JOURNAL

OF THE

HISTORY

VOL 91, No. 1,

April 1994

BOARD OF EDITORS

Executive Editor

J.C. DANIEL

M.R. ALMEDIA

P.V. BOLE

M.K. CHANDRASHEKARAN

B.F. CHHAPGAR

B.V. DAVID

R. GADAGKAR

ANIL GORE

A.J.T. JOHNSINGH

AJITH KUMAR

A.R. RAHMANI

J.S. SAMANT

R. WHITAKER

E.G. SILAS

J.S. SINGH

Assistant Editor

K.P. SHIRODKAR

J

INSTRUCTIONS TO CONTRIBUTORS

1. Papers which have been published or have been offered for publication elsewhere

should not be submitted.

4

2 . Papers should be submitted in duplicate, typed double space. Preferably an additional

copy should be submitted on a floppy diskette (3.5" or 5.25"), using WordStar 5.5

or earlier, MS Word or Word Perfect, and MS DOS 4.0 or earlier versions.

3 . Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where identification has been

authentically established by comparison of specimens actually collected.

4. Photographs for reproduction must be clear, with good contrast. Prints should be at

least 9x12 cm and on glossy glazed paper. Text-figures, line drawings and maps

should be in Indian ink, preferably on Bristol board.

5. References to literature should be placed at the end of the paper, alphabetically

arranged under author's name, with the abridged titles of journals or periodicals in

italics and titles of books or papers in roman type.

6. Each paper should be accompanied by an abstract, normally not exceeding 200

words, and 6-8 key words. Key Words should include the scientific names of

important species discussed.

7. 25 reprints will be supplied free of cost to authors of main articles. In the case of

new descriptions, reviews and miscellaneous notes, authors will be sent a free copy

of the Journal.

8. The editors reserve the right, other things being equal, to publish a member's

contribution earlier than a non-member's.

Hornbill House,

Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

Editors,

Journal of the Bombay

Natural History Society

VOLUME 91 (1): APRIL 1994

Date of Publication: 1-8-1994

CONTENTS

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED PART 1 (With a plate and four text figures )

By P.J.J. Bates, D.L. Harrison and M. Muni. 1

BREEDING HABITS OF THE NILGIRI LAUGHING THRUSH GARRULAX CACHINNANS

(JERDON) (With six text-figures)

By M. A. Islam - 16

FROGS AND PADDY: PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT

By Carl Gans - 29

FISH FAUNA OF TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

By R.P. Barman 37

FIRST RECORD OF ALLANTINAE (TENTHREDINIDAE: HYMENOPTERA) FROM INDIA

By Malkiat S. Saini and Jagdeep S. Deep 47

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, M.P.

By Hashim N. Tyabji - 51

A TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOU. (ORCHID ACE AE) FROM

BANGLADESH (With five text-figures)

By Mokter Ahmed, M.K. Pasha and M.A. Aziz Khan 78

SPECIES RICHNESS OF FERNS AND ASSOCIATED INSECTS FROM DARJEELING PLAINS

By A. Mukhopadhyay and D. Thapa 86

OCCURRENCE OF LIMNOCNIDA 1ND1CA ANNANDALE IN THE PANDRI RIVER (WESTERN

GHATS, KARNATAKA, INDIA), WITH A NOTE ON FRESHWATER MEDUSAE OF INDIA

(With a text-figure)

By Narayan Ramappa Birasal 91

FOOD OF THE ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET PSHTACULA KRAMERI : A QUANTITATIVE STUDY

(With two text -figures )

By Harjeet K. Saini, Manjit S. Dhindsa and H.S. Toor 96

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF ACANTHASP1S AMY & SERV. (HETEROPTERA: REDUVIIDAE) FROM

SOUTH INDIA (With a text-figure)

By Dunston P. Ambrose _. 104

A NEW SPECIES OF RHAPHIDOSOMA (HETEROPTER A-REDU V IID AE- H ARPACTORI N AE) FROM

WESTERN GHATS (With a text-figure)

By G. Ravichandran and D. Livingstone 105

PUNTIUS CRESCENTUS, A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM SOUTH INDIA WITH OBSERVATIONS

ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF SOME RELATED SPECIES (With a text-figure)

By G.M. Yazdani and D.F. Singh 107

HORALABIOSA PALANIENSIS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM PALANI HILLS, WESTERN GHATS,

SOUTH INDIA (With two plates)

By K. Rema Devi and A.G.K. Menon 110

THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (ACARINA: MACROCHELIDAE) IN INDIA. 4. TWO

NEW SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH DUNG BEETLES (COLEOPTERA: SCARABAEIDAE)

FROM SOUTH INDIA (With twenty text-figures)

By R.K. Roy ■ Ill

NEW AND NOT KNOWN APHIDS (HOMOPTERA : APHIDIDAE) FROM HIMACHAL PRADESH,

INDIA (With four text-figures)

By D.K. Bhattacharya 117

1 W 2 S 1995

^ftARiES

ON A NEW SPECIES OF ZELOMORPHA ASHMEAD (HYMENOPTERA: BRACONIDAE) FROM

INDIA (With three text -figures)

By S.M. Kurhade and P.K. Nikam 120

NEW RECORDS OF TWO PULMONATE FRESHWATER GASTROPODS IN INDIA, WITH DESCRIP-

TION OF A NEW SPECIES, BULINUS INDICUS (With six text figures)

By N.V. Subba Rao, S.C. Mitra, B.D. Parashar, G.P. Gupta and K.M. Rao 123

REVIEWS

1. THE ASIATIC LION

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 127

2. JUNGLE AND BACKYARD

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 128

3. THE DISCOVERY OF EVOLUTION

Reviewed by Renee M. Borges 129

4. A BOOK OF KERALA BIRDS

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 130

5. CURRENT INDIAN FORESTRY, ENVIRONMENT & WILDLIFE

Reviewed by J.C. Daniel 131

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

MAMMALS

1. Parturition in feral Rhesus Macaque

(. Macaca mulatto): A case report

By Reena Mathur 132

2. Infant survival and mortality in free-ranging

Hanuman Langurs, Presbytis entellus around

Jodhpur, Western India

By G. Agoramoorthy 133

3. Rustyspotted Cat ( Felis rubiginosa

Geoffroy) sighted near Udaipur

By Raza Tehsin 136

4. Occurrence of the leaf-nosed bat Hipposideros

lankadiva Kelaart (Mammalia: Chiroptera:

Rhinolophidae) in Ratnagiri District,

Maharashtra

By Manoj Muni, Arun Kothari and

D.A. Bhiwgade 136

5. Wild Buffalo Bubalus bubalis in

Dhakuakhana, Lakhimpur district of Assam

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 137

BIRDS

6. Sighting of Christmas Island Frigate Bird

(F re gat a andrewsi Mathews) in the Andamans

By Ajai Saxena 138

7. Site-fidelity to the unusual nesting site of

brahminy kite Haliastur indus (Boddaert)

By S. Balachandran and

R. Sakthivel 139

8. Additions to the birds of Assam: White-tailed

Sea Eagle and Large Sand Plover

By Anwaruddin Choudhury 139

9. Occurrence of the eastern Marsh Harrier

Circus aeruginosus spilonotus Kaup in Corbett

National Park: A range extension

By Rishad Naoroji 140

10. Longest longevity record for the Lesser

Sandplover Charadrius mongolus Pallas

By S. Balachandran and S.A. Hussain 140

.11. Sighting of Little Gull Larus minutus Pallas

at Bhavnagar New Port, Gujarat

By B.M. Parasharya, K.L. Mathew and

N.C. Bhatt 141

12. Duetting in the Great Horned Owl, Bubo

nipalensis Hodgson (Strigi formes: Strigidae)

By Chris Wemmer and

Kim C. Derrickson 141

13. A Grey Shrike Lanius excubitor Linnaeus

killing a full grown little brown dove

Streptopelia senegalensis (Linnaeus)

By Ashok Kumar Sharma 142

14. Rufousbacked Shrike (Lanius schach Linne)

feeding a striped keelback (Amphiesma stolata)

to Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus Linne) fledgeling

By Dhananjai Mohan 143

15. Philippine Shrike Lanius cristatus

lucionensis, a regular winter visitor to

south India

By S. Balachandran and S. Alagar Rajan 143

16. Common Mynas drinking sea water

By C.J. Feare 144

17. Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus feeding

on Garden Lizard Calotes versicolor

By B.M. Parasharya and K.L. Mathew

18. Some notes on Pied Ground Thrush

Zoothera wardii Blyth

By S. Karthikeyan

REPTILES

19. A note on the reproductive biology of the

spotted pond turtle, Geoclemys hamiltonii

By S. Bhupathy and B.C. Choudhury

20. The distribution of the Asian Brown Tortoise

( Manouria emys ) in India and the taxonomic

status of subspecies

By S. Bhupathy

21. Additional locality records for two Indian

Tortoise species

By S. Bhupathy, C.S. Silori and

S.F. Wesley Sunderraj

22. The Common Garden Lizard Calotes

versicolor (Daudin) feeding on germinating

seeds of Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle

By Satish Kumar Sharma

AMPHIBIA

23. First record of Microhyla rubra (Jerdon)

(Amphibia : Anura) from Maharashtra

By S.S. Kamble and H.V. Ghate

24. Effect of sewage water on different species

of Amphibians

By Satish Kumar Sharma

INSECTS

25. New adult male attractants of Danaid

Butterflies

By Naresh Chaturvedi

26. Onthophagus unifasciatus F. (Coleoptera:

Scarabaeidae: Scrabaeinae) — A new record for

Andaman islands

By K. Veenakumari and Prashanth Mohanraj....

27. Occurrence of Afissa dumerili (Muls.)

(Coccinellidae: Coleoptera,) on Cucurbits

By R.S. Pandey and Narbada Prasad

OTHER INVERTEBRATES

28. A note on Parholaspidae Krantz, 1960 with

supplementary data for Gamasholaspis

browningi (Bregetova & Koroleva, 1960)

from India

By R.K. Roy

29. Moina weismanni Ishikawa, 1896 — A new

record for West Bengal (Crustacea: Cladocera)

By K. Venkataraman and

S.R. Das 155

BOTANY

30. Burning out the Black Dammar, Canarium

strictum Roxb.

By R. Kannan 159

31. Pegia nitida Colebr. — A new record for

Western Himalaya

By Bhaskar Datt and S.L. Kapoor 160

32. The identity of Phanera nicobarica

(Leguminosae: Caesalpinioideae)

By S. Bandyopadhyay and

B.D. Sharma 160

33. Parthenium Hysterophorus L. (Asteraceae)

from Neil Island — A new adventive to the

Andaman and Nicobar islands

By P. Mohanraj, T.V.R.S. Sharma,

M.K. Vasudeva Rao and K. Veena Kumari 161

34. A note on the rediscovery of Jasminum

andamanicum Balakr. and N.G. Nair —

An endangered endemic species

By Sam P. Mathew and

Susan Abraham 162

35. Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja —

A new record for Andhra Pradesh

By P.S.P. Babu, D.A. Moulali and

T. Pullaiah 163

36. Rediscovery of Calanthe whiteana King &

Pantling — A very rare Indian Orchid endemic

to Chungthang valley of Sikkim

By S.Z. Lucksom 163

37. Addition to the Grasses of Bihar - II

By R.R. Jha and S.K. Varma 165

38. Some interesting plant records from

Garhwal Himalaya

By D.S. Rawat, L.R. Dangwal and

R.D. Gaur 168

39. Additions to the Flora of Madhya Pradesh

By R.L.S. Sikarwar and

J.P. Kaushik 170

145

145

146

147

149

150

150

151

152

153

154

154

40. Some new records of plants for Orissa

By R.D. Girach and Aminuddin

171

■

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY

April 1994

Vol. 91

No. 1

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED1

Part 1

P.J.J. Bates2, D.L. Harrison2 and M. Muni3

(With a plate and four text-figures)

Key words: Mammalia Chiroptera, India, Gujarat, Maharashtra, Karnataka, distribution, ecology,

systematics, status and conservation

The systematics, distribution, ecology and biology of seventeen species of Indian bats are

reviewed in the light of field work conducted in Western India during March, 1992. Significant

changes of status are noted in some species in comparison with previous surveys. Conservation

priorities are highlighted.

Introduction

Thirty years ago Brosset published a

series of papers on the ecology and dis-

tribution of the bats in central and western

India. In these four studies, Brosset (1962a,

1962b, 1962c & 1963) gave detailed ac-

counts of the habits and habitats of 35

species of bat at 43 localities. In doing so,

he provided an invaluable bench mark

against which future naturalists could com-

1 Accepted September 1992.

3 Harrison Zoological Museum, Bowerwood House, St.

Botolph’s Road, Sevenoaks, Kent, TN13 3AQ, England.

3Bombay Natural History Society, Hombill House,

Dr Salim Ali Chowk, Bombay 400 023, India.

pare not only changes in species diversity at

a particular site but also changes in popula-

tion size.

The present authors revisited ten of the

localities frequented by Brosset in an attempt

to assess the fitness of the present bat popula-

tions vis-a-vis those observed thirty years

previously. The localities were Bhuj, Rajkot

and Ahmedabad in Gujarat; Mandu in Mad-

hya Pradesh; Aurangabad, Ajanta; Ellora;

Elephanta and* Mahabaleshwar in

Maharashtra; Belgaum and Talewadi in

north-western Karnataka. All the localities

were visited between 3 March and 28 March,

1992. This survey is part of a wider, longterm

study to review the status, systematics, dis-

2

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

tribution and ecology of all the Indian mam-

mal species. A series of surveys to a range of

contrasting biotopes within the Indian penin-

sula is being planned whilst a complementary

study of the blood proteins is also being con-

ducted by the junior author.

Methods

Specimens of the cave dwelling species

were generally collected during the day using

hand held butterfly nets, with aluminium

handles. Additionally, some cave entrances

were netted during the evening using ten and

thirty foot Japanese mist nets. This allowed

for the collection of species whose diurnal

roosts were located in inaccessible crevices.

On three occasions mist nets were set up in

the open in an attempt to collect free flying

bats not traceable to any particular roost; the

localities included a pool in an otherwise dry

river bed at Ajanta; the edge of a medium-

sized lake at Mandu and a cliff edge at

Mandu. Although many bats were seen at

each of these localities, the yields in the nets

were low with one, nil and four specimens

being caught respectively.

Definitions of Measurements

HB: head and body length — from the tip

of the snout to the base of the tail; T: tail length

— from the root of the tail to the tip; HF: hind

foot — from the extremity of the heel to the

tip of the longest digit, not including the claw;

FA: forearm — from the extremity of the

elbow to the extremity of the carpus with the

wings folded; E: ear — from the lower border

of the external auditory meatus to the tip of

the pinna; GTL: greatest length of skull — the

greatest antero-posterior diameter of the

skull, taken from the most projecting point at

each extremity; CBL: condylobasal length-

from an exoccipital condyle to the anterior

extremity of the premaxillae; ZB: zygomatic

breadth — greatest width of the skull across

the zygomatic arches; BB: breadth of brain-

case-the width of the braincase at the posterior

roots of the zygomatic arches; IC: interorbital

constriction — the narrowest width across the

interorbital region; PC: postorbital constric-

tion — the narrowest width across the postor-

bital region; C-Mn: maxillary toothrow —

from the front of the upper canine to the back

of the crown of the last upper molar; C-Mn:

mandibular toothrow — from the front of the

lower canine to the back of the crown of the

last lower molar; M: mandible length — from

the condyle of the mandible to its most

anterior projecting point, including the lower

incisors.

List of Species Encountered

MEGACHIROPTERA

Rousettus leschenaultii

Pteropus giganteus

Cynopterus sphinx

MIC ROCHIROPTER A

Rhino poma hardwickii

Taphozous longimanus

Taphozous melanopogon

Taphozous perforatus

Taphozous kachhensis

Megaderma lyra

Rhinolophus rouxii

Rhinolophus lepidus

Hipposideros fulvus

Hipposideros speoris

Hipposideros lankadiva

Otomops wroughtoni

Pipistrellus ceylonicus

Miniopterus schreibersii

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED

3

Suborder megachiroptera

Family Pteropidae

Rousettus leschenaultii (Desmarest

1820) — Fulvous fruit bat

Pteropus leschenaultii Desmarest, 1820:

Encyclopedique Method. Mamm., 1: 110.

Pondicherry, India.

External characters: This is a medium-

sized fruit bat with a short tail which

protrudes from the interfemoral membrane.

Males average larger than females with a

mean forearm length of 83.2 mm (78-90 mm)

as compared to females, 80.0 mm (74-84

mm). The ears are naked, conical in shape,

partially opaque and a mid-brown colour

throughout: there is no pale margin as in

Cynopterus. The snout is well haired and

robust, with the nostrils protuberant and

separated from each other by a deep groove.

The eyes, like those of all the Megachiroptera

are relatively large; they appear dark brown

by day and brilliant red in torch light. The

pelage is a dull grey-brown throughout, tend-

ing to be paler on the shoulders in both sexes;

occasionally greyer or more yellowish

specimens are seen. Males have the glandular

hairs on the throat more developed than the

females, but not distinctively coloured. The

wing membranes arise from the flanks and

consequently the dorsal pelage is not nar-

rowed. Both the first and second digits of

each wing are clawed.

Cranial and dental characters: The skull

is robust, with the rostrum noticeably more

elongated than that of Cynopterus sphinx and

with the braincase larger. The dentition is rela-

tively delicate with the cheekteeth narrow in

relation to their length. The first upper premolar

is greatly reduced, subequal in size with the first

upper incisor.

Dental formula: i 2/2 c 1/1 pm 3/3 m 2/3

= 34.

Measurements: Based on specimens of

both sexes from throughout the indian sub-

continent.

Ecology: Rousettus leschenaultii has a

wide habitat tolerance, with an altitudinal

range of 0-1000 metres (Bhat 1974) and an

ability to survive in both arid and humid

climes. Favoured roosts include caves,

deserted buildings and tunnels. Unlike

Cynopterus and Pteropus , it does not roost

in trees. Colony size varies from 2 to

several thousand individuals and the sexes

are not segregated. It feeds primarily on

fruits and flowers and additionally may

take small fish (Ghose and Ghosal 1984).

Some populations migrate seasonally in

search of food.

Biology: According to Gopalakrishna

and Choudhari (1977) who studied popula-

tions in Maharashtra, females may have

two pregnancies in quick succession during

the year, the first starts in the second week

of November and terminates in the middle

of March, although a few become pregnant

4

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Fig. 1: Rouse ttus leschenauitii has a widespread distribution, extending from Sri Lanka, Pakistan, India and Nepal to Burma, Vietnam,

southern China, Java and Bali.

Records from INDIA include Jhajjar Kotli [1], (Chakraborty, 1983) in Kashmir & Jammu; the districts of Kulu [2]; Kangra [3] and Mandi

[4], (Bhat el al. , 1983) in Himachal Pradesh; Nasirabad [5], (Andersen, 1912); Jodhpur [6], (LACM coll.); Gagaron Ka Kila [7], (Sinha,

1980) in Rajasthan; Mehmadabad [8]; Baroda [9], (Brosset, 1962a); Broach [10], (Sinha, 1981) in Gujarat; Chikalda [11]; Elephanta [12];

Jogeshwari [13]; Kanheri [14]; Khandala [15]; Alibag [16]; Mahableshwar [17]; Aurangabad [18]; Ratnagiri [19], (Brosset, 1962a);

Marathwada [nl], (Gopalakrishna & Madhavan, 1970); Satara [20], (Sinha, 1980); Poona [21], (Rookmaaker & Bergmans, 1981); Ellora

[22] , (this paper); Mansar [59], (Bhide & Gupta, 1986); Kandri [60], (Karim & Gupta, 1986) in Maharashtra; Virajpet [22]; Nagarhole

[23] , (Ryley, 1913b); Krishnapur [24]; Belgaum [25]; Gersoppa [26]; Hampi [27], (Brosset, 1962a); Muroor [28], (Sreenivasan & Bhat,

1974) in Karnataka; Margao [29]; Poinguinam [30], (Agrawal, 1973); VaddemBardez [31], (BNHS coll.) in Goa; Trivandrum [32], (Sinha,

1980); Silent Valley [33], (Das, 1986) in Kerala; Zakampatti [nl], (Sinha, 1980); Madras [34], (Rookmaaker & Bergmans, 1981); Travancore

[35], (BNHS coll.) in Tamil Nadu; Koduru [36], (BMNH coll.) in Andhra Pradesh; Khandagiri [37], (Sinha, 1980); Bhubaneswar [38];

Koira [39], (Rookmaaker & Bergmans, 1981) in Orissa; Lamataghat [40], (Khajuria, 1979); Mandu [41], (Brosset, 1962a) in Madhya

Pradesh; Tanakpur [42], (Wroughton, 1914); Chunar [43], (HZM coll.) and the districts of DehraDun [46]; Pauri [45]; Almora [46]; Naini

Tal [47]; Pithoragarh [48], (Bhat, 1974) in Uttar Pradesh; Chaibassa [49], (Sinha, 1980); the districts of Hazaribag [50]; Aurangabad [51]

and Patna [52], (Sinha, 1986) in Bihar; Calcutta [53], (Rookmaaker & Bergmans, 1981); Pedong [54]; Hasimara [55], (BMNH coll.) in

West Bengal; 17 km wsw of Mangan [56], (Ghose & Ghosal, 1984) in Sikkim; Siju Cave [56], (Sinha, 1980) in Meghalaya; Sei Josa [57],

(Rookmaaker & Bergmans, 1981) in Arunachal; Kanchanpur [58], (Rookmaaker & Bergmans, 1981) in TVipura. Extralimital localities

based on Roberts (1977) for PAKISTAN; Scully (1887) and BMNH coll, for NEPAL; Chakraborty (1975) for BHUTAN; Ryley (1914b),

Wroughton (1915b) and Phillips (1924) for SRI LANKA and Wroughton (1915a), Carter (1943), Sinha (1980) and Das (1986) for northern

BURMA.

NB: [nl] = not located.

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED

5

MATERIAL SEEN AND/OR COLLECTED IN MARCH 1992

in December and deliver their young in April

or early May; the second starts soon after

parturition and terminates at the end of July.

Gestation lasts about 125 days and there is

generally only one foetus. Females reach

sexual maturity after five months and males

after fifteen months. Infant mortality is high.

Discussion

This species appears to be flourishing and

has no doubt benefited from the increased

agricultural activity of man. Brosset (1962a)

reported that in February several colonies were

found in the mosque and ruins of Mandu, with

a total number of individuals estimated at be-

tween 1000 and 2000. Thirty years on and it

appears to have consolidated its position into

one huge colony of several thousand in-

dividuals in the extensive cellars of the Cham-

pa Baoli. In so doing, it has replaced a vast

colony of Hippo sideros lankadiva which Bros-

set (1962b) estimated to number between 5000

and 7000 individuals. At Aurangabad, a

medium-sized colony of about 100 individuals

was located in the drainage tunnel beneath

the Bibi Ka Maqbara Mosque. Brosset

(1962a) had recorded a small colony of 8 to

10 individuals in the nearby Buddist caves,

but it was no longer present in this latter

locality. The colony in cave No. 29 at Ellora

was not noted by Brosset (1962a); the cave

is relatively undisturbed and provides an

ideal habitat for this species. The status of the

colony at Robbers’ Cave near Mahabalesh-

war appears unchanged. However, it was not

found at Elephanta. Possibly increased pres-

sure from tourism has displaced it from these

artificial caves.

Status: Rousettus leschenaultii has

adapted well to man-made changes to the

natural biotope. It requires no special

protection or conservation measures. More

detailed studies may suggest that it is

gradually displacing the less adaptable

Microchiropterans from a number of their

traditional roosts and consequently some fu-

ture control of its population size may prove

to be desirable.

6

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol 91 (1994)

Pteropus giganteus (Brunnich, 1782) -

Indian flying fox

Vespertilio gigantea Brunnich, 1782:

Dyrenes Historic, 1: 45. Bengal, India.

External characters: This is the largest

Fruit bat known to occur on mainland India. It

is commonly seen hanging by its hind feet from

tall trees with its massive wings wrapped

MATERIAL SEEN AND/OR

developed paroccipital processes. The occipi-

tal region is subtubular, although the lambda

still forms the most posterior part of the

skull. The sagittal crest is present but weak.

The post orbital constriction is variable in

width, considerably narrower than the inter-

orbital width in some specimens and sube-

qual to it in others. The first upper premolar

•LLECTED IN MARCH 1992

NB. Colonies were seen in many other localities but no detailed notes were taken.

around its body. The wings arise from the

sides of the dorsum and consequently there

is a narrowing of the dorsal pelage. There is

no tail. The hind feet are large with strong

black claws. The ears are essentially naked,

dark brown or black in colour and conical in

shape. The muzzle is well haired and the

nostrils clearly defined. The pelage is a rich

chestnut brown on the crown of the head. On

the nape of neck, it varies from a light yel-

lowish tan to a deeper chestnut brown. It is

relatively darker around the eyes and mouth.

The pelage on the posterior shoulders and

dorsal region is short, sparse and black with

some paler hair tips. There is a clear line of

demarcation on the shoulders between the

chestnut hairs of the head and neck and the

dark hairs of the dorsum. The belly is most

variable in colour, apparently independent of

age, sex or season; it ranges from pale tan to

deep orange-red chestnut brown.

Cranial and dental characters: The

skull is massive with a long rostrum and well

is often deciduous. The first lower incisor is

usually distinctly smaller than the second.

Both m2 and m3 are greatly reduced.

Dental formula: i 2/2 c 1/1 pm 3/3 m 2/3

= 34.

Measurements: Based on specimens of

both sexes from throughout the Indian sub-

continent.

Ecology: Pteropus giganteus is a

colonial species that lives in large diurnal

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED

7

Fig. 2: Pteropus giganteus has a widespread distribution extending from Pakistan, India and Sri Lanka through to Burma and south-west

China.

Records from INDIA include Jhajjar Kotli [1], (Chakraborty, 1983) in Jammu & Kashmir; Kotla [2], (Breadon, 1932); Kulu [3], (Ferrar,

1934); Kangra [4], (Sinha, 1980); Simla [5], (BNHS coll.) in Himachal Pradesh; Gurdaspur District [6], (Breadon, 1932) in Punjab;

Balsamand [7]; Dungarpur [8]; Banswara [9]; Parsad [10]; Mount Abu [11]; Berah [12]; Naga [13]; Nasirabad [14]; Jhalawar [15], (Sinha,

1980); Jaipur [16], (Prakash, 1961); Jodhpur [17]; Jhunjhunu [18]; Pali [19]; Sirohi [20], (Advani, 1982b) in Rajasthan; Bhuj [21]; Charwa

[22], (Wroughton, 1912a); Junagadh [23]; Baradia [24]; Rajkot [25], (Ryley, 1913b); Deesa [26]; Danta [27], (Ryley, 1914a); Himatnagar

[28]; Sultanabad [29]; Silvassa [30], (Sinha, 1981); Baroda [31]; Surat [32], (Advani, 1982a); Palanpur [33], (BNHS coll.) in Gujarat; Pili

Sipna Valley [34]; Asirgarh [35]; Siwal [nl], (Wroughton, 1912a); Patan [36], (Wroughton, 1916a); Bombay [37]; Malad [38]; Thana [39],

(McCann, 1934); Belapur [40]; Kalyan [41]; Ahmednagar District [42], (McCann, 1934); Amraoti [43]; Nagpur [44], (Moghe, 1951); Satara

[45]; Poona [46], (Bastawde & Mahabal, 1976); Chanda [47], (Sinha, 1980) in Maharashtra; Avatgi [48]; Devikop [49]; Hawsbhavi [50];

Honkan [51], (Wroughton, 1912b); Vijayanagar [52], (Wroughton, 1913); Seringapatam [53], (Ryley, 1913a); Dharwar [54]; Kolar [55],

(Sinha, 1980) in Karnataka; Molem [56], (Agrawal, 1973) in Goa; Trivandrum [57], (Sinha, 1980) in Kerala; Salem [58], (Sinha, 1980);

Madras [59], (BMNH coll.); Keelarajakularaman [60]; Sri Vaikundam [61]; Ramanathapuram [62], (Marimuthu, 1988); Mudavaram [63];

Point Calimere [64], (BNHS coll.) in Tamil Nadu; Cuddapah [65], (Sinha, 1980); Balapalli Range [66]; Palkonda Hills [67], (BNHS coll.)

in Andhra Pradesh; Narsinghpur [68], (Moghe, 1951); Chilka Lake [69], (Sinha, 1980) in Orissa; Guna [70]; Bhind [71]; Agar [72];

Gwalior [73]; Mukhi [74]; Supkhar [75], (LACM coll.); Balaghat [76], (Sinha, 1980); Sohagpur [77]; Narsingarh [78]; Ouda [79];

Sonawanee [80], (Wroughton, 1913); Jabalpur [81], (Khajuria, 1979); Sehore [82], (BMNH coll.); Movar [83], (BNHS coll.) in Madhya

Pradesh; Philibhit [84], (Wroughton, 1914); Kumaun [85]; Lucknow [86]; Varanasi [87], (Sinha, 1980), Mirzapur [88], (HZM coll.) in

Uttar Pradesh; Chainpur [89]; Nimiaghat [90]; Luia [91], (Wroughton, 1915b); and the districts of West Champaran [92]; Siwan [93]; East

Champaran [94]; Muzzaffarpur [95]; Sitamarhi [96]; Madhubani [97]; Darbhanga [98]; Samastipur [99]; Begusarai [100]; Saharsa [101];

Purnea [102]; Katihar [103]; Palamau [104]; Patna [105]; Hazaribagh [106]; Ranchi [107]; Singhbhum [108]; Giridih [109]; Bhagalpur

[110]; Santal Pargana [111], (Sinha, 1986); Bongoan [nl]; Amarpura [112], (Sinha, 1980) in Bihar; Calcutta [113], (LACM coll.); Salbani

[114], (Wroughton, 1915b); Burdwan [115]; Duars [nl]; Siliguri [116], (Sinha, 1980); Hasimara [117]; Jalpaiguri [118], (BMNH coll.) in

West Bengal; Gangtok [119], (Ghosal & Ghose, 1984) in Sikkim; Cachar [120], (Andersen, 1912); Doom [121]; Golaghat [122], (BNHS

coll.); Sadiya [130], (Kurup, 1968) in Assam; Shillong [123], (BMNH coll.) in Meghalaya; Kochim-kooleh [124], (Andersen, 1912) in

Manipur, Amarpur [125], (Agrawal & Bhattacharyya, 1977) in TVipura. Localities in the Maldives include Hululay Island [126]; Gan

[127]; Addu Atoll [128] and Male Atoll [129], (BMNH coll.). Extralimital localities are based on Roberts (1977) for PAKISTAN; Scully

(1887) for NEPAL; Siddiqi (1961) for BANGLADESH; Wroughton (1915b) and Phillips (1924) for SRI LANKA and Sinha (1980) for

northern BURMA.

8

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

roosts which may comprise hundreds or even

thousands of individuals. Colonies are usual-

ly located in close association with man and

tend to be found in well established trees in

cities and villages. The diet is primarily com-

prised of fruits. In the non-fruiting season,

individuals are known to chew soft leaves

and twigs and eat flowers (Sinha 1986).

Within a colony, each male has a rank and a

particular resting place; young males live

separately from March to October. Colonies

may break up into smaller feeding groups at

sunset and immense distances, sometimes in

excess of 20 km, may be covered in search

of food. During the summer, individuals flap

their wings and salivate on their bodies in an

attempt to reduce body temperature

(Neuweiler 1969). Local, seasonal migration

may also occur, as individuals seek cooler

localities in summer or more productive areas

(Bastawde and Mahabal 1976).

Biology: In Madras, the mating season is

from July to the beginning of October;

copulation occurs three times in sequence

and individuals may trigger a mass copula-

tion within a colony. Females collect in the

upper branches to give birth and the young

are bom in March in Tamil Nadu. For the first

few weeks they are carried by their mothers

but from May onwards they are left alone in

the roost (Neuweiler 1969). Females in Bihar

in April were mostly pregnant, each having a

single foetus (Sinha 1986).

Discussion

Since neither this paper nor that of Bros-

set (1962a) made a detailed study of this

taxon, it is not possible to assess the change

of status of this species over the past 30

years.

Status: Empirical evidence suggests that

this continues to be a common species in no

need of special conservation measures.

Cynopterus sphinx (Vahl, 1797) —

Short-nosed Fruit bat

Vespertilio sphinx Vahl, 1797 — Skrifter

Nat-Selsk. Kiobenhaven, 4(1): 123. Tran-

quebar, Madras, India.

External characters: This is a medium-

sized Fruit Bat with a very short tail. The

pelage of males is a rich orange brown on the

chin, anterior part of the shoulders, and the

sides of the chest, belly and thighs. In

females, the collar tends to be a more tawny

brown. The forehead and nape of the neck are

a rich russet brown. The posterior back is

grey brown; the belly is a paler grey. The

males have neck tufts comprised of a semi-

rigid ruff of hairs. The ears are essentially

naked, mocha brown in colour but with char-

acteristically well defined pale anterior and

posterior borders. The wing and interfemoral

membranes are dark brown but with the

fingers noticeably pale.

Cranial and dental characters: The

rostrum is short and broad and the

zygomata are relatively heavy in com-

parison to those of Rousettus leschenaultii.

The postorbital constriction is well

developed and the braincase is relatively

small. The dentition is reduced with both

m2 and m3 absent. The second upper

premolar is equal in crown area to the third

and is relatively much larger than that of

Rousettus. The mandibular cheekteeth are

relatively heavy in comparison to those of

R. leschenaultii.

Dental formula: i 2/2 c 1/1 pm 3/3 m 1/2

= 30.

Measurements: Based on specimens of

both sexes from throughout the Indian sub-

continent.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 91

Bates et al. : Bats of Western India

1. Rousettus leschenaultii\ 2. Pteropus giganteus’, 3. Cynopterus sphinx ; 4. Rhinolophus hardwickii.

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED

9

Fig. 3: Cynopterus sphinx is widely distributed with a range that extends from India and Sri Lanka to southern China, Malaya, Java, Lesser

Sunda Island, Borneo and Sulawesi.

Records from INDIA include Jhajjar Kotli [I], (Chakraborty, 1983) in Jammu & Kashmir; Bundi [2]; Banswara [3]; Jhalawar District [4],

(Advani, 1982) in Rajasthan; Danta [5], (Ryley, 1914a); Anand [6]; Vedtial [7], (Brosset, 1962a); Surat [8]; Silvassa [9], (Sinha, 1981) in

Gujarat; Nasik [10]; Bandra [11]; Bombay [12], (Andersen, 1912); Poona [13]; Chanda [14], (Brosset, 1962a); Nagpur [15], (Das & Sinha,

1971); Ajanta [16], (this paper) in Maharashtra; Bangalore [16]; Mysore [91], (Das & Sinha, 1971); Dharwar [17], (Andersen, 1912); Sirsi

[18]; Honawar [19], (Wroughton, 1913); Seringapatam [20], (Ryley, 1913a); Virajpet [21], (Ryley, 1913b); Belgaum [22]; Hampi [23],

(Brosset, 1962a) in Karnataka; Trivandrum [24], (Andersen, 1912); Cochin [25] in Kerala; Margao [26]; Valpoi [27], (Agrawal, 1973) in

Goa; Tranquebar [28], (type locality of sphinx ); Madurai [29], (Sinha, 1980); Point Calimere Sanctuary [30], (Balasubramanian, 1988) in

Tamil Nadu; south Cuddapah [31], (Phillips, 1924); Koduru [32]; Balapalli [33], (BNMH coll.) in Andhra Pradesh; Nimar [34],

(Wroughton, 1912b); Orcha [35], (Brosset, 1962a); Jabalpur [36]; Shahpura [37], (Khajuria, 1979); Ambikapur [38], (Khajuria, 1984) in

Madhya Pradesh; Lucknow [39] (type locality of gangeticus ); Mirzapur [40], (HZM coll.); Philibhit [41], (BMNH coll.); Banaras [42],

(Khajuria, 1953); and the districts of Naini Tal [43]; Almora [44]; Pithoragarh [45]; Dehra Dun [46]; Pauri [47] and Chamoli [48], (Bhat,

1974) in Uttar Pradesh; Barkagaon [49]; Singar [50]; Luia [51]; Koira [52], (Wroughton, 1915b) and the districts of Darbhanga [53]; Gaya

[54]; Hazaribag [55]; Katihar [56]; Munger [57]; Patna [58]; Purnea [59]; Rohtas [60]; Samastipur [61]; Santal Pargana [62]; Singhbhum

[63] and West Champaran [64], (Sinha, 1986) in Bihar; Calcutta [65], (Andersen, 1912); Singla [66], (Wroughton, 1916b); Tong Song [67],

(Wroughton, 1916c); (specimens from Pashok listed in Wroughton, 1916c were subsequently referred to Megaerops, Hill, 1983); Gopalahara

[68]; Bharna Ghari [nl]; Hasimara [69], (BMNH coll.); Madanpur [70]; Parmadan [71], (Das & Sinha, 1971); Darjeeling [72]; Duars [nl],

(Sinha, 1980); Salbani [73], (Wroughton 1915b); Jalpaiguri [74], (Bhat, 1974) in West Bengal; Namdapha [75], (specimens referred to C.

angulatus in Saha, 1985) in Arunachal Pradesh; Garo Hills [76], (Kemp, 1924); Cheerapunji [77], (Sinha, 1980) in Meghalaya; Agartala

[78]; Charilam [79]; Garjee [80]; Abhoya [81]; Teliamura [82]; Ampi [83]; Ambassa [84]; Ganganagar [85]; Chailingta [86]; Kanchanpur

[87], (Agrawal & Bhattacharyya, 1977) in TVipura; Naga Hills [88], (Sinha, 1980) in Nagaland. It is also known from Port Blair [89],

(Chaturvedi, 1969) and Mandapahar [90], (J.E. Hill pers. comm.) in the Andaman Islands. Extralimital localities are based on Roberts

(1977) for PAKISTAN; BMNH coll, and Ellerman & Morrison-Scott (1951) for BANGLADESH; Ryley (1914a), Wroughton (1915b) and

Phillips (1924) for SRI LANKA; Saha (1980) for BHUTAN; Ryley (1914a) and Wroughton (1915a, 1916a, 1916c) for northern BURMA.

10

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Ecology: Cynopterus sphinx is a com-

mon Fruit bat generally found in small, single

sex colonies of three to four individuals

1989). When feeding, it seldom clings to

branches but tends to maintain itself in the air

with swift wing beats, biting at the fruits in

flight and devouring them on the wing.

Biology: In Maharashtra, there are two

periods of sexual activity, one during Sep-

tember-October, the other during February-

March. Gestation lasts for between 115 and

125 days and individuals are born in

February-March and June-July (Sandhu

1988). There is usually only one foetus and

full adult size is achieved in two months

(Krishna and Dominic 1983). Females may

be both lactating and pregnant.

Discussion: It is not possible to

determine if there have been any sig-

nificant changes in the population size of

MATERIAL SEEN AND/OR COLLECTED IN MARCH 1992:

(Khajuria 1979). In the breeding season

groups of 5-10 males and 10-15 females are

formed (Krishna and Dominic 1985). It most

often roosts on the underside of the leaves of

palms or concealed in the crevices of banyan,

peepul, palm or coconut trees (Chakraborty

1983); it may also frequent deserted build-

ings (Brosset 1962a). It is found in heavy

forest, cultivated areas and even in big cities

such as Bombay. Its flight is low and com-

paratively fast and it uses its acute sense of

smell to detect its food. It feeds on the fruits

of some 25 plant species, including guava,

ber, mango, date palm, custard apple, lychee

and banana; it is also known to eat leaves and

to collect nectar from flowers (Balasubramanian

this species during the last 30 years. The

secretive nature of the roosts make a direct

comparison with the findings of Brosset

(1962a) impossible.

Status: Anecdotal evidence suggests

that this is a common species, even within

the confines of urban Bombay. Further

studies to substantiate these suggestions

would be of value.

Suborder microchiroptera

Fami ly RHINOPOMATIDAE

Rhinopoma hardwickii Gray 1831 -

Lesser Mouse-tailed bat

Rhinopoma hardwickii Gray, 1831:

Zoological Miscellany, 1: 37. India.

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED

11

External characters: This is a medium-

sized Microchiropteran with a charac-

teristically long, slender tail, the greater part

of which extends free from the membrane.

The tail, on average, is equal to the length

of the head and body and usually exceeds

is also more developed than that of R.

microphyllum. The sagittal crest, although

present is less prominent than that of the

larger species. The dentition is unremarkable;

it is smaller than that of R. microphyllum , the

upper toothrow of which averages 7.5 mm

MATERIAL SEEN AND/OR COLLECTED IN MARCH 1992

Locality Size of Colony No. of Nature of

(Date) specimens biotope

taken

Rajkot Small colony-exact 1 Secreted in

(March 18) number not known cracks in low

ceiling of building

adjacent to

Kirisara Fort

forearm length. In Rhinopoma microphyllum ,

also found in India, tail length (mean= 58.8

mm; 50-78 mm) is usually less than both

forearm length (67.9 mm; 58-74 mm) and

head and body length (75.3 mm; 65- 84 mm).

The face, ears and connecting membrane be-

tween the ears on the forehead are all naked

and fleshy brown in colour. A small, but well

defined triangular dermal ridge is present on

the snout and there is a well developed pit at

the base of the muzzle between the large

eyes. The pelage is a uniform light grey

brown on the back and is slightly paler on the

belly. The lower back and belly are naked.

The flight is relatively high but also weak and

slow and is accompanied with a peculiar flut-

tering of the wings (Wroughton 1913).

Cranial and dental characters: The

skull is characterised by the large nasal infla-

tions present on either side of the rostrum.

These inflations are more developed than

those of R. microphyllum , the skull of which

is significantly larger with a mean greatest

length of 20.9 mm (19.2-22.3 mm). The

median hollow between the nasal inflations

(6.8-8. 0 mm) in length.

Dental formula: i 1/2 c 1/1 pm 1/1 m 3/3

= 28.

Measurements: Based on specimens of

both sexes from throughout the Indian sub-

continent.

Ecology: Rhinopoma hardwickii favours

dry and semi-desert areas, sub-tropical dry

evergreen forests and tropical thorn forests

(Siddiqi 1961). It is a sociable species usually

found in small colonies of between four and

12

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

• /

Fig. 4: Rhinopoma hardwickii has a widespread distribution ranging from Niger, Morocco and Mauritania to East Africa, Arabia, Iran,

Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, and possibly Burma and southern Thailand, (Hill, 1977).

Records from INDIA include Nasirabad [1], (BMNH coll.); Jaipur [2], (BNHS coll.); districts of Jodhpur [3]; Nagaur [4]; Jhunjhunu [5];

Ajmer [6]; Dungarpur [7]; Jhalawar [8] and Bundi [9], (Sinha, 1980) in Rajasthan; Junagadh [10]; Rajkot [11]; Vankaneer [12], (Ryley,

1913b); Palanpur [13]; Lunwa [nl]; Danta [14], (Ryley, 1914a); Bhuj [15]; Anand [16]; Ahmedabad [17]; Vedtial [18], (Brosset, 1962a) in

Gujarat; Bellary [19], (Wroughton, 1913); Pattadkal [20]; Badami [21]; Vijayanagar [22], (Brosset, 1962a); Gokarna [23], (Bhat &

Sreenivasan, 1972); Gadag [24], (BMNH coll.) in Karnataka; Dharmapuri Range [25]; Travancore [26], (BNHS coll.); Madurai [27], (Kock

& Felten, 1980); Kanavi Katha Bootham [nl], (Usman, 1988); Palni Hills [28], (BMNH coll.) in Tamil Nadu; Palkonda Hills [29], (BNHS

coll.); Koduru [30], (BMNH coll.) in Andhra Pradesh; Narsingarh [31], (Wroughton, 1913); Orcha [32]; Gwalior [33]; Sanchi [34];

Asirgarh [35]; Khajurao [36]; Mandu [37], (Brosset, 1962a); Jabalpur District [38], (Khajuria, 1979); Ghatigaon [39], (BMNH coll.) in

Madhya Pradesh; New Delhi [40], (Brosset, 1962a) in Delhi; Fatehpur Sikri [41]; Agra [42], (Brosset, 1962a); Allahabad [43], (BMNH

coll.) in Uttar Pradesh; Singar [44], (Wroughton, 1915b); Gaya [45]; Bhojpur [46]; Giridih [47]; Munger [48]; Rohtas districts [49], (Sinha,

1986) in Bihar; Calcutta [50], (BMNH coll.) in West Bengal. Extralimital localities are based on BNHS coll., Siddiqi (1961) and Roberts

(1977) for PAKISTAN.

THE BATS OF WESTERN INDIA REVISITED

13

100 individuals although Sinha (1986)

reported 500 from a locality in Bihar and

Usman (1988) 1500 from a single cavern in

Madurai district. Colonies are thought to be

sexually segregated (Brosset 1962a). Roost-

ing sites include caves, houses, ruins and

cracks amongst boulders. The bats impreg-

nate the area with their characteristic smell.

The diet includes moths, insects and beetles.

Although this species does not hibernate, it

does have periods of extended rest during

which it lives off copious fat reserves. The

reserves, that may double an individual’s

body weight, are formed in the post monsoon

period (October) in north-west India when

insects are plentiful. They are progressively

utilised during the winter and spring and dis-

appear during May-June. There is some tem-

poral variation in the cycle of fattening be-

tween the different geographical areas of

India (Brosset 1962a)

Biology: In Uttar Pradesh, copulation

occurs during the last week of February and

the first week of March; ovulation commen-

ces after 11 March and gestation lasts 95 to

100 days. Births of the single infants occur

either in late June or early July; lactation lasts

about two months and females reach sexual

maturity at about 9 months (Banerjee and

Karim 1982).

Discussion: During the March 1992 sur-

vey, Rhinopoma hardwickii was encountered

once at Kirisara Fort near Rajkot. Brosset

(1962a) located this species at sixteen sites.

His records included four individuals in the

Hindola Mahal ruins of Mandu in February;

70-80 individuals in the Dada Hari Well in

Ahmedabad in November and 25-30 in-

dividuals at the same locality in June; 10-15

individuals were observed by him on the ceil-

ing of a mosque in Ahmedabad in November.

Previously, seven individuals were collected

from the old fort of Junagadh in October

1912 (Ryley 1913b). All these localities were

re-surveyed during the present study, but no

trace of Rhinopoma was found.

Status: Although this is presumed to be

a common species in India, our brief survey

found it to be rare. As noted above, former

colonies appear to have been deserted. One

possible explanation is that R. hardwickii is

a seasonal migrant and was temporarily ab-

sent from the sites previously surveyed by

Brosset (1962a) and Ryley (1913b). How-

ever, there is also the possibility that there

has been a significant fall in its population

size. Further studies of Brosset’s localities

during the months of his original survey

would help to determine the present status

of this species.

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781.

(to be continued)

BREEDING HABITS OF THE NILGIRI LAUGHING THRUSH

GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)1

M.A. Islam2

(With six text-figures)

Key words: Nilgiri hills, Garrulax cachinnans, breeding season, nest destruction, repeat nest, incubation,

brooding, nest sanitation.

The breeding habits of the Nilgiri laughing Thrush were studied in southern India between 1982

and 1984. Of the 62 nests studied 56 were built in indigenous and the remaining in exotic plants.

Twenty four nests were built at 1-2 metres above ground. The birds destroy the nests after the

nestlings leave the nest or if the eggs or nestlings are preyed upon. The clutch of two was laid

between January and April. Both sexes incubate. Incubation period was 16-17 days and average

nestlings weight 4 g. at hatching. Both parents swallow the faecal sacs. The average nestling period

was 16.5 days. The breeding success for 1983

Introduction

There is no detailed study on the breed-

ing biology of the Nilgiri Laughing Thrush.

Brief description of different aspects of the

breeding biology is available in Betham

(1902), Baker (1932), and Ali and Ripley

(1972). The present study describes the

breeding biology in detail, based on field

work in the Nilgiri hills (11°40' N and 76° 14'

E to IT E) of southern India. The Nilgiris

have an area of about 2525 sq. km and con-

sist of a group of hills ranging in height

between 900 and 2635 metres above mean

sea level. The natural vegetation consists of

extensive grasslands covering rolling hills

interspersed with numerous isolated, com-

pact, and usually small woodlands are

termed ‘sholas’ meaning tropical rain forest.

Other than sholas the area has degraded

types of Southern Montane Wet Temperate

Forests which Champion and Seth (1968) .

termed as Evergreen scrub.

Accepted September 1992.

department of Zoology, Jahangimagar University, Savar,

Dhaka, Bangladesh.

1984 was 64% and 56% respectively.

Material and Methods

The study areas (Governor’s Shola and

Parson’s Valley) were visited almost every

day during the breeding season. Nests were

located by observing the birds carrying nest

material or food for the nestlings. Sometimes

calls given by the bird at the nest helped

in locating the nest. During the nesting period,

G. cachinnans gave a alarm calls at my ap-

proach which also provided a clue to the nest-

ing site. When the nest was located the follow-

ing data were recorded: nesting plant, height

of the nest from the ground, and nesting stage.

When the eggs were found, they were num-

bered and dated with Indian ink, weighed with

Pesola spring balance and measured with ver-

nier callipers. The growth of the nestlings

was recorded whenever possible. Observa-

tions at nests were made from a hide placed

six to ten metres from the nest.

Results and Discussion

Breeding season: During the period from

December 1982 to April 1983 and December

1983 to August 1984, a total of 62 nests were

BREEDING HABITS OF THE GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)

17

to

ro0

S3

«h .H

O rH

-P

• CQ

O

S3 a

Fig. 1. Monthly distribution of nests, eggs, nestlings

and fledglings of G. cachinnans during the 1983

breeding season.

studied at Governor’s Shola and Parson’s Val-

ley. Hereafter, these priods will be referred

to as the 1983 and 1984 breeding seasons.

Fig. 2. Monthly distribution of nests, eggs, nestlings

and fledglings of G. cachinnans during the 1984

breeding season.

Most of the clutches were laid between

January and April (Figs. 1 and 2). Egg-laying

occurred in 15 and 20 nests in January and

February respectively. However, in March

and April, eggs were laid in 14 nests and

in May, July egg-laying occurred only in five

nests. Nest ceased at the onset of the south-

west monsoon (June to September).

Of the 62 nests observed in the two

seasons, nine were destroyed by the birds

18

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 1

HATCHING AND FLEDGING RECORDS OF G. Cachinnans

DURING THE 1983 AND 1984 BREEDING SEASONS

themselves before egg laying. The breeding

activities of G. cachinnans in the 1984 breed-

ing season, from nest building (20 December)

to last fledging (c. 18 August), lasted 34

weeks (Table 1). If the breeding season is

calculated following Moreau (1964) and Lack

(quoted by Perrins 1965) on the basis of first

and last egg laying dates, then it is 27 weeks.

Ali and Ripley (1972) put the breeding season

of G. cachinnas as overall February to July,

chiefly May and June. Carter and Davison

(quoted by Baker 1932) gave the nesting

season as February to May inclusive. Bates

(quoted by Baker 1932) obtained two fresh

eggs on 20 July.

Copulation: G. cachinnas was seen by

me only in pairs, though Ali and Ripley (1972)

noticed them in groups of a dozen or more.

Only once a pair was seen to copulate, on

a perch when the male was balancing on the

female’s back by constantly fluttering his

wings. Time taken in mounting and dismount-

ing was about six seconds. The pair started

building their nest on 8 February, copulated

(I have seen them copulating once, they might

have copulated other times) on 21 February

and laid the first egg on 26 February, 1984.

Nest site: Fifty three nests were found

in sholas with thick undergrowth, preferably

near streams or marshes. Nine nests were

found in Acacia and Eucalyptus plantations

mixed with shola species. All pairs (no. of

nests = 48) nested within their territories; the

birds have a tendency to build the nest on

the edges of sholas close to roads and cattle

trails. At least seven pairs built nests between

two and seven metres from their roosting

trees, while two pairs used the same nest tree

in subsequent breeding seasons.

Of the 62 nests, 56 were built in in-

digenous and the remaining in exotic plants

(Table 2). Though Sarcococca was the most

abundant undergrowth, the favourite site was

Bambusa spp. with 11 nests, c. 18% of the

total. Twenty four nests (c. 39%) were built

at 1-2 metres above ground mostly placed

BREEDING HABITS OF THE GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)

19

Table 2

PLANTS USED FOR BUILDING NESTS BY G. cachinnans

(TOTAL NESTS = 62)

♦Exotic species.

in a fork on the peripheral branches (Table

3). When built in more exposed places more

care seemed to have been taken in selecting

leafy sites, as also observed by Betham

(1902). Pairs which have their first nest

destroyed tend to change the height of their

nest site when they rebuild, possibly to

decrease the chance of predation, as also

reported by Lack and Lack (1958) and Gaston

(1973) for the long-tailed tit Aegithalos

caudatus. In the 1984 breeding season, at

Parson’s Valley, a pair built nine nests to rear

a single successful brood and every time the

species of nest plant and height were different

(Table 4).

Nest building: Prior to nest building, the

male and female frequently visited the nest

sites, where they spent more time, feeding,

preening, giving contact calls and it appears

that the site selection is a joint effort. The

time spent for searching of nest site varied

from one day to a week. Four pairs started

building repeat nests within 24 hours of aban-

doning the previous nest.

Both sexes share in building the nest. At

the beginning the birds build the base in a

20

JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

20-

10-

1

h

i i r r 1 r

8

Days of incubation

— i 1 1 1 1

16

Fig. 3. Rate of incubation at two G. cachinnans nests in 1983 and 1984 breeding seasons.

Table 3

HEIGHT AND POSITION OF G. cachinnans NESTS

n

fork, giving a general cup-shape to the nest

with mosses, which are also used for attaching

the nest rim to the branches. Then miscel-

laneous material such as dead leaves, wood,

wool, paper, rootlets, cloth and thread are

placed across the bottom and the side. Fine

grasses, tendrils and hair are used for inner

lining, above which feathers are added. The

birds finally shape the nest by crouching and

rotating their body in it.

Nest building activities were observed be-

tween 0700 and 1800 hrs. I observed the rate

of transportation of nest materials by two

pairs of laughing thrushes for 58 hours in

Governor’s Shola and Parson’s Valley.

Results (Table 5) show the preference for nest

building was in the forenoon at Governor’s

Shola which is statistically significant X2 =

24.83, d.f. 5, p < 0.05).

The duration of nest building observed

for 24 nests was five to eighteen days (Table

6). The interval between completion of the

nest and laying was one to five days. Birds

completed nests faster as the days progressed.

This was observed by Van Tyne and Berger

BREEDING HABITS OF THE GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)

21

(1959) also in American goldfinch. In this

bird, some built nests an average in 13 days

during the first two weeks of July, whereas

those building during the last two weeks of

August required 5.6 days. Table 6 shows that

the transportation of nest material was quicker

in March than in January.

Mosses, available throughout the year,

comprised c. 50% of total weight (n=ll) of

the nest. Several other birds such as blackbird

Turdus merula and Nilgiri verdi ter and grey

flycatchers (Ali and Ripley 1983), tickelle’s

blue flycatcher (Khan 1977) and white-eye

also use mosses in the Nilgiris, perhaps to

camouflage the nest. Four species of mosses

namely, Papillaria sp., P. fuscescens ,

Meteoriopsis formosana , Aerobryidium

filamentosum and three leafy liverworts,

Radula sp., Chiloscyphus sp., and Lejeunea

sp., were identified from 11 nests of G.

cachinnans.

The composition of nests depends partly

on the availability of the nest material (Table

7) and head hair, fur, twine, cotton and domes-

tic fowl feathers. The average dry weight of

11 nests was 44 g (range 30-65 g). Meas-

Fig. 4. Time spent in brooding

at a G. cachinnans nest.

urements of diameter and depth of the 11

nests averaged 75 mm (range 67-87 mm) and

45 mm (range 33 - 52 mm) respectively.

G. cachinnans destroys the nest after the

nestlings leave or if the eggs or nestlings are

preyed upon. Sometimes they destroy the nest

even before laying eggs. First nests were

destroyed on predation of their contents and

Table 4

PLANTS, HEIGHT AND POSITION OF FIRST AND REPEAT NESTS OF A PAIR

OF G. cachinnans AT PARSON’S VALLEY IN 1984 BREEDING SEASON

22

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 5

RATE OF MATERIAL TRANSPORTATION BY TWO PAIRS OF

G. cachinnans AT GOVERNOR’S SHOLA AND PARSON’S VALLEY

Hours of day 0700-1800)

Period 7 8 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 Total

of visits

Obs.

Nest at:

Govt.

Shola 33h 13 25 37

(1-3 March, 1983)

P. Valley 25h 9 17 22 21 9 2 11 18 11 21 141

(8-11 Jan. 1984)

No. of visits

48 39 24 26 15 20 15 44 12 318

Table 6

TIME SPENT IN DAYS IN NEST BUILDING BY G. cachinnans (TOTAL NESTS = 24)

before renesting, except in one instance when

the birds destroyed the first one after the

repeat nest had been built. Nest destruction

is effected within 48 hours of abandoning

the nest. Two pairs of G. cachinnans built

a small platform with moss, c. 40 cm close

to the original nest, which remained incom-

plete and was destroyed by the birds along

with the original one, after the nestlings had

fledged. In no case was material from the

old nest transported to the repeat nest, as has

been reported for jungle babbler Turdoides

striatus by Andrews and Naik (1970). Both

the birds take part in picking and throwing

the nest material around and destroy the nest

in three to eight visits over one to four days.

Eggs, egg-laying and incubation: Ob-

servation showed that eggs were laid between

0600 and 0800 hrs on successive days. They

were pale blue, with reddish brown speckless

BREEDING HABITS OF THE GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)

23

Table 7

COMPOSITION OF TWO G. cachinnans NESTS

Nests No. Type of material Weight Total Weight

(g) (g)

Two nests of approximately the same weight were selected two show the relative variation (by weight) of nest

materials in nests and away from habitation.

Table 8

MEASUREMENTS OF G. cachinnans EGGS (n=13)

mostly concentrated at the larger end. The

average dimensions of 13 eggs were 25.2 x

19.1 mm (Table 8). The clutch size was in-

variably two; no clutch of three eggs was

observed as reported by Baker (1932). The

average fresh weight was 4.9 g (n = 13, s.d.

0.22, range 4.5-5.2 g).

Both the sexes start incubating as soon

as the clutch is complete, although one of

the pair was found on the nest on the first

day of laying. Van Tyne and Berger (1959)

suggested that some species may sit on the

eggs without incubating them. There was no

incubation at night till the clutch was com-

pleted.

The incubation period was 16 days for

13 nests and 17 days for two nests. During

the process of incubation two eggs of a clutch

lost 0.8 g of weight. The fresh eggs weighed

5 g, on sixteenth day both were 4.2 g and

24

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

upon hatching on seventeenth day the nest-

lings weighed 3.8 and 3.5 g.

The periods of attentiveness (periods on

the nest) and inattentiveness (periods off the

nest) were observed from 0600 to 1800 hrs

except for a lunch break for the observer taken

at different times on successive days. When

one of the pair relieved its mate from nest

and continued incubation, it was noted as one

uninterrupted attentive session. Data were

collected from two nests for 95 and 161 hours

over nine and sixteen days of incubation in

1983 and 1984 breeding seasons respectively.

There was no significant variation in the rate

of incubation in the last nine days at both

the nests (t = 0.81, d.f. 16, p < 0.05). The

birds on an average spent 68% and c. 70%

of the total time on nest hr the last nine days.

The rate of incubation increased as the days

progressed and reached the maximum during

2-3 days prior to hatching (Fig. 3). The

average number of attentive sessions per day

in 1983 and 1984 breeding seasons was 21

(range 15-27) and 20 (range 13-28) respec-

tively.

On completing a session of incubation,

one of the pair usually remained near the nest

and was more attentive, raised an alarm at

the approach of any intruder when the in-

cubating bird joined in. The incubating bird

otherwise did not leave the nest till the dis-

turbance was very close. In two cases I

touched the tail of the incubating birds before

they left hastily. Other birds, going very close

to the nest were chased away either by the

incubating bird or its mate.

While on the nest the bird changed its

position and turned the eggs with the bill.

I heard incubating bird sometimes calling

(n=6) from the nest, and also responding

(n=32) to its mate’s call. Gaston (1978)

reported similar behaviour for common bab-

bler Turdoides caudatus.

Weather had a direct effect on incubation

behaviour. The birds did not leave the nest

if it rained till shower was over. In the evening

heavy mist, cloud and rain sometimes stimu-

lated the birds to settle on the nest before

the normal retiring time. This behaviour was

also observed by Khan (1977) in the black-

and- orange flycatcher in the Nilgiris.

Hatching: The eggs hatched in the se-

quence of laying over a total period of six

hours (n=6), between 0800 and 1600 hrs.

Before hatching cracks appeared on the

broader end, above the center, eventually

forming a hole. The parents were not seen

assisting the hatching chick in coming out

of the shell. Once at 1030 hrs I checked a

nest in which the first egg had hatched. I

found a hole at the broader end of the other

egg and heard the piping of the chick. I check-

ed the nest in the afternoon and found the

condition of the egg unchanged. The parents

were feeding and brooding the first chick.

Next day the chick died in the egg shell.

Egg shells are disposed of a distance of

20-30 m from the nest within about 45

minutes following each hatching. The parents

did not remove the infertile (unhatched) egg

(n=l) which remained in the nest even after

the other nestling left. This behaviour has

also been observed in the redwhiskered bulbul

Pycnonotus jocosus (pers. obs.) and black-

and-orange flycatcher (Khan 1977) in the Nil-

giris. In one instance the unhatched egg

remained in the nest for three days. I then

broke the egg and left it in the nest whereupon

it was removed by the parents.

Nestlings: The young G. cachinnans

have down at hatching on the dorsal surface

of the body, forehead, nape and the dorsal

BREEDING HABITS OF THE GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)

25

Fig.5. Rate of feeding visits by the parents and average weight gain by the

nestlings at a G. cachinnans nest.

side of the wing bases. The body is flesh

coloured and eyes are closed. The abdomen

is the largest part of the body and viscera

are visible through the skin. The gape is wide

and yellowish in colour. In a few hours time

bluish spots become distinct along the feather

tracts. The average weight of eight nestlings

at birth was 4 g (s.d. 0.25, range 3.5-4.3 g).

They are responsive to tapping on the nest

rim.

Brooding: Brooding started on the day

of hatching, and continued till the seventh

day of life. Both sexes shared brooding, one

of the pair spent nights in the nest till the

nestlings’ departure. The highest brooding

was recorded on the first day, 58% (Fig. 4).

Young nestling passerines are not able to

regulate body temperature (Pettingill 1956)

after hatching and so the rate of brooding

was higher in the first few days. On the

seventh day there was no brooding after 1308

hrs. On the eighth day the parents brooded

only for 45 minutes. The average sessions

during the brooding period were 22 (range

11-34) and the mean time spent per session

was 11 minutes (range 1-35 minutes).

Development of nestlings: Whenever

I visited the nests the parent birds gave loud

alarm calls. To avoid the danger of attracting

predators morphological changes and growth

were recorded for only one pair of nestlings,

daily between 0800 and 1000 hrs.

There was no remarkable change for the

first two days. On the third day a horizontal

slit on the eye ball had widened. A prominent

sheath emerged at the sterno abdominal tracts.

Rectrices started growing. On the fourth day

the nestlings were more responsive to vibra-

26

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Hours of day

Fig. 6. Rate of visits for feeding the nestlings by the parents at a G. cachinnans

nest at different hours of the day.

tions near the nest. All future feather tracts

became conspicuous. On the sixth day the

primary and secondary feathers were in pin,

growing up to 10 mm and their coverts up

to 4 mm. Rectrices 3 mm. On the seventh

day the nestlings could open eyes partially.

Bill 9 mm, wing 15 mm; primary and secon-

dary feather calami 13 mm and 15 mm, their

coverts 5 mm and 6 mm respectively. The

nestlings started screaming while being

weighed and the parents’ alarm call was much

louder. By the tenth day the nestlings could

open their eyes fully. Bill and tarsus became

darker and attained the average adult size of

16 mm and 30 mm respectively. They grasped

the nest linings while being removed from

the nest. On the fourteenth day the white eye

stripe was prominent. Most of the feathers

started sprouting having tufts of down at their

tips. The nestlings preened and shook their

bodies. On the seventeenth day the complete-

ly feathered nestlings more or less resembled

the parents. Down was still attached to the

tips of the feathers. Wing 20 mm, bill 16

mm, primary feathers c. 50 mm, secondary

feathers c. 46 mm. The nestlings were jump-

ing on the nest, fanning with the wings and

crawling on the nest rim. On the eighteenth

morning c. 0900 hrs both the nestlings left

the nest by hopping from branch to branch.

At that time the parents seemed to be agitated.

They flew and hopped around restlessly close

to the nestlings until the nestlings settled

down in a well concealed place.

Nestling weight: The average weight of

the nestlings (4.1 g) at hatching is more than

two-thirds of the average weight of nestlings

increased steadily from the first day to the

thirteenth (Fig. 5) with average daily weight

increases of 2.43 g (n=2). On the thirteenth

day the average nestling weight was 35.7 g

which is c. 75% of the average adult weight

BREEDING HABITS OF THE GARRULAX CACHINNANS (JERDON)

27

(48.7 g, n = 6). There was a slight weight

decrease of 0.3 g between the thirteenth day

and the day before fledging. The feeding

curve (Fig. 5) shows that there was no in-

crease in the feeding rate from the thirteenth

day of nest life.

Feeding rate: Both the parents fed the

nestlings. Feeding behaviour was observed

for c. 175 hours following the same methods

as for incubation behaviour. The average

number of feeding visits per hour was 4 (s.d.

1.9, range 2-7). The rate of feeding increased

steadily from the first day (2%) to the thir-

teenth (8%). There was a fall (1%) in feeding

rate on the fifteenth and sixteenth days.

There were two peaks of feeding during

the day (Fig. 6), one at 0800 hrs (10%) and

the other at 1800 hrs (12%). The feeding rate

was high in the evenings perhaps to com-

pensate for the non-feeding period of night.

At daybreak the parents collected food for

themselves as well as for the nestlings. This

would explain the low feeding rate in the

early morning.

The parents fed the nestlings with smaller

insects for the first four days. From the fifth

day onward bigger insects like caterpillars,

grasshoppers and moths were brought. From

the fifth to the seventeenth day caterpillars

formed 40% of the total diet. Rubus, Ilex and

other fruits were fed at the later stage of nest-

ling period.

Nest sanitation: The parents swallowed all

faecal sacs produced by the nestlings. While

passing a faecal sac the nestlings elevated their

cloacal regions, but sometimes the parents

prodded to stimulate defecation. The excreta was

enclosed in a whitish, oily sac. After delivering

food, parents always waited for the faecal sacs,

and c. 50% visits provide them with sacs.

Nestling period: The average nestling

period was 16.5 days (n = 11, s.d. 0.87, range

15-18 days). It is reported by several workers

that the nestlings of few birds leave the nest

prematurely if handled during the last few

days of nestling period. This did not happen

with the pair of nestlings I weighed and hand-

led regularly. But four other pairs of nestlings

left while checking the nests. But I could

not be sure whether they left prematurely or

whether they were on the last day of their

nest-life.

I had ringed two pairs of nestlings before

they fledged. After leaving the nest, the fled-

glings remained hidden in foliage near the

nests. They uttered acceptance call ( cre-re-re )

and constantly fluttered the wings while being

fed by the parents. One pair remained with

its parents for 21 days and the other for 29

days near the nest sites.

Loss of eggs and nestlings: Out of 62

nests, eggs from two nests were preyed upon

by the crow pheasant Centropus sinensis.

Other eggs (n = 28) and nestlings (n = 11)

disappeared without trace and were probably

robbed by crows Corvus macrorhynchos and

C. splendens or snakes. Two eggs remained

unhatched, one nestling was found dead in

the nest.

Breeding success: Forty eight pairs of

G. cachinnans were observed. Out of 106

eggs which were laid, 76 hatched and 64

nestlings fledged successfully (Table 1). The

breeding success for 1983 and 1984 was 64%

and 56% respectively (x-60%) and the varia-

tion was not significant (X2 = 0.53, d.f. 1, p

< 0.05). This figure is slightly more than

Lack’s (1954) average figures of 45% for

passerine birds with open nests, the range 22

to 59 per cent.

28

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to the late Dr Salim

Ali for guiding this work. Mr J.C. Daniel,

Dr Ali Reza Khan, Dr Robert B. Grubh,

Mr S. A. Hussain and Dr R. Sugathan

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1972): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan. Vol. 7. Oxford University Press,

Bombay.

Ali, S. & S. D. Ripley (1983): A pictorial guide to the birds

of the Indian subcontinent. Bombay natural History

Society, Bombay.

Andrews, M. I. & R.M. Naik (1970): The biology of the

jungle babbler. Pavo Bl: 1-34.

Baker, E. C. S. (1932): The nidification of birds of the

Indian empire. Vol. 1. Taylor and Francis, London.

Betham, R.M. (1902): Birds’ nesting at Ootacamund. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 620-624.

Champion, H.G. & S.K. Seth (1968): A revised survey of

the forest types of India. Govt, of India, New Delhi.

Gaston, A.J. (1973): The ecology and behaviour of the

long-tailed tit. Ibis 115: 330-351.

Gaston, A.J. (1978): Ecology of the common babbler

Turdoides caudatus. Ibis 120: 119-132.

helped me in various ways during the

present study. The study was supported

by a fellowship grant from the Salim

Ali-Loke Wan Tho Ornithological Re-

search Fund of the Bombay Natural His-

tory Society.

ENCES

Khan, M.A.R. (1977): Ecology and behaviour of the black-

and-orange flycatcher Muscicapa nigrorufa (Jerdon).

Ph.D. thesis. University of Bombay, Bombay.

Lack, D. (1954): The natural regulation of animal numbers.

Clarendon Press. Oxford, London.

Lack, D. & E. Lack (1958): The nesting of the longtailed

tit .Bird study 5: 1-19.

Moreau, R.E. (1964): Article ‘Breeding season’ in Thom-

son, A.L. (ed.), New Diet. Birds. London and New

York.

Perrins, C.M. (1965): Population fluctuation and clutch size

in the great tit Parus major L. J. Anim. Ecol. 34: 601-

647.

Pettingill, O.S. (1956): A laboratory and field manual of

ornithology. Burges Publ. Co., Mineapolis.

Van Tyne, J. & A.J. Berger (1959): Fundamentals of

Ornithology. John Wiley and Sons. Inc., New

York.

FROGS AND PADDY: PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT

Carl Gans 2

Key words: Frogs, reproduction, predation on, paddy production, conservation, ecological study

Frogs are claimed to enhance agricultural productivity. However, this statement, while likely

true, deserves test. The difficulty is that there are multiple species and growth stages of frogs

involved, and observations indicate that these species differ among regions and, more important,

seem to differ with the cycle of paddy production. The stages of cultivation are briefly summarised,

and the ways this seems to affect the populations of frogs are noted. Frogs appear to use paddy zones

both for feeding and breeding. However, the stages of paddy production likely affect the effective-

ness of predators. This paper attempts to ask some questions about possible effects and make some

suggestions regarding possible studies. These may lead to maintenance of biodiversity and simul-

taneously establish practices that might have a desirable effect on agricultural productivity.

Introduction

Recently, there have been several conferen-

ces decrying the drastic reduction of frog

populations, indeed of number of frog species

(Anonymous 1990, Blaustein and Wake 1990;

also see Froglog Publications of the Declining

Amphibian Populations Task Force.

IUCN/SSC, Corvilia, OR. U.S.A.). India was

mentioned prominently in a number of as-

sociated news releases, perhaps because the

Government had some time earlier made the

export of frog legs illegal. The cost, in terms

of lost revenue, had been justified on the

grounds that the animals were useful in pest

control and that their harvest involved much

cruelty. However, in global terms each national

ban has seen increased trade elsewhere to meet

market demands.

There is little question that harvesting of

wild animals for skins, food and sport often

involves some cruelty; yet this may be resolv-

able by the development of humane methods

Accepted October 1992.

department of Biology, The University of Michigan,

Ann Arbor, MI 48109, U.S. A.

of killing. However, the claim that frogs

facilitate pest control is less clear cut, in-

volving evaluation of the problems of over-

exploitation by developing sustainable

management.

Discussion with the few specialists on

Indian amphibians and a review of the litera-

ture reveals remarkably little solid evidence

regarding the species of frogs involved and

their effects on agricultural production. This

raises questions whether the present action

is indeed useful, and perhaps as important,

whether it is sufficient for protecting the

frogs and aiding the farmers. This issue may

well require further study and experimen-

tation.

It is here proposed to ignore for the

moment the frogs of the Indian mountains,

bogs and rainforests, as these represent

small often endemic groupings that need

protection, but likely could only be saved

by protecting their environment. In contrast,

most of the country is used for agriculture

and most of the temporary wetlands are in

paddy, devoted to the production of rice

and similar cereals. Their frogs are here

used as an example, commenting on some

3

30

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

issues observed during survey collecting in

India and Sri Lanka. The frogs associated

with other kinds of agriculture, those of

coconut palms, of tea, coffee and cardamom

plantations, pose different questions and

potentially involve different protective

schemes.

Which frog is it?

It seems of considerable interest to con-

sider the way that cultivation impacts on the

biology of the frogs that now occupy paddy

regions. However, before the life history of

these animals can be discussed, it is necessary

to know the species involved, where these

occur and how widely they range. This is

particularly important for a region such as

India which seems to have far ranging

lowlands, utilized for agriculture involving

various kinds of intermittent flooding.

Past reports have referred to species, such

as Rana cyanophlictis , R. hexadactyla , and

R. tigerina , as ranging from the extreme south

of the Peninsula to the foothills of the

Himalayas. However, such statements have

rarely been confirmed by a single researcher

who examined samples from all parts of the

range by modern techniques or better yet,

travelled from one region to another in each

comparing the "common" forms. Instead,

local investigators have examined local frogs,

and compared them to reference accounts in

the inadequate faunistic handbooks; however,

these allow discrimination only of the ob-

viously different. Modern analyses of the frog

faunas of Europe and North America have

shown that the widespread "common" species

often involve replacement by very similar,

but discrete species. It is likely that the same

situation will apply to India as well.

For instance, the American spotted grass

frog used to be referred to as Rana pipiens

and assumed to represent a single species

ranging from Canada to Mexico. Unfortunate-

ly, recent examination has shown that the

population includes more than four distinct

species differing in mating call, morphology,

and color and, of course, in several biochemi-

cal characteristics. The effect of these frogs

on the local insects clearly differs. The situa-

tion in Europe is even more complex, the

common frogs involving hybrid swarms. Con-

sequently, it is necessary to apply call and

biochemical, as well as morphometric tech-

niques for an assay of the distribution of the

seemingly wide-ranging Indian species.

The study of frogs normally proceeds by

two major techniques. The first is to catch

a series of each kind of frogs observed and

to preserving it for later careful study in a

museum setting. One may then establish dif-

ferences in color, shape, size, and see how

these differ among geographical regions.

During the process of collecting one must

also search for juveniles and females (which

often differ in color and proportions). As these

do not advertise their presence, they tend to

be more difficult to take; obviously, they are

as important to an understanding to the fauna.

Collection should proceed noctumally as the

frogs are then most active. The collecting ef-

fort should be amplified by a diurnal search,

concentrating on tadpoles in the water, and

looking for adults in hiding places that they

occupy during the day between calling in-

tervals. Many frogs hide underground during

the dry season and become active during the

monsoons; this has to be taken into account

in establishing an adequate faunal sample.

A better approach to sampling utilizes the

mating patterns of frogs. Commonly, their

males travel to various bodies of water and

FROGS AND PADDY: PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT

31

call from these. Other males move toward

sites from which calls originate and join the

chorus which may ultimately reflect the size

of the body of water. Females are attracted

by the calls and at some moment approach

the males; mating occurs thereafter. Some

males start to call away from the water and

only reach ponds or streams very briefly at

the peak of arousal, with the females there

meeting them.

The call of each species of frog in a given

area will be unique; this allows the females

to approach the conspecific males. This also

lets the collector assay quickly which species

are "available" at a given site. It is relatively

easy to determine the number of calls and

then to enter the area and locate and identify

unequivocally the specimen generating each

sound. A small tape recorder permits one to

obtain a record of local calls; the records may

later be compared electronically to establish

their characteristics and possible local varia-

tion. As frogs will also differ in the site from

which they call, one mainly needs a good

ear to make the assay.

These techniques allow an initial survey

which naturally provides mainly a preliminary

overview. This needs to be followed by two

steps. The first should establish the range of

widely distributed species by checking whether

their morphology (color patterns, mor-

phometries, gland patterns, etc.) is constant or

shows discontinuities. Tape records of frog calls

can be compared similarly to search for discon-

tinuities. Immunological and molecular studies

should then sample any populations that differ

from adjacent ones, but should also determine

whether widely-ranging are homogeneous by

these criteria as well. The second step consists of

what might be called local studies, that deal with

the details of the natural history of each species.

Paddy production

The way rice or paddy is produced likely

has major implications for the biology of the

frogs. The process of growing rice requires

that the fields will be flooded regularly. The

image of women, wading in water while they

plant the rice, is a common sight. However,

rice fields are hardly a constant wetland; for

much of the time, they are dry. Consequently,

we know that frogs enter the paddies and

that they call and presumably breed there,

but we know little of what happens next.

Paddy production starts with the mon-

soon, although irrigation could generate

equivalent effects. The fields are subdivided

by narrow dams, rising some 30 cm above

them (on flat areas, in hilly zones the downhill

dams may be much higher). After the harvest

an interim grassy vegetation forms. This is

often grazed. The process starts with a flood-

ing of the fields, either due to the retention

of the rain waters, or by channelling in ir-

rigation water. During this initial flooding

stage of production the vegetation becomes

soaked, but the amount of irrigation water

tends not to cover the tops of the vegetation.

The second, first-plowing stage is that

of breaking the soil, often by buffalo-pulled

plough. The mat of grasses and herbs is lifted

up and divided by the plough. Sinking down,

the divots rest on one another and the in-

termittent zones become flooded channels.

Often the footprints of the buffalo provide

a series of intermediate holes that fill with

water.

The third stage is sometimes referred to

as mudding. Buffaloes are caused to walk

back and forth, dragging various implements

that break up the root mass and turn the sub-

strate into a muddy soup. Mudding proceeds

initially for a small portion of the acreage

32

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

and here a dense bed of seedlings is grown

from seed. As the emerging leaves reach a

height of perhaps 20 cm, the rice plants and

their roots are pulled out and bundled.

The fourth stage is planting. The small

bunches of seedlings are now replanted in

a more open spacing (perhaps 5 to 10 cm

apart) in which they can continue to grow.

During the planting - growing phase, the sur-

face continues to be flooded.

After some time, the plants mature. The

water supply then is diverted from the fields,

which are allowed to dry. The rice is cut and

threshed, often on the same fields on which

it was grown. Sometimes, the husk is burned

here, although the straw commonly serves

other purposes.

The land then is permitted to remain fal-

low for some time, allowing grasses and an-

nuals to grow until the following season. Ob-

viously, there are local variants in the produc-

tion pattern, depending on the region, the

amount of fertilizer applied, the use of the

intercrop vegetation as part of the nitrogen

enrichment scheme and similar factors. Also

these are parallel differences in the nature

of the ditches that provide water during the

start of the growing season, the distance over

which the water is diverted and the proximity

to permanent bodies of water.

Primary observations

Observation of the kinds of frogs ob-

served in association with paddies indicate

that the frogs seem to have local options,

but also that they exhibit certain general

trends. Patchiness seems to be the key to un-

derstanding the kinds of frogs found, and this

reflects the nature of the areas adjacent to

the particular field. Its distance from the edge

of the overall region planted in rice affects

the species composition. This is also affected

by the kinds of vegetation occurring adjacent

to the planted region; forest, tree garden,

coconut palm, plantain, tea or human housing

each have effects on the composition. The

composition is also affected by other

microecological factors, such as the recent

history of the agricultural work, activity in

adjacent patches and the state of the weather.

However, the initial observations need to be

tested and evaluated statistically.

The most important result of the initial

observations has been the observation that

the community of frogs observed in a paddy

area commonly involves from six to a dozen

species, with only one to three of these ac-

tually being "large" frogs. However,

prereproductive juveniles of the very large

(<100 mm snout- vent length) species ( Rana

hexadactyla and R. tigerina) also contribute

to the population in each paddy. Rarely does

one observe (collect) as many females as

males; this does not appear to reflect only

the silence of the latter, but suggests that the

females often enter the flooded paddy later.

There is a strong "edge effect" with distinct

populations occurring adjacent to other paddy

fields than adjacent to zones with other

agriculture or fallow zones. Commonly, one

finds that calling males of particular species

clump within particular paddies; thus, one

wades through subzones in which one or

another call pattern predominates.

The number and kinds of frogs observed

change drastically with agricultural phase.

This is very clear in areas in which the in-

dividual paddies are at a different stage of

cultivation. Each frog species found in a par-

ticular patch then reflects local circumstances

much more than those of the overall region.

The amount of vegetation, particularly of that

FROGS AND PADDY: PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT

33

rising above the surface and the size and per-

manence of mud islands and of intermediate

flooded regions appear most significant.

Large frogs were generally observed in the

paddy only during the first cultivation stage.

Their adults sit and call close to the edges of

the unplowed fields with more specimens seen

where the fields are adjacent to stone walls

and tree covered edges. Juveniles of these

species seem to range further into the open

fields. Only some of the smaller species co-

occur with these forms. Only after the first

plowing do the diversity of calls reach a max-

imum, by this time the water surface tends to

be subdivided and the paddy represents a series

of independent pools and channels separated

by strips of soil and vegetation.

With the exception of one or two species

of ranids, including the skittering frogs, most

species of smaller frogs inhabit and call ad-

jacent to patches of vegetation and soil. Their

calling sites are microecologically distinct.

Common specific calling sites are small

patches of open soil, open water, bits of grass,

paddy bunds (from which some forms call

projecting out over the water, whereas others

find, or build, cavities into which to call),

and small (diameter <10 cm) pools with the

animal floating in the center or standing along

the edge (calling upward). Many species seem

to produce ventrilocal effects, as if the call

is reflected or misdirected.

As the phases of cultivation change the

microecology of the paddy surface, one can

see a basis for the shift in frog usage pattern.

However, more is involved than simple re-

placement, as the apparent density of par-

ticular species seemingly rises and falls. Many

individuals of the species that characterize the

later stages are either absent or silent during

the earlier ones.

Where do all the frogs go?

It is likely that much of the observed pat-

tern reflects predation. The described patterns

of agricultural practice expose more and more

individuals to observation and attack. The

sheltering vegetation becomes reduced and

may disappear during mudding. Separate

predation patterns occur during the day and

night.

During the day, one observes many

species of wading birds, including herons and

egrets, some of which will follow the plow,

as they travel on or walk with buffalo travers-

ing marshy areas. As frogs jump from the

feet or the plow, they are detected and caught.

At night, there may well be a pattern of bat

predation, as some of these detect moving

frogs. This again suggests the importance

of the cultivation stage to frogs survival; it

would be much easier for a bat to detect a

frog in an open area than amid partly flooded

vegetation. I am informed that there are no

sound-hunting bats in southern India

(Neuweiler 1990). This leaves open the reason

for the ventriloquists; what other predator

may be listening to these frogs?

The probability that bats are significant

nocturnal predators of frogs is supported by

two incidental observations. First, during noc-

turnal travel by car, one commonly sees bats

cruising very low, within 30 cm of the road

surface. This seems unusually low for catch-

ing flying insects. Also, most of the frogs

seen crossing the roads, appear to traverse

open areas with a series of jumps and then

crouch down resting close to the vegetated

berm, rather than moving one jump at a time

and sitting up in the middle of the road.

Missing information?

The preliminary observations indicate

34

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

that the paddy populations are comprised of

multiple species of frogs and that the species

composition changes with the pattern of cul-

tivation. However, these observations leave

open many questions, some of which require

further observation and other experiments.

The two key questions that need resolution

are: How important are the individual frogs

we see to the survival of their species? and

how important are these frogs to the ecologi-

cal balance of the field and to pest control?

We really have only minimal data on the first

and no data on the second set of questions.

To answer the first question, we need in-

formation on when the females reach the

males and where and when the eggs are

deposited. Next we need to know what hap-

pens to the tadpoles during the phases of

paddy production; are these species main-

tained by the reproduction we see in the pad-

dies or is most of the next generation

produced in adjacent areas. When do the

young metamorphose, does this happen in the

flooded paddy area or in adjacent zones and

where do the small frogs go thereafter? How

long do the metamorphosed frogs stay near

the paddies, and where do they pass the dry

season? What is the survivorship of each of

these frog species, i.e. how many eggs are

laid (per clutch, per season), how many tad-

poles metamorphose into frogs, and how

many frogs. Do aspects of the cultivation

practice, for instance, the gradual desiccation

of the paddy affect the time of metamor-

phosis, as it does in some American frogs?

These questions require detailed observation

of the animals and of their offspring

throughout the year. Also, it may be necessary

to keep some areas enclosed or fenced in order

to study the effect of predation. Various

simple experiments should begin allow one

to provide and test answers to such questions

about the natural history of the species.

To answer the second set of questions,

we need information on how many frogs there

are for each species and what might be their

mass per hectare. Next one needs to know

who eats what, when and where. Which of

the frogs indeed feed in the paddy areas, at

what age and size stage, what are their prey

items and what is the mass of prey consumed?

Do any of the large frogs eat small frogs?

Do they deter predators on the smaller

species? Some answers may be obtained by

examining the stomach contents of captured

frogs. Obviously such examination must

occur very quickly after capture. For small

frogs, the animals must be preserved imme-

diately (so that digestion is then arrested);

for larger frogs one should be able to ex-

periment with stomach flushes, some tests

being necessary to assure that no prey will

be retained in the stomach.

Once the prey has been identified one

needs to determine whether the species of mol-

luscs, annelids and arthropods involved have

any direct or indirect bearing on crop produc-

tivity. For that matter one may also ask

whether they represent vectors for diseases of

man or domestic animals. On the other hand it

becomes necessary to consider the effect of the

chemicals often applied, those used as fer-

tilizers, insecticides, vermicides and fun-

gicides. What is their influence on insect

populations and, important in the present con-

text, on the eggs, larvae and adults of the frogs.

Do the populations of frogs show any develop-

mental abnormalities (teratologies), the fre-

quency of such deformations, whether affect-

ing limb arrangement or color pattern, often

indicates the level of toxic materials in the

environment.

FROGS AND PADDY: PROBLEMS OF MANAGEMENT

35

A General Overview

The main difficulty with the general ap-

proach to the protection of Indian frogs (and

for probably other species as well) is that we

assume, but we do not know. The prohibition

of the export of frog legs resulted in some loss

of foreign exchange; however, the documented

benefits derive mainly from humanistic con-

siderations. The issue of "pest control" deserves

much further study. For very few areas have

there been longitudinal (long-term) baseline

studies, giving documented quantitative obser-

vations, repeated year after year. It "seems" that

there are "lots" of frogs and that these may have

an effect on paddy production, but is this true?

How many frogs and of which species were

there a decade ago, five years ago, at the time

the export ban was imposed, or now? Which

species are most useful and are these the ones

that are being protected? What additional resour-

ces should be invested, perhaps in maintaining

permanent water zones, near paddy fields. Sur-

veys should be carried out using standardized

methods (Heyer et al. 1993).

We need observations to answer such

questions, but we also need ecological ex-

periments. What is the effect of frog removal

on conspecifics or other species? What would

be the effect of predator exclusion (assuming

that we are correct about which predators are

significant? How important are undisturbed

waters near paddy areas, whether as ponds

or as canals? Are terrestrial- shelter zones im-

portant and if so are holes and tunnels sig-

nificant? Folklore suggests that the tunnels

of the dams dug by rats and crabs are entirely

deleterious; might they have a different kind

of merit, perhaps in providing shelter for the

larger species of frogs?

The several kinds of rice represent a key

component of human diet. Their cultivation

involves a relatively enormous area. Frogs

are certainly an obvious and substantial aspect

of the rice field flooding and planting cycle

and estimates suggest that their biomass is

a substantial portion of the overall amount.

Theoretically they should affect the yield in

several ways. Yet we do not yet know how

many species of frogs there are in different

regions and even less how they survive and

what effect they have on our well being.

The need to know more about this poten-

tially critical system demands that more

teachers and scientists actually proceed to join

the villagers in the paddy fields. It also re-

quires that artificial barriers to carrying out

such studies be removed, indeed that the agen-

cies charged with protecting Indian wildlife

actively foster both local and central studies

in many regions.

Acknowledgements

#

This study derives from incidental ob-

servations incidental to carrying out

fieldwork sponsored by the National Museum

of Natural History, New Delhi, and the Car-

negie Museum of Natural History, Pittsburgh,

Pa., USA and supported in part by subsistence

from the Smithsonian Institution, from the

Ministry of Environment, Government of

India, as well as from the Leo Leeser Foun-

dation.

References

Anonymous (1990): Declining amphibian populations — A Blaustein, A.R. & David B. Wake (1990): Declining am-

global phenomenon? Workshop of Board of Biology, phibian populations — A global phenomenon? Bull.

National Research Council. Finding and Recommen- Ecol. Soc. Amer., 71(2): 127-128.

dations, 9 pp.

36

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Heyer, W.R., M. A. Donnelly. R.W. McDiarmto, L.C. Hayek

& M.S. Fostter, (1993): Measuring and monitoring

biological diversity: Standard Methods for Amphibians.

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C.

Neuweiler, G. (1990): Auditory Adaptations for prey cap-

ture in echolocating bats. Physiol. Revs., 70(3): 615-

641.

FISH FAUNA OF TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

R.P. Barman1 2

Key words: Tripura, fish fauna, biogeography

The present paper deals with a synopsis of 129 fish species under 78 genera, 33 families and 1 1 orders

from the rivers of Tripura giving their scientific names along with local and English names. Biogeography

of these fishes are also discussed.

Tripura is a hilly state lying in the sub-

Himalayan zone; its various physiographical na-

ture has contributed to the formation of a diverse

fish fauna. A perusal of the existing literature on

the fish fauna of Tripura shows that there has not

been a comprehensive survey of the fish fauna

potential and there is no consolidated account of

the fishes of the state. This region deserves an

extensive fish faunal survey to assess species new

to the state and even new to science. An attempt

has, therefore, been made to conduct at a

thorough survey of the fish faunal resources and

to prepare a consolidated account of the fish

fauna of Tripura. Three field surveys (1985, 1989

and 1990) covered almost all the important fish

landing centres of the state. In the preparation of

the present list of fishes, I have also included all

the fishes recorded by earlier workers in addition

to my own collections. The fishes collected

belong to 129 species under 78 genera, 32

families and 11 orders, and comprise both

riverine and torrential stream forms, along with

some freshwater-visiting marine fishes or, in

other words, migratory species. The list of fishes

is given in Table 1 with scientific name, as well

as local and English names.

Discussion and Biogeography

This study is an attempt to provide a con-

1 Accepted January 1992.

2Zoological Survey of India, 27, Jawaharlal Nehru Road,

Calcutta 700 016.

solidated account of all the fishes so far known

from Tripura. This account includes the fishes

collected by me and the fishes recorded by ear-

lier workers, namely Nair (1977), Datta (1977),

Lipton (1983-84), Bhattacharya(1988) and Bar-

man (1988, 1989, 1990, 1991, 1992). The rivers

of Tripura flow to the river Meghna in

Bangladesh and the topographical condition and

hydrology hardly allow any riverine fishery

within Tripura. It is interesting to note that most

of the fishes of Tripura are common to both the

Indo-Gangetic drainage and south-east Asian

fishes. The occurrence of these fishes in the

sub-Himalayan region of Tripura is of special

significance in the geography of fishes of the

North-Eastern India and that of the Indo-

Malayan Archipelago. The presence of some of

the marine and estuarine fishes such as

Pisodonophis boro , Hilsa ilisha and Nematolosa

nasus etc. in the rivers of Tripura may be ex-

plained that these fishes may have migrated from

the Bay of Bengal through the River Gumti which

falls into the River Meghna (in Comilla district

of Bangladesh) which in turn falls into the Bay of

Bengal. Besides this River Gumti, the largest

river of Tripura, the state has two tidal rivers,

namely, the Fenny and the Muhuri, through these

two tidal rivers migration of some marine fishes

might be possible. The detailed systematic

studies of 129 fish species under 33 families and

11 orders have already been completed and will

be incorporated in the State Fauna of Tripura.

38

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 1

FISH FAUNA OF TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

39

Table 1 (Contd.)

40

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 91 (1994)

Table 1 (Contd.)

FISH FAUNA OF TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

41

Table 1 (Contd.)

42

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 91 (1994)

FISH FAUNA OF TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

43

Table 1 (Contd.)

44

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 1 (Contd.)

FISH FAUNA OF TRIPURA, NORTH-EAST INDIA

45

Table 1 (Contd.)

4

46

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol 91 (1994)

Acknowledgements A.K. Ghosh, Joint Director and Mr T K Sen,

Scientist "SD" of the Zoological Survey of India,

I thank Dr M.S. Jairajpuri, Director; Dr. Calcutta for facilities and encouragement.

References

Barman, R. P. (1988): The fishes of the river Gumti,

Tripura, N.E. India. Rec. zool. Surv. India, Occ. Paper

No. 119: 1-86, figs. 74.

Barman, R. P. (1989): Barilius nelsoni , a new cyprinid fish

(Pisces: Cyprinidae) from Tripura, N.E. India. J. Bom-

bay nat. Hist. Soc., 86(2): 213-215.

Barman, R. P. (1990): Nematolosa nasus (Bloch) (Pisces:

Clupeidae) a new record from the freshwaters of

Tripura. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 87 (3): 464-465.

Barman, R. P. (1991): An abnormal specimen of Channa

orientalis Schneider (Pisces: Channidae) from Tripura,

N.E. India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 88(1): 124.

Barman, R.P. (1992): New record of a croaker, Johnius

coitor (Hamilton-Buchanan) (Pisces: Sciaenidae)

from Tripura, N.E. India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

89(1): 135-136.

Bhattacharya, T. (1988): Final report of the Himalayan

Eco- Development Project. Integrated water manage-

ment of the Gumti river valley. Tripura University

Publication, Agartala, Tripura.

Datta, A.K. (1977): On a collection of fishes from Tripura

state. Newsl. zool. Surv. India, 3(4): 217-223.

Lipton, A.P. (1983-84): Fish fauna of Tripura. Matsya, 9 &

10: 110-118.

Nair,P.V. (1977): A preliminary list of the fishes of Tripura.

Proc. 45th Indian Sci. Cong. pi. 3: 367.

FIRST RECORD OF ALLANTINAE (TENTHREDINIDAE : HYMENOPTERA)

FROM INDIA1

Malkiat S. Saini and Jagdeep S. Deep2

Key words: First record, allantinae, tenthredinidae, hymenoptera

Nine genera represented by 9 species are newly recorded and 7 species of already recorded

genera are added to the list of Indian Allantinae. Synonymy (if any), distribution, population

variation (wherever significant) and some remarks have been provided for each of the enlisted

species. Representative specimens of first record species will be deposited in the National Pusa*

Collection, IARI, New Delhi.

Introduction

To date, only 16 genera of Allantinae

represented by 37 species are known from

India. In the present work, 9 genera repre-

sented by 9 species and 7 species of already

recorded genera have been added.

Abeleses birmanus Malaise, 1961

Abeleses birmanus Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82. H.3- 4, p. 232.

Specimens examined: Himachal

Pradesh: Dalhousie, Kalatop — 2380 m,

29.6.1986.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh.

Hennedyella Forsius, 1935

Hennedyella Forsius, 1935. Notul. ent.

Helsingf. 15. p. 57-59.

Distribution: Burma; India: Jammu and

Kashmir.

Hennedyella athaloides Forsius, 1935

Hennedyella athaloides Forsius, 1935.

Notul. ent. Helsingf. 15. p. 57-59.

Specimens examined: Jammu and

Accepted March 1991.

department of Zoology, Punjabi University,

Patiala, Punjab 147 002, India.

Kashmir: Pahalgam 2700 m, 1 female,

15.6.1986.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Jammu and

Kashmir.

Ocla Malaise, 1957

Ocla Malaise, 1957. Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 78.

H.l, p. 13.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: West Ben-

gal.

Ocla glabrifrons Malaise, 1961

Ocla glabrifrons Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82, Hafte 3-4, p. 243.

Specimens examined: West Bengal:

Darjeeling — 2600 m, 1 male, 11.9.1988.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: West Ben-

gal.

Ungulia fasciativentris Malaise, 1961

Ungulia fasciativentris Malaise, 1961.

Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 82. H.3-4, p. 244.

Specimens examined: Arunachal

Pradesh: Bomdila — 2800 m, 8 females, 8

males, 1.6-3.6.1989. Meghalaya: Mawphlang

— 1500 m, 1 male, 6.5.1984. West Bengal:

Darjeeling — 2800 m, 8 females, 6 males;

Manibhanjang — 2200 m, 3 males,

6.5.1983.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Arunachal

48

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Pradesh, Meghalaya, West Bengal. Popula-

tion Variation: in some specimens terga 2-4

only are pale fulvous instead of terga 2-5, i.e.

terga 5 is black in some specimens.

Formosempria Takeuchi, 1929

Formosempria Takeuchi, 1929. Trans.

Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa xix, 100, p. 85.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh.

Formosempria shanensis Malaise, 1961

Formosempria shanensis Malaise, 1961.

Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 82. H.3-4, p. 249.

Specimens examined: Himachal

Pradesh: Dalhousie, Kalatop — 2380 m, 5

males, 29.6-30.6.1986.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh.

Oralia Malaise, 1961

Oralia Malaise, 1961. Ent. Tidskr. Arg.

82. H.3-4, p. 244-246.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh.

Oralia nigroclypeata Malaise, 1961

Oralia nigroclypeata Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82, H.3-4. p. 245.

Specimens examined: Himachal Pradesh:

Dalhousie, Kalatop-2380 m, 5 females, 29.6 -

30.6.1986.

Clypea Malaise, 1961

Clypea Malaise, 1961. Ent. Tidskr. Arg.

82. H. 3-4, p. 246-247.

Distribution: Burma; India- Arunachal

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh.

Clypea sinobirmana Malaise, 1961

Clypea sinobirmana Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82. H.3-4, p. 247.

Specimens examined: Arunachal

Pradesh: Bomdila — 2800 males 1 female,

31.5.1989.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Arunachal

Pradesh.

Clypea shanica Malaise, 1961

Clypea shanica Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82. H.l, 3-4, p. 247.

Specimens examined: Uttar Pradesh:

Gopeshwar, Mandal — 2380 m, 2 ??,

15.6.1987.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Uttar

Pradesh.

Indotaxonus unicolor Malaise, 1957.

Indotaxonus unicolor Malaise, 1957.

Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 78. H.l, p. 22.

Specimens examined: Meghalaya: Smit

— 1500 m, 1 female, 15.9.1985, Mawphlong

1500 m, 1 female, 17.9.1985. Himachal

Pradesh: Sarkot — 2000 m, 2 females,

8.6.1983.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Meghalaya

and Himachal Pradesh.

Malachiella nigerrima Muche, 1987.

Malachiella nigerrima Muche, 1987.

Reichenbachia Band 24, Nr. 27, p. 179-181.

Specimens examined: Arunachal

Pradesh: Bomdila — 2800 m, 7 males, 1.6-

2.6.1989; Himachal Pradesh: Dalhousie,

Kalatop — 2380 m, 2 males, 8.8.1982; Kasol

— 1600 m, 1 male, 31.5.1984. Uttar

Pradesh: Gopeshwar, Mandal — 2300 m, 1

male, 20.6.1983. West Bengal: Darjeeling —

2800 m, 1 male, 4.9.1929.

Distribution: Nepal; INDIA: Arunachal

Pradesh, Himachal Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh,

West Bengal.

FIRST RECORD OF ALLANTINAE FROM INDIA

49

Empronus Malaise, 1935

Empronus Malaise, 1935. Ent. Tidskr.

Arg. 56. p. 175-176.

Distribution: Burma; Japan; INDIA:

Arunachal Pradesh, West Bengal, Himachal

Pradesh, Uttar Pradesh and Sikkim.

Empronus obsoletus Malaise, 1935

Empronus obsoletus Malaise, 1935. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 56. p. 175-176.

Specimens examined: Himachal Pradesh:

Dalhousie, Kalatop — 2380 m, 1 male,

27.6.1987.

Distribution: Burma; Japan; INDIA:

Himachal Pradesh.

Kambaitina Malaise, 1961

Kambaitina Malaise, 1961. Ent. Tidskr.

Arg. 82. H.3-4, p. 254-255.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh, West Bengal and Uttar Pradesh.

Kambaitina fulvipicta Malaise, 1961

Kambaitina fulvipicta Malaise, 1961.

Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 82. H. 3-4, p. 254-255.

Specimens examined: Himachal

Pradesh: Kasol — 1600 m, 2 females, 1

male, 29.5.1984. West Bengal: Darjeeling

— 2600 m, 2 females, 2.5.1986. Uttar

Pradesh: Ghangria — 3000 m, 1 male,

27.6.1987.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh, West Bengal, Uttar Pradesh.

Ferna puncti fossa Malaise, 1961

Ferna punctifossa Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82. H. 3-4, p. 259.

Specimens examined: West Bengal: Dar-

jeeling — 2800 m, 6 females, 20 males, 2.5 -

4.5.1986. Arunachal Pradesh: Bomdila — 2800

m, 4 males, 1.6-2.6.1989. Himachal Pradesh:

Dalhousie, Kalatop — 2800 m (13 females,

9 males, 28.6-2.7.1986.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA. West

Bengal, Arunachal Pradesh, Himachal

Pradesh.

Population variation: Fulvous colour is

pale yellow in the population.

Canonias inopinus Konow, 1901

Canonias inopinus Konow, 1901. Term.

Fuz. Vol. 24, p. 65.

Canonias annulicornis Enderlein, 1919.

S.B. Ges. naturf. Fr. Berlin, p. 369.

Canonias jacobsoni Forsius, 1929.

Notul, ent. Helsingf. 9. p. 58.

Specimens Examined: Himachal

Pradesh: Barkot, 1800 m, 2 males, 8.6.1983.

Distribution: Java; Sumatra; INDIA:

Himachal Pradesh.

Busarbina Malaise, 1961

Busarbina Malaise, 1961. Ent. Tidskr.

Arg. 82. H. 3-4, p. 256-257.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Uttar

Pradesh.

Busarbina verticalis Malaise, 1961

Busarbina verticalis Malaise, 1961. Ent.

Tidskr. Arg. 82. H. 3-4, p. 256.

Specimens examined: Uttar Pradesh:

Gopeshwar, Mandal — 2300 m, 1 female, 2

males, 16.6.1987.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: Uttar

Pradesh.

Tala Malaise, 1935

Tala Malaise, 1935. Ark. Zool. 27 A, no.

9, p. 25.

Distribution: Burma; INDIA: West Ben-

gal.

50

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Eusunoxa cevlonica Malaise, 1932

Eusunoxa ceylonica Malaise, 1932.

Ceylon J. Sci; Sect. B, 17, p. 147-148.

Specimens examined: Tamil Nadu:

Madras, Kadamparai — 1200 m, 1 female,

10.5.1963 (Gift from USNM, Washington).

R EFE

Enderlein, G. (1919): Symphytologica ii zur Kenntnis der

Tenthrediniden. S.B. Ges. nature. Fr. Berlin 1919, p.

347-374.

Forsius, R. (1935): Ueber eine neue Selandriinen — Gat-

tung mit vielgliedrigen Fuhlern. Notul. ent. Hel-

singfors 15, pp. 57-59.

Konow, F.W. (1901): NeueChalastrogastra — Arten. Terms

Fuzetek, 24: 57-72.

Malaise, R. (1932): A new sawfly from Ceylon (Hym.:

Tenthredinidae). Spolia Ceylon, J. of Science Colombo

17, pp. 147- 148.

Malaise, R. (1935): Schwedischchinesische wis-

senschoflliche Expedition nach den nordwestlichen

Provinzen Chinas 23. Hymenoptera I. Ark. Zool.

Stockholm 27A, no. 9, pp. 1-40.

Distribution: Sri Lanka; INDIA: Tamil

Nadu.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to CSIR, New Delhi for

providing the financial assistance.

ENCES

Malaise, R. (1935): New genera of Tenthredinoidea and

their genotypes (Hymen:). Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 56, pp.

160-178.

Malaise, R. (1957): Some neotropical and Oriental

Tenthredinoidea. Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 78, H.-l, pp. 6-22.

Malaise, R. (1961): New Oriental sawflies (Hym.: Tenthr.).

Ent. Tidskr. Arg. 82. H.3-4, pp. 231-260.

Muche, W.H. (1987): Zwei neue Arten der Selandriinae aus

Nepal (Hymenoptera, Symphyta, Tenthredinidae).

Reichenbachia Mus. Tierk. Dresden 24, Nr. 27, pp.

179-182.

Takeuchi, K. (1929): Description of new sawflies from

Japanese Empire (I), Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc. Formosa

19, pp. 495- 520.

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, M.R1

Hashim N. Tyabji2

Key words : birds, avifauna, Bandhavgarh N.P.

The paper is a record of the birds seen in Bandhavgarh National Park, Madhya Pradesh over a 4 years period

(1986 - 1990, with a few updates and records from 1991 & 1992). 242 species belonging to 53 families were

recorded. These include some species who’s presence in this area was previously unsuspected. Although same

of these records have been treated as unconfirmed, it is likely that a comprehensive survey of the moist forests

of NE Madhya Pradesh & neighbouring Orissa will lead to the revision of the status & distribution of a number

of species.

The moist forests of Madhya Pradesh that lie

within the Gangetic Basin have, in the past, suffered

even greater neglect at the hands of ornithologists

than the rest of the state. Previous ornithological

field-work in central India has generally been

confined to areas within the peninsular drainage

system (Osmaston 1927, Hewetson 1939, Wright

1942, Newton et al. 1986) or, within the Gangetic

Basin, to the generally more arid areas of Gwalior

(Ali 1939). D’ Abreu’s list (1935) of 409 species for

the then Central Provinces consists of records

obtained around Nagpur and the central areas of

present day Madhya Pradesh. Hewetson (1955)

published a list of 308 species for Madhya Pradesh

based on 29 years of observations. However, he too

states that only a few days were spent in the northern-

most districts and presumably, even less time in

what was then Vindhya Pradesh, where Bandhavgarh

National Park is located.

Previous to this study, two lists were published

of the birds of Bandhavgarh. One by N.K. Sinha

(1978) who lists 72 species and the other by Guy

Norman (Pamphlet of MPSTDC) who records 92

species.

The present paper is a record of birds seen by

me over a discontinuous 4 year period. 242 species

with status and habitat preference and some notes on

their natural history, are included in the main list.

Birds recorded by Sinha and Norman, but not by the

author are shown in separate lists.

1 Accepted January 1992.

2 624/1, Road No. 10, Banjara Hills, Hyderabad 500 034, A.P.

Bandhavgarh National Park

The park is located in the north -eastern segment

of Madhya Pradesh, along the northern flanks of the

Satpura Range. Co-ordinates are 23° 30’ to 23° 46'

45" N, 80° 1 V 36" E (H.S. Pabla, pers. Comm.).

Bandhavgarh was originally the private hunting

reserve of the erstwhile Maharaja’ s of Rewa and was

constituted a National park in 1968 with an area of

105 sq. km, all of which comprises the present day

Tala Range, with its H.Q. at village Tala, 32 km NE

of Umaria, which is the H.Q. of the park. Apart from

forest department guard-posts, there is no habitation

within this range. In 1984 the area of the park was

increased to 448 sq.km. With the inclusion of 3 new

ranges, namely Kalwa, Magadhi & Khitauli. These

contain 6 villages-3 revenue & 3 forest-that are-

slated for relocation. The final notification gazetting

the extension area as part of the national park is still

awaited.

Bandhavgarh is fortunate in that, unlike so

many other parks, it forms part of a larger forest

block. Apart from the 250 sq.km Panpatha Wildlife

Sanctuary that is connected with the park to the

north, there are also a number of smaller pockets of

protected and reserve forest, amongst which are

situated small agricultural communities.

The Study Area: This consisted of Tala Range,

Garhpuri & Khitauli irrigation tanks - both situated

in Khitauli range - and the surrounding areas.

Same records were also taken from observations

made at Majholi tank, 12 km north of Tala at the

edge of the Panpatha Wildlife Sanctuary.

52

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Topography: The park is hilly with extensive

low-lying areas. The hills tend to run in a roughly

east- west direction with spurs & ridges radiating to

the north and south. The two main features of the

park are Bandhavgarh fort - a plateau with steep,

forested slopes rising 1200 feet (365 m) from the

forest floor and culminating in sheer cliffs. The area

of the plateau is 580 acres. It’s smaller companion

across a steep defile is Bandhaini, rising in terraces

to almost the same height as Bandhavgarh. The

mean altitude is between 1650 feet (500 m) and 2670

feet (810 m) (H.S. Pabla, pers. comm. ). The soil is

generally sandy or sandy-loam. The rock is soft

feldspathic sandstone with extensive conglomerates

(R. Gopal, pers. comm.).

Over 20 spring-fed streams either rise or flow

through the park (H.S. Pabla, pers. comm.), of these

the largest are the Umrar ( western boundary), the

Johilla (eastern boundary) and the Janadh. Within

Tala range the Charanganga, Damnar, Banbai,

Amba Nala and Andhyari Jhiriya are important. All

these streams eventually flow into the Son river.

Vegetation and Habitats: Bandhavgarh falls

within the Moist, Tropical Deciduous vegetational

zone. The forest is dominated by Sal ( Shorea robusta)

and bamboo ( Dendrocalamus strictus). Bamboo is,

perhaps the most abundant species and is virtually

ubiquitous. Although sal forms the climax vegetation

and is the dominant species of tree, only a relatively

small area of the park is under pure sal, i.e. 80% or

more of canopy cover.

Within this general pattern of vegetation, a

complex mosaic of smaller habitats exits as a function

of topography, geology, climate & human activity.

For the purpose of this study they have been identified

as:

1). Sal: Where sal forms 80% or more of the

canopy. Relatively small area of the park, most

extensively found in the low-lying sections. Generally

the quality of sal found in Tala range is of middle to

poor quality (H.S. Pabla, pers. comm. ). A fair

amount of sal appears to be secondary although

patches of mature sal exists, draped with massive

Spatholobus roxburghii lianas.

2) . Sal Bamboo: Often merging with sal.

Extensive areas under this type of vegetation are

found in the hills, especially on north-facing slopes.

3) . Mixed : The commonest type. Contains a

high , but variable, percentage of sal & bamboo along

with species like Terminalia tomentosa , T. bellerica ,

T. chebula , Diospyros melanoxylon , Madhuca

indica , Anogeissus latifolia , Pterocarpus

marsupium , Bridelia ret us a, Careya arbor ea, etc.

4) . Dry mixed: Very little or no sal; high

percentage of bamboo, Boswellia serrata ,

Chloroxylonswie tenia , Cochlospermum religiosum ,

Lagerstroemia parviflora , Buchanania lanzin ,

Sterculia wrens , etc. Bauhinia vahlii vines are also

common here. This habitat is most commonly found

on south-facing slopes and, where the rock comes

close to the surface on the flat crests of ridges, the

vegetation becomes more open with short grass and

clumps of Woodfordia fruticosa.

5) . Moist mixed: Although not a common

habitat, it is important for certain species. The

common species found here are sal, jamun ( Syzygium

cuminii) and Terminalia arjuna with the dense

growth of jamun and T. arjuna often accompanied

by Ficus elastica and various species of shrubs. This

habitat is found along stream banks sheltered by

hills and gorges, mostnotably along the Charanganga

where it passes through a gorge called Jamunia and

along the Banbai, Amba Nala, Damnar and Andhyari

Jhiriya streams. Also at the northern base of

Bandhavgarh fort in the areaknown as Shesh Shayya.

6) . Grasslands: Most of the valley floors are

covered by meadows which were originally centered

around natural swamps but, in their present form,

are relics of village fields. Although the grassland

communities are complex, two major types of

grassland are identifiable - the tall, dense grasslands

of the marshy areas and the short and medium grass-

lands of the drier areas. The commonest grasses

found in the park are species of Saccharum,

Phragmitest Themeda and Heteropogon (R. Gopal

1990). Traditionally, fire, grazing pressure and

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, MP.

53

frost have been the factors that have helped perpetuate

the grasslands and maintain that balance between

the tall and the short species. At present, with the

removal of fire as a regular occurrence and the

reduction in grazing pressure due to the removal of

all cattle, there is a noticeable increase in the

colonisation of short grass areas by taller species as

also the aggrandisement of forests at the expense of

grasslands.

7) . Scrub: Most often encountered in the

extension zone, near villages and especially around

Garhpuri and Khitauli tanks. In all cases this is the

result of over-exploitation. The most common species

that form the scrub are clumps of short Lager stroemia

parviflora , Butea monosperma and Woodfordia

fruticosa all of which are often draped with Ziziphus

oenoplia. The edges of the park and extension zone

also contain fields and over-grazed meadows.

8) . Tanks and Jheels : Two large irrigation

tanks - Garhpuri and Khitauli - in Khitauli range are

included in this study. Other bodies of water are

Bhadrashila jheel, Bathan water-hole, the Damnar

anicut, which is about 1 50 m long and 30 m wide and

4 m deep. Surrounded by forest, it is an ideal habitat

for storkbilled kingfishers, common kingfishers and

the greyheaded fishing eagle.

It must be noted that these habitats are not

always well-defined and compartmentalised. A

hill-side covered in dry mixed vegetation will often

be seamed with lines of sal (often stunted) growing

densely along a dry nala or gully. In other areas,

mixed, dry mixed, sal etc., will be found in a

haphazard patchwork, one grading into the other,

depending on the moisture content of the soil.

Bandhavgarh has also been inhabited for many

centuries and much of the area is under secondary

growth and open woodland as a consequence.

Climate : North Indian Monsoonal. Defined

by a short, cold, winter from mid-November to end-

February with low temperatures of 2°C encountered

mainly in January. Hot dry summer from March to

mid-June with highs of 44° - 46°C. The hottest

month being May. Monsoon from mid- June to end-

September. Average rainfall 117 cm (46 inches)

most of which falls during the monsoon with some

rain in November, January and February. ( Records

taken from Tala range).

List: The nomenclature and taxonomic

arrangement follows the Handbook of the Birds of

India & Pakistan (Ali and Ripley 1968-74).

Identification is only of species and not sub-

species.

The main list includes only those birds that

were seen by the author.

Table 1 lists birds recorded by N.K. Sinha

(1977-78) and Guy Norman (MPSTDC) but not by

me.

Table 2 lists birds that have been treated as

unconfirmed with their descriptions.

The period spent by me in Bandhavgarh were:

November 1986 - April 1987; October 1987 -

April 1988; October 1988 - May 1989; August,

September and November 1989; April 1990 -

September 1990.

Status

W - Winter visitor

PM - Passage Migrant

LM - Local Migrant

R - Resident

Sv - Summer visitor

Br - Breeding

V - Vagrant

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SYSTEMATIC LIST

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, M.P.

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5

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Common Name Zoological Name Habitat

Status

Abundance

CORACHDAE

Indian Roller

Hoopoe

Common

Grey Hombill

Malabar Pied

Hombill

Coracias benghalensis G, Sc, Open Mx,DM, open R; seen mating on 12.2.89 & 16.3.89;

S/B; prefers open areas nestholes seen in sal 3 m above ground

from March onwards is level and in jamun 7.5 m high; birds seen

seen more frequently in in nests through April & May.

relatively thickly

wooded country.

Upupidae

Upupa epops

Tockus birostris

Anthracoceros

coronatus

In open forests with R; nesthole seen in B. retusa 4.5 m high

little or no under- in April,

growth; Sc, fields.

Bucerotidae

Mx, open Mx; partial to R; in April lone birds were seen flying

banyan and pipal fruit. with fruit in their bills to an

unlocated spot.

Mx, S, amongst ficus and R

mango trees on the fort;

mainly seen on the fort

and in the rest of the park

quite frequently from

March to June; for the

first 2 weeks of May ’90

a group of 13 birds were

seen regularly in S & Mx

around Bathan; some

subadults were

also present.

Capitonidae

Large Green Barbet Megalaima zeylanica Mx, open Mx; partial to R

fruit of pipal, banyan,

B. retusa, F .glomerata,e\c.

Crimsonbreasted Megalaima

Barbet haemacephala

Mx, DM, Open Mx; feeds

on all kinds of fruit;

on fruiting pipal and

banyan it is common to

see upwards of 2 dozen

birds; on 5.9.89 25+

birds gathered on an

Albizzia lebbek and then

flew into an unidentified

bush with green berries,

also take insects - on

1.6.90 one bird was

observed darting up to

take insects that looked

like termites.

R; observed mating on 18.3.90 and 15.4.90;

on the first occasion male remained

mounted for 4 mins. He had something

in his mouth which he offered the female

after he got off; on the second occasion

one biid-presumably the male-offered

some fruit to the female which was accepted;

both birds then flew separately into

another tree, mating occurred 10 mins,

later and lasted less than a minute.

2

2/3

2

3/4

2

2

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, MR .

65

Common Name Zoological Name Habitat

Status

Abundance

PldDAE

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69

Common Name Zoological Name Habitat

Status

Abundance

Muscicapidae

Spotted

Babbler

Pellorneum ruficeps

Mx, S/B; shows a marked

preference for bamboo.

R; the low, musical ‘beat-you’

heard from mid- April to

end September.

call 4

Perhaps more

abundant than indicated

here but difficult to see.

3/4

Yelloweyed Babbler Chrysomma sinense G, grass understorey and R

shrubby growth, bamboo.

Large Grey Babbler Turdoides malcolmi Sc

R

Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus In all habitats; Golden R

Backed Woodpeckers .Large

Raquet-tailed Drongos and

Tree pies commonly

associated with flocks

of this species.

3

4

Quaker Babbler Alcippe poioicephala Mx, MM, S/B; Preference R; juveniles seen 5.9.89.

for bamboo.

Brown Flycatcher Muscicapa latirostris Mx, DM, edge of forest PM; sightings between 1 1.9.89 & 21.9.89

and open areas, G. & 26.4. 90 - 3.5.90.

4

3/4

Redbreasted

Flycatcher

Muscicapa parva Sc, open Mx, Mx, edge W; earliest seen on end-September, Numbers peak between

of MM, open S/B. latest on mid-April; males seen mid-November

in Br. plumage on 5. 1 1.89 & 9.4.90. & mid- March; 2

Whitebrowed Muscicapa superciliarisMx , MM. W;earliest seen early-November, latest mid-March. 4

Blue

Flycatcher

Tickell’s Blue

Flycatcher

Muscicapa tickelliae Dm, Mx,S/B, occasionally R

in MM; maiked preference

for bamboo thickets and

other low vegetation

from which it makes

forays from low perches.

2

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 1

BIRDS RECORDED BY N. K. SINHA AND GUY NORMAN BUT NOT BY THE AUTHOR

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, M.P.

75

Table 2

FIELD DESCRIPTION OF SOME UNCONFIRMED

SPECIES, WITH POSSIBLE IDENTITIES

1 . Description: A very pale Accipiter, size - slightly smaller

than Shikra; upper parts slate grey; underparts of wings

strikingly white with no lines or markings; wing-tips- very

black, with extent of black varying in different individuals;

black tips seen in dorsal view as well with white mirrors at

base of primaries. Throat and chin very pale with no

mesial stripe. Rest of underparts with rufous wash fairly

dark on some individuals and generally darker on flanks;

eye - orange-red.

Habitat: Mixed Forest & forest edge.

Sightings: The First sighting of this bird was on 17.3.87.

During the summer of 1987 quite a few birds of this

description were seen in the park and some were seen

carrying twigs and other material for a possible nest. It is not

known how long these birds stayed - they were certainly

gone by October. In 1988 the first sighting of this bird was

on 19th March with regular and increasing sightings after

that through April.

Identification: While it is possible that all these birds were

veiy pale Shikra's (A. badius), it seems unlikely. For one

thing very careful note was taken of underwing markings

and on a number of occasions it was confirmed that these

birds lacked even the faintest trace of any lines. They also

lacked a mesial stripe.

The description does, however, fit that of the Chinese or

Horsefield’s Goshawk (A. soloensis).

2. Description: Small flycatcher, about 1 1 cm. General aspect

- brown; darker on head and upper back; lower back, wings

and tail more olivaceous. Undertail coverts and vent -

white. Short, indistinct buff supercilium. Forehead -

brighter brown; chin and throat - orange; breast browner;

rest of underparts - muddied white. Bill - black; legs - flesh

cloured. Not shy; habit of flicking tail while calling.

Habitat: Mature mixed riparian forest on bank of

Charanganga stream, amongst dense undergrowth.

Sighting: Seen on 18.2.88.

Identification: Description fits female Rufousbreasted Blue

Flycatcher ( Muscicapa hyperythra). As per Ali & Ripley

(1968 - 74 ), Bandhavgarh falls outside of the known range

of this bird.

3. Description : Length 15 - 18 cm; upperparts- brown with

a touch of rufous; yellowish-grey bill, fairly thin and slightly

curved. A very inconspicuous, pale supercilium. Short,

dark eye - line. Long, broad tail very different from that of

a Prinia\ square-tipped when held together. Central tail

feathers darker than the rest of tail. This is constantly

rotated and flipped when the bird is sitting. Underparts -

olivy, yellow wash to grubby cream; flanks rufescent buff.

Undertail coverts - dirty white. Outer undertail feathers -

barred, noticeably around the terminal half. Legs - pale,

fleshy grey. Floppy flight.

Habitat: Grassland - marshy.

Sighting: 1 adult and 3 immatures seen on 1.9.89. ladult

seen on 12.9.89.

Identif icat ion : The bird that most closely fits this description

according to the handbook (Ali & Ripley 1968 - 74) is the

Broadtailed Grass Warbler (Schoenicola platyurus).

Although the habitat that this bird was seen in corresponds

to that mentioned in the handbook, the range ascribed it is

in the southern hills, nowhere near Bandhavgarh. This bird

was not seen again.

4. Description: Forehead - blue; rest of underparts - blue-

black. Undeiparts - dark blueblack. Tail - dark with white

patches on outer tail feathers near base. The bird was slowly

raising and lowering it’s tail while flaring it and the white

patches were clearly visible.

Habitat: Mixed forest. Perched low on bamboo.

Sightings: Seen on 14.1.87.

Identification: The description fits that of a male White-

tailed Blue Robin (Cinclidium leucurum). It is, however,

well south of the range described in the Handbook (Ali &

Ripley 1968 - 74).

It must be stressed that all the above records

are from field sightings and identifications are

tentative and cannot be treated as confirmed.

Of the 77 families of Indian birds, 53 are

represented in Bandhavagrh. Since only a relatively

small area of the park was studied on a regular basis,

it seems almost certain that more species will be

added to this list in the future. The status and

abundance of many species will also require

considerable work to arrive at a more accurate

understanding. As has been pointed out in other

76

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

studies of small areas, a species might utilise different

habitats in different seasons and in the process move

outside the limits of the area under study and so be

classified a local migrant when in other circumstances

- say for instance the expansion of the boundaries of

the study area to include all the habitat types that it

uses - it would be classified as a resident. These and

other anomalies resulting from limited area studies,

can only be adequately removed with the initiation

of more extensive studies.

The fact that some species who’s presence had

hitherto been unsuspected in central India like the

Plainbacked Mountain Thrush (Zootheramollissima)

which is a regular, if sparse, visitor, would indicate

that a more thorough survey of the whole of the

north-eastern qudrant of M.P. and adjoining Orissa,

would yield some interesting information on the

distribution patterns of Himalayan/sub- himalay an

species. It is also evident that species like the

Goldfronted Chloropsis ( Chloropsis aurifrons).

Dusky Leaf Warbler (Phylloscopus fuscatus ),

Longtailed Mini vet ( Pericrocotus ethologus ), Dark-

grey Bush Chat (Saxicola ferrea), etc. are in fact

more widely distributed and abundant than previously

thought.

Vultures are also doing well in Bandhavgarhh

and it’s surrounds. The Indian King or Black Vulture

( Sarcogyps calvus), although rare in nature, is found

in relative abundance here. An interesting difference

between Kanha and Bandhavgarh national parks, is

the almostcomplete absenceof the Indian Longbilled

Vulture (Gyps indicus) in the former, while in the

latter it is just as abundant as the Whitebacked

Alexander, H.G. (1957) : Bird Life of Madhya Pradesh. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 54 (3): 768 - 769.

Au, S. (1939): The birds of Central India. J. Bombay nat Hist. Soc.

4./: 82 - 86, 470 - 488.

Au, S. & S.D. Ripley, (1968 - 74): Handbook of the Birds of India

and Pakistan. Vols. 1- 10. Oxford University Press. Bombay.

D’Abreu, E.A. (1935): A list of the Birds of the Central Provinces.

Vulture (Gyps bengalensis). One reason for this

difference is probably the fact that in Kanha there

are no cliffs, which form the favoured roosting and

nesting site for the Longbilled, whereas in

Bandhavgarh these are extensively found.

Acknowledgements

A prime mover in this study was Mr. H.S .Pabla,

I.F.S., Director of Bandhavgarh National park from

1986 - 88, who not only unhesitatingly provided the

requisite permission for me to undertake this study,

but also remained keenly enthusiastic about it. My

thanks to Mr. Rajesh Gopal, I.F.S., his successor,

who provided some useful in sights in to the ecology

of Bandhavgarh; to Mr. S. Joshi & Mr. Gupta, at

different periods range officers of Tala Range, who

were of considerable assistance in upgrading my

knowledge of botany from ignorant to partially

ignorant; to Mr. K.K. Singh, proprietor of the

Bandhavgarh Jungle Camp who very kindly

permitted me to stay in his excellent property and

use it’s facilities for many years; to Kuttappan and

theother mahawats who, resigned but good-humored,

aborted a number of frenetic tiger chases, to permit

me to identify some bird; to all the other forest

department staff at Bandhavgarh, friends and

companions, who have helped in innumerable ways;

to my friend Dushyant Singh, who’s irreverent

approach to the solemn matter of identification lead

to an extraordinary amount of confusion; to my

parents for support at critical junctures and to Mr.

Siraj Taher for reading through the first draft and

offering his advice.

E N C E S

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 38: 95 - 116.

Hewetson.C.E. (1939): The Bird year in Betul.7. Bombat nat. Hist.

Soc. 41: 286-310.

Hewetson, C.E. (1955): Observations on the Bird Life of Madhya

Pradesh. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53: 595 - 645.

King, B., M. Woodcock & E.C. Dickinson (1975): A Field Guide

to the Birds of South-East Asia. William Collins Sons & Co.

THE BIRDS OF BANDHAVGARH NATIONAL PARK, M.P.

77

Ltd., London.

Newton, P.N. , S. Breeden, & G. J. Norman (1986): The Birds of

Kanha Tiger Reserve, Madhya Pradesh, India. J. Bombay

nal. Hist. Soc. 83 (3): 477 - 498.

Norman, G. J.: Bandhavgarh National Park. Pamphlet of Madhya

Pradesh State Tourism Development Corporation.

Osmaston, B.B (1927): Birds of Pachmarhi. J. Bombay nal. Hist.

Soc . 25:453 - 459.

Sinha, N.K. (1977 - 78): Wildlife in Bandhavgarh National Park.

Cheetal. 19 ( 2/3 ): 3 - 12.

Wright, M.D. (1942): Notes on the Birds of Berar. J. Bombay nal.

Hist Soc. 43: 428 - 445.

6

A TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOU. (ORCHID ACEAE)

FROM BANGLADESH1

Mokter Ahmed, M.K. Pasha and M.A. Aziz Khan2

(With five text figures)

Key words: taxonomy, Bulbophyllum , Orchidaceae, Bangladesh

The genus Bulbophyllum Thou, of the family Orchidaceae is represented in Bangladesh by four species

including a variety, B. neilgherrense Wight and B. sessile (Koen.) J.J.S. are recorded for the first time in

Bangladesh. Anew variety B. lilacinum var. sorocianum Ahmed et al. is also reported . A Key to the species

and variety has been given.

Introduction

In a wide sense there are probably 1 000 species

of the genus Bulbophyllum Thou, distributed

through tropical Africa and Asia; Australia, New

Zealand and S. America (Santapau and Kapadia

1966). The name Bulbophyllum is derived from the

Greek words bolbos = bulb, and phyllon = leaf, in

allusion to the bulb which bears leaf on the top

(Santapau and Kapadia 1966). According to Hooker

(1890) there are about 79 species under the genus

present in British India. Later Grant (1895) reported

41 species from the region of Burma, adjacent to

Bangladesh. On the other hand 62 species of the

genus have been reported from India by Pradhan

(1979). In other adjacent areas Holttum (1964)

recorded 127 species from Malaya and only 11

species from Sri Lanka (Jayaweera 1981). Only two

species B. lilacinum Ridley and B. lobbi\And\. have

been reported from the present Bangladesh area by

Khan and Halim (1987), and Hooker (1890) from

Cox’s Bazar and Chittagong, respectively. This

work aims at studying the genus from Bangladesh,

comprising four species ( including the earlier

reported two species) and B . neilgherrense Wight

and B. sessile (Koen.) J.J.S.. which are reported

here as new records. A new variety of B . lilacinum

var. sorocianum Ahmed et al. is also reported here

1 Accepted January 1993.

2 Department of Botany , University of Chittagong, Chittagong, 433,

Bangladesh.

after critical study of literature (Prain 1903, Heinig

1925, Cowan 1926, Datta and Mitra 1953,

Sinclair 1955).

The herbarium and live specimens are housed

at the Botany Department and Orchidarium of

Chittagong University, Chittagong, Bangladesh

respectively.

Key to the species and variety of

Bulbophyllum

1. Flowers solitary 2

2. Rhizome pendulous, pseudobulbs appressed to the

rhizome, pedicellate ovary + 1 mm long, petals + 1

mm long B. sessile

2. Rhizome creeping, pseudobulbs erect on the creeping

rhizome, pedicellate ovary ± 7.5 cm long, petals ±

2.0 cm long B. lobbi

1 . Flowers racemose 3

3 . Raceme compact, flowers many (± 30) and spotted,

petals entire with long cilia 4

4. Floral bracts longer than pedicellate ovary,

sidelobes of lip round and toothed B.

lilacinum

4. Floral bracts shorter or equal to the pedicellate

ovary, sidelobes of lip ± falcate and entire

B. lilacinumvar. sorocianum

3. Raceme lax-flowered, flowers fewer

(± 11) and unspotted, petals denticulate without

cilia B. neilgherrense

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOU. (ORCHIDACEAE)

79

Enumeration of the species

1. B. lilacinum Ridley, J. Linn. Soc., 32: 276

(1896); Holttum, FI. Malaya, 1: 460 - 461 (1964);

Balakrishnan and Nair, in Bull. Bot. Surv. Ind. , 18

(1-4): 150-151 (1976); Khan and Halim, Bang. J.

Bot., 16(2): 203 (1987). (Fig.l)

The additional identifying characters of the

species given here are not mentioned by Khan and

Halim (1987). The lateral lobes of the column more

or less 2-toothed and acute. Pollinia 4, attached in

pairs, 0.5 x 0.5 mm (combination of two), outer two

larger than the inner ones, slightly curved. Stigmatic

surface 1 x 0.5 mm.

Flowering scape: Early October; Flowering

time: late October-early November; Fruiting Time:

Unknown.

Geographical distribution: Malaya

Peninsula, India and Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Cox’s Bazar district:

Ukhia, Koto Palong, 20.12.1986, Ahmed 71.

2. B. lilacinum Ridley var. sorocianum

Ahmed et al. var. nov. (Fig.2)

var. sorocianum Ahmed et al. var. nov.-

varietate lilacinum Ridley affinis, sed different

folium apice abrupte reflexum , flores bracteae breve

flos in sicco pellucidus, scapus minor quam parte

pseudobulbo, racemus inclino pseudobulbo et

laxissimus, flore largior et cuprUm brownicum,

lateribus labellum sensim falcata, entiris, acutae.

Holotypus: Lectus in Ukhia, Koto Palong,

Cox’s Bazar district, epiphytica die a Syzygium

fruiticosum (Roxb.) DC. die 20.12. 1986 by Ahmed

et positus in herbario die Botany Department,

Chittagong University, Chittagong, Bangladesh sub

numero accessionis 71 (a).

var. sorocianum Ahmed et al. var. nov.-

allied to var. lilacinum Ridley but differing from it

having leaf apex more reflexed, floral bracts shorter

than the pedicellate ovary, scape less than half of the

pseudobulbs, raceme inclined to pseudobulb and

loose, larger flower and copper brown colour,

sidelobes of lip more or less falcate, entire and acute.

Flowering scape initiation: Late September;

Flowering time: More or less mid October-late

October; Fruiting time: November onwards.

Holotype: Collected from Ukhia, Koto Palong,

Cox’s Bazar district, Epiphytic on Syzygium

fruiticosum (Roxb.) DC. on 20.12.1986 by Ahmed

and has been deposited in the Herbarium at Botany

Department , Chittagong University, Chittagong,

Bangladesh under accession number 71(a).

3. B. Lobbii Lindl., Bot. Reg. 33: sub. t. 29

(1847); Hook. f.,Fl. Brit. Ind., 5: 755 (1890); Grant,

Orch. Burma, 41 (1895); Holttum, FI. Malaya, 1:

424 (1964). Syn. B. henshallii Lindl. in Gard.

Chron., 422(1852); B. siamanse Reichb. f. 1 c:

572(1867). (Fig.3)

Hooker (1890) added Chittagong to the plant's

habitat and mentioned in his description that the

petals were 9-nerved. We did not find such 9-nerved

petals instead only 3 -nerved forms. According to

Holttum (1964) B. lobbii was certainly one of the

finest Bulbophyllum , but it was not easy to grow in

the low lands of Malaya. B. lobbii is perhaps closely

allied to B. affine, but the scape and pedicel are

distinctly longer.

Flowering scape initiation: late July;

Flowering time: Early June-Mid June; Fruiting

time: Unknown.

Geographical distribution: Widely

distributed in Indonesia, Malaya, Burma and

Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Cox’s Bazar district :

Ukhia, Koto Palong, 20.12. 1986, Mokter 63.

4. B. neilgherrense Wight, Icon., 5(1): 6, t.

1650 (1851); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind., 5: 761(1890);

Santapau & Kapadia, Orch. Bombay, 195(1966);

Pradhan, Ind. Orch., 2: 399( 1979); Singh, Bull.

Bot. Surv. Ind., 23(3 & 4): 205 (1981). Syn.

Phyllorchis neilgherrense (Wt.) O. Kuntze, Rev.

Gen.P1.2: 677 (1891). (Fig.4)

This species has been observed by Santapau

and Kapadia (1966) to be both epiphytic and

lithophytic, and rarely flowers in cultivation. They

noted the distinguishing odour of the flowers which

probably is a great attraction for carrion flies,

80

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Fig. 1. Bulbophyllum lilacinum Ridley: (a) habit sketch with inflorescence (x Vi ); (b) flower from

side showing bract (x Vi ); (c) flower from front (x 4); (d) pedicellate ovary, column, foot and lip attached

from side (x 4); (e) floral bract (x 3); (f) sepals, petals, lip spreadout, and column from inside (x 3);

(g) pollinia (x 20); (h) pollinia spreadout (x 20); (i) operculum from front (x 20);

(j) operculum from inside (x 20).

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOU. (ORCHIDACEAE)

81

Fig. 2. Bulbophyllwn lilacinum var. sorockmum Ahmed et al. var. nov.: (a) habit sketch with inftorescence

(x 1/2); (b) flower from side showing bract (x 3); (c) flower from front (x 4); (d) pedicellate ovary,

column, foot and lip attached from side (x 4); (e) floral bract (x 3); (f) sepals, petals and lip spreadout,

column from inside (x 3); (g) pollinia (x 20); (h) pollinia spreadout (x2Q); (i) operculum from front (x 20);

(j) operculum from inside (x 20); (k) capsule (x 2).

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Fig 3. Bulbophyllum lobbii Lindl. : (a) habit sketch with scape (x 1/2); (b) flower from side (x 1);

(c) flower from front (x 2); (d) pedicellate ovaiy, column, foot and lip attached (x 1); (e)sepals, petals, lip

spreadout , and column from inside (x 1); (f) lip from semi-side (x 3); (g) pollinia (x 10); (h) pollinia

spreadout (x 10); (i) operculum from front (x 10); (j) operculum from inside (x 10).

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOU. (ORCHIDACEAE)

83

Fig 4. Bulbophyllwn neilgherrense Wight: (a) habit sketch with inflorescence (x 1); (b) flower from

side (x 2); (c) flower from front (x 2); (d) pedicellate ovary, column and lip attached from side (x 2);

(e) floral bract (x 2); (f) sepals, petals, lip spreadout, and column from inside (x 2);

(g) lip from semi side (x 5) ; (h) poll ini a (x 10); (i) pollinia spreadout (x 10);

Q operculum from front (x 10); (k) operculum from inside (x 10).

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Fig 5. Bulbophyllum sessile (Koen.) J J.S.: (a) habit sketch (x 1); (b) flower from side (x 2);

(c) pedicellate ovary, column, foot and lip attached from side (x 5); (d) floral bract (x 5); (e) sepals,

petals, lip spreadout, and column from inside (x6); (0 pollinia (x 40); (g) pollinia spreadout

(x 40): (h) operculum from front (x 40 ); CO operculum

from inside (x 40); (j) capsule (x 4).

TAXONOMIC ACCOUNT OF BULBOPHYLLUM THOU. (ORCHIDACEAE)

85

serving as agents for pollination. They also

described the subobliquely ovate- triangular entire

petals, but we did not see this character, instead the

petal margin was denticulate. According to Pradhan

(1979) petals are minute, scaly and ovate-sub-

denticulate. On the other hand, Singh (1981)

reported that the species as being used as mother

plant for many new intergeneric hybrids in foreign

countries. Our specimen closely matches with

Santapau and Kapadia’s (1966) description

including the smell of “ rotten meat” and the

rare flowers under cultivation. These features

were also observed in the Orchidarium of

Chittagong University, Chittagong, Bangladesh. It

is probably the only species which has a foul odour

among the Orchids of Bangladesh.

Flowering scape initiation: early November;

Flowering time: Late November - mid December;

Fruiting time: Unknown

Geographical distribution: Malabar (India)

and Bangladesh.

Specimen examined: Cox’s Bazar district:

Ukhia, Koto Palong, 20.12. 1986, Mokter 72.

5. B. sessile (Koen. ) J.J.S., FI. Buit. 6: 44, f.

340 (1905): Holttum, FI. Malaya, 1: 451 (1964).

Syn. Epidendrum sessile Koen., Retz. Obs., 6: 60

(1791); Bulbophyllum clandestinum Lindl., Bot.

Reg., 27: Misc. 77(1841); Hook. f. FI. Brit. Ind.,

5: 753 (1890); Grant, Orch. Burma, 35 (1895).

(Fig. 5)

In Malaya, it is locally abundant as an epiphyte

on old fruit trees in rather open places ( Holttum

1964). But in this country, it is common as an

epiphyte on old trees in deep forest only. The plant

is small and pendulous, and difficult to see as it

grows on the upper branches, as well as mimic the

host plant’s colour. Sometimes it grows in aggregated

and conspicuous forms, when it is easily seen.

Flowering scape initiation: Mid August;

Flowering time: Early September - mid September;

Fruiting time: September onwards. Flowering

considerably varied from early September to mid

September.

Geographical distribution: Widely

distributed in Indonesia, northwards to Tenesserim,

Malaya and Bangladesh.

Specimens examined: Cox’s Bazar district:

Ukhia, 1 2. 1 0. 1 986, Mokter 25 ; Ramu, Konia Palong,

13.10.1986, Mokter 48; Ramu, Eidghor Reserve

Forest, 12.1. 1990, Mokter 150.

References

Cowan, J.M. (1926): The flora of Chakaria Sundarbans. Rec.Bot.

Surv. Ind. 1 1 (1): 197 - 225.

Datta, R.M. & J.N. Mitra (1953): Common Plants in and around

Dacca. Bull. Bot. Soc. Beng. 7 (1 & 2): 107 - 109.

Heinig, R.L. (1925): List of plants of the Chittagong Collectorate

and Hill Tracts, pp. 1235 - 1248, Darjelling.

Jayaweera, D.M.A. (1981): Orchidaceae. In: Dassanayake, and

Fosberg (ed.) Flora of Ceylon 2: 92 - 1 13. Smithsonian Inst.,

and the Nat. Sci. Foundation, Washington, D.C. by Amerind

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, India

Prain, D. (1903): Bengal Plants. Govt. Press, Calcutta, India. 2:

759.

Sinclair , J. (1955):The flora of Cox’s Bazat. Bull. Bot. Soc.Beng.,

9(2): 107-108.

SPECIES RICHNESS OF FERNS AND ASSOCIATED INSECTS FROM

DARJEELING PLAINS1

A. Mukhopadhyay and D. Thapa2

Key words: insects on fems, Darjeeling plains

A survey in the Datjeeling plains revealed some eighteen species of fems, of which, five were

common. Insects found associated with the common fems were mostly Hemiptera (20 spp.) and Coleoptera

(19 spp.) followed by the Lepidoptera (12 spp.). Two polyphagous species of Orthoptera were recorded on the

common fems, Diplazium and Christella. Some microlepidoptera and thysanoptera were found associated

with the sporophylls only. Besides a phytophagus species of sawfly, three other Hymenoptera recorded were

parasitoids. The sole dipteran fly recorded was a laval-pupal parastite of the herbivorous lepidopteran,

Spilarctia scasigneta . Some of the fern attacking insects also occur on economically important plants.

Introduction

Fems are one of the most primitive plants are

generally considered as difficult plants for herbivores

to exploit (Eastop 1973, Hendrix 1977, Cooper-

Driver 1978). As such, a relative paucity of insect-

herbivores association with fems has been reported

(Schneider 1892,Brues 1920,Dethier 1947, Ehrlich

and Raven 1964). Swezey (1922) reported an

extensive insect fauna of 44 species associated with

the fern flora of Hawaiian Islands. However, only

one fourth of the insect species reported were

actually phytophagous (Weiczorek 1973). This

underutilization of fems by insects has been attributed

to host-resistant factors (Swain and Cooper-driver

1973, Huffaker 1974, Hendrix 1977, Balick et al

1978, Daniel and Chandrasekar 1986). However,

the extensively sampled fern Pteridium aquilinum

(L) Kuhn, is known to support a fair population of

insect fauna (Lawton 1976, strong and Levin 1979).

Further a pioneering quantitative study by Balick et

al. (1978), showed that three Mexican ferns were

also extensively exploited by insects.

The phytogeographic area of Darjeeling plains

has a heterogenous vegetation. The forest,

agroecosystem, tea gardens are either flanked by or

1 Accepted December 1991.

2 Entomology Laboratory, Department of Zoology, University

of North Bengal, Dist. Daijeeling 734 430.

interspersed with fern vegetation. It is likely that

some of the fern associated insects may switch over

to such economically important vegetation. On the

other hand, the possibility of the adjacent fern flora

harbouring the natural enemies of the crop-pests

also cannot be overlooked. Therefore with an eye to

the nature of contribution that the fern vegetation

makes through insect-fem-crop interaction and

also to examine the hitherto unknown insect faunal

community of common fems the present investigation

was undertaken.

Materials and Methods

A monthly survey was done during 1 988-90 at

different sites, and the fronds were randomly

sampled. The insects associated with the fronds of

the common fems were either hand picked or

collected with the help of an aspirator. They were

later etherised and oven dried before preservation

for identification. The spotulating fronds were

collected and brought to the laboratory where they

were poisoned and pressed for herbarium

preparation.

In case of the insect eggs and larvae, the ferns

on which they were found were supplied as food to

rear them to the adult stage. The fems as well as the

insect materials were identified by the Botanical

Survey of India, Zoological Survey of India and by

other competent authorities.

SPECIES RICHNESS OF FERNS AND ASSOCIATED INSECTS

87

Observations and Results

The survey of fern flora and the associated

insects of the common ferns was conducted

extensively in the Darjeeling plains that was

delimited by river Teesta in the east and river Mechi

in the West. The ferns sofar recorded are listed in

Table 1 . Of these the commonly found ferns belong

to the genera Diplazium, Christella, Lindsea and

Microlepia. The insects associated with these

common ferns were specially considered and

identified to understand their role in the insect-fem-

crop relationship. Of these groups of ferns,

Diplazium had the largest number of insect

herbivores, followed by Christella and Microlepia

(Table 2). Lindsea was abundant but no insect,

attacking this fern, could be recorded. Some

specialized feeders like some microlepidoptera were

found to exploit the spores and sporangiophores of

Christella and Diplazium. Most of the lepidoptera

larvae, including the economically important species,

used maturing fronds as food. Psara ustulalis ,

however, had the peculiarity of rolling the apex of

the mature fronds to make its own nest, where it

ultimately pupated. While almost all the immature

stages of the polygphagous species, S pilar ctia

casigneta was commonly recorded on Diplazium,

natural occurrence of S. obliqua was more sporadic

on the same host plant.

Of the commonly occurring beetles, worth

mentioning was the green weevil, Astycus lateralis,

which nibbled the maturing fronds and were also

known to attack tea. Another polyphagous weevil,

Myllocerus disolour, was common and had the

potentiality to attach a number of crops (Table 3).

Colonies of two species of aphids belonging to

different genera were restricted to the ventral side of

the young and maturing fronds of Diplazium . Two

distinct species of mirids were found to be more

associated with Christella than with Diplazium, and

unlike most other insects they attached the young

coiled fronds. Amongst the hymenopterans found

associated as a true herbivore, a species of sawfly,

Stromboceros congener, needs special mention. All

the larval stages of the species used maturing fronds

of Diplazium and Christella as their food. Pupation

took place in soil. The larvae of the species of thrips

(mentioned in Table 2) were found associated with

the sporophylls of Diplazium

The natural enemies of the fern insects were

mainly parasitoids. The brachonid parasitoids were

recorded from the larvae, while the chalcids were

recorded from the eggs of S. casigneta. The larvae

of S. casigneta were found to be attacked by larval-

pupal parasitoids. These were the uzi flies possibly

belonging to the genus Exorista. The larvae of these

lepidopterans when reared indoor were also affected

by a fair infestation of these tachynid flies. The

heteropteran bug, Eusarcocoris ventralis, was found

to attack the lepidopteran larvae of P. ustulalis.

Discussions

The list of fern flora and its associated insect

fauna is based on survey work using the methods of

random sampling at spots selected across the entire

stretch of the Darjeeling plains. Although utmost

care had been taken torecord the available species of

ferns and the insects associated mostly with the

common ferns, yet the list may not be complete. The

chances of finding new fern species and their

associated insect forms can not be ruled out in the

elephant infested stretch of Terai woodlands and

amongst the epiphytic ferns. Moreover, some of the

insect species occurring for very short periods and

also those which are facultative fern-feeders, might

have gone unnoticed.

Examination of the British fern-feeding insects

(Ottosson and Anderson 1983) and comparison with

a more comprehensive list by Hendrix (1980) revealed

that the present list of the fern-associated insects of

Darjeeling plains had most of the orders in common

excepting for Collembola and the phytophagous

Diptera. The finding of thysanoptera from the fern

fauna of Nilgiri and Annamalai hills by Daniel and

Chandrasekar (1986) was corroborated by the present

observation from this part of India, when the

association of thrips were also recorded with the

88

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 1

A LIST OF FERNS FROM DARJEELING PLAINS

1 . Blechnum orientate Linn.

2. Christella appendiculate (Pr.) Holt.

3. Christella aridus (Holt).*

4. Christella crinipes (HK) Holt.*

5. Christella parasiticus (L) Lev.

6. Cyathea spinulosa Wall Hook. (Tree Fern)

7. Diplazium esculentum (Retg) Sw.*

8. Dicranopteris linearis (Brum, f.) underus.*

9. Lindsea ensifolia Sw.*

10. Lygodium flexuosum (L) Sw.

1 1 . Macrothelypteris torresiane (Gaud) Ching

12. Microlepia speluncae (L) Moore*

13. Onichium siliculosum (Desv.) C. Chn.

14. Pityrogramma calomelanos (Linn.) Linx.

15. Pteris semipinnate Linn.

16. Pteris laiaurita Linn.

17. Pteris vittata Linn.

18. Ly pteris sp.

* Commonly occurring fern species.

Table 2

A SPECIES LIST OF INSECTS ASSOCIATED WITH FERNS

FROM DARJEELING PLAINS

Insect name and Order Family

Leptdoptera

1 . Callopistria placododoides (Guen)

2. Prodenia litura (Fabr)

3. Spodoptera mauritia (Boisd)

4. Eriopus sp.

5. Spilarctia casigneta (koll.)

6. Spilarctia obliqua (Walak.)

7. Spilosoma sp.

8. Diacrisia punctata (Moore)

9. Nacoleia vulgalis (Hampson)

10. Psara ustulalis (Hampson)

11. Amata cyssea (Cramer)

12. Microlepidopteran sp. (indet)

COLEOPTERA

1. Anthicus sp.

2. Aphaniptera sp.

3. Chrysolina inconstans Wied

4. Aspidomorpha dorsata (F.)

5. Aspidomorpha nr. indica Boh.

6. Aspidomorpha sanctaecrueis (F.)

7. Hoplasoma unicolour (Iu.)

Noctuidae

tt

*t

Arctiidae

Pyralidae

ft

Qenuchidae

Anthicidae

Buprestidae

Chrysomelidae

ft

SPECIES RICHNESS OF FERNS AND ASSOCIATED INSECTS

89

Table 3

sporophylls of Diplazium. However, most of the

representative species of the insect-fauna of fern

observed in the present survey seemed to be restricted

to the Oriental region as they had little in common

with the comprehensive list comprising the elements

from other parts of the world (Hendrix 1980).

The study of the insect fauna of ferns is also of

economic significance, because a number of these

species being polyphagous have the potentiality to

switch over and cause damage to crop plants. They

may also contribute in terms of natural insect enemies,

that may keep the crop-pest population under control

(Ananthakrishnan et al. 1986). It is only after the

correct identification that the role of the Uzi flies can

be understood. If the flies do not attack silk- worm

larvae they may be useful as a natural controlling

agent of lepidopteran pests.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the U.G.C. for funding the

project during 1988-90. Thanks are due to Zoological

Survey of India (Calcutta), BotanicalSurvey of India

(Calcutta) and IndianAgricultural Research Institute

(New Delhi) for identifying the survey materials.

We would alsolike to thank theDirector, Centre for

Life Sciences and the Head of the Department of

Zoology, N.B.U. for providing working facilities.

References

Ananthakrishnan, T.N., K.P. Sanjayan& A. Mohan Daniel (1986):

Insect-Weed-Crop Intraction. In.Dynamics of Insect-Plant-

Interaction (Edt. T.N. Ananthakrishnan), Entomology

Research Institute, Madras-34, pp. 52-65.

Balick, M.J., D.G. Furth & G.A. Cooper-Driver (1978):

Biochemical and evolutionary aspects of arthropod predation

on ferns, oecologia 35 : 55-89.

Banerjee, T.C. & N. Haque (1985) : Influence of host plants on dev-

elopment, fecundity and egg hatchability of the arctiid moth

Diacrisia casignetwn. Enlomol. exp. appl. 37:193-332.

Cower- Driver, G.A. (1978): Insect-fern associations. Entomologia

Experimentalis et Applicata 24 : 310-316

Daniel, A. M. & S.S. Chandrasekar (1986): Insect-Fern interactions

with particular reference to Heliothrips haemorrhoidalis

(Bouche) (Thysanoptera : Panchaeothripinae). Current

Science 55 (14) : 676-678.

Das.G.M. (1965): Pests of Tea in NorthEast India and their control.

The Ganges Printing Company Limited.Calcutta.

Dethier, V.G. (1947): Chemical Insea Attractants and Repllents.

Blakiston, Philadelphia.

Eastop, V.F. (1973): Deduaions from the present day host plants of

aphids and related insects. Symp. R. Entomol, Soc. Lond. 6:

157-178.

Ehrlich, P.R & P.H. Raven (1964): Butterflies and plants : a study

in coevolution. Evolution 18 : 586-608.

Hendrix, S.D. (1977) : The resistance of Pteridiumaguilinum (L)

90

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Kuhn to insect attack by Trichop l usa ni (Hubn.). Oecologia

26 : 347-361

Hendirx.S. D. (1980): An evolutionary and ecological perspective of

the insect of ferns. The American Naturalist 1 15(2): 171-196.

Huffaker, C. B. (1974) : Some implications of plant-arthropod and

higher level arthropod- arthropod food links. Environ.

Entomol. 3 : 1-9.

Lawton, J. (1976) : The structure of the arthropod cummunity on

bracken Pteridium aquilinum (L) Kuhn. Bot. J. Linn. Soc.

73 187-216.

Nair, M.R.G.K. (1975) : Insects and Mites of Crops in India.

I.C.A.R. Publication, New Delhi.

Ottosson, J.G. & J.M. Anderson (1983) : Number, Seasonality and

feeding habaits of insects attacking ferns in Britain : An

ecological consideration. Journal of Animal Ecology 52 :

385- 406

Schneider, G. (1892) : The book of choice ferns. Vol. I. Gill,

London.

Strong, D.R. & D.A. Levin (1979): Species richness of plant

parasites and growth form of their hosts. Am. Nat. 1 14 : 1-22.

Swain, T. & G.A. Cooper-Driver (1973): Biochemical systematics

in filcopsida, pp. 111-134. In : The phylogeny and

classification of ferns. (A. Mermy, T. Crabbe, B. Thomas

eds.). Academic Press: London.

Swezey, O.H. (1922): Insects attacking ferns in the Hawaiian

Islands. Proc. Hawaii. Entomol. soc. 5 : 57-65.

Weiczorek, H. (1973): ZurKenntnis der Alderfaminsekten : Ein

Beitrag zum Problem der biologischen Dekaempfung von

Pteridium aquilinum (L) Kuhn in Mitteleuropa. Z. Angew.

Entomol. 72 : 337-358.

OCCURRENCE OF UMNOCNIDA INDICA ANN AND ALE IN THE PANDRI RIVER (WESTERN

GHATS, KARNATAKA , INDIA), WITH A NOTE ON FRESHWATER MEDUSAE OF INDIA1

Narayan Ramappa Birasal2

( With a text-figure)

Key words: Western Ghats, Limnocnida , freshwater medusa

The present short communication concerns a medusa which appeared in a pool of Pandri river (a

tributary of Kali river in Kalinadi hydroelectric project area. Western Ghats, Uttara Kannada District,

Karnataka State, India) and an account of freshwater medusae of India

Though Alcock (1911) had seen medusae in a

lake at Purulia (Chota Nagpore) in 1879-80,

Annandale (1911) was the first to record freshwater

medusa from India and to describe the same as

Limnocnida indica (Annandale 1919). The history

of occurrence of L. indica and a few other medusae

in Indian waters is given in Tables 1 and 2

respectively. It is noteworthy that freshwater medusae

were found in a river system which flows eastwards

to enter the Bay of Bengal and westwardly flowing

across the continent to enter the Arabian Sea.

However, many of the workers opined that the

agency responsible for their introduction into the

respective localities will remain a matter of

speculation until further studies are carried out (

Jones 1951, Joshi and Tonapi 1965, Malhotra et al.

1976).

The Western Ghats have some peculiarities of

its fauna, the most striking being the presence of a

marine element, which attracted attention, and

more information about one species, L. indica is

badly needed (Hora 1926). Whether the medusae

occur in the pool year after year is worth

investigating in view of speculations regarding

origin and distribution ofL. indica (Ramakrishna et

al. 1950). There is a lone report on the occurrence

of L. indica in Thunga river (in one and the same

pool) in successive years (Iyengar and Venkatesh

1955-56). While carrying out limnological work in

’Accepted January 1992.

2Hydrobiology research Laboratory .Zoology Department, Karnataka

University, Dharwad - 580 003, India.

the six sampling stations (Fig. 1), I could observe the

presence of freshwater medusae, specially during

summer months. In summer (March, April, May) of

1985 , 1 could see the presence of medusae in the pool

of the Pandri river (Aj), but not in the other five

sampling stations.

The Pandri river (perennial inflow) is a tributary

of Kali river and at its confluence near Ganeshgudi,

is the Supa dam (tallest in Karnataka- height 101

m). To date the Supa reservoir has not reached its

maximum level (564 m atFRL). The sampling site

Aj will be submerged, when the reservoir attains its

full supply level. The geology, morphometric details

of the Supa dam site, water chemistry and

zooplankton availability are reported in earlier

publications (Birasal etal . 1985, 1987,1989). The

observations made in the summer season of five

years (1986 to 90) and recorded the presence of

medusa, L. indica.

Though several workers have reported the

occurrence of Limnocnida in many rivers of India,

the life history of the medusa has remained more or

less obscure, (i) The reiterated belief that the

presence of budding in the life cycle of L. indica , so

frequently observed in its African relative L.

tanganyikae (Beadle and Thomas 1957), (ii)

speculations made by Annandale (1919) that a

resting stage may intervene in the life history and

(iii) Agharkar (1913) and Hora’s (1926) opinion

that one should look carefully for the growth of

hydroid on the rocks, were my chief inducements to

persue continuous observation for six consecutive

Table 1

OCCURRENCE OF L1MNOCN1DA INDICA IN INDIAN WATERS (WESTERN GHATS)

92

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

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OCCURRENCE OF FRESHWATER MEDUSAE IN INDIAN WATERS

OCCURRENCE OF LIMNOCNIDA INDICA ANNAN DALE IN THE PANDRI RIVER 93

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94

JOURNAL , BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

summer seasons (i.e. 1985-1990). During none of

these visits was I able to see on the stone/rocks any

organism which could be the hydroid stage of L.

indica. The most probable explanation seems to be

that the hydrozoan remains for the greater part of the

year in an encysted condition and the medusa becomes

fully developed under favourable conditions during

the summer season.

The genus Limnocnida hitherto recorded has

been reported from many parts of India (Table 1) and

Africa (Beadle 1981, Dumont and Verheye 1984,

Green 1960, Kramp 1954). The presence of the

freshwater medusa in the Pandri river extends its

distribution to the western side of the Sahyadris.

The medusa in all probability has a wider distribution

than hitherto recorded both on the eastern as well as

OCCURRENCE OF UMNOCNIDA INDICA ANN AN DALE IN THE PANDRI RIVER

95

western drainages of peninsular India. As to the

occurrence of this medusa of unquestionable marine

origin in the rivers/lakes of the two great continents

of Africa and India, there is possibly one explanation,

namely the ancestors of Limnocnida have passively

migrated from an ancient sea, parts of which were

cut-off from the ocean (as the result of seismic

disturbances) and acclimatised themselves to

incidental changes of an inland sea into freshwater

areas. Occurrence of Limnocnida in Africa and

India provides an instance of the sort of discontinuous

distribution that might lend support to the view of

Refer

Agharkar, S.P. (1913): Further notes on the habits and

distribution of Limnocnida indica. Rec. Ind. Mus. 9:

247-249.

Alcock, A. (1911): Occurrence of freshwater medusa in

Indian streams. Nature 87 (2181): 214.

Ann and ale, N. (1 91 1 ): The occurrence of a freshwater medusa

( Limnocnida ) in Indian streams. Nature 87(2179):

144.

Annandale, N. (1919): The fauna of certain small streams in

the Bombay Presidency. Rec. Ind. Mus. 16: 109-161.

Beadle, L.C. (1981): The inland waters of tropical Africa: An

introduction to tropical limnology. (2nd edition).

Longman, London. 452 pp.

Beadle, L.C. & I.F. Thomas (1957): The African freshwater

jellyfish Limnocnida tanganyicae. Nature 179 : 110.

Birasal, N.R., V.K. Deshpande, B.Y.M. Gouder & V.B.

Nadkarni (1985): Chemical changes in the surface

waters during the filling phase of a tropical reservoir, in

Kali river, North Kanara district, Karnataka state.

Proceedings of the International seminar on

Environmental Impact Assessment of water resources

projects. University of Roorkee, India (12-14 December

1985) 2: 801-810.

Birasal, N.R., V.B. nadkarni & B.Y.M. Gouder (1987): The

first five months of the Supa reservoir, river Kali, India.

Regulated rivers: Research & Management 1: 275-

282.

Birasal, N.R., V.B. nadkarni & B.Y.M. Gouder (1989):

Ecology of zooplankton of Supa reservoir of Kali river

during the filling phase (Western Ghats, Karnataka). J.

Freshwater Biol. 1(1): 15-23.

Darling, P.S. (1 935): Occurrence of Limnocnida in the Peri yar

lake, Travancore. Nature 135 (3404): 151.

Dumont, H. & H.M. Verheye, (1 984): The nature and origin of

the crustacean zooplankton of Sahelian Africa with a

note on the limnomedusa Hydrobiologia 113: 313-

325.

the existence of a former land connection between

Africa and peninsular India.

Acknowledgements

This study was supported by financial assistance

from the Department of Environment, Wildlife &

Forests, Government of India, New Delhi. I am

grateful to Prof. Jean Bouillon (Laboratoire de

Zoologie, Faculte. des sciences, Ave. FD Roosevelt

50, 1050 Bruxelles, Belgium) for examining the

photo micro graphs of the medusa and for suggestions.

2NCES

Green, J. (1960): Zooplankton of the river Sokoto: The

freshwater medus&Limnocnida. ProcZool. Soc. London

735:613-618.

Hora, S.L. (1926): On some interesting features of the fauna

of the Western Ghats. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 3 1 : 447-

449.

Iyengar, H.D.R. &<K. Venkatesh (1955-56): Occurrence of

the freshwater medusa Limnocnida indica Annandale,

in Thunga river near Shimoga town, Mysore State. J.

Bombay nat . Hist. Soc. 53: 151.

Jones, S. (1 951 ): On the occurrence of the freshwater medusa,

Limnocnida indica Annandale, in the Western drainage

of the Sahyadris. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.49 : 799-801 .

Joshi, M.V. & G.T. Tonapi (1965): A new record of freshwater

medusal from India. Current Science 34: 665-666.

Khatri, T.C. (1984): Occurrence of a new freshwater medusa in

Idukki reservoir of Kerala, India. Current Science 53 (6):

335-336.

Kramp, P.L (1954): On the freshwater medusa Limnocmida

tanganyicae and its occurrence in African lakes.

Ann.Mus. Congo Beige N.S. Zool. 7:207-213.

Kram>, P.L. (1958): Hydiomedusaein the Indian Museum. Rec. Ind.

Mus. 53: 339-376.

Krishnamurthy, D.R. (1953): On the occurrence of the

freshwater medusa in the Krishnarajasagar on the

Cauvery. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50: 955-956.

Malhotra, Y.R., P.L. Duda & M.K. JYcm (1 976): Mansariella

lacustris, Gen. et sp. Nov., a new freshwater medusa

from Jammu, India Current science 45: 190-191.

Ramakrishna , P.A., B.S. Bhimachar & M.K. Subram aniam

(1950): Occurrence of the freshwater medusa

(Limnocnida indica) in South-West India J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49 : 318-319.

Rao, H.S. (1932): Further observations on the freshwater

medusa Limnocnida iindica Annandale. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 36: 210-217.

FOOD OF THE ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET PSITTACULA KRAMERI: A

QUANTITATIVE STUDY1

Harjeet K. Saini, Manju S. Dhindsa and H.S. Toor2

(With two text-figures)

Key words: feeding ecology, Psittacula krameri, diet diversity, food-niche breadth

Gut contents of the Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) were analysed gravimetrically during

August 1988 to July 1989 in an intensively cultivated area of Punjab. Cereals (45% of total contents) and tree

seeds (38%) were the predominant food of the species. Among cereals, sorghum (21 %) was the most abundant.

Guava ranked first among tree seeds forming 24% of thee diet followed by mulberry (about 10%). Oilseeds

formed about 9% and weed seeds nearly 3 % of the contents. Pearl millet, sorghum and maize were consumed

in significant proportions during August to December. Guava seeds were recorded in large proportions from

January to March and July to August. Mulberry seeds formed the main bulk of the food in April and May. Weed

seeds belonging to five taxa were recorded from April to June, August, October and February. Food of the Rose-

ringed Parakeet was more diverse from August to October and January to March than during rest of the year.

Shannon- Wiener index, equitability and Levins’ index of the food-niche breadth were calculated to be 1 .02, 0.80

and 0.33, respectively.

Introduction

The Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri

(Scopoli) is the most widespread species among the

parrots of the world (Grzimek 1972). Distributed in

Africa, Afghanistan, Pakistan, India, Nepal,

Myanmar and Sri Lanka, this species has invaded

Mauritius, Zanzibar Island, England, U.S. A., Saudi

Arabia, Israel and Germany through man-made

and/ornatural introductions (Long 1981, Dvir 1988,

Lantermann 1989, Stagg 1989). In India, Rose-

ringed Parakeet has been rated as the number one

bird pest of agriculture and horticulture (Ali and

Ripley 1983, Babu and Muthukrishnan 1987). In

Punjab, the most intensively cultivated state of India,

it inflicts heavy damage to maize, sunflower, mustard,

guava, almonds, peach and so on (Ramzan and Toor

1972, 1973, Simwat and Sidhu 1973, Toor and

Ramzan 1974,Toor and Sandhu 1981, Sandhu and

Dhindsa 1982, Dhindsa et al. 1992), and thus

warrants control. In Bangladesh also, this species is

considered to be the major pest of maize and sunflower

(Sultana and Brooks 1986). In Africa, it has been

1 Accepted February 1992.

2 All India Coordinated Research Project on Agricultural Ornithology,

Department of Zoology, Punjab Agricultural University,

Ludhiana - 141 004.

reported to damage sorghum (Cunningham-Van

Someren 1969) and in Mauritius it is stated to be a

destructive bird pest (Benedict 1957).

Despite the widespread distribution and pest

status of the Rose-ringed Parakeet, little information

is available on its food and feeding behaviour. Ali

and Ripley (1983) have mentioned fruits, cereals

and seeds of all kinds of wild and cultivated plants

as the food of this species. Although qualitative

information on its food is available from Punjab

(Simwat and Sidhu 1973, Toor and Ramzan 1974)

and Andhra Pradesh (Shivanarayan 1982), there

has been no serious study providing quantitative

data from any part of India. This paper presents a

detailed quantitative description of the diet, seasonal

variation in the relative proportion of various food

types and the food-niche breadth of this species.

Material and Methods

The study was conducted in the field area of the

Punjab Agricultural University, Ludhiana (30° 56'

N,75°52*E,c. 247 m above the m.s.l.) from August

1988 to July 1989. The study area is intensively

cultivated with two main crop seasons: rabi

(October-Novemberto April-May)and kharif (June-

August to September-October). The major kharif

FOOD OF THE ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET PSITTACULA KRAMERI

97

crops are rice, maize and pearl millet, and rabi crops

are wheat and mustard. The climate of the study area

is of semi-arid monsoon type. Generally, four

seasons are experienced in a year: summer or pre-

monsoon season (April to June), monsoon (July to

September), post-monsoon (October to November)

and winter (December to March).

In total, 88 birds were collected using a 0.22

airgun. Monthly sample sizes ranged from 5 to 1 1

except in December when only two parakeets could

be collected. Soon after collection, the birds were

dissected and the guts (esophagus and gizzard)

opened to extract contents. The contents were washed

through a nylon sieve and dried on blotting papers at

room temperature. They were then sorted and

weighed on an electric balance to the nearest of

0.001 g. Monthly summaries of the relative

proportions by weight of various food types were

prepared.

Three indices were used to study the food-

niche breadth (Krebs 1989): Shannon -Wiener index

(H'), equitability (T) and Levins’index (B). These

indices were calculated as follows:

H' = - £ pi log pi,

where, pi is the proportion of the ith food type

in the diet;

J’= H'/H' max,

where, H' max is the log of total number of food

types recorded in the guts; and

B = IfL pi2.

Levins' index was standardized to express it on

a scale of 0 to 1.0 following Hurlbert (1978) as:

BA=(B-l)/(n-l)

where, BA is Levins’ standardized niche

breadth, and n is the number of food types recorded.

Results

Diet Composition: Gravimetric analysis of

gut contents of 88 Rose-ringed Parakeets revealed

cereals and tree seeds as their predominant food

comprising 45% and 38% of the total contents,

respectively (Table 1). Oilseeds (mustard, sunflower

and groundnut) accounted for about 9% and weed

seeds nearly 3% of the total diet. Gram, recorded in

only three of 88 guts dissected, made only 2% of the

total contents. Unidentified vegetative matter,

consisting of crushed leaves and seed husks, formed

about2% of the diet. Grit was recorded in 14% of the

guts analysed and formed 1 % of the total intake.

Among cereals, sorghum was the predominant

food making about 2 1 % of the diet and was recorded

in 15% of the guts analysed (Table 1). Pearl millet,

maize and wheat each constituted 6-7% of the diet

and was recorded in 7-15% of the guts analysed.

Rice was consumed in very low proportions and

formed only 4% of the total diet.

Among tree seeds, those of guava were

predominant as they alone accounted for nearly

24% of the diet. Following guava were seeds of

mulberry (10%) and sissoo (4%). Seeds of siris and

dek were recorded in relatively very small

proportions. Weed seeds of five taxa formed only

2.8% of the diet, of which Crotalaria medicaginea

accounted for more than 2%.

The values of three indices of food-niche

breadth viz., Shannon -Wiener index, equitability

and Levins’ standardized index were calculated to

be 1.02, 0.80 and 0.33, respectively.

Seasonal changes in the diet: Sorghum was

recorded in significant amounts in the guts of the

Rose-ringed Parakeet from August to January. Its

proportion in the diet increased steadily from less

than 10% in August to 76% in December and

declined rapidly to 18% in January (Fig. 1). Relative

proportion of pearl millet exceeded that of any other

cereal in August (22%) and September (40%),

whereas in two other months when recorded, it only

supplemented the diet. Maize constituted

considerable proportion (16-23%) of the diet from

September to November. It was also recorded in four

other months but only in small proportions (<5%).

Among the other cereals recorded in the guts of

parakeets, rice in January (25%) and wheat in

March (20%) and July (51%) were predominant

(Fig.l). Among oilseeds, groundnut in February

Relative Abundance by Weight (%)

98

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

80-i

40-

X

Sorghum

t — i — i — i — r

t — i — i — i — i — i

Oilseeds

40 n

Weed seeds

Ob=VH=l-i i i ,

80-

60-

Mulberry

0^-—i — i — i — i — i — i — r

Other tree seeds

20-i

Gram

0

n =

— n i — i — i — — — R — i — i — i

ASONDJFMAMJJ

7 5 Z 7 11 5

10

t t t t

Grit

R=a-

R

ASONDJFMAMJJ

7 7 11 10 6 lO

Fig. 1. Seasonal variations in the food of the Rose-ringed Parakeet during August 1988 to July 1989 (t = traces, i.e. <1%).

Figures below months along X-axis indicate sample sizes.

FOOD OF THE ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET PSITTACULA KRAMERI

99

nn Shannon-Wiener Index Equitability Levins' Index (Std.)

Fig.2. Seasonal variations in three indices of food-niche breadth of the Rose-ringed Parakeet during

August 1988 to July 1989.

(17%), mustard both in February (17%) and March

(18%), and sunflower in June (82%) formed a

significant proportion of the diet.

The occurrence of guava seeds was more

prevalent in the diet than any other tree seed as

these were recorded in the guts in variable

proportions throughout the year except in May and

June (Fig. 1). Guava seeds dominated the diet in

August (58%) and also from January to March (30-

45%). In July, this food type ranked second in

abundance after wheat. From September to

December, guava seeds accounted for 10-20% of the

total food. Mulberry seeds formed the major food

of parakeets in April and May, constituting 64-75 %

of the total food. Among other tree seeds, those of

sissoo formed about 16% of the diet in February,

whereas, in four other months they formed less than

10% of the food. Siris seeds were recorded in the diet

only in March (12%) and dek seeds only in April

(<1%).

Weed seeds formed considerable proportion (9-

28%) of the diet only from April to June. Seeds of

Crotolaria medicaginea were abundant in the diet in

April and May and those of Rumex spp. in August and

June. Other weed seed, recorded in very small

proportions (<1 %), were of Trigonella polycerata, T.

foenum-graecum and Melilotus alba. Vegetative

matter that could not be identified ranged from <1 to

4% of the diet in six months of the study. The

proportion of this matter, however, was about 10% in

July. Grit was recorded in eight months of the study

constituting <1% of the total intake in August to

November and 2-5% in December, January,

March and June.

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Seasonal Variations in Food-Niche Breadth:

Seasonal variations in the three indices of food-niche

breadth (Fig. 2) revealed that the food of parakeets was

more diverse from August to October and January to

March. The maximum values of Levins’ standardized

index (0.56) and equitability (0.85) were recorded in

March, while that of food diversity (0.73) was in

February. Similarly, minimum values of Levins’

index (0.8) and equitability (0.42) were recorded in

April and that of food diversity (0.28) in June.

Discussion

Based on the relative proportions of different

food types recorded in this study, guava seeds were

the predominant food of the Rose-ringed Parakeet.

Interestingly, the pulp of guava fruits was not

recorded in any of the guts analysed, suggesting that

parakeets ate only the seeds. To test this, guava

fruits were provided to two caged parakeets. These

birds consumed only the seeds. To expose seeds, the

whole pulp was cut into small pieces and discarded.

The seeds were crushed with powerful bills as

evidenced by the sound of cracking seeds that could

be heard at a distance of 3 m. Guava seeds recovered

from the guts were very well masticated. In Punjab

and Uttar Pradesh, Rose-ringed Parakeet is reported

to cause 20-30% damage to guava (Ramzan and

Toor 1972, Singh and Kumar 1982). The Rose-

ringed Parakeet has often been termed a frugivorous

bird but our study suggests that this species does not

feed on guava fruits but on their seeds. In case of

almonds also, parakeets have been reported to break

the fruit to extract and eat their kernels, leaving the

hull and stone portions attached to the plants (Sandhu

and Dhindsa 1982). The fruits of peach, however,

are damaged differently. Parakeets eat the pulp of

ripening peach fruits but do not break the seeds

(Toor and Sandhu 1981), probably because they are

very hard. For other fruits, it remains to be seen

whether parakeets eat the succulent parts (as in

peach) or damage them to expose and eat their seeds

(as in guava). Nevertheless, the fruits are damaged.

Sorghum, cultivated for fodder purpose in

much of Punjab, was the second abundant food type

recorded in the guts. It was the most preferred one

among the cereals. Wheat and rice, the two major

cereal crops of Punjab, constituted only 3-6% of the

diet. Simwat and Sidhu (1973) mentioned the

presence of sorghum in parakeet diet but without any

quantification. Shivanarayan (1982) reported rice

and sorghum as the most preferred cereals eaten by

parakeets in Andhra Pradesh but quantitative data

were lacking. In laboratory experiments, we studied

preferences of captive parakeets for sorghum and

two other kharif cereals viz. , rice and maize (Saini

and Dhindsa 1993) . Parakeets preferred sorghum

over the other two cereals in these experiments.

Sorghum, therefore, may be used as a lure or trap

crop for reducing parakeet damage to maize.

Guava seeds were recorded in the guts

throughout the year except in May and June.

However, relatively high proportions of this food

type (>30%) occurred in the diet during January to

March and July to August which coincided with the

two main fruiting seasons of this crop. During this

period ripe guava fruits are abundant and probably

it is easier for parakeets to extract seeds from ripe

fruits. In May and June, however, parakeets preferred

to feed on mulberry, sunflower and Crotalaria

medicaginea rather than on guava seeds. This may

be because of energy requirement reasons; apparently

less energy is needed to collect mulberry and

sunflower as compared to extracting seeds from

unripe guava fruits. From August to December pearl

millet, sorghum and maize formed significant

proportion of the diet. Pearl millet and sorghum are

raised as fodder crops in the study area, hence the

damage to their earheads is of little concern. Maize,

however, suffers heavy damage (12-21%) from

parakeets (Ramzan and Toor 1973, Simwat and

Sidhu 1973). From January to June, cereals formed

only small proportions of the diet except for rice in

January and wheat in March. Wheat and rice were

not recorded in the guts of parakeets during April-

May and October-November, respectively, the

FOOD OF THE ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET PSITTACULA KRAMERI

101

Table 1

OCCURRENCE AND RELATIVE ABUNDANCE OF DIFFERENT FOOD TYPES IN THE GUT CONTENTS OF THE

ROSE-RINGED PARAKEET (N=88) FROM AUGUST 1988 TO JULY 1989

102

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

periods during which these crops in maturing stage

are abundantly available in the fields. This indicated

that wheat and rice are not the preferred foods of

parakeets. In January, rice was most probably

consumed from grain stores because it is not available

in the fields during this month. Parakeets, along

with sparrows, doves, pigeons, mynas, etc.

congregate at grain stores and rice-shelling yards

during December-March and feed on stored paddy

(Sandhu and Toor 1984).

Oilseeds (mustard, sunflower and groundnut)

formed a considerable proportion of the diet in

February, March and June. Parakeets have been

reported to cause extensive damage (63%) to mustard

(SimwatandSidhu 1973) during this period. From

April to June parakeets subsisted on seeds of native

trees (mainly mulberry) and weed seeds of Crotolaria

medicaginea despite the presence of maturing wheat

in the fields. Sunflower crop, which has recendy

been introduced for oilseed production, matures

during May-J une and provides a feast for parakeets.

In spite of intensive manual scaring, this crop

suffers heavy damage from this species (Toor and

Ramzan 1974). In small unattended crops damage

may range from 90 to 100% (unpublished data).

The maturity of this crop and the lean-food period

of parakeets are so well matched that its protection

has become very difficult. Sunflower seeds, however.

Refer

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the Birds of India and

Pakistan, Compact edition. Oxford University Press, Delhi.

BabuJLS. & T.S. Muthukrishnan (1987): Studies on the damage of

Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) and Passer domesticus

(Linnaeus) on certain crops. Trop. Pest Manage.33: 367-

369.

Benedict, B. (1957): The immigrant birds of Mauritius. Avicult.

Mag. 63: 155-157.

Cunningham- van Someren, G.R. (1969): Escapes of Psittacula

krameri and Agapornis spp. breeding in Kenya. Bull. Brit,

ornithol. Cl. 80: 137 -139.

Dhindsa, M.S., H.K. Saini & H.S. Toor (1992): Wrapping leaves

around cobs to protect ripening maize from Rose-ringed

Parakeet. Trop. Pest Manage. 38: 98-102.

D vir, E. ( 1 9 8 8) : Far from the cages-ringnecked parakeets (Psittacula

krameri ) are settling in our area. Torgos 7: 57-67 (in

Hebrew).

were recorded in only two guts of parakeets analysed

in this study and formed 3% of the total contents.

This may be because of the small sample sizes in

May and June.

The food of parakeets was more diverse during

August-October and January-March than during

rest of the year. The low diet diversity, equitability

and food-niche breadth during November-December

were probably because of the overdominance of

sorghum in the gut contents. The low values of these

indices in April-June resulted from the

preponderance of tree seeds. In another study, low

diet diversity of the House Sparrow Passer

domesticus was recorded in September -October

and January-February owing to the predominance

of pearl millet in the former and wheat in the latter

period (Saini and Dhindsa 1991).

Acknowledgements

We wish to thank the Indian Council of

Agricultural Research for financial assistance. Mr.

Ram Parshad collected parakeets for this study, Dr.

U.S. Walia identified weed seeds, and Dr. M.S.

Saini and an anonymous referee commented on

earlier drafts of this manuscript. We are grateful to

all of them.

E N C E S

Grzimek, B. (1972): Animal Life Encyclopedia. Van Nostrand

Reinhold Co., New York.

Hurlbert, S.H. (1978): The measurement of niche overlap and

some relatives. Ecology 59: 67-77.

Krebs, C.J. (1989): Ecological Methodology. Harper and Row,

New York.

Lantermann, W. (1989): Ringnecked Parakeet (Psittacula krameri )

sighting near Rheinland, West Germany. Charadrius 25:

221-222 (in German).

Long, JX. (1981): Introduced Birds of the World. David and

Charles, London.

Ramzan, M. & H.S. Toor (1972): Studies on damage to guava fruit

due to Rose-ringed parakeet, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli)

at Ludhiana (Pb.). Punjab hort.J. 12: 144-145.

Ramzan, M. & H.S. Toor (1973): Damage to maize crop by Rose-

ringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) in Punjab. J.

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Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 70: 201-204.

Saini, H.K. & M.S. Dhindsa (1991): Diet of House Sparrow in an

intensively cultivated area. Jap. J. Orinithol. 39: 93-100.

Saini, H.K & M.S. Dhindsa ( 1993): Food preferences of captive

Rose-ringed parakeet a comparison of two methods. Jap. J.

Orniithol. 41: 39-45.

Sandhu, P.S. & M.S. Dhindsa (1982): Damage by Rose-ringed

Parakeet and some other animal pests to almond at Ludhiana,

Punjab. Indian J. agric. Sci. 52: 779-781.

Sandhu, P.S. & H.S. Toor (1984): Some pestiferous birds in

agriculture and their management in Punjab. In: A.S. Atwal,

S.S. Bains & M.S. Dhindsa (eds.), Status of Wildlife in

Punjab. Indian Ecological Society, Ludhiana, pp. 78-87.

Shivanarayan.S.M. (1982): The Rose- ringed Parakeet, the problem

bird in agriculture and its management. In: R. A. Agarwal

& R.K. Bhatnagar (eds.), Proceedings of Seminar on

Management of Problem Birds in Aviation and Agriculture.

Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New Delhi,

pp. 151-158.

Simwat, G.S. & A.S. Sidhu (1973): Note on the feeding habits of

Rose-ringed Parakeet, Psittacula krameri (Scopoli ). Indian

J. agric. Sci .43: 607-609.

Singh , A.K. & P. Kumar (1982): Damage to maize and guava crops

by Psittacula krameri. In: R.A. Agarwal & R.K. Bhatnagar

(eds.), Proceedings of Seminar on Management of Problem

Birds in Aviation and Agriculture. Indian Agricultural

Research Institute, New Delhi, pp. 164-167.

Stagg, A. (1989): The Ring-necked Parakeet in Saudi Arabia.

Oman Bird News 7: 7-8.

Sultana, P. & J.E. Brooks (1986): Laboratory and field

evaluation of 4-Aminopyridine (Avitrol) as a bird repellent

in Bangladesh. Bangladesh J. Agric. 77: 49-54.

Toor , H.S. & M. Ramzan (1974): Extent of losses to sunflower due

to Rose-ringed Parakeet Psittacula krameri (Scopoli) at

Ludhiana (Pb.). J. Res. Punjab agric. Univ. 11: 197-199.

Toor , H. S. & P.S. Sandhu (1981): Bird damage to Peach, Prunus

persica Batsch. Indian J. Ecol 8: 308-310.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

A NEW SPECIES OF ACANTHASPIS AMY. & SERV. (HETEROPTERA:

REDUVIIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

Dunston P. Ambrose2

(With a text-figure)

Introduction

Acanthaspis Amy. & Serv. is a well rep-

resented genus of the subfamily Reduviinae

with thirty nine species from Indian Faunal

limits alone (Distant 1902, 1910 and Capriles

1990). The present study adds one more

species to this genus based on the examina-

tion of micropterous female collected by me

from Surulitheertham, South India. This

species resembles Physorhynchus coprologus

described by Annandale (1906) and Acan-

thaspis pedestris Stal (Distant 1902). But P

coprologus was considered as an immature

form of Acanthaspis sp. by Distant (1910)

and later as an apterous Acanthaspis reduviid

by Bergroth (1911). But examination of this

species reveals that this reduviid belongs to

the genus Acanthaspis. Moreover it is neither

apterous nor immature but it is a microp-

terous adult. It can be also differentiated from

A. pedestris by its prominent black colour

and larger size (almost 1.5 times that of A.

pedestris). Hence it is described as a new

species of Acanthaspis , namely A. nigricans.

Acanthaspis nigricans sp. nov. (Fig. 1)

Type: female: total length 17.0 mm;

width across compound eyes 2.0 mm; width

across middle of pronotum 3.5 mm width

across middle of abdomen 14.0 mm; black;

Accepted April 1993.

2Entomology Research Unit, Department of Zoology, St.

Xavier’s College (Autonomous), Palayankottai 627 002,

India.

Fig. 1. Acanthaspis nigricans sp. nov. Entire dorsal

view and head and thorax lateral view.

antennal and tibiae ferruginous; connexival

spots yellow; micropterous.

Head oblong, compound eyes slightly

laterally protruded, transverse behind eye;

postocular area slightly longer than the

centrally and longitudinally impressed an-

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

105

teocular area; antennae slender, scape robust

outwardly deflexed and shorter than pedicel;

rostrum moderately curved; first and second

segments subequal in length and the terminal

segment the shortest.

Pronotum unicolourous, transverse be-

hind the middle; anterior lobe little raised,

strongly sculptured and medially impressed

and posterior lobe strongly rugulose; scutel-

lar spine erect, antero-lateral angles sub-

prominent and posterolateral angles spinous-

ly prominent; fore and mid legs subequal in

length and hind legs the longest; fore and mid

tibiae bear tibial pads; tarsus three segmented

and the third segment the longest; legs

strongly longly pilose.

Abdomen rounded, segmental sutures

prominent; connexivum a little flattened and

spotted; abdomen concave above and convex

beneath.

Refer

AnnandalE, (1906): Notes on the fauna of a desert tract in

southern India. Part II. Insects and Arachnida. Mem.

Asiat. Soc. Beng. (i), p. 214, pi. xi, f. 3.

Bergroth, E. (1911): On some recently described Hemip-

tera chiefly from India. Ann. Soc. Entomol. Belg., 55:

184-189.

Capriles, J.M. (1990): Systematic catalogue of the

Reduviidae of the World, pp. 383-389. University of

Type information: Holotype: female;

Locality: Surulitheertham near Cumbum,

South India on 9.5.1988 by the author. Al-

lotype and paratypes not known. The

holotype is deposited in the collections of

Entomology Research Unit, St. Xavier’s Col-

lege (Autonomous), Palayankottai (N.D. No.

12).

Etymology: This species is named Acan-

thaspis nigricans due to its prominent black

colour.

Acknowledgements

I am grateful to Rev. Dr S. Ignacimuthu,

S.J., Principal and Rev. Fr. Stephen T. de

Souza, S.J., Head, Department of Zoology,

St. Xavier’s College (Autonomous),

Palayankottai for facilities provided. Ac-

knowledgements are also due to Dr S. John

Vennison for technical assistance.

ENCES

Puerto Rico, Mayaguez, P.R. (Carribean J. Science)

(special Edition, pp. 694): 383-389.

Distant, W.L. (1902): The fauna of British India, Rhynchota

- Vol. II (Heteroptera). Taylor & Francis Ltd., London,

pp. 257- 273.

Distant, W.L. (1910): The fauna of British India, Rhynchota

— Vol. V. Heteroptera: Appendix. Taylor & Francis

Ltd., London, pp. 193-195.

A NEW SPECIES OF RHAPH1DOSOMA (HETEROPTERA-REDUVIIDAE-

HARPACTORINAE) FROM WESTERN GHATS1

G. Ravichandran and D. Livingstone2

(With a text-figure)

Rhaphidosoma madukaraiensis a new species from the Western Ghats has been described and

illustrated.

Introduction

The genus Rhaphidosoma Amyot & Ser-

1 Accepted August 1993.

2Post Graduate School of Entomology, Fredrick Institute

of Plant Protection & Toxicology, Padappai 601 301.

ville, is characterized by the elongate head,

linear body, aptery, the second rostral seg-

ment about five times as long as the first,

antennae much shorter than the body and the

scutellum obscurely formed. Bergroth (1893)

recorded one species, namely R. atkinsoni

106

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

from the Oriental region. Subsequently, Dis-

tant (1904 & 1910) described another two

species, namely R. tuberculatum and R.

greeni from Ethiopian and Oriental regions.

The present species is distinctly different

from the three already known species and is

therefore considered as a new addition to the

Oriental species of Harpactorinae.

Rhaphidosoma madukaraiensis sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

male. Length 20 mm, width across the

abdomen 2 mm, apterous; elongate; slender;

concolourous; griseous; head elongate; an-

teocular and postocular areas subequal in

length; no ocelli; interocular fissure

moderately formed; anteocular area behind

the antennae dorsally bearing two castaneous

elongate markings; antennae far removed

from the eyes; antenniferous tubercles

rudimentary; postocular area, immediately

behind ocelli, tumid throughout, spotted and

griseous; antennae concolourous, castaneous;

scape a little shorter than the fore femora;

pedicel and flagellar segments equal; first

joint of the rostrum not reaching even the

base of antennae, second joint almost as long

as head; eyes piceous; pronotum slightly

globose, piceous, spotted almost bare;

mesonotum nodule like; metanotum medially

carinate, posteriorly obscurely concave; legs

castaneous, concolours, abdominal segments

obscure; second, third, fourth and fifth seg-

ments dorsally with a forked tubercle; behind

the fifth segment the abdomen abruptly ter-

minates; (in the males slightly elongated and

upwardly covered); connexivum marked as a

ridge, ventrally griseous with a median lon-

gitudinal line.

This species resembles Rhapidosoma

tuberculatum by the presence of the ab-

dominal tubercles but it differs from it by the

total absence of thoracic tubercles, cephalic

spine and by the obscure development of

scutellum, wing pads and mesonotal median

carina.

Type information: Holotype : MALE:

Serial No. 125 Madukkarai, 25-4-87, 350

Fig. 1. Rhaphidosoma madukaraiensis sp. nov.

MSL, coll. G. Ravichandran. Paratypes:

males bearing same details as that of

Holotype, pinned specimens, deposited

for the present in the reduviid collection

of the Department of Entomology,

Fredrick Institute of Plant Protection and

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

107

Toxicology, Padappai, S. India to be trans-

ferred to National Collection.

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the authorities of

Bharathiar University, Coimbatore for

providing facilities and to the Department of

R EFER

Bergroth, E. (1893): A new species of Rhaphidosoma atkin-

soni from Oriental region. Ent. month, mag. p. 63.

Distant, W.L. (1904): Fauna of British India, including

ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota, Vol. II, (Heteroptera).

Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 329-389.

Science and Technology, New Delhi for

financial support and encouragement. Thanks

are due to Dr S.K. Tandon, Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta, for his assistance in com-

paring this specimen with the National Col-

lection of Reduviidae.

ENCES

Distant, W.L. (1910): Fauna of British India, including

Ceylon and Burma, Rhynchota, Vol. V, (Heteroptera:

Appendix). Taylor and Francis, London, pp. 203-

217.

PUNTIUS CRESCENTUS , A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM SOUTH INDIA

WITH OBSERVATIONS ON THE TAXONOMIC STATUS OF

SOME RELATED SPECIES1

G.M. Yazdani2 and D.F. Singh3

(With a text-figure)

Over the years the Western Regional Sta-

tion, Zoological Survey of India, Pune has

been conducting extensive faunistic surveys

of different districts of the Western Ghats,

both in Maharashtra and Karnataka. As a

result, a very rich collection of fishes is avail-

able at this station. In the course of working

out the unnamed material of fish from Kar-

war, we came across some specimens of

Cyprinid genus Puntius which, on closer ob-

servation, proved to be new to science. The

new species is described below.

Puntius crescentus sp. nov.

(Fig. 1)

Diagnosis: Carp minnow with a pair of

1 Accepted May 1993.

2Zoological Survey of India, Western Regional Station,

1182/2, F.C. Road, Pune 411 005.

Salim Ali Centre for Ornithology and Natural History,

Kalampalayam, Coimbatore 641 010, Tamil Nadu.

maxillary barbels, without serration on the

last undivided dorsal ray; 7 scales in the

transverse and 22-23 scales in the lon-

gitudinal rows. Lateral line incomplete, en-

ding on or before 4th scale; a lateral black

spot at the base of caudal fin; a horizontal

dark line along the body and a crescentic

black band on the dorsal fin.

Description: B iii; D iii + 8; P 14; V 9;

Aii + 6; C 21; L. 1. 23; L. tr. 7.

Head length 3.2 (2.8 - 4.16), body depth

2.8 (2.6-3), predorsal length 1.92 (1. 6-2.2),

pectoral fin length 4.7 (4-7), ventral fin

length 4.7 (3.5-6), all in standard length.

Body depth 1.1 (1-1.5), snout length 3.3

(2. 6-3. 5), eye diameter 2.5 (2-3.5), interor-

bital width 2.1 (2-2.3), all in head length.

Eye 0.7 (0.6- 1) in snout length and 1.1

(1-1.5) in interorbital width.

Body laterally compressed. Dorsal

profile a little more convex than the ventral

108

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

2 c.m.

Fig. 1. Puntius crescentus sp. nov.

(profile). Head somewhat dorsoventrally

compressed, pointed near the snout. Mouth

terminal, somewhat upturned. Eyes

prominent, situated towards anterior half of

head. Dorsal origin slightly in advance of

ventral, its first undivided ray almost indis-

tinct, the third longest but weak and without

serration on the posterior face. Pectoral

origin just behind opercular margin, its rays

not reaching the ventral; anal origin behind

dorsal. Caudal deeply emarginate, its outer

few rays in both the lobes slightly elongated.

Outer rays of ventral elongated in some

specimens. Scales cycloid, rounded and

deciduous. One pair of maxillary barbels

present. Lateral line incomplete, ceasing on

or before 4th scale; 22-23 scales in lon-

gitudinal, and 7 scales in the transverse row.

Eight to nine scales before dorsal fin.

Colour (in spirit): Dark brown pigments

present all over body and head, but the dorsal

half of fish appears darker (than the ventral

half) due to presence of heavy pigmentation

dorsally. Each scale possesses a series of dark

pigments along its outer margin, which,

being quite distinct, gives it a characteristic

appearance. Pectoral, ventral and anal fins

appear colourless but some of their rays are

pigmented and in the dorsal fin, present a

vertical crescentic dark band between its base

and tip. Laterally a round dark spot present

at the base of caudal and a horizontal dark

line, along the middle of body, from upper

edge of operculum to caudal peduncle (en-

ding before the dark spot at caudal base).

The name P. crescentus is given to this

species since it possesses a very charac-

teristic crescentic dark band on the dorsal

fin.

Holotype: 29 mm. Kalinadi at Sunkeri c. 1

km east of Karwar, Karnataka (South India).

Coll. G.M. Yazdani, December 25, 1975.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

109

Table 1

DIFFERENT CHARACTERS IN THE RELATED SPECIES

Paratypes: 17 specimens with same

details as above.

The type specimens will be deposited, in

due course, in the National Collections of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Relationship: This new species has been

compared with related species like Puntius

muzaffarpurensis Srivastava, Verma and

Sharma, P. coorgensis Jayaram and P vittatus

Day in the table given above. It will be seen

from the Table 1 that characters like the

presence of barbels, lateral line scales and a

prominent crescentic band on the dorsal fin

easily distinguish P. crescentus sp. nov. from

the other three species. P. muzaffarpurensis

Srivastava et al. is found in the Ganga river

system while P. coorgensis and P vittatus

have been reported from South India

(Mysore, Wynaad and Malabar).

Recently, Talwar and Jhingran (1991)

have synonymised P. muzaffarpurensis and P

coorgensis with P. vittatus. However, on the

basis of prominent differences among the

three species (Table 1) we consider them to

be valid species.

Acknowledgement

We thank the Director, ZSI, Calcutta for

allowing us to survey the area.

Reference

Talwar, P.K. & A. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of India Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi,

and adjacent countries. Oxford & IBH Publishing Co.

8

110

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

HORALABIOSA PALANIENSIS, A NEW CYPRINID FISH FROM PALANI HILLS,

WESTERN GHATS, SOUTH INDIA1

K. Rema Devi and A.G.K. Menon2

(With two plates)

A new species Horalabiosa palaniensis is described from Palani Hills. This is the second

species to be described under this genus, the first species being Horalabiosa joshuai Silas described

in 1953.

Introduction

The genus Horalabiosa Silas, 1953, was

erected to accommodate a population of

small hill-stream fishes which superficially

resemble Garra Hamilton, but differ from it

in the presence of a minutely papillated post-

labial callous pad in the mental region.

Horalabiosa joshuai Silas, the type species,

was described from the headwaters of the

Tambraparni River at Singampatti, Singam-

patty Range, Tirunelveli District. Its specific

status has been however, disputed by sub-

sequent workers and it has either been over-

looked (Jayaram 1981) or synonymised with

Garra (Talwar and Jhingran 1991). A good

collection of*//, joshuai from Kalakad

Wildlife Reserve, Tirunelveli district, how-

ever, enabled the senior author to establish its

identity and give a detailed redescription of

the fish (Rema Devi, in press). The present

discovery of another species, from Palani

Hills confirms the validity of this genus.

Holotype: In Southern Regional Station,

Zoological Survey of India, Madras, Reg.

No. F. 3909, Palani Hills, Western Ghats,

South India, 77.0 m SL., collected by G.U.

Kurup, 27th Feb. 1972.

Diagnosis: a small sized hill stream fish

with elongate and slightly compressed body;

Accepted May 1993.

2Zoological Survey of India, Southern Regional Station,

100, Santhome High Road, Madras 600 028.

differs from the other known species in the

absence of scales along dorsal base, pre-dor-

sal region and also along the ventral region.

Horalabiosa palaniensis sp. nov.

(Plate 1, Figs. 1 & 2)

Description: D. 2/7; P. 1/14; V. 1/8;

A. 2/5; C. 1/17/1; L1.37; L. tr. 3i/2 / 2i/2;

predorsal scales absent.

Body elongate, its greatest height below

the commencement of dorsal 5.83 in SL;

head length 4.24 in SL; height of head 1.81,

head width 1.35 in its length; eye diameter

5.78, interorbital width 2.64, snout 2.14 in

head length; length of mental pad 4.54, its

width 5.56 in head length; length of pectoral

fin 1.21, of dorsal 1.51 in HL; base of dorsal

1.43 in its height; length of pectoral fin 5.13,

dorsal 6.42, pelvic 6.09, anal 7.95 in SL;

predorsal distance 1.98, prepelvic distance

1.82, distance from pectoral to anus 1.99 in

SL; the distance from anus to anal fin origin

is 4.36 in the distance from pelvic to anal;

height of caudal peduncle 1.64 in its length.

Etymology: The species is named after

the locality from where collections were

made.

Distribution: Palani Hills, Western

Ghats, South India.

Relationship: H. palaniensis differs

from H. joshuai (Plate 2, Figs. 1 & 2) in the

absence of scales along predorsal and dorsal

base and also the ventral side up to anal

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Rema Devi & Menon: Horalabiosa palaniensis sp. nov.

Fig. 1. Lateral view of Horalabiosa joshuai Silas, 75.0 mm SL.

Fig. 2. Ventral view of H. joshuai, 90.0 mm SL.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

111

origin, whereas in the latter, the chest alone

is devoid of scales. Other differences ob-

served in H. palaniensis as compared to

specimens of H. joshuai collected and

studied from Kalakad are as follows: The

body is more slender in H. palaniensis (body

depth 5.83 in SL as against 4.45 (3.92-5.56)

in SL in H. joshuai ); head more compressed

(head depth 1.81 in its length vs. 1.59 (1.27-

1.76); head is longer 4.24 vs. 3.53 (3.09-

3.92) in SL; caudal peduncle slender 1.64 vs.

1.24 (0.92 - 1.60) in its length; eye smaller

and snout longer in proportion to head length,

eye diameter 2.69 vs. 1.65 (1.27 - 2.28) in

length of snout; eye 5.78 in head length vs.

4.42 (3.40-5.75) in head length in H. joshuai.

Ecology: H. palaniensis co-exists with

Refe

Jayaram, K.C. (1981): The Freshwater Fishes of India,

Pakistan, Bangladesh, Burma and Sri Lanka. Hand-

book, Zoological Survey of India, No. 2, xii + 475 pp.,

pi. XIII.

Rema Devi, K. (in press): Fishes of Kalakad Wildlife

Sanctuary, Tirunelveli District, Tamil Nadu, India,

with a redescription of Horalabiosa joshuai Silas. Rec.

Garra hughi Silas, another species, charac-

terised by the absence of scales along the

mid-dorsal streak and the ventral region. The

loss of scales in these two species is probably

due to convergent evolution, the scaleless

dorsal surface offering least resistance to tor-

rential mountain currents and the scaleless

ventral surface offering broader surface for

better adhesion to the rocky bottom.

f

Acknowledgements

We are grateful to the Director, Zoologi-

cal Survey of India, and the Officer-in-

Charge of Southern Regional Station, Dr

K.V. Lakshminarayana for providing neces-

sary facilities.

ENCES

Zool. Surv. India.

Silas, E.G. (1953): New fishes from the Western Ghats, with

notes on Puntius arulius (Jerdon). Rec. Indian Mus.

51:21- 38.

Talwar, P.K. & Arun G. Jhingran (1991): Inland Fishes of

India and Adjacent Countries. Oxford and IBH

Publishing Co. Pvt. Ltd. New Delhi, xvii + 541 pp.

THE GENUS MACROCHELES LATREILLE (AC ARINA : MACROCHELIDAE) IN

INDIA. 4. TWO NEW SPECIES ASSOCIATED WITH DUNG BEETLES

(COLEOPTERA: SCARAB AEIDAE) FROM SOUTH INDIA1

R.K. Roy2

(With twenty text-figures)

Two new species of Macrocheles M. punctovariata and M. sisiri are described from South India.

Introduction

Phoretic relationship is common among

members of the genus Macrocheles. Usually

females of the coprophilous Macrocheles dis-

play phoretic association with insects, par-

1 Accepted June 1993.

2Deoartment of Zoology, Hanumanbox Surajmal Kanoi

College, Dibrugarh 786 001.

ticularly dung beetles (Evans and Hyatt 1963,

Costa 1967). They are predators. The

predatory habit of Macrocheles is an asset

which may contribute to their role as biologi-

cal control agents in reducing population of

dung-breeding flies (Krantz 1983). Phoretic

Macrocheles are little known in India. Evans

and Hyatt (op. cit.) described 4 such new

species, namely ceylonicus , krantzi ,

112

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

malabaricus and nevernalis from the Indian

subcontinent collected off coprid beetles in

the collections of the British Museum. They

have made a significant contribution to the

knowledge of the genus by adding 38 new

species on a global basis.

This paper is based on material collected

from beetles in the collections of the En-

tomology Department, University of Agricul-

tural Sciences, Bangalore, Karnataka (South

India). The present contribution embodies the

descriptions of two new species.

The types would be deposited in the Na-

tional Zoological Collections, Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta.

Macrocheles punctovariata sp. nov.

female (Figs. 1-10): Dorsal shield (Fig.

1) 735-825 jum long, 390-480 pm wide,

faintly reticulate and bearing 28 pairs of

setae. Verticals, ji, with adjacent insertions,

plumose distally; j4 and Z4 distally pectinate;

remaining dorsal setae simple.

Sternal shield (Figs. 2-5) approximately

as long as wide, with a well defined series of

punctate lines. L.m.t. distinct, undulating or

procurved; l. ang. usually concave medially;

l.o.p. distinct joining l.m.t. in majority of

specimens and sometimes arched anteriorly

forming a parallel punctate line to that of

l.m.t. Metasternal shields ovoid, well

separated from sternal shield; metasternal

setae simple and almost as long as stemals

III. Genital shield rounded anteriorly, trun-

cate posteriorly, with a pair of smooth fairly

long genital setae inserted posteriorly.

Ventrianal shield (Fig. 6) subtriangular,

rounded laterally and longer than broad; with

a series of seven arched punctate lines

traversing the shield between preanal setae I

and adanals; preanals, adanals and postanal

simple. Metapodals represented by a pair of

small weak sclerites posterior to insertions of

coxae IV. Stigmata laterad of coxae III-IV,

peritremes extending anterodorsally to a

point more than half of distance between

setal insertions of zi and ji.

Gnathosoma (Fig. 7) with five rows of

deutostemal denticles. Tectum as shown in

Fig. 8. Movable digit of chelicera (Fig. 9)

tridentate, middle one being larger; fixed

digit bidentate; dorsal seta simple; cheliceral

brush more than half the length of movable

digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi); 1-540 |Lim; II - 495 pm; III - 480

pm; IV - 690 pm. Tarsus I (105-135 pm)

slightly longer than tibia I (90-120 pm);

tarsus II (Fig. 10) 105-150 pm; tibia II 60-90

pm. Genu IV with six setae of which av is

plumose distally.

male: (Figs. 11-15): Dorsal shield (Fig.

11) 555-600 pm long, 360-390 pm wide,

weakly reticulate, chaetotaxy as in female

excepting setae n being distally plumose.

Genital orifice presternal in position.

Sternitigenital shield (Fig. 12) 285 pm

long, 150 pm wide, without ornamentation

and with five pairs of smooth sternitigenital

setae (sternal, metasternal and genital setae

of female). Ventrianal shield (Fig. 12) 195

pm long, 180 pm wide, unomamented, with

4 pairs of smooth preanal setae including an

additional pair of marginal setae; adanal setae

simple and long; postanal smooth. Stigmata,

peritremes similar to those of female.

Gnathosoma similar to that of female.

Fixed digit of chelicera (Fig. 13) tridentate;

movable digit unidentate and bearing distally

a long spermatophoral process; cheliceral

brush extending more than half the length of

movable digit.

Femur, genu and tibia II spurred (Fig. 14);

femur IV (Fig. 15) also spurred. Genu IV with

six setae of which al, adi and pdi distally

plumose.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

113

Figs. 1 -10. Macrocheles punctovariata sp. nov. Female

1. Dorsum; 2-5. Variation in sternal ornamentation; 6. Venter; 7. Gnathosoma; £

10. Tarsus of leg II.

114

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

o bo

13 «

c £

Figs. 11-15: Macrocheles punctovariata sp.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

115

Figs. 16-20: Macrocheles sisiri sp. nov. Female

16. Dorsum; 17. Venter; 18. Tectum; 19. Chelicera; 20. Tarsus of leg II.

116

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Material examined: Holotype : female,

Karnataka : Bangalore, ex Heliocepris sp.,

collector and collection date unstated. Al-

lotype: male, collection data as holotype.

Paratypes : 1 Females, 1 Male, collection

data as above.

Distribution: INDIA: Karnataka.

Remarks: This species superficially

resembles M. carteri Evans and Hyatt in the

nature of ornamentation of the ventral

shields. But M. punctovariata is interesting

in exhibiting considerable intraspecific varia-

tion in the sternal shield ornamentation un-

like that of carteri and also in possessing

plumose dorsal setae (j4 & Z4) which are

simple in carteri. Since males are non-

photrectic, they are very rarely found on beet-

les. Costa (1967) collected a single male of

M. saceri Costa from Scarabaeus sacer in

Israel. Two males of punctovariata have been

found attached to the coxal region of the

beetle ( Heliocopris sp.).

Macrocheles sisiri sp. nov.

female (Figs. 16-20): Dorsal shield (Fig.

16) 705-795 pm long, 405-480 pm wide,

granular and reticulate and with 28 pairs of

setae. Verticals, ji, pilose distally with their

bases being closely apposed; J5 pectinate or

smooth; other dorsal setae simple.

Sternal shield (Fig. 17) granular and with

punctate liniae. L.m.t. undulating; l.o.p. ex-

tending almost to the centre of the shield;

l.a.t. and /. ang . porous; areae punctatae

present; sternal setae fairly long but never

reaching insertions behind them and simple !

Metasternal shields elongate, each with a

simple seta sub-equal to sternals. Genital

shield granular, truncated posteriorly, orna-

mented with punctate lines medially; genital

setae in lateral corners and smooth.

Ventrianal shield (Fig. 18) 210-270 pm long,

180-210 pm wide, granular, subtriangular,

longer than broad, ornamented with punctate

transverse lines; ventrianal setae smooth.

Metapodal shields circular, adjacent to coxae

IV, each with a simple seta. Ventrianal integu-

ment with simple setae, nearly equal to

preanals. Stigmata normal for genus,

peritremes extending anteriorly half way be-

tween setal insertions of zi & ji:

Gnathosoma with five rows of deutoster-

nal denticles. Tectum as shown in Fig. 18.

Movable digit of chelicera (Fig. 19) with a

median bicuspid tooth and I small tooth at

apex; fixed digit bident?te, proximal tooth

large; cheliceral brush nearly half as long as

movable digit.

Approximate lengths of legs (excluding

pretarsi): I - 495 pm; II - 465 pm; III 450

pm; IV - 600 pm. Tarsus I (105-135 pm)

longer than tibia I (90-105 pm). Tarsus II

(Fig. 20) 120-135 pm; tibia II (75-90 pm).

Genu IV with six simple setae.

MALE: Unknown.

Material examined: Holotype : female,

Karnataka : Bangalore, ex Copris sp., collec-

tor and collection date unstated. Paratypes:

18 Females, same data as holotype.

Distribution: INDIA: Karnataka

Remarks: The general facies of M. sisiri

are similar to Macrocheles boxi Evans &

Hyatt. Differences in the nature of ornamen-

tation of the sternal shield, namely absence

of linea angulata , absence of areae

punctatae , shape of linea arcuata , shape and

ornamentation of genital shield in M. boxi ,

are, however, sufficient to warrent separation

of the latter from the former.

This species is named in honour of Dr

Sisir Kumar Bhattacharyya, Joint Director,

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta.

Acknowledgements

I am indebted to Dr S K Bhattacharyya,

Joint Director, Zoological Survey of India,

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

117

Calcutta for his help and guidance in the

course of the study and to Dr G.K. Veeresh,

Professor of Entomology, University of

Refer

Costa, M. (1967): Notes on macrochelids associated

with manure and coprid beetles in Israel II. Three

new species of the Macrocheles pisentii Comples,

with notes on their biology. Acarologia 9 (2): 304

- 329.

Evans, G.O. & K.H. Hyatt (1963): Mites of the genus Mac-

rocheles Latr. ( Mesostigmata ) associated with coprid

beetles in the collections of the British Museum

Agricultural Sciences, Bangalore, for provid-

ing beetle material on which this paper is

based.

ENCES

(Natural History). Bull. Brit. Mus. (Nat. Hist.) Zool. 9

(9): 237-401.

*Krantz, G.W. (1983): Mites as biological control agents of

dung- breeding flies, with special reference to the Mac-

rochelidae. In: M.A. Hoy, G.L. Cunningham and L.

Knutson (Eds.), Biological Control of Pests by Mites.

University of California, Berkelay, CA pp. 91-98.

*Not seen in original.

NEW AND NOT KNOWN APHIDS (HOMOPTERA : APHIDIDAE)

FROM HIMACHAL PRADESH, INDIA1

D.K. Bhattacharya2

( With four text-figures)

Four species of aphids (Homoptera : Aphididae) are recorded from the State of Himachal

Pradesh, India. Among these, one, Eumyzus simlaensis is new and three species, Anoecia nemoralis.

Myzus formosanus and Pemphigus mordvilkoi are

Introduction

Altogether 251 species of aphids are so

far known from Himachal Pradesh,

Chowdhury et al. (1969), B indr a and Sekhon

(1969), Ghosh et al. (1969), Chakrabarti et

al. (1970, 1974), Bhalla (1971), Raychaud-

huri et al. (1980), Das et al (1981), Chak-

rabarti and Bhattacharya (1982) and Ghosh

(1986).

In this paper four more species are

added to the list and the total number of

species from the area stands at 255.

Among these newly recorded species one,

Eumyzus simlaensis is new to science. The

rest are recorded for the first time from the

State.

Accepted July 1993.

department of Zoology, University of Kalyani, Kalyani

741235, Nadia, West Bengal, India.

new to Himachal Pradesh.

1. Eumyzus simlaensis sp. nov.

(Figs. 1-4)

Apterous viviparous female: Body 1.41-

1.48 mm long and 0.76-0.78 mm wide. Head

brown strongly spinulose both dorsally and

ventrally; frons moderately developed with

well developed but diverging lateral frontal

tubercles; dorsum with 5-6 pairs of short

hairs with bluntish apices; longest hair on

vertex 0.011-0.018 mm long and 0.5-0. 6

times as long as basal diameter of antennal

segment III. Antennae 6-segmented with

basal two segments little darker than head,

but rest of the flagellum pale, 0.60-0.70 times

as long as body; segment I and II little

scabrous and with 6 and 5 hairs, longest one

on segment III 0.50-0.60 times as long as

basal diameter of the segment, flagellum

gradually and distinctly imbricated apicad;

processus terminalis 3.50-3.70 times as long

118

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

119

as base of the segment VI. Rostrum reaching

mid coxae, ultimate rostral segment 1.12-

1.30 times second joint of hind tarsus and

with 2 hairs. Thorax distinctly scabrous, mid-

thoracic furca with a short base. Abdomen

brown strongly corrugated, dorsal hairs

moderately long with bluntish apices and

placed on tuberculate bases; anterior tergites

with 8-10 hairs, longest hair on anterior ter-

gites 0.5 times as long as basal diameter of

the antennal segment III; tergites 7 and 8 with

5 and 4 hairs, longest hair on each of these

tergites 0.50-0.52 times and 0.52-0.53 times

as long as basal diameter of the antennal

segment III, respectively. Venter with rows of

spinules, ventral hairs shorter than dorsal

hairs. Siphunculi subcylindrical, brown,

poorly imbricated with a distinct flange,

0.20-0.21 times the body length and 0.37-

0.40 times the length of cauda. Cauda dark

some what buldging anteriorly with a con-

striction near the apex, bearing 4 hairs. Sub-

genital plate with 2 hairs on anterior margin

and 16-18 hairs on the posterior margin. Legs

pale; femora smooth except some corruga-

tions on the apex; tibiae smooth; first tarsal

chaetotaxy 3,3,3.

Measurement of the holotype in mm:

Length of the body 1.45; width 0.79; antenna

1.01, antennal segments III:IV:V:VI :

0.24:0.13: 0.11: (0.07 + 0.29); u.r.s. 0.08; h.t

2. 0.07; siphunculus 0.06; cauda 0.02.

Holotype: Apterous viviparous female,

INDIA: Himachal Pradesh, Simla, 21. ix. 1987

from Prunus sp. (coll. D.K. Bhattacharya).

Paratypes: 8 apterous viviparous female

and many nymphs, collection data as in

holotype. The type material of the new

species have been deposited at present in the

collecction of Entomology laboratory.

Department of Zoology, University of

Kalyani.

Remarks : The new species by possessing

diverging lateral frontal tubercles, dorsal ab-

dominal hairs placed on tuberculate bases

with blunt apices and siphunculi without

reticulate apex comes under the genus

Eumyzus Shinji (Chakrabarti and Bhat-

tacharya 1985).

The species in having ultimate rostral

segment longer than second joint of hind

tarsus bearing 2 hairs, dorsum of abdomen

strongly corrugated and dorsal hairs placed

on tuberculate bases comes close to eastopi

(Maity et al. 1982) but it differs from the

later in having shorter 1.12-1.30 u.r.s. and h.t.

2 ratio (1.68-1.90 in eastopi ), 4 caudal hairs

(6 in eastopi ) and F.T.C. 3,3,3 (3,3,2 in eas-

topi).

2. Anoecia nemoralis Borner

Anoecia nemoralis Borner, 1950, Neure

suropaische Blattlausarten , 17; Halmgrund

(East Germany; England; Netherland);

Zwolfer, 1957, Z. Angew. Ent., 40: 214.

Anoecia nemoralis Borner; Chakrabarti,

Maity and Bhattacharya, 1982, Oriental In-

sects, 16 (1): 99-111.

Material examined: 10 apterous

viviparous female, 2 alate viviparous female

and nymphs, India; Himachal Pradesh;

Narkanda 23. ix. 1987 from Triticum sp. roots

(coll. D.K. Bhattacharya).

3. Myzuz formosanus Takahashi

Myzus formosanus Takahashi 1923

Aphididae of Formosa 1. Part II: 11.

Myzus formosanus Takahashi; Bhat-

tacharya, Mandal and Chakrabarti, 1983. En-

tomon , 8(1): 16.

Material examined: 7 apterous viviparous

female and nymphs, INDIA: Himachal Pradesh :

Summer hills, 22.ix.1987 from Impatientinum

balsamina (coll. D.K. Bhattacharya).

120

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

4. Pemphigus mordvilkoi

Cholodkovsky

Pemphigus mordvilkoi Cholodkovsky,

1912. Rev. Russ. Ent., 12 : 493. Ghosh, Chak-

rabarti and Bhattacharya, 1981. Bull. Zool.

Surv. India , 4(3) : 320.

Material examined: 15 alate viviparous

females and nymphs, INDIA: Himachal

Pradesh, Simla, 21. ix. 1987 from Populus

ciliata (coll. D.K. Bhattacharya).

The species were obtained from stem

galls of the host plant.

Acknowledgement

I thank the Head, department of Zoology,

University of Kalyani for laboratory

facilities.

References

Bhalla, O.R (1971): Addition to the Aphid fauna of

Himachal Pradesh. Himachal J. agric. Res., 1: 51-52.

Bindra, O.S. & S.S. Sekhon (1969): Additional new records

of aphids from Kangra, Kulu and Lahul Valleys

(India). Bull. Ent., 10(2): 156-157.

Chakrabarti, S. & D.K. Bhattacharya (1982): New genera

and species of aphids (Homoptera : Aphididae) from

north-western Himalaya. Annales Zoolog ici, 36(23):

539-548.

Chakrabarti, S. & D.K. Bhattacharya (1985): Review of

Eumyzus Shinji (Homoptera : Aphididae) with descrip-

tion of two new specis from Indian region. Systematic

Entomology, 10: 387-393.

Chakrabarti, S., A.N. Chowdhuri & D.N. Raychaudhuri

(1974): Further records of Aphids (Homoptera :

Aphididae) from Himachal Pradesh, India. Sci. Cult.,

40: 461-462.

Chakrabarti, S., A.K. Ghosh & A.N. Chowdhuri (1970):

Aphids (Homoptera) of Himachal Pradesh, India - III.

Oriental Insects, 4(4): 447-452.

Chowdhuri, A.N., R.C. Basu, S. Chakrabarti & D.N.

Raychaudhuri (1969): Aphids of Simla (Himachal

Pradesh), India-I. Oriental Insects, 3(1): 83-92.

Das, S.K., D. Raychaudhuri & D.N. Raychaudhuri

(1981): Some new species and hitherto unknown

morphs of aphids (Homoptera: Aphididae) from

Himachal Pradesh, India. Entomon, 6(1): 47-56.

Ghosh, A.K., S. Chakrabarti, A.N. Chowdhuri & D.N.

Raychaudhuri (1969): Aphids (Homoptera) of

Himachal Pradesh, India-II. Oriental Insects,

3(4):327-334.

Ghosh, L.K. (1986): A conspectus of Aphidide (Homoptera)

of Himachal Pradesh of North West Himalaya, India.

Zoological Survey of India, Technical monograph,

76:1-277.

Matty, S.P., D.K. Bhattacharya & S. Chakrabarti (1982):

Some new species of aphids (Homoptera : Aphididae)

from Garhwal Himalaya, Uttar Pradesh, India. Annales

Zoologici, 36(26): 50 1-5 16.

Raychaudhuri, D.N., L.K. Ghosh & S.K. Das. (1980):

Studies on the aphids (Homoptera : Aphididae) from

North and North West India - I. Ins. Matsum., n.s.

20: 1-42.

ON A NEW SPECIES OF ZELOMORPHA ASHMEAD (HYMENOPTERA :

BRACONIDAE) FROM INDIA1

S.M. Kurhade2 AND P.K. Nikam3

{With three

Introduction

Zelomorpha Ashmead is a small but

widely distributed genus in the Nearctic,

Accepted September 1993.

2Post-graduate Dept, of Zoology, New Arts, Commerce

and Science College, Ahmednagar 414 001.

^Department of Zoology, Marathwada University,

Aurangabad, Maharashtra.

text-figures)

Ethiopian, Neotropical and Indo-Australian

regions. Shenefelt (1970) recorded twelve

species in the world fauna, of which four

species are Oriental. According to Bhat and

Gupta (1977) eighteen species are reported

from the Oriental region, from which ten

species are from India. In the present work,

a new species, Zelomorpha guptai is

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

121

described on the material collected from

India : Maharashtra : Ahmednagar, and key

to the species groups and species of Zelomor-

pha by Bhat and Gupta (1977) is followed for

the determination of new taxa.

Zelomorpha guptai sp. nov. is compared

with Z. punctator (Roman) and Z. fulginosa

(Cameron). The species Z. punctator is from

Philippines and Z. fulginosa is from

Meghalaya, India.

Types and other material of this species

are in the collection of the junior author for

the time being and will be deposited in the

National Collection of the Zoological Survey

of India, Calcutta, India.

Zelomorpha guptai sp. nov.

male: 6 mm in length (Fig. 1). Head (Fig.

2): 0.5 times as long as wide; vertex shiny,

weakly punctate, more or less smooth, pubes-

cent; interorbital distance 2.3 x as the ocello-

orbital distance; ocelli in equilateral triangle;

oceller region raised; frons depressed, bor-

dered by marginal and frontal carina, very

weakly punctate, pubescent; face 0.8 times as

long as wide, rugosely, closely punctate,

slightly elevated at mid apical region, pubes-

cent; clypeus rugosely, closely punctate,

pubescent, 2.3 x as long as the basal width of

mandible; mandible bidentate, 3 x as long as

its basal width; eye 2.7 x as long as wide,

bare; occipital carina absent; temple weakly

punctate, wth fine pubescence.

Antenna: 2 + 39 segmented; scape 1.5 x

as long as wide; closely punctate, pubescent;

pedicel 0.8 times as long as wide, closely

pubescent; flagellum pubescent throughout

the length; terminal segment 1.6 x as long as

wide; penultimate segment as long as wide.

Thorax: pronotum shiny, rugosely,

weakly punctate, pubescent; mesoscutum

shiny, rugosely, sparsely punctate, pubescent;

notauli distinct, compact and complete;

Figs. 1-3. Zelomorpha guptai sp. nov. male

1. Adult, lateral view; 2. Head, viewed from front;

3. Propodeum with first abdominal tergite.

scutellum shiny, rugosely, weakly punctate,

pubescent; mesopleurum weakly rugoso-

punctate, pubescent; mesopleural furrow dis-

tinct, extending the length of mesopleurum,

moderately, transerversly carinated;

metapleurum closely, moderately punctate;

propodeum (Fig. 3) carinated, pubescent;

areola triangular, 1.2 x as long as wide,

smooth; basolateral area rugosely punctate,

pubescent; petiolar area with an incomplete

median longitudinal carinae. Hind coxa

globular, shiny, sparsely punctate, pubescent;

1st trochanter 1.4 x as long as wide; 2nd

trochanter as long as wide; femur 3.5 x as

long as wide, rugosely, closely punctate,

pubescent; tibia 1.2 x as long as femur,

slender, rugosely, closely punctate, pubes-

cent; tibial spur 0.45 times as long femur;

basitarsus 1.5 x as long as tibial spur; all

122

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

tarsomeres spinose; second tarsomere 0.5

times as long as tibial spur; claw bifid.

Forewings: 3.8 x as long as broad; stig-

ma 3.1 x as long as broad; metacarp 1.4 x

as long as stigma; 1st abscissa of radius 0.3

times the breadth of stigma, equal to 2nd

abscissa of radius; 3rd abscissa of radius

1.3 x as long as stigma; second cubital cell

small, with four unequal sides; cubitus 2.5

x as long as stigma, running up to the mar-

gin; medius 0.7 times as long as costa;

nervulus interstitial, 0.1 times as long as

medius; anal cell 20 x as long as wide;

margin with fine bristles.

Hind wings: 4.3 x as long as broad;

nervellus reclivious, 0.5 times as long as sub-

mediella; vannal lobe slightly convex;

mediella 2.3 x as long as nervellus; cubitella

1.2 x as long as subcostella; radiella not

sclerotised throughout the length; margin

with fine bristles.

Abdomen: 4.2 x as long as wide; first

tergite longer than wide, 3.3 x as long as

basal width, smooth, shiny, sparsely pubes-

cent; second tergite 0.8 times as long as wide,

smooth, shiny, weakly punctate, pubescent;

suture between first and second, second and

third tergite visible; third tergite concealed

with remaining tergites, smooth, shiny, weak-

ly punctate, pubescent.

Genitalia: Gonosquammae, gonofor-

ceps and gonostipes with fine bristles;

gonosquamma apically blunt and with dis-

tinct hair, equal to the length of aedeagus;

gonoforceps convex; gonostipes wide basal-

ly; distivolsella straight; subgenital plate

quadrate, thin, weakly sclerotised; anticosta

thick; spiculum absent.

Coloration: Yellowish-red. Antenna,

stigma blackish-brown; wings yellowish-

brown, with apices light brown; veins yel-

lowish and brownish in basal and apical

region respectively.

female: Unknown.

Holotype: male, INDIA: Maharashtra: Ah-

mednagar, 15. x. 1988, on wing, coll. S. M.

Kurhade, antenna, legs, wings and genitalia

mounted on slides and labelled as above.

Paratypes: 6 males, data same as the

holotype.

Comments: This species fits in the genus

Zelomorpha Ashmead, in the key to the genera

of subfamily Agathidinae by Bhat and Gupta

(1977) for the Oriental region. In the key to the

Oriental species of Zelomorpha by Bhat and

Gupta (1977), Zelomorpha guptai sp. nov. is

close to Zelomorpha punctator Roman (1913).

However, it is distinguished from the same in

the characters of: (i) vertex weakly punctate,

(ii) flagellum blackish brown, (iii) basal 0.4 of

fore wing hyaline, (iv) areola 1.2 x as long as

wide, (v) scape 1.5 x as long as wide, (vi)

second cubital cell four sided.

The new species superficially resembles

with Zelomorpha fulginosa Cameron (1899)

but differs in the following characters : (i)

absence of black dense pubescence on face,

(ii) metapleurum closely, moderately

punctate, (iii) absence of black dense pubes-

cence on propodeum and (iv) nervulus inter-

stitial.

The name guptai is in honour of Dr V.K.

Gupta, for his contributations to the

taxonomy of Indian Braconidae.

Acknowledgements

We thank Prof. S.D. Kalyankar, Head,

Department of Zoology, Marathwada Univer-

sity, Aurangabad for providing laboratory

facilities. The Senior author wishes to thank

Principal K. H. Shitole, New Arts, Commerce

and Science College, Ahmednagar for permis-

sion to do this study at Marathwada University,

Aurangbad.

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

123

References

Bhat, S. & V.K. Gupta (1977): Ichneumonologia Orien-

talis, part VI. The subfamily Agathidinae (Hymenop-

tera : Braconidae). Oriental Insects Monograph No. 6.

Cameron, R (1899): Hymenoptera Orientalia, part 8. The

Hymenoptera of Khasia Hills, First paper. Mem.

Manchester Lit. phil. Soc. 43 (3): 1 - 220.

Roman, A. (1913): Phillippinische schlupfwespen dus den

schwedischen Reichsmuseum, 1 .Ark. Zool. 8 (15): 1-

51.

Shenefelt, R.D. (1970): Braconidae 1, Hymenopterorum

catalogus, part 4, Junk, The Hague.

NEW RECORDS OF TWO PULMONATE FRESHWATER GASTROPODS IN INDIA,

WITH DESCRIPTION OF A NEW SPECIES, BU LINUS INDICUS 1

N.V. Subba Rao2, S.C. Mitra2, B.D. Parashar3

G.P. Gupta3 and k.m Rao3

(With six text-figures)

Introduction

Pulmonate snails of India are classified

into four families namely, Lymnaeidae, An-

cylidae, Planorbidae and Physidae. The last

mentioned family is hitherto represented in

India by fossils. Among the other three

families, Lymnaeidae and Planorbidae are

common and their representatives occur at-

tached to vegetation, submerged objects in

lentic waters. The Indian reprsentatives of the

family Planorbidae are grouped under three

subfamilies, namely Bulininae, Planorbinae

and Segmentininae. The first mentioned in-

cludes two genera, the most common In-

doplanorbis and the less common

Camptoceras (Subba Rao 1989).

A small collection of aquatic molluscs

from near Pune has turned out to be interest-

ing and significant, as it adds a species new

to India. Bulinus prinsepii ( Physa prinsepii)

was recorded from the Intertrappean beds of

Deccan (Pascoe 1962). Physa acuta , a recent

species was recorded from Pakistan. The oc-

1 Accepted October 1993.

2Zoological Survey of India, ‘M’ Block, New Alipore,

Calcutta.

Defence Research & Development Establishment,

Tansen Road, Gwalior, M.P.

currence of this species is reported for the

first time from India.

The subfamily Bulininae is represented

by four species in India (Subba Rao 1989).

The genus Bulinus which is common and

represented by several species in Africa is

recorded for the first time in India. Several

taxonomic investigations were carried out on

the genus Bulinus. We do not have live

material to study the anatomy but the shells

are so distinct and different from other

known species of the genus that we are in-

clined to identify the present material as a

new species, Bulinus indicus. Thus both the

species and genera are taxonomically impor-

tant and are new records for India.

The occurrence of these two species in

India has to be viewed with concern since

both species have potentialities to act as in-

termediate hosts of schistosomes.

The species of Bulinus are known to be the

intermediate hosts of blood flukes, specifically

Schistosoma haematobium, S. intercalatum, S.

bovis and S. leiperi infecting humans, cattle,

sheep, goats, and equines (Malek and Cheng

1974). As reports of widespread, although

localised, infection of S. haematobium among

humans causing urinary schistosomiasis in

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JOURNAL BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Figs. 1-2. Bulinus indicus sp. nov.: Dorsal and Ventral

views. Figs. 3-4. Physa acuta Draparnaud: Dorsal and

Ventral views.

various parts of India have drawn our attention,

[Delhi (Dhanda 1959), Madras (Santhanakrish-

nan and Sundara Rajulu 1967), Raipur, M.R

(Srivastava and Arora 1969), Ratnagiri

(Gaitonde et al. 1981)], the occurrence of

Bulinus in India has to be viewed with concern.

Further, the occurrence of Physa acuta in India

is also a matter of concern, as many species of

Physa transmit avian schistosomiasis (Malek

and Cheng 1974).

Family: Planorbidae

Genus: Balinus Mueller, 1781

Bulinus indicus sp. nov.

Shell rather small, thin and light, imper-

forate, transparent to straw-coloured,

sinistral, ovate with a large, inflated body

whorl; spire disproportionately short (ap-

prox. l/4th total length of shell) being scar-

cely raised with rather an obtuse apex.

Whorls 4, abruptly increasing in size, sharply

angulate at the sutures and distinctly

shouldered, forming platform above. Sculp-

ture consists of close, prominent transverse

lamellae, decussated by irregular micro-

scopic spiral markings; spiral markings more

distinct in smaller shells. Aperture large, sub-

quadrately elongate, rounded and expanded

at base, scarcely reflected. Columella slightly

twisted and has a weakly developed ridge.

Affinities

The shells of Bulinus indicus show some

affinities to the South African species, B.

abyssinicus (Martens), B. depressus Hass and

B. tropicus (Krauss) in its general ap-

pearance, but differs considerably from all of

them. It differs from B. abyssinicus in having

a broader aperture, the columellar twist being

much less distinct and also in lacking the

corrugated sculpture on the apical whorls. It

differs from B. depressus in having a

straighter columellar margin, and more dis-

tinctly angulate and more pronouncedly

shouldered body whorl. It differs from B.

tropicus in being short-spired and being less

concave at the columellar region.

Family : Physidae

Genus : Physa Draparnaud, 1801

Material: 20 specimens, collected from a

river at Manjri, Pune, Maharashtra during March

and June, 1992.

Holotype: ZSI. Reg. No. M 23293/4

Paratype: 8 specimens, ZSI. Reg. No. M 23294/4

Measurements (in mm):

Length Diameter Length of Max. height

spire of aperture

Holotype: 10.0 6.65 2.9 8.3

Paratypes: 4.35-9.65 2.4-6.2 1. 5-2.4 3.6-8.18

NEW DESCRIPTIONS

125

Fig. 5. Ratio of height of shell to diameter of shell

and maximum height of aperture in B. indicus.

Distribution: The genus Bulinus is

known from Africa, islands in the Indian

Ocean, Iberia, Mediterranean islands and

Southwest Asia (Brown 1980).

Habitat: Contrary to the record of many

species of Bulinus, namely B. jousseaumei , B.

angolensis and B. natalensis which show

preference for stagnant water bodies or slow-

flowing streams (Brown 1980), B. indicus was

recorded from a fast flowing river. However,

some species are known to occur in seasonal

water bodies which remain dry for a consider-

able period in the year (Brown 1980). Some are

recorded from roadside ditches, rice fields and

also ponds and lakes. The present species was

collected from a river.

Physa acuta Draparnaud

Shell of moderate size, ovate, fairly

thick, imperforate, sinistral, glossy and

smooth except for fine transverse growth

striae, transparent, spire raised and pointed;

whorls 6, rounded, body whorl large,

Fig. 6. Ratio of height of shell to diameter of shell

and maximum height of aperture in P. acuta.

globose, sutures oblique; aperture oblong-

ovate, outer lip thin, columella twisted, inner

lip slightly thickened and expanded.

Tentacles long and slender, whitish in

colour, foot and snout slate -coloured. Mantle

with finger-like projections. Pseudobranch

absent. Radular teeth in transvers oblique

rows. Penis simple with a yellowish tip. Eggs

are laid in irregularly rounded gelatinous

masses inside which individual eggs are ar-

ranged in linear rows.

Material: 20 specimens, collected from

river banks at Pimpri and a pond at Manjri,

Pune, Maharashtra during March and June,

1992.

Measurements (in mm):

Length Diameter Maximum height of aperture

5.0-14.0 2.1-7.95 3.0-10.15

Distribution: A North American species

introduced into Europe from where it reached

Africa (Brown 1980); S.E. Asia (India and

Pakistan).

Habitat: This snail has been observed

to occur in streams, rivers, temporary

ponds, stagnant water of temporary nature

9

126

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

and small, shallow water bodies along river

banks, irrigation channels etc. It seems to

prefer slightly polluted water and has dif-

ficulty in establishing itself away from

human habitations (Brown 1980). Perhaps,

this snail is well adapted to undergo an-

hydrobiosis.

It is obvious from figures 5 & 6 above

that different shell parameters like length,

diameter, eight of aperture in both the

species are correlated. Both the diameter

and maximum height of aperture are directly

proportional to the length of the shell.

Acknowledgements

We are indebted to Dr R. V. Swamy,

Director, Defence Research & Development

Establishment, Gwalior and Dr A. K. Ghosh,

Director, Zoological Survey of India for their

keen interest in this work. We also thank Mr

S. S. Ray, Artist, for the text-figures.

References

Brown, D.S. (1980): Freshwater snails of Africa and their

medical importance. Taylor & Francis Ltd., London,

pp. 487.

Dhanda, L. (1959): Infestation with ova morphologically

resembling Schistosoma haematobium. J. Indian Med.

Assoc., 26: 407-408.

Gaitonde, B.B., B.D. Sathe, S. Mukerji, N.K. Sutar, R.P.

Athalye, V.P. Kotwal & D.M. Renapurkar (1981):

Studies on schistosomiasis in village Gimvi of

Maharashtra. Ind. J. Med. Res., 74: 352-357.

Malek, E.A. & T.C. Cheng (1974): Medical and

Economic Malacology. Academic Press, New York

and London, ix+398 pp.

Pascoe, E.H. (1962): A manual of the Geology of India and

Burma, 3: 1377.

Santhanakrishnan, G. & G. Sundara Rajulu (1967):

Human schistosomiasis in India: discovery of an en-

demic focus in the Madras State. Curr. Sci. 36: 480-

481.

Srivastava, K.K. & M.M. Arora (1969): Schistosoma

haematobium infection in Lahager, a village in Raipur

District of Madhya Pradesh. Indian J. Med. Res. 57:

2016-2017.

Subba Rao, N.V. (1989): Handbook Freshwater Molluscs

of India. Zoological Survey of India, xxiii + 289 pp.

REVIEWS

1. THE ASIATIC LION — Compiled and Edited by M. A. Rashid and Reuben

David, pp. 168 + xxxvii (24 x 18 cm), with 51 plates, 6 text-figures and 7 maps.

Baroda, 1992. M.A.B. Project, Department of Environment, Government of

India. Price not stated.

The lions of Asoka, dispossessed of their

rightful position as the National animal and

dispossessed of their habitat, live desperately

in the small and only patch of forest, the Gir,

in Saurashtra, Gujarat. In this book, M.A.

Rashid takes a comprehensive look at one of

India’s most precious and most neglected na-

tional heritage, the single existing population

of the Asian Lion. I say neglected for, if a

fraction of the money that has been spent on

the rehabilitation of the tiger had been spent

on the Lion, its position would not have been

as precarious as it is today. The book starts

with a brief introduction of the author and of

the state of wildlife in India. Animals slip

into mythology when they impress man and

the Lion has been a "symbol of strength and

power" throughout its erstwhile range from

Egypt to Bihar. From the Sphinx on the Nile

to the Narsimha of Hampi, the Lion in

mythology has been described in detail in the

second chapter.

The past distribution of the Lion and its

gradual and, after the advent of the sporting

gun, rapid disappearance from all its past

range; the Gir habitat and the animals that

live therein; the habits and behaviour of the

Lion are covered in the following chapters till

one gets to the crucial chapter on Lion cen-

sus. Numbers in a species which has been

reduced to the straights that the Lion has

been, are indeed vital. The methods that have

been employed are basically direct and in-

direct counts and kept as simple as possible,

to be usable by enumerators of varying

capability. It does not seem that any statisti-

cal method was used to test the validity of the

results. However, by the last count in 1990,

it is estimated that 284 Lions now exist in the

Gir Forest. Even this number, small as it is,

has raised conservation problems which

stretch beyond the limits of the Gir. The

discussion on protection shows clearly how

conservation of the Lion has suffered from

benign neglect over the years. The only

bright spot in the history of Lion conserva-

tion is the implementation of the Gir Lion

Sanctuary Project in 1972, which fenced the

area of the Sanctuary, presently the national

park, with a rubble wall, removed the

Maldhari settlements within and stopped all

grazing. The recovery of the area has been

remarkable, but at the cost of shattering the

Maldhari community. A forest people, they

were removed to a barren wilderness and

destroyed by broken promises. The damage

that is done by uprooting people and breaking

down established social structures is little

understood by Government Departments. As

far as the Lions of the Gir are concerned, their

habitat still remains threatened. The decision

taken in 1982 to notify the whole area as a

National Park is still to be implemented. The

search for alternate homes and the rehabilita-

tion of the Barda hills as a second home

remain unfulfilled.

The last chapter gives a list of recom-

mendations, a strategy for the conservation of

the Lion. One of the identified problems is

tourism that has grown enormously and the

difficulties of seeing or showing Lions. The

Lion shows which used to attract large

128

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

crowds of unmanageable people have since

been rightly discarded. Incidentally, one lion

show arranged for a former President by the

author was somewhat of an anticlimax as the

party when they reached the site saw the bait,

a buffalo, being casually eaten, while still

alive, by a group of young ‘learner’ Lions.

The President fled the scene heaping abuse

on the author. If you want to show Lions to

a VIP you must be careful to invite the right

Lion! The Lion has had considerable atten-

tion from the scientific community com-

mencing with the researches sponsored by

the Bombay Natural History Society and the

Smithsonian Institution in the early seven-

ties. There has been a continuing scientific

presence at the Gir. Presently the Wildlife

Institute of India is active in the Gir. The

strategy recommendations are based on these

scientific inputs and the author’s long ex-

perience.

I am rather disappointed. I know M.

A. Rashid as a good raconteur, with a

delightful sense of humour, but the book

does not come alive. It reads like a well

researched report. The second author and

his contribution seem to be appendices, a

tribute to a friend and a lovable person.

I cannot resist quoting the author’s

remarks on his efforts to get conservation

action from Government and in the process

identifying the virus or evil genie (depend-

ing on whether your perception is modern

or mythological) that affects Government

departments. "It is indeed tragic that the

final say in such matters should rest with

the Department’s Financial Advisor who

knows and understands nothing about

wildlife and its conservation and could not

care less about the dire consequences of his

intransigence in considering the

Department’s proposals. Unless some ef-

fective method can be found to release this

deadly stranglehold, all the efforts and

labour of the Department’s Wildlife Wing

will end up as an exercise in futility". How

dreadfully true!

J. C. DANIEL

2. JUNGLE AND BACKYARD — By M. Krishnan. PP. 138 (21.5 x 13.5 cm)

with illustrations. Madras, 1993. Oxford University Press. Price Rs. 100/-

A generation of naturalists had cut their

teeth on the writings of M. Krishnan, the

doyen among Indian natural history writers.

This small and varied collection of elegant

essays on facets of the life and habits of

Indian wildlife should raise nostalgic

memories. Krishnan, whether describing a

tusker taking a mudbath, or the insidious

inroads that has been made into the Indian

wilderness by the lantana, writes natural his-

tory based on personal observations.

Krishnan’ s integrity is reflected in these es-

says. He wrote of what he saw, without frills,

and with a wry sense of humour. How does

one tame a hunting cheetah? A pastime now

mercifully a matter of history as the cheetah

is extinct in India and its prey, the blackbuck,

severely endangered. Krishnan reports that

you catch it as an adult and break its spirit;

its wildness.

Perhaps all domestication, whether of

an elephant or of a falcon, follows the same

principle. The dog apparently gave up

thousands of generations ago. Krishnan’ s

acute powers of observation are well served

by his writing, whether describing the man-

ner in which a cat goes over a wall or a

stand-off between a mongoose and a ban-

REVIEWS

129

dicoot. Unfortunately, for those it would most suffers from the illusion that even in these days

benefit, the student community, the book is of inflation one hundred rupees is a high price!

steeply priced — or perhaps the reviewer J. C. DANIEL

3. THE DISCOVERY OF EVOLUTION. By David Young, pp. 256 (25 x 19.5

cm) with 16 colour plates and many illustrations. London, 1992. Natural History

Museum Publications in Association with Cambridge University Press. Price not

stated.

"What I offer you here is a journey for

the mind and adventure in the realm of ideas

we shall go back in time and retrace the

steps of the men who developed the theory of

biological evolution". Thus, David Young

summarises the contents of this very interest-

ing book.

Using a narrative style, this book shows

how science being a human activity, scien-

tific discoveries are subject to circumstance,

personal prejudices, fallibility, serendipity

and brilliance. Each discovery accretes onto

an existing theoretical framework and a prob-

lem may take decades if not centuries to be

solved. This is why biologists of today do not

ponder over terms such as genotype or

phenotype any more than whether acquired

characters are inherited. Natural selection,

DNA structure, and mutagenesis are all part

of our intellectual heritage. Since the dis-

covery of the structure of DNA in 1953,

genetics, molecular and evolutionary biology

have made considerable advances. Today, at

the end of the 20th century, the under-

standing of the information storage and

retrieval systems of the brain, and controlling

the expression of oncogenes, are among the

new biological frontiers.

The unveiling of the concept of evolution

took many centuries and involved many per-

sonalities stretching as far back as Aristotle

who, in the 4th century B.C. in his capacity

as tutor to Alexander the Great, was able to

collect biological specimens from the realms

conquered by his student. David Young

builds on Aristotle’s classification of or-

ganisms and begins his narrative in the

seventeenth century, with the contributions

of Ray, Descartes and Hooker. The problems

confronting the early naturalists and

philosophers were no less compelling, con-

fusing or difficult than those faced by

present-day natural scientists. Any concept

or theory can only advance or be understood

within the prevailing social, theological and

intellectual milieu. Therefore, at that time in

the western world, answers to the compelling

questions and even the framing of the ques-

tions themselves, were constrained by the

Christian doctrine of special creation and a

literal acceptance of the words of the Bible.

For example, how can a species change its

form and functions if all species were created

at one time by a Supreme Being? If all the

species that survived after the flood were

located in one area (perhaps Mount Ararat

where Noah’s ark was supposed to have

come to rest), how did species come to in-

habit areas of the earth that are unconnected

by land today? In a world ordered by divine

providence, how can fossils represent extinct

animals, for surely a Creator would not allow

his creations to vanish from the earth? How

can fossils of marine animals be found at the

tops of maountains? How can the world be

older than that ordained in the Book of

130

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Genesis? David Young shows how the

resolution of each problem only gave rise to

more questions and newer dimensions to the

history of life.

The developing fields of comparative

anatomy, embyology, geology, palaentology

and microscopy contributed to the under-

standing of species origins, extinctions and

current distributions with the worked of such

personalities as Linnaeus, Comte de Buffon,

Werner, Hutton, Cuvier and Lamarck in the

eighteenth century.

As the historical journey enters the

nineteenth century, the reader reaches Dar-

win, who brooded quietly over his theory

of evolution by natural selection for nearly

twenty years before being forced by Wal-

lace to jointly shatter the old theory of spe-

cial creation. Happily enough in this book,

Darwin isn’t stressed any more or less than

his contemporaries Lyell, Wallace and

Huxley. The development of the theory of

evolution by natural selection has much to

owe to all these other personalities. Follow-

ing the trail of the units of inheritance, the

story moves into the twentieth century in

the wake of Mendel and deVries culminating

in the contributions of Dobzhansky, Fischer,

Mayr and Simpson.

This book is largely written for the

layperson in a lucid, logical style. The

reader’s interest is sustained by easy, flow-

ing prose and the problem-solving ap-

proach. Concepts are explained in lay terms

without distortion of the facts.

There are excellent colour plates and black

and white illustrations, many of which are

reproductions of original illustrations made by

the scientific personalities themselves. A use-

ful addition to the text is a section entitled

"Evolutionary who’s who" which provides an

alphabetical list of the personalities in the

book, each entry accompanied by a short

biographical sketch. This is followed by a

guide to further reading in the various areas of

evolution introduced in the text.

This is a good book on the growth of

thought concerning the evolution of species.

I recommend this book highly to the layper-

son and professional alike.

RENEE M. BORGES

4. A BOOK OF KERALA BIRDS — By K.K. Neelakantan, C. Sashikumar, R.

Venugopalan. pp. xxxii +146 (21.5 x 14 cm) with 4 colour plates and text-figures

by Carl D’ Silva. Trivandrum, 1993. WWF-India. Price not stated.

The Kerala avifauna has had dedi-

cated followers from the time of Fer-

guson, the Curator of the Trivandrum

Museum at the turn of the century through

Salim Ali to K.K. Neelakantan. There are

perhaps more competent birdwatchers in

Kerala than any other State in India. The

vigour of ornithology in Kerala is largely

the result of two publications, the Birds

of Kerala by Salim Ali and K. K.

Neelakantan’ s Malay alam monograph on

the Birds of Kerala.

K.K. Neelakantan was the leading light

in Kerala ornithology and contributed sub-

stantially to the development of ornithology

as a hobby and as a serious scientific pursuit.

In this book, the authors describe the 95

species that have been identified, some posi-

tively and some tentatively, as additions to

the bird list of Kerala since the publication of

the BIRDS of KERALA by Salim Ali in 1969.

Some of the sightings such as of the Spoon-

billed Sandpiper and the Peninsular or

Ripley’s Bay Owl are very exciting indeed.

REVIEWS

131

Some of the species listed as requiring

verification would be equally stimulating to

the birdwatcher if confirmed. The descrip-

tions are competently done and the book

forms a useful addendum to Salim Ali’s

birds of kerala. The plates, though the

depictions are good, are somewhat dull; pos-

sibly because of the background. One looks

forward to seeing part 2 which will have

additional data on the species described in

Salim Ali’s birds of kerala. World Wide

Fund and Thanal are to be congratulated on

this useful publication.

J. C. DANIEL

5. CURRENT INDIAN FORESTRY, ENVIRONMENT & WILDLIFE.

Abstracts Vol. 1. Edited by Sudhir K. Arora. Dehra Dun, July, 1993. Agrim

Publishers. Annual Subscription Rs. 275/-, Foreign U.S. $ 50 Air Mail, $ 35

Surface Mail.

The CIEEWA, as it is abbreviated is

probably the first attempt at publishing

abstracts of articles from exclusively In-

dian Journals. The first issue covers 17

Journals covering Forestry, Environment

and Wildlife. The forestry section covers

32 interlinked disciplines, the Environmen-

tal Sciences 8, and Wildlife 9 disciplines.

The abstracts could have been more concise.

We hope that the whole spectrum of Journals

concerned with environmental sciences will

be covered in due course. A commendable

effort at information dissemination.

J.C. DANIEL

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

1. PARTURITION IN FERAL RHESUS MACAQUE ( MACACA MULATTA ): A CASE REPORT

Jaipur City has Macaca mulatto, and common

Presbytis entellus since time immemorial

(Mathur and Manohar 1989). Their density is high

in the old city of Jaipur (Mathur and Manohar

1990a). The groups at Ambagarh Reserve Forest

(ARF) have been under observation since October

1985. ARF has 7 langur and 5 rhesus groups

(Mathur and Manohar 1990b). In 7 years of study

only on one occasion, a rhesus female was seen

giving birth. On 29.5.87 at 10.30 a.m. at ARF I

was taking notes on Tamarindus group of rhesus,

which had 64 animals (8 adult males, 26 adult

females, 4 subadult males and 3 subadult females,

7 juveniles and 16 infants). An adult female drew

my attention, as she was making circling move-

ments and sitting intermittently. She appeared

restless. She inspected her genitalia frequently

with her hands, sniffed the hands and genitalia

alternately. In between she also looked at her hind

quarters. The entire sequence of parturition was

witnessed and recorded minute by minute.

10.30 The female was noticed making

peculiar movements. None of the other group

members noticed her though they were foraging

closeby.

10.32 She appeared restless, no specific

vocalization or gesture.

10.33 She squatted many times while still

continuing with circling movements.

10.35 While she squatted, contractions in her

abdominal region were very conspicuous. She

kept her palms on her knees.

10.39 She touched her genitalia and looked at

them; mucus was discharged, licked her fingers, a

swelling appeared in vaginal area.

10.40 Female explored its genitalia, blood

came out. She sat, stood again, blood kept coming

out. Something was seen protruding, probably the

head of infant.

10.41 Circled, bent and licked the blood, sat

on her rump, separated hind legs, bent down and

looked at the protruding infant’s head. There were

no apparent signs of pain. The female was neither

vocalizing nor had any special facial expressions.

The infant was coming out smoothly, female did

not use her fore/hind limb to pull the infant out.

10.42 The infant was out. The placenta came

out simultaneously. Female held the infant and

inspected; she sniffed and licked blood.

10.43 Mother chewed the umbilical cord to

separate it from the placenta, licked the blood

from infant’s fur but did not pick up the infant.

10.44 Female started eating amniotic sac and

placenta.

10.45 Another adult female with infant ap-

proached and sat about a meter away.

10.46 Baby was on ground close to the

mother, it was making faint noises while also

moving its limbs; mother was busy eating placen-

ta, almost ignoring the infant.

10.49 Placenta was consumed completely;

the other female who was watching, left.

10.50 Umbilical cord consumed completely.

10:51 A juvenile approached and looked at

the female. Mother continued cleaning infant by

licking. Mother picked up the infant and licked

the blood off its body.

11:01 Vocalization by infant increased both

in frequency and in pitch.

11:03 Female with the new born moved

towards a group of females and sat among them.

11.05 The other females looked at the new

born, the juveniles came close and sniffed.

11:06 Mother kept sitting at one place with

the group and licked the infant intermittently.

The actual delivery of the baby was very

short and quick. The entire act took 30 minutes.

The infant’s head was first seen coming out at

10:40 and in two minutes the entire body was out.

The ease with which the female delivered the

baby, indicated its multiparity.

September 9, 1993 REENA MATHUR

Department of Zoology, University of Rajasthan,

Jaipur 302 004.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

133

References

Mathur, Reena & B. Ram Manohar (1989): Monkeys

of the old city of Jaipur. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

86: 151-154.

Mathur, Reena & B. Ram Manohar (1990a): Density

of Macaca mulatto and Presbytis entellus in the Id

city of Jaipur. A three year survey. Applied Animal

Ethology 27: 351-361.

Mathur, Reena & B. Ram Manohar (1990b): Split

in Presbytis entellus groups at Ambagarh

Reserve Forest, Jaipur. Behavioural Proces-

ses 21: 1-11.

2. INFANT SURVIVAL AND MORTALITY IN FREE-RANGING HANUMAN

LANGURS, PRESBYTIS ENTELLUS JODHPUR, WESTERN INDIA

Studies of non-human primate life histories

are vital because life histories are key elements

of population dynamics. Detailed studies of life

tables and demographic parameters for free- rang-

ing non-human primates are still comparatively

rare (Winkler et al. 1984). In this paper, I present

life tables for infants born in three troops of

Hanuman langurs (. Presbytis entellus) between

December 1982 and September 1985. These

troops named B, KI and KII lived in a semi-arid

habitat about 8 km west of Jodhpur in Rajasthan

State, Western India. Long-term troop history

details are also available for these troops

(Agoramoorthy et al. 1988). The study troops

were monitored between December 1982 and

September 1985 to record demographic and social

behaviour data (Agoramoorthy and Mohnot

1988). Ad- libitum sampling was used as obser-

vational method (Altmann 1974). In total 41 new

born infants were observed during my study with

a total sex ratio of 0.46 female per male. One still

birth in troop B has been excluded from the

sample. Life tables for the period from birth to

twelve months of life were worked out. Calcula-

tions were based on Caughley (1977) by using the

mortality rate ( qx ), that is proportion of animals

alive at age x that die before the age x + /. The

px, lx , dx were converted from qx. This method

was preferred instead of calculating lx directly

from the animals still alive at a given age out of

total /. The sample fx gives the total number of

male and female infants still surviving at the

Table 1

SURVIVORSHIP OF MALE AND FEMALE INFANTS BORN IN TROOP B OF

HANUMAN LANGUR ( Presbytis entellus) OF JODHPUR

M = Male; F = Female.

134

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Table 2

SURVIVORSHIP OF MALE AND FEMALE INFANTS BORN IN TROOP KI OF

HANUMAN LANGUR (Presbytis entellus ) OF JODHPUR

M = Male; F = Female

Table 3

SURVIVORSHIP OF MALE AND FEMALE INFANTS BORN IN TROOP KII

OF HANUMAN LANGUR ( Presbytis entellus) OF JODHPUR

M = Male; F = Female.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

135

respective months after birth.

Troop B: A total of 12 births (two females

and 10 males) were recorded in troop B. Only

eight of them reached the age of 12 months (Table

1). One infant disappeared at 0.5 month of age

and three were killed by a new resident male

when the ages of infants were between 1-2, 2-3

and 3-4 months.

Troop KI: A total of 12 births (seven females,

and five males) were recorded in troop KI. Five

of the infants died; a male and female between

0-1 month, a female between 3-4 months, a male

between 7-8 months, and a female between 8-9

months (Table 2). Infanticide was the cause of

death for one infant; two infants died while cross-

ing a high voltage power line; and the exact cause

was not known for two infants.

Troop KII: A total of 17 births (four females

and 13 males) were recorded in troop B, of which

only nine infants reached the age of 12 months.

Infanticide was the cause of death in seven cases;

four died before the age of the three months; and

three at the age of eight months. Also, one infant

died while crossing a high voltage power line at

the age of 11 months (Table 3).

Adult male replacement followed by infan-

ticide has been observed in several species of

predominantly one-male troop-living non-

human primates (see Hausfater and Hrdy 1984)

and some social carnivores such as lions

(Bertram 1975, Packer and Pusey 1983). Hrdy

(1974) based on her study of Hanuman langurs

at Mount Abu suggested that males kill unre-

lated infants in order to induce sexual recep-

Refer

Agoramoorthy, G. (1992): Infanticide by adult and sub-

adult males in free-ranging red howler monkeys of

Venezuela. Paper presented in NATO Advanced Study

Institute’s Conference on the Ethological Roots of

Culture, held at Cortona, Italy, 21 June-3 July.

Agoramoorthy, G. & S.M. Mohnot (1988): Infanticide

and juvenilicide in Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis

entellus ) around Jodhpur, India. Human Evolution

(4): 279-296.

Agoramoorthy, G., S.M. Mohnot, V. Sommer & A.

Srivastava (1988): Abortions in free-ranging

Hanuman langurs, Presbytis entellus — A male

induced strategy? Human Evolution 3(4): 297-308.

tivity in females, so that the killer males could

then mate with the females to sire their own

offspring. On the other hand, Rudran (1979a, b,

in press) based on his study of red howler

monkeys suggested that infanticide has evolved

as a result of competition for food and this be-

havior enhances the fitness of infanticidal males

and also their offspring. However, in this study,

infanticide by adult males was observed to cause

severe infant mortality since 1 1 out of 41 langur

infants born in three troops were killed by invad-

ing males. The infanticidal males did not show

any sexual discrimination and were seen to kill

five female infants and six male infants (see

Agoramoorthy and Mohnot 1988 for details). Al-

though some older infants (eight months old in

three cases) were killed by adult male invaders,

younger infants were main targets because 72.7%

of cases the infants were less than five months

old. It appears that younger Hanuman langur in-

fants were extremely vulnerable for infanticidal

attacks. According to Rudran (in press), the vic-

tims of infanticide can be young as well as older

infants. Furthermore, killing of older infants in

three cases here indicated that vulnerability rather

than age is the key determinant of death, as

reported previously for the red howler monkeys

(Agoramoorthy 1992, Rudran in press).

November 26, 1993 G. AGORAMOORTHY

Wildlife Laboratory, Institute of Biology, National

Taiwan Normal University, 88 Sec. 5. Roosevelt Road,

Taipei 11718, Taiwan, R.O.C.

N CES

Altmann, J. (1974): Observational study of behavior:

Sampling methods. Behaviour 49: 227-267.

Bertram, B.C.R. (1975): Social factors influencing

reproduction in wild lions. J. Zoology 177: 463-

482.

Caughley, G. (1977): Analysis of Vertebrate Popula-

tions. London (Wiley).

Hausfater, G. & S.B. Hrdy (1984): Infanticide: Com-

parative and Evolutionary Perspectives. New York,

Aldine Press.

Hrdy, S.B. (1974): Male-male competition and infan-

ticide among langurs ( Presbytis entellus ) of Abu,

Rajasthan. Folia Primatol. 22: 19-58.

136

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Packer, C. & A.E. Pusey (1983): Male takeovers and

female reproduction parameters: A simulation of

estrous synchrony in lions ( Panthera leo). Animal

Behaviour 31: 334-340.

Rudran, R. (1979a): Infanticide in red howlers

(Alouatta seniculus) of Northern Venezuela.

(Paper presented in Vllth International Congress of

Primatology,) Bangalore, India, January 8-12.

Rudran, R. (1979b): The demography and social

mobility of a red howler (Alouatta seniculus )

population in Venezuela. In: Vertebrate ecology in

the northern neotropics. Eisenberg, J.F. (Ed.).

Smithsonian Institution, Washington, D.C. pp. 107-

126.

Rudran, R. (in press): Consequences of male invasions

in red howlers and a review of infanticide in non-

human primates. Current Mammalogy.

Winkler, P., H. Loch & C. Vogel (1984): Life his-

tory of Hanuman langurs ( Presbytis entellus):

Reproductive parameters, infant mortality

and troop development. Folia Primatol. 43:

1-23.

3. RUSTYSPOTTED CAT ( FELIS RUBIGINOSA GEOFFROY)

SIGHTED NEAR UDAIPUR

Udaipur has a lake called Fateh Sagar with a

road around it called Rani Road. The city is sur-

rounded by hills and two of the big hills called

Neemach Mata and Thoria Magra are under the

forest department.

On 26th July 1992 at about 6.30 p.m. while

driving on Rani Road, my daughter drew my atten-

tion to a dead cat lying near the road. I parked my

vehicle and examined the animal. It was a small cat,

probably killed in a road accident. The body was

swollen apparently the cat had been killed about 20

hrs earlier. Its coat was grey with a light reddish

tinge, with four dark brown stripes running from the

forehead to a little beyond the shoulder dorsally.

The flanks and other parts of the body had rusty

spots. On the hind quarter the size of the rusty

spots was smaller than that on the forelimbs. The

tail had no spots or marking. The chin and the

underside of the forearms had dark brown stripes.

The underside was white with black spots. I con-

sulted "the book of Indian animals" by S.H. Prater

1990 and found it to be a rusty spotted cat.

To the best of my knowledge this is the first

sighting of a rusty spotted cat from Rajasthan.

July 2, 1993 RAZA TEHSIN

38, Panchwati, Udaipur 313 001.

4. OCCURRENCE OF THE LEAF-NOSED BAT HIPPOSIDEROS LANKADIVA KELAART

(MAMMALIA:CHIROPTERA:RHINOLOPHIDAE) IN RATNAGIRI DISTRICT,

MAHARASHTRA

While working on the breeding biology of

the Horseshoe bat, Rhinolophus rouxi Temminck,

a bat collection trip was organised at Sangamesh-

war (17° 10' N, 73° 30' E) in Ratnagiri district of

Maharashtra state in June 1990. Sangameshwar

is a town on the Shastri river about 20 miles from

the coast. Bats were collected using mist nets

which were set on the river bank. In all 220 bats

were captured in two mist net operations of

which, 80 males and 110 females were identified

as R. rouxi and 8 males and 22 females were

identified as Leaf-nosed bat, Hipposideros

lankadiva. Of the total collection, four pregnant

females of each species were collected for

laboratory studies and the rest were released. On

further survey by Kothari, a colony of about 200

bats of H. lankadiva was sited in the old Shiva

temple which is situated on the western bank of

the river Shastri. The identifications were con-

firmed by Muni using the BNHS collections.

According to authoritative literature H.

lankadiva is known from Garo Hills, Assam

(Kemp 1924); Gersoppa, Kanara (Ellerman and

Morrison-Scott 1951, Wroughton 1913, Brosset

1962); Kolar, Eastern Mysore (Ellerman and Mor-

rison-Scott 1951, Ryley 1913); Mundra, Sagor,

Central Provinces (Ellerman and Morrison-Scott

1951, Wroughton and Ryley 1913a; BNHS collec-

tion); Talewadi, Belgaum (BNHS collections);

Sohagpur, Hoshangabad, Bihar (Brosset 1962);

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

137

Mandu, Indore (Brosset 1962, BNHS collec-

tions); Vijaynagar, Bellary (Brosset 1962,

Wroughton and Ryley 1913b) and Chandrapur

district in Maharashtra (Bhiwagade 1978).

Brosset (1962) in his paper on bats of central

and western India mentions that there is no record

of this species from Gujarat and Maharashtra.

However, Bhiwagade collected six female bats of

the same species from Chandrapur district,

Maharashtra, in 1978. There is no further record

of this species from any other parts of

Maharashtra. This is hence the first record of the

Refer

Bhiwgade, D.A. (1979): An analysis of implantation in

Indian hipposiderid bats. J. Anat. 128(2): 349-364.

Brosset, A. (1962): The bats of central and western

India. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59: 583-

624.

Ellerman, J.R. & T.C.S. Morrison-scott (1951):

Checklist of Palaearctic and Indian Mammals

1758-1946. British Mus. Nat. Hist., 810 pp.

Kemp, S. (1924): Notes on mammals of Siju Cave, Garo

Hills, Assam. Records Indian Mus. 26: 23-25.

Ryley, K.V. (1913): Bombay Natural History Society’s

Mammal Survey of India. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Leaf-nosed bat, H. lankadiva from Sangamesh-

war, Ratnagiri district, Maharashtra State.

July 15, 1993 MANOJ MUNI

Mammal Section, Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, S.B.S. Road, Bombay 400 023.

ARUN KOTHARI

D.A.BHIWGADE

Department of Zoology,

Institute of Science, Bombay 400 032.

ENCES

Soc., 22(2): 283-295.

Wroughton, R.C. (1913): Bombay Natural History

Society’s Mammal Survey of India. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 22(1): 29-44.

Wroughton, R.C. & K.V. Ryley (1913a): Bombay

Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of

India. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 22(1): 45-

58.

Wroughton, R.C. & K.V. Ryley (1913b): Bombay

Natural History Society’s Mammal Survey of

India. 7. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc., 22(1): 58-66.

5. WILD BUFFALO BUBALUS BUBALIS IN DHAKUAKHANA,

LAKHIMPUR DISTRICT OF ASSAM

Dhakuakhana Sub-division of Lakhimpur

district in eastern Assam is entirely on the flood-

plain zone of the Brahmaputra and its tributary,

the Subansiri. The original natural vegetation

comprised mostly of tall elephant-grass and

patches of marshes and woodland here and there

— favoured habitat for the rare Asiatic Wild

Water Buffalo ( Bubalus bubalis ). However, the

bulk of the woodlands have vanished while the

grassland is extant as patches only.

During my stay at Dhakuakhana from

November 1989 and April 1991, 1 made a detailed

survey of the whole sub-division and found that

the buffalo has vanished from the whole area

except one.

On 24 October 1990 a villager of Dakhin-

gaon-Keseruguri reported that four wild buffaloes

were in the grassland lying to the west of

Lamugaon and south of his village. On the basis

of this report I made a thorough survey of the area

on elephant-back. We located footprints near

Alotiagora village and then following track

amidst dense elephant-grass found four buffaloes

(date : 26 October, 1990). One large adult female

(pregnant), one more adult female, one sub-adult

male and one sub-adult female comprised the

herd. The bull of the herd, which had one horn

was killed sometimes in 1988 near Sariahni vil-

lage by the Mising tribe. This is the last herd and

also the remnant of the wild buffalo population in

the whole sub-division. The herd size is now five

with the large cow delivering a calf during the

winter of 1990-91.

The buffaloes of this area used to move upto

Kadam RF on the west bank of the Subansiri

river. But now the movement has almost ceased.

The wild ones reportedly visit their domestic

cousins in the nearby villages during night. How-

138

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

ever, during the survey I noticed that they main-

tain a distance from the domestic stock. While the

domestic buffaloes were seen grazing in the

peripheral areas, the wild ones restricted themsel-

ves to the thick and impenetrable elephant-grass

jungle.

The wild buffalo was well distributed

throughout Dhakuakhana. The main reasons for

decline were:

i) alteration of habitat for cultivation, mainly

winter crops; (ii) hunting by the Mising (formerly

plains Miri) tribe for food; and iii) attack by

rinderpest in mid-1970s.

Before the rinderpest, an estimated 100-150

buffaloes were in the present area which extended

upto Basudeo Than, Lesera and the proposed Bor-

doloni Sanctuary. It vanished from the Bordoloni

area in the early eighties. One more buffalo

habitat was available along the banks of the Brah-

maputra river. The chapories (sandy islets and

tracts) with tall grass provided ideal home for

some scattered herds, which were sometimes aug-

mented by arrivals from Majuli (Jorhat) and

Dibrugarh areas. The last wild buffalo of the

chapories was killed by the local Misings in 1984

at Bahir Bogori, near Tekeliphuta. It was a fine

specimen (male) and its horn is now in my col-

lection. The only other area where the buffalo is

rarely met with, even today is the banks of the

Subansiri river near Bebejia. Here the stragglers

come from Kadam RF.

The future of the wild buffalo in Dhakuak-

hana is bleak. With only five animals surviving,

that too in an area surrounded by villages and

domestic stock, it is only a matter of time to

declare it as ‘locally extinct’. However, I sub-

mitted a proposal to the Government with

clearence from the local administration, for a

small sanctuary, namely the Borkalia Wildlife

Sanctuary (4.6 sq. km) which will help this rem-

nant buffalo population to recover for the time

being and will also protect some wintering water

fowls.

My thanks go to Padma Dihingia and Lankes-

war Pegu for their help during the survey.

April 30, 1993 ANWARUDDIN CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium,

Islampur Road, Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

6. SIGHTING OF CHRISTMAS ISLAND FRIGATE BIRD

C FREGATA ANDREWSI MATHEWS) IN THE ANDAMANS

On 13/11/89 an unusual bird with long

wingspan and forked tail was seen at 14-30 hrs.,

soaring initially low and later going very high in

increasing circles, at Rangat Bay jetty, in Middle

Andaman (approximately 12° 30' N and 93° E).

Immediately a photograph was taken (200 mm,

Nikon) for confirming the bird later on, along

with a sketch and notes on special features. The

bird was identified with the help of description

and pictures given in the book "sea birds-an

identification GUIDE” by Peter Harrison, as a

juvenile of Christmas Island Frigate bird ( Fregata

andrewsi). This bird is restricted to Christmas

Island (Indian Ocean) south of Java c. 11° S. No

previous authentic record has been made from

Indian waters, as stated by Salim Ali and Ripley

in their book handbook of the birds of India and

PAKISTAN (1983).

The juvenile of Christmas Island Frigate bird

differs from first stage juvenile of Lesser Frigate

bird in white belly and broader breast band; while

its differentiation from juvenile Great Frigate bird

is more difficult, but that species lacks white on

axillaries.

This record was made soon after a severe

cyclonic storm hit Middle Andamans in the early

morning of 6th Nov. 1989, indicating this vagrant

was carried by the cyclonic winds to the east

coast of Andamans.

December 16, 1991 AJAI SAXENA

Deputy Conservator of Forests,

Wildlife Division, Haddo, Port Blair 744 102,

Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

139

7. SITE-FIDELITY TO THE UNUSUAL NESTING SITE OF BRAHMINY KITE

HAL1ASTUR INDUS (BODDAERT)

Site-fidelity to the wintering and breeding

sites have been well established in migratory water-

bird species. At Point Calimere the brahminy kite’s

Haliastur Indus resident population is augmented

by seasonal migrants. As the peak population coin-

cides with the breeding season, a portion of the

migrants can be called as breeding migrants to

Point Calimere. The unusual nesting site of brah-

miny kite on the ground at Point Calimere was

reported by Morrison et al. (1992, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 89: 117-118). The above nest with two

eggs was located under a Prosopis chilensis cover,

and later the eggs were predated. Then the P chilen-

sis bush (ground) was cleared by Chemical and

Plastics India Limited (Chemplast) company while

repairing the reservoir bund. During 1991 also in

the same site (the P chilensis had grown to one

metre height) the brahminy kite (probably the

same) built the nest and laid two eggs which were

also later preyed upon. This observation was again

done by two of the three observers (S.

Balachandran and Lima Rosalind).

Again in 1992, a nest with two eggs was

noticed on 22nd February about 20 m away from

the old nest site. As there is no trace of P. chilen-

sis growth in the same site, they nested in a

partially dried Suaeda bush about 40 cm height

from the ground. The bush was covered with

dried twigs of P. chilensis and Suaeda, and lined

with small pieces of dried mud. As no other nest

was observed on the ground at Point Calimere,

the breeding pair may be the same one showing

strong fidelity to their nesting site. Inspite of the

predation twice in three breeding seasons. The

reason for preferring this unusual site is not clear.

May 7, 1992 S. BALACHANDRAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

R. SAKTHIVEL

Department of Wildlife Biology,

A.V.C. College, Mannampandal,

Mayiladuthurai, Tamil Nadu.

8. ADDITIONS TO THE BIRDS OF ASSAM: WHITE-TAILED SEA EAGLE AND

LARGE SAND PLOVER

Whitetailed Sea Eagle ( Haliaeetus albicilla

Linnaeus)

On 8th February, 1990 while surveying

the chapories (sandy islets and tracts) off

Matmora in Lakhimpur district of Assam, I

saw a large dark brown eagle. However, four

goosander or common merganser ( Mergus

merganser ) on the shingle banks of a small

sandy islet diverted my attention for some

time. When the goosanders left the area, be-

cause of my presence I concentrated on the

eagle which was then soaring overhead. The

most interesting feature I noticed was its

wholly white tail. To view it closer I used a

pair of 20 x binocular, and focused on its

white tail.

The wings were dark brown from below with

head and upper breast lighter (light yellowish

brown as seen in bright sunlight). The size of the

bird was about that of Pallas’s Fishing Eagle

{Haliaeetus leucoryphus). Later on I again saw

the bird in flight when I tried to photograph it

(without success). It was undoubtedly a

Whitetailed Sea Eagle {Haliaeetus albicilla Lin-

naeus), and happens to be the first record as for

NE India — in fact, east of Nepal.

Large Sand Plover {Charadrius leschenaul-

tii Lesson)

On 28th January, 1990 one was spotted on

the border of Lakhimpur and Jorhat districts. In-

land records in the Indian subcontinent are pos-

sibly of passage migrants only. The status of the

bird in Assam remains to be determined.

February 28, 1992 ANWARUDDIN

CHOUDHURY

Near Gate No. 1 of Nehru Stadium, Islampur Road,

Guwahati 781 007, Assam.

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

9. OCCURRENCE OF THE EASTERN MARSH HARRIER

CIRCUS AERUGINOSUS SPILONOTUS KAUP IN CORBETT NATIONAL PARK:

A RANGE EXTENSION

During March 1992, a juvenile Eastern

Marsh Harrier Circus spilonotus was observed in

Corbett National Park in northern Uttar Pradesh

(29°31' N, 70°41' E). The harrier was frequently

seen for 5/6 days quartering the open grasslands

of the Dhikala Chaur and along the Ramganga

river in the Park. Its identity was confirmed later

by William S. Clark through photographs. Once

treated as a race of the Western Marsh Harrier

Circus aeruginosus , it is now considered a

separate species (Amadon and Bull 1988, Howard

and Moore 1991). The forests of the north central

Sivaliks and Terai which were once contiguous

are today disjointedly so with the forested

foothills and Duars of the North-east, facilitating

east to west movement of avifauna. The species

breeds in the eastern central Asian steppes and

winters in the Orient and Eastern India (Brown

and Amadon 1968). It has not been previously

recorded west of Assam (Ali and Ripley 1978).

Therefore, the sighting in Corbett signifies an

Refer

Ali, S.A. & S.D. Ripley (1978): Handbook of Birds of

India & Pakistan, Vol. I. Oxford University Press,

Delhi.

Amadon, D. & J. Bull (1988): Hawks & Owls of the

World. A Distributional and Taxonomic List.

Western Foundation of Vertebrate Zoology. 1100

Glendon Avenue Los Angeles, California 90024.

important range extension and the first record for

the park. However, it needs to be determined over

a period of time whether the species is a vagrant

or a regular winter visitor to the north central

Sivaliks. Two additional sightings in the An-

daman Islands and at Periyar Tiger Reserve in

Kerala (Eames 1991) need further confirmation

and would greatly extend the southward range

from the main north-eastern wintering grounds.

Special thanks to Dave Ferguson of the U.S. Fish

& Wildlife Service which funded the BNHS rap-

tor project for infrastructural support, Mr R. S.

Bhadauria, I.F.S., C.C.F. U.P. (Wildlife) who

readily gave permission for field work and Mr A.

S. Negi, Field Director, Corbett, who provided all

facilities and to William S. Clark.

January 22, 1993 RISHAD NAOROJI

Godrej Bhavati, Home Street,

Bombay 400 001,

n c e s

Brown, L.H. & D. Amadon (1968): Eagles, Hawks and

Falcons of the World. Hamlyn Feltham, Middlesex.

Eames, J. (1991): Recent reports. Bulletin no. 13. Orien-

tal Bird Club. 50.

Howard, R. & A. Moore (1991): A complete Checklist

of the Birds of the World. Second edition.

Academic Press Inc., San Diego, CA 92101.

10. LONGEST LONGEVITY RECORD FOR THE LESSER SANDPLOVER

CHARADRIUS MONGOLUS PALLAS

Among the waders, the lesser sand plover is

one of the most abundant winter visitor to India. In

south India about 8000 individuals have been ringed

by the Bombay Natural History Society’s Bird

Migration Project. At Point Calimere (10° 18' N; 75°

51' E) ringing waterbirds has been carried on for the

last 12 years. Previously ringing was done between

1969-1973. A few individuals of some species

ringed between 1969-73 were retrapped between

1980-82. After that in 1990 and 1991 two lesser

sand plover ringed in 1970 and 1971 at Point

Calimere were retrapped after 18 and 20 years

respectively. The details are as follows:

As there is no previous published record on

the longevity of this species, it is a very interest-

ing longevity record for the wader researchers.

Being eastern species, the lesser sand plover and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

141

greater sand plover Charadrius leschenaultii

have not been studied extensively, as they migrate

along the Australasian fly way which has not been

monitored earlier. Other related species such as

kentish plover Charadrius alexandrinus, little

ringed plover Charadrius dubius, and ringed

plover Charadrius hiaticula have been studied

extensively along the East Atlantic flyway and

their longevity have been documented based on

the ringing and recapture dates. However, the

recorded longevity period for the above three

species is about 10 years (Cramp and Simmons

1983, THE BIRDS OF THE WESTERN PALAEARCTIC, Vol.

3.). Hence, the present longevity record of 20

years for the lesser sand plover is the longest

among all the plovers.

May 7, 1992 S.BALACHANDRAN

S.A. HUSSAIN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, S. B. Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

11. SIGHTING OF LITTLE GULL LARUS MINUTUS PALLAS AT

BHAVNAGAR NEW PORT, GUJARAT

Since the late Dr Salim Ali reported seeing

flocks of Larus minutus ( JBNHS 71: 609-610) in

the Great Rann of Kachchh, in 1956, 1957 and

1960, we have come across them [10 km, SE. of

Bhavnagar City (21° 46' N, 72° 11' E)] on January

12, 1992. Three individuals of these birds in a

flock of Brownheaded Gulls, L. brunnicephalus

were seen. They were half the size of the

Brownheads, and had a black bill, an indistinct

spot behind eye, light grey on the wings and white

on rest of the body.

This gull is an accidental vagrant to the In-

dian subcontinent, there being only one specimen

collected by Walter Koelz from Ladakh.

May 22, 1992 B. M. PARASHARYA

AICRP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University,

Anand 388 110.

K.L. MATHEW

N.C. BHATT

24, Bank Society, Subhashnagar,

Bhavnagar 364 001.

12. DUETTING IN THE GREAT HORNED OWL, BUBO NIPALENSIS HODGSON

(STRIGIFORMES: STRIGIDAE)

(With a text-figure)

While staying at Nagarahole National Park,

Karnataka from 7-13 February 1990 the senior

author had the opportunity to record owl calls

which were made intermittently near his bun-

galow almost every night. The calls were

recorded around 0300 hours on 8 February with

a Sony Walkman Professional Model WM-D6 and

an ECM- 929LT stereo microphone. On listening

to the recording the next morning I was surprised

to find that the three note call had a distinctive

stereophonic effect with the first and third notes

being of lower amplitude than the middle note,

which came from a different direction. A total of

10 calls were recorded, 7 consisted of three notes,

and 3 consisted of single notes. The single note

calls are identical to the first element of the three

note calls. It seems quite clear on listening to the

recording that there are two owls vocalizing, al-

though this was not apparent to my unaided ear

when initially recording the owls. The single calls

appear to be "prompting calls" or unanswered

duets; our interpretation of the recording is as

follows: when bird B answered the first note, bird

A always produced the third note of the sequence.

To examine spectral and temporal features,

we analyzed the calls with a Kay Elemetrics DSP

5500 Sona-Graph. Notes one and three of the

seven hypothesized duets were similar in

amplitude and frequency, while the intervening

note was always louder and of lower frequency

10

142

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

Time (Sec)

Fig. 1. Difference in amplitude and harmonics of the A and B notes hypothesized to represent two different birds.

(Fig. 1). The duration of the first and third notes

was also similar [mean and range, 0.39 (0.38-

0.41) and 0.38 (0.32-0.42), respectively], while

the middle note was nearly twice as long [mean

and range, 0.71 (0.70-0.73)]. The intervals be-

tween the calls differ. The interval between the

first and second calls was longer and more vari-

able [0.55 (0.38-0.87) than the interval between

the second and third notes 0.17 (0.10- 0.22)]. If

both owls were vocalizing at about the same

amplitude, then bird B was closer to the

microphone. With this spatial arrangement, the

only way the interval pattern described above can

be generated is for the two owls to differ in their

response time — owl A responding more rapidly

to B’s call then B responds to owl A. This cir-

cumstantial evidence for duetting in the Indian

horned owl remains to be verified by sight

records of duetting birds.

The recording was examined by Dr Joe Mar-

shall (ret. Fish & Wildlife Service) who identified

the species as Bubo nipalensis , and who sent a

copy of the recording to Dr John William Hardy

(Florida State Museum, Gainesville). We thank

Dr Marshall for his assistance.

June 24, 1992 CHRIS WEMMER

Conservation & Research Center,

National Zoological Park,

Front Royal, VA 22630 (U.S.A.).

KIM C. DERRICKSON

Department of Zoological Research,

National Zoological Park,

Washington, DC 20008.

13. A GREY SHRIKE LANIUS EXCUBITOR LINNAEUS KILLING A FULL GROWN LITTLE

BROWN DOVE STREPTOPELIA SENEGALENSIS (LINNAEUS)

On 15 March 1992, while walking along a

forest path in Sariska Tiger Reserve, I saw a Little

Brown Dove Streptopelia senegalensis feeding on

the ground near some bushes. A Grey Shrike

Lanius excubitor suddenly pounced on the dove

and pinned it to the ground. I was not able to see,

how the shrike held the dove, as the shrike par-

tially covered the dove with its slightly spread-

out wings. The dove tried hard to get away, beat-

ing its wings desperately and rolling this way and

that, to shake off the shrike’s hold but the shrike

tenaciously clung on to the dove.

Soon the dove stopped struggling. The shrike

kept its hold for some more time and then started

plucking the dove, looking up now and then.

After plucking feathers for some time, the shrike

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

143

flew away leaving the prey back.

I waited for half an hour but the shrike did

not return. No other predator or scavenger was

seen. The feathers from the head, neck and breast

had been plucked and there was a curved, incised,

wound 8 mm x 1 mm on the back of the head.

Apparently it had died from the head wound

caused by the sharp beak of the shrike piercing

the skull and injuring its brain. I left and returned

after about two hours. The dead dove had disap-

peared.

Salim Ali and S. Dillon Ripley (handbook of

the BIRDS of INDIA and Pakistan, compact edition

1983, page 344) while describing the food of the

grey shrike Lanius excubitor Linnaeus mention

"young or sickly birds (full-grown lark and young

Brahminy Myna recorded); known to attack a

wounded sandgrouse." In this event the Grey

Shrike caught and killed a full-grown, adult dove.

May 7, 1992 ASHOK KUMAR SHARMA

D-67, Sawai Madho Singh Road,

Bani Park, Jaipur 302 016.

14. RUFOUSBACKED SHRIKE ( LANIUS SCHACH LINNE) FEEDING A STRIPED KEELBACK

(AMPHIESMA STOLATA) TO CUCKOO ( CUCULUS CANORUS LINNE) FLEDGELING

On the 22nd of September, 1991 while watching

birds in the New Forest Campus in Dehra Dun I was

attracted towards squeaking calls from the compound

of a house. Closer observation revealed a young

Cuckoo perched on the bare branch of a mango tree

some 3 metres above the ground. The presense of a

white nuchal spot helped in the identification of the

Cuckoo as Cuculus canorus. The squeaking calls

were feeding calls and in no time a Rufous- backed

Shrike arrived and perched by the side of the Cuckoo

fledgeling. The Cuckoo responded by increased

squeaking, fluttering of wings, and opening the gape

which was conspicuously orange on the inside. The

shrike fed the Cuckoo fledgeling nearly twice its size

with a small insect and flew off. After 3 minutes the

shrike returned with a striped keelback about 25 cm

long in its beak.

The Cuckoo fledgeling solicited with its

usual zeal, and in no time the dead snake was

passed on to it by its foster parent. The Cuckoo

having a fairly long prey dangling from its beak

behaved nervously, shook it many times and also

tried to hit it on the branch. While doing so the

snake fell from its beak into the tall grass. The

Shrike which was watching the scene dived im-

mediately to the ground and retrieved the snake.

The Cuckoo once again dropped the snake. The

shrike retrieved it again and offered it to the

Cuckoo chick. After shaking it a little the Cuckoo

started swallowing the snake head first and

devoured it completely inside in two minutes.

May 27, 1992 DHANANJAI MOHAN

28, Trevor Road, New Forest, Dehradun 248 006.

15. PHILIPPINE SHRIKE LANIUS CRISTATUS LUCIONENSIS , A REGULAR WINTER VISITOR

TO SOUTH INDIA

The status of the Philippine shrike Lanius cris-

tatus lucionensis in India had been stated by Ali and

Ripley (1983) as a winter visitor to Andaman and

Nicobar islands. It is recorded in Sri Lanka, but the

status is not yet clearly known. However, they sug-

gested that the population of this species occurring in

Sri Lanka reaches through Andaman and Nicobar

islands. Apart from Andaman and Nicobar islands it

is also recorded from Kerala. At Point Calimere the

occurrence of the Philippine shrike has been con-

firmed by ringing more than ten individuals during

October 1991. We believe that this species has been

overlooked for many years, though it can be easily

differentiated from the brown shrike Lanius cristatus

cristatus. The differences in the plumage characters

were taken as variation due to difference in age. The

species was also recorded in Sriharikota island which

is situated further north along the east coast

(Mohapatra and Santharam 1992). It is evident from

the number of birds of both the species ringed, that

the population of the Philippine shrike wintering at

Point Calimere is almost equal to that of the brown

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

shrike. In south India these two species have been

recorded both along the east and west coasts. The

Philippine shrike can be considered as a regular

winter visitor to India as is the brown shrike. Peak

populations for brown and Philippine shrikes was

observed during their autumn passage which indicate

that the wintering population of Sri Lanka may pass

through Point Calimere also.

Refe

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1983): Handbook of the

birds of India and Pakistan, (Compact edition).

Oxford University Press, New Delhi.

Mohapatra, K.K. & V. Santharam (1992): Occur-

rence of the Philippine shrike Lanius cristatus

16. COMMON MYNAS

It also supports the suggestion made by

Ripley (1982), that the brown shrike which breeds

in the Khasi Hills and North Cachar may be the

subspecies L. lucionensis.

May 7, 1992 S. BALACHANDRAN

S. ALAGAR RAJAN

Bombay Natural History Society,

Hombill House, Shaheed Bhagat Singh Road,

Bombay 400 023.

R e n c e s

lucionensis Linn, in coastal Andhra Pradesh. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 89(2): 255.

Ripley, S.D. (1992): A synopsis of the birds of India

and Pakistan. Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

DRINKING SEA WATER

On Fregate Island (202 ha), Seychelles,

between 31 January and 12 February 1992,

pairs and small parties of Common Mynas

Acridotheres tristis (Linn.) fed regularly on

the beach, both on sandy beaches and on

beach limestone within the lagoon when ex-

posed at low tide. The identity of the food

items taken was not determined but the feed-

ing methods used by Mynas suggested that a

diversity of food types was taken: Mynas

picked food items from the surface of the

limestone, pried under stones, turned over

seaweed and chased or pounced on presumab-

ly more mobile prey.

During these studies maximum tempera-

tures reached 34°C each day and during the

hottest part of the day (approximately 1100 h

to 1500 h). Mynas that were feeding on the

shore were regularly seen to drink from small

pools in the beach limestone. Between feeding

bouts, birds walked to the edge of these pools,

lowered the beak into the water and then lifted

the head in typical "dip and tilt" (Campbell and

Lack 1985) drinking fashion. The number of

such movements observed within a drinking

bout ranged from 1 to 7.

No facilities were available for measuring

water teperature or salinity in these pools but

while most Mynas drank from pools close to the

water’s edge, some drank from pools in the upper

shore where the water was very warm to the touch

and tasted very saline.

The drinking of sea water on Fregate Island

took place despite the availability of fresh

water in a small river, in rain-water pools and

in water troughs and other standing water

around a pig sty. I have failed to find reference

to this behaviour in the literature on Common

Mynas (Ali and Ripley 1972, Sengupta 1982)

and while the drinking of sea water is well

known in seabirds, which have salt glands ena-

bling them to excrete excess salt (Campbell

and Lack 1985), the drinking of sea water by

Mynas is surprising since they lack salt

glands and might therefore subject themsel-

ves to osmotic stress.

July 1, 1992 C. J. FEARE

Central Science Laboratory,

(Ministry of Agriculture, Fisheries & Food),

Tangley Place, Worplesdon, Surrey GU3 3LQ, U.K.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

145

R EFERENCES

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1972): Handbook of the birds of

India and Pakistan, vol. 5. Oxford: Oxford Univer-

sity Press.

Campbell, B. & E. Lack (1985): A dictionary of birds.

Calton: T. & A.D. Poyser.

Sengupta, S. (1982): The Common Myna. S. Chaud &

Company Ltd., New Delhi.

17. JUNGLE BABBLER TURDOIDES STRIATUS FEEDING ON

GARDEN LIZARD CALOTES VERSICOLOR

On 12 March 1991 at 1030 h in the Gujarat

Agricultural University, Campus, Anand, Gujarat,

we saw a Jungle Babbler Turdoides striatus (Jer-

don) flying low between trees with a dead Garden

Lizard Calotes versicolor (Daudin) in its bill. The

abdominal region of the lizard was already

damaged and opened and the tail was missing. As

the babbler landed on a tree, other flock mates

also followed it and one of them could manage to

snatch the prey away. This babbler did not go far

but landed on the ground and took position near

a tree trunk, protected on the sides by bushy

growth of ornamental plants which prevented rob-

bing attempts by conspecifics.

Once settled the babbler broke its unusually

large prey into small pieces. It did not make any

attempt to tear the prey by holding it between its

bill and feet as large avian predators do. Instead

it pressed the lizard under its feet, and picked the

lizard repeatedly and within 4 minutes the lizard

was swallowed in small pieces.

The Jungle Babbler is omnivorous. Mason

and Maxwell-Lefroy (1912) had found frogs in

the gut of this species in Bihar. There exist only

one earlier record of recovery of Calotes from the

gut of the Jungle Babbler (1 out of 140 gut con-

tents) by Andrews and Naik (1970). Toor and

Saini (1986) have reported that Large Grey Bab-

bler T. malcolmi also feeds on lizards in Punjab

(2 out of 125 gut contents).

May 7, 1992 B.M. PARASHARYA

K. L. MATHEW

AICRP on Agricultural Ornithology,

Gujarat Agricultural University, Anand 388 110.

References

Andrews, M.I. & R.M. Naik (1970): The biology of the tomological Series Vol. 3.

Jungle Babbler. Pavo, 8: 1-34. Toor, H.S. & M.S. Saini (1986): Feeding ecology of the

Mason, C.W. & H. Maxwell-Lefroy (1912): The Food Large Grey Babbler Turdoides malcolmi. Proc. In-

of Birds in India Mem. Agr. Dept. India, En- dian Acad. Sci. (Anim. Sci.) 95: 429-436.

18. SOME NOTES ON PIED GROUND THRUSH ZOOTHERA WARDII (BLYTH)

The Pied Ground Thrush Zoothera wardii is

known to be a passage migrant in southern India

according to Ali and Ripley (1987) and Kar-

thikeyan (1992) and is known only from a few

places in South India. It is known to winter in Sri

Lanka.

This species was first seen in a very small

shola amidst coffee plantation near Yercaud (11°

46' N, 78° 13' E) on 22 February 1992 when two

males were seen. One of them was seen near a

pool in the shola, while the other was seen flying

up to a tree at the edge of the shola.

On 23 February 1992 a male was seen in the

coffee plantation rummaging amongst the litter

and was almost buried amidst it. The Pied Ground

Thrush chased a Whitethroated Ground Thrush

Zoothera citrina cyanotus which was also forag-

ing near by but tolerated the presence of the

Spotted Babbler Pellorneum ruficeps which was

similarly occupied less than a foot away.

Two sightings of one female on each oc-

casion on 22 February 1992 and 26 February 1992

could not be confirmed due to briefness of the

sighting.

These sightings near Yercaud, Shevaroy hills

further substantiate Krys Kazmierczak’s (1991)

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JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 91 (1994)

sighting of the species at Yercaud on 28 and 30

December 1990 which happens to be the first

record of the species wintering in South India1.

Later while on a visit to Kolli hills one male

Pied Ground Thrush was seen on 8 March 1992.

The individual was seen inside a shola which is

quite disturbed and near Sholaikadu (11° 18' N,

78° 21' E). This happens to be the first record of

the species for Kolli hills.

The three sightings, all of them being in

February and March along with Kryz

Kazmierczak’s sighting in December suggest that

the species winters in Shevaroy and Kolli hills in

South India.

The above observations were made during

visits to Yercaud and Kolli hills as part of the Tree

Shrew (Anathana ellioti ) Project funded by World

Wildlife Fund — US and coordinated by World

Wide Fund for Nature — India (Tamil Nadu State

Office).

May 7, 1992 S. KARTHIKEYAN

24, opp. Banashankari Temple,

8th Block Jayanagar P.O., Bangalore 560 082.

References

Ali, S. & S.D. Ripley (1987): The Compact Handbook

of the birds of India and Pakistan. (II edition).

Oxford Univ. Press, New Delhi, pp. 737.

Karthikeyan, S. (1992): Pied Ground Thrush Zoothera

Reported from Pt. Calimere

wardii (Blyth) in Bangalore. J. Bombay nat. Hist.