbilicus completely

filled by white callus. Colour Pure white Status: Common.

Eunaticina papilla (Gmelin)

Description: Shell small with inflated body whorl. Spues

moderately elevated. Surface with fine spiral grooves.

Aperture large, ovate and narrow posteriorly. Colour: white

with brownish periostracum. Status: Common.

Si n urn neritoideum (Linn.)

Description: Shell ovoid with inflated body whorl.

Spires greatly reduced. Shell surface spirally and trans-spirally

grooved. Aperture large, ovate. Umbilicus open. Colour:

White to yellow brown. Status: Common.

Sin tint cuvieriannm (Reduz)

Description: Shell ovoid with inflated body whorl.

Spires almost flat. Shell surface spirally and trans-spirally

grooved. Aperture large, ovate. Shell about two and a half

times as broad as tall. Colour: White to yellow brown. Status:

Common.

Sinum delessertii (Recluz)

Description: Shell ovoid, flatter than the two previous

species. Spires greatly reduced, less eccentric. Shell about

three times as broad as tall. Shell surface spirally and trans-

spirally grooved. Aperture large, ovate. Umbilicus open.

Colour: White to yellow brown. Status: Common.

Family: Pyramidellidae

Pyramidella terebellum (Muller)

Description: Shell small, fragile and tall, conical. Shell

surface spirally grooved, grooves fine and visible only under

magnification. Aperture ovate. Colour: Each whorl of spire

with three brown spual lines. Two spiral lines very dark Status:

Uncommon.

Turbonilla crichtoni Winckworth

Description: Shell small, with tall spires. Shell surface

ribbed, ribs broader than interstices. Colour: Light brown to

pink. Status: Uncommon.

Odostomia babylonica Winckworth

Description: Shell small, fragile with moderately tall

spires. Shell surface smooth. Aperture obovate. Sutures

deeply incised. Colour: White. Status: Uncommon.

Family: Eulimidae

Eulima bivittata (Hinds and A. Adams)

Description: Shell very small, slender, with tall spires.

Shell surface smooth. Aperture three times as high as broad.

Colour: Shell light brown, with two dark brown bands on

each whorl. Area between these bands pale brown Status:

Uncommon.

Family: Potamididae

Cerithidea fluviatilis (Potiez and Michaud)

Description: Shell moderately large with tall spires.

Whorls strongly tuberculated. Each whorl with four spiral

ridges, of which lowermost is reduced. Colour: Light to dark

brown. Status: Abundant.

Family: Cerithiidae

Cerithium morns Lamarck

Description: Small ovate shell. Anterior canal deeply

excavated. Body whorl with about 6-7 spiral rows of tubercles.

Other whorls with three rows each. Outer lip finely ribbed on

inner margin. Aperture D-shaped. A small fold present near

posterior end. Colour: Dark greenish-grey with black

tubercles. Status: Common.

Cerithium obeliscus Bruguiere

Description: Moderately large shell, slightly turreted

in shape compared to other species. Surface sculptured with

spiral rows of tubercles. Uppermost whorl strongest.

Interstices between these spiral rows traversed by fine lattice

204

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

of spiral and trans-spiral ribs. Anterior canal deeply excavated

and produced in a curved spout. Colour: Pale brown with

white markmgs. Irregular brown blotches also present. Status:

Common.

Cerithium splendens Sowerby

Description: Shells small with sharply produced anterior

canal Whorls with nodular spiral ridges. Colour: Pale brown

with alternately arranged white and brown tubercles. Status:

Common.

Family: Triphoridae

Triphora concinna Hinds

Description: Shells very small and can be collected from

shell sand. Shell elongated with small body whorl. Shell surface

with three rows of spirally arranged tubercles. Body whorl

with five rows of tubercles. Colour: Pale brown with dark

brown band at base of each whorl. Status: Common.

Triphora violacea (Quoy and Gaimard)

Description: Shells very small, can be collected from

shell sand. Shell sinistral, shell sculpture almost same as that

of T. concinna. Colour: Light violet with dark violet base.

Status: Common.

Family: Janthinidae

Janthina roseola Reeve

Description: Shell small, fragile, elongated. Basal

surface flattened, with angular and small body whorl Shell

surface finely striated, with three rows of spirally arranged

tubercles. Body whorl with five rows of tubercles. Colour:

Pale brown with dark brown band at base of each whorl. Status:

Common.

Family: Rissoidae

Rissoina clathrata A. Adams

Description: Shell small, with many whorls. All except

body whorl with three spiral ridges. Shell surface looks

granular due to crossing of spiral and trans-spiral ridges. Outer

lip thick, extended anteriorly. Colour: Pale brown Status:

Common.

Family: Mitridae

Mitra circula Kiener

Description: Moderately large, thick shell, with tall

spires. Surface spirally ridged. Two or three trans-spiral

grooves and 13 to 15 strong spiral ridges on body whorl

prominent. Upper whorls of spire with 3 spiral ridges each.

Columella plated, 3-4 plates can be seen. Colour: Y ellowish-

brown. Status: Uncommon.

Family: Turritellidae

Turritella acutangula Linn.

Description: Shell tall and thick. Whorls marked with

spiral ridges, of which two are prominent. Callus polished,

white. Colour: Yellowish-brown. Status: Common.

Turritella attenuate Reeve

Description: Shell slender compared to T. acutangula

and much taller. Spiral ridges prominent on each whorl, but

more in number than in T. acutangula. Middle rib the

strongest. Colour: Bluish-brown. Status: Common.

Family: Epitoniidae

Epitonium scalaris (Linn.)

Description: Very small. Whorls are encircled by trans-

spiral crests. Height of shell less than twice its breadth.

Aperture D-shaped, its posterior edge touching one crest of

the whorl above. Colour: White. Status: Uncommon.

Eglisia tricarinata Adam and Reeve

Description: Very small and resembles juveniles of

Turritella duphcata. Each whorl on lower half with three

distinct spiral ridges. Spires tall and sharply elevated. Colour:

Whitish with pale brown patches. Status: Common.

Family: Muricidae

Murex hailius Reeve

Description: Shell small, with spmdle shaped body. Shell

surface with seven varices. Spires well-developed. Anterior

canal curved and short. Colour: Ashy brown, penostracum

light brown. Status: Common.

Murex trap a Roding

Description: Shell large, elongated. Anterior canal open,

very long. Spires turreted. Outer lip with three strong spines.

Whorls angularly shouldered. Surface spirally ridged with

three strong varices. Each varix with strong spines. Colour:

Fresh specimens dull brown to yellowish-brown. Status:

Common.

Murex haustellum Linn.

Description: Moderately large, thick but light shell

Varices prominent on each whorl Entire surface with strong

nodules. Inner margin of outer lip with strong folds. Long

siphonal canal. Blunt spines on surface. Colour: Light pink

ground colour with dark brown nodules. Inner margin of mouth

light pink. Status: Uncommon.

Murex virgineus ( Roding)

Description: Shell large, thick, solid. Surface spirally

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

205

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

ridged, with three varices ornamented by short processes.

Anterior canal short, partially closed. Colour: Pale brown with

pink aperture. Status: Common.

Mure x adustus Lamarck

Description: Shell moderately large, thick, rough.

Varices with thick set of foliaceous processes. Surface with

strong, widely spaced spiral ridges. Abundant oyster growth

seen on many individuals. Colour: Black with bluish-white

aperture. Status: Common.

Chicorius ramosus Linn.

Description: Large, thick, heavy shell. Varices

prominent on each whorl. Spires moderately large, elevated.

Long anterior canal. Outer lip margin with well-developed,

frilled spines. Largest Indo-Pacific Murex. Colour: White with

pinkish aperture. Status: Common.

Rapana bulbosa (Dillwyn)

Description: Large, thick, heavy, globose shell. Spires

low, grooved. Surface finely striated with weakly developed

or blunt spines. Siphonal canal very short. Colour: Chestnut.

Status: Common.

Drupa heptagonalis (Reeve)

Description: Shell small and robust, with broad trans-

spiral ribs. Spiral ridges uniform. Outer lip with sharp, strong,

elongated teeth. Colour: Pale brown with dark brown

spiral bands. Columella and aperture light violet. Status:

Common.

Drupa margariticola (Broderip)

Description: Shell small, spindle shaped. Surface with

fine spiral ridges. Trans-spiral ribs prominent and single

shouldered Colour: Pale brown with dark brown spiral ridges.

Aperture light purple. Status: Common.

Drupa tuberculata (Blainville)

Description: Shell small, broadly ovate. Prominent,

uniformly and spirally arranged stout tubercles. Outer lip with

strong nodules. Colour: Brown with dark brown tubercles.

Teeth white. Status: Common.

Thais rudolphi (Lamarck)

Description: Smaller species than T. bufo. Thick, heavy,

solid shell. Body whorl with a few strong, spirally arranged

ribs. Numerous riblets also present between main ribs.

Columella broad and enamelled. Outer lip finely serrated.

Colour: Dark brown with alternate black and white spots

arranged on spiral ribs. Columella brown. Status: Common.

Thais bufo (Lamarck)

Description: Large, thick, heavy and solid shell. Body

whorl with blunt spines. Aperture large, canaliculated on both

sides. Columella broad, smooth, extending beyond upper

extremity of outer lip. Colour: Light brown. Outer lip margin

alternately marked by white and brown spots. Status: Common.

Thais rugosa (Born)

Description: Large, thick, heavy and solid shell. Species

resembles Thais caranifera in appearance. Body whorl with

blunt spines; first process on body whorl well-developed

compared to Thais caranifera. Colour: Light brown. Outer

lip margin alternately marked by white and brown spots.

Status: Common.

Thais tissoti (Petit)

Description: Small, thick, stout shell. Many tubercles

present on entire surface due to crossing of spiral and trans-

spiral ribs. Colour: White with brown nodules. Status:

Common.

Thais intermedia (Kiener)

Description: Shells moderately large, solid. Surface

rough with large, widely spaced processes in four rows, of

which upper one is largest. Processes appear like pointed

tubercles. Aperture wide, ovate. Outer lip with strong teeth.

Colour: Whitish with dark brown tubercles. Aperture light

blue, tinged with brown markings. Status: Common.

Jopas serf urn (Bruguiere)

Description: Moderately large. Surface traversed by

very fine spiral grooves. Shell spindle-shaped with short

spires. Columella and outer lip with a single tooth at posterior

end. Colour: Pale yellow brown with irregular dark brown and

white markings. Aperture light yellow. Status: Uncommon.

Maculotriton serrialis (Laborde)

Description: Shell very small, spindle-shaped. Spires

tall with 5-7 whorls. Surface with strong spiral and trans-spiral

ridges. Crossing of these ridges gives strong nodular

appearance to the surface. Outer lip prominent and having a

strong tooth. Colour: Pale yellow to white with dark brown or

orange bands. Status: Uncommon.

Family: Conidae

Conus amadis Gmelin

Description: Moderately large, thin and fragile shell.

Surface smooth, glossy but sometimes spirally grooved.

Spires sharply elevated at the last few whorls. Apex pointed.

Body whorl sharply angular above. Colour: Dark brown/

206

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

orange with irregularly scattered whitish triangular spots. Two

prominent spiral bands of densely packed brown to orange

lines on body whorl. Status: Common.

Conus piperatus Dillwyn

Description: Small shell. Spires moderately tall, basal

portion threaded. Body whorl distinctly angular above.

Aperture narrow. Whorls of spire slightly raised into ridge-

like thickening above suture. Trans-spiral plates as indicators

of growth lines are prominent. Colour: Yellowish-brown with

a prominent spiral white band across middle body whorl.

Raised spiral striae marked with rows of brown spots. Status:

Common.

Conus ebraeus Linn.

Description: Small, thick, stout shell. Spires moderately

tall. Surface with raised sphal striae. Upper part of body whorl

obtuse angled. Colour: White ground colour with four rows

of black squarish spots on body whorl. A spiral row of

prominent black squarish spots on rest of whorls. Status:

Common.

Conus nussatella Linn.

Description: Large, thin, fragile, cylindrical, and tall

conical shell. Spires short but acuminate. Body whorl with a

rounded receding shoulder. Surface with fine spiral granular

ridges. Operculum small, homy with apical nucleus. Colour:

Creamy brown or yellow with white brown blotches. Fine

reddish-brown dots and vertical dashes arranged in vertical

and horizontal rows. Status: Common.

Conus araneosus Hwass

Description: Large, thick and heavy cone. Spires

moderately elevated. Body whorl straight sided and broadly

conical. Whorls concavely depressed. Body whorl sharply

angular at upper end. Basal portion strongly threaded. Spires

coronated, beset with raised tubercles. Trans-spiral plates

prominent. Colour: White ground colour with brown mottling

on entire surface. Fine brown irregularly scattered lines

forming longitudinal bands. Body whorl with two prominent

spiral bands of interrupted brown mottling. Aperture violet.

Status: Common.

Conus milne-edwardsi Jousseaume

Description: Large, elegant and fragile shell. Shell is

very tall with elevated spires. Fine spiral grooves can be seen

on spires on close examination. A prominent deep cleft at the

posterior end of the aperture. Aperture narrow and slightly

broadened at the lower end. Lip thin with sharp, cutting edge.

Body whorl bear very fine trans-spiral striations. Colour: One

of the most brilliantly coloured cones. Base colour creamish

brown with white triangular spots. The tip of these spots is

directed away from aperture. Spire bears dark brown wavy

markings. Two prominent spiral bands on body whorl are

diagnostic. Status: Endangered.

Family: Terebrklae

Duplicaria duplicata (Linn.)

Description: Shell small, tall and slender. Surface with

numerous trans-spiral ribs separated by spiral grooves and

fine spiral ridges. Trans-spiral ribs prominent, single-

shouldered. Colour: Pale brown with dark brown markings.

Pale yellow spiral band clearly visible above each suture.

Status: Common.

Family: Turridae

Surcula javana (Linn.)

Description: Moderately large shell with tall, conical

spires. Shoulders angular. A nodulated spiral ridge prominent

at centre of each whorl. Entire surface sculptured with spiral

and trans-spiral ribs that are prominent on body whorl.

Crossing of these ribs gives a nodular appearance to the

surface. Colour: Deep brown. Status: Common.

Surcula amicta Smith

Description: Small shell with raised spires and pointed

apex. Surface smooth, glossy. Turnd notch weakly developed.

Canal short, wide. Colour: Creamy white with brown wavy

markings. Status: Common.

Family: Buccinidae

Babylonia spirata (Linn.)

Description: Moderately large, thick and heavy shell.

Body whorl large, with a few deeply grooved spires. Whorls

inflated. Surface sunk in broad grooves. Columella smooth,

well-developed. Umbilicus filled with callus. Aperture large,

constricted posteriorly by a thick ridge extending inwards on

columellar side. Anterior canal represented by a notch. Colour:

White ground with regular spiral row of large squarish orange

spots. Fresh specimens always covered with brown

periostracum. Status: Common. Edible.

Cantharus undosus (Linn.)

Description: Small, spindle-shaped shell. Surface

traversed by well-developed, strong, close set spiral ribs.

Outer lip margin thickened and strongly denticulate. Fasciole

absent. Thick brown periostracum covering the shell. Anterior

canal open, inclined. Columellar border concavely excavated.

Colour: White with reddish-brown spiral ribs. Status:

Common.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

207

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Family: Fasciolariidae

Fasciolaria trapezium (Linn.)

Description: Shell very large and heavy. Whorls

strongly shouldered. Shoulders with strong tubercles.

Columella with a few folds. Aperture spirally striated. Colour:

Pale yellow brown, marked with dark brown paired lines.

Status: Uncommon.

Fusinus longicauda (Bory)

Description: Large, spindle-shaped shell with tall

spires. Shell resembles F. coins , a species from Sri Lanka.

Siphonal canal very long and open. Spiral ridges well-

developed on entire surface, of which the middle one on

each whorl is stronger and raised. These ribs become

increasingly oblique towards canal. Last few whorls with

well-developed trans-spiral ribs. Sutures sunk. Shoulders with

weakly developed nodules. Colour: Pure white. Status:

Common.

Fusinus toreuma (Lamarck)

Description: Shell large, thick, solid and spindle-shaped.

Surface with thick spiral ridges. Angular shoulders on each

whorl bearing large tubercles. Anterior canal stout and long.

Colour: Whitish with dark brown markings. Aperture white.

Status: Common.

Family: Volutidae

Harpulina lapponica Linn.

Description: Large, thick ovoid shell. Spires short,

conical. Body whorl elongated, inflated. Columella having 6-

7 strong folds. Spires weakly grooved. Surface smooth. Last

few whorls with prominent trans-spiral ribs. Colour: Cream

white or pale yellowish ground colour with dark brown,

indistinct mottling on surface. Status: Uncommon.

Cymbium melo (Solander)

Description: Shell very large, thin, fragile with enlarged,

inflated body whorl. Spires completely reduced in adults.

Surface with trans-spiral grooves. Aperture very wide. Colour:

Bright yellowish-orange with dark brown patches on body

whorl. Status: Uncommon.

Family: Olividae

Oliva gibbosa (Born)

Description: Stout, thick, glossy shell. Body whorl

elongate-ovoid, inflated, with two strong spiral cords at the

base. Callus well-developed with close-set ridges. Spire short

with pointed apex and depressed lower part. Colour: Light

yellowish-brown with deep olive green mottling. Status:

Common.

Oliva nebulosa Lamarck

Description: Small shell with glossy surface. More

slender and elongated than O. gibbosa , with less inflated body

whorl. Columellar margin with folds which are more numerous

than in O gibbosa. Colour: Pale bluish-grey or whitish, mottled

with greenish-blue markings. Pale brown oblique spiral bands

with thick, darker brown markings at the base of body whorl.

Status: Common.

Ancilla ampla (Gmeiin)

Description: Small, smooth with glossy surface. Spire

small, with large body whorl. Aperture large but narrow.

Colour: Whitish, tinted with bright orange brown. Status:

Uncommon.

Ancilla einnamomea (Lamarck)

Description: Shell stouter and shorter than A. ampla.

Body whorl strongly inflated with two oblique spiral grooves

at base. Colour: Polished dark brown or coffee brown. Status:

Uncommon.

Ancilla acuminata (Sowerby)

Description: Similar to A. einnamomea but has raised

spire and more pointed apex. Base of body whorl narrower

than A. einnamomea. Colour: Pale brown with darker shade

below two oblique spu al grooves on body whorl. Status: Rare.

Ancilla scaphella (Sowerby)

Description: A smaller species than Ancilla acuminata.

Spire small with blunt apex. Body whorl relatively enlarged,

equally wide at both ends. Aperture very wide. Colour:

Whitish with brown suture. Status: Uncommon.

Family: Nassariidae

Bullia melanoides (Deshayes)

Description: Shell small, with glossy surface and tall

spires. Shell surface with trans-spiral ridges and fine spiral

grooves. 4-5 spiral grooves present at base of body whorl.

Colour: Dark grey with purple tinge. Status: Common.

Nassarius jacksoniana (Quoy and Gaimard)

Description: Shell small with strong raised trans-spiral

ridges. Outer lip thickened at edge, with tooth inside. Base of

body whorl with 2-4 impressed lines. Colour: Olive green

with white trans-spiral ribs. Status: Abundant.

Nassarius hcpatica (Montagu)

Description: Larger than N. jacksoniana. Spires well-

elevated. Strong trans-spiral ribs present on entire surface. A

single spiral groove cuts trans-spiral ridges below suture,

208

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

forming nodular sculpture. Colour: Olive green to light brown.

Aperture marked with two white bands on black background.

Status: Uncommon.

Nassarius cost at a Adams

Description Similar to N. hepaticci. Spires compa-

ratively well-elevated. Trans-spiral ribs finer, close-set.

Colour: Pale grey with dark brown spiral bands. Aperture

marked with brown bands on white background. Status:

Common.

Nassarius thersites (Bruguiere)

Description: Shell small with short spires. Body

whorl large, inflated. Callus flat on columella, extends and

conceals entire body whorl. Part adjoining columellar border

traversed by trans-spiral ribs. Margin of outer lip reflected,

thickened and toothed within. Colour: Ashy green with a

dark central spot on body whorl. Callus white. Status:

Common.

Nassarius suturalis (Lamarck)

Description: Comparatively larger than N. thersites.

Surface sculptured by fine, orange spiral lines. Columella

with a strong tooth. Outer lip on inner side with strong

tooth. Colour: Whitish with orange spiral lines. Status:

Uncommon.

Nassarius pallidula Adams

Description: A smaller species with elevated, pointed

spire. Surface traversed by fine spiral grooves. Callus

present on columella, which also bears a single strong tooth.

Outer lip thickened. Colour: Yellowish-brown. Status:

Uncommon.

Family: Vasidae (= Turbinellidae)

Xaucus rapa (Lamarck)

Description: Shell large, solid, heavy, pear-shaped.

Always covered with brown periostracum. Spire well-elevated.

Shoulder ridge with strong, blunt tubercles. Columella with

four strong folds. Colour: Ivory white. Young specimens with

dark brown spots. Status: Abundant.

Tudicla spirillus (Linn.)*

Description: Moderately large in size. Apex thick,

rounded with depressed spires. Spires with blunt tubercles.

Body whorl broad, inflated, angled with a long, curved siphonal

canal. Callus well-developed. Protoconch clearly visible.

Colour: Light yellowish-brown with white and brown spots.

Tubercles are dark brown. Status: Rare. This species is

endemic to southeast India.

Family: Volemidae

Hemifusus pugilinus ( Born)

Description: Massive shell with well-elevated spires.

Basal portion with coarse, close set spiral ridges. Whorls

having angular shoulder with strong tubercles. Operculum

thick, ovate, horny, anterior canal with broad opening.

Colour: Pale brown covered with thick periostracum. Status:

Common.

Hemifusus cochlidium ( Linn.)

Description: Whorls strongly and angularly shouldered.

Shoulder with strong tubercles, which are fewer and more widely

separated than in H. pugilinus. Spiral ridges prominent, except

on body whorl. Sutures sunk in deep, narrow grooves. Aperture

elongated and rectangular. Anterior canal wider than in

H pugilinus near base. Colour: Dark reddish-brown. Columella

pale yellow brown. Periostracum brown. Status: Common.

Family: Harpklae

Ilarpa conoidalis Lamarck

Description: Large, thick but fragile shell. Surface

with strong, widely spaced trans-spiral ribs. Interspaces

between ribs traversed by fine trans-spiral striae. Columella

smooth and polished. Colour: Pale fleshy brown, marked

with transverse brown lines. Columella with chestnut

coloured blotches. Interior of aperture smoky brown. Status:

Common.

Family: Pilklae

Pila dolioides (Reeve)

Description: Moderately large, fragile shell with large

body whorl. Spires more or less flat. Body whorl globular.

Colour: Light purple. Status: Common.

Family: Marginellidae

Marginella angustata Sowerby

Description: Shell small, smooth, ovoid. Spires

completely enveloped within body whorl. Outer lip thickened

and smooth within. Columella with 4 strong folds. Colour:

Bluish white ground colour with greenish-brown spiral bands.

Fine white prominent trans-spiral lines. Status: Common.

Family: Bullidae

Bulla ampulla Linn.

Description: Moderately large, thick, globose, fragile

shell. Expanded body whorl. Lip extended posteriorly beyond

apex, slightly constricted centrally and expanded anteriorly.

Columella reverse S-shaped, smooth with thin callus. Colour:

Cream with dark purple brown blotches, clouded with dark

brown. Status: Common.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

209

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Family: Hydatinidae

Hydatina velum (Gmelin)

Description: Moderately large, thin, fragile and elegant

shell. Spires flat. Suture deeply sunk in groove. Aperture wide.

Surface with fine growth lines. Lip thin. Columella with thin

callus. Colour: Waxy white. Four broad spiral bands of brown.

Central band edged on each side with unbroken, dark brown

lines. Status: Uncommon.

REFERENCES

Apte, D A (1993): Marine Gastropoda of Bombay - a recent survey.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 90(2): 537-539.

Crichton, M.D. ( 1941): Marine shells of Madras. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 42(2): 323-341.

Gravely, F.H (1941): Shell and other animal remains found on the

Madras beach. I - Mollusca. Bull Madras Govt Mus. (Nat.

Hist.) V(l): 23-70.

Gravely. F.H (1942): Shell and other animal remains found on the

Madras beach. II - Snails, etc. (Mollusca-Gastropoda). Bull.

Madras Govt. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) V(2): 1-1 10.

Kundu, H.L. (1 965a): On the marine fauna of Gulf of Kutch Part II -

Pelecypoda. J Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 62(1): 83-103.

Kundu, H .L. (1965a): On the marine fauna of Gulf of Kutch Part III -

Pelecypoda. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 62(2): 210-235.

Mookherjee, H P (1985): Contribution to the molluscan fauna of

India. Part III, Marine molluscs of the Coromandel coast, Palk

Bay and Gulf of Mannar - Gastropoda-Mesogastropoda (Part

2). Rec. zool. Surv. India , Occ. Pap. 75: 93, 15 plates.

Rajgopal, A S. & H P. Mukherjee (1978): Contribution to the

molluscan fauna of India. Part I, marine molluscs of the

Coromandel coast, Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar - Gastropoda-

Archeogastropoda. Rec. zool. Surv. India , Occ. Pap 12: 1-48,

1 plate.

Rajgopal, A.S. & H.P. Mukherjee (1982): Contribution to the

molluscan fauna of India. Part II. Marine molluscs of the

Coromandel coast, Palk Strait and Gulf of Mannar - Gastropoda-

Mesogastropoda. Rec. zool. Surv India , Occ. Pap. 28: 1-53.

Satyamurthi, T. (1952): The Mollusca of Krusadai Island. 1-

Amphineura and Gastropoda Bull Madras Govt. Mus. New. Ser

(Nat. Hist. Sec.) 1(2): 267.

Satyamurthi. T. (1956): The Mollusca of Krusadai Island. Bull. Madras

Govt. Mus. New. Ser (Nat Hist. Sec.) 1(2): 267.

Subba Rao, N.V. ( 1971 ): On the collection of Strombidae (Mollusca:

Gastropoda) from Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Western

Indian Ocean with some new records. 1. Genus - Strombus. J.

mar Biol. Assoc. India (1970), 12(J&2): 109-124.

Subba Rao, N.V. (1977): On the collection of Strombidae (Mollusca:

Gastropoda) from Bay of Bengal, Arabian Sea and Western

Indian Ocean 2. Genus - Lambis. Terebellum, Tibia and Ramella.

J. mar Biol Ass. India 19(1): 21-34.

Subba Rao, N.V. (1980): On the Conidae of Andaman & Nicobar

Islands. Rec. zool. Surv India 77: 39-50.

Subba Rao, N.V. & A. Dey ( 1 984): Contribution to the knowledge of

Indian marine molluscs- 1. Family Mitridae. Rec. zool Surv.

India , Occ. Pap 61: 1-43, 3 plates.

Subba Rao, N.V. & A. Dey ( 1 986): Contribution to the knowledge of

Indian marine molluscs- 2. Family Donacidae. Rec. zool. Surv.

India , Occ. Pap 91: 1-30. 24 plates.

Subba Rao, N.V. & K.V. Surya Rao (1993): Contribution to the

knowledge of Indian marine molluscs. 3. Family Muricidae. Rec.

zool. Surv India , Occ. Pap 153: 1-233.

Subrahmanyam, T.V., K.R. Karandikar & N.N. Murthi (1952): Marine

Gastropoda of Bombay. Jour. Univ. Bombay , 21 B(3), New

Series 26-72, 187 text figs.

210

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

211-220

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

(ARACHNIDA: SCHIZOMIDA) ON THE BASIS OF TYPES DEPOSITED

BY EH. GRAVELY (191 1-1925) IN THE NATIONAL COLLECTION, ZSI, KOLKATA'

D.B. Bastawade2

'Accepted August 2001

"Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station, Vidyanagar, Sector 29, Opp Akurdi Railway Station, Rawet Road,

Akurdi, Pune 411 044, Maharashtra, India.

The redescription of six species, namely Schizomus sijuensis, S. lunatus, S. perplexus, S. greeni , S. vittatus and

5. cavernicola of schizomid arachnids described by F.H. Gravely (191 1-1925), have been provided, with illustrations

to facilitate their identification. S. sijuensis, S. perplexus and S. cavernicola have been redesignated as new combinations.

The specimens studied were deposited in the National Collection of the Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata by

F.H. Gravely, and are the lectotypes. These species are redesignated on the basis of revisionary studies by Harvey,

Reddell and Cokendolpher.

Key words: Redescription, Schizomus , sijuensis, lunatus, perplexus, greeni, vittatus, cavernicola, tikaderi , chaibassicus,

chalakudicus, India, Sri Lanka, Myanmar

INTRODUCTION

Schizomids are minute arachnids rarely encountered in

the field. They are nocturnal, most secretive and prefer

selective habitats. Southeast Asian schizomid fauna was

initially explored by Pickard-Cambridge ( 1 872), Thorell ( 1 883-

1 889) and Pocock ( 1 900), who mainly concentrated on small

countries like Burma (now Myanmar), Ceylon (now Sri Lanka),

Malaysia and Sumatra.

Pickard-Cambridge raised the Family Tarteridae to a

Suborder Tarterides and described Nyctalops crassicaudatus

P. Cambridge [= Schizomus crassicaudatus (P. Cambridge)];

locality Royal Botanical Gardens, Peradeniya, Kandy District,

Sri Lanka. Subsequently, Thorell described Trithyreus grassi

(Teinzo, Burma) (Reddell and Cokendolpher 1985) and

Trithyreus cambridgei (Prone, Burma). Under the same

Suborder, Pocock (1900) in his monumental work fauna of

British india: arachnida described a new species Trithyreus

suboculatus (Ceylon). He also included three species

described by Pickard-Cambridge (1872) and Thorell (1883-

1889). Gravely (191 1-25) contributed first on Burmese and

Ceylonese Schizomids by describing Schizomus cavernicola

(Khayon Caves, Burma), S. (7>. ) paradeniyensis,

S. (Tr.) vittatus, and 5. (Tr.) greeni (Pundalu-oya, Marurata

and Ambalagoda, Ceylon respectively, and three species from

India as Schizomus {Tr.) sijuensis (Siju caves, Garo Hills,

Meghalaya), S. {Tr.) kharagpurensis, and S. {Tr.) lunatus

(Kharagpur and Botanical Garden, Calcutta, West Bengal).

Further, in 1915, he described S. {Tr.) perplexus and

S. {Tr.) buxtoni (Polonuruwa, Ceylon), he also reported

S. {Tr.) modestus Hanson (Tiga and Temeh caves, Malaya).

Fernando (1957) described Schizomus formicoides (Colombo,

Ceylon).

Bastawade (1985) and Bastawade and Pal (1992) have

reported the order Schizomida for the first time horn Indian

states Maharashtra and Arunachal Pradesh respectively.

Sissom (1980), Cokendolpher and Reddell (1986),

Cokendolpher (1988), and Cokendolpher and Sites (1988) have

studied eastern Asian schizomids and have described some

new species. Cokendolpher et al. (1988) have described

Schizomus tikaderi, the first species from a peninsular Indian

state Maharashtra. Further, Schizomus crassicaudatus

(Pickard-Cambridge) has been redescribed and diagnosed by

Reddell and Cokendolpher ( 1 99 1 ) on the basis of lectotypes

and paralectotypes from University of Oxford, U.K. and

Zoologisk Museum, Copenhagen. Reddell and Cokendolpher

(1995) have compiled literary and revisionary studies of about

180 schizomid species from all over the world. The genus

“ Schizomus ” has been split into many new genera mainly on

the basis of studies of spermathecae and other subletting

characters, the known species Schizomus tikaderi

Cokendolpher et al. ( 1 988) has been transferred to Neozomus

tikaderi comb. nov. Reddell and Cokendolpher ( 1 995), in their

monograph, have provided complete synonymies, published

and unpublished records, habitat information, and

bibliography for every taxon of the Order Schizomida.

Bastawade (200 1 ) redescribed Schizomus buxtoni (Gravely),

unaware of the revision by Reddell and Cokendolpher ( 1995).

T he taxonomic status of S. buxtoni (Gravely) changed to

Apozomus buxtoni (Gravely) comb. nov.

Gravely deposited most of his type specimens in

the collection of the erstwhile Indian Museum, Calcutta

(= Kolkata), now the National Collection in the custody of the

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata. The type material

representing Indian, Ceylonese and Burmese species of

Schizomida were studied and are being reported here. Two

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

new species Schizomus chaibassicus (Chaibass Pass, Chhota

Nagpur, Madhya Pradesh, India) and S. chalakudicus

(Chalakudi, Trichur (= Cochin), Kerala, India) have been

identified and described by Bastawade (2002). Accordingly,

this communication deals with the description of 6 species

under the respective proposed genera by Reddell and

Cokendolpher (1995) “ Schizomus ” greeni Gravely and

"5”. vittatus Gravely could not be studied due to lack of

information.

1 . Trithyreus sijuensis (Gravely) comb. nov. (Figs 1 - 1 3 )

1 925. “ Schizomus ” ( Trithyreus) sijuensis Gravely, Rec.

Indian Mils. 26: 61-62.

1995. Schizomus sijuensis Reddell and Cokendolpher,

Texas Mem. Mus. Speleol. Monogr. No. 4: 4,1 1,20 and 54.

2002. Schizomus sijuensis: Bastawade, / Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 99(1): 90-95.

General: Female with yellowish-brown body, distal

portions of pedipalps and chelicerae more brownish, distal

portions of legs paler. Body surface smooth. Pedipalp stout,

strong and expanded on trochanter. Flagellum single

segmented.

Measurements (in mm): Total length 7.80;

Cephalothorax 3.03, abdomen4.77 (Tables 1,2).

Cephalothorax: Propeltidium almost twice as long as

wide, anterior margin narrowing into pointed anterior process,

Figs 1-13: Trithyreus sijuensis ( Gravely) comb, nov., 1 . Carapace (Propeltidium), dorsal view, 2. Chelicera, outer view,

3. Chelicera, inner view, 4. Immovable (fixed) finger of chelicera, lateral view, 5. Pedipalp(9), lateral (mesal) view,

6. Pedipalp (tf), lateral (mesal) view, 7 Tarso-basitarsus ( 9 ), lateral view, 8. Tarso-basitarsus (d1), lateral view,

9. Femur IV (d* ). lateral view, 10. Coxa II, lateral view, 1 1 . Flagellum ( 9 ) with abdominal segments XI-XII, lateral view,

12. Spermathecae, ventral view, 1 3. Spermathecae, ventral view, enlarged

212

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

smooth, bearing one median seta and one pair of setae at the

base of the process. Three pairs of dorsal setae present; Eye

spots absent (Fig. 1 ). Mesopeltidium almost touching each

other medially, Metapeltidium undivided but with a median

suture. Anterior sternum with 9 setae and 2 sternapophysial

setae, posterior sternum not sclerotized and setation not clear.

Abdomen: All tergites and stermtes smooth, setal

composition not clear as all setae have dropped off from

specimen. Tergites III- VIII each with a pair of round

impressions for dorso-ventral muscles. Flagellum 1 mnr long

and 7-8 times longer than wide, of single annulus, setose and

2d, 2dl , 4v and 2vl setae (Fig. 10). Genital sternum wider than

long, spermathecae double, elongated tubular lobes and

tubular walls not very thick on each side (Figs 11-12).

Appendages: Chelicera : Basal segment with posterior

dorsal depression, fixed finger with only three teeth between

proximal and distal large teeth Fig. 4), movable finger with

smooth, obsolete semila with only a minute distal tooth (Figs

2, 3). Types of setae present 1-4, 2-7, 3- (unclear, except one),

4-2, 5-8 and 6-1 . Pedipalp: Short, strong and stout, expanded

on trochanter and pointed distally, laterally compressed, only

three pilose weak and long setae on ventrolatero-distal margin,

many pilose setae of various sizes present on ventrolateral

margin; femur shorter and stouter, bearing series of small,

short, stout setae on interior side, whereas outer portion bears

only three to four longer, spinulose setae, otherwise smooth;

patella longer than femur, smooth, with a few scattered

spinulose setae on outer surface, inner surface with double

row of strong setae, a row of 4 spinulose setae on dorsal and

three spinulose setae on ventral side; tibia almost as long as

patella, smooth, with pilose setae, inner margin with upper

and lower rows of spinulose setae of various lengths except

2-3 stouter spines; tarso-basitarsus with mesal spine smaller

and closer than lateral spine, ventral and mesoventral surface

with many long, pilose setae; claw almost equal to tarso-

basitarsus length (Figs 5, 7). Legs : all legs damaged, coxae II

bearing a long, stout, anteriorly pointed spme (Fig. 13); Femur

IV almost 3.84 times longer than wide, setation not clear (Fig. 9).

Leetotype: <5 Total length 7.80 mm, Cephalothorax 3.30,

abdomen 4.50; flagellum damaged, anterior process of

propeltidium with a median seta and a pair of basal setae;

anterior sternum with 4 visible setae, with 2 sternapophysial

setae, posterior sternum with 4 setae, stermte VI with 13-14

setae on anterior portion, 2 setae on posterior portion, stermtes

VII-IX each with a row of posterior marginal setae; flagellum

broken and missing; chelicera with 6-7 more setae at the base

of movable finger; tarso-basitarsus proportion as

20:7:9:8:5:9:31. Femur IV 3.43 times longer than wide. Leg

formula 1423.

Type data: Holotype: 1 9 , 1 d (lost), 2 $ $ immature, 1 9

Table 1: Measurements (in mm) for ? Trithyreus sijuensis Gravely

Table 2: Measurements (in mm) for a Trithyreus sijuensis Gravely

(broken), from Garo Hills, Meghalaya (previously Assam),

3,500-3,610 ft elevation at the entrance of Siju caves. Coll. F.H.

Gravely, dt. not recorded. Leetotype: 1 d , (flagellum broken and

lost) from Garo Hills, Meghalaya (previously Assam), 2,500 ft

elevation. Coll. F.H. Gravely, Feb. 1922, deposited m National

Zoological Collection, ZSI, Kolkata, Regn. No. 5349/H2.

Remarks: After studying the descriptions, character

tables and illustrations given by Reddell and Cokendolpher

( 1 995 ), the author proposes to transfer the species Schizomus

sijuensis Gravely to Trithyreus sijuensis (Gravely) comb. nov.

2. “Schizomus lunatus" Gravely (Figs 14-24)

1911a. Schizomus (Trithyreus) luncitus Gravely, Rec

Indian Mus. (r. 33-38.

1985. Schizomus lunatus Bastawade, J Bombay Nat

Hist. Soc. 82(3): 690.

1987. Schizomus lunatus Cokendolpher, Insecta mundi

2(2): 90-96.

1995. “ Schizomus ” lunatus Reddell and Cokendolpher,

Texas Mem. Mus. Speleol. Monogr. No. 4: 4, 1 1, 20 and 54.

General: d Body yellowish-orange, chelicerae and

pedipalp browner, distal portions of legs lighter in colour.

Measurements (in mm): d Leetotype: Total length 5.51;

Cephalothorax length 2.17; Abdomen length 3.34 (Tables 3

&4).

Cephalothorax: Propeltidium anterior margin medially

produced into a process, not very sharply bent down, provided

with anterior median seta followed by a pair of setae, dorsal

setation not clear except one pair at 0.86 and second pair at

1 .57 mm from anterior margin. Eyespots absent. Mesopeltidium

small and the central gap between plates about 0.5 times,

metapeltidium medially separated by a narrow median suture

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

213

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

Figs 14-24: Schizomus lunatus Gravely, 14. Pro, mesoand metapeltidium, dorsal view, 15. Chelicera, outer view,

16. Chelicera, inner view, 17. Pedipalp, lateral (mesal)view, 18. Femur IV, lateral view, 19. Coxa II, lateral view,

20. Distal end of abdominal segment XII, lateral view, 21 . Flagellum ( ? ), lateral view, 22. Flagellum ( <? ), lateral view,

23. Sternite I, ventral view, 24. Spermathecae, dorsal view (Cokendolpher, pers. comm.)

up to 2/3rd anterior portion, only one pair of posterior setae

present (Fig. 14). Anterior sternum with 8 visible setae and a

pair of long sternapophysial setae, posterior sternum

unsclerotised and without setae.

Abdomen: Tergites I- VII with a pair of dorsal setae each,

tergite VIII with one pair of dorsal and one pair of dorso-

lateral setae, tergite IX almost half the length of preceding

segment, with one dorsal pair and one dorso-lateral pair of

setae. Stemites V-VIII with an anterior irregular row of setae

each, amongst only 3 plumose setae on V, 5 on VI and 1 on VII

visible, middle row clear only on VII with 1 seta, and VIII with

3 setae, posterior row on posterior margins with 5 stout setae

on V, 2 on VI and 1 each on VII and VIII, setation not clear on

sternite IX. Segments X-XII telescoped, with a distinct short,

stumpy, posterior process on posterior dorsal margin of

segment XII (Fig. 19). Flagellum-, short, single segmented

and about 0.35 mm long, with a short stalk and almost spade-

shaped with 5(7, 41 and 6v pairs of setae (Fig. 22).

Appendages: Chelicera-. basal segment smooth with

setae Type 1-3, 2-3, 3-6, 4-2, 5-3 and 6-1, fixed finger with

3 teeth between two large outer teeth, movable finger with

only one minute tooth on inner lateral margin, semi la almost

smooth and obsolete, without teeth (Figs 15, 16). Pedipalp.

Trochanter produced and pointed distally, with seven stout

setae (Fig. 1 7); femur broad, short, armed with 6-7 stout setae

on outer surface, and 2-3 pairs of setae present on inner

surface (Fig. 1 7); patella not as broad as femur but elongated,

more smooth and inner surface armed with 2 stout and

1 weak pilose setae; tibia shorter and thinner than patella,

armed with 3-4 setae on inner surface, 3 setae on outer

surface; tarso-basitarsus slightly more than half the tibial

length, narrowed distally and armed with 3-4 pilose setae on

inner surface, mesal spur equal to half the claw, claw curved.

sharp and slightly shorter than tarso-basitarsus length (Fig.

17). Legs I-IV: I antenniform and tarso-basitarsus proportion

19:4:5:4:3:20 (Fig. 24). Femur IV 2.9 times as long as wide

(Fig. 18).

Paraleetotype 9 body colouration as in d, anterior

median process more pointed, acute and bent downwards,

setation on cephalothorax not clear, but anterior sternum with

4 setae and a pair of long sternapophysial setae, posterior

sternum not sclerotized and with only 4 setae; Flagellum-.

broken on anterior tip, remaining portion with two faint annuli,

genital sternite (V) with 6 scattered setae, spermathecae not

dissected, (Diagram after Cokendolpher, unpubl. data)

(Fig. 20), Pedipalp-. produced but not as pointed as in male,

Legs I antenniform, tarso-basitarsus proportion 20:3:4:4:5:10.

Femur IV 2.65 times longer than wide. Leg formula 1423.

Table 3: Measurements (in mm) for <j "Schizomus" lunatus Gravely

214

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

Type data: Lectotype d\ Paraleetotype 9 , from Indian

Museum Compound and Tollygunge, Calcutta, Coll. F.H.

Gravely, date unknown, deposited in National Zoological

Collection, ZSI, Kolkata Regn. No. not available.

Remarks: Reddell and Cokendolpher (1995) have

retained 37 species, new as well as some undescnbed, under

the genus “ Schizotnus ” including the species Schizomus

lunatus Gravely, stating “in the absence of adults, study of

the female genitalia, or taxonomic revision, these species

cannot be placed in any recognized genus.” For such species,

the generic name Schizomus is placed in inverted commas. So

the species is being retained as “ Schizomus ” lunatus Gravely

at present.

3. Notozomus perplexus (Gravely) comb. nov. (Figs 25-37)

1915a. Schizomus (Trithyreus) perplexus Gravely, Rec.

Indian Mus. 77:383-385.

1961. Trithyreus perplexus Remy, Bull, de Mus. Natl,

de Hist. Nat. 2e Ser. 33: 206-14

1995. “ Schizomus " perplexus Reddell and

Cokendolpher, Texas Mem Mus Speleol Monogr No. 4: 4, 20

and 53,

General: 9 Total length 4.50 mm, delicate, yellowish-

brown, pale on appendages (Table 5).

Cephalothorax: Propeltidium longer than wide, median

surface raised and appearing convex medially, lateral margins

narrowing anteriorly and ending in a sub-conical process,

not very acute, armed with an anterior and three pairs of dorsal

setae; a pair of lateral ocelli not very distinct, mesopeltidia

distinct, placed between carapace and metapeltidium,

metapeltidium divided medially on posterior portion, anterior

margin parallel to propeltidium but rounded on posterior lateral

margins (Fig. 25); anterior sternum broad, pointing posteriorly,

setae on anterior sternum 8 and a pair of long stemapophysial

Figs 25-37: Notozomus perplexus (Gravely) comb, nov., 25. Pro, meso and metapeltidium, dorsal view,

26. Chelicera, outer view, 27. Pedipalp (9), lateral (mesal), view, 28. Pedipalp (cf), lateral (mesal) view,

29 Basitarsus-tarsus (?), lateral view, 30. Flagellum (cf), lateral view, 31. Flagellum (cf ), ventral view,

32 Flagellum ( 9 ), lateral view, 33. Spermathecae, ventral view, 34. Tarso-basitarsus 1(9), lateral view,

35. Tarso-basitarsus I (cf ), lateral view, 36. Femur IV (cf ), lateral view, 37. Femur IV ( 9 ), lateral view

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

215

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

setae present, posterior sternum small, sub-triangular but setal

numbers and position not clear.

Abdomen: All tergites smooth, tergite I much narrower

and with 2 distal setae, tergites II-IX with 2 dorsal and 2 lateral

setae, segment X with 8 + 8 = 1 6, XI with 6 + 6 = 12 and XII

with 4 = 4 = 8 setae, flagellum: narrow, shaft with 3 annuli,

0.984 mm long and 0. 1 64 mm wide, with 7 strong, stout setae

(Fig. 32 ). Spermathecae : Consisting of only a pan- of bifurcated,

much elongated and incurved stalks, each branch ending in a

sclerotized bulb, flat on distal marginal ends (Fig. 33).

Appendages: Chelicera : basal segment smooth, setae

present as 1 -4, 2-5, 3-4, 4-3 5-7 and 6- 1 , immovable finger with

a strong basal tooth without a notch and armed with 3 minute

teeth on inner margin, movable finger smooth without serrula

and with a file of short setae on inner margin ( Fig. 26); Pedipalp:

with trochanter produced, with blunt anterior process, coxa

fiat with 6-7 distally pointed strong spines on the margin,

femur curved, as long as coxa, bearing 1 or 2 minute tubercles

on inner margin, patella a little longer than femur, smooth,

tibia almost as long as patella, narrowed distally and provided

with a few small spines, basitarsus almost half as long as

tibia, narrowed distally, single sub-apical spur located

ventrally on tarso-basitarsus, claw not even l/3rd as long as

upper margin of tarso-basitarsus (Fig. 27); Legs I-IV:

I antenniform, tarso-basitarsus proportion 1 1:4:4:3:4:5:21 not

very long but comparatively thin (Fig. 35); Coxa II bearing a

short, shaip spur-like process directed anterio-laterally, femur

IV slightly more than 2.34 times longer than wide. Legs II-IV

each with three claws.

Paralectotype: d Cephalothorax finely granular on

anterior side, otherwise same as in female; Pedipalp-. much

stronger and stouter; trochanter laterally flat, ventral margin

straight and distally bearing a pair of uneven but strong spurs;

femur also flattened, shorter than trochanter, bearing a few

short denticulate spines on inner margin; patella almost as

long as femur, bearing a pair of short tubercles on inner surface;

tibia as long as but wider than patella, proximal inner portion

elevated and provided with a few delicate setae; single

elongated spur on inner surface of tarso-basitarsus, claw as

long as half the upper margin of tarso-basitarsus (Figs 28,

29). Leg /: antenniform, tarso-basitarsus proportion

14:5:4:5:4:5:22 (Fig. 34). Femur IV 2.8 times longer than wide

(Fig. 37); Leg formula 1423. Flagellum-. 1.03 mm long,

3-annulated, distal annulus flat, expanded laterally, like an

arrow (Fig. 30), first annulus without setae, serves as stalk,

distal two annuli not distinctly separated, covered with 10-12

major setae, distal surface fiat with a median pore and ventral

surface convex in the middle (Fig. 3 1 ).

Type data: 1 9, Lectotype( studied), 79 9 Paraleetotypes

(2 9 9 without flagellum), 3 d d Paraleetotypes ( 1 d without

Table 5: Measurements (in mm) for

<$ Notozomus perplexus Gravely

flagellum), numerous immature specimens in separate vial

stating 5. (Th.) buxtoni Gravely, comments are not clear. All

collected by B.H. Buxton, date unknown; Locality: Polonurwa,

Sri Lanka (Ceylon), all deposited in National Zoological

Collection, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, Regn. No.:

not available.

Remark: Since the characters and illustrations given

lor the genus Notozomus Harvey by Reddell and

Cokendolpher ( 1995) agree with Schizomus perplexus Gravely,

specially in the basic structure of the spermathecae, the author

proposes to transfer the species to genus Notozomus Harvey

as Notozomus perplexus (Gravely) comb. nov.

4. “Schizomus” greeni Gravely (Figs 38-44)

1912. Schizomus ( Trithyreus ) greeni Gravely, Rec

Indian Mus. / 2: 108-109.

1974a. Trithyreus greeni Brignoli, Acad. Nazi, d’ Lin.

Prob. Att. d Sci & Cult. Quad. 17(2): 143-152.

1995. Schizomus greeni Reddell & Cokendolpher, Texas

Mem. Mus. Speleol. Monogr. No. 4: 48.

General: 9 Yellowish body, paler on appendages,

carapace twice as long as wide, ocelli absent, pedipalp delicate,

legs normal and flagellum broken.

Measurements (in mm): Total length 6.80, carapace

length 2.80, carapace width 1.10, abdomen length 4.00,

flagellum broken, could not be measured (Table 6).

Cephalothorax: Propeltidium more than twice as long

as wide, much wider at anterior end, dorsal surface convex,

more prominently on anterior side and ending anteriorly in a

sub-conical process (Fig. 38), 1 anterior and 2 dorsal pairs of

setae on propeltidium, no ocelli present, mesopeltidia narrow

and not very clear, metapeltidia placed close to posterior

margin of propeltidium, parallel and also undivided medially,

but a faint median suture noticeable at 1 /3rd distance from

anterior end and 1 /3rd distance from posterior end.

Abdomen: Tergite I narrowed anteriorly, tergites II-IX

smooth, setation not clear except for one pair of median setae

on each tergite, segments X-XII contracted, may be due to

preservation, flagellum short, 3-segmented. Spermathecae not

observed, specimen probably immature.

216

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

Figs 38-44: Schizomus greeni Gravely, 38. Pro, meso and metapeltidium, dorsal view,

39. Pro, meso and metapeltidium, lateral view, 40. Chelicera, inner view, 41 . Chelicera, outer view,

42. Pedipalp, lateral (mesal), view, 43. Tarso-basitarsus I, lateral view, 44. Femur IV, lateral view

Appendages: Chelicera : with setae 1-4, 2-?, 3-5, 4-2, 5-

? and 6- 1 . immovable finger with 3 minute teeth between 2 large

teeth (Figs 40, 41), movable finger smooth with no teeth or

serrula, but armed with a row of short setae on mesal margin.

Pedipalp-. delicate, not at all strong and stout, trochanter

margin not straight or provided with spur, and also not very

flat laterally; femur smooth, almost as long as trochanter;

patella tubular, as long as preceding segment, smooth; tibia

about as long as patella, smooth and tapering distally; tarso-

basitarsus with a small delicate basal spine, claw also short

and delicate, not even 1/4"' of exterior basitarsal marginal

length, only mesal spur prominent (Fig. 42). Legs I-IV:

1 antenmform and much longer (Fig. 43), II & IV with femora

much flattened and femur IV more than twice as long as wide

(Fig. 44). Leg formula 1423.

Table 6: Measurements (in mm) for 9 “Schizomus" greeni Gravely

Type data: 1 9 Lectotype from under a stone at

Ambalagonda, S. Province, Sri Lanka (Ceylon); one specimen

from compound of the Museum, Colombo, 20.vn. 1912. Coll. E.E.

Green; deposited in National Zoological Collection, ZSI,

Kolkata. Regn. No.: Not available, d unknown.

Remarks: Since the author could not study the

genitalia in detail, as the specimen was probably an immature

female he retains the species as “ Schizomus ” greeni Gravely

at present.

5. “ Schizomus ” vittatus Gravely (Figs 45-47)

1911b. Schizomus (Tritliyreus) vittatus Gravely. Spolia

zeylanica 8: 135-140

1972. Trithyreus vittatus Shimojana, Idea, Tokyo 26:

100-106.

1995. “ Schizomus " vittatus Reddell & Cokendo lpher,

Texas Mem. Mus. Speleol. Monogr. No. 4: 55-56.

No description provided, diagrams only for cephalothorax,

chelicera and flagellum given for 9 specimen (cotype,

probably immature specimen).

Type data: 69 9 cotypes from Royal Botanical Garden,

Peradeniya and Paralema, Sri Lanka (Ceylon); date unknown.

Coll. F.H. Gravely, National Zoological Collection, ZSI, Kolkata,

Regn. No.: Not available.

Remarks: The author was provided only 1 9 specimen,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

217

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

Figs 45-47: Schizomus vittatus Gravely,

45. Pro, mesoand metapeltidium, dorsal view,

46. Chelicera, inner view, 47. Flagellum (E), lateral view

which was in fragile condition and probably an immature, so

he was unable to study this species in detail, particularly the

genitalia. Therefore he retains it as “ Schizomus ” vittatus

Gravely.

Bunnezonius gen. nov.

Diagnosis: Anterior process of propeltidium beak-like,

bent and bearing 3 setae, one in front and followed by a pair

of setae, eyespots present, metapeltidium undivided,

trochanter strongly produced anteriorly and broadly

connected to femur, trochanter with strong mesal spur, femur

curved on exterior portion without spinose setae, patella not

much curved but bearing 3 tubercles on interior margin, tibia

without spur but tarsus bearing tarsal spur, movable cheliceral

finger without serrula, anterodorsal margin of femur IV

produced at an angle more than 90°, female flagellum single,

without any segment, spermathecae with uneven number of

banded, rod-like structures ending in pointed or cup shape,

gonopod short and pointed.

Type species: Schizomus cavernicola (Gravely)

Distribution: Khayon caves near Moulmain, Myanmar

(Burma).

Etymology: The generic name derived from Burma and

the Burmese people, suffixing the generic name zomus. The

gender is masculine.

6. Burmezomus cavernicola (Gravely) comb. nov.

(Figs48-56)

1912. Schizomus (s. st.) cavernicola Gravely, Rec.

Indian Mus. 7: 107-109.

1977. Schizomus cavernicola Rowland & Reddell,

Assoc. Mexican Cave Studies Bull 6\ 79-102.

1995. Schizomus cavernicola. Reddell & Cokendolpher,

Texas Mem. Mus. Speleol. Monogr. No. 4\ 48.

General: Lectotype $ body greyish-yellow, lighter on

appendages except brownish red tips, pedipalp, tarsus, claws

and stout spines.

Measurements (in mm): Total length 6.46;

Cephalothorax length 2.24, Cephalothorax width 1.23,

abdomen length 3.66, flagellum length 0.56 and width 0.2.

Cephalothorax. Propeltidium beaked anterior, beak

acutely bent forward, supported with one long seta followed

by a pair of setae at the base of beak, 3 pairs of dorsal setae

(Fig. 48). A distinct pair of white eyespots present on anterio-

lateral portion (Fig. 48). Mesopeltidia very narrow and

separated medially. Metapeltidium undivided, almost

rectangular, slightly longer than wide, provided with a pair of

posterior median setae.

Abdomen: Tergites I-IX smooth, each with a pair of

median setae, other setae not clear, segments X-XII

telescoped, setae dropped, except for a few dorsal setae on

segment X. Stermtes also smooth, except for 7-8 setae on

segment I, no setation clearly seen, anterior sternum with 6

setae visible and a pair of long sternapophysial setae,

posterior sternum not much sclerotized and with 5-6 small

reddish setae. Flagellum', single annulus, short 2.8 times

longer than wide, 3d. 3vl and 2v pairs of setae (Fig. 49),

Spermathecae consist of elongated bar-like structures of

uneven length and numbers, some tapering, pointed distally

and some with cup-shaped distal end, all evenly banded (Fig.

50-52).

Appendages: Chelicera'. basal segment smooth with

setal types 1 -4, 2-2, 3- 1 , 4-?, 5-4 and 6- 1 , fixed finger with 5

serrulated sharply pointed teeth between two large outer

teeth, movable finger smooth without teeth or serrula on

inner margin (Fig. 53). Pedipalp-. robust, produced anteriorly

into a pointed spine on anterior portion (Fig. 54), femur and

patella equal in length, but femur wider than patella, tibia

shorter than patella and narrowed distally, tarso-basitarsus

shorter than patella and tarsal claw almost half as long as

basitarsus. Legs l-l V: measurement as in Table 7, 1 antenniform

(Fig. 56), Femur IV slightly less than 3 times longer than wide

(Fig. 55). Leg formula 1423.

218

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

V

I mm

Figs 48-56: Burmezomus cavernicola (Gravely) comb, nov., 48. Anterior portion of propeltidium, lateral view,

49. Flagellum ( ? ), lateral view, 50 Spermathecae, ventral view, 51 Spermathecae, ventral view (enlarged),

52. Spermathecal rods, distal portions, ventral view (enlarged), 53. Chelicera, inner view,

54. Pedipalp, lateral (mesal) view, 55. Femur IV, lateral view, 56 Tarso-basitarsus, lateral view

Table 7: Measurements (in mm) for

? of Burmezomus cavernicola (Gravely)

Type data: 2 ? 9 Lectotype, in depths of big dark cave

(the famous Khayon cave) near Moulmain, Myanmar

(= Burma). Coll. F.H. Gravely, 1 7.xi -4.xii.191 1, deposited at

National Collection, ZSI, Kolkata, Regn. No. 2161/18,

d unknown.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I sincerely thank Dr. A.K. Ghosh, Ex. Director and

Dr. J.R.B. Alfred Director, Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata

for facilities and constant encouragement. I will always be deeply

indebted to J.C. Cokendolpher and J.R. Reddell, Texas, USA

and M.S. Harvey, Western Australian Museum, Perth, Australia

for their kindness in providing me literature, especially the

recently published monograph, encouragement and help during

this work. I am thankful to Drs. S.K. Tandon, A.K. Sanyal, P.T.

Bhutia, T.K. Pal, M.S. Pradhan and B.K. Biswas, Zoological

Survey of India, for extending many facilities and help during

the work. I am deeply grateful to Sn P. W. Garde, Sr. Artist for his

painstaking efforts in making special inclined illustrations. I also

wish to thank my wife Mrs. Bharati, for sparing me the time to

complete this work.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

219

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE

REFERENCES

Bastawade. D.B. (1985): The first report of the Order Schizomida

(Arachnida) from Southern India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

82(3): 690.

Bastawade, D.B. (2001 ): Redescnption of Schizomus buxtoni Gravely

from Sn Lanka on the basis of Syntype deposited in the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta by F.H. Gravely 1915. J. Bombay Nat

Hist. Soc. 98: 135-137.

Bastawade, D.B. (2002): Two new species of Sclnzomids from India

with range extension for Schizomus tikaden (Arachnida:

Schizomida). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 99(1): 90-95.

Bastawade. D.B. & T.K. Pal. (1992): The first record of the Arachnid

Order Schizomida from Arunachal Pradesh. ./. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 89: 137.

Cok.endoi.pher, J.C. (1988): Review of the Schizomidae (Arachnida:

Schizomida) of Japan and Taiwan. Bull. Nat. Sci. Mus. Tolcyo.

Ser. A 14(4): 159-171.

Coken doi.pher. J.C. & J.R. Reddell (1986): Schizomus siamensis

(Schizomida: Schizomidae) from eastern Asia and Hawaii. Acta

Arachnol 35: 23-28.

Cokendolpher. J.C. & R.W. Sites (1988): A new species of eyed

Schizomus (Schizomida: Schizomidae) from Java. Acta Arachnol.

36: 79-85.

Cokendolpher, J.C., D. Sissom & D.B Bastawade (1988): A new

Schizomid from Indian state Maharashtra with additional

comments on eyed Schizomids (Arachnida: Schizomida), Insecta

Mundi, ((ISA) 2(2): 90-96.

Fernando. E.F. (1957): A new species of Schizomus ( Trithyreus )

fonnicoides from Ceylon (Sri Lanka). Ann Mag. Nat. Hist.

10(12): 13-16.

Gravely. F.H. ( 191 la): Notes on Pedipalpi in the collection of Indian

Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 6: 33-38.

Gravely. F.H. (1911b): The species of Ceylon Pedipalpi. Spolia

zeylanica 7: 135-140.

Gravely. F.H. (1912): Notes on the Pedipalpi in the collection of

Indian Museum. Rec. Indian Mus. 7: 101-1 10.

Gravely. F.H. (1915): Notes on the Pedipalpi in the Collection of

Indian Museum V, Tarterides, collected by Mr. B.M. Buxton in

Ceylon and Malaya. Rec. Indian Mus. 11: 383-386.

Gravel,, F.H. (1925): Tarterides from Siju Caves, Garo Hill. Assam

(=Meghalaya). Rec Indian Mus. 26: 61-62.

Pickard-Cambridge, O. (1872): On a new family and genus and two

new species of Thelyphomdae. Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist.. Ser. 4. 10:

409-413, pi. 22.

Pocock. R I. (1900): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon and

Burma. Arachnida, Taylor & Francis, xii + 279 pp

Reddell, J.R. & J.C. Cokendolpher! 1985): Redescnption of Trithyerus

grassii (Arachnida: Schizomida: Schizomidae). Oriental Insects

18: 43-52.

Reddell, J.R & J.C. Cokendolpher (1991 ): Redescription of Schizomus

crassicaudatus (Pickard-Cambridge) and diagnoses of

Hubbardia Cook. Stenichrus Chamberlin, and Sotenostenochrus

new genus with description of a new species of Hubbardia from

California (Arachnida: Schizomida: Hubbardiidae). Texas

Memorial Mus.. Univ. Texas Austin, No. 47: 1-24.

Reddell, J.R. & J.C Cokendolpher (1995): Catalogue. Bibliography

and Generic revision of the Order Schizomida (Arachnida). Texas

Mem. Mus. Speleol. Monogr., No. 4: 1-170.

Sissom, D. (1980): The eyed Schizomids with the description of new

species from Sumatra (Schizomida: Schizomidae). J. Arachnol

8: 187-192.

Thorell, T. (1883): Descrizione di alcum Aracmdi inferiori dell’

Arcipelago Malese. Annali del Museo Civtco di Storm Naturle

di Genova 18: 21-69.

Thorell. T. (1888): Pedipalpi e Scorpiom deh Archipelago Malese

conservati nel Museo Ci vico di Storia Naturale di Genova. Annali

del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di Genova, Ser. 2, 6: 327-

328.

Thorell, T. ( 1889): Aracmdi Artogastri Birmani racolti da L. Fea nel

1885-1887. Annali del Museo Civico di Storia Naturale di

Genova. Ser. 2, 7: 521- 729.

220

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

221-223

DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOMASS CONSUMED

AND SCATS PRODUCED IN CAPTIVE ASIATIC LIONS (PANTHERA LEO PERSIC A)

AND LEOPARDS (. PANTHERA PARDUS )'

S. Mukherjee2-3 and S.P. Goyal2-4

'Accepted February 2002

"Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. No. 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

"Email: [email protected]

JEmail: [email protected]. in

Feeding trials on captive adult Asiatic Lion ( Panthera leo persica) and Leopard (Panthera pardus) were conducted at

the Sakharbaug zoo, Junagadh (India) to establish a relationship between the amount of food consumed and the scats

produced. Lions (ave. body mass = 100 kg.) and Leopards (ave. body mass = 50 kg) fed ad libitum on buffalo meat

consumed an average of 6% and 8% of their total body mass respectively. Biomass ingested by Leopard was significantly

correlated with the total dry weight of scats (p = 0.01 , r2= 0.75), but not with the number of scats produced (r2 = 0.028)

Flowever, a relationship was noted between the amount given and biomass consumed per scat (p = 0.04 r2 = 0.53). For

lions, no significant correlation was seen, either in the number of scats produced or the dry weight of scats, with the

amount consumed. Also, the biomass consumed per scat was not correlated with the amount given

Key words: Feeding trials, scat weight, scat number

INTRODUCTION

Calculating the percentage of scats containing different

prey items, or percent occurrence of prey items is the most

commonly used method for quantifying diet from scat. This

method has several limitations. It tends to over-represent

larger prey, as they induce the production of a greater number

of scats (Jones and Smith 1979; Weaver and Hoffman 1979;

Ackerman et al. 1984; Reynolds and Aebischer 1991).

However, Floyd et al. (1978) concluded that smaller prey

would be over-represented in terms of weight, but under-

represented m numbers, as small prey species are known to

produce more indigestible matter, such as hair, due to a higher

surface to volume ratio than larger prey species.

Nevertheless, frequency or percent occurrence of prey

species m scats alone may not be a reliable method to quantify

predator diet (Floyd et al. 1978; Weaver and Hoffman 1979;

Ackerman etal. 1984). To overcome this problem, as well as

to estimate fresh-weight intake, feeding trials on captive

wolves (Floyd et al. 1978), coyotes (Weaver and Hoffman

1979) and cougars (Ackerman et al. 1984) were conducted

and correction factors were obtained from regressions of

food consumed to scat produced. This can be applied to the

data obtained as percentage of scats having a prey item, to

obtain reliable estimates of biomass consumed by the

predator (Floyd et al. 1978; Weaver and Hoffman 1979;

Ackerman et al. 1 984 ).

We conducted feeding trials to establish the relationship

between biomass consumed and scat produced in captive

Asiatic Lions and Leopards.

METHODS

Feeding trials were conducted during August 1993.

Eight captive adult Lions and Leopards each were chosen for

the feeding trials at the Sakharbaug zoo in Junagadh, Gujarat

and each animal was housed in a separate cage. Food was

withdrawn for 48 hours before commencing the feeding trials

to remove the effect of the previous diet, and the scats from

the earlier diet were rejected. As buffalo meat was the regular

diet of the cats at the zoo, the experimental animals were also

fed buffalo meat along with skin and hair. The Lions were

given 6 to 20 kg meat and Leopards 3 to 10 kg. The animals

were randomly fed 3/6 kg to 10/20 kg of meat for one day.

Water was provided ad libitum. After 24 hours, the

unconsumed meat was weighed to determine the amount

consumed by individuals. Food was again withdrawn until

scat production ceased. All scats produced during this period

were collected, and oven dried at 70 °C for a week, and weighed

to the nearest 0.1 gm.

RESULTS

The captive Asiatic Lions and Leopards which had been

unfed for 48 hrs consumed a mean of 6. 1 kg ( Range: 1 - 1 5 kg)

and 4.3 kg (Range: 1 .5-6.5 kg) respectively. This amounts to

6% and 8% of the body mass of the lion and leopard

respectively per day. The maximum meat consumed by both

cats equals 10% to 12% of their body weights, per day.

Meat consumption was proportional to the amount

available (Fig. 1). This relationship was stronger in case of

DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOMASS CONSUMED AND SCATS PRODUCED IN CAPTIVE CATS

c

•o

V

E

3

</>

e

o

(J

c

3

o

E

<

c

3

O

E

<

16

14

12 -

10

8

6

4

2

0

lions

y = 0 4848x

R2 = 0 4562

■ft <J

O 3

V. “o

S O

=Q W 4

E 1

3

z

0 -t T T , ! , T , , , T i

0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

0

lions

R2 = 0 0342

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

• •

leopards

R2 = 0.0282

2 4 6 8 10 12 14 16

Amount given in kg.

Amount consumed in kg.

Fig. 1 : Relationship between the amount of food given to

Asiatic Lions and Leopards and the amount consumed by them

Fig. 2: Relationship between amount of meat consumed by

Asiatic Lions and Leopards and the number of scats produced

leopards (Fig. 1 ) (r = 0.64, p = 0.01 ) than in lions (r2 = 0.45, p =

0.05). However, consumption seemed to stabilize around 6 to

6.5 kg for leopards when given more than 8 kg of meat. In case

of lions, some individuals consumed less meat irrespective of

the amount supplied, making the relationship weaker.

In both the cats, the relationship between biomass

ingested and the number of scats produced did not yield

much information, as the maximum number of scats produced

was two for 2 kg as well as 6 kg of meat consumed (Fig. 2).

However, for leopards, biomass per scat was related to amount

given by the equation y = 0.6533x - 1.1 994 (r: = 0.53, p = 0.04)

(Fig. 3). This was not seen in lions. The biomass ingested by

leopard was significantly correlated with the total dry weight

of scats produced (Fig. 4), but lions did not show a correlation

between biomass ingested and total dry weight of scats.

DISCUSSION

The amount of food consumed by captive large felines

agrees with other studies in the wild where felids and canids

consumed on an average food 7% to 10% of then body mass

(Golley etal. 1965; Kolenosky 1 972; Nellis etal. 1972; Johnsingh

1983;Caro 1989; Aldama 1991; Jhala 1991;Stander etal. 1997).

Studies on wolf, coyote, and cougars have shown a

significant relationship between biomass ingested and the

number of scats produced when given wild prey (Floyd etal.

1978, Weaver and Hoffman 1979, Ackerman et al. 1984).

However, the slope for the regression of biomass per scat

and amount given in leopards was steeper than estimated for

cougars (Ackerman 1984) and wolves (Floyd etal. 1978).

This suggests that leopards produced fewer (maximum two),

but heavier scats than cougars and wolves. Ackerman et al.

(1984) observed that wolves produced approximately four

times more scats than cougars, but the scat weight was higher

in cougars than wolves. However, Ackerman etal. (1984) and

Floyd et al. (1978) estimated only wet weight of scats while

we estimated dry weights, these could not be compared. The

difference between the equations generated for cougars and

leopards could also be due to the fact that we could give the

cats only one prey type, while the other studies (Floyd et al.

1978; Ackerman et al. 1984) gave several wild prey types.

Hence, this trend with leopards needs to be validated by

providing them with natural prey.

Tions showed a greater amount of grooming as indicated

from remains of self-hair in the scats of non-expenmental animals

(which were given dressed meat). 'This could be the reason for

the lack of correlation in the case of lions.

Some major problems that can be expected during

feeding trials with zoo-bred animals are:

1. Animals may not feed on meat other than the type they

are used to.

2. Animals may reject skin and hair totally.

3. Consumption of self-hair by predators while grooming

could lead to erroneous results from scat analysis.

222

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOMASS CONSUMED AND SCATS PRODUCED IN CAPTIVE CATS

-O _

3 -s

s ®

o jt:

o ^

(0 u

<3 M

C k-

O 9

a s-

8

7 -

6

5

4

3

2

1

0 --

0

2

4

6

lions

8 10 12 14 16 18 20 22

leopards

y = 6.9671x+ 5.279

R2 = 0.7539

2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16

Amount consumed in kg.

Fig. 3: Relationship between the amount of food given to

Asiatic Lions and Leopards and the biomass consumed per scat

Fig. 4: Relationship between amount of meat consumed by

Asiatic Lions and Leopards and the dry weight of scats

CONCLUSIONS

1. Captive Asiatic Lions and Leopards consumed food

between 5% to 10% of their body mass.

2. Leopards consumed food in proportion to availability. This

was not seen in Asiatic Lions.

3. Total number of scats produced is not a good indicator of

the amount of food consumed for both Asiatic Lions and

Leopards.

4. The dry weight of scats showed a strong relation to the

amount of food consumed, in case of leopards but not lions.

5. Biomass per scat was related to the amount of food given

in the case of leopards but not in lions. This trend for

leopards needs to be validated through feeding trials with

natural prey.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, Wildlife Institute of India for

supporting this study. We also thank the Gujarat Forest

Department, Mr. Rawal and Dr. Sabapara for permissions, and

encouragement while conducting the study.

REFERENCES

Ackerman, B B.. F.G. Lindzey & T P. Hemker (1984): Cougar food

habits in Southern Utah. J. Wildl. Manage. 48: 147-155.

Aldama, J.J., J.F Beltran & M Delibes ( 1 991 ): Energy expenditure

and prey requirements of free ranging Iberian lynx in South

Western Spain. J. Wildl. Manage. 55: 635-641.

Caro. T.M. (1989): Determinants of asociahty in Fel ids. Pp. 41-74.

In: Comparative socioecology of humans and other mammals

(Eds: Standen V. & R.A. Foley). Special publication series of the

British Ecological Society, No. 8, Oxford: Blackwell Scientific

Publication.

Floyd. T.J., I D Mech & P.A. Jordan (1978): Relating wolf scat

content to prey consumed. J. Wild l. Manage. 42: 528-532.

Golley, F.B , G.A. Petrides, E.L. Rauber & J H. Jenkins ( 1965): Food

intake and assimilation by bobcats under laboratory conditions.

J. Wildl. Manage. 29: 442-447.

Jhala, Y.V. (1991): Habitat and population dynamics of wolves and

blackbuck in Velavadar National Park, Gujarat, India. Ph.D

Dissertation. The Virginia Polytechnic Institute and State

University. Blacksburg, Virginia.

Johnsingh, A.J.T. (1983): Large mammalian prey - predators in

Bandipur. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80: 1-57.

Jones, H.J. & S.N. Smith ( 1 979): Bobcat density and prey selection in

Central Arizona. J. Wildl. Manage 43: 666-672.

Kolenosky, G.B. (1972): Wolf predation on wintering deer in East-

Central Ontario. J Wildl. Manage. 36: 357-369.

Nellis, C.H., S.P Wetmore & L.B. Keith ( 1972): Lynx prey interactions

in Central Alberta. J. Wildl. Manage. 36: 320-328.

Reynolds, J.C. & N..I. Aebischer ( 1 99 1 ): Comparison and quantification

of carnivore diet by faecal analysis: a critique with

recommendations based on a study of the Fox Vulpes. Mammal

Rev. 21: 97-122.

Stander, P.E., P.J. Haden, Kaqece, // & Ghau, // ( 1 997): The ecology

of asocialily in Namibian leopards. J. Zool. (Lond.) 242: 343-

364.

Weaver, J L. & S.W. Hoffman (1979) Differential detectability of

rodents in coyote scats. J. Wild!. Manage 43: 783-786.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

223

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

224-226

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF FERNS AND THEIR RELATION TO INSECT INFESTATION

FROM DARJEELING FOOTHILLS AND PLAINS'

A. Mukhopadhyay2, 3 AND D. ThaPA2''4

'Accepted June 2002

-’Zoology Department, North Bengal University, District Darjeeling, Pin 734 430, West Bengal, India.

'Email: [email protected]

JEmail : [email protected]

Some dietary parameters of five common fern species from the Darjeeling foothills and plains were analysed. Biomolecules

like proteins, carbohydrates and lipids, as well as phenols, fibres and moisture content of mature fronds were studied to

understand the basis of colonization by fern-attacking insects. High moisture content, along with high nutritive protein

and carbohydrate levels of mature fronds of Diplazium esculentum (Retz.) Sw. and Christella crinipes (Hk.) Holt

appeared to be important factors in determining the palatability and infestation of the fern species by insect herbivores

Key words: Nutritional status, host fern, insect herbivory

INTRODUCTION

Ferns are apparently found to be underutilized as food

plants by insect herbivores (Soo Hoo and Fraenkel 1964,

Eastop 1973, Hendrix 1980, Cooper-Driver 1978). However,

intensive studies on insect-fern relationships show that some

fern species are palatable and well exploited by insects as

food plant. Thus, the assumption that ferns are underutilized

may be an artifact of inadequate sampling (Hendrix and

Marquis 1983). Nevertheless, it has been adequately

documented that certain chemicals (Karlson and Bode 1969,

Daniel and Chandrasekar 1986), as well as physical factors

(Soo Hoo and Fraenkel 1964) determine the resistance and

non-palatability of ferns.

In a study on ferns from the foothills and plains of

Darjeeling, it was noted that the common ferns, Diplazium

esculentum (Retz.) Sw. and Christella crinipes (Hk.) Holt

were the most preferred food plants. While a meagre

infestation of Lindsaea ensifolia Sw and Microlepia

speluncae (L. ) Moore has been recorded, no insect herbivores

have so far been observed on Dicranopteris linearis (Brum.

F.) Underus. (Mukhopadhyay and Thapa 1994). To

understand the preference and colonization by insect

herbivores, five common fern species were analysed for

proteins, carbohydrates, lipids and fibres, moisture and total

phenols.

METHODS

Nutritive carbohydrate of dry fern powder of middle-

aged fronds was estimated using the techniques of Plummer

( 1979) and Ananthakrishnan ( 1990). Protein was extracted as

per Draper ( 1 976), and estimated as in Lowry et al. (1951).

Total lipid was estimated by the standard gravimetric

technique using petroleum ether as solvent. Total phenol was

assayed from the ethanol extract as per Hon ( 1 974). Moisture

content was estimated by drying the fronds in an oven at 50

°C for 48 hrs. Fibre (non-extractable components) was assayed

as per Rowell et al. (1983).

RESULTS

The biochemical analysis of the fern species revealed

that although the total storage protein was highest in

Christella crinipes and Dicranopteris linearis , the

nutritionally higher quality protein, albumin and globulin, far

exceeded in the fonner. Total protein in Diplazium esculentum

followed close behind, with a fair amount of albumin and

globulin. Total protein was least in Microlepia speluncae ,

and marginally higher in Lindsaea ensifolia. Glutelin, second

amongst nutritive proteins (Slansky and Pamzzi 1987), was

highest in Diplazium esculentum , and considerably low for

the other fern species. Prolamine, the poorest of storage

proteins, was highest in Dicranopteris linearis , followed by

Lindsaea ensifolia. where it was almost half that of the highest

value. In the other fern species, the value was almost equal to

that of L. ensifolia (Table 1).

Total carbohydrate comprised monosaccharides and

oligosaccharides, and starch. They were highest in L ensifolia

closely followed by Diplazium esculentum and Christella

crinipes. The level was comparatively low in Microlepia

speluncae and the lowest in Dicranopteris linearis. The

quantity of both the mono- and oligosaccharide is less than

starch in all the species. Maximum starch was found in

Christella crinipes followed by Diplazium esculentum. It was

comparatively less in the other species (Table 1 ). Total lipid

was highest in Lindsaea ensifolia , while it was lowest in

Dicranopteris linearis. Total lipid was almost half of Lindsaea

ensifolia in Christella crinipes followed by D. esculentum

and M. speluncae (Table 1 ).

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF FERNS AND THEIR RELATION TO INSECT INFESTATION

Table 1: Comparison of basic nutritional components (mg/g) of five fern species (Mean ±SE)

Percentage of moisture was highest in Diplazium

esculentum , closely followed by Microlepia speluncae. The

moisture content of Christellci crinipes and Lindsaeci

ensifolici was slightly reduced with an overlapping value,

while Dicranopteris linearis had the least. Total phenol was

estimated to be highest in Lindsaea ensifolia, followed by

Christella crinipes , Diplazium esculentum and

Dicranopteris linearis. Microlepia speluncae had a

remarkably low phenol content. The percentage of fibre (non-

extractable components) was estimated to be the highest in

Lindsaea ensifolia and lowest in Dicranopteris linearis.

The fibre content of Diplazium esculentum and Microlepia

speluncae had intermediate and overlapping ranges

(Table 2).

Observation of the fern vegetation from the foothills

and plains of Darjeeling have confirmed an association of

60 insect species from the orders Lepidoptera (12), Coleoptera

(19), Hemiptera (20), Hymenoptera (4), Orthoptera (2),

Thysanoptera (2) and Diptera ( 1 ) (Mukhopadhyay and Thapa

1 994 ). Of these, 1 6 species were regular fern feeders, suckers

Table 2 Comparison of some dietary factors (Mean ±SE) and

percentage occurrence of insect-herbivores on five fern species

and miners. The fern species preferred and attacked by most

of the insects was Diplazium esculentum , followed by

Christella crinipes. The other species were less attacked or

colonized by only a few specialized insect herbivores.

DISCUSSION

In ferns, higher concentration of protein and nitrogen

plays a significant synergistic role with other chemicals in

attracting jassids and aphids (Daniel and Chandrasekhar

1986). Species like Lindsaea ensifolia and Microlepia

speluncae with low levels of total protein largely remained

unexploitedby insects. Dicranopteris linearis with high total

protein was possibly unpalatable because of its low

carbohydrate and moisture content. A low concentration of

carbohydrate has been reported to attract aphids (Daniel

and Chandrasekar 1986). However, in this study, maximum

insect attack was recorded on Diplazium esculentum and

Christella crinipes , both with high total carbohydrates. This,

however, was matched with high nutritional protein and low

lipid levels.

Higher concentration of phenols may act as a repellent

to insects because of their toxic effect, and this seemed true

for Lindsaea ensifolia. This species and Dicranopteris

linearis had the highest and the lowest fibre content

respectively, but since both were underutilized, fibre content

alone might not be responsible for the preference of fern as a

food plant. Rowell et al. ( 1983) in their study on fern-insect

fauna suggested that the chemical constituents of fern fronds,

like nitrogen, phenol, tannin, and fibre, had little impact on

their palatabihty. In the present study, a high percentage of

moisture in D esculentum along with enhanced protein and

carbohydrate levels, might have been the deciding factors

for its greater palatability (81.3%), and overexploitation by

insects.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

225

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF FERNS AND THEIR RELATION TO INSECT INFESTATION

REFERENCES

Ananthakrishnan, T.N. (1990): Workshop manual on Insect-plant

interactions. S. Viswanathan (Printers and Publishers) Pvt. Ltd.,

Madras (India). 122 pp.

Cooper- Driver. G.A. (1978): Insect-fern associations. Ent. Exp. et

Appl. 24: 310-316.

Daniel. A.M. & S.S. Chandrasekar (1986): Insect-fern interactions

with particular reference to Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis

(Bouche) (Thysanoptera: Panchaeothripinae). Curr. Sci.

55(14): 676-678.

Draper, S.R. (1976): Biochemical analysis in crop science. Oxford

University Press, Oxford, England. 130 pp.

Eastop. V.F (1973): Deductions from the present day host plants of

aphids and related insects. Symp. R Entomol. Soc. Lond.

6: 157-173.

Hendrix, S.D. ( 1980): An evolutionary and ecological perspective of

the insects of ferns. Am. Nat. 115(2): 171-196.

Hendrix, S.D. & R.J. Marquis (1983): Fierbivore damage to two tropical

ferns. Biotropica 15(2): 108-111.

Hori. K. (1974): Study on the feeding habit of Lygus disponsi Linn.

(Hemiptera: Miridae) and the injury to the host plant, V. Phenolic

compounds, acid phosphatase and oxidative enzyme in artificially

infested tissue of sugar beet leaf. Appl Ent. and Zool. 9: 225-

230.

Karlson, P. & P. Bode (1969): Die inaktivierung des Ecdysons bei der

Schmeissfliege Calliphora erythrocephala Meigen. J. Insect

Physiol 15: 111-118.

Lowry, O.H., N.G. Rosenbrough, A.L. Farr & R.G. Randall (1951):

Protein measurements with Folin phenol reagent. J Biol Chem

193: 265-275.

Muichopadhyay, A. & D. Thapa (1994): Species richness in ferns and

associated insects from Darjeeling plains. J. Bombay Nat. Hist

Soc 91(1): 86-90.

Plummer, T.D. (1979): An Introduction to Practical Biochemistry

2"d Edn. Tata McGraw-Hill Publishing Company Limited, New

Delhi. India. 362 pp.

Slansky, F. Jr. & A.R. Panizzi (1987): Nutritional ecology of the seed-

sucking insects. Pp. 283-320. In: Nutritional ecology of insects,

mites, spiders and related invertebrates (Eds: Slansky, F., Jr. &

J.G. Rodriguez). John Wiley and Sons, New York.

Soo Hoo, C.F. & G. Fraenkel (1964): The resistance of fern to feeding

of Prodenia eridania larvae. Annals Ent Soc. Am. 57(6): 788-

790.

Rowell, C.H.F., M. Rowell Rahier, H.E. Braker, G. Cooper-Driver

& L.D. Gomez P. (1983): The palatability of ferns and the

ecology of two tropical forest grasshoppers. Biotropica 1 5(3):

207-216.

226

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

227-234

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS,

NORTHEAST INDIA1

A. Christy Williams2, 3 and A.J.T. Johnsingh2,4

'Accepted June 2002

^Wildlife Institute of India, P.O. Box 18, Chandrabani, Debra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

-'Email: [email protected]

'Email: [email protected]. in

An assessment of elephant-human conflict was carried out in the Garo hills in northeast India from November 1 994 to

September 1995. More than 85% (c. 3,605 sq. km) of the estimated elephant habitat is under the control of village

communities. The predominant land-use pattern on these community lands is slash and burn agriculture, locally known

as jhum. Our results showed that West Garo Hills district was the area most affected by elephant depredations. The

landscape pattern resulting from the practice of slash and burn agriculture creates a mosaic of crop fields and forests

Since the forest patches in these areas are too small to support elephant groups for long periods of time, they move from

one forest patch to another through crop fields and this leads to crop raiding, the main form of elephant-man conflict

The economic cost of damage caused in the region has been compared with similar studies in India. Reasons for crop

raiding and the effectiveness of the current mitigation measures are discussed. The number of elephants killed by

humans, either during crop raids or by poaching, has gone up in recent years. Recent developmental practices, like

mining, which are incompatible with elephant conservation, are becoming widespread across the landscape, and are

likely to increase the rates of elephant-human conflict. Recommendations to understand and reduce the conflict are

outlined.

Key words: Elephas maximus, elephant-human conflict, crop raiding, shifting cultivation, northeast India

INTRODUCTION

The Asian elephant Elephas maximus in India occurs

m five major fragmented populations totalling 1 7,000 to 22,000

individuals (Daniel 1980; Sukumar 1991). The elephant

populations in south, central, and northwest India occur

primarily in Forest Department controlled reserved forests,

wildlife sanctuaries and national parks. However, in northeast

India, a significant proportion (>40%) of the elephant

population occurs in community lands, otherwise known

as unclassified state forests. Most of elephant-human

conflict studies in India have looked at elephants living

within protected areas or areas controlled by the Forest

Department, going out and causing crop depredations and

loss of lives. However, in northeast India, elephants are living

in areas controlled by local communities, and therefore

traditional methods of management to reduce or mitigate the

conflict are not feasible. This study is the first in India to

analyse the problem of elephant-human conflict on

community lands.

The Garo Hills, in Meghalaya, are a region of high

elephant density and elephant-human conflict. An estimated

1,400 elephants occur over 3,605 sq. km of forest, of which

only 15% is under the control of the Forest Department (Anon

1994). The 1 993-94 Forest Department census estimated the

total number of elephants on community lands, managed by

tribals, to be over 600 (Anon 1994). This census was carried

out when forests were cleared for cultivation. During such

times elephants retreat to Forest Department controlled forests

where disturbances are less, and therefore the estimate for

community lands could be low.

The majority of the people living in the Garo Hills

belong to the Garo tribe. Each Garo village has its own forests,

demarcated by landmarks, such as streams and ridges. The

control and management of the forest in eveiy village is under

the headman who acts in close coordination with the villagers

(Singh 1994). The majority of the Garos subsist on shifting

cultivation (jhum), a traditional method where a patch of

forest is chosen and cleared by slashing the undergrowth

and felling small trees and bamboo. The larger trees may be

left intact. The felled vegetation is burnt when it is dry and

the cleared area is divided into plots. Each plot is allotted to

a family for cultivation. The area is cultivated for one or two

years, after which it is abandoned and the people move on to

another patch of forest to repeat the process. A special clause

in the Indian Constitution allows them to practice jhum till

date.

Approximately 760 sq. km of community forests is

estimated to be under shifting cultivation or jhum in

Meghalaya (Husain 1981). This has created a mosaic of

secondary (bamboo and degraded scrub) forests interspersed

with cultivation and primary forests. As a result, elephants

often encounter crop fields, which have little or no protection,

and raid them as the crops provide an easy source of highly

nutritious food (Sukumar 1991 ). While attempting to prevent

crop raiding, there are injuries and loss of human lives eveiy

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

year. To compensate this depredation, in 1984 the Forest

Department started paying monetary compensation to the

victims (Meghalaya Forest Department Office Memorandum

No. For. 58/83/1 72 dated 25th April 1984). This measure has

not contributed significantly towards reducing the problem

of elephant-human conflict (see Results). Since the launching

of Project Elephant, in 1991-1992, a Government of India

project for the conservation of elephants in India, there is a

renewed interest in implementing long-term measures to

reduce elephant-human conflict.

Understanding the extent and intensity of the elephant-

human conflict is important to formulate and implement

mitigation measures (Thouless 1994; Desai and

Krishnamurthy 1992) for this and similar areas in northeast

India and Southeast Asia. The perspective of the local people

needs to be assessed to come up with workable proposals. In

this paper, we discuss the intensity of elephant-human conflict

in Garo Hills and the efficacy of the various mitigation

measures. Data was collected during a status survey of

elephants in the region from November 1994 to September

1995.

The study area and land use in Garo Hills

The Garo Hills are one of the hill ranges in the northeast

Indian state of Meghalaya, the other ranges being the Khasi

Hills and Jaintia Hills. Garo Hills lie between 25° 9'-26° l'N

and 84° 49'-9 1 ° 2' E. The region includes three districts, namely

the West Garo Hills, the East Garo Hills, and the South Garo

Hills, covermg a total area of 8, 197 sq. km(Fig. 1 ). It is bordered

on the west and the north by the Assam plains and on the

south by the Bangladesh plains, while on the east the Garo

Hills merge with the Khasi Hills. The average altitude is about

600 m and Nokrek peak, the highest point in Garo Hills, is

1,412 m (Monnn 1984). The annual rainfall ranges between

1,500 and 3,500 mm. The human population density in the

elephant areas of the three districts ranges from 23 to

106 /sq. km (Anon 1992). Handasan and Rao ( 1984) have

classified the vegetation into tropical evergreen forests,

tropical moist deciduous forests, savannas, and bamboo

forests. The last two categories are secondary forests

characterised by abandoned jhum areas.

The predominant form of land use in the Garo Hills, as

mentioned earlier, is jhum. Farmers grow rice, cotton, ginger,

chillies, millets, tapioca and various types of gourds and

vegetables. Intercropping and sequential harvesting are a

characteristic feature. The area of each jhum plot ranges

between 1 and 2.5 ha, depending on the size of the family.

Jhum agriculture is rainfed and subsistence farming is the

norm. The farmers return to a site after 5-10 years

(Ramakrishnan 1 992). The jhum fields may lie as far as 1 .5 to 2

km from the village and are surrounded either by degraded

jhum fallows, bamboo forests, older secondary forests or by

patches of the above forest types. There may be small patches

of primary forests nearby, mainly along the streams.

METHODS

The Forest Department of Meghalaya receives complaints

of elephant depredation cases and files these reports. All the

data (N = 23,755 cases), which are computerised for the years

1984-1993, were used to quantify elephant depredation cases

that occurred in Meghalaya in general and Garo Hills in particular

during this period. Each record contained the name of the village,

the fanner, the crops raided and the compensation claimed/

estimated. Besides, elephant post mortem reports and ivory

records, collected from dead elephants in the field or seized

from poachers, were obtained from the Wildlife Division Offices

of the three distr icts. To get a quantitative measure of the

economic losses due to crop raiding and to evaluate the peoples’

attitudes, an intensive survey of 18 affected villages in West

Garo Hills was conducted in August 1995. The villages (about

2% of the total villages in the elephant range in this district)

were chosen randomly. The sub-divisional Government Officer

in-charge of the division who was responsible for paying

compensation told us that these 1 8 villages were representative

of the villages in the area.

To quantify crop damage, costs were calculated by

approximating the field damaged to the nearest geometrical

shape (e.g. rectangle or square) and taking relevant

measurements to calculate the area of damage. Five to twenty-

five 1 sq. nr quadrats were laid, depending on the area

damaged (i.e. 5 size classes <500 sq. m, 500-1000 sq. m, 1000-

1 500 sq. m, 1 500-2000 sq. m, >2000 sq. m), to determine the

percentage of clumps (e.g. paddy, since it is planted in clumps)

or plants (e.g. maize) damaged per unit quadrat area. This

was extrapolated for the damaged area. Yield per hectare for

crops like paddy, cotton and ginger were obtained from the

local agriculture office to calculate the cost of damage. Cost

of production (i.e. number of man hours spent growing and

guarding the crops) could not be calculated and therefore

costs of damage due to raiding are underestimates for

crops. For houses, huts, and arecanut plantations, the

initial establishment costs and the number of man days spent

in constructing the hut, house or raising the plantation

were ascertained to arrive at the actual cost of damage.

Wherever possible, the identity of the marauding elephants

was established by locating tracks and enquiring with the

villagers who kept watch on their fields from hides built on

trees.

The number of families in the villages ranged from 1 3 to

228

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

90 (mean = 38 and S.D. = 21, n= 1 8). As village activities are

coordinated at the community level, we found it appropriate

to conduct an informal interview based on a questionnaire

with the village headman, or in his absence, a village elder,

about their opinion on the elephant-human conflict. Questions

were asked about land-use patterns (e.g. are they shifting

cultivators or permanent cultivators?), compensation scheme

(e.g. Does the Government pay compensation in time and are

they satisfied?), preventive measures etc. Hereafter, the term

“respondents” will be used for the village headman/elder. It

was not possible to get responses from other villagers due to

the social set up. Forest cover maps of the Forest Survey of

India ( 1 :2,50,000), based on satellite imagery, were digitised

on Unix based GIS software GRASS 4.0 to quantify the area

of the dense forest (>40% canopy cover) patches in and

around the villages surveyed.

RESULTS

Crop raiding and property losses

The Garo Hills are an area of high elephant and human

density (Table 1 ). Between 1 985 and 1993, Garo Hills accounted

for more than 86% of the depredation cases (Table 1 ) for which

the Government of Meghalaya paid compensation. Crop damage

was the main form of elephant-human conflict, and c. 95% of the

total cases filed to date record damage to crops and households.

To determine the spatial distribution of the conflict within

Garo Hills, we analysed the number of depredation cases filed

between 1993 and 1995. West Garo Hills district which has the

highest human density is a seriously affected region in the

area (Fig. 1 ), accounting for 83% of the total cases (Table 2).

The risk of being raided by elephants in West Garo Hills was

higher than in other districts (Table 2). Most cases of

Road, State Border, o — « — - ® International Border,

o — e — e — o District Boundary, River

Fig 1 : Map of Garo hills showing Reserve Forests (RF), districts, roads, rivers and important towns

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

229

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

Table 1 Estimated population of elephants, approximate human

population, geographical area, estimated elephant habitat and

elephant depredations in the three hill ranges of Meghalaya

Source of information: Anon (1992, 1994), Williams & Johnsingh

(1996), Tayeng (1981)

Table 2: Number of crop depredations by elephants, approximate

number of families, human density, estimated elephant habitat,

crude elephant densities in the Garo Hills between 1993-95

depredations in West Garo Hills district occurred between

June and December, with high peaks in July and August, and

a lower peak in November (Fig. 2). These peaks coincided

with the ripening of paddy in July and August, and availability

of cotton flower buds in November.

Thirty-eight reported elephant depredation cases were

investigated, out of which 28 were found to be authentic and

78% of the authentic cases were of crop raiding. The area

damaged per case ranged from about 50 to 5,470 sq. m (Mean

= 731 .20 and S.D.= 1341 .49, n= 18). Raiding was mainly for

paddy (41%) and ginger (41%). Other plants damaged were

cotton (9%), tapioca, maize and pineapple. Paddy, maize and

tapioca were the plants eaten while ginger, cotton, tapioca

and pineapple were destroyed due to trampling. Elephants

also damaged arecanut trees by pushing them down. Out of

21 cases, where the raiders could be identified by following

and sizing up footprints, 90% were by female groups with

calves. Huts in the jhum fields were often destroyed during

raids. During July and August 1995, nine jhum huts and a

house were destroyed in the 1 8 sample villages. The estimated

1000

800

in

01

<2 600

o

6 400

z

200

0

Fiq. 2: Crop raiding cases registered in West Garo Hills district

in 1990-1991

JAN FEB MAR APR MAY JUN JUL AUG SEP OCT NOV DEC

Months

cost of damage per case ranged from Rs. 400/- to Rs. 5,288/-

(US $ 1 1.7 to 154.6) [mean = Rs. 878.6 (US $ 25.7), S.D. =

Rs. 1,417.7 (US $ 41 ), n = 29]. There is severe restriction on the

movements of villagers once the elephants come into the

vicinity of their villages.

Elephant related human deaths and injuries

Seventy-four percent (n=65) of all deaths and 90%

(n=62) of all injuries caused by elephants in Meghalaya

between 1984-1995 were recorded in the Garo Hills. West Garo

Hills consistently recorded the maximum number of elephant

related injuries and deaths (Table 3). However, the risk of

death or injury was higher in the South and East Garo Hills

than in the West Garo Hills (Table 3). Deaths or injuries were

caused while protecting crops, or during chance encounters

with elephants on forest trails, or when some bulls turned

rogues and trampled people in their huts at night.

Table 3: Human deaths and injuries caused by elephants in the

three districts of Garo Hills between 1984 and 1995

a - South Garo Hills district was created in 1992-93 by dividing West

Garo Hills district and hence calculations were done only for that

period

Table 4: Places where elephant related injury or death occurred

230

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

The exact identity of the elephants responsible for

deaths and injuries is not available. Where the circumstances

leading to deaths and injuries caused by elephants between

1985 to 1995 could be ascertained, it was found that most

occurred when elephants were encountered accidentally along

forest trails (Table 4). More men were killed or injured than

women irrespective of where the death occurred (Table 4).

Once an elephant is declared a rogue , license to shoot

it is granted to anyone who is competent to do so. Even after

the animal has been declared a rogue , efforts to get rid of it

have not always been successful. Between 1985 and 1994,

only 3 out of the 7 animals declared rogues could be killed.

Costs to elephants

As an alleviation measure for people suffering from

elephant depredations, hunting licenses to shoot elephants

used to be issued till 1981 (Gogoi and Choudhury 1982);

between 1961 and 1981, a total of 226 elephants had been

shot (Lahiri-Choudhury 1985). However, with passing of the

Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972, capturing was completely

banned and only a few exceptions have been made. Forty-

three percent of the elephants (n=32), for whom post mortem

or ivory records were available, died due to human related

causes (e.g. speared or shot) between 1984 and December

1995 (Table 5).

All the villagers consider elephants as the property of

the Forest Department. They were aware that shooting

elephants is an offence and therefore, many of the

respondents were not willing to answer the question whether

they shoot at elephants that raid crops. Data shows that they

do shoot (Table 5). There has been a sharp increase in the

number of elephants killed in 1 995 as compared to the previous

years (Table 5). People in possession of ivory from elephants

poached m Garo Hills have been arrested in the last two years.

In August 1995, 6 pairs of tusks were seized in Tura, the most

populous town in Garo Hills.

Trends of change in land use

In West Garo Hills, the respondents from 89% of the

villages ( n= 18) surveyed said that the jhum cycle has been

decreasing. Eighty-three percent of these villages had a jhum

cycle of less than 10 years. Most of the respondents (94%)

concurred with the view that the current level of jhum was

Table 5: Reported elephant deaths from Garo Hills

unviable and were willing to try alternate methods of farming

if proper guidance and support were provided.

Elephants are also present in the coal and limestone

deposit rich East and South Garo Hill districts. During this

study it was noticed that some of these areas were being

mined for coal on a small scale to check the viability of mining.

An area of 2 sq. km adjacent to the Rewak Reserve Forest

(Fig. 1), a crucial elephant corridor in South Garo Hills, has

been leased out by the villagers managing this area for mining

limestone on a large scale. This corridor is an important

passage for elephants and gaur Bos gaums crossing over

from the Balphakaram National Park in South Garo Hills district

to the Angratolh Reserve Forest (RF) and Nokrek National

Park area (Fig. 1 ) and back (Williams and Johnsingh 1997b).

According to the Forest Department census conducted in

1 993, this corridor connects a population of about 600 elephants

on the left bank of River Simsang to about 250 elephants in

the Nokrek NP-Angratolli RF area (Fig. 1 ). A cement factory

ancillary to the limestone quarry and a housing settlement for

the factory workers has also been proposed in and around

this corridor area. The use of the corridor by elephants would

then not be possible and the gene flow would stop if the

above proposal is implemented (Williams and Johnsingh

1997b). This could result in the elephants trying to cross

through alternate routes, which are heavily populated,

resulting in increased incidents of elephant-human conflict.

Mitigation measures

Compensation: A total ofRs. 12,130,805 (US $ 391,300)

was paid as compensation for elephant depredations on crop

and property in Meghalaya between 1985 and 1993. When a

compensation claim is filed, the Forest Department staff is

required to inspect and assess the damage. Due to shortage

of manpower and logistical problems, the process is time

consuming. The claims for the year 1993 were yet to be settled

in 1995. If a person was killed outside the land controlled by

the Forest Department, compensation amounting to Rs 1 0,000

(US $ 330) was paid. Various amounts were paid depending

on the severity of the injuries. A total of Rs. 5,96,400 (US $

19,200) was paid as compensation for the loss of lives and

injuries between 1 984-85 and 1 992-93 . No compensation was

paid in cases when the death or injury occurred inside Forest

Department controlled forests.

Of the 18 villages surveyed, only 15 had received

compensation for elephant depredation between 1984 and

1993 at least once. The respondents in all the villages (n=18)

were unhappy with the compensation scheme. The scheme is

also open to abuse as 26% of the reported depredation cases

(n=38) checked were found to be false. Only one out of the

fifteen villages, where compensation had been paid earlier.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

231

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

wanted continuance of the scheme as a mitigation measure in

its present form.

Preventive measures: The methods used to ward off

elephant raids were similar in all parts of Garo Hills. Shouting,

beating tins, and brandishing burning torches were commonly

used. Villagers said firing gun shots over the heads of the

elephants only resulted in their retreating for a short distance,

or in some cases had no effect.

Eighty-nine percent of the respondents said that the

number of elephants has increased noticeably. When asked

for a reason for the apparent increase, 44% of the respondents

blamed stopping of elephant capture. Till 1981-82, the Forest

Department of Meghalaya used to capture elephants from

different elephant areas of the state. A total of 1 ,298 elephants

were captured in Meghalaya between 1960 and 198 1 (Lahiri-

Choudhury 1985) by the traditional mela shikar method.

Asked for their opinion on mitigating elephant-human

conflict, 28% of the respondents wanted elephants to be

removed from their area. Other suggestions were paying

compensation ( 16%) and electric fencing of their land by the

Government (16%). The rest were unsure and wanted the

Forest Department to take action to reduce crop depredations.

All the respondents were eager to try any method that might

reduce their losses.

DISCUSSION

Elephant-human conflict is fast emerging as an

important issue in the Garo Hills, especially in the West Garo

Hills district. Most of the conflict is due to crop raiding. An

average of 1 1.74% families are affected in West Garo Hills

every year (Table 2). The estimated total cost of damage

caused by elephants for the 28 authentic cases was Rs. 24,600

(US $ 683) or Rs. 880 (US $ 24) per case. This means that the

affected families lose about 8% of their annual income, which

is about Rs. 11,000 (US $ 305). The damage caused is

comparable to the results obtained by Sukumar (1991) who

reported that the cost of elephant depredations was US $ 2 1

per family, and the total damage caused by 200 to 250

elephants amounted to US $ 1 8,960. In another study on crop

raiding patterns in central India, the total damage caused to

10 large villages by about 65 elephants was estimated to be

around US $ 5,000 (Datye and Bhagwat 1995). In West Garo

Hills, on an average, 2000 cases are reported every year.

If 75% of these cases are true, the total damage caused

by a population of 160 elephants is around Rs. 13,17,000

(US $ 36,000) per annum.

Several reasons have been given to explain crop raiding

(McKay 1973; Olivier 1978; Sukumar and Gadgil 1988;

Santiapillai and Widodo 1993). Fields that have highly

nutritious crop would attract elephants living in patchy and

degraded environments. The West Garo Hills have various

sizes of secondary and primary forests, in various stages of

degradation, scattered with jhum fields. A few valleys have

permanent cultivation. Patches of forest, classified as dense

forest (see methods), in and around the surveyed villages,

ranged from 1.12-16.26 sq. km (mean = 5.62 sq. km). The

smallest known home range of an Asian elephant bull is

32 sq. km (Olivier 1978) and that of a female group is 34 sq. km

(Joshua and Johnsingh 1995), and it is unrealistic to expect

the small patches in West Garo Hills to provide elephants all

their ecological requirements. Therefore, they are forced to

move from one patch to another. During such ranging the

newly created jhum fields in the vicinity with extremely

palatable and nutritious crops are raided. This was noticed in

another study on elephant-human conflict in southern India

(Nath and Sukumar 1998). Female groups with calves and

juveniles tend to avoid areas with high risks, like being fired

at or chased with fire torches. The fact that a number of raids

on jhum fields were carried out by groups indicates that the

risks here are possibly low.

For preventive measures, like electric fencing or

trenching, to be effective, it is important to understand which

areas are raided and why certain crop fields are raided more

than others. Crop fields near traditional routes may be raided

more often than other fields. Therefore, a study using radio

telemetry to understand how elephants find resources to

survive in an environment that can change dramatically every

one or two years due to jhum, has to be taken up immediately.

It may be possible to predict elephant movements (Ekobo

1 997) and therefore vulnerability of the various crop fields to

raiding by elephants. Electric fencing may work in areas of

permanent settled agriculture as in Zimbabwe (Taylor 1993),

but not in areas of shifting agriculture. Therefore, the

management should work to wean away the tnbals from jhum.

In Meghalaya, the human population has undergone

an eleven-fold increase between 1881 and 1991 (Tayeng 1981;

Anon 1992). Ramakrishnan (1992) states that a jhum cycle of

at least 10 years is considered necessary for the jhum to be

viable economically and energetically. This can happen only

when the human population density remains low. The current

high human densities in West Garo Hills (Table 2) have already

shortened the jhum cycle to less than 10 years. If the human

population continues to grow at the current rate ( c . 3.2% per

year), elephant-human conflict is bound to increase. Elephant

conservation may finally depend on how effectively we curb

the growth of the human population and its dependence on

jhum agriculture, which lies outside the scope of wildlife

management agencies. An integrated approach, involving the

local administration and non-governmental organisations

232

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

(NGOs) is required for conservation efforts to be successful.

These agencies should introduce alternate sources of

livelihood like piggery, small pond fisheries and bee keeping,

and family planning education. Otherwise, as Hoare (1998)

predicts, the threshold of land cover transformation will be

reached, resulting in the disappearance of the elephants from

their natural habitat.

Many lives are lost while protecting crops or property

from elephants. More men are killed than women, as men

encounter elephants more often in their day-to-day life. This

was also observed in other elephant-human conflict areas in

south and central India (Sukunrar 1991; Datye and Bhagwat

1995). When a bull turns into a rogue, killing and damage to

property rapidly increases in its range. A general fear

psychosis builds up among the villagers when a rogue

wanders around in the vicinity of the village. Due to logistical

and bureaucratic delays, it takes time for a rogue to be

identified, declared a rogue and shot. This results in further

loss of lives and property. Decentralisation of this process

with the involvement of the local Divisional Forest Officer

may help to speed up the process of eliminating the rogue.

Compensation raises the tolerance threshold of affected

people for species like elephants that can cause huge

economic damage (Tchamba 1995, 1996). The compensation

scheme was put into practice without proper planning and

logistical support. The forest department lacks adequate staff

to verify the claims. Therefore, some people are misusing the

scheme by filing false claims. The scheme is also tied up in

bureaucratic delays, and payment for verified claims is delayed

for years. It is not surprising, therefore, that there is

widespread dissatisfaction among the villagers, both with

the amounts paid and the delays in the scheme. Nevertheless,

a limited investigation showed that a number of genuine

compensation claims (approx. 74% of the cases) are filed every

year, illustrating the ineffectiveness of the deterrence methods

in use. There is no one fool-proof method of preventing

elephant depredations (Thouless and Sakwa 1995) and the

best option may be to try different methods. Elephant capture

can help to control the problem and it should be resorted to in

places with severe crop depredations.

It is likely that in an industrially backward state like

Meghalaya with low per capita many more areas will be taken

up for mining limestone and coal. A few of these areas

constitute some of the best elephant habitats or they lie in

crucial corridor areas. Elephant-human conflict therefore is

bound to increase as economic interests dictate the

exploitation of these areas. It is still possible for the

government to acquire large tracts of land as the price of land

(c. US $ 7000/sq. km) is relatively low. Therefore, funds will

have to be raised to acquire crucial areas like corridors or

primary elephant habitat which lie in these mineral rich zones.

Until recently, very few cases of elephants killed by

humans were reported. But the spurt in elephant deaths,

between January and December 1995, due to humans, and the

ivory seizures indicated that the situation could worsen if not

tackled immediately. Till 1 995, most of the deaths were due to

gunshot or spear wounds received while crop raiding.

However, since 1995 most of the elephants killed have been

tuskers, and ivory seizures also indicate increase in poaching.

Menon et al. (1997) reported that there exists a sizeable

underground trade in elephant meat and a few seizures of

processed elephant meat points to the worrying conclusion

that even a female may not be spared if she gets out of control.

One of the main problems in Garo Hills is the lack of manpower

and money to carry out effective conservation of elephants

on community lands. It may be a cheaper and more beneficial

long term management solution to concentrate efforts in

closing down the trade in elephant meat.

The problem of elephant-human conflict is assuming

serious proportions in Garo Hills. Most people express

dissatisfaction over the efforts taken by the Government to

solve the problem. For Meghalaya, a modest goal of reducing

elephant depredation by 20% to 30% in the next three to four

years would do much to convince the people about the efforts

taken by the Government to control the problem (Williams and

Johnsingh 1997a, b, c). The Garo Hills elephant population is

one of the two populations in northeast India, which seem to

have the minimum numbers to be viable in the long ran. The

elephants in northeast India have been genetically isolated from

the other elephant populations in India for a long time. Hrerefore,

from a conservation point of view, they are most important. The

lessons we learn in Meghalaya, in the process of reducing costs

to both elephants and humans, are going to prove invaluable

for conservation in India and elsewhere in Southeast Asia and

Africa where the land use patterns are similar.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This project was conducted by the Wildlife Institute of

India (WII) for Project Elephant. We thank the Directors of

WII and Project Elephant for the support extended to

successfully complete the project. Our sincere thanks to

Mr. Balwinder Singh, Mr. S.B. Singh, Mr. Tony Marak and

other officers and staff of the Meghalaya Forest Department

for support during the survey. We thank Wesley for helping

design the crop damage assessment methodology and Ratna

Singh for help with analysis of the crop damage database. We

thank Charudutt Mishra, M.D. Madhusudanan, Nirna

Manjrekar, Ravi Chellam and T.R. Shankar Raman for

commenting on the manuscript.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

233

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS

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234

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

235-243

KEMMANGUNDI REVISITED: NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED

AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS, KARNATAKA, SOUTH INDIA1

S. Thejaswi2

'Accepted December 2002

‘639, “Sibia House”, 1 6th Cross, ‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage, Mysore 570 017, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

Kemmangundi, a popular hill station in the central Western Ghats, was visited for seven days in May 2002 to survey

the birdlife in the surrounding s/zo/a-grassland mosaic. Several threatened species endemic to the Western Ghats, such as

Brachypteryx major, Schoenicola platyara and Columba elphinstonii were among the 97 species of birds recorded. The

significance of several observations lies in the fact that the birdlife of the central Western Ghats has not been thoroughly

investigated except for a few studies conducted intermittently over the past seventy years, a fact that needs to be

urgently addressed.

Key words: Western Ghats, Kemmangundi, Brachypteryx major, Schoenicola platyura

The present note is a discussion on birds observed by

me at the Bababudan hills on a visit from May 21-27, 2002,

and a comparison with birds noted and collected by Salim All

during his stay at Kemmangundi from January 19-24, 1940

(All 1942a-c, 1943a, b). Comparisons of resident birds recorded

in the two surveys, with emphasis on Western Ghats endemics,

reveal that a few species have retained or even improved

their status since the 1940s, while a few others, especially

grassland dependent species, have become rare. The avifauna

of the central Western Ghats in Karnataka has not been well

documented except in Kodagu (Coorg) (Betts 1929a, b; Betts

1951). Previous records of birds from Kemmangundi, like the

White-bellied Shortwing Brachypteryx major and Nilgin

Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudata were the only records of

the species north of Kodagu for long ( Ali 1 942b). Records of

the Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni , Mountain Hawk-Eagle

Spizaetus nipalensis , Ceylon Frogmouth Batrachostomus

moniliger , Grass Owl Tyto capensis , Broad-tailed Grass-

Warbler Schoenicola platyura from the Karnataka Western

Ghats have been few. This paper clarifies the status of these

birds in the Bababudan Hills.

The Bababudan Hills are a horse-shoe shaped range of

high ridges located in the Chikmagalur district of Karnataka

between 13° 23'- 13° 35’ N and 75° 37’-75° 52' E. The hills, an

eastern off-shoot of the Western Ghats, run with a valley in

the centre of the horse-shoe known as the Jagara valley

(600 m) facing northwest; and have an average height of 1 ,400

m, reaching a maximum of 1 .925 m ( 6,3 1 7 ft) at Mulaianagiri,

the highest peak in Karnataka. The ridges are narrow and

steep, with cascading cliffs on the outer end of the horse-

shoe and interrupted by undulating hills on the inner side,

covered by grassland on the slopes and luxuriant sholas, wet

temperate montane evergreen forests, in the ravines between

hills (Saldanha 1984).

Kemmangundi (13° 33' N, 75° 45' E) is a small, pleasant

hill station established in 1932 by the Maharaja of Mysore,

Krishanarajendra Wodeyar IV on the northeastern end of the

hill range. At 1,434 m (4,702 ft), it is located by an abandoned

open-cast iron mine. Kemmangundi in Kannada translates as

‘red soil pit’ (Kemmannu = red soil, gundi = pit), referring to

the soil colour in the mining pit, as well as the surroundings.

Mining for iron ore continues on a small scale on nearby

hillsides. Large, dense sholas surround the place and these,

along with a few neighbouring ones, are the more intact ones

left on the range. Kemmangundi served as a base camp for Salim

Ali in 1 940, when he visited the Bababudan hills while surveying

the birds of the erstwhile princely Mysore State (Ali 1942a).

The Bhadra Tiger Reserve covers 451.7 sq km of

predominantly tropical moist mixed deciduous forest, with

smaller areas under tropical dry deciduous, semi-evergreen

forests mostly in the Jagara valley, montane wet temperate

evergreen forests or sholas and montane grasslands in parts

of the hill range. A few remnant patches of lowland evergreen

forest occur on the southeastern fringes of the reserve in the

Jagara valley.

METHODS

Observations were made along selected paths through

sholas and grasslands at Kemmangundi, the adjacent Bhadra

Tiger Reserve and remnants of lowland evergreen forest in

the Jagara valley. The paths were selected so as to cover both

pure shola stretches and grassland, and the interface between

the two. Monitoring of paths was done in the morning between

0600 and 0900 hrs and in the evenings between 1630 and

1830 hrs. Observations were conducted intermittently

throughout the day from May 22-24, and for the whole day on

May 21 and 25-27. Night transect was conducted twice for

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

nocturnal birds. Elevations between 800 m and 1 ,700 m were

covered.

OBSERVATIONS

A total of 97 species of birds were observed in seven

days. Twelve of the sixteen species found only in the Western

Ghats Endemic Bird Area were recorded ( Jhunjhunwala etal.

200 1 ). Significant sightings include those of the Jerdon's Baza

Avicedajerdoni, Mountain Elawk-Eagle Spizaetus nipalensis ,

Grass Owl Tyto capensis , Ceylon Frogmouth Batrcichostomus

moniliger, Blue-eared Kingfisher A Icedo meninting, Wynaad

Laughingthrush Garrulax delesserti , Grey-breasted

Laughingthrush Garrulax jerdoni , Broad-tailed Grass-

Warbler Schoenicola platyura , all new records for the

Bababudans and for the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary.

Confirmed breeding of the Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon

Columba elphinstonii. Speckled Piculet Picumnus

innominatus. Red-whiskered Bulbul Pycnonotus jocosus.

Yellow-browed Bulbul lole indica, Indian Scimitar-Babbler

Pomatorhinus horsfieldii, Malabar Whistling-Thrush

Myiophonus horsfieldii , Eurasian Blackbird Tardus merula,

Nilgiri Flycatcher Eumyias albicaudata , White-bellied Blue-

Flycatcher Cyornis pallipes and Brown Rock Pipit Anthus

similis was observed.

An asterisk (*) after the common name indicates a

Western Ghats endemic. SA refers to Salim All. Status of

threatened and near threatened species follows BirdLife

International (200 1 ). Botanical identification and nomenclature

follows Gamble ( 1 956) and Saldanha ( 1 984, 1 996). The standard

common and scientific names follow Manakadan and Pittie

(2001)

Globally Threatened Species

Indian White-backed Vulture ( Gyps benghalensis):

Critical. Repeated sightings of single birds soaring near

Kemmangundi. Not recorded by SA.

Long-billed Vulture ( Gyps indicus ): Critical. One

sighting of ten birds, all adults, soaring with thermals on

May 22 near Kemmangundi. Not recorded by SA.

Nilgiri Wood-Pigeon* ( Columba elphinstonii) :

Vulnerable. Common in sholas and partial to Syzigium

wightianum and S. operculatum trees that were fruiting in

abundance everywhere (see Appendix 1). Individuals were

observed indulging in acrobatics like Green-Pigeons to get to

the drupes of their choice, usually the ripest one in the bunch,

several seen in action - clinging upside down on branches

and balancing with outspread wings and tail. Very vocal; one

of the commonly uttered calls was a fast ‘ ku-kuu immediately

ending in an abrupt 'ku\ Variations of the same, with varying

numbers of the first note also heard occasionally. Another

call noted was a deep ‘ wah-kwoo-woo’. These were in addition

to the usual langur-like deep ‘who’s. The bird was observed

and collected by SA at Kemmangundi and noted to be “fairly

common” (Ali 1943a).

A nest was observed on May 23 in a shallow fork on a

thickly foliaged Apodytes dimidiata tree c. 8 m from the

ground, along a stream in the Shankara shola. The nest was a

clumsy platform of twigs and had a single white egg under

incubation.

White-bellied Shortwing* (Brachypteryx major).

Vulnerable. The race major is resident, fairly frequent only in

sholas above c. 1,300 m. Observed after a period of sixty

years at Kemmangundi. Observers after Ali (1942b), if any,

probably missed it due to its retiring habits, or because they

did not spend enough time looking for it. Easily seen in

twilight, with the aid of a torch or jeep headlights, along roads

when they come out of the sholas to feed. In flight noisy for

its size, perhaps because of its small wings and fairly rapid

wing beat. Easily seen in ravines, in leaf litter under thickets

along streams, and near bridges over streams in the sholas. It

can also be observed at the Kudremukh National Park,

Kumaraparvata Peak in the Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary,

Brahmagin hills under the Brahmagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, both

in Kodagu district; and the Kodachadri Peak in the

Mookambika Wildlife Sanctuary across Udupi and Shimoga

districts, which is perhaps the northern limit for the species

(pers. obs.). Specimens collected by SA from Kemmangundi

(Ali 1942b) and noted as “Frequent, but not common in

accustomed facies.” Birds can be seen even in the most

isolated, small patches of shola, one of which was hardly 3-

4.5 mate. 1,600 m!

Broad-tailed Grass-Warbler* (Schoenicola platyura).

A new record for the Bababudans and a significant one for a

Vulnerable species (BirdLife International 200 1 ). Encountered

thrice in the span of a week, twice above Kemmangundi on

May 23 and 24 in Chrysopogon-Andropogon grassland and

Strobilanthes thickets and once at Mulaianagiri on May 26

in grassland The bird observed at Kemmangundi early

(0630 hrs) on May 24 was calling out loud from the top of a

grass clump, with its head facing the sky, a sweet 'pseit’

continuously seven to eight times, ending in ‘ chrr ’, 'chut’ or

loud ‘chit’. The other birds were seen when accidentally

flushed and then followed in the grassland for quite a distance;

a difficult species to observe due to its skulking habits. Not

noted by SA.

Globally Near-Threatened Species

Malabar Pied Hornbill ( Anthracoceros coronatus ):

One sighting of a flock of five on May 27, at the foothills

236

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

c. 700 m, feeding on a large fruiting Ficus arnottianci tree in a

coffee plantation. This species, along with the next, are

probably rare in the Bhadra Tiger Reserve and declining

throughout its range. Not recorded by SA.

Great Pied Hornbill ( Buceros bicornis ): One

spectacular and memorable sighting of seven birds swooping

down the Hebbe waterfalls (9 km from Kemmangundi) in

succession, plummeting from c. 121 m ( 400 ft) to a large fruiting

Ficus beddomei in tall evergreen riparian forest on May 24.

Not recorded by SA.

Grey-breasted Laughingthrush* ( Garrulax jerdoni ):

A new record for the Bababudans and for the central

Karnataka Western Ghats. This record bridges the

distribution gap between Goa (Rane 1984) and Coorg (All

and Ripley 1987). Uncommon in three sholas , all large and

contiguous with each other, status elsewhere unknown;

found only above 1,100 m. Bands of up to eight birds noted

frequenting clumps of fruiting Rubus fockei\ one flock of

four seen on May 24 at 900 m on the roadside beside a coffee

estate, feeding on fruits of the Mulberry, Morns alba. I have

also observed the species at the Kudremukh National Park

in early March 2002.

Nilgiri Flycatcher* ( Eumyias albicaudata) Fairly

common resident in sholas above 1 ,300 m. Breeding noted at

Kemmangundi, four nests with nearly fledged chicks and one

with three eggs under incubation were observed in the Shanti

waterfalls shola. Nests were of moss, all placed in tree fissures

or cavities 3-6 m from the ground. Fledged chicks that have

left the nest were observed, some still being fed by the parents.

Song given by Kazmierczak (2000) as “ chee-chew chewy chi-

chwee chwee choo chi-choo chee" is slightly different for all

birds heard in the Bababudans; the song here was almost

identical in the first seven notes but was longer and had a few

extra notes in the end “ chee-chew chewy chi-chwee chwee-

chee, choe chi-choe choe chee choe-chee ” and a refrain,

“ chee-chew chewy choe-chi choe-chi ” that was repeated two

to three times after the initial song, with a couple of 'chee' s

one way or another. A threatened bird in these hills with a

very limited range in shola forest above 1 ,300 m. A few large

sholas around Kemmangundi and m the Bhadra Tiger Reserve

are the only strongholds left relatively intact. It was not seen

in plantations, whereas it is commonly seen in plantations in

the Nilgiris (Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri, pers. comm ). Collected

and noted by SA at Kemmangundi (All 1942b).

Notes on Selected Species

Jerdon’s Baza (Aviceda jerdoni). Four birds were

observed on May 24, in a large shola located in the Bhadra

Tiger Reserve, beside a stream at c. 1,000 m and 4 km from

Kemmangundi on the road to Chikmagalur. The birds, all

adults, were readily identified by their gregarious habit; a

thin, white-tipped, clear upright crest; rufous head streaked

black, more so on the nape; a clear, thin black mesial stripe;

underpails clearly and broadly barred rufous; tail barred black

with terminal white tip. In flight, it was observed to be different

from the Crested Goshawk ( Accipiter trivirgatus ), which has

incidentally also been recorded, in having distinct black tips

to the primaries, which the Goshawk lacks. The Mountain

Flawk-Eagle (Spizaetus nipalensis ), another bird with which

the Baza could be confused is much larger and with a crest

not pointing upwards in normal situations. Also, the

underwing coverts are uniformly rufous-buff in flight, whereas

in the Baza it is thinly barred rufous. The birds were located

on successive days. May 25 and 26, in the same shola , but a

few hundred metres downstream of the earlier sighting. One

bird was observed consuming a small, dark rufous-brown

squirrel. No calls heard.

The Jerdon’s Baza is a rare resident in southwest

India, although more common in parts of northeast India,

preferring foothills with evergreen forest between c. 1 2° N in

western Karnataka, and Kerala (All and Ripley 1987). There

are very few actual records of the bird from the Western

Ghats, with Kazmierczak (2000) able to trace only four from

the Western Ghats, and one from Karnataka. Recent records

of the bird have mostly been from Kerala. This record, after a

long time in Karnataka, is significant, as extensive tracts of

ecologically suitable evergreen forest in the Western Ghats

of Karnataka remain under-surveyed, or even unsurveyed,

for birds. The bird could thus be expected to occur in

evergreen forests of the Shiradi, Charmadi and Agumbe Ghats

of Dakshina Kannada, Hassan, Shimoga districts; and in the

Uttara Kannada district. Not recorded by SA in his Mysore

survey.

Short-toed Snake-Eagle (Circaetus gallicus) . A single

sighting of a soaring adult on May 22 above Kemmangundi

c. 1,500 m. The “cumbrous and ungainly hovering” against

winds (Ali 1996) of 60-70 kmph, was noted over grassland

close to the ‘Z-point’, the extreme eastern end of the hill range

and about 1 .5 km from Kemmangundi. The bird is uncommon

at this altitude in south India and probably rose with thermals.

Not recorded by SA.

Crested Goshawk (Accipiter trivirgatus). One bird

observed from above, gliding over the Shankara shola at

Kemmangundi on May 21 and alighting on a Schefflera

rostrata tree. Not recorded by SA.

Rufous-bellied Eagle (Hieraaetus kienerii): One bird

seen perched at a ‘vantage point’, on a fruiting Svzigium

operculatum tree overlooking the large Shankara shola ,

everyday between May 21 and 24. Not recorded by SA but

noted by one observer earlier ( Shyamal 1 993 ).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

237

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

Mountain Hawk-Eagle ( Spizaetus nipalensis): Rare

resident0 One bird seen in flight over the Shankara shola on

May 22 and 23. It was first seen alighting on a Eucalyptus tree

close to the tourist complex at Kenrmangundi. Not noted by SA.

Mountain Imperial-Pigeon (Ducula badia). A single

flock of six birds feeding on Ficus glomerata figs near the

Potato Research Station of the Horticulture Department at

Kemmangundi on May 22. Not noted by SA.

Grass Owl (Tyto capensis ): Another first record for

the Bababudans, and a northern extension of the bird's range

in the Western Ghats; being previously known up to the

Brahmagiris in Kodagu (Coorg) (All and Ripley 1987). Two

birds flushed from a depression in tall, dry Chrysopogon

grassland bordered by Strobilanthes clumps on May 24 in

the Bhadra Tiger Reserve. The birds soon settled a couple of

hundred metres away in the grassland and were wary of

approach, either running away or flying a short distance

before settling in the grass.

1 have also observed a lone bird at night (2030 Ins) near

the Kerekatte forest rest house in the Kudremukh National

Park in early March 2002, feeding on a rodent.

Brown Wood-Owl (Strix leptogrammica): One freshly

dead bird was found at Kemmangundi on May 24.

Measurements: Wing 325 mm. Bill (from skull) 45 mm. Tarsus

56 mm. Tail 195 mm. Plumage appeared much worn with no

signs of moult either in wing or tail. Cause of death not

apparent, probably natural. Also heard twice during night

transect through Shankara shola. Not noted by SA.

Ceylon Frogmouth (Batrachostomus moniliger ): A

first record from the Bhadra Tiger Reserve on the Bababudans,

and a significant one as it is from the intervening country

between the northern recorded limits — Radhanagari Wildlife

Sanctuary in Kolhapur district of Maharashtra (Gin 2001),

Uttara Kannada district (North Kanara) in Karnataka (Borges

1986, Daniels 1984) and southern Innits in Tamil Nadu - Kerala

(All and Ripley 1987; Gaston and Zacharias 1996; Kannan

1993; Sugathan 1981). Three birds, two males and a female,

were noted roosting 5 m from the ground, on bamboo thickets

by a stream in thick shola on May 25. They were encountered

by chance when following a Grey-headed Bulbul, Pycnonotus

priocephalus through the bamboo. The birds were inactive,

but became alert when the bamboo was accidentally disturbed

on close approach. They were noted in the same spot again

on May 26 and 27.

Blue-eared Kingfisher ( Alcedo meninting ): Two

sightings of single birds of this uncommon species; one by a

stream in the Shankara shola at c. 1 ,000 m and the other by a

large pool of water at the foot of the 137 m (450 feet) high

Hebbe falls located in the midst of evergreen forest and a

coffee estate. Not noted by SA.

Great Black Woodpecker ( Dryocopus javensis ):

Uncommon. A single sighting ol an individual drumming away

high on a tall Dipterocarpus tree in riparian evergreen forest

on May 24. A female collected by SA from the Jagara Valley

(All 1942c). This species is common in the mature moist

deciduous forests of the Bhadra Tiger Reserve, which is a

haven for woodpeckers.

Indian Pitta ( Pitta hrachyura) Status equivocal. A

single sighting of a bird calling on a tree c. 10m above ground,

persisting for around twenty minutes at 0630 hrs on May 23

near the guest house at Kemmangundi. Calls heard repeatedly

after this sighting. Baker and Inglis (1930) on the breeding

season of the Pitta state, “It is said to breed during the rains

in Kanara, but I have not had the good fortune to find a nest.”

Malabar Crested Lark (Galerida malabarica): Rare.

Two sightings on hill summits, one at Kemmangundi of four

birds (c. 1,500 m) and the other at Mulaianagiri (c. 1,900 m) of

a single bird. All (1942c) notes “Fairly common. Met with

small parties and loose scattered flocks of up to 30 birds or

so, on grass-covered hill slopes with outcrops of sheet rock.”

A male was collected by SA at above Kemmangundi (Ah

1942c). This bird was not seen, despite a lookout for it on the

Kemmangundi-Chikmagalur road that runs 40 km, covering a

major portion of the range at the tops; but it could be more

common than apparent and has certainly seen a decline over

the years.

Grey-headed Bulbul* (Pycnonotus priocephalus).

Uncommon, possibly overlooked. A denizen of the deepest

sholas , with a preference for stream-side vegetation, also

bamboo in lower elevations. This species has been noted

from riverine vegetation in the moist deciduous forests at

Muthodi in the Bhadra Tiger Reserve but rare at that location

(S. Karthikeyan pers. comm.. Author's pers. obs.). Noted by

SA in the Jagara Valley (Ah 1942b).

Black-crested Bulbul (Pycnonotus melanicterus

gularis). Uncommon in shola edges and disturbed areas,

thickets of Rubus fockei, while Lantana is a favourite in lower

elevations and coffee plantations, often in mixed flocks. Not

recorded by SA.

Scaly Thrush (Zoothera daunta): Rare, perhaps

overlooked, resident, heard more often than seen. Three

sightings at Kemmangundi, deep in the Shankara shola. Calls

heard sometimes close to road, also heard in neighbouring sholas.

Not recorded by SA and a new record for the Bababudans.

Also occurs in the Kudremukh National Park (pers. obs.).

Wynaad Laughingthrush* (Garrulax delesserti):

Recorded only once on May 25 in the same shola as the

Jerdon’s Baza, a flock of around eight birds keeping to the

thick undercover in a mixed party of Indian Scimitar, Indian

Rufous and Black-headed Babblers, Grey-headed Flycatcher,

238

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

Black-crested Bulbul, Large Wood-Shnke and Greater Golden-

backed Woodpecker. Loud, discordant cackling in unison,

on alarm. Not recorded by SA and a first record for the

Bababudans where populations are probably small and

isolated due to degradation of intervening habitats. Occurs

m and around the Kudremukh National Park (pers. obs .;

Ahmed and Bhat 2001a, b), Agumbe (Ah 1942b), around Jog

Falls, Charmadi Ghat, Sampaje Ghat, Kumaraparvata mountain

in the Pushpagiri Wildlife Sanctuary, Brahmagiri Wildlife

Sanctuary and adjoining reserve forests and Kemphole State

Forest on the Shiradi Ghat where it is particularly common.

Rufous-bellied Babbler (Dumetia hyperythra ):

Resident at Kemmangundi, restricted to gardens near the guest

houses, the horticulture department rock garden, disturbed

areas of thickets and undergrowth bordering plantations;

never in sholas where it is replaced by the Black-headed

Babbler, Rhopocichla atriceps (pers. obs .; Ali 1942b).

Indian Rufous Babbler* ( Turdoides subrufus) : Resident,

not common but frequent in undergrowth of Cinnamomeum ,

also disturbed areas bordering sholas: often in small parties of

three to four birds, very shy. Not noted by SA.

Golden-headed Fantail-Warbler (Cisticola exilis ): Rare

resident on grassy hilltops above Kemmangundi, at

Mulaianagiri and Bababudanagiri. A few birds also observed

in Strobilanthes thickets between sholas and grassland.

Collected by SA from various points in grasslands and noted

as common for the entire hill range (All 1942c).

White-bellied Blue-Flycatcher* (Cyornis pallipes ):

Common resident in sholas, thick evergreen forest and riverine

bamboo forest from c. 800 m to the highest elevations, but

generally less common above 1,400 m. Nest building in

progress m a tree fissure c. 2 nr from the ground in the Shankara

shola , beside a road. Female was observed to contribute most

to nest building, collecting moss from nearby branches of trees,

as well as arranging the material in cup fomr. Otherwise seen

singly m sholas , even disturbed areas bordering sholas , hawking

insects from telegraph wires; also coffee estates bordering

sholas. The male sings a sweet early morning song, on

awakening: “chi~chi-chi-chi-chi-chwai-chwai-chwai'\ ending

on a somewhat questioning note. SA collected the bird from

Kemmangundi and noted it as “fauiy common” (Ali 1 942b).

Black-throated Munia ( Lonchura kelaarti ): Common

resident on the lower slopes, in disturbed areas and about

cultivation. Once a flock of ten at the Potato Research Station

of the Horticulture Department at Kemmangundi. Also

common m the lower reaches of the Bhadra Wildlife Sanctuary.

A range extension for the species, not previously documented

from areas north ofKodagu district (Ali and Ripley 1987), but

is now known to be common but patchy all along the Western

Ghats in Karnataka; in Dakshina Kannada, Uttara Kannada,

Hassan, Chikmagalur, Udupi, Shimoga and Belgaum districts

(pers. obs.: S. Karthikeyan pers. comm.: J.N. Prasad pers.

comm.: Anand Prasad pers. comm.). Not noted by SA.

White-bellied Tree-pie* (Dendrocitta leucogastra).

Resident, common in mixed parties in sholas , tall evergreen

forests on lower slopes and coffee plantations with good tree

cover, bordering sholas. Noted by SA on the Bababudans

(All 1942a).

DISCUSSION

Salim Ali recorded sixty-nine species of birds, including

thirteen winter visitors, at the Bababudan lulls in January

1940. In this survey, in May 2002, ninety-seven species of

birds were observed, not including winter visitors. Forty-three

species were added to the bud list of Ali ( 1 942-43 ) and Shyamal

( 1 993 ) { see Appendix 2 j .

Threats to Endemic Bird Habitats

Sholas. Sholas have been denuded to a great extent in

these hills, being replaced by coffee and eucalyptus

plantations. The extant area under relatively intact shola cover

lies within the Bhadra Tiger Reserve, towards the western

end of the ridge. Iron mining is a threat in certain areas, with

loose soil being exposed by the open cast method; erosion

and landslides become inevitable during the monsoon. These

sholas are the birthplace of the river Vedavati, one of the

tributaries of the Krishna.

Shola specific species like the White-bellied Shortwing

and Nilgiri Flycatcher will face the impact of the denudation

of sholas (Maheshwaran 2001 ).

Grasslands: Grasslands are also imperiled, being

targeted by the Forest Department for Eucalyptus and Aloe

plantation programmes under the wasteland development and

afforestation schemes of the Karnataka government. Mining

is a greater threat to grasslands than to sholas , as it is primarily

the hilltops that are dug out for ore. Deep fissures on the hill-

side being mined reveal the importance of grass cover in

holding the soil together. Grasslands in the Bhadra Tiger

Reserve are particularly in danger of being planted over.

Rahmani (1992) points out that grasslands are insufficiently

represented in the protected areas of the Indian subcontinent,

and this needs to be urgently addressed.

Species like the Grass Owl, Malabar Crested Lark,

Brown Rock Pipit, Gold-headed Fantail-Warbler and Broad-

tailed Grass- Warbler found only in grasslands will be severely

affected (Maheshwaran 2001 ).

A detailed survey of the avifauna of the central Western

Ghats in Karnataka has to be taken up at the earliest to update

our knowledge of the birds of the Western Ghats as there

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

239

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

have been only a handful of studies in the area (Chakravarthy

and Tejasvi 1992, Daniels 1997), with ornithologists

concentrating on the forests of the southern Western Ghats

like the Nilgin Plateau in Tamil Nadu and forests of Kerala.

Globally threatened species like the White-bellied Shortwing

and Broad-tailed Grass-Warbler need to be specially studied

to assess their status, range and populations in the central

Western Ghats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I would like to thank my father for his support of my

work; S. Karthikeyan, J.N. Prasad, L. Shyamal and Anand

Prasad tor distribution data; Dr. S. Subramanya,

A. Shivaprakash, S. Karthikeyan and Ashfaq Ahmed Zam

for their critical comments on earlier drafts and my brother

Yashaswi for company in the field.

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Pp. 143-150. In: Tropical Ecosystems: Ecology and Management

(Eds: Singh, K.P. & J.S. Singh). Wiley Eastern, New Delhi.

Rane, U. (1984): Occurrence of White-breasted Laughmgthrush

(Garrulaxjerdoni Blyth) in Goa.J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 81(2):

474-475.

Saldanha, C.J. (1984): Flora of Karnataka. Vol. 1. Oxford & IBH

publishing Co, New Delhi.

Saldanha, C.J. (1996): Flora of Karnataka. Vol. 2. Oxford & IBH

publishing Co, New Delhi

Shyamal, L. (1993): Rufous-bellied Hawk-Eagle at Kemmangundi.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 33(5): 94.

Sugathan, R. (1981): A survey of the Ceylon Frogmouth

(Batrachostomus moniliger) habitat in the Western Ghats of India

J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 78(2): 309-316.

Appendix 1: Numbers of globally threatened and near-threatened species observed at Kemmangundi

Species

* Globally threatened species, # Globally near-threatened species

240

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

Appendix 2: A checklist of birds of Kemmangundi ^

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

241

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

Appendix 2: A checklist of birds of Kemmangundi 13 (contd.)

242 J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS

Appendix 2: A checklist of birds of Kemmangundi ^ (contd.)

“ - The list is by no means complete and stands at 125 species

15 - Nomenclature follows Manakadan and Pittie (2001)

# - The birds were sighted at c. 600 m in a coffee estate at the foothills of the range

$ - Not found in sholas, likely to be a Cyornis rubricapilla or a female Cyornis pallipes which are very similar

Status symbols

A - Abundant

B - Breeding confirmed

POB - Breeding possible

PRB - Breeding probable

C - Common

UC - Uncommon

R - Rare

W - Winter visitor

? - Status equivocal/unknown

Salim AN (1942-43) refers to the 67 species observed and collected by Salim AN on a six-day visit in January 1940 to Kemmangundi in

course of his Mysore survey.

Shyamal (1993) is the checklist of 31 species, seen by L. Shyamal on a two-day visit in February 1993.

Thejaswi (2002) is the checklist of 97 species seen during my seven-day visit in May 2002.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

243

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

244-251

THE IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS ORCAELLA BREVIROSTRJS

OF CHILIKA LAGOON, INDIA'

R.K. SlNHA2

'Accepted December 2002

Environmental Biology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, Patna University, Patna 800 005, Bihar, India

Entail [email protected] in

The Irrawaddy Dolphin Orcaellci brevirostris , known as ‘Khera’ in local parlance in Chilika, is a facultative cetacean

species found both in fresh as well as coastal waters. It is also found in two lagoons- Chilika in India and Songkhlain

Thailand. It is distributed in southeast Asia, extending to northern Australia. It was first described by Owen based on

a specimen found in I 852, in the harbour of Vishakhapatnam on the east coast of India.

The status of the Irrawaddy Dolphin in its entire distribution range is not well known; however, the population is

expected to be less than a thousand. Its population in Chilika is not more than 50. A maximum number of 31 dolphins

were sighted during three surveys conducted in July, September and December, 2000. Except in the northern zone,

which receives a heavy load of sediments through several tributaries of the River Mahanadi, these dolphins are found

throughout Chilika lake. Deliberate killings of dolphins in Chilika have not been reported, but the species is under threat

from intensive and extensive fishing, unorganised tourism using mechanised boats, and habitat degradation At least

1 5 dolphins were found dead in the lagoon during 1 999 and 200 1 Immediate attention is required to protect the dolphins

from being hit by mechanised boats and from drowning in fishing nets. Besides the habitat improvement programme

being undertaken by the Chilika Development Authority, which will help in conserving the Chilika lagoon in general and

the dolphins in particular, education and awareness among the masses and tourists is warranted. However, a Dolphin

Conservation Programme would focus on the specific requirements and help in conserving the rare Irrawaddy Dolphins

of Chilika.

Key words: Irrawaddy Dolphins, Orcaellct brevirostris , Chilika Lagoon, status, threats, conservation

INTRODUCTION

Irrawaddy Dolphins Orcaella brevirostris primarily

occur in the tropical-subtropical Indo-west Pacific, from

northwest Bay of Bengal to northeastern Australia. The

Irrawaddy Dolphin was fu st described by Owen ( in Gray 1 866)

based on a specimen found in 1852, in the harbour of

Vizagapatnam (now Vishakhapatnam) along the east coast of

India. Unlike many cetaceans, it is a coastal species, also

found in several ma jor river systems of southeast Asia. Only

two lagoon populations of Irrawaddy Dolphins are known in

the world: Chilika in Orissa State, India and Songkhla in

Thailand. Records are relatively few, though there are some

areas of local abundance (Stacey and Arnold 1999).

DISTRIBUTION

In India, the Irrawaddy Dolphin has been recorded from

Vishakhapatnam to the deltas of the Brahmaputra and Ganges

(= Ganga) rivers (Anderson 1879; James el al. 1989). The

brackish Chilika lagoon was an important habitat (Annandale

1915), but Irrawaddy Dolphins are now considered rare there

(Dhandapani 1992). The species has been recorded in

relatively small numbers in the coastal waters of Bangladesh

(Kasuya and Haque !972,Haque 1982), Myanmar (Smith et

al. 1997b), peninsular Malaysia (MorzerBmyns 1966; Stacey

and Leatherwood 1997), Singapore (Pillen and Gihr 1974),

Thailand (Chantrapomsyl etal. 1996; Stacey and Leatherwood

1997), Sarawak (Gibson-Hill 1950; Pillen and Gihr 1974), Sabah

(Dolar etal. 1997), Brunei (Gibson-Hill 1949, 1950; Pillen and

Gihr 1974), and the Gulf of Papua (Dawbin 1972). The

population status is unknown in all these areas, but numbers

appear to be declining in the Gulf of Thailand where they are

concentrated in the Thale Sap (= Songkhla Lake) region (Perrin

et al. 1 996) and the Laem Sing area (Stacey and Leatherwood

1997). Records from Sumatra, Java, Sulawesi, Kalmrantan, and

Irian Jaya are more numerous (Morzer Bruyns 1966; Stacey

and Leatherwood 1997). Major concentrations are said to

occur in the coastal areas of Cilacap on the southern coast of

Java and Kalimantan (Perrin etal. 1996). Recently it has been

recorded from Malampaya Sound in the Philippines. Records

from northern Australia are numerous, extending from Broome,

Western Australia to the east coast of Queensland as far

south as the Brisbane river, Queensland (Paterson etal. 1998).

Orcaella brevirostris has been recorded in the

Irrawaddy (= Ayeyarwady) river, from near Prome to about

50 km above Bliamo, about 1 ,300 km upstream (Anderson 1 879;

Thein 1977; Leatherwood et al. 1984; Smith et al. 1997b).

TTiere are records of the species from River Mekong in Vietnam

and Cambodia, and a short distance into the Lao Peoples’

IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

Democratic Republic (Baird et al. 1994; Baird and

Mounsouphom 1994; Lloze 1973; Perrin et al. 1996; Smith

et al. 1997a; Stacey and Leatherwood 1997). Recent

information suggests that numbers throughout the Mekong

river, as well as in the Sekong river in Laos, have been

declining. The species has been recorded in the Mahakam

river and Semayang Lake-Pela river of east Kalimantan, as

well as the Kumay river of central Kalimantan (Tas’an and

Leatherwood 1 984; Perrin et al. 1 996). There is no fossil record.

The Irrawaddy dolphin is locally known as ‘ Khera' in

the Chilika Lagoon area, and also ‘ Bashiyya Magaf (oil yielding

dolphin) in the Oriya language. It is known as Pa kha in Lao

PDR and Pesut Mahakam or Ikan pesut in Indonesia; it is the

provincial symbol of East Kalimantan (Perrin et al. 1996). The

Malaysian name is Lumba lumba (Watson 1981). In Thailand,

one of its names is Pla Ionia hooa baht , because its rounded

head is thought to resemble the shape of a monk's bowl, a

hooa baht (Baird and Mounsouphom, 1994).

STUDY AREA

Chilika Lagoon, commonly known as Chilika Lake, is

the largest brackish waterbody in Asia. The pear-shaped lake

is situated on the east coast of Orissa, India between 19° 28'

and 1 9° 54' N and between 85° 05' and 85° 38' E (Fig. 1 ). The

maximum north-south length is 63 km. The average width is

17.8 km (Satellite Imagery, October 2000) and total surface

area is c. 845-sq. km (May, 2000) (IRS-IC, IRSS-III). The

maximum depth of the lagoon varies between 3-4.5 m in the

Central Sector near Kalijai Temple (Fig. 1). The catchment

area of the lake is 32 12 sq. km, not including the drainage of

the Mahanadi. Altogether, 35 rivers and rivulets drain into

the lake. There are several islands covering a total area of

223 sq. km. Chilika Lagoon inns parallel to the Bay of Bengal,

separated by a 0.1 -1.5 km narrow and 39 km long sand spit.

On September 23, 2000, a new mouth was opened

opposite the village Sipakuda, 8 km from Satpada (Fig. 1 ), by

desilting to restore the lagoon ecosystem. This increased

salinity to 14 ppt in December 2000 at Satpada against the

average salinity of 3-4 ppt in the same period for the last

decade, resulting in an overall increase in fish, prawn and

crab landings by 131%, 534% and 449% respectively, in 2000-

2001 compared to the previous year.

The lake can be divided into four major ecological

divisions: Outer Channel, Northern, Central and Southern

Sectors. The Northern Sector is shallow as it receives silt

from the rivers, whereas the Central and Southern Sectors are

relatively deep.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

245

IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

The lake is highly productive, with rich fishery resources

(Chilika = fish in local parlance, which probably gave the lake

its name). It sustains about 1 .5 lakh fisherfolk of 1 2,363 families

in 132 villages in its environs. The total number of active

fishermen is estimated at 30,000.

METHODS

On the initiative and support of the Chilika Development

Authority, rapid surveys were conducted in June, September

and December 2000 to determine the current status and

distribution of the Irrawaddy Dolphins in the lake.

During the surveys, we interviewed fishermen whom

we met at the lake to obtain information regarding the

occurrence, distribution, threats, conservation, and cultural

attitudes regarding protection of dolphins. Repeating

questions to different fishermen increased the reliability of

information provided by the informants. The fishermen

associated with the Dolphin Motorboat Association, and

Mr. Shial, the Assistant Tourist Officer of Orissa Tourism

Department at Satpada were interviewed to collect

information on the number of tourists visiting Chilika for

dolphin watch.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Dolphin Population in different Ecological Zones of the lake

Surveys were conducted for nine days between June

and December, 2000 in the Outer, Central, Southern and

Northern sectors of Chilika lagoon. A total of 50 hours were

spent searching for dolphins. Most of the dolphins were

sighted m the Outer Channel, mainly between Magarmukh

and New Mouth at Sipakuda (Fig. 1 ).

Outer Channel: Surveys in the Outer Channel were

conducted on June 9 and 10, September 2 , and December 26

and 28, 2000. On June 9, the survey was conducted from

Satpada to Sipakuda (New Mouth), 8 km; and Satpada to

Mahisha - Brahmpur - Rajhans Forest Rest House (c. 12 km).

A total of about 30 dolphins were sighted in the Outer

Channel in a stretch of about 12-13 km between Magarmukh

and New Mouth at Sipakuda. In June only 13 adults were

sighted, whereas in September 19 adults, two juveniles and

one calf were sighted. In December, 30 adults and one calf

were sighted (Table 1) in the outer channel. The choppy

surface of the lake, due to high breeze from the Bay of Bengal,

led to poor sighting of dolphins in June. The New Mouth at

Sipakuda was opened on September 23, after which the fish

catch increased significantly. In December the calmer water

surface, compared to June and September, facilitated the

dolphins sightings.

Table 1 : Dolphin sightings in Chilika Lagoon (June-December, 2000)

* and **: Sighted by Mr. Bishnu of CDA on July 21 and August 20

respectively

***: Sighted by local fishermen

Central and Southern Sectors: The Central and

Southern part of the lake were surveyed on June 1 1 , September

1 and December 27, 2000 (only Central Sector). On June 1 1 , we

surveyed for about 10 hours. Six adult dolphins were sighted

in the Nalabana Bird Sanctuary in the Central Sector. In this

area, no fishing activity was noticed, but fishmg is reportedly

done at night. No dolphin was sighted in the Southern Sector,

but one of the researchers of the Chilika Development

Authority, Mr. Bishnu, sighted 4 adults each in the Southern

Sector and Central Sector on July 2 1 and August 20, during a

monthly limnological sampling of the lake. On September 1,

the survey was started from Barkul, a small town on the

western end of the Central Sector about 5-6 km from Kalijai

Temple Rock Island, to cover the Central and Southern sectors,

but no dolphins were sighted. However, the local fishermen

reported sightings of 2-3 adults near Rambha in the Southern

Sector. Though no dolphin could be sighted in the Central

and Southern Sectors in September, it can be reasonably

accepted that dolphins are found in these sectors in the

monsoon, i.e. June to September. However, the population

density is very low as compared to the Outer Channel.

Northern Sector: Due to insufficient water, surveys

could not be conducted in this sector in June and December.

However, on September 3 we surveyed almost the entire

Northern Sector, which receives fresh water from a large

number of tributaries of the River Mahanadi, resulting in highly

turbid water in the lake. A major portion of the lake in this

sector was infested with weeds, which have severely affected

the dolphin habitat here. We could not sight any dolphins,

but the local fishermen informed us of regular sightings in the

area about 20 years ago. In the 1999 monsoon, one dolphin

was sighted in this sector (Bishnu pers. comm.).

Dhandapani (1992) estimated only 20 dolphins in the

lake. During the three surveys in June, September, and

December 2000, the total number of dolphins in Chilika was

estimated to be more than 30, though the entire lake was not

246

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

Fig. 2: a. A dead Irrawaddy Dolphin on the Central Sector of the Chilika Lagoon,

probably hit by a mechanized boat; b. The wound on the neck can be seen

thoroughly and systematically surveyed for various reasons.

Taking the size of the lake and width of the Outer Channel

into account, some dolphins must have been missed during

the survey. Optimistically, the expected number of dolphins

in Chilika would be 40-50.

CONSERVATION STATUS

The species is listed as IUCN category K, i.e.,

insufficiently known (Klinowaska 1991 ). Irrawaddy Dolphins

are protected under the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972;

hunting, capture and trade in the species is illegal. Besides

India, the species has been given legal protection in Laos,

Cambodia, Indonesia, and Australia; however, enforcement is

a problem (Stacey and Arnold 1999). Fifteen dolphins were

killed in Chilika Lagoon in 1999 and 2000. One carcass of a

calf was collected by Mr. Bishnu, a researcher of the Chilika

Development Authority (CDA), from the lagoon 4-5 km east

of Kalijai Temple Rock Island on November 23, 1 999. It is

preserved in the museum of the CDA at Bhubaneshwar. The

calf was probably entangled in a gill net, as blood was oozing

from a wound near the gape of the calf at the time of collection.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

247

IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

In the Central Sector, another adult carcass was sighted

floating in February 2000, which was left in the lake (Bishnu

pers. comm.). An adult female carcass (2 m) was collected

from the Outer Channel on September 24, 2000 at Satpada.

Again in January 200 1 , two adult dolphins 2.0 and 2.2 m long

were found dead in the Outer Channel. Thus, between

November 1999 and January 2001 six carcasses of Irrawaddy

Dolphins were found in the lagoon, which is unfortunate and

endangers the survival of these dolphins, considering the

small population. Besides these, the State Forest and Wildlife

Department collected some more carcasses. Two skeletons

are lying in their museum at Barkul, while many have

reportedly been buried in the Nalabana area in the Take. In

January 2002, four more dolphins were killed by the

mechanised tourists boats, one of which was photographed

(Fig. 2).

During the present study, the dolphins were sighted in

the main area of the lake in June at the approach of the

monsoon, and in the Outer Channel in September when

monsoon was at its peak. If locals are to be believed, the

dolphins are sighted in the lake throughout the monsoon,

i.e. July-September.

During the present study, Irrawaddy Dolphins were

found swimming slowly, with sluggish movements. In spite

of a choppy lake surface most of the time, the melon, dorsal

fin and fluke were clearly visible. The blow sound of respiration

was heard many times. In the main part of the lake, 6 dolphins

were observed in a semi-circular formation, probably driving

fish in a particular area for community feeding. Occasionally

they moved fast and vigorously, probably when chasing fish.

People’s perception about the Irrawaddy dolphin in Chilika

In Chilika Lake, Irrawaddy Dolphins were observed

swimming in the vicinity of a few metres of small seine-fishing

nets and also following boats. Annandale, in the early part of

the 20th Century, also sighted dolphins following boats in

Chilika. Interest in dolphin conservation and awareness was

noticed everywhere in Chilika, and many fishermen and

villagers were seen to respect dolphins. Most fishermen

believe that killing dolphins brings bad luck, while saving

one ensures a good catch. The local fishermen reported that

whenever a dolphin gets entangled in a fishing net, it 'cries’

for help by making specific sounds to attract attention. The

fishermen’s good intentions of rescuing and releasing the

dolphins entangled in gill-nets, however, are not always

possible, as they hesitate to cut open their nets to release the

dolphins. This results in the dolphins getting drowned. The

author observed this conflict among many of the fishermen.

Some fishermen are experts in calling dolphins by

producing a sound “ ku ku ku kit...” for help while fishing.

They also reportedly call Irrawaddy Dolphins by striking the

side of the boat with a conical wooden pin, as has been

observed in the Irrawaddy river in Myanmar (Smith et cil.

1997b).

There is generally a positive attitude towards dolphins

in many southeast Asian countries, with beliefs that dolphins

have saved drowning swimmers, offered protection against

crocodiles, and assisted in fishing operations (Stacey and

Leatherwood 1997; Them, 1977).

At the old mouth of Chilika, the local fishermen reported

that during high tide, especially on Full and No Moon days

and nights, 5-10 Bottlenose Dolphins enter through the Old

Mouth from the sea up to Sanapatna, 1 5 km inside the Outer

Channel, and return to the sea with low tide.

Kaminga et al. ( 1983) suggested that Orcaella was

forced inshore by more specialised dolphins, implying

exclusion by inter-specific competition. Stacey and

Leatherwood (1997) also reported that when captive

Humpback Dolphins ( Sousa chinensis ) and Irrawaddy

Dolphins were held together, the former was dominant.

Irrawaddy Dolphins were frequently chased and confined to

a small portion of the tank. During the September survey, the

local fishermen reported that whenever the Irrawaddy

Dolphins and Bottlenose Dolphins came across one another

in the Outer Channel, the former got frightened and was forced

to return. This corroborates the above observations.

The Irrawaddy Dolphins - a Tourist Attraction at Chilika

Orissa has many archaeological and religious sites,

which attract thousands of tourists from all over the world.

Satpada on Chilika Lagoon is about 50 km south of the famous

Puri shrine. The main attraction in Chilika, especially at Satpada

is the Irrawaddy Dolphin. Data collected from the records of

the Orissa Tourism Department and the Dolphin Motorboat

Association, an NGO at Satpada, revealed that about 40,000

tourists visit Chilika every year. October-January and May-

June are the peak season for tourists at Chilika, with a maximum

600-700 per day during December-January. The Dolphin

Motorboat Association has 75 motorboats for dolphin watch.

Tourists pay Rs. 250 for 60-90 minutes per boat, that has a

capacity of eight persons. According to the Association, most

tourists see dolphins, but 5% return disappointed. Besides

the Association, the Orissa Tourism Department also

organises ‘dolphin-watch’ for tourists. Even during monsoon,

about 1 00 tourists visit the lake every day. This confirms that

dolphins are sighted even during monsoon in the Chilika Lake.

This is probably the only tourist spot in India for dolphin

sightings and has ‘organised dolphin-watch agencies’. As

the ‘dolphin-watch’ is not organised by properly trained

boatmen, dolphins are sometimes seriously injured. At the

248

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

request of the tourist, the boatmen continuously chase

dolphins, which are hit by the boat propellers while frantically

trying to escape.

Threats to Dolphin Population in Chilika Lagoon

Directed catch: Directed killing of dolphins in Chilika

Lagoon to obtain oil was reported by Annandale (1915) in

the early 20th Century. Dhandapani (1992) also recorded

harpooning of 4 or 5 dolphins per year in Chilika during mid-

1980s, but he recorded only two dead dolphins during his

two year study. During the present study, no incidence of

directed killing was observed, but it cannot be ruled out.

Incidental catch: Incidental catches in fishing nets have

been reported from Bangladesh (Haque 1982), Myanmar

(Leatherwood et al. 1984; Smith et al. 1997b), Thailand

(Andersen and Kinze 1994), and the Lao-Cambodian border

(Baird and Mounsouphom 1994). About 15 Irrawaddy

Dolphins were killed incidentally in Chilika Lake in the last

two years, the carcasses of which have either been buried or

preserved by the Wildlife Department or Chilika Development

Authority.

The fishing dragnets like "Sahala jal’, ‘Bhetki jaf and

"Patna jaP operating in Chilika Lake are highly dangerous for

the dolphins, entangling and ultimately drowning many of

them.

Habitat degradation

Habitat degradation includes increased use of nylon

gill nets, increased vessel traffic (e.g., associated with logging

in Kalimantan), reduction in food resources (e.g. due to

trawling in the Gulf of Thailand), pollution, and sedimentation

of lakes. The physiography of the lake is changing due to

geological causes, as well as human intervention.

Originally Chilika Lagoon was part of the sea. Gradually

it became shallow due to siltation from the tributaries of River

Mahanadi and the low mud-flats that have been pushing then-

way southward from the mouths of the rivers in the Northern

Sector of the lake. The lake was formed from the sea some

3550 to 3950 years before present, when it was like a bay. The

deepest portion was near Kalijai Temple Rock Island,

measuring 4.5 m. It has been reported that the silt deposition

has raised the lake bed by 1 .8 m near Kalijai Temple in the last

seven decades. Siltation in Chilika can be attributed as one of

the principal factors endangering the lake and in turn the

dolphin habitat. No reliable estimates of sedimentation are

available.

Chilika Lake had scanty aquatic vegetation in the early

part of the 20th Century. The Remote Sensing Data of IRSIA,

to estimate the growth rate of vegetation in Chilika, revealed

that the waterspread had reduced at the rate of 23.42 sq. km

over five years between 1984 and 1989 for emergent

vegetation. Another study using satellite data analysis

revealed that the weed-covered area in the lagoon was 20, 60,

200 and 398 sq. km during 1973, 1977, 1985 and 1993,

respectively. Thus, within 20 years, the weed-covered area

had increased 20 times. Potamogeton pectinatus is the

dominant weed in the Central and fringes of Southern Sector,

whereas Scirpus Iittoralis is dominant in the Northern Sector.

This drastic reduction in habitat area, both horizontally and

bathymetrically, has reduced and degraded the habitat for

the Irrawaddy Dolphins in Chilika Lagoon.

The total fish catch in Chilika has declined from 6,000

metric tons per year to 2,000 metric tons in the last 14 years.

This can be attributed to over-fislnng, obstruction of migratory

route, i.e. choking of the mouth, as well as the entire ‘Outer

Channel’ up to Magarmukh, destruction of spawn during

collection of prawn seeds by the local fishermen, among

others.

Chilika Lagoon faces threats from increase in

freshwater weeds, aquaculture, decline in fish production,

changes in species composition of fishes and other biota,

eutrophication and overall loss of biodiversity. Depletion of

fishery has resulted from over-dependence of people on

the lake, beyond its carrying capacity. Moreover,

encroachments upon the traditional fishing rights of the local

fishermen occasionally lead to inter-community conflict and

violence. The CDA has planned for lake traffic using a big

barge to transport buses, lorries etc., which is likely to

increase pollution, as well as the danger of casualties of

dolphins.

Hundreds of motorboats ferry local villagers, fishermen

as well as tourists in the lake. This results in noise as well as

oil pollution, both of which are dangerous to the dolphins.

Habitat destruction and degradation, and noise pollution as

potential threats to Irrawaddy Dolphins have also been

reported from Australia (Paterson et al. 1998).

Recommended Conservation Action Plan for Irrawaddy

Dolphins in Chilika

As per the IUCN - World Conservation Union, the

status of the Irrawaddy Dolphin is insufficiently known.

Workers throughout its distribution range opine that the

numbers are declining and measures to prevent further decline

are called for. The most pressing conservation issue affecting

the survival of Irrawaddy Dolphins is habitat degradation.

Incidental catch is also a matter of great concern, especially if

the population is as small as in the Chilika Lagoon.

Conservation includes economic, political, cultural and

biological components. A cultural approach is certainly called

for in the case of Irrawaddy Dolphins in Chilika, where people

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

249

IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

have a positive attitude towards them, very little direct catch

and people do not need to be convinced that dolphins are

worth more alive than dead.

It is clear that dolphins cannot be protected in isolation

unless dedicated programmes are initiated to protect them

and restore their habitat. Incidental catch and frantic chase of

the dolphins may be reduced through awareness and

education campaign among local communities. The

conservation focus must be on habitat conservation and

restoration. The following activities are recommended for

dolphin conservation in Chilika Lagoon:

1. Monitor the abundance of Irrawaddy Dolphins

throughout the lagoon every month or at least once in two

months using standard techniques, namely carefully designed

line and strip transects and mark-recapture studies by photo-

identification. Identification of areas of great abundance will

help in assessing conservation priorities.

2. Tissue samples should be collected from dead/

drowned dolphins and such samples should be used to study

genetics to identify population discreetness and variation. If

separate populations are identified, conservation efforts need

to be applied m all areas. The estimation of contaminant levels

m the tissues of the species will help in formulating

conservation efforts so far as pollution level in the lake is

concerned.

3. Sustainable and less wasteful fishing methods should

be developed, with scientific and community development

and education components. The IUCN has also identified

Chilika as a suitable site for such a programme.

4. Research is needed to study the impact of water traffic

in the lake. Such studies should examine incidental killings,

pollution load due to the river traffic and impact of noise

pollution on the dolphins. The CDA is planning to operate a

transport barge in the lake. Such study will be useful to mitigate

the likely impact of such developmental activities: motorised

vessels, noise pollution.

5. Detailed study should be carried out on dolphin

biology, ecology, and behaviour in response to human

interaction. Morphological data of every carcass should be

collected, which would be useful in taxonomic sUidies.

6. Habitat preference, population dynamics, and

reproductive behaviour of the dolphins should be studied.

7. Infrastructure to promote tourism based on ecological

principles should be created for financial benefits to the local

community, including training of boatmen. This will motivate

the locals to save the dolphins, and generate additional

income and employment for them. It will also reduce the

pressure on the fishery of the lake.

8. Fishing at the mouth of the lake should be discouraged

and, if possible, banned. Only subsistence fishing may be

allowed. It will increase availability of fish in the lake.

9. Measures must be taken to check the increasing

growth of weeds.

10. It is essential to study the nature and rate of

sedimentation of the lake and to take ameliorative steps to

control it. This may be achieved by intensive and extensive

tree and shrub plantation in the catchment areas of the lake.

This will maintain the depth and waterspread of the lake.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author duly acknowledges facilities provided by

the Chilika Development Authority, Government of Orissa,

Bhubaneshwar. He thanks Mr. Bishnu and other officials of

Chilika Development Authority and the local fishermen during

the surveys. The initiative and encouragement from Wetlands

International - South Asia was the mam motivating force to

take up this study.

REFERENCES

Andersen, M. & C.C. Kinze ( 1993): The small cetaceans of Thailand:

review and status. International Whaling Commission Meeting

Document SM/WP/2, Kyoto, Japan, May 1993, 9 pp.

Anderson, .1.(1 879): Anatomical and zoological researches: Comprising

an account of the zoological results of two expeditions to western

Yunnan in 1 868 and 1875; and a monograph of the two cetacean

genera Platanista and Orcaetla. B. Quaritch. London, 985 pp+

85 pi

Annandale. N. (1915)- Fauna of the Chilka Lake: mammals, reptiles

and batrachians. Mem. hid. Museum 5: 166-167.

Baird, LG., B. Mounsouphom & P.J. Stacey (1994): Preliminary surveys

of Irrawaddy dolphins (Orcaella breviroslris) in Lao PDR and

northeastern Cambodia. Reports of the International Whaling

Commission 44: 367-369.

Baird. LG. & B, Mounsouphom (1994): Irrawaddy dolphins (Orcaella

breviroslris) in southern Lao PDR and northeastern Cambodia.

Natural History Bulletin of the Siam Society 42: 1 59- 175.

Chantrapornsyl., S., K. Adulyanukosol & K. Kittiwathanawong

(1996): Records of cetaceans in Thailand. Phuket Marine

Biological Centre Research Bulletin 61: 39-63.

Dawbin, W.H. ( 1972): Dolphins and whales. In: Encyclopedia of Papua

New Guinea (Ed.: Ryan. P.). Vol. 1. 274 pp. Melbourne:

Melbourne University Press.

Dhandapani, P. (1992): Status of Irrawaddy River Dolphin Orcaella

breviroslris in Chilika Lake. Journal of the Marine Biology

Association of India 34: 90-93.

Dolar, M.L.L., W.F. Perrin, A.A.S.P. Yaptinchay, S.A.B.H..I. Jaaman,

M.D. Santos, M.N. Alava & M.S.B. Suliansa (1997):

Preliminary investigation of Marine Mammal distribution,

abundance, and interactions with humans in the southern Sulu

Sea. Asian Marine Biology 14: 61-81 .

Gibson-Hill, C. A. ( 1 949): The whales, porpoises and dolphins known

in Malayan waters. Malayan Nature Journal 4: 44-61

Gibson-Hii.l, C.A. ( 1 950): The whales, porpoises and dolphins known

in Sarawak waters. Sarawak Museum Journal 5(2): 288-296.

Gray, J.E. (1866): Catalogue of the seals and whales in the British

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IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS OF CHILIKA LAGOON

Museum. 2nd edn. British Museum, London, 402 pp

Haque, A.K.M.A. (1982): Observations on the attitude of people in

Bangladesh towards small cetaceans. Pp. 117-119. In: Mammals

of the seas. Small cetaceans, seals, sirenians and otters. FAO

Fisheries Series 5,4 : 1-531

James. P.S.B.R., M. Rajagopalan, S.S. Dan, A. Bastian Fernando &

V. Selvaraj (1989): On the mortality and stranding of marine

mammals and turtles at Gahirmatha, Orissa from 1 983 to 1 987.

J Mar Biol. Assoc. India 31: 28-35.

Kaminga, C., H. Wiersma & W.H. Dudok van Heel (1983):

Investigations on cetacean sonar. VI. Sonar sounds from Orcaella

brevirostris of the Mahakam River, East Kalimantan. Indonesia;

first descriptions of acoustic behaviour. Aquatic Mammals 10:

83-95.

Kasuya, T., & A.K.M.A. Haque (1972): Some information on

distribution and seasonal movements of the Ganges dolphin

Scientific Reports of the Whales Research Institute 24 : 1 09- 115.

Klinowaska, M., (Ed.) (1991): Dolphin, Porpoises and Whales of

the World. The IUCN Red Data Book. Switzerland:

International Union for the Conservation of Nature and

Natural Resources.

Leatherwood. S., C.B. Peters, R. Santerre. M. Santerre & J.T. Clarke

( 1 984): Observations of cetaceans in the northern Indian Ocean

Sanctuary, November 1980-May 1983. Report of the

International Whaling Commission 34: 509-520.

Llozf.. R (1973): Contributions a l’etude anatomique, histologique et

biologique de V Orcaella brevirostris (Gray. 1866) (Cetacea -

Delphimdae) du Mekong. 599 pp. Ph.D. thesis. University of

Toulouse. France.

Morzer Bruyns. W.F.J. (1966): Some notes on the Irrawaddy Dolphin.

Orcaella brevirostris (Owen, 1866). Zeitschrift fur

Saugetierkunde 31: 367-372.

Paterson, R.A., S.M. Van Dyck & l.C. Gynther (1998): Irrawaddy

Dolphins Orcaella brevirostris (Owen in Gray) from southern

Queensland. Memoirs of the Queensland Museum, 42: 554.

Perrin, W.F., M.L.L. Dolar & M.N.R. Alava (1996): Report of the

Workshop on the Biology and Conservation of Small Cetaceans

and Dugongs of Southeast Asia. UNEP(W)/EAS WG. 1/2. 101

pp.

Pilleri. G. & M. Gihr (1974): Contributions to the knowledge of the

cetaceans of southwest and monsoon Asia (Persian Gulf, Indus

delta, Malabar, Andaman Sea and Gulf ofSiam). Investigations

on Cetacea 5: 95-153.

Smith, B.D., T.A. Jefferson, S. Leatherwood, D.T Ho, C.V Thuoc &

L.H. Quang (1997a): Investigation of marine mammals in

Vietnam. Asian Marine Biology 14: 145-172.

Smith, B.D., U.H Thant, J.M. Lwin & C.D. Shaw (1997b): Investigation

of cetaceans in the Ayeyarwady River and northern coastal

waters of Myanmar. Asian Marine Biology 14: 173-194

Stacey, P.J. & S. Leatherwood ( 1 997): The Irrawaddy Dolphin, Orcaella

brevirostris: A summary of current knowledge and

recommendations for conservation action. Asian Marine

Biology 14: 195-214.

Stacey, P.J. & P.W. Arnold! 1999): Orcaella brevirostris. Mammalian

Species. American Society of Mammalogists 616: 8 pp.

Tas’an, M. & S. Leatherwood (1984): Cetaceans live-captured for

Jaya Ancol Oceanarium. Djakarta, 1974-1982. Reports of the

International Whaling Commission 34: 485-489.

Thein, U. Tin (1977): The Burmese freshwater dolphin. Mammalia

41: 233-234.

Watson, L. (1981): Whales of the world Century Hutchinson Ltd.,

London, 302 pp.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

251

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

252-254

ECOBIOLOGY OF INDIAN WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS ARNEE L.

IN UDANTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, CHHATTISGARH, INDIA1

P.C. Kotwal2-3 and Rajendra Prasad Mishra2'4

'Accepted December 2002

Indian Institute of Forest Management (IIFM), Post Box No. 357, Nehru Nagar, Bhopal 402 003 Madhya Pradesh, India.

'Email: [email protected]

JEmail: rpmishral @red iffmail.com

The Indian Wild Buffalo (Bubalus arnee L.) is an endangered species according to the criteria of the IUCN, categorized

in Appendix III of CITES and in Schedule I of the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972 of India. These studies were

conducted in Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary, Chhattisgarh State, India. The species has been declared as the State animal of

Chhattisgarh. The Sanctuary is a good habitat for Wild Buffalo, having easily available fodder, shelter and water.

However, there are a number of threats to the natural habitat from human habitation, agriculture, livestock grazing, forest

fires and collection of forest products. To conserve the species and its potential good habitat in the Sanctuary, it is

necessary to involve the concerned local people in the management of the area

Key words: Endangered species, habitat, welfare factors, genetic swarming, wallowing, grazing

INTRODUCTION

The Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary includes the best

potential habitat for the Indian Wild Buffalo in Central India.

Udanti was declared a wildlife sanctuary (IUCN Protected

Area category IV) in 1985. Spread over 237.27 sq. km, the

Sanctuary is located between 82° IT 10" - 82° 24' 10" E and

19° 55' 30" - 20° IT 15" N. The forests of the Sanctuary are

tropical moist and tropical dry deciduous types with Sal

(Shorea robustci) and mixed species (Champion and Seth

1 968 ). They have a rich component of flora and fauna. Besides

Wild Buffalo, the other important animals in the Sanctuary

are Axis axis , Cervus unicolor, Muntiacus muntjak ,

Boselapluts tragocamelus , Bos gaums , Sus scrofa , Presbytis

entellus , Panthera tigris , P. pardus , and a large number of

birds and reptiles.

There are three seasons, namely monsoon (July to

October), winter (November to February) and summer (March

to June). The average annual rainfall of the area is c. 1 ,200 mm.

The temperature reaches a maximum of 44 °C in summer and

minimum 5 °C in winter.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Wild Buffaloes are shy animals and spend the major

part of their time in dense forests, particularly during the day.

The inferences of the three year study from 1 998 to 2000 are

based on direct observations of the wild buffalo and the

habitat. Observations were made early morning, at noon and

in the evening, over a period of 10 to 15 days in all three

seasons. The observations were repeated three times in each

season. Most of the observations were made from temporary

machans (observation towers) on trees. Machans were

constructed at select places near the drinking, feeding and

resting places of the Wild Buffalo. The animals were observed

with the help of 7 x 50 and 20 x 50 binoculars. Observations

were made while moving on foot, and also in vehicles, visiting

different places from time to time. All possible areas of the

Wild Buffalo habitat in the Sanctuary were surveyed. Several

herds were observed in various forest beats, mostly near

ponds.

OBSERVATIONS

Distribution: In peninsular India, the Wild Buffalo

population survives in small scattered populations in some

Protected Areas, particularly in Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary of

Chhattisgarh State in India (Table 1 ). All these populations of

Wild Buffalo are considered genetically pure.

Habitat: The areas under various vegetation types in

different parts of the Sanctuary were mapped by remote

sensing and field observations. The Sanctuary area under Sal

forest is 20%, miscellaneous dense forest 37%, miscellaneous

forest with bamboo 3%, open miscellaneous forest with grass

8%, miscellaneous medium density forest with grass 19%,

and scrub 9%. The area under agriculture and habitation is

4%, while only 0.6% lies under waterbodies (Mishra 2001b).

Home range: The home range of the Wild Buffalo in the

Sanctuary was determined through remote sensing data and

field observations. Six forest beats in 26 forest compartments,

with a total area of 63.77 sq. km, are favourable for Wild Buffalo.

Food and water: Wild Buffalo generally feed on grass,

but also browse on saplings of trees. They feed in this manner

during winter and summer, as less grass is available then than

ECOBIOLOGY OF INDIAN WILD BUFFALO IN UDANTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

Table 1: Present distribution and population

of the Indian Wild Buffalo ( Bubalus arnee L.) in India

Data Source:

Wild Buffalo census in Kaziranga, The Rhino Foundation for Nature

in NE India, Newsletter No. 3, June, 2001

2: G. Chetri, Research Officer, Manas Tiger Reserve (pers comm.,

February 3, 2000)

3: Various literature

4: Status survey report, team of BNHS, WII, Ranjitsinh et al. 2000

5: Status survey report, team of BNHS, WII, Ranjitsinh et al. 2000

6: Present study Mishra, 2001b

in the monsoon. A large variety of grasses occur in the

Sanctuary, mostly during the monsoon. Wild Buffalo browse

on saplings of Shorea robusta , Pteroccirpus marsupium , and

Bridelia retusa, among others. Grass species like

Heteropogon contortus are commonly available in the

Sanctuary area, but the Wild Buffalo prefers only immature

tillers. Other important grass species, like Andropogon

pumillus, Apludci mutica, Aristida setacea , Digitarici

granulans , Eragrostis pilosa , Imperata cylindrical species

of Panicum , Sacchantm and Themeda are commonly found

in the Sanctuary area. There are five types of water sources in

the Sanctuary, namely river, pond, anicut, jhiria and nullah

bed. Udanti and Indravan rivers are seasonal sources of water

while a few ponds are perennial water sources. There are

more than 1 8 ponds in the valley and plains, which retain

seasonal water, and about four of them retain water throughout

the year. The animals generally use these ponds for drinking

and wallowing, particularly during summer.

Seasonal and daily movements: The animals generally

grazed more actively during the evening to late night. The

monsoons are more favourable for the Wild Buffalo, as green

grass and large quantities of water for drinking and wallowing

are available. 'They sometimes move to nearby crop fields for

grazing. Crops like paddy ( Oiyza sativa ), kulthi ( Dolichos

biflorus ), urad (Vigna mango) and sarson (Brassica

campestris) are grown in the area during winter and these are

favoured by Wild Buffalo. The female buffaloes are more

active than the male. Besides some small lulls, the wild

buffaloes move in the entire valley and plain area in the

Sanctuary. Maximum movements were recorded during

summer. They migrate to other areas like the Sitanadi Wildlife

Sanctuary and surrounding forest areas in search of water,

fodder, and cover. They spend a lot of time during the

monsoon and winter in the mixed forest, but with the advent

of the hot weather move into the valley areas of Sal ( Shorea

robusta) forest. The daily movements of a herd average 7-8

sq. km, but sometimes considerably more, particularly during

summer. The animals move slowly in a line while grazing.

They cannot run fast in the forest, but they were observed

running slowly during the breeding season. An adult female

buffalo usually leads the herd during grazing and walking.

The yearlings and calves are kept in the middle of the herd

while adults remain at the back. The animals always remain

alert during grazing or walking.

Behaviour: The Wild Buffalo requires large quantities

of water for drinking and wallowing. The animals usually graze

near water holes especially during summer. It was observed

that at a time the male drinks for about 3 minutes during

summer, which is the longest recorded drinking time, and

about 1.5 minutes during the monsoon, which is the shortest

recorded time. The wallowing time of the Wild Buffalo was

also recorded during the study. A herd of Wild Buffalo

wallowed for more than 55 minutes during summer. The anunals

like wallowing in the ponds for longer durations particularly

during summer, but a number of biotic disturbances affect

their normal activities (Mishra 2001a. Kotwal and Mishra

2003). It is difficult to know precisely the population and

composition of Wild Buffalo in the Sanctuary. The official

record for the year 2000 was 78 animals. According to our

observations, there are nearly 40 Wild Buffaloes in the

Sanctuary.

The Wild Buffalo share their habitat with other animals.

A Blue Bull was observed grazing with a herd of Wild Buffalo

near Deojhar Amli pond in the Sanctuary. The Blue Bull waited

for the buffaloes and rested in the shade of trees while the

buffaloes wallowed in the pond. A good association was

observed between Spotted Deer and Wild Buffalo in the

Sanctuary, where a herd of Spotted Deer grazed with a solitary

buffalo bull near Amar pond

Problems for Wild Buffalo in Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary

There are 1 8 villages inside the Sanctuary with a human

population of 3,900 and about 4000 livestock, comprising of

cattle, domestic buffaloes, goat etc. Since more than 70% of

the human population are dependent on the Sanctuary for

fuel wood, timber and NTFPs, several conflicts occur between

the locals and the wild animals, including Wild Buffalo. Many

villages are situated in the prime Wild Buffalo habitat and

people continue to move in the area. The plain areas where

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

253

ECOBIOLOGY OF INDIAN WILD BUFFALO IN UDANTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

good palatable grass can grow are encroached on by locals

for agriculture. Due to the paucity of grasses, the wild animals

sometimes graze on agricultural lands. While trying to save

their crops, people sometime kill or injure the Wild Buffalo.

Besides grazing competition, the livestock also poses a

problem of disease and genetic swarming. Water is a limiting

factor in summer. The use of common water holes by wild

animals and livestock is a cause of conflicts and conveyance

of diseases. Forest fire is the mam problem in the Sanctuary.

Forest fires burned about 60 to 70% of the Sanctuary area

during 1999-2001. The common diseases reported from the

area are rinderpest, and “foot and mouth” disease. Several

other bacterial diseases are also reported. The disease infected

cattle graze in grassland where wild animals also graze. Thus,

contagious diseases are transferred from cattle to wild animals.

There are many packs of wild dogs in the Sanctuary that prey

on calves of Wild Buffalo.

be relocated outside the Sanctuary. There should be a

restriction on the numbers of livestock, and these should

be fed rather than allowed to graze free in the forest.

3. The domestic cattle are potential carriers of contagious

diseases. Therefore, all the cattle around the Sanctuary

must be immunized every year.

4. The locals should be involved in several management

activities of the Sanctuary, such as protection, fire

fighting, maintenance of water holes, roads, buildings

and eco-development practices. They should be

sensitized towards nature conservation.

5. The forest corridors around the Sanctuary should be

strengthened.

6. The interface conflicts in the Sanctuary should be

regularly monitored.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Recommendations for management of the Wild Buffalo

1. The pure race of Wild Buffalo should be protected from

possible genetic swarming from domestic buffalo by

declaring the Sanctuary out of bonds for the domestic

buffalo.

2. Five villages situated in prime Wild Buffalo habitat should

We are grateful to Dr. Ram Prasad, then Director Indian

Institute of Forest management (IIFM), Bhopal for

encouragement. We are also grateful to the Forest Department

of Chhattisgarh, particularly the staff of the Sanctuary

Mr. G.R. Thakur and Mr. P.S. Komarra for cooperation in the

field study.

REFERENCES

Champion H.G. & S.K.. Seth (1968): A revised survey of the forest

types of India. Manager of Publications, Govt, of India, New

Delhi. 5 1 0 pp.

Kotwal, P C. & Rajendra Prasad Mishra (2003): Studies on Indian

Wild Buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.) in Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary

Tiger paper 30(2): 7-11

Mishra. Rajendra Prasad (2001a): J unglee Bhainso ki Dhartee, Udanti

Abhyaranya. Cheetal 40, No 1-2: 47-52.

Mishra, Rajendra Prasad (2001b): Studies on Indian Wild Buffalo

(Bubalus bubalis L.) and its habitat in Udanti Wildlife Sanctuary.

Ph.D. thesis submitted to Pt. Ravi Shankar Shukla. University

Raipur, Chhattisgarh State, India.

Ranjitsinh, M K. , S.K.S. Chauhan, S.B. Banubakode, K. Shivkumar.

Asad Akhtar, Vinod Paul & S.C. Verma (2000): Status and

conservation of the wild buffalo (Bubalus bubalis L.) in

Peninsular India. A survey report submitted to IUCN. 31 pp.

254

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

255-260

AN EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS IN KERALA1

A. Veeramani2, P.S. Easa3'4 and E.A. Jayson3'5

'Accepted January 2003

:Periyar Tiger Reserve, Thekkady 685 536, Idukki, Kerala, India Email: [email protected]

3Division of Wildlife Biology, Kerala Forest Research Institute, Peechi 680 653, Thrissur, Kerala, India

4Email: [email protected]. in

sEmail: [email protected]

Increasing incidence of crop depredation by wild animals have led to the use of several methods to protect crops in

wildlife areas. An evaluation of the effectiveness of various protection methods used in 20 different Forest Ranges of

Kerala between June 1994 and December 1994 is attempted, and the advantages and disadvantages of each discussed.

Areas with crop depredation were visited to collect information on the methods employed for crop protection, their

functioning and effectiveness. Guarding with ordinary fencing, stonewall fencing, line crackers, chemicals, trenches and

electric fencing were the major control measures in practice,

was the most effective against most of the animals.

Key words: Crop protection, electric fencing, wild animals

INTRODUCTION

As the incidence of crop depredation by wild animals

increases, so do methods to protect crops in wildlife areas.

These methods could be effective for a long or short term,

depending on the animal as well as the method used. Several

control measures are used under different conditions and

most researchers agree that the use of electric fencing and

trenches are the most effective (Sukumar 1985, 1986; Schultz

1986, 1988; Santiapillai and Jackson 1990; Banerjee 1994;

Chandrasekaran 1994; Shetty 1994; Bist 1996). Morris (1958)

has mentioned the use of bamboo gun rocket for scaring

away wild animals. Thorny branches of Acacia were used as

brushwood fences in Haryana and Madhya Pradesh

(Chauhan and Sawarkar 1989; Chauhan and Singh 1990). Use

of trained dogs to chase crop-raiding deer was reported by

Bennger etal. (1994). Swihart and Conover (1990) reported

the use of big game repellent RO°PEL and soap to reduce

crop damage by deer. Recent reports from Zimbabwe mention

the use of a capsicum-based aerosol as elephant repellent

(Osborn 1998). However, its effect is short term and can be

used only for short to intermediate ranges. The traditional

methods for deterring crop-raiding elephants, such as fire,

brush fences and sound making devices have generally

failed, except when the animals are close (Bell and McShane-

Caluzi 1984). Jayawardene ( 1994, 1995, 1997) reported the

effectiveness of electric fences against crop-raiding

elephants in Sri Lanka. Thouless and Sakwa (1995a, b)

assessed the effectiveness of electric fences in Northern

Kenya and suggested that they be backed by special

protection.

A total of 1310 cases of crop damage by wild animals

were recorded throughout Kerala between 1981-1 994. A total

fencing, though it required high initial investments.

amount of Rs. 1 ,06,24,689 were claimed as compensation in

the State for crop damage, of these Rs. 8,66,977 have been

paid as compensation and form only 8. 1 6% of the total claims

(Veeramani 1998). Easa et al. (1998), Jayson (1998) and

Veeramani ( 1 998) have discussed the crop protection methods

employed in Kerala. The present investigation evaluates the

effectiveness of various protection methods employed in

different parts of Kerala.

STUDY AREA

Kerala State, which lies in the southern part of the

Western Ghats, is unique in environmental characteristics

due to its geographical location (between 8° 18' and 12° 48' N

and between 74° 52' and 77° 22' E) and topography. It is

bounded on the eastern side by the Western Ghats ranges

and to the west by the Arabian Sea. The state can be classified

into three topographical regions, namely the coastal area,

midlands and the highlands. The forest areas lie mostly in the

highlands. The state has a forest cover of 9,400 sq. km (Anon.

1997). About 24% of the forest area lies within the protected

area network comprising 12 wildlife sanctuaries and 2 national

parks. The forest areas have been subjected to alterations of

various degrees for agriculture, developmental programmes

and settlements. Most of the forest areas have human

habitations in the fringes and in some cases scattered

settlements within. The majority of the settlements cultivate a

variety of crops, which are prone to damage by wild animals.

The agro-based economy of Kerala depends a lot on cash

crops such as coffee, pepper, tea, cardamom and rubber,

cultivated mostly in the highlands. The state has a good

number of mammal species representing various taxa, such as

Elephant (Elephas maximus ), Gaur (Bos frontalis), Sarnbar

EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS

(Cervus unicolor ), Chital (Axis axis). Wild Boar (Sus scrofa ),

Porcupine (Hystrix indica), and Bonnet Macaque (Macaca

radiata).

METHODS

The study was carried out between June 1994 and

December 1994. A total of ninety-five Territorial and Wildlife

Ranges under five Forest Circles were considered for this

study. Of these, four were selected randomly from each of the

forest circles (Table 1 ). Two settlements with intensive crop

depredation problems, one each in the enclosure and the

periphery, were chosen in each of the selected Forest Ranges.

These settlements were visited once and 1 km long transects

laid, starting from the forest boundary. Plots of 10 sq. m were

laid at every 100 m along the transect.

For each study plot, details of crop species in the

plot, number of damaged and undamaged crop plants,

phenology, animal causing the damage, nature of damage

and protection method employed at the time of visit, were

recorded. Enquiries were also made with the cultivators in

the area to confirm the animal species involved in raiding,

and other details such as the date and time of the raids. Care

was taken to cover the areas within a single season and at

the time of cultivation.

The damaged areas were visited, and details like crops

damage, animal species involved, type of control measures,

including the cost and efficiency of the method used, were

recorded. Sample plots of 10 sq. m were laid to determine the

efficacy of a method.

Table 1: Selected forest Ranges and its Divisions and Circles

ANALYSIS

The extent of damage is assessed in two ways, the

number of plots raided (area of 10 sq. m) or the number of

crops damaged. Their respective formulae are given below:

Number of plots

damaged

i) Percentage of plots raided = xl00

Total number

plots

Number of plants

damaged

u) Percentage of crop plants = xlOO

damaged Total number

of plants

RESULTS

Protection methods and crop damage

The protection methods employed in different locations

sampled in Kerala could be broadly classified mto five categories:

1. GU+OF = Guarding with Ordinary Fencing: Fencing by

various materials combined with guarding

2. SP = Special Protection: Crackers are used to scare away

the animals

3. STW = Stonewall Fencing: Walls built around cultivated

areas

4. CHE = Chemicals: Chemical repellents

5. EF = Electric Fence: High voltage electric fencing around

the cultivated area

The effectiveness of the methods employed varied

according to the locations (Table 2). Electric fencing, which

was observed only in the Northern Circle was the most

effective in the region. Tire Southern Cucle employed a variety

of protection methods, of which special protection followed

by chemical repellants were the most effective.

Wild boar raided the most (52.5%) in guarded areas

with ordinary fence, followed by elephant (41%) (Table 3).

Crop raiding by other species individually or in combination

was less in guarded plots with ordinary fencing. Special

protection method employed in the Southern circle was not

effective against wild boar. Stonewall fence was recorded only

in the High Range circle, where all the plots were damaged by

gaur. In areas where chemical repellents were used, the

percentage of plots damaged by wild boar was high (78%). In

electric fenced areas, the percentage of plots damaged by

elephant was high (55%) followed by an elephant and wild

boar combination (3 1%).

256

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS

Table 2: Percentage of raided plots under different protection methods

Total 160 10

Figures in parentheses denote percentages

An attempt was made to analyse the effectiveness of

various protection methods applied at locations on the

periphery and in the enclosure (Table 4). The percentage of

plots raided by wild animals was higher on the periphery

(43%) compared to those in the enclosures (37%) in the

locations guarded with ordinary fencing.

DISCUSSION

The highest numbers of plots damaged were in the

periphery of the forest followed by the enclosure. The high

incidence of crop raiding on the periphery, as well as in the

enclosures, indicates greater risk and high probability of crop

raiding in areas adjacent to wildlife habitat edges (Dudley

etal. 1992).

Effectiveness of various control measures has been

one of the important topics of debate in recent times. Control

measures of long-term and short-term effects have been

employed worldwide ( Sukumar 1 986; Schultz 1988; Santiapillai

and Jackson 1990; Thouless and Sakwa 1995a; Bist 1996).

The efficiency of the methods is reported to vary, depending

on several factors including the raiding animal.

Protection methods prevalent in different locations in

Kerala and their effectiveness vary only to a lesser extent.

16 23 29 400

However, the efficiency of the methods varies considerably

with the raiding animals. This necessitates the development

of new, innovative, eco-friendly, socially acceptable and cost

effective long term solutions which are effective against most

of the crop raiders.

Crop Protection Methods used in Kerala

The farmers employ a variety of protection methods,

which can be classified as follows:

1. Guarding and Ordinary Fencing: In 45 settlements,

crops were guarded at night from machans or platforms on

top of rocks or trees. Wild animals were scared off by noisily

beating on metal tins, and by torchlight and fire. This method

requires vigilance throughout the night. In most places,

firewood or old tyres are used to light fires at night. Electric

bulbs are also installed in the field. Dogs are used to detect

and chase off wild animals, and to alert the guards.

Coloured cloth and plastic bags are tied to poles and

scarecrows used in the field to scare off raiding animals. When

the wind blows, the sound of the plastic bags scares the

raiders away. Arecanut or palmyra sheaths are tied to the

trees for the same purpose. Cacti are planted along the

boundary of the crop field as deterrents. The field is

surrounded with fences of thorny branches of bamboo.

Table 3: Percentage of plots raided under different protection methods by different wild animals

Protection methods

Figures in parentheses denote percentages

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

257

EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS

Table 4: Percentage of plots raided by wild animals on the

periphery and in the enclosure under different protection methods

Figures in parentheses denote percentages

Acacia , and Zizyphus to prevent the smaller mammals and

cattle from getting in. Closely tied wooden poles act as a

barrier to wild boar and deer. Such barriers are located in

many places in Kerala. Four or six rows of metallic wires are

stretched all along the boundary to keep out deer and wild

boar. These are effective only to a certain extent as the animal

may jump over the fence. Fences of 10-12 rows of barbed

metallic wires are installed all along the boundaries of the

field. The wire is fixed crosswise. This kind of fence was

recorded in most places during the survey. The sound and

light of crackers scare the animals away. Burning torches are

thrown at the animal leading to injury, but this is not done at

most places.

2. Stone wall: Only two settlements had stone walls to

protect crops. The wall was built with rough-cut pieces of

rock and stone, held together with cement, and was 1 m wide

at the base, 0.5 m on top, and 2 m high. During the study

period a brick wall measuring 0.5 m at the base, 0.25 m on top,

and 1.5 m high was built in the Pallanad check post and

Anakalpetti settlements of Marayur Range. There were several

instances of gaur jumping over the brick wall in Marayur.

Angle irons with barbed wire were often fixed on top all along

the stone wall, to prevent gaur from scaling the wall. A stone

wall cost about Rs. 50,000-75,000 /km, while a brick wall cost

Rs. 40,000-50,000 /km.

In Kuppady of Sulthan Bathery range, a stone wall of

about 3 km was built by the Forest Department all along the

tar road to stop elephants from entering the settlements. In

some places, especially in Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary, farmers

had made rubble walls c. 1 m high and 0.5 m wide without

cement to keep out smaller mammals, but it was not effective

against elephants.

3. Tine cracker: Line cracker is a special protection

method recorded from four settlements during the study

period. A metallic wire of small gauge is extended all around

the field at a height of 0.5 m, and one end of this line is tied to

a stone with crackers. When an animal touches the line, the

device gets loose and the crackers hit another stone on

the ground below the device, and explode. The sound alerts

the farmer on guard and also deters the animal. The method

is widely used throughout Kerala and is reported to be

effective against most animals, especially elephant and wild

boar.

4. Chemicals: In three settlements, the farmers were

using chemicals for protection. The smell of pesticides, such

as Forite and Furadon repels the animal away from the crop

field. It is effective against wild boar, but was found effective

for only a week in Kanngayam Kavu of Chimmony Wildlife

Sanctuary. In some places, naphthalene and phenol are used

to repel elephants.

Kerosene or waste oil is poured along the possible

entries of smaller animals, such as porcupine, black-naped

hare and mouse deer. Kani tribes in Peppara Wildlife Sanctuary

tie cloth soaked in kerosene to a pole and fix them in the field.

Toilet or washing soap is kept in a coconut shell or tied to a

stick and installed in the field. In the cold atmosphere, the

soap gets wet and its fragrance helps to keep smaller mammals

away from the field. However, when this method was tried in

Perumalai in Marayur, the animals kept away from the field for

only a few days, as they got used to the smell. Replacement

after a short break had the same effect.

5. Trenches: Elephant proof trenches, 2 m deep, 3 m

wide at the top and 1 nr at the bottom have been dug in Wynaad

and found to be effective against elephant, gaur and wild

boar. Such trenches cost about Rs. 50,000 / km and require

annual maintenance. Trenches are not feasible in areas with

loose soil and high rainfall.

6. Electric fence: Electric fencing was recorded in only

three settlements. The method is widely used the world over

and is reported to be effective against most animals,

depending on the number of wires used. The electric power

fences are normally c. 1 50 cm high with 3 to 4 wires c. 30 cm

apart. They require good maintenance, vegetation in contact

with the wires has to be removed. Further, though the fence

was reported effective against elephants, tuskers reportedly

use their tusks or poles to break the wires. More often, the

fence acts as a psychological bander once the animal has felt

a shock from one encounter. In Kerala, about 1 20 km of electric

fences have been erected around settlements at various

locations in Wynaad. Electric fences have also been erected

in Neyyar and Peppara Wildlife Sanctuaries.

An evaluation of the methods used in Kerala is given

in Table 5. Most methods are not suitable against all the

animals and those effective against a single animal, are not

necessarily cost effective. The selection of a method would

depend on the site, raiding animal and funds available.

258

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS

Table 5: Evaluation of crop protection methods in Kerala

Methods Advantages Disadvantages

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260

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

261-268

WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

FICEDULA SUB RUBRA (HARTERT & STEINBACHER)1

Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri2-3 and Asad R. Rahmani2-4

'Accepted February 2003

’Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, S B. Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India

,Emai I : [email protected]

JEmail : [email protected]. in

The Kashmir Flycatcher (Ficedula subrubra) is vulnerable and is a Red Data Book (RDB) species from the Indian

subcontinent (BirdLife International 2001 ). It has been recorded sparingly in Nepal, Bhutan and Pakistan. While its

wintering is confirmed in Sri Lanka, there have been very few records of its wintering in India and its status and

distribution within Indian limits is not exactly known. Of the total 28 site records of this species from Indian limits, only

two published records (Flarrap and Redman 1989; Karthikeyan and Athreya 1992) go to prove its wintering in

peninsular India. The rest are passage records from across India during migration

We conducted this study during March 2001 , and October 2001 to April 2002, in the Nilgiri Hills of Tamil Nadu. A total

of 1 6 birds (9 males and 7 females) were recorded from 9 different sites above 2000 m elevation The Kashmir Flycatcher

holds a winter territory and prefers wattle ( Acacia spp.) openings with good grass cover It avoids forests with high tree

density and canopy cover. Behaviour and ecological aspects are discussed, based on our observations on eight birds,

during the two wintering seasons. Habitat degradation and disturbance appear to be serious threats to the long-term

survival of this bird. There is an urgent need to carry out status surveys in the wintering and breeding areas and also to

study its ecology and biology to aid conservation and management.

Key words: Wintering records, ecology, Kashmir Flycatcher, Ficedula subrubra , Nilgiris, behaviour

INTRODUCTION

The Kashmir Flycatcher is one of the 35 species of

Muscicapinae reported from the Indian subcontinent

(Manakadan and Pittie 2001). There was a great deal of

uncertainty regarding the taxonomic position of the Kashmir

Flycatcher Muscicapa subrubra. It was generally confused

with the Red-throated Flycatcher Ficedula parva, until it was

finally judged “evidently as a separate species on the basis

of plumage characteristics, moult sequence and wing formula"

(BirdLife International 2001 ).

It breeds in the northwest Himalaya and Pir Panjal

Range (All and Ripley 1987) and has been reported very

common in Overa Wildlife Sanctuary in Jammu and Kashmir

(Jamdar 1987). The Kashmir Flycatcher has a very restricted

distribution in northern India and in some parts of Pakistan,

occurring as a summer breeding visitor to the side valleys

of Kashmir and in the Pir Panjal range (Bates and Lowther

1952; Henry 1955; Roberts 1992). Additionally, the species

has been recorded from 37 sites in Sri Lanka, 5 in Pakistan,

7 in Nepal, only 1 in Bhutan (See BirdLife International

2001).

However, very little is known about its wintering status

and distribution in Indian limits. It is believed that virtually

the entire population winters in Sri Lanka from October to

March above 750 m in gardens, tea estates and on forest

edges, and scarce passage migrants are seen over Peninsular

India (All and Ripley 1987). It has been reported from 28 sites

in India since the 19th Century (BirdLife International 2001).

Of these, only two published records prove its wintering in

Nilgiri hills i.e. Harrap and Redman ( 1989) based on sightings

of four males from the Nilgiris (two in Ooty and two near

Avalanche road in February 1985), and Karthikeyan and

Athreya ( 1992) based on a single male record from Muthorai

in December 1990. The rest are either spring and passage

records from Andhra Pradesh (Currie 1919), Maharashtra

(Baker 1922-1930), Bihar (Inglis 1906), Madhya Pradesh

(Majumdar 1984), Himachal Pradesh (Whistler 1926), Point

Calimere Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu (Jamdar 1987), Punjab

(Robson 1999; Kalsi etal. 2001 ), and Chandigarh (Rajiv Kalsi

pers. comm. ), and some records from breeding areas in Jammu

and Kashmir.

We present our observations on ecology and behaviour

of four pairs, two each during two wintering seasons. We

also report the results of our survey during October 2001 to

April 2002 in the Nilgiri hills. A total of 1 6 birds (nine males,

seven females) were recorded from nine different sites during

our study. There is an urgent need to confirm the wintering

status and also to study the ecology and behaviour to aid the

conservation and management of this species.

WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

STUDY AREA

The present study was conducted in the upper plateau

of the Nilgiris ( 1 1° 10' and 1 0° 30' N; 76° 25' and 77° 00' E) in the

state of Tamil Nadu, India. The plateau is bordered by Kerala

on the west, Karnataka to the north and Coimbatore district

to southeast (Fig. 1 ). The Nilgins (1,580 sq. km) occupy the

highest and westernmost part of Tamil Nadu State. The study

area is part of tire Nilgin Biosphere Reserve, within the Western

Ghats (Zone 5) in the biogeographic classification of Rodgers

and Panwar ( 1988).

Tegns ( 1 969), Blasco ( 1 970) and Lengerke ( 1 977) have

given a great deal of information on the weather and the

climate of the Nilgiris. The area receives both southwest and

northeast monsoons. There is considerable local variation

in average annual rainfall in the study area, with Mukurthi

National Park and surrounding areas receiving up to

5,600 mm per year. Most of the forested area in the Nilgiris is

under plantation, with very little natural montane wet temperate

forests locally known as shola. Plantations constitute mainly

Wattle (Acacia sp.). Eucalyptus sp., Finns sp., Cupressus sp.,

Cinchona (Cinchona cinchona), Coffee (Coffea arabica ), and

tea (Camellia sinensis). Wattle forms the most dominant

introduced species, followed by Eucalyptus and Pine.

METHODOLOGY

Observations in March 2001 (first wintering season)

were made only on two pairs sighted in the Avalanche Reserve

Forests area of the Nilgiris South Division. However, during

the second wintering season (October 2001 to April 2002), we

surveyed all the three Forest Divisions, covering most of the

Nilgiris Upper Plateau.

Survey methods

During the first wintering season, we acquainted

ourselves with the call types of the Kashmir Flycatcher. In

the second wintering season, survey was carried out on a

weekly basis in the Nilgiris above 1,800 m elevations, up to

the highest peak (Dodabetta 2,634 m). On each survey day, a

different area was visited. We first tried to detect the species

mainly through calls, and then followed the call till we located

the bird. Sampling was stratified according to vegetation

types i.e., Wattle, Eucalyptus and Pine and Shola. We made

an effort to keep to the edges of streams and water sources

and nearby areas in each habitat type.

Habitat sampling

We laid 0.05 ha (r = 12.6 m) circular plots for habitat

sampling in the sites where we recorded the bird. At some

sites where birds were seen regularly during the study, more

than one plot was taken. Similar plots ( one each) were laid in

the sites that were thoroughly searched, but no Kashmir

Flycatcher was seen. Habitat sampling methods by Muller-

Dombois and Ellenberg (1974) and Bibby etal. (1992) were

followed. At each plot, habitat parameters, such as tree count,

Fig. 1: Kashmir Flycatcher sightings during 2001-2002

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WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

Table 1: Kashmir Flycatcher sightings in March 2001 and October 2001 to April 2002 in the Nilgiris

canopy cover, canopy height, tree species, shrub count, shrub

height, shrub cover, grass cover, grass height, litter cover

and litter depth were recorded. All trees or shrubs in a plot

were counted by species. Canopy height was estimated

visually. Shrubs were sampled m 4 x 4 m plots placed randomly

in the circular plot. Data on ground cover was estimated by

placing 1 x 1 m quadrats placed in these plots. Litter height

was measured with a scale at the four corners of each 1 x 1 nr

quadrat.

We also recorded other parameters, such as distance

to road, the nearest stream, the neighbouring village or

habitation. Land use practices with respect to cutting, lopping

and grazing pressure were also recorded.

Ecology and Behaviour

Observations were carried out from sunrise to sunset

on four birds (2 pairs) on Sites 1 and 2 during March 2001.

and two pairs on Sites 3 and 6 during the second wintering

season. Food and feeding methods, calls and vocalization,

roosting behaviour, inter-specific interactions, territoriality

and daily movements were recorded.

Analysis

Principal Component Analysis (PCA) was performed

to identify the patterns of covariation among the habitat

parameters, using SPSS 7.5. It reduces a large number of

covarying variables into a smaller number of orthogonal

components that account for maximum variation in the data

(Manly 1986). Factors with Eigen values below 1 were

excluded. The extracted components were then interpreted

through factor loading associated with the original variables.

The occurrence of birds was plotted against the first two

components (PC 1 and PC 2) extracted by PCA.

A natural log transformation ensured that all habitat

variables were normally distributed. The categorical variables,

namely presence or absence of lopping, grazing pressure and

presence of a dry/flowing stream were not included in PCA.

The categorical variables were compared between the sites

with and without Kashmir Flycatcher sightings, using Fisher’s

Exact Probability Test.

RESULTS

Survey results

Of the total 16 birds sighted during this study, four

birds (2 pairs) were sighted at 2 different sites (Site 1 and 2) in

March 2001 (first wintering season). Both these sites were in

the Avalanche Reserve forest near the reservoir. However,

during our survey between October 2001 and April 2002,

we found 12 birds (7 males, 5 females) at 7 sites (Site 4-9)

(Table 1). All the birds were sighted in Wattle plantations,

except a single male on the edge of a tea plantation and

cultivated area (Site 7) and another male sighted at the edge

of Pine ( Pinus patula) and Scotch Broom ( Cytisus scoparius )

forests (Site 9). The details of the sightings made in the two

wintering seasons are given in Table 1 .

In addition to the sites listed in Table 1, we surveyed

Mukurthi National Park, Dodabetta, Upper Bhavam, Ranraya

Road, Kundah, Pykara, Pandiar, Caim Hill Reserve, Snowdon,

Bambatty, Emerald Valley, Katkopai, Bikkaty area forests of

the Nilgiris South, North and Wildlife Divisions (Fig. 1 ), but

no Kashmir Flycatcher could be seen.

Habitat

The results of the first four principal components ( PC)

extracted by the PCA with Eigen value greater than 1 are

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

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WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

summarised in Table 2. The first four factors (PC 1 to PC 4)

accounted for 73.3% of the variation. PC 1 alone accounted

for 36% and PC 2 for 17.4%. PC 1 represented increasing tree

number, canopy height, canopy cover as well as distance

from the nearest settlement and road, and decreasing grass

height and cover. PC 2 represents increasing shrub cover and

decreasing litter cover and depth. PC 3 represented increasing

litter depth. High values of PC 4 represent increasing shrub

height and litter depth. Factor loadings of different habitat

variables on four major components (PC 1 to PC 4) extracted

during PCA are tabulated in Table 2.

The habitat plots with and without Kashmir Flycatcher

were plotted on a scatter plot of their principal component

(PC 1 and PC 2) scores (Fig. 2). Although overlap occurred,

the plot with and without flycatcher sightings occupied

distinct regions in the factor space, separating along PC 1,

while PC 2 had little effect on the occurrence of birds. Thus,

the occurrence of birds seemed to be associated mainly with

the decreasing tree cover and increasing grass cover. As is

clear from Fig. 2, in the areas with a given tree density,

sightings were all on plots with greater grass cover.

A scatter plot of the plots with and without Kashmir

Flycatcher sightings along the number of frees and extent of

grass cover shows that most of the sightings were in the

plots having 10 to 60 trees per plot and 30-60% grass cover.

The chances of sightings clearly decrease as the tree density

and grass cover increases or decreases from this range

(Fig. 3).

Fishers Exact Probability Test indicates that 90% of the

plots with flycatcher sightings had grazing pressure (Fp >

0.002 ). but the presence of flowing or dry stream (Fp = 0. 1 27 ),

PC 1 (increasing tree density and decreasing grass cover)

Fig. 2: Occurrence of Kashmir Flycatcher plotted

with reference to two components (PCI and PC2)

identified by Principal Component Analysis

or lopping (F = 0.065) did not differ significantly between the

plots with or without sightings. Comparison of categorical

variables (presence or absence of lopping, grazing and

presence of a dry/flowing stream) between the sites with and

without Kashmir flycatcher sightings using Fisher’s Exact

Probability Test is summarized in Table 3.

Ecology and Behaviour

i) Food and Feeding: The Kashmir Flycatcher is

insectivorous (Henry 1955). Food mostly constituted insects,

including small butterflies, moths, grubs, earthworms, larvae

and caterpillars. The birds were often seen coming down to

Table 2: Factors loadings of different habitat variables on four major components extracted in Principal Component Analysis

Components

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WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

Table 3: Comparison of categorical variables between the sites with and without Kashmir Flycatcher sightings

using Fisher’s Exact Probability Test

Total Stream Lopping Grazing

(Dry/Flowing)

0 = plots with no Kashmir Flycatcher

1 = plots with Kashmir Flycatcher

buffalo dung and digging out insects from the heap. Size of

the food items varied from a few millimetres to nearly 12 cm

(earthworm). They usually fed very close to the ground, about

1-2 m.

The feeding method is typical flycatcher-like: taking

off to catch an insect and returning with the prey to the same

or nearby perch for feeding. However, at times the birds come

to the ground unlike most other flycatchers, spend some time

feeding or hopping around collecting the prey, before

returning to the perch. Similar behaviour has been noted by

Henry (1955), and Banks and Banks (1980).

The Kashmir Flycatcher feeds more actively in the

morning and evening hours, though it has been recorded

feeding throughout the day. At mid-day, the bird takes a longer

duration (22 minutes (mean) n = 67) between two feeding

bouts, unlike the morning and evening (5 minutes (mean)

n = 34) when it feeds frequently, accompanied with other

no of trees/12 4 m radius plot

Fig. 3: Occurrence of Kashmir Flycatcher plotted with reference

to tree density and grass cover

activities, such as calling, preening and vigilance.

The birds at Site 3 (second wintering season) came

almost to the middle of the road to catch insects from the

litter. They would usually perch very close to the branches

on the road bank and sally from there.

h ) Winter territory: Birds generally, including most

species of the flycatcher group, pair in the breeding season

only, but the Kashmir Flycatcher maintained a pair bond

during the wintering period also. Most of the birds sighted

were in pairs, except two, which were solitary (Table 1 ). Of the

total 7 pairs sighted during the study, observations were

carried out on four pairs. During the entire period of

observation, all these pairs advertised their territory by calling

frequently, though territorial disputes were not very frequent.

A site wise summary of the days these four pairs were recorded

in their territories is given in Table 4.

The difference in the number of days the pairs were

seen holding territories is because in 2001, our study started

in March. Also, in the second wintering season, the variation

is because the pairs were sighted on different dates. However,

it is important to note that there is hardly any difference in the

dates when the pairs were sighted last in both the years. Both

the sexes were parochial and seen in their territories

throughout the winter.

iii) Interaction with other birds: Since the beginning of

our observations, the only species that we found aggressively

chasing Kashmir Flycatcher was the Pied Bushchat (Saxicola

Table 4: Sitewise detail of the days

Kashmir Flycatcher pairs held their territories

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WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

caprata). During the morning and evening hours, when both

the species were busy feeding, they appeared more hostile to

each other. The Pied Bushchat chased the Kashmir Flycatcher

away from the area. Nilgiri Flycatcher ( Eumyias albicaadata)

was seen chasing the Kashmir Flycatcher (n = 5) in March

and April 2002; however, during the earlier months of

wintering (October-November), both species were seen

feeding closer, apparently without competition.

The Kashmir Flycatcher was found feeding very close

to winter visitors, such as the Greenish Warbler ( Phylloscopus

trochiloides) and Tickell’s Leaf Warbler (j Phylloscopus affinis)

and the resident species Great Tit (Pams major) without any

competition.

Another important change that we recorded in the

species' reaction to human presence near their territory was

that, up to the end of February, the birds were not shy and

allowed us to make close observations (from 10-15 m), but

after March till the birds left, they became very shy and would

be disturbed even from a considerable distance (20-30 m).

They would become restless, stop calling and would go high

up in the trees.

iv) Diurnal activities and movements: Most of then

activities were centred near the territory. The female would

remain almost throughout the day in the territory and would

go for feeding up to 200-300 m from the roost site. However,

the male would leave the territory between 0930 to 1000 hrs

(n = 20) and would forage up to 500 m from the main territory.

He would return to the territory once or twice to reinforce the

pan bond, and on Ins arrival the pair would call whip whip

whip loudly for some time.

The male spends 25- 1 65 min before leaving the territory

to resume its foraging elsewhere. But, he would return around

1 820 lus and immediately after his arrival, both male and female

would again start calling. After feeding together for about

5 minutes, both would fly away and then come back to roost

at the same site after sunset (1845 h), when nearly all other

species had already settled.

v) Site fidelity: Site 2 (first winter) and Site 6 (second

winter) were at exactly the same spot in Avalanche at the

edge of a Wattle plantation. Both the years, the pairs were

seen holding the territory near the same Ternstroemia

japonica tree. Perhaps the flycatchers have site fidelity, but

this can only be confirmed by colour banding the pairs in the

wintering grounds and monitoring their arrival next season.

vi) Calls and vocalization: The bird is very vocal, and

keeps calling most of the day. It frequently utters a single

note whistle whip whip whip whip... resembling the Pied

Bushchat (Saxicola caprata) call in form when the Bushchat

is agitated. Henry ( 1955) has also described this particular

call in the wintering areas of Kashmir Flycatcher. However,

the call that Ali and Ripley ( 1987) described (a curious little

creaking rattle chack being uttered while flitting about) was

never heard. Instead, a call sounding chit . rrrr . rr chit is uttered

as a rule when the bird flits or loops from one branch to

another or descends to the ground to feed. This call is

accompanied by a flicking of the wings and the tail. A two-

component call chrit chrit or a single chrit is often heard

associated with the Chit . rrrr . .rr chit call.

The chit . rrrr.. rr chit or chrit chrit is uttered less

frequently (6-7 times per minute) than the whip whip whip

call, which is uttered almost constantly at a single call per

second. The whip whip call can be heard near the territory

during most of the day, at short intervals. However, the calling

frequency drops abruptly to a single call in 2-3 minutes before

the roosting.

Complex call during resting : Apart from the two

distinct and identifiable calls, the Kashmir Flycatcher utters

another unique low tone call while resting during the daytime

between feeding bouts. This call sounds like a combination

of the calls of a Ground Shrew ( Suncits murinus) “ seek seek

seek ”, Common Myna (Acridotheres tristis) “ kew kew kreew-

kreew-Kreew" , and a House Sparrow (Passer domesticus)

“ cheer cheer cheer ”, all uttered in sequence. While making

this complex call, the bird holds its beak up vertically and the

throat bulges out. The call cannot be heard from a distance of

more than 5 m.

vn) Roosting Behaviour: One pair in March 2001 and

two pairs from October 2001 to April 2002 were regularly

observed for roosting behaviour. The flycatcher used the

same patch for roosting throughout the winter and followed a

strict time schedule. Roosting trees were in their territories,

where most of their diurnal activities were confined (usually a

small part of a plantation in the transmission line openings).

Though the females remained for most of the time in the same

small patch, before settling to roost, the pair would go away

together from the site for about 20-25 minutes to the nearby

stands of plantation, take a different route and silently come

back to the roosting site. The height at which the species

roosts is markedly different from that of most of its diurnal

activities. Birds were seen roosting at more than 8 nr, near the

crown of wattle or thickly foliaged branches of Eucalyptus.

Threats in the Nilgiris

Clearly there is no threat from poaching or killing for

this tiny bird, but habitat changes and anthropogenic pressure

on its wintering quarter in the Nilgiris are serious threats that

may have already affected the species’ existence and use of

this area as a regular wintering ground in future. Habitat

degradation and loss is the key threat in almost all the area,

namely Kashmir, Sri Lanka and Nilgiris. Though quantifiable

266

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

data was not collected, we summarize the main threats to

species in the Nilgins based on our observations:

A) Unsafe habitat: Historically, the bud might have been

using the edges and openings in the shola in the Nilgiris

Upper Plateau, as there were no plantations earlier. Most of

the plantations are not more than four to five decades old.

Wattle, Pine and a variety of other plantations brought a

sudden change in the Nilgin vegetation. Though they are not

its original habitat, the Kashmir Flycatcher seems to have

adapted fairly to Wattle plantations. As cited in Table 1, almost

all the birds were recorded in Wattle. Despite being within

range forests and protected areas, the plantations have low

value owing to poor timber quality or economic returns. Thus,

the plantation habitat is under a variety of threats, such as

clear felling, illegal cutting or lopping by the surrounding

villages and others.

B) Uncontrolled firewood collection and grazing: The

villagers dwelling around most of the Kashmir Flycatcher sites

are totally dependent on plantations for fuelwood, thus

mounting pressure on the already degraded habitat. The

Kashmir Flycatcher seems to prefer Wattle patches with wide

openings lined with dead branches and twigs that serve as

its perch for flycatching. The regular removal of such dead

and fallen trees, and branches by the villagers affects the

microhabitat of the species. Herds of feral and domestic

buffaloes were seen near Kashmir Flycatcher wintering sites.

These herds ram into the plantations and birds were seen

getting scared, perched high in the trees and calling aloud in

alarm or flying across to other patches of plantation.

C) Clear felling of privately owned plantations: Some

of the privately owned Wattle plantations near the Flycatcher

sites have been clear felled by private owners during the

study period. It is important to note that these plantations

have proved to be the home to the species. Any move to

clear fell such plantations (in privately owned lands or Reserve

Forest) should take into consideration the impact on the

wintering population of Kashmir Flycatcher in the Nilgiris.

DISCUSSION

Most ornithologists are of the opinion that almost the

entire population of Kashmir Flycatcher winters in Sn Lanka,

with a small population (recently discovered) wintering in the

Nilgiris. Though Harrap and Redman ( 1 989), Karthikeyan and

Athreya ( 1 992), Robertson ( 1 990) and Robson ( 1 985 ) reported

the Nilgiris as wintering ground for the Kashmir Flycatcher,

all of them were based on one or two sight records during

winter. Also, Baker (1922-1930) gave its distribution as

extending from the Afghan boundary and Gilgit, but there are

no specimens or records from these places (Roberts 1992),

nor does it breed around Simla ( Himachal Pradesh) or Garhwal

(Uttaranchal) in India, as he claimed.

Our sightings of 16 birds are more than all the earlier

records of the species from peninsular India during the past

83 years, since Currie (1919) reported it from Secunderabad.

This is proof that the Nilgiris are a regular wintering ground

for this flycatcher. Although data are not available on the

status of the populations in the breeding or wintering area,

the species may be declining in both the grounds on account

of recent habitat alterations. Over the years, population has

declined in Sri Lanka (Collar et al. 2002).

Comparisons of PC 1 and PC 2 scores for sites with and

without sightings indicate that the Kashmir Flycatcher selects

open areas with more grass cover and low shrubs, and avoids

areas with higher tree density. Wattle plantations with openings

created by transmission lines provide such a habitat, but such

areas generally have greater grazing and lopping pressure

also. Sholas are generally well protected and have high tree

density and canopy cover. But, the species avoids sholas

and seems very comfortably adjusted in the Wattle plantation

openings and edges. Competition with the resident species

may also force the Kashmir Flycatcher to go for such marginal

and disturbed habitats.

Association of species with forest having adequate

openings and considerably good grass cover (that is usually

grazed) rather than thick sholas (having minimum ground

cover) may be the reason for significant differences in the

plots with and without sightings.

Though the species remains in pairs, at two sites we

saw single males. It may be that the birds were feeding apart

during the day, when they were sighted, and both most likely

had a mate feeding nearby. Females remained in their territory

throughout the day, thus leaving the site before roosting and

following another route to reach the regular roosting site

silently, maybe an anti-predation strategy.

Feeding without aggression with species such as the

Grey Tit, Greenish Warbler and the TickelF s Leaf Warbler may

be because of resource partitioning or differences in mode of

feeding and prey. There seems to be no apparent shortage of

resource, but aggression towards and getting chased by

species, such as Nilgiri Flycatcher and Pied Bushchat with

the onset of the breeding season may be because of similarity

in the mode of resource exploitation and food. The Nilgiri

Flycatcher starts singing and breeding in mid-March and it

was only during this time that it became hostile to the Kashmir

Flycatcher. Interestingly, this hostile behaviour is recorded at a

time when all birds are m need of more energy. Tins factor may

be playing a considerable role in forcing the return migration.

Whip whip whip... and Chrit..nr..chrit calls were very

commonly heard up to a considerable distance from the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

267

WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER

territory. These calls did not resemble those of any other

species of flycatchers in the Nilgiris, making it easier to detect

the Kashmir Flycatcher during the surveys. During evening,

the bird called less, which may be because the bird feeds

more intensively during pre-roosting time. Complex calls heard

may be because of its fondness for mimicry. Though these

calls were very low in tone, the posture of the bird (beak

raised vertically and throat bulging) indicated a huge effort in

uttering such calls.

The Kashmir Flycatcher is the only flycatcher found in

the study area that holds a winter territory. Becoming more

vigilant and sensitive to human presence in their territory

before the return migration may be their protective strategies.

Most of the Kashmir Flycatcher sightings were in

Avalanche Reserve Forest area, which is facing heavy

anthropogenic pressure. These forests should be protected

and disturbance should be minimised, mainly in the wintering

season. Clear felling of the private plantations should be

minimized; otherwise it may affect the wintering population

of this scarce bird species.

Though it is generally thought that a very small

population winters in the Nilgiri Hills, we suspect there is

possibility of a good wintering population of Kashmir

Flycatcher in the Nilgiris Upper Plateau, though it is not

comparable to Sri Lanka. A concerted effort is needed to

determine the status ot the wintering population in peninsular

India, mainly m the Nilgiri Hills.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This work was carried under ‘Ecology of Shola

Grasslands’ project. We thank the US Fish and Wildlife

Service, especially Mr. David Ferguson, SFC coordinator, for

funding and Prof. Mark Behan for his help. We also thank the

Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government of India,

for sponsoring our project and the Tamil Nadu Forest

Department for permission and cooperation. The help of

Dr. Ajithkumar, and Messrs Zafar-ul Islam, Sounderrajan,

Mohanraj, Peeyus Kutty, Senthilmurugan and Sivakumar is

greatly acknowledged. Our field assistant Vellumam and

drivers Noor Mohd and Veluswami were very helpful during

the survey.

REFERENCES

An, S & S.D. Ripley ( 1 987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. 2nd Edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi. 737 pp.

Banks, J. & .1 Banks ( 1 980): A selection of birds of Sri Lanka. Published

by the authors. London. 30 pp.

Bates. R.S.P. & E.H.N. Lowther ( 1 952): Breeding Birds of Kashmir.

Oxford University Press, London. 364 pp.

Baker, E.C.S. ( 1 922-1930): The Fauna of British India, including Ceylon

and Burma. Vol. II, 2"d Edn, London: Taylor and Francis. 561 pp.

Bibby, C.J., N.D. Burges, D A. Hill (1992): Bird Census Techniques.

Academic Press Limited.

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International Red Data Book. Cambridge, UK: BirdLife

International. 2217 pp.

Blasco, F. ( 1 970): Aspects of the flora and ecology of savanna of the

South Indian hills. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 67: 522-534.

Collar, N.J., A.V. Andreev, S. Subramanya & J.A. Tobias (2002):

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Currie, A.J. (1919): Occurrence of Indian Redbreasted Flycatcher

(Siphia hyperythra) in the Deccan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

26(2): 667.

Harrap, S.C. & N.J. Redman (1989): Some observations on the scarce

birds in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 86(3):

460-461

Henry, G.M. ( 1955): A Guide to the Birds of Ceylon. Colombo. Oxford

University Press, London. 432 pp.

Inglis, C M (1906): Occurrence of Indian Red-breasted Flycatcher

(Siphia hyperythra ) in Bengal. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 17: 520

Jamdar, Nitin (1987): Additions to the birds of Point Calimere,

S. India. J Bombay Nat Hist Soc. 84(1): 206.

Kalsi. R.S., A. Dua & M. Kalsi (2001 ): Status survey and identification

of Important Bird Area sites for the Bristled Grass-Warbler and

Kashmir Flycatcher. Report submitted to Bombay Natural History

Society, India.

Karthikeyan. S., & Vidya R. Athreya (1992): Kashmir Red-breasted

Flycatcher Muscicapa subrubra Hartert and Steinbacher at Ooty.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 89(3): 376-377.

Legris, P. ( 1969): Variabilite des facteur du climat: cas des Montagnes

du sad de Inde et de Ceylon. Institure Francais de Pondichey,

travaux de la Section scientifique et Technique 8 no. 1 .104 pp.

(Original not seen).

Lengerke, H.J.V. (1977): The Nilgiris, weather and climate of mountain

area in South India. (Beitragezur Sudasienfoschung 32). Wiesbeden

Franz Steiner Verlag. 343 pp.

Majumdar, N. (1984): On the collection of birds from Bastar district,

Madhya Pradesh Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ.. Pap 59. (Original

not seen)

Manakadan, R. & A. Pittie (2001 ): Standarised common and scientific

names of the birds of the Indian subcontinent. Buceros 6(1 ), 21 pp.

Manly, B.FJ. (1986): Multivariate Statistical Methods: A primer.

Chapman and Hall, London.

Muller-Dombois, D. & H. Ellenberg (1974): Aims and methods of

vegetation ecology. John Wiley, London. 547 pp.

Roberts, T..I. ( 1 992): The Birds of Pakistan. Oxford University Press,

Karachi. Vol. 11,617 pp

Robertson, A. (1990): Which flycatcher winters in Western Ghats?

OBC Bull 12: 32.

Robson, C. (1985): Recent reports: India. OBC Bull. 2 (Autumn):

36-37.

Robson, C (1999): Recent reports: India. OBC Bull 29: 51-52.

Rodgers, W.A. & H.S. Panwar (1988): Planning a protected

area network. (2 vols). Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun.

341 pp.

Whistler, H. (1926): Birds of Kangra District. Ibis 12(2): 521-581,

724-783.

268

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

269-276

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA1

Peter Smetacek2

'Accepted February 2003

Jones Estate, Bhimtal, Nainital 263 136, Uttaranchal, India. Email: [email protected]

Comostola hauensteini sp. nov., Neptis miali varshneyi ssp. nov., Anambuly.x ehvesi kitchingi ssp. nov., Hypochrosis

hyadaria forma stigmata nov., the Wet Season Form male and both seasonal forms of the hitherto undescribed female

of Garaeus parva discolor Warren are described from the Kumaon Himalaya.

Key words: new species, new subspecies, Lepidoptera, Kumaon, Himalaya

INTRODUCTION

Kumaon consists of a section of the Himalayan range

west of Nepal. The specimens discussed in this paper were

all taken m the Bhimtal valley in Namital distr ict m Uttaranchal,

where the main study site is located at Jones Estate ( 1 ,500 nr

above msl; 29° 20' 41" N, 79° 36' 17" E) and the adjoining Sattal

valley ( 1,200 nr) and Rambagh valley (700 m, Bhujiaghat),

where some specimens of Neptis miah Moore were taken.

All specimens were taken by the author and are in the

author's collection.

1 .Neptis miah Moore (Nymphalidae: Limenitidinae)

Neptis miah has been reported from Central Nepal

eastward along the Himalaya, through western China south

to Borneo, Mentawi Islands, Java and Bah. Along this range,

Eliot ( 1 969) recognized seven geographical races. Within the

Indian sub-region, two races are recognized, the nominate

race known from central Nepal to the hills of northeast India

(described from a male from Darjeeling) and the race nolana

Druce, recorded from Myanmar to Thailand (described from a

female from Chantaboon, Thailand).

The hitherto unreported population of miah in the

Kumaon Himalaya bears a strong resemblance to Lasippa

viraja Moore, with which it appears to have been confused

in the past (Hannyngton 1910; Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth

1957). The following is a description of this population.

Neptis miah varshneyi ssp. nov.

Material Examined: Holotype: Male 21. v. 1988 Bhimtal.

Forewmg Length: 25 mm. Expanse 54 mm.

Paratypes: 36 exs.: 14. iv. 1982 Bhimtal; 1 .v. 1982 Bhimtal cf;

28.iv. 1984 Bhimtal <7; 30. iv. 1982 Bhimtal d\ 14.v. 1982 Bhimtal

d ; 7,iv. 1 985 Bhimtal d1 ; 30.iv. 1 992 Sattal d ; 1 .v. 1 992 Sattal d ;

2. V.1992 Sattal x 4; 4.V.1992 Sattal x 3 d; 5.V.1992 Bhimtal d;

21. v. 1992 Sattal 9;22.v.l992 Sattal; 2. vi. 1992 Bhimtal 9;

3. vi. 1992 Sattal 9 ; 4. vi. 1992 Bhimtal 9;8.x.l992 Sattalx2;

28.U1. 1994 Bhimtal 9; 18.iv.2003 Bhimtal d; 5. v. 2003 Bhujiaghat

x 2; 2.vi.2003 Bhujiaghat 9 ; 4.vi.2003 Bhujiaghat; 7.vi.2003

Bhujiaghat d; ll.iv.2004 Bhimtal d; 1 6. iv. 2004 Bhimtal 9;

16.iv.2004 Bhimtal d; 18.iv.2004 Bhimtal d; 22.iv.2004 Bhimtal

9 ; 1 7. v. 2004 Bhujiaghat 9 .

Forewmg Length: 26-30 mm; Expanse: 56-64 mm.

Diagnosis: Both sexes with eyes brown; head, thorax

and abdomen dorsally black, ventrally pale greyish. Legs pale

greyish. Recto surface of wings black with orange yellow

markings, which are not sharply defined On forewing the

upper margin of cell streak with a medial indentation in some

individuals. Postmedial spots in interspaces 1 and 2 conjoined

and extend into interspace 3, more or less meeting lower end

of subapical senes at vein 4. The erect submarginal orange

yellow line usually not prominent. Apical cilia white

Hindwing recto with relatively broad discal line.

Postmedial band always extends into interspace 6. Submargmal

lme famtly marked, almost obsolete in some mdividuals (Fig. 1 ).

On verso surface, markings as in nominate race, but

pale bands correspondingly broader and pale yellow,

especially postdiscal spots in interspaces 1 and 2 on forewmg.

Comparison with nominate subspecies'. The subspecies

varshneyi may be distinguished from the nominate race by

the broader orange yellow markings on the wings, which are

about 25% wider than nominate miah ; the conjoined spots in

interspaces 1 and 2 on the forewing recto which are not

varshneyi mian

Fig. 1: Recto surface of holotype

of Neptis miah varshneyi ssp n. and N. miah miah

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

separated by a black vein; and the pale markings on the verso

surface, which are yellowish, not whitish. In miah, the non-

lilac pale markings on the verso surface vary from off-white to

white on both wings, the discal band on the hindwing being

pure, almost shining white.

Remarks: On the basis of the type series, ssp.

varshneyi is a little larger than the nominate race which,

according to Evans ( 1 932), has a wingspan of 45 to 60 mm.

Atkinson ( 1 882) and Elannyngton ( 1910) did not record miah

from Kumaon, but Hannyngton recorded L. viraja as not

rare. I am unaware of any extant specimen of viraja from

Kumaon. In fact, viraja has not been recorded from Nepal

either ( Bailey 1951; Smith 1989,1 993 ), though a specimen of

viraja has been figured as miah by Smith ( 1993), according

to the late J.N. Eliot (in lift.). Therefore, it seems likely that

the viraja recorded from Kumaon was the local race of miah ,

which is described here. Evans (1932) and Wynter-Blyth (1957)

appear to have reported miah erroneously as viraja from

Kumaon.

N. miah varshneyi is not rare in the Kumaon Himalaya,

where it has been recorded in the outermost range between

700 and 1,500 m above msl in forests of Himalayan oak

(Quercus leucotrichophora A. Camus and O glauca

Thunb. ) and Sal (Shorea robusta Gaertn.). The flight is weak,

very like Pantoporia hordonia (Stoll) or P. sandaka (Butler),

although miah may be distinguished by its relatively larger

wingspan. Individuals do not stay in one place for long.

According to Smith (1989), the nominate race of miah

is not common at low elevation in Nepal, where he has

recorded it up to 762 m (2,500 feet) above msl. However, of

the two specimens recorded by Bailey (1951), one was

collected at Bhimpedi at 610 m (2,000 feet) in October and

the other at Kathmandu at 1372 m (4,500 feet) in May. In

Kumaon, it has not been recorded below 1 ,200 m, although it

probably occurs at low elevation in areas not surveyed so

far.

In Kumaon, there are two annual broods, the first on

the wing from mid-April to the end of June and the second

through October to mid-November. There appears to be no

seasonal variation between these broods, although according

to Smith (1989), this butterfly is on the wing during the

southwest monsoon months from July to September, in

addition to the summer and autumn generations in Nepal. In

the event that ssp. varshneyi has an additional generation on

the wing during the monsoon, seasonal variation similar to

the nominate race may occur.

"Hie autumn generation is comprised of fewer individuals

than the summer generation in Kumaon.

The subspecies is dedicated to Dr. R.K. Varshney,

formerly of the Zoological Survey of India.

2. Comostola hauensteini sp. nov.

(Geometridae: Geometrinae)

The genus Comostola Meyrick is largely Indo-

Austrahan with two or three species in the Palaearctic Region.

The genus has been treated comprehensively by Seitz (1908-

1928; 1954). Besides the wing pattern and bright colours, the

genus is distinguished by the unusual shape of the

discocellular veins, which are similar to Berta Walker.

The genus is divided into two sections. The typical

section has a straight forewing margin. The hindwmg is

slightly angled but never tailed at vein 4 and the pattern is

similar to Comostolopsis Warren; the second section has

rounder wings with a characteristic pattern. The present

species belongs to the typical section.

Material examined: Holotype: Male 1 1 .vih. 1997. Bhimtal.

Forewing Length: 1 1 mm. Expanse 24 mm.

Paratype: Female 27. ix. 1999. Bhimtal.

Forewmg Length: 13 mm. Expanse 28 mm.

Diagnosis: Vertex of head green. Frons and palpi white.

Antennae of male pale brown, bipectinate to two-thirds the

length, the rami long. Collar white. Thorax pale green,

abdomen with first segment dorsally green. Remainder of

abdomen shining white. Legs white.

Forewing recto with the costa prominently white and

unmarked. Ground colour of wing pale green with a white

ringed aist-coloured spot on the discocellulars. An incomplete

and very indistinct antemedial series of creamy spots, the

two above the dorsum discemable. Postmedial series of faint

creamy spots on the veins, not reaching the costa.

Hindwing recto pale green, with a white-ringed, rust-

coloured spot on the discocellulars. Postmedial series of

creamy spots obscure.

Both wings with a marginal rust-coloured line. Cilia

white.

Verso surface shining white with a rust coloured spot

on the discocellulars of each wing. Dorsum of both wings

with a fringe of long green hair.

Female larger than male, antennae simple. Palpi much

longer than in male, the second joint reaching above the head

(Fig. 3). Both sexes with a pair of tibial spurs on hindleg.

Remarks: Comostola hauensteini can be immediately

distinguished from other known members of the genus by

the prominently white forewing costa. In other respects, it is

similar to other members of the section.

Only a single pair is known, hence genitalia were not

examined. It is rare in the type locality, where it has a single

annual generation during the second half of the southwest

monsoon.

With reference to the antennae and palpi, the difference

between the sexes is similar to that found in Comostola

270

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

Fig. 2: Forewing and hindwing venation of holotype of

Comostola hauensteini sp. nov. (not to scale)

subtiliaria nympha Butler, where the female has simple

antennae and longer palps than the male.

In Fig. 2, the characteristic venation of the cells of both

wings of C hauensteini is illustrated. The subcostal venation

of the forewing is not depicted, since it is not diagnostic.

The species is dedicated to Armin Hauenstein of

Untermunkheim-Schonenberg, Germany.

3. Garaem parva von Hedeman (Geometridae: Ennominae)

Garaeus parva is a polytypic Asian moth, with a

recorded distribution from Siberia and Japan southward

through China to the hills of northeast India. Recently, it has

been recorded from Jones Estate. These records extend the

known distribution of the species considerably westward

along the Himalaya.

Wehrli (1940) recognized six subspecies of this moth,

four from the Asian mainland and two from Japan: the nomino-

typical race from Manchuria and Siberia; distans Warren and

kiushiuana Hori from Japan; notia Wehrli from Central and

Southern China; sutschana Wehrli from the Sutschan

(=Sushan) area in Ussuri, Russia and discolor Warren from

West China and northeast India. Hampson ( 1 895) gave the Khasi

Fig 3: Head of male and female of Comostola hauensteini sp. nov

(not showing sections of labial palpi)

and Naga Hills as localities for discolor. The original and

subsequent descriptions of discolor (Hampson 1895; Prout

1915; Wehrli 1940) are of what appear to be Dry Season Form

males. Although both sexes of the remaining subspecies appear

to be known, the female of discolor was unknown. The following

is a description of Wet Season Form ( WSF) males and both the

WSF and Dry Season Form (DSF) of the female.

Garaeus parva discolor Warren

1893. Proc. zool Soc. Lond : 400, pi. 32, fig. 19.

Wet Season Form Male

Material Examined: Holotype: 7.viii. 1 997.

Forewing Length: 17 mm; expanse: 38 mm.

Paratype: 5 exs.: 23.vh.2000; 3.vii.2002; 14. vm. 2001;

24.vm.1997; 19.ix.2000.

Forewing Length: 15-17 mm; expanse: 32-38 mm.

Diagnosis: Head grey, collar brownish grey, thorax and

abdomen grey and coppery. Antennae grey. Forewing recto

ground colour bright coppery to reddish-brown with some

dark irroration. Costa greyish white as far as postmedial white

mark. Base suffused with grey, especially on costa. Prominent

grey antemedial band angled below costa. A dark medial line,

which is not prominent in some specimens, arising from costa,

angled at discocellular spot, whence it runs obliquely to inner

margin. Diffused grey postmedial band arising from a white

spot on costa and bordering dark medial line from discocellular

spot to inner margin. A white stigma before apex. Some

greyish submarginal suffusion above tomus. Cilia of both

wings dark brown.

Hindwing recto coppery brown suffused with pale grey,

particularly near the dark antemedial line. A series of dark

medial spots terminating in a black and white mark on inner

margin. Postmedial series of large, irregular, white-ringed

coppery spots not reaching costa, coppery colour replaced

by brown in some individuals.

Forewing verso brown suffused with pale grey. Subbasal

area with some chocolate brown suffusion on costa and below

cell. Sinuous, diffused but prominent chocolate brown medial

band. Triangular chocolate brown subapical costal patch

bordered with white. Indistinct pale postmedial and crenulate

submarginal bands.

Hindwing verso brown irrorated with grey. Prominent

chocolate brown antemedial band. Medial spots and

postmedial rings of recto surface present, though not as

prominent.

Comparison with diy season form males: The most

striking difference is in the coppery suffusion on the recto

surface and the prominent markings on both surfaces of the

WSF. The markings are greatly reduced or obscured in the

DSF. While the antemedial and medial bands on the forewing

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

271

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

recto are almost obsolete in the DSF, they are well developed

m the WSF. The grey postmedial band, which is

indistinguishable in the DSF, is prominent though with

diffused edges in the WSF.

On the hindwing recto , the most prominent difference

between the seasonal forms is in the postmedial series of

white-ringed coppery spots, which are prominent in the WSF

and almost obsolete in the DSF. On the verso surface, these

spots are vaguely distinguishable and were referred to by

Hampson ( 1 895 ) as an “indistinct waved submarginal white line”.

Comparison with other subspecies . The WSF of

discolor is very similar to the race sutschana Wehrli described

from material from Sutschan (=Sushan), Ussuri (east of

Vladivostok, Russia) which, incidentally, is at the opposite

extreme of this insect’s range. The similarity lies chiefly in the

ground colour of the recto surface, which according to Wehrh

( 1 940) is olive-grey red-brown dull-coppery, faintly suffused

with whitish m sutschana. Besides this, the prominent dark

red brown medial line on the forewing, lightly suffused with

dark grey, agrees well w ith that of the WSF of discolor , as

does the dark band on the verso, which is chocolate brown in

sutschana as well as in the WSF of discolor.

In the Himalaya, G. parva is on the wing throughout

the year, while in Siberia, Manchuria and Japan, it has been

recorded in late June and July. Presumably it is on the wing

only during the summer months in the northern part of its

range. Therefore, it is unlikely that distinct seasonal forms

occur there, as they do in the Himalaya.

However, taking into consideration that the

“subspecies” sutschana is known from an area well within

the range of G pan>a pan>a , the similarity between sutschana

and the WSF of discolor , and that sutschana differs from

parxa more or less in the same manner that WSF discolor

differs from DSF discolor , it appears possible that sutschana

is a form of the subspecies parva rather than a good

subspecies.

Female

Material Examined: Holotype: 30.xi.1998.

Paratypes: 5 exs.: 23. i. 1999; 5.v. 1999; 18.xi. 1996; 1 ex. no

date; 16.x. 2003.

Forewing Length: 17-19.5 mm, expanse: 38-44 mm.

Diagnosis: Antennae ochreous, bipectinate to apex,

rami dark brown, shorter than those of males. Head, thorax

and abdomen ochreous. Collar darker.

Basal half of forewing costa arched. Apex acute, outer

margin excised below apex. Hindwing with outer margin

crenulate and tornus lobed.

Forewing recto with ground colour ochreous. Traces

of pale antemedial band angled below costa. Medial dark

streak on costa. Black speck at end of cell. Triangular white

postmedial costal mark, defined by dark brown, from which a

prominent, oblique dark line arises and terminates at middle

of termen. Black speck on M, (vein 6) beyond postmedial

line. A w hite stnga from apex. Some individuals with diffuse

dark submarginal spot below M, (vein 4), below which

submarginal area is suffused with greyish brown.

Hindwing recto ochreous, costal area pale. Antemedial

straight dark line in continuation of forewing’s oblique dark

line. Barely discemable incomplete medial senes of dark specks

terminating in a V-shaped dark mark on inner margin or termen.

Distal half of wing evenly suffused with greyish-brown,

crossed by irregular ochreous postmedial band from apex to

tornus. Cilia of both wings dark browm.

Forewing verso light brown, suffused with dark brown

scales. Sub-basal darker brown area distally defined by

antemedial line. Sinuous, excurved brown medial band, dark

speck at end of cell. Prominent dark sub-apical triangular patch

on costa. Dark spot below triangular mark on M| (vein 6).

Submarginal area suffused with dark brown with ill-defined,

crenulate submarginal line and diffuse, dark submarginal spot

below M3 (vein 4), extending to margin in some individuals.

Hindwing verso with proximal half ochreous, with some

dark brown suffusion along costa. Straight, dark antemedial

line and dark speck at end of cell. Distal half of wmg suffused

with darker brown beyond medial series of dark specks.

Crenulate, ochreous postmedial line and some ochreous

suffusion at and below apex.

Individual and seasonal variation

Recto : The specimen from January is the darkest, with

the postmedial dark suffusion on both wings prominent. The

specimen from May has the least dark suffusion and lacks

postmedial markings on the forewing. On the hindwing, these

markings are faint. The November specimens, including the

type, have hardly any dark suffusion on both wings and have

a rufous tinge. The Wet Season Form females ( 1 6.x. 2003 and

the undated specimen) are suffused with rufous instead of

dark brown, and are the largest of the six specimens. The

white subapical mark on the costa of the undated specimen is

almost wholly suffused with dark brown. I have an identical

specimen, unfortunately in pieces with the abdomen and one

hindwing missing, these having been devoured by a Tit, which

was taken on 2 8 . ix . 2003 .

Verso : On the verso surface, too, the specimen from

January is the darkest, with well-defined markings. Next in

order is the May individual, while the two November

specimens are paler with some obsolete postmedial markings

on both wings. The Wet Season Form females are suffused

with rufous instead of dark brown, and the subapical triangular

272

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

patch on the forewing is rufous in one case. On the forewing,

a postmedial series of specks on the veins is discernable.

Remarks: The females described above differ

superficially from males, especially in the ochreous ground

colour, the uniform colouration and the prominent dark medial

line on the forewing recto. They closely resemble the form

nigrilineata Prout, an unusual form described from Lienping,

northeast of Canton in China. The ground colour of females

of discolor is a little more irrorated with grey or rufous,

depending upon the season, than in the nigrilineata

illustrated on Plate 25 f of the Palaearctic Geometndae

(Supplement) in Seitz ( 1 954), the oblique postmedial band on

the forewing recto is a little further away from the discocellular

spot in females of discolor than in the illustrated nigrilineata

and the latter lacks the dark postmedial speck on M (vein 6).

From a comparison of the sexes of discolor , it is quite

evident that, besides being sexually dimorphic, it is also

seasonally variable. Prout (1915) and Wehrli (1940) do not

note this. Although the sex and date of collection of

nigrilineata is not noted, the illustration is that of a female,

judging by the antennal characters. It seems possible that it

is a Wet Season Form female of subspecies notia Wehrli,

which is found in the area.

According to Prout (1915), parva emerges in July in

Manchuria, Vladivostok and Japan. From this, it appears that

the moth is umvoltine in the northern part of its range. It is,

therefore, obvious that there will be no seasonal variation,

although there may be some individual variation. The present

records are from an area with sharply defined dry and wet

seasons, the latter being the period when the southwest

monsoon is in progress from June to late September. The

species has been recorded in January, May, August,

September, October and November in Bhimtal, indicating that

there are at least three annual generations. It seems likely that

there is a fourth or even fifth generation between August and

November.

The series of five females from different months show a

range of variation encompassing the form nigrilineata from

the Omei-Shan (Lienping) and the Japanese distans Warren

depicted in Seitz (1954), especially in the forewing markings.

Both Prout (1915) and Wehrli (1940) did not mention

sexual dimorphism in this species, but noted that very little

material had been examined as specimens were scarce, from

which one may assume that, unlike the case in the Himalaya,

the sexes are superficially similar in eastern China, eastern

Russia and Japan.

This assumption is strengthened by the illustrations of

this species in Seitz (1954) where, on the basis of the antennae

and size, it can be suggested that females of parva,

nigrilineata , notia and distans have been depicted, while

discolor and sutschana Wehrli are represented by males. From

these, it seems likely that sexual dimorphism is not present in

parva , but might be so in distans , and by the form nigrilineata

in subspecies notia.

Ecology. This moth is rather rare in collections. Wehrli

(1940) noted that it is not common in Manchuria and

Vladivostok, while only a few had been collected in Japan, on

which the subspecies distans and kiushiuana Hon were

based.

In the Bhimtal valley, it is rare at mercury vapour light,

where males are attracted. Females are not attracted to artificial

light and it is likely that males, too, are not often attracted. If

the latter proves to be the case, the moth might be commoner

than has been assumed over most of its range. This is borne

out by the observation that males, even when attracted to

artificial light (from mercury vapour lamps), generally settle in

light shadow some distance (up to 5 m) from the light source.

The females recorded were found within rooms (specimen

dated 18.xi. 1996 and the undated Wet Season Form) or in the

open during the daytime. The undated female was found on a

windowsill of a disused room during the late 1970s, lacking its

head and antennae. Male specimens collected during the 1970s

have been identified from photographs, so the moth has

probably been present in the Kumaon Himalaya for at least 30

or 40 years, probably longer.

Prout (1915) noted that the larval host plant of ssp.

pai~va is Ligustrum ibota. Three species of Ligustrum L. have

been recorded from Kumaon between 5,000 ft ( 1 ,524 m) and

9,000 ft (2,743 m), with one species, L. nepalense Wall,

descending to 3,000 ft (914 m) in the central and inner ranges

(Osmaston 1927). However, it is equally likely that the species

feeds on some other plant, perhaps belonging to Oleaceae, in

the Himalaya.

That it is a species capable of great adaptation is evident

not only from its distribution, but also from its flying period,

from January (the day when the specimens were recorded the

minimum and maximum temperatures were 1 1 °C and 14 °C

respectively), to May (the day when the specimen was

recorded the minimum and maximum temperatures were 25 °C

and 36 °C respectively). Relative humidity varies from 6% to

1% (reaching 1% when warm summer breezes blow) during

April and May, to 100% on foggy days during the southwest

monsoon. Given its Palaearctic distribution, this moth will

almost certainly also be found at higher elevation in this area,

i.e. up to 2,500 m, if not higher. However, this moth has been

recorded so far only from Jones Estate.

The present specimens, along with a series of DSF

males in my collection, constitute the first Himalayan records

for this moth, and it will almost certainly be found all along

the range eastward, i.e. in Nepal, Sikkim, the hill districts of

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

273

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

West Bengal, Bhutan and Arunachal Pradesh. It is not known

whether it occurs west of Jones Estate, but given its rather

stable population here, it is likely to be found in some

neighbouring valleys to the west also.

The moth has a weak, fluttering flight, and settles in

shady places with wings outspread, in the manner typical of

most Geometrids. It is eaten by buds, and I have found bitten-

off wings after Tits ( Parus major L. and Parus xanthogenys

Vigors) fed on moths attracted overnight to the verandah

light. All the specimens discovered outdoors were settled

among low scrub and bushes, where they look remarkably

like dry leaves. This is not to say that they do not fly at higher

levels, for example among the canopies of trees, since these

have not been examined.

4. Hypochrosis hyadaria Guenee (Geometridae: Ennominae)

1857. Hist. Nat. Ins. Lep .: Ur an. EtPhal. 2: 537.

The Geometrid moth Hypochrosis hyadaria Guenee

was recorded by Hampson ( 1 895) from Sikkim, Khasi Hills,

Nilgiris and Sn Tanka. It is also well established in the Kumaon

Himalaya west of Nepal, where it has been recorded at Jones

Estate at 1,500 m above msl.

The moth is quite variable, and Hampson ( 1 895) while

synonynusing nine names under hyadaria , retained four

names for different forms in addition to the typical form, and

an unnamed variety. These are tinctaria Walker from Shillong

(Meghalaya), which is dark greyish-purple, with the costal

area of the hmdwing recto reddish-orange and the underside

redder than the typical form. This form has also been recorded

at Jones Estate. The Nilgiri and Sri Lankan forms

sulphurescens Moore and galbulata C. & R. Felder are

greenish, especially between the ante- and postmedial lines

of the forewing, which in galbulata approach each other

towards the inner margin. The form flavifusata Moore has

the medial and outer areas of the forewing yellow except at

the outer angle. The latter two forms have not been recorded

from Kumaon in the present study.

Hampson’s unnamed variety, which he recorded from

the Khasi Hills, has the lines of the forewing dark at the costa

and a large submarginal black blotch on the inner area. This

form, which has been recorded in the present study, is referred

to as stigmata forma nov.

Material examined: This species was collected at a

single location in Jones Estate, Bhimtal, over a period of thirty

years. All specimens were attracted to mercury vapour lamps.

Sixty-three specimens were examined, as well as photographs

of twenty specimens collected at the same location.

The species has been recorded in every month from

February through October. It is relatively common and well

established, most abundant in March and April and seen in

smaller numbers during the remaining period.

Remarks: The moth is seasonally variable. The typical

form has only been recorded during the dry season before

and after the southwest monsoon, and is therefore the Dry

Season Form. The form tinctaria has only been recorded

during the southwest monsoon months from July to September

and is therefore the Wet Season Form. In the material examined,

there are very few females of the typical form, i.e. two recorded

in February. The normal female form m this area may be referred

to the form sulphurescens as it has the basal and distal (outer)

area of the forewing brown and the area between the ante-

and postmedial lines greenish-yellow No males of this form

have been recorded in the present study. In just a few

individuals, there is an obscure dark mark at the forewing

tornus m the same place as in form stigmata. In only one

female specimen of sulphurescens, recorded on 25. ni. 2001, is

the tornal mark prominent. This individual is included in the

type series of stigmata further on.

This form is paler during the dry season and darker

during the wet season, and the two seasonal forms have

numerous intergrades, so that it is not possible to say with

certainty where the WSF begins and the DSF ends.

The form stigmata has been recorded in every month

except February, September and October. During the dry

season the ground colour is that of the typical form, but durmg

the wet season, what may be described as stigmata x tinctaria

are on the wing alongside normal tinctaria.

The holotype of stigmata is a Dry Season Form

individual taken on 26. v. 1 998 with a forewmg length of 1 8 mm

and an expanse of 3 8 mm.

Paratypes: 1 1 exs.: 4,iii.l999; 14. hi. 2001; 25. in. 2001 ( 9

sulphurescens x stigmata)-, 29.iii.2001 ; 22.iv.2001 ; l.vi.2000;

8.vi.2000; 17.vii 1990; 26.vh.2000; 29.vh.2000; 9.viii.2000.

Forewing length 1 7-2 1 mm; expanse 36-44 mm.

On the whole, the specimens examined in the present

study are larger than those examined by Hampson (1895),

who gave an expanse of 34 to 40 mm for the species. The

present material measures 36 to 46 mm, with the length of the

forewmg varying from 1 7 to 2 1 mm.

Males have a 5 mm long, hairy, white pair of coreomata

that can be extruded from near the ventral tip of the abdomen.

5 . Anambidyx clwesi Druee (Sphingidae: Sphinginae)

1882. Entomol. Mon Mag. 19: 17.

The monobasic genus Anambulyx Rothschild & Jordan

is known from Thailand (Cadiou and Kitching 1990), the Khasi

Hills (Bell and Scott 1937), Darjeeling (type locality), and

Kumaon (Smetacek 1994). The species occurs roughly

between 1,500 m and 2,300 m above msl. The Kumaon

population belongs to the western extreme of the insect’s

274

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

known range. Due to some consistent differences between

the fascies of the Bhimtal population and the populations

from the east, it is desirable to treat the Bhimtal population as

a subspecies of elwesi. The following is a description of

material from the Bhimtal valley.

Anambulyx elwesi kitchingi ssp. nov.

Material Examined Holotype: male 30. vi. 1990. Kumaon

Himalaya (Wet Season Form).

Forewing Length: 40 mm. Expanse: 90 mm.

Paratypes: Female 1 6.111. 1 999 (Dry Season Form); 4 males

Il.vi.l996;25.vi.l992; lO.vii. 1989; 1 7.viii. 1995.

Forewing Length: Female: 52 mm (apex ofboth forewings

missing); males: 40-45 mm.

Expanse: Female: 1 1 6 mm; males 90- 1 00 mm.

Diagnosis: Antennae light brown. Head, thorax and

abdomen grey, lightly tinged with brown. Broad, triangular,

dorsal, dark brown patch on thorax, broadest towards

abdomen. Abdomen with narrow dorsal dark line Legs brown,

upper edges of femur flushed with pmk.

Forewing recto with apex produced. Irregular dark brown

basal patch. Lime green patch extending from basal patch, into

which it sends two dentitions, to nearly halfway along costa,

lower edge of green patch extending along a nan owing spur to

tomus. An obscure, sinuous antemedial line, broadening mto

prominent green patch on inner margin. Green stigma at end of

cell. Sinuous postmedial and double submarginal lines, the former

faintly marked. All three lines distally edged with grey

powdering.

Hindwing recto with proximal half rosy pink, distal half

brown with grey stigma near tornus. Inner margin paler.

Forewing verso brown, with rose pink flush on basal

half. Subapical grey patch from which an almost straight

postmedial line arises.

Hindwing verso brown suffused with grey, suffusion

lacking between antemedial and medial lines. Slight basal

pink suffusion in mterno-rnedial interspace. Evenly curved,

brown postmedial line arising from just before apex,

terminating above tornus Area around tornus darker than

rest of wing.

Dry SeasonFomr. (female): Differs from WSF described

above in the grey and brown areas being generally paler.

except dorsal thoracic brown patch. On forewmg recto ,

oblique green patch extends distad in cell causing irregularity

in border of patch.

Forewing verso with costa flushed with green,

postmedial line on both wings distally bordered with green.

Hindwing verso faintly flushed with pink.

A female of the Wet Season Foim measured in an earlier

paper (Smetacek 1994) is smaller, with a forewmg length of

49 mm compared with 52 mm despite the missing apex of the

present specimen.

Comparison with the nominate subspecies'. It is well

known that in many Lepidoptera there exists a cline along the

southern face of the Himalaya, with darker races in the humid

eastern Himalaya and pale forms m the drier western Himalaya.

The present case seems to be another example of this, for

ssp. kitchingi differs from the nominate subspecies primarily

in being paler, so that the markings on the forewmg are easily

discernable, especially the postmedial and submarginal lines.

In addition, the dark dorsal triangular mark on the thorax

contrasting with the paler greyish-brown of the sides and the

paler abdomen easily distinguish ssp. kitchingi from

ssp. elwesi. which has a uniform dark thorax and a similar

dark abdomen.

The green markings on both surfaces of the

forewing fade to ochreous in a few years in stored speci-

mens, hence earlier descriptions (including the original

description) of elwesi refer to the lime green areas as

ochreous.

The subspecies appears to be restricted to the Himalaya

west of Nepal, where it has only been recorded from Bhimtal

so far.

The subspecies is dedicated to Ian J. Kitching of the

Natural History Museum, London.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 am indebted to the late Lt. Col. John N. Eliot, Taunton,

U.K. for his valuable opinion and notes on Neptis miah , most

of which have been included verbatim in the text; to lan J.

Kitching of the Natural History Museum, London, LIK. for

help with the hawkmoths, and to the Editor and anonymous

referee for valuable suggestions.

REFERENCES

Atkinson, E.T. (1882): Gazetteer of the Himalayan Districts of the

North West Provinces of India. Vol. 2. Government Press,

Allahabad. 266 pp.

Bailey, F.M. (1951): Notes on Butterflies from Nepal. Part I J. Bombay

Ncit . Hist. Soc. SO: 64-87.

Bell. T.R.D.&F B. Scott (1937): The Fauna of British India including

Ceylon and Burma. Moths Vol. V Taylor & Francis, London.

18 + 537 pp., 15 pi 1 map.

Cadiou, J.M. & L.I. Kitching (1990): New Sphingidae from Thailand

(Lep.). Lamb. 90(4): 3-34.

Eliot, J.N. (1969): An Analysis of the Eurasian and Australian Neptmi

(Lepidoptera: Nymphalidae). Bull. Brit Mus. nat. Hist. ( Ent .)

Suppl. 15: I - 1 55, 3 pi

Evans, W.H. (1932): The Identification of Indian Butterflies. 2"d edn.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

275

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay, x + 454 pp., 32 pi

Hampson. G.F ( 1 895): The Fauna of British India including Ceylon and

Burma. Moths Vol. III. Taylor & Francis. London 28 + 546 pp.

Hannyngton. F. (1910): List of Butterflies from Kumaon. Excerpted

m Peile, H D. 1937: A Guide to Collecting Butterflies of India.

Staples Press, London. Appendix C, pp. 234-238.

Osmaston, A.E. (1927): A Forest Flora for Kumaon, Government

Press, Allahabad. 34 + 605 pp.

Prout. L.B. (1915): in Seitz, A. (ed.) (1915): Die Gross-Schmetterlinge

der Erde. Abt. 1 , Band 4, Palaearktischen Spanner. Alfred Kemen,

Stuttgart. 479 pp., 25 pi.

Seitz. A. (Ed.) ( 1908-1928): Die Gross-Schmetterlinge der Erde. Abt.

1, Band 4: Die Palaearktischen Spanner. 479 pp.. 25 pi.; Band

12: Die Indoaustralischen Spanner 356 pp 1-41, 50 pi. Alfred

Kernen. Stuttgart.

Seitz, A (Ed.) ( 1 954): Die Gross-Schmetterlinge der Erde. Supplement

zu Band 4. A. Kernen, Stuttgart. 765 pp., 53 pi

Smetacek, P. (1994): An annotated list of the Hawkmoths (Lep.:

Sphing.) of Kumaon, N. India: a probable case of faunal drift.

Rec zool Surv. India, Occ Pap 156: 1-55.

Smith, C. (1989): Butterflies of Nepal (Central Himalaya) Tecpress

Services, Bangkok, Thailand. 352 pp., 356 figs.

Smith, C. (1993): Illustrated Checklist of Nepal’s Butterflies. Craftsman

Press, Bangkok. Thailand. 126 pp., 46 pi.

Wehrli, E ( 1940): m Seitz ( 1 954) Die Gross-Schmetterlinge der Erde.

Supplement zu Band 4. A. Kernen, Stuttgart 765 pp.. 53 pi.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. ( 1 957): Butterflies of the Indian Region Bombay

Natural History Society. Bombay, xx + 523 pp., 72 pi

276

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

277-284

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

EXISTENCE OF THE ORDER BATHYNELLACEA (CRUSTACEA, SYNCARIDA)

IN SOUTH ASIA: A NEW SPECIES OF GENUS HABROBATHYNELLA SCHMINKE 1973,

FROM RIVER PENNAR, SOUTH INDIA1

Y. Ranga Reddy2

'Accepted February 2001

department of Zoology, Nagarjuna University, Nagarjunanagar 522 510, Andhra Pradesh, India

Ernai I : [email protected]

A new species of the genus Habrobathynella Schminke 1973, is described from River Pennar near Cuddapah, South

India Named Habrobathynella schminkei , the new species belongs to Family Parabathynellidae. It differs from its two

known Madascan congeners, H. milloti and H.jeanneli (Delamare and Paulian 1954) in several morphological details,

namely the presence of one ventral plumose seta at distal inner angle of sympodite of uropod; two strongly unequal

setae on the basal segment of maxilla; much elongated endopodite on uropod; absence of seta on third endopodite

segment of thoracopods I- VI I A key to the identification of the three species of Habrobathynella is also given.

This is the first report of the Order Bathynellacea in South Asia, while the record of Habrobathynella in South India fills

the vast gap in the distribution range of the Family Parabathynellidae, and lends support to the East Asian origin of this

family.

Key words: Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov., Bathynellacea, Parabathynellidae, taxonomy, India

INTRODUCTION

Bathynellacea are minute, eumalacostracan crustaceans,

usually inhabiting the mesopsammon, i.e. the interstitial water

in the spaces between sand grains of lakes, rivers, streams

and wells. The only exceptions are two species living as relicts

m Lake Baikal at a depth of 1 00- 1 440 m (Bazikalova 1 954 ) and

one species in an Australian marine beach (Schminke 1972).

The living Bathynellacea represent one of the oldest groups

of freshwater carcmofauna, whose ancestors inhabited the

sea during the Carboniferous period, or even earlier (Schminke

1974). Today bathynellaceans are known from all over the

world, except Antarctica. It is paradoxical that despite the

fact that the first Asian species was recorded from a cave in

Malaysia as far Tack as 1929 (Sars 1929), and that the centre

of evolution of Bathynellacea is East Asia, practically nothing

is known of this group from the whole of the South Asian

region. There are, however, several published reports from

other parts of Asia (see Lopretto and Morrone 1998).

The Order Bathynellacea is comprised of two families:

Bathynellidae and Parabathynellidae. Schminke’s (1986)

survey has revealed more than 1 50 known species belonging

to 42 genera in these two families.

This paper gives the description of a new species of

the genus Habrobathynella Schminke 1973, belonging to the

Family Parabathynellidae. While revising this family, Schminke

(1973) established the above genus for two species, both

from Madagascar: Habrobathynella milloti (Delamare and

Paulian 1954), the type species, and Habrobathynella

jeanneli (Delamare and Paulian 1954). Habrobathynella

schminkei sp. nov. is the first representative of the Order

Bathynellacea from South Asia, as well as of the genus

Habrobathynella from Asia.

It is hoped that this fortuitous discovery of

H schminkei sp. nov. will be a precursor to studies on the

possibly rich biodiversity of the neglected hyporheic and

phreatic environment of South Asia. This hypogean habitat

is a promising place not only for biologists to look for new

insights into adaptation and speciation (Ban- 1968, Rouch

1986), but for geologists as well to delve into the evolutionary

history of the earth.

METHODS

The sampling site was River Pennar at Chennur, c. 1 5 km

from Cuddapah town. South India. About ten core samples

were collected at various points of the submerged nverbank,

overlaid with a loose deposit of fine sand. A rigid PVC tube

(length 70 cm, diameter 4 cm) was used for coring. The cores

taken from the sediment surface to a depth of 20-30 cm were

pooled into a bucket and vigorously stirred with the habitat

water. The supernatant was filtered through bolting silk

plankton nets (mesh size 70 pm). The filtrate was fixed in 20%

alcohol and then preserved in 70% alcohol. Specimens were

dissected in glycerol, using a stereoscopic binocular

microscope at 90x; body parts were mounted under cover

slips and sealed with Araldite. Measurements were made with

an eyepiece micrometer, and drawings made with Camera

Lucida on a compound microscope at magnifications of 1 50x,

270x, 450x 675x or lOOOx. Appendages were largely dissected

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

before drawing, while lateral views were drawn in situ. Body

length was measured from the anterior margin of the head to

the end of the caudal furca.

Key to the species of the genus Habrobathynella

1 Sympodite of uropod with a seta at distal inner corner;

pleotelson setae shorter than caudal furca

H schminkei sp. nov.

Sympodite of uropod without seta at distal inner corner;

pleotelson setae as long as caudal furca 2

2 Antennule elongate, apophysis on segment 4 shorter than

segment 5; exopodite of uropod with spinous projection at

inner terminal corner H. mi! loti

Antennule short, apophysis on segment 4 reaching end of

segment 5; exopodite of uropod without spinous projection

// jeanneli

Systematic position

Subclass Eumalacostraca Packard 1892

Superorder Syncarida Packard 1885

Order Bathynellacea Chappuis 1915

Family Parabathynelhdae Noodt 1965

Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov. (Figs 1-4)

Type locality and material examined: River Pennar at

Chennur, c. 1 5 km from Cuddapah town (14° 28' N, 78° 49' E),

South India, 45 males, 60 females, 15 juveniles. 18.1.2000.

Coll M.V.S. Kishore Kumar.

Holotype ( female), allotype (male), paratypes ( 10 males,

10 females), all undissected, were deposited in the Natural

History Museum, London. Regn. nos.: Holotype: 2002.5,

allotype 2002.6, paratypes 2002.7-26. Dissected and some

undissected paratypes (25 males, 40 females) are in the author’s

collection.

Other locality: River Godavari at Rajahmundry town

( 1 6° 9' N, 8 1 0 47' E), South India. Only 2 females from fine sand

at the middle of the river basin, water depth c. 1.25 m, 29.1.1 999.

Coll. Y. Ranga Reddy.

Description of adults

Adult female: Total length: Holotype 1 .04 mm; paratypes

0.80-1.04 mm, mean 0.90 ±0.06 mm(n = 55). Body elongate,

1 3 times longer than maximum width. In lateral view, abdominal

segments wider than thoracic segments (Fig 1). In dorsal

view, body vermiform uniformly narrow. Head 27.7% longer

than wide, and about as long as first 2 thoracic segments

combined. Anal operculum protruding, concave medially,

sometimes extending to end of caudal furca (Fig. 2d), in lateral

Fig. 1: Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov., adult female,

holotype, lateral view. Scale = 100 pm

view, posterodorsal end variable in shape (Figs 2e-j).

Pleotelson with 1 seta on either side at base of caudal furca;

seta bare, shorter than caudal furca.

Caudal furca only slightly longer than maximum width,

distal part expanded and rounded, with 2 terminal and 2 inner,

pointed, serrulate spines, and 2 dorsal setae; terminal spines

longer than inner ones. Furcal organ small, ventral.

Antennule (Fig. 2k) 6-segmented, 34.5% longer than

head; first segment thickest, the remainder becoming

progressively thinner. Length of first 3 segments distinctly

greater than that of last 3; apophysis of segment 4 slender,

overreaching only mid-length of next segment. No sexual

dimorphism. Segments 5 and 6 with 2 and 3 aesthetascs, the

former somewhat longer. Setation, as observed under optical

microscope, illustrated in Fig. 2k.

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NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 2: Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov., adult female, a. pleotelson, lateral;

b. pleotelson, dorsal (right uropod omitted); c. posterior part of pleotelson, dorsal (right caudal furca omitted);

d-j. posterior end of pleotelson, lateral view; k. antennule dorsal view; I. antenna; m. labrum, ventral view; n. mandible, lateral view;

o. mandible, pars incisiva (with proximal tooth), frontal view; p maxillule; q. maxilla;

r-u. thoracic segment 8 and abdominal segment 1 , lateral view

Scale: v (for figures a-k, r-u) = 50 pm; w (for figures I, m-q) = 50 pm.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

279

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Antenna (Fig. 21) small, 2-segmented; proximal segment

much smaller than distal one and unarmed; distal segment 2.5

times as long as wide, with 2 unequal terminal setae, 1 small

subterminal seta on dorsal surface and 1 similar seta on outer

proximal margin.

Labium (Fig. 2m) dentate margin somewhat vaulted on

either side, bearing 10 main, nearly uniform, pointed teeth

and 1 smaller tooth on each side.

Mandible (Figs 2n, o) distal part of pars incisiva with

4 unequal teeth, distal tooth relatively large; proximal tooth

large, curved and pointed. Pars molaris developed into

somewhat pyriform outgrowth, carrying 2 isolated, curved

teeth on inner margin and 3 straight pointed, unequal teeth in

a group at proximal end; also, 1 denticle occurring at outer

proximal corner, all teeth smooth, articulate and apparently

without setules. Palps completely absent.

Maxillule (Fig. 2p) consisting of 2 endites; proximal

endite small, elongately oval, carrying 1 long, thick, falcate,

terminal spine with finely semilate inner margin, 2 small, equal

setae, and 1 setule on subterminal inner margin. Distal endite

cylindrical, 2.5 times as long as proximal endite and with

4 terminal claws, distal one large and smooth, others with

serrulate margins; also, 2 unequal spines occurring on

subterminal inner margin and 3 setae on subterminal outer

margin.

Maxilla ( Fig. 2q) 3-segmented; basal segment 1 .7 times

as long as wide, with 2 strongly unequal setae on small

protuberance at distal inner comer. Second segment nearly

twice as long as basal segment and armed with 13 setae, and

1 straight spine at distal inner comer. Third segment small,

oval, carrying 1 stout claw and no setae.

Thoracopods I- VII (Figs 3a-g) 7 pairs of well-developed

thoracopods, gradually increasing in size from pairs I to III,

last 5 pairs of nearly similar size; well-developed, biarticulate,

club-shaped epipodite on pairs II-VII, at least 0.7 times as

long as basis. On all thoracopods, coxa with distinct conical

projection at distal inner border, and basis with 1 weak seta at

similar position.

Thoracopod I (Fig. 3a) short, exopodite 2-segmented,

0.7 times as long as endopodite; segment 1 only slightly

longer than segment 2 and with 2 short, almost equal, plumose

setae, 1 dorsal, 1 ventral; segment 2 with 2 terminal setae,

outer one plumose and slightly shorter than spiculated

inner one; ctenidia lying at base of inner seta. Endopodite

4-segmented, segment 1 about half of segment 2 and with

1 weak seta at distal inner corner; segment 2 longest with

1 plumose seta at distal outer corner; third segment unarmed;

segment 4 shortest, rectangular, with 2 unequal, smooth,

terminal claws.

Thoracopods II-VII (Figs 3b-g): Exopodite 2-segmented,

about 0.8 times as long as endopodite; segment 1 1 .3- 1 .5 times

longer than segment 2, with 2 unequal plumose setae, ventral

one as long as segment 2 on Thoracopod II, but distinctly

shorter on Thoracopods III- VII; segment 2 with 2 terminal,

unequal setae, outer one plumose, inner one spiculated;

ctenidia at base of inner seta. Endopodite 4-segmented,

segment 1 short, unarmed; segment 2 longest and with 1 outer

plumose seta, extending beyond segment 4 and also with

ctenidia at distal inner corner and spinules on inner margin,

except for a short distance proximally; segment 3 without

seta, but with ctenidia as on segment 2; segment 4 smallest,

rounded, with 1 terminal claw.

Thoracopod VIII (Fig. 2r-u) relatively large,

undifferentiated, plate-like or somewhat crescentic.

Uropod (Figs 2a, b): Sympodite nearly 4 times as long

as wide, bearing 4 spines, and 1 seta on inner distal margin;

distal spine almost straight, serrulate, distinctly stouter and

29% longer than others; other spines equal in size, setiform,

with proximal fourth slightly dilated, beyond which lateral

margins semilate; proximal spine generally curved anteriorly.

Exopodite cylindrical, 4 times longer than wide, measuring

34% of sympodite length and carrying 2 terminal, unequal,

plumose setae. Endopodite falcate, reaching 86% of sympodite

length; distal inner margin serrulate; 2 unequal, relatively

short, plumose setae at proximal fourth of outer margin.

Adult male: Total length: allotype 0.96 mm, paratypes

0.72-0.96 mm, mean 0.83 ±0.07 mm (n = 40). Body and all

appendages except Thoracopod VIII as in female.

Thoracopod VIII (Figs 3h-j) large, subglobular and

longer than wide. Outer lobe conical, apparently smooth,

defined at base and blunt apically. Dentate lobe large, concave

at mid-length, longer than inner lobe, with 2-3 rows of fine

denticles along free margin and also a group of additional

denticles at anterior corner (Fig. 3j); a large, somewhat

crescentic lobe adnate to anterior half of dentate lobe, seen

clearly in latero-extemal view. Inner lobe linguiform in rostral

view. Basipodite triangular, ending in pointed hook and

carrying 1 lateral seta. Two tiny triangular lobes of slightly

unequal size, probably representing exo- and endopodites,

lying close to each other at distal angle of basipodite below

the terminal hook

Description of juveniles: In all, 14 juveniles,

representing only two distinct instars, were recorded.

Instar I: Sexually undifferentiated. Total length 0.58-

0.65 mm, mean 0.61 ±0.02 mm (n = 6). Body form as in adult,

12 times longer than maximum width. Abdominal segments

wider than thoracic segments. Head 26.5% longer than wide.

Antennule 32.5% longer than head. Body segmentation and

various details of cephalic appendages and caudal furca as in

adult, but differing in the following respects:

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 3: Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov., adult female, a-g. thoracopods l-VII, respectively. Adult male,

h-j. Thoracopod VIII (Bsp = basipodite or basis; Lb-ext = external lobe; Lb-mt = internal lobe; Lb-dent = dentate lobe,

Exp = exopodite; Enp = endopodite): h. latero-external view; i. rostral view; j. latero-internal view.

Scale: k = 50 pm (for figures a-g); I = 20 pm (for figures h-j )

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

281

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

1. Sympodite (Fig. 4a) has only 3 spmes, distal one of

which is distinctly large and 26% longer than others.

2. Thoracopods I-IV (not illustrated) are adult-like; last

4 thoracic segments have rounded sternum (in lateral view.

Fig. 4c), the thoracopods V-VII being absent.

Abnormality: In one specimen, the right caudal furca

with 5 spines (Fig. 4b).

Instar II: Sexually differentiated, 7 males, 2 females. Total

length of male 0.62-0.81 mm, mean 0.72 ±0.06 mm(n = 7);of

female 0.63-0.70 mm. Body and all appendages except

thoracopods V-VII (Figs 4d-f) invariably bent posteriorly

unlike thoracopods I-IV. Endopodite unsegmented, 0.7 times

as long as basis; basis without inner seta. Thoracopods V

and VI equal in size, Thoracopod VII somewhat longer.

Exopodite cylindrical, shorter than endopodite, with 2 unequal

terminal setae. Endopodite unsegmented, unarmed.

Thoracopod VIII (Fig 4g): Basipodite fused to

protopodite and ending in large, sharply incurved hook-like

spinous process; lateral seta absent. Outer lobe well-

developed, conical m form. Dentate lobe undifferentiated,

smooth, shorter than inner lobe. Exo- and endopodites not

discernible.

Population variation: In the adults, the anal operculum

vanes widely in both sexes, and a similar trend is noticed in

Thoracopod VIII female also. In one specimen, three

aesthetascs were noticed on the fifth antermular segment -

perhaps an abnormality. No variation is apparent in the number

of spines borne by the sympodite of uropod.

Etymology: The new species is named in honour of

Prof. H.K. Schminke, C.V.O. Oldenburg University, Germany,

for his significant contributions to the study of

Bathynellacea.

DISCUSSION

Schminke (1973) characterized the genus

Habrobathynella as follows: antenna 2-segmented; labrum

strongly vaulted, with 8 main teeth; mandible having, in place

of “Borstenlobus”, an outgrowth bearing 5 teeth. Maxilla 3-

segmented, prehensile. Antennule 6-segmented, penultimate

segment with 2 aesthetascs. Thoracopods with 2-segmented

exopodite. Sympodite of uropod with a row of dissimilar spines,

distal spine being thicker and longer.

The specimens under study closely fit the generic

diagnosis. Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov. appears to

be somewhat closer to H. milloti than to H. jeanneli, as

evident, inter alia , from the following features: antennules

elongate, and apophysis of segment 4 shorter than the next

segment; maxillule with six claws on distal endite; maxilla

carrying two claws; setae on endopodite of uropod shorter

than its tooth. However, the two species differ from each

other as follows: labium of new species less vaulted, proximal

endite of maxillule bearing only three claws (two small, one

large) and one setule, instead of four claws (three small, one

large). In the uropod, distal spine on sympodite 44% shorter

than endopodite (30% in H milloti), exo- and endopodites

constitute 34% and 86% of sympodite length respectively

(42% and 65%, in H. milloti) and exopodite without spinous

projection at inner termmal comer. Further, whereas the female

Thoracopod VIII is well developed in H. schminkei sp. nov.,

it is “completely absent” in H. milloti (Delamare and Paulian

1954). The male Thoracopod VIII is also distinct in the two

species. Its inner lobe in latero-intemal view is triangular,

reaching almost the same level as the basipodite in the new

species, whereas it is rounded and higher than basipodite in

H. milloti (see Delamare and Serban 1974); the nature and

arrangement of denticles on the dentate lobe is different

between the two taxa. Also, in the new species, the exopodite

is much reduced in size and the endopodite (?) represented

by a tiny triangular projection instead of a seta.

H. schminkei sp. nov. can be easily separated from both

of its congeners by the following principal criteria: (i) one

ventral plumose seta present at distal inner angle of sympodite

of uropod; (u) two strongly unequal setae on basal segment

of maxilla; (in) endopodite of uropod much elongated;

(iv) female Thoracopod VIII large; (v) third endopodite-

segment of thoracopods I- VII without seta; and (vi) setae on

pleotelson shorter than caudal furca.

H. schminkei sp. nov is also clearly distinguishable

by some of its mandibular characters. Pars molaris as an

outgrowth has five teeth in all, besides a proximal denticle,

instead of only four teeth without a denticle. The proximal

three teeth along with the denticle are more compactly

arranged in a group than in the other taxa, and are also devoid

of setules The proximal tooth of pars incisiva , occurring at

a somewhat higher level than pars molaris , cannot be said

to be uniformly fused with pars molaris as in the other two

species.

The author is of the opinion that the shorter pleotelson

setae and the slight mandibular differences displayed by the

new species are of consequence only at the species level

[c/Schnunke’s ( 1973) generic diagnosis].

Habitat

The type locality of H. schminkei sp. nov. was rich in

detritus at the time of sampling; the sand was fine and the

current velocity moderate. The co-occurring fauna included:

Parastenocaris sp. which was fairly common, followed by

Parastenocaris curvispinus Enckell. Other copepods were

represented by stray specimens of Onychocamptus

282

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 4 Habrobathynella schminkei sp. nov., Instar I (as meant in the text), a. pleotelson, lateral view;

b. abnormal right caudal furca, dorsal view; c thoracic segments 5-8 (counted from above).

Instar II (as meant in the text); d-g. thoracopods V-VIII, respectively Scale: for figures a, b, d-f = 50 pm

chcithamensis (Sars), Elaphoidella sp., Nitokra sp.,

Eucyclops sp., and Paracyclops sp. Unidentified ostracods

were abundant. Among insects, mayfly nymphs were common

along with Chironomus larvae. Nematodes were few.

Distribution

Outside its type locality. A/, schminkei sp. nov. is known

from the River Godavari at Rajahmundry. It was noticed in

January at both the localities. It is likely to be found in other

peninsular rivers as well, but may not be frequent In the

River Krishna, however, it is apparently replaced by

Habrobathynella indica Ranga R.eddy and Schminke.

This discovery of the genus Habrobathynella in South

India fills the long-existing and large gap in the distribution of

Bathynellacea. It also further testifies to the East Asian origin

of the Family Parabathynelhdae (Schminke 1974).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

283

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Conclusion

The hyporheic and phreatic environment of South Asia

with its diversified geomorphology, hydrography and climate,

is quite likely to support a rich faunal diversity as elsewhere

(Pesce 1985). However, little is known about this special

habitat. Hence stygobiological research in this region is bound

to be rewarding.

Addendum

Since the acceptance of this manuscript of this

paper for publication, the following two species have been

added to the genus Habrobathyne/Ia: H. nagcujunai

Ranga Reddy, 2002 (see Hydrobiologia 470: 37-43, 2002)

and H. indica Ranga Reddy & Schminke (J. nat. Hist, in

press)

Barr. T C ( 1 968): Cave ecology and evolution of troglobites. Pp. 35-

102 In: Evolutionary Biology 2 (Eds: Th. Dobzhansky, M.K

Hechj & W.M.C. Steere). North Holland Publishing Co..

Amsterdam.

Bazikalova, A.Y ( 1954): New species of the genus Bathynella from

Lake Baikal Trudy Baik. Limnol. St. Acad Sci. USSR 14: 355-

368.

Delamarl Deboutteville, C. & R. Paulian (1954): Recherches sur la

faune interstitielle des sediments manns et d’eau douce a

Madagascar. V. Decouverte de I’ordre des Syncarides. Description

de trois especes nouvelles. Mem. Inst scient Madagascar, ser

A 9: 75-89.

Delamare Deboutteville, C. & E. Serban (1974): Contribution a la

connaissance des pereiopodes VIII males de Habrobathynella

milloti (Delamare et Paulian) (Parabathynell idae,

Bathynellacea). Ann. Speleol 29: 381-387.

Lopretto. E C. & J.J. Morrone (1998): Anaspidacea, Bathynellacea

(Crustacea, Syncarida), generalized tracks, and the

biogeographical relationships of South America. Zool Scr. 27:

311-318.

Pesce. G.L (1985): The groundwater fauna of Italy: a synthesis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Mr. M.V.S. Kishore Kumar for

collecting and making available the material of the new species

from its type locality, and to Prof. H.K. Schminke, C.V.O.

Oldenburg University, Germany, for going through an earlier

draft of the manuscript and confirming the identity of the new

species. Thanks are also due to the following for providing

literature: Drs. A. I. Camacho, Museo Nacional de Ciencias

Naturales, Madrid, Spain, H.J. Dumont, Gent University,

Belgium, Y. Morimoto, Himeji city, Japan, L.A. Stepanova,

St. Petersburg, Russia, E.C. Lopretto, Facultad de Ciencias

Naturales Y. Museo, La Plata, Argentina, J.L. Cho, Korean

Water Resource Research Institute, Taejon, South Korea, and

T. Karanovic, Bellizi (SA), Italy.

Stygologia I: 129-159.

Rouch, R. (1986): Sur I'ecologie des eaux souterraines dans le karst.

Stygologia 2: 352-399.

Sars, G O. (1929): Description of a remarkable cave-crustacean

Parabathynella malaya G.O. Sars, sp. nov. with general remarks

on the Family Bathynellidae (Fauna of the Batu Caves. Selangor.

VIII). J Fed. Malaya. States Mus. 14: 339-351, pis. VII- VIII

Schminke, H.K. (1972): Hexabathynella halophila gen. nov.. sp nov.

und die Frage nach der marinen Abkunft der Bathynellacea

(Crustacea: Malacostraca). Mar. Biol 15: 282-287.

Schminke, H.K. (1973): Evolution, System and Verbreitungsgeschichte

der Familie Parabathynellidae (Bathynellacea. Malacostraca).

A had. Mss. Lit. Mainz. Math-nat. Kl.. Mikrofauna Meeresbodens

24: 1-192.

Schminke, H.K. (1974): Mesozoic intercontinental relationships as

evidenced by bathynellid Crustacea (Syncarida: Malacostraca).

Syst. Zool 23: 157-164.

Schminke, H.K. (1 986): Syncarida. Pp. 389-404. hr. Stygofauna tnundi

- A faunistic, distributional and ecological synthesis of the world

fauna inhabiting subterranean waters (Ed.: Botosaneanu, L .).

Published by E..I. Brill / Dr W. Backhuys, Leiden.

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

285-287

A NEW SPECIES OF USCANA GIRAULT (TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE: HYMENOPTERA)

FROM THE EGGS OF FIELD BRUCHIDS1

H.R. Pajni2 and P.K. Tewari2'3

'Accepted April 2001

-’Department of Zoology, Panjab University, Chandigarh 160 014, Punjab, India,

-’Email: [email protected]

A new parasitoid Uscana bruchidiusi on the eggs of four species of Bruchidius , namely B pvgomaculatus , B saundersi ,

B aureus , B multilineolatus , all attacking Albizzia lebbek in the field, has been described. A key to the known Indian

species of genus Uscana is also given.

Key words: Uscana bruchidiusi sp nov., Bruchidius pygomaculatus, B saundersi , B. aureus, B multilineolatus,

Albizzia lebbek

INTRODUCTION

Uscana Girault is a small genus of Trichogrammatidae

(Girault 1911; Dout and Viggiani 1968) and includes about

20 species, which are mostly associated with the eggs of

different bmchtd beetles (Mant 1935; Viggiani 1979; Fursov

1987; Huts etal. 1 99 1 ; Pajni and Sood 1999). Only two species

have so far been recorded from India i.e. Uscana mukerjii

(Mant) from the eggs of stored product pest bmchtds and

Uscana femoralis Pajni and Sood from the eggs of

Conicobruchus albopubens (Pic.) attacking Cyamopsis

psoraloides DC. A third species has been found attacking the

eggs of four species of genus Bruchidius, namely

B pvgomaculatus Arora, B. saundersi (Jek.), B aureus Arora,

and B multilineolatus Arora, all of which attack the green seeds

of Albizzia lebbek Benth. Incidentally, only the above mentioned

three species have been recorded from the Oriental region, with

the remaining 17 known species having been recorded from

Palaearctic and Nearctic regions. The present species, though

distinct from all described species, shows resemblance with

Uscana mukerjii, as both fall in the same group of species

fomuilated on the basis of arrangement of placoid sensilla in

the club of the antenna ( Steffan 1954; Pajni and Singh 1973).

OBSERVATIONS

The Family Trichogrammatidae can be distinguished

from other families of Superfamily Chalcidoidea by the

presence of 3-segnrented tarsus without a stergil on the

foretarsus and broad forewmg with marginal and stigmal veins

forming a single curve. Genus Uscana can be separated from

other genera of Trichogrammatidae by a combination of

characters including antenna with one or two annulets,

4-segmented antennal club with placoid, fungoid and chaetoid

sensilla, straight and thickened marginal vein and stigmal vein

with a constricted neck. The distr ibution of placoid sensilla

on the female antennal club separates different species.

Key to the species of Genus Uscana

1. Male with hind femora normal 2

— Male with hind femora swollen femoralis Pajni & Sood.

2. Female antennal club with placoid sensilla formula 2: 1 0:1

mukerjii ( Mam)

3. Female antennal club with placoid sensilla formula 2: 1 :2:2

bruchidiusi sp. nov

Uscana bruchidiusi sp. nov (Figs 1-7)

Description

Female: Body short, flat, length 0.30 to 0.42 mm. Head

and thorax pale yellow, abdomen slightly darker than other

body parts; legs pale, becoming lighter at apices; eyes and

ocelli crimson red, head almost as long as wide in front view,

not wider than thorax. Mandibles quadndentate. Pedicel 1 .45

times as long as wide; annulets two, normal; antennal socket

with its upper margin at much higher level than lower margin

of eye; club 3.2 times as long as its greatest width at first

segment, with placoid sensilla 2: 1:2:2, its fourth segment

pointed apically, with sides of the first segment 1.5 times as

long as second segment; eyes asetose.

Mesoscutum 1.56 times as wide as long, with two pairs

of short setae, with finely reticulate sculpture and stripe of

long reticulations in middle. Scutellum 2.2 times as wide as

long. Postphragma reaching abdominal tergite IV, almost equal

to length of mesonotum; scutum and scutellum 53:50.

Forewing twice as long as its greatest width; fringe

about 0.24 of greatest width of wing; costal cell 1 .84 times as

long as marginal vein and 2.2 times as long as wide, with

3 costal setae, 5 dorsal and 3 ventral hairs; discal setulae and

veinlets obscure. Hindwing about 6.75 times as long as its

greatest width, its fringe 1.31 times the greatest width of free

membrane.

Abdomen 1 .69 times as long as thorax; Ovipositor not

protruding, almost equal to length of midtibia (47:48).

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig 1: Uscana bruchidiusi sp. nov.;

A Male; B. Antenna male; C. Antenna female; D Forewing female; E. Hindwing female, F. Mandible female,

G. Genitalia male

Male: Length 0.30 to 0.46 mm. Pedicel 1 .20 times as long

as wide; antennal annulets 2; club 2.4 times as long as its

greatest width at first segment and 1.6 times as long as

segments 1 and 2 combined, with second and fourth segments

subequal; distribution of placoid sensilla 0: 1:0:1.

Forewing 2.25 times as long as its greatest width, with

fringe one third of its greatest width; discal setulae arranged

in 17 rows, with 14 of them uniform. Hindwing 6.92 times

longer than its greatest width; fringe 0.65 times the greatest

width of free membrane. Male genitalia with phallobase 2.92

times as long as wide.

Material: Holotype: Male, from eggs of Bruchidius

pygomaculatus, B. saundersi, B. aureus and

B multilineolatus attacking seeds of Albizzia lebbek Benth

(Sann)Coll. P.K.Tewari, 16. ix. 1999; Chandigarh. Paratypes:

6 males, 4 females; collection data same as holotype. Type

material in Entomology Section, Department of Zoology,

Panjab University, Chandigarh; under Accession No. 1 38.

Distribution: Shivalik forest area near Chandigarh and

Chandigarh-Mullanpur road.

Biology: The species, in nature, attacks the eggs of four

species of Bruchidius infesting Albizzia lebbek in the wild.

However, it is capable of parasitising the eggs of Callosobnichus

maculatus (Fab.) in the laboratory and is being exploited for

accepting the eggs of stored product bruchids as its host.

Etymology: The species has been named after its host

Bruchidius , four species of which are attacked by the egg

parasitoid.

Discussion: The new species is different from both

U. mukerjii and U. femoralis as its body is entirely pale

yellowish, compared to the black body of U. mukerjii and

partly black body of U. femoralis. Taxonomically, the new

286

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

species is close to U. mukerjii as the first segment of the

female club in both the species carries two placoid sensilla.

This is according to the classification of Uscana species by

Steffan (1954), extended by Pajni and Singh (1973).

Furthermore, U. femoralis is distinct in having characteristic

greatly swollen hind femora in the male.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank the University Grants Commission

for financing a project on parasitoids of Bruchidae and the

Chairman, Department of Zoology. Panjab University, for

research facilities.

REFERENCES

Dout, R.L & G Viggiani (1968): The classification of the

Trichogrammatidae (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Proc. Calif.

Acad. Sci. 35: 477-586.

Fursov, V.N. ( 1987): New species of Uscana Girault (Hymenoptera;

Trichogrammatidae) from Gruzia and the Ukraine. Ent Obozr

I: 175-183.

Girault, A. A. (1911): Descriptions of nine new genera of the

chalcidoid family Trichogrammatidae. Trans. Amer. Ent Soc.

37: 22-25.

Huis, A. Van, N.K. Kaashoek & H.M. Maes (1991): Biological control

of Bruchids, (Coleoptera: Bruchidae) in stored pulses by using

egg parasitoids of the genus Uscana (Hymenoptera:

Trichogrammatidae): A review. Pp. 99-108. In: Proceedings of

the 5th International Working Conference on Stored Product

Protection (Eds: Fleurat Lessard, F. & P Ducom). September 9-

14, 1990, Bordeaux, France.

Mani. M.S. ( 1 935): First record of the Trichogrammatid chalcid genus

Chaetostricha Walker from India with a description of a new

species. Rec Indian Mas 37: 337-338.

Pajni, H.R. & S. Sood (1999): A new species of Uscana Girault

(Trichogrammatidae Hymenoptera) from the eggs of

Conicobruchus albopubens (Pic). J Bombay Nat Hist. Soc

96(1): 116-122

Pajni, H.R. & T. Singh ( 1973): A note on the taxonomic position of

Uscana mukerjii (Mam), an egg parasite of store-bruchids

(Trichogrammatidae: Hymenoptera) Res Bull Punjab Univ

24: 163-164.

Steffan, .1 R ( 1 954): Note sur le genre Uscana Girault (Hymenoptera:

Trichogrammatidae) et description d'especes nouvelles parasites

de bruches. Bull Mas. Hist, nat Paris 2e Ser 26: 667-673.

Viggiani, G. ( 1979): Ricerche Sugli Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea LXIf

Uscana spermophagi n sp. (Trichogrammatidae) parassita de

Spermophagus sericeus Geoffr (Col. Bruchidae). Boll Lab

Entomol. Agr. “ F . Silvestri” 36: 51-54.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

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288-290

A NEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS PEUCETIA THORELL

(OXYOPIDAE: ARANEAE) FROM DIGHA, MIDNAPORE, WEST BENGAL, INDIA'

Sumana Saha2 and Dinendra Raychaudhuri2

'Accepted May 2001

’Department of Zoology, Lady Brabourne College, Government of West Bengal, P 1/2, Suhrawardy Avenue,

Kolkata 700 017, West Bengal, India,

Email: [email protected]

’Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road,

Kolkata 700 019, West Bengal, India

Email: [email protected], [email protected]

One new species, Peucetia gauntleta recorded from Digha, Midnapore is described and illustrated.

Key words: Spider, Oxyopidae, Peucetia gauntleta sp. nov., Digha, Midnapore, West Bengal

INTRODUCTION

is now represented by 14 species. The new species is

described and illustrated.

Recently, Gajbe (1999) reviewed the taxonomy of the

poorly known oxyoptd spiders of India. He dealt with

20 Oxvopes spp. and 10 Peucetia spp. Of these, 6 of the

Peucetia spp. were recognised as new to science. Earlier,

Biswas (1975), Gajbe (1992), Pocock ( 1900) and Tikader ( 1965,

1970) studied the genus Peucetia.

With the present species, the genus Peucetia in India

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The spider sample was collected and preserved

following Tikader (1987). The study was made using Stereo

Zoom Binocular Microscope, Model Zeiss SV-8. The

measurements indicated in the text are in millimetres, made

with an eyepiece graticule.

Figs 1-6: Peucetia gauntleta sp. nov. $ Holotype,

1 Whole body, dorsal aspect; 2. Cephalothorax and chelicerae (Frontal aspect); 3. Chelicera, frontal aspect;

4. Maxillae & Labium, ventral aspect; 5. Sternum, ventral aspect; 6. Epigynum, ventral aspect

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 7-8: Peucetia gauntleta sp. nov. d Allotype,

7 Male palp, ventral aspect; 8. Male palp, lateral aspect

Peucetia gauntleta sp. nov. (Figs 1-8)

Measurements (in mm): 9 Total length: 12. 13; Carapace

length: 5.06, width 3.53; abdomen length: 6.40, width 3.33;

legs as in Table 1 .

Cephaiothorax: Pale green with cephalic region tinted

with grey, sparingly spotted with brown, longer than wide,

anteriorly narrow, posteriorly broad; cephalic region raised,

sloped anteriorly, cephalic furrow deeply impressed; thoracic

region medially with longitudinal fovea, radii distinct. Eyes

black, each ringed with silky white pubescence, anterior-most

eyes smallest, anterior row of eyes recurved, posterior row

procurved; ocular area blackish. Clypeus with a pan of black

bands extending from anterior-most eyes to the basal margin

Table 1: Length of legs of 9 holotype

of Peucetia gauntleta sp. nov. (in mm)

ofchelicerae. Cheliceraepale yellow-green, robust, elongate,

basally broad, sparingly spotted with brown, each with

erect, short to long spiny hairs; fangs reddish-brown,

curved, margins devoid of teeth. Maxillae and labium

similar to chehcerae m colour, elongate, former anteriorly broad,

latter little narrower than base, both anteriorly scopulate.

Sternum pale yellow-green, heart-shaped, with sparse brown

spots that include short to long spiny hair. Legs yellow with

coxae yellow-green, each femur with brown spots; leg formula

1243.

Abdomen: Green, elongate, oval, posteriorly narrow,

decorated as in Fig. 1 , clothed with short to long silky white

hairs and spines, some originating from the brown spots;

venter similar to dorsum clothed with silky white hairs. Epigyne

as in Fig. 6.

Male: Cephaiothorax greyish-yellow, larger than

abdomen. Abdomen green, slender. Legs much longer than

female; otherwise as in 9 .

Material examined: Holotype 9, Allotype d,

Midnapore, Digha, 15. ix. 2000, Coll. S. Saha

Type deposition: Department of Zoology, Lady

Braboume College, Kolkata. Regn No. LBC/DZ/1/01

Distribution: India: West Bengal, Midnapore, Digha.

Remarks: The present species Peucetia gauntleta sp.

nov., because of clypeus with 2 lateral lines and abdomen

with mid-dorsal silvery white patches, but without stripes,

resembles P ketani Gajbe (Gajbe 1999), but differs in having

a distinct decoration at the basal half of the green abdomen,

which is devoid of a black patch, heart-shaped sternum and

very different epigyne. Peucetia gauntleta sp. nov. also

resembles P latikae Tikader (Tikader 1 970) in the structure of

the epigynum and male palp, but has only 2 black lines on

clypeus and absence of broad abdominal band. These

characteristics justify its status as a new species. Furthermore,

none of the other congeners bear significant resemblance to

P gauntleta. The species is therefore recognised as new to

science.

Etymology: The species is so named because of the

glove-like maxillae.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The first author (S.S.) is grateful to the DPI., Education

Department, Govt, of West Bengal and the Principal, Lady

Braboume College, Kolkata for permission to conduct a study

tour at Digha, Midnapore. Heartfelt thanks are due to all the

colleagues and 2nd year Zoology Honours students for their

kind cooperation in the matter of collection

1. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

289

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

REFERENCES

Biswas. A.T (1975): A new species of spider of the genus Peucetia

Thorell (Family: Oxyopidae) from Orissa, India. Curr Sci

44(10): 350-351.

Gajbe, U.A. ( 1992): A new species of Oxyopes Latreille and one of

Peucetia Thorell from Uttar Pradesh. India (Araneae: Family

Oxyopidae). Rec. zool. Surv. India 91(3-4): 389-393.

Gajbe. U.A. (1 999): Studies on some spiders of the family Oxyopidae

(Araneae: Arachnida) from India. Rec. zool. Surv. India 97(3):

31-79.

Pocock, R.l. (1900): Fauna of British India, Arachnid. Taylor & Francis,

London Pp 279.

Tikader, B.K.. (1965): On some new species of spiders of the family

Oxyopidae from India. Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 62(3): 140-

144.

Tikader, B.K.. (1970): Spider fauna of Sikkim. Rec. zool. Surv India

64(1-4): 69-81.

Tikader, B.K. (1987): Handbook of Indian Spiders. Director, Zool.

Surv. India, pp. 25 1

290

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

291-293

BRACHIARIA MARSELINI SP. NOV. A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE

FROM MAHARASHTRA1

Nitin D. Gawade and B.G. Gavade2

'Accepted November 2001

"Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mahapalika Road, Mumbai 400 001, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

Genus Brachiaria (Trin. ) Griseb. ( Poaceae) consists of about 90 species distributed in warm regions, generally in Africa

and Asia, with the exception of one European species. In India, there are about 20 species and 7 infraspecific taxa, of

which 7 species are represented in Maharashtra. The authors have collected an undescribed species from Malvan in

Sindhudurg District, Maharashtra, belonging to genus Brachiaria and described herein

Key words: Brachiaria, Panicoidae, Poaceae, Malvan, Maharashtra, Sindhudurg

During a floristic survey on flowering plants of Malvan

taluka, Sindhudurg district, Maharashtra, in September

2000, we came across a patch of interesting grass under

the shade of a tree, on the bank of a stream. A few plants

were collected from the area, processed and preserved in

the Blatter Herbarium and later assigned to the genus

Brachiaria Griseb. Comparison with material deposited at

Blatter Herbarium (BLAT) and literature at the BLAT library

(Almeida 1990; Blatter and McCann 1935; Bor 1960;

Cooke 1903-1908; Dalgado 1898; Hooker 1872-1897;

Kulkami 1 988; Karthikeyan el al. 1 989) confirmed it as a new

species of the genus Brachiaria Griseb., Family Poaceae,

and was named Brachiaria marselini sp. nov. The new

species is very closely allied to Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.)

Stapf. in external morphology, but differs in the following

characters:

Species similis Brachiaria ramosibus differet tamen

Habitus annualis gracilis. Axis inflorescentia 2-4 ramus.

Superus glumae planus.

Holotype: N.D. Gawade 1442 - Masure - Malvan,

Sindhudurg, 27.ix.2000 (BLAT)

Isotype: N.D. Gawade 1445 - Masure - Malvan,

Sindhudurg, 27.ix.2000 (BLAT)

A detailed description of the plant, along with floral

peculiarities, is provided in the text.

A prostrate annual runner, 20-30 cm tall, rooting at

nodes; roots 2-3, mostly arising from the basal node, slender,

thin, narrow, 1 .5-6 cm long, giving out lateral roots at some

distance. Stem slender, covered by sheathing petiole;

grooved, striate, hairy on the ventral surface; hairs short,

brown, erect, closely arranged on the edges of the stem.

Internodes 3-3.2 cm long, ensheathed by petiole. Leaves

linear-lanceolate, up to 7 cm, 0. 5-0.6 cm long, excluding the

petiole. Petiole 2-2.1 cm long, striate, brownish-hairy on the

margins, slightly constr icted at the joint with the lamina; hairs

longer than the hairs of the stem, arising in clusters below the

junction of the petiole, telescopic. Lamina slightly curved at

the base towards one side; mid-vein of the lamina prominent,

lateral veins interspersed with 4 stronger parallel veins,

running parallel from the base to the apex, base of the lamina

rounded, one portion of the lamina slightly overlapping at the

base with the other. Petiole hollow. Hairs present at the junction

of the lamina, and petioles of two types, of which one type

occurs in clusters and the other spreads on the edges of the

petiole. Mid-vem of lamina very prominent, continues with

mid-vein of petiole on the lower surface. Ligule U-shaped,

situated at the junction of the lamina and the petiole, where it

is slightly grooved and hairy, hairs brown, linear, unicellular,

slightly curved at the apex. Inflorescence terminal panicle,

about 10 cm long, with 4-5 branches, holding distantly

arranged spikelets on a green, slender, striate ribbed rachis

somewhat grooved in the middle, arising from the axil of a

leaf. Spikelets in pairs, one stalked and the other almost sessile

to the naked eye, 8 mm long; outer bracts 2, small, ensheathing

the flowering glume, forms a V shape at the base. Lower

involucral glume 4 mm long, more or less equal in length of

the flowering glume, ovate, acuminate, 3-nerved with a

prominent mid-nerve. Upper involucral glume 4.5 mm long,

6-nerved. light green, membranous. Lower floral glume 4 mm

long, 5 -nerved, acuminate; upper floral glume 3-nerved, 4 mm

long, acuminate; palea of upper floral glume ovate, acute,

3.5 mm long.

Male spikelet with 3 stamens, filament white, slender;

anthers dark yellow, divaricate at both ends. Pollen grains

rounded, 2-porate, exme smooth, intine pinkish; lodicule one,

oval-shaped fleshy, situated at the base of the lemma. Inner

floret bisexual, consisting of 3 stamens; anthers long, golden

yellow when mature, divaricate at both ends, filaments slender,

white. Gynaecnim with superior, white, ovate ovary; style

2-partite from the base; stigma 2, plumose, free. Caryopsis

globose with short acute apex, testa of caryopsis 3-4 veined,

ovule anatropous, prominent, fleshy.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

292

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 1: Differences between Brachiaria marselini sp. nov and B ramosa (Linn.) Stapf

Brachiaria marselini sp. nov.

1 Slender annual.

2 Internodes 2-2.2 cm long, nodes covered by sheathing

leaf base, which is hairy all over the edges. Hairs short,

erect, standing in the form of toothbrushes, many at the

juncture of the node.

3. Leaves linear-sagittate, terminating in a long acuminate

apex. Lamina curved at base, hairy on one side, hairs

brown.

4 Mid vein thick, prominent, lateral veins faint, lamina

punctate all over. Margin with prominent spicules slightly

curved upwards (visible under microscope).

5. Panicle terminal with 2-4 branches.

6. Spikelets and rachis not hairy.

7. Lower involucral glume more or less equal in length to

the lower floral glume.

8. Upper involucral glume with plain surface

9. Upper floral glume plain

10 Anthers divaricate at both ends

Brachiaria ramosa (Linn.) Stapf.

1. Stout annual

2. Internodes 8-10 cm long, distinctly ribbed; constricted narrowly,

short, white, wooly hairs all around Sheathing leaf base slightly

auricled, hairy, hairs of two types, long and stiff hairs at the base

on both sides and short hairs in the middle.

3. Leaves linear; leaf margins wavy, undulate, thick, with stiff hairs

on ventral surface.

4. Veins parallel, of two types, 4-5 stronger veins alternating with

thinner veins, lamina hairy; spicules inconspicuous.

5. Panicle terminal with 8-10 branches

6. Spikelets with 2-3 erect hairs at apex of short stalk.

7. Lower involucral glume 1/2 as long as lower floral glume

8. Upper involucral glume cuspidate

9. Upper floral glume scrobiculate.

10. Anthers linear, straight.

Brachiaria marselini sp. nov. is illustrated here

(Fig. 1 ) to clearly show the peculiar features of the species.

Holotype: N.D. Gawade 1442 - Masure - Malvan, Dist.

Sindhudurg, 27.ix.2000 (BLAT)

Isotype: N.D. Gawade 1445 - Masure - Malvan, Dist.

Sindhudurg, 27. ix. 2000 (BLAT)

The material has been deposited at the Blatter

Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College, Mumbai.

Etymology: This species is named after Prof. (Dr.)

Marselin R. Almeida D.Sc., as a mark of respect for his

contribution to the field of Plant Taxonomy, especially

of Maharashtra, western India and his ever-willing help

to anybody who approaches him for identification of

plants.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are extremely grateful to Dr. (Mrs.) S.M.

Almeida, Director, Blatter Herbarium, for guidance and help

rendered in the preparation of this article.

REFERENCES

Almeida, S.M. ( 1990): Flora of Savantwadi . Vol II. Scientific Publishers,

Jodhpur. Pp. 114-115.

Blatter, E & C McCann (1935): The Bombay Grasses. Imperial

Institute of Agronomy, Delhi Pp. 133-144.

Bor, N .L. ( 1 960): Grasses of Burma, Ceylon, India & Pakistan. Oxford

University Press. Pp. 281-285.

Cooke, T. (1903-1908): Flora of Bombay Presidency. Vol. III. Botanical

Survey of India. Calcutta, 1958. Pp. 448-456.

Dalgado. D.G. (1898): Flora de Goa E Savantwadi Government Press,

Lisbon Pp 1-217.

Hooker, J.D. ( 1 872- 1 897): Flora of British India Vol. VII Thacker &

Co., London Pp. 28-37.

Karthikeyan, S., S.K. Jain, M.P. Nair & M. Sanjappa (1989): A

Catalogue of species added to Cooke’s flora of the Presidency of

Bombay during 1908-1978. Rec. Bot. Surv. hid. Vol 21, No. 2.

Pp. 190-191.

Kulkarni, B.G. ( 1 988): Flora of Sindhudurg. Botanical Survey of India,

Calcutta Pp 1-605.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

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294-295

A NEW SPECIES OF SPIRULINA (= A R THR OSPIRA ) MAHAJANI MAHAJAN

FROM KHARGONE, MADHYA PRADESH1

S.K. Mahajan:

'Accepted November 2001

-'Botany Department, Government P.G. College, 31, Jain Mandir Path, Khargone 451 001, Madhya Pradesh, India

Email: [email protected]

Spirulma (= Arthrospira) has received great commercial impetus in recent times and this has resulted in the publication

ot many papers on the physiology, methods of cultivation, mass production etc. Most publications generally refer to

this alga as Spirulina platensis. Desikachary and Jeeji Bai ( 1 996) have grouped the various strains and natural samples

of this alga under four distinct taxonomic entities and assigned them to I . A. indica, 2. A. maxima , 3. A. massartii and 4.

A platensis. The genus Spirulina is characterized not only by coiled trichomes, but also by differences in the coiling

pattern Besides the usual differences in trichomes and cell dimensions, the cell morphology provides a very important

consistent and reliable feature which is observed in all the four groups. Groups 1 and 4 show a greater degree of

attenuation than groups 2 and 3. The Khargone specimen belongs to group 4, but it differs from its other strains by

the narrower trichomes with calyptrate end cells. The Khargone material shows a calyptra and somewhat narrower

trichomes and is hence not included in this group. On account of its separate entity, it has been assigned a new name

Spirulina mahajani Mahajan.

Key words: Spirulina, Arthrospira. natural samples, identification, taxonomic criteria, new report, blue-green algae

The planktonic alga described was collected from a

temporary pond at the Government P.G. College, Khargone

(21° 45' N, 75° 37' E, 250.38 nr above nisi) during Novenrber-

December, 1990, mixed with OsciUatoria , Hydrodictyon ,

Sirogonium , Spirogyra and diatoms. The depth of the pond

was 90 cm. Turbidity of the stagnant water was 20 NTU,

pH 7.6 and water temperature was 28.3 °C, when the algal

sample was collected at 1400 hrs.

Trichomes 4. 9-5. 6 pm broad in the middle and 3.4-

5. 1 pm at the ends; Cell length 2. 1-3.6 pm; end cells rounded,

non-capitate but calyptrate; number of coils 3-5; coil diameter

33-44 pm in middle and 33-39 pm at the ends; Pitch of coil 39-

99 pm; percentage attenuation 5-20 (Fig. 1 ).

Material collected from Khargone pond differs from all

the known species of Spirulina. Desikachary and Jeeji Bai

(1996) have emphasized on a separate entity. Hence, the

material is a species new to science. The epithet mahajani is

suggested (after the name of author who collected the ... . , ,

Fig. 1 : Regularly coiled, narrow trichomes with calyptrate

material) for this new species (Table 1). end cells (Scale: 20 pm)

Table 1: Comparison of dimensions of S. mahajani sp. nov. with allied species of Spirulina (-Arthrospira).

[All dimensions are in pm] (Desikachary and Jeeji Bai 1996)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

The material and slide have been deposited with the

Botany Department, Government P.G. College, Khargone for

record. Regn. No. PGDB 390.

1 extend my sincere thanks to Dr. P.L. Jain,

Principal and Prof. P.R. Paliwal for encouragement

and facilities.

REFERENCE

Desikachary, T.V. & N. Jeeji Bai (1996): Algological studies. Stuttgarl, Dezember 83. 163-178.

I. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

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Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

296-298

A NEW SPECIES OF THE BLIND FISH HORAGLANIS MENON

(SILUROIDEA: CLARIIDAE) FROM PARAPPUKARA (TRICHUR DISTRICT) AND

A NEW REPORT OF HOH4GLANIS KRISHNA I MENON

FROM ETTUMANUR (KOTTAYAM DISTRICT), KERALA'

K.K. Subhash BablT4 and C.K.G. Nayar2-3

‘Accepted January 2002

-'Zoological Research Laboratory, Christ College, Irinjalakuda 680 125, Kerala, India

‘Present Address: Kerala Limnological Research Institute, Irinjalakuda 680 125, Kerala, India

Email, [email protected]

4Email: [email protected]

Horaglanis alikunhii — a new species of blind fish of Family Clarndae (Siluroidea) is described from Trichur district,

Kerala. Horaglanis krishnai Menon is newly reported from Ettumanur, Kottayam district, Kerala.

Key words: Horaglanis alikunhii sp. nov., blind fish, Horaglanis krislinai , new record, endemism

INTRODUCTION

The genus Horaglanis was created by Menon (1950)

to include a siluroid fish obtained from a well at Kottayam.

Kerala. The unique character of this fish was the complete

absence of eyes. This was the first report of a totally blind

fish from India. On May 15, 2000 we obtained a blind fish at a

depth of 8.5 m, while digging a new well in the void laterite

soil of Parappukara ( 1 0° 23’ N, 76° 1 5' E), Trichur district, Kerala.

The fish was collected live from a narrow crevice on the

sidewall of the well through which water was flowing out.

The live fish was translucent with visible blood capillaries, so

that the fish appeared a beautiful red. It was kept alive in an

aquarium along with some other fish until September 22, and

subsequently preserved in 8% formaline for further study.

On April 1, 2001 we collected another blind fish from a

well at Ettumanur (Kottayam district) while pumping out

water.

The morphology of both the fishes was studied in detail

under a stereomicroscope without dissecting them. The

specimen obtained from Ettumanur was easily identified as

Horaglanis krishnai Menon by comparing it with the original

description by Menon ( 1 950), and with those of Jayaram (1981)

and Talwar and Jhingran (1991). However, the specimen

collected from Parappukara was found to be distinct and is

described here as a new species of Horaglanis Menon.

Horaglanis alikunhii sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )

Description: Body elongate, eel-like, total length

3.2 cm , its maximum height just behind the head. Head with

four pairs of barbels characteristic of Family Clariidae; eyes

completely absent. Gill membranes united at the anterior end

near the lower jaw. Dorsal fin long, with 24 rays arising in

advance of the origin of pelvic fins; anal fin with 1 7 rays

originating far behind the origin of pelvics; both dorsal and

anal tins terminating at base of caudal fin. Pectoral fins minute,

highly vestigial, leaf-like, with rounded margin, supported by

short central axis and 9 rays; pelvic fins long, conspicuous,

supported by 6 rays, 2nd ray distally branched. Caudal fin

large with pointed tip. supported by 30 rays, middle 10 rays

branched at their ends.

Holotype: The specimen is deposited with the Zoological

Survey of India, Calicut. Regn. Code: ZSI (WGRS) CLT. No.

V/F 13137.

Etymology: The species is named after the distinguished

aquaculturist Dr. K.H. Alikunhi in appreciation of his

contribution to fishery science in general and Indian fisheries

in particular.

Relationship; Uegitglanis Gianferran and Horaglanis

Menon are the only known genera of Family Clariidae in which

the eyes are absent. Both these genera are similar in the

elongated shape of the body, disposition of dorsal and anal

fins terminating at the base of the caudal and in the complete

absence of eyes. However, Horaglanis is distinguished from

Uegitglanis in having relatively shorter dorsal and anal fins,

vestigial pectoral fins without spines and gill membranes

united with the isthmus. A comparison of the specimens

obtained by Menon (1950) from Kottayam, and the present

specimens collected from Ettumanur and Parappukara is given

in fable 1 . Although the Ettumanur specimen is very similar

to the one from Kottayam, the specimen from Parappukara,

namely H. alikunhii differs as shown in Table 1

Ecological Notes: Both, Uegitglanis zammaroni

Gianferrari 1923 obtained from Italy (Teugels 1996) and

Horaglanis krishnai Menon 1950 from Kerala are considered

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1 : Horaglanis alikunhii sp. nov., A. Lateral view; B. Caudal fin; C. Ventral view (anterior half only);

D Pectoral fin; E. Pelvic fin

Table 1: Comparison of characters of Horaglanis alikunhii with

H. krishnai

cave-restricted blind species, although they are found to occur

in wells. It is noteworthy that Horaglanis alikunhii from

Parappukara was collected live from a narrow crevice on the

sidewall of a well through which water was flowing. This

indicates its subterranean habit and that it might have reached

the site through interconnected cavities in latentic rocks. The

presence of a hypogean fish population in these channels

shows the existence of a unique ecosystem. The red colour

of the live fish due to the abundance of erythrocytes in the

superficial blood capillaries is probably an adaptation in

oxygen-deficient waters in this habitat.

Endemism: The first report of Horaglanis krishnai was

from a well at Kottayam (locality not mentioned) in 1950.

Subsequent reports of this species by Mercy et al. (1982)

and Mercy etal. ( 1984) are also from wells at Kottayam. The

locality at Ettumanur from where the collection was made is

only about 12 km from Kottayam town. As H krishnai is

known only from Kottayam district, it can be considered

endemic to this region. Because of its endemic distribution,

scarcity of available specimens and the unique habitat subject

to destruction, H. krishnai is included in the Red List of

threatened animals by IUCN (1990).

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

297

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. A.G.K. Menon and Dr. K. Rema

Devi, Zoological Survey of India, Chennai for their valuable

suggestions and help in the present study. We thank Rev. Fr.

C.A. Thomas, Principal, Christ College for facilities and

encouragement. The help rendered by Mr. C.J. Jose, Lecturer,

Department of Physics in the collection of material from

Ettumanur and by Mr. Francy K. Kakkassery is gratefully

acknowledged.

REFERENCES

IUCN (1990): IUCN Red List of threatened animals. IUCN, Gland,

Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 288 pp.

Jayaram. K.C. (1981): The freshwater fishes of India. Pakistan,

Bangladesh. Burma and Sri Lanka. Zooi Surv. India, Calcutta.

xxii + 475 pp.

Menon, A.G.K (1950): On a remarkable blind siluroid fish of the

family Clanidae from Kerala. India. Rec. Ind. Mus 48:

59-66

Mercy. T.V.A, K.G Padmanabhan & N.K. Pillai (1982): Morphological

studies of the oocytes of the blind catfish Horaglanis krishncti

Menon. Zool Anz. 209(3-4): 211-223

Mercy, T.V.A., N.K. Pillai & N.K. Balasubramaniam(1984): Studies

on the oxygen consumption of the blind catfish Horaglanis

krishnai Menon. MATSYA 9- JO: 1 19-124.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Lid.,

New Delhi. 1 1 85 pp.

Teugels, G.G. (1996): Taxonomy, phylogeny and biogeography of

catfishes (Ostariophysi, Siluroidea): an overview. Aquat. Living

Resour., Vol. 9. Hors sene 9-34.

298

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

299-303

REVIEWS

1. MALARIA IN THE THAR DESERT: FACTS, FIGURES AND FUTURE by B.K. Tyagi,

2003. Published by Agrobios (India), Jodhpur. 165 pp (22 x 14 cm), 14 B/W figures, 8 colour

plates. Price Rs. 495/-; US $ 33.

The fragile desert ecosystem of the Thar in Rajasthan

has been greatly affected by the Indira Gandhi irrigation

system. Environmentalists know that extensive water logging

and salinisation of the soil has occurred, and that desert fauna

and flora are being replaced by invasive species from outside.

It is not so well known that irrigation also brought malaria

and its vectors. Dr. Tyagi has worked in the area for many

years, and this is the subject of his monograph.

The Thar desert was for years considered an area with

minimal problems, where sporadic and infrequent focal

outbreaks of vivax malaria occurred and no deaths were

reported. The mosquito vector. Anopheles Stephens i, bred in

domestic underground water storage containers characteristic

of the rural areas of the Thar Desert, called tanka. These hold

rainwater, or are replenished by the villagers from sources

that might be 20-30 km distant. Similar pits called beri are dug

in the bed of seasonal ponds, to hold rainwater. Over the past

two decades, additional breeding sites have become available

in the form of seepage water from the main canals, and faulty

and badly maintained water channels. Outside Jodhpur,

flooded mine pits provide ideal breeding grounds. Twelve

species of Anopheles have now been recorded, where

previously only one hardy species could survive. This has

been facilitated by the change in microclimate, chiefly

increased humidity, which has increased longevity. Several

potential malaria vector species have established themselves,

of which A. culicifacies , A. stephensi and A. subpictus have

been incriminated by dissection as malaria vectors.

A. stephensi was still the most effective vector, with highest

longevity and highest infectivity rates, but A. culicifacies is

probably playing the most important role simply because of

its very high population density.

Until the mid-eighties, incidence of malaria was

considerably lower in the desert districts of Rajasthan than in

non-desert districts. Since then there has been a steady

increase, and in 1990 and 1994 incidence in the desert was

about twice that in the other districts. Worse still, the

proportion of cases due to falciparum malaria has increased,

and deaths have occurred during epidemics, particularly in

1 994. In the flood-prone Barmer district, explosive epidemics

take place, and subside over one or two years. In areas

irrigated by the Indira Gandhi Canal, epidemics may take

several years to spread, and show little tendency to subside.

Dr. Tyagi documents these changes in detail, and relates them

to ecological and epidemiological factors. He has done a

commendable job of interpretation, much of it based on studies

made by him and his colleagues over more than a decade.

This monograph is a case study of man-made irrigation malaria

in the desert ecosystem. It is extremely useful to have this

information in a compact volume, and particularly to have the

earliest reports from the region in this accessible form. One

wishes that there were similar monographs for other problem

areas in India.

However, there are lacunae in the book. A. stephensi ,

the species best adapted to desert conditions, is known to

have three ‘varieties’, characterised by the number of ridges

on their eggs. While Dr. Tyagi presents interesting data on

morphological variation among adult females in his area, he

has neither examined the eggs nor sent material for cytological

examination, thus missing out on an opportunity to relate his

work to what is known elsewhere in the country about

taxonomic status and bionomics. His section on control is

disappointing. While we are given the history of control

operations and insecticide resistance in the area, no attempt

is made to critically examine the technologies available to

deal with the present situation. The author tells us that he has

developed a mosquito-proof tanka cover. We would like to

know much more about this practical and potentially useful

tool. He has also tested insecticide-treated bed-nets and

various biological control agents, but does not comment on

their appropriateness or cost-effectiveness. As a specialist

on Odonata, he suggests the use of dragonflies as biological

control agents. But, though dragonfly nymphs consume

mosquito larvae voraciously, the adults will not mate in

captivity, and therefore forced mating would be necessary to

obtain sufficient nymphs for practical control, and this does

not seem feasible.

What is urgently required is an engineering solution.

Although expert committees have been talking for years about

inter-sectoral coordination, and many workshops have been

held, it is frustrating to find that there appears to be no

dialogue between public health and irrigation authorities.

Irrigation malaria is not a new phenomenon. As long ago as

1938 Paul Russell, quoted in this book, pointed out that

irrigation per se was not a problem, but ‘untidy’ irrigation

was. The plates in this monograph illustrate exactly what he

meant. Unregulated stretches of seepage water overgrown

with vegetation, and spreading, meandering water channels

REVIEWS

represent wastage of water, which is a scarce and precious

resource, as well as a health hazard. Undoubtedly, canal

maintenance must be difficult in sandy desert soil, but the

socio-economic costs of disease and water loss might well

justify the extra expense of lining at least the main canals with

concrete.

Despite some shortcomings, this monograph remains a

valuable source of information to the specialist reader, as well

as providing general readers with a new perspective on the

biological effects of environmental changes. There are lessons

to be learned here. For instance, when recommending

rainwater harvesting, one should take care not to proliferate

new man-made breeding sites for mosquitoes.

The monograph deserved better presentation. Some

errors have been picked up in ‘Errata’, but the pages are

peppered with misspellings too numerous to list. Sometimes

we have Russell, and sometimes Russel, Runn of Kutch,

sepage and so on. A good editor would have corrected these

and removed repetition, besides picking up the occasional

table or figure rendered incomprehensible by a missing sub-

heading.

And what is the insect with unconvincing clear wings

doing on the cover? Every schoolboy knows that Anopheles

has spotted wings.

■RACHEL REUBEN

2. FRESHWATER FISHES OF PENINSULAR INDIA by R.J. Ranjit Daniels, 2002. Published

by Universities Press for the Indian Academy of Sciences. 288 pp (14 x 21.5 cm). Price Rs. 290/-.

The book is second in the series of publications to be

brought out under Project Lifescape, an initiative of the Indian

Academy of Sciences to popularise and enhance the quality

of science education, and hopefully, aid India’s efforts at

conservation of its biological diversity.

The publication deals with 75 taxa of fishes of Peninsular

India, including some introduced species from northern India

and other countries. The book has 75 black and white (B/W)

drawings of these taxa; the same illustrations are also depicted

in colour in the plate section. The B/W drawings also cover

the related taxa of some species. The book has sections or

chapters on habitats of freshwater fish, fish communities, field

identification of fish, illustrated keys to identification of

groups of fishes, fish sampling, projects for students,

aquariums, and conservation and management of fish. The

publication needs to be applauded, for it deviates from the

available ‘run of the mill’ books on Indian fish due to the

inclusion of the sections or chapters discussed above. Further,

one gets the impression that the book is backed by a lot of

Daniels’ own field (or aquarium) observations, and is not a

case of the usual cut and paste job - with revisions, based on

museum specimens. I recommend it as a buy for students and

those who seek to know more about our freshwater fishes.

Regarding the illustrations, I find the vertical positioning

(instead of the desired horizontal placing) of some of the

species not to my liking due to the need to turn the book

sideways to look at them. To add to the problem, some of

these have the heads facing down, while it’s tail-down in

others! I feel that the duplication of plates in B/W and colour

is unnecessary. Only the colour plates could have been used,

with additions of related taxa given in the B/W drawings.

Taxonomic illustrations for fish must have a scale-line. I find it

strange that scales are given the go by in Indian fish guides.

as is the case with Daniels’ book and two major fish books by

Indian taxonomists, namely Talwar and Jhingran’s inland

fishes and Jayaram’s the freshwater fishes of the Indian

region. However, Daniels has given the sizes of all the species

in the text, following Talwar and Jhingran.

The printer’s devil has taken a toll on some of the plates,

too much of green in some species - it would have been great

for the aquarium trade if these colours were true! The artist

(the author himself) has done a satisfactory job of the

paintings, but the plate of the Banded Snakehead Chcmna

striatus (Plate 74) must be improved in the next edition. This

species is a splendid specimen of a fish, but looks more like a

poor goby in this book due to the erroneously shown

protruding eyes. A lacuna in the illustrations is the omission

of the name of species in contention in multi-species plates.

For example, in the plates of loaches (p. 1 59), one needs time

to realise that the second, third and fourth drawings are those

of Botia lohachata. I also failed to find differences between

aquarium and wild forms of the Dwarf Gourami Colisa lalia

(fig. 69, p. 235) - was this intended to be a colour plate (where

the differences would have been obvious)?

Besides other areas, the distribution of the Dwarf

Gourami is stated as from ‘Chennai through Orissa’, which is

not cited in earlier fish books. This ‘north Indian’ species has

now spread in the southeastern states (and elsewhere?) due

to accidental or intentional introductions of this popular

aquarium fish into local waters. The exotic Mozambique

Tilapia Oreochromis mossambica is stated to be distributed

throughout India. I have not come across the species in

northern India, and Talwar and Jhingran state that it cannot

survive below 1 0 °C, which rules out its occurrence in northern

India.

The Long-whiskered Catfish Mystus gulio is described

300

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

REVIEWS

as a ‘dark’ catfish, with black-edged fins. The species is

common in my study area (Sriharikota), and young to mid-

size specimens are a beautiful silvery with hyaline fins when

seen in an aquarium, freshwater fishes of sri lanica by

R. Pethiyagoda (1991) also shows it as a silvery fish with

hyaline fins. Discards by fishermen look dark - is this a case

of dead fish showing false colours? One drawback of Indian

fish taxonomists is that descriptions have been largely based

on preserved specimens, except where written by taxonomists-

cum-aquarists. Colours tend to change quickly after death.

Even with ‘landed’ live specimens, much is amiss as fishes

tend to show their ‘true colours’ only after acclimatization in

an aquarium.

The following changes/additions could be incorporated

in revised editions of the publication:

A map showing Peninsular India, highlighting its river

systems and major water bodies is a must, with a two or three-

page write-up on them.

Interesting, odd shaped species could be included to

generate interest in fish, such as razorfish ( Notopterus ) and

fresh or brackish water forms of puffer fish. The Freshwater

Mullet Rhinomugil corsula , a shoaling, surface-swimmer that

pops its eyes above the water can entice students to ‘fish-

watch’. This North Indian species has established itself in

some southern rivers after accidental introduction. It has not

been listed in the freshwater species checklist of India given

in the book — a necessary correction. Diadromous species

that need inclusion are the Ox-eye Tarpon Megalops

cyprinoides and Indian Bass (Barramundi) bates calcarifer ,

both of which enter and adapt well to fresh water. These two

species should have precedence over shads, whose tenure

in fresh water is short (in the monsoon) and generally confined

to the lower reaches of estuaries.

Among Suggested Reading (written wrongly as

Readings), I find that B.F. Chhapgar’s common fishes of india

has not been listed. This is a simple and informative

publication of WWF-India, covering both fresh water and

marine fish species. It is an excellent book for beginners, and

one of the few Indian fish books with scale lines in the

illustrations.

■ RANJITMANAKADAN

3. FLORA OF UDUPI by K. Gopalkrishna Bhat, 2003. Published by Indian Naturalist, Udupi.

vii+913 pp + 160 plates (24 x 1 8 cm). Hardbound, Price Rs. 1 ,200/- US$ 50.

This book contains descriptions of 1,247 species,

belonging to 694 genera and 171 families, found in Udupi

Taluka (929 sq. km), which covers one third of Udupi district.

This is the second book on the area covering a single taluka,

an administrative unit, the first being flora of savantwadi by

S.M. Almeida (which records 1 ,685 species in c. 1336 sq. km).

The author Dr. K. Gopalkrishna Bhat, a Professor of

Botany for the last 3 1 years, presently heads the Department

at Poomaprajna College, Udupi (Karnataka). He received his

doctorate on ‘Taxonomic studies of grasses and sedges of

Coorg and South Kanara districts’. He is the recipient of

Prof. V.V. Sivarajan award for Angiosperm Taxonomy.

Dr. Madhav Gadgil who has written the foreword for this

book rates him as a taxonomist of calibre.

The book, however, is not a taxonomic floristic account

in the traditional sense and format. It is a systematic account

restricted to the angiosperm material found in Udupi Taluka.

It can be termed as an advanced version of systematic botany

by Prof. R.N. Sutaria, which is out of print and much sought

after by college teachers and students. In this regard, it will

be a very useful book at undergraduate level. It cannot be an

aid to research, due to the following main reasons.

1. Complete citations of the original reference to the

names are not given and taxonomic validity of the names

used cannot be verified.

2. No bibliography is given and one cannot ascertain

whom the author is following regarding nomenclature, as many

of his accepted names are out-dated.

3. There is no citation of specimens on which the

identification is based.

4. Specific locations are not cited in distribution of species.

In short, the book has become a textbook of systematic

botany for students of Udupi and perhaps Karnataka and its

adjoining states.

I do not believe that this book has a comprehensive list

of plants found in Udupi. As an example, under genus

Brassica L., only one species B. juncea (L.) Zern. & Cross is

listed. Surely vegetables like cabbage, cauliflower or Knol-

Kohl from that genus are also cultivated in Udupi. One cannot

take lightly that the common Radish ( Raphanus sativus L.) is

not cultivated in Udupi.

Rev. Fr. C. Saldanha used to say that a book which is

outdated when published, is more harmful than one that

remains unpublished. Despite the limited resources and

literature at his disposal. Prof. Bhat should have at least

ensured that the nomenclature was up-to-date. The following

names used require a fresh look.

1. Tinospora cordifolia (Willd.) Hk. f. & Thoms.

2. Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Kosterm. (This

is an illegitimate name!).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

301

REVIEWS

3. Impatiens oppositifolia L.

4. Sapindus laurifolius Vahl

5. Buchanania lanzan Spr.

6. Nothopegia racemosa (Dalz.) Ramam.

7. Moringa oleifera Lamk.

8. Rourea minor (Gaertn.) Alston

9. Memecylon malabaricum (Clarke) Cogn.

1 0. Osbeckia m ural is N aud in ( 1 8 5 0 )

11. Woodfordia floribunda Salisb.

12. Anthocephalus chinensis (Lamk.) A. Rich.

13. Benkara malabarica (Lamk.) Thiruv.

14. Bridelia retusa (L.) Spr.

15. Bulbophyllum neilgherrense Wt.

16. Amischophacelus axillaris (L.) Rao & Kamathy

1 7. Canthium dicoccam var. umbellatum ( Wt.) Sant. & Merch.

18. Hedy otis cynantha Kurz.

19. Neanotis rheedii (Wall, ex W. & A.) Lewis

20. Embelia tsjeriam-cottam (R. & S.) DC.

21. Ellertonia rheedii Wt.

22. Ervatamia hevneana (Wall.) Cooke

23. Ichnocarpus frutescens (L.) R. Br.

24. Parsonsia laevigata (Moon) Alston

25. Ipomoea campanulata L.

26. Ecbolium ligustrinum (Vahl) Vollasen.

Identification of plants like Hibiscus surattensis L. and

Ochna obtusata DC. should be rechecked. H. surattensis L.

is an erect herb, originally described from the coastal areas of

the Bombay Presidency. It is not a scandent climber. Ochna

obtusata DC. is a cultivated ornamental garden plant. This

name is very often confused for an endemic wild plant in

southern India.

Mammea suriga (Buch.-Ham. ex Roxb.) Kosterm. is

based on an illegitimate name, due to the inclusion of a

synonym under its basionym by Roxburgh when he first

effectively published this name. The correct name for this

species is Mammea longifolia (Wt.) Planch.

The name Impatiens oppositifolia L. is based on a

figure in Hortus malabaricus (“Kondam-puliu” vol. 9: 57, t.

31,1 689). This plant is now identified as Gratiola oppositifolia

(Retz.) Mukherjee, which is based on a later synonym of the

species Gratiola oppositifolia Retz. The correct name for

the species therefore is Impatiens rosmarinifolia Retz.

The correct name for Kadamba-vriksha is Neolamarkia

cadamba (Roxb.) Bosser (not Boiss). Anthocephalus

chinensis (Lam.) A. Rich, is not synonymous with our plant.

It is synonymous with Anthocephalus indicus A. Rich.

Actually, Theodore Cooke in flora of Bombay presidency

confused the species with ‘Cadamba’ and later authors

accepted the name of a distinct Chinese species for our plant.

It is therefore necessary to understand various problems

involved in correctly naming this species.

The price Rs. 1 200 is inevitable due to so many coloured

pictures. In fact, most plant identifications nowadays are

done with the help of coloured pictures and not as they should

from the text and relevant information in the book. Dr. Bhat

has handled the subject of the book with the mastery of a

teacher. I recommend the book for undergraduates and new

enthusiasts of plant science.

■ M. R. ALMEIDA

4. ON THE SPADE-NOSED SHARK, SCOLIODON LATICAUDUS by R.V. Ranade, 2001.

Published by Himalaya Publishing House, Mumbai. 125 pp + 9 plates (24 x 16 cm). Price Rs. 350/-

In today’s technological age, when molecular biology

and biotechnology are the latest word in zoological studies,

subjects like systematics and anatomy are often considered

old fashioned and infra dig. Animal rights activists even frown

on dissection, advocating instead, computer simulation.

These “bleeding hearts” may not realise that infinite patience

and a steady hand, so essential for minute dissections, are

the foundation stones for surgical training; a surgeon cannot

operate on a patient with only computer simulation training!

Dr. Ranade’s work is stolid, old fashioned slogging. On

seeing it, at first 1 thought it would be a modern re-hash of

Thi I layampalam’s classic ( 1 929) memoir, but on going through

the present work I realised that he has treated the shark in

much more detail and elaborates on recent findings. For

example, Thillayampalam had only mentioned the ampullae of

Lorenzini; today these are known to have a unique

electroreceptory function, sensitive to electric currents as

small as 0.5 millivolts. The book is a must for any student

aspiring to dissect sharks.

Scoliodon laticaudus has had its share of taxonomic

confusion and subsequent revision. Known earlier as

Scoliodon sarakowah , the shark is now the sole

representative of the monotypic genus Scoliodon , the other

species, namely acutus, palassorah and walbeehmi being

relegated to the genera Loxodon and Rhizoprionodon.

Though the text is, on the whole, of very good quality,

a few errors and omissions may be pointed out. Thus, on

page 1 the author states that “aulpidiyan” is a “Malayalee”

word. A Malayalee is an inhabitant of Kerala; their language

is Malayalam. Again, on page 1 : Bottom trawls, and not dredge

nets, are used for prawn fishing off Alibag.

Of the most dangerous category of sharks, the author

has mentioned three, namely tiger shark, great white shark

and bull shark. Nine species of sharks are involved in attacks

302

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

REVIEWS

on humans; the others are lemon, dusky, blue, white tip, mako

and hammerhead sharks.

Pages 2 and 3 (no. 9): The pelvic fins — and not anal

fins — are also called ventral fins. On page 3 (no. 8) the author

states the position of pectoral fin origin as being between the

third and fourth or fifth gill slits. But his illustration on page 5

shows this fin completely behind the last gill slit.

Other errors are: page 17, bottom line has the word

“basapophysis” twice, but in figs. 2.5 A and B it is spelt

“basopophysis”. Page 23, line 4 straited — should be striated.

Page 32, line 10 from bottom: density 800 gm litre; the word

“per” should be inserted between gm and litre. Page 47 (in

Ventral Aorta), “corabranchial” should be “coracobranchial”.

Page 50 and fig. 6.2: “spleenic artery” should be “splenic”

Page 72: “envelopes” should be “envelops”. Page 75,

fig. 10.2: “saccus vasculossus” should be “vasculosus” (as

correctly spelt in figs. 10.3 and 10.5).

The quality of reproduction of plates (especially

Plate 1) is deplorable; the use of better quality glossy paper

would have helped considerably.

These are minor aberrations; also irritating are the

extremely conservative use of commas, and usage of i.e.

(that is) instead of viz. (namely). But these should not deter

the reader from using the otherwise excellent piece of

work.

The author is fortunate in that students can still legally

collect and dissect Sco/iodon, as the Government of

India had placed all Elasmobranchs in Schedule 1 of the

Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1 972, thus effectively stopping all

fishing for these fishes. However, better wisdom prevailed

and only nine Elasmobranchs are now retained in this

Schedule.

■ B.F. CHHAPGAR

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

303

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

304-334

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1 . RECORD OF A LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS IN PULICAT LAKE

Pulicat Lake ( 1 3° 24'- 1 3° 47 N; 80° 03' to 80° 1 8' E) is the

second largest (461 sq. km) brackish water lagoon in India,

sprawling across the states of Andhra Pradesh and Tamil

Nadu, and is bordered by villages and forested areas.

A full grown male leopard (length 152 cm; wt 52 kg) was

found dead in the mudflats of Pulicat Lake in June 2001 . The

leopard was picked up by fishermen while fishing in the area

between Sriharikota and Venadu Islands and handed over to

the Forest Department.

Sriharikota has a good population of feral cattle, Wild

Boar and Chital in the remnant patch of tropical dry evergreen

fcest of the island. The leopard could have possibly come

from the nearby forest areas, however, there have been no

records of leopard in Sriharikota over the past 30 years.

February 1 1 , 2002 V. KANNAN1

RANJIT MANAKADAN2

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

'Email: [email protected]

2Email: [email protected]

2. OCCURRENCE OF SHORT-NOSED FRUIT BAT CYNOPTERUS SPHINX (VAHL)

IN VILLAGES OF TAMIL NADU STATE, INDIA

The diversity of bat species in India is rich, about a

hundred species including 12 species of fruit bats (Mistry

1995). Nevertheless, the population status, distribution, and

ecology of most Indian bats are not well known (Bates et al.

1994, Bates and Harrison 1997). We carried out surveys

between January 23 and September 30, 1 998 in villages, such

as Mullayampatnam, Pandanallur, Tirunagiri, Pulicat and

Vedanthangal in the districts of Nagai, Thiruvallur, and

Kanchipuram to determine the occurrence of the Short-nosed

Fruit Bat Cynopterus sphinx. Mist nets were used to capture

the bats and to each bat captured, a wing band was attached.

Data was recorded on the location, habitat type, date, time,

sex, age, and body measurements. The density of Short-nosed

Fruit Bats was calculated only at Tirunagiri (Nagai District)

by counting the number of bats on some trees and multiplying

this by the total number of occupied trees (Mutere 1980).

Nocturnal observations were made in moonlight and dim red

lights (Barclay and Bell 1988) and the foraging activity data

were recorded using all-occurrences sampling method

(Altmann 1974).

The Short-nosed Fruit Bat occurred in all the surveyed

sites in habitats such as plantation, rice field and forest

(Table 1). The average number of bats caught and released

per hour ranged from 1 to 4.5, indicating that they were

common. In April 1 998, the relative density of the Short-nosed

Fruit Bat was estimated at Tirunagiri where a total of 21 6 palm

trees were found in I sq. km. The average density of bats

occupying 10% of the available trees was estimated to be

74 /sq. km. A total of 55 bats (24 males and 3 1 females) were

captured at the same site between August and September

1998. Females with young were caught during March and

April (n=9) and September (n=5) indicating two distinct

breeding seasons. All captured bats were safely released

within five minutes with no mortality.

The bats roosted mainly on the Palmyra palm Borassus

ftabellifer, each tree had 1-3 tents with 5-10 individuals in

each tent. The bats modified the leaves by chewing the veins

and leaf blade from below to make tents, also reported by

Balasingh et al. (1993). The bats roosted in palm trees with

dense lower leaves, which the local farmers periodically

removed to extract toddy, causing occasional disturbance to

their roost. No bats were seen roosting in buildings and

houses.

There was no difference in the body weight, body

length, tail, hindfoot, ear, forearm and wingspan

measurements between the two sexes (Table 2). The data from

our study is close to an earlier report by Bates and Harrison

(1997).

Table 1 Average number of Short-nosed Fruit Bats captured and

released per hour during mist- net surveys

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 2: Body measurements of the captured Short-nosed Fruit Bats

Short-nosed Fruit Bats produce high pitched

vocalization audible to the human ear and can be identified

easily while feeding and flying around trees. They fed on 10

plant species, Madhuca indie a. Ficus benghalensis , Ficus

religiosa, Musa paradisica , P olyalthia longifolia ,

Calophyllus polyanthum, Syzygium cumini , Bombax ceiba,

Psidium guajava, and Gardenia jasminoides. They fed mainly

on fruit and occasionally on nectar and leaves. Banded bats

were observed to carry fruit 1 00-2000 m away from the foraging

sites to their roosts.

Fruit bats are excellent seed dispersers, pollinators and

indicators of habitat diversity, but the Indian Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972 categorises all species of fruit bats as

vermin. No quantitative data exists on the extent of damage

caused to cash crops in south India, either by the Short-

nosed or other species of fruit bats. In Tamil Nadu and the

neighbouring state of Kerala, Elephant Elephas maximus and

Wild Boar Sus scrofa were mainly reported to cause damage

to agricultural crops, along with Hanuman Langur

Semnopithecus entellus , Bonnet Macaque Macaca radiata ,

Porcupine Hystrix indica , Gaur Bos frontalis , Sarnbar Cervus

unicolor , Barking Deer Muntiacus muntjak. Mouse Deer

Moschiola meminna, Black-naped Hare Lepus nigrico/lis,

Malabar Giant Squirrel Ratufa indica and Indian Peafowl Pavo

cristatus (Veeramani and Jayson 1995). Since not much is

known on the extent of damage done to orchards by fruit

bats, future studies should focus on this aspect.

February 6,2002 GOVINDASAMY AGORAMOORTHY1

MINNA J. HSU

Department of Biological Sciences,

National Sun Yat-sen University.

P.O. Box 59- 1 57, Kaohsiung 80424, Taiwan.

'Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behaviour: sampling

methods. Behaviour 49: 227-265.

Balasingh, J., S. Isaac & R. Subbaraj (1993): Tree-roosting by the

frugivorous bat Cvnopterus sphinx (Vahl 1 797) in southern India.

Curr Sci. 65: 418.

Barclay, R.M.R. & G.R Bell (1988): Marking and observational

techniques. Pp. 59-76. In: Ecological and Behavioral Methods

for the Study of Bats. (Ed: Kunz, T.H.). Smithsonian Institution

Press, Washington, D.C.

Bates, P.J.J. & D.L. Harrison ( 1 997 ): Bats of the Indian subcontinent.

Harrison Zoological Museum Publication, Kent.

Bates, P.J.J. , D.L. Harrison & M. Muni (1994): The bats of western

India revisited, part 1.7. Bombay Nat. His Soc. 91: 1-15.

Mistry, S. (1995): The Bats of India. Bats 13: 11-15.

Mutere, F.A. (1980): Eidolon helvum revisited. Pp 145-150.

In: Procroceedings 5th Int. Bat Research Conference.

(Eds: Wilson, D.E. & A.L. Gardner). Texas Tech University

Press, Lubbock.

Veeramani, A. & E.A. Jayson (1995): A survey of crop damage by wild

animals in Kerala. Indian Forester 121: 949-953.

3. A NOTE ON DISTINGUISHING GERBILLUS GLEADOWI AND GERBILLUS NANUS

BASED ON THEIR FOOTPRINTS IN THE THAR DESERT, INDIA

Tracking is one of the most effective methods for

determining the preference, movement, home range and habitat

use by small mammals (Sheppe 1965; Maybee 1998). It has

been used successfully in wildlife and pest control (Sheppe

1965; Spaulding and Jackson 1984; Ratz 1997). Compared to

live capture traps, tracking does not restrict the animal’s

movement, allows one to cover a larger area and is also less

time and labour intensive (Sheppe 1 965; van Apeldoorn et al.

1993; Maybee 1998). It does not involve handling of rodents,

thereby reducing exposure to transmissible diseases (Drennan

et al. 1998). Various methods like aluminium tracking plots,

weather resistant tracking stations, sand, dirt and lime track

beds have been used for studying small mammals (Sheppe

1965; Spaulding and Jackson 1 984; van Apeldoorn et al 1993).

There is no information on species level identification

from tracks and signs for any of the small mammals in the

Indian subcontinent. Here we describe the distinguishing

characteristics of footprints of two gerbil species, Gerbillus

gleadowi and G. nanus for field identification. The characters

were recorded from track plots. Compared to track stations,

track plots allow easy movement of animals, are less expensive

and easy to lay. Footprint identification was standardised to

help in the study of habitat use by gerbils in the Thar desert,

India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

305

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Toe width

Fig. 2: Hind foot (left) and fore foot (right) tracks of Gerbillus gleadowi

Sand tracking is one of the most widely used techniques

for studying desert rodents in the field. In this method, sand

is smoothened in a small patch. The rodents leave footprints

on these stations while foraging. These tracks form the basis

for studying their movements.

Three species of gerbils, Gerbillus gleadowi , G. nanus

and Meriones hurrianae have been reported from the sandy

habitats of Rajasthan desert (Prakash 1996). Of these,

Gerbillus gleadowi and G. nanus are nocturnal, while

Meriones hurrianae is diurnal during winter and crepuscular

during summer.

Meriones hurrianae could be studied by direct

observation, but for habitat use by nocturnal species we had

to study their footprints. Initially we tried to establish

differences in the footprints of the two species with captive

live specimens at the Central Arid Zone Research Institute,

306

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Jodhpur. With sand as the substrate they did not leave good

quality tracks. Hence it was not possible to distinguish

between the two species. Thereafter, we experimented with

lime, which gave a better resolution, allowing us to distinguish

the two species from their footprints. Lime being hygroscopic

absorbs moisture from the air at night. This makes the track

plots less prone to damage by wind activity (in field) and

also helps in obtaining a better quality print. For making track

plots, lime was first sieved on to the soil and then a metal

plate (used by masons) was used to smoothen it. This made

the plot more compact, which in turn left a better quality

track. We measured the length and width (in mm) of the

forepaw and hind foot (toe - 2nd, 3rd and 4th) (Fig. 1). The

track plots were laid in the evening (an hour before sunset)

and checked early morning when the shadows were very vivid

and tracks easiest to read.

The measurements of the fore and hind foot indicate a

distinct difference in the footprints of the two species

(Table 1). The most prominent is the difference in toe length

(TL) (Table 1, Fig. 2). The mean TL of Gerbillus glecidowi

Table 1: Footprint measurements [Mean (mm) ± S.D. (Range)] of

Gerbillus gleadowi and G. nanus on lime track plots (n=6)

was 6.32 mm, while that of G. nanus was 1.7 mm. The other

important difference was in forepaw length (FPL). Gerbillus

gleadowi 's FPL ranged from 9.84-1 1.28 mm, while that of

G. nanus ranged from 5.84-7.38 mm. These two differences

formed the basis on which the tracks of the two species could

be distinguished in the field (Fig. 2). The other differences

were seen in forepaw width and toe width (Table 1).

Standardisation of tracks of the two gerbil species in

the Rajasthan desert helped us study their movement and

habitat use. Similar studies are required to catalogue the track

differences among various species of rodents, which could

be used to study prey abundance of small carnivores.

Compared to Sherman traps, track plots would give better

estimates of the relative abundance of small mammals, as it

does not restrict the animal’s movement and or involve biases,

such as trap shyness or trap happiness.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We express our sincere gratitude to the Director, WII

for supporting this study. We would also like to thank

Dr. Idris, Dr. Tripathi and Dr. B.D. Rana of Rodent Cell.

Central Arid Zone Research Institute, Jodhpur for their

support and cooperation.

February 13, 2002 SHOMEN MUKHERJEE

S.P. GOYAL1

Wildlife Institute of India,

Post Box 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

’Entail: [email protected]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

307

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Drennan, J.E., P. Beier, & N. Dodd (1998): Use of track stations to

index abundance of scurids. Journal of Mammalogy 79(1): 352-

359.

Maybee, T.J. (1998): A weather resistant tracking tube for small

mammals. Midlife Society Bulletin 26(3): 571-574.

Prakash, 1. (1996): Rodent communities in Thar Sand dune ecosystem.

Annals of Arid Zone 5(3): 241-247.

Ratz, H. (1997): Identification of footprints of some small mammals.

Mammalia 61(3): 431-441.

Sheppe, W. (1965): Characteristics and uses of Peromyscus tracking

data. Ecology’ 46: 630-634.

Spaulding, S.R. & W.B. Jackson (1984): In: Proceedings 4th Symposium.

“Vertebrate Pest Control and Management Materials’’ ASTM

STP 817 (Ed.: Kaukeiner, D.E.). Pp. 183-198.

van Apeldoorn, R.M., M. el Daem, K. Hawley, M. Kozakiewicz,

G. Merriam, W. Nieuwenhuizen & J. Wegner (1993): Footprints

of small mammal. A field method of sampling data for different

species. Mammalia 57(3): 407-422.

4. RHINOCEROS RUGOSUS - A NAME FOR THE INDIAN RHINOCEROS

The German zoologist Johann Friedrich Blumenbach

introduced a new name for the Indian Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros

unicornis Linnaeus, 1758) in the first and second editions of

the Handbuch der N aturgeschichte, published in 1 779 and

1782. He changed the names in subsequent editions. His

nomenclature is viewed in a historical perspective.

Blumenbach’s Handbuch

Johann Friedrich Blumenbach (1752-1840) was

appointed lecturer of medicine and curator of the natural

history collection at the University of Gottingen in Germany

in 1 776. Two years later he became full professor and remained

at the same university for the rest of his career, initially as a

colleague of Johann Friedrich Gmelin (1748-1 804), who edited

the 13th edition of the Systema Naturae. Blumenbach is well

known for his contributions to anthropology, comparative

anatomy and theoretical biology, and was a prolific author on

these subjects (Kohn 1992: 56). To serve as a text for a one-

semester course in natural history, he compiled Handbuch

der N aturgeschichte (handbook of natural history), first

published in 1779. This was intended as a summary of the

world’s fauna with short descriptions of each species, similar

to the Systema Naturae by Carl Linnaeus (1707-1778).

Blumenbach confidently and consistently followed the system

of nomenclature and systematics introduced by Linnaeus.

Although copies of the Handbuch in international zoological

libraries are few, twelve editions were produced between 1 779

and 1 830. The fact that it was a required text for all his students

probably explains this incongruity.

Two species of Rhinoceros

When Blumenbach wrote the first edition of the

Handbuch in 1 779, the systematic status of the two-homed

rhinoceros was still under review. Linnaeus ( 1758) had been

ahead of his time in listing Rhinoceros bicornis as a valid

species, but his diagnosis appeared to be confused

(Rookmaaker 1 998). Blumenbach at first suggested that rhinos

only differed in the number of horns, hence the African animal

was no more than a variety of the Asian species: “Sie sind

aber weiter in nichts von gemeinen Nashorn verschieden,

und fur eine blose Spielart von diesem anzusehn”(Blumenbach

1779: 135). While working on the second edition of 1782, he

heard about the monograph on the African rhinoceros by

Petrus Camper (1722-1789) published in Dutch in the same

year, but he had not seen the book and he did not change his

classification. Camper (1782) studied the anatomy of the

African rhinoceros in detail and found that it differed from the

one-horned animal not only in the number of horns, but more

significantly in the differences in the number and form of the

teeth, especially molars. Blumenbach accepted this argument

and from the third edition of the Handbuch of 1 788 onwards,

he separated the African rhinoceros with a specific epithet

(Table 1 ). There were further changes in the third edition: the

text to each species became much shorter, and the names

were thoroughly revised.

In the third edition of Handbuch der N aturgeschichte

dated 1788, Blumenbach used Rhinoceros unicornis for the

Asian one-horned rhinoceros and Rhinoceros bicornis for

Table 1 Species of Rhinoceros in the Handbuch der

Naturgeschichte by J F Blumenbach

308

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the African two-horned animal. This nomenclature was

repeated in the fourth edition of 1 79 1 , but in the fifth edition

of 1797, Blumenbach changed his mind and he called them

Rhinoceros asiaticus and Rhinoceros africanus respectively.

There is nothing particularly unusual about Blumenbach’s

systematic treatment of the two species. He was, however,

very flexible in his nomenclature and, like most of his

contemporaries, feit free from restraints. There were very few

rules as yet how the names proposed by different authors

should be applied. It is remarkable that Blumenbach made

very few changes in the text of the sixth and later editions of

the Handbuch. Even in 1830, he still recognized only two

species, despite the discovery of the Sumatran rhinoceros

( Dicerorhinus sumatrensis) in 1 793 and the white rhinoceros

( Ceratotherium simumi) in 1817. His classification became

increasingly outdated, possibly in line with the Handbuch' s

use as a textbook for a general course of zoology.

A forgotten name

Blumenbach used a new name for the well-known Indian

Rhinoceros when he wrote the first edition of the Handbuch

der Naturgeschichte in 1779, in favour of others already in

use at the time. He chose to name the animal Rhinoceros

rugosus, which doubtlessly is a valid name. Fortunately, it

clearly is a junior synonym of Rhinoceros unicornis Linnaeus,

1 758. The amazing fact, which I can advance with confidence

(Rookmaaker 1983), is that the Rhinoceros rugosus of

Blumenbach has never been cited again, neither by himself,

nor by any other author, be it as a valid name or in a list of

synonyms. It was listed by Sherborn (1902) in his

meticulously compiled catalogue of scientific names, but has

not been picked out of there later. The name was completely

overlooked or forgotten, and while there is no need to resurrect

it after 223 years, it shows that bibliographic research will

continue to discover new insights and forgotten facts.

Sometimes this necessitates changes in established scientific

names under the rules of nomenclature. True, this can easily

be seen as an unnecessary nuisance. But at the same time, it

could be avoided by incessant and wide-ranging reviews of

the literature. Taxonomy, and science in general, recognizes

the value of each person’s contribution, even if one disagrees

with the conclusions. It is, therefore, a reflection of our own

limitations rather than good science to state that a certain

scientific name is forgotten and hence unavailable, apparently

favouring some authors above others for no intrinsic reason.

The real problem is that the books written in the 18th and

early 19th Century become increasingly difficult to access

and to understand in their historical context. The history of

our subject should not be overlooked.

Citation

The correct citation of Blumenbach’s name for the

Indian Rhinoceros: Rhinoceros rugosus Blumenbach,

Handbuch der Naturgeschichte, first edition, 1779, p. 134.

Type locality not stated, but obviously India. No type

specimen identified.

April 3 , 2002 KEES ROOKMAAKER

4 The Grange,

Lower Caldecote,

Biggleswade, Beds,

SG189ET,

United Kingdom.

Email: [email protected]. co.uk

REFERENCES

Blumenbach, J.F. (1779): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. [1st edition.]

Johann Christian Dietrich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1782): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Zweyte

durchgehends verbesserte Ausgabe [2nd edition]. Johann Christian

Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1788): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Dritte, sehr

verbesserte Ausgabe [3rd edition], Johann Christian Dieterich,

Gottingen, pp. i-xvi, 1-715.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1791): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Vierte sehr

verbesserte Auflage [4th edition]. Johann Christian Dieterich,

Gottingen.

Blumenbach, .1 .F. (1797): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Fiinfte Ausgabe

[5th edition ] . Johann Christian Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1799): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Sechste

Ausgabe [6th edition], Johann Christian Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1802): Handboek der natuurlijke h istorie of

natuurgeschiedenis. Uit het Hoogduitsch vertaald, vermeerderd

en ten dienste vooral der Nederlanders ingericht, [translated

from German into Dutch] door J.A. Bennet and G. van Olivier.

L. Herdingh, Leyden.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1803): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Siebente,

Auflage [7th edition], Heinrich Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1807): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Achtste

Auflage [8th edition]. Heinrich Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1814): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Neunte

Ausgabe [9th edition] Heinrich Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1821): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Zehnte

Auflage, [10th edition], Dieterichschen Buchhandlung,

Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1825): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Elfte

rechtmaBige Ausgabe [1 1th edition], Dieterich, Gottingen.

Blumenbach, J.F. (1830): Handbuch der Naturgeschichte. Wolfe

rechtmaBige Ausgabe [12th edition]. Dieterich, Gottingen.

Camper, P. ( 1782): Natuurkundige verhandelingen over den orang outang,

en eenige andere aapsoorten. Over den rhinoceros met den

dubbelen horen; en over het rendier. Erven P. Meijer en G.

Warnars, Amsterdam.

Kohn, A. (1992): A chronological taxonomy of Conus, 1758-1840.

Smithsonian Institution Press, Washington and London.

Linnaeus, C. (1758): Systema naturae per regna tria naturae. Editio

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

309

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

decima, refomiata. Laurentii Salvii, Holmiae.

Rookmaaker, L.C. (1983): Bibliography of the rhinoceros: an analysis

of the literature on the recent rhinoceroses in culture, history

and biology. A. A. Balkema, Rotterdam.

Rookmaaker, L.C. (1998): The sources of Linnaeus on the Rhinoceros.

Svenska Lhmesallskapets Arsskrift, Uppsala, 1996-1997: 61-

80, figs. 1-15

Sherborn, C.D. (1902): Index animalium, sive index nominum quae ab

MDCCLV1I1 generibus, et speciebus animalium imposita sunt.

Typographic Academico, Cantabrigae.

5. OBSERVATIONS ON CHICK MORTALITY IN DARTER ANHINGA MELANOGASTER

IN GIR FOREST

The Darter Anhinga melanogaster, also known as the

Snakebird, is widely distributed from Africa through southern

Asia to the Indo-Chinese subregion, Philippines, New Guinea,

Australia, New Zealand (Ripley 1 982), tropical and subtropical

zones of America, and also occurs in warm temperate zones

(del Hoyo et al. 1992). In South Asia, it is distributed

throughout the Indian Union, Bangladesh, Pakistan, Sri Lanka

and Myanmar (Ali 1996). The nesting season of the Darter

varies from June to August in northern India and from

November to February in southern India (Alii 996). In August

200 1 , we came across a breeding site of Darter near a natural

pool locally known as “ Kodiar Guna " near the Kamleshwar

reservoir in Gir forest. Ten nests were constructed in a Jamun

tree (Syzygium cumini) that was c. 1 1 m high. The nests were

built among branches bifurcating from the bole (53 cm GBH).

The pool also harbours three to four Muggers ( Crocodylus

pcilustris). The nests were the typical twig platforms of the

species, with a cup-like depression in the centre (Ali 1996).

Most of the nests (6) were constructed in the central part of

the tree; one nest was on the extreme left side, and the

remaining three to the right. Some of the centrally constructed

nests were located very close (<1.5 m) to each other. The

lowest nest was built 5 m above ground level and the highest

was located at 9 m. It seems that the Darter prefers using

twigs of tree or shrubs which are available around the

breeding site for constructing the nest, as only twigs of the

Jamun tree were used for building the nest.

Our observation started when the chicks were

approximately 3 days old. Four to five chicks were seen in

each nest, except one where incubation was still on. There

were initially 39 Darter chicks in nine nests, but late hatching

of eggs in some nests increased the total to 44 after two

weeks. Of these, only 27 (61%) survived to reach the flight

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. 12 edn. Bombay Natural

History Society. Pp 1, 68.

del Hoyo, .1., A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (eds.) (1992): Handbook

of the Birds of the World. Vol I. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

stage. Maximum mortality was observed after two weeks.

One nest located at the extreme right, comprising of four

chicks and a parent bird, suffered complete mortality within

three weeks from hatching, probably due to an attack by a

predatory bird. The carcasses of three chicks and an adult

bird were found embedded in a Lantana bush below the

breeding site.

Predation on Darter chicks was never observed directly,

but a Changeable Hawk-Eagle ( Spizaetus cirrhatus ) was

once seen circling low near the breeding site during the

evening. Three destroyed eggs were later found below the

tree. The bigger chicks, which regularly move and trample

the nests, may also be responsible for the destruction of

eggs. As some nests were constructed very close to each

other, some chicks tried to beg for food from the parent bird

of the adjoining nest. This led to aggressive behaviour from

the parent bird, which vigorously jerked its ‘S’ shaped neck

forward to stab the chicks of other birds with its pointed bill.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Dr. Belim Hanif and Shri Ali N. Bloch for

assisting us during the fieldwork and observations. We also

thank the field staff of Gir National Park and Sanctuary for

their cooperation and help.

February 1 9, 2002 B.J. PATHAK

S. VIJAYAN

B.P PAT I

Gir National Park and Wildlife Sanctuary,

Sasan-Gir, Junagadh district,

Gujarat 362 135,

India.

Pp. 354-361

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan

together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

2nd edn, Bombay Natural History Society. Pp II.

310

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

6. SIGHTING OF WHITE-BELLIED HERON ARDEA INSIGNIS HUME

IN POBITORA WILDLIFE SANCTUARY

The White-bellied Heron Ardea ins ignis is a highly

endangered species and restricted to undisturbed reed beds

and marshes in Eastern Nepal and the Sikkim terai, Bihar

(north of the Ganga river), Bhutan duars to northeast Assam,

East Pakistan, Arakan and North Burma (= Myanmar) (Ali

and Ripley 1987). Collar et al. (1994) include it in birds to

watch.

In Assam, it has been reported from Kaziranga National

Park (Barua and Sharma 1999), Jamjing and Bordoloni of

Dhemaji district (Choudhury 1990, 1994), Dibru-Saikhowa

National Park (Choudhury 1994), Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary

(Choudhury 1996), Manas National Park (Goutam Narayan,

pers. comm).

In Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary, located at 26° 12' N to

26° 15' N and 92° 2' E to 92° 5' E, in Morigaon district of

Assam, between November 1 996 and January 200 1 , the White-

bellied Heron was sighted regularly at Pagladova and

Tamulidova marshland. In January 1997, during the Asian

mid-winter waterfowl census, we counted 16 White-bellied

Herons at Pagladova in an area of 1 00 ha, 1 1 at the edge of the

marsh and five on bushes beside the wetland. This is the

biggest count of White-bellied Heron in Assam to date.

Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary is located in the flood plains

of River Brahmaputra and Kolong. The wetlands are full of

water round the year in different lakes and swamps, with a

large extent of riverine grassland and patchy woodland, an

ideal habitat for rhino and migratory waterfowl. The wetlands

of Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary attract nearly 20,000 waterfowl

during a good monsoon year. So far, 224 species of birds from

47 families have been recorded in the Sanctuary, which also

lias the highest concentration of Indian One-horned

Rhinoceros ( Rhinoceros unicornis). In the last census in 1 999,

the rhino population was recorded as 74, and is steadily

increasing.

May 1 5, 2002 MRIGEN BARUAH

Pobitora Wildlife Sanctuary

Correspondence Address:

M/s Cinderella Restaurant,

Dr. R.P. Road, Gonesh Guri,

Guwahati 781 006, Assam, India.

GAGEN CHETTRI

Nagaon Wildlife Division,

Assam, India.

PRASANTA BORDOLOl

Nagaon, Assam, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan, edition, Oxford University Press. New Delhi, pp. 14.

Barua, M. & P. Sharma (1999): Birds of Kaziranga National Park,

India. Forktail 15: 47-60.

Choudhury, A.U. (1990): Checklist of birds of Assam. Sofica Press

and Publishers, Guwahati.

Choudhury, A.U. (1994): A report on bird survey in Dibru-Saikhowa

Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India. Report to the Oriental Bird

Club, U.K. 71 pp + maps.

Choudhury, A.U. (1996): Recent records of the White-bellied Heron

from Assam and Arunachal Pradesh. Abstracts of the Salim Ali

Centenary Seminar on Conservation of Avifauna of Wetlands

and Grasslands, Mumbai. Bombay Natural History Society.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994) Birds to Watch.

2: The World list of Threatened Birds. Birdlife International,

Cambridge. 408 pp.

7. BLACK STORK CICONIA NIGRA IN AND AROUND GIR FOREST, GUJARAT

The Black Stork Ciconia nigra is a winter visitor to

northern India, Pakistan, Nepal, east to Myanmar (Alii 996),

and a passage migrant in Gilgit and Kashmir (Ripley 1982). It

is known to winter in northeast and eastern Africa, eastern

China, and Spain. Some scattered breeding populations are

also recorded from Malawi and Namibia to South Africa

(del Hoyo et al. 1992). It is a rare winter visitor in southern

India, and has been recorded in Andhra Pradesh (Ali 1996),

Karnataka, Periyar lake in Kerala (Daniels 1997), and once in

Sri Lanka.

Earlier sightings of the Black Stork in Gir forest have

been reported mainly from Madhuvanti reservoir and some

odd populations in other reservoirs inside the forest, but a

complete population survey of the species during their

migratory period was lacking. The checklist of birds in the

biodiversity conservation plan for Gir (Singh and Kamboj

1996) has no mention of Black Stork. Around 80 birds were

observed on the bank of Madhuvanti reservoir, including a

single photoframe showing 32 birds (Pathak B.J. In: Vihang, a

Gujarati newsletter, 1999). During end-November 2001, large

congregations (31 birds) of Black Stork were observed at

Madhuvanti reservoir adjoining the Gir Protected Area (PA).

A full-fledged survey was conducted in and around the Gir,

to study their status, activity, movement pattern, and roosting

behaviour. A total of 65 birds were seen in and around Gir PA;

maximum population was seen near reservoirs (Fig. 1 ).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

311

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MENDARDA | Not to the Scale |

Fig. 1: Black Stork sightings in and around the Gir Protected Area during winter (2001 -2002)

Counting in the various reservoirs of the Gir PA was done on

the same day to rule out any error due to the movement of

birds. Some isolated birds were counted in water pools and

causeways inside the forest. The largest flock of Black Stork

seen was of 3 1 birds, though Ali (1996) reported that Black

Storks are found in pairs or in small flocks.

Roosting was observed in a small cliff among farmlands,

between Itali and Natalia village (6 to 7 km from reservoir.

Fig. 1 ). The Black Storks were often seen in the company of

Painted Stork ( Mycteria lencocephala) and Black Ibis

( Pseudibis papUlosa ) during roosting. Such movements of

birds were not observed regularly, and most of the time the

birds remained on the banks of the reservoir after sunset.

One instance of two Black Storks roosting on a Boswellia

serrata tree in the evening was observed in Beria forest area

(Devalia range). The Black Storks generally did not wade deep

into the water in reservoirs and were seen feeding on banks.

Some birds were seen in small drying water pools feeding on

frogs, fish, and insects. During foraging, association with

other birds like Painted Storks, White-necked Stork ( Ciconia

episcopus), Asian Openbill-Stork ( Anastomas oscitans) and

Eurasian spoonbill ( Platalea leucorodia) were fairly common.

Remarks

Although the Black Stork is not globally threatened, its

population is reportedly declining all over the world and some

experts have suggested that the Black Stork should be added

to the growing list of globally threatened species (del Hoyo

et al. 1992). The Black Stork population, along with other

stork species in the world, is affected by habitat loss due to

excessive fishing and agriculture practices, use of pesticides,

disturbance or destruction of colonies and persecution by

man. This is further aggravated by the fact that very little is

known about its numbers and ecology. In India, the population

of this bird was estimated to be 121 during the 1991 winter

census (Hoyo et al. 1996), while the present survey in Gir

forest alone recorded 65 birds, suggesting that it may be found

in higher numbers than previously thought for India during

the migratory winter season. As a matter of interest, around

22 birds were observed flying over the Sarkhej area in

Ahmedabad district, probably migrating to their original

habitat (Pathak, B.i.pers. comm., 2002).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We acknowledge the help of Alibhai N. Bloch from the

Wildlife Division for joining us on the extensive field surveys.

We thank all the field staff of Gir National Park and Sanctuary

for help during field visits and sharing their knowledge on

Black Storks. We specially thank Dr. Nita Shah, Project

Scientist, Wildlife Institute of India, Khalid Mohammed, and

B.A. Dave for providing some data on bird counts.

May 15, 2002 B.J. PATHAK

S. VIJAYAN

B.P. PATI

M.K. BELIM HANIF

Gir National Park and Sanctuary

Sasan-Gir362 135,

Junagadh district,

Gujarat,

India.

312

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. (1996): The Book of Indian Birds. 12th Edn. Bombay Natural

History Society, Bombay. Pp. 1, 68.

Daniels, R.R.J. (1997): A field guide to the Birds of southwestern

India. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

del Hoyo, J., A. Elliot & J. Sargatal (Eds) (1992): Handbook

of the Birds of the World. Vol 1. Lynx Edicions, Barcelona.

Pp. 354-361.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan

together with those of Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh, and Sri Lanka.

2nd Edn. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 11.

Singh, H.S. & R.D Kamboj (1996): Biodiversity Conservation Plan for

Gir (Vol. I & II). Forest Department, Gandhinagar, Gujarat State.

8. SIGHTING OF THE GREATER ADJUTANT-STORK LEPTOPTILOS DUBIUS

IN VIKRAMSHILA GANGETIC DOLPHIN SANCTUARY, BIHAR, INDIA

The Vikramshila Biodiversity Research and Education

Centre Team has been working for the last three years on the

conservation of Gangetic River Dolphins in the Vikramshila

Gangetic Dolphin Sanctuary (c. 60 km segment of the River

Ganga between the towns of Sultanganj 25° 18' N and

86° 46' E, and Kahalgaon 25° 1 5' N and 87° 1 3' E) in Bhagalpur

district, Bihar, India. During their regular dolphin census

surveys throughout the year, the team attempted to document

other biota, particularly the avifauna of the Sanctuary.

On May 23, 200 1 , 27 km upstream of Bhagalpur (25° 1 7' N

and 86° 49' E) we spotted some large storks from the boat. As

we landed on the bank, some members approached the storks

that they identified as Greater Adjutant-Storks Leptoptilos

dubius The long-legged birds were walking in an area (c. 400

m northward from the riverbank) similar to a marshy habitat

with little open water, having grasses and sedges sparsely

distributed. On closer inspection, the birds were found to

have a naked head and neck with a huge beak, and appeared

dull in colour. The birds were convincingly identified by their

gular pouches, both short and long, hanging from the neck in

the adults (Ali and Ripley 1981). Immature birds were identified

by the inner secondaries that appeared dirty brown. Out of

the 25 Greater Adjutant-Storks, 14 were adults and 11

immature. It may be mentioned that some of our members are

trained birdwatchers and have been recording the avian

diversity of the River Ganga for the last seven years.

This was perhaps the first sighting of the Greater

Adjutant-Stork in this region although we have regularly

recorded the Lesser Adjutant-Stork ( Leptoptilos jav aniens),

Asian Openbill-Stork ( Anastomus oscitans), Black-necked

Stork (Ephippiorhynchus asiaticus). White-necked Stork

( Ciconia episcopus ), Painted Stork ( Mycteria leucocephala),

Black Stork ( Ciconia nigra ) and Common Crane (Grus grus)

earlier in the Sanctuary. On May 24, 2001 while on a

downstream survey, we spotted the same Greater Adjutants

at the same place, but this time there were 24 birds. Our

fisherman also sighted the flock around the same place after

a week.

Greater Adjutant-Storks are migratory wetland birds

with resident populations of special conservation interest

and are restricted to the Asia-Pacific region. They are

Endangered species according to IUCN and face a high risk

of extinction (Collar et al. 1994). The only recent breeding

records of Greater Adjutant-Stork are from northeast India

(floodplain of the Brahmaputra River in Assam) and Cambodia

(Tonle Sap). Recent records of small numbers in Nepal,

Thailand, Vietnam and southern Laos perhaps involve birds

from the two known populations. Some 455 birds have been

counted in India (Collar et al. 1994) and fewer than 100 at

Tonle Sap (Hean et al. 1 996). The global population estimate

(restricted to Asia-Pacific region) is less than 700 birds

(Perennou et al. 1994; Anonymous 1996). In view of their

current population of 455 in India and less than 700 in the

Asia-Pacific region, the sighting of 25 Greater Adjutant-Storks

in Vikramshila Sanctuary appears to be very important. The

number sighted in the Sanctuary fulfils the Ramsar criteria of

1 % (Global population estimate of Greater Adjutant-Stork <700

and declining; Ramsar criteria of 1% = 7 Adjutant Storks).

May 14, 2002 SUNIL K. CHOUDHARY

SUSHANT DEY

SUBHASIS DEY

ARUN MITRA

Vikramshila Biodiversity Research

& Education Centre,

University Department of Botany,

T.M. Bhagalpur University,

Bhagalpur 8 12 007, Bihar, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Vol. 3, 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Anonymous (1996): Asia - Pacific Migratory Waterbird Conservation

Strategy: 1996-2000. Wetlands International - Asia Pacific, Kuala

Lumpur, Publication No. 1 17.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994): Birds to Watch

2. The World List of Threatened Birds. BirdLife International,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

313

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Cambridge.

Hean Sun, J., J. Emmes & B.T. Callaghan (1996): An important

waterbird colony in Cambodia. Pan-Asian Ornithological Congress

& XII Asia Conference. [Abstr.]

Perennou, C., T. Mundkur, D. Scott, A. Follestad & L. Kvenild

(1994): The Asian Waterfowl Census 1987-91: Distribution and

Status of Asian Waterfowl. AWB Publication No. 86 Asian Wetland

Bureau, Kuala Lumpur.

9. SIGHTING OF EASTERN IMPERIAL EAGLE AQUILA HELIACA FROM MUMBAI,

MAHARASHTRA

The Eastern Imperial Eagle ( Aquila heliaca ) was

reported from Maharashtra for the first time in 1 983 (Goenka

et al. 1 985). This is the second record of the species from the

State and first record from Mumbai. On both the occasions

an adult was recorded.

1 observed an Eastern Imperial Eagle soaring over

mangroves and open fields at Mahul village in Mumbai on

December 13, 200 1 at 1 530 hrs. It was a dark blackish-brown

bird with a pale crown and nape patch and white scapular

patches. It could not be confused with the Golden Eagle

Aquila chrysaetos as its wings were held parallel to the body

and not dihedral while soaring. The other soaring birds

present were Black Kite Milvus mi grans. Greater Spotted Eagle

Aquila clanga and Western Marsh-Harrier Circus

aeruginosus. The Black Kites were seen mobbing the Eastern

Imperial Eagle vigorously.

The Eastern Imperial Eagle is a globally threatened bird

and categorized as Vulnerable (BirdLife International 2000). It

is described as a rare resident (?), but mainly winter visitor to

the Indian subcontinent by Ali and Ripley (1983). Its

distribution includes W. Pakistan (Baluchistan, Sind, North

West Frontier Province), Nepal, north and northwest India

(Kashmir, Himachal Pradesh) south to Gujarat (Kutch,

Saurashtra). It has also been sighted in Rajasthan (Bharatpur

and Kota) (Prakash 1988, Vyas 1993). This record indicates

that its wintering range is extending towards Central India.

March 1 9, 2002 ASHOK VERMA

Bombay Natural History Society

Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023,

Maharashtra, India.

Present Address: Sarafa Bazaar,

Rekha Naanga Street,

Bharatpur 32 1 00 1 , Rajasthan, India.

E mail: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

BirdLife International (2000): Threatened Birds of the World.

Barcelona and Cambridge. UK: Lynx Edicions and BirdLife

International.

Goenka, D., S. Monga& K. Srivastava (1985): Imperial Eagle (Aquila

heliaca) Savigny, in Maharashtra - a southward extension of its

wintering range. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 82(2): 406.

Prakash, V. (1988): The General Ecology of Raptors in Keoladeo

National Park, Bharatpur. Ph.D. thesis, Bombay University.

Vyas, Rakesh ( 1 993): Imperial Eagle (Aquila heliaca) Savigny wintering

in South East Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. His Soc. 90(2): 289.

10. STATUS OF WHITE-BELLIED SEA-EAGLE HALIAEETUS LEUCOGASTER

IN SINDHUDURG DISTRICT, MAHARASHTRA

The White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster

is thinly, but widely distributed, and is listed as vulnerable in

the Indian red data book. It is known to affect sea coast, tidal

creeks and estuaries. The species is resident along the

seaboard and offshore islands from c. 19° N of Mumbai down

the west coast and up the east coast to Bangladesh, Laccadive

Is. (now Lakshadweep), Andaman and Nicobar Islands and

Sri Lanka. It is vagrant in Gujarat, and on the coasts of Burma

(now Myanmar), Malay Peninsula and Archipelago east to

Australia, Tasmania and W. Polynesia (Ali and Ripley 1981).

Gole (1997) reported 1 1 nests of the White-bellied Sea-

eagle from the coast of Sindhudurg district, which is situated

in the Konkan region of Maharashtra state (15° 35' N to 16°

33' N, 73° 1 8' E to 74° 1 3' E). This region experiences a hot and

humid coastal climate with plentiful rain during monsoon, i.e.

June to September (average 3,000 mm). The temperatures range

from 22 °C to 35 °C. The mean relative humidity is 80%.

During a status survey of the coasts in Sindhudurg

district in 1999, we surveyed an area up to 5 km wide along

the 121 km coastline. We located 32 nests of the White-bellied

Sea-eagle; 62 nests were counted in Ratnagiri district in an

earlier survey (Katdare and Mone 2003). Nesting sites of the

White-bellied Sea-eagle were located while walking along the

coast in the breeding season (October to January) and

collecting information from the locals by showing them

pictures of the bird.

Tree species

White-bellied sea-eagle nests were found on seven tree

species (Table 1).

314

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

DEVGAD

Fig. 1 : Map of Sindhudurg district Maharashtra with nesting sites

Out of 32 nests in Sindhudurg district, only 2 nests

were located on Mangifera indica, whereas 20 out of the

62 nests in Ratnagiri district were located on Mangifera

indica. In Sindhudurg district, the Casuarina equisetifolia

plantation had the maximum number of nests (20 nests, 62.5%).

Nest height

Most nests were found at a height between 10-30 m

(n = 28), while 3 nests were found below 1 0 m. One nest was

Table 1: Tree species used for nesting by Haliaeetus leucogaster

located between 30 to 40 m. 28 nests were located up to

0.4 km from the coast, while 4 nests were found 1 to 6 km from

the sea, but near the estuaries. We located 32 nesting sites,

saw 45 adult birds on 27 nests and two chicks on two nests.

Seven adult birds were seen away from their nest. No bird

was seen on one nest, but fresh droppings and remains of

meals (bones, snake skins) were seen under the nest. A small

amount of fresh droppings were seen under four nests. Thus,

4 inactive nests and 28 active nests (with adult birds sighted

on the nest, nestlings or plentiful droppings below) were

located during this survey. The average active nest density

in Sindhudurg is one nest per 4.32 km. Ratnagiri district had

45 active nests ( 1 997- 1 998 ) in 161 km, average one nest per

3.57 km.

Local people

Out of 32 nests, 30 were within 500 m from houses. The

fishermen have no problems with the White-bellied Sea-eagle,

locally know as Kakan, as its call indicates the availability of

fish in the sea or a change in wind direction. There is no

report of hunting of this bird in the study area. Out of 32

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

315

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nests, 23 are on private property, and nine on government

property. Nine trees bearing nests are protected as they are

government-owned and therefore safe.

Sacred trees

The villagers consider some trees, such as Mangifera

indica and Bombax malabaricum, sacred. Therefore, the

nests on Mangifera indica at Hurshi, Taluka Deogad and

Bombax malabaricum at Sarjecoat, Taluka Malvan were

unharmed.

Plantations

Large areas in Sindhudurg district are under plantations

of Alfonso mango Mangifera indica and cashew Anacardium

occidentale. Spraying of pesticides, removal of vegetation

within the plantation, harvesting and related activities

endanger the eagles. Four nests were on Coconut Cocos

nucifera. Fearing attack by the nesting eagle, the owner first

destroys the nest, then collects the coconuts.

Territory

Regarding the White-bellied Sea-eagle’s territory, Ali

and Ripley (1981) state “usually a single pair with vast territory,

REFE

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1981): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan (Vol. 1). Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 287 -

289.

Gole, Prakash (1997): Conservation of Biodiversity of the west coast

but not uncommonly several pairs and nests on the same

small island.”

In Sindhudurg district, we generally found nests with

vast territory, but at Tondoli, Taluka Malvan, there were three

nests in one village.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This survey was supported by a grant from the Salim

Ali Nature Conservation Fund, BNHS Mumbai. We wish to

thank Dr. Asad Rahmani, Director, BNHS and Dr. S. Asad

Akhtar for their help.

March 2 1 , 2002 VISHWAS KATDARE

RAM MONE

PRAMOD JOSHI

Sahyadri Nisarga Mitra,

Near Laxminarayan Temple,

Chiplun415 605,

Ratnagiri district,

Maharashtra,

India.

Email: [email protected]

NCES

between Mumbai and Goa. Ecological Society, Pune. Pp. 29-30.

Katdare, Vishwas & Ram Mone (2003): Status of the wlute-bellied

sea-eagle in Ratnagiri District, Maharashtra. J. Bombay nal

Hist. Soc 100(1): 113-116.

1 1 . DOES THE WHITE-BELLIED SEA-EAGLE HALIAEETUS LEUCOGASTER

FEED ON CATTLE DUNG?

The White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster

predominantly feeds on sea snakes and fishes. It also eats

crabs, rats and dead fish, and is reported to prey on domestic

chickens, ducks and piglets (Ali and Ripley 1987). However,

an unusual observation of the bird eating cattle dung was

recorded in Pulicat Lake, Nellore district, Andhra Pradesh.

On October 8, 2001 at 1100 hrs, a White-bellied Sea-Eagle

was seen sitting on cattle dung and feeding on it. To confirm

the material being eaten, we walked into the lake towards the

eagle. The eagle flew away carrying a piece of the dung in its

talons. The remains of the dung left by the eagle did not have

any living organisms (crabs, etc.) hiding in it. Could the bird

be actually feeding on the dung itself? Feeding on lion

droppings is reported in the Egyptian Vulture Neophron

per cnopterus (Houston 1988).

March 26, 2002 V. KANNAN

RANJIT MANAKADAN

Bombay Natural History Society

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, Delhi. Pp. 287-289.

Houston, D.C. (1988): Digestive efficiency and hunting behaviour in

cats, dogs and vultures. J. Zool Lond. 216: 603-605.

316

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

12. UNUSUALLY HIGH MORTALITY OF CRANES IN AREAS ADJOINING

KEOLADEO NATIONAL PARK, BHARATPUR, RAJASTHAN

On November 23, 2000, fifteen cranes - twelve Sams

Cranes Grus antigone and three Common Cranes Grus gms

- were found dead in the agricultural fields of Ajan dam, a

temporary water reservoir about 500 m southwest of the

Keoladeo National Park, Bharatpur, Rajasthan. The Sarus

Crane is a resident, and the Common Crane is a winter migrant

to the Park and its adjoining areas from October to March.

The temporary reservoir is the only source of water to

the Park. Water retained in the dam during monsoon is used

for agricultural practices during the year. There is regular

movement of the cranes between the Ajan dam and the Park

for food and roosting (Ramachandran and Vijayan 1994).

The reason of death of the cranes could not be

ascertained, but circumstantial evidence suggested that they

had died due to consumption of pesticide-treated seeds. The

buccal cavity, esophagus and gizzard were stuffed with wheat

seeds. The farmer confirmed that he had sown the seeds the

previous night after treating them with pesticide. He showed

the empty container which had Chloropyrifos 25% EC printed

on it. The farmer had treated the seeds as it was a drought

year, and water scarcity would result in heavy termite

infestation. Another reason for treating the seeds with

pesticide was to keep birds off the field. The farmer thought

that the strong smell of pesticide from the treated grains would

prevent the birds from eating them.

Chloropyrifos is a toxic and potent organophosphate.

A large number of pesticide preparations are used around

Keoladeo National Park, and organophosphates are most

commonly used (Prakash and Rana 2001). The

organophosphates do not remain in the ecosystem as they

disintegrate quickly, but are highly toxic (Newton 1979) and

are known to cause mass mortality of birds in areas of usage

(Morzer-Bruyne 1963). In parts of Africa, high mortality of

birds was recorded during Quelia control operations in which

parathion was sprayed from an aircraft (Newton 1 979). Lethal

levels of pesticides were detected in the tissues of Sarus

Crane and Ring Dove (= Eurasian Collared-Dove) Streptopelia

decciocto in Keoladeo (Vijayan 1991 ). Detectable quantities

of pesticides have been found in the tissues of Sarus Crane,

White-backed Vulture Gyps bengalensis, Egyptian Vulture

Neophron percnopterus and fish ( A.M. Bhagwat pers. comm.

200 1 , Prakash and Rana 2001).

Cranes are large, long-lived, slow breeding birds and

are prominent indicators of the health of the wetland ( Ali and

Ripley 1989, Jonhsgard 1983, Meine and Archibald 1996).

Nearly 20% of the total population of Sarus Cranes in and

around the Park was lost in a day, which is a cause of serious

concern.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Rajasthan Forest Department for the

permission to work in the Park, U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service

for funding the project and the Bombay Natural History

Society, especially Dr. A.R. Rahmani, Director, BNHS for

encouragement and valuable comments.

April 2, 2002 GARGI RANA

VIBHU PRAKASH1

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

'Present Address: BNHS Field Station,

F-23,HMT Colony, Pinjore 134 101,

District Panchkula,

Haryana,lndia.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1 989): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Oxford University Press. New Delhi. Pp. 737.

Jonhsgard, PA. (1983): Cranes of the World. Indiana University Press,

Bloomington, Indiana. 257 pp.

Meine. Curt D. & George W. Archibald (Eds) (1996): The Cranes:

Status survey and conservation action plan. IUCN, Gland,

Switzerland and Cambridge, U.K. 294 pp.

Morzer-Bruyne (1963): Bird mortality in the Netherlands in the spring

of I960 due to the use of pesticide in agriculture. 1C BP Bull 9:

70-75

Newton, I. (1979): Population Ecology of raptors. T. and A. Poyser

Ltd. England. Pp. 399

Prakash, V. & Gargi Rana (2001 ): Effect of environmental

contamination on raptors with special reference to Shaheen.

Unpublished report. Bombay Natural History Society.

Ramachandran, N.K. & V.S. Vijayan (1994): Distribution and General

Ecology of the sarus crane ( Grus antigone ) in Keoladeo National

Park. Bharatpur, Rajasthan. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2):

210-223.

Vijayan, V.S. (1991): Keoladeo National Park Ecology Study. Final

Report 1980-1990. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

Pp. 337.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

317

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

13. BROAD-BILLED SANDPIPER LIMICOLA FALCINELLUS :

AN ADDITION TO THE AVIFAUNA OF RAJASTHAN

On September 7, 200 1 while driving to Longewala in the

early afternoon, we found some waders on the drying Baramsar

depression, Jaisalmer district, Rajasthan. We noticed some

little stint Calidris minuta , but one bird looked quite different

from the others in the group. On moving closer, we recognized

the bird as a broad-billed sandpiper Limicola falcinellus, a

species we had seen at Pt. Calimere (Tamil Nadu), Jamnagar

(Gulf of Kutch) and Pulicat (Andhra Pradesh) earlier. However,

because of the rarity value of the bird in Rajasthan, we were

very cautious and took some record shots.

In the excellent light, the bird was clearly identifiable as

a Broad-billed Sandpiper by the characteristic dunlin-like bill

with a kink towards the tip, the snipe-like pattern of the

upperparts, white belly and flanks and double white eyebrow.

However, compared to the illustrations in Hayman et al. ( 1 986),

Beaman and Madge (1998) and Svensson et al. (1999) the

juvenile was interesting in having only a hint of streaks on

the breast. The ear coverts, neck side, chin and throat were as

white as its belly and flanks. The ‘lower’ supercilium looked

exceptionally broad and eye stripe was very faint.

Broad-billed Sandpiper is a “winter visitor to the

seaboard of both Pakistan, India, Ceylon Andaman and

Nicobar Islands” and “recorded less commonly in Bihar, Delhi

and elsewhere - presumably on passage” (Ali and Ripley

1980). Kazmierczak and van Perlo (2000) recorded only eight

inland records from the Indian subcontinent till 1999. To the

best of our knowledge, the species has not been recorded in

Rajasthan, except for the six recent records, including a total

of twelve birds from five localities:

1999 March 7, two adults, Kochia ki Dhani, Sambhar

Lake.

2001 September 1, two adults, between Sam and

Jaisalmer on a roadside depression.

2001 September 19, two adults and one juvenile, Phulera

Lake, Jaipur distr ict.

2001 September 19, one juvenile, Kochia ki Dhani,

Sambhar Lake.

2001 November 1 8, three individuals at Surwal Lake,

Sawai Madhopur.

2001 November 1 9 one individual at Choru Lake, Sawai

Madhopur.

The above records indicate a clear pattern of autumn

and spring migration through Rajasthan. Perhaps difficulty

in identification and paucity of observers at the crucial

time are the reasons for their being overlooked in inland

localities.

March 19, 2002 HARKIRAT SINGH SANG HA

B - 27, Gautam Marg,

Hanuman Nagar, Jaipur 302 02 1 ,

Rajasthan, India.

[email protected]

MANOJ KULSHRESHTHA

Snehdeep, B-33, Sethi Colony,

Jaipur 302 004, Rajasthan, India.

REFERENCES

Ali. S. & S.D. Ripley (1980): Handbook of the Birds oflndia and Pakistan,

Vol. 2. 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi, pp. 315-317.

Beaman, M. & S. Madge (1998): The Handbook of Bird Identification

for Europe and Western Palaearctic. Christopher Helm London,

pp. 369.

Hayman, P., J. Marchant & T. Prater (1986): Shorebirds: an

Identification Guide to the Waders of the World. Croom Helm,

London, pp. 191.

Kazmierczak, K. & B. van Perlo (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of

India. Pica Press, Robertsbridge. pp. 124.

Svensson, L. & P.J. Grant (1999): Collins Bird Guide. London,

pp. 141.

14. NESTING OF TERNS ON VENGURLA ROCKS, DISTRICT SINDHUDURG,

MAHARASHTRA

On June 6, 2001, we visited Vengurla Rocks (16° 35'-

16° 45' N and 73° 27'-73° 30' E), Taluka Vengurla, District

Sindluidurg, Maharashtra to follow up the conservation

action on the Indian Edible-Swiftlet Collocalia unicolor.

This was the first visit to the Rocks in monsoon, the

breeding season of the terns. All previous visits were made

during the non-breeding season (Abdulali 1940, 1942, 1983).

Madsen (1988) had observed Sterna bergii , S. fuscata,

S. repressa and S. anaethetus on the Rocks from a boat.

We sailed at 0930 hrs from Nivti harbour for the island.

At 50 m from the island, we saw several terns flying above

the land. We landed at Bandra Rock at 1030 hrs. Dry grass

was spread all over the rock. Tern eggs were present all

over the Rock. There were four tern species on Bandra

Rock.

Eight hundred bridled terns Sterna anaethetus were

seen on the Rock. Their eggs were laid all over the island,

under tussocks of grass and small rocks, and on bare rock.

318

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Most of the nests contained one egg, while two nests

contained two eggs each. The eggs were creamy, stone

coloured with deep brown blotches. The minimum distance

between two nests was 0.43 m. A male and female were seen

in courtship display. They caught each other by the bill and

the male walked twice in a semi-circle in front of the female.

Three hundred Large Crested Terns Sterna bergii were

seen on the southern side on bare rock. Seventeen eggs were

seen on bare rock and two on open ground in shallow scrapes.

The creamy white eggs, blotched with deep brown and

brownish scrawls at the broad end, and bigger than that of

Sterna anaethetus, were being incubated.

Five Lesser Crested Terns Sterna bengalensis were seen

in a flock of Large Crested Terns. One pair of Roseate Terns

Sterna dougallii were seen on the rock in courtship display.

At 1900 hrs, 150 Roseate Terns in scattered flocks arrived

from the old lighthouse and gathered on the western side of

the rock for rest. The small, noisy flocks kept flying and

landing for 30 minutes.

A Ruddy Turnstone Arenaria interpres was also seen

feeding amongst a group of Large Crested Terns. In the

evening, 400 Blue Rock Pigeons Columba livia landed in

small flocks. One White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetus

leucogaster was also seen sailing over the island.

March 2 1 , 2002 VISH WAS KATDARE

RAM MONE

SACHIN PALKAR

Sahyadri Nisarga Mitra,

Near Laxminarayan Temple,

Chiplun 4 1 5 605, Ratnagiri district,

Maharashtra,

India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Abdulau, Humayun (1940): Swifts and Terns at Vengurla Rocks.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 41(3): 661-665.

Abdulau, Humayun (1942): The Terns and Edible-nest Swifts at

Vengurla, West Coast, India. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 43(3):

446-451.

Abdulau, Humayun (1983): Pigeons Columba livia nesting on the

ground — some more bird notes from the Vengurla Rocks.

J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 80(1): 215-217.

Madsen, Stig Toft (1988): Terns of the Vengurla Rocks. Hornbill

1988(1): 3-4, 29.

15. COMMON HOOPOE ( UPUPA EPOPS) FEEDING ON PRINIA ( PRINIA SP.) CORPSE

On October 22, 2001, while traveling from Shahada

to Ranipur, Nandurbar district, Maharashtra, at about

1400 hrs, I observed a Common Hoopoe ( Upupa epops )

on the metalled road. As we passed by, I noticed that it

was feeding on a Prinia ( Prinia sp.) that was probably

hit by a vehicle. Its belly was open and the intestines

were hanging out; one eye too was hanging out of the

socket.

As we approached, the hoopoe flew to a nearby tree. I

took the Prinia with me for identification. As I returned to the

vehicle, the Common Hoopoe came back and started picking

up the scraps of meat on the road.

According to Ali and Ripley (1983), the Common

Hoopoe is strictly an insectivorous bird. However, it has been

reported feeding on lizards, frogs and toads, and exceptionally

on birds’ eggs (Cramp 1985), but I could not find any reference

to a Common Hoopoe feeding on a bird carcass. This could

be an opportunistic meal.

November 13,2001 GIR1SH A. JATHAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and Cramp, S. (Eds) ( 1 985): Handbook ot Birds of Europe, the Middle East

Pakistan (Compact Edition). Oxford University Press, Delhi. and North Africa. Vol. 4. Oxtord University Press, Oxford.

Pp. 126. Pp. 790.

16. INDIAN PITTA PITTA BRACHYURA IN THE THAR DESERT

Balsamand Lake lies at the foot of the low hills north of

Jodhpur (25° 6'-27° T E to 71° 9'-74° V N). It commands a

view of a garden on the slopes still owned by the erstwhile

Maharaja of Jodhpur. 1 was given the opportunity of studying

the fauna of this ancient lake constructed in 1 159 AD. A dam

was constructed here in 1873 to 1895 by Maharaja Jaswant

Singhji II. There are a number of large trees of Ficus

benghalensis, F. religiosa, Azadirachta indica , Terminalia

arjuna, Syzygium cumini, Mangifera indica , Aegle marmelos,

Salvadora oleoides and Dalbergia latifolia.

The first thing I saw was hundreds of fruit bats Pteropus

giganteus clinging to a group of Banyan trees on the overflow

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

319

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

side of the lake. P. giganteus does not occur anywhere else in

the desert. The vegetation near the lake is so dense that it

gives the impression of a forest. I regularly heard a peculiar

note “ weet tew'\ which I traced to an Indian Pitta ( Pitta

brachyura ) that was sitting on the canopy of Terminalia

arjuna. According to Ali and Ripley (1983) and Grimmett

et al. (1998), the distribution of Indian Pitta excludes the

western parts of Rajasthan. There is no past sighting of this

bird by earlier bird watchers (Whistler 1938; Bohra and Goyal

1992; Rahmani 1996,1997; Mukherjee 1995) in the desert.

Besides the Indian Pitta, some birds, like the Yellow-legged

Green-Pigeon ( Treron phoenicoptera). Coppersmith barbet

( Megalaima haemacephala ) and Asian Koel ( Eudyrtamys

scolopacea) which were rare here, are now commonly seen

on trees with large crown cover. The call of the Indian Pitta is

REFE

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of Birds oflndia and Pakistan,

Oxford University Press, New Delhi. 737 pp.

Bohra, H.C. & S.P. Goyal (1992): Checklist ol'Birds of Machia Safari

Park, Jodhpur (Rajasthan). Pavo 30(1 & 2)\ 87-97.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Oxford University Press, Kolkata.

Mukherjee, A.K. (1995): Birds of Arid and Semi-arid Tracts. Zoological

Survey oflndia, Kolkata. 303 pp.

easily heard in the garden of Balsamand.

It appears that these birds have made Balsamand their

home now that the catchments of the lake have improved in

recent years. The lake no longer dries up as it used to. This

perennial source of water also maintains the soil water regime

at a higher level by continuous seepage, which keeps the

Ficus fruiting all year round. It is possible that superior foliage

and good food supply has resulted in the influx, from the

Aravallis, of some birds that inhabit dense thickets.

May 1 5, 2002 HIMMAT SINGH

Desert Regional Station,

Zoological Survey oflndia.

New Pali Road, Jodhpur 342 005,

Rajasthan, India.

\CES

Rahmani, A.R. (1996): Changing avifauna of the Thar Desert,

pp. 307-324. In: Faunal Diversity of the Thar Desert

(Eds: Ghosh A.K., Q.H. Baqri and I. Prakash). Scientific

Publisher, Jodhpur.

Rahmani, A.R. (1997): Wildlife in the Thar Desert. World Wide Fund

for Nature India, New Delhi. 100 pp.

Whistler, H. (1938): The Ornithological survey of Jodhpur State.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 213-235.

17. COMMON STARLING STURNUS VULGARIS IN ARUNACHAL PRADESH, INDIA

On November 8, 1999 in Sarli, a mountain village

( c . 28° T N, 93° 9' E) located close to the Great Himalayan

Range and along the Indo-Chinese border in the Lower

Subansiri district of Arunachal Pradesh, I came across a man

carrying a bird he had killed. On examination of the bird, I

realised that it was a Common Starling Sturnus vulgaris (in

winter plumage), which is unknown from this region.

S. vulgaris breeds across the Palaearctic and is an abundant

winter visitor to Pakistan and northern India (Ali and Ripley

1983; Roberts 1992). An uncommon winter visitor to Nepal

and further east in Bhutan, Bangladesh, northeast India and

Myanmar reported vagrant (Inskipp and Inskipp 1985; Smythies

1986; Harvey 1 990; Ali e/ 1//. i ^96; Grimmett etal. 1996).

This is the first record of the species from the state and

is possibly a vagrant. The man said that the bird had been

feeding on the ground, along with two others, in a small clearing

at 1 ,500 m just outside the village. I took the bird from him and

preserved the skin.

Morphometries (mm): Bill length - 29, wing - 125,

tail - 65, tarsus - 28

Colour of bare parts: Iris - dark brown. Bill - dirty black.

Legs and feet - brownish-red, claws - dark brown.

January 14,2002 R. SURESH KUMAR

Wildlife Institute oflndia

Post Box 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 001 , Uttaranchal, India.

Email: sureshk [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Ali, S., B. Biswas & S.D. Ripley (1996): The Birds of Bhutan. Zoological

Survey oflndia, Calcutta.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1996): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Croom Helm, London.

Harvey, W.G. (1990): Birds in Bangladesh. Oxford University Press,

New Delhi.

Inskipp, C. & T. Inskipp (1985): A Guide to the Birds of Nepal. Croom

Helm, London.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2. Passeriformes:

Pittas-Buntings. Oxford University Press, Karachi.

Smythies, B.E. (1986): The Birds of Burma. Nimrod Press,

England.

320

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

18. SIGHT RECORD OF HORNED LARK EREMOPHILA ALPESTR1S NEAR DELHI

The Homed Lark Eremophila alpestris is a holarctic

species, widespread from arctic tundras to the high mountain

plateaux. Populations breeding at high latitudes undertake

annual migrations to the northern temperate zones, whereas

those breeding above the tree-line in lower latitude mountain

ranges show altitudinal movements. One anomalous

population in the northern Andes of South America is

sedentary.

In India, the species is common at high altitude in

Ladakh, particularly above 4,000 m (pers. obs.), wintering down

to about 3,000 m (Grimmett, Inskipp and Inskipp ( 1 998), birds

OF THE INDIAN SUBCONTINENT).

On September 30, 2001, seven members of the Delhi

Bird Group were completing an early morning visit to the

Yamuna River with a walk along the bank, overlooking ash

pits at Khader, south of Okhla, New Delhi. It was a clear, warm

sunny morning with good visibility. The pits provided habitats

ranging from open shallow water, wet substrates, patches of

low vegetation and sparse grass, along with drier open

ground. By 0830 hrs, we were spread out along the bank,

watching Indian Short-toed Larks Calandrella raytal,

Common Crested Larks Galerida crist at a and Eurasian Tree

Pipits Anthus trivialis, the latter seemingly newly arrived

migrants and in a loose, noisy group of about 15.

Whilst scanning the drier region close to the southern

end of the pit, checking carefully through the birds as they

foraged on the ground, my attention was quickly drawn to a

large stocky lark, about the size of a Common Crested Lark,

but with no suggestion of a crest. Its plain, apparently

unmarked upperparts matched almost perfectly the pale ashy,

brown grey substrate. It was feeding close to the ground,

with a shuffling, crouched gait. As it raised its head, it showed

striking features of a bold black mask extending from the bill,

through the eyes and on to the ear coverts, a black band

across the upper breast and a narrow black line extending

across the front of the forecrown. These features contrasted

with the whitish facial background. The rest of the crown,

nape and upperparts were a pale greyish brown. The remainder

of the underparts was whitish, with no streaks.

1 was immediately able to identify the bird as a Horned

Lark, a species I have seen on numerous occasions over the

last 25 years. I watched it with binoculars for about a minute

at a range of c. 40 m. It then flew, showing white outer tail

feathers in flight, before settling again about 50 m away in an

area of sparse, short vegetation, but close to Bill Harvey and

Manoj Gupta who were further along the bank. I was able to

draw their attention to the lark and they also obtained a good

view. In addition to the features I had noted, they pointed out

the “horns”, the fine black feathers that form posterior tips of

the forehead marking, above the ear coverts, the almost pinkish

grey of upperparts that merged so closely with the ash

substrate and its streamlined, almost bunting-like shape.

Other members of the party joined us a couple of

minutes later and got briefer views before the bird flew again,

settling this time on a pipe on top of the bank a good 100 m

away. It remained perched there for another minute before

being disturbed by a passerby. Despite a thorough search for

it afterwards, it was never found again. The site was checked

on a number of occasions by other observers over the

following week, without success.

The well-marked facial pattern and apparent absence of

prominent streaks on the upperparts indicate that this

individual was an adult male.

This would appear to be the first record in India south

of the high Himalaya. Himalayan populations are not known

to undertake long-distance migration, and winter no further

south than the foothills, and even then mainly at relatively

high altitude. This is a highly unexpected record of a very

distinctive species, but at a time of the year when there is

considerable movement of birds southward on passage. It is

not inconceivable that this vagrant may have associated with

small flocks of other diurnal migrants descending to wintering

grounds in peninsular India.

March 26, 2002 MARTIN KELSEY

A-394 Defence Colony,

New Delhi 1 10 024,

India.

19. NIDIFICATION OF THE COMMON RAVEN CORPUS CORAX IN THE THAR DESERT

On the afternoon of February 17,2001 we were driving

on National Highway No. 12 towards Bikaner. Near

Dungargarh, Bikaner district, our attention was drawn to a

Common Raven Corvus corax flying towards a nest on an

electric pylon. We scoped the nest and observed two fledged

young, which were later fed by another adult which had

alighted on the nest. Having confirmed the breeding of the

Common Raven, we decided to examine all the nests on the

electric pylons along the highway on our return journey on

February 26, 2001. Between Bikaner and Dungargarh, we

counted eleven nests on electric pylons. There were probably

more live nests (as close sitting young were not visible from

the ground), but we discounted those nests in which we did

not see young birds.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

321

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

We found three more nests in Jaisalmer district on electric

pylons. One live nest was seen near Myajlar village on February

22, 200 1 . Two more nests were found between Ghotaru fortress

and Bachiyan Chhor outpost in the Shahgarh bulge, in the

extreme west of Jaisalmer district, on February 23, 200 1 . One of

these nests near Bachiyan Chhor outpost contained two young.

On seeing us, the adult started calling pruk pruk prnk , but did

not venture near the nest. The young were quite unconcerned

and we were able to photograph them in the nest, which was, as

usual, 10 m high from the ground. It appeared refurbished and

was mostly made up of entwined twigs of Calligonum

polyonoides, at least on (he outside. Five or six sticks, varying

in length from 30 to 90 cm, and one thin steel strip about

100 cm x 2 cm were found on the ground directly under the nest.

The diameter of the nest was about 95 cm.

According to Ali and Ripley (1986), this species nests

on stunted trees hardly more than 3-4 m in the semi-desert. It

“nests in the top of a solitary tree or on an earth cliff’

according to Grimmett etal. (1998). However, all the fourteen

nests we saw in Bikaner and Jaisalmer districts in the Thar

desert (Rajasthan), were about 10 m high on electric pylons.

The raven is known to nest on man-made structures

(Cramp and Perrins 1994). Ratcliffe( 1997) lists 20 cases of nesting

on radio transmitter masts and electric pylons scattered through

U.K. (mostly in Wales). In southeast Iceland, 48% ravens use

buildings and pylons (Skarphedinsson etal. 1990). Stiehl (1985)

found 23% of 87 nests in Oregon on “buildings or wind pumps”.

Eighty-one pairs nesting on electrical transmission line towers

were studied in Idaho (Steenhof et at. 1993).

In the Indian subcontinent, man-made structures have

been used earlier by the species “A nest with 2 fresh eggs

was seen on December 1 9 on a signal platform of the railway

at Tilwara” (Whistler 1938). “In the Jhelum district, Whistler

refers to their predilection for building on the iron girders

under road and railway bridges” (Roberts 1 992). In 1 984, one

occupied nest built on an electric pylon was found by T.J.

Roberts near Kila Saifullah, Zhob district, Baluchistan.

In the Shahgarh bulge, Jaisalmer district, the nesting

on electric pylons seems to be a recent development, as the

electric pylons were not there even as late 1994 when HSS

visited Ghotaru fortress. Interestingly, in the last century,

Blanford found it late breeding at Ghotaru on “kandi or babur

trees” (Eates 1939). The Shahgarh bulge is one of the most

remote and undisturbed areas in the Indian subcontinent and

many suitable trees for nesting are available. Evidently, the

Common Raven finds electric pylons the safest site to build

the nest. In Bikaner, however, it obviously prefers the

electric pylons because the available trees of Khejri Prosopis

cineraria are regularly lopped by farmers and are thus

unsuitable.

HSS visited Jaisalmer again in June 2001 and saw

juveniles at three sites. Two juveniles were seen drinking

water in the afternoon at the waterhole on June 12, 2001 at

Sudasri in the Desert National Park (DNP), Jaisalmer district.

Earlier, on May 5, 2001 Asad Rahmani saw two juveniles

following the parents at the same site. At Tanot, two juveniles

were seen with an adult pair, and on the outskirts of Ranau

village (between Tanot and Ramgarh) two juveniles and one

adult were observed feeding on a sheep carcass on June 13,

2001 . The juveniles had very conspicuous, blood-red mouths

unlike the bluish-black of the adults. Compared to the adults,

the juveniles looked a trifle smaller in size and lacked the

bronze-brown cast on the hind neck and sides of head and

neck of adult birds.

HSS has been visiting the Thar desert very regularly

since 1986, but has never noticed ravens nesting before. Nor

are we aware of any recent records of its nesting in the Thar

desert except for the two recent records. Ashok Sharma, a

member of the BNHS found one occupied nest about 12 m

high on a peepal tree Ficus religiosa growing in a temple

compound at Deepalsar, Churu district on February 8, 1996

{pers. comm.). On March 30, 1 998, Shantanu Kumar, a noted

wildlife expert with long experience found a nest on the

observation tower of the Border Security Force (BSF) at

Bhuttewala, Jaisalmer district. It was located on the upper

watch platform (about 11 m) of the tower. Evidently, the birds

were quite used to the presence of the sentry on the lower

watch platform (about 6 m), but when he climbed the tower

with some other people, the birds were alarmed and “came calling

all the way from across the border” from the Pakistani tower!

They were disturbed by the unusual presence of a large number

of people and circled over the tower calling loudly.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank Steve Madge for reference material and

Shantanu Kumar, Asad R. Rahmani, and Ashok Sharma for

information. Special thanks are due to Shantanu Kumar, the

Director General of Police (Rajasthan) who made the logistical

arrangements during our visit to the Shahgarh bulge.

March 13,2002 HARKIRAT SINGH SANGHA

B-27, Gautam Marg, Hanuman Nagar,

Jaipur 302 021, Rajasthan, India.

Email: [email protected]

RISHAD N AOROJ1

Godrej Bhavan, 4-A, Home Street,

Fort, Mumbai 400 00 1 .

Email: [email protected]

322

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1986): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 5., 2nd Edn. Oxford University Press, Delhi,

pp. 262-264.

Cramp, S. & C. Perrins (eds) (1994): The Birds of the Western

Palaearctic. 8. Oxford University Press, Oxford, pp. 206-223.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London, pp. 599.

Eates, K.R. (1939;: The distribution and nidification of the Indian

(Punjab) Raven (Corvus corax laurencei Hume) in Sind. J

Bombay Nat . Hist. Soc. 40(4): 747-750.

Ratcliffe, D. (1997): The Raven. Poyser, London, pp. 295.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2. Oxford University

Press, Karachi, pp. 449-451.

Skarphedinsson, K.H., O.K. Nielsen, S. Thorion, S. Thorstensen &

S.A. Temple (1990): Breeding biology, movements

and persecution of Ravens in Iceland. Acta. Nat. Islandica 33:

1-45.

Steenhof, K., M.N. Kochert & J.A. Roppe (1993): Nesting by raptors

and Common Ravens on electrical transmission line towers.

J. Wildl. Manage. 57: 271-281.

Stiehl, R.B. (1985): Brood chronology of the Raven. Wilson Bull. 97:

78-87.

Whistler, H. (1938): The ornithological survey of Jodhpur state.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 40: 213-235.

20. UNUSUAL NUMBERS OF BLACK-HEADED CUCKOO-SHRIKE

CORACINA MELANOPTERA AT POINT CALIMERE, TAMIL NADU

An unusual congregation of c. 25 Black-headed

Cuckoo-Shrike Coracina melanoptera was witnessed during

a bird watching session on December 2 1 , 200 1 at Pt. Calimere.

This was our first day of the ten-day BNHS Bird-banding

Training Programme and we were being guided by Dr. S.

Balachandran, Scientist, BNHS. At 1745 hrs, after an eventful

evening with birds, we approached the fringes of the

Kodikadu village and passed through some open area with a

few Thespesia populnea trees where we saw three Black-

headed Cuckoo-Shrikes in flight, and two in a nearby

Thespesia tree. Suddenly, several more cuckoo-shrikes began

to leave the tree, and as we approached they moved to a

Prosopis jaliflora shrub on the other side of the road.

We noticed a flight of more than 15 cuckoo-shrikes in a

follow-the-leader fashion. They were restless, and flying

between the Thespesia and Moringa trees in a backyard. Of

the twenty-five birds, about six were males and the rest

females.

This sighting is significant, as the Black-headed

Cuckoo-Shrike is not known to congregate in large numbers.

Ali and Ripley (compact handbook, 1 987) do not record such

behaviour for the species. The group appeared like a pre- or

post-migration flock, but there is no evidence to this account

except their restless behaviour. These birds are not known to

congregate even during the breeding period. According to

Dr. Balachandran, the Black-headed Cuckoo-Shrike is a common

local migrant to Pt. Calimere, arriving in winter from the nearby

areas, but the numbers seen on this particular occasion were

unprecedented. The coastal area at the time of observation was

under the effect of a cyclonic depression in the Bay of Bengal.

March 1 9, 2002 S. THEJ AS WI

Mysore Amateur Naturalists,

227, 3rd Main, A-l Block, Vijayanagar 3rd stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

E-mail: [email protected]

21. ON THE BEHAVIOUR AND HABITAT PREFERENCE

OF STOLICZKA’S BUSHCHAT SAXICOLA MACRORHYNCHA (STOLICZKA)

Ali and Ripley (1973) described the endemic species

Stoliczka’s Bushchat or Whinchat as ‘rare and very local’.

Presently it is not seen in its former haunts, though it is not

uncommon in the Desert National Park, Rajasthan. This

species was first discovered in Kutch in the 19th Century by

Dr. Ferdinand Stoliczka, who collected two specimens, one

near Bhuj and the other from Rapar. He described the species

and published it in the Journal of the Asiatic Society of Bengal

in 1 872. Since then, it was not sighted by the earlier chroniclers

ofthe Birds of Kutch Hugh Pallin and Capt. Lester. Dr. Salim

Ali and others who followed in their surveys of Kutch or in

bird ringing programmes failed to record S. macrorhyncha.

On receiving information from Mr. R.D. Jadeja (Range

Forest Officer, Naliya) that he, along with Mr. Tejpal D. Shah,

had seen a pair of bushchats, which they thought was

Stoliczka’s Bushchat, I went to Naliya in Western Kutch on

January 4, 2002. Accompanied by Jadeja and Tejpal Shah, 1

went to the location where they had seen the birds. We came

across the male in the morning and saw the female in the

evening.

The male was in winter plumage and in both the birds

the common features were the prominent long superc ilium

extending from the forecrown to behind the ear coverts and

the distinct whiteness of their chins and throats. While the

general behaviour of this species was similar to other

bushchats, in the manner of gathering food one dissimilar

feature observed conforms to what is stated by Roberts ( 1 992)

quoting Grimmetfs personal communication, that after

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

323

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

alighting on the ground after espying some insect, the bird

would puff out its breast and start swaying it from one side to

the other and then pick up an item of food. After moving on a

little, the performance would be repeated once or twice. This

behaviour was performed by both sexes. They also launched

aerial sallies once in a while to catch some flying insect and at

times darted vertically upwards. The puffing out of the breast

feathers and the swaying motion on the ground give the

appearance of a threat display, but it is more likely that this is

a resort to flush out the insects from their sparse grass ground

cover. The habitat preferred by this species consists of ground

sparsely covered by short grass and dotted about by stunted

bushes of Prosopis chilensis (= juliflora), Ziziphus sp. etc.

To the north of the area under observation was a closely

planted row of P. chilensis , beyond which were some closely

planted vegetation and thick cover of grass. Stoliczka’s

Bushchat perched on the bare twigs of P. chilensis repeatedly,

but scrupulously avoided entering the area of thick ground

cover. After every foray for food, whether aerial or on the

ground, these birds generally returned to the same perch. As

described by Ali and Ripley ( 1 973), the habits of this Bushchat

are similar to the other members of the genus. However, owing

to its extreme rarity, it has perhaps not been possible to study

all aspects in this regard. The very fact that the species was

observed in Kutch after a lapse of over a century and a quarter

proves its rarity.

March 20, 2002 M.K. HlMMATSfNHJI

Jubilee Ground, Bhuj,

Kutch, Gujarat, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, Salim & S.D. Ripley (1973): Handbook of the Birds of India and Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Vol. 2, pp. 131-132.

Pakistan, Vol. 9, pp. 23-24. Oxford University Press, Bombay. Oxford University Press, Karachi.

22. OCCURRENCE OF THE GREY BUSHCHAT SAXICOLA FERREA (GRAY)

NEAR NANJANAGUD, MYSORE DISTRICT, KARNATAKA

A male Saxicola ferrea was observed close to

Narasambudhi lake, a large irrigation tank with a 2000 acre

waterspread nearNanjanagud town (12° 5' N, 76° 43' E; 20 km

south of Mysore city), on December 9, 200 1 .

The bird had a striking white supercilium and a black

‘mask’ around the eyes, ears and cheeks, whitish throat and

a light grey wash on the underparts. Crown and back were a

very dark grey, appearing almost black from a distance, but

with faint brownish-white vertical striations at close range.

The tail was black with faintly visible white edges. A white

shoulder patch was distinct in flight, scarcely visible when

alight. Bill and legs were blackish.

The bird was observed at 0745 hrs, hunting from a perch

on an Acacia leucophloea tree beside the outlet canal of the

lake, amid open area and close to a coconut grove. The

surrounding area was open, partially irrigated land. The

behaviour was characteristic of bushchats, but it was twice

noted, unusually, to venture into the tree crown and feed like

a warbler. This behaviour is atypical of bushchats and perhaps

not common in this species, but we have observed it on two

separate occasions previously in the Pied Bushchat Saxicola

caprata.

The Grey Bushchat is “a common resident, subject to

altitudinal and short-range seasonal movements. The

Himalayas from NWFP to Arunachal Pradesh, thence south

through Nagaland (?), Manipur, Meghalaya and Mizoram...

Winters from.... into the Gangetic plain south to the Yamuna

river and throughout Assam and Bangladesh” (Ali and Ripley

1987). It has been subsequently recorded from the Kanha

National Park (Newton et al. 1986), Bandhavgarh National

Park (Tyabj i 1 990) and Karera Bustard Sanctuary, all in Madhya

Pradesh, and Bharatpur in Rajasthan (Kannan 1993). These

represent the southernmost recorded extension of this species.

The record from Nanjanagud is the first from southern India.

The intense cold wave in northern India at the time of sighting

might have been the cause for the flight of the bird so far

south, where it is usually not found.

March 1 9, 2002 S. THEJ AS WI 1

A. SH1VAPRAKASH

Mysore Amateur Naturalists,

227, 3rd Main, A- 1 Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 017, Karnataka, India.

E-mail: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): A Compact Handbook of the

Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Kannan, R. (1993): Dark Grey Bushchat, Saxicola ferrea (Gray) in

Rajasthan and Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90(1):

98.

Newton, Paul N., Stanley Breeden & Guy J. Norman (1986): The

birds of Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India. J Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 83(3): 477-498.

Tyabji, H.N. (1990): Record of some birds from Bandhavgarh National

Park previously unrecorded in this area. Newsletter for

Birdwatchers 30(5-6): 12.

324

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

23. EURASIAN LINNET ( CARDUELIS CANNABINA),

CHAFFINCH ( FR1NGILLA COELEBS) AND BRAMBLING

(. FRINGILLA MONTIFR1NGILLA ) IN KANGRA, HIMACHAL PRADESH

Three finch species described as vagrant to India, have

been sighted in considerable numbers by me in the Kangra

district, Himachal Pradesh. Between November 2001 and

January 2002, ! witnessed an invasion of Eurasian Linnet

Carduelis camiabina , with a total of 1 3 1 birds on 7 occasions.

Around Dharamsala, I had 12 sightings of Brambling with

20 birds in all between 1997 and 2001, while the Chaffinch

Fringilla coe/ebs total was 91 birds in 33 sightings. Whistler

( 1 926a, b) and Hingston ( 1 920), who did extensive surveys in

the district at the beginning of the 20th Century, did not note

these species.

Eurasian Linnet ( Carduelis cannabina)

Apart from one sighting of 3 at 2,400 nr in the Dualadar

(sic) foothills near Dharamsala, all the other Eurasian linnets

occurred along the large Pong Dam Lake wetland in far

southwest Kangra district, at 400 m. In Pakistan, where the

Eurasian Linnet is described as an erratic winter visitor, the

nearest point in its distribution is the NW Punjab (Roberts

1992), 250 km westwards. The site in Kangra lies between

3 1 ° and 33° N and 76° and 77° E.

Identification: Bom and raised in the Netherlands, I

have been very familiar with the Eurasian Linnet since

childhood. On the day of the first sighting, on November 25,

200 1 , when surveying a part of the Pong Dam Lake, I thought

that 1 heard a familiar guttural sound [quick “chuk-chuk-

chuk, chuk-chuk-chuk”] while crossing the fields and mudflats

at around 0700 hrs. Soon I saw the first troupes flying past,

their forked tails and unmistaken call giving initial clues.

Because they turn out quite shy, easily disappearing between

the boulders and ditches when they settle, it took a while to

get good views, but throughout the morning I was able to

observe several small troupes. I noted the white rump and

sides of forked tail, the dark wings showing white fringes at

rest and whitish wing-patch in flight, streaked sandy under

Table 1 Summary of the Eurasian Linnet sightings

in Himachal Pradesh

parts and streaked chin. Some were males and showed the

chestnut of back and pinkish wash of breast, though on this

first day I didn’t get a very good view of the males. On later

occasions, I did get good views of males (Table 1).

Behaviour: The observations at Pong Dam Lake

concerned small flocks of 1 to 49, foraging on the mudflats,

recently ploughed and sown fields, banks of boulders and

stony ground with wild plants, always within half a kilometre

of the receding shore of the lake. On the day with the highest

total, on December 18, small troupes (1,6, 1,8, 6) were flying

into the area from over the water of an arm of the lake into a

southeast direction around sunrise (0700 hrs). Scattered flocks

gradually swelled to larger flocks, eventually to a single troupe

of 49. Flying birds constantly called their rapid “tjuk, tjuk,

Table 2 Summary of the Chaffinch sightings around Dharamsala

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

325

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 3 Summary of the Brambling sightings around Dharamsala

tjuk” or “chu, chu, chu”, often in rows of three syllables each,

but also in rows of more syllables. Calls later in the morning,

under the warm sun, were interspersed with the more musical

notes that are part of their song.

The one observation from the higher parts of the district

concerned 3 birds flying up from a bush-covered hillside at

2,400 m around 0800 hrs. This was the first clear morning after

the first significant snowfall of the season and saw a strong

southeastward movement of over 10,000 Hodgson’s

Mountain-Finch ( Leucosticte nemoricola ) and Altai Accentor

( Prunella himalayana).

Having surveyed bird life in the higher parts of Kangra

district since 1996 and only focusing on the lowest areas

since 200 1 , 1 didn’t come across the Eurasian Linnet before, ft

will be interesting to see whether more invasions take place in

the future and whether like the Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs )

and Brambling ( Fringilla montifringilla ) we find indications

of an expansion in their wintering range through the

northwestern Himalaya.

Chaffinch ( Fringilla coelebs)

The Chaffinch 1 have observed yearly around

Dharamsala, mostly during migration time (Table 2).

Identification was in most cases obvious through the double

white wing-bars (white on lesser and greater coverts), greyish

rump, dull brown underparts (female) and salmon underparts

(male) with bluish-grey crown. Most of the birds that were

seen perching called the characteristic, loud “tink, tink”, while

several of the seemingly migrating ones often made a short

stay in the treetops and called. In flight, they invariably made

their soft “tup, tup” calls.

Brambling ( Fringilla montifringilla)

Though less common than Chaffinch, the Brambling is

also a regular migrant / winter visitor in small numbers (Table

3). While the dark head pattern and white rump are the most

obvious field marks on which I conclusively identified some

of these sightings, the characteristic call formed the basis for

identification of the other sightings (apart from the typical

nasal “gheeep” call, which all the birds sighted used the

“tuk, tuk” call is different from the similar call of

the Chaffinch). I am very familiar with all these calls from

Europe.

February 1 1 , 2002 JAN WILLEM DEN BESTEN

Schaikseweg 83,4143 HDLeerdam,

The Netherlands.

Present Address: Kuldeep House,

McLeod Ganj, Dharamsala 1 76 2 1 9,

Himachal Pradesh,

India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Hingston, R.W.G. (1920): A list of the birds of Dharamsala. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 27: 555-572.

Roberts, T.J. (1992): The Birds of Pakistan. Volume 2, Oxford

University Press, Karachi.

Whistler, H. (1926a): The birds of the Kangra District. Punjab - Pt 1.

Ibis 12(3): 521-581.

Whistler, H. (1926b): The birds of the Kangra District, Punjab - Pt 11.

Ibis 12(4): 724-783.

24. RECORDS OF SOME NEW AVIAN SPECIES IN THE THAR DESERT

OF RAJASTHAN

The Thar desert, located in western India, is a

predominantly sandy hot desert. It is unique because the

fauna is an admixture of the Saharan, Palaearctic and Oriental

elements. After the Indira Gandhi Nahar Pariyojana (IGNP)

became operational, large-scale ecological changes have

occurred in the desert, due to plantation in the canal area and

creation of wetlands, some of them perennial, because of

mismanagement and seepage of water.

This paper is based on four surveys conducted between

November 2000 and February 200 1 in Jaisalmer and Bikaner

districts of Rajasthan. A study of the impact of ecological

changes on the avifauna in the command area and

its surroundings, revealed that a number of forest and

aquatic birds never noticed about a decade ago are now

common.

According to Rahmani (1997), the habitat changes in

the area can be categorized into four groups: a. Change in

crop pattern from subsistence fanning to commercial farming;

326

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: New records of birds in the Thar Desert, Rajasthan

b. Plantation on both sides of the canal and reservoirs; c. Seepage

from canals has led to rise in the water table, and the formation

of interdunal reservoirs has resulted in new wetlands, thus

changing the ground cover from xerophytic and

psammophytic to hydrophytic and mesophytic plants; d.

Displacement of grazers to non-command areas has exerted

pressure on the already overgrazed countryside. This changed

scenario is now attracting many water loving birds to the hot

desert.

No detailed systematic study was made of the avifauna

of the Thar desert, till Rahmani ( 1 997) reported 2 1 3 species of

birds, of which nearly half, including water birds, are those

that do not occur in the desert. In addition to the information

from Rahmani (1997), the present study revealed five records

of birds belonging to three families, observed for the first

time in the area. They are, the Marbled Teal Marmaronetta

angustirostris', Osprey Pandion haliaetus; Grey-headed

Flycatcher Culicicapa ceylonensis\ White-capped Redstart

Chaimarrornis leucocephalus and Oriental White-eye

Zosterops palpebrosus. Besides these, ten species belonging

to six families have also been found to extend their range

further west and southwest because of the suitable habitat.

The details of observation by Rahmani (1997) and present

sightings are given in Table 1 .

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

327

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. Q.H. Baqri, Principal Investigator of

the project “Studies on the Faunal Diversity in the Thar Desert

of Rajasthan” for facilities, and the Ministry of Environment

and Forests, New Delhi for financial assistance.

October25,2001 ANIL KUMAR

Wildlife Institute of India,

Post Box 1 8, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 00 1 , Uttaranchal,

India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCE

Rahmani, A.R. (1997): The effect of Indira Gandhi Nahar Project on the Avifauna of the Thar Desert. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 233-266.

25. SIGHT RECORD OF POLYPHENIC FORMS OF APPIAS ALBINA DARADA C. & R.

FELDER (LEP1DOPTERA: PIERIDAE) IN THE NILGIRI BIOSPHERE RESERVE

The Common Albatross Appias albina darada C. & R.

Felder, protected under Schedule II of the Indian Wildlife

(Protection) Act, 1972 (Anon. 1990), is one of the most

abundant butterflies found at lower elevations in the Western

Ghats. The species has a wide geographic range and is

distributed almost throughout the Oriental Region (Larsen

1 987). Both sexes are usually white, with the forewing having

a narrow dark apical and a series of terminal markings. The

females usually bear 4 to 5 additional apical white spots on

the forewing.

During a recent study on insect diversity of New

Amarambalam forests of the Nilgiri Biosphere Reserve, a few

specimens of A. albina were collected from the banks of River

Karimpuzha at Meenmutti located at an elevation of 650 m

during February 2000. The females showed polyphenism and

two forms, namely form semi/Java and form /lava besides the

usual female foim were collected. The details of the polyphenic

forms recorded are given below.

A. albina darada f. semiflava: The underside of the

forewing apex and that of the hind wing are yellow, instead of

white. Although Wynter-Blyth (1957) states that this form is

not rare, only 5 specimens could be collected from Meenmutti

in this study. Of these, 3 specimens were collected on 8.ii.2000

and 2 on 9.ii.2000 (Coll. C.F. Binoy). The specimens are

deposited in the Kerala Forest Research Institute (KFRI)

collections.

A. albina darada f.flava: This form is yellow on both

the dorsal and ventral side and has been reported to be ‘very

rare in South India’ by Wynter-Blyth (1957). A single specimen

was collected on 9.ii.2000 from the same locality as

f. semiflava, and is deposited in the KFRI collections (Coll.

C.F. Binoy).

Remarks

Occurrence of the polyphenic forms of A. albina

darada coincided with the population build-up and migration

of this species along with the pierids A. indra shiva Swinhoe.

A. wardii Moore and Cepora nadina remba Moore in New

Amarambalam during February 2000. It was interesting to

note that these forms were not observed during rest of the

year.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

CFB is grateful to Dr. Konrad Fiedler, Professor,

University of Bayreuth, Germany, for a useful discussion on

the subject and N. Chaturvedi, Curator, Bombay Natural

History Society, for sparing some literature. This study was

made in connection with a project sponsored by the Ministry

of Environment and Forests, Govt, of India. We are grateful to

the Director, KFRI, for his interest in this study.

March 1 9, 2002 C.F. BINOY

GEORGE MATHEW1

Division of Entomology

Kerala Forest Research Institute,

Peechi 680 653, Kerala, India.

'Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Anonymous (1990): The Indian Wildlife Act (Protection), 1972. Natraj Publishers, Dehra Dun. Pp. 86.

Larsen, T.B. (1987): The butterflies of the Nilgiri mountains of South India (Lepidoptera: Rhopalocera). J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 84(1): 26-54.

Wynter-Blyth, M.A. (1957): Butterflies of the Indian Region. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay. Pp. 523.

328

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

26. ON A MISIDENTIFICATION OF THE MUD DAUBER WASP PARASITE

MACROSIAGON FERRUGINEUM (FABRICIUS) (COLEOPTERA: RHIPIPHORIDAE)

IN INDIA

During the course of my doctoral research on the

phylogeny of the beetle family Rhipiphoridae, 1 found

Srinivasan et al. ’s ( 1 999) note on the rearing of a rhipiphorid

from the cells of eumenid wasps (Vespidae: Eumeninae) in

India. The report is of great interest as very little is known

about the bionomics and host preferences of rhipiphorids.

However, the authors make several errors that lessen the value

of this otherwise rare and important observation.

First and most importantly, the adult rhipiphorid

pictured in Srinivasan et al. ( 1 999) is not Metoecus paradoxus

(Linnaeus) as the authors state, but quite likely Macrosiagon

ferrugineurn (Fabricius) given its host, locality, and

colouration. Metoecus species are well known to be

parasitoids of eusocial vespid wasps (Vespidae: Vespinae)

(Heitmans and Peeters 1996, and references therein), not of

solitary wasps as Macrosiagon species are (Falin 2002). Also,

Metoecus paradoxus, a Palaearctic species, is unknown in

India though several Macrosiagon species, including

Macrosiagon ferrugineurn , are (Csiki 1913). Judging from the

authors’ description and the photograph, the beetle’s tawny

yellowish or reddish dorsal surface and black ventral aspects

are diagnostic of Macrosiagon ferrugineurn, a widespread

species found from southern Europe and northern Africa to

the Indian subcontinent (Csiki 1913).

Srinivasan et al. ( 1 999) are also incorrect in stating that

theirs is the first record of a rhipiphorid reared from eumenine

cells in India. Home and Smith (1872) reported rearing a

rhipiphorid beetle from a cell of Eumenes esuriens Fabricius

from northwest India. The parasitoid was determined only to

the genus Emenadia (= Macrosiagon), though again, judging

from the illustration provided, I believe this to be another

example of Ma. ferrugineurn. Chobaut (1891) reared this

species under the name Emenadia flabellata (Fabricius) from

Odynerus spp. (Vespidae: Eumeninae) cells in France; it

appears that this species parasitizes several related eumenid

wasps in India as well.

Lastly, I cannot comment on the accuracy of the

bionomic data provided by Srinivasan et al. (1999). However,

I must add that contrary to the authors, rhipiphorids in the

genera Macrosiagon and Rhipiphorus routinely successfully

parasitize hymenopteran larvae within closed cells by using

their mandibles to chew through the cell wall upon eclosion.

True, they are occasionally trapped, particularly if the mud

cells are unnaturally dried and hardened after being held in

artificial laboratory conditions. Perhaps this is the

phenomenon experienced by the authors.

I do not disparage the authors of their work. Rather,

I encourage them and anyone to research the subject

further and to continue reporting new information. Carefully

reported collecting localities and dates, determination of

host species, and other such bionomic facts regarding

rhipiphorids would all be important and interesting addi-

tions to our knowledge of them. Rhipiphorids remain a

fascinating yet poorly understood component of the Indian

biota.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I thank Dr. M. Engel of the Division of Entomology,

K.U. Natural History Museum, for reviewing this manuscript

prior to submission. This represents contribution no. 3286

from the Snow Entomological Collection, Division of

Entomology, K.U. Natural History Museum, Lawrence, KS.

March 1 3, 2002 ZACHARY H. FALIN

Division of Entomology,

K.U. Natural History Museum

Snow Hall, 1460 Jayhawk Blvd.

Lawrence, KS, 66045-7523, U.S.A.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Chobaut, A. ( 1 891 ): Moeurs et metamorphoses de Emenadia flabellata

F. Ann. Soc. Ent. France 60: 447-456.

Csiki, E. (1913): Rhipiphoridae, Pars 54, 29 pp. In: Coleopterorum

Catalogus auspiciis et auxilio, vol. 17, (Ed.: Schenkling, S.).

W. Junk. Berlin.

Falin, Z.H. (2002): Rhipiphoridae. Pp. 43 1 -444. In: American Beetles,

vol. 2, (Eds: Arnett, R. Jr., M.C. Thomas, H. Frank and P.E.

Skelley). CRC Press, Boca Raton, Florida.

Heitmans, W.R.B. & T.M.J. Peeters (1996): Metoecus paradoxus in

the Netherlands (Coleoptera: Rhipiphoridae). Ent. Bericht.,

Amsterdam 56: 109-117.

Horne, C. & F. Smith (1872): Notes on the habits of some

hymenopterous insects from the north-west provinces of India,

with an appendix, containing descriptions of some new species

of Apidae and Vespidae collected by Mr. Home. Trans. Zool.

Soc. London 7: 161-196, pis. 19-22.

Srinivasan, G., K. Sasikala & Mohanasundaram (1999): Some

observations on the biology of the parasitic beetle Metoecus

paradoxus Linn. (Rhipiphoridae: Coleoptera) on mud dauber

wasp grubs. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 96: 337-338, I pi.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

329

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

27. OBSERVATIONS ON LINGULA ANATINA

WATERS, KARNATAKA, INDIA

Lingulate brachiopods are classic examples of living

fossils that have survived almost unchanged for over

500 million years. Fossil records indicate that they are possibly

the oldest living multicellular animals on earth. Despite their

relative obscurity today, brachiopods have a long and rich

palaeontological history. During the Palaeozoic era they were

extremely abundant. They diversified morphologically, and

even participated in the build-up of ancient reefs. At the end

of the Palaeozoic era, about 250 million years ago, they were

decimated in the worst mass extinction of all time, the Permo-

Triassic event. Their numbers have never been as great since

then.

Brachiopods are sessile marine animals that resemble

common molluscs. Closer inspection shows their

characteristics to be different, recognised as a separate Phylum

Brachiopoda.

Description: Type species: Lingula anatina (Lamarck

1801).

Typical tongue-shaped structure, hence the name

Lingulata (derived from Latin lingula = tongue-like). These

are burrowing infaunal filter-feeders of the shallow inter-tidal

zone. They burrow with the help of their muscular pedicle,

which can be stretched up to 20 times its own

length.

Habitat: In the present study, we came across Lingula

inhabiting two different kinds of sediments, sandy and muddy

/ silty.

The site Amadalli is near a shore, where a small creek

meets the sea. The sand is loose and coarse, and the Lingula

seen here withdrew into their burrows at the slightest

disturbance.

Kali estuary is brackish, being at the mouth of the tidal

creek. Constant changes in the environment make this area a

mixture of sandy and muddy / silty zones. Lingula tended to

mainly inhabit the silty zone.

Table 1 Hydrological parameters recorded

from July 2000 to January 2001

Oxygen (mg/I)

(LAMARCK 1801) FROM KARWAR

Manzil Creek, Chendiya - a brackish water creek - has

silty sediment. The area is being utilized for aquaculture.

Associated flora and fauna: Amadalli has an abundant

bivalve population. Kali, being an estuary, has all the typical

associated fauna, including planktonic coelenterates,

polychaetes, crustacean larvae, and meio- and macro-benthic

fauna. Bivalves form the dominant molluscan fauna of fishery

value. Fringing mangrove flora can also be seen. The abundant

mangroves at Manzil creek were recently pruned for

aquaculture. Crustaceans, molluscs, polychaetes, and

coelenterates along with meio- and macro-benthic organisms

form the main fauna of Manzil creek.

Collection of specimens:

Collection was carried out from June 2000 to January

2001. The area was scanned for 0.5-2 cm wide slits, which

indicate the presence of Lingula in the burrow. Once the

shell was caught, the animal was carefully removed from the

burrow. A depth of more than 40 cm was reached before the

animal was released.

Structure: Tongue-shaped, 2-shelled with extremely

smooth surface, but with distinct growth lines, oblong, sub-

parallel lateral margins, anterior margin slightly convex to

straight with a median projection and long pedicle. Shell in

adult specimens is 4-5 cm long and composed of calcium

phosphate and chitin.

Colour: Greenish (translucent green to dark green),

sometimes slightly beige to brownish along the lateral and

posterior margins. Ventral valve has a pedicle groove, without

visible growth lines and discontinuous with the internal sides

of the valve.

Shell: Composed of 2 nearly identical valves located

on dorsal and ventral surfaces of the animal. Anterior end

truncate, posterior end tapers to a point where the pedicle is

attached. Apex, the oldest part of the valve, is located at this

point. Growth of young ones occurs anteriorly and laterally

from the apex.

A fringe of bristle-like chitinous setae emerges from

the margin of the valves. The shell is composed of chitin,

protein and calcium phosphate, and is 50% organic matter.

Table 2 Size range of Lingula at the three study sites

Shell length (mm) Shell width (mm)

Kali estuary 20-40 8-18

Manzil creek 28-30 11-13

Amadalli 40-49 18-20

330

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

The outer surface is covered by a glossy, proteinaceous

periostracum. The high percentage of organic material makes

the shell relatively flexible and soft.

Lining the inside of the valves is the mantle, which

secretes the shell, and encloses the mantle cavity. Within

this cavity is the lophophore, with cilia that beat and give

rise to a water current that helps the animal in feeding and

respiration. The animal occupies only the posterior part of

the shell.

Pedicle: A long extension of the body, which is used

to anchor the animal in its burrow. The epithelium of the

posterior end of the pedicle secretes glue-like mucous that

adheres to the sediment in the bottom of the burrow, thereby

temporarily anchoring the animal. Lingulids are not

permanently anchored and can change position. Pedicle

contains an evagination of the coelom and is hollow. Pedicle

length varies and hence is not considered for comparison.

Discussion: On the basis of various morphological

characters, the animal was identified to species level. In these

waters, Lingula is found in two types of habitat, sand and

silt. Better growth and survival was noted in the sandy area.

Lingula collected from Amadalli were larger than those

collected from Kali estuary and Manzil creek. According to

Emig et al. (1978) too, lingulids usually inhabit sandy marine

bottoms from the inter-tidal to the circa-littoral zone.

There are various contradictions concerning the

burrowing behaviour of Lingula. Emig ( 1 983) mentioned the

non-reburrowing characters in Asamushi, Japan, but

RIFE

Emig, C.C. (1983): Importance of the sediment on the distribution of

Lingula. Lethaia 17(2): 115-123.

Emig, C.C., J.C. Gail, D. Prajaud & J.C. Plaziat (1978): New topics

on ecology and systematics of recent and fossil lingulids. Geobios

11(5): 573-609.

Hyman, L. (1959): The Invertebrates. Vol. 5. Chapter XXL Phylum

Hyman (1959) and Savazzi (1991) say that it is capable of

reburrowing.

At the time of collection the animal was found

burrowing deeper and hence the pedicle length was seen to

vary greatly. Emig ( 1 983) mentions that the pedicle can attain

a length 20 times greater than its shell.

The maximum shell length found at Amadalli was

49 mm (Table 2), whereas according to Mahajan and Joshi

( 1 983) the maximum shell length (SL) was 47.56 mm. Yatsu

mentions the maximum length of Japanese Lingula anatina

as 35 mm (Hyman 1959). This indicates that Indian species

are much larger in size.

The Lingula found here are adaptable as the highly

fluctuating parameters appeared to have very little effect on

the animal (Table 1).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors thank the Karnataka University authorities

for providing laboratory facilities.

January 14,2002 S. VEENA

V.N. NAYAK

Department of Marine Biology,

Karnataka University Post Graduate Centre,

Kodibag,

Karwar581 303,

Karnataka, India.

Brachiopoda. Pp. 516-609.

Mahajan, S.N. & M.C. Joshi (1983): Age and shell growth in Lingula

anatina (Lam.) Indian J. Mar. Sci. 12(2): 120-121.

Savazzi, E. (1991): Burrowing in the inarticulate brachiopod Lingula

anatina. Palaeogeogr. PalaeoclimatoL, Palaeoecol. 85 (1 &

2): 101-106.

28. MUCUNA SEMPERVIRENS HEMSL. (LEGUMINOSAE: PAPILIONOIDEAE)

- A NEW REPORT FOR ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Recently, during a botanical exploration in Dibang Valley,

Arunachal Pradesh, we collected an interesting specimen of

Mucuna (c. 1300 m, 18.xi.2000, M.K. Pathak & M. Bhaumik

3204-CAL) c. 26 km north of Roing on the way to Myodia Pass.

A critical study revealed that it was Mucuna sempervirens

Hemsl., hitherto unreported from Arunachal Pradesh.

A brief description of our collection and other relevant

data are given to facilitate its identification in the field.

Mucuna sempervirens Hemsl. in Forbes & Hemsl.,

J. Linn. Soc. Bot. 23: 190. 1887 & in Curtis Bot. Mag. t. 7978.

1904; Grierson in Grierson & Long (eds.), FI. Bhutan 1(3): 686.

1987; Wilmot-Dear in Kew Bull. 39: 39. 1984&42:27. 1987;

Sanjappa, Leg. India 2 1 8. 1992. M. mairei H. Lev. In Feddes

Repert. 13: 337. 1914. M. japonica Nakai in Bot. Mag. Tokyo

46:57,631. 1932.

Woody climber; stem longitudinally ridged, glabrous.

Racemes arising from leafless older stems, 10-15 cm long,

c. 10 flowered. Pedicels c. 2.5 cm long, pubescent; bracteoles

deciduous. Calyx 8-12 x 1 8-25 mm, cup-shaped. Corolla dark

purple; standard 3.2-4 cm long, keel 6-7 mm long. Staminal

tube c. 4 cm long. Ovary and style pubescent.

FI. & Fr.: May-October.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

331

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Distribution: india: Arunachal Pradesh, Manipur,

Sikkim, West Bengal; Bhutan, China, Myanmar.

Notes: The plant was found growing in subtropical

forest at an elevation of c. 1,300 m on humus-rich soil, beside

a stream. The area experiences heavy rainfall and the plant

was found to reach the top of the forest canopy. We could

not locate the species in any other locality of Dibang

Valley.

A copious amount of watery sap was found to ooze

out on cutting the stem.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to the Director, Botanical Survey of

India, to Dr. M. Sanjappa and Dr. S.K. Verma for help and

encouragement.

November 1 5, 200 1 M.K. PATHAK

M. BHAUMIK

Botanical Survey of India, P.O. Botanic Garden,

Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

29. MEMECYLON WIGHTII THW. (MELASTOMATACEAE), A NEW RECORD

FOR MAHARASHTRA STATE

During studies on the flora of Savantwadi taluka and

thereafter Chaukul and Ramghat area of Sindhudurg district

of western Maharashtra, a number of interesting flowering

plants were collected. A rare plant belonging to the genus

Memecylon of Family Melastomataceae drew the attention of

the author. Critical study of the collected materials confirmed

its identity as M. wightii Thw.

Nomenclature, a short description and differences

between the related species are given in the note. Illustrations

of flowering twig and a fruit are provided (Fig. 1 ).

Memecylon wightii Thw., Enum. 113.1 859; Cogniaux in

DC., Monogr. Phan. 7: 1 145.1891; C.B. Clarke in J.D. Hooker

Flora British India 2: 554. 1 897; Woodrow in J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 1 1 : 638.1898; Cooke, T. The Flora ofthe Presidency

of Bombay 2: 503.1903; Talbot, Forest Flora of the Bombay

Presidency and Sindh 2: 55.191 1.

A small tree; branchlets slender, quadrangular, winged;

wings broader between each node. Leaves shortly petiolate,

ovate-oblong, acute or somewhat acuminate, glabrous, thick,

shining above, penninerved beneath. Flowers crowded

cauliflorous, borne on the bare basal portion of the branchlet

in between two nodes, pedicellate; pedicel slender, tube

campanulate; limb slightly 4-lobed or almost truncate. Petals

blue, obtuse. Berry spherical, conspicuously crowned with

the calyx-limb.

M. wightii Thw. resembles M. randerianum Almeida &

Almeida in general appearance, however, it varies from

M. randerianum in the following characters.

M. wightii Thw. M. randerianum

Almeida & Almeida

1. Branchlets quadrangular 1 Branchlets terete,

winged.

2 Leaves shortly pedicellate, 2. Leaves sessile, amplexicaule

rounded at base.

3 Flowers cauliflorous in 3. Flowers axillary,

clusters.

4. Pedicel stout, peduncle erect

4 Pedicel very slender,

pendulous, peduncle

absent.

332

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

FI: January.

Fr: September.

The materials collected from an evergreen forest near

the Amboli-Chaukul border are preserved and deposited at

Blatter Herbarium. (Specimens No. BGG 1050, 2628).

There is no report of this species from the present State

of Maharashtra. Nor are there any specimens in Blatter

Herbarium, Mumbai.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful for guidance and help from Prof. M.R.

Almeida and Dr. (Mrs.) S.M. Almeida in the preparation of

this article.

January 22, 2002 BALKRISHNA G. GAVADE

Blatter Herbarium, St. Xavier’s College,

Mahapalika Marg, Mumbai 400 001, India.

30. LEPTOLEJEUNEA BALANSAE STEPH. (HEPATICAE: J UNGERM ANN1ALES)

- A NEW RECORD OF BRYOFLORA FROM THE INDIAN MAINLAND

The Western Ghats in peninsular India - recognized as

one of the richest biodiversity hotspots in the world - has

been studied well for flowering plants. The Tirunelveli-

Travancore hills, located at the southern end of the Western

Ghats and lying in the states of Tamil Nadu and Kerala

respectively, are perhaps the richest in the Western Ghats.

The flowering plants, and ferns and their allies have been

well documented, but lower groups remain greatly neglected.

Therefore we began collecting the bryophytes of the Western

Ghats of Tirunelveli and Kanyakumari districts, three years

ago, with the intention of compiling an inventory.

Leptolejeunea balansae, a folicolous liverwort, earlier known

to occur only in the Andamans in India (Pande et al. 1957;

Awasthi 1986) was recorded from the study area. A detailed

description and an illustration are provided.

Leptolejeunea balansae Steph. in Hedwigia 35: 105.

1 896 & Sp. Hepat. 5: 377. 1913; Pande et al. in J. Indian Bot.

Soc. 36: 345. 1957; U.S. Awasthi in J. Indian Bot. Soc. 65:

119.1986 (Fig. 1).

Plants dioecious, folicolous, closely appressed to the

substratum, 2-10 mm long, green. Leaves distant, spreading

obliquely, slipper-shaped, 0.35-0.4 x 0. 1 7-0. 1 9 mm, entire along

Fig. 1: Leptolejeunea balansae Steph.; A Leaf showing thalli, B. Thallus with antheridia, C Leafwith lobule showing the upper ocellus,

D Leaf without lobule showing both the ocelli, E & F Under leaves, G Leaf cells with an ocellus,

H. Leaf cells with oil bodies, I leaf apex

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (2), May-Aug 2004

333

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the margins, 2-dentate towards the apex on the ventral side;

marginal cells 13-15 x 14-16 pm median cells 20-22 x 16-18 pm;

basal cells 23-25 x 19-21 pm; walls 3-gonous, hyaline, with

nodular thickenings in between; oil bodies 2-5 per cell,

rounded or elongate, 5-7 pm, granular, translucent, green; ocelli

2 per leaf; apical one c. 30 x 20 pm; basal one c. 33 x 21 pm;

lobules about half as long as the leaves, toothed. Underleaves

deeply 2-lobed; lobes distant, widely spreading; cells 2-seriate

at the base, uniseriate above; base somewhat quadrate,

c. 0.04 x 0. 1 5 mm; central zone with a tuft of hyaline rhizoids.

Antheridia terminal, on the main stem or lateral branches

towards apex, c. 60 pm, light brown. Female plants not seen.

(Not seen by earlier workers either, vide Awasthi l.c.).

Habitat: Grows on the upper surface of leaves of

Elaeocarpus venustus Bedd. (Elaeocarpaceae), a large

evergreen tree. Elaeocarpus venustus is endemic to the study

area and adjoining areas in Kerala and is known by a small

population (Henry and Swaminathan 1978). It has been

categorized as a vulnerable (Nayar 1996) and endangered

species (Gopalan and Henry 2000). We observed 1 0 trees in a

swampy area.

Though earlier workers described L. balansae as

folicolous, there is no mention of the host species. In the

Andamans material examined by us, in one collection the

host plant is a fern Angiopteris evecta (Forst.) Hoffrn., and in

the other it is a dicot Heritiera littoralis Dryand

(Sterculiaceae), both of which are widespread. In the present

study, so far, the endemic E. venustus is the only known

host. In the first collection of about 50 leaves from a branch,

only one had 3 1 plants, most measuring less than 6 mm. In

the second collection of about 100 leaves from a branch,

only one had 1 5 plants measuring less than 6 mm. As a result,

finding the plant seems a matter of chance despite one’s

best efforts.

Distribution: india: Andaman Islands and Tamil Nadu;

Malaysia, Thailand and Vietnam (Awasthi, l.c.).

Note: The host leaves of the Andamans material have

110, 68 and 27 plants in an area of 60, 52 and 61 sq. cm

respectively, whereas the host leaves under study harbour

33 and 3 plants in an area of 24 and 20 sq. cm respectively.

This density is considerably lower than that of the Andamans

specimens. The larger size of the Andamans specimens (plants

measuring up to 15 mm, leaf lobes 0.48-0.64x0. 17-0.32 mm,

leaf cells 12-52 x 16-29 pm and ocelli 50-71 x 29-33 pm) is

perhaps due to the higher annual rainfall and humidity in the

Andamans than in the Western Ghats.

Specimens examined: India, Andaman Islands, prope

Port Blair, 1895 ,E.H. Man s. n. ; prope Port Blair, 1895 ,E.H.

Mans.n. (G). Tamil Nadu, Kanyakumari dist., W. Ghats, Upper

Kodaiyar, evergreen forests, epiphyllous on Elaeocarpus

venustus tree, c. 1,250 m, 9.xi.2000, A.E.D. Daniels 1218;

24.viii.2001M.ED. Daniels 1 802 (MH, SCCN).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Director, BSI, Kolkata for facilities, the

Tamil Nadu State Forest Department for permission to explore

the study area. Dr. M. Price, Curator of Bryophytes (G), for

loan of the Andamans material, Dr. N.P. Balakrishnan, formerly

Joint Director, BSI, Coimbatore, for his expert help in

identifying the host plants from the Andamans and Dr. D.K.

Singh, Joint Director, BSI, Dehra Dun, for a critical reading of

the manuscript. A.E.D. D. is grateful to Mr. J.R. Irwin, fonnerly

Forest Range Officer, for accompanying him during the

explorations, Mr. S. Nelson, formerly Land Development

Officer, for transport facilities and Dr. A.D. Sobhanaraj,

Principal, Scott Christiai College, Nagercoil, for

encouragement.

January 22, 2002 A.E.D. DANIELS

Botany Department,

Scott Christian College,

Nagercoil 629 003,

Tamil Nadu, India.

P. DANIEL

Botanical Survey of India,

Southern Circle, TNAU Campus,

Lawley Road P.O., Coimbatore 64 1 003,

Tamil Nadu, India.

REFERENCES

Awasthi, U.S. (1986): The genus Leptolejeunea (Spruce) Steph. in

India. J Indian Bot. Soc. 65: 1 17-123.

Gopalan, R. & A.N. Henry (2000): Endemic plants of India: CAMP for

the strict endemics of Agasthiyamalai hills, SW. Ghats. Dehra Dun.

Henry, A.N. & M.S. Swaminathan (1978): Rare or little known plants

from south India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 76: 373-376.

Nayar, M.P. (1996): Hot spots of endemic plants of India, Nepal and

Bhutan. Trivandrum.

Pande, S.K., K.P. Srivastava& S. Ahmad (1957): Epiphyllous liverworts

of India and Ceylon. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 36: 335-347.

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SMITHSONIAN INSTITUTION LIBRARIES

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL

MOLLUSCAN FAUNA OF POINT CALIMERE WILDLIFE SANCTUARY PART 1 : GASTROPODA

3 9088 01139 6710

I

ByDeepak Apte

REVISION OF SOME SPECIES OF FAMILY SCHIZOMIDAE (ARACHNIDA: SCHIZOMIDA) ON THE BASIS OF

TYPES DEPOSITED BY F.H. GRAVELY (191 1-1925) IN THE NATIONAL COLLECTION, ZSI, KOLKATA

By D.B. Bastawade

DETERMINING THE RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN BIOMASS CONSUMED AND SCATS PRODUCED IN

CAPTIVE ASIATIC LIONS (. PANTHERA LEO PERSICA ) AND LEOPARDS (. PANTHERA PARDUS)

By S. Mukherjee and S.P. Goyal

NUTRITIONAL STATUS OF FERNS AND THEIR RELATION TO INSECT INFESTATION FROM DARJEELING

FOOTHILLS AND PLAINS

By A. Mukhopadhyay and D. Thapa

ELEPHANT-HUMAN CONFLICT ON COMMUNITY LANDS IN GARO HILLS, NORTHEAST INDIA

By A. Christy Williams and A.J.T. Johnsingh

KEMMAN GUNDI REVISITED: NOTES ON BIRDS OBSERVED AT THE BABABUDAN HILLS, KARNATAKA,

SOUTH INDIA

ByS.Thejaswi

THE IRRAWADDY DOLPHINS ORCAELLA BREVIROSTRISO F CHILIKA LAGOON, INDIA

ByR.K. Sinha

ECOBIOLOGY OF INDIAN WILD BUFFALO BUB ALUS ARNEE L. IN UDANTI WILDLIFE SANCTUARY,

CHHATTISGARH, INDIA

By P.C. Kotwal and Raj endra Prasad Mishra

AN EVALUATION OF CROP PROTECTION METHODS IN KERALA

By A. Veeramani, P.S. Easa and E.A. Jayson

WINTERING RECORDS, ECOLOGY AND BEHAVIOUR OF KASHMIR FLYCATCHER FICEDULA SUBRUBRA

(HARTERT & STEINBACHER)

By Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri and Asad R. Rahmani

DESCRIPTIONS OF NEW LEPIDOPTERA FROM THE KUMAON HIMALAYA

By Peter Smetacek

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

199

201

211

221

224

227

235

244

252

255

261

269

EXISTENCE OF THE ORDER BATHYNELLACEA (CRUSTACEA, SYNCARIDA) IN SOUTH ASIA: A NEW

SPECIES OF GENUS HABROBATHYNELLA SCHMINKE 1 973, FROM RIVER PENNAR, SOUTH INDIA

By Y. Ranga Reddy... 277

A NEW SPECIES OF USCANA GIRAULT (TRICHOGRAMMATIDAE: HYMENOPTERA) FROM THE EGGS OF

FIELD BRUCHIDS

By H.R. Pajni and P.K. Tewari 285

ANEW SPECIES OF SPIDER OF THE GENUS PEUCETIA THORELL (OXYOPIDAE: ARANEAE) FROM DIGHA,

MIDNAPORE, WEST BENGAL, INDIA

By Sumana Saha and Dinendra Raychaudhuri 288

BRACHIARLA MARSELINI SP.NOV. A NEW SPECIES OF POACEAE FROM MAHARASHTRA

ByNitinD. GawadeandB.G. Gavade 29 1

A NEW SPECIES OF SPIRULINA (= ARTHROSPIRA) MAHAJANI MAHAJAN FROM KHARGONE, MADHYA

PRADESH

By S.K. Mahajan 294

A NEW SPECIES OF THE BLIND FISH HORAGLANIS MENON (SILUROIDEA: CLARIIDAE) FROM

PARAPPUKARA (TRICHUR DISTRICT) AND A NEW REPORT OF HORAGLANIS KRISHNA I MENON

FROM ETTUMANUR (KOTTAYAM DISTRICT), KERALA

ByK.K. Subhash Babu and C.K.G.Nayar 296

REVIEWS 299

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 304

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Rachel Reuben

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

Website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]

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BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

DECEMBER 2004

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Hornbill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Marg, Mumbai 400 023.

Executive Editor

Asad R. Rahmani, Ph. D.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Copy and Production Editor

Gayatri W. Ugra, Ph. D

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Editorial Board

M R. Almeida, D Litt.

Bombay Natural History Society, Mumbai

Ajith Kumar, Ph D

National Centre for Biological Sciences, GKVK Campus,

Hebbal, Bangalore

M K Chandrashekaran, Ph D , D. Sc.

Professor, Jawaharlal Nehru Centre

for Advanced Scientific Research,

Bangalore

Anwaruddin Choudhury, Ph. D

The Rhino Foundation for Nature, Guwahati

Indraneil Das, D Phil.

Institute of Biodiversity and Environmental Conservation,

Universiti Malaysia, Sarawak, Malaysia

Raghavendra Gadagkar, Ph. D

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Y.V. Jhala, Ph D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K Ullas Karanth, Ph D

Wildlife Conservation Society - India Program,

Bangalore, Karnataka

T.C. Narendran, Ph D., D Sc

Professor, Department of Zoology,

University of Calicut, Kerala

Aasheesh Pittie, B. Com.

Bird Watchers Society of Andhra Pradesh,

Hyderabad

G.S. Rawat, Ph. D.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

K Rema Devi, Ph D

Zoological Survey of India, Chennai

J S. Singh, Ph. D

Professor, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi

S Subramanya, Ph. D

University of Agricultural Sciences, GKVK,

Hebbal, Bangalore

R Sukumar, Ph. D

Professor, Centre for Ecological Sciences,

Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore

Romulus Whitaker, B. Sc.

Madras Reptile Park and Crocodile Bank Trust,

Tamil Nadu

Consultant Editors

Raghunandan Chundawat, Ph D.

Wildlife Conservation Society, Bangalore.

Nigel Collar, Ph D

BirdLife International, UK

Rhys Green, Ph D

Royal Society for Protection of Birds, UK

QamarQureshi, M Phil.

Wildlife Institute of India, Dehra Dun

T J Roberts, Ph D

World Wildlife Fund - Pakistan

Editorial Assistant Vibhuti Dedhia, M. Sc

Layout and Typesetting V Gopi Naidu

recording or by any information storage and retrieval system, without permission in writing from the Bombay Natural History Society (BNHS). Enquiries

concerning reproduction outside the scope of the above should be addressed to the Honorary Secretary, BNHS at the address given above.

VOLUME 101 (3): DECEMBER 2004

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL 335

A CASE STUDY OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS IN MUTHURAJ AWELA MARSH,

SRI LANKA: CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONSERVATION

Deni Porej 337

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI WOODR. ET STAPF

P. Tetali, SujataTetali, P.V. Joshi, Sanjay Kulkarni, P. Lakshminarasimhanand P.V. Prasanna 344

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF ANON-HUNTED ARGALI POPULATION IN

THE EAST GOBI, MONGOLIA

Michael R. Frisina, Raul Valdez and Gombosuren Ulziimaa 353

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

— 40. FAMILY: FRINGILLIDAE: FINCHES

Saraswathy Unnithan 360

BEHAVIOURAL AND FUNCTIONING INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN THE

RIVER MANDARINE AN ASSESSMENT THROUGH ALTERING SEX RATIO PATTERNS

N. Singh and K.C. Bhatt 374

STATUS OF SEA-COW DUGONG DUGON (MULLER) ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

M. Badrudeen, P. Nammalwar and K. Dorairaj 381

BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGY OF RETURNING FORAGERS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT OECOPHYLLA

SMARAGDINA (FABRICIUS) DURING THE MONSOON

N. Rastogi 388

MORTALITY OF HERPETOFAUNA, BIRDS AND MAMMALS DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC IN ETAWAH

DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

K.S. Gopi Sundar 392

ARE WORMS AFFECTED BY HOST ECOLOGY? A PERSPECTIVE FROM MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, SOUTHERN INDIA

Guha Dharmarajan, M. Raman and Mathew C. John 399

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES, THEKKADY, KERALA

K.K. Subhash Babu and C.K.G. Nayar 403

NOTES ON CALLIPHORID FLIES (DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE) FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE RESERVE

AND THEIR IMPACT ON MAN AND ANIMALS

Shuvra Kanti Sinha and B.C. Nandi 415

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS STENOMESIUS WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM

INDIA

Meena Agnihotri and M.A. Khan 421

HITHERTO UNKNOWN GENERA OF SPIDERS, ORDGARIUS KEYSERLINQ PASILOBUS SIMON (ARANEIDAE)

AND STR/GOPLUS SIMON (THOMISIDAE) FROM EASTERN INDIA

Sumana Saha and Dinendra Raychaudhuri 425

A NEW SPECIES OF RASBORA BLEEKER (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA

Waikhom Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 429

ANEW FISH OF THE GENUS ACANTOPSIS VAN HASSELT (CYPRINIFORMES: COBITIDAE) FROM M AN IPUR,

INDIA

Waikhom Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 433

REVIEWS

1. BIRDS OF GOA: A REFERENCE BOOK

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 437

2. THE MAMMALS OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani 437

3. MARINE MAMMALS OF INDIA

Reviewed by Asad R. Rahmani

438

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1 . Use of arm as 'bridge' in Gibbon locomotion

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 439

2. Electric pylons used as night roost by troops of

Rhesus Macaque Macaca mulata at Sariska Tiger

Reserve. Alwar district, Rajasthan

By Satish Kumar Sharma 439

3. Trend analysis of marked Leopard Panthera pardus

captured and recaptured around Gir Protected Area,

Gujarat

By B.P. Pati, R.K. Hirapara, R.B. Solanki and

S. Vijayan 440

4. Species of Barking Deer (Genus Muntiacus) in the

eastern Himalayan region

By George B. Schaller and Alan Rabinowitz 442

5. On the pangolin and porcupine species of

Bangladesh

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 444

BIRDS

6. Cat Snake Boiga Irigonata in diet of Jerdon’s Baza

Aviceda jerdoni

By S. Sivakumar and Vibhu Prakash 445

7. Occurrence of the Northern Goshawk Accipiter

gentilis in and near Mysore. Karnataka

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 446

8. The Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca near

Mysore, southern India

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 447

9. Status of the Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

Pallas in the wetlands of the Kaveri Basin of

Karnataka

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 447

10. The White-bellied Sea-eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster

(Gmelin) in inland southern India

By Thejaswi Shivanand 450

11. A note on harrier roosts in the Mysore area

By S. Thejaswi, A. Shivaprakash and

M. Mohan Kumar 450

12. Occurrence of Amur Falcon Falco amurensis Radde

and Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni Fleischer in

Mysore, Karnataka

By S. Thejaswi, Srihari Sastry, A. Shivaprakash

and M. Mohan Kumar 451

13. Natural history notes on chicks of the Nicobar

Megapode Megapodius nicobariensis

By K. Sivakumar and R. Sankaran 452

14. Black Tern Chlidonias niger (Linn.) in Mysore,

Karnataka: First record from inland southern India

By S. Thejaswi 454

1 5. On the insectivorous diet of Columba livia Gmelin

By M.K. Himmatsinhji 455

16. Eastern Calandra-lark Melanocorypha bimaculata

in Mysore, Karnataka: a new record for southern

India

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 455

17. Records of Grey-headed Starling Sturnus

malabaricus blvthii in Mumbai

By Mehboob Alam 456

18. Occurrence of the Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus

divaricatus (Raffles) at the Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary, Kerala

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 456

19. Sooty Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica Gmelin and

Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) in

Bandipur National Park, Karnataka, southern India

By S. Thejaswi and M.C. Manohara 457

20. New sites for the globally threatened Yellow-

throated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon)

in Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil Nadu, southern India

By S. Thejaswi 458

21. Observations on the Rusty-rumped Grasshopper-

warbler Locustella certhiola (Pallas) at Mysore,

Karnataka

By S. Thejaswi and A. Shivaprakash 461

22. Asight record ofTytler’s Leaf-warbler Phylloscopus

tytleri from the Nilgiris, southern India

By S. Thejaswi and Ashfaq Ahmed Zarri 462

23. Sighting of Wallcreeper Tichodroma muraria in

Assam and Manipur

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 463

24. Probable hybridisation between weaverbirds,

Ploceus philippinus and Ploceus manyar

By Suhel Quader 463

FISHES

25. Tor putitora (Hamilton, 1 822) as an addition to the

fish fauna of peninsular India

By T.G Manojkumar and B. Madhusoodana Kurup 465

26. Fishes of the genus Colisa Cuvier from Manipur

and first record of Colisa labiosus (Day) from India

By W. Vishwanath and I. Linthoingambi 466

27. First record of the Polka-dot Triggerfish

Canthidermis rotundatus (Proce) (= Canthidermis

maculatus) (Family Balistidae) from Mumbai

By B.F. Chhapgar and K.L. Vaidya 469

INSECTS

28. A gynandromorph of Megachile ( Eutricharaea )

gathela Cameron (Insecta, Hymenoptera,

Megachilidae)

By Rajiv K. Gupta 471

29. Butterflies attracted to light near Government College

campus, Vatakara, Kerala

By Vinayan P. Nair 472

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

30. Cladoceran composition of Adra lake. West Bengal

By S.V. A. Chandrasekhar 472

BOTANY

3 1 Some observations on two rare endemic dipterocarps

of southern Western Ghats

By Manisha Thapliyal and N. Venkatasubramanian 475

32. On stamen number and size in Bauhinia purpurea :

A reply to S. Bandyopadhyay

By A.J. Solomon Raju, S.P. Rao and V. Sree Durga ... 477

33. On the occurrence o f Dimeria connivens Hack, in

Andhra Pradesh

By S. Sandhya Rani, K. Sri Rama Murthy,

D. Muralidhara Rao and T. Pullaiah 478

34. Poikilohvdrous plants in northern Western Ghats

By Aparna Watve 479

35. Flowers ofSahyadri: A critical appraisal

By S.M. Almeida 480

Cover Photograph: Saltwater Crocodile Crocodylus porosus

By Romulus Whitaker

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are grateful to the Ministry of Science and Technology,

Govt of India,

FOR ENHANCED FINANCIAL SUPPORT FOR THE PUBLICATION OF THE JOURNAL.

Editorial

A need for Species Recovery Plans

The Wildlife (Protection) Act was enacted in 1972, and since then has been modified several times, the latest being

in 2003. This Act is supposed to take care of all our protected areas, wild places and wild species. The Act also

covers The Wildlife (Transactions and Taxidermy) Rules, 1973; The Wildlife (Stock Declaration) Central Rules,

1973; The Wildlife (Protection) Licensing (Additional Matters for Consideration) Rules, 1983; The Wildlife

(Protection) Rules, 1 995; The Wildlife (Specified Plants - Conditions for Possession by Licensee) Rules, 1 995; The

National Zoo Policy, 1998; and The Declaration of Wildlife Stock Rules, 2003.

The 42nd Constitutional Amendment Act, 1 976 was a landmark decision when for the first time the subject of

wildlife was inserted as Entry- 17B in the List-Ill (concurrent list) of the Seventh Schedule of the Constitution. With

rapid changes in the perception of wildlife conservation in the world, the Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1 972 has been

appropriately amended in 1982, 1991, 1993 and 2003.

The wild species of flora and fauna are listed in various schedules (I to V), with the most threatened species

listed in Schedule 1. But, is it so? If you go through the species lists, the Act is heavily biased towards mega-

vertebrates - some of the rare amphibians, reptiles, fish, and insects are left out. The listing is unfortunately not

based on any objective scientific assessment of threats to a particular species.

Our suggestion to the Government of India is that this listing of species in different schedules should be

done purely on the basis of scientific assessment, and for species that are listed in Schedule I and Schedule II,

there should be species recovery plans. It is no use just listing the species, and then forgetting about them. Our

aims should be to see that species recover to such numbers that they are downlisted from Schedule I to Schedule

II, and from Schedule II to III or IV. That will be some achievement. We have some examples of success stories. For

instance, Blackbuck ( Antilope cerx’icapra) has recovered in many areas and it is not so rare as it used to be

30 years ago. Moreover, like most ungulates, it has tremendous breeding potential. Should it not be downlisted to

Schedule II? Even in Schedule II, it will remain legally protected. Similarly, Chinkara {Gazella bennettii) is widespread

in north and central India, and is abundant in many Bishnoi areas of Rajasthan, Punjab and Haryana. It is found in

at least 1 1 states and more than 150 sanctuaries. There could be as many as a hundred thousand Chinkara in

Rajasthan alone. With such a large population, should it be included in Schedule I at all? Are we not diluting

Schedule I by including such common and widespread species? Interestingly, Ermine ( Mustela erminea), a

widespread species in the temperate regions of the world, is included in Schedule 1. Or take the case of Leopard

(Panthera pardus ), it is the most widespread of large cats in the world (present in Africa, the Middle East and

Asia). Undoubtedly many subspecies or populations of Leopard are critically endangered and need every possible

conservation support to survive. They are under great poaching pressures, but can we say that the species is

threatened with extinction? Can we equate it with the Hangul ( Cenms elaphus hanglu ) or the Pygmy Hog ( Sus

salvanius) or the Asiatic Lion ( Panthera leo persica ) that have only one known viable population each?

It should be compulsory for the Central and State governments to start species recovery plans for all the

species listed in Schedule I. These species recovery plans should be based on good science and should have a

time frame, say 10-15 years (most endangered species would take that long, perhaps longer, to recover at the

current level of disturbances). Some thinly distributed species that need a wider landscape to survive may never

recover so they would need targeted conservation actions. The classical examples are the Great Indian Bustard

( Ardeotis nigriceps ) and Lesser Florican ( Sypheotides indica) that need grasslands, or the Gangetic Dolphin

{Platanista gangetica) that requires clean, unpolluted and undisturbed rivers. For such species there should be

special central government schemes, much like Project Tiger and Project Elephant.

We also have to develop a different approach for the conservation of our floral diversity. The IUCN criteria

and categories valid for fauna are not very suitable for plants. Similarly, for commercial fish and marine species, we

need not include all of them in various schedules of the Wildlife Protection Act but devise a sustainable approach

for conservation. Perhaps local communities, in this case fishermen, have to be empowered to conserve their

biotic resource. What I want to emphasize is that there is no single solution for saving species, and certainly

including threatened and not so threatened species in Schedule I or Schedule II is not the answer to emerging

conservation needs and initiatives. Listing in various schedules should be dynamic as it requires regular

reassessment.

I also feel that an attempt must be made to make the plants and animals mentioned in the schedules easily

identifiable. It serves no purpose unless the animal and plant mentioned in the schedule has a sketch or photograph

of the animal or plant along with the name(s). It is therefore necessary to publish an identification catalogue

wherever possible, so that anyone, including the enforcement authorities such as the Forest Department, Police,

Customs and Coast Guards, can readily identify the species mentioned in the Act.

The Ministry of Environment and Forests (MoEF) should start an exercise to recheck various species listed

in schedules, by involving experts and wildlife research institutes. Let all those species about which we do not

have sufficient population data, which are suspected to be rare or declining, be in higher schedules on the basis

of the precautionary principle, but those species which are not so uncommon, should be down listed (but should

remain protected). The IUCN method of assessment of a species status is very simple and scientific. Let us follow

this method and reassess all the species listed in various schedules of the WPA, and if we find that there is a need

to change the status of a species, we should not hesitate to do so. Once this exercise is over, for all the species that

are finally listed in Schedule I, there should be centrally funded, science based species recovery plans, involving

the cooperation of conservation institutes, local communities, experts and government departments.

ASADR. RAHMANI

With inputs from Mr. P.K. Manohar, Trustee, LAW-E

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

336

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

337-343

A CASE STUDY OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS

IN MUTHURAJAWELA MARSH, SRI LANKA:

CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONSERVATION1

Deni Porej2

'Accepted May, 2003

2The Nature Conservancy, 6375 Riverside Drive, Dublin, OH 43017, USA.

Email: [email protected]

Muthurajawela Marsh - Negombo Lagoon is a 6,300 ha complex consisting of a brackish marsh and a shallow lagoon,

located just 20 km north of Colombo, the capital of Sri Lanka. I located and studied a small, remnant population of

saltwater crocodile (Crocodylus porosus) in this complex. The total number of adults is estimated to be 15 individuals

(estimated up to 33 individuals at a 95% C.I.), and this population is still reproducing. Human activities are reducing

breeding success in the otherwise suitable habitats (reed islands, mangrove forest), directly (hunting and fishing), and

indirectly (habitat modification). Killing of nest-guarding female crocodiles and capture of juvenile crocodiles in “brush

piles” are the two most detrimental hunting practices. Better understanding of these small-scale processes may help

explain the gradual decline of saltwater crocodiles on a large scale in Sri Lanka, and offer guidance for developing effective

conservation programmes.

Key words: Conservation, crocodile, Crocodylus porosus, Sri Lanka, wetland

INTRODUCTION

Two species of crocodile, the mugger or marsh

crocodile ( Crocodylus palustris ) and the saltwater crocodile

{Crocodylus porosus ), inhabit Sri Lanka. Historically,

information on the status of these species in Sri Lanka has

been scanty (Deraniyagala 1953, Whitaker and Whitaker 1979),

but for some recent data (Porej 1 997a, Santiapillai et al. 2000,

Santiapillai and de Silva 2001). Both crocodile species are

currently listed in Appendix I of CITES for Sri Lanka

(Convention of International Trade in Endangered Species of

Wild Fauna and Flora). Santiapillai and de Silva (200 1 ) estimate

the total number of saltwater crocodiles in Sri Lanka to be

perhaps no more than 300, and suggest that this species be

considered “critically endangered” within Sri Lanka.

Saltwater crocodiles are the most widely distributed of

the crocodilians, ranging from southern India and Sri Lanka,

throughout southeast Asia and the Indo-Malay Archipelago,

to the Philippines, New Guinea and northern Australia (Ross

1998). Their status is highly variable, from being virtually

extinct in some countries (Singapore, Thailand) to abundant

in others (e.g. Australia). Although there are numerous

national parks in Sri Lanka, and crocodiles are protected by

the Fauna and Flora Protection Ordinance of 1938, there are

no conservation or management programmes in place.

Saltwater crocodiles have been extirpated or severely reduced

in several areas around the island, and persist mainly in

isolated patches of suitable habitat, and remote areas where

human activity is still low (Whitaker and Whitaker 1 989, Porej

1997a, b). Fishing, hunting and habitat modification were

identified as leading causes for the decline of saltwater

crocodiles in Sri Lanka (Uragoda 1994, Santiapillai and de

Silva 200 1 ). Illegal crocodile hunting occurs in most of the 26

wetlands surveyed by Porej in 1997 (Porej 1997b, see also

Santiapillai and de Silva 200 1 ). In a recent synthesis of crocodile

data from Sri Lanka, Santiapillai and de Silva (2001) documented

crocodile decline and noted that the amount and distribution

of protected areas in the western, southwestern, and southern

areas of the island remain inadequate. Obtaining quantitative

data on saltwater crocodile distribution and abundance in Sri

Lanka has been identified as a high priority by the 1UCN

Crocodile Specialist Group (Ross 1 998).

The saltwater crocodile population of the

Muthurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon complex (MNLC)

inhabits an area in which some prime habitat remains only

because the area’s physical characteristics (constant flooding,

poor soils, difficult access) render it unsuitable for agriculture

and large-scale timber exploitation. Like many other river

estuaries on the western and southern Sri Lankan coast, where

saltwater crocodiles still persist (Porej 1997a, Santiapillai et

al. 2000), this area is almost completely isolated by

surrounding human activities (Samarakoon and van Zon 1991).

It is likely that massive residential and industrial developments,

which tend to concentrate in these areas, disrupt normal

migratory patterns along the upstream waterways (Ross 1998).

In addition, crocodile populations in areas such as the MNLC

face increased hunting pressure as the surrounding human

population increases, and road developments provide access

to previously inaccessible crocodile foraging and breeding

grounds.

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

Fig 1: Map of Muthurajawela Marsh- Negombo Lagoon complex, Sri Lanka, showing the location of six survey areas

This case study investigates the effects of human

activities on crocodile distribution, breeding activities and

population numbers on a local scale. Questions of interest

are: How much overlap exists between fishing areas and

suitable crocodile breeding habitat in estuarine regions such

as MNLC? Do relatively low-impact, small scale hunting and

fishing practices affect local crocodile populations? If so,

what are the most detrimental fishing/hunting practices, and

how can they be modified to allow the coexistence of man

and crocodile? Better understanding of these local processes

can help explain the gradual disappearance of saltwater

crocodiles on a large scale from Sri Lanka, and help devise

more effective conservation plans.

STUDY SITE

The Muthurajawela Marsh-Negombo Lagoon complex

(MNLC) is located c. 20 km north of Colombo, capital of

Sri Lanka. It consists of the Muthurajawela marsh, a large

area of brackish marshes (3,100 ha) on the southern end,

and the shallow (avg. depth 0.65 m), estuarine Negombo

lagoon (3,200 ha) to the northwest (Fig. 1 ). The lagoon opens

into the sea by way of a single opening at the northern

end.

338

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

The Muthurajawela marsh consists of previously

cultivated rice paddy fields, a network of canals, scattered

ponds and cultivated fields. Most of the Muthurajawela marsh

is flooded during the periods of heavy rain, and the poorly

drained peat substrate is saturated almost the whole year.

Large areas of natural vegetation still exist, particularly in the

northern segment of the marsh. The southern portion of the

marsh is dominated by a combination of sedges and cattails.

Also common are patches of ferns ( Acrostichum aureum )

and an invasive, exotic shrub Annona glabra. Mangroves

still fringe some segments of the lagoon shoreline.

The MNLC harbours immense bird diversity (146

resident and 35 migrating species) and is productive enough

to support over 3000 fishermen (Samarakoon and van Zon

1 991 ). In addition to saltwater crocodiles, it provides habitat

for an assemblage of wetland-dependent reptiles and

amphibians. These include two species of monitor lizards,

two endangered terrapins, and the extremely rare Gerard’s

water snake Gerarda prevostiana (Porej 200 1 ).

The study site was divided into 6 study areas differing

in physical characteristics (Fig. 1 .) and ranging from river and

canal (areas 2, 3 and 5) to shallow, slow-flowing or stagnant

open water bodies (areas 1 , 4 and 6). These areas also differ in

the amount of housing and the intensity of fishing activities.

Most houses are located along the banks of the Dandugam.

Oya River and the Ja-Ela canal. Of 1 73 houses located within

the boundaries of the study site, 135 (78%, 22.5 houses/km

riverbank) are located along the canal in area 5; 17 houses are

located in area 2 (9.8%, 4.7 houses/km riverbank); and the

rest are squatters’ houses scattered throughout the more

remote areas (Samarakoon and van Zon 1991, Benthem and

van Zon 1994).

Fishing methods include push nets, seines, cast nets

and brush piles, (Samarakoon and van Zon 1991). Brush piles

and harvesting of females guarding a nest are two methods

by which crocodiles are captured in the MNLC. Brush piles

are fish-aggregating devices, constructed by forming a 5-6 m

diameter circle of upright sticks in shallow water, and filling it

with small branches and leaves. Decomposing material attracts

many small fish and shrimp to these sites, which in turn attract

large fish favoured by fishermen. After a period of 30-45 days

brush piles are surrounded by fishing net, the branches

removed, and the fish captured by hand or hand-held nets.

Quite often, juvenile crocodiles take refuge in these 'havens’

and become a welcome addition to the fisherman’s diet. Adult

crocodiles taken are mostly females killed while guarding a

nest. When a nest is discovered, the fishermen will return to

the site until they locate and kill the female. If the eggs are

recently laid, they are collected for consumption, and if not,

the nest is usually set on fire.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Study areas were surveyed eight times from May 7 to

August 18, 1997. Surveys were carried out at night from a

boat moving at constant speed (c. 1 0 km/h), using a 1 million

candlepower searchlight (for a detailed description of night-

time survey techniques and techniques for the capture and

restraint of crocodilians see Bayliss 1987 and Crocodile

Specialist Group 1994). Every 20 minutes of the survey, water

and air temperature, cloud cover, tide level and wind speed

were recorded, along with a short description of the physical

features (bank characteristics, vegetation, wind, light and tide

level). These data are available upon request. Surveys were

carried out within 3 hours of low tide, but due to abundant

vegetation, low tide usually exposed only 20-30 cm of

bank.

An observed crocodile was approached until it

submerged or was captured. Observation distance (distance

from the observer to the crocodile) was recorded, and detected

individuals were entered into one of four size categories

(adapted from Crocodile Specialist Group 1 994) of estimated

total lengths shown in Table 2. In Sri Lanka, saltwater

crocodiles reach sexual maturity by the time they are 1.7 to

2.7 m in total length (see Deraniyagala 1953, Santiapillai and

de Silva 2001 ). Animals less than 50 cm long were classified

as juveniles, and animals in the range of 50-200 cm were

considered sub-adults. Animals that were not approached

close enough to record exact size were recorded as “Eyes

only” (E.O). Adult crocodiles are wary of humans, and

individuals in this group were almost always large, exceeding

2 m in length, which submerged within moments of being

spotted. Records of “Eyes only” were therefore added to the

adult count (Webb and Messel 1 979, Sah and Stuebing 1 996).

Captured individuals were measured (total length,

SVL, weight) and marked by clipping a combination

of dorsal scutes, then released. No individuals were

recaptured.

The calibration method of Messel (1979), and Messel

and Vorlichek ( 1 989) was used to estimate adult population in

the MNLC. Because of the constant fresh water input, this

complex would be considered a Type 1 waterway in their

classification, and appropriate calibration formulas were used

(Webb and Messel 1978). Differences in observation

distances among study sites were examined using one-way

ANOVA after testing for homogeneity of variance using

Bartlett’s test. A Spearman rank order correlation test was

performed on the ranked scores for the adult and non-adult

(juvenile and sub-adult densities combined) densities

observed within an area. Means are followed by ± 1 SD, unless

noted otherwise.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

339

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

Active (with eggs) and inactive nests were located by

interviewing fishermen, using boats or by walking along

shores, riverbanks, and canals with permanent water, and

looking for a smooth slope with slide marks into the water or

well-worn tracks. Previous studies have reported that female

C. porosus may build multiple nests (Webb et al. 1983), and

therefore the extent to which the located nests reflect the

total number of nests in not known.

The number of brush piles was recorded during each

survey, and an average was calculated for each study area.

As a part of a different study (Porej 200 1 ) most study areas of

the marsh were visited every day, and during these visits

every instance where a f.sh net was placed across the entire

width of the northern entrance to areas 1 or 4 was recorded.

RESULTS

Crocodile survey

The mean number of crocodile sightings was 11 ±3.8

per survey (Table 1). Juveniles and sub-adults made up 78%

of the total sightings (Table 2). Mean observed densities were

0.21 ±0.1 individuals/km for adult crocodiles and 0.73 ±0.6

individuals/km for juveniles and sub-adults combined. The

highest density of adults was recorded in areas 2, 3 and 4,

and non-adult density was highest in areas 2 and 4.

The average distance from which a crocodile was first

observed was 26 ±1 1 m. There is no significant difference in

Table 1 Crocodile sightings during 8 surveys from

May to August 1 997 in MNLC

Survey Area

(non-adults)

Number of adults and “Eyes Only” individuals are given in parenthesis.

Density is expressed as number of individuals/km of shoreline

surveyed.

Waterways not surveyed are marked

average observation distance among study areas (F5 g| 0.507,

p = 0.23, one-way ANOVA). There was a statistically

significant correlation between adult and non-adult densities

observed within each area (r = 0.89, p = 0.0 1 5, df = 4, Speannan

rank-correlation test). A notable outlier is area 3, which had a

lower density of non-adults than would be expected from the

observed adult density (adult density ranked 1st and non-

adult density ranked 3rd).

The total number of adult crocodiles inhabiting the

marsh is estimated at 1 5 (the 95% C.I. estimates the number

of adults to be up to 33). During the additional three surveys

of Dandugam Oya upstream from Muthurajawela, only

two adult crocodiles were observed over 32 km of river

surveyed.

A total of 1 1 nests (9 active) were recorded (Table 2),

only two of which were successful.

Fishing

The average density of brush piles was 5.2/km in area

1, 2.3/km in area 4, and less than 0.8/km in remaining areas.

Fishing nets were cast across the entire canal width at the

entrance to area 4 for 1 7 days (out of 1 07 days), and for 65

days at the entrance to area 1 .

DISCUSSION

Compared to the results from other standardized

saltwater crocodile surveys for these types of systems

(e.g. Bayliss and Messel 1988), crocodile densities in the

MNLC are at the lower end of the range. In spite of all the past

and present habitat modifications, the MNLC still possesses

fairly large areas of physically suitable crocodile breeding

habitat, and this population still manages to reproduce

successfully, despite the low numbers.

Webb et al. (1983) identified seven common aspects of

C. porosus nest site vegetation, and according to these criteria,

study areas 1 and 4 (dense vegetation, protected islets, slow

water flow), and areas 2 and 5 (dry riverbanks) are expected to

be prime breeding areas. While similar in habitat composition,

these areas differ in their levels of human activity, and offer

some insights into the possible effects of fishing and housing

on the crocodile distribution within MNLC.

In areas 1 and 4, the understorey is sufficiently dense

and at least 1.5 m high. Phragmites karka is abundant, the

roots of Annona glabra can provide nest support, and there

is plenty of direct sunlight. While these two areas consist of

very similar habitat, area 1 had 2.3 times the density of brush

piles. During this study, the entrance to area 1 was blocked

by fishing nets almost 4 times more often than the entrance to

area 4. Lower densities of both adults and juvenile crocodiles

340

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

in area 1 can therefore likely be attributed to the more intensive

fishing in this area.

Areas 2 and 5 consist of comparable habitat as well, but

here the main human activities are not hunting or fishing, but

spread of squatters’ settlements and coconut plantations that

tend to occupy all available dry ground. Permanent dry ground

close to roads and main waterways is the most valuable asset

in the whole region, and quickly attracts more settlers to both

these areas. Currently, housing density is 4.8 times higher in

area 5, and this difference is associated with a six and ten-fold

decrease in observed adult and juvenile densities respectively.

Area 2 is becoming increasingly populated, and cessation of

crocodile breeding is likely, as has already happened in area

5, where the last nesting attempt was in 1 992.

Area 3 is a section of Dandugam Oya River closest to

the lagoon, and under significant tidal influence, with

pronounced fluctuation in water level. Flooding can have a

devastating effect on C. porosus eggs, killing up to 80% of all

embryos in some regions. This area had a lower density of

non-adults than would be expected from the observed density

of adults, and 3 out of 4 nests were flooded during the course

of the study. Therefore, although this area is remote and fishing

is not intensive, it should be considered sub-optimal breeding

habitat.

Unlike the mangrove forests elsewhere around the marsh

complex, area 6 has not been destroyed, as it has no permanent

and convenient road access (see Fig 1 ).

Flooding and lack of suitable nest material, such as

grasses or herbs (Webb et al. 1977) can explain the scarcity

of crocodile nests in the mangrove forest. In addition, small

outrigger canoes used by fishermen are ideal for penetrating

deep into the forest interior, allowing easy access to even the

most remote sections. Consequently, crocodile nesting sites

in this area are all well known and have been exploited for

years. Fishermen destroyed both active nests in this area

before the eggs hatched.

Conservation considerations

Although a conservation management plan for the

MNLC has been proposed (Benthem and van Zon 1994), it

does not include any special provisions for the remnant

crocodile population. Incorporating a crocodile component

into the general conservation plan for the area would

strengthen the plan and assure that this genuine opportunity

is not missed. Three key components would be: a) preservation

and enhancement of critical breeding habitat, b) education,

and c) close cooperation with local people through a

comprehensive management plan (possibly including

sustainable use) to ensure continued survival of this

population.

Habitat preservation and enhancement

The data from this survey demonstrate a negative

association between crocodile density and the intensity of

human activities (fishing and housing), and indicate that some

of the areas are being overexploited. Reducing juvenile and

nest mortality should be the first step in securing the survival

of this population. In addition, since female C. porosus spend

the dry season in regions suitable for nest construction in

the wet season, and selection of a freshwater site during the

dry season may ultimately determine the location of their nest

in the wet season (Webb et al. 1 983), some presence of adult

females in suitable breeding areas needs to be tolerated

throughout the year. Both of these goals could be achieved

by preventing further spread of squatters’ settlements along

Dandugam Oya River (western portion of area 2), and by

regulating fishing activities in areas I and 4 (perhaps initially

by prohibiting the practice of placing fishing nets across the

entire width of canals, which would allow some free movement

of adults in and out of this area at all times).

Education opportunities

The Muthurajawela Visitor Centre was set up in 1 996,

Table 2 Observed active nests and crocodile sightings by size class in 6 study areas

Sizes are given as total length (cm),

E O indicate individuals who were positively identified as crocodiles, but submerged before their size was measured or visually estimated

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

341

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

and thousands of visitors (including 14,000 school children

in 1997 alone) come every year for a scenic bird watching

boat ride or stroll along the nature trails, guided by trained

local residents. MNLC is close to Sri Lanka’s capital city

Colombo, with numerous hotels on the west shore, and most

foreign tourists pass it on their way to and from the

Katunayake International Airport. The Visitor Centre currently

serves to educate tourists, visiting public and local fishermen

alike.

Management considerations

It is ironic and possibly instructive that “in the countries

where C. porosus is heavily but sustainably used, it is secure,

but in the countries where it is completely but ineffectively

protected, it may disappear” (Thorbjanarson 1992). Previous

studies on crocodiles in Sri Lanka ( Wikremasinge and

Santiapillai 1 999, Santiapillai and de Silva 200 1 ) point out that

in the absence of economic incentives at a local level, no

amount of legislation will ensure the long-term survival of

crocodiles outside the protected areas. Crocodilians, because

of their high reproductive rates and valuable skin and meat,

have considerable potential for sustainable use and

management (Webb and Mano I is 1993, Thorbjanarson 1992),

REFE

Bayliss, P. (1987): Survey methods and monitoring within crocodile

management programmes. Pp. 157-175. In: Wildlife Management:

Crocodiles and Alligators (Eds: Webb, GJ.W., S.C. Manolis and

P.J. Whitehead). Suffet Beatty & Sons Ltd. Chipping Norton,

Australia.

Bayliss, P. & H. Messel (1988): The population dynamics of the

estuarine crocodiles. I. An assessment of long-term census data.

Pp. 102-139. In: The Proceedings of the 9th Working meeting

of the crocodile specialist group of the Species Survival

Commission of the IUCN, Vol. 1. Lae, New Guinea.

Benthem, W. & J.C.J. van Zon (Eds.) (1994): Conservation

Management Plan - Muthurajawela Marsh and Negombo Lagoon.

Central Environmental Authority / Euroconsult. Colombo, Sri

Lanka.

Bolton, M. ( 1988): The role of crocodile ranching in rural

development. Pp. 89-99. In: The Proceedings of the 9th Working

meeting of the crocodile specialist group of the Species Survival

Commission of the IUCN, Vol. 1 . Lae, New Guinea.

Crocodile Specialist Group (1994): Guidelines for monitoring

crocodilian populations. Pp. 550-585. In: Crocodiles: Proceedings

of the 2nd Regional (Eastern Asia, Oceania, Australasian) Meeting

of the Crocodile Specialist Group. IUCN - The World Conservation

Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Deraniyagala, P.E.P. (1953): A coloured atlas of some vertebrates

from Ceylon, Vol. 2. Ceylon National Museums Publication.

Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Jenkins, R.W.G (1994): Sustainable use of crocodilians: conservation

benefits. Pp. 161-169. In: Proceedings of the second regional

meeting of the Crocodile Specialist group. World Conservation

Union, Gland, Switzerland.

Messel, H. ( 1 979): Monograph I . Surveys of tidal river systems in the

Northern Territory of Australia and their crocodile populations.

and several successful sustainable use programmes have

been implemented elsewhere (Bolton 1988, Jenkins 1994).

Given its proximity to Colombo and other tourist hotspots,

popularity, and the relatively poor agricultural potential of

this area, MNLC might be the perfect launching site for the

first project of this kind in Sri Lanka.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Sumeddha Devappriya for being a great friend

and an excellent field assistant, and the staff of the

Muthurajawela Visitor Centre for assistance during fieldwork.

I thank the fishermen of MNLC for trusting me, and for many

very informative discussions about hunting and living with

crocodiles (after assuring themselves that 1 was not working

for the police). Dr. J.P. Ross of the Crocodile Specialist Group

provided expert guidance throughout this project. The

Wetland Conservation Project and Dr. Samarakoon provided

moral, financial and logistic support. I thank T. Hetherington

and B. Coupe (OSU), G. Rodda (USGS), and J.P. Ross (CSG,

University of Florida). This work was funded by energoprojekt

(Belgrade, Yugoslavia) and The Wetland Conservation Project

(Sri Lanka). Hvala Poreji!

NCES

Pergamon Press, Sidney, Australia. 39 pp.

Messel, H. & GC. Vorlichek (1989): Status and conservation of

Crocodylus porosus in Australia. Pp. 187-199. In: Crocodiles:

their ecology, management and conservation. IUCN, Gland,

Switzerland.

Porej, D. (1997a): Sri Lanka: Crocodile survey and public relations

program. Crocodile Specialist Group Newsletter 16(3): 9- 1 0.

Porej, D. (1997b): Status of saltwater crocodiles in wetlands of the

southern Sri Lanka. Report to the Sri Lanka Department of

Wildlife Conservation and the Wetlands Conservation Project.

14 pp.

Porej, D. (2001): Herpetofaunaofthe Muthurajawela marsh -Negombo

lagoon, with notes on natural history. Herpetological Natural

History 8(1): 27-35.

Ross, J.P. (Ed.) (1998): Crocodiles: Status Survey and Conservation

Action Plan, 2nd (web) edition. 1UCN/SSC Crocodile Specialist

Group. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

Sah, S.A.M. & R.B. Stuebing (1996): Diet, growth and movements of

juvenile crocodiles ( Crocodylus porosus) Schneider in the Ki las

River, Sabah, Malaysia. Journal of tropical ecology' 12: 651 -662.

Samarakoon, J. & H. van Zon (Eds.) (1991): Environmental Profile

of Muthurajawela and Negombo Lagoon. Greater Colombo

Economic Commission, Colombo, Sri Lanka. 230 pp.

Santiapillai, C. & M. de Silva (2001): Status, distribution and

conservation of crocodiles in Sri Lanka. Biological Conservation

97: 305-318.

Santiapillai, C., M. de Silva, M. Dissanayake, S. Jayaratne &

S. Wijeyamohan (2000): An ecological study of crocodiles in the

Ruhuna National Park, Sri Lanka. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

97(1): 33-41.

Thorbjanarson, J. (1992): Crocodiles: An action plan for their

conservation. IUCN. Gland, Switzerland. 136 pp.

342

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CONSERVATION CONSIDERATIONS FOR THE SALTWATER CROCODILE

Uragoda, C.G (1994): Wildlife conservation in Sri Lanka. Wildlife

and Nature Protection Society, Colombo, Sri Lanka.

Webb, GJ.W. & H. Messel (1978): Movement and dispersal patterns

of Crocodylus porosus in some rivers of Arnhem Land, Northern

Australia. Aust. Wildl. Res. 5: 263-283.

Webb, GJ.W. & H. Messel (1979): Wariness in Crocodylus porosus

(Reptilia: Crocodilidae). Australian Wildlife Research 5:

263-283.

Webb, GJ.W., H. Messel & W. Magnusson (1997): The nesting of

Crocodylus porosus in Arnhem Land, Northern Australia. Copeia

2: 238-249.

Webb, GJ.W., GC. Sack, R. Buckworth & S.C. Manolis (1983): An

examination of Crocodylus porosus nests in two northern

Australian freshwater swamps, with an analysis of embryo

mortality. Aust. Wildl. Res. 10: 571-605.

Webb.G.I.W. & S.C. Manolis (1993): Conserving Australia's crocodiles

through commercial incentives. Pp. 250-256. In: Herpetology in

Australia: a diverse discipline. (Eds: Lunney, D. and D. Ayers).

Transactions of the Royal Zoological Society of New South Wales,

Mosman, Australia.

Whitaker, R. & Z. Whitaker (1979): Preliminary crocodile survey-

Sri Lanka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 76(1): 66-85.

Whitaker, R. & Z. Whitaker (1989): Status and conservation of the

Asian crocodilians. Pp. 297-308. In: Crocodiles: their ecology,

management and conservation. IUCN, Gland, Switzerland.

308 pp.

Wickremasinghe, C.S. & C. Santiapillai (1999): Can wildlife pay for

its conservation? Loris 22(2): 18-22.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

343

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

344-352

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RAN A DEI WOODR. ET STAPF'

P. Tetali2 3, SujataTetajli2'4, P.V. Joshi5, Sanjay Kulkarni2- \ P. Lakshminarasimhan6- 7 and P.V. Prasanna6'8

'Accepted December 2002

'Naoroji Godrej Centre for Plant Research, ‘Lawkim’ Ltd. Campus, Shindewadi, Shirwal 412 801, Satara district,

Maharashtra, India

'Email: [email protected]

JEmail [email protected]

'Department of Zoology, University of Pune, Pune 411 007, Maharashtra, India.

"Botanical Survey of India, CNHS, Indian Botanical Garden, Howrah 711 103, West Bengal, India.

'Email: 1 narasimhan@rbgkew org uk

sEmail callherb@vsnl net

Abutilon ranadei Woodr. et Stapf is one of the critically endangered plant species of the Western Ghats in India. It is

endemic and restricted to four districts of Maharashtra State. Ecological and conservation studies revealed that the

species is more restricted to moist deciduous forests in the Western Ghats. The plant suffers from a number of pests and

diseases, and poor fruit set. It can easily be propagated by vegetative propagation through the air layering technique.

Key words: Abutilon ranadei , conservation, ecology, Western Ghats, threatened, critically endangered.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Abutilon Mill, belongs to Family Malvaceae

and is represented by about 150 species. India is home to 12

species, 2 subspecies and 5 varieties (Paul 1993; Woodrow

1 897). Of these, two species and four varieties are endemic to

India. The genus is distributed mostly in the tropical or

subtropical parts of the world. Many species are commercially

important as they are highly ornamental.

Abutilon ranadei Woodr. et Stapf was first collected

by N.B. Ranade, ex-keeper of the herbarium at the College of

Science, Pune. Woodrow and Stapf (1894) described it as a

new species and named it after Ranade. It is an endemic,

known so far only from four districts of Maharashtra State.

According to Cooke (1901), it is a rare plant. Due to its narrow

range of distribution and extreme rarity, the species has been

declared as endangered (Nayar and Sastry 1987; Venkanna

and Das Das 2000) or even presumed extinct (Ahmedullah

and Nayar 1986). However, it was recollected from its type

locality after a lapse of almost 95 years (Mistry and Almeida

1989; Almeida 1996; Walter and Gillett 1997). Since then, the

species has been collected from six new locations in Pune,

Kolhapur and Satara districts (Table 1 ).

Abutilon ranadei is one of the most critically

endangered plants of India (Mishra and Singh 2001), on the

verge of extinction. Its survival in its natural habitat is further

complicated by habitat fragmentation and habitat loss, ft is a

priority species for research and conservation. The present

study was taken up with a view to understand the autecology

and conservation related aspects of the species with special

reference to wild and cultivated plant populations.

METHODOLOGY

The study was conducted between June 1997 and

March 2002. The study area comprised mainly of three

localities - Toma, Shilim and Amboli. The authors made regular

field trips in different seasons to different localities and studied

various ecological aspects of wild populations. Information

on the phenology, association, pollinators, and seed setting

were collected during field surveys. Simultaneously, aspects

related to conservation, such as propagation techniques,

cultivation practices, pests and diseases were also studied

for wild and cultivated plants/ populations.

Habitat specificity: According to Blatter, the species is

found only in Konkan. However, all the reported localities of

the species, including the type locality, are from the southern

Western Ghats in madhya (= central) Maharashtra (Almeida

and Almeida 1989).

Geography: The species is distributed between 19°-

16.4° N and 72° 6'-74° E; that is, between Shilim on the

northwest of Pune to Amba Ghat near Kolhapur, covering an

area of c. 500 sq. km (Fig. 1 ). The area of occupation is below

12 sq. km.

Geology & soils: Structurally, the natural locations of

the species are a part of the Deccan trap, and the geological

formations are of basaltic origin, with an abundance of silica,

alumina and iron oxides. The soils are brownish to reddish in

colour, poor in nutrients and slightly acidic (pH 5. 5-6. 5).

Vegetation, altitude & rainfall: The species is found at

the edges of moist deciduous forests, on gentle hill slopes

between 600-1,000 m above msl. All these regions receive

high rainfall from the southwest monsoon. Annual rainfall

344

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

Vernoma divergens (Roxb.) Edgew

Rhinacanthus nasuta (L.) Kurz

Pentanema cerunum (Dalz.) Ling

Vigna khandalensis (Sant.)

Raghavan & Wadhwa

* Personal communication, unpublished data, year of observation is given in parenthesis.

** Senior authors field survey observations, noted from field note book

ranges between 4,000 mm to 7,000 mm.

Population size: The natural distribution is highly

fragmented and the plant is not found in abundance anywhere.

Population size (mature individuals) at different localities

ranged between 7-280. Some of these localities are adjacent

to private land. The natural habitat suffers a variety of

depredations due to human interference.

Association: A. ranadei populations were discovered

in moist deciduous forests. In almost all localities, they grew

among thickets of Carvia callosa Bremek.

Description & Ecology: Undershrub, or large shrub,

up to 2.5 m tall. Plant parts densely and minutely stellately

hairy. Leaves ovate to round-ovate, apex acute to acuminate,

base cordate, margin crenate to dentate.

Flowering: A. ranadei is a fast growing plant. Flowering

normally commences in plants about 7-9 months old. Flowers

bisexual. Calyx campanulate. Lobes 2-2.7 cm long, connate in

the middle, stellate-hairy and glandular. Corolla campanulate

with pale purple prominent veins on orange-yellow petals,

tips prominently yellow. Petals 1 to 2 times longer than the

calyx. Staminal column 20-35 mm long, glabrous, reddish,

filaments white, with reddish base, 3-5 mm long. Upper part of

the filament sparsely covered with dumbbell shaped glandular

hairs. Anther kidney-shaped, initially green, turns dark rose

at maturity and brownish violet at dehiscence. Carpels 5. Styles

as many as carpels, up to 7 mm long, sparsely hairy (Fig. 2).

Floral biology: Flowering begins in the second week of

November and continues till the end of March. Flowers axillary,

solitary, pedicels up to 8 cm long, jointed in the upper half.

Opening of flowers begins in the afternoon. Maximum flowers

open between 12-1 5 hours (68%). Individual flowers have 3-5

days for pollination. The process of floral development, from

opening of flower to pollination, takes place in four stages

(Fig. 3).

Paint brush stage ( Stage 1)\ During this stage, floral

parts are enclosed in a swollen calyx tube, which is green and

glandular. A few bearded white filaments with immature white

anthers protrude conspicuously among the yellow tips of the

petals. Petals are almost equal or slightly longer than the

calyx tube. The flower bud appears like the head of a

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

345

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

paintbrush.

Trumpet stage (Stage 2): At this stage, a number of

modifications of floral parts occur, to attract pollinators. It

begins with the enlargement of petals and staminal tube. Petals

grow longer and wide at the base (length: from 2.5 cm to 3-

6 cm; wide: up to 2.5 cm). Two thirds of the proximal end of

petals turns light purple, while the distal end turns orange

yellow. Whitish veins are more prominent. The spacing

between two petals widens. From the almost contorted and

overlapping stage, the distance between petals increases to

about 2.5 cm towards the distal end. This facilitates a wide

open corolla mouth. The yellow region of the petals slowly

turns backwards and the corolla resembles a trumpet.

Simultaneously, the staminal column with anthers also

increases in length (from 2 to 4.5 cm long). The column

becomes shining, turns dark purple or reddish-brown. The

filaments increase in length from 0.3 cm to 0.5 cm. They are

positioned perpendicularly, and hairs on the filaments are

more conspicuous.

The white anthers turn reddish-brown or brick coloured.

Dehiscence occurs during daytime with increasing

temperatures. Anthesis does not take place on the same day,

but in phases for about two days. Pollen yellow, spherical,

size 55-57 p diameter, single colpate, echinate, aperture 5-8 p

wide (According to Nair 1962, average size 76 p; range

74-77 p). Exine 4.2 p thick. Basal cushion of spinules not

formed (Fig. 4). Styles 5, distinct, 0.5 cm at the time of anther

dehiscence. Stigma capitate.

Pollination stage (Stage 3): During this stage, the

glandular hairs on the calyx tube emit a strong odour, like

curry leaves. The secretion of nectar follows this. Nectaries

are located at the base of the petals. The staminal tube twists

slightly during or after anther dehiscence. Style length

increases on the second day from 0.5 cm to almost 1.5 cm.

Styles turn backward into an inverted ‘C’ shape. Odour from

the calyx tube, colour of the corolla and nectar attracts insect

visitors belongs to the families. The insect visitors were mostly

nectarivorous.

The floral biology and the timing of anthesis indicate

that the species prefers cross-pollination. Flowering may not

necessarily result in fruit formation.

Observations to identify pollinators were made

consecutively for three years. Night observations had to be

abandoned due to practical difficulties (especially

inaccessibility) in working in natural habitat. Observations

were carried out from dawn to dusk. The floral nectar fallen

THANE

Shilirrv

PUNE

.Rajgao-V,

, Torana

Koyana

Amba

Ghat

KOLHAPUR# J

Ambolf

MUMBAI

Radhanagari

SOUTH MAHARASHTRA

Above 600 m

I I < 600 m

Localities

60 km

Fig 1 : Abutilon ranadei

Woodr. et Stapf,

a. Distribution map,

Maharashtra,

b Locality map,

south Maharashtra

346

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

Fig. 2: Abutilon ranadei \Noodr. ef Stapf, 1 Habit, 2. Flower, 3. Anther, 4. Fruit, 5. Seed

on leaves and other vegetative parts was seen to attract flies

and other insects. Despite thorough observations, no

pollinator was seen during the first two years of our study.

This, and other factors such as trumpet shaped flowers,

odoriferous calyx, colours of the corolla, and secretion of

nectar at the base of petals indicate that moths or other nectar-

drinking insects might be the true pollinators. No conclusions,

however, could be made, due to lack of evidence. Other factors,

such as small population size and the resultant scarcity of

forage plants (pollen) or nectar may have contributed to the

absence of pollinators. Curiously, in the third year, at the end

of the flowering season we noticed insects visiting the

flowers. A detailed record of the insects, their flower visiting

behaviour and food preferences were recorded. The peak

period of flowering was only for two days. The insects

stopped visiting the plants, as the number of flowers per

plant drastically decreased. During the entire study we

observed two insect species visiting flowers. Among the

insect visitors, Honeybees (Apis mellifera), the occasional

visitors, may not contribute in pollination. They were seen

feeding only on pollen. Bees generally ignore or cannot

recognize the flowers of A. ranadei. A frequent visitor was

Anthophorus zoncita (Family Anthophoridae, Order

Hymenoptera), a fast flying insect and mostly a nectar feeder.

The size of the insect and stamina! column length indicates

that it may not be a true pollinator, but an optional pollinator.

A detailed record of the behaviour of Anthophorus zoncita ,

flower visiting pattern and food preference were recorded

(for two days only). The results showed a positive relation

between number of visits and average time spent on each

flower from morning to noon. Number of visits and average

time spent collecting nectar dropped from 1 2 a.m. to 2 p.m. In

the later part of the day, the number of visits gradually reduced

and the average time spent for collecting nectar greatly

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

347

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

Fig. 3: Abutilon ranadei Woodr. et Stapf, Floral biology: A & B. Paintbrush stage, C & D. Trumpet stage,

E. Pollination stage, F. Contorted corolla stage

increased (Fig. 5). On the third day, the number of insects

visiting flowers declined sharply. We observed a positive

correlation between insects visiting flowers and pod

formation. Further studies are also required to identify the

pollinators, and minimum number of mature plants required

to attract pollinators. It is not clear whether it is the pollen or

the nectar or both, that mainly attract pollinators.

Flowering may not necessarily result in fruit formation.

Gregarious flowering was never noticed. On any given day

during the flowering season, about 2-12 open flowers are

observed on each plant. The total number of flowers set in a

season by healthy and mature individuals range between 20-

340.

Contorted corolla stage (Stage-4): In this stage, the

corolla becomes twisted, mostly on the fourth or fifth day.

The corolla shrinks slowly before it falls off. The corolla of

the pollinated flowers contorts around the staminal column

and blocks the entry of insects or other visitors.

Field observations showed that 60-90% of the flowers

fall off without any sign of fruit formation. The calyx tube

turns yellow and becomes detached from the pedicel after the

corolla tube is shed. The flowers offer pollen as well as nectar

in large quantities. Anther dehiscence does not take place

instantly. Anthers of some flowers dehisce in more than one

phase, preferably in two phases. Location of nectar and

flowering time tentatively indicates that flowers may be

348

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

Fig. 4: Abutilon ranadei Woodr. efStapf, Scanning Electron Microscope photographs of anther and pollen:

A. Single anther, B. Monothecous anther, C. Echinate pollen, D. Pore

pollinated by nectar feeding insects, probably moths.

Seed set: Only 4-20% flowers develop into mature fruit.

Fruit a schizocarp, seeds 2-3 per mericarp, brownish-black,

kidney-shaped. Fruit formation begins in December and

continues till the end of April. Number of fruits per plant

range from almost nil to 27.

Seed germination: Depending upon the location,

percentage of germination varied from 2%-35% (Table 2).

Propagation: A. ranadei can be propagated by seed as

well as vegetative propagation.

a) Seed: Germination tests were conducted under

nursery conditions. Seeds were sown in net pots and plastic

trays. The percentage of aborted seed in this method is very

high as the seeds are generally shriveled, small and nonviable.

The seeds germinate very slowly, taking a minimum of 20 and

a maximum of 30 days to germinate. Net pots are ideal for

sowing. Germination takes up to three months in net pots.

Seedlings prefer shade (under 90% shade nets). Details of the

seed characteristics are presented in Table 2.

b) Vegetative: Poor fruit set and high percentage of

non-viable seeds led to the trial of various vegetative

propagation techniques at our research farm. Air layering was

found to be the most successful method of vegetative

propagation. In this method, a girdle was made on a branch

not less than 5 mm thick, at about 20-30 cm from the tip. About

Table 2: Seed characteristics of Abutilon ranadei

• Number of pods studied - 20; Number of seeds studied: 100.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

349

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

AM

11 12 1 2

Noon PM

10 11 12 1 2

Noon PM

Number of visits per hour

Average time spent for nectar per hour

Fig 5: Flower visiting behaviour of Anthophorous zonata

3-5 cm strip of bark was carefully removed (circular cut) without

damaging the other parts. The phloem and cambium was

completely removed by scraping with a blade to prevent the

healing process. The scraped part was washed with Indole-3-

butyric acid (IBA 4,000 ppm) for 5 minutes, the area covered

with moist sphagnum moss and tied with a polythene sheet

to keep the moss in place. Initiation of rooting was visible

after two weeks. Rooting takes place within 21 days. The

layers were ready for transplant within 45-50 days.

Cultural practices: The plant prefers slightly acidic

soil and responds well to organic manure. Good growth is

obtained in the following mentioned substratum.

Soil media: Red lateritic soil -2.5 parts; Vermi compost

- 1 part; Sterameal [7(N)-lQ(P)-5 (K)] - 0.5 part

For better growth, an additional 1 00 gm vermi compost

+ 1 00 gm sterameal per plant is required every three months.

Table 3: Leaf analysis (Macro & Micro nutrients) results

of Abutilon ranadei

Leaf analysis for various elements was carried out to

understand the problem of flower fall after withering. The test

values of the tissue samples showed high concentrations of

Nitrogen and Potash, and deficiency of Phosphorus. Among

the micronutrients, Sodium and Iron were present in significant

amounts. The details of the leaf analysis are given in Table 3.

Spacing: 1 m x 1 m.

Watering: The plant requires good, regular watering.

However, it cannot withstand water logging.

Light: A. ranadei is a light loving plant. It performs

better under partially shaded conditions (The seedlings prefer

90% shade, while mature plants do well under 40% shade).

Pests & Diseases:

1 . Tetranychus cittnabarinus (Tropical Red Spider Mite)

Family: Tetranychidae

Description-. An oval shaped mite. Tiny, red or greenish

with four pairs of legs (Fig. 6a). Polyphagous, common,

serious pest of greenhouse plants and other cultivated crops.

Feeding habits'. External feeder. All stages of insects

feed on the lower side of the leaf surface.

Damage-. Scarification, leaf silvering and appearance

of yellow patches.

Control : Biological: Phy’toseilus riegeli (predaceous mite).

Chemical: 1) Foliar spray of Dimethoate (0.5 ml/litre),

2) Carbaryl (2 ml/litre) + Neemarin (3 ml/litre), 3) Sulphur

(3 gm/litre), 4) Kelthane (2 ml/litre).

2. Ferrisia virgata (Ckll.) (Striped Mealy bug)

Family: Pseudococcidae

Description'. An elliptic shaped mealy bug with a pair

350

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUT1LON RANADEI

Fig 6 Pests of Ahutilon ranadei Woodr et Stapf,

a. Tropical Red Spider Mite ( Tetranychus cinnabarinus),

b. Striped Mealy Bug ( Ferrisia virgata),

c. Cabbage Semi-looper ( Trichoplusia ni),

d Aphids (Family Homoptera)

of conspicuous longitudinal submedian dark stripes,

pronounced long tail and long glassy wax threads (Fig. 6b).

Feeding habits'. The most serious polyphagous pest.

Sucking type, feeds on tender parts and leaves.

Damage'. Wilting, infestation by sooty moulds, growth

retardation.

Control'. Biological: Cryptoleumus monterouzuni (6 per

100 sq.m)

Chemical: 1) Malathion (1 ml/litre) + Fish oil resin soap,

Azinphos-methyl (2 ml/litre).

3. Trichoplusia ni (Hb.) (Cabbage Semi-looper)

Family: Noctuidae

Description : Green with a thin, white lateral line, and

two white lines along the middle of the back. There are two

pairs of prolegs (Fig. 6c).

Feeding habits: Larva feeds on young leaves. Active

at low temperatures, makes irregular holes in the leaf.

Damage: Irregular holes in the leaf lamina.

Control: Biological: 1) Bacillus thuringiensis,

2) Trichogramma (parasitoid eggs 2000-3000 per 1 00 sq. m)

Mechanical: Ultraviolet light traps.

Chemical: Carbaryl (2 ml/litre)

4. Unidentified (Aphids)

Order: Homoptera, Family: Aphididae

Description: A small soft-bodied, sluggish insect, with

piercing and sucking mouth parts (Fig. 6d).

Feeding habits: Usually attacks tender parts. Feeds on

the lower surface of the leaves.

Damage: Leaf curling, infection with sooty mould,

presence of ants.

Control: Biological: 1) Ladybird (Coccinellidae),

2) Crysoperta carnae (adults 400 per 100 sq. m),

3) Hymenopterous parasites.

Chemical: 1) Soap water, 2) A number of systemic

insecticides (Permethrin, Pirimicarb).

5. Chrysomphalus aonidum (L.)

(Florida Red scale or Purple scale)

Family: Diaspididae

Description: Adult female is purplish and circular, with

a reddish-brown boss or nipple in the centre.

Feeding habits: Feeds on leaves, young shoots and

twigs.

Damage: Saliva is toxic, causing necrosis.

Control: Biological control: Chilochorus nigritus

Chemical: 1) Carbaryl (3%), 2) Parathion (0.5%),

3) Malathion with white oil

6. Unidentified Leafminer

(Microlepidoptera)

Description: Minor pest. Tunnel leaf mine with no

central line of faecal pellets.

Feeding habits: Attacks during rainy season.

Damage: Leaf tunnels. Destroys the photosynthetic

structure.

Control: Chemical: 1 ) Triozophos (Hostathion 3 ml/litre),

2) Phosphamidon ( 1 ml/litre) + Fish resin oil soap ( 1 ml/litre)

1. Unidentified Snail

Phylum Mollusca

Description: Nil.

Feeding habits: Nocturnal feeders. Feed on young

leaves, flower buds.

Damage: Minor damage. Young leaves are affected.

Control: Mechanical: Hand pick. Cabbage and Papaya

-yellow leaves for trapping.

Chemical: 1 ) 2-4% salt water, 2) Lime treatment

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

351

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI

DISCUSSION

All over the world, endemic plants are in double

jeopardy. On the one hand, they are restricted to small

pockets, being habitat specific. On the other, their habitat is

being lost at an alarming rate, pushing them towards extinction.

A. ranadei is a critically endangered plant. Urgent measures

are required to conserve this plant in its natural habitat, mainly

comprising the edges of moist deciduous forests of Western

Ghats. It is often found growing among Carvia callosa (Karvi)

thickets, which are prone to a variety of disturbances: being

periodically cleared by the local communities for fuel wood,

and to stake tomato plants.

High level of flower fall (60-90%) without fruit formation

is a common problem in all the studied locations. Leaf analysis

of the macro and micronutrients indicated the deficiency of

phosphorus. However, extra support of phosphorus in

cultivated conditions did not improve the condition of flower

fall. Percentage of seed germination is also poor, only 2-35%.

The species also suffers from a variety of pests. About

7 pest species were recorded during the study, the most

serious among them being the mealy bug.

The habitat of the species needs to be protected with

the help of local communities. Further studies are required to

identify the pollinators and to determine the minimum number

of plants needed to attract pollinators

Abutilon ranadei is an ornamental plant and could be

cultivated. Experimental trials are on at the Naoroji Godrej

Centre for Plant Research to introduce this beautiful plant to

horticulture and in artificial habitats.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors thank Mr. V.M.Crishna, Director, Naoroji

Godrej Centre for Plant Research for encouragement and the

Director, Botanical Survey of India for support.

REFERENCES

Ahmedullah, M. & M.P. Nayar (1986): Endemic Plants of the Indian

region. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Vol. 1 (Peninsular

India), pp. 71 .

Almeida, M R. (1996): Flora of Maharashtra. Orient Press, Mumbai.

Vol. 1, pp. 101-102.

Almeida, M.K. & S.M. Almeida (1989): Some rare, endangered and

threatened plants species from Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 86: 478-479.

Bachulkar, M.P. & S.R. Yadav (1997): Record of Abutilon ranadei

Woodrow & Stapf in an area other than the type locality.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94: 591-592.

Cooke, T. (1901): The Flora of the Presidency of Bombay. London.

Vol. 1, pp. 96. (1967 Repr. BSI)

Mishra, D.K. & N.P Singh (2001 ): Endemic and Threatened Flowering

Plants of Maharashtra. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

414 pp.

Mistry, M.K. & S.M. Almeida (1989): Some rare, endangered and

threatened plant species from Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra.

J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86: 478-479.

Nair, P.K.K. (1962): Pollen grains of Indian plants III. Bull. Nat. Bot

Card. (Lucknow) <55: 8.

Nayar, M.P. & A.R.K. Sastry (1987): Red Data Book oflndian Plants.

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Vol. 1, pp. 198-199.

Paul, T.K. (1993): Malvaceae. In: Flora of India (Eds: Sharma, B.D. &

M. Sanjappa). Botanical Survey of India. Calcutta. Vol. 3,

pp. 256-394.

Punekar, Sachin A., Shrinath P. Kavadf. & R.P Jagadale (2001):

Collection of an endemic rare species Abutilon ranadei Woodrow

& Stapf (Malvaceae). J. Econ. Tax. Bot. 25: 261-263.

Yadav, S.R. & M.M. Sardesai (2002): Flora of Kolhapur District.

Shivaji University Kolhapur. 680 pp.

Venkanna, P. & S.K. Das Das (2000): Malvaceae. In: Flora of

Maharashtra State: Dicotyledons (Eds: Singh, N.P. & S.

Karthikeyan). Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. Vol. 1,

pp. 299-303.

Walter, Kerry S. & Harriet .1. Gillett (Eds) (1997): 1997-IUCN Red

List of Threatened Plants. Published by 1UCN.

Woodrow, GM. (1897): The Flora of Western India. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 11: 126.

Woodrow, GM. & Stapf (1894): Abutilon ranadei. Kew Bull. p. 99.

352

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

353-359

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF A NON-HUNTED

ARGALI POPULATION IN THE EAST GOBI, MONGOLIA1

Michael R. Frisina2, Raul Valdez3 and Gombosuren Ulziimaa4

'Accepted April, 2003

"Montana Department of Fish, Wildlife & Parks, 1330 West Gold Street, Butte, MT 59701, 406-782-2060, USA.

Email: [email protected]

’New Mexico State University, Department of Fishery and Wildlife Sciences, Las Cruces, NM 88003 Mexico.

Email: [email protected]

’Mongolia National Agricultural University, Ulaanbaatar, Mongolia

Argali Sheep ground surveys and plant community studies were conducted on a 163.8 sq. km portion of a 607.4 sq. km

study area in the eastern Gobi during 1993 and 1998. The Steppe plant community consisted of 27.1, 25.1, and 13.7

percent grasses/sedges, shrubs and forbs, respectively, including 20 species of forbs, 7 of grasses, and 4 of shrubs. A total

of 162 Argali (15 ewes, 8 lambs, 99 rams and 40 unclassified ewes and lambs) were observed in 1993, and 171 (70 ewes,

28 lambs, 33 rams and 40 unclassified ewes and lambs) in 1998. Argali densities were 0.99 per sq. km in 1993 and 1 .04

per sq. km in 1998, indicating a stable trend. The high ram numbers in larger size classes (>50%) and average age at

natural death of 9 years (range 6-13) indicate that the rams survive to an old age. A ratio of 40 lambs : 100 ewes in 1998

indicate an increasing population. This Argali population is probably viable due to favourable forage conditions,

curtailed illegal hunting, unfragmented habitats, and stable numbers.

Key words: Argali, Gobi Desert, habitats, Mongolia, monitoring, Ovis ammon , population trends, wild sheep

INTRODUCTION

Argali (Ch’is ammon) wild sheep occur in temperate

mountainous, steppe, and desert, undulating and rugged

habitats of central Asia, including Mongolia (Valdez 1982,

Geist 1991). Two subspecies of Argali occur within Mongolia,

the Altai Argali ( O.a . ammon) of western Mongolia and the

Gobi Argali {O.a. darwini) of the Gobi Desert in southern

Mongolia. They are listed as rare by the Mongolian Ministry

for Nature and Environment (MNEM 1997) and are on the

United States Fish and Wildlife Service list of endangered

and threatened wildlife and plants (USFWS 1 997). In addition,

they are listed as vulnerable and endangered by the 1UCN

(2000), and in Appendix II ofCITES (USFWS 2001). Mongolia

encompasses 1 ,656,000 sq. km, of which approximately 25%

is potential Argali habitat (ASM 1990), but only about

61.5 sq. km are included in protected areas (MNEM 1997).

Limited sport hunting by foreign hunters who currently pay

up to $50,000 for a hunt has been permitted since 1968. The

current Mongolian law on hunting established in 1995 and

administered by the Mongolian Ministry for Nature and the

Environment regulates the commercial use of wildlife. Hunting

fees are an important source of foreign currency in a badly

depressed economy (MNEM 1995).

Argali populations declined throughout Asia during

the last Century (Harper 1945; Mallon 1985; Heptner et al.

1989; Fedosenko et al. 1995; Mallon et al. 1997; Reading

et al. 1997), but specific population status and trend

information, although a fundamental requirement for

conservation (Wegge 1997), is lacking. In this paper, we

document habitat conditions, population status and trend for

a non-hunted Argali population in the eastern Gobi of

Mongolia. This is the first such published study for Argali in

Mongolia. Population trend data is essential for managing

populations and for comparing with hunted populations.

STUDY AREA

The 607.4 sq. km study area is situated in the Ikh Nartiin

region of the East Gobi Aimag (province) south of the village

of Chayr (Fig. 1) in a steppe landscape characterised by

undulating terrain and large rocky outcrops (Fig. 2). The study

area is within the Ikh Nartiin Nature Reserve established in

1996 to protect the scenic landform (Myagmarsuren in Kenny

et al. 2001). The entire study area is Argali habitat. Elevations

range from about 1,220 to 1,300 m and average annual

precipitation is about 200-250 cm (ASM 1990). The daily

temperature is > 10 °C for 1 10 to 130 days per year and the

average annual daily temperature is about 2 °C (ASM 1 990).

January is the coldest, with temperatures of -40 °C or colder in

contrast to > 38 °C during summer. Dry gullies or draws are

dispersed throughout the area and the only permanent stream

is situated in the northwestern portion. The land ownership

is public and devoted to raising livestock on open range.

There are few paved roads and motorised vehicles are

infrequent. Domestic animals include cattle, sheep, goats,

camels, and horses, with sheep predominating. Wolves ( Canis

lupus) are the only large predators present.

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF ARGALI

Fig.1: Location of the Ikh Nartiin study area in

southeastern Mongolia

Steppe plant communities in Mongolia are complex

(Hilbig 1995;Gunin etal. 1999). ASM (1990) described this

portion of the eastern Gobi as steppe dominated by needle

grasses ( Stipa klemenzii and Stipa krylovii ) and

Cleistogenes squarrosa. In the study area, other grasses

included fescues ( Festuca spp.), and wheatgrasses

(Agropyron spp.). A tall robust grass, Achnatherum

splendens is dominant in gullies or draws. A variety of forbs

including wild onion ( Allium spp.), and shrubs such as

sagebrushes ( Artemisia spp.), caraganas (Caragana spp.),

salt cedars (Tamar ix spp.), junipers ( Juniperus spp. ), currants

( Ribes spp.), and cherry ( Prunus spp.), were common

components in plant communities at Ikh Nartiin.

METHODS

Wild sheep were systematically surveyed in the study

area on September 9-10, 1 993 and October 8-9, 1 998. Sheep

surveys were conducted on foot from approximately the same

observation points and along the same ridgeline travel routes

during both years. Sheep were also observed from jeeps when

travelling between observation points. Drop off points, base

camp locations, and observation points were documented

using GPS technology. Animals were observed with the aid

of 8x and 1 Ox binoculars and 1 Ox - 45x spotting scopes. One

observation group, consisting of 3 to 4 experienced observers,

went into the field together each day to observe sheep.

Censuses were conducted over a 2-day period because it

allowed sufficient time to adequately cover the area and to

minimize counting the same animal more than once. When

the possibility existed that the same animals were observed

more than once, only the first observation was recorded to

minimize error. Location and altitude of sheep observation

sites were recorded using GPS technology.

Observed Argali densities were determined by dividing

the number of animals observed by the size of the survey

area. Each sheep observed was classified into one of the

following categories; adult ewe, lamb, or ram. Rams were

classified into size classes based on horn length (Geist 1971;

Fedosenko et al. 1995) as follows: Class 1(1-2 years old),

Class II (3-4 years old), Class III (5-6 years old) and Class IV

(>6 years old). Cause of death of ram carcasses found in the

field was determined by the remains. If most of the skeleton

including the head and horns was present, death was assumed

to be from natural causes. In a few cases, local herders directed

us to the remains of Argali that had died during winter.

In 1998, the plant community at Ikh Nartiin was

quantified by recording species composition, canopy

coverage, and frequency of occurrence for plants along four

60 m long line transects using the method of Daubenmire

( 1 959). English common names for plants are included when

available, otherwise common names are omitted. On October

10, 1998 data from 20 quadrats (20 x 50 cm) were recorded

along each of the 4 line transects (total 80 quadrats). Quadrats

were placed at 3 m intervals along each transect line. Each

plant species and form class within a quadrant was determined

to be in 1 of 6 different percent cover classes: 1 = 0-5%, 2 = >5-

25%, 3 =>25-50%, 4 = >50-75%, 5 =>75-95%, 6 = >95-100%.

Percent cover was summarized by using the midpoint for each

cover class recorded to determine the mean. Frequency of

occurrence was determined based on the number of quadrats

in which the species occurred. Transects were established at

representative upland sites where Argali had recently been

observed. Riparian vegetation associated with one perennial

unnamed stream in the study area was described by

developing a species list of the plants observed in the riparian

zone.

RESULTS AND DISCUSSION

Vegetation Structure and Composition

The steppe plant community consisted of 27.1, 25.1,

13.7 percent grasses/sedges, shrubs, and forbs respectively

(Table 1). Grasses/sedges, forbs, and litter or old plant material

were the most frequently occurring vegetative classes. The

most diverse vegetative class was forbs with 20 species

followed by grasses and sedges with 7 species each and

shrubs with 4 species. Total cover does not equal 100%

because plant communities are composed of plants of varying

heights, thus in reality the ground may be covered more than

once due to a layering effect

All plants observed were natives, many of which are

palatable to a variety of wild and domestic ungulates

(Bespalov 1 95 1 ; Heptner et al. 1989; Bedunah and Miller 1995;

Frisina and Gombosuren 2000). Because species composition

varies by season, data in Table 1 most accurately depict

species present late in the growing season. The third highest

cover class (14.0%) and most frequently occurring class

354

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF ARGALI

(98.8%) was litter or old plant material.

Four species of grasses ( Koeleria muhdensis, Stipa

krylovii, Achnatherum splendens and Cleistogenes

squarrosa ) frequently occurred along or near stream banks

and throughout the floodplain. Carex durusicula , a sedge,

was also frequently observed. Small, scattered clumps of

Siberian Elm ( Ulmus pumilci) were occasionally present in

gullies. Three species of shrubs ( Armeniaca sibirica.

Ephedra monosperma and Caragana leucophloea) were

observed. Artemisia xerophytica , Allium polyrrhizum , and

Convolvulus ammanii were associated forbs. All plants

Table 1: Canopy coverage and frequency of taxa in the

steppe plant community at Ikh Nartiin

arock is a stone greater than 2.5 cm in circumference

observed within the riparian and associated flood plain were

native to the area.

Cover and frequency of occurrence for the physical

characteristics of bareground and rock were measured

(Table 1). Cover of bareground (42.2%) dominated, which is

typical of arid plant communities. Rock (19.4%) was also an

important cover class. Rock and bareground were present on

the majority of plots. Plant cover in the Gobi region is typically

sparse (Bespalov 1951).

Argali Population

Total sheep observed in 1993 and 1998 were 162 and

171 respectively, of which 122 were classified by sex or age in

1993 and 131 were classified in 1998 (Table 2). Forty sheep

that were either ewes or lambs were observed in 1993 and

1998, but could not be differentiated and were thus not

included in Table 2. However, they were included in calculating

Argali density and in tabulating the number of rams observed

in the population. Of the 99 rams observed in 1993, 52 were

classified into age classes and all 33 rams observed in 1998

were classified into age classes. The observed ram age

structure was 13 Class I, 7 Class II, 23 Class III, and 9 Class IV

in 1993 and I Class 1, 12 Class II, 2 Class III, and 18 Class IV in

1998.

Population Density

A population density of 0.99 Argali per sq. km was

recorded in 1993 and 1.04 Argali per sq. km in 1998. These

data indicate a stable trend in population density at Ikh Nartiin.

Population densities observed in the eastern Gobi are similar

to the 1.0- 1.2 per sq. km for M; rco Polo’s Argali ( O.a . polii)

observed by Heptner et al. (T>89) and the 1.3 per sq. km

reported for Tibetan Argali (O.t . hodgsoni) by Jie and Sheng

(1990) in China’s Qinghai Province. Fedosenko et al. (1995)

observed 2.5 Marco Polo’s Argali per sq. km in Kirghizstan

within a protected area with limited hunting. Reading et al.

(1997) observed a much lower Argali density of about

0.019 per sq. km during an August 1994 aerial survey over

4,552.5 km of transects in Mongolia’s south Gobi. However,

they included large areas of unsuitable Argali habitat in their

survey. In a synthesis of literature, published and unpublished,

Reading et al. (1997) reported Argali densities from about

0.02 to 2.3 animals per sq. km in Central Asia.

Population Structure

In 1993, 39% of Argali observed were ewes and lambs

as compared to 75% in 1998. The reason for this difference is

unknown, but could be the result of there being fewer rams in

the survey area during 1 998. We also may have missed seeing

some rams during the survey. The proportion of the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

355

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF ARGALI

Fig. 2: The study area is typified by undulating terrain and large rock outcrops

population observed as ewes (53%) and lambs (21%) during

1998 is similar to that reported by Reading et al. (1997) for

south Gobi in Mongolia. However, 12.7% of the animals

included in Reading et al. ( 1997) were of undetermined sex,

while our sample only included animals classified by sex and

age.

In 1 998, 25% of the Argali observed were rams compared

to 61% in 1993, which is higher than the 14% reported by

Reading et al. ( 1 997) for a ground survey in south Gobi. For a

lightly hunted Marco Polo’s Argali population in Kirghizstan,

Fedosenko et al. (1995) reported a population structure of

36% females, 1 5% lambs, 10% yearlings, and 38% males.

A ratio of 47.1 males : 100 females was observed in

1998. This is higher than the 26.9 males : 100 females reported

by Reading et al. ( 1997), but lower than the 105 males : 100

females reported by Fedosenko et al. ( 1995) for Marco Polo’s

Table 2: Population structure of Gobi Argali (Ovis ammon),

classified by sex and age at Ikh Nartiin, Mongolia, 1993 and 1998

Argali in Kirghizstan and 59 males : 100 females reported by

Schaller (1998) for Argali ( O . ammon ) in China’s Xinjiang

Province. A high ratio of males to females in the study area is

indicative of an unhunted population.

Ranis

The proportion of rams observed by size class in 1993

was 25% Class I, 14% Class II, 44% Class III, and 17% Class

IV and in 1998 size classes were 3% Class I, 36% Class II, 6%

Class III, and 55% Class IV. A higher number of Class II and

Class IV rams were observed in 1998 compared to 1993. A

lower number of Class I and Class III rams were observed in

1998 than in 1993. These differences may reflect variation in

recruitment and survival rates of individual age classes over

6 years. These differences may also be partially due to sampling

biases because of the short census period of 2 field days.

Fedosenko et al. ( 1995) observed a male population segment

structure of 3 1 , 33, 30 and 6 percent for Class I, II. Ill, and IV

rams, respectively, in Kirghizstan, in a lightly hunted

population.

The relatively high numbers of rams in the larger size

Classes ( III and IV ) indicate that significant numbers of rams

are surviving to maturity. Significant survival of rams to

maturity is further evidenced by ages of rams found dead in

the field. Horns of 1 7 rams found in the field dead from natural

causes were aged by counting annual horn growth rings (Geist

356

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF ARGALI

1966). The mean age at time of death was 8 years old. Ages

ranged from the youngest, a 3 year old to a 1 3 year old. Of the

17 rams found dead of natural causes, 14 were Class IV

(>6 years) and their mean age at death was about 9 years. Age

at death for Class IV rams ranged from 6 to 13 years, with

2 greater than 10 years old. Geist (1991 ) and Schaller (1998)

estimated the average life span for mature Argali rams as about

9 years. Rams at Ikh Nartiin are surviving to a similar average

life span, indicating favourable habitat conditions (Hoefs and

Cowan 1979).

Ewes and Lambs

During 1998 surveys, 70 ewes and 28 lambs were

observed at Ikh Nartiin, yielding a ratio of 40 Iambs : 1 00 ewes.

The ratio indicated a productive population. Lambs were about

5 months old and this ratio reflects the proportion surviving

the first early critical time period (Geist 1971; Hoefs and

Cowan 1979). High lamb production and vigorous lambs (Geist

1971) typify high-quality wild sheep populations. Reading et

al. ( 1 997) observed 36.9 iambs : 1 00 ewes during August 1 994

ground surveys in south Gobi. During late summer surveys

in the south Gobi in 1993, Valdez et al. (1995) observed 124

females and 54 lambs, yielding a ratio of 44 lambs : 1 00 ewes.

Fedosenko et al. ( 1 995) reported a ratio of 43 lambs : 1 00 ewes

for Marco Polo’s Argali population in Kirghizstan. In the

eastern Pamir of Tajikistan, Fedosenko and Weinberg (200 1 )

reported a ratio of 41 lambs: 100 ewes for Marco Polo’s Argali

during a fall survey. A ratio of 41 lambs: 1 00 ewes was reported

by Schaller (1998) for Argali on the Tibetan steppe. Harris et

al. (200 1 ) observed approximately 60 lambs : 1 00 ewes during

fall surveys for Argali in Gansu Province, China. The ewe :

lamb ratio at Ikh Nartiin is similar to that reported for other

areas and is typical of a growing or healthy population (Geist

1971).

Population Trend and Size

The observed population densities of 0.99 per sq. km

for 1 993 and 1.04 Argali per sq. km for 1 998 indicate a stable

population trend. During the 1993 and 1998 surveys,

163.8 sq. km or 27 percent of the total Ikh Nartiin Argali range

was surveyed. A minimum population estimate was calculated

by extrapolating the observed density to the remaining 443.6

sq. km or 73 percent of the Argali range. Multiplying the

observed densities for 1993 and 1998 by the size of the Ikh

Nartiin Argali range provided a minimum population estimate

of 60 1 and 632 Argali for 1 993 and 1 998, respectively. This

estimate assumes that all Argali within the survey area were

observed, but it is likely that all argali within the survey area

were not observed. Even aerial surveys underestimate

population density (Pollock and Kendall 1987). When

conducting fall surveys utilizing a helicopter, the most

accurate census method, one can only expect to observe

20 to 50 percent of the population (Remington and Welsh

1989).

CONCLUSIONS AND RECOMMENDATIONS

The survey data indicate that the Argali population at

Ikh Nartiin is probably viable for population and genetic

processes (Soule 1987; Morrison et al. 1998). Argali occur

over hundreds of thousands of sq. km of open range without

obstructions like fences, canals, paved roads, heavy traffic

or natural barriers. In 1993, we observed 106 Argali about

80 km southwest of the study area (44° N, 108° E) near

Mandahsum village, indicating a widespread, continuous

distribution of Argalis, which could travel and interbreed over

large-scale landscapes. Natural population control factors may

be operating because, although unhunted, the population

was relatively stable between 1993 and 1998. Productivity of

ewes and lamb survival through the first critical time period is

similar to that reported for several other Argali populations.

The high proportion of rams observed in the larger size

Classes (III and IV) and mean age of about 9 years for Class

IV rams found dead of natural causes, indicated good survival

and that poaching is not a significant cause of mortality. The

human population density in the study area is low and

firearms, especially those of high calibre, are probably limited.

The observed ratio of 40 lambs : 1 00 ewes and relatively high

proportion of rams surviving to older age classes are indicators

of a healthy population.

Range conditions at Ikh Nartiin are in mid to late serai

stage and forage production is adequate for wild and domestic

ungulates inhabiting the area. This is evidenced by the

abundance of the current year’s plant growth still present on

the steppe near the end of the growing season and survival

of rams into the older age classes.

The relatively high proportion of residual vegetation,

diversity of native plants, and plant species composition

indicates that livestock grazing has been light or moderate in

the study area and the Argali habitat is in mid to late serai

stage. During September 1993 and October 1998, most of the

current year’s plant growth was still present on the steppe,

also indicating livestock grazing had been light.

During 1993 and 1998, few cattle, sheep, and horses

were observed on the Argali range. An increase in livestock

numbers could degrade habitat quality. A long-term grazing

strategy for domestic livestock emphasizing sustainability of

soils and vegetation while providing for the habitat needs of

wild animals and human society should be developed (Valdez

etal. 1995)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

357

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF ARGALI

Long-term monitoring of this population should

continue. Also, a management plan should be implemented

that ensures the viability of the Argali population by

encouraging continued protection by local herders, and

includes economic incentives not to increase domestic

livestock numbers. Issuing at least one license annually for

trophy hunting, which would not deleteriously impact the

population, should be considered as a means for funding

conservation efforts by the local authorities at Ikh Nartiin.

Should a hunting program be implemented, studies should

be conducted to determine any social, economic, and

ecological impacts. Funding from hunting can provide

incentive to improve management and protection of

wildlife in Mongolia (Valdez et al. 1 995). Population parameters

for this unhunted Argali population may serve as a

management reference for comparison with hunted

populations.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors acknowledge Grand Slam Club/Ovis, Safari

Club International, Foundation for North American Wild

Sheep, Mongol Tours, and Mongol Safaris for funding the

project. We thank Dennis Campbell, Baasanhu Jantzen,

B. Galdabrakh, U. Buyandelger, and Sukhiin Amgalanbaatar

who, because of their dedication to the conservation of Argali,

made the project possible. Gu Anlin, Research Scientist,

Chinese National Academy of Agricultural Sciences assisted

with plant identification. The Mongolian Ministry for Nature

and the Environment, Mongolian National Agriculture

University, New Mexico State University Agricultural

Experiment Station, and the Montana Department of Fish,

Wildlife & Parks also supported the project. In addition to

anonymous referees, Dr. Carl Wambolt, Montana State

University, reviewed the manuscript.

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Washington, D.C. Pp. 1147.

Hilbig, W. (1995): The vegetation of Mongolia. SPB Academic

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population of Dali sheep. Syesis (supplement I) 72:1 -81.

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

359

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

360-373

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY - 40. FAMILY: FRINGILLIDAE: FINCHES'

Saraswathy Unnithan2

(Contd from JBNHS 98(3): 347-354)

'Accepted April, 2003

2Bombay Natural History Society, Hornbill House, S B Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India

Email: [email protected]. in, [email protected]

Present Address: 1304 A lal Vayu Vihar, I.I.T.P.O. Powai. Mumbai 400 076, Maharashtra, India.

This part deals with 747 specimens belonging to

62 species and subspecies, up to Synopsis No. 2040 in the

handbook (Vol. 10, p. 202) and 14 extralimitals. We do not

have specimens for 4 species and 1 I subspecies in our

Collection.

1979 Fringilla coelebs coelebs Linnaeus (Europa =

Sweden). Chaffinch 3:163.

29: 8 males, 1 9 females, 2 unsexed.

1 Fahama, R. Tigris, 2 Sulaimaniya, 6 Hawiplain,

Samara, 1 Amara, 1 Bagdad, Iraq; I Dohuk, Kurdistan;

2 Bagh Rezi, I Engeli, 3 Meshed, 2 Shiraz, I Pir-i-Bani 9 m.s.

of Shiraz, 2 Shustar, S. Persia (Iran) I Persian Gulf,

3 Dattakhel, Waziristan, N WFP.

Most of the specimens were collected between 1917

and 1927. They cannot be confused with any other species

due to a distinct greenish rump and a pair of pure white wing

bars.

Measurements on p. 36 1 .

1980 Fringilla montifringilla Linnaeus (Europa =

Sweden). Brambling 3: 164.

13:4 males, 8 females, 1 unsexed

4 Mosul, Iraq ; 1 Parachinar, NWFP; 6 Chitral Drosh;

2 Simla, NWH.

The Chitral specimens were collected in 1 903, Mosul in

1923, Simla specimens in 1924 and 1925. They are distinct and

easily separable from F. coelebs due to their white rump, rufous

mixed wing bars, feathers at the back and head with rufous

edges, giving a scaly and mottled appearance to the back and

head respectively.

Measurements on p. 36 1 .

1981 Coccotbraustes c. humii Sharpe (Attock, N.W.

Punjab). Hawfinch 3: 100.

7: 5 males, 2 females.

2 Chitral, 3 Chhoi, near Campbellpur, I Jhalor,

1 Campbellpur, W. Punjab.

Bird with a massive bill, a narrow black border all around

the base extending to a black patch on the throat. Very peculiar

purple - black sinuous shaped tips to the secondaries. Sexes

are separate, unlike the record in the handbook. The head of

the male is cinnamon brown with a broad ashy collar on hind

neck. In the female, the head is ashy and hence the collar is

not distinct. The back of the male is cinnamon brown; rump,

breast and flanks tawny brown, while those of the female are

ashy brown.

Measurements on p. 361.

EL Coccotbraustes c.japonicus Temminck el Schlegel

(Japan) Hawfinch

8: 3 males 5 females

6 Temple of Heaven, 1 Peking, I Sutto

Measurements on p. 361 .

1982 Mycerobas icterioides (Vigors) (Himalayan

Mountains = Simla-Almora area). Black-and- Yellow Grosbeak

3: 102.

29: 19 males, 9 females, 1 unsexed.

2 Chitral Drosh, 1 Chitral utzun, 1 Pingal, Badrawar, 1

Kashmir; 1 NaggarKulla, 1 Dharmsala, 3 Dalhousie, 1 Muree,

Punjab; 6 Kanain. 4 Narkanda, Kumarsain, Simla, 5 Koti State,

3 Simla Hill NWH.

Both the male and the female are distinct and easily

separated from M. affinis , unlike the record in the handbook.

The males have sooty black head, throat, wings and tail,

whereas in affinis it is replaced by deep glossy black colour.

The collar and rump are yellow, in affinis the collar and

posterior rump are orange rufous.

Females of icterioides have light greyish-brown head,

throat, breast and mantle, and light peach coloured rump and

belly. The central pair of rectrices are greyish-brown with dark

brownish-black rachis. Females of affinis have dark grey head,

rest of upper parts olive green, throat grey and rest of under

parts olive yellow, all rectrices are similar, brownish-black.

Measurements on p. 36 1 .

1983 Mycerobas affinis (Blyth) (Alpine Punjab,

restricted to Hazara by Whistler). Collared Grosbeak 3: 103.

2: I male, 1 female

Both the specimens are from Dakuri, Punjab.

They were registered and kept as M. icterioides. The

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

MEASUREMENTS PART 40

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

361

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

MEASUREMENTS PART 40 (contd.)

362

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

MEASUREMENTS PART 40 ( contd .)

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

363

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

MEASUREMENTS PART 40 (contd.)

Wings (mm) Bill (mm) Tarsus (mm) Tail (mm)

2009 Rhodopechys sanguinea sanguinea

364

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

MEASUREMENTS PART 40 ( contd .)

(Dement've 82-96)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

365

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

MEASUREMENTS PART 40 ( contd .)

orange rufous collar of the male called for a critical look before

separating them from icterioides.

Measurements on p. 361 .

1984 Mycerobas carnipes speculigerus (Brandt)

(N. Persia). Persian White-winged Grosbeak 3: 104.

5: 2 males, 3 females.

2 JJzbeck Academy I Kashgar, China, 2 Harboi,

Baluchistan.

Uzbeck specimens were collected in 1926 and the Harboi

specimens in 1917; Kashgar specimen is without a date.

366

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

Measurements on p. 361.

1985 Mycerobas carnipes cantipes (Hodgson) (Nepal).

Himalayan White-winged Grosbeak 3: 104.

5: 2 males, 3 females.

3 Pyas, Kishtwar, Kashmir, 2 Chini Bushahr, Simla Kanda

Camp, Himachal Pradesh.

The Kishtwar specimens were collected by Crump in

1907 and the othertwo byA.E. Jones on 8. vii. 1 926. The key in

the handbook states that the nominate race is darker and

speculigerus is paler. This difference is not visible in the

specimens and they have been separated according to

distribution.

Measurements on p. 36 1 .

1986 Mycerobas melanozanthos (Hodgson) (Nepal).

Spotted-winged Grosbeak 3:105.

14: 10 males, 4 females.

2 Dharmsala, 5 Simla, 2 Lambathach, 1 Garhwal, 1 Sikkim,

1 Darjeeling, 1 Tama, 1 Shamgong, C. Bhutan.

Out of the 14 specimens, 10(7 males and 3 females) are

from Western Himalayas and 4 (3 males and 1 female) from

eastern regions. The eastern birds are notably different, smaller

with a shorter tail and darker, especially the deeper sulphur

yellow underparts. This is not due to the aging of the

specimens. Specimen No. 7118 collected from Sikkim by H.J.

Walton on 18.iv. 1902 is darker yellow than specimens from

Shimla collected on 4.iv.l922 and 3 .iv. 1 927 by A.E. Jones.

There are enough differences to treat them as a separate

race after examining a larger series.

Measurements on p. 36 1 .

1987 Carduelis carduelis major Taczanowski

(Turkestan). Siberian Goldfinch 3: 149.

Nil.

1 988 Carduelis carduelis subulata (Gloger) (Yenisei).

Central Asian Goldfinch 3: 1 53.

Nil.

1 989 Carduelis carduelis caniceps Vigors (Himalayan

Mountains = Simla-Almora area). Grey-headed Goldfinch

3: 150.

20: 10 males, 7 females, 3 unsexed.

1 Kain, Persia (Iran), 4 Chitral, 1 Malakand, Peshawar,

1 Murree, Rawalpindi, 2 Chhoi, near Campbellpur,

1 Chashmashahi, Kashmir Valley, 1 Konain, Jaunsar, 2 Solon,

Bhagat State, Simla Hills, 4 Simla, 1 Lambathach, 1 Bampa,

Nita, Garhwal, 1 no locality (purchased in Bombay market).

Males have a crimson chin, distinguishing them from

females, which have only a light crimson border at the base of

the bill.

Measurements on p. 361 .

EL Carduelis carduelis paropanisi Kollibay (Naryn

Turkestan). Grey-headed Goldfinch

2: 1 male, 1 female

The specimens dated 22.vi.1925 are from Uzbeck

Academy, Tashkent and are marked C.c. paropanisi on the

original label. They look very similar to our specimens of

C.c. caniceps, but have slightly longer, heavier bills.

Measurements on p. 362.

EL Carduelis carduelis niediecki Reichenow Asia

Minor.

11:7 males, 4 females

2 Dohuk, Kurdistan, 1 Sulaimaniya, Iraq, I Amara,

Mesopotamia, 5 Shiraz, Persia (Iran), 1 Shustar, S. Persia,

I Mis hern, Persian Gulf.

This is the Asia Minor race of Goldfinch. Differs from

C.c. caniceps in having white ear coverts, and black crown

and nape. Female is slightly less bright.

Measurements on p. 362.

1 990 Carduelis spinoides spinoides Vigors (Himalayas

= Simla). Himalayan Greenfinch 3: 160.

72: 39 males, 23 females, 1 0 unsexed.

3 Liddar Valley, 1 Gulabgarh, Kishtwar, Kashmir,

1 Jagadri, Ambala, 3 Dalhousie, 1 Dakuri, 4 Mornaula,

1 Kariakustu? 2 Thunsi, Nepal, 1 Solon, Bhagat St.,

3 Mashobia, 1 Garsa, Kulu, 2 Chini, 22 Simla, 1 Kumaon,

3 Garhwal, 1 Naini Tal, 1 Baria Bastee, Darjeeling, 2 Honka W.

Bh., 1 Tama, 3 Batase, 1 Mangdechu, 1 Bumthang, C. Bhutan,

3 Warmrong, E. Bh. 6 Khosela, Bh. 2 Tirhut, Darbhanga, Bihar,

1 Dre, Yigomg Valley, 1 no locality.

The west Himalayan birds were collected in 1877 to

1934, and Bhutan birds during 1966 to 1973. Eastern birds

have darker upper parts and bright yellow underparts. The

difference may be due to fading in the museum.

Measurements on p. 362.

1991 Carduelis spinoides taylori (Kinnear) (Lilung,

Tsangpo Valley, SE Tibet). Tibetan Greenfinch.

Nil.

1992 Carduelis spinoides heinrichi Stresemann (Mt.

Victoria). Mt. Victoria Greenfinch 3: 160.

Nil.

1993 Carduelis thibetana (Hume) (Borders of Sikkim

and Thibet). Tibetan Siskin 3:162.

9: 8 males, 1 female.

6 Chimakothi, West 1 Shamgong, Central, 2 Warmrong,

East Bhutan.

Rump of male bright olive green with yellow wash (in

female, olive green streaked like the back) handbook ( Vol. 1 0,

p. 140, 1974) erroneously mentions the male rump as “brighter

yellow”. Baker (Vol. 3, p. 162, 1 926) is more exact when he says

“upper plumage and wing coverts olive yellow-green, rump

brighter and more yellow”.

Measurements on p. 362.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

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A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

EL Carduelis sinica (Linnaeus) (China, restricted to

Macao by Jaconi). Oriental Greenfinch.

1 0 : 4 males and 6 females

All the birds are from Temple of Heaven, Peking.

Measurements on p. 362.

EL Carduelis spinus (Linnaeus) (Europe; restricted to

Sweden by Hartert 1903). Siskin.

1 Male from Residency Baghdad.

Measurements on p. 362.

1994 Carduelis cannabina bella (Brehm) (Kashmir).

Eurasian Linnet.

12: 5 males, 6 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Sulaimaniya, Iraq, 1 Dohu A, Kurdistan, 4 Meshed,

Persia (Iran), 2 Shustar, S. Persia, I Choi, 3 Campbellpur,

W. Punjab.

The birds were collected during 1918 to 1928. The

pinkish red forehead is faded and one has to look hard for the

faint reddish tinge on the streaked head of the male. Breast is

pinkish brown.

Measurements on p. 362.

1995 Carduelis flavirostris montanella (Hume)

(Arpalak River, Yarkand). Stoliczka’s Twite 3: 1 57.

4: 2 males, 1 female, 1 unsexed.

2 Chitral, 1 Rupshu, Kashmir, 16000’, 1 Puga Valley,

Ladakh.

The key in the handbook requires these birds to be

paler and more sandy above than rufostrigata , which is darker

and more rufescent. But the specimens of these two races in

the Collections are not in good condition, and were separated

according to locality. The Rupshu specimen collected byA.E.

Jones in 1 0.viii. 1 926 is marked ladacensis, which is now

synonymised with montanella.

Measurements on p. 362.

1996 Carduelis flavirostris rufostrigata (Walton)

(Khamba Jong, Tibet). Tibetan Twite 3: 157.

3: 1 male, 2 females.

2 Tingri, 1 Gyantse, Tibet.

No. 7363 collected from Tingri on lO.vii. 1921 shows a

pale pink rump.

Measurements on p. 362.

EL Carduelis flammea (Linnaeus) (Norrland, Sweden

Redpoll). Common Redpoll.

One female specimen from Ussuriland, Russia marked

Acanthis flammeus.

Measurements on p. 362.

1 997 Callacanthis burtoni (Goud) (Himalaya = Srinagar).

Spectacled Finch 3: 152.

1 6: 9 males, 7 females.

2 Chitral, 1 Daugail, Kishtwar, 1 Danlong, 2 Liddar Valley,

2 Kashmir, 8 Simla, NWH.

The handbook describes the male bird as having black

wing, spotted with white. Actually it is the bold white tips to

greater coverts, tertials, secondaries and two inner primaries

that form the ‘spots’. As regards the tail, the outer margins of

the outer rectrices are black and there is a long oval white

patch on the inner margin of the outer two pairs of rectrices.

The pinkish red chin and throat are not apparent in these

specimens. They are dark brown with rufous tips to feathers,

giving a mottled appearance. In female, the tips of wing

feathers (“spots”) are dull brown.

Measurements on p. 363.

1 998 Serinus pusillus (Pallas) (Caucasus). Fire-fronted

Serin 3: 158.

27: 12 males, 7 females, 8 unsexed.

1 Tashkent Uzbeck Academy, 2 Khasafir monastery,

N. Dohuk, Kurdistan, 1 Kidri, Kain, 1 Tehran, 1 Shustar,

2 Amirabad, Birjand, E. Persia , 3 Chitral, 3 Bostan Terek,

1 Quetta, Baluchistan, 1 Deosai Pass, Kashmir, 1 Rumbleton,

Ladakh, 8 Simla, 2 Garhwal.

The specimens were collected from 1 888 to 1930, except

the Tashkent specimen, which was collected in 1960. Males

appear to have a darker head and brighter scarlet forehead

than the females. Throat is blackish; mantle, upper part of

belly and flanks heavily streaked due to the fulvous edges of

the dark brown feathers. No yellow is visible in the specimens.

Measurements on p. 363.

EL Serinus serinus (Linnaeus) Southern Europe. Serin.

One male from Budapest, Hungary collected on

25 .v. 1959.

A small streaked finch with yellow forehead, greenish

yellow rump, chin, throat and breast.

Measurements on p. 363.

EL Serinus syriacus Bonaparte. Syrian Serin

One male collected from Dohuk, Kurdistan on 22.xii. 1 922

by La Personne.

Very small finch with yellow forehead, rump, throat and

heavily streaked mantle. Highly restricted distribution in the

Middle East.

Measurement on p. 363.

1999 Leucosticte nemoricola altaica (Eversmann)

(Uimon, Attai). Western Hodgson’s Mountain-Finch.

38: 20 males, 1 1 females, 7 unsexed.

2 Aktala , Chinese Turkistan, 5 Chitral, 1 Bostan Terek,

1 Kazing Bastie? 5 Kashmir, 1 Kishtwar, 3 Sonamarg, 1 Tragbal

Pass, 1 Painzalmurg, Kashmir, 1 Pindari Glacier, 5 Dharmsala,

2 above Chini, 4 Narkunda, 6 Simla.

The key in the handbook separates altaica from the

nominate race on the basis of the colour of axillaries - pale

ashy in the former and pale yellow in the latter race. This

difference cannot be observed in any of the specimens. They

368

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

were separated according to distribution.

Specimens of altaica were collected from 1902 to 1945,

6 specimens were collected by Br. Navarro in 1966, from Simla.

Specimens of the nominate race were collected in 1952, 1953,

1955 and 1967 by Salim Ali and party. The nominate race is

appreciably darker than altaica specimens. This is not due to

fading of the specimens in the Collection. Females in both the

races are paler than the males.

Measurements on p. 363.

2000 Leucosticte nemoricola nemoricola (Hodgson)

(Nepal). Eastern Hodgson’s Mountain-Finch 3: 191.

18:11 males, 6 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Nyemjam, S. Tibet, 3 Lachen, N. Sikkim, 2 Chungthang,

3 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 1 Deutam, W. Sikkim, 2 Phalut, Darjeeling,

5 Shamgong, C. Bhutan.

Measurements on p. 363.

2001 Leucosticte brandti brandti Bonaparte (Siberia,

errore = Turkestan). Brandt’s Mountain Finch 3: 193.

Nil.

2002 Leucosticte brandti pamirensis Severtzov (Pamir).

Pamir Mountain-Finch 3:193.

Nil.

2003, 2004 Leucosticte brandti haematopygia (Gould)

(Thibet). Himalayan Mountain-Finch 3: 194.

15:7 males, 5 females, 3 unsexed.

I Chinese Turkistan, 3 Chitral Drosh, 1 Borgi Pass,

Baltistan, 2 Rupshu, Kashmir, 2 Polokanka, 1 Puga valley,

1 Sasar Pass, 1 Khardong, Ladakh, 1 Upper Kurta Valley,

1 East Everest, 1 Thungla, S. Tibet.

The specimens date back to 1902-1926 except three,

2 males and 1 female, collected by Salim Ali and Hussain on

July 1 7 and 1 8, 1 976 from Puga Valley, Sasar Pass and Khardong

in Ladakh. All males have scaly pink rump due to the greyish-

brown feathers of the rump having pink tips. The Ladakh

female also has a similar but less bright pink rump. The

forehead and face are sooty black in males and slightly paler

in females.

Measurements on p. 363.

2005 Leucosticte brandti pallidior Bianchi (Karasai,

Nan Shan). Kun Lun Mountain-Finch 3: 194.

Nil.

2006 Bucanetes githaginea crassirostris (Blyth)

(Afghanistan). Trumpeter Finch 3:141.

1 7: 7 males, 1 0 females.

1 Duzdap, Sistan 5 Charbar, Persian Gulf, I Kelat,

Baluchistan, 1 Wahir, 25 miles southwest of Khojdar, 2 Chitral,

6 Johi, Larkana, Sind, 1 Karachi.

A small, sandy brown finch with light grey head, pink

forehead, lores and outer edges of remiges, pink wash to

underparts and rump in males. Female without pink in the

plumage. Can be separated without much difficulty following

the key in handbook. May be confused with mongolica, three

specimens of which were registered as this species.

Measurements on p. 363.

2007 Bucanetes nwngolicus (Swinhoe) (Nankow Pass).

Mongolian Finch 3: 142.

8: 4 males, 4 females.

/ Sehdeh, Birjand, / Birjand, 1 Kaidasht Pass, Kain,

Persia, 1 Gilgit, 4 Chitral.

The specimens from Persia, collected by V.S. La

Personne in 1926 and 1927, were identified and registered as

G. crassirostris. But they have a distinctly smaller bill compared

to the stouter bill of githaginea , pink is absent or very little in

the plumage and the mantle streaked, contrary to the plain

mantle of githaginea.

Measurements on p. 363.

2008 Rhodospiza obsoleta (Lichtenstein) (Buchara).

Black-billed Finch 3:143.

8: 5 males (4 by pi ), 3 females ( 1 by pi)

I Bagdad, Iraq, 2 Chaman, 2 Quetta, Baluchistan,

3 Kashgar, China.

The male is distinct from the female unlike the remarks

in the handbook. Tertials are black with white edges in males

and brown with pale brown edges in females. Wing and tail

pattern are bright in male and dull in female. Five unsexed

specimens were separated (four males and one female)

according to the plumage.

The specimens were collected from 1 902 to 1926. Many

are in poor condition and two are highly damaged.

Measurements on p. 363.

2009 Rhodopechys sanguinea sanguinea (Gould)

(Erzerum). Crimson-winged Finch 3: 144.

1 male from Chitral.

There is only one specimen collected by H.J. Fulton on

July 8, 1902. It is without a tail and is in poor condition. The

outer edges of the wing feathers are pink, forming a large pink

wing patch with a crimson touch, and the white tips to the

secondaries are prominent.

Measurements on p. 364.

20 1 0 Carpodacus erythrinus ferghanensis (Kozlova)

(Shah-dara Tadzhik S.S.R.). Turkestan Rosefinch 3: 136.

25: 1 7 males, 8 females.

8 Chitral, 4 Chitral Drosh, 4 Zangalwar, Badrawar,

1 Kishtwar, 3 Dachigam, 1 seven miles below Yus, 2 Sooknas,

Wardwar, 1 Kashmir, 1 Kargil, Ladakh.

The key in the handbook separates the four races of

erythrinus on the intensity and extent of the rose pigment.

Males of ferghanensis are darker with a crimson head, chin,

throat and rump. Most of our specimens date back to 1897

through 1 907, and it is quite difficult to separate them on the

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

369

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

basis of colour as they have faded. This race has been

separated according to the locality recorded. All the

specimens were collected during their breeding period from

breeding localities of the race. Three specimens in end April,

1 5 in May and 7 from June-August.

Measurements on p. 364.

201 1 Carpodacus erythrinus roseatus (Blyth) (Sold in

Calcutta [=Kolkata]). Indian Rosefinch 3: 137.

84: 49 males, 34 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Pindari, 2 Taradevi Patiala, 1 Lahore, 1 Jagadri,

3Ambala, 1 Kufri, Koti State, 10 Simla, N.W.H. 2 Joshimath,

1 Almore, 2 Guptakashi, 1 Yalai, Garhwal, 1 Delhi, 5 Bharatpur,

1 Balaram, Palanpur, 1 Vaghjipur, Mehsana Dt, 1 Juna, Rajpipla,

Gujarat, 2 Chikalda, Berar, 3 Nasik, 2 Ahmednagar, 1 Shil, Thana,

1 Godbunder, Salsette, 1 Borivli, 1 Belapur, 2 Khandala,

1 Rewas, Alibag, 1 Kalian? 2 Medha, 3 Satara, Maharashtra,

1 Jog, Karwar, 2 Bangalore, 1 Anaikatty, Gudalore, 2 Kil,

Kottagiri, Ooty, Nilgiris, 1 Maraiyur, Travancore,

1 Kurumbapatti; Salem, Tamil Nadu, 1 Anantgiri,

5 Sankrametta, Vizagapatnam, 1 Bailadila, Bastar, 1 Nilgiri,

Orissa, 2 Baghownie, 4 Tirhut, 4 Gedu, W. Bhutan,

1 Geylegphug, C. Bhutan, 1 Cachar, 2 North Shan States.

The typical colour of this race, deep carmine is seen in

a male collected from Gedu, W. Bhutan in October 1968. A

similar colour with less intensity is visible in a male from

N. Nilgiris collected in March 1977. Two birds from Joshimath,

Garhwal collected on 25. v. 1 899 despite probable fading shows

the carmine colour of the breeding male, also 3 specimens

collected by A.E. Jones from Simla in April, May & June.

17 males collected in November, December and January,

have pink chin, throat and breast. The feathers have light

cream edges, giving a somewhat scaly appearance. A bird

collected by C.M. Inglis from Darbhanga on 1 5.vi. 1 877 also

has a similar plumage. 1 1 males collected during March and

April are in the process of changing into the breeding plumage

by abrasion of the edges of the feathers.

Among females, birds collected from Bhutan in 1968

are the darkest, with very distinct, sharp, dark streaks on the

underparts. A bird from Bharatpur, Rajasthan (24.ix.l962)also

has similar streaks.

Measurements on p. 364.

2012 Carpodacus erythrinus kubanensis Laubmann

(Kuban dist., Caucasus). Caucasus Rosefinch 3: 136.

2: 1 male, 1 female

1 Charbar, Persian Gulf, 1 Liddar Valley, Kashmir.

The male specimen collected on 22. viii. 1 928 is marked

by Salim Ali as kubanensis ; the Charbar specimen collected

by W.D. Cumming on 6. i i . 1 9 1 3 is a female. A poorly

differentiated race according to Vaurie (IH. 1 0: 1 66). Ticehurst

( JBNHS 32: 345) stated that it is a very poor race as so many

cannot be placed. According to Whistler (JBNHS 36: 837) it is

useless to recognize the intermediate race kubanensis.

Measurements on p. 364.

20 1 3 Carpodacus erythrinus erythrinus (Pallas) (Volga,

South Russia). Common Rosefinch 3: 135.

2: 1 male, 1 female

1 Jaithari, 1 Dodi, Malwa, Bhopal, Central India.

These specimens were collected by Salim Ali on January

19 and 3 1 , 1938 and identified by H. Whistler as the nominate

race. There may be more specimens of this race, ferghanensis

and kubanensis mixed with roseatus, since specimens in non-

breeding (winter) plumage are difficult to separate.

Measurements on p. 364.

EL Carpodacus erythrinus grebnitzkii Stejneger

(Kamchatka). Eastern Common Rosefinch

2 males from Peking, China.

Measurements on p. 364.

2014 Carpodacus nipalensis kangrae (Whistler)

(Dharmsala, Kangra Dist., NW Himalayas). Garhwal Dark

Rosefinch 3: 146

4 males.

1 Pyas, Kishtwar, Kashmir, 1 Lakkar, behind Dharmsala,

1 Pindari Glacier, 1 Pindari Valley, Phurtia, Garhwal dist.

Collected in 1907, 1921 and two in 1924. Paler than the

nominate race.

Measurements on p. 364.

2015 Carpodacus nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson)

(Nepal, Central and Northern regions). Nepal Dark Rosefinch

3: 146.

16: 12 males, 4 females

1 Chitlang, 2 Godavari, 1 Nepal Valley, 1 Phalul, 1 N.P.

Darjeeling, 4 Temi, W. Sikkim, 2 Tama, C. Bhutan, 3 Wamrong,

E. Bhutan, 1 Loi Lem, Burma (Myanmar).

A darker bird than kangrae, both on the upper as well

as underparts. The unsexed specimen in male plumage from

Loi Lem was initially placed in intensicolor, but it has no

discernable difference from the nominate race, hence it is

included here. Cheng Tso-Hsin synonymised intensicolor

with the nominate race in a synopsis of the avifauna of china

(1987).

Measurements on p. 364.

2016 Carpodacus rubescens (Blanford) (Sikkim).

Blanford’s Rosefinch 3: 148.

Nil.

2017 Carpodacus rhodocltrous (Vigors) (Himalayan

Mountains = Simla-Almora area). Pink-browed Rosefinch

3: 129.

32: 21 males, 1 1 females.

1 Ghora Gali, Muree Hills, Rawalpindi, 1 Danlong,

Kishtwar, 4 Liddar Valley, 1 Dachigam, Kashmir, 1 Keonthal,

370

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

1 Koti, 14 Simla, N WH, 4 Badrinath, 1 Flaghill, E. Mussoorree,

2 Pindari, 1 Nila Valley Garhwal, 1 Gyantse, Tibet.

The specimens date back to 1899 (Maj. H.T. Walton) to

1 928 (V.S. La Personne) and a badly prepared female specimen

from “Flaghill, Mussorie” collected by Robert Waltner in 1973.

Most of the specimens are in poor condition, yet identifiable.

Measurements on p. 364.

2017a Carpodacus vittaceus vinaceus Verreaux

(Mountains of Chinese Tibet). Vinaceous Rosefinch 3: 133.

1 Male from North Shan States, Burma (=Myanmar)

collected by Capt. H. Wood, undated and labelled as

“C. vinaceous ” (sic). A much darker bird than the previous

species. Deep crimson crown, crimson suffused with brown

on back and underparts, light crimson rump, two white spots

on tertials, wings and tail dark brown.

Measurements on p. 364.

20 1 8 Carpodacus rhodoclilamys grandis Blyth (Range

beyond Simla). Red-mantled Rosefinch 3: 128.

25: 15 males, 9 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Tashkent, Uzbeck, 3 Chitral, 1 Chitral Drosh, 1 Chitral

Ghairat, 2 Choi, nr Campbellpur, 5 Harboi, Baluchistan, 1 Koti,

1 Mashobra, Koti, 7 Simla NWF1, 1 Yangihissar, Kashgar ,

2 Kashgar, China.

Both males and females are very similar to rhodochrous ,

but can easily be separated due to large size and heavier bill

of rhodochlamys.

Two of the Kashgar specimens (one male and one

unsexed) were collected by F. Stoliczka during the Forsyth’s

expeditions in December 1 873 and the third, a female in 1 930.

6 males are in female plumage. The Harboi specimens collected

in August 1917 by Capt. J.E.B. Hotson are the palest; both

males and females are sandy brown with dark brown streaks

on the mantle.

Measurements on p. 364.

2019 Carpodacus rodopeplus rodopeplus (Vigors)

(Himalayan Mountains, restricted to Simla-Almora area). Spot-

winged Rosefinch 3: 130.

Nil.

2020 Carpodacus thura blythi (Biddulph) (Gilgit, “close

to the Indus”). Kashmir White-browed Rosefinch 3: 12.

11:9 males, 2 females.

1 Astan Marg, Liddar Valley, 1 Pyas, 1 Danlong,

Kishtwar, 3 Fagu, Simla Hills, 1 Simla, 1 Simla Hills, 2 Nila

Valley, 1 Garhwal.

They are somewhat similar to Pink-browed Rosefinch

rhodochrous and Red-mantled Rosefinch rhodochlamys, but

can be easily separated from the former in being larger, and

from the latter in being smaller and darker. They have two

wing bars, the pinkish supercilia join at the forehead and are

iridescent. The females are different from those of both the

above species in having rufous brown throat and deep olive

yellow, heavily streaked rump.

Measurements on p. 365.

2021 Carpodacus thura thura Bonapart & Schlegel

(Himalayas = Sikkim). Sikkim White-browed Rosefinch.

3: 1 male, 1 female, 1 unsexed.

All three are from Lachen, N. Sikkim, collected by Salim

Ali in February and March 1952, are in female plumage. They

are darker than blythi, snuff brown with blackish-brown

streaks, finer on the crown and broad on the mantle.

Measurements on p. 365.

2022 Carpodacus thura femininus Rippon (Yangtze

River, W. Yunnan). Yunnan White-browed Rosefinch 3: 125.

Nil.

2023 Carpodacus pulclierrimus pulclterrimus (Moore)

(Nepal). Himalayan Beautiful Rosefinch 3: 126.

7: 6 males, 1 female.

1 Above Chini, Bashahr, Punjab, 5 Niti Pass, 1 Badrinath,

Garhwal.

Six specimens collected by Maj. H.J. Walton in May-

June 1899, some marked as this species, are in very poor

condition. The seventh, an unsexed (male by plumage)

collected by H. W. Wait in May 1941 is in fairly good condition

and identifiable as pulcherrimus.

Measurements on p. 365.

2024 Carpodacus pulcherrimus waltoni (Sharp)

(Gyantse, S. Tibet). Tibet Beautiful Rosefinch 3: 127.

Nil.

2025 Carpodacus edwardsii rubicunda (Greenway)

(Sikkim) Dark-rumped Rosefinch 3:131.

5: 2 males, 3 females.

3 Lachung, N. Sikkim, 1 Darjeeling, 1 Chimakothi,

W. Bhutan.

The Darjeeling specimen, a female, was collected and

marked ‘Edward’s Rose Finch’ by C.M. Inglis in August 1905.

The rest of the specimens were collected by Salim Ali and

identified by him. The male differs from similar finches like

rhodochlamys and thura in having a rufous brown rump,

contra pinkish and much darker above than both these

species. Female is very dark rufous brown with indistinct

streaks on the belly.

Measurements on p. 365.

2026 Carpodacus trifasciatus Verreaux (Mountains of

Chinese Tibet, restricted to Paohing, eastern Sikang by Vaurie).

Three-banded Rosefinch

Nil.

2027 Carpodacus rubicilla severtzovi Sharpe

(Turkestan and Yarkand = Toghrasu near Shabulla, Karakoram).

Common Great Rosefinch 3:139.

5: 4 males, 1 unsexed.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

371

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

1 Chinese Turkestan, 1 Indus Valley below Upshi,

1 Hansi, 1 Tharcha, Losar, 1 Kioto, Spiti, Punjab.

The Tharcha male is in female plumage. Can be

confused only with rubicilloides due to similar size, but paler

with indistinct streaks at back, almost unstreaked nape and

diffused white spots on crown and underparts separate them.

Measurement on p. 365.

2028 Carpodacus rubicilloides lucifer R. & A.

Meinertzhagen (Chusha, Southern Tibet). Streaked Great

Rosefinch 3: 198.

8: 7 males, 1 female.

3 Puga Valley, 1 Ladakh, 2 Gyantse, 2 Khaita, S. Tibet.

Can be confused only with rubicilla from which it differs

in being darker, having distinctly streaked nape and mantle,

and the white spots on the red crown and underparts smaller

and well defined.

Measurements on p. 365.

2029 Carpodacus puniceus kilianensis Vaurie (North

side of the Kiliam Pass at 1 5,000’, Western Kun Lun, Sinkiang).

Kun Lun Red-breasted Rosefinch.

Nil.

2030 Carpodacus puniceus humii (Sharpe) (Kotegarh,

restricted by Vaurie, 1956). Western Red-breasted Rosefinch

3: 121.

4: 3 males, 1 female.

1 Lachha Lang Pass, Ladakh, 1 Chini-Kanda, Punjab,

2 Garhwal.

Garhwal specimens, male and female were collected in

June and July 1910 by S.L. Whymper and the rest by A.E.

Jones in July 1937.

Longer and narrower bill, near absence of white spots

on the red forehead and brown crown separate the males from

similar male finches C. rubicilla and C. rubicilloides.

Measurements on p. 365.

203 1 Carpodacus puniceus puniceus (Blyth) (Himalaya

= Nepal). Eastern Red-breasted Rosefinch 3: 120.

3: 1 male, 2 unsexed.

1 East Everest, Tibet, 1 Lapchikang, 1 Upper Kharta

Valley, S. Tibet.

Darker and more heavily streaked than the previous

race humii and have distinctly smaller bill. Females are very

similar to rubicilloides females, but darker with broader streaks

and smaller bills.

Measurements on p. 365.

2032 Loxia curvirostra liintalayensis Blyth (Nepal). Red

Crossbill 3:115.

2: 1 male, 1 female.

They are from Chapcha, W. Bhutan collected by Salim

Ali in November 1968.

Measurements on p. 365.

EL Loxia curvirostra curvirostra Linnaeus (Europe,

restricted to Sweden).

One female dated 5.iii. 1 932 from a museum in the Soviet

Union. It is a larger and paler version of himalayensis female,

under which it was registered.

Measurements on p. 365.

EL Loxia leucoptera bifasciata Brehm (Thuringia).

Siberian White-winged Crossbill.

1 male from NE Baikal marked as the present species.

Measurements on p. 365.

2033 Propyrrhula subhimachala (Hodgson) (Nepal).

Crimson-browed Rosefinch 3: 119.

2: 1 male, 1 female.

Both the birds were collected from Wamrong, East

Bhutan in February-March 1 966. Both male and female have

short bill, the base of which is as broad as the forehead. The

reddish rufous tips of the lesser, median and greater coverts

form three wingbars. In female, they are less prominent. Outer

edges of rectrices and remiges are shiny bright rufous, with a

reddish tinge in male, and slightly dull with yellow wash in

female. Chin and throat are dark grey, mottled with white;

breast grey, mottled with yellow; belly greyish brown, and

vent still lighter than the belly in female.

Measurements on p. 366.

2034 Haematospiza sipahi (Hodgson) (Nepal). Scarlet

Finch 5:117.

1 5: 9 males, 6 females.

3 Temi, W. Sikkim, 1 Singhik, N. Sikkim, 2 Sikkim,

1 Kurseong, Darjeeling, 1 Honka, West, 2 Batase, Central,

2 Deothang, East, 1 Wamrong, East Bhutan, 2 Abor Country,

Sadiya.

Wamrong male collected in March 1966 is the darkest.

Specimens collected by C.M. Inglis (1914) and J.M. Falkiner

(Abor expedition) are paler scarlet, may be due to fading.

Males have heavier blunt bills, whereas female bills are

thinner and sharper. Kurseong male collected by C.M. Inglis

in January 1914 is in female plumage but has a heavy blunt

bill.

Measurements on p. 366.

2035 Pyrrhoplectes epauletta (Hodgson) (Northern and

Central regions, Nepal). Gold-naped Black Finch 3: 1 14.

4: 3 males ( 1 by pi), 1 female.

1 Narphong, 2 Wamrong, E. Bhutan, 1 Ganglipokti,

Bhutan.

All the males were collected in February 1966 and the

female in November 1973. The unsexed bird from Narphong is

the only one with a bright orange-yellow crown, but the whole

underpart is sooty black, except for the vent which is

ochraceous.

Measurements on p. 366.

372

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

A CATALOGUE OF BIRDS IN THE BNHS COLLECTION

2036 Pyrrhula nipalensis nipalensis Hodgson (Northern

and Central regions, Nepal). Nepal Brown Bullfinch 3: 1 12.

8: 5 males, 3 females.

2 Dakuri, Punjab, 1 Baghi, Bushan St, 1 Naikanda,

Kumarsain, NWH, 1 Darjeeling, 1 Chimakothi, W. Bhutan,

2 Shamgong, C. Bhutan.

Female is distinct, a dull version of the male. The scaly

pattern of the head is almost absent in the female.

Measurements on p. 366.

2037 Pyrrhula nipalensis rickelti La Touche

(Mountains of northwest Fokien, southeast China). Chinese

Brown Bullfinch 3: 1 13.

Nil.

2038 Pyrrhula erythaca erythaca Blyth (Sikkim).

Beavan’s Bullfinch 3:111.

Nil.

2039 Pyrrhula erythrocephala Vigors (Himalayan

Mountains = Simla-Almora area). Red-headed Bullfinch 3: 1 10.

51: 39 males, 1 1 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Keonthal, 1 ChirotNulla,4Koti, 5 Simla, 1 Simla Hills,

NWH, 2 Taradevi, 1 Pindari, 2 Kaliaghat, Garhwal, 1 Yumthang,

1 Sikkim, 17 Sandak Phu, Darjeeling, 6 Gomchu, 8 Wamrong,

1 Rongtong, E. Bhutan.

The males differ from those of Orange Bullfinch in having

a grey mantle and wingbar, a good contrast from the reddish

head; in Orange Bullfinch, the crown is almost concolourous

with the mantle. Females have brownish-yellow crown, whereas

Orange Bullfinch females have greyish-brown crown and back.

There is appreciable difference in the extent of white on

the rump in birds collected from North East and Western

Himalayas, which cannot be correlated to the season or sex of

the specimens. Birds from Western Himalayas, both male and

female collected in February, March, April, June, August and

November, have white rump 20 to 32 mm, while those from

Eastern Himalayas have a narrow white rump. The Darjeeling

specimens collected inAugust 1905 by C.M. Inglishave 8-15

mm wide white rump, while in the Bhutan specimens collected

in March 1 966 it is 8- 1 9 mm.

Measurements on p. 366.

2040 Pyrrhula aurantiaca Gould (Western Himalayas,

restricted to Kashmir by Baker 1926, FBI 3: 109). Orange

Bullfinch 3: 109.

10: 7 males 2 females, 1 unsexed.

1 Chitral, 1 Gotti, Keyah, 1 Liddar Valley, 4 Rawil

Nulla, 1 Liddarwat, 1 Dachigam, Kashmir, 1 Dalhousie,

NWH.

The specimens date back from 1 879 to 1 9 1 1 except two

collected in 1941 and 1971. The black forehead is broader in

this species than in erythrocephala.

Measurements on p. 366.

EL Pyrrhula pyrrhula (Linnaeus) (Sweden). Common

Bullfinch.

5: 2 males, 3 females.

All 5 were purchased from Crawford Market in Mumbai

and were wrongly identified and placed with Pyrrhula

aurantiaca and Pyrrhula nipalensis.

Measurements on p. 366.

EL Pyrrhula pyrrhula rossikowi Deryugin et Bianchi

(Caucasus). Caucasian Bullfinch.

1 male from USSR.

Measurements on p. 366.

EL Uragus sihiricus sibiricus (Pallas) (Southern

Siberia). Long-tailed Rosefinch.

One undated unsexed specimen, male by plumage,

collected by Col Thomson from Kashgar. China , marked

Carpodacus roseus is in fact the Long-tailed Rosefinch of

east Asia. Single species with many races, may be related to

other finches. Bill is very similar to that of Bullfinches denoting

a possible affinity to Pyrrhula.

Measurements on p. 366.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

373

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

374-380

BEHAVIOURAL AND FUNCTIONING INTERACTIONS

IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN THE RIVER MANDARINE

AN ASSESSMENT THROUGH ALTERING SEX RATIO PATTERNS'

N. Singh2 3 and K.C. Bhatt2

'Accepted November, 2001

'Zoology Department, P.0 Box 83, HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal, Uttaranchal, India.

'Email: [email protected]

The interrelationships and functioning of three closely related species, Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel, Schizothorax

richardsonii Gray and Schizothoraichthys progastus McClelland (Teleostei, Family Cyprinidae, Subfamily

Schizothoracinae), comprising the snow trout or schizothoracid community, as reflected by the altering sex ratio

patterns, have been assessed quantitatively. Observations were made for two years, from January 1991 to December

1992, at four landing sites: Bheri (1,020 m), Chandrapuri (827 m), Agastyamuni (760 m) and Tilwara(724 m), covering

the lower stretch of over 30 km of the high altitude glacier-fed River Mandakini in the Garhwal Himalaya. The water

characteristics of the river (total water discharge, water velocity and water temperature) were measured at Chandrapuri.

The total fish catch of these species from all the sites was first pooled and arranged according to sex, percentage, breeding

and non-breeding seasons. The sex ratio was determined. These species breed twice a year, from March to May and

August to October, with well-defined non-breeding intervals. These species individually followed a similar pattern of

response to changes in the environment, as revealed by the altering sex ratio patterns i.e., highest values during first

breeding season of 1991 and 1992 (2.65:1, 3.0: 1, 3.89: 1 and 2.56:1, 3 . 86: 1 , 4.75:1 respectively) when water parameters

began rising from the lowest in the extreme winter. The lowest values of sex ratio were observed during the second

breeding seasons of 1991 and 1992(2.03:1, 1.51:1, 1.58:1 and 1.59:1, 1.82:1, 1.74:1 respectively) when water characteristics

values were at a peak, or just began plummeting from the peaks of monsoon. The corresponding values of sex ratio in the

entire schizothoracid community were observed as 2.78:1, 2.83:1 and 1.91:1, 1.61:1 respectively, during the first and

second breeding seasons of 1991, 1992. Sex ratio begins to alter at the commencement of just rising and/or peak, or just

plummeting periods. Altering sex ratio pattern is one of the indicators of the beginning of the breeding process. That is

the fish take the changes in surroundings as the cue to initiate breeding process. Both the species and the community of

schizothoracine fishes alter their sex ratio pattern in response to changes in their surroundings. This pattern can serve

as an indicator of the functioning and interrelationship at individual, population, species and community levels. Patterns

of sex ratio change must be utilized for assessing the behavioural and evolutionary processes over a period as well as an

effective tool in the regulative management of snow trout community in the high altitude glacier-fed hillstreams of

Garhwal Himalaya.

Key words: Schizothoracid community, sex ratio, River Mandakini, functioning interactions, behavioural indicators,

evolutionary processes

INTRODUCTION

Odum (1971) and Kendeigh (1980) described the

conceptual framework of biotic communities. In fluvial

systems, unidirectional flow and gradient determine the

mobility of the subject. This offers entirely different

challenges in the ways of studying the biotic communities

therein. The biotic communities in the rapidly flowing

hillstreams are heterogeneous assemblage of several plant

and animal taxa of diverse features with intricate relationships.

The upstream and downstream boundaries of the habitat(s)

and movement of the residents for diverse purposes are

difficult to determine. In view of these restraints, the

behavioural attributes in terms of altering sex ratio patterns

of schizothoracid or snowtrout community consisting of

Schizothorax plagiostomus Heckel, Schizothorax

richardsonii Gray (both bottom dwellers and feeders,

herbivorous) and Schizothoraichthys progastus McClelland

(column dweller and feeder, carni-omnivorous) are analysed

as further extension of earlier works (Bhatt 1993; Singh 1995,

1997; Singh and Subbaraj 2000; Singh et al. 1996) focusing

on the high altitude glacier-fed hill stream, Mandakini in

Garhwal Himalaya.

The sex ratio of fish population is an effective indicator

of functioning, behavioural strategies and catch composition

(Nikolskii 1980; Engenwaji 1992). In the Indian subcontinent,

with immense scope of diversity and potentials of fish fauna,

the assessment of functioning and interrelationships through

sex ratio and/or similar indices of fishes at population, species

and community levels remains unexplored, thus, eliminating

their advantageous uses for determining the characteristics,

planning and management of cultivable and non-cultivable

fishes to any worthwhile level (Pantulu 1961; Bhatt 1993;

Nautiyal 1994).

INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN RIVER MANDAKINI

The dominant status, economic potentials yet hitherto

little explored avenues of schizothoracid community, in the

entire Himalayan region, in general, and in Garhwal hills in

particular, offer enough incentives for assessing the

functioning interrelationships, their observable indices (sex

ratio change being one of these), and response(s) to the milieu

of changing surroundings of glacier-fed hillstreams in the

region like River Mandakini.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study is based on the analysis of the total fish

catch of Schizothorax plagiostomus, Schizothorax

richardsonii and Schizothoraichthys progastus in the lower

stretch of over 30 km of glacier-fed high altitude River

Mandakini, which finally meets with the still larger River

Alaknanda at Rudraprayag ( JBNHS 94(2), 1997: Fig. I,

p. 4 1 8). The random sampling of adult specimens was made at

four landing sites — Bheri (1,020 m), Chandrapuri (827 in),

Agustmuni (760 m), and Tilwara (724 m). Since all these three

species breed twice a year, from March-May and August-

October, the data were analysed and computed on the basis

of a pooled number as sample size, percentage of males and

females in the total catch, breeding and non-breeding seasons

with respect to individual species separately. The ratio of

M:F (M - number of males, F - number of females) during the

corresponding seasons gave the sex ratio of each species.

The data of water parameters of River Mandakini —

total water discharge (mVsec), water velocity (m/sec) and

water temperature (°C) — during the corresponding study

period have been obtained from the Uttar Pradesh Irrigation

Department, Srinagar Garhwal as measured at Chandrapuri

(JBNHS 94(2), 1997: Fig. 1, p. 418), and were converted into

mean monthly values of respective seasons.

RESULTS

Sample size: The study is based on analysis of a total

of 5,587 adult specimens. Examination of the total fish catch

from all the four landing sites when pooled together revealed

evident variations. The highest representation of

Schizothorax plagiostomus [total 4,585 (82.07%), males 3, 1 20

(8 1 .95%), females 1 ,465 (82.30%)] placed this species on the

top status not only in the schizothoracid community, but also

among all the fish species resident in River Mandakini.

Schizothorax richardsonii also had a good representation

[total 674(1 2.06%), males 455(1 1.96%), females 2 19(12.30%)|

but Schizothoraichthys progastus happened to be poorly

represented [total 328(5.87%), males 232(6.09%), females

96(5.39%)] (Fig. 1). Despite this enormous variation in sample

size, the percentage of males and females during the

corresponding period suitably conformed to the respective

structural representation in the community (Fig. 2). Further,

the sample size did not cast its shadow on the overall

response(s) patterns.

Percentage of males and females: The analysis of fish

catch in tenns of sex percentage of two years offered similarity

of patterns which the three species exhibited respectively

(Table 1 , Fig. 1 ). For the entire community, the corresponding

values of percentage of males were 9.31, 13.12and 12.83, 14.39

respectively during the first and second breeding season of

1991 and 1992. For females the percentages were found to be

3.35,6.87 and 4.53, 8.93 respectively during the corresponding

breeding and non-breeding seasons of 1 99 1 and 1 992 (Fig. 2).

Sex ratio: It is an effective and definite indicator of

response(s) and interactions within the community as well as

to the changing surroundings. The analysis samples of

Schizothorax plagiostomus, Schizothorax richardsonii and

Schizothoraichthys progastus revealed a consistent pattern

of sex ratio alterations (Table 2, Fig. 1 ). All three species showed

higher sex ratio (2.78:1, 2.83:1 respectively) during the first

breeding season of the year but lower figures (1.91:1, 1.61:1

respectively) during second breeding of the year (Fig. 2).

Water parameters of the River Mandakini (Figs 1 , 2):

The habitat of the three species of schizothoracid community

in the River Mandakini, when analysed and quantified for

total water discharge, water velocity and water temperature,

presented an overview conforming to the overall picture of

what had been stated so far. The mean monthly values of

river characteristics began rising from March-May 1991, 1 992

from the lowest figures during extreme winters and remained

moderate — total water discharge (36.96, 88.32 mVsec), water

velocity (0.745, 0.686 m/sec) and water temperature ( 1 1 .05,

1 1.61 °C) — when males in the community comprised the

highest representation. Conversely, during the second

breeding season in August- September, October 1991, 1992

these parameters were either at the peak or had just started

coining down from the peak values of monsoon; i.e., 1 55.34,

170.63 mVsec; 1.805, 1.919 m/sec and 15.05°, 15.8 °C

respectively when the sex ratio touched the corresponding

lowest values. Thus, the water parameters of the River

Mandakini perfectly simulate and stimulate the picture of the

community response(s) as a whole when viewed along with

the corresponding data.

DISCUSSION

(a) Major structural features such as dominant species

like forms or indicators, and (b) physical habitat of the

community and functional attributes such as type of

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

375

Total size of sample Total size of sample Total size of sample Sex ratio (M : F) Total water Water velocity Water temp (°C)

(pooled numbers) (in %) of females (in %) of males discharge (m/sec)

of two years of the two years of the two years (m3/sec)

INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN RIVER MANDAKINI

Fig 1 Sex ratio of Schizothorax plagiostomus (SP), Schizothorax richardsonii (SR)

and Schizothoraichthys progastus (SPRO) in relation to sample size, percentage of females and males

and water parameters (total discharge, velocity & temp. ) during breeding and non breeding seasons

of 1991-1992 in the river Mandakim

376

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN RIVER MANDAKINI

community, metabolism etc. are a convenient basis for naming

and classifying the community (Odum 1971). Of these,

functional approaches offer better alternatives for comparison

of all communities in widely different habitats. Regarding the

fish communities within the geographical regions, the major

approaches must include - ( 1 ) Zonal approach for recognizing,

classifying and listing in a sort of check-list of community

type, (2) gradient analysis approach involving the

arrangement of population along uni- or multi-dimensional

environmental gradient axis with community recognition

based on statistical comparison. Also, there are certain

specifically interesting questions about fish communities -

(i) To what extent can fish in similar habitat be predicted?

(ii) How are fish communities organized? Does the last member

of the sensitive species result in the collapse or irreversible

changes in the community? (iii) How is the state of

development or completeness measured, and hence

assessment of the extent to which it has been degraded by

environmental change(s). Notable examples of such studies

of temperate fish communities of North America include those

by Harvey, 1975, 1978; Johnson et al. 1977; Tonn and

Magnuson 1983.

The analytical studies of fish communities in the Indian

context are not addressed to in right perspectives despite

the sizable scope of diversity, functional changes within

shorter time and space (Shastri et al. 1982), potentials of

newer distinct approaches likely to emerge. In Garhwal region,

Kumar (1991) analysed microzoobenthic communities of River

Alaknanda, and Rawat (1992) undertook the analysis

of community structure of plankton in high altitude Lake

DeoriaTal.

The functional approach of community analysis of

Indian fishes in diverse fluvial systems wherein the subject

as well as physical habitat have high mobility and, hence, the

community functioning and interactions are at continuous

change — are rather obscure obviously due to low feasibility.

However, Bhatt and Pathak ( 1 992) have explained a few species

at community level.

From quantitative and qualitative estimates of present

study, the topmost status of schizothoracid community is

evident among various animal communities inclusive of those

of other fish communities resident in River Mandakini. Based

on dominance, various species of schizothoracid community

may be arranged, from higher to lower ranks, as

(1) Schizothorax p/agiostomus, (2) Schizothorax

richardsonii , (3) Schizothoraichthys progastus (Singh et al.

1996) and so on. The variation in the quantitative values of

different functional attributes (including sex ratio, breeding

seasons) at different sites is due to the continuum of complex

dynamics, altering interactions of individuals-individuals,

individual-population, population-population, population-

species, species-species, species-community, community-

community and also with surroundings in each case and at

each level apart from working modalities.

The highest absolute numbers of specimens during

breeding seasons, especially at Chandrapuri and Tilwara

(, JBNHS 94(2), 1997: Fig. 1, p. 418, where smaller rivulets

debouch into river Mandakini), percentage of males and

females in the total catch during March, April, May 1991, 1 992

and then during August, September, October, 1991, 1992

respectively, are convincing proof of these species breeding

twice a year (see Singh 1997). At the onset of breeding,

potential male and female brooders migrate from lower

stretches of larger glacier fed hill streams (like Ganga,

Alaknanda etc.) to the upper reaches of their tributaries. Small

glacier / non-glacier fed streams or rivulets with faster water

velocity, lesser turbidity etc. are more conducive environs for

brooders, spawn and juveniles. Destinations like Chandrapuri

and Tilwara (sites of confluence) are more preferred sites for

spawning and breeding purpose.

Singh (1997) mentioned several intrinsic and extrinsic

factors interacting together and collectively responsible for

Table 1: Profile of pecentage of males and females of three species of schizothoracid community during breeding and non-breeding

seasons of 1991-1992 in the River Mandakini

Sp. 1 = Schizothorax plagiostomus, Sp. 2 = Schizothorax richardsonii. Sp 3 = Schizothoraichthys progastus

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

377

Total size of sample (pooled numbers, Total size of sample Sex ratio (M : F) Total water Water velocity Water temp (°C)

males and females seperately) (in %) males and discharge (m/sec)

of two years females of two years (m3/sec)

INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN RIVER MANDAKINI

Fig. 2: Sex ratio of Schizothoracid community in relation to pooled numbers as well as males

and females separately, % of females & males and water parameters (total discharge, velocity & temp. ) during breeding and

non-breeding seasons of 1991-1992 in the River Mandakini (Compare with Fig. 1)

378

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN RIVER MANDAKINI

Table 2 Profile of the sex ratios of three species of schizothoracid community during breeding and non-breeding

seasons of 1991-1992 in the River Mandakini

Sp 1 = Schizothorax plagiostomus, Sp. 2 = Schizothorax richardsonii, Sp 3 = Schizothoraichthys progastus

higher male sex ratio during the first breeding season of the

year: (i) earlier departure of males and late arrival of females,

(ii) fresh recruitment of new batches of subadults into brooders,

(iii) difficulties encountered by female brooders during

upstream migration because of their full-grown belly and

relatively lower water discharge to cope with the larger sized

females. The conditions otherwise are conducive for spawning

and breeding resulting from moderate conditions, and

(iv) vulnerabilities of female brooders to their predators and

other natural hazards. Also, environmental conditions during

the first breeding season favour the male, whereas females

are favoured during the second breeding period of the year.

Another possibility of sex ratio alterations may be sex

dependent mortality and intersexes in population (an entirely

new dimension).

Since the present assessment is based on the data of

three closely related species of schizothoracids, it indicates a

similar picture of response(s) as evident from sex ratio

variations in relation to changing river characteristics. This

similarity lends further credence to their close genetic kinship

as they inhabit and share common habitat (the river Mandakini

and likes in the Himalayan region) and also encounter similar

challenges and opportunities, use similar cues and stimulants.

Obviously, they must have evolved similar behavioural

repertoire, functioning strategies and response(s) at

individual, population, species and community levels. Varying

sex ratio patterns, mobilization of spawning grounds (Singh

1995) are among these. Such behavioural responses of the

community also include the interplay of intra- and inter-

specific convergence, divergence/diversity, which are at the

helms of evolutionary processes. Sex ratio alterations also

reflect the pattern diversity of stratification (Pielou 1966),

zonation, activity, reproduction, social, co-action,

stochasticism etc. However, many significant questions

emanate out of such a scenario, namely levels of intra- and

inter-specific convergence and divergence/diversity while

inhabiting similar habitat and using similar cues for spawning,

breeding and other vital processes? Here lie the possibilities

of preponement and/or postponement of such changes in

behavioural indices and indicators (like sex ratio alterations)

by a few hours/days enough for such resource mobilization,

resource partitioning and minimizing the competition for

resources at successive levels within the community which

must have been too intense. It is also indicative of intelligent

designing of behavioural strategies of schizothoracids in

nature for mobilization of transitional but moderate resources

in terms of timing and space for breeding.

This analysis of altering sex ratio patterns in

Schizothorax plagiostomus , Schizothorax richardsonii and

Schizothoraichthys progastus presents an overall picture in

the River Mandakini in particular and other glacier-fed

hillstreams of Garhwal region in general. This study of

schizothoracid community, though raising several questions

to be answered from various points of view, should be utilized

in two ways; first, in revealing the processes of signalling of

individual -pop ul at ion -species-community responses,

convergence-divergence at behavioural, physiological and

environmental levels, and second, in regulative management

of schizothoracid fishery in glacier-fed high altitude hillstreams

of Garhwal region.

ACKNOWLEDG EM ENTS

The author is grateful to Prof. Asha Chandola Saklani,

Head and Co-ordinator, UGC-SAP Department of Zoology,

HNB Garhwal University, Srinagar Garhwal for her consistent

support and for being available for critical suggestions at

successive stages throughout the study tenure. Financial

assistance received from the Government of India, Ministry

of Environment, Forests and Wildlife, New Delhi (No. 35/20/

90-RE) (presently monitored by GBPIHED, Kosi, Almora,

Uttaranchal) is thankfully acknowledged.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

379

INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN RIVER MANDAKINI

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

381-387

STATUS OF SEA-COW DUGONG DUGON (MULLER) ALONG

THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA1

M. Badrudeen2, P. Nammalwar2-3 and K. Dorairaj2'4

'Accepted February 2003

2Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute, (ICAR), Cochin 682 014, Kerala, India

’Present Address: Mandapam Regional Centre of CMFRI, Mandapam Camp 623 520, Tamil Nadu, India

Email [email protected]

’Present Address: Madras Research Centre of CMFRI, 75, Santhome High Road, Chennai 600 028, Tamil Nadu, India

Observations on the stranding and incidental catch of Sea-cow Dugong dugon (Muller) along the southeast coast of

India are reviewed here. The number of incidental catch and stranded Dugongs were greater in the Gulf of Mannar than

in the Palk Bay region during 1994-2000. The need for protection and conservation of Dugongs from indiscriminate

exploitation are stressed upon to evolve suitable management strategies.

Key words: Dugong dugon, distribution, stranding, incidental catch, conservation

INTRODUCTION

The Dugong Dugong dugon (Muller), popularly known

as Sea-cow, is a marine mammal, which enjoys a wide

distribution in the Indo-Pacific region from the east coast of

Africa and Red Sea to Australia. In India, it occurs in the

southeast coast in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, on the

Saurashtra coast and in the Andaman Sea of South and Middle

Andamans.

In the 18th Century, naturalists like Muller, Lacepede

and Erxleben reported the occurrence of Dugong in different

parts of the Indian Ocean. In the early 20th Century, Annandale

(1905, 1907) and Thomas (1966) gave an account of the

identity, external features, habits and osteology of the Indian

Dugongs. Jones (1959, 1967a, 1967b), andNairand Lai Mohan

(1975) dealt with the distribution, abundance, habits and food,

giving a lot of information on a pair of captive Dugongs in the

aquarium of the Central Marine Fisheries Research Institute

at Mandapam Camp. Jones (1966) pointed out the need for

protection and conservation of Dugongs from indiscriminate

exploitation. Mani (1960) and Silas (1961) reported the

occurrence of Dugongs on the Saurashtra coast. Lai Mohan

(1963, 1980) reported their occurrence in the Gulf of Kutch

and described the major fishing grounds, seasonal

occurrence, size distribution, sex ratio and breeding habits of

Dugongs for 1971-1975 from Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar.

James (1979) made an osteological study of Dugongs. James

(1985), James and Lai Mohan (1987) and Lai Mohan (2000)

stressed the need for the conservation of marine mammals

with particular reference to the Sea-cow.

Recently, Krishnapillai et al. ( 1 989) studied the internal

organs of Sea-cow; Krishnapillai et al. (1991) reported

incidental catch of Dugongs; Victor et al. (1999), Bose and

Gandhi (1999), and Balasubramanian and Easterson (2000)

have reported stranded Dugongs from the Mandapam waters.

The Wildlife Warden of Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park,

Ramanathapuram periodically observed stranded Dugongs

( pers . comm.).

Designated as a National Biosphere Reserve, the Gulf

of Mannar and its 3,600 species of flora and fauna is one of

the biologically richest coastal regions of India. It is equally

rich in sea weeds, algae, sea grass, coral reefs, pearl banks,

sacred chank beds shellfish resources, mangroves and the

endemic and endangered marine mammal — Dugong.

The first author made personal observations, as well

as extensive enquiries with fishermen on stranded Dugong

along the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay coasts during 1 994-

1998, the details of which are presented in this paper. The

present study may throw more light on the need for

conservation of these endangered species along the Indian

Coasts.

METHODS

Dugongs entangled in incidental catches and stranded

in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay regions were considered

for the studies. Details of sex, length, weight and other

morphometric characters were noted.

Distribution

Dugongs are widely distributed in the tropical Indo-

Pacific region. According to Macmillan (1955), they are

distributed from East Africa, Madagascar, Red Sea, India,

Ceylon (= Sri Lanka), Malaya, Philippine Island, Australia,

New Guinea to Marshall Islands.

Prater (1928), Petit (1924, 1927a, b, c), Bertram and

Bertram ( 1 964, 1 968) and Bertram and Colin ( 1 964) have studied

various aspects of the Dugong. In Indian waters, Jones (1959,

SEA-COW STATUS ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

Fig 1 : Map showing the incidental catch / stranding centres of Sea-cow and extent of sea-grass bed

in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay

1966, 1967a, b) and Lai Mohan (1963) recorded stranding of

Dugong and gave detailed information of skeletons.

In Palk Bay, occurrences of Dugongs were reported at

Rameswaram Bay, Olaikuda, Devipattinam, Thondi,

Sundarapandianpattinam and Adirampattinam.

Food and feeding habits

Dugong is a herbivorous feeder on sea grasses found

in abundance in the shallow regions of coastal waters. The

stomach contents of Dugongs captured in the Gulf of Mannar

and Palk Bay near Mandapam were found to contain the sea

grass Cymodacea serrulata, C. isoetifol ia, Halodule

uninervis , Halophila ovcilis and Enhalus acoroides.

Cymodacea serrulata was the main food item, while Halophila

ovalis , and Halodule uninervis formed a minor food item of

the Dugong in Mandapam (Nair et al. 1975).

Age and growth

The only available references on longevity are those of

Dugongs reared in captivity at Mandapam Camp for 1 1 years.

However, the longevity of Dugong has been reported to be

about twenty years (Nair et al. 1 975).

Reproduction

The female Dugong gives birth to one young at a time.

Jones (1959) recorded a free-living young Dugong with a

total length of 95 cm from Mandapam. The CMFRI Museum

at the Mandapam Camp has a 1 13 cm long stuffed young

dugong. A 302 cm long dugong stranded near Kilakkarai on

December 1 1, 1995 was found to have a foetus, which measured

1 50 cm in length and 40 kg in weight (Table 2).

Observations were made on the growth of two dugongs

reared in captivity in the Marine Aquarium at the CMFRI,

382

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

SEA-COW STATUS ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

Mandapam Camp during 1959-1970. Two males, 160 cm and

1 96 cm long, were 207 cm and 226 cm respectively at the time

of their death. The first individual grew 47 cm long with an

average growth rate of 4 . 3 cm per year, whilethesecond grew

by 30 cm with an average growth rate of2.8 cm peryear in an

eleven year period. The growth of the first Dugong was faster

than the second one because it was younger (Nair et al. 1 975).

The captive Dugongs were not weighed when alive, hence

there is no information on the rate of increase in weight.

Fishing

In earlier years, in the Gulf of Mannar, Dugongs were

caught mostly in turtle nets, dugong nets, and shore-seines.

Turtle net is a gill-net made of twisted cotton twine or twisted

Acacia fibre with a mesh size of 10-15 cm. Dugong net is a

bottom set gill-net made of cotton or nylon twine, with mesh

size of 15-18 cm. These nets were not in use after the

promulgation of the Indian Wildlife (Protection) Act, 1972.

Occasionally, dugongs get entangled in ‘Thirukai Valai’, a gill

net with large meshes exclusively used for catching rays.

OBSERVATIONS

In the present study, information on stranding and

incidental catch of Dugongs in Palk Bay and Gulf of Mannar

was collected by direct observation and enquiry with

fishermen as well as from local newspapers. These

investigations revealed that 25 Dugongs were stranded or

Table 1: Morphometric measurements (in cm) of Dugongs recorded in Indian waters

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

383

S No. Date Place of capture Method of capture Approximate Sex Source of information Remarks

and stranding Length Weight

(cm) (kg)

SEA-COW STATUS ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

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384

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

SEA-COW STATUS ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

caught in fishing nets. Tables 1-3 give the number of Dugongs

caught during 1994-98. Out of 25 Dugongs, three were stranded

at Kilakkarai and two at Valinokkam in the Gulf of Mannar region.

A total of four dugongs were caught in Palk Bay region,

out of which two were stranded, one at Alagankulam and

another at Morpannai (found in decomposed condition), and

two were caught in gill nets, one at Jegathapattinam and

another at Alagankulam (Table 3). In most cases, only sex and

approximate weight of the animals could be estimated.

More Dugongs were stranded in the Gulf of Mannar

than in Palk Bay region. This may be due to extensive sea

grass beds distributed from Rameswaram to Pamban near the

sea shore, as well as in and around the islands of Gulf of

Mannar at depths up to 5 m. It also forms a congenial habitat

for breeding and feeding, including the Gulf of Kutch region.

Incidental catch

In the Palk Bay region, Dugongs were captured at Tondi

and Thirupalaikudi, Karankadu, Nambuthalai, Mullimunai and

Morpannai (Fig. 1 ). The catches were either locally consumed

or transported to Kilakkarai or Tondi. In the Gulf of Mannar,

the chain of islands comprising Hare Island, Talayari Island,

Valai Island, Appa Island, Valiamunai Island, and Anaipar

Island, and particularly near Sethukkari are potential grounds

for occurrence of Dugongs.

The data showed that the majority of Dugongs were

caught as incidental catches near shore waters of Valinokkam,

Kilakkarai, Kalimankundu, Periapattinam, Seeniappadarha,

Vedalai and Thonithurai in the Gulf of Mannar (Table 2).

Fishermen also reported that the sightings of Dugongs are

very common between Thonithurai and Periapattinam.

The incidental catch and stranding of Dugongs were

also observed from Alagankulam and Jegathapattinam, and

stranding at Morpannai and Alagankulam in the Palk Bay

(Table 3).

The net called “Avolia Valai” which was once used in

the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay is not in operation due to the

effective watch and frequent inspection of the staff of the

Marine National Park. For dugongs entangled in this net,

death is immediate due to struggle to escape. Dugongs caught

in shore-seines were found alive and released in the sea. Most

Dugongs caught dead were disposed of secretly. The price

of the meat ranged from Rs. 35 to Rs. 50 per kg and the skeletal

parts were buried.

Most of the Dugongs captured in the Gulf of Mannar

and Palk Bay were between 1 70 and 280 cm long, according to

Nair et al. ( 1 975). The largest individual of 406 cm length was

reported from Saurashtra coast, but the accuracy of the

measurements is doubtful (Silas 1961).

Turner (1894) described a captive dugong foetus

measuring 1 to 1 .5 m in length. Jones ( 1 959) recorded a 95 cm

long juvenile kept alive in an aquarium and stuffed in the

CMFRI Museum at Mandapam camp after its death; an

c. 1 10 cm long juvenile caught in a bottom set gill-net on

September 8, 1955 at Adirampattinam and 1 50 cm long juvenile

collected on December 26, 1 956 reared in the marine fish pond

that lived for 4 months. Recently, a Dugong stranded near

Kilakkarai was found with a foetus of about 1 50 cm. From the

above observations, it is clear that a young Dugong at birth

may be 95 to 1 50 cm long and weigh c. 20 kg.

Stranding

Stranding of Dugongs was rare. Most animals landed

in decomposed condition and the nature of the wound could

not be established. One Dugong stranded at Alagankulam on

March 20, 1998 had no injury, but a dugong stranded at the

CMFRI jetty on April 30, 1998 had a cut made by the propeller

of a mechanised trawler in near shore waters (Victor et al.

1999). One dugong landed on the Gulf of Mannar side of

Mandapam on March 28, 1999 in semi-decomposed condition.

Table 3 Incidental catch and standings of Dugongs in the Palk Bay

S No Date Place of capture Method of Approximate Sex Source of information and remarks

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

385

SEA-COW STATUS ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

There were some reports of stranded Dugongs with no

injuries.

Dynamite fishing is another cause of the death of

Dugongs in this area. Explosives are usually used for

fish shoals, but they affect nearby dugongs, which mostly

die due to shock. On December 14, 1994 a Dugong was

found dead after use of dynamite for fishing. Krishnapillai

et al. (1989) reported killing of Dugong by dynamite at

Mandapam.

Conservation and Management

Annandale ( 1 905) has reported non-avai lability of more

than one dugong at a time in the Gulf of Mannar. Many

hundreds were reported in the area earlier. Jones ( 1 967b) has

stated that there has been a considerable fall in the Dugong

population, and he also cited fishermen reporting that a large

number of Dugongs were found dead and that thereafter they

have become rare. Fishermen also attributed the mortality of

dugongs to scarcity of sea grass beds which perished after

flooding of rain water. Silas and Fernando (1985) stressed the

need for conservation of Dugongs and proposed several

conservation and management strategies. Lai Mohan (1991),

Silas et al. (1985) and James (1985) stressed upon the need for

the effective conservation of dugongs, marine mammals and

other marine animals, proposing several conservation

programmes and the formation of a National Marine Park in

the Gulf of Mannar.

There is global concern for the protection of the

Dugong, and in India today the residual population of this

species in the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay is the most

vulnerable and facing extinction. Dugongs are not prolific

breeders. Moreover, the destruction of grazing beds has

confined the animals to a restricted belt of sea grass. Earlier

reports as well as the recent stranding and incidental catches,

prescribe the need for intensified efforts to conserve marine

mammals, particularly Dugongs.

Indian Ocean Alliance Conference held in the Seychelles

in 1981 recommended that priority be given to Dugong survey

in the Indian Ocean, with the aim of monitoring and protecting

local populations and consider the feasibility of re-

establishment.

The IUCN Commission of National Park and World

Wide Fund (WWF) identified the Reserve as being an area of

“Particular concern” due to its diversity and special multiple-

use management status. In addition, Gulf of Mannar, as the

first marine biosphere reserve declared in India, has long been

a national priority.

The Government of India and state ofTamil Nadu jointly

set up the Gulf of Mannar Marine Biosphere Reserve

(GOMMBRE) on February 1 8, 1 989. The Government ofTamil

Nadu in the GOMs. No. 962 dated September 1 0, 1 986 notified

under section 35(1) of the Wildlife (Protection) Act 1972 its

intention to declare the 2 1 islands as Marine National Park for

the purpose of protecting marine wildlife and its environment,

including 3.5 fathoms depth on bayside to 5 fathoms depth

on the seaward side.

The Gulf of Mannar Marine National Park is managed

by the wildlife wardens of Ramanathapuram, Mandapam,

Kilakkarai and Tuticorin, who are provided with an effective

wireless communication network and boats for inspection

and patrolling.

Action plan

Effective steps are required towards conservation and

management of marine mammals, particularly the Dugongs in

the Gulf of Mannar and Palk Bay, and an action plan is urgently

needed.

1. Staff strength of Gulf of Mannar National Park under

Wildlife Warden needs to be increased. Frequent visits

should be made to the villages where illegal fishing and

cutting of Dugong is done. Intensive watch has to be

made near the shore to stop setting of nets in the sea

grass beds.

2. Action needs to be taken to create greater awareness

and interest in Dugongs and a detailed study of the

habits, habitats and behaviour needs to be carried

out.

3. Scientific data, such as length, weight, stomach contents

should be updated.

4. Mechanized trawlers should be stopped within 5 km

from the shore where there is extensive growth of sea

grass.

5. Fishing zones and sanctuaries must be established to

protect the fauna.

6. Illegal fishing using dynamite must be stopped and

laws enacted to curb it.

7. Public awareness has to be created, especially in the

fishing villages. The village Panchayat can play a major

role in creating awareness. Warnings have to be issued

through posters and other publicity systems

proclaiming severe punishment for catching and cutting

up Dugongs.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We acknowledge Dr. M. Devaraj, Former Director, Central

Marine Fisheries Research Institute (ICAR), Cochin for

encouragement and guidance.

386

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

SEA-COW STATUS ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

387

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

388-391

BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGY OF RETURNING FORAGERS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT

OECOPHYLLA SMARAGDINA (FABRICIUS) DURING THE MONSOON1

N. Rastogi2

'Accepted May, 2003

"Department of Zoology, Centre of Advanced Study, Banaras Hindu University, Varanasi 221 005, Uttar Pradesh, India

Email [email protected] in

Field observations during the southwest monsoon showed that returning foragers of the arboreal ant Oecophylla

smaragdina adopt a unique behavioural strategy to ensure stability and a firm grip on rain-washed, slippery tree trunks,

and also to facilitate movement on the vertical surface of the nesting tree trunks during heavy rain. Within five minutes

of a heavy shower, returning worker ants climbing the tree trunk assume a head downward position with their legs fully

stretched out, and start aggregating into small clusters of 2-10 ants. With increase in the duration and intensity of rainfall,

the clusters rapidly become more compact and increase to more than 50 ants. Finally, large single clusters of more than

1 00 ants are formed. Within 1 0-30 seconds of the rainfall slackening, the ants break away from the clusters rapidly and

move up the tree trunk to the leaf nests with their heads oriented upwards. This behavioural strategy is an important

adaptation of this tropical, arboreal ant species, enabling it to withstand heavy tropical rain.

Key words: Oecophylla smaragdina, monsoon rainfall, arboreal ants, cluster formation, behavioural strategy

INTRODUCTION

Arboreal ants belonging to the genus Crematogaster

which make carton nests (Musthak Ali 1992), genus

Pseudomyrmex which nest in the hollow thorns of Acacia

(Janzen 1967) and genus Tetraponera which live in hollow

internodes of bamboo (Klein et al. 1993), are widespread in

the tropics. The territorial, arboreal ant Oecophylla

smaragdina , which has mature colonies immense in size with

a single queen and over half a million large workers (Holldobler

and Wilson 1995), makes nests of leaves still attached to

trees (Hingston 1927). Polydomous nest organisation (several

nests in one colony) of O. smaragdina has further facilitated

the accommodation of large numbers of workers and enabled

patrolling of distant parts of its three-dimensional (including

tree canopies, tree trunks and the foraging ground) territories.

While permanently tree-nesting ant species have solved the

problem of living off the ground, some species such as

Paratrechina longicornis nest in the leaf litter, but frequently

shift the nests to trees during monsoon (pers. obs.). Although

many arboreal ants, such as Crematogaster and Oecophylla

tend homopterans present on trees and collect the excreted

honeydew (Way 1963), the worker ants forage mainly on the

ground (Dejean 1990a).

Fossil records indicate that the genus Oecophylla has

been around for 30 million years (Holldobler and Wilson 1995).

This genus includes two closely related species,

O. smaragdina (found in Asia and Australia) and O. longinoda

(found in Africa) both of which defend three-dimensional

territories (Holldobler 1979, 1983). While the nest trees form

the central territory of an Oecophylla colony, the worker ants

descend via tree trunks to the ground to patrol and forage on

the ground area or the secondary territory. The captured prey

is taken back to the leaf nests singly or in groups (Holldobler

1983). Most of the research on the two Oecophylla species

has been laboratory based (Holldobler and Wilson 1977;

Holldobler and Wilson 1978; Beugnon and Dejean 1992;

Dejean and Beugnon 1996) and only short-term field studies

have been carried out (Holldobler 1979, 1983; Dejean 1990a,

b). There has been no report, so far, on the behavioural

adaptations of the returning foragers of an arboreal ant species

during heavy rains, the subject of the present study.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The study was carried out as part of a long-term project

on the behavioural ecology of O. smaragdina in the Banaras

Hindu University campus, where five colonies were identified

in an area of 3000 sq. m in July 1997. Oecophylla smaragdina

was found to use up to 14 species of trees and shrubs for

nesting, predominantly Mangifera indica (Anacardiaceae),

Psidium jambolana and P. guajava (Myrtaceae). The

southwest monsoon in Varanasi occurs from July-September

and decreases rapidly during October (Srivastava 2001).

Observations were recorded on 1 1 rainy days from July to

October, 1 998-200 1 . The orientation, posture, number and size

of ant clusters were observed up to a height of 1 .5 m on the

nest-tree trunks. The behaviour of the returning ants was

also recorded on sunny days during March, 2003. The number

of returning ants crossing an arbitrary mark on the tree trunk,

located between 0.5 in and 1 .5 m high per minute was noted.

(The mark was selected below the bifurcation on the tree

trunk, to facilitate counting of all the returning ants before

they diverged to different branches bearing the leaf nests).

BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGY OF ARBOREAL ANTS DURING MONSOON

The number of ants returning without prey, the number of

solitary ants returning with prey and the number of ants

returning collectively (in groups of 2 or more) with prey per

minute were recorded by taking five observations on five

different nest tree trunks between 0900 and 1300 hrs on three

different days. Behavioural features such as orientation of

the returning foragers on the tree trunk, interactions with

other ants and clustering behaviour was noted. Number of

ants and number of clusters is given as mean ±SD.

RESULTS

On sunny days, solitary returning foragers without prey

(14.72 ± 13.14) and solitary ants with prey (2.76 ±4.12) were

observed to move straight upwards with head directed

upward. An extremely brief encounter with a maximum duration

of 1 second was noted in 90.66% of the returning ants and

outgoing foragers. Returning foragers bringing a prey (0.2 ±

0.692) collectively (in groups of 2-3) were seen moving

upwards while constantly changing their orientation as they

held the prey from two or three sides and carried it up the tree

trunk. Not a single solitary returning ant was seen with its

head pointing downwards and no clumping was ever observed

(n=75) (Fig. 1).

Fig. 1 : Returning foragers moving up the tree trunk singly with

head oriented in upward direction on a sunny day

After the first few raindrops, the returning workers were

seen moving slowly and hesitantly. The initial light drizzle

slowed their upward movement on the tree trunk, but their

heads remained directed upwards. Within 5 minutes of a heavy

shower, a large number of the returning foragers (66.43

±12.32% ants) adopted a head downwards position with their

legs spread wide on the vertical surface of the tree trunk. The

returning ants stalled aggregating into small clusters of 2-10

(6.66 ± 2.83 clusters). The cluster size increased with increase

in the intensity of the rain, more ants joining each cluster, so

that after 10-15 minutes moderate sized clusters each of 1 1 -20

ants (2.4 ± 0.72 clusters) and of 21-50 ants ( 1 .6 ±0.69 clusters)

were also found (Fig. 2). Formation of large clusters of more

than 50 ants (1.18 ±0.8 clusters) was recorded only 15-20

minutes after the rainfall began intensifying, as ants from

smaller clusters as well as late returning foragers came close

together (Fig. 2). The time period of adoption of head

downwards orientation and increase in cluster size with

intensification of rain is shown in Figs 3 and 4. Ants with

head downwards were found to a greater extent in the upper

parts of large clusters (Fig. 2).

Ants gripping prey in their mandibles were more often

found to have their heads up and surrounded by other ants

from all sides. Chains of ants on all sides gripped large prey

Fig. 2: Arrow shows that with increase in the intensity and

duration of rainfall ants from moderate size clusters (11 -20)

move closer to form larger clusters (>50). White spots indicate

the raindrops

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

389

BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGY OF ARBOREAL ANTS DURING MONSOON

Adoption of downwardly oriented posture

Time (Hours)

Fig 3: Time sequence of adoption of head downwardly oriented

postures and of progressive increases in cluster size with the

intensification of rainfall on October 1 , 1 998 Total rainfall

measured was 11.2 mm

such as grasshoppers and crickets.

The legs and body parts of the aggregated ants became

meshed, as the clusters became tighter and more compact

with intensifying rain. During heavy rain, the ants were found

slowly but continuously changing their positions and coming

closer to one another, so that when heavy rainfall lasted more

than 30 minutes, extremely large clusters of more than 100

ants were found. The ants took shelter in the nooks between

bifurcated parts of the tree trunk, under large, partially folded

leaves of shrubs in contact with the trunk, or on the side of

the tree trunk opposite to that facing the wind and rain. Within

1 0-30 seconds of the rainfall slackening, the clusters loosened

rapidly, and the ants broke away from the aggregates, and in

2-3 minutes, they disintegrated completely as the ants moved

to the leaf nests in their usual posture.

DISCUSSION

The arboreal ant Oecophylla smaragdina which nests

in the leaves of trees and shrubs obtains honeydew from

homopterans (Way 1954; Way 1963). However, the workers

forage mainly on the ground, so they have to carry the food

up the tree trunk to the leaf nests. Consequently, during heavy

rain they are especially vulnerable, since they have to move

up a slippery tree trunk, besides facing the falling rain drops.

The present study shows that the ants have evolved a three-

pronged behavioural strategy to avoid getting washed away

during heavy rain. While the outspread legs provide stability

on slippery, vertical tree trunks, the downwardly directed head

posture probably helps in avoiding the direct onslaught of

the raindrops on the head, as the ants slowly move about to

Adoption of downwardly oriented posture

i & smoll cluster formation (2-IOants)

Time (Hours)

Fig 4: Time sequence of adoption of head downwardly directed

orientation and of progressive increases in cluster size with

increase in duration and intensity of the rainfall on September 26,

2001 . Total rainfall measured was 44.0 mm

form clusters in sheltered places in the tree trunk. Further

stability as well as tighter grip on the slippery surface of the

substratum is provided by cluster formation and the

intertwining of legs and other body parts. The returning

workers do not form clusters or show downward orientation

on dry days (Fig. 1 ).

Wojtusiak and Dejean (1995) have demonstrated the

importance of the arolia on the feet of O. longinoda for the

successful capture and transport of large prey. I suggest that

the well developed adhesive pads on the feet of

O. smaragdina workers also play a crucial role in enabling

the ants to grip and climb the slippery surface of tree trunks

on a rainy day. The resistance of the trail pheromones,

reinforced by faecal markings, to rainwater has been

demonstrated in the African weaver ant O. longinoda for as

long as ten months (Beugnon and Dejean 1992). Thus, while

the arboreal nesting habit and leaf nests provide shelter from

the rain, the trails marked by faecal spots are resistant to

rainfall. Furthermore, adoption of downward direction and

cluster formation strategy during heavy rain enables the

returning workers to successfully ascend the tree trunks, seek

temporary shelter from the rain and finally reach the nest. All

these adaptive features have undoubtedly contributed to the

success of Oecophylla in its tropical, arboreal habitat.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank the India Meteorological Department, Banaras

Hindu University, Varanasi for providing the rainfall data and

the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research, New Delhi

for financial support.

390

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGY OF ARBOREAL ANTS DURING MONSOON

REFERENCES

Beugnon, G & A. Dejean (1992): Adaptive properties of the chemical

trail system of the African weaver ant Oecophvlla longinoda

Latreille (Hymenoptera, Formicidae, Formicinae). Insectes soc.

39: 341-346.

Dejean, A. (1990a): Prey capture strategy of the African weaver ant.

In: Applied Myrmecology: a world perspective, (Eds: Vander

Meer, R.K., K. Jaffe and A. Cedano). Westview Press, Boulder,

Colorado. Pp. 472-481.

Dejean, A. (1990b): Circadian rhythm of Oecophylla longinoda in

relation with territoriality and predatory behaviour. Physiol.

Entomol. 15: 241-250.

Dejean, A. & G. Beugnon (1996): Host-ant trail following by

myrmecophilous larvae of Liphyrinae (Lepidoptera,

Lycaenidae). Oecologia 106: 57-62.

Hingston, R.W.G ( 1 927): The habits of Oecophylla smaragdina. Proc

Entomol. Soc. London 2: 90-94.

Holldobler. B. ( 1 979): Territories of the African weaver ant Oecophylla

longinoda (Latreille) - A field study. Z. Derpsychol 51: 20 1 -

213.

Holldobler, B. (1983): Territorial behaviour in the green tree ant

(Oecophylla smaragdina). Biotropica 15: 241-250.

Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1977): Colony-specific territorial

pheromone in the African ant Oecophylla longinoda (Latreille).

Proc. Natl. Acad Sci. USA 74: 2072-2075.

Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1978): The multiple recruitment

systems of the African weaver ant Oecophylla longinoda

(Latreille) (Hymenoptera: Formicidae). Behav. Ecol. Sociobiol.

3: 19-60.

Holldobler, B. & E.O. Wilson (1995): Journey to the ants. The

Belknap Press of Harvard University Press, Cambridge.

Pp. 228.

Janzen, D.H. (1967): Interaction of the Bull’s Horn Acacia ( Acacia

cornigera L. with an ant inhabitant (Pseudomyrmex ferruginea

Smith) in Eastern Mexico. Univ. Kansas Sc. Bull. 47: 315-558

Klein, R.W., U. Maschwitz & D. Kovac (1993): Flood control in ants:

a Southeast Asian Bamboo-dwelling Tetraponera ( Hymenoptera:

Formicidae: Pseudomyrmecinae) bails water from its intemode-

nests. Insectes soc 40: 115-118.

Musthak Ali, T.M. (1992): Ant fauna of Karnataka-11. Newsletter of

1USS1 Indian Chapter. 6(1 & 2): 1-9.

Srivastava, A.K. (2001): Some studies on the climate of Varanasi.

M.Sc. Project work. Department of Geophysics, Banaras Hindu

University, 42 pp.

Wojtusiak, J. & A. Dejean (1995): Capture and retrieval of very large

prey by workers of the African weaver ant, Oecophylla longinoda

Trop. Zoo! 8: 309-318.

Way, M..I. (1954): Studies on the association of the ant Oecophylla

longinoda (Latr.) (Formicidae) with the scale insect Saissetia

zanzibarensis Williams (Coccidae). Bull. Entomol. Res 45: 1 1 3-

134.

Way, M.J. (1963): Mutualism between ants and honeydew-producing

Homoptera. Annu. Rev. Entomol. 8: 307-344.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

391

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

392-398

MORTALITY OF HERPETOFAUNA, BIRDS AND MAMMALS DUE TO VEHICULAR

TRAFFIC IN ETAWAH DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA1

K.S. GOPI SUNDAR2

'Accepted February 2003

2Wildlife Institute of India, P B 18, Chandrabani, Dehra Dun 248 001, Uttaranchal, India.

Present Address: Indian Cranes and Wetlands Working Group, C/o International Crane Foundation,

E-1 1376, Shady Lane Road, Baraboo, WI-53913, USA and C/o Wildlife Protection Society of India,

M-52, Greater Kailash Part-1, New Delhi 110 048, India. Email: [email protected]

Roadkills of herpetofauna, birds and mammals were enumerated along a 20 km stretch of road in Etawah district, Uttar

Pradesh, in an agriculture dominated area. A total of 133 kills of 33 species of animals were recorded over two years.

Amphibians and birds were killed significantly, more during the monsoon, while reptiles and mammals were killed

almost equally across seasons. The species killed the most were the Marbled Toad Bufo stomaticus (amphibia),

Flapshell Turtle Lissemys punctata (reptile), House Crow Corvus splendens (bird) and domestic Dog Cams familiaris

(mammal). When all species present along the road for the taxa were considered, bird species were least represented in

roadkills (16%), and higher proportions of species were killed in the other taxa (25-30%). Amphibians and birds were

killed significantly more in the monsoon, while season did not affect numbers of kills for herpetofauna or mammals.

Medium sized birds and omnivore bird species were killed the most. Accounting for all bird species present, number of

birds of different sizes killed was in proportion to that present along the road. When guilds were considered, omnivore

species were killed in much higher proportion to their availability along the road. No taxa of conservation concern was

killed by traffic during this study. No species or taxa was killed to an extent that would endanger the species, though

specific studies on species most vulnerable to vehicular traffic will be useful to determine how to prevent such

mortalities.

Key words: Frequency of roadkills, herpetofauna, birds, mammals, Bufo stomaticus , Lissemys punctata , Corvus splendens ,

Canis familiaris

INTRODUCTION

Roads have been known to cause ecological effects

like fragmentation, habitat loss due to deforestation, affect

animal movement, cause changes in animal behaviour, and

cause mortality due to accidents with vehicular traffic (van

derZand tel al. 1980; Fahrige/a/. 1995;Goosem 1997; Forman

and Alexander 1 998; Trombulak and Frisswell 2000; Develey

and Stouffer2001; Serrano eta/. 2002). Vehicles on roads are

thought to have overtaken hunting as the leading direct

human cause of vertebrate mortality (Forman and Alexander

1998), often endangering local populations of common and

threatened species (Clarke et al. 1998; Hodar et al. 2000;

Huijser and Bergers 2000). In 1994, India had 3 million km of

road, of which 50% were surfaced (Rajvanshi et al. 2001). In

Uttar Pradesh alone, a total length of 1,21,761 km had been

added in 1998-99 (Anon 2001). The direct or indirect impact of

these roads on wild fauna has received very little attention in

the country.

There is general awareness of the prevalence of

mortality due to vehicular traffic of free-ranging vertebrates

in India, and reports of such mortality are increasing (Dhindsa

et al. 1988, Sharma 1988, Gokula 1997, Kumara et al. 2000,

Rajvanshi et al. 2001, Vijayakumar ei al. 2001). These studies

have either listed kills (Sharma 1988, Gokula 1997, Rajvanshi

et al. 200 1 ), or addressed concerns to fauna in protected areas

with special reference to effect of habitat on patterns of roadkill

(Vijayakumar et al. 200 1 ), and season on select fauna (Kumara

et al. 2000). Few studies have explored community structure

of vulnerable taxa along roads in an agricultural landscape in

an effort to understand the potential species that may be

affected by vehicular traffic (Dhindsa et al. 1988). Most of

these studies have concentrated on mammals and

herpetofauna, and reports on bird mortality due to vehicular

traffic are few (Dhindsa et al. 1988, Sharma 1988). None of

these studies have information on the proportion of species

in an area affected by vehicular traffic. I studied some aspects

of faunal mortalities due to vehicular traffic in Etawah district,

Uttar Pradesh, in north central India. The study investigated

the following questions.

1. What species of herpetofauna, birds and mammals are

most affected by vehicular traffic and what proportion

of species present are represented in roadkills?

2. Is faunal mortality due to vehicular traffic similar across

seasons?

3. Are all avian groups present along the road (species,

families, sizes, guilds) affected equally by vehicular traffic?

STUDY AREA

The study was carried out along the main road starting

at Etawah town (26° 48' 5 1" N, 78° 59' 32" E) and ending at

VERTEBRATE MORTALITY DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

Saiphai town (26° 57' 5 1" N, 78° 57' 52" E), on a stretch of road

measuring 20 km. The road was metalled, a two-way traffic

route with equal width throughout, and was busy since it

was the only connecting road between Etawah and Mainpuri

towns. Most of the heavy traffic was at night when buses

plying northwards and trucks carrying cargo used the route.

Daytime traffic comprised principally of tractors, smaller four-

wheelers (cars, jeeps), and two-wheelers (scooters,

motorbikes, mopeds). Speeds of the vehicles were as high as

1 10 kmph for four-wheelers, while two-wheelers reached

speeds of 70 kmph. Three counts of vehicles, one each in

summer, monsoon and winter, between 0730-0845 hrs in 2000

showed that an average of 56 vehicles ply every hour on the

road with no significant difference in number of vehicles across

seasons (x22=l -52, p>0.09).

Both sides of the road were bordered almost

continuously with dry scrub and trees, behind which were

crop fields, groves with fruit trees or habitation. Major trees

along the road were Da/bergia sissoo. Ficus benghalensis,

Syzygium cumini , Mangifera indica , and Psidium gujava,

and the predominant shrubs were Prosopis juliflora and

Ipomoea aquata with Saccharum sp. grass growing in few

places. In addition, six village ponds of varying sizes, eight

small (<10 ha) grassy marshlands, one alkaline wasteland,

nine small towns (<ten houses each) and nine large towns

(>ten houses each) bordered this stretch, and one small river

and two canals intersected it. Only three village ponds were

perennial due to disposal of sewage into them, while the rest

were full only during and immediately after the monsoon,

drying up in January/February. The region was thus suitable

for a variety of fauna.

Three principal seasons could be differentiated based

on rainfall and temperature regimes namely, winter (November-

February), summer/ pre-monsoon (March-June) and monsoon

(July-October). The main crops beside the stretch of road

were barley, fruits, and paddy during May-November, and

wheat and vegetables during November-April. In late June

and early July, most fields were fallow until the rains. The

main source of precipitation was the southwest monsoon

with an annual average of 851 mm (1990-2002, District

Collector’s Office, personal communication), and fog/ dew in

winter. Temperatures varied between 1 °C in winter to >45 °C

in summer.

METHODS

Road kills were recorded for two years during January

2000 - December 200 1 . The road was patrolled one to six times

a week between 0600-1000 hrs each sampling day driving at

20-35 kmph. Presence of highwaymen prevented evening and

nighttime sampling. Effort was more or less constant over

months and years. Every animal found killed due to vehicles

was identified to the level possible and removed to avoid

repetition. Most kills recorded were fresh with the complete

animal available for identification. Only twice, kills of birds

were ascertained from feathers left over by scavengers. To

determine the number of species present along the road,

opportunistic observations were maintained and all animals

were identified to the species level. For mammals, bats were

not considered. This enumeration is likely to be a minimum

since many nocturnal species could have been missed. For

birds, all species were classified into five size classes (very

small, small, medium, large, very large), and grouped into eight

feeding guilds (aquatic, carnivore, frugivore, granivore,

insectivore, nectarivore, omnivore, and scavenger, as per Ali

and Ripley 1 989), and noted if they crossed the road. Statistical

analyses were restricted to ascertaining if frequency of kills

of individual taxa were different across seasons using x2 tests.

Comparisons across taxa were not carried out since differences

in removal rates of different sized animals, differential

mortalities during day and night, and seasonal and species

differences in densities of the various taxa were unknown

and not controlled for. Bias due to the unaccounted animals

which may have been struck by vehicles, but crawled away

has not been corrected. It is known that speeds of vehicles,

intensity of traffic, the kind of vehicles, width of the road,

habitat conditions etc. also affect mortality (Dhindsa et al.

1988,Goosem 1997, Finder et al. 1999, Clevenger et al. 2003);

these biases have also not been investigated or controlled

for during this study.

RESULTS

Frequency of roadkills

The road was monitored for 226 and 230 days in 2000

and 2001 respectively, covering a total of 9, 120 km. A total of

2 1 amphibians (three species, two families, rate of kill: 0.0023/

km), 34 reptiles (six species, four families, rate of kill: 0.0037/

km), 46 birds (17 species, 12 families, rate of kill: 0.005/km),

and 32 mammals (seven species, four families, 0.0035/km) were

recorded as roadkills (Table 1). Family Bufonidae was

represented the most in amphibian kills (13/21), with the

Marbled Toad Bufo stomaticus being killed most frequently

(9/2 1 ). Among reptiles, the Flapshell Turtle Lissemys punctata

was killed the most (10/34) and equal numbers of the families

Boidae and Colubridae were killed (9/34 each). Among birds,

species from four families, Corvidae, Stumidae, Ardeidae and

Rallidae, were killed the most (69% of 46 kills, Table 1 ). The

House Crow Corvus splendens (n=6) and cattle egret Bubidcus

ibis (n=5) were killed most frequently. In the family Sturnidae,

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

393

VERTEBRATE MORTALITY DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

Table 1 Frequencies of roadkills of herpetofauna, birds and mammals in Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India (January 2000 to December 2001)

all four species present in the area were represented in kills.

Among mammals, the Family Canidae was represented most

in roadkills (23/32), with Dogs Canis familiaris being killed

the most ( 1 9/32). Among wild species. Jackals C. aureus and

small Indian Mongoose Herpestes javanicus were killed the

most (3/32 each), and one kill each was recorded of the Fox

Vulpes benghalensis , Jungle Cat Felis chaus and Palm Squirrel

Funambulus palmarum (Table 1 ).

Species richness along the road was the lowest for

herpetofauna and the highest for birds (Table 2). At the family

level, the representation in roadkills varied widely across taxa

with most of the amphibian families present being killed and

very fewofthe mammal families present being represented in

roadkills (Table 2). At the species level, except for birds that

had a very smal I proportion of species present along the road

being killed ( 1 6%), the other taxa were very similar in terms of

proportion of species represented in roadkills (25-30%, Table

2). Of the species present along the road, all species of

Table 2 Species richness of herpetofauna, birds and mammals

found along the road and as roadkills in Etawah, Uttar Pradesh,

India (January 2000-December 2001)

394

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

VERTEBRATE MORTALITY DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

□ Available BRoadkill

I

very small

small medium large

v.large

Fig 1 : Effect of body size on vulnerability of birds to traffic in

Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

□ Available BRoadkill

Fig. 2: Representation of guilds of birds along the road and in

roadkills in Etawah, Uttar Pradesh, India

amphibians and mammals were seen to cross the road at least

once. Among the reptiles, 1 6 of the 27 species seen along the

road (66.6%) were seen to cross the road at least once and for

birds, 89 of the 104 species listed along the road (85.6%) were

seen to cross the road at least once at a height that would

render them vulnerable to be killed by vehicles. All species

represented in roadkills were from this list.

Effect of season of frequency of roadkill

There was no significant inter-annual difference in the

rate of kills, or number of species killed for any taxa (x2, test,

p>0. 1 in all cases) and kills were pooled seasonally. Sufficient

data for seasonal analyses each year was available only for

birds. Amphibians were killed disproportionately more in the

monsoon (x2,= 14, p<0.001 , Table 3) while reptiles and mammals

were killed in nearly equal numbers in all seasons (x2 tests,

p>0.1). While birds were killed in nearly equal proportions

across seasons in 2000 (x22=5.33, p>0.05), a significantly high

number were killed during the monsoon in 2001 (x2 =16.7,

p<0.001). For the pooled information, significantly more birds

were killed during the monsoon (x2=l 8.57, p<0.005). The least

kills for amphibians, reptiles and mammals were in summer,

while birds were killed the least during winter (Table 3).

Effect of size and guild on frequency of roadkills of birds

All the bird species represented in road-kills were

resident and diurnal. Most birds killed were of medium size

Table 3: Seasonal effect on frequency of roadkills of

herpetofauna, birds and mammals in Etawah, Uttar Pradesh

(January 2000-December 2001)

(76.5%, Fig. 1). Very small and medium sized birds were

represented in roadkills in nearly the same proportions as

those present along the road, while small and very large birds

were not killed (Fig. 1 ). Most kills were of omnivore (35.3%),

insectivore (23.5%), and aquatic species (17.7%, Fig. 2).

Omnivore species were killed in far higher proportion than

present along the road, while insectivore and aquatic species

were killed in lesser proportions (Fig. 2). To examine effect of

size and guild on vulnerability of birds to vehicular traffic,

sample sizes obtained were too small to carry out statistical

analyses.

DISCUSSION

Herpetofauna

Very few kills of amphibians were obtained and most of

them were during the monsoon. However, these animals are

small and carcasses on roads do not probably last very long

on the road, and the estimates obtained during this study

must be taken to be a minimum. An increase in mobility and

activity of amphibians due to rains leads to their increased

mortality due to vehicular traffic (Vijayakumar et al. 2001 ).

Vijayakumar et al. (2001) recorded much higher rates of

roadkills for both amphibians (2/km) and reptiles (0.4/km) than

this study, but these were obtained from a forested area. There

are no studies on roadkills of herpetofauna in the country

from non-forested on non-protected areas to compare the

results of the present study. Traffic does not seem to be a

major concern for amphibians in Etawah. In Mudumalai, Gokula

(1997) found more kills of snakes during the daytime as

compared to evenings and nights. Vijayakumar et al. (2001 )

found no influence of rain on mortality rates of reptiles, as

was recorded by this study. Kumara et al. (2000), however,

found a significant positive relationship between the rainy

season and number of reptiles killed, particularly uropeltid

snakes. When uropeltids were considered separately, other

snakes showed no relationship between mortality rates and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

395

VERTEBRATE MORTALITY DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

rainfall, similar to that found in Etawah. Many species of

reptiles that are strictly arboreal such as the geckos and those

restricted entirely to canals and rivers such as the hard-shelled

turtles were found along the road but were not represented in

roadkil Is. Monitor lizards Varanus benghalensis and

V. Jlavescens were seen killed in other roads in the area, but

not represented on the study road.

Amphibians are clearly more susceptible to mortality

by vehicular traffic during the rains due to increased activity,

most likely related to breeding. However, most reptiles killed

in Etawah were in the winter. The dark surfaces of the roads

usually retained heat much later than the soil possibly

attracting reptiles. Kills of B stomaticus , E. johnii and

L. punctata were very high and specific studies on these

species may be worthwhile to ascertain exact causes and

reduce or even prevent such high mortalities.

Birds

This study suggests that mortality due to vehicular

traffic affects only a small proportion of species in an area,

medium-sized birds are affected the most, omnivore and

insectivore species are more vulnerable than species

belonging to other guilds, and most kills occur during the

monsoon. It appears that vehicular traffic causes minimal

mortalities of birds, and is unlikely to be a matter for concern.

Numbers of birds of each species were much lower in roadkil Is

compared to actual numbers along the road. Majority of the

species present crossed the road implying that the road is

not perceived as a barrier by most bird species and that almost

all the birds are vulnerable to vehicular traffic. The rate of

roadkills of birds recorded in this study, however, was far

lesser than that recorded for a similar habitat type in Rajasthan,

about 200 km west of the study site. Sharma ( 1 988) recorded

a total of 219 kills of 26 species of 19 families in one year in a

stretch of five km of road. He found that the Eurasian Collared

Dove Streptopelia decaocta was killed the most in Rajasthan

but was never represented in roadkills in Etawah. In Rajasthan,

aquatic birds were killed the least, but the globally threatened

sarus crane Grits antigone was represented in kills. The rate

of roadkills was 0.12 kills/km (calculated from the study

assuming that sampling was carried out for 365 days), 24

times higher than that recorded during this study. There was,

however, no information on the species composition of the

bird community along the road. The bird community structure

is likely to be similar with Etawah, and it is interesting that different

results were recorded. Vegetation structure, traffic intensity, and

other factors such as fallen grain on the road etc. may have

contributed to the differences in patterns of roadkills.

In Etawah, presence of few fruiting trees along the road

caused large amounts of ripe fruits to be available on the road

during the fruiting season and resulted in the deaths of mynas

and crows foraging on fallen fruits. Crows were further killed

when they were scavenging roadkills. The only rail id represented

in kills, the White-breasted Waterhen Amauromis phoenicurus,

was found living in roadside ponds. Kills could have occurred

either during foraging events or during territorial fights with

conspecifics. The author nearly ran over one individual which

was engrossed in an aggressive interaction with another bird

in the middle of the road, and when the motorbike was near

them, broke away quite unpredictably and ran towards the

motorbike. Several passerines were also seen to engage in

territorial disputes, an activity that would make them more

vulnerable to approaching traffic. The Greater Coucal

Centropus sinensis was seen to be a nest predator and often

carried away eggs and nestlings from nests alongside the

road. One kill each was recorded in May, September and

November of this species. Many species of birds were seen

nesting along the road during these months.

The Lesser Golden-backed Woodpecker Dinopium

benghalense and Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

usually foraged on tree trunks and in the canopy respectively

and were correspondingly under represented in road kills.

The sole D. benghalense killed during the study was found

near the entrance of a termite colony from which alates were

emerging. The bird had flown down to feed on the alates

fleeing the colony, as was confirmed by its stomach contents.

P krameri deaths occurred when flocks were chased off from

adjoining fields while they were depredating crops. The two

parakeets found killed had large quantities of wheat in their

stomachs. Occasionally, individuals were seen foraging on

fallen fruit of F. benghalensis and P gujcn>a on the road and

this may lead to deaths occasionally. Ardeids take a longer

time to attain height when they take off as compared to other

bird species. After taking off from marshlands and ponds

adjoining the road, they tended to fly low over the road making

them susceptible to speeding traffic. Though White-necked

Storks Ciconia episcopus and Sarus Crane Grits antigone

nested along the road on trees and wetlands respectively,

these large waterbirds were not killed by traffic during the

study period. Food on roads and specific behaviour (e.g.

territoriality) at certain times seem to be responsible for kills

of birds on roads. Additional species that were found killed

due to traffic on other roads near the study road but not

represented in this study were the White-throated Kingfisher

Halcyon smyrnensis, Streptopelia decaocto, Grits antigone ,

and Red-vented Bulbul Pycnonotus cafer.

Mammals

Of the seven species of mammals found killed in the

study, none were of conservation concern. One species.

396

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep Dec 2004

VERTEBRATE MORTALITY DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC

F. palmarum , was arboreal and the rest were ground dwelling.

Both the Fox and the Jungle Cat were killed during the night.

The other nocturnal animals that were seen along the road

were the Striped Hyaena Hyaena hyaena , Common Palm Civet

Paradoxus hermophroditus , and Indian Pangolin Manis

crassicaudata but were not killed by traffic during the study.

These animals were sighted in the early morning. One Pale

Hedgehog Paraechinus micropus was found killed by traffic

after the completion of the study. Previous accounts of

roadkills on mammals in India have been restricted to

protected and forested areas and have documented deaths

of many species of conservation concern (Kumara et al. 2000,

Raj vanshi et al. 200 1 ). Kumara et al. (2000) found no influence

of either habitat type or season on rates of mortality of

mammals in a protected area, quite similar to the patterns

observed in Etawah. Mammals had relatively low mortality

rates in summer. The region along the road was particularly

dry in summer months and mammals may have moved away

at this time. Most of the deaths (6/8) observed in this season

were of domestic animals (dogs, n=4, cats, n=2) lending some

credence to this surmise.

Implications of the study

This study suggests that mortality rates due to vehicular

traffic is quite low for all the taxa studied, and that populations

of most species may not be significantly affected by roadkills

due to traffic. No species of conservation concern was killed

by traffic during this study. The results of this study are in

contrast with those obtained h orn other regions in the country.

Roads in agricultural areas do not seem to be causing large-

scale mortalities of vertebrate fauna. However, many more

studies away from protected and forested areas are required

to ascertain the actual magnitude of roadkills in relation to

populations of particular species. Studies elsewhere have

documented that roads perform as physical barriers to

movements of animals often changing their behaviour

(Daveley and Stouffer 2001), and that animal densities are

affected by the presence of roads (Fahrig et al. 1995, van der

Zande et al. 1 980). The overall disturbance effect of roads on

wildlife would therefore be underrepresented by roadkills and

animals are possibly affected much more by other effects of

roads such as habitat fragmentation, stress due to noise of

traffic etc. (van der Zande etal. 1 980, Goosem 1997, Forman and

Alexander 1998). Considering that the Government of India is

undertaking several large-scale expansions of the road network

in Uttar Pradesh and in the rest of the country, many more

studies are required before we can hope to better understand

the impact of roads on wildlife in the Indian countryside.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

This study was conducted while carrying out field

studies under the Project “Impact of land use changes on the

ecology and habiat of the Sarus Crane Grus antigone in the

Indo-gangetic flood plains” of the Wildlife Institute of India

(WII) and 1 thank the Director and B.C. Choudhury for facilities

and infrastructure. I was supported by Research Fellowships

awarded by WII. Field assistance was rendered by D. Singh

and A. Verma. Setting up of a field station at Etawah was made

possible due to the hospitality of R. Chauhan and family. I thank

B. Priya, Sushma and K. Vasudevan for providing useful

references and N.M. Ishwar for commenting on a previous draft.

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398

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

399-402

ARE WORMS AFFECTED BY HOST ECOLOGY? A PERSPECTIVE FROM

MUDUMALA1 WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, SOUTHERN INDIA1

Guha Dharmarajan2, M. Raman3 and Mathew C. John4

'Accepted May, 2002

2Centre for Ecological Sciences, Indian Institute of Science, Bangalore 560 012, Karnataka, India. Email :guha_d@yahoo com

’Department of Parasitology, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai 600 007, Tamil Nadu, India.

4Department of Wildlife Science, Madras Veterinary College, Chennai 600 007, Tamil Nadu, India

Interspecific comparisons of helminth loads, using helminth eggs per gram of faeces as an index, were done in the

Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary between May and August, 1999. The host species sampled were chital (Axis axis),

sambar ( Cervus unicolor), gaur (Bos gaums), elephant (Elephas maximus) and domestic cattle. Helminth distributions

in all the species were highly over dispersed and except in the case of gaur the negative binomial distribution gave good

fits to the observed data. In general, it was found that the elephant and gaur had higher loads than the cervids, probably

due to their larger body size. Among the cervids, sambar had lower loads than chital probably because they are mixed

feeders as opposed to chital, which are mainly grazers. Cattle had the highest loads and prevalence of parasites among

all the species studied, probably due to the effects of domestication and poor hygiene. Helminth community structure

and species diversity was related to the taxonomic distinctiveness of the host. It is thus likely that many interspecific

differences in helminth loads can be explained by the existing hypotheses related to host ecology.

Key words: Helminths, Axis axis, Cervus unicolor. Bos gaurus, Elephas maximus , cattle

INTRODUCTION

Wildlife conservation, with population health as an

important component, has emerged as one of the greatest

challenges of our time. However, the existing knowledge on

wildlife disease is of little help when dealing with population

health, as most of this information has accumulated through

“investigation of individual animals rather than populations”

(Spalding and Forrester 1993). In spite of this, there have

been only a few studies (Arora et al. 1 985, Watve 1 992, Bhatt

1994), in India, on helminths in free-ranging wildlife

populations. This according to Davis and Anderson (1971)

could be because “it was a common theme that the parasites

of wild animals were so perfectly adapted to their host that

under natural conditions they would not cause disease.”

However, research has shown that this premise is not true

with parasite affecting the survival of their host directly

(Choudhary et al. 1987, Nudds 1990) or indirectly (Freeland

1 98 1 , Schall 1983,Rau 1984, Saumier et al. 1986). For a clearer

picture of helminth epidemiology in wild herbivores, it is

essential to understand the ecological factors that affect the

magnitude of infection in the host species.

STUDY AREA

The study area comprises the Mudumalai Wildlife

Sanctuary and National Park, and the Sigur Reserve Forest,

situated between 1 1° 32'- 1 1° 93’ N and 76° 22'-76° 43' E.

Elevations vary between 900-1,000 m above msl. There is a

decrease in rainfall from the western side ( 1 ,800 mm/year) to

the eastern side (600 mm/year). A high diversity of vegetation

types has been observed (Sukumar et al. 1992).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Hosts sampled: Species of host included were chital

(Axis axis), sambar ( Cervus unicolor ), gaur (Bos gaurus),

elephant (Elephas maximus) and forest grazing domestic

cattle.

Coprological study: Helminth eggs per gram of faeces

(epg) have been used as an index of helminth load. A

representative sample of approximately 2 gm was collected

from clearly demarcated, fresh dung piles voided by the target

species. Samples were collected in labelled, pre-weighed

containers with 10 ml of 10% formalin between 0700 and

0900 hrs daily. The exact weight of faeces collected was

calculated by subtracting the weight of the container with

formalin from the weight of the container containing the dung

sample in formalin. The intensity of helminth infection was

determined by the quantitative Sedimentation-floatation

Technique developed and standardized by Watve (1992).

Prevalence of strongyle genera were calculated using data

obtained from larval cultures. Samples for larval cultures were

collected separately in cloth bags, kept moist, and cultured in

the laboratory within 12-15 hours after collection. Larval

cultures for third stage (infective) strongyle larvae were done

as per Roberts and O’Sullivan ( 1 949). Larvae were identified

with the help of keys provided by Davies (1984). Larvae

EFFECTS OF HOST ECOLOGY ON HELMINTH LOADS

Table 1 Distribution of helminth eggs in selected species of wild herbivores and domestic cattle

at the Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary, Tamil Nadu

Host Species Sample size % Infected Median Mean Variance Index of d-statistic Negative

Load (epg) Load (epg) Dispersion Binomial

Parameters

k X2

epg-eggs per gram of faeces; *- Statistically significant, ns- not significant (see text for details)

cultured from elephant dung were identified by measurements

given by Raman (Unpubl. Data).

Terminology: Helminth loads have been expressed in

terms of eggs per gram of faeces (epg). In this study, the term

has been broadened to include larvae of lungworms also.

The term “species” has been used loosely to describe distinct

groups of parasites. Thus, for example all fluke eggs are

classified as a single ‘species’. Though the term ‘Operational

Taxonomic Unit' as used by Watve (1992) is more accurate,

the term species is retained because of familiarity in usage.

The total number of such “species” has been used as an

index of “Parasite diversity” in the host community. Because

of the methodology used, definitions of some terms used

here are different from Margolis et al. (1982). The term

‘prevalence’ indicates percentage of samples found to be

positive for helminth eggs and/or larvae. The term sympatric

is defined as (of biological speciation or species) taking place

or existing in the same or overlapping geographic areas

(Hanks 1979). This term has been used synonymously with

co-grazing.

Statistical Analyses: Calculation of index of dispersion,

d-statistic and fitting of the negative binomial distribution

has been done as per Ludwig and Reynolds (1988). The

d-statistic was termed significant if >1 .96. All other statistics

were tested at a probability level of 5%.

RESULTS

The distribution of helminths in all host species

sampled was highly non-random or over-dispersed as the d-

statistic was >1.96 (Table 1). The negative binomial

distribution in general gave good fits to the observed data in

the case of all the species studied, with the exception of gaur

(Table 1). Interspecific comparisons of helminth loads were

carried out using three main parameters. These parameters

were the prevalence of infection (Percentage of animals

infected), median egg load (in epg) and total number of parasite

species (parasite species richness) in the study animals. The

median egg load was chosen in preference to the mean

because in over-dispersed populations a few outlying

individuals can drastically affect the latter. The parasites

identified in the hosts showed that most host species, with

the exception of elephants, had similar parasitic genera

(Table 2).

Table 2 Helminth species identified in the hosts sampled

* Larval culture data not obtained for host species

400

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

EFFECTS OF HOST ECOLOGY ON HELMINTH LOADS

DISCUSSION

In this study, egg per gram of faeces (epg) was used as

an index of helminth load in the host. Though this method

has limitations as pointed out by Foreyt and Trainer (1980),

faecal examination is non-invasive and thus has great appeal

especially in wild animals. Because of positive correlation

between worm size and egg output (Skorping et al. 1991),

egg outputs can be considered to be an accurate indicator of

parasite biomass, if not numbers. Faecal egg counts can thus

give very valuable assistance in studies concerning helminth

populations (Roberts et al. 1951).

Prevalence of infection and median egg loads: It was

found that the two larger herbivores sampled, namely

elephants and gaur, had the highest prevalence of infection

(85.29% and 85.19% respectively) and median loads (3.5 and

3 epg respectively), as compared to that of cervids — chital

and sambar. This could be due to three major reasons. Firstly,

larger animals tend to consume large quantities of food and

water, and thus have greater chances of picking up infective

parasitic stages (Kennedy et al. 1986). Secondly, as larger

animals have larger gastrointestinal tracts, the “crowding

effect” as described by Read (1951) is less likely to be of

importance, thus allowing these animals to support larger

numbers of parasites without reductions in parasite size and

fecundity. Thirdly, as body size increases there is a decrease

in predatory pressures. In Mudumalai, sambar and chital are

preyed upon by leopards, tigers and wild dogs, while gaur is

mostly preyed upon by tiger. Elephants do not form the usual

prey base of any carnivore. Since parasites can decrease the

ability of animals to escape predation either directly, by

reducing running stamina (Schall et al. 1982) or indirectly, by

causing debility (Soulsby 1982), animals like deer with high

predatory pressures are likely to evolve higher resistance to

infection by way of natural selection. Additionally, if

carnivores select prey with poor body condition (Kruuk 1 972)

they may selectively remove animals with high parasite loads

from the population, thus reducing a major source of infection

to other animals.

Among the cervids studied, sambar had lower

prevalence of infection and median egg loads (58.34%

and 1 epg respectively) as compared to chital (74.77% and 2

epg). It has been observed that sambar is a mixed feeder, both

grazing and browsing, as compared to chital which is

predominantly a grazer (Schaller 1 967). Since browsers tend

to have lower loads of parasites (Horak 1984), mainly

as a result of less contact with the infective stages of the

helminths, which are found mainly in the soil or on grass,

the higher helminth load in chital can be attributed to this

reason.

Cattle were found to have the highest levels of parasite

prevalence (91.07) as well as median egg loads (5.5 epg) and

this could be due to two reasons. Firstly, it has been

hypothesised that domestication tends to tilt the “natural

balance” in favour of parasites (Gordon 1948). Secondly, the

cattle grazing in Mudumalai are kept in pens during the night.

The high levels of crowding in these pens will create an

environment that is conducive for the increased transmission

rates of parasites (Solomon 1 965). Poor hygiene in the pens is

likely to exacerbate these high transmission rates, and thus

contribute both to the high parasite prevalence rates and

helminth loads observed in cattle.

Parasite species richness: The richness of parasite

fauna varied widely among different species of host.

Taxonomically related host species tend to share parasite

species (Cameron 1964, Segun 1971), which may be due to

immunological reasons (Freeland 1983). Thus, host species

with a large number of related species in the same area can be

expected to have high parasite species richness. This was so

in our findings, with chital having the greatest parasite

diversity ( 16 parasite species) followed by gaur (12 species)

and forest grazing cattle ( 1 3 species). Elephants with no close

relatives had the lowest species diversity (7 species). Sambar

was not considered for comparison, as larval culture data for

this species could not be obtained. Using larval culture data,

which allows identification of strongyles up to the generic

level, it was found that the ruminants (chital, gaur, cattle) had

very similar parasitic genera. This is well in agreement with

Horak (1981). Elephants, which were phylogenetically distinct

from other herbivores, were found to have a distinctive strongyle

community structure composed of Murshidia sp., Decrusia sp.,

Quilonia sp. and Bathmostomum sp. Generic level identification

of other parasites was only possible in a few cases wherein the

egg morphology was very distinct (e.g. Trichuris sp.).

From the management point of view, the fact that

the cattle entering the Sanctuary have the highest worm

loads among the herbivores, and also have many parasitic

genera in common with the wild herbivores, should be

viewed with concern. Dharmarajan et al. (2003a, b) shows

that such cattle may have adverse effects on chital populations.

In conclusion, it may be stated that differences in

parasite loads and helminth community structure between

different species of wildlife and forest grazing domestic cattle

in Mudumalai can be explained by the existing ecological

hypotheses. The major parameters are likely to be species of

host, phylogenetic distinctiveness, feeding habits and

domestication. More work is required to identify the relative

importance of the various factors influencing the distribution

of helminths within and between populations of host species

studied in Mudumalai.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

401

EFFECTS OF HOST ECOLOGY ON HELMINTH LOADS

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Tamil Nadu Forest Department,

Mr. A. Udhayan, IFS; Dr. V. Krishnamurthy (retd. Forest

Veterinarian); Mr. A. A. Desai, Dr. N. Baskaran,

Mr. S. Swaminathan (Bombay Natural Flistory Society);

Dr. R. Sukumar, Dr. N.V. Joshi (Centre for Ecological

Sciences); Dr. G. Rajavelu, Dr. S. Ramesh, Dr. M.G.

Jayathangaraj (Madras Veterinary College) and Mr. Sachin

Ranade.

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402

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

403-414

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES, THEKKADY, KERALA4

K.K. Subhash Babu23 andC.K.G. Nayar2-4

'Accepted March 2004

Zoological Research Laboratory, Christ College, Thusharam, Azad Road, Irinjalakuda 680 125, Kerala, India

’Email: kallikadavil@yahoo com

4Email: ckgnayar@rediffmail corn

The cladoceran fauna of Periyar Lake and adjoining water bodies, situated in the Periyar Tiger Reserve, Kerala, was

studied. The present paper deals with the systematic study of 23 species, based on random collections. Females of

Alona clathratula Sars, Camptocercus uncinatus Smirnov, Biapertura intermedia Sars and males of Diaphanosoma sarsi

Richard and Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars were recorded for the first time from India.

Key words: Cladocera, Periyar Lake, systematic study, distribution, India

INTRODUCTION

A review of literature on the freshwater Cladocera of

Kerala, India reveals that no attempt has been made to study

this fauna. Michael and Hann (1979) reported two species

from Thiruvananthapuram. In 1988, Michael and Sharma added

eight species from Thiruvananthapuram and nine from

Irinjalakuda to the cladoceran fauna of Kerala. Other studies

are by Thresiamma et al. ( 1 99 1 ) on population dynamics, and

Subhash Babu and Nayar ( 1 993, 1 997) on biology. The present

study is a preliminary survey of the microfauna of the aquatic

habitats in and around Periyar Lake.

Periyar Lake was formed a century ago due to the

construction of the Mullaperiyar dam across River Periyar in

1895. It is situated within the Periyar Tiger Reserve and has

an area of 26 sq. km. Periyar Tiger Reserve lies between 9° 1 5'

and 9° 40' N, and 76° 55' and 77° 25' E in the Western Ghats, in

Idukki district, Kerala. The height of the Reserve varies from

900 to 2,019 m. The temperature is 1 5.5 °C during December-

January and 31 °C during April-May. The average annual

rainfall is 2,500 mm, including both southwest and northeast

monsoon.

Although we have information on the terrestrial fauna

of Periyar Tiger Reserve, our knowledge of the aquatic fauna

is limited. Recently, Zacharias et al. (1996) reported the

presence of 35 species of fishes in this area, based on

collections from lakes and rivers. The crustacean group

Cladocera is an important component of freshwater

zooplankton.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Samples from water bodies and canals adjacent to the

Lake were collected with the help of a tow net made of bolting

silk (70 pm). Specimens were also obtained by washing the

weeds collected from the lake and other water bodies. The

samples were immediately preserved in 5% formaline.

Dissections were done wherever necessary, using tungsten

micro-needle and drawings were made with the help of camera

lucida. Measurements were made using calibrated

micrometers.

SYSTEMATIC ACCOUNT

Cladocera are generally considered an artificial group

comprising representatives of rather different phylogenetic

origin. Fryer (1987) classified the “group” Cladocera into 4

Orders, Ctenopoda, Anomopoda, Onychopoda and

Haplopoda.

Class: Crustacea

Subclass: Branchiopoda

Order: Ctenopoda

Family Sididae Baird, 1850

1 . Diaphanosoma sarsi Richard, 1 894 (Figs 1 -6)

This typical planktonic species was represented by

1 3 specimens in the samples collected from the littoral regions

of the lake. The specimens included 8 parthenogenetic

females, 3 ephippial females and 2 males.

Parthenogenetic female: Body somewhat elongated

and transparent (Fig. 1); head small with relatively large eyes;

without rostrum; valves with varying number of denticles

along the posterior ventral corner (Fig. 2); ventral margin

indexed to form a broad dap; antennules small, cigarette-

shaped with terminal setae; antennae large but not reaching

posterior margin of valves; dorsal ramus 2-segmented and

ventral ramus 3-segmented; postabdomen without anal

spines; claw with 3 long basal spines (Fig. 3); ephippial female

carries 2 ephippia, one on each side.

Male; Smaller than female, characterised by the

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

0.05

Figs 1-6 Diaphanosoma sarsi Richard; 1. Female, 2 Shell duplicature, 3 Postabdomen of female, 4 Male, 5 Postabdomen of male,

6 Endopodite of first thoracic leg of male;

Figs 7-8 Latonopsis australis Sars; 7 Female, 8 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 9-12: Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars; 9 Female, 10 Postabdomen of female, 11. Male, 12. Antennule of male;

Figs 13-14 Simocephalus /af/rosfns Stingelin; 13. Female, 14 Postabdomen of female

presence of long whip-like antennnle (Fig. 4), postabdomen

with two long sperm ducts (Fig. 5); endopodite of first thoracic

leg modified to form a sickle-shaped hook (Fig. 6).

Size: Female - 0.86 x 0.38 mm, Male - 0.67 x 0.32 mm.

Remarks: Females reported by Raghunathan (1989)

from Wynaad, Kerala; males reported for the first time from

India. Earlier reports of this species from India include those

of Gurney (1907) from Bihar, Biswas ( 1971) from Rajasthan,

404

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

Patil ( 1 976) from Meghalaya, Sharma ( 1 978), Venkataraman and

Das (200 1 ) from West Bengal, and Michael and Sharma ( 1 988)

from Tamil Nadu, West Bengal and New Delhi. D. sarsi is a

widely distributed species known from Asia, Africa and Australia.

2. Latonopsis australis Sars, 1 888 (Figs 7-8)

A few females of this species were present in the

samples collected among the littoral weeds of the lake and a

nearby ditch.

Female: Body elongated; head indistinctly separated

from rest of body (Fig. 7); posterior margin of valves with

long plumose setae decreasing in length dorsally; antennule

segmented with a long flagellum beset with sensory setae;

antenna prominent with 3-segmented dorsal ramus and

2-segmented ventral ramus; valve with characteristic shell

gland; postabdomen small, with 8-9 marginal spines and claw

with 2 long basal spines (Fig. 8).

Size: 1.06x0.61 mm.

Remarks: First report front Kerala State. Michael and

Sharma (1988) reported the occurrence of this species in

Madurai (Tamil Nadu) and Rajasthan. Their specimens differ

from the present specimens in having 3 long setae at the

posteroventral comer of the valves, and a short postabdomen

with only 7 lateral denticles. The specimens from Thekkady,

however, show remarkable similarity with L. australis

described by Korovichinsky (1992) from Queensland,

Australia. Latonopsis occidentalis Birge, reported by Biswas

(1971) from Rajasthan is considered a synonym of L. australis

by Harding and Petkovski ( 1 963). Venkataraman ( 1 992, 1 993,

1995) reported this species from Keoladeo National Park,

Rajasthan, and Tamil Nadu. Venkataraman and Das (2001)

also reported L. australis from West Bengal.

Order: Anomopoda

Family Daphniidae Straus, 1 820

3 . Ceriodaphnia comuta Sars, 1 885 (Figs 9- 1 2)

This species was abundant in the samples collected

from the lake and nearby habitats. The population comprised

parthenogenetic females, ephippial females and a few males.

Female: Body of parthenogenetic female somewhat

rounded in outline (Fig. 9); head small, distinctly separated

from rest of body by a conspicuous cervical sinus; ventral

margin of head produced into a short rostrum in front of

antennules; valves with distinct polygonal markings; margins

smooth; posterodorsal corner produced into a blunt process;

antennule short, not extending beyond tip of rostrum; horn-

like process may or may not be present on anterodorsal margin

of head; postabdomen short, with 5-6 sharply pointed anal

spines; claw without basal spine (Fig. 10); ephippial female

with more rounded body, without head-horn; ephippium with

single oval egg.

Male: Smaller than female (Fig. 1 1); body quadrangular

in outline with straight dorsal margin; antennule longer than

that of female, and with two sensory hairs (Fig. 12); first

thoracic leg with a prehensile hook and a long flagellum

emerging through the ventral margin of valves.

Size: Female: 0.55 x0.41 mm, Male: 0.38 x 0.22 mm.

Remarks: Ceriodaphnia comuta is widely distributed

in the tropical and subtropical regions of the world. In India,

it is known from West Bengal (Gurney 1906, Sharma 1978)

Bihar (Nasar 1977), Rajasthan (Nayar 1971, Biswas 1971,

Venkataraman 1992), Meghalaya (Patil 1976), Karnataka (Patil

and Gouder 1988), Kerala (Michael and Sharma 1988), and

West Bengal (Venkataraman and Das 2001). Males of

C. comuta are being reported for the first time from India.

4. Simocephalus latirostris Stingelin, 1906 (Figs 13-14)

This species was represented by 2 parthenogenetic

females in a ditch near Kokkara wayal.

Female: Body with its maximum height behind middle

(Fig. 13); head small separated from rest of body by a deep

cervical sinus; snout projects ventrally forming a rostrum;

vertex without spinules; valves ornamented with oblique

striations forming a network, dorsal margin arched; ventral

margin nearly straight; posterior margin slightly serrated,

forming a blunt process; antennule longer than rostrum,

sensory seta near its base; antennae reach only half the length

of body; postabdomen broad with a prominent preanal angle,

its dorsal margin with 6 anal spines increasing in size distally;

claw long, without basal spine (Fig. 14).

Size: 1 .30x0.88 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala State. S. latirostris

is known to be a rare species, never occurring in large

numbers. In India, this species was first reported by Biswas

(1971) from Rajasthan and subsequently by Michael and

Sharma (1988) from Tamil Nadu and Rajasthan.

5. Simocephalus exspinosus (Koch, 1841) (Figs 15-16)

A large number of parthenogenetic females were present

in a ditch adjacent to Periyar Lake.

Female: Body large, somewhat rhomboidal in outline

(Fig. 15); head relatively small, with short rostrum; ocellus

minute; shell forms a blunt protuberance at its posterior

margin; posterior half of shell margin denticulate; valves

ornamented with interconnected oblique striations. Antennule

extends beyond tip of rostrum; postabdomen broad with acute

preanal angle, 12-14 anal spines; claw long, pectinate, without

basal spine (Fig. 16).

Size: 1 .35 x 0.86 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. S. exspinosus is

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

405

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

Figs 15-16: Simocephalus exspinosus { Koch); 15 Female, 16 Postabdomen;

Figs 17-19: llyocryptus spimfer Herrick; 17 Female, 18. Antennule, 19 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 20-22 Macrothrix spmosa King; 20 Female, 21 Antennule of female, 22 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 23-25 Macrothrix triseriahs (Brady); 23. Female, 24 Antennule of female, 25 Postabdomen of female;

Figs. 26-28 Macrothrix odiosa (Gurney): 26. Female, 27 Antennule of female, 28 Postabdomen of female

known to be a cosmopolitan species. In India, it is reported

from Meghalaya (Patil 1976), West Bengal (Sharma 1978;

Michael and Sharma 1988; Venkataraman and Das 2001 ) and

Karnataka (Patil and Gouder 1988). The specimens from

Dharwad described by Patil and Gouder ( 1 988) differ from the

present specimens in having a prominent rhomboidal ocellus.

Family Ilyocryptidae Smirnov, 1976

6. llyocryptus spiitifer Herrick, 1 882 (Figs 1 7- 1 9)

Five parthenogenetic females were obtained from a

temporary water body at Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Female: Body shape characteristic with deeply arched

ventral margin (Fig. 17); head small and tapering; ventral

406

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

margin of valves with long, branched, plumose setae;

antennule, bi-articulated proximal segment short, distal with

a few terminal setae (Fig. 18); postabdomen bilobed, with

about 25 marginal denticles and long anal spines; claw slender

with 2 unequal basal spines (Fig. 19); anal aperture opens in

the middle of postabdomen.

Size: 0.67 x 0.53 mm.

Remarks: Michael and Sharma (1988) reported this

species at Thiruvananthapuram (Kerala) from the collections

of D.G. Frey. It is also known to occur in West Bengal (Gurney

1907, Sharma 1978, Venkataraman and Das 2001), Rajasthan

(Biswas 1 97 1 , Venkataraman 1 992), Meghalaya (Patil 1976)

and Karnataka (Patil and Gouder 1988).

Family Macrothricidae Norman & Brady, 1 867

7. Macrothrix spinosa King, 1852 (Figs 20-22)

A common species, found in several samples from the

lake and neighbouring sites.

Female: Body oval, without distinct cervical sinus

(Fig. 20); head large with pointed rostrum; eye situated close

to margin; ocellus minute; carapace with a blunt protuberance

at its posterior margin; anterior dorsal margin minutely

serrated; ventral margin with a series of long setae; antennule

originates from tip of rostrum, distally expanded; lateral

sensory seta near its base; a group of sensory papillae on its

apex (Fig. 2 1 ); postabdomen short; dorsal margin with strong

anal denticles and rows of minute lateral spinules; claw

without basal spine (Fig. 22).

Size: 0.36x0.25 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. Biswas (197 1) and

Venkataraman (1992) reported this species from Rajasthan,

Patil (1976) from Manipur, Michael and Sharma (1988) from

Tamil Nadu and Venkataraman and Das (200 1 ) from W. Bengal.

8. Macrothrix triserialis (Brady, 1886) (Figs 23-25)

A good number of adult females and juveniles were

collected from the lake.

Female: Body of adult female nearly oval (Fig. 23); head

large, separated from rest of body by a conspicuous cervical

depression; shell produced into a sharp angle posteriorly;

ventral margin of valves with long bristles; antennule slender,

cylindrical, armed with a series of small spinules and a few

terminal setae (Fig. 24); postabdomen bilobed with several

anteriorly directed denticles along its dorsal margin (Fig. 25);

claw short without basal spine.

Size: 0.56x0.34 mm.

Remarks: Michael and Sharma (1988) reported this

species from Irinjalakuda, Kerala from the collections of C.K.G.

Nayar. Also known to occur in Bihar (Gurney 1 907) Rajasthan

(Biswas 1971, Michael and Sharma 1988), West Bengal

(Michael and Sharma 1988, Venkataraman and Das 2001 ) and

Karnataka (Patil and Gouder 1 988).

9. Macrothrix odiosa (Gurney, 1 907) (Figs 26-28)

A few parthenogenetic females were found in the

samples from the lake.

Female: Body oval in outline (Fig. 26); head large,

separated from trunk by a distinct cervical sinus; carapace with

its posterior protuberance above the middle; valves without

any characteristic ornamentation, their margins fringed with

setae along whole length; antennule long, slender with a sensory

seta near its base, a few short spinules and long terminal setae

(Fig. 27); postabdomen large and bilobed (Fig. 28).

Size: 0.76x0.53 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. Gurney (1907)

reported this species from Bihar, Biswas (1971); Michael and

Sharma ( 1 988) from Rajasthan, and Patil and Gouder ( 1 988)

from Karnataka.

Family MoinidaeGoulden, 1987

1 0. Moina micrura Kurz, 1 874 (Figs 29-3 1 )

Several parthenogenetic females and a few ephippial

females were present in the lake plankton.

Female: Body small, thick and transparent (Fig. 29);

head relatively large, with shallow supraocular depression; a

distinct cervical sinus between head and trunk; valves

transparent with reticulations and 20-24 spinules on ventral

margin; surface of valves devoid of setules or hairs; antennule

originates well behind eye; lateral sensory seta situated almost

in the middle; antenna reaching only up to middle of valves

when extended; postabdomen short, distally conical; with

5 feathered lateral spines and a distal bident tooth; claw long;

ephippium saddle-shaped, hard, darkly pigmented, containing

one egg.

Size: 0.75x0.44 mm.

Remarks: M. micrura is widely distributed in India,

known from West Bengal (Sewell 1 935, Sharma 1 978, Michael

and Sharma 1988, Venkataraman and Das 200 1 ), Tamil Nadu

(Brehm 1936, Michael and Sharma 1988), Karnataka (Patil and

Gouder, 1988), Rajasthan (Biswas 1971), Kerala (Michael and

Shanna 1988, Raghunathan 1989).

1 1 . Moina macrocopa (Straus, 1 820) (Figs 32-35)

A sample obtained from a temporary water body at

Periyar Tiger Reserve contained several parthenogenetic

females, 3 ephippial females and 5 males of this species

Female: Large-sized forms (Fig. 32); head broadly

rounded without supraocular depression; no ocellus; head

and body covered with fine setules, setulation more dense

towards dorsal half; valves granulated with faint reticulations

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

407

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

Figs 29-31: Moina micrura Kurz; 29 Female, 30. Antennule of female, 31 Anterior portion of female postabdomen;

Figs 32-35 Moina macrocopa (Straus); 32. Female, 33 Antennule of female, 34. Anterior portion of female postabdomen, 35. Male;

Figs 36-37 Bosminopsis deitersi Richard, 36. Female, 37. Postabdomen of female;

Figs 38-40: Bosmma longirostris { O F Muller); 38 Female, 39. Head with antennule, 40 Postabdomen of female

formed by interconnected longitudinal lines; ventral margin

armed with 80-90 small setae, followed by ungrouped setules;

antennules large, covered by hairs and setules; lateral sensory

seta near the middle (Fig. 33). Antenna stout and hairy; first

thoracic leg of female distinct in having teeth on the ventral

margin of the penultimate segment of anterior seta;

postabdomen large with 9 long feathered lateral spines and a

distal bident tooth, claw pectinate (Fig. 34). Ephippial females

smaller than parthenogenetic females; setules absent on head

and valves; ephippium saddle-shaped, ornamented with

polygonal markings, contains 2 eggs.

Male: Smaller than female (Fig. 35); head and trunk

408

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

densely covered by hairs; antennules very long, bent at

middle; 2 lateral setae of unequal length; 5 terminal hooks;

first thoracic leg of male distinct, with large recurved hooks

on penultimate segment; postabdomen similar to that of

female.

Size: Female: 1 .06 x 0.65 mm, Male: 0.65 x 0.36 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. Goulden (1968)

considers Monia easu Brehm, 1936 from Nilgiri Hills Tamil

Nadu and Moina ganapati Brehm, 1963 from River Yamuna,

Delhi as synonyms of M. macrocopa.

Family Bosminidae Sars, 1 865

12. Rosminopsis deitersi Richard, 1875 (Figs 36-37)

A few parthenogenetic females in the lake plankton

represented this species.

Female: Minute form with oval body, maximum height

behind middle (Fig. 36); head with long rostrum forming

proboscis-like structure; valves ornamented with

reticulations; posterior corner rounded. Antennules united

at their bases, diverge distally carrying a few terminal setae;

postabdomen tapering distally; claw with prominent basal

spine (Fig. 37).

Size: 0.28 x 0.20 mm.

Remarks: Michael and Sharma (1988) reported this

species at Irinjalakuda, Kerala from the collections of C.K.G.

Nayar. They differ from Thekkady specimens in having a small

mucronate process and a few spinules on the posteroventral

comer of the valves. Patil and Gouder (1988) had one form

with 2 spines and another with a single spine on the

posteroventral corner of the valves. Idris (1983) observed a

long and sharply pointed marginal spine on the posteroventral

comer in his collections from Malaysia. These observations

indicate that this is a variable character in B. deitersi.

13. Bosmina longirostris (O.F. Muller, 1 776) (Figs 38-40)

A few specimens of this species were obtained from a

small ditch in the Periyar Tiger Reserve.

Female: Body transparent with an arched dorsal margin;

posterior margin straight; posteroventral corner produced into

a conspicuous backwardly directed spine (Fig. 38); head large,

smoothly arched in front of eye; antennules long, parallel to

each other, terminally bent backwards; olfactory setae nearer

to the base than to tip of the antennule (Fig. 39); antenna

small with 3-segmented dorsal ramus and 4-segmented ventral

ramus; postabdomen quadrate with 3 anal spines; claw with

a proximal pecten of 4 spinules (Fig. 40).

Size: 0.41 x0.29 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. Brehm (1936)

reported this species from Dal Lake, Kashmir; Yousuf and

Quadri (1977) from Malpur Sar, Kashmir; Sharma (1978),

Venkataraman and Das (2001) from West Bengal; Patil (1976)

from Meghalaya, and Michael and Sharma ( 1 988) from Madhya

Pradesh, West Bengal and Meghalaya.

Family Chydoridae Stebbing, 1 902

Sub-Family Chydorinae Stebbing, 1 902

14. Picriplei/roxus similis ( Vavra. 1900)

(=Pleuroxus similis Vavra, 1900). (Figs 41-43)

A few female specimens were obtained from a ditch

near Kokkara wayal, Thekkady.

Female: Carapace with evenly arched dorsal margin,

straight posterior margin and without any ornamentation;

ventral margin of valves with feathered setae; posteroventral

corner produced into a blunt spine (Fig. 41); head with

long pointed rostrum curved backwards; labrum with

convex anterior margin and rounded ventral margin

(Fig. 42); antennules short, never reaching tip of rostrum;

postabdomen slightly tapering distally, 9-10 anal spines;

claw with 2 unequal basal spines, proximal shorter

(Fig. 43).

Size: 0.44 x 0.30 mm.

Remarks: Frey (1993) suggested the generic name

‘ Picripleuroxus ’ for much elongated animals with elongated

postabdomen. The present species can be distinguished from

the closely related Pleuroxus trigonellus (O.F. Muller) by the

presence of non-reticulated valves. The number of anal spines

is found to be a variable character in Thekkady specimens.

Yousuf and Quadri (1977), and Quadri and Yousuf (1978)

reported this species from Kashmir. Other Indian reports

include Sharma (1978) and Venkataraman and Das (2001 ) from

West Bengal, Michael and Sharma (1988) from Shillong,

Venkataraman ( 1 992) from Bharatpur, Rajasthan. The present

report is the first from Kerala.

15 . Alonella clathratula Sars, 1 896 (Figs 44-45)

Several parthenogenetic females were present along

with Picripleuroxus similis in the samples collected from a

ditch near Kokkara wayal, Thekkady.

Female: Body somewhat elongated and oval, with

slightly arched dorsal margin and straight posterior margin,

which is more than half of the maximum body height (Fig. 44);

valves ornamented with polygons with longitudinal striations

and stipples; ventral margins of valves with plumose setae

along whole length; head relatively small with long pointed

curved rostrum; antennule small, reaching middle of rostrum;

labrum rounded anteriorly with a shallow notch at its apex;

postabdomen with distinct preanal angle; 9 anal spines and a

few setules; claw of moderate size with 2 basal spines of

unequal size (Fig. 45).

Size: 0.32 x 0.22 mm.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

409

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

Figs 41-43 Picripleuroxus similis (Vavra); 41 . Female, 42 Plate of labrum, 43. Postabdomen of female,

Figs 44-45: Alona clathratula Sars; 44 Female, 45. Postabdomen of female;

Figs 46-47 Chydorus eurynotus Sars; 46 Female, 47 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 48-49: Ephemeroporus barroisi (Richard); 48 Female, 49 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 50-51 : Chydorus ventricosus Daday; 50. Female, 51 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 52-53 Camptocercus uncinatus Smirnov; 52 Female, 53 Anterior portion of Postabdomen

Remarks: Although the present species is similar to

A. excisa, its body and postabdomen are more elongated and

more similar to A. clathratula. In A. clathratula the valves

are ornamented with granulated polygons and longitudinal

striations while in A. excisa the polygons are not granulated.

Moreover, in A. clathratula the labrum has a slight depression

at its anteroventral end. A. clathratula is reported for the first

time from India.

410

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

16. Chydorus eurynotus Sars, 1901 (Figs 46-47)

Present in the plankton samples collected from the lake.

Female: Body somewhat spherical, with distinct

posterodorsal corner (Fig. 46); valves without markings;

dorsal margin more arched than ventral margin; posteroventral

margin characteristic with a double contour margin and a row

of plumose setae on inner margin; head shield broadly

rounded posteriorly and pointed anteriorly; rostrum long with

pointed apex; antennule small, reaching half way to tip of

rostrum; postabdomen with distinct pre-anal corners (Fig. 47);

dorsal margin of postabdomen armed with 9 anal spines and

claw with two unequal basal spines.

Size: 0.36x0.27 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. Earlier reports in

India are those of Nayar (1971) and Venkataraman ( 1 990) from

Rajasthan, and Battish (1981 ) from Punjab.

1 7. Ephemeroporus barroisi ( Richard, 1 894) (Figs 48-49)

Large numbers of parthenogenetic females were

collected from a lake.

Female: Body with arched dorsal margin, with maximum

height in the middle (Fig. 48); posterior margin straight and

short with posterodorsal angle and short spine at

posteroventral corner; ventral margin forms a broad angle in

the middle and is setulated posteriorly; valves ornamented

with polygonal cell markings; rostrum short, pointed and

directed downwards; ocellus much smaller than eye, situated

at half the length of rostrum; antennule reaches about half

the length of the rostrum; labrum characteristic with serrated

anterior margin having 5-6 teeth and a bluntly pointed ventral

margin; postabdomen relatively short with prominent preanal

corner and 9-10 anal spines of unequal length (Fig. 49); claw

with two basal spines, of which proximal one much shorter

than the distal.

Size: 0.27x0.18 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. The present

specimen agrees with the description given by Smirnov ( 1 996).

Michael and Sharma (1988) recorded this species from

Thiruvananthapuram from the collections of D.G. Frey. It is

also known from Gujarat (Petkovski 1966) and West Bengal

(Sharma 1978; Venkataraman and Das 200 1 ).

1 8. Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1 898 (Figs 50-5 1 )

Female specimens collected from littoral weedy margin

of lake.

Female: Body somewhat oval, with rounded

posterodorsal and posteroventral corners; ventral margin

strongly bulging outwards at the middle; posteroventral

margin with double line (Fig. 50); valves ornamented with

faint wavy hexagonal markings; rostrum long, pointed and

slightly bent backwards; antennules reach about half the

length of rostrum; postabdomen long, tapering with distinct

pre-anal, post-anal corners and with 12-14 anal spines

(Fig. 5 1 ); claw setulated with 2 basal spines of unequal length.

Size: 0.5 x 0.31 mm.

Remarks: This species was reported from Kerala by

Michael and Sharma (1988) from Thiruvananthapuram and

Irinjalakuda, Ragunathan (1989) from Wynaad. It is also

recorded in Nilgiri Hills, Tamil Nadu (Brehm 1936) Gujarat

(Petkovski 1966), Rajasthan (Biswas 1971 , Michael and Sharma

1988), and West Bengal (Venkataraman and Das 200 1 ).

Sub-Family Aloninae Frey. 1967

19. Camptocercus imcinatus Smirnov, 1991 (Figs 52-53)

Two mature females were obtained from Kokkara wayal

ditch, Thekkady.

Female: Body nearly oval, with arched dorsal and almost

straight ventral margin, with series of setae (Fig. 52); maximum

height slightly anterior to the middle of the body; postero-

ventral corner rounded and smooth, without denticles; valves

ornamented with several longitudinal parallel lines; rostrum

broad and slightly pointed; ocellus smaller than eye, situated

nearer to the eye than to the tip of rostrum; antennule almost

reaching the tip of rostrum; postabdomen very long, narrow,

with about 20 anal denticles; claw with large basal spine

(Fig. 53).

Size: 0.68 x 0.47 mm.

Remarks: The specimens agree with the description

by Smirnov (1974). This is the first report from India.

20. Biapertura a/finis (Leydig, 1860) (Figs 54-55)

A few specimens collected from among the weeds of

Kokkara wayal ditch, Thekkady.

Female: Body oblong with arched dorsal margin, nearly

straight setulated ventral margin and rounded posterodorsal

and posteroventral corners (Fig. 54); valves with longitudinal

striations that are more distinct towards posterior and ventral

margins; head shield with pointed posterior margin and two

median head pores with narrow connection between them, in

addition to two lateral pores situated one on either side of the

anterior pore; rostrum blunt and antennules not reaching the

apex of rostrum; labrum evenly rounded anteriorly, somewhat

pointed ventrally; postabdomen of almost uniform width, with

about 15 anal denticles and about 10 groups of lateral setae

(Fig. 55); claw long with single basal spine.

Size: 0.62x0.34 mm.

Remarks: First report from Kerala. In India, this species

is known from Kashmir (Brehm 1936), Gujarat (Petkovski 1966),

West Bengal (Sharma 1 978, Michael and Sharma 1 988) Meghalaya

(Michael and Sharma 1988) and Punjab (Battish 1992).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

411

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

Figs 54-55 Biapertura affinis (Leydig) 54 Fe male, 55 Postabdomen of female;

Figs 56-57: Biapertura karuva ( King): 56. Female, 57 Postabdomen of female,

Figs 58-59: Biapertura intermedia Sars: 58. Female, 59. Postabdomen (female);

Figs 60-61 Biapertura verrucosa (Sars): 60 Female, 61 Postabdomen (female)

21. Biapertura karuva (King, 1852) (Figs 56-57)

Female specimens were collected from the lake near the

boathouse.

Female: Body of female with evenly arched dorsal

margin, its maximum height being a little behind the middle of

the body (Fig. 56); valves with rounded posteroventral

comers, with about 5 denticles which is characteristic of the

species; valves ornamented with oblique parallel striations

and polygon markings; rostrum blunt, antennules almost

reaching its apex; postabdomen broadly rounded, distal dorsal

margin armed with 8-10 anal denticles and 11-13 groups of

lateral setae that may extend beyond its dorsal margin (Fig. 57);

claw with very short basal spine.

Size: 0.36x0.23 mm.

412

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES

Remarks: First report from Kerala. The number of

denticles on the posteroventral corner of the carapace varies

from 1-5. In India, this species was reported from West Bengal

(Sharma 1978, Venkataraman and Das 2001), Meghalaya (Pati I

1976), Tamil Nadu (Michael and Sharma 1988), Rajasthan

(Venkataraman 1990) and Punjab (Battish 1992).

22. Biapertura intermedia Sars 1 862 (Figs 58-59)

Seven parthenogenetic females were obtained from the

weeds collected from the lake.

Female: Body sub-quadrate with rounded posterodorsal

and posteroventral comers; dorsal margin of carapace arched,

ventral margin straight with series of setae (Fig. 58); valves

ornamented with parallel lines; rostrum blunt, antennule not

reaching apex of rostrum. Postabdomen with rounded distal

corner, armed with 8 anal denticles decreasing in size

proximally and 10-11 groups of lateral setae; with single basal

spine (Fig. 59).

Size: 0.38x0.25 mm.

Remarks: The present species is reported for the first

time from India.

23. Biapertura verrucosa (Sars, 1901) (Figs 60-6 1 )

This species is common among the littoral weeds of the

lake.

Female: Body with arched dorsal margin, setulated

ventral margin, maximum height at the middle (Fig. 60); valves

with rounded posteroventral and evenly rounded

posterodorsal margins; valves ornamented with characte-

ristic tubercles or verrucae, more distinct interiorly; rostrum

blunt, antennule hardly reaching apex of rostrum;

postabdomen with distinct pre-anal and post-anal comers,

dorsal margin armed with 9-11 anal denticles and 9-10

groups of lateral setae; claw with single basal spine

(Fig. 61).

Size: 0.32x0.23 mm.

Remarks: The species was reported from Gujarat

(Petkovski 1966), Rajasthan (Nayar 1 97 1 , Venkataraman 1990,

Michael and Sharma 1988) and West Bengal (Venkataraman

and Das 2001).

CONCLUSION

The occurrence of 23 species of Cladocera, based on a

few random collections, indicates the richness of Cladoceran

fauna in this high altitude lake. Of the 23 species, 1 5 species

are recorded for the first time from Kerala State. The present

study indicates that an extensive survey of different

freshwater habitats will definitely add more species to the

freshwater cladoceran fauna of Kerala.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Rev. Fr. C.A. Thomas,

Principal, and Rev. Fr. Jose Chittilappilly, former Principal,

Christ College, Irinjalakuda, for providing facilities for the

study. Thanks are also due to Dr. C.R. Ajithkumar, BNHS for

encouragement and help.

REFERENCES

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Harding. J.P. & T. Petkovski (1963): Latonopsis australis Sars

(Cladocera) in Yugoslavia with notes on its synonymy and

distribution. Crustaceana 6: 1-4

Idris, B.GA. (1983): Freshwater Zooplankton of Malaysia (Crustacea:

Cladocera). Penerbit Universiti. Pertanian, Malaysia. 153 pp.

Korovichinsky, N.M. (1992): Sididae and Flolopediidae (Crustacea:

Daphniiforms). Guide to the identification of the

Microinvertebrates of the continental waters of the world. SPB,

The Hague. 82 pp.

Michael R.G & B..I. Hann ( 1979): On the resurrection of the Cladoceran

species Chydorus reticulates Daday, 1 898 (Chydoridae: Cladocera)

and its relationship to Chydorus ventricosus Daday, 1898.

Hydrobiol. 65: 225-232.

Michael, R.G & B.K. Sharma (1988): Indian Cladocera (Crustacea:

Branchiopoda: Cladocera) Ed. Director, Zoological Survey of

India, Calcutta, 262 pp.

Nayar, C.K.G. (1971): Cladocera of Rajasthan. Hydrobiol. 37: 509-

519.

Nasar, S.A.K. ( 1977): The zooplankton fauna of Bharatpur (Bihar) II

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Patil, S.G. (1976): Freshwater Cladocera (Arthropoda: Crustacea) from

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Patil, C.S. & B Y. Gouder (1988): Cladocera of Dharma (Karnataka

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from Kashmir. Curr. Sci 46: 859-860.

Raghunathan, M B. (1989): Cladocera (Crustacea) from Wyanad

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Sewell, R.B.S (1935): Studies on the bionomics of freshwater in India

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cycle of Ceriodaphnia cornuta Sars. J Zool. Soc. Kerala 3(2):

13-17.

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Crustacea). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94(2): 317-321.

Thresiamma. J., T.V.A. Mercy & D M. Tampy (1991): Production and

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Venkataraman, K. (1990): New records of Cladocera of Keoladeo

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166-168.

Venkataraman, K. (1992): Cladocera of Keoladeo National Park,

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26.

Venkataraman, K. (1993): Sididae of Tamil Nadu (Crustacea:

Cladocera). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90(1): 50-57.

Venkataraman, K. (1995): Cladoceran male from the Indian region.

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Venkataraman, K. & S.R. Das (2001): Freshwater Cladocerans

(Crustacea: Branchiopoda) of the wetlands of Indian Botanical

garden, Howrah, W. Bengal. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 98(2):

231-236.

Yousuf, A.R & M.Y. Quadri (1977): Cladocera ofMalpur Sar, Kashmir.

J. Sci. Univ. Kash. 3: 87-92.

Zacharias.V.J., A.K. Bhardwaj & P.C. Jacob (1996): Fish fauna of

Periyar Reserve. J. Bombay. Nat Hist. Soc. 93(1): 39-43.

414

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

415-420

NOTES ON CALLIPHORID FLIES (DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE)

FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE RESERVE AND THEIR IMPACT

ON MAN AND ANIMALS'

Shuvra Kanti Sinha2and B.C. Nandi2-3

'Accepted April, 2003

"Krishnagar Government College, Krishnagar 741 101, West Bengal, India

’Present Address: Hooghly Mohsin College, Chinsurah 712 101. Hooghly, West Bengal, India

Systematic accounts of nine species of calliphorid flies, their impact on man and animals, and distributional records from

India are given. A new species Chrysomya indica is described and illustrated.

Key words: Diptera, systematic accounts, impacts, Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve

INTRODUCTION

Very little is known about the calliphorid flies from

Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve except from the works of

Mazumder and Parui (200 1 ), and Sinha and Nandi (2002) who

reported two species from this area. These flies are important

in medical, veterinary and forensic sciences. They carry

bacteria, viruses, protozoa and helminths that cause enteric

diseases in man and other animals. Some larvae are parasites

on earthworms, snails, toads, frogs, nestlings of birds and

livestock, while a few cause huge loss in productivity of the

dried-fish industry. Some larvae are useful in forensic

investigations (Smith 1986) and for the treatment of

osteomyelitis. Some are obligate parasites in living tissues

and cause malign tissue myiasis in man and animals (Pont

1980).

MATERIAL AND METHODS

These flies were collected from different parts of

Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve with the help of butterfly nets

from different habitats like dried and semi-dried fish, crabs

and prawns, dead molluscs, decaying garbage, excreta of

different animals, fruits and flowering plants in different

seasons, as well as meat shops. The flies were then killed in

jars using benzene vapour, transferred to a small tissue paper

envelope and preserved dry therein. The chaetotaxy was

studied using a stereoscopic dissecting microscope. The male

genitalia were pulled out with a fine forceps and dissected in

cavity block using a stereoscopic dissecting microscope. The

dissected parts were dehydrated through alcoholic grades

and figures were drawn with the help of Camera Lucida where

required. The genitalia were preserved in a small triangular

paper board and attached with the respective species

specimens. A total of nine species belonging to four genera

were found. The taxonomic classification of Rognes (1991)

was followed.

Holotype and 2 d d Paratypes are deposited in the

National Collection of Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata.

RegnNo. 8637/H6.

Systematic accounts

Subfamily: Calliphorinae

Tribe: Calliphorini

1. Callipliora ( Calliphora ) vicina Robineau-Desvoidy

1 830, Calliphora vicina Robineau-Desvoidy, Mem. pres,

div. Sav. Acad. Sci. Inst. Fr. (2)2: 435.

2000, Calliphora ( Calliphora ) vicina: Nandi, Rec. zool.

Surv. India 98(4): 1.

Specimens examined: 2d d\Ghoramara Island, 4. xi. 1999.

Impact on man and animals: This species is mostly

found on dead animals, including human corpses and faeces,

and is closely associated with man. The adult flies are

biologically associated with polio virus, Escherichia ,

Aerobacter, Proteus , Flavobacterium, Salmonella , Shigella ,

Staphylococcus , Streptococcus, Bacillus , Leptospira ,

Herpetomonas, Chilomastix, Entamoeba , Eimeria,

Toxoplasma , Endolimax and Giardia intestinalis ,

Mycobacterium tuberculosis , Trichuris trichura , Ascaris

lumbricoides and Vibrio comma (Greenberg 1971). The larvae

cause intestinal and urinary myiasis in humans (James 1947).

They are also helpful in forensic science, in detecting the

approximate time of death (Smith 1 986).

Distribution: West Bengal (Alipurduar, Birpara,

Darjeeling, Ghoramara Island, Kalimpong, Kurseong,

Rajabhatkhawa), Himachal Pradesh (Shimla), Sikkim (Mangan,

Phensang) and Uttaranchal (Nainital).

Subfamily: Luciliinae

Tribe: Luciliini

2. Hemipyrellia ligurriens (Wiedemann)

1830, Musca ligurriens Wiedemann, Aussereurop.

zweifl. Insekt. 2:655.

CALLIPHORID FLIES FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Figs 1-6: Chrysoma indica sp nov ; 1 Epandrium, inner and outer forceps and phallosome (lateral view),

2 Inner and outer forceps (posterior view), 3. Fifth stermte of male, 4 Phallosome, anterior and posterior parameres (lateral view),

5 Phallosome, anterior and posterior parameres (ventral view), 6. Ejaculatory duct

2000, Hemipyrellia ligurriens : Nandi, Rec. zool. Surv.

India 98(4): 3.

Specimens examined: I d, Ganga Sagar(Sagar Island),

20.viii.2000; 1 d . Narayanpur, 16.iv.2000;2 cf d, Bhagabatpur,

1 8.X.2000.

Impact on man and animals: This scavenger is mostly

found on carcasses and human excrement. The adult

flies are regarded as the most potential vectors of enteric

pathogens, as they visit both human food for consumption

and excrement. The larvae with parasitic adaptation

are able to utilize pre-existing wounds under laboratory

conditions (Roy and Dasgupta 1971) and different

animals.

Distribution: West Bengal (Bhagabatpur, Bijanbari,

Budge Budge, Burdwan, Buxa, Ganga Sagar, Kalimpong,

Kalyani, Kolkata, Madarihat, Narayanpur, Ranaghat, Shibpur,

Siliguri, Sukna Forest), Bihar (Purnea), Sikkim (Phensang,

Swistik Camp) and Tamil Nadu (Chennai).

416

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CALLIPHORID FLIES FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE RESERVE

3. Lucilia ( Lucilia ) cuprina (Wiedemann)

1 830, Musca cuprina Wiedemann, A ussereurop. zwiejl.

Insekt, 2: 654.

2002, Lucilia ( Lucilia ) cuprina Nandi, Rec. zool. Surv.

India 100(1-2): 121.

Specimens examined: 4d d\ Bani Jungle (Sagar Island),

3 I .i.2000; 15 c? d, Ganga Sagar (Sagar Island), 1 .ii.2000; 1 d,

Dhabalhat Shibpur (Sagar Island), 314.2000; Idd, Jambu

Island, 16.ii.2001.

Impact on man and animals: A scavenger, it is mostly

available on carcasses. The adults are associated with

Escherichia coli , Proteus mirabilis, Proteus morganii,

Proteus rettgeri, Proteus vulgaris and Ascaris lumbricoides,

and may cause dysentery in humans. They also carry

Morganella sp. (Kano and Shinonaga 1 968). The larvae cause

external myiasis in sheep, toad and wound myiasis in man.

They are obligate parasites in living tissue and may cause

malign tissue myiasis in man. This species is the notorious

sheep maggot of Australia and causes extensive loss in sheep

farming. This species is suspected to transmit poliomyelitis

virus to human beings (Rognes 1991).

Distribution: West Bengal (Alipurduar, Bani Jungle,

Dhabalhat Shibpur, Ganga Sagar, Jaigaon, Jambu Island,

Kalyani, Rajabhatkhawa, Ranaghat, Sealdah) and

cosmopolitan distribution in India.

4. Lucilia ( Lucilia ) papuensis Macquart

1842, Lucilia papuensis Macquart, Mem. Soc. Sci

Agric. Lille 2(3): 298.

1997, Lucilia (Lucilia) papuensis Nandi and

Bhattacharya, ./ Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc. 16(2): 23.

Specimens examined: 3d d, Kakdwip, 12. ix. 2000; 1 d ,

Bamankhali (Sagar Island), 3 1 4.2000; 3 d d, Krishnagar (Sagar

Island), 24.viii.2000.

Impact on man and animals: This species is frequently

attracted to decaying animal matter, particularly dead

earthworms. James (1971) recorded it from marsupial skull

and human excrement.

Distribution: West Bengal (Kakdwip, Bamankhali,

Krishnagar, Shibpur, Rajabhatkhawa, Ranaghat), Sikkim

(Jorthang), Assam (Sadiya), Arunachal Pradesh (Pasighat),

Himachal Pradesh (Shimla), Jammu & Kashmir (Gulmarg) and

Kerala (Thiruvananthapuram).

5. Lucilia ( Lucilia ) porphyrina (Walker)

1856, Musca porphyrina Walker, J. Proc. Linn. Soc.

Lond. Zool. / : 24.

2000, Lucilia ( Lucilia ) porphyrina Nandi, Rec. zool.

Surv. India 98(4): 4.

Specimens examined: 2d d, Dhabalhat Shibpur (Sagar

Island), 314.2000.

Impact on man and animals: A scavenger, it is attracted

to carcasses of mammals, birds and reptiles. The adult is

biologically associated with Herpetomonas muscarum and

Leptomonas mirabilis and could cause harm to humans

(Greenberg 1971).

Distribution: West Bengal (Burdwan, Coochbehar,

Dhabalhat, Shibpur, Rajabhatkhawa, Ranaghat, Shibpur

Botanical Garden), Assam (Sadiya), Arunachal Pradesh

(Pasighat), Himachal Pradesh (Shimla), Jammu & Kashmir

(Gulmarg) and Sikkim (Jorethang).

6. Lucilia ( Lucilia ) sericata (Meigen)

1826, Musca sericata Meigen, Syst. Beschr. Europ

zweifl. Insekt. 5: 53.

1997, Lucilia ( Lucilia ) sericata Nandi, J. Beng. Nat.

Hist. Soc. 16(2): 67.

Specimens examined: 2d d, Bamankhali (Sagar Island),

1 .ii.2000; 1 d1, Ghoramara Island, 4. xi. 1999; 1 d , Ganga Sagar

(Sagar Island), 20.viii.2000.

Impact on man and animals: This is a synanthropic

species, and mostly available near human dwellings.

Greenberg (1971) reported its biological association with polio

virus, Coxsackie virus, Proteus, Flavobacterium, Aerobacter,

Serratia, Enterococcus, Pneumonia, Salmonella, Shigella,

Herpetomonas. Clostridium, Staphylococcus, Streptococcus,

Bacillus, Escherichia, Leptospira , Crithidia, Entamoeba ,

Toxoplasma, Trichuris, Ancylostoma, Mycobacterium and

Ascaris. They also carry Morganella sp. (Kano and

Shinonaga 1968). The larvae cause wound myiasis in man

and other animals, and are serious pests of sheep in Africa,

Britain, Europe and Australia, causing myiasis, an important

economic and welfare problem in many areas (Fisher et al.

1998). The larvae have been used in surgical cases (Stewart

1 934) and have forensic importance as they help to detect the

approximate time of death of a person.

Distribution: West Bengal (Bamankhali, Darjeeling,

Ganga Sagar, Ghoramara Island, Kalimpong, Malda, Siliguri,

Sukna, Takvar).

Subfamily: Chrysomyinae

Tribe: Chrysomyini

7. Chrysomya megacepliala ( Fabricius)

1 794, Musca megacephala Fabricius, Ent. Syst. 4:317.

2000, Chrysomya megacephala Nandi, Rec. zool. Surv.

India 98(4): 4.

Specimens examined: 1 d, Jambu Island, l.ii.1999; \ 2dd,

Ganga Sagar (Sagar Island), I ii.2000; 7 d d , Dhabalhat Shibpur

(Sagar Island), 314.2000; 8cfd', Kakdwip, 3 .xi. 1 999; 6dd,

Kakdwip, 16.iv.2000; 3dd, Namkhana, 16.iv.2000; 3d'd',

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

417

CALLIPHORID FLIES FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE RESERVE

Bhagabatpur, 19.X.2000, 4 c? <?,Mohisani Island, 12.xi.2000; Id1,

Canning, 7.ii.2000; llc?c?, Fraserganj, 17.iv.2000; Id1,

Chandanpiri, 20.x. 2000; 4 c? c?, Ganga Sagar (Sagar Island),

1 .ii.2000; 2 c? <? , Lothian Island, 1 8.X.2000.

Impact on man and animals: A synanthropic species, it

is available on dead fish, sweets, carcasses, human excrement

and fruits. The adult flies are vectors of infectious diseases

of the digestive tract and have been reported to carry

Morganella sp., which causes summer diarrhoea. Greenberg

(1971) reported its biological association with polio virus,

Escherichia coli , Proteus mirabilis , Proteus morganii,

Proteus rettgeri , Proteus vulgaris , Salmonella typhi.

Shigella dysenteriae , Leptomonas mirabilis , Chilomastix

mesnili, Giardia intestinalis, Trichomonas horn inis,

Endolimax nana , Entamoeba coli , Entamoeba histolytica,

Iodamoeba butschlii, Hymenolepis diminuta , Trichuris

trichiura , Ancylostoma duodenale and Ascaris lumbricoides.

He also reported it as vector of enteric pathogens in

malnourished individuals living under unsanitary conditions.

Its forensic importance has been mentioned by Smith ( 1 986),

and Wells and Kurahashi (1994). In Southeast Asia, these

larvae are parasitic on semi-dried and dried fish, causing a

major problem in the fish industry (Esser 1991). It is a

secondary myiasis producer in man and domestic animals.

Distribution: West Bengal (Alipurduar, Bhagabatpur,

Bijanbari, Canning, Chandanpiri, Dhabalhat Shibpur, Diamond

Harbour, Digha, Fraserganj, Ganga Sagar, Jaigaon, Jainti,

Jambu Island, Kakdwip, Kalyani, Kolkata, Kurseong, Malda,

Mohisani Island, Namkhana, Panitanki, Rajabhatkhawa,

Ranaghat, Shibpur, Shingla Bazar, Siliguri, Sukna) and almost

throughout India.

8. Chrysomya rufifacies ( Macquart)

1 842, Lucilia rufifacies Macquart, Mem. Soc. Sci. Agric.

Lille 2(3): 303.

2000, Chrysomya rufifacies Nandi, Rec. zool. Surv India

98(4): 4.

Specimens examined: 1 «?, Bamankhali (Sagar Island),

21 .x.2000: 2 c? <?. Chandanpiri, 20.x. 2000; 2 c? c?, Begnakhali,

I3.ii.2001; 1 c?, Ghoramara Island, 4.xi. 1999.

Impact on man and animals: This synanthropic

saprophage is attracted to carcasses. The adults are

biologically associated with Bacillus sp., Mycobacterium

tuberculosis , Leptomonas mirabilis and Taeniarhynchus

saginatum (Greenberg 1971). The larvae are primarily

scavengers and have been successfully used for treating

osteomyelitis (James 1 947). It produces secondary myiasis in

humans and other animals. It is one of the main pests of

sheep in Australian region, and in Hawaii a serious parasite,

especially of young calves (Shishido and Hardy 1969). It is

likely to transmit enteric pathogens under unsanitary

condition.

Distribution: West Bengal (Alipurduar, Bamankhali,

Begnakhali, Bijanbari, Chandanpiri, Ghoramara Island, Jaigaon,

Kalyani, Kurseong, Madarihat, Panitanki, Rajabhatkhawa,

Ranaghat, Shibpur, Singala Bazar, Siliguri) and almost

throughout India.

9. Chrysomya indica sp. nov. (Figs 1-6)

Male: Body length 7-8 mm.

Head: Eyes bare; upper half of facets not enlarged; frons

slightly separated; narrowest part of frons less than the width

of ocellar triangle; frontal vitta black; frontal bristles short

and weak; parafrontal blackish brown with silvery pollen and

numerous fine black hairs; parafacilia blackish brown with

silvery pollen and white hairs; gena and metacephalon dark

brown with silvery to golden pollen and numerous white hairs;

second antennal segment dark brown, third brownish; arista

dark brown, long plumose; palpi yellowish and slender.

Thorax: Scutum and scutellum metallic blue with bluish

iridescence; four dark not prominent longitudinal stripes on

presutural region; ac 0+2; dc 3+3; ia 0+1.; h 3: np 2; pa 2;

ph 1; st 1 + 1; hp-2; mp 6; apicoscutellar bristles 1 pair;

discoscutellar bristles 3 pairs; lateroscutellar bristles 3-4 pairs;

suprasquamosal ridges hairy; prostigmatic bristles present;

mesothoracic spiracles white; metathoracic spiracles dark

brown.

Wings: Hyaline and its basal part infuscated; R, bare;

M sharply bending anteriorly; length of third costal segment

more than twice that of the fifth; basicosta and epaulet black;

upper squama white; lower squama brownish; halter brown.

Legs: Black to blackish brown; fore femur with a pair of

rows of long bristles each along posterodorsal and a row of

bristles along posteroventral surfaces; fore tibia with several

short bristles along the anterodorsal surface and with short

and comparatively long bristles along the distal end and one

bristle on distal one-third of the posteroventral surface; mid

femur with 2 short bristles on the middle part of anterodorsal

surface, a row of setae each on the distal half of anterodorsal

and posterodorsal surfaces, 2 bristles on the basal part of

anteroventral surface and 3 bristles along the distal part of

posterodorsal surface; mid tibia with 1 bristle each on the

anterodorsal, anteroventral and posterodorsal surfaces on

one-third the distance from the distal end and 2 short bristles

on the posteroventral surface; hind femur with a row of long

bristles each along anterodorsal and anteroventral surfaces;

hind tibia with a row of short bristles along anterodorsal surface

and I bristle each on distal one-third of anteroventral and

posterodorsal surfaces.

Abdomen: Metallic; second abdominal tergite darker

418

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

CALLIPHORID FLIES FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE RESERVE

than the others and third and fourth tergites with dark

transverse bands posteriorly; marginal bristles on abdominal

sternites poorly developed; sternites first to fourth dark-

brown with greyish pollen and numerous short hairs; fifth

stemite cup-like with long hairs on each arm; genital tergites

bluish with black hairs; forceps elongated; anterior paramere

wide, slightly curved anteriorly; posterior paramere bifurcated

at end; acrophallus wide at end and with a wide stalked

projection posteriorly.

Female: Unknown.

Specimens examined: Holotype: Id1, India: West Bengal;

Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve (Canning), 7.ii.2001, Shuvra

Kanti Sinha; Para types: 6d d, same data as Holotype.

Distribution: india; West Bengal (Canning).

Etymology: The species is named after India.

Remarks: This species is similar to Chrysomya

rufifacies (Macquart 1 842), but differs in having 6 mesopleural

bristles (C. rufifacies has 5 mesopleural bristles) and a wide

stalked acrophallus projecting posteriorly (in C. rufifacies

the acrophallus is unstalked, projecting anteriorly).

Impact on man and animals: Not known.

DISCUSSION

Most calliphorid flies are important because of their

relationship with man. There is a direct relationship between

fly density and diarrhoeal diseases (Greenberg 1964). Most

calliphorid flies breed on excrement and carcasses, and are

mechanical transmitters of gastrointestinal diseases when they

settle, regurgitate or excrete on food for human consumption.

Most people in the Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve use open

or unhygienic latrines. These are the main breeding grounds

of calliphorid flies, and ideal for pathogens. Lucilia ( Luci/ia )

cuprina and Lucilia ( Lucilia ) sericata cause widespread loss

of livestock and in a bad outbreak 30% of the flock die (Kettle

1995). Baumgartner and Greenberg ( 1984) mentioned that a

few species threatened livestock in the jungle area. Myiasis

in goat and cow caused by Chrysomya rufifacies has been

observed in Ghoramara Island and Sagar Island (Sinha and

Nandi 2002). Individuals engaged in dried fish industry suffer

most, as the density of flies in dried fish area is high and so is

the presence of different types of bacteria, viruses and

protozoa. Calliphora (Calliphora) visina , Lucilia ( Lucilia )

sericata and Chrysomya megacephala are known to transmit

gastrointestinal diseases such as, summer dysentery, bacillary

dysentery and amoebic dysentery among individuals in dried-

fish farm.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the Officer-in-Charge, Krishnagar Govt.

College, Krishnagar for laboratory facilities, the Ministry of

Environment and Forests, Govt, of India, for funding the

research project; and the Divisional Forest Officer,

24-Parganas, South Division, for all possible help during the

survey programme. We also thank Prof. Amalesh Choudhury

for providing laboratory facilities at his Research

Institute, S.D. Marine Biological Research Institute, Sagar Island.

Abbreviations used in the text

ac-acrostichal bristles, t/c-dorsocentral bristles, ia- intra

alar bristles, /7-humeral bristles, np- notopleural bristles,

ph-posthumeral bristles, pa- post alar bristles, st- stemopleural

bristles, /^-hypopleural bristles, mp- mesopleural bristles.

REFERENCES

Baumgartner, D.L. & G. Greenberg (1984): The genus Chrysomya in

the New World. J. Med. Entomol. 21: 105-1 13.

Esser, J.R. (1991): Biology of Chrysomya megacephala (Diptera:

Calliphoridae) and reduction of losses caused to the salted-dried

fish industry in south-east Asia. Bull. Entomol. Res. 81:

33 -41.

Fabricius, J.C. (1794): Entomologia systematica emendata et aucta.

Secundum classes, ordines, genera, species, adjectis, synonymis,

locis, observationbus, descriptionibus, ae 4: 1-472. Hafniae

(Copenhagen).

Fisher, P.. R. Wall & J.R. Ashworth (1998): Attraction of the sheep

blowfly, Lucilia sericata (Diptera : Calliphoridae) to carrion bait

in the field. Bull. Ent. Res. 88: 611-616.

Greenberg, G. (1964): Experimental transmission of Salmonella

typhimurium by house fly to man. Am. J Hyg. 80(2): 149-156.

Greenberg, G. ( 1 97 1 ): Flies and Diseases - Ecology, Classification and

Biotic Association. Vol. 1. Princeton University Press. Princeton.

New Jersey. Pp. 856.

James, M.T. (1947): The flies that cause myiasis in man. U.S. Dept

Agric. Misc Publication 631: 1-175.

James, M.T. (1971): New species and records of Australian Calliphoridae,

with special reference to the fauna of New Guinea (Diptera:

Calliphoridae). Pacif. Insects 13(1): 1-12.

Kano, R. & S. Shinonaga (1968): Fauna Japonica, Calliphoridae

(Insecta: Diptera). Biogeographical Society of Japan. Pp. 181.

Kettle, D.S. (1995): Medical and Veterinary Entomology. CAB

International. Pp. 725.

Macquart, J. (1842): Dipteres exotiques nouveaux 011 peu connus.

Mem. Soc. Sci. Agric. Lille 2(3): 162-460.

Mazumder, S.C. & P. Parui (2001 ): Diptera (Insecta) from Sundarbans,

West Bengal. Rec. zoo/. Surv. India 99(1-4): 171-179.

Meigen, J.W. (1826): Systematische Beschreibung der bekannten

europaischen zweiflugeligen Insekten, Hamm, 5: xii + 412.

Nandi, B.C. (1997): Studies on calliphorid flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae)

from Darjeeling, India. J Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc. 16(2): 64-74.

Nandi, B.C. (2000): Studies on blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of

Sikkim. India. Rec. zoo!. Surv. India 98(4): 1-9.

Nandi, B.C. (2002): Blow flies of West Bengal, India with a note on

their biodiversity. Rec. zool. Surv. India 100(1-2): 117-129.

Nandi, B.C. & B. Bhattacharya (1997): Blow flies (Diptera

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Calliphoridae) of Bhutan. J. Beng. Nat. Hist. Soc 16(2): 19-26.

Pont, A C. (1980): Family Calliphoridae. 821: 779-800. In: Catalogue

of the Diptera of the Afrotropical Region, (Ed.: Crosskey, R.W.).

British Museum (Natural History), London.

Robineau-Desvoidy. J .B (1830): Essai sur les Myodaires. Mem. pres.

Div Sav. Acad Sci. Inst Fr. 2(2): 1-813.

Rognes, K. (1991 ): Blow flies (Diptera: Calliphoridae) of Fennscandia

and Denmark. Fauna Ent Scand 24: 1-272.

Roy, P. & B. Dasgupta (1971): Behaviour of Chrysomya megacephala

(Fab.) and Hemipyrellia ligurriens (Wied.) as parasites of laboratory

animals under experimental conditions. S. Afr. J. Med Sci., 36:

85-91.

Shishido. W.H. & D.E. Hardy (1969): Myiasis of new-born calves in

Hawaii. Proc. Hawaii. Entomol 20: 435-438.

Sinha, S.K. & B.C. Nandi (2002): Preliminary studies on sarcophagid,

cal 1 iphorid and muscid flies (Diptera) of Sagar Island, Bakkhali,

Fraserganj, Jambu Island, Kakdwip and Ghoramara Island in

Sundarbans Biosphere Reserve. Proc. Review Meetings, Biosphere

Reserve and their Management, Peechi, Kerala, pp. 8-11.

Smith, K.GV. (1986): A manual of Forensic Entomology. The Trustees

of the British Museum (Natural History), London. Pp. 205.

Stewart, M.A. (1934): The role of Lucilia sericata Meigen larvae in

osteomyelitis wounds. Am Trop Med. Parasit. 28: 445-454.

Walker, F. (1856): Catalogue of the Dipterous insects collected at

Singapore and Malacca by Mr. A.R. Wallace, with descriptions of

new species. J. Proc. Linn. Soc. Lond. Zool. I: 4-39.

Wells, J.D. & H. Kurahashi (1994): Chrysomya megacephala

(Fabricius) (Diptera; Calliphoridae) development: Rate, variation

and the implications for forensic entomology. Jap. J. sanit Zool.

45(4): 303-309.

Wiedemann, C.R.W. ( 1 830): Aussereuropaische Zweiflugelige. Insekten

2: xii - 684.

420

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

421-424

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS STENOMESIUS WESTWOOD

(HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM INDIA1

Meena Agnihotri and M.A. Khan2

'Accepted March, 2002

2Biological Control Laboratory, Department of Entomology, G.B Pant University of Agriculture and Technology,

Pantnagar 263 145, Uttaranchal, India Email maknan@rediffmail com

A new species, Stenomesius orientalis (Hymenoptera: Eulophidae), parasitic on Acrocercops sp (Lepidoptera:

Gracillariidae), a pest of Dohchos lablab L„ has been described from India. A key to the Indian species of the genus has

also been provided.

Key words: Hymenoptera, Eulophidae, Stenomesius orientalis sp. nov., Acrocercops sp., Do/ichos lablab L.

INTRODUCTION

The genus Stenomesius Westwood (Hymenoptera:

Eulophidae) was based on a single European species rufescens

(Rossi). Only three species of this genus are known from

India. They are all primary ectoparasitoids of lepidopterous

larvae, which include leaf miners belonging to families

Gracillariidae, Gelechiidae, Lyonettiidae, Glyphiterygidae,

Torticidae, Pyralidae and Noctuidae (Boucek 1 988).

Genus Stenomesius Westwood

Stenomesius Westwood. 1833b: 343. Type species

Stenomesius pulchellus Westwood; designation by

Westwood (1939).

A complete synonymy list is given by Boucek (1988:

638).

Diagnosis: The genus can easily be distinguished from

allied genera by the following combination of characters:

propodeum with a pair of strong median carinae well

separated, bowed inwards and joined by a transverse carina

(in an H-shape or X-shape); the form of the scutellum, which

has a pair of sublateral furrows along the whole length, bent

inwards to join before the apical margin; pronotum without

transverse carina; female funicle four segmented; temples

developed; thorax finely sculptured or partly smooth and

shiny; petiole shorter than hind coxa; gaster elongated, first

tergite short (Boucek 1 988, Figs 1107, 111 0).

DISCUSSION

This genus stands close to Miotropis Thomson 1878,

but Miotropis has on the propodeum a pair of median carinae

running very close together and converging, and on the

scutellum a pair of weak furrows which are only developed

anteriorly. These characters are illustrated by Askew (1968)

and the Stenomesius condition by Masi (1917); Subba Rao

and Sharma ( 1 966).

Kerrich (1974) further separated these two genera,

Stenomesius having a strongly raised occipital margin and a

single hind tibial spur, contrasting with an emarginated occiput

and two hind tibial spurs in Miotropis. Stenomesius is more

closely related to Elachertus Spinola than to Miotropis

(shared characters of Stenomesius and Elachertus'. more than

4 setae on mesoscutum, scutellum with complete lateral lines

which curve inwardly in front of the posterior margin) but the

form of the propodeum in Stenomesius with two strong median

carinae connected before the middle in an H-shape or X-shape,

separates the two clearly ( Boucek 1 988).

Recently, Khan (1992), and Khan and Singh (1994)

described two Stenomesius species, namely S modicellus

and S. anati from India.

In the present study, a new species is described and a

key to the Indian species provided.

Abbreviations: The following abbreviations are used in

the text- F.S. I, F.S. II, F.S. Ill and F.S.1V - funicular segments 1-

IV; OOL - oculo-ocellar length, the distance between lateral

ocellus and eye margin; POL - postero-ocellar length, the

distance between the lateral ocelli; MV - marginal vein; PMV

- postmarginal vein; SMV - submarginal vein; SV - stigmal

vein.

Key to the Indian species of the genus SntNOMUsius

Westwood based on the female

1. Antennae light brown except scape light yellow; eyes bare;

ocelli arranged in obtuse angled triangle; funicle segments

variable in size; speculum greatly reduced; cubital vein

sinuate 2

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Antennae black; eyes very finely pubescent; ocelli arranged

in equilateral triangle; funicle segments subequal in length;

speculum moderate; cubital vein straight

S.japonicus (Ashmead)

2. Head smooth, without fine reticulate sculpture; row of setae

adjacent to ocular suture; SMV without a row of setae directed

downwards; basal vein with a row of four setae; hindwing

with blunt apex, outer plate of ovipositor with a dorsal

ridge 3

— Head with fine microreticulate sculpture; no such row of

setae adjacent to ocular suture; SMV with a row of five setae

directed downwards near the base; basal vein with a row of

five setae; hindwing with acute apex; outer plate of ovipositor

without dorsal ridge S. modicellus Khan

3. Head with dark infuscation on middle of the face above

antennal sockets, anterior half of scutum, scutellum and axillae

with dark brown infuscation; pronotum with a dark patch in

the middle; antennae inserted in the middle of the face;

prominence between antennal sockets more than one fourth

the width of frons between eyes; apex of the scape reaching

well above the anterior ocellus; scape slightly curved, more

than 6 times as long as wide; pedicel twice as long as wide;

F.S. IV as long as F.S. II and twice as long as wide; club thrice

as long as wide; mesoscutum strongly reticulate especially in

the midlobe; scutellum with 3 pairs of bristles and well

developed zigzag grooves from the anterior to posterior

margin; mesal length of propodeum almost equivalent to length

of mesoscutum; forewing 3 times as long as wide

S. anati Khan and Singh

— Head, thorax and pronotum without any infuscation; antennae

inserted just below the middle of the face; prominence between

antennal sockets less than one fifth the width of frons between

eyes; apex of the scape not reaching above the anterior ocellus;

scape cylindrical, more than 5 times as long as wide; pedicel

more than twice as long as wide; F.S. IV shortest and more

than 1 .5 times as long as wide; club a trifle more than thrice as

long as wide; mesoscutum without reticulate sculpture;

scutellum with 2 pairs of prominent bristles and without

well developed zigzag grooves; mesal length of propodeum

distinctly slightly longer than the length of mesoscutum;

forewing more than 2.5 times as long as wide

S. oriental is Agnihotri and Khan sp. nov.

Stenomesius orientalis Agnihotri and Khan sp. nov.

(Figs 1-13)

Female: Body length 1.93 mm; general body colour

yellow, except gaster which has dorsal tergite slightly

infuscated on both sides and with a brown spot just below

centre of the gaster; eyes and ocelli red; antennae light brown,

except scape which is yellow with infuscation at the apical

end; wings hyaline; legs yellow; third valvulae black.

Head (Fig. 1 ) much wider than long (0.5 1 : 0.36) in facial

view; frontovertex much wider than long, width of

frontovertex one half the total head width; ocelli arranged in

obtuse angled triangle; POL longer than OOL (0.01: 0.09);

eyes bare, smooth; antennae inserted just below middle of

face; apex of scape not reaching above anterior ocellus,

prominence between antennal sockets less than one fifth the

width of frons between eyes (0.06: 0.29); length of malar space

more than half of eye width (0.07:0. 12); mandibles hexadentate

(Fig. 2) with two teeth prominent and four short and saw-like;

maxillary palps (Fig. 3) and labial palps (Fig. 4) 2- and

1 -segmented, respectively.

Antenna (Fig. 5) densely setose, 8 segmented excluding

2 ring segments; scape more than 5 times as long as wide

(0.27:0.05); pedicel more than twice as long as wide (0. 10:0.04);

funicle 4 segmented, F.S. I and F.S. 11 equal in size and more

than twice as long as wide (12:0.05), F.S. Ill longest, 2.8 times

as long as wide (0.14:0.05), F.S. IV shortest, 1.83 times as long

as wide (0.11 :0.06); club short, 2-segmented, more than 3 times

as long as wide (0. 1 7:0.05) with a spicule.

Thorax (Fig. 6) posterior margin of pronotum with

3 pairs of setae (Fig. 7); mesoscutum width less than twice its

length (0.44:0.26) with well developed parapsidal furrows, side

lobe with shoulder-like projection as shown in Fig. 6, 8 short

and 4 long setae on the mesoscutum; scutellum longer than

wide (0.28: 0.25) with 2 pairs of long setae; axillae narrowly

contiguous in the middle; propodeum highly carinated as

shown in Fig 6; mesal length of propodeum slightly longer

than the length of mesoscutum.

Forewing (Fig. 8) densely setose, more than 2.5 times

as long as wide ( 1 .64: 0.64); costal cell moderate with 4 setae

on upper margin and with a row of 14 setae on its underside;

basal vein with a row of 4 setae; basal cell setose; speculum

much reduced and closed below; cubital vein slightly sinuate;

subcubital line of hairs moderately long near the base; an

irregular row of hairs present between cubital vein and

subcubital vein; SMV (0.49) with 6 long setae directed

upwards and shorter than MV (0.57); PMV very long, more

than twice as long as SV (0.29:0. 1 3); marginal fringes separated

by a distance equal to one fourth of their length.

Hindwing (Fig. 9) hyaline, with blunt apex, slightly more

than 6.5 times as long as wide (1 .33: 0.20), marginal fringes

separated by a distance almost equal to one fifth of their

length.

Legs fore-basitarsus with an oblique row of 7 setae

(Fig. 1 0); apical rim of midtibia with 3 pegs and long spur (Fig.

1 1 ); apical rim of hind tibia with 2 pegs and 1 0 setae (Fig. 1 2).

Gaster longer than head and thorax together; petiole

short; ovipositor slightly exserted, arising from near the base;

422

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

9 Hingwing; 10 Part of fore leg; 11. Part of middle leg; 12. Part of hind leg; 13. Female genitalia

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

423

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

first valvifer triangular with slight concave base (Fig. 13);

third valvulae slightly less than 6 times as long as wide

(0.17: 0.03) and more than one-fourth the length of second

valvifer (0.74); outer plates of ovipositor as long as second

valvifer.

Male: Not known

Holotype: ? india, U.P. Haldwani, ex. Acrocercops sp.

(Lepidoptera: Gracillariidae) ex. Dolichos lablab 23.V.2000.

Hym. Eulo. Nr. 1006, Coll. Meena Agnihotri.

Paratypes: 3 $ ? . Same data as Holotype. Hym. Eulo.

Nr. 1006, Coll. Meena Agnihotri.

Holotype and Paratypes have been deposited in the

Entomological Museum, G.B.P.U.A& T, Pantnagar, India.

Etymology: The species is named from its distribution

in the Oriental region.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the G.B. Pant University of Agriculture &

Technology, Pantnagar for laboratory facilities. Financial

assistance from Indian Council of Agricultural Research, New

Delhi for the research project is gratefully acknowledged.

REFERENCES

Askew, R.R. (1968): Hymenoptera, Z. Chalcidoidea. Section (b)

Elasmidae and Eulophidae (Elachertinae, Eulophinae, Euderinae).

Handbk Ident Br. Insects 8(2b): 1-39.

Boucek, Z. (1988): Australasian Chalcidoidea (Hymenoptera). A

biosystematic revision of genera of 14 families, with a reclassification

of species. CAB International Wallingford, U K. Pp. 584-758.

Kerrich, GJ. (1974): Systematic studies on Eulophidae of economic

significance (Hymenoptera: Chalcidoidea). Bull. ent. Res. 63: 629-

639.

Khan, M.A. (1992): Anew species of the genus Stenomesius Westwood

(Hymenoptera: Eulophidae) from India. Boll. Lab. Ent. Agr. Fillippo

Silvestri 49: 23-30.

Khan, M.A. & R.S.Jaikishan Singh (1994): A new species of Stenomesius

Westwood (Chalcidoidea: Eulophidae) from Nainital hills. Shashpa

1(1): 11-16.

Masi, L. (1917): Chalcididae of the Seychelles Islands. Novit. Bol R

Zool. 24: 121-130.

Subba Rao, B.R. & A.K. Sharma (1966): Two new species of parasites

reared from Stomopteryx nerteria (Meyrick) (Lepidoptera:

Gelechiidae). Indian. J. Ent. 28: 299-304.

424

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

425-428

HITHERTO UNKNOWN GENERA OF SPIDERS, ORDGAR1US KEYSERLING

PASILOBUS SIMON (ARANEIDAE) AND STR1GOPLUS SIMON (THOMISIDAE)

FROM EASTERN INDIA1

Sumana Saha2-3 and Dinendra Raychaudhuri2- 4

'Accepted March, 2002

’Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta, 35, Ballygunge Circular Road, Kolkata 700 019,

West Bengal, India

’Email sumul7@rediffmail com

4Email: dinendrarc@yahoo co in, dinendrarc@rediffmail com

The paper deals with the taxonomy of 3 hitherto unknown genera, Ordgarius Keyserling, Pasilobus Simon (Araneidae)

and Strigoplus Simon (Thomisidae) from eastern India. The species O hexaspimis and .S’ bilobus are recognized as new

to science, and hence described and illustrated. The genus Pasilobus still appears to be monotypic as till date it is known

only by P. kotigeharus Tikader. All the species are recorded from Buxa Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal.

Key words: Spiders, unknown genera, Ordgarius hexaspimis n. sp., Strigoplus bilobus n. sp„ Pasilobus kotigeharus

Tikader, eastern India, West Bengal, Jalpaiguri, Buxa Tiger Reserve

INTRODUCTION

The present paper reports the hitherto unknown araneid

genera, Ordgarius Keyserling and Pasilobus Simon and a

thomisid genus Strigoplus Simon from eastern India. The

genus Ordgarius is known from India by two species only,

both of which have so far been recorded from localities in

Maharashtra (Tikader 1982). The genus Pasilobus is

monotypic and known only from the state of Karnataka in

India. Both Ordgarius and Pasilobus have large distributional

areas; up to Australia and Japan (Tikader 1 982).

Strigoplus so far a monotypic genus, is known in India

only from Karnataka. Its distribution ranges from Malaysia,

Myanmar to Indonesia (Tikader 1 980).

O. hexaspirtus and S. bilobus are recognized as new and

hence described and illustrated. All the 3 species, O. hexaspirtus

n. sp., P kotigeharus Tikader and S. bilobus n. sp. are recorded

from the Buxa Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Collection and preservation of the spider samples were

done following Tikader (1987). The materials were studied

using a stereozoom binocular microscope, model Zeiss, SV8.

All the measurements were made with an eyepiece graticule

and are in millimetres.

Family: Araneidae

Ordgarius hexaspinus n. sp. (Figs 1 -6)

Holotype: Female: Total length 1 6.28; carapace length

5.64, width 5.43; abdominal length 9.93, width 13.14; legs as in

Table 1 .

Carapace: Cephalothorax brown, anterior half darker,

basally paler; almost as long as wide, narrowing in front,

cephalic region squarish, strongly raised; medially armed with

an acute horn on a raised tubercle encircled by a brown band,

anterior to it a smaller acute horn directed upward-forward,

posterior to it two pairs of dark acute horns on a raised area,

of these median ones closer, thicker, directed upward-forward,

enclosing the dark thoracic longitudinal fovea, lateral ones

longer, horizontal. Eyes pale yellow, placed on raised tubercles,

both rows recurved, ocular quad wider than long, slightly

wider in front than behind, median eyes subequal, lateral eyes

close, anterolaterals slightly larger. Clypeus pale yellow,

produced. Chelicerae pale yellow, with long hairs, robust, each

of inner and outer margins with a pair of teeth, fang brown,

strongly curved. Maxillae and labium pale yellow, maxillae

broader, robust, apically truncate, inner apical angle scopulate;

labium short, transverse, band-like, basally constricted,

anteriorly paler, produced, with long hairs. Sternum pale yellow,

elongate, posteriorly produced, with long hairs and few

spines. Legs pale yellow with brown annulations, clothed

with long hairs; leg formula 1243.

Abdomen: Pale brown with whitish patches, broadly

‘U’ shaped, anteriorly concave, posteriorly round; hairs long

Table 1: Measurements of legs of 9 Holotype

of Ordgarius hexaspinus n sp. (in mm)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 1-6: Ordgarius hexaspinus n. sp , female holotype

1 Whole body, a) dorsal view, b) lateral view; 2 Chelicerae,

3 Maxillae and labium, 4 Sternum, 5 Epigynum, 6 Internal genitalia

and fine, with bases rather dark; often with marginal tufts of

hairs; wider than long, narrowing behind, clothed with tine

hairs, anterior half basally with two circular areas submedially,

marked by honey comb pattern and few short blunt tubercles,

another such tubercle at the posterior end almost medially,

below which transversely depressed, marked by a broad brown

band, sigilla in 4 transverse rows. Venter paler, with white

honeycomb pattern and numerous brown spots. Epigyne and

internal genitalia as in Figs 5 and 6.

Male: Unknown.

Specimens examined: Holotype, Female,

Rajabhatkhawa, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal,

426

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

1 mm

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 2 Differences in characters between Ordgarius hexaspinus sp. nov and O. sexspmosus

0 hexaspinus n sp

O sexspinosus (Thorell)

1 Carapace with 6 horns; median one small;

anterior most large, single

2. Abdomen broadly U-shaped, never overlapping carapace,

with anterior margin concave

3 Basal 1/3 of abdominal dorsum with submedian

tubercles restricted on a reticulate area

4. Abdominal tip round with single tubercle

5 Abdominal hair tufts not on tubercles

6 Epigyne and internal genitalia very different

1 Carapace with 7 horns tubercles, median large,

anterior most small, paired

2. Abdomen V-shaped, overlapping carapace,

with anterior margin nearly straight

3. Abdominal dorsum with laterally distributed tubercles

4 Abdominal tip W shaped with 2 pairs of tubercles

5. Abdominal hair tufts on tubercles

6 —

India, 8.iii.2001, Coll. D. Raychaudhuri [Deposited in the

Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University

of Calcutta], Regn. No. EZC 0001-01.

Paratypes: Nil.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Jalpaiguri (only known

from type locality).

Discussion: The present species Ordgarius hexaspinus

n. sp. resembles O. sexspinosus (Thorell), but yet stands

distinct (Table 2).

Etymology: The specific name is derived from the six

horns on the carapace.

Pasilobus kotigeharus Tikader

1963 Pasilobus kotigeharus Tikader, Proc. Indian

Acad. Sci. 57(2)\ 96.

1982 Pasilobus kotigeharus Tikader, Fauna of India,

Spiders. Vol. II, Ft. 1, Araneae: Araneidae Zool. Surv. India,

Calcutta: 156-157.

Specimen examined: 1 Female, Rajabhatkhawa, Buxa

Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal, 8. iii. 2001. Coll. S. Saha

(Deposited in the Entomology Laboratory, Department of

Zoology, University of Calcutta). Regn No. EZC 0002-0 1 .

Family: Thomisidae

Strigoplus bilobus n. sp. (Figs 7-12)

Holotype: Female: Total length 7.50; carapace length

3.08, width 2.54; abdominal length 4.08, width 3.54; legs as in

Table 3.

Carapace: Cephalothorax dark blackish brown with a

pale yellow brown area extending from the middle of the

carapace, continuing up to the anterior margin of clypeus,

almost round, longer than wide, with scarce long acute brown-

black hairs, their bases raised, placed marginally, less so

medially; rest with short pale brown hairs, with bases rather

dark. Eyes brown black with pale basal bands, in two rows,

both recurved, lateral eyes on tuberculate bases, anterolaterals

largest, posteromedians smallest, ocular quad transversely

rectangular, medially provided with small spatulate black hairs

in transverse rows. Clypeus broad, transverse, anterolateral

angles bilobed, each with a long acute black hair, anterior

margin broadly and deeply concave, with small black spatulate

hairs, those in the middle smaller and in rows. Chelicerae pale

brown, from the top broad, robust, basally with black spatulate

hairs as on the clypeal margin, with a few long acute ones,

further forward with fine long hairs, from below darker, devoid

of any hair, scopulate near fang base, margins without teeth,

fangs golden brown, curved. Maxillae and labium greyish,

both anteriorly produced and narrowing, sole-like, surface

with short black spatulate hairs, maxillae marginally with few

fine hairs, both apical ly scopulate. Sternum black, heart-

shaped, with long hairs as on dorsum. Legs III and IV yellow,

black annulations near the apical joints, these whitish on IV;

I and II darker with irregular markings/patches, often annular,

ventrally black; leg formula 1234.

Abdomen: Dark blackish brown with a few white bands

and spots as in Fig. 7, pentagonal, with long brown hairs.

Venter dark brown with whitish spots. Epigyne and internal

genitalia as in Figs 11 and 12.

Male: Unknown.

Specimens examined: Holotype, Female,

Rajabhatkhawa, Buxa Tiger Reserve, Jalpaiguri, West Bengal,

India, 8. iii. 200 1 , Coll. S. Saha (Deposited in the Entomology

Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University of Calcutta).

Regn. No. EZC 0003-01.

Paratypes: Nil.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Jalpaiguri (only

known from type locality).

Table 3: Measurements of legs of 9 holotype

of Strigoplus bilobus n. sp. (in mm)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

427

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Figs 7-12: Strigoplus bilobus n sp., female holotype

7. Whole body, 8 Chelicerae, 9 Maxillae and labium, 10 Sternum, 11 Epigynum, 12. Internal genitalia

Table 4: Differences in characters between Strigoplus bilobus sp nov. and S netravati

428

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

429-432

A NEW SPECIES OF RASBORA BLEEKER (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE)

FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1

WAIKHOM VlSHWANATH2' 3 AND J ULIANA LA1SRAM2 4

'Accepted July, 2002

department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India

’Email vnath_w@hotmail com

"Email: [email protected]

A new fish species of the genus Rasbora Bleeker is described from the Lokchao and Chatrickong rivers (Chindwin

drainage) of Manipur, India. It is distinguished from Rasbora rasbora (Hamilton-Buchanan), the only other known

species from the region, by the lateral line incomplete vs. complete, lateral transverse scale VAI\I2 vs. 4 '/i/ 1 / 1 , greater

head length of 29.3(27.5-3 1.1) vs. 24.5(22. 1-26.9)% of SL, greater gape width of 8.1(7. 1-9.1 ) vs. 6. 8(6. 0-7.6)% of SL

and gill rakers numbering 4-5+1 1 vs. 3+9-10.

Key words: New fish species, Rasbora , Manipur

INTRODUCTION

Freshwater fishes of the genus Rasbora Bleeker belong

to subfamily Danioninae (=Rasborinae). Certain rasboras are

much prized aquarium fishes (Brittan 1954). Four species of

the genus are known from India, namely R. caverii (Jerdon),

R. daniconius (Hamilton-Buchanan), R. labiosa Mukerji and

R. rasbora (Hamilton-Buchanan). Hora (1921) reported

R. rasbora (Hamilton-Buchanan) from Dhaneshwori stream

near Dimapur, Nagaland, which forms part of the Brahmaputra

drainage system. Further, Hora and Mukerji (1935) reported

the species to be widely distributed. Vishwanath et al. (1998)

listed R. rasbora from Chatrickong river, Ukhrul district,

Manipur. A fish collection from the Lokchao river (a tributary

of the Yu River of Myanmar which, in turn, flows into the

Chindwin river) in Chandel district of Manipur and from

Chatrickong river (a tributary of Chindwin river) in Ukhrul

district, included 14 specimens of Rasbora which did not fit

into any of the hitherto described species. The species is

described here as a new species.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Measurements and counts followed Brittan (1954).

Measurements were made with dial callipers to the nearest

0. 1 mm and expressed in percentages of standard length (SL)

and head length (HL). Type specimens are deposited in the

Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).

Rasbora ornutus sp. nov. (Fig. 1 )

Holotype: MUMF 3032, 56.0 mm SL, Lokchao R„ Moreh,

Manipur, a tributary of the Yu River, (Chindwin drainage),

24.iii.1999, W. Vishwanath Singh and party.

Paratypes: MUMF: 1210-1212, 3 specimens, 44.2-

57. 1 mm SL, Chatrickong R., 6.vi. 1 996, K. Selim; MUMF 3033/

10, 10 specimens, 35.1-77.6 mm SL, same data as holotype.

Diagnosis: A medium-sized Rasbora with an incomplete

lateral line. Lateral transverse scales 4V2/I/2. Lips simple, first

dorsal fin ray without a fleshy sheath and the lateral stripe on

body running from tip of snout to the end of median caudal

rays.

DESCRIPTION

D. ii, 7; P. i, 12-13; V. i,8; A. iii,5; C. 9+8. Body elongate,

slightly compressed, its depth 28.0 (21.1-29.3)% SL. Mouth

small, cleft oblique, lip simple, lower jaw slightly prominent

with an upward projecting knob at symphysis fitting into a

corresponding depression in upper jaw. Barbels absent,

pharyngeal teeth in three rows 2,4,5-5,4,2. Gill rakers soft and

low, 4-5+11. Branchiostegal rays 3. Lateral line with a

downward curvature anteriorly, runs along below centre of

body and terminates at a line vertical to anterior origin, or

sometimes at posterior extremity of dorsal fin. Lateral line

incomplete, 26-28 scales in longitudinal series with 1 1 -20 scales

perforated. Lateral transverse scales from dorsal fin origin to

the lateral line AVi and from lateral line to origin of pelvic 2.

Dorsal fin inserted a little behind origin of pelvic fin, nearer to

Fig 1 : Lateral view of Rasbora ornatus sp nov

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

caudal fin base than to tip of snout. Pelvic fin not reaching

base of anal fin. Head moderate, eyes large, visible from ventral

side. Inter-orbital space wide, slightly arched, 35.7(29.8-39.0)%

HL. Inter-narial space 24.6(20.8-27.6)% HL. Mouth gape wide.

Dorsal-hypural distance when carried forward, falling at

anterior rim of eye. Sexual dimorphism unknown.

Colour: Body creamish, abdomen pale, dorsal part of

head brownish. A deep dark blue longitudinal stripe extending

from tip of snout to end of median caudal rays. Scales on

lateral and dorsal sides of body with a dark edge formed by a

row of spots on each scale. All fins dusky in appearance.

Etymology: The species is named after its beautiful

colouration.

Distribution: India: Manipur, Lokchao R., Moreh,

Chatrickong R.

Remarks: Rasbora ornatus sp. nov. belongs to the

Daniconius-complex as it has 14 circumpeduncular scales,

2 scales between lateral line and pelvic fin origin, the typical

characters of the complex. As in some forms of this complex,

this species shows reduced number of lateral line pores and

prominent dark lateral stripe, which runs from the tip of the

snout to the median caudal rays.

Rasbora ornatus sp. nov. differs from R. rasbora in

having an incomplete lateral line vs. complete and lateral

transverse scale of 414/1/2 vs. 4!4/l/l. It has longer head

length, 29.3(27.5-3 1 . 1 ) vs. 24.5(22. 1-26.9)% SL, wider gape

Table 1: Comparative morphometry of Rasbora ornatus sp nov and R rasbora

430

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Table 2 Morphometry and distribution of Rasbora species closely allied to R. ornatus sp. nov.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

431

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

width of 8. 1(7. 1 -9. 1) vs. 6.8(6.0-7.6)% SL. Gill rakers 4-5+1 1 vs.

3+9-10 (Roberts 1989). Circumpeduncular scale rows 14 vs.

12-13. The lateral stripe in R. ornatus sp. nov. runs from tip of

snout to median caudal rays, whereas it extends from opercle

to base of caudal fin in R. r as bora. Three specimens of Rasbora

(MUMF 1210-1212) from Chatrickong R., Ukhrul district,

Manipur, identified as R. rasbora by Vishwanath et al. (1998)

have been found to have incomplete lateral lines and therefore

belong to the new species.

R. ornatus is distinguished from the description given

by Brittan (1954) of R. Iabiosa Mukerji of the Daniconius

complex in having 1 1 -20 vs. 23-3 1 lateral line pores, 26-28 vs.

33-35 in the lateral line series, lateral transverse scales 414/1/

2 vs. 414/1/214; simple lips vs. greatly hypertrophied lower lip,

and fleshy sheath on the first dorsal fin ray absent vs. present.

Jayaram ( 1 999) considers the latter two characters as important

distinguishing features of R. Iabiosa Mukerji from other species.

It does not belong to the Pauciperforata complex, which

show incomplete lateral line because of its larger size, 35.1-77.6

vs. Iessthan55mm SL, 14 vs. 12 circumpeduncular scale rows.

Brittan, M R. (1954): A revision of the Indo-Malayan freshwater

fish genus Rasbora. Monogr. Inst. Sci. & Tech., Manila,

3: 224.

Hora, S.L. ( 1921 ): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some observations

on those of the Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22(3): 165-214,

4 pis.

Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukerji (1935): Fishes of the Naga hills, Assam.

Rec. Indian Mus. 37: 381-404.

The specimen of Rasbora rasbora (F 2516/2) in

Zoological Survey of India, Kolkata, on close examination

has 14 anal fin rays, much more than the usual numbers in

other species of the genus (5-6). Its dorsal fin is inserted

much backward, i.e., nearer the caudal fin base (predorsal

length is 66.4% SL and post-dorsal length is 32.7% SL). Brittan

(1954) places fishes with such characters in other genera of

Danioninae.

Comparative materials.

1. Rasbora rasbora (Hamilton-Buchanan), F. 2107/2

ZSI, Dharikati, 314 miles R. Bharati near Lokra (Balipara F.

track, Assam). Dr. S.L. Hora, no date.

2. R. rasbora , 1087 ZSI, no collection data.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The first author is grateful to ICAR-NATP Project on

Germplasm Inventory and Gene-Banking of Freshwater Fishes

for financial assistance.

Jayaram, K.C. (1999): The freshwater fishes of the Indian region.

Narendra Publ. House, New Delhi. 551 pp.

Roberts, T.R. (1989): The freshwater fishes of Western Borneo

(Kalimantan, Barat, Indonesia). Mem. Calif. Acad. Sci. 14:

1-210.

Vishwanath, W., W. Manojkumar, L. Kosygin & K. Selim (1998):

Biodiversity of freshwater fishes of Manipur, India. Italian

J. Zoo I. 65: 321-324.

432

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

433-436

A NEW FISH OF THE GENUS ACANTOPSIS VAN HASSELT

(CYPRINIFORMES: COBITIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA1

WAIKHOM VlSHWANATH2' 3 AND J ULIANA LAISRAM2' 4

'Accepted November, 2002

"Department of Life Sciences, Manipur University, Canchipur 795 003, Manipur, India.

"Email: vnath_w@hotniail com

4Email [email protected]

A new fish species, Acantopsis multistigmatus is described from the Lokchao river, a tributary of the Yu river in

Manipur. It is distinct from A. thiemmedhi Sontirat by its greater number of vertebrae (43 vs. 39-4 1 ); greater number of

dark brown blotches on the sides ( 1 4- 1 7 vs. 8-9); regular, round and smaller blotches vs. irregular and larger blotches on

sides; greater number of saddles ( 1 7 vs. 8-9); dorsal fin with 3 dark bands vs. 1 band near the rim and another dark spot

on the middle of 1-3 dorsal rays; caudal fin with three transverse bands vs. 1 large oblong dark bar on each caudal lobe;

pectoral, pelvic and anal fins with dark spots vs. only dorsal and caudal fins banded. It is distinct from A. choir or hynchos

(Bleeker) by its smaller number of gill-rakers (18 vs. 21-27); characteristic colour pattern of dorsal and caudal fins

mentioned above vs. absent on dorsal and caudal fins (except occasionally in smaller specimens); smaller head length

22.1 (21.3-22.5) vs. 25.6 (24.4-27.4) and smaller pre-pectoral length ( 1 8.8-20.2) vs. 23.5 (21 .9-25.2) all in % of SL.

Key words: New fish species, Acantopsis, Manipur

INTRODUCTION

The hill-stream loaches of the genus Acantopsis van

Hasselt are highly elongate, cylindrical and colourful fish

that are found underneath sand and in between gravel and

coarse sand (Sontirat 1999). Acantopsis choir or hynchos

(Bleeker) was described by Bleeker (1854) as Cobitis

choirorhynchos from Sumatra. Chen (1981) placed Acantopsis

lachnostoma Rutter, as a junior synonym of

A. choir orhynchos, extending its range as far as southern

China. However, Roberts (1989) recognized the validity of

A. lachnostoma and its endemic distribution in southern

China, based on its differences with A. choir orhynchos, on

comparing the holotype of A. lachnostoma with two typical

specimens of choirorhynchos from Kapuas, Western Borneo.

He also remarked on the poorly known systematics of the

genus, which made it difficult for him to comment on its

distribution. While describing/!, thiemmedhi from Thailand,

Sontirat ( 1 999) mentioned that the genus Acantopsis was till

then known from Thailand as A. choirorhynchos alone. Thus,

the geographical distribution of the species is concentrated

around the far-east Asian region. It is in no way connected

with theChindwin River system. Talwar and Jhingran (1991)

reported the occurrence of the species from Assam, India

and Myanmar, while Menon (1992) stated that it was

distributed in the Indo-Australian Archipelago and South-

eastern Asia. He made a description of the species based on

six specimens from Irrawady river at Mandalay and Chindwin

drainage at Kunghein, collected during the Vernay-

Hopewood Upper Chindwin Expedition in 1935. Rainboth

(1996) noted that A. choirorhynchos and A. dialuzona from

Cambodian Mekong are misidentifications. Jayaram ( 1999),

while reporting distribution of the genus in Southeast Asia

noted that the only species from the Indian region was

A. choirorhynchos from Assam. In view of very little data

available on the genus and contradictory statements of

workers, a detailed study on the taxonomy and distribution

of Acantopsis is essential.

This paper describes a new species of the genus

Acantopsis van Hasselt from the Lokchao river, Manipur, a

tributary of the Yu river.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

Fish were collected from Moreh market and immediately

preserved in 10% formaline solution. Measurements and

counts followed Jayaram (1999) and are expressed as

percentages of standard length (SL) and head length (HL).

Measurements were made with dial callipers (Mitutoyo, Japan)

to the nearest 0.1 mm. The type specimens are deposited in

the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).

Counting of vertebrae was done by Alizarin Red S staining

technique for bones as described by Hollister ( 1 934).

Holotype: MUMF 3044, 205.4 mm SL, Lokchao river,

Manipur. 24.iii. 1 999, W. Vishwanath Singh and party.

Paratypes: MUMF 3045/5, 1 52.9-203.6 mm SL, same data

as holotype. MUMF 3047/1, 121.8 mm SL, Lokchao river,

Manipur. 18.v. 2001. Juliana Laisram. MUMF 3048/1, 142.3 mm

SL, Lokchao river, Manipur. 23.V.2000. JL.

Local name: Chingngakrijrou (Manipuri)

Diagnosis: A hill-stream loach with a very elongate and

cylindrical body. 14-17 lateral blotches arranged longitudinally

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Fig. 1: Lateral view of Acantopsis multistigmatus sp nov

on the Hanks and 17 dark brown saddles across the back, a

pattern of many small, transverse and horizontal wavy bars

and spots arranged longitudinally between the saddles and

the blotches. Three rows of dark brown spots on dorsal fin

and two on pelvic fin. No black spot at the upper base of

caudal fin. Pectoral, pelvic and anal fins spotted with black.

Caudal fin slightly emarginated. Gill-rakers 1 8 (4+14).

Description: D. iii, 9!/z; P. i, 9-10; V. i, 6; A. iii, 5; C. 7+7.

Body very elongate and compressed, its depth 10.9

(9.7-12.0), headlong, 21.9(21.3-22.4), longer than caudal length

which is 1 5.9 (13.8-1 7.4) all in % SL. Snout much elongated,

68.3 (65.4-70.6)% HL and pointed. Eyes small, subcutaneous,

situated dorsally very close to the occiput, its diameter longer

than inter-orbital width. An erectile bifid spine present between

the nostrils and orbit, nearer to the nostrils, level with the

lower margin of the orbit. Mouth small, inferior. Barbels four

pairs, two rostral and two maxillary, all small. Lips thick, both

fringed, mental lobes well developed into two fringed

prolongations. Gill openings small, extending only a little

above origin of pectorals.

Caudal peduncle long, its least depth 2.6 (2.4-2. 8) in its

length. Scales minute, absent on head. Lateral line complete.

Dorsal fin origin midway between tip of snout and caudal fin

base, slightly in advance of ventral fin origin. Anal fin short,

caudal fin slightly emarginate, the lower lobe longer. Ventral

fin nearer caudal fin base than tip of snout (Fig. 1 ).

Colour: Creamy yellow with 14-17 lateral blotches

arranged longitudinally on flanks and 1 7 saddles across back;

pattern of many small, transverse and horizontal wavy bars

and spots arranged longitudinally between the saddles and

the blotches, all in dark brown tints. Three rows of dark brown

spots on dorsal fin, two on pelvic fin. Pectoral, pelvic and

anal fins spotted with black. The pattern on the body is also

found on the head.

Distribution: india: Lokchao river, Manipur, Assam.

Myanmar.

Etymology: The species is named after the large number

of deep dark brown blotches on the sides.

Remarks: Acantopsis multistigmatus sp. nov. is

distinguished from A. choir orhynchos in having fewer gill-

Table 1: Morphometry and distribution of A. multistigmatus sp nov , A thiemmedhi and A choirorhynchos

434

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

Table 2: Morphometric comparison of A. multistigmatus sp nov with A thiemmedhi and A choirorhynchos

rakers [18 vs. 21-27], shorter head length [22.0 (21 .3-22.4) vs.

25.6 (24.4-27.4)% SL], shorter pre-pectoral length [19.5(18.8-

20.2) vs. 23.5 (21.9-25.2)%SL], Sontirat (1999) examined as

many as 180 specimens of A. choirorhynchos and found no

dark blotches or spots on caudal and dorsal fins in larger

specimens. However, the smaller specimens had small dark

lateral spots and/or blotches on the sides and back, and some

of these had three rows of small dark spots on the dorsal fin.

The new species is also distinct from A. choirorhynchos , as

described by Roberts (1989) by its longer head [head length

4. 5-4. 7 vs. 3.8 %SL], shallower caudal peduncle [caudal

peduncle depth 1 9.9-22.4 vs. 22.3-23.0 %SL], greater numbers

of vertebrae [43 vs. 42] and fewer dorsal fin rays [iii, 9'A vs. iii,

10 14]. The new species also differs from A. choirorhynchos ,

as described by Day (1 878) in its shallower body [body depth

9.3 (8.5-10.4) vs. 1 1 . 1 %TL], shorter head [19.2 (1 8.9-19.6) vs.

20.0 %TL] and caudal fin [caudal length 1 3.3 ( 12. 1-14.7) vs.

16.7 %TL]; in having more blotches on sides of body [14-17

vs. 12], more saddles across the back [17 vs. 12], and more

rows of blotches along dorsal fin [3 vs. 2], The new species

Table 3 Comparison of Acantopsis multistigmatus sp nov

with A choirorhynchos Day (1878)

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

435

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

has a few irregularly arranged spots across the anal fin, in

contrast with the three rows of blotches in A. choir orhynchos .

(The comparison is given in Table 3).

A. multistigmatus sp. nov. can be distinguished from

A. thiemmedhi Sontirat by the colour pattern, 14-17 blotches

vs. 8-9 irregular blotches on the lateral line, 1 7 vs. 8-9 saddles

on the dorsal part of the body; a pattern of many small,

transverse and horizontal wavy bars and spots arranged

longitudinally up to the caudal peduncle region between the

saddles and the blotches vs. only a row of broken horizontal

wavy bars up to the posterior region of dorsal fin; 3 rows of

black spots each on dorsal and caudal fins vs. 1 row and a

blotch at first three dorsal rays and one large oblong dark bar

near the middle part of each caudal lobe; body depth 10.9

(9.7-12.0) vs. 13.5 (12.3-15.2), pre-pectoral length 19.5 (18.8-

20.2) vs. 22.4 (20.4-27.8), dorsal base length 1 2.3 ( 1 1 .0- 1 3 .0)

vs. 14.3 (14.2-1 5.4) all in % of SL, head depth 42.9 (39.7-46.3)

vs. 58 (53.0-59.5), eye diameter 10.7 (10.1-1 1 .7) vs. 14.9 (13.7-

16.6) and snout length 68.0 (65.4-70.6) vs. 62.4 (57.9-64.1) all

in % of head length. The new species also differs from

A. thiemmedhi in its slightly emarginate caudal fin, as

compared to bilobed one of the latter, larger size (103.2-

181 .0 mm vs. 46.7-122.8 mm) SL. (Comparisons are given in

Tables 1 and 2). The percentage measurement of head depth,

eye diameter and snout length provided by Sontirat ( 1 999) is

in percentage of head length and not in percentage of standard

length as is printed.

A. multistigmatus is also distinct from A. lachnostoma

Rutter in its caudal peduncle depth 4.7 (4. 5-5.0) vs. 7.6 % SL,

dorsal fin rays iii, 914 vs. iii, 714 and number of vertebrae 43 vs.

44.

Talwar and Jhingran (1991), Menon (1992) and Jayaram

( 1 999) reported A. choir orhynchos to be widely distributed in

the South-eastern Asian region. However, its distribution

outside Borneo, Sumatra and Thailand region needs

confirmation, as the description of the species from Thailand

given by Sontirat ( 1 999) does not fit into the description given

by them. Three species of this genus from the Mekong have

been reported as misidentified by Rainboth (1996) and

are being kept as sp. 1, sp. 2 and sp. 3. The identity of

A. choir orhynchos requires confirmation in view of the

comment by Roberts (1989) that due to the paucity of

systematic knowledge of this genus, statements on species

distributions are not meaningful. As the drainage in which

the hitherto known A. choir or hynchos of the Indian region is

totally different from the type locality of the species, careful

examination of the specimens is required for their correct

identification.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The first author is grateful to ICAR-NATP Project on

Germplasm Inventory and Gene-Banking of Freshwater Fishes

for financial assistance.

REFERENCES

Bleeder, P (1854): Overzicht der ichthyologische fauna van Sumatra,

met beschrijving van eenige nieuwe sorten. Nat. Tijdschr. Nederl

Indie 7: 49-108.

Chen, J. (1981): A study on the classification of the subfamily Cobitinae

of China Trans. Chin Ichthyol. Soc. 1 : 21-31

Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India, being a natural history of the fishes

known to inhabit the seas and freshvvaters of India, Burma and

Ceylon Text and Atlas in 4 parts London: xx + 778, pis

FIollister, G. (1934): Clearing and dyeing fish for bone study. Zoologica

12. 89-101

Jayaram, K..C. (1999) The freshwater fishes of the Indian region

Narendra Publishing House, New Delhi. 551 pp.

Menon, A.G.K. (1992): The fauna of India and the adjacent countries.

Pisces Vol. iv. Teleostei - Cobitoidea, part 2 Cobitidae. Zoological

Survey of India, Kolkata 113 pp, 10 pis.

Rainboth, W.J (1996): Fishes of the Cambodian Mekong. Food and

Agriculture Organization, Rome. 265 pp. 27 pis.

Roberts, T.R (1989): The freshwater fishes of Western Borneo

(Kalimantan Barat, Indonesia). Mem Calif. Acad. Sci. 14: 210

Sontirat, S. (1999): Description of a new species of Acantopsis

(Cypriniformes: Cobitidae) from Thailand Proc. 5th Indo-Pac.

Fish Conf, Noumea. Sere t B & J.-Y. Sire. eds. Paris Soc

Fr. Ichthyol., 65-68.

Talwar, PK. & A G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India and

Adjacent Countries. Vol 1. Oxford and IBH Publ , New Delhi,

pp 541

436

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

437-438

REVIEWS

1. BIRDS OF GOA: A REFERENCE BOOK, 2004. By Heinz Lainer. The Goa Foundation,

Mapusa, Goa. 244 pp. (21.5 x 14 cm). Price: Hardback Rs. 500/-; Paperback Rs. 300/-.

As the subtitle indicates, this is a reference book and

not a popular guide to the birds of Goa. I hope, one day, a

more popular illustrated bird book of this small and

ornithologically rich state will come out. The book is based

on painstaking notes kept by Heinz for the last 20 years, and

numerous unpublished reports of visiting bird watchers,

especially Paul I. Holt and Gordon Frost. Heinz first published

his annotated checklist on birds of Goa in the JBNHS in two

parts ( Vol. 96, 1 999). This book is an updated version of that

checklist — a welcome addition for serious bird watchers and

ornithologists.

For listing, Heinz has followed the classification of

Sibley and Monroe (1993), later used by Inskipp et al. (1996)

and Grimmett et al. (1998), but he has added Synopsis

numbers of Ripley (1982), thus helping both ‘old’

ornithologists familiar with Ali and Ripley’s ( 1 987) handbook

classification, and ‘new’ bird watchers more familiar with the

new classification. Each bird has common and scientific

names, alternative name(s), if any, first record in Goa, status,

habitats, sites where the species can be easily seen, population

(mainly highest and lowest numbers recorded), breeding

status, seasonal status (earliest and last sightings for

migratory birds), and lastly remarks. Fairly good sketches by

an upcoming artist, Sachin Jaltare, embellish the book. It also

has published (55) and unpublished (96) references, list of

names of places mentioned in the book, and index of common

and scientific names.

Owing to its long colonial rule under the Portuguese,

for a long time Goa remained unstudied. Unlike the British,

the Portuguese were not interested in birds, especially

uncooked ones! Nevertheless, the first recorded

ornithological work was by P. Boddaert in 1783 in which he

gave the type locality of the White-naped Woodpecker Picus

festivus (= Chrysocolaptes festivus ) and the Red-wattled

Lapwing Tringa indica (= Vanellus indicus ) at Goa. After

Goa was merged with the Indian Union in 1 96 1 , the Zoological

Survey of India conducted many studies between 1968 and

1978. In 1972, Dr. Salim Ali and Dr. RobertGrubh collected

about 1 50 birds of 100 species (Grubh and Ali 1 976). Since

the 1980s, Goa gained popularity among foreign tourists,

and presently it is one of the favourite destinations for

ornitho-holidays. With the advent of internet and e-groups,

there is a plethora of trip reports, many of doubtful nature.

Heinz has rightly warned in his preface against rushing to

claim first sighting: “Goa abounds with families and genera

of birds that do not have representatives in Europe and are

therefore often totally baffling to the newcomer. Moreover,

many common and not-so-common bird species of the

Palaearctic occur as winter visitors in Goa, though often in

the form of eastern subspecies that the European birdwatcher

is not familiar with. Many visiting birders ....feel compelled to

squeeze ....first sightings. Many of these often doubtful,

sometimes absurd records find their way into unpublished

trip reports.”

With the publication of this authentic, well-researched

book, I hope wrong identification will be avoided in future.

■ ASADR. RAHMANI

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Edition of the Handbook of

the Birds of India and Pakistan. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, A & C Black, London.

Grubh, R. & S. Ali (1976): Birds of Goa. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

73(1): 42-53.

Inskipp, T., N. Lindsay & W. Duckworth (1996): An Annotated

Checklist of the Birds of the Oriental Region. Oriental Bird

Club, U.K.

Ripley, S.D. (1982): A Synopsis of the Birds of India and Pakistan

Second Edition. Bombay Natural History Society, Bombay.

2. THE MAMMALS OF ARUNACHAL PRADESH, 2003. By Anwaruddin Choudhury,

Regency Publications, New Delhi. 140 pp. Price Rs. 400/- (15.5 x 23.5 cm)

Natural history is a subject to which both professionals

and amateurs have contributed equally. Dr. Anwaruddin

Choudhury is one of the finest amateur naturalists of India.

He is an M.A. in geography and Ph D. in primatology, but a

civil servant by profession. He is a prolific writer. With an

impressive list of more than 350 popular articles and scientific

papers and eleven books, and his wide travel in the northeast,

he is eminently suitable to produce the first ever checklist

REVIEWS

and systematic review of the mammals of Arunachal Pradesh,

a state having the highest mammal diversity in India.

Arunachal Pradesh is a treasure-trove of mammalian

fauna. There are very few areas in the world of the size of

Arunachal Pradesh where more than 200 species of mammals

could be found, and “another 38 species likely to occur or

are recorded in adjacent areas.” The systematic list contains

Order, Family, generic name, English name, type locality, local

name(s), distribution and status, subspecies, if any, and

remarks containing useful information on morphological

characters, protection status (in Indian Wildlife Protection

Act), international status (CITES and IUCN categories). The

book is based on thorough research — the bibliography

consists of 25 pages. The oldest reference is a paper

published in 1797 and the latest is 2002. Anwar is also an

artist so he has used his own line-drawings. For major

species, distribution maps are included, which further

enhance the value of the book. The book is more suitable for

professionals than amateurs. I wish we had such books

for each state of India. I recommend it for all scientific

institutes and universities conducting research on Indian

wildlife.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

3. MARINE MAMMALS OF INDIA, 2004. By Kumaran Sathasivam. WWF and Universities

Press, Hyderabad. Price Rs. 250 (21.5 cm x 14 cm)

Despite a coastline of nearly 7,000 km and an economic

zone of 2.02 million sq. km, India’s marine ecosystem has not

been given the importance that it deserves. When we talk

about conservation, we mostly mean terrestrial environment.

The marine and fresh water environments have some of the

most endangered and neglected fauna of India. The newly

established REEF Watch, an NGO exclusively working for the

protection of marine environment, is a welcome development.

Hopefully, Kumaran Sathasivam’s book will create more

interest in “furthering understanding of and fostering concern

for the marine mammals of India.”

There are 120 species of marine mammals in the world,

of which 32 are reported from the Indian waters, mainly

belonging to Orders Cetacea and Sirenia. No marine

member of the Order Carnivora is reported from the Indian

seas. This easy-to-read book covers all the marine mammals

found in India and is useful to both the amateurs and experts.

It has some very interesting information. For instance, not

many know that dolphin milk contains more protein and fat

than cow’s milk, and there was a proposal to set

up a dolphin dairy farm. It was not known how to milk a

dolphin!

After a brief introduction, a glossary and a chapter on

classification and evolution of marine mammals, follows a

chapter on Marine Mammal Research in India. Incidentally,

there is hardly any research on the live marine mammals in

India despite the fact that we have the Central Marine Research

Institute, National Institute of Oceanography and marine

biology is taught in many universities. The chapter on whaling

makes sad reading and again highlights the destructive and

selfish nature of human beings. Description of each species/

groups is followed by brief chapters on some interesting

phenomenon or behaviour, such as sound production in

whales, intelligence of dolphins and mass stranding.

Wherever necessary, sketches are given, but without labels.

In this unconventionally designed book, page numbers are

given halfway to the left or right side and the colour plates are

inserted in the bibliography section!

The reference or bibliography section, called ‘Source’,

consists of 16 pages and lists important research papers,

relevant books, technical reports and even newspaper articles.

To keep the text simple, references are not quoted in the text

so there is no way to verify a statement or fact. Perhaps the

references could have been numbered and numbers given in

the text. Index of common and scientific names helps in finding

a species easily in the text. Index of local names is also included

(page 178), but most of these names are in Tamil and

Malayalam. In future editions, Bengali, Marathi, Kannada and

Gujarati terms should also be included.

On the whole, I find the book very useful and hope to

see more such books on the other neglected ecosystems,

habitats and taxa of India.

■ ASAD R. RAHMANI

438

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

Journal of the Bombay Natural History Society, 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

439-483

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. USE OF ARM AS ‘BRIDGE’ IN GIBBON LOCOMOTION

While negotiating gaps in forest canopy, the Hoolock

Gibbon Hylobates ( =Bunopithecus ) hoolock Harlan prefers

to jump rather than coming down to the ground. However,

when the gap is too wide, they come down and walk across,

usually bipedal. Infants and juveniles are carried by their

mother. I report an interesting observation on a juvenile

crossing a gap in the forest canopy made in Borajan Reserve

Forest (27° 25' N, 95° 22' E), now part of the Bherjan-Borajan-

Podumoni Wildlife Sanctuary in Tinsukia district of eastern

Assam.

On June 13, 1993 at 03 1 5 hrs, a group of gibbons were

located on a tree, where they were observed roosting the

previous evening, to observe their daily activity pattern. A

female and a juvenile in the group started moving by 0340 hrs.

At 0415 hrs the female moved from her roosting position

followed by the juvenile. At 0420 hrs, they reached a gap in

the canopy. Since the juvenile was not carried by its mother, I

was curious to see how it would cross the gap, which was

easy for an adult, but not a juvenile. On reaching the gap,

where the female was sitting, the juvenile called eeke, kmm,

kmm , etc. The female without any hesitation pulled a branch

of the tree on the other side of the gap while still sitting on the

original tree. The juvenile then easily crossed over, using its

mother’s long arm as ‘bridge’, but instead of brachiation it

crawled over the arm. Photography was not possible due to

poor light.

I thank Jiban Chetia, Forest Guard and N. Malakar for

their help during this study.

November 28, 2002 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: badru [email protected]

2. ELECTRIC PYLONS USED AS NIGHT ROOST BY TROOPS OF RHESUS MACAQUE

MACACA MULATA AT SARISKA TIGER RESERVE, ALWAR DISTRICT, RAJASTHAN

On May 12, 2001, around 2000 hrs, 1 was passing

through the Sariska Tiger Reserve, when between Madhogarh

and Bhrit-Hari crossing, I saw troops of Rhesus Macaque

Macaca mulata roosting on two high-tension electric pylons

close to the Alwar-Jaipur road. They not only roost on pylons

at night, but rest on them during the day too. A similar night

roosting behaviour was observed by me in the Hanuman Langur

Semnopithecus entellus in Nahargarh Wildlife Sanctuary, nearly

70 km away from Sariska Tiger Reserve ( JBNHS 99( 1 ): 1 03).

Tiger {Panther a tigris) and Leopard (P. pardus),

especially the latter, are the main predators of Rhesus Macaque

in and around the Sariska Tiger Project area. Probably, to

avoid the attack of a Leopard at night, troops of Rhesus

Macaque prefer safer night roosts like high-tension electric

pylons, which have towering heights. Since four vertically

convergent iron angles, and many connecting criss-cross

angles, provide a number of vantage points to sit and sleep to

members of the troop, they opt for such places. Visibility

remains good around the pylon, and predators like Leopard

could be detected from a distance. Disturbances caused by

stormy wind are also less on pylons than on crowns of trees.

Vertical and criss-cross angles are used as ladder to

climb up. The latter are used as sleeping sites also. Angular

points are much preferred for this. Congregation of animals

can be seen at angular points, meeting points of two or more

angles. When the macaques roost or rest on pylons, members

of the troop face all the directions to keep a watch.

High-tension electric pylons are new roosting and

resting sites of macaques in Alwar district. Before pylons

became available, they roosted on tall trees and buildings

only.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I thank Shri R.G. Soni, PCCF and Shri Arun Sen, CCF

( WL) for encouragement.

July 24, 2002 SATISH KUMAR SHARMA

Phulwari Wildlife Sanctuary,

Kotra 307 025, District Udaipur,

Rajasthan,

India.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

3. TREND ANALYSIS OF MARKED LEOPARD PANTHERA PARDUS

CAPTURED AND RECAPTURED AROUND GIR PROTECTED AREA, GUJARAT

One of the most important management practices in Gir

National Park and Sanctuary is the rescue or capture of injured,

distressed or problematic large carnivores like Lion ( Panthera

leo persica) and Leopard ( Panthera pardus) which stray

into peripheral villages and revenue areas (Singh and Kamboj

1996). The expert rescue teams from the Wildlife Division,

Sasan-Gir, normally undertake the rescue or capture operation

with the help of local staff. Although both lions and leopards

are regularly rescued throughout the year from the peripheral

villages, leopards pose a serious threat to the lives of the

locals by straying very close to human habitation and

attacking human beings (Prater 1997). A greater fear psychosis

prevails from leopard movement than from the lions amongst

the people in the areas surrounding Gir. The Gir PA

management, after recognizing the threat, immediately acts

to capture the straying leopards. The leopards rescued and

captured in peripheral areas by the Forest Department are

the ones responsible for human injury or death, and have

created fear among the villagers due to regular movements in

farms and residential areas, or those that have fallen

accidentally into farm wells, be suffering from illness or

injury.

Depending upon the field situation, trap cage with bait,

ropes (for rescue from wells) or chemical tranquilization is

used to capture the animal. The captured leopards are then

brought back to the Wildlife Treatment Centre, where they

are kept under observation or for treatment. After some time,

the healthy animals are generally released into the core zone

of the forest area (National Park). But before release, the

animals are fitted with tags or microchips for identification

and to record future recapture from other areas. The plastic

ear tags are colour coded, serially numbered, and are in two

identical halves, which are fixed to the ear using special

pliers. The animal can be identified by its colour and the

number can be read through binoculars. The microchips

are placed at the base of the tail, between skin and

muscle, subcutaneously. Each microchip has a distinctive

number, which can be read by a machine. The numbers,

with details of the captured animal, are recorded for

future comparison. Microchips have an advantage over

the tag method. The tag can be seen on the animals,

and creates a fear psychosis among the locals, who

think of marked animals as being problematic.

Sometimes this leads to unpleasant situations during rescue

operations.

Some leopards do not remain confined to their area of

release due to unknown reasons and stray out again to the

peripheral revenue areas of the Gir Forest. This study was

intended to analyze the data on captured and recaptured

animals to identify the problematic ones and to know

their movement in and around the Gir PA. It is based on 38

cases of captured and released leopards during 2001 and

2002.

Findings

Thirty-eight leopards were captured from the areas

surrounding Gir National Park and Sanctuary between April

2001 and February 2002. This included 19 females and

19 males. The age group of captured leopards ranged from

c. 1 'A to 1 3 years. Majority of animals (n=29, 76%) were adults

i.e. more than 4 years of age. The captured leopards are mainly

released in the core zone areas (mainly National Park) of Gir

Forest like Miyakuan, Laptani and Patriara. Talala sub-district

recorded the maximum — 12 leopard captures, followed by

Una sub-district with seven cases. Rescues from other sub-

districts are: Visavadar (3 cases), Sutrapada (4 cases), Kodinar

(4 cases), Maliya (4 cases) Khamba (2 cases), Mendarda (1

case) and Ranavav (lease). It is known that majority of

captures took place in the southern areas of Gir Forest, which

may be due to extensive cultivation of sugarcane and

presence of large tracts of mango orchard (Vijayan and Pati

2001 ). The majority of captures were mainly from farmlands

(21 cases, five specifically from sugarcane), followed by farm

wells (7 cases), villages (7 cases) and buildings (2 cases).

The leopards that were caught from farmlands and

villages were mainly due to fear among the people, but some

were actually involved in attacks on human. Six leopards

were involved in attacks on humans that took place in

farmlands (2 cases), villages (2 cases), and buildings

(2 cases). Two leopards were shifted to Sakkarbaug Zoo,

Junagadh, due to cases of established human deaths.

Majority of the rescued or captured leopards were healthy

(95%) and only two cases had some injury related

problems.

From the 38 leopards that were rescued from various

areas and released into the core area of Gir forest, four animals

were caught for the second time and one was captured for

the third time (see Table 1). The period between release and

subsequent recapture of leopard from other areas ranged

from 1 1 days to six months. Leopards recaptured for the

second time were mostly found from different areas, some

were found very close to the earlier capture site. The distance

between the site of first capture and subsequent recapture

ranged from 2.2 km to 33 km. A leopard caught for the third

440

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

441

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

time was recaptured from Jasapur (Talala subdistrict) where

it had been caught earlier. The maximum distance travelled

by a leopard, before being caught again, was 47 km (from

Devkarnia (NP) to Sukhpur in Maliya subdistrict). Of all

leopards that were recaptured from peripheral areas, two were

involved in attack on humans, one had killed livestock, and

the rest were captured due to fear and disturbances to

humans.

In 1996, a male Leopard captured from a village farm

well in Kodinar sub-district and subsequently tagged and

released inside the forest area, had migrated to Dharoi village

in Mehsana district (North Gujarat), where it was shot inside

a house by the Police Department for the safety of people.

The leopard had travelled 340 km (within 8 months) from the

area of release.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the rescue team members and local field staff

of Gir for their exemplary work in conserving important flagship

species like lions and leopards. We also thank Shri B.J. Pathak,

Conservator of Forests, Wildlife Circle, Junagadh for his

comments and suggestions.

October 1 , 2002 B.P. PATI1

R.K. H1RAPARA

R.B. SOLANK1

S. V1JAYAN

Gir National Park and Sanctuary,

Sasan-Gir, Gujarat 362 135, India.

'Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Prater, S.H. (1997): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay Natural

History Society. Bombay.

Singh, H.S. & R.D. Kamboj (1996): Biodiversity conservation plan for

Gir. Gujarat State Forest Department, Gujarat.

Vijayan, S. & B.P. Pati (2001): Impact of changing cropping

pattern on man-animal conflicts around Gir PA with

specific reference to Talala Taluka. Indian Forester 127 : 1121-

1133.

4. SPECIES OF BARKING DEER (GENUS MUNTIACUS )

IN THE EASTERN HIMALAYAN REGION

The barking deer or muntjacs are small, solitary, cryptic

forest dwellers found throughout southern and eastern Asia

from India through China, Indochina, and Malaysia, to

Indonesia. Two species have long been known from the

eastern Himalayan region. The Red Muntjac ( Muntiacus

muntjak) is relatively common and widely distributed, whereas

the Chinese or Reeves’ Muntjac (M reevesi ) is confined to

southeast China, east of about 1 00° E. During the 1 990s the

discovery of two new muntjac species and the rediscovery

of a third species in the Annamite Mountains along the Lao-

Vietnam border focused attention of zoologists on this

ancient lineage of cervids (Groves and Schaller 2000, Amato

et al. 2000). In 1 997, yet another new species was discovered

in Myanmar (Burma) and named Leaf Deer (M putaoensis)

by Rabinowitz et al. (1999). That year, the Black Muntjac

(M crinifrons ), previously known only from China, was also

found in Myanmar, extending its recorded range by about

1,750 km (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998, Rabinowitz etal. 1998).

Although the Leaf Deer and Black Muntjac were each initially

found only within small areas, our recent work has shown

these species to have a much more extensive distribution.

The purpose of this note is to describe their known

geographic range and point to their possible occurrence in

India and elsewhere in the eastern Himalayan region.*

Leaf Deer ( Muntiacus putaoensis)

The Leaf Deer, so named because local hunters wrap

their kill into large Phrynium leaves, is a diminutive fawn-

coloured muntjac, weighing about 12 kg, with spike antlers in

males up to 5 cm long. The conspicuous canines are of the

same size in males and females, an unusual condition in

muntjacs (Rabinowitz et al. 1999). It was discovered in

secondary and old-growth evergreen broad-leafed forest

northeast of Putao in northern Myanmar (26° 58' N, 96° 09' E)

at elevations of around 800-2,000 m (Rabinowitz and Khaing

1 998, Rabinowitz et al. 1999). Analysis of its mitochondrial

DNA confirmed it as a new species most closely related to

two other small muntjacs (M. rooseveltorum , M.

truongsonensis ) in the Annamite Mountains (Amato et al.

2000). We now have additional specimen records from the

Hponkan Razi area (27° 30' N, 97° 09' E), the Hukaung valley

(26° 58' N, 96° 09' E), and near the Saramati massif (25° 42' N,

*This note was submitted for publication in March 2002. In it we predict that two muntjac species new to India might occur within its

borders. One of these was discovered in November 2002. See, Aparajita Datta et al. 2003, Discovery of the Leaf Deer Muntiacus putaoensis

in Arunachal Pradesh an addition to the large mammals of India. Current Science 84: 454-458.

442

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig. 1 : Known distribution of two muntjac species - Leaf Deer and Black Muntjac - in the eastern Himalayan region

95° 13' E), all close to the Myanmar-India border (Fig. 1). These

records suggest that the species occurs or once occurred

within Indian limits, especially in the southern part where

high mountains do not block movements. Leaf Deer are also

said to extend into north-central Myanmar (26° 25' N, 97°

30' E)“west and northwest of Sumpra Bum” (Mg 2001). There

is a vague report from China from the southern part of the

Gaoligongshan in Yunnan between about 24-25° N where Ma

et al. (1994) describe “a possible new species of small muntjac”.

These mountains border Myanmar and are relatively low at

that latitude, providing an immigration route. The Leaf Deer

may thus have a fairly wide distribution in the northern third

of Myanmar and the areas of India and China immediately

bordering that region.

Black Muntjac ( Muntiacus crinifrons )

In the past. Black Muntjacs were known only from parts

of the Anhui, Zhejiang, Fujian, and Jiangxi provinces of

eastern China. About the size of a Red Muntjac, the species

weighs 21-26 kg (Sheng 1992). Its coat colour is variable,

ranging from brown with a chestnut hue or grey-brown to

dark brown with blackish legs and white undersides. The

antlers are usually small, 4-6 cm long (Sheng 1992), and

without the terminal hook as often found in adult male Red

Muntjac. In 1988, a supposedly new species of muntjac

(M. gongshanensis) was found in the Gaoligongshan in

Yunnan, China (Ma et al. 1990), but detailed analysis of the

mitochondrial DNA revealed that the animal is actually

M. crinifrons. far outside its known range (Amato et al. 2000).

In the Gaoligongshan, the Black Muntjac is said to occur

along most of that range from near the border of the Tibet

Autonomous Region (28° 10' N) south to about 25° N

(Ma et al. 1994). Rabinowitz and Khaing (1998) then

discovered this species in Myanmar in the forested hills north

of the banks of the Nam Tamai (about 27° 50' N, 97° 50' E). In

2002, we found it near the Myanmar-India border at 27° 43' N,

97° 05' E (Fig. I ). During surveys of southeast Tibet in 1 998

and 2000, we discovered two other disjunct populations of

Black Muntjac. One population is located along the Pailong

and Yigong rivers (30° 07' N, 95° 02 E), both tributaries to the

Yarlung Tsangpo, which becomes the Siang as it enters India,

and in the Medog area to the south (Schaller et at. 2000). The

other is located to the east near Zayu where a specimen was

obtained at 29° 56' N, 94° 48’ E.

Black Muntjac inhabits primarily broad-leafed evergreen

and semi-evergreen forests in hilly to mountainous terrain, a

habitat also often occupied by Red Muntjac. Both species,

so similar in size, occur in the Gaoligongshan, but an ecological

separation, if any exists, has not been described there (Ma et

al. 1994). Only the Black Muntjac is found in far northern

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

443

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Myanmar (Rabinowitz and Khaing 1998). However, farther

south, we noted that Black Muntjacs are mainly above

1,500 m, extending sparsely up into the temperate forest at

least to 2,600 m, whereas Red Muntjac occurs at lower

elevations. In south-eastern Tibet, Black Muntjacs were at

1 ,800-2,600 m and Red Muntjac lower down (Schaller et ai

2000). We had found that the Capped Leaf Monkey

( Trachvpithecus pileatus) has penetrated northward from the

mountain forests of Arunachal Pradesh in India into the big

bend of the Yarlung Tsangpo in Tibet, and we expected a

similar distributional pattern in Black Muntjac. One of us (GBS)

visited Arunachal Pradesh on an ecotourism assignment in

2000. Local hunters characteristically hang trophies on the

walls of their home. Many muntjac specimens were examined

along the Luhit river, Siang river as far north as Tuting, around

Tawang (Fig. 1 ), and elsewhere. All were Red Muntjacs even

at high elevations, and near Tawang one animal of this species

was observed at 3,000 m, higher than any elevation reported

for Black Muntjac. Possibly the Black Muntjac reached

southeast Tibet via a northern route, bypassing India. But a

more widespread search for the Black Muntjac is required before

its distributional dynamics can be discussed with confidence.

The evidence suggests some degree of competition

and ecological separation between Red and Black Muntjacs,

species with a long, separate evolutionary history judging

by their DNA (Amato et al. 2000). The Black Muntjac may

have evolved somewhere in China and entered Myanmar from

the northern Gaoligongshan, bypassing the high mountains

via the Drung (Tarong) river valley, or via the low-lying

southern part of this range. Considering the distribution of

the two species in China and India, the Red Muntjac may

have colonized a vast area first and the Black Muntjac later

moved into sparsely occupied terrain, or the Black Muntjac

survives in the eastern Himalaya as relic populations at high

elevations with the Red Muntjac having become dominant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful for the assistance of U Saw Tun Khaing,

U Than Myint, and others of the Wildlife Conservation Society

program office in Yangon and the Myanmar Forest Department.

In China, we received much cooperation from the Tibet

Forestry Department.

May 1 5, 2002 GEORGE B. SCHALLER1

ALAN RABINOWITZ2

Wildlife Conservation Society,

Bronx Park, New York, 10460, USA.

'Entail: [email protected]

2Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Amato, G., M. Egan & G. Schaller (2000): Mitochondrial DNA

variation in muntjac: evidence for discovery, rediscovery, and

phylogenetic relationships. Pp. 285-295. In: Antelopes, Deer,

and Relatives (Eds. Vrba, E. and G Schaller). Yale University

Press, New Haven.

Groves, C. & G Schaller (2000): The phylogeny and biogeography of

the newly discovered Annamite artiodactyls. pp. 261-282. In:

Antelopes, Deer, and Relatives (Eds. Vrba, E. and G Schaller).

Yale University Press, New Haven.

Ma, S„ L. Han & D. Lan (1994): Bird and mammal resources and

nature conservation in the Gaoligongshan region, Yunnan

Province, People’s Republic of China. Kunming Institute of

Zoology, Kunming. 116 pp.

Ma, S., Y. Wang & M. Shi (1990): A new species of genus Muntiacus

from Yunnan, China. Zoological Research 11: 46-53. (in Chinese)

Mg, M. (2001): Sumpra Bum Township tiger survey report. Wildlife

Conservation Society, New York. Unpublished report, 8 pp.

Rabinowitz, A. & S. Khaing ( 1998): Status of selected mammal species

in North Myanmar. Oryx 32(3): 201-208.

Rabinowitz, A., G Amato & S. Khaing (1998): Discovery of the black

muntjac, Muntiacus crinifrons (Artiodactyla, Cervidae), north

Myanmar. Mammalia 62:105-108.

Rabinowitz, A., T. Myint, S. Khaing & S. Rabinowitz (1999):

Description of the leaf deer ( Muntiacus putaoensis), a new

species of muntjac from northern Myanmar. J Zool. Lond

249: 427-435.

Schaller, G, E. Zhang & Z. Lu (2000): An ecological survey of the

Medog area in the Yarlung Tsangpo Great Canyon National

Reserve, Tibet. Wildlife Conservation Society, New York.

Unpublished report, 86 pp.

Sheng. H. (ed) ( 1 992): The Deer in China. East China Normal University

Press, Shanghai, (in Chinese)

5. ON THE PANGOLIN AND PORCUPINE SPECIES OF BANGLADESH

There seems to be some confusion as to which species

of porcupine and pangolin occur in Bangladesh. The country

is located on the eastern fringe of the distribution of the Indian

pangolin Manis crassicaudata and Indian porcupine Hystrix

indica. The western / south-western limit of the Chinese

pangolin Manis pentadactyla and crestless Himalayan

porcupine Hystrix brachyura is also in this region. It is

because of this transition that the confusion prevails.

Khan (1985) mentioned that M. crassicaudata occurs

widely, but in small numbers in areas bordering northeast

India as the main range. He doubted presence of

M. pentadactyla in eastern areas, but mentioned no sight

record. From my field survey experiences in north-eastern

India, especially near the Indo-Bangladesh border in

444

3. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Meghalaya, Assam and Mizoram, 1 could not find any evidence

of crassicaudata , but pentadactyla was common all over. This

clearly indicates that the pangolins of northern Mymensingh,

Sylhet and Chittagong Hill Tracts are pentadactyla and not

crassicaudata. The animals from west of Padma-Meghna rivers

(the conspicuous zoo-geographic barrier in the region) are

apparently crassicaudata as it has been recorded from the

adjacent districts of West Bengal (Agrawal et al. 1 992).

Khan ( 1 985) mentions that Hystrix indica occurs widely

and was earlier common in the entire country. But the photo

accompanying his text was that of H. brachyura and certainly

not indica. Here again, my field experience near the Indo-

Bangladesh border in Meghalaya, Assam and Mizoram

indicated that porcupines of northern Mymensingh, Sylhet

and Chittagong Hill Tracts are brachyura and not indica.

Again the animals from west of Padma-Meghna rivers (the

conspicuous zoo-geographic barrier in the region) are

Agrawal, V., P. Das, S. Chakraborty, R. Ghose, A. Mandal,

T. Chakraborty, A. Poddar, J. Lal, T. Bhattacharyya &

M. Ghosh (1992): Mammalia, hr. Fauna of West Bengal. State

Fauna Series 3. Zoological Survey oflndia, Calcutta.

Chatterjee, A. K. (1989): Survey of snow leopard and associated animals

in Molding National Park, East Siang district, Arunachal Pradesh.

Arimachal Forest News 7(1 & 2): 10-15.

Chetry. D., R. Redhi, Bujarbarua & P.C. Bhattacharjee (2001):

Mammals of Gibbon Wildlife Sanctuary, Assam, India. Tigerpaper

28(4): 29-32.

Islam, A.. M. Ameen & A. Nishat (2000): Red book of threatened

mammals of Bangladesh. IUCN Bangladesh, Dhaka.

apparently indica as it has been recorded from the adjacent

districts of West Bengal (Agrawal et al. 1992).

These mistakes have been repeated in Islam et al. (2000).

One reason for such mistakes was not seeing the specimens

or not examining them critically, or simply relying upon local

reports without cross-checking as is evident in some works

in northeast India (Chatterjee 1 989, Chetry et al. 200 1 , Singh

et al 1 994). The camera-trap record of porcupines in Kaziranga

(Karanth and Nichols 2000) was also of the Crestless

Himalayan Porcupine Hystrix brachyura and not Indian

Porcupine Hystrix indica as mentioned.

November 28, 2002 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co., Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

Email: [email protected]

Karanth. K.U. & J.D. Nichols (2000): Ecological status and

conservation of tigers in India. Final Technical report to

the Division of International Conservation, US Fish &

Wildlife Service, Washington DC and Wildlife Conservation

Society, New York. Centre for Wildlife Studies. Bangalore,

India.

Khan, M.A.R. (1985): Mammals of Bangladesh - a field guide. Nazma

Reza, Dhaka.

Singh, P., K. Haridasan, A. Borang. B. Bhatt, C. Borooah &

M. Borah (1994): Baseline survey of biodiversity in high

priority biologically rich areas of Arunachal Pradesh - Tale

Valley. Interim report to WWF-lndia, Itanagar.

6. CAT SNAKE BOIGA TR1GONATA IN DIET OF JERDON’S BAZA AVICEDA JERDON1

Jerdon’s Baza Aviceda jerdoni is one of the least studied

raptors in India. It is distributed in northern West Bengal,

Sikkim, Assam, North-eastern hill states, hills of Karnataka,

Kerala, Tamil Nadu, Eastern Ghats and Andhra Pradesh, and

affects tropical moist-deciduous to broadleaved evergreen

forest(Ali and Ripley 1983;Grimmett<?/a/. 1998; Kazmierczak

2000). Its diet consists of lizards, frogs, grasshoppers, and

other large insects (Ali and Ripley 1983;Grimmettcfo/. 1998),

birds eggs (Grossman et al. 1965) and a record of a small

snake (del Hoyo et al. 1994). Crabs, bats, mice, shrews and

rarely birds are recorded in the diet of other equal sized bazas

found in different parts of the world (Grossman et at. 1 965).

During the study on the breeding of the Jerdon’s Baza

in Buxa Tiger Reserve, West Bengal, two cat snakes Boiga

trigonata were recorded along with its normal diet of insects,

frogs and calotes lizards. The snakes, c. 50 cm long, were

brought to the nest on different occasions during the third

week of the nesting period. Adults fed small pieces of the

snakes to the nestlings and consumed the thin tail portions

themselves. This observation indicates that snakes are

probably a part of the Jerdon’s Baza’s regular diet.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We thank the U.S. Fish and Wildlife Service for financial

support, Bombay Natural History Society for giving us an

opportunity to study in Buxa and Mr. N. Sivakumaran,

Research Assistant, BNHS for suggestions on this note.

July 22, 2002 S. S1VAKUMAR

VIBHUPRAKASH1

Bombay Natural History Society

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

'Present Address: BNHS Field Station,

F-23, HMT Colony, Pinjore 134 101,

District Panchkula, Haryana, India.

Email: [email protected]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

445

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of

India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal,

Bhutan and Sri Lanka 21"1 edn Oxford University Press, New

Delhi

del Hoyo, J , A Elliott & J. Sargatal (eds) (1994) Handbook of the

Birds of the World Vol 2. New world vultures to Guineafowl

Lynx Edicions, Barcelona

Grimmett, R , C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

subcontinent Oxford University Press, New Delhi Pp. 888

Grossman, M L, S. Grossman & J Hamlet (1965): Birds of Prey of the

World. Cassell & Company Ltd, London

Kazmierczak, K (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Maldives. OM Book

Service, New Delhi

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE NORTHERN GOSHAWK ACCIPITER GENTILIS

IN AND NEAR MYSORE, KARNATAKA

The Northern Goshawk A ccipiter gentilis is considered

a rare winter visitor to north India, straggling to Gujarat and

Sind (Ali and Ripley 1987). It has been recorded from

Bhavnagar (Dharmakumarsinhji 1954) and Hingolgadh

(Khacher and Mundkur 1 989) in Gujarat, Poona (Ingalhalikar

et al. 1987) in Maharashtra and up to Bangalore, Karnataka

(Prasad and Karthikeyan 1994) and Wynaad, Kerala

(Zacharias and Gaston 1993) in south India.

A solitary male bird of this species was observed at

Gujjegowdanapura (12° 5' N, 76° 3 1 ' E) on January 1 , 2000 in

an undulating, hilly area with patches of scrub forest, a

eucalyptus plantation and several scattered trees of Acacia

nilotica , A. leucophloea, Casuarina equisetifolia,

Terminalia chebula , Strychnos potatorum and Mangifera

indica. The location is roughly 22 km southwest of Mysore

city (12° 18'N, 76° 33' E). The bird was seen resting at 1600 hrs

in a cluster of Acacia trees at the border of a gram field close

to Gujjegowdanapura lake. The large size, sooty black cap

and face, distinct white supercilium, slaty grey upperparts

and white underparts, finely barred black, readily identified

the bird as a male A. gentilis.

Juveniles of this species were observed on two

occasions at separate locations. The first of these sightings

took place at Meenakshipura on the south bank of the

Krishanarajasagara reservoir (12° 24’ N, 76° 26' E), 24 km

northwest of Mysore city, on January 8, 2000. A large

Accipiter raptor was seen as it took off from a well-wooded

area close to dry land cultivation. It was mostly brown in

colour, with bold, dark, vertical streaks on dirty creamy-buff

underparts and a barred tail. In flight, its rounded wings, mode

of flight and characteristic barring on the underwing identified

it as a juvenile Northern Goshawk. The bird was observed in

pursuit of a Black-naped Hare Lepus nigricollis across a short

stretch of open field, and successively through a thick patch

of Cassia sp. and Pongamia glabra trees lining a streambed.

It successfully caught the hare after a masterly display of deft

twisting, turning and ducking through the narrow path,

matching and finally overcoming the hare’s tactics in escape.

The second sighting of a juvenile was on February 30,

200 1 at the foot of Chamundi hill in Mysore city. The bird was

observed in a Eucalyptus grove bordering thick scrub

vegetation of Ziziphus jujuba, Z. oenoploea and

Dichrostachys cinerea. It was also observed in flight, and

was constantly mobbed by a band of Turdoides affinis.

These sightings and those of Zacharias and Gaston

(1993) and Prasad and Karthikeyan (1994) indicate that the

Northern Goshawk is possibly a rare winter visitor to southern

India.

July 24, 2002 S. THEJASWP

639, ‘Sibia House’, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar III Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

'Email: [email protected]

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

# 478, 3rd Cross Road, 8th Main Road,

‘H’ Block, Ramakrishna Nagar,

Mysore 570 022, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. 2nd edn. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Pp. 233-234.

Dharmakumarsinhji, K.S. ( 1 954): Goshawk (Astur gentilis) in Bhavnagar

(Saurashtra). J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 52(1): 211.

Ingalhalikar, Shrikant, Taej Mundkur & Tejas Gole (1988): The

Goshawk, Accipiter gentilis (Linne) in Poona, Maharashtra.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 84(2): 434-435.

Khachar, Shivrajkumar & Taej Mundkur (1990): Sightings of Gos-

hawk Accipiter gentilis in Hingolgadh, Gujarat. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 86(2): 446.

Prasad, J.N. & S. Karthikeyan (1994): Eastern Goshawk in Banga-

lore. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 90(2): 288-289.

Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of Wynaad, southern

India. Forktail 8 (February): 1 1-23.

446

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

8. THE EASTERN IMPERIAL EAGLE AQUILA HELIACA NEAR MYSORE, SOUTHERN INDIA

The Eastern Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca Savigny

1809, listed as a globally threatened (Vulnerable) species

(BirdLife International 2001), is considered to be a “rare

resident, but mainly winter visitor” to western Pakistan, North

and Northwest India up to Gujarat in the south (Ali and Ripley

1987). It has been recorded regularly in winter from Nepal and

occasionally from West Bengal and Assam in eastern India,

Bangladesh and Bhutan (BirdLife International 2001). There

are a few published records of the bird from the central and

southern parts of the peninsula - an adult was observed at

Nandur-Madhmeshwar in the Nashik district of Maharashtra

in 1983 (Goenka etal. 1985) and one at the Vedanthangal Bird

Sanctuary in Tamil Nadu in 1991 (Anon. 1991 ).

An adult bird of this species was observed by one of

the authors (Shivaprakash. A) at Bilikere (12° 19'N, 76° 27 E),

a moderate-sized irrigation tank situated 27 km west of

Mysore city (12° 18'N, 76° 33' E), on the Mysore-Mangalore

highway, on January 28, 2001 at 1530 hrs. The bird was initially

observed on a ‘Jaali’ {Acacia nilotica ) tree on the lake shore

and identified by the white scapular ‘patches’ on the large,

dark brown body and the pale, buff head and nape. When it

took off, fully feathered tarsi and light greyish-brown tail

with a terminal band were visible. Wings were held flat when

the bird began to soar, much more so than the Greater Spotted

Eagle Aquila clanga, which is usually seen at the lake and

was present at the time of this sighting. In flight, underside

was a dark brown body without the white/buff under-tail

coverts of spotted eagles. The take-off and initial flight

appeared to be sluggish and laboured, but once soaring, the

bird gained an effortless manner.

The bird was observed again at the Lingambudhi lake

(12° 16' N, 76° 37' E) on the outskirts of Mysore city on

February 25, 200 1 at 1010 hrs and could have possibly been

the same individual. The diagnostic scapular patches were

visible, confirming its identity. Both the sites are lakes situated

in dry lands, with irrigation being limited to the ayacut of

small irrigation tanks that dot the countryside.

These sightings represent the second report of the bird

from south India. Although Ali and Ripley (1987) state that

“...how much further east or south uncertain due to records

being vitiated by confusion in field identifications”, it is possible

to separate the Aquila eagles in field with practice, but it is

always prudent to exercise caution, as contended by Ali and

Ripley, in case of uncertainties. The advent of newer, better

illustrated field guides with sufficient good pointers to plumage

details, flight patterns, adult and juvenile phases has certainly

helped improve identification.

July 24, 2002 S. THEJASWI 1

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

639, ‘Sibia House’, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar III Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

1 Emai 1 :dumaketu@,rediffmai 1 .com

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds oflndia

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Anon. (1991): Recent reports: India. OBC Bulletin 13: 49-50.

Birdlife International (2001): Imperial Eagle Aquila heliaca.

Pp. 712-735. In: Threatened Birds of Asia: The BirdLife

International Red Data Book. Vol. 1. (Eds: Collar, N.J., A.V.

Andreev, S. Chan, N.J. Crosby, S. Subramanya & J.A. Tobias).

BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

Goenka, Debi, Sunjoy Monga & Kiran Srjvastava (1985): Imperial

Eagle, Aquila heliaca Savigny, in Maharashtra - a southward

extension of its wintering range. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

82(2): 406.

9. STATUS OF THE GREATER SPOTTED EAGLE AQUILA CLANGA PALLAS

IN THE WETLANDS OF THE KAVERI BASIN OF KARNATAKA

The Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga is a globally

threatened species, categorized as “Vulnerable” (Collar et al.

1 994, BirdLife International 200 1 ). Previously described as a

rare winter visitor to the southern peninsula (Ali and Ripley

1987), the status of the species has undergone a change in

the light of new reports (Perennou 1989, Santharam 1999) and

can now probably be regarded as a localized winter visitor,

not uncommon in parts, based on new evidence (BirdLife

International 2001, George 1994, Grimmettcra/. 1998, Perennou

1989, Santharam 1999, Aasheesh Pittie pers. comm ). This note

is based on the results of a survey in the wetlands of the

Kaveri basin in southern Karnataka state.

The Kaveri Basin: It covers an area of 81,155 sq. km

over the three southern states of Karnataka, Kerala and Tamil

Nadu, of which 34,272 sq. km lies in the districts of Bangalore,

Chamarajanagar, Kodagu (Coorg), Hassan, Mandya, Mysore

and Tumkur in southern Karnataka (Dikshit et al. 1993). The

basin is drained by the Kaveri river and its tributaries,

significant among which are Kapila (Kabini), Hemavathi,

Lakshmanathirtha, Shimsha, Harangi, Suvarnavathi and

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

447

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Arkavathi. Three major dams, the Krishnarajasagar, the Kabini

and the Hemavathi (Gorur) have been built on these rivers.

13,133 of the 36,598 irrigation tanks (known as kere in Kannada)

in Karnataka lie in the Kaveri basin (Dikshit et al. 1 993). Thus,

there is a large network of wetlands including paddy fields

and canals.

Results of a general survey of large tanks and reservoirs

in the basin, with waterspread area >75 hectares, for the

Greater Spotted Eagle in 1 996-2002 revealed the species to be

present at twenty-nine sites that include two riverine sites

(see Table 1 and Fig. 1). Identification difficulties are cited as

one of the reasons of the species being under- or over-

recorded from certain areas (BirdLife International 2001 ) and

only confirmed sightings are reported here after thorough

verification.

These observations indicate that the lakes of the Kaveri

basin in Karnataka are an important wintering ground for the

Greater Spotted Eagle in southern India. It has also been

observed that the Greater Spotted Eagle is very parochial to

its wintering grounds, without much movement which, if any,

is restricted to nearby lakes.

Krishnarajasagar reservoir: It is located 18 km from

Mysore city over Mysore and Mandya districts and covers

an area between 125 sq. km at full capacity (124.80 feet) and

15-20 sq. km at dead storage. Annual waterfowl counts

indicate that at least 25,000-29,000 waterfowl winter at this

site regularly (AWC 1996-2002).

At least six adult birds have been observed to winter in

different parts of the reservoir in 1997-2002, making it the

most important site known for the species in southern India

at present. Three birds can be seen in the Hampapura-

Manchanhalli floodplain marshes on the western bank, two

at Ayarahalli backwaters on the south-western bank and one

at Bookanakere on the northern bank of the reservoir. An

adult bird was observed to dive from a height of c. 122 m (400

ft) to catch an injured Ruff Philomachus pugnax on

28.xii.2000. A pale \fulvescens' juvenile was observed in

October 200 1 -March 2002 at Hatnpapura.

448

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 1: Sightings of the Greater Spotted Eagle in the Kaveri Basin, Southern Karnataka

Kunthur and Kallur lakes: These lakes, adjacent to

each other, have a combined waterspread area of around 500

hectares and are located around 52 km southeast of Mysore,

near Kollegal town in the Chamarajanagar district. They host

between 35,000 and 55,000 waterfowl every winter (AWC 1 992-

2002) and attract a wide range of birds of prey, including three

to four Greater Spotted Eagles every year since 1 996. A juvenile

bird was seen in the winter of 2000-200 1 .

Lingambudhi lake: It is located on the outskirts of

Mysore city and covers an area of 76 hectares. One to two

birds seen regularly at the lake since 1 996. A pale ‘ fulvescens '

juvenile was observed in winter 2001-2002. Diet of an adult

observed in 2001-2002, included Garganey Anas querquedula.

Wood Sandpiper Tringa gl areola, Purple Moorhen Porphyrio

porphyrio , frogs Hoplobatrachns tigerinus and Euphlyctis

hexadacty’lus.

Narasambudhi lake: It is situated 27 km south of

Mysore near Nanjangud town in Mysore district; covers an

area of 840 hectares and is one of the largest tanks in the

region. One to two birds seen every year at the lake (Table 1 ).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors would like to thank the entire team at the

Mysore Amateur Naturalists, Mysore for having

enthusiastically taken part in the survey; Aasheesh Pittie for

information on the Greater Spotted Eagle in Andhra Pradesh

and for help with literature and K. Vijayalakshmi for lending a

spotting scope before we could get our own.

July 29, 2002 S. THEJASWI

639, “Sibia House”, 16th Cross,

"ET Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 01 7, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

# 478, 3rd Cross Road, 8lh Main Road,

TT Block, RamakrishaNagar,

Mysore 570 022, Karnataka, India.

Email : [email protected]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

449

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal. Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Birdlife International (2001 ): Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga.

In: Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red

Data Book. Vol. 1, BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK.

pp. 678-71 1.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994): Birds to Watch

2 - The World List of Threatened Birds. BirdLife International,

Cambridge.

Dikshit, GS., G.R. Kuppuswamy & S.K. Mohan (1993): Tank Irrigation

in Karnataka: A historical survey. Gandhi Sahitya Sangha,

Bangalore.

Grimmett, R, C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

Subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London, UK.

George, J. (Ed.) (1994): Annotated checklist of the Birds of Bangalore.

Birdwatchers’ Field Club of Bangalore, Bangalore.

Perennou, C. (1989): Southern wintering range of some waterbirds.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 86(2): 247-248.

Santharam, V. ( 1 999): Records of Greater Spotted Eagle Aquila clanga

from south India. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 96(3): 470.

10. THE WHITE-BELLIED SEA-EAGLE HALIAEETUS LEUCOG ASTER (GMELIN)

IN INLAND SOUTHERN INDIA

The White-bellied Sea-Eagle Haliaeetus leucogaster

(Gmelin 1788) is a breeding resident of the seaboard and

offshore islands from Bombay (=Mumbai) down the west

coast and up east up to E. Pakistan (now Bangladesh) (Ali

and Ripley 1987). It is also .Occasionally met a few miles

inland along tidal rivers and at freshwater lakes...” (Ali and

Ripley 1987). The only records of the bird from inland areas in

India are from Ahmedabad, c. 80 km from the sea coast

(Acharya 1936) and one at the mouth of Shatrunji river,

Saurashtra (Ali and Ripley 1 987).

A White-bellied Sea-Eagle was observed at Maddur

lake (12° 5' N, 77° 2' E), a large irrigation tank, with a water-

spread area of some 1,500 acres near Yelandur town in

Chamarajnagar of south Karnataka on January 23, 2000, nearly

400 km from either coast. The bird was easily identified by its

pure white head and underparts, grey upperparts, white wings

with black flight feathers and a white, wedge-shaped tail with

a black base. It was seen soaring above the lake and made a

spectacular dive from c. 1 00 m to catch a large fish. The bird

then consumed the fish leisurely atop an Acacia nilotica tree

on the lake shore.

This is the first record of the bird from inland southern

India, and the farthest the bird has been recorded from the

sea shore in India.

July 24, 2002 THEJASW1 SHIVANAND

639, “Sibia House”, 16lhCross

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3 rd Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Acharya, H.G. (1936): The White-bellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus Ali, S. & S.D Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

leucogaster Gmelin) in North Gujarat. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

38(4): 828. and Sri Lanka. Second edition. OUP. New Delhi.

1 1. A NOTE ON HARRIER ROOSTS IN THE MYSORE AREA

This note records the presence of three minor harrier

roosts in Mysore and Chamarajanagar districts of southern

Karnataka. The Mandakhalli Airport (12° 1 3' N, 76° 39' E) is

located c. 8 km south of Mysore city ( 1 2° 1 8' N, 76° 33' E).

The Mandakhalli airfield, in parts an open expanse of

grassland, serves as a roost site for harriers. 73 harriers,

including 27 Pallid Harriers Circus macrourus (16 males,

6 females and 5 juveniles) and 46 Montagu’s Harriers Circus

pygargus (39 males and 7 females) were observed on January

12 and 14-16, 2002, mostly at dusk. This is the third such

roost we have observed in the Mysore, Mandya and

Chamarajanagar districts, defined here as the Mysore area.

of southern Karnataka. A roost of 37 harriers, 17 Pallid,

13 Montagu’s, 6 Western Marsh Circus aeruginosus and a

juvenile Pied Harrier C. melanoleucos (only in 2000-2001)

were observed between November 2000-March 2001 and

November 2001 till this note was accepted, at the Yedathore

bank of the Kaveri river. This area is open ground, i.e. located

at the point where the Kaveri river enters the

Krishnarajasagara reservoir ( 1 2° 24' N, 76° 27' E) and close to

a state highway. Another roost exclusively of the

C. aeruginosus was located at the Yelandur lake (12° 3' N,

77° 2' E), 65 km southeast of Mysore city. In January 1 998, 67

individuals of C. aeruginosus were counted on fallow paddy

450

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

fields close to the lake. But in subsequent years, cultivation

of this area led the harriers to abandon the roost. Reports of

harrier roosts from India have been few, and although major

sites have been identified (Clarke 1996, Rahmani and

Manakadan 1987, Satheesan and Rao 1990), much work

remains to be done to identify the smaller, perhaps more

numerous sites (Prakash 200 1 ).

October 20, 2002 S. THEJAS W1

639, “Sibia House”, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 01 7, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

# 478, 3rd Cross Road, 8lh Main Road,

‘H’ Block, RamakrishnaNagar,

Mysore 570 022,

Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

M. MOHAN KUMAR

Mysore Amateur Naturalists,

227,3rd Main,A-l Block,

Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 017,

Karnataka, India.

REFERENCES

Clarke, R. (1996): Preliminary observations on the importance of a

large communal roost of wintering Harriers in Gujarat (NW.

India) and comparison with a roost in Senegal (W. Africa).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(1 ): 44-50.

Prakash, V. (2001): Operation Harrier: Harrier survey of the Indian

subcontinent. Pitta 118: 1-2.

Rahmani, A.R. & R. Manakadan (1987): A large roost of harriers in

Andhra Pradesh, India. J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 83 (Centenary

Suppl .): 203-204.

Satheesan, S.M. & Prakash Rao (1990): Roosting and feeding of

harriers in Secunderabad, Andhra Pradesh../ Bombay Nat. Hist

Soc. 87(1): 143.

12. OCCURRENCE OF AMUR FALCON FALCO AMURENSIS RADDE AND

LESSER KESTREL FALCO NAUMANNI FLEISCHER IN MYSORE, KARNATAKA

The Amur Falcon Falco amurensis and Lesser Kestrel

Falco naumanni were observed in an open expanse of

grassland at the Mandakhalli Airport area (12° 13' N, 76°

39' E), c. 8 km south of Mysore city (12° 1 8' N, 76° 33' E) on

January 1 2 and 1 4, 200 1 . On the 1 2th, SS saw a few kestrels at

a distance at the Mandakhalli lake nearby, while he was

conducting a waterfowl census. He counted a total of thirteen

birds, and since it was unusual for kestrels to congregate, he

attempted further investigation but could not confirm the

identity of the birds. On the 14th, shortly after dawn, we

observed several hundred Amur Falcons take off from eight

Acacia rtilotica trees along the periphery of the airfield. They

took off singly first, then in twos and threes and finally in

small groups of up to seven birds. The estimated number of

birds was around 550, the male:female ratio being

approximately 60:40. The male was identified by its

unmistakable sooty grey body, with rusty red vent and legs.

In flight, the white underwing coverts contrast with grey

primaries and secondaries. In the female, grey upper-parts,

white throat and collar, a blackish stripe on the cheeks, and

markings on the underside - longitudinal spots on the chest

and lateral barring further down to the abdominal region. The

presence of Lesser Kestrels was discerned after light

conditions improved, but they were fewer in number than

Amur Falcons. We counted 89 birds, of which 56 were males

and rest females. Males were readily identifiable by their

unmarked bright brown mantle and back, a grey sub-terminal

band to the wings, relatively unmarked chest and absence of

a cheek-stripe. Paler claws vis-a-vis the Common Kestrel Falco

tinmmculus , was noted for both sexes using a 15-45 x 60

spotting scope. Females were similar to Common Kestrel

females, which differed in having dark claws. After light

conditions improved, we could observe these small falcons

better. They kept flying about in scattered flocks for around

fifteen minutes after leaving the roost, but slowly spread

throughout the entire airfield and further. Most of them moved

away in a southerly direction, but 35 F. naumanni remained

behind. The individuals were mostly males and were spread

widely in the airfield. In the evening, at 1730 hrs, we could see

most of the Amur Falcons and Lesser Kestrels settling in the

Acacia trees rather noisily, swarming around the trees,

frequently dashing in the air as if catching something, just

like bee-eaters. Ali and Ripley ( 1978) recorded similar behaviour

for the birds as they settle to roost. The birds were present

well before sunset and began to group-up just after. They

were present the following morning, but did not return in the

evening, or for the next two days. We assume that by then

they had left the area completely.

Amur Falcon is described as a passage migrant, with

occasional breeding records from N. Cachar, now in Assam

(Ali and Ripley 1978), but none in the past several decades. It

has been recorded as on passage at several points in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

451

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

peninsular India, which Aii and Ripley (1978) refer to as

‘stragglers’. This sighting is the second for Karnataka after

more than a century; the last published report goes back to

1 898 in Karwar (Davidson 1 898).

Lesser Kestrel is listed as an endangered species in the

BirdLife International Red Data Book on Asian birds (BirdLife

International 2001). Ali and Ripley (1978) write for Falco

naumanni , “Status uncertain. Apparently rare winter visitor;

perhaps more correctly as an irregular through passage

migrant to E. Africa like the Red-legged Falcon, a few stragglers

remaining behind.” It has been obtained as thus from several

locations in a wide area of north and north-eastern and

peninsular India, up to the Nilgiris in the south. It has also

been observed in the Maldives (Ali and Ripley 1 978). In more

recent times, it has been recorded from Corbett National Park,

Uttaranchal (Naoroji 1999), Kaziranga National Park, Assam

(Barua and Sharma 1 999) and Wynaad, Kerala (Zacharias and

Gaston 1993) in India, Dera Ismail Khan district in northwest

Pakistan (Kylanpaa 2000) and from Sri Lanka (Hoffmann 1 996).

There is a reliable but unpublished record of the bird from the

Biligirirangan Hills in south Karnataka (Srinivasa et al.

unpublished). Ali and Ripley (1978) mention F. amurensis and

F. naumanni migrating together. Arjal (1976) records the same

from Nepal, and our sighting corroborates it.

October 20, 2002 S. THEJASWI1

SRIHARI SASTRY

639, Sibia House, 1 6th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

'Email: [email protected]

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

# 478, 3rd Cross Road, 8th Main Road,

‘H’ Block, RamakrishnaNagar,

Mysore 570 022, Karnataka, India.

M. MOHAN KUMAR

Mysore Amateur Naturalists

227, 3rd Main, A- 1 Block,

Vijayanagar, 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 017, Karnataka, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. Vol. 1-10 vols. 2nd edn, Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Arjal, N. (1976): Sighting of Red-footed Falcons and Lesser Kestrels

in Pokhara. Nepal Conservation Society Newsletter , 3 1 (July).

Barua, M. & P. Sharma (1999): Birds of Kaziranga National Park,

India. Forktail 15: 47-60.

Birdlife International (2001): Lesser Kestrel Falco naumanni. In:

Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife International Red Data

book. Vol. 1. BirdLife International, Cambridge, UK. pp. 759-

771.

Davidson, J. (1898): The Birds of North Kanara. Part II. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 12(1): 43-72.

Hoffmann, T.W. (1996): New bird records in Sri Lanka and some

connected matters. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 382-388.

Kylanpaa, J. (2000): Birds of the Dera Ismail Khan District of North

West Frontier Province in Pakistan. Forktail 16: 15-28.

Naoroji, R. (1999): Status of diurnal raptors of Corbett National Park

with notes on their ecology and conservation. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 96(3): 387-398.

Srinivasa, T.S., S. Karthikeyan & J.N. Prasad (1997): A faunal survey

of the Biligirirangan Hills Temple Sanctuary. Merlin Nature Club,

Bangalore. Unpublished.

Zacharias, V.J. & A..I. Gaston (1993): The birds of Wynaad, southern

India. Forktail 8(Feb): 1 1-23.

13. NATURAL HISTORY NOTES ON CHICKS OF THE NICOBAR MEGAPODE

MEGAPODIUS NIC OB A R1ENSIS

The Nicobar Megapode Megapodius nicobariensis is

one of the 22 species of megapodes and is endemic to the

Nicobar Islands, India. Megapodes are a unique group of

birds as they utilise external sources of heat to incubate their

eggs (Jones et al. 1 995). Superprecocial chicks of megapodes

hatch at depths from c. 20 cm to 1 m or more from the incubation

site (Jones et al. 1995). In order to emerge from the incubation

site they must dig to the surface, an action they perform

without any assistance from the adult (Frith 1 959, Jones et al.

1 995). The time taken in moving from the level of hatching to

the surface varies with depth, the nature and compaction of

the substrate, and energy reserves of the individual hatchlings

(Jones et al. 1 995). Observations of the chicks of the mound

building Nicobar Megapode have not been published in detail.

This note describes the behaviour of chicks of the Nicobar

Megapode.

This study was carried out between December 1995

and May 1998 on Great Nicobar Island (6° 76-6° 79' N,93° 81'-

93° 84' E). All the mounds in the study area were monitored.

When an egg was laid, it was dug out and weighed to the

nearest gram using a spring balance. After weighing and

marking, the egg was reburied in the same egg chamber and

the mound was re-built. To monitor the egg as well as

hatchling behaviour inside the mound, glass plates were

452

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

placed adjacent to the egg chambers of seven eggs. Here,

"chick’ refers to both hatchlings and fledglings, and ‘hatchling’

refers to a chick working its way out of the egg and up to the

surface. Once at the surface and out in the open, it was called

a fledgling.

In 1 998, a total of seven eggs were monitored. Of these,

a longitudinal crack was observed in only three eggs after

65.33 (se ±1 .86) days after egg-laying and approximately ten

days prior to hatching. We assumed that the force within the

egg might be the reason for the crack and it could be the

initial part of the hatching process.

Activities of hatchling: The climb of the hatchling from

the egg chamber to the surface is a long process (Jones el al.

1995). In our study, a chick took up to 83.8 hours (se ±12.7,

n=5) to reach the mound surface, which is higher than other

mound builders (Jones and Birks 1992). The mean rate of

movement was about 1.25 cm per hour (se ±0.07, n=5).

Movement of the hatchling was effected by two factors. The

breathing of the hatchling resulted in contraction and

expansion of the body, which loosened the soil, the legs were

then flexed and the hatchling was pushed upwards. The

average rate of leg kicks of the hatchling was 2.7 kicks /hour

(se ±0.2).

Chicks invariably left the mound soon after reaching

the surface. Successful hatching was indirectly indicated by

the hatching holes on incubation mounds with a damp surface.

In case of a mound with dry surface, the hatching hole could

not be seen due to shifting of sand.

Activities of fledgling: A total of 22 chicks were sighted

in the study area. Of these 17 chicks were captured and

released. As soon as a chick emerged from the mound it

preened its body and leg. Once, within seven seconds of

emerging, a chick flew 53 m. Another hatchling, as soon as it

emerged out from the mound, flew and perched on a branch

73 cm from the ground. Chicks made alarm calls when handled.

Locating chicks on the forest floor was difficult, as they

camouflaged with the ground. A chick was frightened even

on seeing a tree shrew Tupaia nicobarica.

Fate of chick: All the chicks sighted in the field were on

or near the incubation mounds. Although locals reported

sighting chicks in the interior forest, we did not see any. Six

dead chicks were seen in the study area. Of these, four

hatchlings were seen being eaten by a Nicobar Serpent-Eagle

Spilornis minimus klossi , Nicobar Sparrowhawk Accipiter

butleri and hermit crabs Pagurus sp.

Of the 1 7 chicks captured, five had an opaque membrane

over the eye that rendered the bird blind, of which we

cured three by immersing them in seawater and two

died. Considering how alert the chicks are, it is likely

that those preyed upon were also born with the eye

disorder.

At one mound, an adult bird kicked out an emerging

hatchling from the mound while digging a pit. No reaction

was noticed between the adult and the fledgling. The

fledgling left the mound after a short rest. In another mound,

a pair, while digging a pit, kicked out an embryo from the egg

chamber. The embryo was not fully developed and hence

died.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The Ministry of Environment and Forests, Government

of India funded this study, and the logistic support by the

Forest Department, Andaman and Nicobar Islands is gratefully

acknowledged. We thank Rene Dekker, Darryl Jones,

V.S. Vijayan, Lalitha Vijayan, Ajith Kumar, R A. Aziz, H.S. Das,

N.K. Ramachandran,A. Rajasekaran, B.P. Yadav, A.K. Biswal,

R. Rajyashri, Areendam, and David for inputs in this study,

and Jugulu Maheto and Prem Ram who assisted us in the

field.

August 10, 2002 K. SIVAKUMAR1

R. SAN KARAN

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Anaikatty, Coimbatore 640 1 08,

Tamil Nadu, India.

'Present address: Wildlife Institute of India,

POBoxNo. 18, Chandrabani,

Dehra Dun 248 00 1 ,

Uttaranchal, India.

E-mail: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Frith, H.J. ( 1959): Breeding of the Mallee Fowl, Leipoa ocellata Gould adaptations and reproduction. TREE 7(3): 88-91.

(Megapodiidae). CSJRO Wildlife Research 4: 31-60. Jones, D.N., R.W.R.J. Dekker & C.S. Roselaar(1995): The Megapodes.

Jones, D.N. & S. Birks (1992): Megapodes: Recent ideas on origins, Oxford University Press. Pp. 304.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

453

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

14. BLACK TERN CHLIDONIAS NIGER (LINN.) IN MYSORE, KARNATAKA:

FIRST RECORD FROM INLAND SOUTHERN INDIA

A Black Tern Chlidonias niger in full breeding plumage

was observed at Lingambudhi lake (12° 16' N, 76° 37' E) in the

outskirts of Mysore city (12° 1 8' N, 76° 39' E) on April 5, 2002.

It was seen in a mixed flock of one Black-headed Gull Larus

ridibundns, 1 1 Whiskered Terns Chlidonias hybridus, all in

breeding plumage, one Gull-billed Tern Gelochelidon nilotica

and four Black-bellied Terns Sterna acuticauda. The tern

was identified by the characteristic black-and-grey plumage;

head was pure black and the black colour extended to the

nape, neck and belly completely, becoming progressively

sooty black from neck to belly, excepting the vent, which

was pure white. The bird also had no black on the underwing

coverts as is characteristic of the White-winged Black Tern

Chlidonias leucopterus , and had completely grey upperwing,

underwing, back and tail, of a shade comparatively darker

than the Whiskered Terns that were in flight nearby. The

Black Tern was noticeably smaller and distinct from the

Whiskered Terns which had black caps, red beaks and sooty

black bellies. The beak of the Black Tern also differed, it was

thinner, longer and somewhat blackish. Observations were

made using a pair of 7x35 Naturalist Binoculars and a 1 5x-45x

Spotting Scope.

The Black Tern was seen feeding along with the

Whiskered Terns, keeping a low flight over the water and

feeding by picking up fish (?) or food material from the water

surface, and just below the surface. The Whiskered Terns on

the other hand, while indulging in similar food capture, also

repeatedly made abrupt turns in flight at the same time

spreading out their tail and plunged into the water to capture

fish, something that the Black Tern was never observed to

do. The Black Tern was observed only on April 5 and

subsequent daily visits to the site, especially to obtain

photographic evidence, did not yield further sightings. It was

Abdulali, H. & V.C. Ambedkar ( 1984): Occurrence of the Black Tern

Chlidonias niger (Linn.) in India. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

80(3): 640.

Alexander, H.G. (1950): Possible occurrence of the Black Tern

[Chlidonias niger (Linn.)] near Delhi. J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc 49(1): 120-121.

Ali, S & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Balachandran, S. (1994): Some interesting bird records from Kaliveli

Lake near Pondicherry. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 91(2): 317-

318.

Balachandran, S. (1995): Comments on the note "Occurrence of the

Black Tern Chlidonias niger (Linnaeus) at Point Calimere" by

probably a passage migrant along with the Whiskered Terns.

The Black Tern Chlidonias niger is a winter vagrant to

the Indian subcontinent with only a few records for the entire

region. Although Ali and Ripley (1987) record only one old

sight record from Delhi (Alexander 1950), there have been

regular records of odd birds from Pt. Calimere (Abdulali and

Ambedkar 1984, Balachandran 1994, Sangha 1994, also see

Balachandran 1995, Menon 1992). I too have seen one

individual ringed at the BNHS bird-banding camp held in

December 200 1 . It has also been recorded from Kaliveli tank

near Pondicherry (Balachandran 1 994), Pulicat lake (Mohapatra

and Rao 1994, Sangha 1999) in Andhra Pradesh, India and in

Sri Lanka (De Silva et al. 1 993, Hoffmann 1 996).

Although the bird observed was probably a passage

migrant and could be clearly discerned in the breeding

plumage, it is otherwise difficult to separate Chlidonias tern

in the field in their non-breeding plumage, especially when a

large number of terns are together, despite recent

improvements in illustrated field guides (Grimmett etal. 1998,

Kazmierczak 2000). I had an experience in which six White-

winged Black Terns Chlidonias leucopterus were picked out

from a huge flock of over 2,500 Whiskered Terns Chlidonias

hybridus , all in flight, over the Kunthur lake (12° 07' N, 11°

02' E), a large irrigation tank near Yelandur ( 1 2° 03' N, IT 0 1 ' E)

in the Chamarajanagar district of Karnataka in September 1999

(also see notes under White-winged Black Tern in Perennou

and Santharam 1990); it was extremely tedious work.

July 29, 2002 S. THEJASWI

639, ‘Sibia House’, 16lh Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 017, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

Vivek Menon. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(3): 453-454.

De Silva, R.I., E. Perera, L. Perera & K. Samarasinghe ( 1 993): Black

Tern Chlidonias niger: a new species for Sri Lanka. Forktail

9(December): 153-154.

Grimmett, R, C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London, UK.

Hoffmann, T.W. (1996): New bird records in Sri Lanka and some

connected matters. J. Bombav Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 382-

388.

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Maldives. Om Book

Service, New Delhi.

Menon, Vivek. (1992): On the Black Tern Chlidonias niger niger

(Linn.). J. Bombay Nat Hist. Soc. 89(1): 120.

Mohapatra, K.K. & Prakash Rao (1994): Further evidence on the

454

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

occurrence of the Black Tern Chlidonias niger (Linnaeus) on

India’s eastern coast. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 90(3): 511.

Perennou, C. & V. Santharam (1990): Status of some birds in

southeastern India. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 87(2): 306-307.

Sangha, H.S. (1994): Black Tern at Point Calimere, Tamil Nadu.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 34(2): 34.

Sangha, H.S. (1999): Records of significance from Pulicat, Andhra

Pradesh and Punjab. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 39(2): 36-37.

15. ON THE INSECTIVOROUS DIET OF COLUMBA LIVIA GMELIN

Some years ago I was watching House Crows, Koels

etc. along with Spotted Owlets (in the bright morning light)

eating winged termites, emerging from the ground after a

heavy shower of rain. Some Blue Rock Pigeon Columba livia

also joined the other birds on the ground and started picking

up something in their bills. 1 assumed that they were eating

grass seeds or picking up grit. However, recently on June 30,

2002, after it had rained the previous day, I saw, from the

verandah of my house, four pigeons avidly eating the winged

termites that had emerged from the ground! Dead insects were

picked up and swallowed directly, while those still alive were

shaken with a sideways movement of the bill before being

gulped down.

I have kept domestic pigeons, and have had

opportunities of observing free living Columba livia , but

never have I seen them eating insects.

August 10, 2002 M.K. H1MMATSINHJ1

Jubilee Ground,

Bhuj, Kutch, Gujarat, India.

16. EASTERN CALANDRA-LARK MELANOCORYPHA BIMACULATA

IN MYSORE, KARNATAKA: A NEW RECORD FOR SOUTHERN INDIA

Fourteen Eastern Calandra-Larks Melanocorypha

bimaculata (Menetries 1 832) were observed at Lingambudhi

lake (12° 16' N, 76° 37' E), in the outskirts of Mysore city

(12° 1 8' N, 76° 39' E), on January 7, 2001 . Five birds were

observed again at the same site on February 25, 2001. The

birds were observed on the north-western end of the lake in

c. two acres of mixed grassland close to the lake. They were

identified by their larger size ( vis-a-vis the common and

widespread Greater Short-toed Lark CalandreUa

br achy dactyl a), robust beak, distinct white supercilium, a

conspicuous black patch on the side of the chest vs. a small

patch, sometimes absent in CalandreUa , absence of a white

trailing edge to the wing in flight vs. its presence in the

extralimital European Calandra-Lark, Melanocorypha

calandra , and a narrow, white terminal band to the tail. In

flight, the call heard was similar to that of CalandreUa,

“ chirrup ”, The birds were in company of a large flock of c.

450 Greater Short-toed Larks and they clearly stood out in the

group; the Calandra-Larks kept a little away from the other

larks in the flock, but moved along with them when they flew,

or when feeding in the grasses.

The Eastern Calandra-Lark is a fairly common visitor

to Baluchistan, Sind, Kashmir, Punjab, Haryana, Rajasthan

and Uttar Pradesh east to about the Jumna river (Ali and

Ripley 1 987); also termed as “erratic” in recent times (Grimmett

et al. 1998). Specimens collected from Kutch (Himmatsinhji

1960, Ali and Ripley 1987) appear to be the southern-

most records hitherto of the species. This sighting is

possibly the first from peninsular India, south of the

Vindhyas.

The Greater Short-toed Lark on the other hand is a fairly

common species in winter around Mysore, usually in small

flocks, but occasionally in large aggregations of up to a couple

of thousand birds.

July 29, 2002 S. THEJASW1

639, ‘Sibia House’, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3,d Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

# 478, 3rd Cross Road, 8th Main Road,

‘H’ Block, Ramakrishna Nagar,

Mysore 570 022, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan and Sri

Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London.

Himmatsinhji, M.K. (1960): The Eastern Calandra Lark (Melanocorypha bimaculata) in Kutch. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 57(2): 408

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

455

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

17. RECORDS OF GREY-HEADED STARLING STURNUS MALABAR1CUS BLYTHII

IN MUMBAI

The Grey-headed Starling Sturnus malabaricus

malabaricus is distributed in most parts of India except Jammu

& Kashmir and Western Ghats (Ali and Ripley, compact

handbook, 1987). The Western Ghats hold the Sturnus

malabaricus blythii population.

On July 18, 2001, flocks of 50-300 S.m. blythii were

seen on trees, near Godrej Colony, east Mumbai. These flocks

had a large number of juveniles, still being fed by parents.

Later on September 22, 2001, a flock of 300 S.m. blythii

were observed feeding on flowers of Ficus religiosa,

F. benghalensis , F. glomerata, Cassia sp.; they were once

disturbed by a Shikra Accipter badius.

About ten S.m. malabaricus were seen once at 0630 hrs.

bathing in puddles near a mangrove creek and around five to six

times at c. 1 730 hrs, mixed with a flock of S.m. blythii, till sunset.

25-30 Asian Pied Starling were also seen near the creek.

Such sightings have not been reported from Mumbai

earlier, although according to Ali and Ripley (1987), specimens

of S.m. blythii from Mumbai were found in mixed flocks

together with S.m. malabaricus in July.

July 1 , 2002 MEHBOOB ALAM

Room # 1 8, 4th floor, Building X9 1 ,

Godrej Station Colony, PirojshaNagar,

Vikhroli (E), Mumbai 400 079,

Maharashtra, India.

18. OCCURRENCE OF THE ASHY MINIVET PER1CROCOTUS DIVARICATUS (RAFFLES)

AT THE PARAMBIKULAM WILDLIFE SANCTUARY, KERALA

A pair of Ashy Minivets Pericrocotus divaricatus was

observed at Anapaddy in the eastern part of the Parambikulam

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala on December 27, 2001.

Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary is located at the border of

Kerala and Tamil Nadu, on the Annamalai hill range and covers

an area of 285 sq. km with habitats ranging from dry deciduous

scrub to shola forests. The pair, a male and a female, was seen

at 1100 hrs on a Terminalia tomentosa tree in a mixed

deciduous forest plantation also consisting of Lagerstroemia

lanceolata, Schleichera oleosa and Tectona grandis trees

along with thick undergrowth of Lantana camara. The

minivets were present in the fringes of a large mixed hunting

party of seventeen species that included Scarlet Minivet

Pericrocotus flammeus. Small Minivet Pericrocotus

cinnamomeous , Bronzed Drongo Dicrurus aeneus, Ashy

Drongo Dicrurus leucophaeus, Indian Treepie Dendrocitta

vagabunda, Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis, Black-

headed Oriole Oriolus xanthor mis, Common I ora Aegithina

tiphia, Brown-capped Pygmy Woodpecker, Dendrocopos

nanus , Brown-headed Barbet Megalaima zeylanica, White-

cheeked Barbet Megalaima viridis, Crimson-throated Barbet

Megalaima rubricapilla, Blyth’s Reed Warbler Acrocephalus

dumetorum , Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa muttui

and Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus . Rosy Starling Sturnus

roseus and Blue-winged Parakeet Psittacula columboides

were also present on the tree but did not appear to be involved

with the mixed flock. The Ashy Minivets were very distinctive

and appeared to stay a little away from the apparent confusion

of the centre. They restricted themselves to the lower reaches

between 4.6-6 m, whereas the Scarlet and Small Minivets were

seen higher up, at around 7.6 m. After the flock moved a little

further, the Ashy Minivets moved up to the place vacated by

the other minivets and orioles. Their behaviour did not differ

from that of other minivets, except that they were silent.

The handbook (Ali and Ripley 1987) lists the Ashy

Minivet as “An accidental winter vagrant” to the Indian

subcontinent, “recorded twice: near Port Blair, Andamans,

November 1 9, 1 897 and at Kamala, near Bombay, January 3 1 ,

1 965”. Navarro ( 1 965) reported the bird from the mainland for

the first time, sixty-eight years after the first report from the

Andamans. It has, however, been subsequently observed in

various parts of India like Guindy National Park, Madras city

(= Chennai) (Santharam 1988), Sriharikota Island, Nellore

district, Andhra Pradesh (Santharam 1990), Periyar National

Park (Robertson 1992), Himachal Pradesh (Khacher 1994),

Goregaon, Bombay (= Mumbai) (Paralkar 1 995), Trivandrum

(Kumar 1995), Kanha National Park, Madhya Pradesh (Pittie

and Poddar 2000); the records appear concentrated in western

and southern India. Over the years, it has been reported regularly

at the Guindy National Park. It may be, therefore, regarded as a

rare, perhaps regular winter visitor to the Subcontinent in small

numbers. This record of the Ashy Minivet is the third from

Kerala State after Robertson ( 1 992) and Kumar ( 1 995).

June 5, 2002 S.THEJASWI1

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

639, “Sibia House”, 16lhCross

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

456

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Khacher, Lavkumar (1994): Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus

(Raffles) in Himachal Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 91(2):

321.

Kumar, C.S. (1995): Unforgettable moments with Ashy Minivet.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35(3): 49.

Navarro, A. (1965): The Ashy Minivet Pericrocotus divaricatus

(Raffles): an addition to the Indian avifauna. J Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 62(2): 303.

Paralkar, V.K. (1995): Ashy minivet sighting in Goregaon, Bombay-

2. Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35(4): 73.

Pittie, Aasheesh & Amitabh Poddar (2000): Ashy Minivet

Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) in Kanha National Park, Mandla

District, Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 97(2): 283.

Robertson, Andrew (1992): Occurrence of the Ashy Minivet

Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat.

Soc. 88(3): 455-456.

Santharam, V. (1988): Occurrence of the Ashy Minivet (Pericrocotus

divaricatus ) in Madras city (South India). J Bombay Nat. Hist

Soc. 85(2): 430-431.

Santharam, V. (1990): The Ashy Minivet. Blackbuck 6(2): 10-11.

19. SOOTY FLYCATCHER MUSCICAPA SIBIRJCA GMEL1N AND ASHY MINIVET

PERICROCOTUS DIVARICATUS (RAFFLES) IN BANDIPUR NATIONAL PARK, KARNATAKA,

SOUTHERN INDIA

While on a bird survey of the Bandipur National Park

(11° 20'- 1 1 0 40' N, 76° 20-76° 32' E) in April 2002, two interesting

species were observed — the second record of the Sooty

Flycatcher Muscicapa sibirica from southern India and the

rare winter visitor Ashy Minivet, Pericrocotus divaricatus.

The Sooty Flycatcher was observed in dry deciduous

forest between April 1 8 and 20, near the Inspection Bungalow

at Chammanalla in the Mulhol range of the National Park. It

was the evening of April 18, at 1715 hrs, when a brown

flycatcher was observed launching sorties from a dry teak

( Tectona grandis ) tree at an unusual pace, to catch insects

above a recently burnt plot of forest. It was similar to the

Asian Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa dauurica, of which four

individuals were also present in the vicinity offering good

comparison, but differed in the following aspects vis-a-vis

the Asian Brown: the Sooty Flycatcher was overall a couple

of shades more greyish rather than brownish, bill differed in

being visibly smaller and completely black vs. longer bill with

a clear pale base to the lower mandible, chest and flanks were

washed dusky grey, interrupted by white patches towards

the flanks vs. a light brownish wash on chest, longer primary

projection with reference to the tertials, a feature clearly visible

and helpful in field especially if both species are together as

in this case, and a pure white belly and vent appearing in

contrast with the chest. The other species of brown flycatchers

in southern India, the Brown-breasted Flycatcher Muscicapa

muttui and Rusty-tailed Flycatcher Muscicapa ruftcauda are

easily separable from the Sooty and the Asian Brown and

therefore not confused under ordinary circumstances.

The Asian Brown Flycatchers were noticeably slacker

than the Sooty Flycatcher, but this is probably of no consequence

other than the possibility of the Sooty feeding in preparation

for the migration back to its breeding grounds in the Himalayas.

It was observed at the same location for the next two days.

The Sooty Flycatcher's winter quarters in India, for both

races gulmergi and cacabata , are “imperfectly known (records

from November to March totally lacking); presumably in the

foothills below c. 1200 m” (Ali and Ripley 1987), “ poorly

known” (Grimmett et al. 1998). Zacharias and Gaston (1993)

record it from Wynaad ( 1 1 ° 1 5’- 1 1 ° 55’ N, 75° 45’-76° 30’ E), but

the record is treated as unconfirmed by Grimmett et al. ( 1 998)

and Kazmierczak (2000). This record of the bird, then is the

first from southern India, if accepted. The similarity with the

Asian Brown Flycatcher has probably resulted in individuals

of the species being overlooked, but it may also be that the

bird is a vagrant and should be treated as such until the

emergence of further evidence to the contrary. The Asian

Browns are common breeding residents at Bandipur. A 2 km

transect in Chammanalla during the same trip had nearly

twenty-five pairs and eight nests.

The Ashy Minivet, a female, was seen while on transect

on the Karnataka-Tamil Nadu border on April 19. The habitat

was a dry deciduous-moist deciduous interface with Tectona

and Terminalia as the predominant vegetation; semi-

evergreen trees like Mangifera were present along a dry

stream-bed nearby. The bird had complete ash-grey

upperparts, a black tail with thin white borders, white throat

and a greyish wash on the underparts. It flew in from thick

forest and settled on a small Syzigium tree before joining a

mixed hunting party of birds that included the Great Black

Woodpecker Dryocopus javensis, Small Yellow-naped

Woodpecker Picus chlorolophus, Scarlet Minivet

Pericrocotus flammeus, Black-headed Oriole Oriolus

xanthornus, Black-naped Oriole Oriolus chinensis , Indian

Scimitar Babbler Pomatorhinus horsfteldii, Quaker Tit-

Babbler Alcippe poioicephala. Velvet-fronted Nuthatch Sitta

frontalis, Black-lored Yellow Tit Parus xanthogenys and Black-

naped Monarch-Flycatcher, Hypothymis azurea. The bird kept

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

457

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

to the middle storey in the canopy along with the oriole and

fed moving along thin branches.

The Ashy Minivet is probably a rare winter visitor to

the Subcontinent (Grimmett et al. 1998, Thejaswi and

Shivaprakash 2004) rather than “accidental winter vagrant”

(Ali and Ripley 1987). There have been records from Madras

(now Chennai), in Tamil Nadu (regular in Guindy National

Park) and Sriharikota in the Nellore district of Andhra Pradesh

(Santharam 1988, 1990), Periyar National Park (Robertson

1992), Parambikulam Wildlife Sanctuary (Thejaswi and

Shivaprakash 2004) and T rivandrum (Kumar 1 995) in Kerala.

This is the first record of the bird from Karnataka state and

hence of interest.

July 29, 2002 S. THEJASWI

639, “Sibia House”, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 017,

Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

M.C. MANOHARA

114 (1st Floor), 2nd Main,

Opp. Panduranga Temple,

Vivekanandanagar,

Mysore 570 023,

Karnataka, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

subcontinent. Christopher Helm, London.

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds of India, Sri Lanka,

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Maldives. Om Book

Service, New Delhi.

Kumar, C.S. (1995): Unforgettable moments with the Ashy Minivet.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 35(3): 49.

Robertson, A. ( 1 992): Occurrence of the Ashy Minivet, Pericrocotus

divaricatus (Raffles) in Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 88(3):

455-456.

Santharam, V. (1988): Occurrence of the Ashy Minivet ( Pericrocotus

divaricatus ) in Madras city (South India). J. Bombay Nat. Hist.

Soc. 85(2): 430-431.

Santharam, V. (1990): The Ashy Minivet. Blackbuck 6(2): 10-11.

Thejaswi, S. & A. Shivaprakash (2004): Occurrence of the Ashy Minivet,

Pericrocotus divaricatus (Raffles) at Parambikulam Wildlife

Sanctuary, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 101(3): 456-457.

Zacharias, V.J. & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of Wynaad, southern

India. Forktail 8(February): 1 1-23.

20. NEW SITES FOR THE GLOBALLY THREATENED YELLOW-THROATED BULBUL

PYCNONOTUS XANTHOLAEMUS (JERDON) IN KARNATAKA, KERALA AND

TAMIL NADU, SOUTHERN INDIA

The Yellow-throated Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus

is a globally threatened, “Vulnerable” species (Collar et al.

1994, BirdLife International 2001), locally occurring over parts

of eastern and southern Karnataka, south-western Andhra

Pradesh, and northern and western Tamil Nadu with stony

foothills scrub as its favoured habitat (Ali and Ripley 1987,

BirdLife International 200 1 ). This rare peninsular endemic has

recently been the subject of studies on status assessment

and habitat preference (Subramanya et al. 1 995). The breeding

biology of the bird has been studied only recently

(Venkataswamappa and Chaitra 1999) although much more

needs to be known (BirdLife International 2001).

Most of the sites for the Yellow-throated Bulbul in

Karnataka are located in the Bangalore Rural district (BirdLife

International 2001). A limited survey conducted in 2001-2002

of selected areas with suitable habitat in Chamarajanagar,

Hassan, Kodagu, Mysore and Mandya districts of southern

Karnataka resulted in seven new localities for the species,

including the first from the Western Ghats of Karnataka.

Opportunistic bird watching has added a site each at the

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary in Kerala and Dimbum in Tamil Nadu.

The Yellow-throated Bulbul was located at Arasanakatte

State Forest, Arsikere hills (Hirekal State Forest), Bandipur

National Park, Bettadapura hill, Chamundi hill, Melkote Temple

Wildlife Sanctuary, Nagamangala and Bettadahalli near

Somwarpet, all in Karnataka.

Arasanakatte State Forest: The Arasanakatte State

Forest (12° 1 T N, 76° 28' E) is a reserve forest situated some

20 km southwest of Mysore city on the Mysore-H.D. Kote

road (Manandavadi road) in Mysore district. It is some 20 sq.

km of dry deciduous scrub with Capparis divaricatus ,

Cadaba fruticosa , Dichrostachys cirterea , Lantana camara

and Pterolobium hexapetalum as the dominant species along

with Canthium parviflorum , Randia dumetorum , Ziziphus

oenoploea and a few trees of Acacia nilotica, Acacia

leucophloea. Ficus bertghalensis and Atalantia sp. apart

from a grove and scattered trees of the ubiquitous Eucalyptus.

Six Yellow-throated Bulbuls were located on an isolated

rocky hillock known as Bettadabeedu, located in the western

end of the forest, on June 19, 2002. The bulbuls were seen,

separately, in the foothills of this hillock in dense scrub.

Arsikere Hills: The Maale Kallu Tirupati (Amaragiri)

458

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

hills are located in the Hirekal State Forest, a 250 sq. km scrub

forest near Arsikere (13° 30' N, 76° 1 5' E), in north-eastern

Hassan district. They are an isolated chain of high rocky

outcrops with a maximum height of 1,275 m. A thick scrub

jungle covers the slopes and western foothills, but is denuded

at several places. Vegetation is concentrated in relatively

inaccessible and steep valleys and ravines and is primarily

Ziziphus, Capparis, Chomelia , Pterolobium and Canthium

interspersed with trees like Morinda , Cochlospermum and

Ficus.

The Yellow-throated Bulbul was noted fairly frequently

in these jungles in December 2001 and May 2002. Ten birds

were seen and three heard late in the afternoon, c. 1630-

1 800 hrs on May 27, 2002.

Bandipur National Park: Several sightings in dry

deciduous scrub in the northern boundaries of the Bandipur

National Park (11° 20'-l 1° 40' N, 76° 20'-76° 32' E) — in

November 1 997 (two seen), June 1 999 (six seen, one heard) — -

and in the Moyar gorge area in the western end of the park in

June 2001 (seven seen, three heard) and January 2002 (two

seen, four heard). The species has been recorded in the

neighbouring Mudumalai Wildlife Sanctuary (Gokula and

Vijayan 1997).

Bettadapura hill: The Bettadapurahill (12°28'N, 76° 5'

E), an isolated, conical and symmetrical rocky peak, is located

in the Periyapatna taluka on the western end of Mysore district.

Only two sightings of single birds, one each in December

2000 and 200 1 , in the hill precincts, with most of the foothills

vegetation destroyed to a great extent. Surviving vegetation

include Ziziphus , a few Canthium bushes, Erythroxylon

monogynum, Euphorbia antiquorum and Synedinium grantii ,

the latter two bordering paths and agricultural fields in the

immediate neighbourhood.

Chamundi hill: The Yellow-throated Bulbul was heard

in the Chamundi hill ( 1 2° 1 8' N, 76° 33' E) of Mysore city in

March 1 992 (S. Subramanya per BirdLife International 200 1 ).

Regular sightings have been along a foothill road leading left

from near the foot of the 1 000 steps, along the steps at different

points, in the so-named “Horse-shoe valley” in the eastern

part of the hill, along the Uttanahalli road from the Nandi

monolith and evergreen scrub around Nandi. The sightings

have been in different vegetation types: the birds in the

foothills and along the Uttanahalli road were seen in

Canthium-Capparis-Dichrostachys-Pterolobium-Dodonea-

Erythroxylon-Lantana-Scutia scrub with scattered trees of

Cassia siamia , Flacourtia montana , Plectronia didyma ,

Boswellia glabra, Cochlospermum religiosum , Chloroxylon

swietenia, Morinda tinctoria, Azadirachta indica. Acacia

auriculiformis, several Ficus sp. and Eucalyptus sp. Around

Nandi, individuals were seen in vegetation composed of

Acacia coccinea, Acacia suma, Atalantia sp.. Citrus sp.,

Schefflera sp., Santalum album, Plectronia didyma, Wrightia

tinctoria. Ficus sp. and interspersed by bushes of

Stachytarpheta mutabilis and Cymbopogon grass on rocky

slopes. The species, though encountered on most visits to

the area, is nevertheless uncommon when compared to the

Red-vented, Red-whiskered and White-browed Bulbuls with

an average sighting of three individuals per visit. It has been

observed feeding on the berries of Azadirachta indica,

Scutia sp., Flacourtia indica, Lantana camara, Erythroxylon

monogynum, Coccu/us hirsutus, Pachygone ovata and Azmi a

tetracantha.

Melkote Temple Wildlife Sanctuary: The species is

well-distributed over this 49.82 sq. km Sanctuary ( 1 2° 36' N,

77° 30' E), found in thick jungle around the three principal

hills, Narayanadurga, Karikallgudda and Melkote betta. It was

first observed in June 2000 at Karikallgudda, where two birds

were seen and many more heard. Narayanadurga is the best

place to observe this species and up to twenty-five

individuals have been observed in an hour of birding. It has

been recorded here since August 200 1 . The vegetation in the

foothills is denuded scrub of chiefly Dichrostachys cinerea

and Ziziphus sp. overrun by thickets of Lantana camara and

interspersed with trees of Terminalia chebula, Strychnos

potatorum. Acacia sp., Plectronia didyma and stunted Ficus

trees in rocky crevices. The bulbul was also observed in the

Narayanadurga valley in fairly thick deciduous forest of

Shorea roxburghii, Mallotus philippensis, Wrightia

tinctoria, Schefflera sp., Gmelina arborea, Gardenia sp.,

climbers of Stephania sp. and Pachygone ovata and a dense

undergrowth of Lantana camara and Securinega sp. The

vegetation at Karikallgudda is broadly similar to

Narayanadurga without as many trees, but that at Melkote

betta is overrun by Lantana camara and afforested with

Eucalyptus sp. Birds were seen feeding on berries of Lantana

camara, Cissus quadrangular is, Scutia sp., Stephania sp.

and Cissampelos pariera. Isolated sightings of single birds

have been in vegetation near and overhanging dry streambeds

and light forest in undulating areas away from the hills.

Nagamangala: Two birds were observed at Aalathi

Betta, a small hill c. 2 km from Nagamangala (12° 50' N, 76° 45'

E) on April 3,2002 (M. Mohan Kumar, pers. comm.) in Lantana-

Pterolobium-Ziziphus-Scutia scrub.

Bettadahalli, near Somwarpet: This is the first record

of the species in the Karnataka Western Ghats and incidentally

the first record of the species west of 76° E. The species was

observed in scrub that separated a degraded coffee estate

from nearby rice-fields some 20 km northwest of Somwarpet

and close to a small settlement called Bettadahalli in Kodagu

(Coorg) district on March 1 6, 200 1 . Only one bird was seen in

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

459

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

the area which is in the Western Ghats foothills and composed

primarily of moist deciduous vegetation with some border

scrub of Acanthaceae and Rubiaceae species.

Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary: The Yellow-throated

Bulbul was observed in dry deciduous scrub in eastern and

north-eastern parts of the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary situated

in the Idukki district of Kerala. Four birds were seen in March

1998 (B.R. Sheshagiri, comm.), three birds each in March

2000 (A. Shivaprakash, pers. comm.) and April 2002 (pers.

obs.). The species has been recorded once at Monkey falls

area in the neighbouring Annamalai hills (Kannan 1992) and

more frequently in Bodiyakanur, on the road to Munnar

(BirdLife International 200 1 ).

Dimbum: Eighteen birds were observed in degraded

dry deciduous forest near Dimbum on June 14, 2002 and 24

birds were seen in evergreen scrub on the steep

Satyamangalam Ghat downhill towards Satyamangalam on

June 1 5, 2002. Dimbum (c. 1,250 m) is a settlement of a few

huts located on the southern end of the Biligirirangan hills

c. 1 0 km from Satyamangalam ( 1 1 ° 3 1' N, 77° 1 5' E) in the Periyar

district of Tamil Nadu. The vegetation at Dimbum is the

interface between a degraded dry deciduous forest of teak

( Tectona ), bamboo ( Dendrocalamus ) and Lantana thickets

and evergreen scrub of Plectronia didyma , Schefflera sp.,

Canthium sp. and Ziziphns sp. The typical vegetation on the

Satyamangalam ghat slopes can be characterised as the same

evergreen scrub, but a few deciduous trees of Ailanthus

excelsa , Boswellici glabra , Chloroxylon swietenia and other

species. At the foothills, most vegetation is Dodonea,

Erythroxylon , Lantana , Ziziphus etc., rapidly replaced by the

mesquite, Prosopis julijlora away from the hills.

The bulbuls were fairly common both along and away

from roadside bushes in middle elevation and higher elevation

on the Ghat, at a maximum of c. 1 ,250 m around Dimbum. This

is probably an altitudinal record for the species. The species

has been previously documented from the northern parts of

the Biligirirangan hills (Karthikeyan et al. 1 995)

Discussion: The species appears to be common in only

two of the nine sites listed here, parts of the Melkote Temple

Wildlife Sanctuary and the Satyamangalam Ghat jungles,

although regular surveys in the Chinnar Wildlife Sanctuary

may result in more encounters.

An interesting feature of isolated populations like those

of Chamundi hill, Arsikere hills, Arasanakatte State Forest,

Melkote hills and Bettadapura hill is the absence of intervening

hills or suitable habitat from the nearest relatively contiguous

habitat in the Eastern Ghats of south-eastern Karnataka. This

could suggest that the species was once more widespread

than it is today and could have been found in scrub jungles

away from hills. The gradual conversion of the plains jungles

into agricultural lands limited most relatively undisturbed

scrub forests to the hilly areas and the bulbul could have

then been restricted to hill and foothills scrub. Birds observed

away from hills at Melkote appear to support this premise,

but more studies are required to prove it for certain.

The bird observed near Somwarpet is indicative of a

relict, possibly a small population. Foothills areas with good

scrub were also surveyed in the vicinity in March 2001, but

did not yield any bird of the species. Moreover, with the great

reduction in forest cover in the area and the subsequent

replanting with coffee to the lowest slopes has forced the

bird to vegetation bordering the coffee estates as in the

Shevaroys (Karthikeyan 1995).

In the isolated and fragmented habitats like the

Arasanakatte State Forest, Arsikere hills, Bettadapura hill,

Chamundi hill and Aalathi Betta, the pressure on foothills

forest is immense and rising. While land in the former three

sites is being diverted for agriculture, the latter site is facing

encroachments from nearby ashrams and residential localities.

Forests at all sites including the scrub jungles in the northern

boundaries of the Bandipur National Park face the danger of

vegetation loss to fuel wood collection by residents of nearby

villages. This reaches a peak in summer when the vegetation

is dry, just before the breeding season of the birds that

coincides with the onset of the monsoons. The Melkote

Temple Wildlife Sanctuary, an important site for the species,

is severely affected by a shortage of staff for effective

monitoring and prevention of encroachments and vegetation

loss. The bulbul survives in good numbers in the remote

areas of the Park, relatively away from human habitations and

disturbances.

July 29, 2002 S. THEJASWI

639, “Sibia House”, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3 rd Stage,

Mysore 570 017,

Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Birdlife International (2001 ): Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data Book. BirdLife International, Cambridge,

pp. 1969-1973.

Collar, N.J., M.J. Crosby & A.J. Stattersfield (1994): Birds to Watch

460

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

2 -The World List of Threatened Birds. BirdLife International,

Cambridge.

Gokula, V. & L. Vijayan (1997): Birds of the Dr. J. Jayalalitha

(Mudumalai) Wildlife Sanctuary, India. Forktciil 12(Augusl ): 107-

117.

Kannan, R. (1992): Yellowthroated Bulbul in the Anaimalai hills.

Newsletter for Birdwatchers 32(7-8): 1 9.

Karthikeyan, S. (1995): Notes on the occurrence of the Yellowthroated

Bulbul Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon) at Shevaroys, Tamil

Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(2): 266-267 .

Karthikeyan, S., J.N. Prasad&T.S. Srinivasa (1995): Yellow-throated

Bulbul, Pycnonotus xantholaemus (Jerdon) at the Biligirirangan

hills, Karnataka. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 92(1): 123-124.

Subramanya, S., J.N. Prasad & S. Karthikeyan (1995): In search of

the Yellow-throated Bulbul. Sanctuary-Asia 15(5): 68-70.

Venkataswamappa, M. & M R. Chaitra (1999): Observations of

nesting Yellow-throated Bulbuls. Oriental Bird Club Bulletin 30:

31-32.

21. OBSERVATIONS ON THE RUSTY-RUMPED GRASSHOPPER- WARBLER

LOCUSTELLA CERTHIOLA (PALLAS) AT MYSORE, KARNATAKA

The Rusty-rumped Grasshopper- Warbler Locustella

certhiola, formerly known as the Pallas’ Grasshopper Warbler,

was observed at Lingambudhi lake (12° 16' N, 76° 37' E), in

Mysore (12° 1 8' N, 76° 39' E), between November 1999 and

March 2000. It was first noted on November 1 0, 1 999 in a two

acre plot of tall grass near the lake. The bird, an adult, was

identified by the presence of a rufous rump, a greyish crown

heavily striped with black, a distinctive white supercilium and

dark brown tail with white-tip. Bold, black streaks on the back

were restricted and did not extend to the rump which was

relatively clear of marks. Throat and underparts were white

and unmarked, with a rufous wash on the flanks and vent.

The Streaked Grasshopper- Warbler Locustella lanceolata and

Pale Grasshopper- Warbler Locustella naevia are both heavily

streaked on the chest, flanks, undertail coverts and rump, and

lacking the rufous rump and white-tipped tail. The former also

differs in being smaller and having streaks on throat while the

latter is more or less the same size, but much paler and less

accentuated streaks.

Over five months of surveillance resulted in the almost

daily observation of the bird in the same locality and we

familiarized ourselves with its activities. The bird was not

difficult to observe in the early morning between 0700 hrs,

around when it would first appear, and 0830 hrs. It would

move through the grasses during the rest of the day, seldom

making an appearance on the top or elsewhere. It would be

visible again in the evenings, but for a short period, between

1715 to 1745 hrs that advanced further with the season and

daylight conditions. Although the Locustella warblers are

known to be “great skulkers” (Ali and Ripley 1987), the bird

would often rise to the top of tall grasses and keep a look-out

for a few seconds before disappearing deep into the grass

again. It would do this quite often, and would sometimes

hunt keeping to the top of the grasses. It was twice observed

to go up to c. 8 m on a Casuarina tree to feed, although this

was unusual and infrequent. On the whole, the bird could be

observed fairly well, once located, as it was restricted to a

small area in the grassland.

Ali and Ripley ( 1 987), on the vocalization of the species,

note “In winter only an occasional “ chi-chirrr" is uttered.”

But the bird was noted to have three other calls; a low 'fit,

tit ” occasionally heard when feeding, a babbler-like chatter

“ kat kat kat kaf ’ repeated in a frenzy when excited, especially

once when the bird was seen chasing a Indian Great Reed-

Warbler Acrocephalus stentoreus , and an occasional,

somewhat loud “ chirr ”. The second of these calls was heard

towards mid-March when the bird was noticed to become

somewhat territorial, chasing other large warblers and even

bushchats from the grass patch.

The Rusty-rumped Grasshopper- Warbler is recorded

as a locally common winter visitor (Ali and Ripley 1987).

It has been recorded only once from southern India, a

specimen netted at Kuttanad in the Alleppey district of Kerala

in May 1963 (George and Matthew 1965). Sugathan and

Varghese ( 1 996) record it from the Thattakad Bird Sanctuary

in Kerala, but see Santharam (2000). The Streaked

Grasshopper- Warbler is recorded as a scarce winter visitor

from parts of eastern and northern India (Ali and Ripley 1987)

with a recent record from Sri Lanka (Hoffmann 1996), while the

Pale Grasshopper- Warbler is a widespread winter visitor in India,

especially the Western Ghats and has also been observed at the

same site as the Rusty-rumped in Mysore. This observation

from Mysore is the second from southern India and provides

details of vocalization hitherto not recorded.

July 27, 2002 S. THEJASWI

639,“Sibia House”, 16lh Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 0 1 7, Karnataka, India.

Emai 1 : dumaket u@rediftmai I .com

A. SHIVAPRAKASH

# 478, 3rd Cross Road, 8th Main Road,

‘H’ Block, RamakrishnaNagar,

Mysore 570 022, Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

461

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds oflndia

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

George, P.V. & I P. Mathew (1965): The Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler,

Locustellci certhiola rubescens Blyth from south India. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 62(2 ): 304.

Hoffmann, T.W. (1996): New bird records in Sri Lanka and some

connected matters. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3): 382-388.

Santharam, V. (2000): Comments on the birdlist of the Thattakad

Bird Sanctuary, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 97(2): 284-285.

Sugathan, R. & A.P. Varghese (1996): A review of the birds of the

Thattakad Bird Sanctuary, Kerala. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 93(3):

487-506.

22. A SIGHT RECORD OF TYTLER’S LEAF- WARBLER PHYLLOSCOPUS TYTLER1

FROM THE NILGIRIS, SOUTHERN INDIA

Tytler’s Leaf- Warbler Phydloscopus tytleri Brooks, 1 872,

is listed as a ‘Near Threatened’ species by BirdLife

International (200 1 ). The winter range of this species according

to Ali and Ripley (1 987) is “little known, records very scanty. .

A recent update (Rasmussen 1998) includes the complete

Western Ghats in general and Mahabaleshwar in the northern

Western Ghats of Maharashtra in particular in the winter range

of the species. It is possible that it has been infrequently

recorded in the winter range due to identification difficulties

(BirdLife International 2001, Rasmussen 1998). In southern

India, the only records of this species are one each from Goa

(Price 1 980) and Londa (Koelz 1 942), two old records from the

Nilgiris (Ali and Ripley 1987), one each from the Palni Hills

(Baker and Inglis 1930), Wynaad (Zacharias and Gaston 1993)

and Munnar (Harrap and Redman 1989). The habitat

preference of the species in winter has been imperfectly

recorded, with a few records from the middle storey of sholas

and broadleaved forest (Grimmett et al. 1 998).

A Tytler’s Leaf-Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri was

observed at the Tiashola ( c . 2,200 m) in the south-eastern

part of the Upper Nilgiris Plateau on April 25, 2002. Tiashola

is perhaps the largest tract of intact shola (Montane Wet

Temperate Forest) left on the Upper Nilgiris Plateau. The bird

was seen on the edge of the shola , at 0900 hrs in an open area

beside a road, on a wattle (Acacia dealbata ) tree at c. 5 m. It

was engaged in feeding while perched on branches, moving

horizontally along branches and then vertically up to the next.

Identity of the bird was confirmed by a long, lean and dark

beak, an extended whitish supercilium and dark eye-stripe,

olive green upperparts tending to grey, absence of any wing-

bar, white underparts washed grey and short tail. The bird

also appeared very fat, like most warblers at the time of the

year when they are preparing to leave for their breeding

grounds. The characteristic call clinched the identification;

an extended, somewhat loud, mournful ‘ szooeet ’ repeated

often, rendered by Kazmierczak (2000) as a “plaintive, drawn-

out (p)ssoooeef\ Three Tickell’s Warblers, Phylloscopus

affirtis were also present on the tree.

This record of the Tytler’s Leaf- Warbler, along with the

recent records from elsewhere in the Western Ghats reinforces

the suggestion that the species does occur in the south, but

has been perhaps overlooked owing to confusion with

identification. This record corroborates previous records of

the bird from shola habitat which are probably the preferred

wintering habitat in the southern Western Ghats. A special

look-out should be kept for the bird in field.

July 9, 2002 S. THEJASWI

639, ‘Sibia House’, 16th Cross,

‘B’ Block, Vijayanagar 3rd Stage,

Mysore 570 01 7,

Karnataka, India.

Email: [email protected]

ASHFAQ AHMED ZARRI

Bombay Natural History Society

Hombill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023,

Maharashtra, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley ( 1987): Compact Handbook of the Birds oflndia

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal. Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Barer, H.R. & Chas M. Inglis (1930): The Birds of Southern India

including Madras, Malabar, Travancore, Cochin, Coorg and

Mysore. Government Press, Madras.

Birdlife International (2001): Threatened Birds of Asia: the BirdLife

International Red Data Book. 2 vols. BirdLife International.

Cambridge, UK.

Grimmett, R., C. Inskipp & T. Inskipp (1998): Birds of the Indian

subcontinent. Christopher Helm. London, UK.

Harrap, S. C. & N.J. Redman (1989): Some observations of scarce birds

in Kerala and Tamil Nadu. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 86(3):

460-461

Kazmierczak, K. (2000): A Field Guide to the Birds oflndia, Sri Lanka,

462

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Pakistan, Nepal, Bhutan, Bangladesh and Maldives. Om Book

Service. New Delhi.

Koelz, W. (1942): Notes on the birds of Londa neighbourhood, Bombay

Presidency. / Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 11-38.

Price, Trevor D (1980): On the occurrence of Tytler’s Leaf Warbler,

Phylloscopus tytleri Brooks, in Goa. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

77(1): 143-144.

Rasmussen, P.C. (1998): Tytler’s Leaf Warbler Phylloscopus tytleri:

non-breeding distribution, morphological discrimination, and

aging. Forktail //(August): 17-28.

Zacharias, V..L & A.J. Gaston (1993): The birds of Wynaad, southern

India. Forktail 8 (February): 22-13.

23. SIGHTING OF WALLCREEPER TICHODROMA MURARIA IN ASSAM AND MANIPUR

The wallcreeper Tichodromct muraria is a bird of higher

elevations, usually preferring areas above 3,300 m in the

mountains. However, in winter it may come down to the

foothills, occasionally straggling into the plains. In north-

eastern India, it was known only from Eastern Himalaya in

Arunachal Pradesh as a winter visitor (Ali and Ripley 1987).

Here I report two sightings, one each in Manipur and Assam.

While driving from Imphal in Manipur to Hailakandi in

Assam, I saw a bird on a barren cliff by the side of NH 53 in

Manipur at about 0845 hrs on January 20, 1996. The exact

location was between Keithelambi and Tupul, about 40 km

west of Imphal in Senapati district (24° 47’ N, 93° 42' E), and at

c. 1,100 m above msl. The bird soon flew off, showing its

crimson wings. This was apparently the first record for

Manipur.

The first record of wallcreeper in Assam was from

Kaziranga National Park on December 19, 1994 (Barua and

Sharma 1999). This sighting was significant and hence

included in the birds of assam (Choudhury 2000). On March

25, 2001 at 0840 hrs, I saw one wallcreeper in flight on the

banks of Jongrong Nullah in Mathanguri Beat area of Manas

National Park (26° 42' N, 90° 59' E), at c. 1 00 m above msl. The

bird (lew from the woodland on the south bank to the north

bank taking a north-westerly direction. Again, the crimson

wings with white spots were conspicuous.

May 1 6, 2002 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

The Rhino Foundation for Nature in NE India,

C/o The Assam Co. Ltd., Bamunimaidam,

Guwahati 781 021, Assam, India.

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Compact Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan together with those of Bangladesh, Nepal, Bhutan

and Sri Lanka. Second edition. Oxford University Press, New

Delhi.

Barua, M. & P. Sharma (1999): Birds of Kaziranga National Park.

India. Forktail 15: 47-60.

Choudhury, A. U. (2000): The Birds of Assam. Gibbon Books & WWF-

India NERO, Guwahati.

24. PROBABLE HYBRIDISATION BETWEEN WEAVERBIRDS, PLOCEUS PHILIPPINUS

AND PLOCEUS MANYAR

The frequency and outcome of hybridisation between

species determines the extent to which they remain genetically

distinct and can evolve independently. For this reason,

records of hybridisation in the wild are of interest from the

evolution and speciation point of view.

I studied the breeding behaviour of weaverbird between

1998 and 2000 at the International Crops Research Institute

for the Semi-Arid Tropics (ICRISAT-Asia), Patancheru,

Andhra Pradesh, India. During this time, I discovered one

nesting attempt involving a possible hybridisation between a

male Baya Weaver ( Ploceus philippinus) and a female

Streaked Weaver ( P. manyar). On September 11, 1998, 1

observed a female Streaked Weaver perched on a Baya Weaver

nest at the “helmet” stage located in a small colony of about

3 males and 5 nests on an Acacia nilotica tree. When I next

watched the colony, on September 24, a female Streaked

Weaver (presumably the same individual) entered this same

nest (now with brood chamber complete), while being

displayed to by a male Baya Weaver. Upon checking the

contents of the nest the next day, I found three eggs (mean

length and width: 21 .63 x 14.97 mm). One of these eggs hatched

on September 29, and 1 subsequently observed the female

Streaked Weaver bring food into the nest. The nest was

checked frequently until October 1 2, by when the single chick

had grown substantially and was almost fully feathered. The

two unhatched eggs remained in the nest. When 1 next

returned, on October 23, I found the desiccated carcass of

the chick and fragments of eggshell covered by loose strips

of grass, typical of the nest having been occupied by the

arboreal mouse Vandaleuria oleracea.

Were the eggs laid by this Streaked Weaver truly

hybrid? Egg dimensions are of little use in addressing this

question because the egg size is similar in both the species

(Ali and Ripley 1978). However, since hybrids are often

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

463

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

unviable, the outcome of this nesting attempt is important.

The proportion of unhatched eggs (2 of 3, or 0.67) in the

clutch was very high compared to that in normal Baya Weaver

clutches in this population (mean proportion of unhatched

eggs in Baya Weaver clutches was 0.21, N= 91 complete

clutches). In only two of 91 normal Baya Weaver clutches

was this proportion 0.67 (and never higher). Ambedkar ( 1 964)

presents equivalent data for Baya Weavers (proportion

unhatched 0.24, N= 291 eggs; clutch-specific data not

presented). More importantly, this proportion is similarly low

for Streaked Weavers (0.27, N= 70 eggs; Ambedkar 1972),

indicating that it is indeed unusual for 2 of 3 eggs of this

species to remain unhatched.

If one can accept this observation as an instance of

interspecific hybridisation, can the frequency of such

hybridisation be estimated? Over three seasons, I observed

270 within-species pairings in the Baya Weavers. No

interspecific pairs were seen in the 1 1 8 Black-breasted Weaver

( P. benghalensis ) nests, and no Baya Weaver x Black-breasted

Weaver hybrid was seen. I have no detailed information on

Streaked Weaver pairs, in part, because this species was

relatively uncommon. Based on the two common weavers it

would thus appear that hybrid pairs are very rare in this

population.

Crook (1963a) studied the behavioural factors leading

to reproductive isolation between all four species of Indian

weaverbirds. He observed female Baya Weavers visiting

Streaked Weaver nests and cites observations of male Black-

breasted Weavers chasing and mounting female Streaked

Weavers (the reciprocal situation has also been observed;

Ambedkar 1972), but concluded that there was no good

evidence for hybridisation among Indian weavers in the wild.

Two records of possible hybrids between captive male

Streaked Weavers and female Baya Weavers are in the

literature (Gray 1958). Records of morphological intermediates

between other weaverbird species, for example between the

Village Weaver (P. cucullatus) and Vieillot’s Black Weaver

(P. nigerrimus) in Africa (Chapin 1954, Crook 1963b), have

been taken as evidence for occasional hybridisation.

What factors might influence hybridisation among

birds? Not all hybrid matings are biological dead-ends. Hybrid

pairings between Pied ( Ficedula hypoleuca ) and Collared

( F. albicollis ) Flycatchers in Europe produce sterile

daughters, but fertile sons. Female F. albicollis reduce the

costs of hybrid mating by producing more sons than daughters

and, for reasons not completely understood, late-season

females gain the highest reproductive success by mating with

heterospecific males (Veen et al. 200 1 ). Similarly, Nuechterlein

and Buitron (1998) argue that it is adaptive for male Western

Grebes ( Aechmorphus occidentals ) to increase their response

to female Clark’s Grebes (A. clarkii) when female Western

Grebes are scarce. Thus, it appears that hybridisation may

actually be beneficial under certain circumstances. In

ICRISAT, Streaked Weavers were uncommon during my study,

with a population of about 30 males. Also, the hybrid pair was

seen very late in the season, when opportunities for nesting

decline. Proximity of nesting location may also influence the

frequency of hybridisation, but there were no Streaked Weaver

colonies within a radius of 1 km of the Baya Weaver colony in

question.

More information on hybridisation among Indian birds

(and other taxa) is needed. Observations on hybridisation

will be particularly useful if they are presented in conjunction

with information on the relative frequency and outcome of

such pairings.

I would like to thank ICRISAT (particularly C.T. Hash)

and the Birdwatchers’ Society of Andhra Pradesh for making

my work possible. Comments by K. Isvaran improved this

note considerably.

July 1 , 2002 SUHEL QUADER

Department of Zoology

University of Cambridge

Downing Street,

Cambridge CB2 3EJ, UK.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. 2nd ed. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

Ambedkar, V.C. (1964): Some Indian Weaver Birds: a contribution to

their breeding biology. Bombay University Press, Bombay.

Ambedkar, V.C. (1972): On the breeding biology of the blackthroated

[Ploceus benghalensis (Linnaeus)] and the streaked (Ploceus

manvar flaviceps Lesson) weaver birds in the Kumaon terai.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc 69(2): 268-282.

Chapin, J.P. (1954): The Birds of the Belgian Congo, Part 4. Bull.

Amer. Mus. Nat. Hist. 74B: 1-846.

Crook, J.H. ( 1963a): The Asian Weaver Birds: Problems of co-existence

and evolution with particular reference to Behaviour. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 60(1): 1 -48

Crook, J.H. (1963b): Comparative studies on the reproductive

behaviour of two closely related weaver birds (Ploceus cucullatus

and P. nigerrimus) and their races. Behaviour 21: 177-232.

Gray, A.P. (1958): Bird Hybrids: a check-list with bibliography.

Commonwealth Agricultural Bureaux, England.

Nuechterlein, GL. & D. Buitron (1998): Interspecific mate choice

by late-courting male western grebes. Behavioral Ecology 9(3):

313-321.

Veen, T., T. Borge, S.C. Griffith, G.P. Saetre, S. Bures, L. Gustafsson

& B.C. Sheldon (200 1 ): Hybridisation and adaptive mate choice

in flycatchers. Nature 411(6833): 45-50.

464

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

25. TOR PUTITORA (HAMILTON, 1822) AS AN ADDITION TO THE FISH FAUNA

OF PENINSULAR INDIA

Genus Tor (Gray 1834) shows wide distribution in the

freshwaters of Asia, Africa and Indo- Australian Archipelago

(Tilak and Sharma 1 982). The six species of Tor described so far

show a distinct pattern of distribution from great Himalayas to

Peninsular region in the Indian subcontinent. Among the species

in the genus Tor, T. putitora attains the largest size up to 274 cm

(Misra 1962) and is characterised by an uninterrupted posterior

fold in the lower lip and with a median fleshy lobe (mentum)

(Tilak and Sharma 1982; Talwar and Jhingran 1991). Nautiya!

and Lai ( 1 982) reported a female specimen of Tor putitora having

137.7 cm length and a weight of 23 kg from river Nayar. Tor

khudree, T. mussullah and T. tor are the three species hitherto

known from South India (Kulkami 1980; Kulkarni and Ogale

1979; Sen and Jayaram 1982; Menon 1999; Ajithkumar et al.

2000; Kurup et al. 200 1 ; Shaji and Easa 200 1 ). During the survey

of NAT-ICAR project on Germplasm Inventory Evaluation and

Genebanking of Freshwater Fishes of Kerala, the authors came

across two specimens of Tor putitora having lengths of 260.07

and 1 62.02 ( 1 70.04 gm and 36. 1 8 gm weight) respectively from

two tributaries of Kabini river system, namely, Kalindi and

Noolpuzha, thus increasing the number of mahseer species of

Peninsular India to four.

Description: (Based on two specimens having 219.8

and 130.58 mm SL)

D III 9; PI 15; V I 8; All 5

Head length 3.03 and 3.52, body depth 3.7 and 4.3 in

standard length. Eyes lie on posterior half of the head and

their length is contained from 5.59 and 6.6 times in head length

and from 1.2 and 1.3 times in interorbital width. Dorsal and

ventral profiles are equally convex. Two pairs of barbels are

present, maxillary longer than rostral barbels. Predorsal

scales 9. Origin of dorsal lies opposite to that of pelvics and

midway between tip of snout and base of caudal fin. Dorsal

spine bony, strong and smooth, equal to depth of body. Caudal

fin is sharply forked. The least height of caudal peduncle is

contained 1.6 times in its standard length. There are 26-27

large scales along the lateral line, 2'/z rows between the lateral

line and the pelvic fin and 3 V2 rows between the base of dorsal

fin and the lateral line. Pelvic fin bears a well developed scaly

appendage. Head is broadly pointed and the lips are fleshy

and continuous at the comers of the mouth. Both the lips are

hypertrophied in the smaller specimen.

Colouration: Dorsal side of the body is greenish black,

while the ventral profile is silvery in appearance. The head is

slightly yellowish white while the eyes are dark bluish. Fins

are golden yellowish and paired fins are characterised by

fringed red colouration. Caudal fin mottled black.

Habitat and ecology: Tor putitora was collected from

the rapid and riffle habitat of Begur and Noolpuzha

respectively. The smaller one was collected from the rapid

habitat of Begur with bedrock as the dominant substratum

while the larger specimen was collected from the riffle habitat

of Noolpuzha with boulders as the dominant substratum. Flow

velocity is comparatively high in both the habitats and the

canopy cover is very good.

Distribution: It is found all along the Himalaya including

Kashmir, Uttar Pradesh, Punjab, Haryana, Darjeeling District

of West Bengal, Assam, Western Himalaya, Nepal, Eastern

Himalaya, Afghanistan, Pakistan, Bangladesh and China (Tilak

and Sharma 1 982; Talwar and Jhingran 1991; Sen and Jayaram

1 982). The present collection from the Kabini river system of

Kerala extends the range of distribution of this species down

to Peninsular India.

Remarks: Since there is no authentic report on the

introduction of Tor putitora in peninsular India either

accidentally or purposefully, the present report of Tor putitora

from Kabini river is highly intriguing and gives rise to the

question of the extension of its natural distributional range to

peninsular India. It is interesting to note that more than half a

dozen fish species show discontinuous distribution only in

the Himalaya in the north and Peninsular mountains in the

south. This peculiar pattern, which is also seen in the

distribution of animals, is well explained by Dr. S.L. Hora in

his Satpura Hypothesis (Hora 1953). The present record of

Tor putitora from Kabini river is another valid evidence for

strengthening the Satpura Hypothesis.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Dr. K.C. Jayaram, former

Deputy Director of ZSI and Dr. K. Rema Devi, Scientist, Zoological

Survey of India for confirming identification of this species.

Financial support from NAT-ICAR through the project

“Germplasm Inventory Evaluation and Genebanking of

Freshwater fishes” is gratefully acknowledged. We are grateful

to Mr. M.D. Makeshan and C.P. Sunilkumar who assisted us in

surveys throughout the period of this study.

July 19,2002 T.G. MANOJ KUMAR

B. MADHUSOODANA KURUP

School of Industrial fisheries,

Cochin University of Science

and Technology,

Cochin 682 016, Kerala, India.

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

465

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Ajithkumar. C.R., C.R. Biju & K. Raju Thomas (2000): Ecology of

hill streams of Western Ghats with special reference to fish

community. BNHS research report. Bombay Natural History

Society. 203 pp.

Gray, J.E. (1834): Illustrations of Indian zoology, chiefly selected

from the collection of General Hardwicke, 2. Pp. 96.

Hamilton, B. (1822): An account of the fishes found in the river

Ganges and its branches. Archibald Constable and Company,

Edinburgh and Hurst Robinson and Co. 90, Cheapside, London.

405 pp.

Hora, S.L. (1953): The Satpura Hypothesis. Sc. Progress 41(162):

245-255

Kulkarni, C.V. (1980): Eggs and early development of Tor mahseer

Fish. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 77(1): 70-75

Kulkarni, C.V. & S.N. Ogale (1979): The present status of mahseer

(Fish) and artificial propagation of Tor khudree (Sykes).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 75(3): 651-660.

Kurup, B.M., T.G. Manojkumar & K.V. Radhakrishnan (2001):

Germplasm Inventory Evaluation and Genebanking of

Freshwater fishes. NAT-ICAR Research report. Cochin

University of Science and Technology, Cochin, Kerala.

Menon, A.GK. (1999): Checklist of freshwater fishes of India. Rec.

zool. Surv. India, Occ. paper no. 175: 366 pp.

Misra, K.S. (1962): An aid of the identification of the common

commercial fishes of India and Pakistan Rec. Indian Mus. 57

(1-4): 149-156

Nautiyal, P. & MS. Lal (1982): Recent record of Garhwal mahseer

(Tor putitora) with a note on its present status. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist Soc. 79: 693-695.

Sen, T.K. & K.C. Jayaram (1982): The mahseer fishes of India - A

Review. Rec. zool. Surv. India. Occ. Paper no. 39: 38 pp.

Shaji, C.P. & P.S. Easa (2001): Freshwater fishes of the Western

Ghats. KFRI-NBFGR publication. 108 pp.

Talwar, P.K. & A.G. Jhingran (1991): Inland fishes of India and

adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co. Ltd., New

Delhi. Vols. I & II. 1158 pp.

Tilak, R. & Uma Sharma (1982): Game fishes of India and angling.

International Book Distributors, Dehra Dun. 304 pp.

26. FISHES OF THE GENUS COLISA CUVIER FROM MANIPUR AND FIRST RECORD

OF COLISA LABIOSUS (DAY) FROM INDIA

The genus Colisa Cuvier belongs to the Family

Belontidae and is distinguished from other genera in having

the pelvic fins each reduced to a single ray and dorsal fin

having 15-18 spines. Menon ( 1 952) recorded Colisa fasciatus

(Schneider) for the first time from Manipur and listed it in his

list of species from the State. Menon ( 1 954) recorded a female

form of C. chuna (Hamilton-Buchanan) [now C. sota (Ham.-

Buch.)] for the first time from Manipur. It is found abundantly

in Loktak lake of the State. He also listed C. fasciatus in his

list of species from Manipur. Day ( 1 878) described C. labiosus,

which was collected from Rangoon, Myanmar. Chaudhuri

(1912), Hora (1921, 1936), Hora and Mukerji (1935), Menon

(1952) and Menon (1954) reported the fishes of Manipur, but

did not include C. labiosus. This paper gives diagnostic

characters of the fishes of the genus Colisa from Manipur

including that of the newly recorded C. labiosus (Day) from

India.

Measurements and counts follow Jayaram ( 1 999). The

body proportions are expressed in percentages of standard

length (SL) and head length (HL). The specimens of the three

species, C. fasciatus, C. sota and C. labiosus are deposited

in the Manipur University Museum of Fishes (MUMF).

Colisa labiosus ( Day)

Trichogaster labiosus Day, 1 878. Fishes of India. 374,

pi. 79, fig. 4 (type-locality: Rangoon, Myanmar); Day, 1889.

Fauna Br. India, Fishes 2: 372.

Material examined: MUMF LOO 19/1 8, 47.0-64.5 mm SL,

5. vi. 2001-15. viii. 2001, Mayang Imphal ponds and Iril river. I.

Linthoingambi (IL)

Local name: Pheteen (Manipuri).

Diagnosis: Size small. The species can be distinguished

from other species of Colisa in having very thick and papillated

lips (Fig. lb), and soft dorsal and anal fins produced. D. xv-

xviii, 9-1 1; A. xv-xviii 15-18, C 15; P. iv 7-9; V. 1. Predorsal

scales 8-9. Morphometric data of the specimens (Table 1)

with comparison to that given by Day (1878) are given in

Table 2.

Table 1 : Morphometric data of Colisa labiosus (% of standard

length except SL in mm)

466

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Fig.1 : Shapes of mouths in a Colisa fasciatus, b. Colisa labiosus, c Colisa sota

Colour: Greenish, lighter ventrally. Body has 8-10

oblique vertical dark bars on the sides, blue horizontal stripe

on body. Fins dark, outer edge of anal fin yellowish-red.

Distribution: india: Manipur: Iril river, ponds and

ditches. South Myanmar.

Remarks: The body proportions of the present

specimens almost fit into the descriptions of Day ( 1 878). The

fish measures 47.0-73.4 mm SL. Number of serrations on pre-

orbital 6-1 1 and those on pre-opercle are short and few in

number. Scales present on bases of dorsal, anal and caudal

fins. Lengths of unpaired fins vary extensively in relation to

head length: dorsal (144-204%), ventral (236.3-302%) and anal

fin ( 158-206%). Iril river is a principal tributary of the Imphal

river which, in turn, joins the Chindwin in Myanmar. Thus,

the distribution of the species in Iril river is quite natural. This

paper extends the distribution of the species to India. The

fish is quiet and very graceful compared to other species of

Colisa.

Colisa fasciatus (Schneider)

Trichogaster fasciatus Schneider, 1801. Syst. Ichth.: 164,

pi. 36 (type-locality: Tranquebar); Day, 1 878. Fishes of India:

374, pi. 78, fig 6; Day, 1 889, Fauna Br. India. Fishes, 2: 372,

fig. 123.

Material examined: MUMF L000 1/1 8, 46.0-65.0 mm SL,

Table 2: Comparison of Colisa labiosus Cuvier with specimen

from Manipur, India

Mayang Imphal ponds and Iril river. 5.vi.2001. IL.

Local name: Ngabemma (Manipuri)

Diagnosis: D. xv-xvii, 9- 14; A. xv-xvii, 14-1 9; C. 1 3; P.i-ii,

7 or 9; V.i. Predorsal scales 7-8. Body oval in shape and strongly

compressed. Mouth small, slightly protrusible (Fig. la). There

is a green spot on the distal part of the opercle. Serrations on

preorbital range from 5-13, number varies from left to right.

Dorsal and anal fins with a long base; the soft portion in some

is rounded, in others more pointed. Anal fin ends at the origin

of the caudal fin. Lateral line interrupted. Beyond the opercle

it runs up to 15lh scale with a gap of 2 non-perforated scales.

Counting from mid-dorsal to the lateral line, the number of

lateral transverse scales is 5. The second lateral line runs from

18th scale, lateral transverse scales 6. Scales present over

dorsal, anal, and caudal fins.

Colour: Male with 1 1-13 dark bars descending obliquely

downwards and backwards. Female with alternating light blue

and golden yellow bands descending obliquely downwards

and backwards. Anal fin with a red margin, dorsal and caudal

fins spotted with orange.

Distribution: india: West Bengal, Assam and

Manipur. Bangladesh. Nepal. Pakistan. Upper Burma (now

Myanmar).

Remarks: Morphometric data of C. fasciatus of the

present study are given in Table 3. It inhabits rivers, lakes,

ponds and ditches. It is calm and is a beautiful aquarium fish,

abundant during rainy season. The size ranges from 46-

65 mm SL. The number of serrations on pre-orbital ranges

from 5-13, those on pre-opercle are long and many in number.

Scales are present not only at the base of the anal fin, but

their presence till the tip is noted. Scales present over dorsal

and caudal fins as well. However, Day (1878) mentioned that

scales are few on the vertical fins of Assam specimens, more

on those from Kolkata or Ganjam. Talwar and Jhingran (1991)

noted that the anal fin is scaly at the base only. Weber (1922)

also noted presence of scales only at the base of vertical fins.

The ventral fin length in percentage of head length varies

extensively (235-3 1 5.5).

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

467

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Table 3 Morphometric data of Colisa fasciatus

(% of standard length except SL in mm)

Colisa sola (Hamilton-Buchanan)

Trichopodus sota Hamilton-Buchanan, 1882. Fish.

Ganges'. 120, 373 (type locality: Ganges River). Trichopodus

chuna (Hamilton-Buchanan) Day, 1 876. Fishes of India: 373,

pi. 78, fig. 3; Day, 1889. Fauna Br. India, Fishes, 2: 371.

Material examined: MUMF L0037/6, 2 1 .4-24.3 mm SL,

Canchipur. 5.X.2001, IL.

Local name: Tombemma, Pheteen (Manipuri)

Diagnosis: D. xvii-xviii, 6-9; A. xviii-xxii, 1 1 - 1 3, C. 1 3; P.

i, 9; V. i Pre-dorsal scales 7-8. Size small, body oblong and

compressed, mouth small, upturned and highly protrusible

(Fig. lc). Ventral fin reaches posterior extremity of anal fin.

Caudal fin slightly emarginated. Scales large.

Colour: Dull greenish, lighter along abdomen. From the

eye on the side towards lower half of the base of the caudal

fin, a dark, sometimes black lateral band consisting of black

dots and shining with golden gloss. Caudal fin with a black

spot at its base.

Distribution: india: Gangetic provinces, Assam and

Manipur. Bangladesh.

Remarks: Morphometric data of C. sota in the present

study are given in Table 4. It is small and is of less importance

in fishery. Length ranges from 21 .4-24.3 mm SL. Number of

Table 4: Morphometric data Colisa sota

(% of standard length except SL in mm)

serrations on pre-orbital 6-8 and those on pre-opercle are long

and many in number.

Key to species

1 . Body with many oblique bands from back to belly 2

- — Body with a da~k lateral band from eye to lower half of tail

C sota

2. Bands on body eight to ten. Lips thick, papillated

C. labiosus

— Bands on body 1 1-13 or more. Lips thin, non-papillated ....

C. fasciatus

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to ICAR-NATP and UGC-SAP

for financial support.

November 26, 2002 W. VISHWANATH1

I. LINTHOINGAMBI

Department of Life Sciences,

Manipur University, Canchipur,

Imphal 795 003,

Manipur, India.

'Email: vnath [email protected]

REFERENCES

Chaudhuri B.L. (1912): Description of some new species of freshwater Day, F. (1878): The Fishes of India; being a natural history of the fishes

fishes from North India. Rec Indian Mus. 7(5)\ 437-444, pis. known to inhabit the seas and fresh waters of India, Burma and

38-41. Ceylon. William Dowson & Co., London: xx + 778, 195 pis.

468

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Hora, S.L. (1921): Fish and fisheries of Manipur with some

observations on those of the Naga Hills. Rec. Indian Mus. 22:

165-214.

Hora, S.L. (1936): On a further collection of fish from Naga Hills.

Rec. Indian Mus. 28: 317-331.

Hora, S.L. & D.D. Mukerji (1935): Fish of the Naga hills, Assam. Rec.

Indian Mus. 37: 381-404.

Jayaram K.C. (1999): The Fresh water Fishes of the Indian region.

Narendra Publ. House, New Delhi. 551 pp.

Menon, A.G.K (1954): Further observations on the fish-fauna of the

Manipur state. Rec. Indian Mus. 52(1): 21-26.

Menon, M.A.S. (1952): On a small collection of fish from Manipur.

Rec. Indian Mus. 50: 265-270.

Talwar, P.K. & A. Jhingran ( 1991 ): Inland fishes of India and adjacent

countries. Oxford and IBH Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd., New-Delhi,

2 vol: xix + 1158.

Weber, M. & L.F. de Beaufort (1922): The fishes of the Indo-

Australian Archipelago. E.J. Brill Ltd. Leiden, 4: xii + 40.

27. FIRST RECORD OF THE POLKA-DOT TRIGGERFISH

CANTHIDERMIS ROTUNDATUS (PROCE) (= CANTHIDERMIS MACUEATUS)

(FAMILY BALISTIDAE) FROM MUMBAI

The monsoon season is a harbinger of unusual fishes,

normally associated with coral reefs, to Mumbai. So far, the

following have been recorded from Mumbai in this season:

Moorish Idol Zanclus comutus and Squirrel Fish Holocentrus

rubrum (Chhapgar and Deshmukh 1964), Filamented

Butterflyfish Anisochaetodon ( Linophora ) auriga , Lined

Butterflyfish Anisochaetodon ( Oxychaetodon ) lineolatus ,

Racoon Butterflyfish Chaetodon (Chaetodontops) lunula ,

Yellow-headed Butterflyfish Chaetodon ( Rhabdophorus )

xanthocephalus (Chhapgar and Jatar 1968); Scribbled

Leatherjacket Alutera scripta and yellow-finned leatherjacket

Monacanthus monoceros (Chhapgar 1978), Red-toothed

Trtggerfish Odonus niger ? (Chhapgar and Ringangaonkar

1990) and pig-faced filefish Paramonacanthus

choirocephalus (Chhapgar and Muley 1997).

In July 2002, two specimens of a fish were collected at

Girgaum Chowpatty (south Mumbai) and brought alive to

the Taraporevala Aquarium. One died within a few days, but

the larger one is still surviving at the time of writing this note.

It was about 10 cm when captured, but is growing fast. It has

been identified as the Polka-dot (also known as round or

rough) Triggerfish Canthidermis rotundatus (Proce).

The body of this fish (at least at this size) does not

have the typical shape of a triggerfish with a huge triangular

head almost one-third the length of the body. It is more akin

to Cardinal Fish (. Apogon spp. ). But it has the typical “locking-

trigger” of the first (spinous) dorsal fin, and the high, triangular

soft dorsal and anal fins bending together in the same direction

while swimming — a movement typical of triggerfishes.

Colouration: The body is coal-black with ivory-white

rounded spots scattered all over it. Within a month of capture,

the number and size of these spots have perceptibly increased.

The black body colouration during the day fades to a very

light brown at dusk and remains so at night, darkening again

in the morning. The dorsal spine is black and held erect.

The colour after preservation has been described by

de Beaufort and Briggs ( 1962) as “light brown with dark brown

interrupted longitudinal stripes on head, body and tail.

Fig. 1: Polka-dot Triggerfish, Batistes maculatus

dissolving into spots at bases of second dorsal, anal and

caudal. Some parallel oblique stripes on cheeks.” Munro

(1955) also observed “undulating brown lines and fine blue

spots on sides. Fins brownish. Soft dorsal with obscure

blotches on middle of highest rays. Caudal dark brown” (in

an 1 1 cm fish). Day (1878-88) gives the body colour as bluish-

black. We have not observed any stripes on the live fish. It is

said to grow to 55 cm. Colour illustrations of the fish have

been given by Halstead (1967) in addition to the various

authors mentioned in the references.

As it is not possible to make scale or fin-ray counts in

the live specimen, these counts by various authors are given

below.

Day: D. m/26-27, P. 1 5, A. 24-25, C. 12, L. 1. 40-55, L. tr.

28.

Munro: D. EI/25-26, A. 23-24, L. 1. 42-57, L. tr. 30-54.

Barnard: D. HI + 24-26, A. 24-25, L. tr. 28-30.

Smith: D. ffl/24-27, A. 24-26, L. tr. 30.

Beaufort & Briggs: D. III/2. 23-24, A. 1-2.21, P. I 14, L. 1.

42-43, L.tr. 29-34.

Jones & Kumaran: D, III, D, ii, 23-24, A. i, 21-22, P. i, 13-

1 4, L. 1.42-44 + 6-7, L.tr. 29-32.

It is likely that the depth of the body increases as the

fish grows, as seen from the illustrations given by the various

authors. The depth is contained 2Vi to 3 times in the total

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

469

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

length (Day, pp. 687, 688, pi. clxxv), VA times in standard

length (Munro, p. 271 , pi. 53), 2V3 times (Smith, p. 409, pis. 91,

1 04); in small specimens, 1 .7- 1 .9, 2-2.3 in length with caudal

(de Beaufort and Briggs, pp. 309-3 1 2), 2. 1 to 2.6 in standard

length, 2.5 to 3.1 in total length (Jones and Kumaran 1980, pp.

665, 666, fig. 566). In our specimen it is 2. 1 times in standard

length 2.5 times in total length (132 mm).

Diagnostic features: A groove in front of eye. Scales

rough, granular, without spines. The cheeks are entirely

scaled, but there are no osseous scutes behind the gill-

opening. Second dorsal and anal high anteriorly. Ventral

spine short, covered with spinules, immovable (according to

de Beaufort and Briggs as well as Jones and Kumaran),

usually movable (according to Day). Hind edge of caudal fin

convex.

The genus Canthidermis can be distinguished from

Xanthichthys and Pseudobalistes by the nature of its cheeks,

which are normally scaled and without naked grooves

(. Xanthichthys has longitudinal naked grooves, while in

Pseudobalistes the cheeks are naked anteriorly). It differs

from Odonus in not having red teeth. It differs from

Rhinecanthus and Balistapus in having a groove before the

eye. It can be distinguished from Abalistes in not having a

depressed caudal peduncle, and from Melichthys , Balistoides ,

Sufflamen and Hemibalistes in not having spines on the

caudal peduncle. Finally, it differs from Balistes in not having

enlarged plates behind the gill-opening.

Systeniatics: There is a great deal of confusion in the

nomenclature of this species. It was first described by Proce

(Bull. Soc. Philom. Paris, p. 30) as Balistes rotundatus in 1 822.

The genotype is based on Balistes angulosus of Quoy and

Gaimard 1 824. (Fraser-Brunner 1 935, pp. 658-663). The genus

Canthidermis was created by Swainson in 1839, but

subsequent authors, right down to Day (1878-88), continued

to use Balistes , a genus created by Linnaeus in 1758. It was

Bleeker (Atlas Ichth.des Indes Orientales Neerlandaises V,

1 865) who, though continuing to use Balistes as genus, added

Canthidermis as a subgenus, describing the species as

Balistes ( Canthidermis ) maculatus. Jordan & Fowler (Proc.

U.S. Nat. Mus. xxv, 1 902) raised it to Canthidermis rotundatus.

de Beaufort and Briggs, as late as 1962, have used the genus

Balistes without the subgenus Canthidermis.

There is also difference of opinion whether rotundatus

is the juvenile of maculatus , or whether the two are separate

species. Most descriptions of rotundatus (with its synonyms

oculatus of Gray 1832, Bleeker I 865, Gunther 1910, Duncker

and Mohr 1929 and senticosus of Richardson 1848, Bleeker

1853 and Gunther 1910) are based on small specimens,

whereas most accounts of maculatus (with its synonym

azureus Lesson 1 830) are of large specimens. There is further

confusion as Bloch’s (1 786) maculatus is from the West Indies

(Atlantic Ocean), while Bleeker’s (1 865) maculatus are from

the Indo-Pacific area.

As the present specimen is of a small size, we have

preferred to call it Canthidermis rotundatus.

November 2 1 , 2002 B.F. CHHAPGAR

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hornbill House, S.B. Singh Road,

Mumbai 400 023, Maharashtra, India.

Email; [email protected]. in

K.L. VAIDYA

Taraporevala Aquarium,

Netaji Subhash Road,

Mumbai 400 002, Maharashtra, India.

REFERENCES

Barnard, K.H. (1927): Monograph of the marine fishes of South

Africa. Ann. S. Afr. Mus. xxi. pt. 2: 418:1065.

Chhapgar, B.F. (1978): The leatherjacket, Alutera scripta (Osbeck)

feeding on the Portuguese man-of-war Physalia utriculus (La

Martiniere). J Bombay Nat. Hist Soc. 74(3): 541-543, 1 text-fig.

Chhapgar, B.F. & S.K. Deshmukh (1964): Further records of lobsters

from Bombay. J Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 61(1): 203-207, 1 pi.

Chhapgar, B.F. & J.K. Jatar (1968): Records of rare fishes of the

family Chaetodontidae from Bombay. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.

65(1): 58-63, 5 text-figs.

Chhapgar, B.F. & S.B. Muley (1997): Occurrence of the pig-faced

file-fish. Paramonacanthus choirocephalus (Bleeker) (Pisces:

Plectognathi) at Mumbai. J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc. 94(3): 582-

584, 1 text-fig.

Chhapgar, B.F. & A.M. Ringangaonkar (1990): Occurrence of a

triggerfish (Pisces: Balistidae) in Bombay seas. .1. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 87(2): 313, 314, I text-fig.

Day, Francis (1878-88): The fishes of India. (Reprinted by Jagmander

Book Agency, New Delhi in 1994), 816 pp., 195 pis.

de Beaufort, L.F. & John C. Briggs (1962): The fishes of the Indo-

Australian Archipelago. E.J. Brill Ltd., Netherlands xi: 481 pp.,

99 text-figs.

Fraser-Brunner, A. (1935): Notes on the Plectognath fishes — LA

synopsis of the genera of the family Balistidae. Ann. Mag. Nat.

His. (10) xv i: 658-663. I text-fig.

Halstead, Bruce W. (1967): Poisonous and venomous marine animals

of the world. Vol. 2. Vertebrates. U.S. Govt. Printing Office,

Washington D.C., U.S. A.: 1070 pp., 201 pis., 195 text-figs.

Jones, S. & M. Kumaran ( 1 980): Fishes of the Laccadive Archipelago.

The Nature Conservation and Aquatic Sciences Service,

Trivandrum: 760 pp., 603 text-figs.

Munro, Ian S.R. (1955): The marine and freshwater fishes of Ceylon.

Dept, of External Affairs, Canberra, Australia (Reprinted by Narendra

Publishing House, Delhi in 2000), 351 pp., 56 pis., 19 text-figs.

Smith, J.L.B. (1953): The sea fishes of southern Africa. Central News

Agency Ltd., South Africa: 564 pp., 107 pis., 1219 text-figs.

470

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

28. A GYNANDROMORPH OF MEGACHILE ( EUTRICHARAEA ) GATHELA CAMERON

(INSECTA, HYMENOPTERA, MEGACHI LIDAE)

Megachile ( Eutricharaea ) gathela Cameron is a leaf

cutting solitary bee widely distributed in the plains of north

India. It was collected from Himachal Pradesh, Punjab,

Haryana, Eastern Rajasthan and Gujarat (Gupta 1 993). Later,

it was also collected from plains of Uttar Pradesh, Bihar and

West Bengal by the author. It has been noted as an efficient

pollinator for many cultivated and wild crops (p.o. author).

M. gathela could be used to enhance seed yield for several

cultivated crops, mainly Leguminosae and Compositae,

through artificial domestication and management programmes.

Intersexes and gynandromorphs are rare. The

individuals are bilaterally symmetrical and present a blending

of male and female characteristics, which in addition, bear

certain features common to both sexes but not found in normal

specimens of either sex. Popov (1935, Rev. Ent. USSR p. 1 62)

figured the genitalia of a specimen of Andrena in which all

the female structures were present in addition to the male

genital structures of the right side of the body. This suggested

that the entire male genital armature is phallic in origin since

the appendage of the right side of the ninth abdominal

segment could hardly produce both male and female

structures complete.

Popov (1937, Bull. Acad Sci. USSR , pp. 487-498) further

described a gynandromorphic Halictus that suggested the

same homologies between male and female genital structures.

Michener (1943) reported similar intersexual homologies

between male and female genitalia in genus Ashmeadiella

Cockerell.

An interesting gynandromorph of M. gathela , collected

during the summer of 1 992, is hereby described in comparison

to earlier described normal sexes (Gupta 1993; pp. 218-219

Figs. 828 to 841).

Head: Face densely pubescent (as in male), finely

punctate (as in female); clypeal apical margin slightly

produced, medially incurved, finely punctate; antennal

sockets equidistant to each other and mid-ocellus, and close

to eye margin (as in male); flagellum of antenna ten segmented,

pedicel and first segment of flagellum equal in length, lateral

ocelli nearer to occipital margin than to eye margin and to

each other (as in female); mandible tridentate with a distinct

ventral process; hypostomal spine produced (as in

male); genal width lesser than eye width in lateral view (as in

female).

Thorax: Characters of pronotum, scutum, scutellum,

axillae, mesepisternites, metepisternites, metanotum,

propodeum, wings and legs including bifurcated apices of

claws resemble male.

Abdomen: Abdominal terga 1 to 6 as in male; tergal

fasciae complete on apical margins of terga 1 to 4; carina of

tergum 6 projecting ventrally (posteriorly in male) and slightly

slanting, crenulation includes two distinct spines on left side

of median emargination followed by two slightly produced

tubercles, and right side of median emargination bears three

obtuse tubercles making the carina asymmetrical; complete

plate excluding carina margin and medio-apical emargination

covered with ferruginous pubescence (as in male); apical

margin of tergum 6 just below following the carina, slightly

incurved at centre (as in male), however, the distance between

the carina margin and apical margin is quite less (not in male);

apical margin of tergum 6 constitutes the upper margin of the

posterior cleft; tergum 7 not at all evident (in male apical

margin of tergum 7 constitutes the upper margin of the cleft

through which the genital armature protrudes out during

copulation).

Sternum 1 to 3 have discal texture similar to male, apical

marginal fasciae of snow white hairs quite dense and complete;

density of discal pubescence gradually increases up to

sternum 3, however, they remain soft, simple and comparatively

elongated; discal pubescence on posterior surface of sternum

4 replaced by scopal hairs (but confined to apico-central area).

Scopal bristles are found in female helping collection of

pollen. Apical fasciae of sternum 4 remarkably elongated,

margin broadly out-curved and with an acute median

emargination (as in male); margin of sternum 5 infasciate but

with dense scopal hairs confined to postgradular area of the

plate (as in female). [It should be worth mentioning here that

only sterna 1 to 4 are exposed in male and, sterna 5, 6 and 8

remain eclipsed under fourth sternum (sternum 7 is

obsolescent in genus Megachile) Their apical fasciae

confined to lateral out-curves of apical margins. On the

contrary, sterna 1 to 6 are completely exposed and distinctly

fasciate in female, a character of subgenus Eutricharaea.]

Sternum 6 conical, apex broadly obtuse and slightly

invaginated at centre, surface with dense scopal bristles,

bounded with black setae, and apical margin with a fringe of

black, stiff setae (as in female).

It is interesting that the genito-anal cleft in male is formed

at ventral surface of abdomen in between the apical margin of

exposed fourth/fifth sternum and the apical margin of seventh

tergum. Here the cleft is posterio-ventral and is dorsally

margined by the recurved apical margin of sixth tergum and

ventrally by the apical margin of sixth sternum (intersexual

character). A sting protrudes out through this cleft (as in

female). Terga 1 to 6 and sterna 1 to 3 resembling male, sternum

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

471

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

4 that of intersex, and sterna 5-6 as in female, in addition to a

projecting sting, as in female, provide atypical appearance to

the bee. Externally there is no evidence of male genital

armature.

Material Examined: One gynandromorph, Kangra (H.P.),

June 5, 1992, Coll. S. Simlote; Flower Record: Helianthus annus

(Sunflower) will be placed at Desert Research Station,

Zoological Survey of India, Jodhpur. (Expedition financed by

ICARSchemeNo. 1-3/90 PP).

July 1 , 2002 RAJIV K. GUPTA

Department of Zoology,

Jai Narain Vyas University,

Jodhpur 342 005, Rajasthan, India.

REFERENCES

Gupta, Rajiv K. (1993): Taxonomic studies on the Megachilidae of Michener, C.D. (1943): Sex anomalies in the bee genus Ashmeadiella

north-western India. Scientific Publishers (India), reprint 1999: (Hymenoptera) with notes on the homologies between male and

IV+294 Figs. 1032. female genital appendages. Pan-Pacific Entomol. 29(3): 96-100.

29. BUTTERFLIES ATTRACTED TO LIGHT NEAR GOVERNMENT COLLEGE CAMPUS,

VATAKARA, KERALA

Many insects are known to be attracted to light. Moths

are highly attracted to light. Sometimes butterflies too are

attracted to light.

Usman (1956) recorded Red Pierrot Talicada nyseus

(Lepidoptera: Lycaenidae) attracted to light at Bangalore. Shull

and Nadkemy (1967) have reported five species of Family

Satyridae and four species of Nymphalidae from Surat Dangs,

Gujarat. Sharma and Chaturvedi (1999) recorded Black Rajah

Charaxes fabius attracted to light at Tadoba National Park.

Recently, Nair (200 1 ) recorded Gram Blue Euchrysops cnejus ,

Tiny Grass Blue Zizula hylax (both Lycaenidae) and Nigger

Orsotrioena medus (Satyrinae) attracted to light at Aralam

Wildlife Sanctuary, Kerala. The present paper reports

attraction of butterflies at the No: 3 /IV Staff quarters near the

Government College Campus, Madappally, Kerala.

The site is situated on a small hill (50 m above msl)

towards the north-west end of Kozhikode district near the

Malabar Coast (1 1° 38' N; 75° 39' E) in Kerala and is 55 km from

Kozhikode city. On the night of November 20, 2001, while

collecting some insects attracted to a 60W incandescent bulb,

at the verandah of the staff quarters at around 2030 hrs, I saw

a butterfly flying and resting intermittently, around the light

source. It was identified as the male Common Palmfly Elymnias

hypermnestra (Linnaeus) (Nymphalidae: Satyrinae). Its

movements and orientation at light was quite similar to that

during diurnal hours. No dashing at light was observed.

On June 15, 2002, I saw another butterfly attracted to

the light at the same site around 2130 hrs; it was raining lightly

then. This time it was a male Great Eggfly Hypolimnas bolina

(Linnaeus) (Nymphalidae: Nymphalinae). The butterfly

showed movements similar to that during diurnal hours. No

dashing towards the light source occurred.

Both these butterflies were unusual visitors to light.

These records contradict the popular idea that butterfly

activity is exclusively diurnal. More studies in this regard will

reveal the secrets of this interesting phenomenon.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

1 am grateful to Dr. C. Radhakrishnan (Joint Director,

ZSI, Western Ghats Field Research Station, Kozhikode), Dr.

PM. Sureshan and Md. Jafer Palot for encouragement and

facilities.

August 30, 2002 VINAYAN P. NAIR

3/1 V College Quarters,

P.O. Madappally College,

Vatakara, Kozhikode (Dt), Kerala 673 102, India.

REFERENCES

Nair, Vinayan P. (2001 ): Butterflies attracted to light at Aralam Wildlife

Sanctuary, Kerala. Zoos' Print Journal 16(12): 670.

Sharma, R.M. & N. Chaturvedi (1999): Black Rajah, Charaxes fabius

attracted to light in Tadoba National Park. J. Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 96(1): 168-169.

Shull, E M. & N. Nadkerny (1967): Insects attracted to mercury

vapour lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat state. J Bombay Nat.

Hist. Soc. 64: 256-266.

Usman, S. (1956): Some insects attracted to light. Part III. J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 53(3): 482-484.

30. CLADOCERAN COMPOSITION OF ADRA LAKE, WEST BENGAL

Adra lake (also known as Saheb Bund) is a relatively the Adra town, in the Purulia district of West Bengal (23°

small water body ( c . 2.5 sq. km), situated c. 5 km away from 42' N and 87° 01' E). The lake water is quite clean and forms the

472

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

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J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

473

Echinisca triserialis (Brady 1886) L: 0.3, W: 0.24 mm; F Body roughly oval in shape; ventral margin is more arched than West Bengal and Rajasthan.

dorsal, with sharp protruberance in between. Serrations and bristles Elsewhere-Cosmopolitan

throughout on ventral margin but dorsum at its posterior side only.

Antennule slender and cylindrical; postabdomen averagely broad,

with anal spines on the both the lobes

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474

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

13. Acroperus harpae ( Baird 1834) L: 0 27, W: 0.17 mm; F Body small, oval, strongly compressed laterally; postero-ventral Kashmir and West Bengal

comer of the valves with 2-5 denticles; antennules reaching apex

of the rostrum; postabdomen slightly tapering distally,

claw with basal spine

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

main source of drinking water for the people living around. In

spite of being around for c. 60 years, no attempt has been

made to study its faunal composition, though several

endeavours have been carried out in West Bengal.

Cladocerans are one of the indicators for the status of water

quality. As this is the only drinking water source for this

railway town, the author thought that it was necessary to

identify its Cladoceran fauna.

Out of the 109 species of Cladocera reported from India,

41 species were reported from West Bengal (ZS1 1991 ). The

present study is significant, as it is the first attempt to analyse

the ecosystem of Adra lake. 1 3 species belonging to 8 genera

from five families were identified in this study (Table 1 ).

Plankton was collected using a diving plankton net (No.

25), with a 50 ml plastic container tied at its end, from the sub-

surface of this small water body during limnological studies

in October, 1995 and February, 1 996. Samples were preserved

in 4% formaldehyde solution. Cladoceran fauna was identified

with the aid of standard keys (Michael and Sharma 1988,

Battish 1992).

During the study period, the cladocerans were dominant

over the other zooplankton groups. They were mostly

abundant and diverse during winter. Out of the 1 3 cladoceran

species, Diaphanosoma excism and Macro! hr ix spinosa are

most dominant, followed by Moina brachiata and Bosmina

longirostris. The rest were representative.

According to Das (1989), presence of Chydorus

sphaericus , Simocephatus and Bosmina spp. (of the lake

cladoceran composition) indicates an Oligotrophic lake and

Diaphanosoma indicates a Eutrophic lake. The cladoceran

parameters in this case indicate that this water body is

becoming Mesotrophic and the lake water cannot be directly

used as drinking water. Some filtering units are situated in the

vicinity of the system for increasing the potability of water.

Concerned authorities should prevent the eutrophication of

this ecosystem, resulting from anthropogenic activities in the

lake environs.

July 27, 2002 S.V. A. CHANDRASEKHAR

Freshwater Biological Station,

Zoological Survey of India

1 - 1 -300/B, Ashoknagar,

Hyderabad 500 020,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

REFERENCES

Battish, S.K. (1992): Freshwater Zooplankton of India Oxford & IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. Pp. 130-172.

Das, S.M. (1989): Hand Book of Limnology & Water Pollution with

practical Methodology. South Asian Publishers Pvt. Ltd., New

Delhi. Pp. 77-829.

Michael, George R. & B.K. Sharma (1988): Fauna of India and

Adjacent Countries Indian Cladocera (Crustacea: Branchiopoda:

Cladocera). Zoological Survey of India Publ. 262 pp

ZSI (1991): Animal Resources of India, Protozoa to Mammalia -

State of the Art Report. ZSI Publication. Pp. 205-223.

31. SOME OBSERVATIONS ON TWO RARE ENDEMIC DIPTEROCARPS

OF SOUTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Dipterocarpus bourdiUoni Brandis

Vernacular name: Malayalam: Karanjili, Charatanjali;

Tamil: Karanjil

Distribution: Dipterocarpus bourdiUoni is a rare

endemic tree (one of the majestic dipterocarps), which usually

occurs along riverbanks in the West Coast Tropical Evergreen

forests up to 600 m altitude. Interestingly, this species shows

comparatively narrow and staggered distribution and is mainly

confined to the northern part of Kerala (Ramesh et al. 1 996).

We found some isolated patches near Mukkali (near Silent

Valley, Palakkad district), Carcoorghat (Cannanore district)

and Uppangal on the lower slopes of Coorg. It also occurs in

Kallar valley, Damalayar, Pooyamkutty, Achankoil and

Mandampatty in Kerala.

Floristics: Some of the associate species of

Dipterocarpus bourdiUoni are Actinodaphne hirsuta ,

Antidesma spp., Artocarpus hirsuta , Bischofia javanica ,

Dipterocarpus indicus , Hopea parviflora, Hydnocarpus spp.,

Knema attenuate, Macaranga peltata and Mesua ferrea

among others. It is a large evergreen tree attaining height up

to 30-40 m and girth 4-5 m, with clear straight and cylindrical

bole of 20-25 m. In lowland evergreen forests of Western

Ghats, it is invariably the indicator of main strata. The

classification of low elevation evergreen forests of the

Western Ghats is based mainly on the distribution of

Dipterocarpus bourdilloni and Dipterocarpus indicus

(Pascal 1 988). They are often found in mixture with other trees.

Buttresses are absent although the trees are large, whether

this is compensated by deep rooting is not known. Branching

is generally confined to the uppermost part of the trunk and

appears like a flattened umbrella. Branches are orthotropic in

nature. There are no side branches up to a certain height.

Bark dark brown, thick, outer bark exfoliates in irregular

flakes. Leaves up to 40 cm x 20 cm, elliptic, oblong, lateral

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

475

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

nerves about 15-75 pairs, petiole about 3 cm, long, stout,

stipules larger, densely covered with stellate tomentum.

Though the tree is essentially evergreen, most of the

leaves are shed during March. The new flush appears soon

after the leaf fall. In the young seedlings, the initial leaves are

usually opposite and much larger with many more ribs than

the leaves of a mature tree. In the mature trees, leaves are

smaller, erect, more leathery in texture and have less

pronounced dry tips.

The stipules are most characteristic, sheathing the

apical bud, often very long and persistent for a long period.

The fall of the stipule leaves behind a conspicuous circular

stipular scar. After the appearance of the new leaves, the

fallen stipules are found on the ground in great numbers.

Type of nervation can be used diagnostically, where the

species has to be identified by the characters of fallen leaves

rather than fruit. Racemes axillary, 4-5 flowered.

Dipterocarpus fruits, from which the family name is

derived, have considerable taxonomic significance. Fruit

bears nine to five winged ribs, having a stalk at the base, the

two larger lobes are up to 1 0 cm x 1 -2 cm. 3-nerved up to the

middle usually the wing-like scales are of different length.

The fruiting calyx is longitudinally ribbed. The fruit setting

(April/May) is erratic and every year is not necessarily a

good fruiting year.

Winged fruit is effectively dispersed only at high wind

velocities, which are rare in tropical rain forests in most areas,

but should be sufficient in the secluded habitat of the trees to

induce proper dispersal over long distances. Sometimes

winged fruits are distributed by water and the seedlings

develop on riverbanks. The leaves often deteriorate very

slowly and the seeds falling on the litter usually dry out and

have little chance of survival.

Natural regeneration: During good seed years natural

regeneration (immediately after the rain) of the species, up to

the seedling stage is good. Thereafter, unless attended to,

seedling mortality is high, probably due to excessive weed

growth and overhead shade.

In normal position, the fruit lies length-wise on the

forest^ floor, the growing radicle turns and grows upwards

and only later turns down i.e. remains exposed to air for a

long time, hence, the danger of drying out. Seedlings have

one or more pairs of opposite leaves, followed by spirally

arranged ones.

Fruit setting is generally very low. Seeds lose their

viability rapidly, hence they germinate immediately after falling

on the ground. After a resting period of several years, the

seedlings grow continuously. During this period more

saplings die, many become infested by pathogens or are

consumed by herbivores, some do not survive in the deep

shade and others are lost through competition. The seedlings

may be shade tolerant up to the bole stage. The seedlings

collected from their natural habitat and transplanted in other

open areas have been successful in surviving.

Economic importance: The soft wood is used in

plywood industry, building construction and match industry

among others.

Vateria macrocurpa B,L. Gupta

Vernacular name: Malayalam: Vellapayin

Distribution: A rare endemic species, which occurs only

in a small area in Muthikulam and Attapady forests of Kerala

State, as well as in the forests of Bolampatty in Tamil Nadu. It

occurs mainly between 100-1,400 m.

Trees prefer rich soil having a top layer of humus with

high moisture content and good drainage. In its natural habitat,

the tree grows in humid climate.

Floristics: Some of the associate species of Vateria

macrocarpa are Aglaia spp., Apodytes beddomei, Baccaurea

courtallensis , Cinnamomum zeylanicum , Cullenia exarillata

(main associate), Elaeocarpus tuberculatus , Euonymus

indicus, Glochidion spp., Gordonia obtusa, Litsaea

floribunda , Mesua ferrea, Nephelium longana, Ostodes

zeylanica, Pithecolobium bigeminum, Poecilonevron

indicum , Terminalia travancorensis and Xanthophyllum

/laves cens among others.

Description: A very large elegant evergreen tree up to

40 m high and 3 m girth with clear cylindrical bole of about

15 m, without buttresses. The branches spread horizontally

and form an irregular crown. No side branches can be seen till

a certain height. Its bark is dull grey black, smooth with

irregular white patches all over the main trunk. Bark exudes a

watery sap. The old bark often peels upwards, this character

often has considerable diagnostic value in field identification

of the species. Leaves are up to 25 cm x 12 cm, glabrous on

both surfaces, lateral nerves up to 20 pairs, parallel, prominent,

leaves green yellow with age, petiole up to 6 cm long swollen

at the top, minutely pubescent, stipules deciduous. Flowers

in axillary panicles, white in colour. Fruits ovate narrowed

towards apex, slightly curved, split apex downwards at

maturity.

Fruit setting generally low, though a lot of flowers bloom.

The size of the fruit also varies on the same tree. Due to their

size and weight, the fruit usually falls right under the tree.

With the onset of monsoon in June-July fruit ripens and start

falling on the ground.

Natural regeneration: Germination starts immediately

after the rain and large numbers of seedlings spring up around

the mother tree and in other favourable places where seeds

can reach by dispersal. Germination is epigeal. The pericarp

476

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc.( 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

splits longitudinally from the apex downwards. The thick

fleshy reddish cotyledons emerge out after the primary root

establishes itself. The seedlings are shade lovers; hence

growth can be seen in the natural undisturbed forests.

The seedlings withstand a considerable amount of

shade, but are very sensitive to drought, both shade and

moisture is necessary for their survival.

Sometimes the fruit exhibits viviparous tendency, if

good pre-monsoon showers occur. Most dipterocarps are

light demanders, except in the younger stages. Sometimes

the death of a tall tree creates a small patch of light sufficient

only for the most competitive species to come up. The plants

have red or yellow leaves, in young stages, which may signal

as a deterrent to herbivores from feeding on them, giving the

plant the extra competitive edge it needs for survival.

Although many seedlings may become established in

the early stages, the number which survive declines rapidly

over a period of time. Many become infested with pathogens

or are consumed by herbivores, some will not survive the

deep shade and others will be lost through competition.

No attempts have so far been made for artificial

regeneration of the species.

Uses: It is used in the plywood industry, match industry

and also for construction purposes.

Discussion: In India, except for Shorea robusta, much

attention is not being given to other dipterocarps. In view of

their rarity and their extreme importance in productive forestry,

these two dipterocarps should be saved from the threat of

extinction. All the existing trees of the two species should be

given complete protection. Seedlings can be planted in gaps

in the degraded evergreen forests, both outside and within

the natural habitat. Seedlings can also be distributed to the

people for planting.

More detailed studies on the phenology and ecology

are necessary to generate information about the species,

which can be used in planning out the strategy for the

conservation of the two species and their habitat.

February 26, 2002 MANISHA THAPLIYAL1

N. VENKATASUBRAMANIAN

Division of Biodiversity

Institute of Forest Genetics & Tree Breeding,

Coimbatore, Tamil Nadu, India.

'Present address: Forest Tree Seed Lab.,

Silviculture division. Forest Research Institute,

Dehra Dun 248 006, Uttaranchal, India.

Email: [email protected]. in

REFERENCES

Pascal, J.P. (1988): Wet Evergreen Forests of the Western Ghats of

India (Ecology, Structure, Floristic composition and

Succession). XX bis Trav. Sec. Sci. Tech. De Flnst. Fr.

Pondicherry. 345 pp.

Ramesh, B.R., J.P. Pascal & D. Df. Franceschi (1996): Distribution of

Dipterocarpaceae in the Western Ghats, South India. In Proc.

Fifth Round Table Conference on Dipterocarps, Chiang Mai.

Thailand.

32. ON STAMEN NUMBER AND SIZE IN BAUHINIA PURPUREA :

A REPLY TO S. BANDYOPADHYAY

Variation in the number and size of fertile stamens in

the flowers of Bauhinia purpurea has been reported by

Bandyopadhyay (200 1 ). Having noted this variation, we have

observed 68 flowers of B. purpurea trees occurring in the

Andhra University campus. The study indicates that the

flowers show variation in both number and size of stamens.

Of the total flowers observed, 48 had 3 fertile stamens, 6 had

2 fertile stamens, 8 had 3 unequal stamens (2 equal in size and

one almost half the other two), and 6 had 4 unequal stamens

(2 equal in size and two half the length of the filaments and %

the size of the anthers of the other two). The filaments of

fertile stamens are 5 1 mm long and anthers 7 mm in size. Reddi

and Rao (1993) reported that even in fertile stamens, 2.7-4%

of pollen grains produced in their anthers were sterile.

Considering this, the pollen grains produced in the anthers

of stamens with reduced length may be largely sterile. The

production of reduced and additional number of stamens in

varying sizes may be a strategy developed by B purpurea to

enhance the probing and foraging activity of pollen collecting

insects for effective pollination. Bees such as Apis cerana

inclica and Trigona sp. were reported to be voracious pollen

collectors of B. purpurea by Reddi and Rao (1993). Apart

from this, the variations found in B. purpurea are not unusual

and in fact frequently found in flowering plants.

June 18,2002 A.J. SOLOMON RAJU

S.P. RAO

V. SREE DURGA

Department of Environmental Sciences,

Andhra University,

Visakhapatnam 530 003,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

477

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

REFERENCES

Bandyopadhyay, S. (2001): On the number of fertile stamens in flowers of Bauhinia purpurea L. (Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae). J. Bombay

Nat. Hist. Soc. 98: 315-316.

Reddi, C.S. & C.B. Rao (1993): Pollination ecology of Bauhinia purpurea (Caesalpiniaceae). J. Palynol. 29: 1 15-124.

33. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF DIMERIA CONNIVENS HACK. IN ANDHRA PRADESH

During a floristic survey of the Eastern Ghats, we

collected a grass from Y. Ramavaram, East Godavari district,

which was identified as Dimeria connivens Hack. The species

has not been mentioned in literature (Pullaiah 1997) as

occurring in Andhra Pradesh, hence the present report is a

new distributional record. D. connivens has been reported

earlier from Orissa (Saxena and Brahmam 1996), Bihar (Haines

1921) and Kerala (Sreekumar and Nair 1991). The specimen

has been deposited in the Herbarium of the Department of

Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University (SKU), Anantapur.

Citation, a detailed description and illustration of this species

are provided here.

Dimeria connivens Hack, in DC., Monog. Phan. 6:

689.1889; Hook. f. in FI. Brit. India 7: 104. 1896; Haines, Bot .

Bihar & Orissa 1016(1 062). 1 924; Mooney, Suppl. Bot. Bihar

& Orissa 192. 1950; Bor, in Kew Bull. 1952; 577. 1953 & Grass.

Burma Ceylon India Pakistan 140. 1960.

Annual grass, culms tufted, erect or geniculate, up to

30 cm long, terete, smooth; nodes shortly and very sparsely

bearded. Leaves linear or narrowly linear-lanceolate,

ascending, 2. 5-5. 5 cm, mostly basal, apex acuminate, margins

with sparse tubercled based hairs, mid-rib well marked on the

lower surface; sheath slightly keeled, broadly hyaline on the

margins, leaf sheath longer than the lower internodes, shorter

than the upper, upper sheath close to the culm, lower one

rather loose and slipping from the culms, smooth and glabrous,

striate; ligule ovate, membranous, shortly ciliate, less than

1 mm long, racemes 2, erect, shortly divergent, 4.2 cm long,

lower florets empty, upper florets bisexual, rachis flat, tough,

0.75 mm wide, narrowly winged, ciliate along margins; spikelets

alternate, oblong or oblanceolate, greenish-yellow, 3.5-4 mm

long, callus base bearded, pedicels very short, flat, lower glume

2.5 mm long, excluding the callus, chartaceous, apex acute

with a sharp point, keels covered all along the beak with

forwardly directed cilia; upper glume lanceolate or elliptic,

3.5 mm long, acute, winged all along the keel, wings ciliate,

apical cilia 1 mm long, margin hyaline, lower lemma

oblanceolate to oblong, hyaline, 1 .5-2 mm long, ciliate towards

apex; upper lemma linear - elliptic - acute, 2-2.5 mm long, hyaline,

faintly nerved arista or awn 7 mm long; short ciliate, column

dark brown, 3 mm long, stamens 2, anthers 1 .5-2 mm long,

bright yellow; ovary elliptic, c. 0.3 mm long, styles 0.5 mm,

stigmas plumose, 0.6 mm long. Caryopsis linear, slightly

curved.

Fig. 1 Dimeria connivens Hack , A Plant, B Rachis (part), C Lower

glume. D & E Upper glume, F Lower lemma, G. Upper lemma,

H Stamens and Pistil

Status; Rare in grasslands.

FI. & Fr.: September-December.

Specimens examined: Way to Y. Ramavaram, East

Godavari district, Pullaiah and Gayathri 12286.

478

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Note: Pullaiah (1997) reports three species of Dimeria

i.e D. avenacea, D ornithopoda and D. kanjirap alii ana in

Andhra Pradesh. The present species differs from above in

having winged, unawned upper glume.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to express their gratitude to the

Department of Science and Technology, New Delhi for financial

support. They also thank Mr. M.S. Kiran Raj, University of

Calicut, for identifying the species.

June 18,2002 S. SANDHYA RANI

K. SRI RAMA MURTHY1

D. MURALIDHARA RAO

T. PULLAIAH

Department of Botany, Sri Krishnadevaraya University,

Anantapur 5 1 5 003, Andhra Pradesh, India.

'Present Address: Department of Botany,

Andhra Loyola College, Vijayawada 520 008,

Andhra Pradesh, India.

Email: [email protected]

REFERENCES

Haines, H.H. (1921): The Botany of Bihar and Orissa. London; rep. ed 1961. Calcutta.

Pullaiah, T. (1997): Flora of Andhra Pradesh. Vol. III. Scientific Publishers, Jodhpur.

Saxena, H.O. & M. Brahmam (1996): Flora of Orissa, Vol. IV. Regional Research Laboratory and Orissa Forest Development Corporation Ltd.

Bhubaneswar.

Sreekumar, P.V. & V.J. Nair (1991): Flora of Kerala - Grasses. Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta.

34. POIKILOHYDROUS PLANTS IN NORTHERN WESTERN GHATS

Poikilohydry is a highly specialized adaptation shown

by plants growing in conditions of periodic water stress.

These species are more commonly known as desiccation

tolerant or resurrection plants owing to their unique adaptation

for sustaining during dry periods. At the beginning of a dry

spell, the tissues of these plants lose water and shrivel.

However, if small amounts of water become available from

rainfall or streams, these plants absorb water and resume

normal growth even during the dry period.

A few such species were noted in the northern Western

Ghats region where dry period is very long, almost 7-8 months.

The most common and typical examples are ferns Cheilanthes

farinosa (Forsk.) Kaulf., Selaginella spp., Microsorium

membranaceum (Don) Ching and Pleopeltis nuda (Hook.)

Ching. These species grow in habitats where water stress is

severe. Cheilanthes farinosa grows in rock crevices or is

anchored in moss on rock faces. Selaginella spp. are often

seen in disturbed forest undergrowth. Microsorium

membranaceum and Pleopeltis nuda grow as epiphytes

anchored in moss on tree trunks or on boulders. Moss species

and liverworts such as Anthoceros spp., Riccia spp. also

exhibit this character. These plants can become fully

functional even when water is provided artificially.

In angiosperms, aquatic 1 ithophytic members of

Podostemaceae e.g Dalzellia ceylanica (Gardn.) Wight,

Cladopus hookerianus (Tul.) C. Cusset, Polypleurum

stylosum (Wight) Hall and Zeylanidium subulatum (Gardn.)

C. Cusset also show this adaptation. During the dry period,

these plants appear only as greyish white marks on rocks in

streambeds. With the approach of rain in June-July, the plants

start photosynthetic activity, flowering and fruiting occurs

during October-December. The ability of these plants to

withstand extreme dry conditions and high temperatures of

uncovered rocky outcrops, and resume normal functions

when water is available is ecologically interesting. Gaff and

Bole (1986) reported desiccation-tolerant grasses (e.g.

Tripogon ) from shallow soils in rocky areas of India. This is

the first report of this peculiar adaptation in diverse plant

groups like ferns and aquatic angiosperms in India. Porembski

and Barthlott (2000) have discussed global distribution of

desiccation-tolerant plants. They have pointed out that

Madagascar and African continent, esp. east Africa, are

particularly rich in desiccation-tolerant species.

Phytogeograph ically, Indian and African flora are known to

have many common elements, but so far there is no similarity

in poikilohydric taxa. The most well-known poikilohydric

species in east and west Africa belong to Cyperaceae, Poaceae

and Scrophulariaceae. None of the Cyperaceae or

Scrophulariaceae members have been described from Indian

literature as poikilohydrous. It would be interesting to study

these families extensively in India to search for species with

similar adaptation.

Pokilohydry is a very interesting adaptation from the

ecological as well as physiological view. It can have many

scientific and agricultural uses in future, such as studying

physiology of water uptake, establishing drought resistant

crops etc. It is also of horticultural interest as these plants

can withstand dry condition very well. Owing to the property

of rejuvenation, Cheilanthes and Selaginella species are often

sold in tourist places as curiosities, as ‘ sanjeevani.

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

479

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

rejuvenating plants’. Extensive documentation and detailed June 18,2002 APARNA WATVE

research is necessary to identify more plants in Indian floras 34/6, Gulawani Maharaj Rd.,

belonging to this peculiar ecological group. Pune 4 1 1 004, Maharashtra, India.

REFERENCES

Gaff, D.F. & P.V. Bole (1986): Resurrection Grasses in India. Oecologia 74\ 133-136.

Porembski, S. & W. Barthlott (2000): Granitic and gneissic outcrops (Inselbergs) as centres of diversity for desiccation-tolerant vascular plants.

Plant Ecology 151 : 19-28.

35. FLOWERS OF SAHYADRI: A CRITICAL APPRAISAL

flowers of sahyadri, a handy field guide, by S.H.

Ingalhalikar is easy to carry and contains data on Powers of

500 species of the Western Ghats. The map highlights the

geography of the areas covered; charts with scales are given

for easy reference. The appendices make the references easier,

faster and comfortable.

However, Powers of many related species appear

identical, and it is sometimes difficult even for an expert to

name the species correctly. Some of the pictures in the book

are misleading. Flowers like Pcrvetta crassicaulis (p. 56, no.

382), Tithonia diversifolia (p. 70, no. 465), Kleinia grandiflora

(p. 70, no. 302), Argyreia boseana, Argyreia involucrata

(p. 90, nos. 33, 36), Argyreia sericea (p. 87, no. 38), Argyreia

elliptica (p. 94, no. 35), Eriocaulon sedgwickii (p. 126,

no. 210), Smithia bigemma (p. 158, no. 433), Smithia setulosa

( p. 172, no. 436), Eriocaulon tuberiferum (p. 140, no. 211),

Pulicaria wightiana (p. 1 57, no. 404), Sonchus oleraceus (p.

158, no. 439), Senecio bombcry’ensis (p. 1 72, no. 426), Senecio

edgeworthii (p. 1 05, no. 427) can be mistaken for any of their

allies and vice-versa. There are several misidentifications in

the book which is unfortunate. Some are listed below:

1. Physalis peruviana (p. 134, no. 391): The photograph

is that of Nicandra physaloides. Not only is the scientific

name but its common name also is erroneous. ‘Popati’

is a common name used for Physalis species and perhaps

this has been copied from the source of the misidentified

species. The common name is apparently not obtained

from the locality where the plant has been photographed.

2 Avicennia marina (p. 39, no. 46): This is probably a

picture of Avicennia officinalis, which is mentioned as

a synonym of A. marina. Both species are distinct and

are found in marine swamps of Konkan. The vernacular

name cited for this species is incorrect. ‘Tiwar’ is used

for species of Barringtonia in coastal Konkan, both

for Barringtonia acutangula (‘Newar’ of the author)

and B. racemosa. Pronunciation of many local names

varies tremendously. Such names have to be verified

with some standard books before their application to a

new species and adding to the already existing confusion.

3. The correct name for ‘Nana’ is perhaps Lagerstroemia

parviflora Roxb., which is erroneously called

L. lanceolata by T. Cooke and it is not L. lanceo/ata

Wall, ex Wight & Arn. (1834), also it is not L microcarpa

Wight ( 1 842). L microcarpa Wight is a different species

found only in South India.

4. The correct name for ‘Tupa’ (p. 46, no. 93) under genus

Canthium is Canthium umbellatum Wt. Sometimes it

is only recognised under varietal rank and Gamble

identified it as a variety of Plectronia didyma Brandis.

Brisden (in Kew Bull. 48: 762. 1993) has retained it as

Psydrax umbellata. (Wt) Brisden.

5. Bombax insigne (p. 47, no. 7 1 ) or ‘ Deo-savar’ - Both of

these appear to be doubtful. It is definitely not B. insigne

of Wallich and its local name appears to be a new one.

6. The photograph of “Kabar” (p. 49, no. 99) called

Capparis spinosa is that of Capparis murrayana

Graham. Capparis spinosa L. is a much larger leaved

species found at higher altitudes in the Himalayas. The

prostrate plant which is generally found on river-beds

in Pune and Raigad districts is described by John

Graham, a Presidency Postmaster of Bombay in his

Catalogue of Bombay Plants (1839). (see “Flora of

Maharashtra” by M.R. Almeida, Vol. I, pp. 46-7, t. 42,

lower figure, 1996).

7. “Pinela” (p. 103, no. 468): Trachyspermum

roxburghianum is not the correct name for the plant

found wild at Sinhagad, which is photographed. It is

correctly called T. stictocarpum (Clarke) Wolf.

8. Capparis rotundifolia (p. 54, no. 98) is not a typical

variety, but a local variety C. rotundifolia Rottl. var.

longispina (Hook. f. ex Cooke) Almeida, which was

described as C. longispina Hook. f. & Thomson, in

Flora of British India. In comparison with

C. rotundifolia Rottl., which has rounded leaves and

short spines, this variety has ovate leaves with pointed

apex and long sharp spines.

9. Ceropegia sahyadrica (p. 119, no. 120) should be

placed in the synonymy of Ceropegia lawii Hook.

480

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

10. Barringtonia species collected at Chowpatty, Bombay

(= Mumbai) is definitely not B. racemosa. It is an

introduced species, native of Bengal and has been

planted along Marine Drive. Its proper identity is

Barringtonia asiatica (Linn.) Kurz, also known as

B. speciosa Forst & Forst. This species is found in

Maharashtra only in cultivation. Barringtonia

racemosa is an endemic wild species reported by Dalzell

& Gibson and T. Cooke from Srivardhan. Some recent

collectors have gathered it from Uran, Khed, Thane,

Malvan and Deobag in Maharashtra.

Changes in local names, contradictory to the

traditionally used ones, have to be meticulously scrutinized

before adopting them.

1. Names like ‘Gojibha’ for Anisomeles malabarica (p. 50,

no. 20) while the Sanskrit name ‘Gojivha’ represents a

different species will definitely cause confusion in

identification. We must go towards standardization, be

it the scientific or common name of the species.

2. Local name “Koshta” for Costus speciosus (p. 60. no.

147) is also an improper application. This species in

Marathi is called ‘Pev’ which is used in a Marathi proverb

also ‘Pev phutne’. Koshtha is a Sanskrit name for

Saussurea koshtha ( Saussurea lappa), a Compositae

plant found in the Himalayan region much reputed for

its medicinal and cosmetic properties.

3. Withania somnifera p. 63, no. 493: there are already half

a dozen plants with the common name “Shankha-

pushpi”. There is a standardized name “Ashwagandha”

used almost universally for this species.

4. Ceiba pentandra (p. 28, no. 109): Common names for

this species are mentioned as “Shalmali” and “Pandhri

Savar” but the correct common name is “Kapok”. It is

an African species, only found in cultivation and does

not occur in India naturally (as mentioned in the

distribution). Shalmali is a Sanskrit name for Bombax

ceiba L. which is called ‘SemuP in Hindi and “Simili” in

Oriya. Similipal is in Mayurbhanj district in Orissa.

5. Holarrhena pubescens (p. 75, no. 265) is ‘kala kuda’

and not ‘pandhra kuda’.

Some plant names conventionally used in our old floras

have been proved incorrect. Some examples from the field

guide are cited below:

1. Correct name for Impatiens oppositifolia (p. 159, no.

275) is /. rosmarinifolia Retz. Originally named

I. oppositifolia Linn. (1753) based on van Rheede’s

figure in Hortus Malabaricus, the plant is identified now

as Lindernia oppositifolia (L) Mukherjee.

2. Ipomoea campamdata (p. 77, no. 285) or “Tambar-vel”:

The correct name for this species is Ipomoea illustris

(Clarke) Prain. Ipomoea campamdata L. was applied to

the species presently known as Thespesia populnea

Soland (Paras-bhendi).

Following identifications are not convincing and need

a fresh look:

1. Marsdenia tenasissima Wt. & Arn. ‘Kesdodi’: The

corolla is described as greenish-yellow, which is not so

in the photograph. This species has been reliably

reported from Dangs Forest. The plant photographed

comes from Katraj and its identity needs rechecking.

The description matches with Cooke’s description of

the species, but disagrees with his photograph in

respect of the corolla and calyx.

2. Oclma obtusata (p. 55, no. 367) equated with Ochna

squarrosa (Kanak-champa) reported from Castle Rock

and Goa is obviously an error. Ochna obtusata DC. is a

tall shrubby plant sometimes attaining the height of a

small tree found in cultivation in gardens and very often

wrongly named as C. squarrosa DC. Plant found in

Castle Rock and Goa is Gomphia serrata (Gartn.) Kanis.

Neither the species nor the genus can be definitely

identified with only flowers as shown in the photograph.

3. Ehretia aspera (p. 56, no. 201) is a doubtful

identification. E. aspera Roxb. has been reported from

Marathwada with some certainty. Plants mentioned by

Woodrow and Cooke from Poona district, appear to be

Ehretia lae\’is Roxb. Ingalhalikar’s locality scrub forests

of plains, is not clear to me. If he meant coastal plains of

Konkan then it could be E. indica (Denst. ex Kostel.)

Almeida & Almeida. The identity can be confirmed only

from the leaf.

4. Rivea laotica (p. 59, no. 412) is Rivea ornata (Roxb.)

Choisy. A species from Laos, which is confused with

R. ornata and has been renamed as R. laotica by

Ooststroom ( 1 957). Babu in flora of dehra dun ( 1 957)

has confused the nomenclature of our Indian plant with

that species and V.N. Naik ( 1 998) has followed Babu.

5. Bombyx micranthus (p. 1 1 4, no. 72) ‘Pandhari-Jasvand’:

This generic segregation is not recognised by any good

taxonomic work. Even Bombycidendron Zollinger &

Moritze(Blumea 14:53, 1966) is not recognised as a genus

and has been treated as synonymous with Hibiscus Linn.

6. Crotalaria hebecarpa (p. 171, no. 1 53) is certainly not

a Crotalaria L. The name accepted here is based on a

later synonym of Hallia hirta Willd. The current name

for this is Goniogyna hirta (Willd.) Ali. (See Almeida,

in Flora of Maharashtra, Vo I . II, pp. 83-4, 1988).

1 Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

481

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

7. Kleinia grandiflora (DC.) Rani is a species of restricted 4.

distribution in Maharashtra. The only specimens

available are from Purandhar, leaves of which are

rounded at the tip in addition to the absence of inflated

pappus specified by Dalzell and Gibson while describing

a new species from Katraj and other areas in Poona

district, with inflated pappus. In addition to Dalzell & 5.

Gibson’s characters I have found that leaves in this

taxon are obtuse at the apex, not visible in the picture in

the book.

8. Boerhavia fruticosa Dalz. & Gibs. The photograph is

perhaps of B. chinensis. Proper locality of this plant is

not mentioned. Some recent authors have equated

B. fruticosa with B. grandiflora A. Ricb., an Abyssynian

species.

9. Cyathocline purpurea (Don) Kuntze pictured has

pinkish red heads. C. purpurea is reported to have

purple flowers and two varieties of this species have

been published by Rev. Fr. H. Santapau: alba (with

white heads) and bicolor (flowers purple and white

mixed). S.R. Yadav has reported a new record of

Cyathocline from Maharashtra, a species published

from Calicut by Prof. Sivadasan and others. 1 doubt if

that is the plant photographed. 1 saw the report of this

taxon only after publication of the 3rd volume of ‘Flora

Maharashtra’ by M.R. Almeida (see Vol. Ilia, p. 94-5,

2001).

Some examples of wrongly synonymised cited names

are given below:

1. Exacum petiolare Griseb. (p. 103, no. 219) and

E. pedunculatum L. are two distinct species. The correct

name for E. petiolare Griseb. (1845) is E. carinatum

Roxb. (1820). The two species can be distinguished

only on the basis of their leaves and number of veins

arising from the base of the leaves.

2. Haplanthus plumosa ( p. 104, no. 254) ‘Kesal-jakara’: If

you consider Haplanthodes plumosa as distinct at

species level, then H. tentacu/atus is not synonymous

with it. H. plumosa does not have hard spines as in

H. tentacu/atus. But H. tentacu/atus has priority and

modem taxonomists consider H. plumosa as a variety

of H. tentacu/atus.

3. Caralluma adscendens (p. 120, no. 101) is not the

correct name for the plant photographed. C. adscendens

Haworth is a taxon related to Caralluma fimbriata Wall.

Graham in Catalogue of Bombay Plants named it

C. fimbriata Wall., but later authors accept it on varietal

level and call itC. adscendens Haw. var. fimbriata (Wall.)

Gravely & Mayurnathan.

The correct name for the plant named Exacum

tetragonum (p. 153, no. 221) is E. bicolor Roxb. This

species from Western Ghats was misidentified as

E. tetragonum by Graham. E. tetragonum is a separate

species not found in Konkan region, but present in

other parts of Maharashtra like Vidarbha.

E- 6. Murrccya paniculata L. and M. exotica L. are

distinct taxa at least on varietal level. M. exotica L. is

called ‘Kamini’ under cultivation. It has glazed polished

foliage and more fragrant flowers and somewhat blunt

fruit at the apex. Its fragrance is believed to have

aphrodisiac properties, particularly for women.

Rule of priority in taxonomic nomenclature governs the

legitimacy of the correct names. The following are a few

examples where this rule should be applied:

1. Centaurium meyeri (p. 106, no. 1 1 1) ‘Luntak’ -Correct

name C. centauroides (Roxb.) Rao & Hemadri.

2. Osbeckia muralis Naud. ( 1 850) (p. 1 48, no. 37 1 ) Correct

name O. truncata D. Don (1 834).

3. Polygonum auriculatum Meissn. (p. 162, no. 399) is

now correctly called Persicaria chinensis (L) Gross.,

which is based on Polygonum chinensis Linn., although

some taxonomists consider it as a variety of Linnean

species and not the typical variety.

4. Correct name for Hygrophila auriculata (p. 168, no.

268) is Hygrophila schulli (Buch.-Ham) Almeida &

Almeida.

5. Correct name for Lavandula Icrwii Wight ( 1 849) (p. 1 68,

no. 310) is L. gibsonii Graham (1839).

6. Correct names for Paracaryopsis coelestinum (p. 1 69,

no. 379) and P. malabaricum (P. 154, no. 380) are

Adelocaryum coelestinum (Lindl.) Brandis and

A. malabaricum (Clarke) Brandis respectively.

7. Crotalaria retusa is found at sea level and has retuse

leaf apex. The species found at little higher elevation

and also at Mahabaleshwar, Amboli, Matheran, is a

bushy shrub having acute or mucronate apices, named

C. leschenaultii.

Ingalhalikar’s terminology for the distribution of species

is very often confusing, for example:

a. Occasional in deciduous forests in hilly areas of

slopes. (Occasional in deciduous forests on slopes of

hills?)

b. Occasional in dry deciduous forests of plains

(Occasional on the plains in dry deciduous forests?)

Distribution of some of the species is based on limited

field experience and could be misleading. One example should

suffice:

482

J. Bombay Nat. Hist. Soc., 101 (3), Sep-Dec 2004

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

Santalum album (p.43, no. 419) - Habitat is given as

dry deciduous forests in plains. This is not an endemic species

in Sahyadris. It is planted and occurs under cultivation in

plains as well as in mountainous terrains.

The spelling of plant names needs correction, such as:

p. 17. Moulluva

p. 1 7. Neaotis

p. 18. Wadelia

p. 34. Albizzia lebbek

p. 50. Boerhaavia

Moullava

Neanotis

Wedelia

A/bizia lebbeck

Boerhavia

p. 5 1 . Dendropthoe - Dendrophthoe

p. 75 . gigantia - gigantea

Flowering periods represented in colour can be true

only to the limited localities that he has mentioned. They are

far from the general flowering patterns of many of the species

given.

April 6, 2002 S.M. ALMEIDA

Blatter Herbarium,

St. Xavier’s College, Mahapalika Marg,

Mumbai 400 00 1 , Maharashtra, India.

ERRATA

Vol 101(2), 2004

pg. 225, Table 2, Column 2 for Total (mg/g) read Total Phenol (mg/g)

pg. 247, Photocredits, for T. Tulsi read T. Tsujii

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 1 03 and published on April 27, 2005,

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Registered with the Registrar of Newspapers under RN 5685/57 ISSN OO^fc

CONTENTS

EDITORIAL.

SMrTHSONIAN 'NSTrTUTlON LIBRARIES

3 9088 01175 6574

335

A CASE STUDY OF THE SALTWATER CROCODILE CROCODYLUS POROSUS IN MUTHURAJAWELA

MARSH, SRI LANKA: CONSIDERATIONS FOR CONSERVATION

DeniPorej 337

ECOLOGICAL AND CONSERVATION STUDIES OF ABUTILON RANADEI WOODR. ET STAPF

P. Tetali, SujataTetali, P.V. Joshi, Sanjay Kulkami,P LakshminarasimhanandP.V. Prasanna 344

POPULATION STRUCTURE AND HABITAT COMPONENTS OF A NON-HUNTED ARGALI POPULATION

IN THE EAST GOBI, MONGOLIA

M ichael R. Frisina, Raul Valdez and Gorabosuren Ulziimaa 353

A CATALOGUE OF THE BIRDS IN THE COLLECTION OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

—40. FAMILY: FR1NGILLIDAE: FINCHES

Saraswathy Unnithan 360

BEHAVIOURAL AND FUNCTIONING INTERACTIONS IN THE SCHIZOTHORACID COMMUNITY IN

THE RIVER MANDAKINI: AN ASSESSMENTTHROUGH ALTERING SEX RATIO PATTERNS

N. Singh and K.C. Bhatt 374

STATUS OF SEA-COW DUGONG DUGON (MULLER) ALONG THE SOUTHEAST COAST OF INDIA

M. Badrudeen, P. Nammalwar and K. Dorairaj 381

BEHAVIOURAL STRATEGY OF RETURNING FORAGERS OF THE ARBOREAL ANT OECOPHYLLA

SMARAGDINA (FABRICIUS) DURING THE MONSOON

N.Rastogi 388

MORTALITY OF HERPETOFAUN A, BIRDS AND MAMMALS DUE TO VEHICULAR TRAFFIC IN ETAWAH

DISTRICT, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA

K.S.GopiSundar 392

ARE WORMS AFFECTED BY HOST ECOLOGY? A PERSPECTIVE FROM MUDUMALAI WILDLIFE

SANCTUARY, SOUTHERN INDIA

Guha Dharmarajan, M. Raman and Mathew C. John 399

CLADOCERA OF PERIYAR LAKE AND ADJACENT SITES, THEKKADY, KERALA

K.K. Subhash Babu and C.K.G. Nayar 403

NOTES ON CALLIPHORID FLIES (DIPTERA: CALLIPHORIDAE) FROM SUNDARBANS BIOSPHERE

RESERVE AND THEIR IMPACT ON MAN AND ANIMALS

Shuvra Kanti Sinha and B ,C. Nandi 415

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF THE GENUS STENOMESIUS WESTWOOD (HYMENOPTERA: EULOPHIDAE) FROM

INDIA

Meena Agnihotri and M. A. Khan 421

HITHERTO UNKNOWN GENERA OF SPIDERS, ORDGARIUS KEYSERLING, PASILOBUS SIMON

(ARANEIDAE) AND STRIGOPL US SIMON (THOMISIDAE) FROM EASTERN INDIA

Sumana Saha and Dinendra Raychaudhuri 425

ANEW SPECIES OF RASBORA BLEEKER (CYPRINIFORMES: CYPRINIDAE) FROM MANIPUR, INDIA

Waikhom Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 429

A NEW FISH OF THE GENUS ACANTOPSIS VAN HASSELT (CYPRINIFORMES: COBITIDAE) FROM

MANIPUR, INDIA

Waikhom Vishwanath and Juliana Laisram 433

REVIEWS 437

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 439

Printed by Bro. Leo at St. Francis Industrial Training Institute, Borivli, Mumbai 400 103 and published by Rachel Reuben

for Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House, Dr. Salim Ali Chowk, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road, Mumbai 400 023.

Website: www.bnhs.org; Email: [email protected]. in