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- Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 64, No. 1

Editors

H. SANTAPAYU, s.J.,

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

APRIL 1967

Rs. 18 (Inland) Sh. 30 (Foreign)

* NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Conttiburas of scientific articles are requested = to assist the

editors by observing the following instructions:

1. Papers which have at the same time been offered for publica-

tion to other journals or periodicals, or have already been published

elsewhere, should not be submitted.

2. The MS. should be typed (double spacing) on one side of a

sheet only, and the sheets properly numbered.

3. All scientific names to be printed in italics should be under-

lined. Both in zoological and in botanical references only the initial

letter of the genus is capitalized. The specific and subspecific names

always begin with a small letter even if they refer to a person or a place,

e.g. Anthus hodgsoni hodgsoni or Streptopelia chinensis suratensis or

Dimeria blatteri.

4. Trinomials referring to subspecies should only be used where

identification has been authentically established by comparison of

specimens actually collected. In all other cases, or where ence ee

is based merely on sight, binomials should be used.

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not underlined (roman type), thus: |

Banerji, M. L. (1958): Botanical Exploration in East Nepal.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55(2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

8. Reference to literature in the text should be made by quoting

the author’s name and year of publication, thus: (Banerji 1958).

9. Synopsis: Each scientific paper should be accompanied by

a concise, clearly written synopsis, normally not exceeding 200 words.

10. Reprints: Authors are supplied 25 reprints of their articles

free of charge. In the case of joint authorship, 50 copies will be

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for additional reprints should be in multiples of 25 and should be

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packing.

EDITORS, ‘3

Hornbill House, ii Journal of the Bombay Natural

Opp. Lion Gate, History Society.

Apollo Street, Fort,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 64, No. 1—APRIL 1967

Date of Publication: 15-7-1967

CONTENTS

THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. By J. E. Hill “48 l

A New SPEcIEs OF Christisonia GARDN. FROM SOUTH INDIA. By N. A. Erady.

(With a plate) .. ios me +) iis aa 10

EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE. By T. J. Roberts - x ioe 13

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI, INDIA. By Julian P. Donahue... 22

STUDIES IN TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF Bursera delpechiana Potss. EX ENGL. IN

INDIA. By Rajendra Gupta and Roma Banerji. (With a plate) .. .. 49

ON SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF Coilia dussumieri (CUV. AND VAL.). By

Madhav Gadgil. (With six figures) es Re Pee as)

FALCONRY. By S. M. Osman. (With two plates) - a tes 40

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MussooriIE HILLs. By M. B. Raizada and

H. O. Saxena... ae a ae ie ee 75

A NEw SPECIES OF FRESHWATER FISH OF THE GENUS Hemiramphus Cuv. FROM

GORAKHPUR, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA. By G. J. Srivastava. (With

a text-figure) ue ui: ma Za ae .. 93

STUDIES ON THE VEGETATION OF PONDS, SWAMPS AND RIVER BANKS IN RAIPUR,

MADHYA PRADESH. By K. Sankaran Unni. (With a map) iF ea «605

REVIEWS :

1. Evolution. (D.E.R.) .. <2 es As .s _ 103

2. Dictionary of Economic Plants in India. (P.V. Bole) 2 os 103

3. Man and Insects. (D.E.R.) i ’. Fe .. 104

4. The Crab and its relatives. (B.F.C.) ee oy -. 106

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Palm Squirrel Funambulus palmarum (Linnaeus) in Australia. By Ishwar

Prakash (p. 108). 2. Great Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus Linn.) in Nepal. By

R. G. M. Willan (p. 108). 3. The Purple Wood Pigeon (Columba punicea Blyth)

and the Himalayan Tree Pie (Dendrocitta formosae Swinhoe) in Orissa. By S.D. Jayakar

(p. 109). 4. Nestling of Common Indian Nightjar, Caprimulgus asiaticus Latham.

By B. S. Lamba (p. 110). 5. The House Crow Corvus splendens Vieillot feeding on

the Indian Desert Gerbil Meriones hurrianae (Jerdon). By William D. Fitzwater (p. 111).

6. Observations on the mating behaviour and copulation in Draco dussumieri Dum. &

Bib. (Reptilia: Sauria). By K. O.John (p.112). 7. The Hooded Malpolon, M. moilensis

(Reuss) and notes on other snakes of north-eastern Arabia. By J. Mandaville (With a

plate) (p. 115). 8. Rhina anchylostoma Schneider from the inshore waters off Porto-

novo, S. India. By T. Venkateswarlu (With a photograph) (p. 118). 9. Remarks on

the band pattern of the Sole Zebrias synapturoides (Jenkins). By K. V. Rama Rao

(With a plate) (p. 119). 10. A re-description of the Anchovy Engraulis rambhae

Chaudhuri. By S. Dutt (p.120). il. A note on the Torch (Soonthu) fishing for

whitebait off Rameswaram in Palk Bay. By P.S. B. R. James (p. 123). 12. Lymantria

obfuscata Wik. and its natural enemies in Kashmir. By M. K. Zutshi (p.126). 13. A

record of Delias sanaca perspicua Fruhstorfer (Lepidoptera: Pieridae) from India. By

D. K. Manda! and H. C. Ghosh (p. 129). 14. A note on Arya rubrelineata Dist.

(Jassidae, Homoptera) from Kalyani. By K. Ramachandra Rao (With a text-figure)

(p. 130). 15. Record of Cletus bipunctatus Westw. (Hemiptera : Coreidae) on wild

Rajgira Amaranthus viridis Linn. in the Tarai, Uttar Pradesh. By J. P. Singh (p. 131).

16. Pedunculate cirripedes, Conchoderma virgatum (Spengler) attached to a pennellid

Copepod, Pennella sp. parasitic on a flying fish, Cypsilurus (Hirundichthys) speculiger

(Cuv. et Val.). By A. Daniel and V. K. Premkumar (With two photographs) (p. 132). 17.

_ Euclidium tenussimum (Pallas) Fedt. and Medicago rugosa Descr.: Two new records for

India. By N. C. Nair (With a plate) (p. 133). 18. Amaranthus polygoncides Linn. from

Osmanabad District : A new record for India. By V. N. Naik (p. 134). 19. Justicia

trinervia Vahl. A new record for Orissa. By C. P. Sreemadhavan (p. 135). 20. Elatine

ambigua Wt. A new record for Erstwhile Bombay State. By J. G. Chohan, G. L. Shah

and M. B. Deshpande (With a text-figure) (p. 135). 21. Additions to the flora of

Dangs Forest, Gujarat. By G. L. Shah and B. Suryanarayana (p.136 ).

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1967 APRIL Vol. 64 No. |

The Bats of the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands

J. E. HILyi

Department of Zoology, British Museum (Natural History)

This paper summarises the species of bats so far known from the

Andaman and Nicobar Islands and provides notes on a small collection

of bats obtained by Mr. Humayun Abdulali during visits to various

islands in the two groups. His efforts have added Megaderma spasma

to the list of bats recorded from the Andamans and Taphozous saccolaimus

crassus to those known from the Nicobars. Further specimens of Hippo-

sideros diadema nicobarensis and Pipistrellus javanicus camortae have been

obtained, enabling an assessment of the taxonomic status of these hitherto

poorly known forms to be made.

The bat fauna of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands is known from

a wide diversity of descriptions and records. Consequently, the examina-

tion of a collection of bats obtained in these islands by Mr. Humayun

Abdulali in the course of two ornithological trips has prompted a brief

review to establish a basis for any future studies. Consisting of thirty-six

specimens representing ten species, the collection adds Megaderma

spasma to the bats so far recorded from the Andamans and Taphozous

saccolaimus crassus to those so far known from the Nicobars. I am in-

debted to Mr. Abdulali and to the Bombay Natural History Society for

the opportunity of studying this interesting collection, of which some

specimens have been donated to the British Museum (Natural History),

the balance being retained by the Society. Specimens are denoted by

the field collection numbers which form two separate series, one referring

to specimens from the Andaman Islands, the other to those collected on

the Nicobar Islands.

2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

MEGACHIROPTERA

Pteropus (?) hypomelanus satyrus Andersen

Pteropus satyrus Andersen, 1908, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (8), 2:362. Narcondam

Island, Andaman Islands.

Andersen (1908 :363) at first thought that satyrus probably replaced

the widespread P. hypomelanus in the Andaman Islands but subsequently

(1912:142) considered it to be the Andamanese representative of P.

hypomelanus, probably most nearly related to P. h. geminorum from the

Mergui Archipelago. Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951 :95) tentatively

listed it as a subspecies of P. hypomelanus.

Pteropus faunulus Miller

Pteropus faunulus Miller, 1902, Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 24:785. Car Nicobar Island,

Nicobar Islands.

1 sex unknown. Car Nicobar.

This specimen was sent by the Bombay Natural History Society to

the British Museum (Natural History) in 1964 so that its identity could

be verified. It was then returned and it has not been available for exa-

mination during the preparation of these notes. In colour it agrees very

closely with the description by Miller and with one of the three examples

referred to faunulus in the collection of the British Museum (Natural

History). It differs from the remaining two [one, B.M. 6.4.13.1

that described by Andersen (1912:143) ] in having a paler dorsal surface

with the mantle, head, and ventral surface brighter and less tawny. Ander-

sen (1912 :143) considered faunulus allied to P. hypomelanus and it has a

close similarity to P. h. enganus from Engano Island. Their dissimilarities

do not seem very great and it is probable that faunulus may prove to be

no more than a subspecies of P. hypomelanus.

Pteropus melanotus melanotus Blyth

Pteropus edulis Blyth, 1846, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 15 :367 (not of E. Geoffroy, 1810).

Pteropus nicobaricus Fitzinger, 1861, Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 42 :389 (nom. nud.).

Nicobar Islands.

Pteropus melanotus Blyth, 1863, Cat. Mamm. Mus. Asiat. Soc. 20. Nicobar Islands.

Pteropus nicobaricus Zelebor, 1869, Reise “‘ Novara’’, Saugeth. 11. Car Nicobar

Island, Nicobar Islands.

Pteropus melanotus is recorded from the Andaman Islands (as P.

nicobaricus) by early authors until and including Trouessart (1904).

However, Mason (1908:162) separated specimens from the Andamans

as P. tytleri and this view is elaborated by Andersen (1912:224), who

gave further diagnostic characters.

THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 3

Pteropus (?) melanotus tytleri Mason

Pteropus tytleri Dobson, 1874, Cat. Chiroptera Indian Mus., 3 (nom. nud.).

South Andaman Island.

Pteropus tytleri Dobson, 1876, Monogr. Asiat. Chiroptera, 189 (nom. nud.).

South Andaman Island.

Pteropus tytleri Mason, 1908, Rec. Indian Mus. 2:162. Rutland Island, South

Andaman Islands.

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951:96) pointed out that tytleri

does not seem a valid species and that Chasen (1940 :28) had reduced the

other members of the melanotus group of Andersen (1912:223) to sub-

species of melanotus although treated as distinct species by this author.

Certainly, tytleri is separated from P. m. melanotus by no greater extent

than are P. m. modigliani from Engano Island or P. m. natalis from

Christmas Island.

Pteropus vampyrus (Linnaeus)

Vespertilio vampyrus Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. 10th. ed. 1: 31. Java.

The evidence for the existence on the Andaman and Nicobar Islands

of a large fruit bat referable or allied to P. vampyrus is reviewed by Miller

(1902 :786) and Andersen (1912 :343). Fitzinger (1861 :390) listed a speci-

men from the Nicobar Islands [as Pachysoma giganteum (not of Briinnich,

1782) ] which was later described from Car Nicobar by Zelebor (1869 :10)

(as Pteropus edulis var. b. Pachysoma giganteum). A further record is

provided by Dobson (1878 :50) who described (as Pteropus edulis) a spe-

cimen from the Andaman Islands. Mason (1908:165) stated that P.

vampyrus (as P. celaeno) occurs throughout the Nicobar Islands as a

seasonal migrant.

Pteropus giganteus (Briinnich)

Vespertilio gigantea Bruinnich, 1782, Dyrenes Historie, 1:45. Bengal, India.

Mason (1908 :165) recorded P. giganteus (as P. medius) as an occa-

sional and rare straggler to the Andaman Islands, noting that it had then

been encountered on but two occasions, on North Andaman Island.

Cynopterus brachyotis scherzeri (Zelebor)

Pachysoma scherzeri Fitzinger, 1861, Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 42:390 (nom.

nud.). Nicobar Islands.

__ Cynopterus marginatus var. (Pachysoma scherzeri) Zelebor, 1869, Reise “Novara,”

Saugeth. 13. Car Nicobar Island, Nicobar Islands.

2 9 Q Nos. 15 (juvenile), 16 (young adult). Trinkut Island, Nicobar Islands. 11th

March, 1966. Hanging under the midrib of a coconut frond together with a third

differently coloured bat which escaped.

The dorsal surface of the head and the anterior part of the back in

the young adult specimen (No. 16) is less brown and more greyish than

4 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

in specimens from Car Nicobar Island and the posterior part of the

back is very slightly paler. The juvenile specimen (No. 15) is dark grey

in colour, the underside very slightly paler than the back.

Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma Dobson

Cynopterus brachysoma Dobson, 1871, Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 105; J. Asiat.

Soc. Beng. 40:260. Andaman Islands.

Cynopterus marginatus var. andamanensis Dobson, 1873, Proc. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

148 (nom. nud.); J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 42: 201, pl. 14, fig. 5. Andaman Islands.

2 oo Nos. 88, 89. Mandapahar, Chiria Tapoo, South Andaman Island. 15th

February, 1964. Small cave on seashore. Weight 51 gms. each.

The posterior part of the back in these specimens is very slightly

paler than in C. b. scherzeri and in one (No. 88) the anterior part of the

back is less brown and more olivaceous. The other specimen has the

throat and the sides of the neck suffused with rufous.

In life, the skin covering the larger bones of the wing was conspi-

cuously pale.

MICROCHIROPTERA

Taphozous melanopogon melanopogon Temminck

' Taphozous melanopogon Temminck, 1841, Mon. Mamm. 2: 287. Bantam, Western

ava.

3 oo Nos. 85-87. Mandapahar, Chiria Tapoo, South Andaman Island. 15th

February, 1964. Out of a party of 10-15 in small cave on seashore. The cave

held nests of Collocalia fuciphaga. Weights 21, 22, 22 gms.

Khajuria (1953:117) recorded four female examples of T. melano-

pogon from the Andaman Islands.

Taphozous saccolaimus crassus Blyth

Taphozous crassus Blyth, 1844, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 13: 491. Mirzapore, Allahabad,

India.

1 Q@ No. 9. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar Island. 4th March, 1966. Clearing on

edge of high forest along seashore.

Taphozous saccolaimus has not been recorded hitherto either from

the Nicobar Islands or from the Andaman Islands. This specimen has

pale brown underparts, lightening to white on the flanks immediately

beneath the insertion of the wing membrane, which has a narrow band

of short white hairs on its ventral surface behind the forearm. The speci-

men is darker ventrally than pale-bellied examples formerly referred to

affinis (=saccolaimus) but has much paler underparts than dark-bellied

specimens characteristic of saccolaimus as formerly understood.

Megaderma spasma (Linnaeus)

Vespertilio spasma Linnaeus, 1758, Syst. Nat. ed. 10, 1: 32. Ternate, Molucca

Islands.

1 2 No. 84. Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island, 15th February, 1964. Flew

into room in the Forest Bungalow.

THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS >

There is no previous record of M. spasma from either the Andaman

Islands or the Nicobar Islands and it is difficult to allocate this specimen

to any one of the described subspecies. In colour it closely resembles

M. s. majus (Burma), M. s. minus (Thailand, Indochina), and M. s.

trifolium (Sumatra, Java, Borneo). In length of forearm (56.9 mm.) it

agrees with M. s. horsfieldi (India), M. s. ceylonense (Ceylon), M. s.

medium (Tenasserim, Malay Peninsula), and M. s. trifolium but it has a

very large skull (greatest length 27.0 mm., c—m? 10.4 mm., length of

mandible 17.9 mm.), in this respect agreeing more closely with M. s.

majus. These circumstances suggest that subspecific designation should

be deferred until more adequate series of specimens from the Andaman

Islands and from near-by territories are available.

Rhinolophus andamanensis Dobson

Rhinolophus andamanensis Dobson, 1872, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 41, 2: 337. South

Andaman Island.

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951 :114) pointed out that R. anda-

manensis is very like R. affinis and may represent that species in the

Andaman Islands.

Rhinolophus cognatus cognatus Andersen

Rhinolophus cognatus Andersen, 1906, Annali Mus. civ. Stor. nat. Giacomo Doria,

(3), 2: 181. Port Blair, South Andaman Island.

Rhinolophus ? cognatus famulus Andersen

Rhinolophus famulus Andersen, 1918, Ann. Mag. nat. Hist. (9), 2: 377. North

Central Island, Andaman Islands.

There seems little doubt that famulus is but subspecifically related to

cognatus, differing chiefly in smaller size (Andersen, 1918 :377).

Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis (Dobson)

se nicobarensis Dobson, 1871, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 40, 2: 262. Nicobar

Islands.

6 sex undetermined Nos. 18-23. Trinkut, Middle Nicobar Islands. 20th March,

1966. Cave on seashore. Collected by B. R. Grubh and P. B. Shekar.1

Hitherto, H. d. nicobarensis appears to have been represented in

collections solely by the type specimen, a female in alcohol, collected by

Dr. Stoliczka and preserved in the Indian Museum, Calcutta. So far as

can be determined from the dry specimens, they conform closely to the

original description. This is the smallest of the described subspecies of

H. diadema, the length of the forearm in fact equal only to that of H.

larvatus, from which H. d. nicobarensis is readily distinguished by its

much larger skull. Minimum, maximum and mean (in parentheses)

measurements in millimetres of six specimens (except where stated):

1 Society’s staff members who accompanied Mr. Abdulali—eps.

6 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

length of forearm 58.8-64.2 (62.2); condylocanine length (five speci-

mens) 22.6-22.9 (22.7); width of rostrum 7.8-8.1 (8.0); interorbital

width 3.3-3.4 (3.3); zygomatic width 14.5-15.0 (14.7); mastoid

width (five specimens) 12.4-13.0 (12.7) and c—m? 9.7-10.0 (9.9).

Despite the comparatively small size of nicobarensis, there is no reason

to doubt its allocation to H. diadema as a subspecies. There is no anti-

tragal projection and the anterior noseleaf lacks any definite median

emargination. The posterior noseleaf is high and is supported by a

median septum, the upper part of the leaf wide and folded anteriorly

over the intermediate part of the leaf. The dorsal pelage is soft and dense,

the hairs tricolored, dark brown at the base, centrally grey and tipped

with brown. For the most part, the ventral pelage is similar in colour

but the hairs are paler at the base and are less evidently tipped with

brown, especially towards the flanks. On the extreme anterior part of the

chest and on the throat the hairs are grey white throughout their length.

Laterally, along the flanks beneath the junction of the wing membrane

and the body the hairs are dark brown at the base but otherwise are grey

white, without any brown tipping, the white element in some specimens

extending in front of the junction of the antebrachial membrane with

the body to form a small white tuft. There is often a further white patch

on the flanks above the junction of the anterior part of the wing mem-

brane and body, at the base of the forearm. Cranially, the sphenoidal

bridge is wide and the pterygoids expanded as in H. diadema. In its com-

paratively very small size this subspecies forms an exception to the

general rule (Hill, 1963:108) that the larger subspecies of H. diadema

are to be found in the western parts of its range and the smaller sub-

species in the easterly areas of its distribution.

Hipposideros ater nicobarulae Miller

Hipposideros nicobarulae Miller, 1902, Proc. U. S. natn. Mus. 24: 781. Little

Nicobar Island.

3 oo Nos. 7, 8, 12; 4 9 @ Nos. 5, 6, 10, 11. Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar Island.

4th March, 1966. Cave on seashore.

1 & No. 25. Camorta Island, Middle Nicobar Islands. 29th March, 1966. In old

Japanese anti-aircraft box.

1 J No. 31; 2 9 9 Nos. 32, 33. Car Nicobar Island. 7th April, 1966. Cave near

seashore.

One specimen (No. 5) is in the rufous phase, in contrast to the re-

mainder in the greyish brown phase.

(2) Hipposideros fulvus fulvus Gray

Hipposideros fulvus Gray, 1838, Mag. Zool, Bot. 492. Dharwar, India.

Hipposideros murinus Gray, 1838, Mag. Zool. Bot. 492. Dharwar, India.

Blyth (1846 :368) recorded H. f. fulvus (as H. murinus) from the

Nicobar Islands. Externally, it is very like H. ater although rather larger

and it is possible that this record refers to H. a. nicobarulae.

THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 7

Myotis (?) adversus dryas Andersen

Myotis dryas Andersen, 1907, Annali Mus. civ. Stor. nat. Giacomo Doria, (3),

3: 33. Port Blair, South Andaman Island.

Ellerman and Morrison-Scott (1951 :149) tentatively listed dryas as

a subspecies of M. adversus.

Pipistrellus javanicus camortae Miller

Pipistrellus camortae Miller, 1902, Proc. U.S. natn. Mus. 24: 779. Camorta Island,

Nicobar Islands.

409 Nos. 1-4. Great Nicobar Island. 3rd March, 1966. Clearing on edge of

high forest along seashore.

1 sex undetermined No. 17 (subadult). Camorta Island, Middle Nicobar Islands.

13th March, 1966. In clearing in forest.

These specimens are referred to camortae without direct comparison

but agree closely with the original description. Their close resemblance

to P. javanicus indicates that camortae should be considered no more

than subspecifically related to this species. They are rather smaller than

P. j. javanicus from Java with the minimum, maximum and mean (in

parentheses ) length of the forearm in four specimens 31 .3-32.7 (31.8)

mm. and c—m? 4.7, 4.7 and 4.6 mm. In length of forearm they resemble

P. j. paterculus from Burma but have larger and more massive teeth.

The specimen from Camorta Island has dark brown dorsal pelage with

the ventral pelage of similar but slightly paler colour. Those from Great

Nicobar Island have dorsal pelage that is darker and more blackish

brown: the ventral pelage, although paler, is a darker brown than in the

example from Camorta. This specimen is very slightly darker both

dorsally and ventrally than P. j. javanicus and approaches the palest of

P. j. paterculus in colour but the specimens from Great Nicobar agree

exactly with the darker specimens of this subspecies. Earlier records of

P. abramus (Dobson, 1876:212; J. Anderson, 1881 :129) and of P. tenuis

(Zelebor, 1869:16) may be based upon specimens of P. j. camortae.

Vesperugo nicobaricus Fitzinger (1861 :390, nom. nud.) refers to the record

subsequently regarded as P. tenuis by Zelebor.

Hesperoptenus tickelli (Blyth)

Nycticejus tickelli Blyth, 1851, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 20: 157. Chaibassa, Orissa,

India (Wroughton, 1918: 22).

1 & No. 22. Wrightmyo, South Andaman Island. 11th February, 1964. On the

border of mangrove and forest.

1 # No. 214. Long Island, Middle Andaman Islands. 27th February, 1964.

Over seashore and maidan, near town.

1 Q No. 230. Long Island, Middle Andaman Islands. 28th February, 1964.

These specimens agree closely with specimens from Ceylon in size

and colour: like these they are a little darker and more richly coloured

dorsally than are the majority of Indian specimens. Dobson (1876 :208)

and J. Anderson (1881:132) recorded A. tickelli from the Andaman

Islands.

8 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Tylonycteris pachypus fulvida (Blyth)

Scotophilus fulvidus Blyth, 1859, J. Asiat. Soc. Beng. 28: 293. Schwegyin, River

Sittang, south-eastern Burma.

1 og No. 128. See South Andaman Island. 17th February, 1964.

Over dry ricefield. Weight 3.5

This specimen has a ae. skull but agrees in colour with T. p.

fulvida, to which it is referred provisionally. Dobson (1876:116, 210)

and J. Anderson (1881 :126) recorded a series of Andamanese specimens

of T. pachypus.

Scotophilus temminckii (Horsfield)

Vespertilio temminckii Horsfield, 1824, Zool. Res. Java, pt. 8, pl. 9. Western Java

(Sody, 1936: 48).

Recorded from the Nicobar Islands by Blyth (1863:354). There

appear to be no subsequent records.

Miniopterus australis pusillus Dobson

Miniopterus pusillus Dobson, 1876, Monogr. Asiat. Chiroptera, 162. Nicobar

Islands (Wroughton, 1918: 22).

The collection of the British Museum (Natural History) contains

specimens from Katchal Island, Nicobar Islands, whence it was recorded

by J. Anderson (1881 :146). Presumably the subsequent reports by A.R.S.

Anderson (1903 :164) (as M. schreibersi) and Seymour Sewell (1922 :979)

refer to this bat.

BATS RECORDED FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS:

Pteropus melanotus melanotus

Pteropus (?) hypomelanus satyrus

Pteropus vampyrus

Pteropus giganteus

Cynopterus brachyotis brachysoma*

Taphozous melanopogon melanopogon*

Megaderma spasma.*

Rhinolophus andamanensis

Rhinolophus cognatus cognatus

Rhinolophus (?) cognatus famulus

Myotis (?) adversus dryas

Hesperoptenus tickelli*

Tylonycteris pachypus fulvida*

* Obtained by Mr. Abdulali

THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS 9

BATS RECORDED FROM THE NICOBAR ISLANDS:

Pteropus (?) melanotus tytleri

Pteropus faunulus*

Pteropus vampyrus

Cynopterus brachyotis scherzeri*

Taphozous saccolaimus crassus*

Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis*

Hipposideros ater nicobarulae

(?) Hipposideros fulvus fulvus

Pipistrellus javanicus camortae*

Scotophilus temminckii

Miniopterus australis pusillus

* Obtained by Mr. Abdulali.

REFERENCES

ANDERSEN, K. (1908): Twenty new

forms of Pteropus. Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.

(8), 2: 361-370.

(1912): Catalogue of the

Chiroptera in the collection of the British

Museum. I. Megachiroptera. London.

(1918): Diagnoses of

new bats of the families Rhinolophide

and Meégadermatide. Ann. Mag. nat.

Hist. (9), 2: 374-384.

ANDERSON, A. R. S. (1903): Diary of

a visit to the Nicobars for census purposes.

Census of India, 1901, 3: 163-164.

ANDERSON, J. (1881): Catalogue of

Mammalia in the Indian Museum, Cal-

cutta. Part I. Primates, Prosimiz, Chirop-

tera, and Insectivora. Calcutta.

BLYTH, E. (1846): Notes on the fauna

of the Nicobar Islands. J. Asiat. Soc.

Beng. 15: 367-379.

(1863): In Mouat, F. J.

Adventures and Researches among the

Andaman Islanders. Appendix: The

Zoology of the Andaman Islands,

pp. 345-367. London.

CHASEN, F. N. (1940): A Handlist of

Malaysian mammals. Bull. Raffles Mus.

No. 15: i-xx, 1-209, map.

Dosson, G. E. (1876): Monograph of

the Asiatic Chiroptera and catalogue

of the species of bats in the collection

of the Indian Museum, Calcutta. London.

(1878): Catalogue of the

Chiroptera in the collection of the British

Museum. London.

ELLERMAN, J. R. AND MorRISON-

sconr, DT: C: S., (1951): Checklist of

Palearctic and Indian mammals, 1758-

1946. Ist. ed. London.

FITZINGER, L. J. (1861): Die Ausbeute

der Osterreichischen Naturforscher au

Saugethieren und Reptilien wahrend der

Weltumsegelung Sr. Mayjestat Fregatte

Novara. Sber. Akad. Wiss. Wien. 1860,

42: 383-416.

HILx, J. E. (1963): A revision of the

genus Hipposideros. Bull. Br. Mus. nat.

Hist. Zoology, 11: 1-129, 41 figs., 2 tabs.

KuHasurRIA, H. (1953): Taxonomic

studies on some Indian Chiroptera.

Rec. Indian Mus. 50: 113-128.

Mason, G. E. (1908): On the fruit bats

of the genus Pteropus inhabiting the

Andaman and Nicobar Archipelagos,

with the description of a new species.

Rec. Indian Mus. 2: 159-166.

MILLER, G. S. (1902): The mammals

of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands.

Proc. U. S. natn. Mus. 24: 751-795, 2 pls.

SEYMOUR SEWELL, R. B. (1922):

A survey season in the Nicobar Islands

in the R.I.M.S. ‘‘ Investigator,’’ October

1921, to March 1922. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 28: 970-989, 4 pls.

Sopy, H. J. V. (1936): Seventeen new

generic, specific, and subspecific names

for Dutch East Indian mammals. Natuur.

Tijdschr. Ned.-Indie 96: 42-45.

TROUESSART, E. L. (1897): Catalogus

mammalium tam viventium quam fossi-

lium. I. Primates, Prosimiz, Chiroptera,

Insectivora. Berlin.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1918): Summary

of the results from the Indian Mammal

Survey of the Bombay Natural History

Society. Part II. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 26: 19-58.

ZELEBOR, J. (1869): Reise der oster-

reichen Fregatte Novara um die Erde

in den Jahren 1857, 1858, 1859. Zool,

I (Wirbelthiere), 1, Saugethiere.

A new Species of Christisonia

Gardn. from South India

N. A. ERADY

Government Victoria College, Palghat

(With a plate)

A new species, Christisonia keralensis, which comes near C. saulieri

Dunn is described. It is based on a study of living specimens collected at

Nelliyampathi Hills in the Western Ghats, Kerala State, South India.

The plant forming the subject of this paper was found growing at

Nelliyampathi in the Western Ghats at an altitude of about 500 metres.

It was first collected by the author in August 1960 and subsequently in

September 1965. The plant seems to be a new species of Christisonia

Gardn. and a description of it based on a study of living specimens is

given below. |

Christisonia keralensis sp. nov.

Plantae erectae, haud virides, parasitantes Ficus asperrimae radices. Ra-

dices plures, filamentosae, profuse ramosae, ad 1.5 mm. crassae. Rhizoma

2-8 cm. longum, ad 1.2 cm. crassum, irregulariter cylindricum, fusco-brun-

neum, vulgo non furcatum, ornatum foliis minutis squamosis sparsis,

quae progressive maiora evadunt supra. Inflorescentia solitaria et termi-

nalis vel raro bina ternave emergens ex axillis squamarum; racemus

5-10-florus. Pedunculi 20-30 cm. longi, ad 1.2 cm. crassi ad basin, gra-

datim fastigati versus apicem, glabri et pallide brunneo-rosacei. Bracteae

1-1.5 cm. longae, 5-8 mm. latae, pallide brunneo-rosaceae, glabrae,

inferiores quidem steriles et deltoideae, superiores fertiles et ovatae.

Pedicelli 1.5-3 cm. longi, ad 3mm. crassi, vulgo erecti et brunneo-rosacei.

Flores 3.5-5 cm. longi, ebracteolati. Calyx 2.5-3.8 cm. longus, 1.2-1.5

cm. latus, glaber, pallide brunneo-purpureus. Corollae tubus 3.5-5 cm.

longus, 1-1.3 cm. latus, products longe supra calycis lacinias, cremeo-

albus, glanduloso-pilosus in utraque pagina, gutture luteolo tincto

aurantiace, lobis 0.8-1 cm. latis, nitenter violaceis, orbiculari-reniformi-

bus. Stamina 4; filamenta pallide purpurea, glanduloso-pilosa per totam

longitudinem; antherae pallide purpureae, bicellulares, una cellula

fertili, ovata et ad apicem minutim mucronata, altera vero sterili falcata

paulo longiore sed graciliori minutim subulata ad apicem, acute calcarata

ad basin, calcare extus curvato; connectivum eminenter tumescens ad

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1)

Erady: Christisonia keralensis

FiaS.1 ? 3-6

33cm

FiGS. 8-14

2cm

Christisonia keralensis sp. nov.

1. A group of plants attached to the roots of the host plant (4); 2. Rhizome with

deltoid scales and wiry roots; 3. Roots showing several adventitious buds developed

near the host root; 4. Flower; 5. Side view of corolla; 6. Spread open corolla with

androecium and gynoecium. 7. Spread open corolla showing epipetalous stamens ;

8-9. Side views of the stamen, one showing lateral swelling on the connective;

10-14. Sections of the ovary at different levels from base to apex; 15. Glandular hair.

; ae in) See

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A NEW SPECIES OF CHRISTISONIA GARDN. 11

unum latus; pollinis grana 23-25 vu longa, 50-70 uw lata, ovoidea parietibus

levibus. Ovarium uniloculare; ovula 180-200 w longa, 125-150 yp lata;

stylus glaber inclusus, sed attingens supra antheras, stigma peltatum.

Typus lectus in Kerala, in India meridionali, in montibus Ghat

Occidentalibus ad altit. 500 m. ab N.A. Erady die 17 Aug. 1960 et positus

in herb. Govt. Coll. Victoria ad Palghat sub numero 1117.

Erect, non-green herbs, parasitic on the roots of Ficus asperrimae

Roxb. Roots very numerous, wiry, profusely branched, up to 1.5 mm.

thick, with irregular swellings at the place of contact with the host roots

and developing many adventitious buds. Rhizome 2-8 cm. long, up to

1.2 cm. thick, irregularly cylindrical, dark brown, usually unbranched

with small sparsely arranged deltoid scale leaves, which become pro-

gressively larger above. Inflorescence solitary and terminal, or rarely

2-3 arising from the axils of scale leaves; raceme 5-10-flowered. Pedun-

cles 20-30 cm. long, up to 1.2 cm. thick at the base, gradually tapering

towards the apex, glabrous and light brownish pink. Bracts 1-I1.5 cm.

long, 5-8 mm. broad, light brownish pink, glabrous, lower ones sterile

and deltoid, upper ones fertile and ovate. Pedicels 1.5-3 cm. long, up to 3

mm. thick, usually erect and brownish pink. Flowers 3.5-5 cm. long,

ebracteolate, bisexual, hypogynous and zygomorphic. Calyx 2.5-3.8 cm.

long, 1.2-1.5 cm. broad, glabrous, light brownish pink, tubular campa-

nulate with slight median zygomorphy, tube split at the top to one third

the length into 5 subequal triangular valvate lobes with acute apex.

Corolla tube 3.5-5 cm. long, 1-1.3 cm. broad, prolonged much above

the level of the calyx lobes, slightly bent towards the anterior side, creamy

white, glandular hairy on both sides, lower half closely appressed to the

ovary, upper half inflated; throat yellowish with a tinge of orange; tube

expanding into a sub-bilabiate 5-lobed limb; lobes 0.8-1 cm. broad,

bright violet, orbicular reniform, imbricate, anterior three lobes some-

what equal and slightly smaller than the posterior lobes. Stamens 4,

inserted at the constricted part of the corolla tube, included, imperfectly

didynamous; filaments light purplish, glandular hairy throughout;

anthers pale purplish, two-celled, one of the cells fertile, ovate and with

a short minutely subulate apex, dehiscing longitudinally, the other cell

sterile, falcate, slightly longer than the fertile cell but thinner, apex

minutely subulate, base sharply spurred with tip curved outwards; con-

nective with a prominent swelling on one side; pollen grains 23-25 p

long, 15-17 » broad, ovoid and with smooth wall. Ovary of 2 median

carpels, syncarpous, superior, unilocular with a tendency to become

bilocular at the base; placentae 2, parietal, bipartite, tips expanding into

fleshy portions; ovules 180-200 uw long, 125-150 wu broad, numerous,

anatropous and arising from the entire surface of the placenta; style

glabrous, included but reaching above the level of the anthers; stigma

peltate and with a narrow depression in the centre,

12 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Of the 10 species of Christisonia with ebracteolate flowers included

in the section Euchristisonia by Beck Mannagetta (1930), only Christi-

sonia saulieri Dunn shows some resemblance with this plant.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author’s sincere thanks are due to Rev. Fr. Dr. H. Santapau

for rendering into Latin the diagnosis of the new species and for sugges-

tions in the preparation of this note and to Sri R. Vasudevan Nair for

providing the Indian Ink Drawings.

REFERENCES

BECK MANNAGETTA, G. (1930): Oro- Fyson, P.F. (1932) : Flora of South

banchacee in Engler’s Pflanzenreich, Indian Hill Stations, 1 : 435 & t. 376.

96: 308-317.

Dunvw, S. T. (1914): Christisonia saulieri

Dunn in DECADES!®KEWENSES. Kew

Bulletin 30.

Epilogue on a Sind Lake

T. J. ROBERTS

Roberts Cotton Associates Ltd., Khanewal, West Pakistan

Manchar Lake in the north-western region of former Sind Province

has long been famous amongst sportsmen as the winter haunt of vast

flocks of waterfowl. In the New Year of 1928 it was visited by Dr. SAlim

Ali, and his vivid account of the birdlife and of the fascinating methods

used by the local fishermen or Mohannas to hunt and capture fish and

fowl from the lake waters, remains on record in Volume 32(3) of this

Journal. I hope therefore that it will be of interest to record the impres-

sions of a visit to the lake some thirty-eight years later.

In 1928 the main irrigation scheme in Sind, emanating from a huge

barrage across the Indus River at Sukkur, was not yet completed and it

was feared that the whole lake, which depends on a natural seepage

channel from the Indus River downstream of Sukkur, would ultimately

be drained in order to augment the fertile acres which were already

cultivated around the margins of Manchar as the summer floods receded.

Though, there has been no deliberate drainage scheme, these fears have

proved only partly unfounded as several major irrigation schemes on

the Indus and its tributaries upstream of Manchar have served to de-

crease the flow of water which annually feed this lake which is now

much reduced in area, and overgrown with reeds.

Even today, Manchar is still relatively remote and difficult of access

to the outside visitor and though I had often wished to see the lake, which

is reputed to be the biggest fresh water body on the sub-continent, it was

not until December 1965 that an opportunity arose, when I was invited

to join a small shooting party. Having occasionally heard first hand

reports of persons who had visited Manchar, and being a witness to the

alarming decline of many migrant bird species during the past fifteen

years that I have lived out here, I was fully prepared for disappointments.

Nevertheless I was shocked to find such small numbers of certain water

fowl species as the following account will reveal.

Approaching Manchar via the railway line that runs along the

west bank of the Indus, our party detrained at the historic old town of

Sehwan, famous as the burial place of a Holy Saint! and a place of pil-

grimage. From here we travelled about eight miles by Landrover over

1 Qallandar Lal Shah Baz—Mayne, P.; Saints of Sind—J. Murray.

14 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

an incredibly bad and dusty track to the village of Bubak which squats

on a slight hill overlooking the earthen embankment which was built

some six years ago to contain summer inundations from Manchar’s

eastern banks. Arriving at Bubak around 3.30 p.m. we were greeted by

the twitter of Common Sandgrouse flighting overhead and the staccato

call of Grey Partridges from the tamarisk scrub nearby. My companions

being keen sportsmen, immediately set off to walk up the partridges whilst

I attempted in the Landrover to reach the lake shore. After penetrating

for about three miles inside the area of the embankment, I could still see

only a distant fringe of reeds and no water. All the surrounding land

was being cultivated with wheat which was irrigated by lift irrigation

from a canal flowing from the lake. Judging from the few surrounding

trees it did not look as though the area had been subject to more than

the briefest flooding, if at all, in recent years. Apart from numerous

flocks of Starling (Sturnus vulgaris) probably mixed flocks of the races

nobilior (observed by Dr. Salim Ali) and poltaratskyi, I saw no Black-

tailed Godwit which I was expecting, but instead three or four large

flocks of Dusky or Spotted Redshank (Tringa erythropus), feeding in the

young wheat or turning and wheeling in tight flocks in the evening sun.

In the Punjab I have observed the Dusky Redshank in small numbers

only and mainly as an October and April passage migrant at which

times many individuals are in the dark plumage of the summer season.

I was later to observe that this wader was the dominant species around

the fringes of Manchar and that it is also extremely plentiful in other

jheels in northern Sind. Returning to the rest house, I walked along a

small drainage channel fringed with tamarisk bushes and here and there

by clumps of sedges and reeds. Besides the usual Whitecheeked Bulbul,

Striated Babbler (Turdoides earlei), Common Snipe (Capella gallinago)

and Moorhen (Gallinula chloropus), I was pleased to get very good views

of Painted Snipe (Rostratula benghalensis) and Whitebreasted Waterhen

(Amaurornis phoenicurus). Both are species of very local distribution

even in northern Sind and are very seldom encountered at all in the

Punjab. The Whitebreasted Waterhens were noisy and quarrelsome,

whilst a male Painted Snipe fascinated me by bobbing its tail up and

down like a Common Sandpiper (Tringa hypoleucos), a habit which I

have not seen described in books. On my approaching very close it sank

into the half submerged grass until its bill and entire wings were under

water and only its striped crown and dark beady eye remained visible.

Our plan was to set off from the rest house at 3.00 a.m. the next

morning; to travel by house boat down a canal which leads to the lake,

and near its shores to embark on separate small punts from which the

various guns in a spread out line would be able to shoot at whatever ducks

were moving around at sunrise. Since my idiosyncrasies were well under-

stood by the shooters, it was agreed that I should take my punt in an

EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 15

opposite direction to explore with my binoculars as much of the lake as

possible. As companions I had two Mohannas who took turns to pole

the little vessel across the water. It was bitterly cold and still quite dark

when we transferred to these smaller boats and as we passed between

flimsy walls of reeds, I crouched in the bottom of the boat trying to keep

my knees and wrists warm, listening to the weird cries of the jacanas and

stuttering squawks of the Purple Moorhens (Porphyrio porphyrio) which

rose noisily at our approach, their huge trailing feet clearly visible even

in the darkness. After travelling between these reeds for nearly a mile

and at the first glow of dawn, I separated from the others and we entered

upon the open water. Even before the red rim of the sun broke the greying

skyline, | was aware of bird life all around. Dozens of hovering Pied

Kingfishers (Ceryle rudis) flew round the boat and as the sun rose, about

twenty Common Swallows (Hirundo rustica), skimmed the disturbed

lake surface of our now molten wake as though drawn along by our

boat. Collared Sand Martins (Riparia riparia) were hawking higher in

the sky, and as the sun gilded the reeds, the skies were criss-crossed by

small flights of Common Teal, skeins of Little Cormorants CER aIgErO-

corax niger) and the occasional solitary heron.

The boatman told me that Manchar is 24 miles long and 12 miles

wide. During the course of that day, we crossed the lake from shore to

shore and traversed for several miles along the western shore. Allowing

for the shimmering distortion of distant objects and visibility in such

surroundings, I do not think the lake today is more than six miles broad

by eight to ten miles long. On its western banks it is flanked by the low

ochreous foot hills of the Kirthar Range and on the eastern bank, by

which we had entered, there is at least a three-quarter mile wide fringe

of reeds. The lake is nowhere deeper than 5 to 6 feet now and is clogged

with a dense growth of water weed (possibly Limnophila heterophylla),

and in isolated patches the rope-like strands of what looked like Urticu-

laria stellaris. Here and there solid clumps of tall rushes stand out like

islands, and in many stretches the surface of the weed-clogged waters

are also carpeted with an orange brown algal growth which, together

with the underlying weed, affords sufficient support for Little Stints

(Calidris minutus) and numerous Yellow Wagtails (Motacilla flava) to

run about the surface and even in certain places to support Pheasant-

tailed Jacanas (Hydrophasianus chirurgus) and Paddy Birds (Ardeola

grayii). Apart from the many boats which we encountered moving in

different directions, we passed four floating villages or collections of

house boats complete with cooking fires and tethered chicken. It appears

that population pressure has increased even the number of Mohannas

who make a living on the lake. -I was told that about twenty maunds of

fresh fish are daily despatched by bullock cart to the railhead at Sehwan

and that in some seasons many times this quantity, and that this is the

16 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

main source of livelihood, as hardly a couple of dozen coots and ducks

are captured daily. The fish which, I saw caught, seemed to comprise of

three species only. Two were carp (probably Rohu and Mirgal'), and

the third with smaller scales a species of catfish (Mori). The old tradi-

tional methods of stalking the coots underwater, of shooting the coots

with bows and arrows, and netting the duck in small purse nets (known

as Dhubi) have been abandoned as there are no longer sufficient number

of water fowl to make these techniques worthwhile. All my queries over

two days and from various fishermen indicated that most of the duck

were secured either by shooting or driving them at night into a net,

which I saw suspended between poles and stretching for some five hun-

dred yards across the lake. Due to dense weed growth, the fish are mostly

caught by baited hooks attached at intervals by short leaders to a long

line, which floats on the surface of the water weed and often stretches for

300 or 400 yards in a wide loop. Live fish of fingerling size are used to bait

these hooks and the Mohannas keep numerous captive herons and

cormorants for securing the fish used as bait. These captive birds are

tethered by one leg to the small punts and taken to the shallows when

required for fishing. One small punt which I photographed had a Large

Egret (Egretta alba), a Purple Heron (Ardea purpurea) and a Grey Heron

(Ardea cinerea) tethered to its gunwales, whilst another house boat had ~

at least fifteen egrets and herons of various species plus five Little Cormo-

rants (P. niger). The Large Egret seemed the most popular captive species

possibly because of its size; it is distinctly bigger when seen alongside the

Grey Heron. Surprisingly the Large Egret was also the most numerous

and conspicuous of the many wild egrets and herons seen around the

lake. In the early 1900’s Ticehurst mentions having seen but few any-

where in Sind and even Sdlim Ali only saw two pairs on Manchar. In

contrast to the drastic decline in occurrence of nearly every other conspi-

cuous species of water fowl, why should these have increased? The Little

Cormorant was also a favourite captive but not the Paddy Bird or Cattle

Egret, possibly because of their predilection for frogs instead of fish. I was

surprised to see several captive Reef Herons (Egretta gularis). There was

no trace of this species amongst the wild ardeidae and indeed I had never

heard reports hitherto of its being observed more than 30 or 40 miles

inland from the coast and that only during the monsoon season. On en-

quiries I found that large numbers come to Manchar during the summer

particularly the early part, and I surmise that they follow the Pala, a

species of Sea-herring which migrates to spawn in Manchar in huge

numbers in March and April. Manchar must be quite 160 miles inland

from the coast so this is an interesting record of its penetration. Though

a fairly small bird the Reef Heron, was evidently preferred by the Mohan-

nas over the larger Purple and Grey Herons. And here, I am tempted to

1 These are the vernacular names.

EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 17

digress momentarily to record that a closely allied species (E. sacra).

spreads right across the south-west Pacific and I saw many specimens

fishing off the Coral Reefs of the Solomon Islands last September and

learned that it occurs there in both white and the usual slaty blue forms.

Around Karachi E. gularis, occurs in a pale grey and very dark slate blue

phase, as well as pure white specimens. This species presents a wonderful

example of polymorphism which deserves further study.

Earlier writers have remarked on the callous cruelty with which the

Mohannas keep wounded ducks as well as fish alive after capture, and

there was further evidence of this in the method by which these captive

herons and cormorants are prevented from fishing and so kept hungry

until required to perform for their masters. The Little Cormorants I

noticed had the gular pouch of their lower mandibles punctured and

pulled up over the upper mandible so that the unfortunate birds are

unable to open their mouths at all until the lower mandible is released.

Similarly I saw Large White Egrets with their lower eyelids sewn by cotton

thread and pulled over the eyes, the thread being drawn in a loop across

the top of their crowns. Presumably the thread is cut and the eyelids

released in the same way, when the birds are required for fishing.

By the end of the day I estimated, that unless vast numbers of ducks

were hiding in the reed beds, not more than five or six thousand ducks

of all species were around the lake. About a third of these were Mallard

(Anas platyrhynchos) and teal which stuck to the reed beds and the eastern

shore whilst the remaining two-thirds were White-eyed Pochards (Aythya

nyroca) in separate flocks and again separate flocks of Common Pochard

(A. ferina) mixed with about 15 to 20% Tufted Pochard (A. fuligula).

Mallard and White-eyed Pochard were undoubtedly the two dominant

species and I did not identify any Pintail (Anas acuta) or see a single

Redcrested Pochard (Netta rufina), two species which I had been told

were generally quite numerous on Manchar. On the western banks in

the reedy shallows I also put up a number of small groups of Shovellers

(A. clypeata) and there might have been three or four hundred of this

species. But nowhere were there any solid black flock of water

birds such as were encountered by Sdlim Ali, and in fact there are many

smaller jheels in Sind which harbour ducks in several hundred thousands

as my hunter friends later testified. It is noteworthy that 1965-66 has

been one of the worst drought years in the past forty years in the Indus

water-shed. Few inundation jheels or suitable feeding places being

available, ducks had concentrated in unbelievable swarms on the few

large and permanent bodies of water. The small numbers on Manchar

are therefore all the more remarkable. But it is the virtual disappearance

of the coot which saddened me. In 1914 Ticehurst described the pheno-

menal numbers of coots which swam on Sind lakes, and stated that

18 JGURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

flocks could be measured not in acres but in square miles. Whole villages

lived on the trapping and sale of these unfortunate birds for meat and

at the same time they attracted a great concourse of raptors. Even in

1928 Salim Ali averred that the taking of 1000 to 2000 daily seemed to

make no impression whatsoever on theirnumbers. Apart from observing

three or four small flocks of a dozen up to one hundred individuals, I saw

but one large flock on the whole lake, and this far from covering acres

was a mere black ribbon numbering perhaps 3000 birds. In this Continent

the lowly coot has probably escaped large scale ringing operations, and

I am not aware of their main breeding grounds. All West Pakistan birds

are winter visitors though a few stragglers have been observed to summer

in the foothill regions. I suspect that a good number breed in the swamps

of Seistan as Punjab does not receive such numbers as Sind has always

done. Seistan is being rapidly dried up by new irrigation and hydro-

electric schemes and from what little I have read about Russian develop-

ments, there have similarly been many new Dams and Hydroelectric

schemes in Asiatic Russia. Perhaps the resultant ecological changes have

done more to reduce the coot population than even the ruthless hunting

of the Sindhis.

Having a well illustrated bird book with me, I could show various

pictures to the boatmen who evinced a keen interest in the pictures, and I

was able to cross examine them about the occurrence of many bird

species known to frequent the lake and add this to my own observations.

I saw no Painted Storks though they were seen in August of this year in

small numbers on Manchar by a bird watching friend. I saw no Black

Ibis (apparently common in 1928) or storks of any species. Pelicans still

visit Manchar but according to my boatmen only in very small numbers.

I saw none. Common and Demoiselle Cranes and even Spoonbills are

very seldom seen. On the western bank I did see three or four small

groups of Glossy Ibis (Plegadis falcinellus) feeding amongst the sedges

and the largest flock numbered thirty-five birds. On the main body of the

lake itself the two most conspicuous birds were Pheasant-tailed Jacanas

and Whiskered Terns (Chlidonias hybrida). The latter were fishing every-

where and must have numbered three or four hundred individuals. Per-

haps the thick weed makes conditions unsuitable for diving species of

terns. Certainly I saw no Caspian Tern (the dominant species in 1928)

and only 2 or 3 pairs of noisy River Terns (Sterna aurantia) and three or

four Blackbellied Terns (Sterna acuticauda). The Whiskered terns pro-

bably feed on small molluscs, flies etc., as they capture their prey by

suddenly dipping down to the water surface without actually plunging

in. There were three or four small flocks of gulls which were predomi-

nantly Blackheaded Gulls (Larus ridibundus) with here and there a

Brownheaded Gull (L. brunnicephalus) easily recognised by its wing

EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 19

tips. I saw only very few Slenderbilled Gulls (L. genei) which are usually

the dominant species on the lakes of northern Sind.

Compared to the hundreds of thousands of Little Cormorants I have

seen on other Sind lakes, there were comparatively few on Manchar.

The weed-clogged water undoubtedly offers fish too easy an escape from

the diving cormorants and moreover I have noticed that these birds

seem to require prolonged periods of perching, to digest their food and

dry out their plumage. The bare expanse of Manchar offers practically

no suitable perch for webbed footed birds whereas many other Sind

jheels are characterised by acres of flooded tamarisk bushes which are

used by the Small Cormorants. I saw only one Darter (Anhinga rufa)

and two Common Cormorants (Phalacrocorax carbo). Though I already

knew from previous enquiries that flocks of geese no longer visited

Manchar, this was corroborated by my boatmen who told me that for

the past seven years they have deserted the lake entirely. What a sad

contrast to the position as described in Salim Ali’s account.

But despite these disappointments my explorations afforded me many

wonderful sights and two especial thrills. The first of these was a Little

Bittern (/xobrychus minutus). The Chestnut Bittern (J. cinnamomeus) is

possibly the commonest species in Sind followed by the Yellow Bittern

(/. sinensis) and then the Black Bittern (D. flavicollis) whilst the Little

Bittern is by far the rarest. It is still fairly common as a breeding bird

on the lakes around Srinagar as a friend of mine testified this summer,

but in other parts of its range because of its extremely shy and skulking

habits it is seldom if ever seen, though it is undoubtedly resident and

breeding in Sind. We saw this delightfully trim little bird in a fairly small

and open clump of sedges and rather than take to flight it froze in its

characteristic upstretched stance, allowing me to guide the boat right

around it and to study it from a few feet away. Its clumsy looking large

olive green feet belied the agile manner in which it was able to clamber

over and cling to the vertical reed stems. When put to flight it showed

dull purplish black primaries and tail and being a female it had the

forecrown also tinged with blue black. Either side of its neck and breast

were heavily streaked with rich maroon while its mantle and scapulars

were also streaked with a more browny chestnut. The rest of its body

plumage was a buffy yellow.

The only common bird of prey was the Marsh Harrier (Circus

aeruginosus) and there were considerable numbers of these circling low

over the vast reed beds watching for an unwary Purple Moorhen. I saw

but a single Osprey (Pandion haliaetus) and on the western shore a large

dark eagle. Though it lacked any light spots on secondary wing coverts or

white on the rump when put to flight, it was I think a Spotted Eagle (Aquila

clanga). It was very dark which in my limited experience of this species

20 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

is often the case though I have seen a captive specimen with pale golden

crown and nape. A large dark eagle with comparatively long narrow

wings flew low over the top of a reed bed with the obvious intention of

surprising some Dabchicks (Podiceps ruficollis) feeding on the open

water in its lea. It made two bold stoops but failed to capture anything.

From its large size and comparatively long tail, and active manner I was

sure it was an immature Bonelli’s Hawk-Eagle (Nisaetus fasciatus) though

its breast was quite brown, thus making positive identification impossible.

The second thrill I had was, the sighting of a magnificent adult,

Imperial Eagle, which I believe to be of the European race (Aquila heliaca

adalberti). The Imperial Eagle seemed to come from nowhere and it

swooped down on the main flock of coots. This caused so much panic

that several birds rose into the air whereupon one was easily snatched

from above by the eagle’s powerful talons. This action was witnessed by all

_ the fishermen in the vicinity who immediately set up a great din, banging

their poles upon the water and shouting to frighten the eagle and make

it drop its prey. This it did, perhaps by accident, as it swung in a wide

arc and again picked the floating bird off the water and made for the

nearest shore. As it did so, it was turning its head from side to side as

though looking out for any further attacker. One wing of the unfortunate

coot was caught in the eagle’s retrices yet it did not in any way affect

its powerful and direct flight. But no sooner had it come over the land

when a Greater Spotted Eagle with white rump clearly visible also ap-

peared from nowhere and swooped upon it. The Imperial Eagle dropped

its quarry as it banked upwards to meet this new threat. Both eagles then

alighted on the grass close by, where they seemed to crouch glowering at

each other. The drama was however not yet ended, for a young boy

from the nearest boat waded ashore and ran to where the coot had fallen.

As the startled eagles flew away, I saw the boy triumphantly pick up the

coot which from its flapping wings was still very much alive.

Having seen a Pallas’s Fishing Eagle (Haliaeetus leucoryphus) in the

distance some moments before, I at first assumed that the bird attacking

the coots was the same species. Indeed I was able to see clearly that its

entire crown and nape were a pale grey. But since Pallas’s Eagles tend to

have dirty buff white heads and necks this grey colour even then sur-

prised me. Moreover the nape of Imperial Eagles which I have previously

encountered were always a golden tawny colour but in all lights and

angles this bird seemed to have a grey almost white nape and the most

striking feature was the bright white shoulders and leading edge to the

wings (lesser secondary wing coverts). When it exposed its full back view

it showed no white scapulars of the typical eastern race of A. heliaca, but

the white shoulder patches and forward edges of the wings were extremely

conspicuous. Its tail appeared a pale grey buff again making me think it

EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE 21

must be Haliaeetus, but it lacked any sharply contrasting terminal bar

which I had clearly seen half a mile away on the other individual. Its

overall plumage was a very deep almost purplish brown and when it rose

to meet the Greater Spotted Eagle it was clearly a much larger, and heavier

bodied eagle with broader wings. I also recall noticing its deep com-

pressed bill with yellow cere and brown not white throat. Many years of

bird watching have I hope taught me at least some humility in making

identifications—particularly amongst the raptors and I have only de-

cided after sifting my ‘ on-the-spot’ written notes, that this eagle could

not have been Haliaeetus leucogaster (it was too large and had a dark

brown breast) or Icthyophaga ichthyaetus (its tail was plain dirty buff all

over without the central feathers being darker). Haliaeetus albicilla

(which is not even included in Ripley’s syNopsis) has a wedge shaped

tail and in any case lacks a whitish nape and H. leucoryphus has a bluish

not yellow cere and white not brown throat. Last summer I was lucky to

see a fine adult Imperial Eagle in a small zoo in North Wales which was

undoubtedly A. h. heliaca the Asiatic race as it had conspicuous white

scapular feathers, but its tail was quite dark grey barred with one or two

broad grey brown bands and its wing shoulders were not noticeably

light in colour. These are the sort of fascinating puzzles which make the

sport of bird watching a perpetual challenge.

Even if my eagle did not conform to the books, it did provide in

episodic form perhaps an explanation for the great decline in birdlife

on Manchar Lake, for in the unequal struggle with mankind it is the

birds that lose.

An annotated list of the Butterflies

of Delhi, India

JULIAN P. DONAHUE

[ Continued from Vol. 63(2): 269 |

LYCAENIDAE

Tarucus nara (Kollar)

The Striped Pierrot is by far the most common of the four Tarucus

in Delhi: large numbers of them can be collected by beating a thorny

bush, possibly Zizyphus sp., when it is in flower on the Ridge. Only nine

of the specimens have come from the Nursery, but the species is common

at Tughlakabad. The flying time appears to be divided into two periods,

based on the available records: Aug. II to Dec. IV, and Feb. III to May IV.

486 specimens: 326 males (67%), 160 females. The genitalia of all males

have been examined. .

Wynter-Blyth (1957) records T. alteratus Moore, a synonym of T.

nara, from Delhi, but he was unable to tell me the original source for

this record (pers. comm.). Longstaff (1912) reported collecting T. theo-

phrastus in Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903, but since this is an African species he

probably had T. nara, the most common Delhi Tarucus.

SIZE: Males and females vary from 9mm. in the dry season to 12 mm.

in the wet season.

VARIATION: The seasonal forms are strikingly different. Wet season

specimens have large and dark markings on the underside, butin dry

season specimens these markings become very much reduced and rusty.

As Evans (1955) pointed out, the valvae of 7. nara appear to be variable.

In Delhi the genitalic variation appears to be associated with the season:

dry-season forms have smaller lobes at the apex of the valva than do wet

season specimens. An occasional ‘‘ wet season’ form has been collected

during the dry season. These specimens are not only marked like wet

season specimens, but they have the larger apical lobes on the valva

associated with that form. Whether these specimens occur as a result of

an undetermined environmental condition, or whether they actually

represent a second species can only be ascertained after further study.

[36]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 23

DISTRIBUTION: Because of the confusion in the genus prior to its

revision by Evans in 1955, records published before that date cannot be

heavily relied upon. Further, an examination of the male genitalia (the

female genitalia have not been studied) is essential to a proper identi-

fication of most species of Tarucus. Evans (1955) lists the following

localities in the plains of north-western India and Pakistan that are re-

presented by specimens of 7. nara in the British Museum (N.H.): Kutch

and Kathiawar, Gujarat; Karachi, Pakistan; “‘ Punjab,’’ Ambala, Pun-

jab; and ‘‘ United Provinces.’ The species occurs south to Ceylon, east

to Sikkim, and west to the Persian Gulf. There are additional specimens

in the MSU collection from Amber, Rajasthan (15 November 1963,

RLD) and Ludhiana, Punjab (11-12 Sept. 1961, JPD).

The T. extricatus, and T. alteratus in Wynter-Blyth (1957) are syno-

nyms of T. nara.

Tarucus balkanica nigra Bethune-Baker

This rare species would probably have been missed entirely if long

series of Tarucus had not been collected. Only four males have been

obtained, plus a female that may be this species. As pointed out earlier,

it is impossible to positively identify any Tarucus females except those of

T. callinara. The genitalia of all four males were examined.

The only specimen from the Nursery was obtained on 3 Nov. 1962

(RCF), 10 mm. The other specimens, all from the Ridge, were taken on

21 Feb. 1963 (RCF), 10.5 mm.; 29 Feb. 1964 (RCF), 10 mm.; and

20 Aug. 1962 (JPD), 11mm. The doubtful female was collected on the

Ridge, 14 April 1963 (RCF), 11mm.

Only one nigra was found in a series of about 35 Tarucus collected

on the Ridge on 20 Aug. 1962.

Wynter-Blyth (1957) lists Delhi as a locality where this species occurs,

but he was unable to tell me the original source for this record (pers.

comm.).

DISTRIBUTION: For reasons stated earlier, published records of

Tarucus cannot be relied upon, even for this species, the male of which is

characterized by having black discal spots UPF. The following plains

localities are represented by specimens in the British Museum (N.H.),

as reported by Evans (1955): Karachi, Pakistan ; Kutch (the type locality) ;

Rajasthan; Punjab; Satna and Jabalpur, Madhya Pradesh; and

‘** Dinapore, Bengal’ (=Dinapore, Bihar or Dinajpur, East Pakistan?).

It has been collected in the Himalaya from Peshawar and Baluchistan

to Kumaon.

[37]

24 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Tarucus indica Evans

An examination of the genitalia of all male Tarucus from Delhi

yielded only two specimens of this species, which can be considered the

rarest of the four Delhi Tarucus. If any females were collected, they are

included in the account of T. nara, since no valid character of the facies

could be found to separate the two.

Both specimens were collected on the Ridge by RCF. The first, a

well marked specimen, was obtained on 26 Sept. 1963 (13 mm.). The spot

at the end of the cell UPF is conspicuous (not inconspicuous as stated

by Evans 1955). The second specimen, collected on 29 March 1964

(11 mm.), is worn: the upperside has very little blue, and the markings

UPH resemble those of Tarucus females.

DISTRIBUTION: According to Evans (1955), specimens in the British

Museum (N.H.) have come from Baluchistan to Kumaon in the Hima-

laya, and from Lahore and Karachi east to Bengal and south to Madras

in peninsular India. Three males from Meerut, U.P. (35 miles NE. of

Delhi), are the records nearest Delhi. The only other specimens in the

MSU collection are three males from Ludhiana, Punjab, 12 Sept. 1961

(JPD).

Tarucus callinara Butler

The Spotted Pierrot is the only Delhi Tarucus whose female can be

identified with a reasonable degree of certainty. It has been collected

both on the Ridge and in the Nursery at scattered times throughout the

year: Feb. I, March II, April II, Aug. I & II, Sept. I, Nov. III, and Dec. I

& IV. 15 specimens: 5 males (33%), 10 females.

SIZE: The males and females vary from 9 mm. (Feb., Dec.) to 12 mm.

(a Sept. 9) and 13 mm. (a Nov. o).

DISTRIBUTION: Recorded from virtually throughout India by Evans

(1955). He also records one male and six females from Delhi: T. G.

Howarth and G. E. Tite of the British Museum (N.H.) found a male

and three females in the B.M. collection, which are probably the speci-

mens referred to by Evans. They are labelled “‘N. India, Delhi, Nov.

1932,’ [B.M. No. 1935-7].

Syntarucus plinius (Fabricius)

The Zebra Blue occurs in all habitats, but appears to be much

more common in the Nursery. It is relatively rare during the dry season,

but is especially abundant in November. It flies from Aug. IV to Jan. ITI,

and Feb. IV to May IV. 123 specimens; 88 males (72%), 35 females,

[38]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 25

sizE: Males and females vary in size throughout the year, from

11 mm. to 13 mm. 3

DISTRIBUTION : This species is common throughout India and Pakistan

(Cantlie 1962), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.

Azanus ubaldus (Cramer)

Only 12 specimens of the Bright Babul Blue have been examined.

In the Nursery, a female was collected on 3 Nov. 1962, and males were

collected on 17 and 22 Nov. 1962 (all by RCF). On the Ridge, a female

was collected on 9 Aug. 1962 (JPD), five females on 20 Aug. 1962 (JPD),

two males on 3 Nov. 1962 (RCF), and a male was collected there on

1 Dec. 1962 (RCF).

SIZE: Both sexes range from 9 mm. to 11 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: This species is found in India west to West Pakistan

(Cantlie 1962). It has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.

Azanus uranus Butler

The Dull Babul Blue is the most common Azanus in Delhi. Although

it is most common on the Ridge, five specimens have been collected in

the Nursery, and one male was collected at the Najafgarh Jheel (RLD).

It has only been collected from Nov. I to Dec. IV. 45 specimens:

32 males (71%), 13 females.

SIZE: Males and females vary from 8 mm. to 11 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: Reportedly common throughout India and Pakistan

(Cantlie 1962).

Azanus jesous gamra (Lederer)

RCF has collected the only 10 specimens known from Delhi. They

were all collected on the Ridge, as follows: two males and two females

on 18 Nov. 1962, one male on 24 Nov. 1962, three males and a female

on 1 Dec. 1962, and a male on 22 Dec. 1962.

These butterflies should be looked for near Acacia spp., for the

flowers are fed upon by the larvae (Wynter-Blyth 1957).

sizz: The males range from 9 mm. to 11 mm., while the females

vary from 10 mm. to 12 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: The African Babul Blue is found throughout the

more arid portions of India and West Pakistan (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-

Blyth 1957), but de Rhé-Philipe (1902) failed to include it in the Lucknow

[39]

26 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

list. MacPherson (1927) did not collect it in Jodhpur, nor did de Rhé-

Philipe (1917) record it in Lahore. The published records nearest Delhi

appear to be those of Aldrich (1946) in Kaira District, Gujarat, and

Mosse (1929) in Kathiawar, to the south-west. However, there are speci-

mens in the MSU collection from Siliserh, Rajasthan (19 Nov. 1963,

RLD), and Amber, Rajasthan (15 Nov. 1963, RLD).

Chilades laius laius (Cramer)

The Lime Blue occurs sparingly in Delhi, and should be looked for

in the vicinity of its foodplant, Citrus (Bell 1918). It has been seen or col-

lected from July IV to Dec. IV (no October records) in the Nursery.

One female was collected on the Ridge, Nov. I. 23 specimens: 13 males

(57%), 10 females.

Longstaff (1912) collected this species in Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903.

The absence of tails is the major character that differentiates this

species from Euchrysops pandava pandava (Horsfield), although the

larvae reportedly have different foodplants: E. pandava feeds on cycads,

according to Swinhoe (1910-1911). No significant differences were

found when the genitalia of C. laius were compared with the genitalia

of E. p. pandava from Karwar, Mysore and Darjeeling, West Bengal.

The genitalia of both species resemble fig. 146 (E. pandava) in Corbet &

Pendlebury (1956), except that the vinculum is narrower than they have

drawn it. The valva of E. pandava has also been figured by Corbet (1941).

The congeneric, or even conspecific, status of these two butterflies should

be investigated.

SIZE: The males vary from 11 mm. to 13 mm., while the females

range from 9 mm. (14 Nov. 1963, RLD) to 14 mm. (in August and

September).

OVIPOSITION: On 19. Sept. 1961 two females were observed flying

around a Citrus bush. At least one of them laid an egg on the bush.

On 26 July 1961 a female was observed flying around another

Citrus bush. Eventually she landed on an irregular knob in the axil of a

leaf and deposited an egg, rubbing her hind wings together as she did .

so. This process was repeated several times before I collected several of

the twigs on which eggs had been laid. An examination of the irregula-

rities on which the eggs had been deposited revealed that they were small

clusters of aphids (Homoptera: Aphidae). The eggs failed to hatch, so

it could not be determined whether the larvae would. have fed on the

Citrus (the recorded foodplant) or on the aphids. It appears that carni-

vorous behaviour has never been reported for this species (Clark 1926),

[40]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 27

although the larvae are attended by ants (Swinhoe 1905-1910; de Rhé-

Philipe 1902).

DISTRIBUTION: The Lime Blue occurs throughout India (Cantlie

1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957), west to Jodhpur? (MacPherson 1927), Lahore

(de Rhé-Philipe 1917), and Kathiawar (Mosse 1929).

Freyeria trochilus putli (K ollar)

The Grass Jewel is the smallest Delhi butterfly. It has been recorded

from July IV to Dec. IV, and Feb. I. Although it is usually found in the

Nursery, it has been collected at Tughlakabad and onthe Ridge (10,

Dec. I). 42 specimens: 27 males (64%), 13 females, 2 unsexed.

SIZE: Males and females vary from 6 mm. to 9 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies, which does not have prominently

orange-crowned marginal spots on the hindwing, occurs from south to

north-east India. The nominate subspecies is found in West Pakistan

(Cantlie 1962). One or two of the Delhi specimens have prominently

orange-crowned marginal spots, thus indicating a tendency towards the

Pakistan subspecies. The Grass Jewel has been recorded on all sides of

Delhi.

Zizina otis indica (Murray)

The Lesser Grass Blue is common in Delhi, though it is not collected

as frequently as Zizeeria maha and Z. knysna. Only two specimens have

been collected during the monsoon (July IV, Aug. II); the rest have been

collected from Nov. I to Feb. I and March IV to May III. It is most

common in November and December. Systematic collecting would

probably yield specimens from throughout the year. 74 specimens:

39 males (53%), 35 females.

SIZE: Males and females range from 8 mm. to 1! mm.

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs in peninsular India north to

Sikkim and west to West Pakistan (Cantlie 1962). A second subspecies,

Z. otis sangra (Moore), occurs from Sikkim and West Bengal east. The

genitalic differences between the two “‘ subspecies ’’ have been noted by

previous workers, who have retained the subspecific status of the two

populations. The differences between the two, illustrated by Chapman

(1910), would appear to be significant enough to warrant the recognition

of two distinct species.

This butterfly has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe

1902) and Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), but not from Jodhpur (Mac-

Pherson 1927). I have also collected it in Ludhiana, Punjab (11-12 Sept.

[41]

28 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

1961) and 15 miles south of Saharanpur, U.P. (8-9 May 1961). There are

additional specimens in the MSU collection from Aligarh, U.P. (17

Nov. 1962 and 7 April 1964, RLD).

Zizeeria maha maha (Kollar)

Although the males of the Pale Grass Blue can be easily separated

from males of Z. knysna, the females of the two species tend to overlap

in size so that their identification becomes difficult. A good character to

separate the two, in Delhi, is the arrangement of the discal spots UNF.

In maha the spots in spaces 3, 4, and 5 are similar in shape, and the

distal edges are more or less in line. In knysna the spot in space 4 is

usually lengthened and oblique, and is shifted laterad from a line drawn

through the spots in spaces 3 and 5.

This species has been recorded throughout the year, both on the

Ridge and in the Nursery. It is most common in March and April, and

again from late July through November. 223 specimens: 178 males (80%),

45 females.

SIZE: Males and females range from 10 mm. to 13 mm.

VARIATION: The seasonal forms are well-marked. The WSF occurs

from July III to Oct. I, in which the males have the marginal band on the

upperside much wider than in dry season specimens, accompanied by

dark suffusion over the greater part of both wings. The females are dark

brown above, with at most a trace of the basal blue. The DSF occurs

during the remainder of the year (Oct. IV to June III), in which the males

are pale lilac blue above, with narrow brown borders on both wings,

and no suffusion. The DSF females have a varying amount of blue on the

upperside—often as much as in a wet season male.

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies 1s common from West Pakistan east

to Assam and south to “‘ Central India’? (Cantlie 1962). Common in

Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), but

MacPherson (1927) only records afew specimens from Udaipur, southern

Rajasthan, and none from Jodhpur. There are, however, additional

specimens in the MSU collection from Jaipur, Rajasthan (16-17 Nov.

1963, RLD), 170 miles ENE. of Jodhpur.

Zizeeria knysna karsandra (Moore)

The Dark Grass Blue is the most common of the Delhi grass blues.

It occurs in the Nursery throughout the year, and is common on the

Ridge from March IV to April IV, and again in November and December.

It is most common in the Nursery during and after the monsoon. 463

[42]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 29

specimens: 269 males (58%), 194 females. The sex ratio of field-collected

specimens is apparently subject to great variation: of 76 specimens col-

lected April II, only 38% were males, but of 67 specimens collected Aug.

IV, 63% were males. A copulating pair was collected on 25 Sept. 1961

(JPD).

SIZE: Males and females range from 8 mm. to 11 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: This species is common throughout West Pakistan

and India (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957). Only a few specimens

were collected in Lucknow by de Rhé-Philipe (1902), but it has been

reported as common in Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917) and Jodhpur

(MacPherson 1927).

Zizula hylax (Fabricius)

This tiny butterfly has long been known as Z. gaika (Trimen), but

Corbet (1940) has shown that the Fabrician name has priority. It is the

least common of the Delhi grass blues, and is usually collected as single

specimens from March IV to Dec. IV (no records for January, February,

May, June, September, or October). Although the majority of specimens

has been collected in the Nursery, three have been collected on the Ridge

(March IV, Aug. III, Dec. IV), and five specimens were collected at

Tughlakabad on 29 Sept. 1961 (JPD), indicating that it may be locally

common during and after the monsoon. 23 specimens: 14 males (61%),

9 females.

° SIZE: Males and females range from 8 mm. to 11 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: The Tiny Grass Blue occurs throughout India and

Pakistan (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957) and has been recorded on

all sides of Delhi.

Euchrysops cnejus (Fabricius)

The Gram Blue has been found in the Nursery, on the Ridge, and

at Tughlakabad. It flies from Aug. IV to Sept. IV, Nov. I to Dec. I, and

Feb. III to March IT. It has been most frequently collected in late Febru-

ary, early March, and early November. Longstaff (1912) collected it in

Delhi, 7-12 Nov. 1903.

In the process of examining the genitalia of all males, it was found

that the uncus of this species is quite different from that of the other

two Euchrysops in India. 33 specimens: 25 males (76%), 8 females.

SIZE: Males and females range from 9 mm. to 15 mm., with the

smaller specimens generally occurring during the dry season.

[43]

30 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

DISTRIBUTION: This species is common throughout India and Pakis-

tan (Cantlie 1962). It has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe

1902) and Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927), but not from Lahore (de Rhé-

Philipe 1917).

Euchrysops parrhasius parrhasius (Fabricius)

The Small Cupid has long been known as E. contracta (Butler), but

Corbet (1941) has shown that the Hesperia parrhasius of Fabricius actually

refers to this species rather than to an Everes (the former Everes parrha-

sius parrhasius of south India is now known as Everes lacturnus syntala

Cantlie). It occurs in all Delhi habitats, from July III to Nov. IV, Dec. IV,

Jan. IV, and from March IV to May IV (not yet recorded in Feb. or

June). 91 specimens: 62 males (68%), 29 females.

SIZE: Males and females vary from 9 mm. to 12 mm.

VARIATION: Males occurring from Nov. I to March IV are darker

blue above than are males flying at other times. Females flying during

the same period have a large amount of blue on the upperside, as opposed

to July females, for example, which have only a few basal blue scales.

The underside of these dry season specimens is very dusky, and the

markings are greatly suffused and indistinct. The spot in space lc UNH

is smaller than the spot in space 2, and a light postdiscal band is well-

developed.

The dry season specimens appear to fit the description of E. pandava

minuta Evans, a subspecies which is supposed to occur in Sind, Punjab,

Baluchistan, and the N.W. Frontier (Cantlie 1962). But the genitalia of

all males were examined and compared with the genitalia of specimens of

E. pandava pandava (Horsfield) in the MSU collection from Karwar,

Mysore and Darjeeling, West Bengal. No Delhi specimen had

genitalia conforming to E. pandava, although it was noted that the geni-

talia of E. pandava are virtually identical to those of Chilades laius, q.v.

Corbet (1941) figures the valvae of Euchrysops pandava, E. parrhasius

parrhasius, E. cnejus, and what he calls E. parrhasius minuta Evans. Un-

fortunately, the apparent transfer of minuta from E. pandava to E. par-

rhasius was not discussed, and no indication was given of the authority

for the change.

Mr. G. E. Tite of the British Museum (Natural History) has been

kind enough to examine Evans’s type of minuta, and he informs me

(pers. comm.) that minuta and parrhasius are one and the same species,

thus confirming Corbet’s (1941) observations. It appears, therefore, that

minuta Evans only refers to the dry season form of Euchrysops parrhasius

parrhasius (Fabricius), and is thus a NEW SYNONYM.

[44]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 31

DISTRIBUTION: E. parrhasius parrhasius occurs from south India

north to Nepal, west to Sind, Punjab, Baluchistan, and the N.W. Frontier

(Cantlie 1962). It has not been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe

1902) or Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), although it has been recorded

from Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927) and Kanpur, U.P. (Sanders 1955).

Catochrysops strabo strabo (Fabricius)

The Forget-Me-Not appears to be locally common but generally

rare in Delhi. It occurs more or less throughout the year in all habitats:

Jan. IV, March III & IV, May I & IV, Aug. IV, Sept. IV, and Nov. I to

IV. The only place where it was found to be common was at Tughlakabad,

where 27 males (no females) were collected on 29 Sept. 1961 (JPD). At

other times in other localities only one or two specimens have been col-

lected at any one time. 43 specimens: 37 males (86%), 6 females.

SIZE: Males and females vary from 13 mm. to 16 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies is common throughout peninsular

India (Wynter-Blyth 1957; Cantlie 1962; Tite 1959). It has been recorded

in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902) and Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927), but

not in Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917). There are additional specimens in

the MSU collection from Ludhiana, Punjab (11-12 Sept. 1961, JPD) and

Jaipur, Rajasthan (16 Nov. 1963, RLD).

Lampides boeticus (Linnaeus)

The Peablue is another of the most common Delhi butterflies. It has

been recorded in all habitats throughout the year, except in the months

of July and September. It appears to be most abundant from February

to April and again in November, but it may have been heavily collected

in the dry season when many species are not common, and may have been

neglected for more desirable species during the monsoon, when more

butterflies are flying. 312 specimens: 163 males (52%), 149 females.

SIZE: Males and females vary from 12 mm. in the dry season to 17

mm. after the monsoon.

DISTRIBUTION: This ubiquitous species is common throughout India

and Pakistan (Cantlie 1962).

Prosotas nora ardates (Moore)

Only three males of the Common Lineblue have been examined, all

of which were collected in Delhi by Leela R. Menon in October 1962

(11 mm.). The genitalia of all three specimens were dissected and com-

pared with figures in Tite (1963), which should be consulted for infor-

mation concerning the removal of this species from Nacaduba.

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a2 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY Vol. 64 (1)

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs in Ceylon and throughout

West Pakistan and India to Burma (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957).

It has not been collected in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), Sind (Menesse

1950), or Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), but MacPherson (1927) found

it in Jodhpur, and Mosse (1929) collected it in Rajkot, Kathiawar, in

December 1927. The foodplant is reported to be Acacia caesia (Wynter-

Blyth 1957), so these trees should be more closely examined in Delhi.

Spindasis vulcanus vulcanus (Fabricius)

Only two males of the Common Silverline have been collected in

Delhi. One was obtained by RLD in the Nursery on 28 Oct. 1962 (11 mm.),

and the other was collected by RCF on the Ridge, 21 Feb. 1963 (12.5

mm.). The male genitalia of both this and the following species were

examined and compared with the figures in Cantlie (1963).

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs throughout India and West

Pakistan, except in the eastern Himalaya and Assam (Cantlie 1962;

Wynter-Blyth 1957). It has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhe-

Philipe 1902), but not from Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927) or Lahore (de

Rhé-Philipe 1917).

Only eleven specimens of the Common Shot Silverline have been

collected. Three males were collected in Delhi by Leela R. Menon in

November 1962, while the rest of the specimens were collected on the

Ridge: a male on 24 Feb. 1963, two males on 26 Feb. 1963, one male on

29 Feb. 1964, two males and a female on 11 March 1963 (all by RCF),

and a female on 3 July 1962 (JPD).

SIZE: The males range from 12 mm. to 14 mm., while the females

are 13 mm. and 14 mm.

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs locally throughout West

Pakistan and India (Cantlie 1962; Wynter-Blyth 1957), but the only

published record near Delhi is from Faizabad, U.P. (de Rhé-Philipe

1902).

Rapala iarbus (Fabricius) ssp.

Only four Delhi specimens of the Indian Red Flash, formerly known

as R. melampus (Cramer), have been examined. Two males were collected

in Delhi in November 1962 by Miss Nirmala (16 mm., 18 mm.), one male

was collected in Delhi in December 1962 by Venu (17 mm.), and a female

was collected in the Nursery by JPD on 29 May 1962 (15 mm.). This last

specimen was collected as it sat on a Citrus leaf in the shade.

[46]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 33

According to Cantlie (1962) the prominent orange-crowned spot in

space 2 UNH of the Delhi specimens is indicative of R. i. iarbus, which

presumably occurs from Nepal to Burma, but the paucity of orange

scales in the tornal lobe UPH would indicate R. i. sorya (Kollar), which

reportedly occurs from south India to Murree, Nepal, and Calcutta, and

in Amritsar and Kanpur. Since the range of the latter subspecies encom-

passes Delhi, these specimens are probably referable to Rapala iarbus

sorya (Kollar).

DISTRIBUTION: In addition to the ranges given above, specimens have

been collected on Mount Abu (MacPherson 1927), in Kutch (Nurse

1899), and in Kathiawar (Mosse 1929). Menesse (1950) does not report

its presence in Sind. Delhi appears to be on the western edge of the range

of this species, at the latitude of Delhi.

LYCAENIDAE Sp.

One male lycaenid was found in the Delhi material, labelled “‘ Nur-

sery, New Delhi, 26 Aug. 1961, JPD,’’ which does not appear to be of

Indian origin. Mr. G. E. Tite of the British Museum (N.H.) was not able

to identify it because of its worn condition. Although anything is possible

in biology, it is perhaps best to consider that this specimen was mislabelled

during preparation.

NYMPHALIDAE

Charaxes fabius fabius (Fabricius)

The Black Rajah is an uncommon species in India, and Wynter-

Blyth (1957) states that it has been recorded from Delhi, although he

was unable to tell me the original source for this record (pers. comm.).

No specimens or further records have been located, although the food-

plant, tamarind (Tamarindus indica), occurs in Delhi.

DISTRIBUTION: According to Evans (1927) this subspecies is found

in peninsular India north to Kangra and Sikkim in the Himalaya. In the

plains of north-western India it has been recorded from Lucknow (de

Rhé-Philipe 1902), Kathiawar (Mosse 1929), and in Kaira District

(Aldrich 1946). Delhi appears to be on the western edge of the known,

range of this species, which should be looked for near tamarind, at sugar,

and on exuding tree sap.

Euthalia nais (Forster)

The only Delhi specimen known is in the I.A.R.I. collection, caught

by Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon on 2 April 1958.

[47]

34 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

DISTRIBUTION: The Baronet is locally common from Dehra Dun to

Sikkim, south throughout peninsular India to Ceylon (Evans 1932,

Wynter-Blyth 1957). South of Dehra Dun, the only record near Delhi

is from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), where only one specimen (<")

was collected in March. Delhi is apparently the westernmost record for

the species at this latitude.

Pseudergolis wedah (Kollar)

A single specimen in the I.A.R.I. collection, caught by Dr. M. G.

Ramdas Menon, is the only known specimen from Delhi.

DISTRIBUTION: The Tabby is a Himalayan species, occurring from

Kulu to Assam and Burma (Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957), and, since

it has apparently not been previously reported south of the Himalaya,

its occurrence in Delhi is exceptional and should be verified with further

specimens.

Hypolimnas misippus (Linnaeus)

The Danaid Eggfly is a widespread species whose female mimics all

three forms of Danaus chrysippus found in India. The typical female

form, which is extremely difficult to distinguish from D. chrysippus in the

field, is the only form which has been collected in Delhi. It is perhaps only

a matter of time before the other two, more rare, forms are found. The

species has been collected in the Nursery, on the Ridge, and at Tughla-

kabad, from June IV to Sept. IV, and Nov. I. 25 specimens: 17 males

(68%), 8 females.

SIZE: o'o' 26 mm. (3 Nov. 1963, RLD) to 34 mm.(2 specimens,

28 Aug. 1961, JPD). 9 ? 36 mm. (30 June and 29 Sept. 1961, JPD) to

41 mm. (4 Nov. 1961, JPD).

DISTRIBUTION: This butterfly occurs throughout India (Wynter-

Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi. Interestingly,

de Rhé-Philipe (1917) found this species less common than H. bolina

in Lahore, while the converse is true in Delhi.

Hypolimnas bolina bolina (Linnaeus)

Although the Great Eggfly is common in many parts of India, it is

rare in Delhi. Only four females have been collected in the Nursery:

15 July 1962 (37 mm.), 20 July 1962 (43 mm.), 9 Aug. 1962 (39 mm.), and

21 Sept. 1961 (42 mm.). These specimens are small compared with females

from south India. No males have ever been seen by the author, either in

Delhi or elsewhere in India.

[48]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 35

DISTRIBUTION: This species is reportedly common throughout India

(Evans 1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957). It is common in Lucknow (de Rhé-

Philipe 1902), Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917), Kutch (Nurse 1899), and

Kathiawar (Mosse 1929), while it is fairly common in Amritsar (Sevasto-

pulo 1948), uncommon in Jodhpur (MacPherson 1927), and very rare

or extirpated in Karachi (Swinhoe 1887; Menesse 1950), where it has not

been collected since 1886.

Precis lintingensis lintingensis (Osbeck)

The Yellow Pansy appears to be the least common Precis in Delhi.

It is usually encountered in the Nursery, although a few specimens have

been taken at Tughlakabad and on the Ridge. It has been collected from

July III to Sept. IV, Nov. I to Jan. III, and on March IV and May IV.

26 specimens: 19 males (73%), 7 females.

Corbet (1945) has shown that Papilio lintingensis Osbeck, 1765, has

priority over the well-known Papilio hierta of Fabricius, 1798. N. D.

Riley has petitioned the International Commission on Zoological

Nomenclature [Bull. Zool. Nomencl. 22: 248-249, 1965; application No.

Z. N. (S.) 1708] to use its plenary powers to suppress the name

lintingensis so that hierta will once again be available for this species.

SIZE: o'o' 20 mm. (10 Nov. 1962, RCF) to 25 mm. (3 Nov. 1963,

RLD). 9 ¢ 24mm. (several, July & Nov.) to 27 mm. (9 Aug. 1962, JPD).

VARIATION : The wet season form, which has a darker ground colour

UNH than the dry season form, occurs from July III to Sept. IV.

DISTRIBUTION : This species is very common throughout India (Wyn-

ter-Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.

Precis orithya swinhoei (Butler)

The Blue Pansy is the most common Delhi Precis. It occurs in all

habitats throughout the year except in June and early July, for which

there are no records. It is most abundant during and after the monsoon,

especially in the Nursery. A tattered male and a fresh female were col-

lected in copula on 3 March 1962, and a female was collected at light

on 17 November 1961 (Donahue 1962b). 118 specimens: 64 males (54%),

54 females.

SIZE: o'o@ 17 mm. (2 Dec. 1962, 3 Feb. 1963, RCF) to 25 mm. (3

Nov. 1962, RCF). 9 ¢ 18 mm. (21 Feb. 1963, RCF) to 26 mm. (24 July

and 8 Sept. 1961, JPD). The smallest specimens are as small as, or smaller

than, the record “‘ dwarf’? reported by Crawford (1930), which had an

*“ expanse ”’ of 36 mm. (sex not stated).

[49]

36 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

VARIATION: The wet season form, with two prominent ocelli UNH,

has been collected from July II to Oct. I. Traces of the ocelli reappear in

specimens from March to May, reminiscent of the appearance of ocelli

in April and May specimens of Precis almana.

DISTRIBUTION: The Blue Pansy occurs throughout India (Wynter-

Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.

Precis lemonias lemonias (Linnaeus)

Evans (1932) recognized three subspecies of the Lemon Pansy in

the Indian subregion: P. /. vaisya Fruhstorfer, from Ceylon and south

and central India; P. /. persicaria Fruhstorfer, from Kashmir to Kumaon;

and P. 1. lemonias (Linnaeus), from Sikkim to Burma. Fruhstorfer’s

(1912) original descriptions of the first two “‘ subspecies ’’ indicate that

these taxa as he knew them occurred in widely-scattered localities,

certainly not in keeping with the modern concept of a subspecies; per-

sicaria, in fact, was described as a form with a peach-coloured underside.

Because I have been unable to find any constant geographical variation

in a large series of this species from throughout India, and because the

characterizations of the subspecies in Evans (1932) are inadequate, I have

chosen to refer to the entire Indian population of this variable species as

Precis lemonias lemonias (Linnaeus). Since this species occurs east to the

Philippines (Fruhstorfer 1912), there is a good possibility that, some-

where within its range, this species may have recognizable subspecies.

The Lemon Pansy occurs in all habitats, but is more frequently

collected in the Nursery. It is most abundant during and after the mon-

soon, but single specimens may be encountered during the winter and

dry season. It has been recorded from June IV to Jan. I, and Feb. IV to

April II (the seven specimens collected in the latter period are all males).

82 specimens: 53 males (65%), 29 females.

Longstaff (1912) wrote that from 7-12 Nov. 1903 this species “‘...

appeared to be rather fond of shade; they settled upon the ground in

preference to flowers, and then were hard to see.”

SIZE: gigi 22 mm. (several, March II and III, June IV) to 27 mm.

(29 Aug. 1961, JPD). 9 9 21.5 mm. (25 Dec. 1962, RCF) to 29 mm. (21

Sept. 1961, JPD).

VARIATION: The wet season form, which has a well-marked pattern

with ocelli UNH, occurs from June IV to Oct. I. The dry season form has

the pattern and ocelli reduced UNH and has a falcate apex on the fore-

wing.

[50]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 3h

DISTRIBUTION: This species occurs in the Himalaya from Kashmir to

Assam and Burma, in Ceylon and on the Deccan Plateau, and in Sau-

rashtra (Wynter-Blyth 1957)—a range which circumvents Delhi. How-

ever, it is also common in Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902), Jodhpur

and Mount Abu (MacPherson 1927), and Lahore (de Rhé-Philipe 1917).

It has even been collected in Karachi (Swinhoe 1887), and elsewhere in

Sind (Menesse 1950), where it is apparently very cyclic in its abundance.

Precis almana almana (Linnaeus)

The Peacock Pansy has been collected in the Nursery every month

except February. It is most common during and after the monsoon,

from mid-July through December. Only one specimen, a male, has been

collected on the Ridge. 61 specimens: 43 males (70%), 18 females.

SIZE: gigi 24 mm. (3 specimens, from March IV, May IV, and Dec.

IV) to 28 mm. (25 Sept. 1961, JPD). 9 ¢ 22 mm. (15 March 1964, RLD)

to 29 mm. (31 July 1962, JPD).

VARIATION: The seasonal forms are well-marked. The DSF has the

** dead-leaf ’’ pattern on the underside, where the ocelli are absent UNH,

the hindwing tornus is produced, and the forewing apex is falcate. The

WSF has prominent ocelli UNH, a rounded tornus on the hindwing,

and a rounded apex on the forewing. This is another of the Delhi butter-

flies in which the “‘ wet season ”’ form begins flying before the wet season

begins. The WSF has been collected April II and May IV to Nov. II.

The DSF flies from Sept. IV to March IV, with both forms occurring

from Sept. IV to Nov. II.

DISTRIBUTION : The Peacock Pansy occurs throughout India (Wynter-

Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi.

Vanessa cardui (Linnaeus)

Only two specimens of this cosmopolitan species have been collected

in Delhi. I collected a male on 20 Jan. 1962, and RCF obtained a female

on 23 March 1963. Both specimens came from the Nursery, and the

forewing of both is 27 mm. long.

DISTRIBUTION: The Painted Lady occurs throughout India (Evans

1932; Wynter-Blyth 1957), and usually occurs during the fall and winter

on the plains of northern India. It appears to be less common in the

desert tracts west of Delhi. Presumably it ‘“‘ migrates ”’ to Delhi from the

Himalaya, so it may be more abundant in some years than in others.

[51]

38 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Argynnis hyperbius hyperbius (Johannsen)

Only two specimens of the Indian Fritillary have been collected in

Delhi: I collected a perfect male (36 mm.) as it visited wildflowers in the

Nursery on 13 April 1962, and RCF collected a second male (34 mm.)

on the Ridge, 27 March 1964.

DISTRIBUTION: The appearance of this Himalayan species in Delhi

came as a surprise. It is resident on Mount Abu (Evans 1932 ; MacPherson

1927; Wynter-Blyth 1957) and in the Himalaya (Evans 1932; Wynter-

Blyth 1957), where the larva feeds on violets. Most authors have assumed

that this butterfly occasionally strays from the hills onto the plains, but

de Rhé-Philipe (1902) collected specimens from late September to March

and found the larvae feeding on Lobelia and potted violets in Lucknow,

while Longstaff (1912) collected a female there 24-25 Nov. 1903. Robson

— (1893) found and reared the larvae on cultivated pansies (Viola sp.) in

Bankipore, Bihar (near Patna), and Sanders (1955) reared adults from

larvae he found on pansies in his garden in Kanpur, U.P.

Other records from the plains include specimens taken during the

winter in Agra, U.P. (de Niceville 1886) and a single male taken and

another seen in Feb. 1929 at Kundla, west of Bhavnagar, Gujarat by

Mosse (1929), who has also seen several females during the monsoon

at Sadra, 30 miles north of Ahmedabad, Gujarat. Swinhoe (quoted in

Moore 1899-1900) reportedly took several specimens in Bombay in

1877, but it has apparently not been seen there since.

A careful search may show the species to be established in Delhi,

since the larvae could feed on the pansies which are cultivated there

during the winter,

Phalanta phalantha phalantha (Drury)

The Common Leopard is never abundant in Delhi. The females

occur on the Ridge and in the Nursery with approximately equal fre-

quency, but only one of the males has been collected in the Nursery. It

flies during and after the monsoon, from July II to Aug. IV, and Nov. ITI

and IV. 28 specimens: 15 males (54%), 13 females.

SIZE: oo" 19 mm. (18 Nov. 1962, RCF) to 28 mm. (9 Aug. 1962,

JPD; 18 Nov. 1962, RCF). 2 225 mm. (28 Aug. 1961, JPD) to 31 mm. (28

July 1961; 5 Aug. 1962, JPD).

VARIATION : The females are generally larger and more heavily marked

than the males. |

[52]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 39

DISTRIBUTION: This species is common throughout India (Wynter-

Blyth 1957), and has been recorded on all sides of Delhi. See Fox (1964)

for the latest treatment of the genus, formerly known as Afella.

Ergolis merione tapestrina Moore

The only record of the Common Castor from Delhi is a specimen

in the I.A.R.I. collection, caught by Dr. M. G. Ramdas Menon.

DISTRIBUTION: This subspecies occurs from the Central Provinces

to Orissa, and Kashmir to Kumaon (Evans 1927). The only other record

near Delhi is from Lucknow, where de Rhé-Philipe (1902) saw two

specimens in October.

The adults should be looked for near castor plants (Tragia spp.), the

larval foodplant, some of which grow in the Nursery and probably else-

where in Delhi.

DANAIDAE

Danaus chrysippus chrysippus (Linnaeus)

The Plain Tiger is one of the most common and conspicuous butter-

flies in Delhi, occurring throughout the year in all habitats, although it is

uncommon in January, February, May, and June. 317 specimens: 199

males (63%), 118 females.

Longstaff (1912) found this species common in Delhi, 7-12 Nov.

1903.

Nine copulating pairs have been collected, from March IV to Nov. I

(Table 4). With one major exception (1 Nov. 1962), the copulating males

are almost the same size as, or slightly larger than, the females.

TABLE 4

RECORDS OF COPULATING PAIRS OF Danaus chrysippus

Forewing Length (mm.)

Date Collector

fof e)

24 March 1963 .. a: ne 35 30 RLD

28 July 1961 .. on %, Re: 33 34 JPD

11 Aug. 1962 .. a: £63 ¥ 35 33 RLD

28 Aug. 1961 .. ae a ag 40 38 JPD

ZISept. 1963, .«., wig nity .e 37 34 RCF

25 Sept. 1961 .. a: s i 37 37 JPD

1 Nov. 1962 .. fe - sis 30 40 RLD

3 Nov. 1962 .. nie ve py 39 36 RCF

4Nov. 1961 .. i ee L 3 42 35 JPD

[53]

40 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

A photograph taken of a copulating pair in November 1961 clearly

shows that the male is doing the transporting, while the female is passive.

To the contrary, Pronin (1964) observed that the female of D. plexippus

was the transporter during the flight of a copulating pair in California.

Danaus chrysippus has been attracted to lights in New Delhi (Donahue

19625).

SIZE: o'o' 26 mm. (9 May 1962, JPD) to 42 mm. (13 April 1962,

JPD). 2 925 mm. (31 March 1963, RCF) to 40 mm. (several). ‘‘ Dwarf”

specimens are relatively frequent. Both the male and female dwarfs

indicated above are smaller than the dwarf reported by Crawford (1930),

which had an “expanse ”’ of 58 mm. A dwarf from Lucknow has been

reported with an “ expanse ”’ of “ not more than 2.1 inches ” [=53 mm.]

(de Rhé-Philipe 1902).

VARIATION: Of the two most distinctive forms of this species, ‘‘ dorip-

pus ” (Klug) and “ alcippoides ”’ Moore, only the latter has been collected

in Delhi—a fresh male collected in the Nursery on 23 March 1963 (41

mm.) by RCF. Elsewhere in the Indian subregion the “ alcippoides ”’

form has been recorded from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902); Lahore

(de Rhé-Philipe 1917); Bhavnagar, Kathiawar (Mosse 1929); Karachi,

Pakistan (Swinhoe 1887), and elsewhere in Sind (Menesse 1950) ; Calcutta

(Percy-Lancaster 1949); and Campbellpore, West Pakistan (Butler 1886).

In addition to some of the localities above, Moore (1890-1892) records

its occurrence in Nepal; Nurpur, W. Pakistan ; Deesa, Gujarat ; Neemuch,

Panghur (near Neemuch), and Mhow, Madhya Pradesh. Quoting de

Nicéville (Journ. Asiatic Soc. Bengal, 1885, p. 40), Moore also adds

Faizabad, U.P.; Bholahat, Malda District, West Bengal; and Khurda,

Orissa, to the list of localities where the “ alcippoides ’’ form has been

collected.

The more frequent ‘‘ dorippus”’ form has been recorded from a

number of arid localities in India (Donahue 1962a), and it is probably

only a matter of time before a specimen is collected in Delhi.

DISTRIBUTION: The Plain Tiger is very common throughout India

(Talbot 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957), and the arid plains of north-western

India are no exception.

Danaus genutia (Cramer)

Although Talbot (1947) refers to this species as D. plexippus plexippus

(Linnaeus), Cramer’s name is in general use in the Orient, and it is em-

ployed here to differentiate this species from the American species which

Western taxonomists call D. plexippus. This butterfly has only been

[54]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 41

recorded during the monsoon season, July II to Sept. II, from both the

Nursery and the Ridge. A copulating pair was collected on 5 August

1962 (JPD). 25 specimens: 14 males (56%), 11 females.

SIZE: o'o' 37 mm. (5 Aug. 1962, JPD) to 46 mm. (5 Aug. 1962,

26 Aug. 1961, JPD).2? 236 mm. (14 Aug. 1962, JPD) to 46 mm. (21 July

1962, JPD).

DISTRIBUTION : The Common Tiger occurs throughout India (Talbot

1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957). It has been recorded during the monsoon

season from other localities on all sides of Delhi.

Danaus limniace leopardus (Butler)

The Blue Tiger is rare in Delhi—only two males have been collected,

both from the Nursery: 26 July 1962 (41 mm.) and 28 Aug. 1961 (36

mm.).

DISTRIBUTION : This species is common in peninsular India, although

it also occurs in the Himalaya (Talbot 1947). It occurs during the monsoon

on all sides of Delhi.

Euploea core core (Cramer)

The Common Indian Crow is a very local and uncommon species

that has only been found in a particular shaded, damp area in the Nursery,

where Leptosia nina and Mycalesis perseus also occur. It has only been

collected from July II to Nov. I (no October specimens). Longstaff (1912)

found it “‘...common in shady places under mango trees, but was

rarely seen at flowers, ’” 7-12 Nov. 1903. 12 specimens: 3 males (25%),

9 females—one of the few Delhi butterflies whose females are more fre-

quently collected than the males.

SIZE: dc? 41 mm. (28 July & 29 Aug. 1961, JPD) to 45 mm.

(3 Nov. 1963, RLD). 2 941 mm. (21 July 1962, JPD) to 47 mm. (19 July

1961, JPD).

DISTRIBUTION: This species occurs throughout India, where it is

generally common (Talbot 1947; Wynter-Blyth 1957), although it appa-

rently does not occur as far west as Sind (Menesse 1950).

SATYRIDAE

Mycalesis perseus tabitha (Fabricius)

Like Euploea core, the Common Bushbrown has only been found in

a small, damp, shady area of the Nursery, where it flies from July III to

Nov. III. Although the valva resembles that found in some populations

(55]

42 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

of M. mineus figured by Evans (1920), all other characters of the facies

listed by Talbot (1947) point to this species. 30 specimens: 18 males

(60%), 12 females.

SIZE: oo’ 18.5 mm. (17 Nov. 1962, RCF) to 21 mm. (several).

@ 2 21 mm. (2 specimens, 25 Sept. 1961, JPD)to 25mm. (2 specimens,

4 Nov. 1961, JPD).

VARIATION: As in the other two Delhi satyrids, the seasonal forms

are well-marked. The WSF, with prominent ocelli UNH, occurs from

July HI to Oct. I, while the DSF, with greatly reduced ocelli UNH, has

been collected from Nov. I to Nov. HI. Only five of the 30 specimens are

of the dry season form.

DISTRIBUTION: Talbot (1947) records this subspecies from Ceylon

north to the U.P. It has been reported from Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe

1902) and Fatehgarh (Peile 1911), but there appear to be no other records

west of Delhi, indicating that Delhi is near the western edge of the range

of this species. The similar M. mineus polydecta (Cramer) apparently

does not occur as far north or west as Delhi.

Ypthima inica Hewitson

Despite the status of “not rare” given the Lesser Threering by

Talbot (1947) and Wynter-Blyth (1957), it is locally very common in

Delhi. This little butterfly is virtually restricted to a wet grassy lowland

area on the north side of the Nursery (plate I, 2), where it has been found

from July IV to April II, and on May IV. A few stray specimens have

also been collected on the Ridge, at Tughlakabad (29 Sept. 1961, JPD),

and at Okhla (1 Dec. 1962, RLD). The species is most common during

the monsoon season (59 specimens have been collected Aug. IV, of

which 76% were males). Two copulating pairs were collected on 21 Sept.

1961 (JPD). 204 specimens: 137 males (67%), 67 females.

SIZE: Both sexes vary from 14 mm. to 18 mm., although dry season

specimens are usually somewhat smaller than those from the wet season.

VARIATION: The seasonal forms are well-marked, but have an un-

usual temporal distribution. The dry season form “ inica” Hewitson,

with the ocelli UNH represented by mere dots, flies from Oct. IV to

April II. But the ocellated wet season form “ ariaspa *” Moore has also

been collected in April II, again in May IV, and during the monsoon

from July IV to Nov. IV. The appearance of the “ wet season ” form in

two of the hottest, driest months of the year, similar to the situation in

several other species noted earlier, is an unexplained phenomenon that

has apparently escaped the notice of other authors.

[56]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 43

DISTRIBUTION: The Lesser Threering. has been recorded from the

Punjab to Bengal by Talbot (1947), while Swinhoe (1886) has recorded

jt in Mhow and Depalpur, Madhya Pradesh. de Rhé-Philipe (1917) has

recorded two specimens from Lahore, and Sevastopulo (1948) says it is

common in Amritsar, Punjab, but no other records from west of Delhi

have been found.

Neither the widespread Y. asterope mahratta Moore nor Y. ceylonica

Hewitson have been found in Delhi, even though the genitalia of all

Delhi males were examined and compared with representatives of those

species in the MSU collection, and with the figures in Cantlie & Norman

(1959). Y. ceylonica hubneri Kirby has been recorded from Lucknow

(de Rhé-Philipe 1902), while Y. asterope mahratta has been collected in

Jodhpur and on Mount Abu (MacPherson 1927), Kathiawar (Mosse

1929), and Karachi (Swinhoe 1887). I have also collected Y. mahratta

in Sumerpur, Rajasthan, 320 miles southwest of Delhi (5 Oct. 1961).

Either of these two species may be found in Delhi, but intensive

collecting has so far failed to yield a specimen.

Melanitis leda ismene (Cramer)

This crepuscular species is best collected in the evening, although

one may find specimens during the day by beating the bushes in the

Nursery. It has also been collected at light (Donahue 19626). Outside

the Nursery it has only been taken at Tughlakabad (29 Sept. 1961, JPD),

though it probably occurs in other favourable habitats in the State. It

flies only during and after the monsoon, from July III to December III.

35 specimens: 13 males (37%), 22 females—another of the few Delhi

species in which the female is collected more often than the male.

SIZE: The forewing of both males and females varies from 32 mm. to

37 mm. in length.

VARIATION: The seasonal forms are very different from each other

in the markings on the underside of the hindwing: the WSF “‘ deter-

minata’’ Butler, which flies from July III to Oct. I, has conspicuous

ocelli UNH, while the DSF “‘ ismene ” (Cramer), which flies from Oct. I

to Dec. III, has no ocelli. Both forms have been collected together in the

first week of October.

DISTRIBUTION: The Common Evening Brown is found throughout

India, although it becomes less common in the desert areas of western

India (Talbot 1947). It has apparently not been recorded in Sind since

1886, when Swinhoe (1887) caught two specimens in Karachi.

[57]

44 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

HYPOTHETICAL LIST

In addition to the 77 species recorded from Delhi in this paper,

there are 32 other species which have been recorded from neighbouring

localities that may yet be found in Delhi. The authorities for the records

are the same as those which have been cited in the text, unless another

source is cited. A question mark indicates doubt on my part concerning

the proper identification of the species.

HESPERIIDAE

Sarangesa dasahara (Moore) ssp.: Lucknow; Mount Abu (Evans

1949; MacPherson 1927).

Udaspes folus (Cramer): Lucknow, Mount Abu, Kathiawar.

Oriens gola pseudolus (Mabille)?: Lucknow? (de Rhé-Philipe

1905); the westernmost record in the B.M. is the Nepal Terai (Evans

1949).

Telicota ancilla bambusae (Moore): Amritsar? (Sevastopulo 1948);

Lucknow (de Rhé-Philipe 1902; Evans 1910). The distribution given by

Evans (1949) indicates that this species may occur as far west as Delhi.

Borbo bevani (Moore)?: Lahore; Karachi (Swinhoe 1887), possibly

confused with B. cinnara. Nearest record in B.M. is ‘‘ Central India”

and Kumaon (Evans 1949).

PAPILIONIDAE

Polydorus hector (Linnaeus): Jodhpur.

Papilio clytia clytia Linnaeus, form “ dissimilis’’ Linnaeus: Luck-

now; Fatehgarh (Peile 1911).

PIERIDAE

Appias lyncida (Cramer) ssp.: Lucknow (reported as A. hippoides

Moore, a synonym); Fatehgarh? (Peile 1911).

Pieris brassicae nepalensis Doubleday: Lucknow, Amritsar (Sanders

1930); Lahore.

Colotis phisadia protractus (Butler): Lahore?; Jodhpur; Kutch,

Sind; Kaira District, Gujarat; Lyallpore, West Pakistan (Sevastopulo

1948). In flight it will resemble C. calais.

Colotis danae dulcis (Butler): Jodhpur; Kutch; Sind; Kathiawar;

Gujarat (MSU collection).

Valeria valeria anais (Lesson) (formerly V. v. hippia): Lucknow;

Fatehgarh (Peile 1911). —~

[58]

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI 45

RIODINIDAE

Abisara echerius (Stoll) ssp.; Fatehgarh.

LYCAENIDAE

Everes lacturnus (Godart) ssp.: Kanpur, U.P. (Sanders 1955).

Jamides bochus bochus (Cramer): Jodhpur; Kaira Dist.; possibly

a specimen in I.A.R.I. collection, obtained in Delhi, April 1958, by M.

G. Ramdas Menon. Specimen could not be examined by author. West

Pakistan? (Cantlie 1962, but Menesse 1950, did not record it).

Iraota timoleon (Stoll) ssp.: Lucknow.

Apharitis acamas hypargyrus (Butler): Kutch; Sind; Kathiawar;

Punjab (Cantlie 1962). A stray specimen may occur as far east as Delhi.

Spindasis elima elima (Moore): Lucknow; Sind.

Tajuria jehana Moore: Lucknow.

Tajuria cippus cippus (Fabricius): Lucknow; “Pakistan - India

Burma - Common.” (Cantlie 1962).

Virachola isocrates (Fabricius): Lucknow; Mount Abu; Kutch;

Kathiawar; Karachi; Kaira District. The larva feeds on fruits of pome-

granate and guava, and the adults should be looked for in groves of

these plants.

Rapala varuna orseis (Hewitson): Lucknow. The larva feeds on the

flowers of Zizyphus xylopyrus.

Rapala manea schistacea (Moore): Bareilly, U.P. (de Rhé-Philipe

1902). Larvae have been reared on flowers of the Rangoon Creeper

(Quisqualis indica) and Acacia caesia.

NYMPHALIDAE

Euthalia garuda (Moore) ssp.: Lucknow; Lahore; Amritsar. The

larva has usually been reared on mango and cashew.

Neptis hylas varmona Moore: Lucknow. A widespread species that

may stray into Delhi.

Precis atlites (Linnaeus): Lucknow.

Precis iphita (Cramer) ssp.: Lucknow; Kanpur, U.P. (Sanders 1955).

Cirrochroa tyche mithila Moore: Lucknow; Fatehgarh—remarkable

records, since this species is not normally considered to occur west of

Sikkim.

ACRAEIDAE

Acraea violae (Fabricius): Lucknow, where it is abundant some

years and rare in others (de Rhé-Philipe 1902); Fatehgarh, probably

the northwestern-most record of this southern species.

[59]

46 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

SATYRIDAE

Ypthima asterope mahratta Moore may be found in Delhi. See the

comments under Y. inica.

Orsotrioena medus (Fabricius) ssp.: Lucknow.

Melanitis phedima (Stoll) ssp.: Lucknow.

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Mosse, A. H. (1929): A note on the

butterflies and hawk-moths of Kathiawar.

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MUKHERJEE, SUNIL KUMAR (1953):

Vegetation of the Delhi ‘“ Ridge.”’

op. cit. 51: 439-465.

MUNROE, EUGENE (1961): The classi-

fication of the Papilionidae (Lepidoptera).

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Butterflies of India, Burmah, and Ceylon,

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Calcutta.

Nurse, C. G. (1899): Lepidoptera

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PeILE, H. D. (1911): Some butterflies

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butterfly Danaus chrysippus in Calcutta.

op. cit. 48: 381.

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18: 35-41.

Rue-PHILIPE, GEORGE W. V. DE (1902):

The butterflies of the Lucknow District.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 14: 481-493.

————_—— (1905): Further notes

on the butterflies of Lucknow District.

op. cit. 16: 720-722.

———————— (1917): The butterflies

of Lahore. op. cit. 25: 136-142.

Rosson, S. (1893): Notes on Argynnis

niphe Linnaeus, a nymphalid butterfly.

op. cit. 8: 151-152.

SANDERS, D. F. (1930): Occurrence of

Colias hyale hyale and Pieris canidia

indica in the plains. op. cit. 34: 591.

(1955): Miscellaneous

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803-830.

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lepidoptera of the World. Vol. 9, The

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Kernen, Stuttgart. vii+1197 pp., 177

col. pls.

SEVASTOPULO, D. G. (1944): Seasonal

forms of Indian Satyridae (Lep. Rhop.).

Entomologist 77: 164-166.

———————_ (1947): The relative

abundance of the various female forms

of Papilio polytes L. in Calcutta. op. cit.

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[61]

48 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

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—————. (1956): The relative

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————_————. (1912-1913): op. cit.

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Studies in Taxonomy and Ecology

of Bursera delpechiana Poiss,

ex Engl. in India

RAJENDRA GUPTA AND ROMA BANERII

Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation, Lucknow

(With a plate)

Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. is an economic plant, the source

of ‘ oil of linaloe ’ of commerce. The oil is used as a fixative for high grade

perfumery and cosmetic products. There has been a long controversy over

sexuality in the species. It has been found to be dioecious by the authors.

Complete taxonomic details of the species have been worked out.

The tree grows well under Indian conditions and shows much better

growth than in its original home in Mexico under forestry conditions.

Edaphic and climatic conditions favouring the lixuriant growth of the

species in India have been studied and are listed in the paper to encourage

its commercial plantation.

INTRODUCTION

‘Oil of linaloe’ is derived from the wood and fruits of Bursera

delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. and allied species [B. aléexylon (Schiede.)

Engl., and B. glabrifolia (H.B.K.) ], all growing wild in Mexico. The

entire world supply of the oil comes from Mexico. The oil is a rich source

of linalol and linalyl acetate and is highly priced for its aroma. It is ex-

tensively used as a fixative for high grade perfumery and cosmetic products.

Indian oil of linaloe, on the contrary, is derived entirely from the fruits

of B. delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl., and possesses a superior staying power

in comparison with the oil produced in Mexico (Sastry 1945). The total

production averages to about 6,000 kg. of oil and the entire quantity is

consumed in the country. In view of the exceedingly fine odour, the

Indian oil of linaloe has good prospects for export. It is therefore desir-

able that Bursera plantations be raised on a substantially large scale in

suitable localities in the country.

Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. was introduced into this country

by two enterprising Scotsmen—P. J. Anderson and G. N. Humphries,

from seeds brought by them from Mexico in 1912 (Burton 1951). After

trials at a number of places in Mysore, they finally raised a commercial

plantation at Tatgunni, about 20 km. from Bangalore City. The Tatgunni

Estate has a monopoly in production of this oil and about 125 hectares

of its area is under regular plantation. Interest in the species has recently

50 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

revived, mainly due to the efforts of Essential Oils Research Committee

and its successor the Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation of

the Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. A plantation of over

500 hectares has been raised by Mysore Forest Department in Gattipura,

Nallal affld Jharakbunde forest blocks of Bangalore District. Experi-

mental cultivation has also been undertaken at more than a dozen places

at widely separated areas in south India and the results are encouraging.

Despite the economic importance. of the plant and its products,

information on systematics and ecology of the species has so far been

incomplete. In fact, the latest description of the species in botanical

literature is in De Candolle’s MONOGRAPHIAE PHANEROGAMARUM of 1883.

Publications from India for the last three decades have variously des-

cribed the sexuality in the species, and this in turn has caused a set-back

in determining the number and location of the male trees in a plantation.

Sastry (1945) mentions that “‘ some trees in Tatgunni Estate put on flowers

only, yielding no berries’’. He argues in a later work (1952), that “‘ this

led to the belief that there are male and female linaloe trees. But it has

been authoritatively stated that this is not so. The flowers possess normal

reproductive organs of both sexes i.e. bisexual’. Hussain (1958), on the

contrary, describes it as dioecious. More recently Rangegowda &

Ramaswamy (1965) stated that “the dioecious nature of the species has

not been confirmed’’. In view of these uncertainties, detailed studies have

been undertaken by the authors covering various aspects of cultivation

in the country which will be published later. The present communication,

however, covers taxonomy and ecology of the species. The material for

the study was collected by the senior author from commercial plantations

in the vicinity of Bangalore City during May 1965, and a thorough exa-

mination of the species was made in the field.

TAXONOMY

Deciduous shrubs or small trees attaining 6 m. height and 1 m.

girth at age of 20 years. Tap root not seen, all the plants examined being

raised from shoot-cuttings. Lateral roots six or more in number, first

travelling obliquely 1 to 2 m. in depth then turning upwards and ulti-

mately traversing more or less parallel to the ground to a distance of

about 4-5 m. in old trees; texture brittle, light in weight and up to 2 cm.

thick in trees of over 35 years age; epidermis greyish brown, paper thin,

peeling off in flakes in older roots; hypodermis dull-brown, 0.2 to 0.3

cm. in thickness; wood light-yellow. Roots have characteristic linaloe

odour. Trunk short, branched freely above to form a loose oval dome.

Old branches mostly with distant, alternate, short, conical arrested

branchlets, smooth, longitudinally ridged when dry; bark deep-brown,

papery, easily peeled off exposing inner green layer, often transversely

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1)

Gupta: Bursera delpechiana

Linaloe Tree, Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl.

A. Flowering twig x4; B. Staminate flower <9; C. Pistillate flower (Staminodes

visible) x9; D. Fruit x1; E. T. S. fruit (diagrammatic) r.d.—resiniferous ducts,

sd.—seed, ab.o.—abortive ovule, s.loc.—suppressed loculi.

BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISS. EX ENGL. IN INDIA 51

ruptured at length. New twigs glabrescent, always terminal on old bran-

ches as well as arrested branchlets. Leaves (3-) 7-9-foliolate, up to 15 cm.

long, distantly alternate on new shoots or pseudoterminally clustered

and comparatively shorter on arrested branchlets, developing from the

axil of apical crown of stipular caducous scales. Scales chaffy, light brown,

0.6-1.2x0.4-0.6 cm., variable in size and shape in the same crown,

broadly-ovate to ovate-oblong, abruptly deflexed from above the con-

stricted base, thickened along the middle, obtuse to almost round and

hooded at the apex with a prominent apiculum just below the tip, densely

glandular on both surfaces. Leaf-rachis sparsely pilose with mixed

glandular hairs, between the pairs of leaflets broadly winged, wings

usually broad above, narrowed gradually downwards. Petiole slender,

up to 4 cm. long, deeply channelled. Leaflets up to 5.5 X2.2 cm., ovate

or rhomboid-ovate, sometimes oblique, minutely pubescent above,

villous beneath, densely so on veins, acute at apex, round or abruptly

short-attenuate at base, sub-sessile to short-petiolate, serrate-crenate

in the upper region, entire below, the terminal leaflet usually larger than

the lateral ones and conspicuously long-attenuated at the base or often

at the apex also.

Inflorescence a paniculate cyme with pubescent axes, up to 10 cm.

long, pseudo-terminal as well as axillary from the leaves on new shoots

or from the leaf-scar of the fallen leaves, those borne on the arrested

branchlets distinctly shorter. Flowers dioecious, tetramerous, bracts

subtending the branches linear-lanceolate, 0.2-0.4 cm. long, those

subtending the flowers minute, subulate, hardly exceeding 0.15 cm.,

both glandular-hairy, densely on inner surface. Pedicel of the terminal

flower up to 0.8 cm. long, of the laterals up to 0.4 cm., pilose with mixed

glandular hairs, densely so towards the top. Pistillate flowers: Sepals

green, deltoid, thick, below 0.1 cm. in length, glandular-hairy, inserted

below the disc. Petals creamy, about 0.3 x1.2 cm., oblong, acute, half

deflexed, densely villous with mixed glandular hairs at the back, glabrous

inside, acute with an obscurely hooded tip, inconspicuously thickened

along the margins (microscopically papillose). Staminodes 8, apparently

normal but anthers without sporogenous tissue, in two whorls, obdi-

plostaminous, about 0.15 cm. long; filaments nearly as long as the

anthers, much dilated at base, gradually narrowed upwards, inserted

below the disc. Disc annular, crenately 8-lobed, about 0.15 cm. in dia-

meter. Ovary conical, laterally compressed, glabrous, attenuated to a

short 2-armed style; loculi 2 with 2 ovules in each. Stigmas more or less

globular, slightly lobed. Staminate flowers: Sepals as in female. Petals

often slightly longer than those of the female, otherwise similar. Stamens

8, 0.25-0.3 cm. long, anthers dorsifixed, adnate near the base. Filaments

much dilated at base, gradually narrowed upwards, as long as or slightly

longer than anthers. Pollen grains radio-symmetrical, 3-zonipororate,

52 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

exine thick excepting at pores. Disc slightly narrower than of the female.

Pistillode minute.

Fruit drupaceous, one-seeded, one of the loculi invariably suppressed

forming one pyrene (all ovules except one abortive), ovoid, about 1 cm.

diameter, biconvex, with indistinct four facets in the upper half, green,

tinged red towards sunny face. Chromosome number n=12 (Srivastava

et al 1965).

DISCUSSION

1. Staminodes in female flowers on a casual look appear quite normal.

A close examination of sufficient material gathered from different com-

mercial plantations reveals that these stamens are not only conspicuously

shorter than the fertile ones in male flowers but are invariably without

any sporogenous tissue. This has probably misled some of the earlier

workers to account these flowers as bisexual. The flowers thus are uni-

sexual and dioecious.

2. In one of the trees of 1958 Gattipura Forest Plantations, it has

been observed that a male tree bears occasional fruits of normal size.

These berries were invariably present only on inflorescence developing

from axil of lower fallen leaves of the old branches. Although no female

or bisexual flowers are available, it is quite probable that pistillode in

such flowers becomes functional producing these fruits.

3. Lawrence (1951) has pointed out that the fruit in Burseraceae

is morphologically a berry, stating that ‘‘ throughout the literature the

baccate fruit of the family is designated a drupe or as drupaceous with

1-5 stones. There seems no morphological basis for treating it other

than a berry that on occasion may be one-seeded by abortion.’’ However,

even in recent standard works (Leenhouts 1956) the fruit has been called

a drupe and the same has been adopted by the authors.

4. Stem-bark has marginal resiniferous ducts bordered on the out-

side by a distinct, more or less interrupted, sinuous sclerenchymatous

tissue. The pericarp of the fruit also possesses similar resiniferous ducts.

The sclerenchymatous tissue does not allow the oil contained in the

ducts to escape, but when injured transversely, as is practised in Mexico,

the formation of oil is enhanced and the rate of exudation increases.

ECOLOGY

No information is available in literature, about the soil and climatic

conditions prevailing in areas which this species inhabits, excepting that

it grows on shallow soils in arid rocky regions of Mexico. The tree grows

very well in its new home and in fact shows comparatively much better

growth in India than in its original home. Krishna & Badhwar (1948) record

BURSERA DELPECHIANA POISS. EX ENGL. IN INDIA 53

that ‘“‘ The 25-year-old trees of Tatgunni Estate resemble in appearance

and girth those of 60 years of age and upwards as represented by sections

of the trees brought from Mexico’. A study was therefore undertaken

to list ecological factors favouring the growth of the plant in India so as

to encourage extension of its cultivation in the country.

Bursera delpechiana Poiss. ex Engl. is a hardy, more or less xerophytic

species that makes little demand on land. Its deciduousnature and its

shooting of vegetative growth and flowering simultaneously during a

limited growing period of seven to eight months (April-November)

happily synchronizes with the climatic vagaries of an arid tropical region.

The plant flourishes well in sunny localities between 800 and 1200 m.

above sea-level. It grows well on lateritic to red soils where the parent

underlying rock is granitic-gneiss of Archean formation. The texture

varies from loam to sandy-loam invariably mixed with gravel and pebbles,

shallow to as deep as 10 m. (Nallal plantation) and is dominantly dry.

Good drainage is essential. In regions of undulating topography, trenches

at a distance of 10 m. are made along the contour to conserve moisture

for the plantation by reducing run-away of rain water. The plant has

been observed to come up normally in partially eroded areas but the growth

in deep, average fertile soil is visibly better. A comparative study of yield

of fruits under different soil types and fertility however, deserves experi-

mental work.

The plant favours hot dry summers, the average maximum and

minimum temperature of the year is 35°C and 18°C and the total annual

rainfall usually measures between 450 mm. and 650 mm. distributed

throughout the growing period but bulk of the precipitation however,

is received from north-east monsoon in September-October. Humi-

dity is low for most of the year excepting the monsoon months. Blossom

rains during April-May increase incidence of flowering and fruiting.

The plant is sensitive to frost and water-logged conditions.

The natural vegetation of the area is dry scrub having few tree

species mostly Acacia and Albizia. Acacia leucophlaea Willd., A. suma

Kurz, A. concinna DC., Albizia odoratissima (Roxb.) Benth., and Santalum

album Linn., have been prominently recorded. Casuarina equisetifolia

Forst. is raised commercially on poor lands in the area as a fuel crop.

The ground cover mostly comprises Dodonaea viscosa Linn., Cassia

auriculata Linn., Carissa spinarum A.DC., Lantana camara Linn., Ery-

throxylon monogynum Roxb., Calotropis gigantea Br., Asparagus race-

mosus Willd., Argemone mexicana Linn., and a large number of annual

weeds, grasses and sedges.

Vast stretches of land having the above stated edaphic and climatic

conditions are available in Mysore, Madras, Maharashtra, Andhra

54 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Pradesh, and Madhya Pradesh where the plant could be raised. The

Central Indian Medicinal Plants Organisation have recently introduced

this species in certain selected localities in northern India and the results

are being watched with interest. If these efforts succeed, it would open

entirely new areas for raising commercial plantations of the species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are highly indebted to Col. B. N. Mitra and Dr. S. C.

Datta, Director and Scientist-E respectively of our Organisation for

encouragement in carrying out this work. Thanks are also due to Shri

P. Chowdaeppa, Silviculturist, Mysore Forest Department; Shri D.

Rangegowda, C. I.M.P. O. Bangalore and Shri V. S. Sharma, National

Botanical Gardens, Lucknow.

REFERENCE

BurTOon, R. W. (1951): The linaloe Tree

(Bursera delpechiana Poisson). An intro-

duction into the flora of India. J. Bombay

Nat. His. Soc. 51(1): 116-120.

DE CANDOLLE fs biscapraleans

Phanerogamarum IV:

GUENTHER, E. (1950): The Essential

Oils. vol. IV. 331-345. D. V. Nostrand

& Co., London.

HusSsAIN, SYED (1958): A preliminary

note on Bursera delpechiana (Linaloe or

Indian Lavender). Ind. For. 84(2) : 104-107.

KRISHNA, S. & BADHWAR, R. L. (1948):

Aromatic Plants of India ‘* Family

XXVII—Burseraceae (Balsam & Torch-

wood family). Jour. Sci. & industr. Res.

7(8): 117-128.

LAWRENCE, G. H. M. (1951): Taxo-

nomy of vascular plants: 560. The

Macmillan Company, New York.

LEENHOUTS, P. W. et al. (1956): ‘* Bur-

seraceae’’ in Fl. Males. ser. 1, 5: 209-96.

RANGEGOWDA, D. & RAMASWamy, M.

N. (1965): The Indian Linaloe oil.

Bursera delpechiana Poisson. Perf. Es-

sent. oil Rec. 56(2): 85-89.

SASTRY, S. G. (1945): Mysore Linaloe

Oil (Bursera delpechiana). Jour. Sci. &

industr. Res. 3: 516-518.

——————. (1952): Indian (Mysore)

Linaloe Oil—A monograph, Govt. Press,

Bangalore.

SRIVASTAVA, G. N. & SRINATH, K. V.

(1965): Floral morphology and chromo-

somes in Bursera delpechiana Poiss.

Curr. Sci. 34: 514-515.

On some aspects of the Biology of

Cowlia dussumiert (Cuv. and Val.)' .

MADHAV GADGIL?

Department of Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay

(With six figures)

The smaller sized individuals of C. dussumieri apparently inhabit

shallower and inshore waters, while the larger fish live in deeper and off-

shore waters. The inshore waters are fished intensively during the

monsoons, resulting in a preponderance of fish below a length of 110 mm.

in the catch.

Due to the protracted spawning period of the fish, there is no pro-

gression of modes in the monthly length frequency distributions.

The size at first maturity has been estimated at 131-140 mm.

The sex ratio of 53.41 males: 46.59 females deviates significantly

from the 50:50 ratio. Males outnumber females in higher length groups,

probably because the females migrate to offshore grounds at a smaller

size.

The spawning season probably extends from September to March.

The fish has a protracted spawning period and spawns more than

once in each spawning season.

The total number of possible spawnings has been estimated at three,

from the ratio of the number of ova in the last batch to the number of

remaining maturing eggs.

The ponderal index curve changes slope at 130 mm., considered to

be the size at first maturity. There are no regular seasonal variations in

the ponderal index.

Fecundity is estimated at 1200 to 4200 eggs per spawning.

INTRODUCTION

Coilia dussumieri is common in the estuaries of Bombay and Orissa.

This fish, locally known as Mandeli, is very important commercially and

is landed in appreciable quantities throughout the year at Bombay. It is

fished, along with a variety of other fishes and prawns, in a type of bag-

net called the dol.

Earlier accounts of the species include skeletal system (Joshi & Bal

1953 a andb), eggs and early development (Delsman 1932), post-larval

stages (Jones & Menon 1952), seasonal changes in the gonad condition

1 This paper is based on work submitted to the University of Bombay in part

fulfilment of the requirements for the degree of Master of Science in Zoology.

2 Present address: Harvard University, Museum of Comp. Zoology, Cambridge

38, Massachusetts, U.S.A, £1}:

56 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

(Palekar & Karandikar 1953), food and feeding habits, sex composition

and length-weight relationship (Bal & Joshi 1956) and food and feeding

habits at different growth stages (Bapat & Bal 1950). Verghese (1961)

has given an account of the biology of Coilia borneensis.

Our knowledge of the reproductive biology of the fish is meagre.

Palekar & Karandikar (1953) could only conclude that C. dussumieri is

an offshore breeder with a protracted spawning period. This paper deals

for the first time with the length-frequency distribution, size at first

maturity, ponderal index, and fecundity of C. dussumieri. It also attempts

to define more precisely the breeding season, and the number of spawn- -

ings per season, and records the occurrence of spent specimens.

METHODS

Samples were collected once a week over a period of one year from

October 1963 to September 1964 from commercial landings of the dol

fishery at Sassoon Docks, Bombay. Altogether 1,567 specimens were

examined for the study of length-frequency distribution. Of these 493

male, 430 female, and 230 juvenile specimens were examined to ascertain

the state of development of the gonads. Ova diameter frequencies were

determined for 125 representative ovaries by Clark’s method (Clark

1934). 21 ovaries were used to estimate fecundity by counting directly

the number of ova in the last mode from a known fraction of a previously

weighed ovary.

LENGTH FREQUENCY DISTRIBUTION

The data pertaining to the length frequency distribution of each

month are presented in Figure | after grouping at intervals of 5 mm.

Monthly length frequency polygons are well marked in Figure 1

and seem to be of two different types. Those of the seven months from

October to April show a very similar pattern. During these months a

large proportion of individuals fall in the size range 151 to 165 mm.

(modal group a). The remaining fish are distributed over a wide range, .

extending from 61 mm. upwards, forming a number of small modes. The

distribution in the month of May is similar to that found during the

period October-April, except that no fish smaller than 120 mm. was present.

The pattern of distribution is different during the four months of mon-

soon viz. June to September. In these months a modal group is present

in the size range 151 to 155 mm. (modal group a), but is much less promi-

nent. On the other hand, the proportion of the smaller sized individuals

is greater. The size groups 131-135 mm., 106-110 mm. and 126-130 mm.

form distinct modes (modal groups 5), in the months of June, August

and September respectively, ;

PP en

BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI( CUV. AND VAL.) 37

PERCENT OB FISH

ase a

rae MAR ° 64 a SEP. T’°64

4 b

10%

aa FEB’ 64 AUG'64

20% a

13% a

109 2

ox Zs ety 5 >

25% JAN ‘6%. JULY "64

20% a

3% =

oY Z

o% TESS <S :

25% DEC’ 6* re JUN ‘64

20%

15%

10% A

5%, f

o% ee ZEN

as Nov'63 MAY 64

20%

152 a >

90%

0 A ee

de OCT’ 65 APR ‘64

202%

15% a a

10k

o% = a ee

33 40 90 60 TO B80 90 100 110 120 130 140 190 160 (70 180 (90 49 30 69 79 60 SO 100 110 180 139 140 130 160 ITO 180 190

TOTAL LENGTH IN’ MM,

Fig. 1. Length frequency distribution of Coilia dussumieri.

Neither the fishing gear, nor the fishermen exert any selective action

with respect to the size of the fish caught, as the, dol net collects even

very small fishes including the shrimps Aceftes and the fishermen retain

the entire catch.

Enquiries with local fishermen revealed that the operation of dol

nets is concentrated in shallow and more inshore waters during the

monsoon months. Apparently, Coilia dussumieri are distributed with the

smaller specimens occurring in shallower waters, closer to the coast,

and the larger specimens occurring in deeper waters farther off the coast,

as in the case of the classical example of the distribution of Plaice Pleuro-

nectes platessa (Graham 1956). As the shallower and more inshore

waters are fished intensively only during the monsoon, the smaller sized

fish predominate in the catches during these months.

No progression of modes is apparent in the length frequency distri-

bution from month to month. The principal mode falls in the range

151-165 mm. from October to May. A distinct mode occurs in this range

during the June-September period as well, That the length frequency

58 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

distribution remains without much progress from month to month may

be due to the prolonged spawning period of the fish which extends

from September to March (see page 63).

BREEDING

(a) Stages of Maturity

The female Coilia dussumieri was distinguished as belonging to five

stages of maturity on the basis of the stage of development of intraovarian

eggs. These growth stages were designated as (i) Immature, (ii) Maturing,

(iii) Ripening, (iv) Ripe, and (v) Spent (Qasim 1957 a and b, Qayyum &

Qasim 1964 a, b and c).

Stage I. Immature

Ovaries small, translucent, and elongated; ranging from 10 mm.

to 22.5 mm. in length, and containing a large number of small, fully

transparent ova without yolk, diameter varying from 0.07472 mm. to

0.1868 mm.

Stage II. Maturing

Ovaries granular and somewhat enlarged, ranging from 13 mm. to

36 mm. in length. In addition to the stock of fully transparent, immature

ova, a number of maturing ova are also present. These are whitish and

opaque, and well supplied with yolk. Maturing ova grow up to 0.7472 mm.

in diameter, the average size being 0.5604 mm.

Stage III. Ripening

Ovary greyish, flat and densely packed with ova which are clearly

distinguishable with the naked eye. Size of the ovary ranges from 19 to

38 mm. in length. Ova large, spherical, and heavily laden with yolk.

They develop a narrow perivitelline space after reaching a diameter of

0.08406 mm. They grow up to a diameter of 1.0274 mm. but the majority

are larger than 0.5604 mm.

Stage IV. Ripe

No fish in ripe condition were present in the samples. Palekar &

Karandikar (1953) also failed to encounter any ripe specimens although

Bal & Joshi (1956) came across a few fish in this condition.

Stage V. Spent

Specimens of C. dussumieri in spent condition have not been recorded

from Bombay waters before. Four specimens in this condition were

obtained during the course of the present investigation. Ovaries flaccid,

bloodshot and shrunken, measuring between 26 to 28 mm. in length. In

addition to the numerous immature and small maturing ova up toa

diameter of 0.5604 mm., the ovaries contained a few large residual ova

BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 59

of about 1.0 mm. to 1.23 mm. diameter. These were fully transparent

with segmented yolk and included 10 to 15 oil globules.

(b) Size at first Maturity

For the purposes of determination of size at first maturity, all

females with eggs larger than 0.1868 mm. were considered as maturing

and classed among fish that would spawn within the next few months.

The percentages of females maturing at each length group are given in

Table I, The curve was found not to be a normal one when plotted on

arithmetic probability paper. Holt (1959) suggests that in such a case the

curve should be specified in terms of the median length of attainment of

maturity and its interquartile range. The median length of attainment of

maturity for C. dussumieri is 155.96 mm. and the interquartile range

extends from 148.01 mm. to 161.83 mm.

No female C. dussumieri smaller than 96 mm. in total length was

found to be in maturing condition. Approximately 50% of the fish in the

o—o JUVENILE

e—---u IMMATURE (STAGE 1)

------ MATURING € » rT)

PERCENT —— RIPENING ¢ » m1)

OF FISH ee, SPENT ( » YW)

WOrAL P LENGTH UIN MM.

Fig. 2. Percentage of Coilia dussumieri at various stages of maturity in

different length groups.

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BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 61

size range 131-140 mm. and 90% of the fish at a length of 151 mm. were

observed to be in maturing condition.

Figure 2 illustrates the distribution of maturity stages over the

length groups at 10 mm. interval. The size range for different stages of

maturity are seen to overlap to a considerable extent.

Palekar & Karandikar (1953) consider all fish over a length of

155 mm. as recurrent maturing. However, during the course of the present

investigation some fish as large as 167 mm. in length were noted to be in

juvenile condition, i.e., possessing undifferentiated gonads whose sex

could not be distinguished. These fish had definitely not spawned before.

It was not possible to class any fish as maturing for the second or subse-

quent times.

Out of the 923 fish sexed, 493 were males and 430 were females. This

gives a ratio of 53.41 males : 46.59 females ; this deviates significantly

from the 50: 50 ratio.

* Another feature of interest is

the steady decrease in the pro-

portion of females in the higher Percenr

length groups (Table ITI). In view aa a

of the fact that fish in ripe condi- % ee Pein

tion were absent in the sample, “~

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migrate to areas beyond the nor- ,,, [stax a

mal fishing grounds at a smaller FEB ‘64 AUG "64

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preponderance of the latter in ™

higher length groups. ade ee

60z JAN “64 SLY “64

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; 5%

The various stages of matu- aul aa

: . 6 «75 5 Pe are

rity for female C. dussumieri eee gk

obtainable in the various months =

: %

of the year are shown in Tables,

lI and Figure 3. Juveniles over , -??am—s Tro

100 mm. in length have also been = «x Nov'6s MAY ‘64

: ; 6 45%

included in the analysis; 100 mm. xx

Fig. 3: Percentage of Coilia .[s*3= 7 rum

dussumieri 9 at various stages of &% ocT'es APR ‘64

maturity in different months. 0,

J—Juvenile ; I—immature; IJ—Matur-

ing ; III—Ripening; V—Spent Jr 0a 71-0 o

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BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 63

is about the lowest limit at which females could be identified correctly

by an examination of the gonads.

The entire absence of ripe and the very rare occurrence of spent

fish in the samples studied is of special interest. Probably as has been

pointed out by Palekar & Karandikar (1953) and Bal & Joshi (1956),

‘C. dussumieri migrates to offshore grounds for spawning. This is further

supported by the absence of eggs, larvae, and post-larvae of this fish in the

inshore plankton of Bombay waters (Bal & Pradhan 1952). °

Ripening (stage II) fish occur in a substantial proportion (39.4% to

74.3%) from October to March. Spent specimens are obtained only in

December. The proportion of ripening (stage III) females is much lower

in April (15.5%) and May (11.7%). However, it is the juveniles which

occur in the largest proportion in April (55.2%), the maturing (stage II)

females preponderate in May (76.5%).

It has been noted above (see Length Frequency Distribution) that

there is a change in the location of fishing ground during the four months

of monsoon, viz. June to September, resulting in the sampling ofa different

population made up of smaller and, presumably, younger individuals.

The data for these four months are, therefore, not directly comparable with

the data for the rest of the year. The proportion of ripening (stage III)

females is lowest in June (2.2%) and quite low during July (5.7%) and

August (14.5%), but rises again in September (37.0%). Palekar and

Karandikar (1953) also found the ripening (stage III) fish ocgurring in low

percentages in June, July and August.

The data suggest that the spawning season of C. dussumieri may

extend from September to March, which months have a high proportion

of ripening (stage III) females. The presence of spent fish in December is

in agreement with this conclusion. However, in the absence of more direct

data from fully ripe specimens or eggs and larvae, no definite conclusions

can be drawn.

(e) Spawning Periodicity

The stages of maturity in C. dussumieri vary considerably among

individuals, and generally at any one time of the year fishes at all stages

of maturity are commonly seen. In order to demonstrate any periodicity

in spawning, the data were grouped according to the location of the largest

mode in the diameter frequency of the ova from each fish (Clark 1934 ;

Howard & Landa 1958 ; Joseph 1963).

Table IV and Figure 4 show the mean percentage ova diameter distri-

bution of the ova measurements of females grouped into nine classes

resulting from this method. Classes B, C, D and E are maturing stage (III)

females ; classes F, G, H and J are ripening (stage IV) females, and class

64 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (\)

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Fig. 4. Size frequency distribution of intraovarian eggs of Coilia dussu-

mieri in various stages of maturity.

L belongs to the spent stage of maturity. Ova diameter measurements

were not actually carried out from immature females. Eggs smaller than

0.1868 mm., which were present in large numbers, were omitted.

The ova diameter frequency polygons indicate that the fish has a

protracted spawning period. The batch of maturing eggs is not sharply

differentiated from the general egg stock. Other groups of ova, with dis-

tinct modes lying between the general egg stock and the last mode, appear

to be progressing towards maturity. This multiplicity of modes in the

BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.)

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66 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

frequency curves of ova diameters from maturing females suggests that

each individual spawns more than once during the breeding season.

An estimate of the total number of possible spawnings may be made

from the ratio of the number of ova in the most advanced mode to the

number of remaining maturing eggs (MacGregor 1957). This data is

presented in Table V. The eggs in the most advanced mode are quite

sharply defined in class F and the following classes. In the class F gonads,

TABLE V

PERCENTAGES OF SMALLER YOLKED OVA AND OVA IN THE MOST ADVANCED GROUP

(MODE A) IN THE VARIOUS CLASSES

Class F G H J

% of ova other than included under 33.50 40.0 44.9 63.35

mode a

% of ova in mode a 66.50 60.0 Epps | 36.65

the eggs in the advanced mode make up 66.5% of the total as compared to

33.5°% made up by the remaining maturing eggs. This ratio falls from

66.5% in class F to 60.0% in class G, to 55.1% in class H, and further to

36.65% in class J. Thus, it appears that new eggs are constantly being

added to the stock of maturing eggs. Assuming that all the maturing eggs

are spawned, the number of possible spawnings may be fixed at a minimum

of three, the number of ova in the most advanced mode in class J being

about 4 the total number of maturing ova. Since there is no information

concerning this ratio in a ripe ovary, no definite estimate of the number

of spawnings can be made. It is possible that more ova are added to the

stock of maturing ova as the ovary ripens and that this ratio falls below 4.

The eggs may then be spawned in more than three batches.

(f) Ponderal Index

In the present investigation the ponderal index was calculated by the

formula :

K=W/L?3 x 107

where K = Ponderal Index

W = Weight of fish in gm.

L = Total length of fish in mm.

The values of the ponderal index were pooled in two ways to find the

arithmetic means of each size group and of each month. These have been

presented in Figures 5 and 6.

Hart (1946) pointed out that since adolescent fish have higher K

values than older fish, the variation in the K values at different lengths

BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 67

K - VALUES OoO——o FEMALE

35 100 105 110 115 120 125 130 135 140 145 150 155 160 165 170 175 180 185 190 195

Gir AL. A EINGIEEAlINi MM):

Fig. 5. Mean condition factor(K) of Coilia dussumieri at different lengths.

&-----a MAL Ee

oo EMALE

CCT. NOV. DEC. JAN, FEB. MAR. APR, MAY. JUN. JULY, AUG. SEP.

Fig 6. Mean condition factor (K) of Coilia dussumieri in different months.

68 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

can be employed to determine the size of first maturity, at which point an

inflexion may be expected to occur.

In the present case, there is no point of inflexion in the curve which

may indicate the size at first maturity. The values of K seem to be fluctu-

ating without much indication between the 91-95 mm. and 121-125 mm.

length groups in both sexes. Thereafter, the fluctuation is within narrower

limits. On the basis of gonadial studies, 131-140 mm. was considered to be

the size at first maturity in females. The curves for both the sexes change

slope at this point, which is more marked in females than in males. One

may regard this point as corresponding to the point of inflexion as sugges-

ted in Ophicephalus punctatus, by Qayyum & Qasim (1964 a). The

absence of any distinct pattern in K values at various lengths groups may

be due to the wide range of size of the fish at various stages of maturity.

Seasonal variations in the ponderal index have been illustrated in

Figure 6. As no ripe fish and only a few spent fishes were found, the con-

dition factor may not be expected to record a fall due to metabolic strain

consequent upon spawning. The seasonal fluctuations in K values, there-

fore, do not indicate the spawning season of the fish.

(g) Fecundity

Estimates of fecundity from 21 specimens ranged from 1,200 to 4,200.

The total number of eggs spawned by each individual in a season may

be estimated at 3,600 to 12,600 as the spawning probably occurs thrice

during the season. The details of fecundity counts are given in Table VI.

TABLE VI

TOTAL LENGTH, BODY WEIGHT, GONAD WEIGHT AND FECUNDITY ESTIMATES OF 21

SPECIMENS OF Coilia Dussumieri

Total length Body weight Gonad weight Fecundity

15.1 10.8 0.127 1191

14.7 8.2 0.368 1556

17.1 13-3 0.678 2033

14.9 16.3 0.408 2047

16.3 12.9 0.928 2150

17.0 12.0 0.435 2234

16.4 12.0 0.516 2267

16.3 11-9 0.598 2361

16.3 13.9 0.717 2407

15.9 12.4 0.545 2450

16.1 11.4 0.633 2480

15.5 9.8 0.470 2508

16.0 11.8 0.601 2535

17.3 15.7 0.964 2682

15.9 10.4 0.490 2715

16.7 1322 1.068 2743

14.5 10.5 0.713 2760

15.6 12.2 0.725 2888

15.8 17.0 0.458 2899

17.7 16.8 0.942 3004

17,3 16.4

1.1015 4214

BIOLOGY OF COILIA DUSSUMIERI (CUV. AND VAL.) 69

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. D. V. Bal, formerly Director and Professor of

Zoology, Institute of Science, Bombay, for suggesting the problem and

for going through the manuscript, and to Dr. S. Z. Qasim, National

Institute of Oceanography, Ernakulam, for going through the manu-

script and offering many valuable suggestions. Thanks are also due to

Shri K. Shrinivas Rao, Central Marine Fisheries Research Sub-station,

Bombay, and to Shri V. B. Masurekar and Dr. M. S. Rege, Institute of

Science, Bombay, for their valuable guidance throughout the course of

this investigation.

REFERENCES

BAL, D. V. & JosH1, M. S. (1956):

Studies on the biology of Coilia dussu-

mieri (Cuv. and Val.), Ind. J. Fish. 3:

91-100.

Bat, D. V. & PRADHAN, L. B.

(1952): Records of zooplankton in

Bombay waters during 1944-47. J. Univ.

Bombay, 20(5): 75.

BapaT, S. V. & BAL, D. V. (1950):

The food of some young clupeids. Proc.

Indian Acad. Sci. (B), 32: 39.

CLARK, F. N. (1934): Maturity of

California Sardine (Sardina caerulea)

determined by ova-diameter measure-

ments. Fish. Bull. Sacramento Cal. 42x

1-49, 19 figs.

DELSMAN, H. C. (1932): Fish eggs and

larvae rom Java Sea. Treubia, 14:

114-116.

GRAHAM, M. (1956): Sea Fisheries

Edward Arnold (Ltd.), London.

Hart, T. J. (1946): Report of hawling

surveys on Patagonian continental shelf.

Discovery Reports, 23: 223-408.

Hott, S. J. (1959): Report of the

international training centres on the

methodology and techniques of research

of mackerel. A.O. Rome, Report

No. 1095.

Howarp, G. V. & LANDA, A. (1958):

A Study of age, growth, sexual maturity

and spawning of the anchoveta (Ceteng-

raulis mysticetus) in the Gulf of Panama.

Inter-Amer. Trop. Tuna. Com. Bull.,

2(2) : 359-437.

JONES, M. S. & MENON, P. M. G.

(1952): Observations on the development

and systematics of the fishes of the genus

Coilia, Gray. J. Zool. Soc. India. 4: 17-36.

JOSEPH, JAMES (1963): Contributions

to the biology of engraulid Anchoa naso

(Gilbert and Pierson, 1898) from Ecua-

derian water. Inter Amer. Trop. Tuna

Comm. Bull. 8 (1): 1-30.

JosHi, M. S & BAL, D. V. (1953a):

The skeleton of Coilia dussumieri, I. The

Skull. J. Univ. Bombay, 21: 93.

(1953b). The skeleton of

Coilia dussumieri. II. The vertebral co-

pura and appendicular skeleton. Ibid.,

222153

MacGrecor, JOHN S. (1957): Fecun-

dity of the Pacific Sardine, (Sardinops

caerulea). U.S. Dept. Interior. Fish and

as Service, Fishery Bulletin. 121-57:

37-449.

PALEKAR, V. C. & KARANDIKAR, K.

R. (1953): Maturity and Spawning of

Coilia dussumieri (Cuv. and Val.) in

Bombay waters during different months

of the year. J. Zool, Soc. India. 5 : 163-167.

Qasim, S. Z. (1957a): The biology of

Blennius pholis L. (Teleosti). Proc. Zool.

Soc. Lond. 128: 161-208.

(19576): The biology of

Centronotus gunnellus (L.). J. Anim.

Ecol. 26; 389-401.

Qayyum, A. & Qasim, S. Z. (1964a).

Studies on the biology of some fresh

water fishes. Part I—Ophicephalus punc-

tatus Bloch. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

61(1): 74-98.

—— (19645): Studies on the

biology of some _ fresh water fishes.

Part 1]—Barbus stigma (Cuv. and Val.),

Ibid 61 (2): 330-347.

(1964c): Studies on the

biology of some fresh water fishes. Part

1I—Callichrous bimaculatus — (Bloch.).

Ibid 61(3) : 627-650.

VERGHESE, T. J. (1961): Some obser-

vations on the biology of Coilia borneen-

sis (Blkr.). Indian J. Fish. 8: 312-325.

Falconry

S. M. OsMAN

(With two plates)

The art and practice of falconry has been described in many treatises

in different languages but very few people know anything about it. There

has always been considerable controversy regarding its origin, though

there is historical evidence that it has been in existence from c. 1200 B.C.

Falconry probably originated in Central Asia from whence it spread to

Persia and India. The Arabs learned it from the Persians, and it was

brought to Europe by the returning Crusaders, who undoubtedly learnt

the art from the Arabs.

In the beginning, falconry was perhaps primarily a means of provid-

ing man his daily food; today it survives as an unparalleled sport which

demands of its devotees, great skill, endurance, and patience.

In India, at one time the stronghold of falconry, its science and

practice is now rapidly declining. In my opinion, different causes have

contributed towards its downfall. The shotgun is mainly responsible for

accelerating the disappearance of this noble sport. There used to be a

time when the hawk market of Amritsar would, in the months of October

and November, offer for sale numerous hawks and falcons of different

kinds. The clientele were the representatives of all the sporting Princes

of the country, who vied with one another for some really good hawk or

falcon. Today the number of hawk enthusiasts in the country could be

counted on the fingers of one hand and the hawk market of Amritsar has

ceased to exist. The aspiring falconer finds it difficult to get hawks. Bird

catchers have absolutely no idea how tocatch hawks or, howto handle them

after capture. As a result hawks procured from such sources generally

die within a few days of their capture. As is obvious, mishandling and

bad feeding are entirely responsible. Since falconry is no longer a lucrative

business, professional falconers have ceased to function. I prefer to trap

my own hawks.

Though not much in vogue, there exist excellent possibilities for the

revival of this sport of kings. The main point to remember in its pursuit

is the choice of bird and this is directly related to the type of country one lives

in, as well as to the kind of game available. Falcons are at their best in |

open and flat country where the quarry is obliged to fly long distances

before gaining the shelter of bushes. In places where there are many trees |

and thick bushes growing at short intervals, the ““Accipiter” hawks are _

FALCONRY 71

in their element. In such terrain a bird capable of short determined dashes

alone is useful. One has also to consider the game available in terms of

speed and weight. In the case of hawks and of falcons a wide range of

birds, capable of hunting heavy and light game, is to be found. One should

not expect a small hawk to do the work of the larger ones, or the heavier

birds to have the dash and manoeuvrability of the smaller predators.

I have always had a great passion for training eagles and, even today,

have with me a pair of fully trained hunting eagles. Hunting with eagles

is an incomparable sport.

The Sparrow-Hawk (Accipiter nisus) if trained and handled properly

would be an ideal beginner’s hawk. These birds may be found in great

abundance along the foothills of the Himalayas. They have courage and

speed, and will readily tackle birds heavier than themselves. Their only

weak point happens to be their delicate constitution which calls for much

attention and careful handling. This, a beginner may be unable to give,

hence I would suggest the Shikra 'Sparrow-Hawk ( Accipiter badius )

as an alternative. Though slightly smaller in size, this hawk will stand a

lot of mishandling at the hands of inexperienced falconers without show-

ing any signs of loss of condition. A lusty hawk, if properly trained to

hunt, it will perform as efficiently as its bigger brother the Sparrow-Hawk

(Accipiter nisus). The Shikra is, of course, a lot slower but this can be

overcome to some extent by holding the bird in the palm of your hand

and literally throwing it at the quarry. This form of casting is intended to

give the hawk added impetus. Such liberties are not possible with the more

sensitive Sparrow-Hawk. The Goshawk (Accipiter gentilis) is the best

amongst hawks of all kinds. It is an extremely shy bird, very sensitive, and

quite difficult to train. Once trained, however, it is unsurpassed for close

quarter hunting. A falconer who does not consider himself an expert

should give this bird a wide berth.

Broadly speaking all hawks receive the same sort of training. They

are cast from the fist at game and, if unsuccessful, are called back to the

fist, in which is firmly held a piece of meat. A hawk must never be given

a chance to soar. Once a hawk starts soaring no amount of calling is

ever going to bring it back to the owner’s fist. When it ultimately decides

to return to earth, it is going to be a good many miles away from the

place from which it originally took off.

A falcon on the other hand receives a totally different sort of training.

In this case the higher it soars and the longer it keeps soaring, the better

will it be appreciated. Falcons are trained to wait at considerable heights,

till game is flushed from cover. Once game is forced to come out in the

open, the attending falcon immediately stoops at it from above, where

it had kept watch. Given proper conditions, the chances are that the

72 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

quarry will be struck dead before it has been able to gain the sanctuary

of the next lot of bushes and cover. Falcons are not called to the fist

but to the lure, which is merely a weighted leather bag about the size

of the human fist. Attached to it are the wing feathers of a pigeon; also

tied to one end is a stout cord some twelve feet in length. This the falconer

swings over his head at the same time calling out aloud to attract the

falcon’s attention. After swinging the lure a couple of times he lets it

drop on the ground. It is then slowly retrieved, and the swinging operation

repeated till the falcon decides to fly down to it.

Eagles are trained to jump to the fist. They are also trained to fly to

the lure when necessary. To give a detailed description of the various

methods of training of the different hawks and falcons would be quite

beyond the scope of an article of this kind. As a matter of fact many

books have been written on the subject. However, unless there is at all

times a guide at the beginner’s elbow, no amount of written literature is

ever going to help a raw hand with his first hawk; hence the necessity

of falconers’ clubs. Membership of such clubs would entitle the beginner

to free advice and demonstrations.

The most important thing for a falconer to know, is the difference

between hawks and falcons. To the experienced eye, this is easy and

provided he makes it a point to remember, even the inexperienced novice

can easily tell one from the other. All hawks have yellow. eyes and all

falcons have black eyes. True eagles can always be identified by their

feathered legs.

There are many kinds of falcons. The smallest being the Red-headed

Merlin or turumti (Falco chicquera). A pretty bird, it has some peculiar-

ities that are not present in other falcons, barring the Gyrfalcon (Falco

rusticolus). The similarity lies in the formation of the primary feathers

in relation to the tail feathers. It will be noticed that in the case of the

Merlin and the Gyrfalcon the tips of the primary feathers fall short of the

end of the tail feathers by some inches. Another peculiarity is that merlins

do not soar. I have trained and hunted with dozens of these stout-hearted

birds, but so far, I have yet to come across a merlin, that will soar in the

manner of other falcons. This is the only case where a falcon departs

from convention and must in consequence, be treated like a hawk. In this

case the lure would be an unnecessary appendage; this is the main reason

why merlins are trained to fly to the fist of the falconer, a line of training

not dissimilar to the one given to hawks in general. A merlin may chase

game and, in doing so, rise up in spirals, but this is not real soaring.

A notch is present on the beak of all falcons. Nature has provided

this notch so that the falcon, after wedging the neck of its prey between

it and the lower mandible, is able with a sharp twist to break it. Those

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1) PLATE I

Osman: Falconry

Above: Shahin Falcon (Falco peregrinus peregrinator), Tiercel.

Below: Hodgson’s Hawk-Eagle (Spizaetus nipalensis), on quarry.

(Photos: Author)

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AJUOD[V- : URLUSE

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FALCONRY 73

who know their birds of prey will have noticed that all falcons kill their

victims by twisting and breaking their necks. Hawks kill their victims

not by twisting their necks but by repeatedly squeezing them.

You do not have to be a hawk expert to be able to roughly place

its age. All that is required is a close examination of the bird’s eye. Im-

mature birds (juvenile birds) have the iris a pale yellow in colour. In

birds that are two to three years of age the iris changes to an orange

tint. Five-year-olds have a deep red iris. Sometimes a very old bird, say

ten or twelve years old, may even have copper-tan coloured iris. In most

hawks, excepting the sparrow-hawk, the markings on the breast of the

juvenile bird, are elongated spots. After the first moult, the spots dis-

appear and are replaced by bars. This is a regular feature noticeable in

hawks as well as falcons of the peregrine (peregrinator) group. In other

falcons it is not very easy to tell the age, unless one has considerable

experience. Here one does not find any tell-tale change in the colour of

the iris. Old birds are lighter in colour and their tails are shorter than the

tails of immature birds. Age determination becomes the job of an expert,

especially in the case of desert falcons such as the Lanner Falcon (Falco

biarmicus), the Saker Falcon (Falco cherrug), and the Laggar Falcon

(Falco jugger).

Falcons are some of the fastest birds on earth and nature has, in

consequence, provided them with a complicated nostril structure which

makes respiration comparatively easy for them while travelling at high

speed. Without such complex nostril mechanism it would be impossible

for the falcons to breath normally, while travelling at speed. Another

point clearly noticeable in all falcons is the moustachial stripes under

the eyes. The purpose of these stripes is to absorb light and thus to

reduce glare.

Falconry is one of the finest sports known to man. Style and skill

are of paramount importance, and it is not the number of kills but the

manner in which the kill is made that really matters. One has further to

realise that in the case of-falconry the question of game getting away

wounded to die in agony simply does not arise. Either it is killed outright

or it escapes unscathed.

In India, unfortunately, the days of falconry are numbered and if no

immediate steps are taken to revive the sport, it will never return.

Books are useful to the practical falconer, though for the beginner,

it would be rather difficult to get very far by reading alone. In any case,

a list of important books on falconry, published in different languages,

is given below.

74 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1) .

BIBLIOGRAPHY

ABBASI, KHUDAYAR KHAN (1908) : Qawaninus-sayyad (Baz-Nama)

The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. (Persian)

ANON (1886): A Perfect Booke for Keeping Sparrowhawkse and

Goshawkse. Quartrich, London.

BLAINE (1936): Falconry. Allen, London.

FREEMAN, AND SALVIN (1859): Falconry; its claims, History and

Practice. Longmans, London.

Hit.or, P. (1908): The Baz-Nama-Yi-Nasiri (Treatise on falconry).

Quartrich, London. Translated from Persian.

MAVROGORDATO (1960): A Hawk for the Bush. Witherby, London.

—_—_—_—____——., (1966): A Falcon in the Field. Knightly Vernon

Ltd., London.

OsMAN, S. MOHAMED (1965): Falconry—The Sparrowhawk. Cheetal

8: 20.

RUDRADEVA, RAJA (1910): Syainika Sastra or Book on Hawking.

The Asiatic Society of Bengal, Calcutta. (Sanskrit)

SEBRIGHT (1826): Observation upon hawking. Harding H. Wright,

London.

Additions to the Flora of

Mussoorie Hills

M. B. RAIZADA, M.SC., F.N.I.!

AND

H. O. SAXENA, M.SC., PH.D.?

Herbarium, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun

In the botanical literature the first mention of Mussoorie is found

in Royle’s ///. Bot. Himal., published in 1833-1840. U.N. Kanyjilal (1928)

in Flora Chakrata also mentions Mussoorie in giving the distribution of

some species. Besides, notable contributions to the flora of Mussoorie

have been attempted since 1909 when James Marten published a list of

314 species of flowering plants. Then Allen (1919) added 32 species and

Watts (1954) published further records of 41 species, and estimated the

number of plants that comprise the flora of Mussoorie as between 700-750

species. Recently Raizada (1959) published a list of plants occurring in

Mussoorie, raising the number of species of Phanerogams, Ferns, and

Fern Allies to 1331. The following is a further list of plants which are

reported for the first time from the Mussoorie Hills. The area of collec-

tion is the same as was considered by Raizada (1959). Cultivated plants

and plants found as escapes have not been included in the list, unless they

have been found naturalized in the area.

RANUNCULACEAE

Clematis orientalis L.

Mossy Fall, in shady places. Fl. Aug.-Sept.

Ranunculus arvensis L.

Occasional weed of cultivation, below Bhatta-Dhobighat. Saxena

1677. Fl. Feb.-March. Fr. March-April.

Thalictrum javanicum B1.

Common along waysides in shady places. Rajpur, Kamptee Fall, etc.

Saxena 1226, 1301. Fl. July-Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

i Now, Principal, D.A.V. (Post Graduate) College, Dehra Dun.

2 Now, Forest Botanist, State Forest Research Institute, Jabalpur.

Materials for this paper are taken from the Ph.D. thesis of the Junior author,

who wishes to express his deep sense of gratitude to the Ministry of Scientific Research

and Cultural Affairs, for the grant of a scholarship. The author is also thankful to

the President, Forest Research Institute & Colleges and Officer-in-Charge, Botany

Branch, F.R.I., Dehra Dun for kindly providing necessary facilities to work.

76 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

MENISPERMACEAE

Stephania glabra (Roxb.) Miers.

Rajpur 1000 m. along waysides in thickets and over shrubs. Saxena

1297, 2107. Fl. July-Aug. Fr Aug.-Oct.

Loc. name: Para or Parha

BERBERIDACEAE

Mahonia acanthifolia G. Don.

Occasional in oak forests, 1700-2100 m. Kamptee Road, Masonic

Lodge, Barlowganj, near Charleville, Koeti Kimoen Forest etc. Saxena

314, 2349. Fl. Feb.-April. Fr. May-June.

Loc. name: Totar

CRUCIFERAE

Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) Heyn.

Rajpur, along waysides in open dry places. Saxena 376. Fl. & Fr.

Jan.-March.

Coronopus didymus (L.) Sm.

In open, somewhat moist spots at Kulri, Bhatta-Dhobighat etc.

Along stream at Mossy Fall. Saxena 619, 755, 1556. Fl. & Fr. April-Dec.

Eruca sativa Gars.

Rajpur, up to 1050 m.—Occasional along waysides and in waste

lands near settled areas. Saxena 226. Fl. Jan.-Feb.

Lepidium ruderale L. |

Along waysides in waste lands and in fields, 915-2050 m. Rajpur,

Bhatta-Dhobighat, Mall Road, Jabarkhet Road etc. Saxena 674, 753.

Fl. May-June. Fr. July-Sept.

CAPPARIDACEAE

Capparis zeylanica L.

Occasional at Rajpur. Saxena 411. Fl. March-May. Fr. June-Sept.

Cleome viscosa L.

A weed in fields and along roadsides, 915-1500 m. Rajpur, Kamptee

etc. Saxena 1973. Fl. June. Fr. July-early Oct.

Loc. name: Jakhia

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS Li

FLACOURTIACEAE

Casearia tomentosa Roxb.

Frequent up to 1200 m. especially south of Mussoorie; Rajpur,

Kutalgaon etc. Sometimes in sal forests. Saxena 408, 1732, 1758, 1902.

Fl. March-April. Fr. May-July.

Loc. name: Chilla

PORTULACEAE

Portulaca oleracea L. subsp. silvestris (DC.) Thellung.

A common weed along roadsides at Rajpur; and in and along

fields in moist spots at Arnigarh. Saxena 2810, 1989. Fl. June-Sept. Fr.

Sept.-May.

MALVACEAE

Abelmoschus manihot (L.) Medic. var. pungens (Roxb.) Hochr.

Kamptee, scarce in open places. Saxena 2241, Fl. Sept.

Malva verticillata L. var. chinensis (Mill.)

Occasional along waysides at Kulri, Depot, near Jabarkhet etc.

Saxena 970, 1353, 2049. Fl. & Fr. July-Sept.

The elongated pedicels and small flowers of this variety misled

some authors to name it as Malva parviflora. The latter species has

glabrous staminal tube and manifestly reticulate carpels with sharp

edges.

Sida cordifolia L.

Occasional in open dry and often stony waste places at Rajpur,

Kutal Gate, Kamptee Road etc. Saxena 1389, 2232. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.

TILIACEAE

Corchorus olitorius L.

A weed in Arhar field at Raypur. Saxena 1316, 2224. Fl. Aug.-Sept.

Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Grewia subinaequalis DC.

Occasional at Rajpur, both cultivated and wild. Saxena 1886, 1975,

2118. Fl. April-May. Fr. June-July.

Triumfetta pentandra A. Rich.

Fairly common in open or shady waste places at Rajpur, Kutal

Village, Kamptee etc. Saxena 103&(A), 1191, 1329(A). Fl. & Fr. Aug.-

Nov.

78 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

OxXALIDACEAE

Biophytum reinwardtii (Zucc.) Klotz.

Occasional in open places at Rajpur and Kamptee. Saxena 1062.

Fl. & Fr. Late Aug.-Sept.

RUTACEAE

Aegle marmelos (L.) Corr.

Cultivated and also apparently wild at Rajpur. Saxena 1977. FI.

June-July. Fr. June (next year).

VITACEAE

Parthenocissus semicordata (Wall.) Planch. var. semicordata.

Occasional in oak forest along Municipal Garden Road. Saxena

D.D. No. 138679. Fl. June.

The var. semicordata (proper) differs from var. roylei in the hispid

nature of the young branches, petioles, and nerves on the lower surface

of the leaves.

Tetrastigma affine (Gagnep. ex Osmaston) Raizada & Saxena comb.

nov Vitis affinis Gagnep. ex Osmaston, For. Fl. Kumaon 119, 1927.

A climber on rocks and in crevices; Jharipani (Oak Grove), Barlow-

ganj, Bhatta Fall etc. Saxena 260, 1460, 1661. Fl. July-Sept. Fr. Oct.-

March.

ANACARDIACEAE

Spondias pinnata (L.f.) Kurz.

Rare at Rajpur and up to 1100 m. on the Motor Road. Saxena

1926. Fl. March-April. Fr. June-Sept.

Loc. name: Amara or Amra

PAPILIONACEAE

Alysicarpus bupleurifolius (L.) DC. var. bupleurifolius.

Rajpur, occasional in open places. Saxena 2331. Fl. & Fr. Sept.

Atylosia volubilis (Blanco) Gamble.

Rajpur, occasional in sal forest. Saxena 1629. Fl. Feb.-March. Fr.

March-April.

Crotalaria alata Buch -Ham. ex Roxb.

Rajpur, rare in sal forest. Saxena 2304. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 79

Crotalaria humifusa Grah. ex Benth.

Rare, on open grassy slopes at Kamptee Fall and Murray’s Spring.

Saxena 2255. Fl. Sept. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Crotalaria medicaginea Lamk.

Occasional, in open places at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 1404, 2245. Fl.

Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Crotalaria mysorensis Roth.

Rare, in open places at Rajypur. Saxena 1446(B), 2208. Fl. Sept.-

Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Crotalaria prostrata Rottl.

Occasional, near sal forest, Rajpur, usually in sheltered places.

Saxena D.D. No. 138668. Fl. Late Aug.-Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Crotalaria tetragona Roxb.

Rare, in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1771. Fl. Sept.-Nov. Fr. March-

June.

Dalbergia sissoo Roxb. ex DC.

Frequent at Rajpur, ascending to 1400 m. on Rajpur- Mussoorie

Motor Road. Saxena 396. Fl. March-May. Fr. Nov.-Feb.

Indigofera linifolia (L.f.) Retz.

Along waysides in open stony ground at Rajpur. Saxena 1314, 1885.

Fl. March-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Lathyrus aphaca L.

Occasional on Kamptee Road; frequent in fields below Bhatta

Dhobighat. Saxena 347, 1671. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-May.

Melilotus indica All.

Occasional along waysides and drains at Rajpur, ascending to 1220 m.

Saxena 277, 1683(B), D.D. No. 138640. Fl. & Fr. Nov.-April.

Pueraria phaseoloides (Roxb.) Benth.

Rajpur, frequent in sal forest. Saxena 2205. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.

Rhynchosia falconeri Baker

Occasional, in open places at Kamptee, Murray’s Spring, near

Cloud End and in the grasslands of Benog. Saxena 1193, 1282, 1505.

Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Shuteria densiflora Benth.

Occasional at Rajpur. Saxena 1595 Fl. Oct.-Nov. Fr. Dec.

80 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Smithia conferta Sm.

Rajpur, common in moist places near sal forest. Saxena 2299(B).

Fl. Sept.-Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Smithia sensitiva Ait.

Rajpur, sal forest in somewhat moist situations. Saxena 1580, 2299(A).

Fl. Sept.-Oct. Fr. Dec. o

Trigonella corniculata L

Rajpur, occasional along roadsides in waste lands. Saxena 1753.

Fl. March-April. Fr. April-June.

Trigonella polycerata L.

Along roadsides at Rajpur. As a weed in wheat fields at Kamptee.

Saxena 1756, 1841. Fl. & Fr. March-May.

Uraria rufescens (DC.) Schind.

Occasional in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2303. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr.

Sept.-Oct.

CAESALPINACEAE

Cassia laevigata Willd.

Occasional along fields below Bhatta-Dhobighat and also near

Bhatta Toll Bar. Saxena 850, 1378. Fl. July-Sept. Fr. Oct.-Dec.

Cassia pumila Lamk.

Frequent along waysides, in open places near Kamptee Rest House.

Saxena 1203. Fl. July-Aug. Fr. Sept.-Oct.

ROSACEAE

Rubus foliolosus D. Don.

Occasional on the way to Park Gate and Barlowganj. Saxena 632,

906. Fl. & Fr. April-Sept.

Loc. name: Anchu

COMBRETACEAE

Combretum roxburghii Spreng.

Occasional at Rajpur. Saxena 2343. Fl. Nov.-Dec.

Terminalia bellirica Roxb.

Rare on the Bridle Path above Rajpur upto 1050 m. and in sal

forest. Saxena 1788. Fl. April-May. Fr. Dec.-Feb.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 81

MYRTACEAE

Syzygium cerasoides (Roxb.) Chatt. et Kanj.

Occasional in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1913. Fl. April-May.

Loc. name: Piyanam

Syzygium cumini (L.) Skeels.

Frequent in sal forest and often cultivated at Rajpur. Saxena 530,

1887. Fl. April-May. Fr. June-July.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammannia baccifera L.

Kamptee Fall, in wet rice fields. Saxena 1548, 2247. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-

Nov.

Ammannia multiflora Roxb.

Kamptee Fall, abundant in wet rice fields. Saxena 1546, 2099. Fl. &

Fr. July-Nov.

Rotala mexicana Cham. & Schlecht.

Gregarious in open moist spots near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena

2293. Fl. & Fr. Late Sept.-Oct.

Rotala rotundifolia (Buch.-Ham.) Koehne.

Abundant in and around water ditches near sal forest, Rajpur.

Aquatic or in marshy places. Saxena 1634, 2091. Fl. Feb.-March.

CUCURBITACEAE

Bryonopsis laciniosa (L.) Naud. var. laciniosa.

Occasional in waste places at Rajpur. Saxena 1286. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-

Oct.

Cucumis sativus L.

Common at Rajpur, ascending to 1200 m. Occasional at Kamptee

Fall and Charleville. Saxéna 1032, 1396, 2139. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.

Except fruits, which are very bitter in taste, C. hardwickii Royle is

similar in all essential characters to C. sativus L. The two species are

now considered conspecific. It is the (bitter) form C. hardwickii which

occurs wild in the area.

CACTACEAE

Opuntia monacantha Haw.

Occasional in dry waste lands at Rajpur; rare at Jharipani. Saxena

1918. Fl. April-May.

Loc. name: Soru

82 JOURNAL, BOM BAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

UMBELLIFERAE

Bunium persicum (Boiss.) Fedt.

Occasional along roadsides near Kincraig and Barlowganj. Saxena

D. D. No. 139182. Fl. Nov.

Trachyspermum ammi (L.) Sprague.

Rare, near Jabarkhet. Saxena 1365. Fl. Sept.-Oct.

RUBIACEAE

Adina cordifolia (Roxb.) Hook f.

Occasional in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1628. Fl. June-July. Fr.

Cold season.

Loc. name: Haldu

Galium vestitum D. Don.

Along waysides, 1500-2200 m. Kamptee, Arnigarh, Landour, Benog

etc. Saxena D. D. No. 138334. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct.

Hedyotis pinifolia Wall. ex G. Don.

Occasional in somewhat moist and grassy places in and near sal

forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1438(B), 2308, 2337. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Knoxia sumatrensis (Retz.) DC. |

Rajpur, occasional in sal forest. Saxena 2097, 2306. Fl. Aug.-Sept.

Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Oldenlandia diffusa (Willd.) Roxb.

Rajpur, in moist and grassy places near sal forest. Saxena 2084.

Fl. & Fr. July-Sept.

Randia dumetorum Lamk.

Occasional in open places at Rajpur, Kutal village etc. Saxena

1900. Fl. April-June. Fr. Cold season.

Loc. name: Maidal -

COMPOSITAE

Ageratum houstonianum Mill.

Common in waste places at Rajpur, Jharipani etc. Saxena 201.

Fl. & Fr. Nov.-March.

Artemisia vulgaris L.

Common along waysides and in forest. Jabarkhet Road, Kamptee

Road, Benog, Murray’s Spring Forest etc. Saxena 1186. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-

Oct.

Loc. name: Chhamra (Samri)

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 83

Blainvillea acmella (L.) Philipson

Common in fields at Rajpur. Occasionally ascending to 1200 m.,

near Katta Patthar. Saxena 1325, 1453, 2171. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Nov.

Blumea mollis (D. Don) Merr.

Frequent along waysides and in waste lands, 915-1300 m. Rajpur,

Ramtirth Ashram, Bridle Path etc. Saxena 563, 1726. Fl. & Fr. March-

June.

Blumea laciniata (Roxb.) DC.

Occasional along waysides in somewhat dry places, 915-1500 m.

Rajpur, Kutal Gate, Bhatta Fall etc. Saxena 591, 1817, 1882. Fl. & Fr.

March-May.

Centipeda minima (L.) A. Br. & Aschers.

Bridle Path (1500 m.), rare in dry places. Saxena 1452. Fl. & Fr.

June-Nov.

Cnicus argyracanthus (DC.) C.B.Cl.

Common in waste lands at Barlowganj. Saxena 577. Fl. & Fr. Late

May-Sept.

Elephantopus scaber L.

Rajpur, rare in sal forest. Saxena 2300. Fl. Oct.

Erigeron annuus Pers.

Common and often gregarious in open or somewhat shady places,

1500-2000 m. Camels Back Cemetery, Barlowganj, Kamptee Road,

Municipal Garden, near Mossy Fall, way to Murray’s Spring etc. Fairly

naturalized. Saxena 358, 667, 692. Fl. April-Aug. It is a native of America.

Eupatorium adenophorum Spreng.

Fairly common along stream below Bhatta-Dhobighat. Also found

at Katta Patthar, Jharipani etc. Saxena 424. Fl. & Fr. March-July.

Eupatorium riparium Regel.

Occasional along stream at Bhatta Fall (1450 m.), apparently wild.

Saxena 1668, 1820(B). Fl. & Fr. March-April. A native of Mexico and

West Indies.

Gnaphalium purpureum L.

Occasional along waysides in open or shady places. Cloud End, near

Birla Niwas etc. Saxena 1391, 1473. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.

Laggera falcata O. Ktze.

Common on hill-sides at Rajpur especially near sal forest. Saxena

1435, 1581. Fl. & Fr. Oct.-Dec.

84 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Laggera pterodonta Sch.-Bip.

Occasional in waste lands at Rajpur. Along stream in moist and

somewhat sheltered places near Kutalgaon. Saxena 185, 1733. Fl. & Fr.

Jan.-April.

Prenanthes violaefolia Dcne.

Rare in sheltered places on the way to Benog, Dhobighat, Charle-

ville Road etc. Saxena 1509. Fl. & Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Wedelia wallichii Less.

Rare, in forest undergrowth at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 2141. Fl. &

Fr. Aug.-Sept.

CAMPANULACEAE

Campanula canescens Wall. ex DC.

Occasional in open places at Bhatta Fall, Kamptee Fall etc. Saxena

1670. Fl. March. Fr. April-May.

Cephalostigma hirsutum Edgew.

On open grassy slopes in Murray’s Spring Forest and near Bhatta

Fall. Saxena 1384, 2556. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Lobelia alsinoides Lamk.

Somewhat gregarious in open moist places near sal forest, Rajpur.

Saxena 2294. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.

Lobelia heyneana R. & S.

In moist places at Kamptee Fall. In sheltered, stony ground above

Kutal village (1150 m.). Saxena 1541, 2231. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.

Wahlenbergia gracilis Schrad.

In somewhat moist grassy slopes in the clearings in sal forest, Rajpur.

Saxena 1172. Fl. & Fr. March-June.

MYRSINACEAE

Ardisia solanacea Roxb.

Along shady ravines in sal forest at Raypur. Saxena 1767. Fl. May-

June. Fr. Feb.-April.

OLEACEAE

Jasminum multiflorum Andre.

Occasional in open places at Rajpur. Saxena 194, 370. Fl. Dec.-

April.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 85

APOCYNACEAE

Ichnocarpus frutescens R.Br.

Occasional at Rajpur, often in sal forest. Saxena 1440, 2331. FI.

Sept.-Nov.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

Cynanchum glaucum Wall.

Along wayside in open places on the way from Hathipaon to Cloud

End. Saxena 2056. Fl. June-Aug.

Periploca calophylla Falc.

Climbing on trees in shady forest ; usually in shady ravines. Kamptee

Fall, Bhatta Fall, Arnigarh, Barlowganj etc. Saxena 1715, 1848. FI.

April-May. Fr. Cold season.

Tylophora himalaica Hook f.

Frequent in somewhat shady places at Kamptee Fall. Saxena 2023.

Fl. July-Aug.

GENTIANACEAE

Canscora decussata R. & S.

Rare, along roadsides near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1431. FI. & Fr.

Oct.-Nov.

Canscora diffusa R.Br. |

Occasional in open places at Rajpur, ascending to 1100 m. on the

Bridle Path. Saxena 190, 1430. FI. & Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Hoppea dichotoma Willd.

Gregarious in open grassy places at Bhatta Fall and near sal forest,

Rajpur. Saxena 1382, 2289. Fl. & Fr. Late Sept.-Oct.

BORAGINACEAE

Bothriospermum tenellum (Horn.) Fisch. & Mey.

Kamptee Fall, in fields in moist spots. Saxena 1712. Fl. March-

April. Fr. April.

CONVOLVULACEAE

Ipomoea cairica (L.) Sweet.

Commonly grown for ornamental purposes and naturalized at

many places at Rajpur, along waysides in thickets, over hedges etc. Saxena

407. Fl. Most parts of the year.

86 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Ipomoea muricata (L.) Jacq.

Occasional along waysides, over shrubs and in thickets at Rajpur,

Kutalgaon, up to 1000 m. Saxena 2222. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Nov.

Volvulopsis nummularia (L.) Roberty

Rajpur, in open sunny places near sal forest. Saxena 2355. Fl. Sept.-

Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

SOLANACEAE

Cestrum parquil Her.

Fairly common in open waste lands, south of Mussoorie, 1500-2000

m., Jharipani, Barlowganj, near Masonic Lodge etc. Completely

naturalized. Saxena 578. Fl. April-July (but remains flowering in most

parts of the year). Fr. July.

Datura tatula L. var. tatula.

Occasional in waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 2168. Fl. April-Aug.

Fr. June-Sept.

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Antirrhinum orontium L.

Occasional along waysides in waste lands, 915-2100 m., Rajpur-Jabar-

khet Road etc. Saxena 387, 1720. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-July.

Centranthera nepalensis D.Don.

In open grassy places near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2319. Fl. &

Fr. July-Oct.

Limpophila rugosa (Roth) Merr.

Along water ditches near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 2324. Fl. Sept.-

Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov. |

Lindernia hookeri subsp. kumaunensis Pennell

Abundant in open grassy places near sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena

2315. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Oct.

Lindernia pyxidaria All.

Somewhat gregarious in wet rice fields at Kamptee Fall. Saxena

2248. Fl. & Fr. Late Aug.-early Oct.

Lindernia sessiliflora (Benth.) Wettest.

Frequent in moist spots in harvested field at Kamptee Fall ; occasional

on moist hill-sides, 1000-1600 m.; Cloud End, Barlowganj etc. Saxena

1392, 1515, 2251, Fl, Aug.-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Nov.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 87

Mella hamiltoniana (Benth.) Pennell

Rare in open grassy places near sal forest, Rajypur. Saxena 2312.

FI. Sept.

Scoparia dulcis L.

Common along roadsides in waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 1058,

1302. Fl. July-Sept. Fr. Sept.-Nov.

Verbascum chinense Sant.

Rajpur, in stony waste lands. Saxena 2087. Fl. & Fr. June-Aug.

Veronica biloba L.

Kamptee (1500 m.), rare, in dry places. Saxena 1843. Fl. & Fr.

March-April.

Veronica javanica Bl.

Rare, along stream in moist situations at Bhatta Fall. Saxena 604,

1816. Fl. & Fr. March-May.

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia pubescens Sm.

Rajpur, near sal forest in open marshy places among grass. Saxena

2327 (A). Fl. & Fr. Late Sept.-Oct.

This interesting species was hitherto known only from tropical

Africa and South America and is recorded from India for the first time.

Utricularia striatula Seem

Gregarious on moist walls among mosses; Half-way-House, Charle-

ville Road etc. Also found on steep marshy slopes in sal forest, Rajpur.

~ Saxena 1734, 2196. Fl. & Fr. Aug.-Oct.

PEDALIACEAE

Martynia annua L.

Occasional, in waste lands, on refuse dumps at Rajpur. Saxena

1020, 1284. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.

ACANTHACEAE

Lepidagathis purpuricaulis Nees.

Occasional along wayside at Katta Patthar. Saxena 290. FI. Feb.-

April. Fr. April-May.

Perilepta edgeworthiana (Nees) Brem.

Rajpur along Motor Road in sal forest. Saxena 1584, 2346. FI.

Oct.-Nov.

88 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Phlogacanthus thyrsiflorus (Roxb.) Nees.

Rare, above Kutal Gate (1000 m.) along a field. Saxena 1741. FI.

Feb.-April. Fr. Late March-May.

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum viscosum Vent. .

In waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 243, 400. Fl. March-April. Fr.

May-July.

Loc. name: Karu or Karhu

LABIATAE

Acrocephalus indicus (Burm. f.) O. Ktze.

Common in somewhat moist situations at Rajpur and Kamptee

Fall. Saxena 1046, 1315, 2207. Fl. Aug.-Sept. Fr. Oct.

Ajuga macrosperma Wall. ex Benth. var. macrosperma.

Occasional near streams in moist and shady places at Bhatta Fall

(1500 m.), Kuta! village etc. Saxena 284, 1666, 1738, 1823 (A). FI.

Feb.-April. Fr. April-May.

Elsholtzia pilosa (Benth.) Benth.

Common along waysides in somewhat moist situation at Depot,

Jabarkhet Road etc. Saxena 1339, 2278. Fl. Sept.-Oct. Fr. Oct.

Elsholtzia stachyodes (Link). Raizada & Saxena comb. nov.; Hyptis

stachyodes Link, Enum. 2:106, 1822.

Along wayside in open or shady places near Polo ground, Charle-

ville, and on the way to Murray’s Spring. Saxena 1332, 1529. Fl. Sept.-

Oct. Fr. Oct.-Nov.

Leucas mollissima Wall. var. scaberula Hk.f.

Frequent in somewhat moist and shady places near or inside sal

forest, Raypur. Saxena 2080. Fl. July-Aug. Fr. Aug.-Sept.

AMARANTHACEAE

Alternanthera paronychioides St. Hil.

Fairly common; carpeted along roadsides at Rajpur (950 m).

Saxena 1968. Fl. & Fr. All the year round.

Amaranthus chlorostachys Willd.

An erect herb, about 30 cm. high. Leaves long-petiolate ovate

acute or obtuse. Flowers greenish, unisexual, monoecious, in short.

axillary spikes. Bracts slightly exceeding the tepals. Tepals 5, eles

Stamens 5. Styles 4, pappilose,

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 89

Occasional in waste places at Barlowganj. Saxena 574. Fl. May-

June.

The specimen quoted above was identified by van Ooststroom,

Ryksherbarium, Leiden. This species is apparently new to India.

_ Amaranthus lividus L.

A procumbent herb; stem often pinkish. Leaves long-petiolate,

ovate, ovate-oblong, rhomboid-ovate, with broadish usually deeply

emarginate apex. Flowers greenish or occasionally pinkish, unisexual,

monoecious, in axillary clusters or forming terminal and axillary spikes;

bracts and bracteoles much shorter than the perianth. Tepals 3, excep-

tionally 4. Stamens 3; filaments much shorter than the perianth. Styles

2(-3) Utricle smooth or faintly rugulose when ripe, slightly exceeding

the perianth.

Frequent in waste lands and often along drains at Rajpur, occa-

sionally along stream at Bhatta-Dhobighat and Bhilaru. Saxena 758,

1027, 1371, 1752. Fl. & Fr. March-Oct.

The species described above is var. ascendens Thell. the specimen

(Saxena 758) was also identified by van Ooststroom, Rijksherbarium,

Leiden. This variety is a new record for India.

Gomphrena celosioides Mart.

Along roadsides at Rajpur (950 m.). Saxena 814. Fl. & Fr. all the

year round.

POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum mite Schrank.

Occasional along streams at Rajpur, Arnigarh etc. Saxena 1606,

1988. Fl. & Fr. June-Dec.

PIPERACEAE

Piper longum L. |

Occasional at Rajpur (950 m.). Saxena 1033. Fl. Aug.-Sept.

LORANTHACEAE

Scurrula cordifolia (Wall.) D.Don.

_ Occasional at Rajpur. Found on Woodfordia fructicosa, Acacia

catechu, Mangifera indica etc. Saxena 2105. Fl Cold season.

Scurrula elata (Edgew.) Danser.

_ Frequent on Persea duthiei, Ulmus pumila, Populus ciliata and

Cornus macrophylla at Municipal Garden Road. Saxena 731, 2051. Fl. &

Fr. June-July

90 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Scurrula pulverulenta (Wall.) G.Don.

Frequent at Rajpur (Bridle Path) ascending to 1100 m. Found on

Mallotus philippensis, Toona ciliata, Punica granatum, Lannea coroman-

delica etc. Saxena 1451, 2175. Fl. Oct.-Dec.

Loc. name: Banda

EUPHORBIACEAE

Baliospermum montanum (Willd.) Muell.-Arg.

Occasional in waste grounds or along fields at Rajpur and Kutal-

gaon. Saxena 275, 412, 1740. Fl. & Fr. Mainly March-April.

Euphorbia prostrata Ait.

Frequent along waysides and drains at Rajpur, Kincraig etc. Saxena

388, 740. Fl. & Fr. Throughout the greater part of the year.

Sapium sebiferum Roxb.

Frequently found in sal forest, Rajpur. Saxena 1914. Fl. April-

May.

Loc. name: Pancchirukh, Gutel, Tarcharbi

URTICACEAE

Elatostema ficoides Wedd.

Rare in damp, sheltered spots at Mossy Fall. Saxena 3073, 2163. FI.

July-Aug.

A very interesting type of anthesis in the male flowers has been

noted in the field. During anthesis the anthers detach from the centre

one by one with a jerk and blow out a puff of white pollen grains; the

filaments now remain free and curled in the flower with intact empty

anthers. Of a receptacle, it is in only one or two flowers that a single

stamen shows this process of dehiscence at a time but one after the other,

with an interval of a few seconds, it takes place in every stamen of every

flower of a receptacle.

Elatostema surculosum Wight.

Occasional in moist and shady places, usually on steep ground;

Rajpur, Bridle Path etc.

Fleurya interrupta (L.) Gaud.

Occasional in waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 1291, 2313. Fl. & Fr.

Sept.-Oct.

Maoutia puya Wedd.

Abundant over a considerable area on steep, shady, hill-side near

Ramtirth Ashram (Rajpur). Saxena 2102. Fl. June-Oct. Fr. Nov.-Jan.

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MUSSOORIE HILLS 91

Parietaria debilis Forst.

Rare, in shady places ; Kulri, Landour etc. Saxena D. D. No. 139695,

139697. Fl. & Fr. Sept.-Nov.

MORACEAE

Cudrania javanensis Trec.

Occasional at Rajpur (near sal forest, Kutal Gate etc.). Saxena 1723,

2347. Fl. April-June. Fr. Aug.-Nov.

Ficus hispida L.f.

Rare, at Rajpur. Saxena 521, 1758. Fl. & Fr. April-June.

ULMACEAE

Ulmus pumila L.

Rare, at Vincent Hill Road, Municipal Garden Road etc. Saxena

D. D. No. 139694. Fl. Feb.-March. Fr. April-May.

SALICACEAE

Salix acmophylla Boiss.

Frequently found along water courses, Rajpur, Bhatta Fall etc.

Saxena 1630, 1664, 1665. Fl. & Fr. March-May.

Loc. name: Sinsaru, Ruins

LILIACEAE

Notholirion macrophyllum Boiss.

Rare, near Bhatta Fall, 1400 m., in open stony spots. Saxena 1662.

Fl. March.

ERIOCAULACEAE

Eriocaulon quinquangulare L.

Rajpur, abundant in open, grassy, moist places near sal forest.

Saxena 2189. FI. Sept.

CYPERACEAE

Cyperus compressus L.

Frequent in waste lands at Rajpur. Saxena 1028. Fl. Aug.-Sept.

Kyllinga monocephela Rottb.

Rajpur, common in waste ground. Saxena 833. Fl. July-Aug.

Kyllinga triceps Rottb.

Rajpur, occasional in open grassy places. Saxena 839. Fl. July-Aug.

Lipocarpa argentea R.Br.

Occasional in open, grassy, moist places near sal forest, Rajpur.

Saxena 2190. Fl. Sept.-Oct,.

92 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

GRAMINEAE

Bothriochloa pertusa A. Camus.

Common between 900-1800 m. Rajpur, Bridle Path, Bhatta Fall

etc. Saxena 372, 560, 1016. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-Sept.

Bromus tectorum L.

Lal Tibba 2250 m. Saxena 642. Fl. & Fr. April-June.

Cymbopogon martinii (Roxb.) Wats. |

Near Barlowganj. Saxena 1559. Fl. Oct.-Jan.

Cynodon dactylon Pers.

Common in waste Jands along roadsides at Rajpur, Kamptee Road

(1800 m.).. Saxena 658, 1007. Fl. May-June.

Cyrtococcum patens A. Camus.

Occasional, at Rajpur (1000 m.), Mossy Fall, Municipal Garden

Road etc. Saxena 901, 1294. Fl. & Fr. July-Oct.

Dichanthium annulatum Stapf

Common, at Rajpur, Bridle Path, Bhatta-Dhobighat, near Kincraig

etc. Saxena 382, 526, 562, 743, 1003. Fl. & Fr. Feb.-Sept.

Echinochloa colonum Link.

In waste lands at Kamptee. Saxena 1189(B). Fl. Aug.-Sept.

Iseillema laxum Hack.

Above Bhatta-Dhobighat, 1700 m. Saxena 746. Fl. June-July.

Phalaris minor Retz.

In and along wheat fields at Bhatta, Kamptee. Saxena 1679, 1739.

Fl. March-May.

Setaria verticillata Beauv.

Rajpur, in waste lands. Saxena 1066. FI. rains.

Vulpia myros Gmel.

Occasional at Lal Tibba (2100 m.). Saxena 458. Fl. March-April.

REFERENCES

ALLEN, G. O. (1919): A few additions

to the list of Mussoorie plants by James

Marten in JBNHS. Vol. XIX p. 475.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 26 : 695-696.

CoL_LeTT, H. (1902); Flora Simlensis.

Thacker Spink & Co., Calcutta and Simla.

Hooker, J. D. (1872-97): The Flora of

British India. L. Reeve & Co., Kent.

MartTEN, J. (1909): Plants gathered in

and about Mussoorie during 1908.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 19: 475-501.

RAIZADA, M. B. (1959): Mussoorie

and its plants. Ind. For. 85: 668-690.

RAIZADA, M. B. & SAXENA, H.O. : (1962)

New plant records for North and North-

West India. Ind. For. 88: 702-704.

Royse, J. F. (1833-40): Illustrations

of the Botany and other branches of the

Natural History of the Himalayan Moun-

tains and the Flora of Cashmir. London.

STEWART, R. R. (1939): The Flora of

Mussoorie. Proc. 26th Ind. Sci. Cong.

Lahore Abst. 126-127.

Watts, N. A. (1954): A contribution

to the flora of Mussoorie. J. Bombay nat. .

Hist. Soc. 52: 106-111.

A New Species of Freshwater

Fish of the Genus Hemiramphus

Cuv. from Gorakhpur,

Uttar Pradesh, India

G. J. SRIVASTAVA

Department of Zoology, University of Gorakhpur.

(With a text - figure)

INTRODUCTION

During the years 1959 to 1962, extensive collections of fish were

made by me from the Gorakhpur and adjoining districts of Uttar Pradesh.

The collection included nine specimens of a new Hemiramphid fish

which is described here.

Hemiramphus gorakhpurensis sp. nov.

Description: D. 14-15; P. 10; V.6; A. 15; C. 19; Ll. 50-54. Length

of head is 2.53 (2.1 to 2.8), and the depth of body is 14.41 (13.00 to

15.75) in relation to standard length of the body. In relation to the length

of the head the caudal peduncle is 4.65 (4.00 to 5.62), its height being

10.21 (9.33 to 11.50), interorbital space is 8.2 (7.00 to 8.5), width of

head is 6.61 (5.60 to 7.60) and diameter of the eye is 7.65 (7.00 to 8.8).

Eyes large and are 1.5 in relation to the postorbital length of the head,

and 1 in relation to interorbital width. Upper jaw short and broadly

triangular, lower jaw elongated, triangular, resembling a beak. Both

jaws bear minute teeth, arranged in many rows. In the lower jaw teeth

are present only on the basal portion. Dorsal fin arises slightly posterior

to the anal fin. Both have concave outer margins. Base of anal fin is

slightly shorter than the base of dorsal fin. The forked caudal fin has

the lower lobe slightly longer and broader than the upper. 5 rows of

scales between the base of dorsal fin and lateral line. Both anal and

dorsal fins are slightly covered with scales at their base.

Hemiramphus gorakhpurensis sp. nov.

94 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

When fresh, the general body colour is silvery white with a brilliant

silvery lateral band along the side of the body. Alcohol preserved speci-

mens lose the coloration and the silvery band changes to black.

Holotype: In Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, Reg. No. F.

4203/2, Maheshara Tal, Gorakhpur, Uttar Pradesh, 14th January, 1960.

Standard length 78 mm. Collector: G. J. Srivastava.

Paratypes: One in Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta Reg. No.

F. 4204/2, bearing the same data as holotype, standard length 79 mm.

Another, bearing the same data as holotype in the Zoology Museum of

University of Gorakhpur. Standard length 66 mm.

Distribution: Maheshara Tal, and River Rohini, Gorakhpur Dis-

trict, Uttar Pradesh.

Relationship : The new species is closely related to Hemiramphus

gaimardi Valenciennes but can be easily distinguished from gaimardi by

its slender body, the depth of the body being 14 times in total length

whereas in gaimardi it is only about 11 times. H. gaimardi is a marine

form entering estuaries and tidal rivers while H. gorakhpurensis is a

purely freshwater species.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Prof. H. S. Chaudhry and Dr. A. G. K. Menon of

Zoological Survey of India for assistance rendered in the study of the

fish.

Studies on the Vegetation of

Ponds, Swamps and River Banks

in Raipur, Madhya Pradesh

K. SANKARAN UNNI

Botany Department, College of Science, Raipur

(With a map)

The paper gives a comprehensive list of aquatic and subaquatic

plants. A map of the area and climatic data of the period when observ-

ations were taken are also given. The local@lames and flowering period,

wherever available, are also recorded.

INTRODUCTION

The study of hydrophytes has revealed very interesting facts regard-

ing their distribution, ecology etc., in different parts of this country. The

occurrence and seasonal succession of these plants are entirely dependent

on the environment in which they grow. In western countries critical

studies have been made on the vegetation and substrate relationships of

lakes and ponds.

In India during the last decade hydrophytes have attracted the

attention of a good number of workers. The work is mainly confined to

the floristic composition of selected areas. The habit, habitat, flowering

period, local names, ecological notes and such other features are given

by different authors. Biswas and Calder (1937) were the pioneers in this

field in India. They were followed by Misra (1946), Ratnam and Joshi

(1952), Mirashi (1954, 1957, 1958), Pattnaik and Patnaik (1956), Sen

and Chatterjee (1959), Maheswari (1960), Chavan and Sabnis (1961),

Seervani (1962) and Vyas (1964). Subramanyam’s “‘ AQUATIC ANGIOS-

PERMS ”’ marks a milestone in our progress towards the study of this

group.

As far as the study of hydrophytes of Raipur is concerned the only

_ work that has been done is that of Tiwari (1960). His list is incomplete

because it does not include a number of plants, recorded in the present

paper.

The author has made a detailed survey of the ponds, swamps and

riversides of Raipur and its environs. A comprehensive list of plants

96 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

present during the dry and wet phases was prepared. The habitat, flower-

ing period and distribution were studied, brief ecological notes were

prepared and wherever available the local Chhatisgarhi names are also

given. A detailed ecological study of one of the tanks is in progress.

The herbarium sheets were identified, and later confirmed at the

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, and

are deposited in the herbarium, College of Science, Raipur.

AREA OF STUDY

An area of 60 sq. km. was selected consisting of Raipur town and

its surroundings, the biggest city of the Chhattisgarh region of Madhya

Pradesh.

GEOGRAPHY AND CLIMATE

Raipur town is situated bgtween 21° 10’ 25” N and 81° 30’ 45” E. Rai-

pur District is remarkable for the number of ponds and tanks either natural

or artificial of 14 to 2 sq. km. area The town is at an elevation of 260 m.

above sea level. The climate is very dry. Winter is the only pleasant

season and it starts in Novemberand ends by the end of February.

Table I gives the rainfall and temperature data for the year 1964 during

which most of the observationswere made. Compared to previous years

the rainy season lasted a little longer, and there were heavy floods.

TABLE I

CLIMATIC DATA OF RAIPUR (1964)

Temp. in Degrees C.

Month Mean Mean Rainfall in mm.

Max. Min.

January 28.8 14.5 Nil

February 5 eye 17.4 3-2

March 36.7 22.0 0.6

April 40.6 26.0 Ware k

May 42.7 28.9 0.2

June 373 26.7 385.7

July 30.5 23.9 392.0

August 29-6 O37 567.2

September 31.1 24.2 154.3

October 30.9 22'33 169.6

November 28.1 15.6 Nil

December 26.9 1223 Nil

VEGETATION OF PONDS, SWAMPS & RIVER BANKS IN RAIPUR 97

HABITATS

Hydrophytes occupy the ponds and swamps and such habitats were

studied in detail in a number of localities. The number of artificial or

natural ponds and tanks, comes to 25 in and around the city. Many of

them are permanent, while a few others dry up during the summer

season. For convenience the total area of observation was divided into

7 smaller areas, and all these localities were visited once a fortnight and

MAP SHOWING THE TALS,PONDS AND RiVERSIDE OF

RA1PUR.(M.P)

Sarnbalpur Koad, .* i

eeenag:

Na wa para 3

field notes were prepared. These are: (1) The Dumar tal and the neigh-

bouring three small ponds called Mahant tal; (2) Rajkumar College area

including ponds such as Karbala tal, Tharre tal, Dhobi tal, Kari tal and

Ama tal; (3) Khokho tal and Bandhava tal; (4) Doodhadhari tank and

surrounding area including the Burha tal, Rawan Bhata tal and other

small tanks; (5) Shanti nagar area, Raja tal, Rasbandha tal and Teli-

bandha tal; (6) Nawa Para and its surroundings including the Narhi tal

and other ponds; (7) Kharron river and Chhokra nullah. The river is

perennial while the Chhokra nullah almost dries up during summer.

The permanent and temporary ponds in all these localities support

different types of vegetation. Eleocharis plantaginea, Oryza rufipogon,

Nechamandra alternifolia, Ottelia alismoides, Blyxa auberti, Utricularia

stellaris, Aeschynomene indica, Najas minor, and Najas graminea, are

found generally near banks and shallow waters during all seasons, while

Limnophyton obtusifolium is seen only after rains continuing up to sum-

mer. Deep waters show Nymphaea stellata, Nymphoides cristatum, Nelumbo

nucifera, Trapa bispinosa, Potamogeton sp. etc. rooted in the mud and

98 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Pistia stratiotes, Spirodela polyrhiza, Lemna minor, Jussiaea repens,

Hygrorhiza aristata floating in water. When the water recedes after the

rains, Sphaeranthus indicus, Caesulia axillaris, Hygrophila polysperma,

Asteracantha longifolia etc. come up and are dead by summer. After the

winter when water recedes further Gnaphalium indicum, Volutarella

divaricata, Grangea maderaspatana, Heliotropium ovalifolium, Coldenia

procumbens, Wahlenbergia gracilis, and others come up. Aponogeton

crispum, Hydrolea zeylanica, Sacciolepis myosuroides, Wolffia arrhiza,

Isoetes sp., Pandanus fascicularis, Bergia capensis, Aeschynomene aspera,

Potamogeton nodosus, Monochoria vaginalis etc. are present only in some

localities.

On the riverside are seen Xanthium strumarium, Crinum defixum,

Canscora diffusa, Equisetum debile and Tamarix ericoides, while from the

sides of Chhokra Nullah only Cyathocline purpurea, Cyperus odoratus

and Canscora diffusa were collected.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

S. No. Species Collection Local Name F ee

1. Nymphaea stellata Willd. 18 Ghiri July to Jan.

Khokhma —

2. Nymphaea rubra Roxb. 194 Rathalu Throughout

year

3. Nymphaea nouchali Burm. 139 Khokhma July to Jan.

4. Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. 17 Purain March-June &

Aug.-Nov.

5. Cardamine trichocarpa Hochst. 19 —_ Dec.-April

6. Portulaca oleracea L. 138 Gol Bhaji Throughout the

year

7. Bergia capensis L. 20 — Aug.-Nov.

8. Bergia ammanioides Roxb. 159 — Nov.-April

9. Tamarix ericoides Roftl. 191 — Dec.-April

10. Corchorus aestuans L. 26 Amoora Sept.-Dec.

11. Chrozophora rottleri A. Juss. 80 —- March-May

12. Sesbania aegyptiaca Pers. 26 Dandani Aug.-Nov.

13. Aeschynomene aspera L. 24 Solhi Aug.-Nov.

14. Aeschynomene indica L. 221 — Rainy season

15. Neptunia oleracea Lour. 6 Lagoni Sept.-April

16. Myriophyllum spicatum L. 204 — July-Dec.

17. Ammania baccifera L. 29 _ Aug.-April

18. Ammania peploides Spreng. — — —

19. Jussiaea repens L. 31 — —

20. Ludwigia parviflora Roxb. 32 — Aug.-Oct.

21. Trapa bispinosa Roxb. 30 Singhara Sept.-Dec.

22. Oldenlandia corymbosa L. 179 — Dec.-April

VEGETATION OF PONDS, SWAMPS & RIVER BANKS IN RAIPUR 99

S. No.

23.

24.

25.

26.

27.

28.

29:

30.

a1.

32.

33.

34.

35.

36.

37.

38.

sy}

40.

41.

42.

43.

44.

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

50.

Sl.

52.

53.

54,

56.

sae

58.

59.

Species Collection

Ageratum conyzoides L. 56

Cyathocline purpurea Kuntze 42

Grangea maderaspatana Poir. 33

Sphaeranthus indicus L. 39

Gnaphalium indicum L. 38

Caesulia axillaris Roxb. 36

Xanthium strumarium L. 37

Enhydra fluctuans Lour. 46

Eclipta prostrata L. 153

Volutarella divaricata Benth. 57

Wahlenbergia gracilis DC. 168

Exacum pedunculatum L. 192

Erythrea roxburghii G. Don. 163

Canscora diffusa Br. 61

Nymphoides indicum O. Kuntze 9

Nymphoides cristatum O. Kuntze 7

Hydrolea zeylanica Vahl. 62

Coldenia procumbens L. 65

Heliotropium supinum L. 67

Heliotropium indicum L. 66

Heliotropium ovalifolium Forsk. 63

Ipomoea fistulosa Matt. 150

Ipomoea aquatica Forsk. 68

Sopubia delphinifolia G. Don. 71

Dopatrium junceum Ham. 70

Stemodia viscosa Roxb. 195

Limnophila indica Druce 69

Utricularia stellaris L. 73

Utricularia exoleta Br. 72

Asteracantha longifolia Nees. 73

Aygrophila polysperma T. 16

ders.

Phyla nodiflora Greene 74

Alternanthera sessilis Br. 76

Alternanthera paronychioides 95

St. Hil.

Rumex dentatus L. ds

Polygonum glabrum Willd. i>

Polygonum plebejum R. Br. 154

Local Name

Basona

Guariya

Chitavar Rui

Bilonda

Kothwa

Jogni

Gudduru

Bhingra

Gukuru

Jal mongra

Besharam

Karmatha

bhaji

Flowering

period

Throughout the

year

Dec.-April

Nov.-May

Dec.-April

Aug.-March

Dec.-Jan.

Feb.-April

Throughout the

year

Jan.-April

Nov.-Feb.

Feb.-April

Jan.-April

June to Sept.

Jan. to March

Summer & rains

Nov.-Jan.

Nov.-March

Feb.-May

Throughout the

year

Nov.-April

Throughout the

year

Oct.-Dec.

Rains

Aug.-Oct.

Winter & Summer

Nov.-March

Throughout the

year

Summer

Sept.-Jan.

Nov.-March

Throughout the

year

Throughout the

year

Feb.-May

Feb.-April

Jan.-May

100

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

S. No.

60.

61.

62.

63.

64.

65.

66.

67.

§9.

70.

WA,

WZ;

13.

Species

Ceratophyllum demersum L.

Canna indica L.

Hydrilla verticillata Royle

Nechamandra alternifolia Roxb.

Vallisneria spiralis L.

Ottelia alismoides L.

Blyxa octandra Planch.

Blyxa auberti Rich.

Crinum defixum L.

Monochoria vaginalis Burm.

Eichhornia crassipes Solms.

Commelina benghalensis L.

Cyanotis axillaris Schult.

Murdannia nudiflora (L.)

Brenan.

Pandanus fascicularis Lamk.

Pistia stratiotes L.

Colocasia antiquorum Sch.

Spirodela polyrhiza Seh.

Lemna minor L.

Wolffia arrhiza Wimm.

Sagittaria guayanensis H.B.K.

Tenagocharis latifolia Buchen.

Limnophyton obtusifolium L.

. Aponogeton crispum Thunb.

Potamogeton crispus L.

Potamogeton nodosus Poir.

Potamogeton pectinatus L.

Najas graminea Del.

Najas minor All.

Cyperus cephalotes Vahl.

Cyperus platystylis Br.

Cyperus difformis L.

Cyperus haspan L.

Cyperus iria L.

Cyperus alopecuroides Rottb.

Cyperus corymbosus Rottb.

Cyperus sanguinolentus Vahl.

Collection

No.

211

101

173

108

112

141

143

144

114

156

145

Local Name

Beni chila

Gadiyari Chila

Nathi Chila

Juduvas

Pathadi Chila

Nathi Chila

Kumha

Kumhi —

Kawakeni

Keni

Ben keni

Kewda

Jal Kumbi

(Gadh)

Kochii

Bhos

Kai

Pathadi

Chila

Phundra chila

Flowering

period

‘ Nov.-Dec.

Feb.-May

Rains

Dec.-March

Aug.-Dec.

Jan.-May

Sept.-April

Aug.-Jan.

Aug.-March

Throughout the

year

Aug.-Oct.

Throughout the

year.

During rains

Rains

Oct., Dec.,

May, July

During Summer &

after rains

Seen only vege-

tative

Aug.-Nov.

After rains

Oct.-Dec.

During rains

Feb.-April

Dec.-April

Dec.-March

During rains

April-May

Sept.-April

Throughout the

year

Aug.-Dec.

July-Nov.

During rains

Throughout

year

During rains

After rains

the

VEGETATION OF PONDS, SWAMPS & RIVER BANKS IN RAIPUR _ 101

S. No. Species ee Local Name er eea

97.° Cyperus rotundus L. 140 — Sept.-Dec.

98. Cyperus odoratus L. 115 — During rains

99. Eleocharis plantaginea R.Br. 210 Gangai After rains

100. Eleocharis fistulosa Schult. 105 — July-Nov.

101. Fimbrystylis miliacea Vahl. 111 — ey rains up to

ech

102. Fimbrystylis tetragona R.Br. 102 — Jan.-May

103. Fimbrystylis aestivalis Vahl. 157 — —

104. Fimbrystylis diphylla Vahl. 109 -— Rainy season

105. Scirpus supinus L. 107 — Aug.-Nov.

106. Scirpus articulatus L. 116 — During and after

rains

107. Coix lachryma-jobi L. 183 — After rains

108. Oryza rufipogon Griff. 119 Passer Throughout the

year

109. Themeda laxa A. Camus 127 — Rainy season

110. Leersia hexandra Sw. 166 _ Sept.-Dec.

111. Mygrorhiza aristata Nees. 5 Kothwa Summer and after

rains

112. Pseudoraphis spinescens Vick 131 — Aug.-Nov.

113. Setaria pallide-fusca Stapf. 28 — July-Nov.

114. Paspalum distichum L. 120 —- July-Dec.

115. Hymenachne pseudointerrupta 117 — Aug.-Nov.

Muell.

116. Panicum paludosum Roxb. 132 — Aug.-Dec.

117. Echinochloa cruspavonis 136 — Rainy season

Schott.

118. Ischaemum rugosum Salisb. 128 — After rains

119. Sacciolepis myosuroides (R.Br.) 190 Podpoda Throughout the

A. Camus year

120. Jsoetes sampathkumaranii Rao 220 — Aug.-Dec.

121. Isoetes sp. 100 == Aug.-Dec.

122. Marsilea quadrifolia L. 182 Sena After rains

aji

123. Marsilea minuta L. 181 — Oct.-March

124. Azolla pinnata R.Br. 99 — Nov.-Jan.

125. Ceraptopteris thallictrioides 160 — Nov.-March

Brong.

126. Equisetum debile Roxb. 191 — Oct.-Dec.

OBSERVATIONS

In the distribution, some of the plants Monocharia vaginalis,

Eleocharis fistulosa, Sagittaria guayanensis, Enhydra fluctuans, Aeschyno-

mene aspera, Ipomoea aquatica, Isoetes sp. etc. are confined only to one

or two ponds and it is interesting that not a single plant of these could

be found anywhere else in the area.

So far 126 species belonging to the aquatic and subaquatic types

were collected and some of the plants coming up during the dry phase

102

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

were also included. The list includes 7 plants belonging to Pteridophytes

119 Angiosperms. They belong to 87 genera and 43 families.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is grateful to Dr. V.B. Sharma for guidance, and to

Professor R. C. Agnihotri and Dr. R. P. Mathur for facilities. He is also

thankful to Rev. Fr. H. Santapau for kindly going through the manuscript

and suggesting improvements and to the Director, Meteorological Depart-

ment, Nagpur, for supplying the data on climate.

REFERENCES

Biswas, K. & CALDER, C. ( 1937): A

handbook of common water and marsh

plants of India and Burma, Govt. Press,

Delhi.

CHAVAN, A. R. & Sasnis, S. D.

(1961): A Study of the hydrophytes of

Baroda and its environs. Jour. Indian

Bot. Soc. 40: 121-130.

MaAuHEswarI, J. K. (1960): The Vege-

tation of marshes, swamps and riverside

in Khandwa dist. (M.P.). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 57: 371-387.

Mirasul, M. V. (1954): Studies on the

hydrophytes of Nagpur. Jour. Indian

Bot. Soc. 33: 294-398.

—_—___—_——— (1957) : Studies in the hy-

drophytes of Umred. ibid., 36: 396-407.

———_————. (1958): Studies in the

hydrophytes of Mansar. Jour. Bom. Biol.

Sc. 1: 45-52.

Misra, R. D. (1946): The Ecology of

Lowlying lands. Indian Ecol. L: 11.

PATTNAIK, H. & PATNAIK, N. K.

(1956): The hydrophytes of Cuttack.

Jour. Indian Bot. Soc. 35: 157-170.

RATNAM, B. V. & JosHi, M. C.

(1952): An ecological study of the vege-

tation near about a pond in Pilani. Proc.

Raj. Acad. Sci. 3: 1-15.

SEERVANI, A. B. (1962): A Study in the

hydrophytes and plants of lowlying

habitats in Jabalpur. Bull. Bot. Surv.

India 4, 227-231.

SEN, D. N. & CHATTERJEE, U. N.

(1959): Ecological studies on aquatic

and swampy vegetation of Gorakhpur—

A Survey. Agra Univ. Jour. of Research

(Sci.) VIII, 1: 17-29.

SUBRAMANYAM, K. (1962): Aquatic

Angiosperms. Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research, New Delhi.

Trwarl, D. K. (1960): Hydrophytes of

Raipur. Proc. Indian Sci. Cong.

3: 407-408.

Vyas, L. N. (1964): A study of the

hydrophytes and marsh plants of Alwar

and environs. Jour. Indian Bot. Soc. 43:

17-30.

Reviews

1. EVOLUTION. By Michael J. Kenny. pp. 180 (17.5 x 10.5 cm.).

17 text figures. London 1966. The English Universities Press Ltd.

Teach Yourself Books. Price (in U.K.) &s. 6d.

Michael J. Kenny's EVOLUTION is a good example of what a teach-

yourself book ought to be. The author knows exactly what he wants to

say and has the knack of making clear the meaning of what he says. In

the result he gives his reader something concrete to carry away and, if

he is so minded, to add to or to modify by further reading.

The author deals with the theory of evolution historically. Beginning

with the earliest ideas about the origin of the variety of animal and vege-

table forms, he comes by slow degrees to the joint paper read by Darwin

and A. R. Wallace and the publication of THE ORIGIN OF SPECIES. After

a brief account of the reception their theory received and a glance at

weak points in the theory, he goes on to show how Gregor Mendel’s long

overlooked discovery relating to the inheritance of charactersand Hugo de

Vries’s discovery of mutations fitted into the Darwinian theory and

strengthened its weak places. A discussion of the further work done in

genetics after Mendel and de Vries leads the reader gradually to the

generally accepted ‘synthetic’ theory of today. Having dealt with the

theoretical part, the author then proceeds to set out the course of evo-

lution as seen by the evolutionists, finishing the review with an interesting

chapter on the evolution of Man which takes us up to the Olduvai Gorge

discovery of Homo habilis in 1964.

D. Bok.

2. DICTIONARY OF ECONOMIC PLANTS IN INDIA. By P.

Maheshwari and Umrao Singh. pp. 197 (14x21 cm.), New Delhi, 1965.

Indian Council of Agricultural Research. Price Rs. 9.50.

The authors mention in the short preface of the book that they were

entrusted with the task of preparing a Dictionary of the Economic Plants

of India giving their English and Hindi names along with a brief note on

their uses by the Indian Council of Agricultural Research. It is also stated

that the information pertaining to Indian Economic Plants was available

in a number of scattered publications dealing with many specialized

aspects such as agriculture, horticulture, floriculture, forestry, drugs etc.

The consolidation of this information into a single handbook for ready

reference occupied almost all their spare time for more than three years.

This reviewer and perhaps many other readers also are left wondering as

to whom the information given in this dictionary is likely to be useful.

104 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Persons who like to refer to such glossaries are generally looking for specific

information of some significance and the specialized publications on

various subjects are far more useful than such a consolidation which

lacks all significant data regarding useful parts of plants. This Dictionary

contains the scientific names of over 1,700 plants—validated by 3 experts—

one each from the Botanical Survey, Forest Research Institute and

Council of Scientific & Industrial Research. (No doubt, these names will

change and go on changing); English and Hindi names (which have no

standardisation); followed, as far as possible, by a brief account of the

habit of the plant, present areas of distribution or cultivation in India

and chief uses to which they are put—without any reference. In preparing

this work the authors have drawn freely from a number of sources, the

more important of which—only about 45—are listed in a bibliography

at the end. To add to the utility of the book, indices of English and Hindi

names of plants are appended.

It is apparent that this book closely follows the treatment of a similar

work by J. C. Th. Uphof (New York, 1959) but is not as good. Uphof

has given a much more comprehensive bibliography of about 200 titles

systematically divided in about 20 groups and again arranged in 10

geographical regions of the globe and has also listed a few important

journals. Comparison of a few random items e.g. Citrus spp., Punica

granatum, Salvadora persica will bring out the value of these two compar-

able publications. This reviewer regretfully notes that this publication

adds to the list of uncritical compilations in Economic Botany of India

which have of late been proliferating. It is further regrettable to find that

a scholar of the calibre of late Professor P. Maheshwari agreed to asso-

ciate himself to such a non-critical publication. This is perhaps a sole

exception to the most thorough and numerous publications by this gréat

scientist. Precise and characteristic data regarding the useful items with

the most important or significant references would have brought some

significant reference value to this work. The present work would appear

to serve the purpose of a triple index of Scientific, English and Hindi

names of Economic Plants of India.

P. V. BOLE

3. MAN AND INSECTS. By L. Hugh Newman. pp. 252 (26 x19

cm.). Numerous coloured and monochrome illustrations. London 1965.

Aldus Books. Modern Knowledge Series. Price 45s.

‘“* Only a few generations ago most people thought of insects as little

more than an unavoidable nuisance; the few who collected and studied

them were regarded as harmless eccentrics Today the position is vastly

different. Throughout the world much time, effort, and money is willingly

spent on the study of insect anatomy and physiology, the comparison of

different species, the investigation of the habits of insects in nature and

REVIEWS 105

in the laboratory, the influence of climate and weather on their abun-

dance and distribution, and the far-reaching problems of insect control.

We are becoming more and more aware of the tremendously important

part that insects play in the world of nature and in our own lives, and as

a result we want to learn as much as we can about them.” This passage

from the closing chapter of L. Hugh Newman’s MAN AND INSECTS states

the purpose behind his book—to tell the general reader about the mutual

relations between man and insects.

In the first section he deals with insects generally, perhaps at undue

length, but the section includes some interesting material particularly the

chapters on reproduction in insects, insect parasites, and how insects

spread.

In section II he comes to his main theme. Beginning with insects as

vectors of disease, he tells briefly the stories of malaria, plague, and sleep-

ing sickness. Among other things he describes how the African malaria

mosquito Anopheles gambiae suddenly appeared in Brazil and multiplied

so rapidly in 8 years that in the first 6 months of the epidemic 14,000

Brazilians died; however, a determined campaign in which the whole

area was divided into manageable squares each to,be worked over almost

yard by yard by its special team completely rid the country of the invading

pest within about two years. Next he deals with insects as pests of the

world’s crops; locusts, as justified by the nature of their depredations and

the international scale on which their menace has to be dealt with, are

given a separate chapter. Among other methods of control he mentions

the use of pathogen-laden sprays, and stresses the importance of finding

means of control specific to the pest concerned so that harmless or useful

insects may not be destroyed. It is somewhat surprising that he does not

mention in this connection the use of sterilization-by-radiation techni-

que, so successfully employed against the screw-worm in the United

States as noted by the author in the last chapter of his book. Dealing

with the control of weeds he describes among others the spectacular

results achieved by biological control with the prickly pear in Australia.

The closing chapter deals with research in that important insect, the

honey bee.

Section III, From Field to Laboratory, treats of the supply of insects

to laboratories, educational institutions, etc.; by hunting or breeding.

Very useful tips are given regarding locating, catching, and breeding.

On the last of these the author speaks with special authority having in-

herited an insect farm from his father.

Finally, speaking of ‘Insects in a Changing World’ the author

mentions something that is of peculiar interest to us, viz. experiments

said to be in progress in India with an airtight granary. The idea is that

106 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

this inflatable nylon granary, capable of holding 500 tons of wheat, will

be collapsed on the stored grain and sealed, and that any insects that

may be in it will die from want of oxygen.

Dobe

4. THE CRAB AND ITS RELATIVES. By Philip Street. pp. 167

(22x14 cm.). With 22 plates and 45 text figures. London, 1966 Faber -

and Faber Ltd. Price 30s.

While we have quite a number of popular books on the natural

history of the land Arthropods such as insects and spiders, this is un-

fortunately not the case with the aquatic Arthropods, or Crustacea. The

present book fills this lacuna. Although, to a cursory glance the book

might appear to be only an enlarged version of a chapter from a standard

text book of zoology, more careful study will reveal to the reader the

varied aspects of life of this important group of animals in all its com-

plexity.

Starting with a general introduction, the animals are dealt with in

evolutionary order, from the lowly fairy shrimp to the highly evolved

crabs. The fourth chapter—the pastures of the sea—is not quite relevant

to the general theme of the book, dealing as it does almost exclusively

with diatoms.

The descriptions of the anatomy and the ways of life of the animals

are good but some errors are noticeable. For example Orchestia has been

twice wrongly spelt as Orchestria and the statement on page 49, “it is

to the swarming of diatoms in the surface layers that the sea owes its .

green colour,” is an over-simplification.

The illustration on page 91 is not of Asellus, which is slender and

more or less rectangular. The boat-shaped body indicates that it should

be Aega.

On the spiny lobster Palinurus, it is stated on page 119, that “ the

crawfish lacks any pincers on any of its thoracic legs,” but this is contra-

dicted by the caption for the photograph of Palinurus (between pages 64

and 65), ‘‘its claws are very much smaller than those of true lobsters.”

The statement on page 139, that “‘ at mating time the smaller female

(crab) travels about on the back of her larger mate,” is obviously wrong;

it is well known that during courtship or in the pre-copulatory stage, the

male crab clutches the female under him, using his legs to hold her and

to prevent her escape. After she has moulted, he turns her over on her

back (still under him) and copulates with her.

The author’s description of crustaceans are on the whole accurate,

but the habits of the octopus as a predator of Crustacea has been poorly

REVIEWS 107

handled. The mode of feeding of the octopus: “‘uses the flexible tips of

its arms to extract the meat and pass it into its mouth” is adapted from

the naturalist Joseph Sinel’s account given in Frank W. Lane’s book

KINGDOM OF THE oOcTopuUS. Actually the octopus enfolds its victim

within the webs of its arms, probably injects a powerful poison to paralyse

its prey, and the crab is then opened at the junction of carapace and

abdomen. A powerful salivary secretion is also poured into the body of

the crab which partially digests and liquefies much of the soft tissues. All

this is well described in Lane’s book, but has not been taken into account

by the author.

The author’s remarks on the same page, viz., “the captured crab

may be kept alive (italics by reviewer) for some time while others are

collected. One octopus was observed to collect no fewer than seventeen

crabs before settling down to its meal”’, are also adapted from Sinel’s

account. It is difficult to envisage how an octopus can cope up simul-

taneously with so many /ive crabs and prevent their escape.

Again, the following account of an octopus’s battle with lobsters,

on page 116, is difficult to believe. After a day and night battle, ‘‘the

keepers arrived to find the octopus sleeping peacefully surrounded by

the empty shells not only of its previous day’s opponent, but of those of

all the other occupants of the tank as well.’ The size of the octopus or

the number of lobsters it killed and ate is not mentioned, but it would

be an over-aggressive octopus with a prodigious appetite that could

manage such a feat!

Nevertheless, in spite of these errors, the book is good reading, not

only for naturalists in Britain, for whom it is primarily meant, but even

for those of tropical countries, as a majority of the animals described in

the book are cosmopolitan in their distribution and occur on our shores.

The photographs are excellent, as are also most of the drawings. It

would have been better if the artist had blacked in the eyes of Squilla

(on page 76) and Gammarus (page 93), as the animals might appear

eyeless to a lay observer.

Bak.nG.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. PALM SQUIRREL (FUNAMBULUS PALMARUM, LINNAEUS)

IN AUSTRALIA

Palm squirrels, Funambulus sp. occur only in the Oriental Zoogeo-

graphical Region. Recently Funambulus was reported by Abdulali (1964

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61: 495) from Port Blair, Andamans, Chatur-

vedi (1965, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 545-46) identified as F. pennanti,

skins collected from Port Blair. Abdulali’s conjecture is that they are a

recent introduction to the island.

I was surprised to see the Palm Squirrel, Funambulus palmarum in

the Taronga Park, Sydney, Australia, where they were numerous. It was

amusing to watch the familiar Indian mammal in a distant country. They

were mostly found on Eucalyptus trees. Their habits appeared unchanged,

climbing and descending the trees, coming to the park roads for feeding,

and fleeing back at speed with frantic squeaks accompanied by quick

jerks of the tail.

These squirrels are also found in Perth, but entirely confined to the

vicinity of the Zoological Gardens. These were introduced in the Perth

Zoo early in this century and some escaped from the zoo into the

surrounding garden. Some were sent to the Taronga Park Zoo, Sydney

in about 1942; where a few escaped and established a colony in the

Park and the immediate neighbourhood. The authorities of the Zoological

gardens, Perth, made an effort under instructions from the Australian

Quarantine authorities, to eradicate this rodent but a few animals still

persist. It will, however, be interesting to watch the fate of these two

colonies of the Indian squirrel, widely separated geographically on a

distant country where they have thrived for quite sometime.

SPECIAL ANIMAL STUDIES DIVISION, ISHWAR PRAKASH

CENTRAL ARID ZONE RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

JODHPUR.

October 14, 1966.

2. GREAT CRESTED GREBE (PODICEPS CRISTATUS, LINN.)

IN NEPAL

I was very interested to read K. Himmatsinhji’s note on the Great

Crested Grebe (Podiceps cristatus Linn.) in Kutch in Vo!. 62 (3): 551,

December 1965 of the Journal. This year, a solitary Great Crested Grebe

in full breeding plumage spent several weeks of April in the tank known

as Rani Pokhari which is right in the centre of Kathmandu and sur-

rounded by busy streets and traffic. I did not make a note of the exact

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 109

dates of its stay in Kathmandu, but I drew Dr. Robert Fleming’s atten-

tion to its presence here, and he was delighted to have a new record.

The Great Crested Grebe was recorded by Rand and Fleming in

December and February at Pokhara in 1957 (Biswas, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 57: 282). So this was the first spring record.

C/o U.N.D.P., R. G. M. WILLAN

P. O. Box 107,

KATHMANDU,

NEPAL.

September 23, 1966.

3. THE PURPLE WOOD PIGEON (COLUMBA PUNICEA,

BLYTH) AND THE HIMALAYAN TREE PIE (DENDROCITTA

FORMOSAE SWINHOE) IN ORISSA

Ripley’s (1961) syNopsis gives the range for the Purple Wood Pigeon

as follows: ‘“‘ Assam and Pakistan, a rare vagrant to Ceylon...”’.

Biswas (1960) extended the range to S. E. Bihar and southern W. Bengal.

Mooney (1934) noted it through the “‘ forest tracts of Orissa, southwards

to the borders of the Madras (Presidency)”’. Salim Ali (in litt.) has ob-

served them in the Simlipal Hills of Mayurbhanj between 2000 and 3000

ft. altitude, and collected a specimen from Bailadilla in Bastar District.

I have recorded it nine times since 1963 now between 14 October and 24

February in the Chandka Game Sanctuary about 8 kilometres from

Bhubaneswar at less than 200 ft. altitude in a clearing between paddy

fields and teak forests. They were seen in flocks of up to 15 birds.

Ripley (1961) states that the Himalayan Tree Pie occurs in the

** Eastern Ghats of Northern Andhra, Southern Orissa in Visakhapatnam

and Koraput (Jeypore) at c. 3000 ft.’’. Salim Ali has seen it round Berbera

(Puri district) between 200 and 1000 ft. I have seen it on over 40 occasions

now in the Chandka Game Sanctuary at under 200 ft. altitude, either

solitary, in pairs or groups of up to 10 individuals.

I am grateful to Dr. Sdlim Ali and Mr. Humayun Abdulali for

contributing their observations and literature.

GENETICS AND BIOMETRY LABORATORY, Ss. D. JAYAKAR

GOVERNMENT OF ORISSA,

BHUBANESWAR—3,

ORISSA, INDIA.

November 16, 1966.

REFERENCES

Biswas, B. (1960): Comments on _ puniceus(Tickell)]in Singhbhum District,

Ripley’s A Synopsis of the Birds of Bihar and Orissa. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

India and Pakistan. J. Bombay nat. Soc. 37:735.

Hist. Soc. 60:679-689. RIPLEY, S. DILLON. (1961): A Synopsis

Mooney, H. F. (1934): Occurrence of of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

the purple Wood-Pigeon [Alsocomus Bombay.

110 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

4. NESTLING OF COMMON INDIAN NIGHTJAR

(CAPRIMULGUS ASIATICUS, LATHAM )

On 19th September 1966 at about 11.30 p.m., while searching for

nocturnal vertebrates, I spotted a Common Indian Nightjar (Caprimulgus

asiaticus Latham) sitting on the ground among pebbles in a dried up

nullah at Shindewadi, Poona District. I approached the bird gradually

keeping it within the powerful beam of a 6-celled head-light and managed

to catch it by hand. The discovery of a slightly cracked egg underneath

the bird explained the reluctance on its part to fly away from the spot

on my approach. Disconcerted at having broken the egg by the impact

of my hand, I picked it up and was pleasantly surprised to see a nestling

emerge out of the cracked shell on to the palm of my hand. I brought both

the nestling and the parent back to the laboratory and kept them in a

perforated wooden box till morning when they were both preserved

after I had written down a description of the nestling and had photo-

graphed it. The incubating parent turned out to be the male.

A hurried glance through my reference cards and Hume’s (1890:

48-99) and Baker’s (1934: 488-489) accounts of the nidification of this

species revealed that the nestling of this species has not been described

so far. A brief description follows.

The body of the freshly hatched nestling was covered throughout

with fine nestling down, 8 mm. to 12 mm. in length, dark rufous brown

dorsally and light rufous brown ventrally, without any dark spots/areas

on head, wings or thighs comparable to those of Caprimulgus e. unwini

(Ticehurst 1926: 374) and Caprimulgus mahrattensis (Ticehurst 1926:

375). The eyes were open. The iris was warm brown. The beak was

hard, greyish in colour with a black tip. The legs and claws were wheatish

grey in colour. The tip of the claws were hard.The serration or comb on

the third toe could be faintly made out but was soft like the rest of the

claw. The nestling could sit upright, emit a weak sound and gape for

food just after emergence. It could also turn over when placed on its

back. It weighed c. 6 grams.

The Common Indian Nightjar(Caprimulgus asiaticus, Latham) breeds

commonly around Poona. I have seen its nests with eggs as early as the

middle of March and with young as late as the end of September. The

nest lacks any formal attempt at construction. One or two, generally two,

eggs are laid on the ground amongst pebbles or vegetation in bare dried

up nullahs, hill slopes or pasture or under tree or in a patch of scrub.

The eggs are elongate ovals, creamish stone to salmon pink in colour

with pale reddish brown to purplish brown markings (blotches, spots

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Litt

and streaks etc.). On the average 21 eggs measured 26.2 19.5 mm.

and weighed 5.9 grams.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, B. S. LAMBA

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

1182/2, F.C. ROAD,

POONA-5.

November 24, 1966.

REFERENCES

BAKER, E. C.S. (1934): The Nidification TICEHURST, CLAUD B. (1926): On the

of the birds of the Indian Empire. 3. down plumage of some Indian birds. J.

Taylor and Francis, London. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 361-378.

Hume, A. O. (1890): The nests and eggs

of Indian birds. 3. R. H. Porter, London.

5. THE HOUSE CROW (CORVUS SPLENDENS, YIEILLOT )

FEEDING ON THE INDIAN DESERT GERBIL (MERIONES

HURRIANAE, JERDON)

A house crow (Corvus splendens) was observed on the grounds of

the Central Arid Zone Research Institute (Jodhpur, Rajasthan) with a

gerbil (Meriones hurrianae) in its beak. The crow dropped the gerbil

which immediately ran off through the light ground cover. The crow,

half flying and jumping, quickly caught it again and shook it several

times before releasing it. The gerbil started to run off again so the crow

scooped it up and flew across the road to a bare patch of ground. He shook

the gerbil again and dropped it. This time because of the lack of cover

and the unfamiliar territory, the crow had no trouble catching the gerbil

as it started off again. This was repeated several times before the gerbil

lay in place where 1t was dropped. The crow gave it a couple of pecks

and then picked it up and flew to the top of’a nearby power pole. From

the slackness of the gerbil’s body, it was at least unconscious if not dead.

The crow then proceeded to hold it under its feet while it pecked the body

apart.

The original observations indicated that the gerbil was in good

condition but had apparently been caught by the crow when it was too

far from its burrow. The sagacity of the crow in taking the gerbil to bare

ground and its agility in recapturing it, indicates that these could be

very efficient predators of gerbils if they would put their mind to the

task. This is an addition to the list of avian predators of gerbils listed by

Prakash (Mammalia, 26 (3) :311-331, 1962).

UNESCO ConsuLTANT, WILLIAM D. FITZWATER

C.A.Z.R.I.,. JOoDHPUR.

June 4, 1966.

112 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

6. OBSERVATIONS ON THE MATING BEHAVIOUR AND

COPULATION IN DRACO DUSSUMIERI DUM. & BIB. (REPTI-

LIA: SAURIA) |

Aspects of mating behaviour in lizard have been studied in a number

of families, namely Iguanidae, Chamaeleonidae, Gekkonidae and Aga-

midae by a number of workers. These studies show that lizards exhibit

various stereotyped patterns of display during the mating season. I have

been studying the bionomics of the South Indian Flying lizard, Draco

dussumieri from 1962. An account of the sexual dimorphism, coloration

and egg-laying of this lizard has been already published (John 1962).

The present communication is a brief report on the mating behaviour

and copulation of this lizard based on my observations in the field for

the last few years, and particularly during the months of February,

March and April, 1966.

Courtship behaviour: Draco dussumieri breeds during the summer

months of February, March and April in Kerala, commencing from

about the middle of February and ending by end April. Courting occurs

during the low temperature periods of the day, between 9.30 and 12.30

in the forenoon and 2.30 and 4.30 in the afternoon, when temperature

ranges from 86° F. to 104° F. and from 104° F.-90° F. respectively.

These two periods of the day are the activity periods of the lizard in the

sense that they feed and mate. During the period from 12.30- 2.30 p.m.,

the temperature may go up to 118° F. and then fall to 104° F. and during

this period they rest in shade. The movements of the lizards were followed

with the help of a powerful pair of binoculars. Since these lizards have

territories during the breeding season, it was easy to locate and follow

them.

On seeing a female, the male becomes active in its movements, and

continuously folds and stretches the gular appendage. Sometimes the

erected gular pouch is held directed forwards and is vibrated vigorously.

At times the head is bobbed up and down with the erected gular pouch,

facing the female. The colour changes to a bright silvery grey which

becomes conspicuous against the dark background of the tree. In a few

minutes the male glides to the palm or the branch of the tree where the

female is moving about and feeding, and gradually approaches but the

female may move if it is not receptive. Sometimes, when the female stops

the male moves towards it and facing it, vibrates the erect gular pouch

and bobs the head. With raised body and stiff tail lifted up the male

crouches and slightly bending the body laterally outwards, circles around

the female in a clock-wise direction moving with a characteristic jerky

gait. The female remains impassive and the circling male touches the

pelvic region of the female with its erected gular pouch during the second

round. I have seen it repeated a dozen times within half an hour, with

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 113

no response from the female. But the persuasion is continued. Normally,

the culmination of this ‘ courtship dance’ is copulation but it depends

upon the gonadial condition of the female and if the female is not in a

reproductively active state, it will not submit. This is perhaps the reason

why the female is indifferent towards the courting behaviour of the male

during the early period of the breeding season. The male also may dis-

continue its courting when there is no response from the female but

starts again after some time. During the courtship period the male does

not feed.

Copulation: Though courting was seen every day during the breeding

season, copulation was observed only twice and that too only towards

the later half of the season. On 6 April, 1966 at 10.30 am., a male and a

female were seen feeding on the same tree. The day was clear after a

shower on the previous evening and the ambient temperature was 96° F.

The male began displaying its gular pouch and followed the female,

who was reluctant in the beginning and avoided contact. During their

courtship movements, they went up and down the tree several times, the

male closely following the female and starting its ‘ dancing ’ movements

every time the female stopped. But when touched on the pelvic region,

the female moved off. This was continued for half an hour. Finally the

female turned and moved towards the male, with the rudimentary

gular pouch moving indicating response. They moved a short distance

touching each other, after which the male mounted and was seen biting

the nape of the female, who lifted the vent and slightly tilted to one side

so that the cloacas of both were brought in opposition. They remained

in the position for about one minute. No thrusting movement was noticed.

They then turned in opposite directions and separated. The courtship

and copulation took about 30 minutes.

Reaction to other males: During the mating period, any intruding

male will be chased away. The resident male will show the characteristic

‘fight behaviour,’ which is similar to courtship display in its earlier

stages, in that it is also characterised by head jerks and movement of the

gular pouch. This is followed by unfolding and folding of the patagium,

advancing forwards and retreating, and moving to one side and the other.

All these displays are meant to intimidate the intruding male. But this

appears to be only a threat since no fight has been actually noticed under

these circumstances. This fight behaviour is a part of the “‘ territorial

response ”’ of the male to safeguard the territorial integrity.

Discussion : Noble and Bradley (1933) observed that male displays

were reserved largely for rival males and that male adornments

are used in sex recognition. Studies of H. R. Bustard (1965)

on Chamaeleo hohnelii (Steindachner) substantiated these observations.

Besides, Evans (1938), Noble and ,Greenberg (1941) and Harris

114 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

(1964) have shown that the female lizard may take an active part in

the preliminaries to mating. My observations on the mating

behaviour of Draco dussumieri show that male displays are not directed

to intruding males. Though the preliminary male displays are similar to

fight behaviour in this lizard, the later ‘ courtship dance’ or ‘ parade’

around the female is quite different from the ritualized combat behaviour

and is not a part of the fight behaviour. Also the female is passive and

the male takes the active part in courtship.

Carpenter (1962) while making a,comparative study of the display

patterns of Urosaurus, Uta and Streptosaurus noted that in these lizards,

courtship behaviour began similarly to the territorial defence with arch-

ing, rapid approach, circling and bobbing, but soon shifted to typical

courtship behaviour which consists of rapid and shallow courtship bobs.

A similar situation prevails in Draco also.

The prolonged curious antics, ‘courtship dance’, and the excited

movement of the bright yellow gular pouch and the ‘ head jerks’ shown

by the male of Draco are useful in sex recognition and eliciting ‘ mating

response’ in the female. This is really very important in Draco because

the female is very passive. Contrary to the observations of Evans (1938),

Noble and Greenberg (1941) and Harris (1964), the female takes no

part in the preliminaries to mating.

Tinbergen (1953) concluded that many behavioural patterns of

lower animals are psychologically primitive and involve ‘ social releasing

mechanisms.’ Evans (1938), Hunsaker (1962) and Harris (1964) investi-

gated the releasing mechanisms in species and sex discrimination in

lizards. According to Evans (1961) Iguanids and Agamids employ sight

stimuli predominantly and Scincids and Geckonids generally rely on

scent and sound. G. W. Ferguson (1966) investigated the relative roles

of several factors which might serve as releasers of courtship and terri-

torial behaviour in Uta stansburiana. In Draco dussumieri the elaborate

‘courtship dance’ is directed to elicit mating response in the female

and visual stimuli plays the vital part.

SUMMARY

1. Courtship behaviour of the South Indian Flying lizard, Draco

dussumieri has been studied in the field. It consists of an ela-

borate ‘ courtship dance.’ Female is passive and the male takes

the active role in courtship.

On two occasions copulation was observed.

3. During the mating season male shows characteristic ‘ fight

display’ towards other males.

4. The results of the study have been discussed in the light of

available literature.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

115

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I wish to express my sincere thanks to Prof. A. P. Mathew, Professor

of Zoology, Mar Ivanios College, Trivandrum, for suggesting this prob-

lem and for guidance and constant help and encouragement.

MAR IVANIOS COLLEGE,

TRIVANDRUM.

December 16, 1966.

K. O. JOHN

REFERENCES

BUSTARD, H. R. (1965): Observations

on the Life History and Behaviour of

Chamaeleo hohnelii (Steindachner) Copeia,

No. 4: 401-410.

CARPENTER, C. C. (1962): A compa-

rison of patterns of display of Urosaurus,

Uta, and Streptosaurus. Herpetology

18: 145-152.

Evans, L. T. (1938): Courtship beha-

viour and sexual selection of Anolis. J.

Comp. Psychol. 26: 475-497.

FERGUSON, G. W. (1966): Release of

_ courtship and Territorial Behaviour in

the side-blotched lizard Uta stansburiana.

Anim. Behay. 14: 89-92.

Harris, V. A. (1964): The life of the

Rainbow Lizard. London: Hutchinson.

torquatus group of lizards. Evolution 16:

62-74.

JOHN, K. O. (1962): Notes on the

bionomics of the Flying Lizard, Draco

dussumieri Dum. & Bib. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 59 (1): 298-301.

NosiLeE, G. K. & H. T. BRADLEY

(1933): The mating behaviour of lizards;

its bearing on the theory of sexual selec-

tion. Ann. N. Y. Acad. Sci.35 : 25-100.

—————— GREENBERG, B. (1941):

Effects of seasons, castration and crystal-

line sex hormone upon the urinogenital

system and sexual behaviour of the lizard

(Anolis carolinensis). 1. The adult female.

J. Exp. Zool. 88: 45-479.

TINBERGEN, N. (1953): Social Behaviour

Hunsaker, D. (1962): Ethological Of animals. New York: Methuen.

isolating mechanisms in the Sceloporus

7. THE HOODED MALPOLON, M. MOILENSIS (REUSS)

AND NOTES ON OTHER SNAKES OF NORTH-EASTERN ARABIA

(With a plate)

Corkill and Cochrane have done students of Arabian fauna a con-

siderable service with the publication of their excellent summary of

Peninsular herpetology (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62 : 475-506). I was

specially interested in the reference to previous records of Malpolon’s

ability to produce a cobra-like hood and the question as to whether

Arabian specimens exhibit this behaviour. On two occasions this year I

saw Malpolon moilensis (Reuss) erect a hood; the demonstrations were

so convincing that both times I was certain that I had finally come upon

Naja until I had had a look at the mouths of the killed specimens and

had counted scales.

My first experience with Malpolon was on 11 February 1966, three

km. south of the Dhahran Airport in sandy country sprinkled with

shrublets of Zygophyllum coccineum. The snake, abroad .at midday,

raised his head more than a foot above the ground at my approach,

dilated its neck laterally to a marked degree, and stood its ground. When

116 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (i)

I retreated, it moved off with head still somewhat raised. The neck,

while expressed as a hood, was strongly compressed dorso-ventrally. This

specimen, measured later, was 39 inches long.

On 6 April 1966 we came across another specimen in the upper

reaches of (Wadi) al Batin at Umm ‘ Ushar, 120 kilometres southwest

of the Qaisumah oil pumping station. This individual, also moving at

midday, displayed an impressive hood and, in an effort to escape, climbed

up into the engine compartment of our car from beneath. The heat soon

drove it out, relieving us of the somewhat embarrassing situation of

having what we then believed to be a cobra in our only vehicle. This

individual was 33 inches long. Scale count: scale rows 17; ventrals 171;

subcaudals 58.

One live specimen of M. moilensis is now being kept by the preventive

medicine unit of the Arabian American Oil Company at Dhahran. One

specimen kept earlier had, in addition to the usual oblique elliptical dark

mark on the neck, a second, lighter mark anterior to the main one.

The Plate shows hooding behaviour in one of these individuals.

After observing Malpolon in the field and in captivity, I have no

doubt that most, if not all, reports of Naja in north-eastern Arabia are

based on sightings of this Colubrid. I know of no authenticated speci-

mens of Naja from this area, and collection records presented by Corkill

& Cochrane indicate that the distribution of Naja is confined to the more

moist tropical parts of the Peninsula and contiguous mountain areas.

I would expect that if Naja is to be found at all in the northeast, it will

likely be in or near oasis districts.

One is tempted to view this behaviour by Malpolon as a case of

protective behavioural mimicry, but there are serious theoretical objections.

Considering it a case of classical Batesian mimicry, one must assume

first of all that the hooding of Naja is a warning action that can be “‘ learn-

ed ’’ by its natural enemies. It seems, however, that these enemies, what-

ever they are, could hardly learn from an experience that would probably

prove either fatal or entirely successful. It would also have to be demons-

trated that the ranges of Naja and Malpolon do or did overlap.

To speculate further, the snakes’ behaviour might be of value in

conjunction with an instinctive, not learned, reaction on the part of its

enemies or prey. Assume, for example, that the typical cobra attitude is

not only defensive, but is effective in terrorizing its prey into immobility.

A Malpolon could scarcely learn these tactics from a Naja, but may have

evolved them in parallel fashion or inherited them from a common

source. The behavioural pattern in both species may be only one of those

evolutionary accidents for which no survival value can be demonstrated.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1)

Mandaville: Malpolon moilensis

Malpolon m. moilensis

Above: Live captive specimen of Malpolon moilensis (Reuss) with neck slightly dilated

anteriorly; when completely at rest, no expansion was visible. Below: The same

specimen, with neck almost fully dilated after gentle teasing. When more vigorously

threatened, the snake hid its head beneath its coils, and the neck reverted to its normal

condition. This individual, being enclosed and threatened from above, would not

raise its head in the typical cobra attitude.

(Photos: B. H. Moody)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 117

In any event, the similarity in behaviour may be of interest in providing

a possible, if tenuous, link between the two families.

Here are some further records of snakes seen by the author in Eastern

and Northern Arabia:

Lytorhynchus diadema (Duméril & Bibron), one specimen captured

near the coast 66 km. NNW of Dhahran, presented by Mr. A. Valpey.

Spalerosophis diadema (Schlegel), one juvenile specimen from a garden

area at Badanah Pump Station (near 31° N; 41° E), midsummer 1964.

Malpolon moilensis (Reuss), one specimen presented by Mr. W.

Goellner, collected near the American Consulate, Dhahran, 22 Feb-

ruary 1965.

Coluber ventromaculatus Gray, one collected near Al Ajam, in the

oasis area of Al Qatif, 3 April 1964. Length 30 inches, ventrals 210;

subcaudals 90.

Cerastes cerastes (L.), common in Eastern Arabia; I collected two

hornless specimens in a mixed sand-rock habitat near Dhahran.

Psammophis schokari (Forskal), one collected by me in sand-floored

ravine tributary to Al Batin, 30 km. WSW of Qaisumah Pump Station,

5 April 1966. Length 40 inches; tail 12 inches; scale rows 17; ventrals

166; subcaudals (damaged) 89. Entire ventral surface decidedly gray,

peppered with minute darker flecks.

Eryx jayakari Boulenger, one live specimen loaned by Mr. W.

Goellner, collected in the Dhahran area. This individual was docile,

but finally struck in panic after being repeatedly posed for photography

by electronic flash.

The Aramco preventive medicine unit presently has a collection of

28 preserved snake specimens collected over a period of about 15 years

by oil company employees. Many of these lack field notes, but the

following tabulation of the specimens may be of interest in indirectly

suggesting the relative abundance of the species. Dr. Robert L. Peffly

kindly made this collection available for study and provided data on the

incidence of snake bite in the area.

Eryx jayakari .. i, .. 3, plus 1 live specimen

Coluber ventromaculatus .. 3 (including the specimen referred to

above)

Lytorhynchus diadema . . ee

Malpolon moilensis Ua .. 4, plus 2 live specimens

Psammophis schokari_ >. -oitG

118 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Hydrophis lapemoides (Gray)?.. 6 These specimens represent the most

common Hydrophis of the area. Pre-

vious collections have indicated JH.

cyanocinctus Daudin to be more com-

mon in these waters, but I am not

able to differentiate these two similar

species without comparative material.

Cerastes cerastes a .. 4, plus 5 live specimens; of these, 3

are horned.

During the ten years beginning 1956, the Aramco medical depart-

ment recorded 26 cases of snake bite; less than half of these cases were

hospitalized. There were no known fatalities, and all were probably due

to Cerastes.

ARABIAN AFFAIRS DIVISION, J. MANDAVILLE

ARABIAN AMERICAN OIL COMPANY,

DHAHRAN, SAUDI ARABIA,

August 31, 1966,

8. RHINA ANCHYLOSTOMA, SCHNEIDER FROM THE IN-

SHORE WATERS OFF PORTONOVO, S. INDIA

(With a photograph)

In September 1961, a single specimen of Rhina anchylostoma Schnei-

der was caught from the inshore waters off Portonovo from the Bay of

Bengal. This species has not been recorded earlier from this area.

The specimen agrees with Day’s description [FISHES OF INDIA (1878)],

except in the following features: The nostrils are big and elongated;

Rhina anchylostoma Schneider

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 119

spiracles are very close to the eyes; white spots are confined only to the

posterior region of the body below the spiracles; there are four black

bands, a semi-circular one above the eyes and three others between the

eyes and spiracles.

The morpho-metric characters of the specimen are as follows :—

Total length ae Me fe me ae a ue.) soa. CM,

Maximum width .. ar bs me sie as fo ERA SIs,

Height of caudal peduncle a Bs Hf ne an | Wee ihrer

Snout to first dorsal . *: a us Le OE O's,

Snout to second dorsal .. Fis me Me e hac Oa Digs

Snout to caudal .. ty :*, ote a aie bck ty “AA Oe 9s

Snout to ventral .. ae He ats Se 5 BV Ate Di ag

Snout to hectoral Re a oe Bi ie BA Pe ae

Length of first dorsal... avs a - et as & Ae lea

Length of second dorsal me ie a, se up Pais Nee

Length of ventral. . ne ae nt ce He os 3.055,

Length of pectoral chs ie , Bi ale ae TE Ol Ol,

Diameter of eye .. a iM v3 is ae M, 2 99oy)

Diameter of spiracle _... Pe es a3 age Af |e aes

Diameter of nostril A, 1% ti, ‘i. a wa 350° §

Distance between the eyes ds Bs et. ze We 5.67 ix

Distance between the nostrils .. ae Fe ie uke AS. 5;

The gut contents of the specimen consisted of appendages of Squilla

sp., crabs and semi-digested organic matter.

The specimen is preserved in the Ichthyological Museum of the

Marine Biological Station, Portonovo.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My thanks are due to Professor R. V. Seshaiya, Director, Marine

Biological Station, Portonovo, S. India for his guidance and help, and

to the Officer-in-charge, Zoological Survey of India, Patna-4 for labo-

ratory and library facilities.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. VENKATESWARLU

PATNA 16.

March 19, 1966.

9, REMARKS ON THE BAND PATTERN OF THE SOLE

ZEBRIAS SYNAPTUROIDES (JENKINS)

(With a plate)

During a survey tour to the Kerala coast in 1964-65, I collected

three specimens of Z. synapturoides, measuring 100.0-140.0 mm. in

total length, at Cochin, off Vypeen Island at a depth of 16-20 metres

on January 19, 1965, They differ from the typical Z. synapturoides in

120 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

the head markings. The typical Z. synapturoides is characterised by nine

dark transverse unbranched bands on the trunk and seven or eight bands

on the head (Plate, fig. 1). My specimens show twelve dark transverse bands

on the body, distributed three on the head, and nine on the trunk. Moreover

among the bands on the head, the second and the third show a bifurca-

tion giving the appearance of four bands (Plate, fig. 2). Except for the body

markings they agree well in all respects with the typical Z. synapturoides.

Examination of a larger number of specimens is required to establish

races or subspecies within the species synapturoides.

I am thankful to Dr. A. G. K. Menon for going through the manu-

script and to Shri P. K. Eapen, Deputy Director, Offshore Fishing Sta-

tion, Cochin for allowing me to collect the specimens from the “Flying

Fish’”’ trawl catch.

ZOOLOGICAL. SURVEY OF INDIA, K. V. RAMA RAO

CALCUTTA-16.

December 7, 1966.

10. A RE-DESCRIPTION OF THE ANCHOVY ENGRAULIS

RAMBHAE CHAUDHURI

Chaudhuri (1916) recorded three new species of Thryssa Cuvier 1829

from the Chilka lake in Orissa. He described them as of the genus En-

graulis Cuvier. The latter name as applied to the warm water Indo-West-

Pacific anchovies is incorrect, Engraulis being an Atlantic-Pacific genus

in the New World genera of Engraulidae. Apart from other distinguishing

characters (Berry 1964, Whitehead 1962), Engraulis lacks abdominal

scutes which occur in all warm water Indo-West-Pacific engraulids, except

one species of Stolephorus, St. celebica Hardenberg. Whitehead (1965)

has shown that the valid generic name is Thryssa Cuvier 1829, and that

Thrissocles J. & E. is the junior objective synonym, for the warm water

Indo-West-Pacific anchovies.

Chaudhuri’s description of the three species is based mostly on

external characters and body proportions; he paid little attention to

meristic characters, and totally ignored the number of gill rakers and

vertebrae.

In the course of a revision of the genus, I have observed that whereas

the body profiles are rather distinctive in most species, there is consi-

derable overlap in many body proportions (on which earlier workers

laid so much stress) of the various species, and so are of limited value in

systematics. In many fishes, body proportions tend to change with age;

these changes should be taken into account in systematic studies. When

giving body proportions, it is also advisable to state the length range of

the specimens in which the measurements were made, In Thryssa spp. the

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1)

Rama Rao: Zebrias synapturoides

9 Cll.

Fig. | Zebrias synapturoides (after Jenkins); Fig. 2. Zebrias synapturoides

showing the band variation on the head.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 121

limit of maxillary extension along with meristic data—particularly the

number of anal fin rays, gill rakers (on the upper and lower arms of the first

gill arch) and vertebrae considered together—can be effectively employed

for the identification of even single specimens of any of the species.

Chaudhuri noted that in this species “the dorsal profile is highly

convex and the ventral profile is almost straight ”’; this appears to be an

artefact caused in some specimens, perhaps by preservation, for in my

collection I observe that whereas in some specimens the profile is as

described by Chaudhuri, in many others the back is not so arched and

the ventral profile is also slightly convex.

The following re-description of Thryssa rambhae (Chaudhuri) is

8783

based on a re-examination of the holotype (F rr in the Indian Museum,

Calcutta and on a sample collected from Chilka lake on 27-9-1962.

Thryssa rambhae (Chaudhuri)

Engraulis rambhae Chaudhuri, 1916 Mem. Indian Mus., 5(4), 423-424, text fig. 5.

(Rambha Bay in Chilka lake).

Description : Based on the holotype of Engraulis rambhae, a fish of

rij ont ts!

100 mm. total length ex Rambha Bay, Chilka lake (Ind. Mus. F “apa

and twenty-five specimens from the type locality, measuring 10.2-15.6cm.

In percentages of total length and standard length!, the latter in

parentheses: body depth 23-1-24.4 (28.2-30.2), head length (snout to

1 The body measurements are given as percentages of both total and standard

length measured to end of urostyle, because practical experience shows that in a large

number of fishes, it is difficult to specify a particular and exact point at the base of the

caudal fin up to which the linear measurement should be made from the tip of the

snout, for ‘ standard length.’ To take an example, Chan (1965) states that in Sardinella

spp. he took standard length as the “‘ distance from the tip of snout (most advanced

point on median line of upper jaw) to the end of the hypural plate (this point on the

base of caudal fin has been taken at the mid-point of the vertical groove formed on

the skin when the fin has been bent)” (p. 105). To anyone who has handled a sardine

it is clear that the point where the vertical groove appears will depend on where and

how one holds the caudal fin to bend it. There is bound to be an error of one or two

millimetres between measurements made by two different workers, or between two

measurements of the same worker, if there is lapse of time between the two measure-

ments. The difficulty of determining the exact point on the caudal peduncle for measur-

ing standard length may not mean a serious error in large-bodied fishes, but the error

may be considerable in small-sized fishes or in juveniles, or might affect the comparison

of closely related species or intraspecific groups. The MANUAL OF FIELD METHODS IN

FISHERIES BIOLOGY, 1960 (F.A.O., General Editor G. L. Kesteven, p. 35) lists four

different points up to which standard length can be measured. Many workers do not

mention which of these they have taken. This makes comparison of data of different

workers difficult. No doubt a ‘ standard’ length is necessary in fish systematics, be-

cause in fishes, particularly those which have been subject to considerable handling

or. where the caudal fin rays are delicate or in old type specimens in museums, the

caudal fin may not be entire, and it may not be possible to measure total length, for

determining body proportions.

122 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

posterior margin of lower part of operculum, i.e. longest measurement)

16.1-17.4 (20.0-21.2), snout length 3.1-3.6 (3.9-4.5), eye diameter

3.5-4.1 (4.3-5.0), pre-dorsal distance 38.9-41.0 (48 .0-50.0), pre-pelvic

distance 18.2-19.9 (22.5-24.6), pre-ventral distance 31.0-33.2 (38.3-

41.1), and pre-anal distance 46.0-48.0 (56.8-59.2).

Snout projects only slightly beyond lower jaw. Maxillary extends

almost to base of pectoral, but does not reach it. Origin of the dorsal

slightly nearer to snout than to base of caudal. Anal starts before end of

dorsal.

Meristic data: D 12-14, P 12-13, A 43-48, V 7, V. Sc. 14-17+-9-12,

G.R. 14-15-+-17-20, Vert. 45-47.

Colour : In freshly landed specimens, brown above, golden to silvery

along the sides and silvery ventrally; venules on shoulder indistinct;

dorsal and anal fins yellowish; faint grey pigment dots on the dorsal;

edge of the caudal grey; pectoral and anal fins unpigmented; however,

colour and pigmentation subject to variation and in Thryssa spp., of

limited diagnostic value.

Re-examination of the holotype in the Indian Museum and analysis

of the sample from Chilka lake (Table) shows that the meristic data

given by Chaudhuri are not only inadequate but also partly erroneous.

The number of dorsal and anal fin rays and of post-ventral scutes is in

fact relatively higher than given in the original description (vide Table) ;

however, Chaudhuri’s text figure 5 on p. 423 does show 12 dorsal rays

and 45 anal rays, both of which are in the observed range and are correct.

MERISTIC DATA OF T. rambhae (CHAUDHURI)

nD. P. V.A. V. Sc. G.R. Vert.

Chaudhuri Jon 14 13 7 40 15+7 == ~—

Holotype sa: India? 13 7 45 15+9 — +17 —

Present data .. 25 12-14 12-13 7 43-48 14-17+ 14-15+- 45-47

9-12 17-20

I have not been able to obtain samples of the other two species from

Chilka lake described by Chaudhuri: 7. annandalei and T. kempi, but a

valid description of these two species also is desirable.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Prof. P. N. Ganapati for excellent facilities and

encouragement, and to my student Dr. M. Babu Rao who re-examined

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

123

the holotype of T. rambhae in the Indian Museum and also collected the

sample for me at Chilka lake in 1962.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

ANDHRA UNIVERSITY,

WALTAIR.

August 16, 1965.

S. DUTT.

REFERENCES

Berry, F. H. (1964): Review and

Emendation of Family Clupeidae by

Samuel F. Hildebrand. Copeia, (4):

720-730.

CHAN, W. L. (1965): A Systematic

Revision of the Indo-Pacific Clupeid

Fishes of the genus Sardinella (Family

Clupeidae). Japanese J. Ichthy. 12(3-6):

104-118.

CHAUDHURI, B. L. (1916): Fauna of

Chilka lake, Fishes. 1. Mem. Indian Mus.,

5(4): 423-424, text fig. 5.

WHITEHEAD, P. J. P. (1962): A Review

of the Indo-Pacific Gizzard Shad Genera

Nematalosa, Clupanodon, and Konosirus

(Pisces: Dorosomatidae). Bull. British

Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.), 9(2): 87-102.

——_—_—————. (1962): A Contribution

to the Classification of Clupeoid Fishes.

Ann. Mag. nat. Hist., 13, 5: 737-750.

—————— (1965): A Review of

the Elopoid and Clupeoid Fishes of the

Red Sea and Adjacent Regions. Bull.

British Mus. nat. Hist. (Zool.), 12(7):

272-276.

11. A NOTE ON THE TORCH (SOONTAHU) FISHING FOR WHITE-

BAIT OFF RAMESWARAM IN PALK BAY

At least two species of White-Bait (genus Anchoviella) namely, A.

indica and A. commersonii frequently occur in the fish catches from Palk

Bay and the Gulf of Mannar in the vicinity of Mandapam. While adults

are caught in limited quantities almost round the year in shore seines,

bag nets and trawl nets, young ones of these species are caught in large

numbers especially in shore seines, during March-April and September

to November. Earlier records do not indicate a substantial catch of

white-bait from this area, although they form a greater part of the catch

in certain seasons elsewhere along the east and west coasts of India,

and are highly esteemed as food fishes both in the fresh and cured condi-

tion. However, during the year 1964, the author noticed unusual catches

of white-bait by torch fishing, a report on which is given in this note,

along.with details of this special method of fishing.

Fishing at night using lights of various types and power to attract

fishes is extensively carried out in Japan, Thailand and Philippines and

certain studies have been conducted on the effect of light on fish shoals,

their behaviour, magnitude of the catches, etc. (Charernphol, 1951;

Rasalan, 1952; Kawamoto, 1955; Nakai, 1955; Rasalan & Datingaling

1955; Takayama, 1955).

The use of torches in fishing at night.in various parts of India was

mentioned by Hornell (1938, 1950). According to him, torches are used

in conjunction with (i) rafts specially kept to trap the leaping fishes like

mullets, (ii) an ordinary sickle where large fishes are attracted by light

and are slashed at and hooked out of water and (iii) spears, where any

124 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

fish attracted by the blaze is immediately speared. Flying fishes are com-

monly caught by this method in the Laccadives. In all these cases the

‘ principle involved is the attraction of fish to light, and the torches may

be made up of bundles of dried coconut leaves, dry jute stems or other

cheap combustibles.

A brief reference had been made by Sekharan (1955) to torch fishing

for sardines where he stated that 27 tons of fish were landed in 14 months

during 1952. Some observations on Kelong fishing using lights were given

by Chellappa (1959). Jones (1960) referred to the remarkable attraction

of the clupeoid fish, Spratelloides delicatulus in the Laccadive Sea near

the Bitra Island when the ship’s lights were switched on at night and the

whole sea around became alive with millions of small, actively darting,

fish on the surface: As is evident from earlier observations, while a variety

of fishes may be caught by the lure of light at night, generally the method

appears most effective for clupeoid fishes, Anchoviella being yet another

example of this group.

Torch fishing, using what is known as Soonthu (=torch) in Tamil in

conjunction with Thattu (=hand scoop-net) from a canoe, is one of the

simplest, indigenous methods of fishing carried out in this region at

night, particularly a week before and a week after the new moon. The

habit of young fishes to gather around light is exploited in this method,

clupeoids including Sardinella and Anchoviella species being the most

common species caught.

The Soonthu consists of a bundle of dry palmyra leaves fastened

together by a dry coconut leaf. Each bundle is about 8 ft. in length. The

thattu or hand scoop-net consists of a circular wooden frame, 125 cm. in

diameter, to which a piece of cotton net with 1 cm. mesh (knot to knot)

is attached. Each fishing unit has a crew of 7 or 8 persons, 6 or 7 torches,

and a few hand scoop-nets. The number of units engaged in this method

of fishing is 30 but the actual number on each day of fishing may vary.

The boats go out for fishing at about 7 p.m. The fishing grounds are

located between one to two miles away from the shore, at depths varying

from 4 to 6 metres. The fish shoals are first detected and then only the

torches. are ignited in succession to give continuous illumination. On

lighting, fish in the vicinity are attracted and are said to come up to the

surface around each boat, and are immediately scooped into the boats.

The operation lasts for nearly four hours and the boats return by mid-

night.

During the four days 10th to 13th August 1964, each boat landed

an average of 250 kg. of fish per day, the total catch weighed about 8

metric tons, and when sun-dried was valued at about ten thousand rupees.

The following 15 days were moonlit nights and Soonthu fishing remained

suspended, as fish cannot be attracted as on dark nights. Fishing was

carried out on 26th and 27th August and 3rd and 9th September but

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 125

catches were poor. It was reported that such large catches were not ob-

tained the previous year and have also not been recorded in 1965 and

1966. The catches were almost purely of white-bait, consisting of Ancho-

viella indica and A. commersonii ranging in size from 5 to 8 cm. and 4.5

to 7 cm. respectively in total length. A few stray specimens of Sardinella

gibbosa, 10 cm. in total length, were also caught.

The fish caught at night are immediately spread on the beach and

are allowed to dry in sun up to about 3 p.m. the next day by which time

they are completely dry. They are then packed in baskets made of palmyra

leaf mats and exported by rail to the interior. Local price of sun-dried

fish is about Rs. 1,270 per metric ton.

Soonthu fishing is carried out at Rameswaram usually between

April and September by fishermen of the villages of Vadagadu, Pillai-

kulam, Narikuzhi and Aryankundu, situated between Thangachimadam

and Rameswaram along the Palk Bay coast.

In this connection, the following observations are noteworthy from

the fisheries point of view:

1. Torch (Soonthu) fishing for white-bait in the area appears more

successful when compared to other methods.

2. Possibility of obtaining very good catches of white-bait by this

method in certain seasons is indicated.

3. Night fishing grounds for white-bait are usually located off Rames-

waram.

4. Young ones (4.5 to 8 cm. in length) of two species of white-bait,

A. indica and A. commersonii contributed to the catches in 1964.

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES,

RESEARCH INSTITUTE,

MANDAPAM CAMP.

November 30, 1966.

P.S. B. R. JAMES

REFERENCES

CHARERNPHOL, S. (1951): Indigenous

marine fishing gear of Thailand. Proc.

Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun. 2: 108-112.

CHELLAPPA, D. EDWARD (1959): A

note on the night fishing observations

eon? Kelong. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India1:

HorneELL, J. (1938): The fishing me-

thods of the Madras Presidency, Part II.

aie Malabar coast. Madras Fish. Bull.

———— (1950): Fishing in many

waters, Cambridge, pp. 5, 8, 21, 103, 104.

JONES, S. (1960): Spratelloides deli-

catulus (Bennet) as a potential live-bait

for tuna in the Laccadives: J. Mar. biol.

Ass. India 2: 103-104.

KAwamoTo, N. Y. (1955): Experi-

ments with the fish gathering lamp.

Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish. Coun. 6: 278-280.

NAKAI, Z. (1955) : Do fishing lights affect

the fish population? ibid., 6: 273-274.

RASALAN, S. B. (1952): Philippine

Fisheries, Manila, pp. 58, 61, 62.

& DATINGALING, B.

(1955): Observations on fishing with light

in the Philippines, Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish.

Coun. 6: 275.

SEKHARAN, K. V. (1955): Observations

on the choodai fishery of Mandapam

area. Indian J. Fish. 2: 113-131.

TAKAYAMA, S. (1955): Fishing with

light in Japan. Proc. Indo-Pacif. Fish.

Coun. 6: 276-277.

126 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

12. LYMANTRIA OBFUSCATA, WLK. AND ITS NATURAL

ENEMIES IN KASHMIR

Lymantria obfuscata Walker (Lymantridae: Lepidoptera) was re-

corded from all parts of Kashmir in 1963 on Willows (Salix spp.), Poplars

(Populus spp.) and very occasionally on Apple (Pyrus malus L.), Walnut

(Juglans regia L.), Quince (Cydonia vulgaris Pers.) and False Acacia

(Pseud-acacia L.). The infestation though insignificant, caused some

slight damage to Willows.

Hibernating eggs of the previous season hatched on 8 April both in

the laboratory and fields at a maximum temperature of 14° C. and 75%

R. H. Hatching was synchronous with the appearance of first foliage and

permanent rise in temperature. The pest was active from April to mid-

July when it hibernated as egg. Larval and pupal periods occupy 40 to

45 days and 10 to 15 days respectively. Of the alternate food plants tried

the caterpillars fed on leaves of Apple (P. malus L.), Peach (Prunus per-

sica Stokes), Apricot (Prunus armenia L.) and Cherry (Prunus cerasus

L.) in order of preference.

NATURAL ENEMIES

I. Diseases

10% of the caterpillars in field and 25% in the laboratory succumbed

in May to diseases caused by the following, of which the last two are

potential insect pathogens.

Bacillus sp. (non-crystal forming), Alcaligens sp., Brevibactor sp.

and Acromonos sp.

Rain and cloudy weather persistent during that period propagated

the infection which receded or even disappeared on the onset of warmer

days. The symptoms of the infection are:

(i) Liquefication of body of the caterpillar ; (1i) blackening of cuticle ;

(iii) characteristic foul smell; (iv) fluid oozing from body; (v) hanging of

caterpillars by first and second pairs of prolegs and (vi) brittling of body.

II. Predators

(1) Calosoma himalayanam Gestro. (Carabidae: Coleoptera).

Adults and grubs were collected from Shivpore, Pazalpore, Narrabal

and Nishat by first week of June on trees and under bark, trash, ceilings

and soil near tree bases.

Life history and breeding: A wide mouthed 6 Ib. glass jar filled

with 4 inches of moist soil is ideal for breeding 1-2 pairs of

beetles. The mouth is covered with brass wire-netting, in the centre of

which is attached a 1” wide wire-gauze touching the soil. This facilitates

climbing of the beetles in search of hosts that rest on top. Females im-

mediately after copulation lay eggs in lower strata of soil at the rate of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 127

10-15 per day averaging a total of 60. Eggs are creamy white, shining,

oval with slight depression on one side. They are removed daily and

placed in a separate vial, two-thirds filled with moist soil. On hatching

the grubs are fed on the host caterpillars. A full grown grub measures

35-40 mm. in length; black ondorsal side and white on ventralside. There

are also red patches on the ventral side. The egg, larval and pupal periods

vary from 3-6, 32-36 and 10-15 days respectively. Pupae are transferred

to a jar containing moist soil till the emergence of adults. A single grub

consumes 30-35 caterpillars and/or pupae by feeding on their body fluids

and contents. An adult beetle is 25-30 mm. long, 10-15 mm. broad and

shining metallic blue. The elytra are ridged and bear minute circular

depressions in rows.

(2) Carabid Beetle (unidentified)

Smaller in size, blacker and dull in colour in comparison to C.

himalayanam. Collected from Shivpore and Pahalgam. The beetle was

bred in the laboratory as described under C. himalayanam. Life history

not studied.

Ill. Parasites

(a) Larval parasites

Drino inconspicuoides Bar. (Tachanidae: Diptera). Caused 40-50%

mortality of the pest caterpillars in fields during June. It was recovered

from the material collected from Parimpore, Shalteng, Narrabal, Shiv-

pore, Pantachuk, Zewan, Athwajan and Pazalpore.

Life history and breeding: Adults readily mate in a cage (1’ x1’ x1’)

having three sides and top of muslin, a sliding glass front and wooden

bottom which is covered with a wet sponge. A sleeve is also attached to one

side, especially when there is bright sunlight and the males are older than

females. Males are usually darker in colour and bear less hairs at the

tip of the abdomen. Mating lasts from 15 minutes to 4 hours. Mated

females are introduced in a similar but smaller cage (4.5” x 4.5” 3.2”)

for completion of gestation period (about 2 days). Later they are trans-

ferred to 3” x1” vials for ovipositing on the host caterpillars of 3-4 in-

stars which are preferred. It was observed that active movements of the

caterpillar stimulate the fly to oviposit. Under laboratory conditions

unlimited eggs are invariably laid on the host but for best results not

more than 3 eggs should be allowed on a single individual. The parasitised

caterpillars are fed on host leaves in a jar till they pupate. The puparia

are kept in an emergence box for emergence of adults. The egg, larval

and pupal periods are 2-3, 10-12 and 7-10 days respectively.

The fly has a life span of about 20 days. A single female has a capa-

city of laying 40-60 eggs. 50-80% parasitism was obtained in the labo-

ratory.

128 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

(3) Exorista rossica Mesnil (Tachanidae: Diptera)

Active from June to mid-July. Recovered from caterpillars collected

at places mentioned for Drino. On dissection each mated female was

observed to have on an average 100 eggs.

(4) Sarcophaga sp. (Tachanidae : Diptera)

Recovered from material collected at Parimpore, Pantachuk, Zewan

and Athwajan. Parasitism in fields, negligible.

(5) Apanteles porthetriae Mues. (Braconidae : Hymenoptera)

Parasite cocoons collected from Pantachuk, Parimpore, Shalteng

and Zanakoot from May to June. The usual site of cocoons is in crevices

or under bark and very rarely on leaves. Parasitism in fields, negligible.

(6) Apanteles sp. near solitarius Ratz. (Braconidae : Hymenoptera)

Same as in the case of A. porthetriae.

(b) Pupal Parasites

(1) Sarcophaga sp. (Tachanidae : Diptera) was recovered from 10 to

15 per cent of the pupae collected from different parts of the valley.

(2) Theronia sp. or spp. (Ichneumonidae : Hymenoptera)

10 to 20 per cent of the pupae collected from Parimpore, Shalteng,

Zanakoot, Pantachuk and Zewan were parasitised by Theronia.

(3) Pimpla sp. (Ichneumonidae : Hymenoptera)

Recovered from pupae collected from places as in the case of Theronia

up to the extent of 10 per cent.

(4) Brachymeria euploeae Westw. (Chalcididae : Hymenoptera)

Percentage of parasitism in field, 10 to 15. Appeared in fields from

mid-June. |

(5) Brachymeria sp. (Chalcididae : Hymenoptera)

Active from late June. Parasitism negligible.

(1) Anastatus sp. (?) kashmirensis Mathur (Eupelmidae : Hyme-

noptera)

(2) Anastatus sp. (Eupelmidae : Hymenoptera)

(q2) Hyperparasites.

A large number of them (unidentified) were reared from puparia

of E. rossica. ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 129

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Dr. V. P. Rao, Entomologist-in-Charge for

providing facilities, going through the manuscript and getting the insect

specimens identified by various agencies and individuals to whom also

I am greatly indebted.

COMMONWEALTH INSTITUTE OF M. K. ZUTSHI!

BIOLOGICAL CONTROL,

KASHMIR SUB-STATION,

SRINAGAR.

September 6, 1966.

13. A RECORD OF DELIAS SANACA PERSPICUA FRUHSTOR-

FER (LEPIDOPTERA : PIERIDAE) FROM INDIA

Fruhstorfer (1910) described Delias sanaca perspicua from females

collected in Upper Burma. Subsequently the male was also described

from the same locality by Jordan (1925), Evans (1932), and Talbot (1937,

1939). It has not so far been recorded elsewhere and its occurrence in

NEFA is, therefore, of interest.

The Indian specimens do not exhibit any marked variations from

those from Burma.

Material examined, 6 examples as follows : NEFA, Kameng, Dirang

Dzong (1830m.), 14. x. 1961 (4 exs.); Jumla Pass (2848 m.),17. ix. 1961

(1 ex.); Dirang Dzong (1601 m.), 19. vii. 1961 (1 ex.) (all S. Biswas Coll.).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors are grateful to the Director, Zoological Survey of India,

for permission to examine the material.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, D. K. MANDAL

CALCUTTA. H. C. GHOSH

November 18, 1966.

REFERENCES

Fruustorrer, H. (1910): Fauna Indo- Evans, W. H. (1932): Identification of

Australia. In Seitz, Macrolepidoptera; Indian Butterflies, Bombay, ed. ii: 70

Beat 2,150, t.56a (9 ) (Upper Burma). Tatzot, G. (1937): Monograph of

Jorpan, K. (1925): “On Delias beila- elias, London, 6; 276, pl. 44, Fig. 3

donna and allied species.’’ Nov. Zool., —_—_——_ (1939): Fauna of British

London, 32: 282 India, London, 1: 333-334, Fig. 122

1 Present address: Pool Officer, Directorate of Plant Protection, New Delhi.

130 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

14. A NOTE ON ARYA RUBROLINEATA DIST. (JASSIDAE,

HOMOPTERA) FROM KALYANI

(With a text-figure)

While examining some examples of Jassidae submitted by Shri A. K.

Bhattacharya of Kalyani University, Kalyani, for identification, the

author came across a few specimens of Arya rubrolineata Distant which

had a continuous sanguineous fascia on the head. While describing the

species [Distant (1908) : THE FAUNA OF BRITISH INDIA, Rhynchota vol. 4 :

338] noted the presence on the vertex of a sanguineous fascia ‘‘ which is

medially interrupted.’’ The author had the opportunity of examining

five males, two of which did not have a median interruption as shown by

Distant, the fascia being continuous throughout (See text-figure). Two

other specimens also were continuous except for a very faint interruption |

of the fascia at the posterior margin. The remaining specimen conformed

to Distant’s description.

Seven other exam-

ples of the species, of

both the sexes, were

---% examined. The median

interruption in them

differed from _ speci-

mens deposited in

the collections of the

Zoological Survey of

India, in having a

very narrow interrup-

tion, thereby showing

0-2 mm. the gradual stages of

union.

Vertex : Dorsal View

sef :—Sanguineous fascia

The Genitalia of both varieties of the species, i.e. the one with the

median interruption and the other without it, were examined and only

slight difference in the structure of parameres was observed.

All the specimens are deposited in the National Collection of Zoo-

logical Survey of India, Calcutta.

Locality : Kalyani, Calcutta, Coll. A. K. Bhattacharya.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, K. RAMACHANDRA RAO

CALCUTTA.

June 30, 1966.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 131

15. RECORD OF CLETUS BIPUNCTATUS WESTW. (HEMIP-

TERA: COREIDAE) ON WILD RAJGIRA, AMARANTHUS

VIRIDIS LINN. IN THE TARAI, UTTAR PRADESH

Wild rajgira, Amaranthus viridis Linn. grows wild in the campus and

also around the premises of the University. It is an erect branching herb

with ovate leaves. Its flowers are short-stalked with three sepals and three

stamens. Its leaves and delicate stems are used as a green vegetable.

So far no insect pest of wild rajgira, A. viridis Linn. has been reported

(Beeson 1941, Fletcher 1920, and Sen-Gupta ez al 1957). However, a

leaf-footed bug, Cletus bipunctatus Westwood (Hemiptera : Coreidae)

causes damage to wild rajgira, Amaranthus viridis Linn. in Tarai area.

The adult bug sucks up the plant juices of the host and may cause defolia-

tion. The bug also sucks up the juices on the inflorescence and causes

minor damage. According to Lefroy (1909), five species of Cletus are

found in the plains and none are injurious. C. bipunctatus Westwood

appears to be the most common.

Cletus bipunctatus Westwood measures 9.0 mm. in length and is

dark brown in colour. Antennae 4-segmented, long, first segment thicker

than second and third; fourth segment slightly swollen and darker than

others; thorax broad with lateral pronotal angles which are distinctly

seen with the naked eye; head, thorax and abdomen pale yellowish;

antennae and wings brown.

The male and female are more or less alike and were seen mating in

August and September on the host plant in this locality.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author is thankful to Dr. N. K. Anant Rao, Dean, College of

Agriculture, U.P. Agricultural University, Pantnagar for his interest in

the work and to Dr. P. N. Chatterjee, Forest Entomologist, F.R.I. and

Colleges, Dehradun, for kindly identifying the adult bug.

ASSISTANT PROFESSOR OF ENTOMOLOGY, J. P. SINGH

U.P. AGRICULTURAL UNIVERSITY,

PANTNAGAR, U.P.

REFERENCES

BEESON, C. F. C. (1941): The Ecology Lerroy, H. M. & How .etTT, F. M.

and Control of the Forest Insects of India (1909): Indian Insect Life. Thacker,

and the neighbouring countries. F. R. Spink & Co., Calcutta. 679-685.

I. and Colleges, Dehradun: 577-578. SEN-GupTa, G. C. & BEHURA, B. K.

FLETCHER, T. B. (1920): Annotated (1957): Annotated list of crop pests in the

list of Indian crop pests. Rep. Proc. 3rd. State of Orissa. Memoirs Ent. Soc. India

Ent. Meeting, Pusa. 1:33-314. 5: 1-44,

132 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

16. PEDUNCULATE CIRRIPEDES, CONCHODERMA _ VIR-

GATUM (SPENGLER) ATTACHED TOA PENNELLID COPEPOD,

PENNELLA SP. PARASITIC ON A FLYING FISH, CYPSILURUS

(HIRUNDICHTHYS) SPECULIGER (CUV. ET VAL.)

(With two photographs)

During the 35th cruise of the U.S.S.R. Research Vessel ‘* Vityaz ”’

in the eastern sector of the Indian Ocean in which one of us (A.D.)

participated, a flying fish, Cypsilurus (Hirundichthys) speculiger (Cuv. et

Val.) was captured at Station No. 5173 (Lat. 13° 32’ 4” S., Long. 105°

04’ 3” E.) on 19-7-1962. On examination of the fish, a parasitic copepod,

Pennella sp. was found attached to the abdominal region (Photo 1).

Photo 1

Three specimens of _pedunculate

cirripede, Conchoderma virgatum

(Spengler) were also in turn found

attached to the parasitic copepod

(Photo 2). There appears to be no

published account of this type of

tripartite animal relationship between

a flying fish, parasitic copepod and

pedunculate cirripedes. Hence it is

considered worthwhile to photograph

in situ and record this interesting

relationship between different forms

of life.

Photo 2

The flying fish was obtained in a ring trawl. The parasitic copepod is

directly embedded into the body of the fish and conveniently draws its

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 133

nourishment from the fish. The cirripedes are attached to the fish indirectly

by means of an intermediate copepod and are greatly aided by the move-

ment of the fish resulting in wider scope in the procurement of their food

by the thoracic cirri.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. DANIEL

CALCUTTA. V. K. PREM-KUMAR

October 29, 1966.

17. EUCLIDIUM TENUISSIMUM (PALLAS) FEDT. AND

MEDICAGO RUGOSA DESCR.: TWO NEW RECORDS FOR INDIA

(With a plate)

During a floristic survey of Bashahr Himalayas, the author collected

a species of Euclidium (Cruciferae) growing as a weed in wheat fields

which was later identified as E. tataricum DC.

The genus Euclidium has two species, of which only E. syriacum R.

Br. has been reported from India earlier. Examination of the material in

Dehradun (DD) revealed a specimen of E. tataricum (E. tenuissimum)

collected by R. N. Parker in 1928 from Bashahr. There is no Indian

specimen of this plant in the Central National Herbarium, Calcutta

(CAL.). The plant is a native of Europe and has been reported from

Afghanistan and Baluchistan.

Euclidium tenuissimum (Pallas) Fedtschenko in Bull. Herb. Boiss.

Ser. 2, 4: 915, 1904. Vella tenuissima Pallas Reise 3 : 521, 1776.

Annual erect herbs ; branches many, hispid. Leaves linear, deciduous.

Racemes lateral, sub-capitate. Flowers white, minute. Sepals oblong,

erect, acute, imbricate, deciduous. Petals almost equalling or shorter than

sepals, equal, caducuous, oblanceolate, unguiculate, limb elliptic, almost

erect, retuse or truncate. Stamens 2 + 4, all nearly equal, anther 2-celled,

sub-globose, base cordate. Ovary bilocular, 2-seeded, indehiscent. Seeds

elliptic or suborbicular, emarginate, compressed, pendulous. Material

examined—Chini (Bashahr) 3000 m. R. N. Parker 2919, May 1928, (DD).

Sarahan 2400 m. N. C. Nair 21908 May 1962 (BSD). Kalpa 2775 m.

N. C. Nair 22300 A, B, June 1962 (BSD).

A species of Medicago collected by me from Ferozpore, Punjab

proved to be M. rugosa Descr. (Plate). It is distinguished easily by its pod.

This taxon is a new record for India and is described here.

134 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

Medicago rugosa Descr. in Lamk. Encycl. 3 : 362, 1796. M. elegans

Jacq. ex Willd. Sp. Pl. 3 : 1408, 1802; Boiss. Fl. Orient. 2 : 98, 1872.

Annual herbs. Branches prostrate or ascending 15 to 30 cm. long,

pubescent and glandular. Leaflets obovate or rhomboid, pubescent on the

lower surface, toothed on the upper half. Stipules lanceolate, dentate to

laciniate. Peduncle 1 to 4-flowered, shorter than the leaf. Calyx teeth

equal to the tube. Corolla yellow, glabrous. Legume discoid, dextrose,

glabrous or slightly pubescent, coiled twice or thrice with thick flat coils

markedly rugose along the margin and transverse reticulate nerves.

The plant has been reported from France, Italy, Greece, Asia Minor,

N. Africa, Malta.

Material examined—N. C. Nair 36373 A, B.

Collected on March 14, 1966—deposited in BSD.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, N. C. NAIR

76, ACHARYA JAGADISH BOSE ROAD,

CALCUTTA-14.

September 30, 1966.

18. AMARANTHUS POLYGONOIDES LINN. FROM OSMANA-

BAD DISTRICT : A NEW RECORD FOR INDIA

Amaranthus polygonoides Linn. Amoen. Acad. 4: 409, 1760.

Herbs 15-40 cm. tall, sparingly branched. Stem grooved, pubescent.

Leaves lanceolate to rhomboid, narrowed at base, tapering into 0.5-2 cm.

long petiole, 1-3 x 0.5-1.5 cm., acute with a small mucro at apex, promi-

nently nerved, glabrous. Flowers unisexual, pale green, clustered in leaf

axils. Bracteoles subulate or lanceolate, cuspidate, about 1 mm. long.

Tepals 5, oblong or oblanceolate, cuspidate at apex, 2 x 0.5-0.7 mm.

Stamens 5, as long as or slightly shorter than tepals. Ovary dome shaped

with 3 persistent styles. Ripe utricle faintly rugulose. Seed orbicular or

obovate, shining brown or black.

The plant is very common in the district and grows gregariously on

waste land along roadsides and on old walls. Naldurg fort, Naik 299;

Paranda Fort, Naik 717; Turori, Naik 1139.

Flowers and fruits:- August to October.

According to Trimen (A HANDBOOK TO THE FLORA OF CEYLON, Pt. III,

p. 398, 1895), the plant is distributed throughout the tropics but it has

not been recorded in any of the Indian Floras and in the Floras of other

Tropical countries. Trimen described A. polygamus (Hooker, FLORA BRITISH

INDIA 4:721), under this name.

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. 64 (1)

Nair: Medicago rugosa

Medicago rugosa Descr.

A. Entire plant. B. Pod.

3 i ‘

! '

y j

hie?

| .

‘

a ’

)

S ‘ .

i ’

{

is "7 . ‘

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 135

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My grateful thanks are due to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens.

Kew, England, for identification of the plant, and to the Director, Botani-

cal Survey of India, Calcutta, for use of the herbarium and library at

Sibpore.

RAMKRISHNA MAHAVIDYALAYA, V. N. NAIK

OSMANABAD.

August 18, 1966.

19. JUSTICIA TRINERVIA VAHL.: A NEW RECORD FOR ORISSA

This species was collected recently from the Panchagarh R.F., Puri

District, Orissa. It has not been recorded earlier from Orissa.

Justicia trinervia along with J. betonica Linn. and J. nilgherrensis

Wall. forms a compact group easily recognizable from other species of

Justicia in having white bracts and bracteoles with green nerves.

Justicia trinervia Vahl. Enum. 1 : 156, 1804; Clarke in FI. Brit.

Ind. 4 : 526, 1885; Gamble, Fl. Press. Madr. 755, 1956 (Repr. ed.).

Adhatoda trinervia (Vahl.) Nees in Wall. Pl. As. Rar 3: 103,1832 and in

DC. Prodr. 9 : 386, 1847. A. variegata Nees in DC. Prodr. 9: 385, 1847.

Nicoteba trinervia (Vahl.) Lindau in Bot. Jahrb. 18 : 56, 1894 and in

Engl. & Prantl. Pflanzenfamilien 4(3B): 329, 1895.

Specimens examined : Panchagarh R. F., Puri District, Orissa. Sreema-

dhavan 1275 (CAL.).

World distribution : India and Nile area in Ethiopia.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, C. P. SREEMADHAVAN

76, ACHARYA JAGDISH BOSE ROAD,

CALcuTTA-14.

October 18, 1966.

20. ELATINE AMBIGUA WT.: A NEW RECORD FOR ERST-

WHILE BOMBAY STATE

(With a_ plate)

Elatine ambigua Wt. in Hook. Bot. Misc. 2 : 103, Suppl. t. 5, 1831;

Dyer, in Fl. Brit. India 1 : 251, 1874; Gamble, Fl. Madras 1 : 49, 1958

(repr. edit.) ; Baker in Fl. Males. I, 4(3) : 206, 1951.

Creeping herbs; stem and branches glabrous, branches radially

spreading. Leaves 2-7 x 0.5-2 mm., opposite, glabrous, elliptic-oblong,

136 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

entire, subacute or obtuse at apex, narrowed at base, penninerved with

distant glands along the margins; stipules + 1 mm. long, ovate triangular,

acute, entire. Flower axillary, solitary. Peduncle 1-2 mm. long, glabrous.

Sepals 3, + 1 mm., oblong, slightly connate at base. Petals 3,1.5 x 1mm.,

ovate-oblong, pinkish. Stamens 3. Ovary glabrous, 3-loculate, with three

sessile stigmas. Capsule + 1 mm. across, subglobose, glabrous, faintly

three-lobed. Seeds many, brown, oblong or slightly falcate, with scalari-

form reticulation.

Rare, a small patch in moist ground along margins of a pond near

Tuwa Station in Panchmahal District, Gujarat (Deshpande 952). The

plant, so far, has not been reported earlier from the former Bombay State.

The authors are grateful to Dr. R. C. Bakhuizen van der Brink Jr.

of Rijksherbarium, Leiden, Netherlands for confirming the identification.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY, J. G. CHOHAN

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY, G. L. SHAH

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, M. B. DESHPANDE

Dist. KAIRA, GUJARAT. '

November 18, 1966.

21. ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF DANGS FOREST, GUJARAT

The flora of different areas of Dangs forest is better known through

the works of Santapau (1954-55), Jain (1963) and Santapau & Shah

(1965). During intensive exploration in different areas in the vicinity of

Ahwa, Subir, Malegam and Saputara, the authors collected about one

hundred more plants, which, so far, have not been reported from Dangs

forest by other workers. As the information about most of the monsoon

plants and particularly the ephemeral flora is not much, it is thought

worthwhile to account for the monocotyledons only in this paper. The

enumeration is a supplement to the list given by Santapau (1954-55),

Santapau & Kapadia (1959-63) and Santapau & Shah (1965).

The plants marked with an asterisk are not given by Cooke. For the

sake of brevity only our collection numbers and localities for each plant

are given. The herbarium sheets are deposited in the Botany Department

of this University.

ENUMERATION OF PLANTS

ORCHIDACEAE

1. Aerides maculosum Lindl.

Ahwa, BS 1115; Malegam, BS 1325.

2. Habenaria digitata Lindl. var. digitata.

Malegam, BS 1332.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (1)

Shah: Elatine ambigua Wt.

Elatine ambigua Wt.

1. Twig x 11; 2. An open flower x 22.50; 3. Seeds x 33.50

i Kips : eof

MA OMG

Mohs Fee tases

é - B

iy ‘ fe eee

‘

: Rb ‘

iD é =e Seer,

“i ses ’

‘ : y

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. “ ae |

Be ie ore

. 5

Bere

od : ; ;

: as ; tN

t nS ¥ ’ ;

i : we : oN %

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® : ft |

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Beers oa rs

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 137

Habenaria grandiflora Lindl.

Saputara, BS 1215; Malegam, BS 1333, 1355.

AMARYLLIDACEAE

Crinum latifolium Linn.

Ahwa-Borkhat Road, BS 1169; Saputara, noted on 20-7-1966.

Pancratium triflorum Roxb.

Ahwa, BS 1161, 1179.

HyYPOXIDACEAE

Hypoxis aurea Lour

Saputara, BS 1216.

TACCACEAE

Tacca leontopetaloides (L.) O.K.

Malegam, BS 1194.

oak.

12.

14.

LILIACEAE

Chlorophytum tuberosum Baker

Ahwa, BS 1151, 1166, 1171.

Iphigenia indica (L.) Gray

Malegam, BS 1245, 1293, 1322.

Scilla. hyacinthina (Roth) Macbr.

Ahwa, BS 1117, 1129, 1172.

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina paleata Hassk. |.

Ahwa, BS 439.

Commelina diffusa Burm: f. |

Bhavandaghad, BS 453; Ahwa, BS 5367.

Cyanotis fasciculata Schult. f.

-Ahwa, BS 70:

Murdannia nudiflorum (L.) Brenan

Ahwa BS 69

Murdannia juneoides (Wt.)- soul & Kamathy

Ahwa, BS 67, LO EE ETT

138 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (1)

ARACEAE

*16. Arisaema neglectum Schott

Malegam, BS 1198.

17. Arisaema tortuosum (Wall.) Schott

Malegam, BS 1362.

18. Amorphophallus commutatus (Schott) Engler

Ahwa, BS 1110; Malegam, BS 1212.

19. Colocasia esculenta (L.) Schott

Ahwa, BS 39.

APONOGETONACEAE

20. Aponogeton natans (L.) Krause & Engler

Ahwa, BS 561.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to Rev. Fr. Santapau for critically going

through the manuscript and for valuable suggestions; to Shri R. S. Rao,

Regional Botanist, B.S.I., Poona for the identification of Commelinaceae

and to Prof. P. V. Bole for facilities to work in the Blatter Herbarium.

The authors are indebted to C.S.I.R. for financial aid to one of us (BS)

to study the flora of Dangs forest.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY,

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR,

GUJARAT STATE.

November 9, 1966

G. L. SHAH

B. SURYANARAYANA

REFERENCES

Cooke, TH. (1958): The Flora of

the Presidency of Bombay. Reprinted.

vol. III.

JAIN, S. K. (1963): The vegetation of

Dangs district in Gujarat. Bull. bot. Surv.

India 5: 351-361.

SANTAPAU, H. (1954-1955): Contri-

bution to the botany of Dangs forest,

Bombay State. J. Gujarat Res. Soc. 16:

285-320, 1954; 17: 1-59, 1955.

——————— & KapapiA, Z.: (1959-

1963): Critical notes on the Orchidaceae

of Bombay. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

5§6(2): 188-203 to 60(1): 92-103:

———— & Swan, G. L. (1965):

Further contributions to the botany of

Panes forest, Gujarat. op. cit. 62: 201-

10.

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CONTENTS

THE BATS OF THE ANDAMAN AND NICOBAR ISLANDS. By J. E. Hill .. nie

A NEw SPECIES OF Christisonia GARDN. FROM SOUTH INDIA. By N. A. Erady

EPILOGUE ON A SIND LAKE. By T. J. Roberts

AN ANNOTATED LIST OF THE BUTTERFLIES OF DELHI, INDIA. ByJ ulian P. Donahue ..

STUDIES IN TAXONOMY AND ECOLOGY OF Bursera delpechiana Potss. EX ENGL.

IN INDIA. By Rajendra Gupta and Roma Banerji .. mai bet

ON SOME ASPECTS OF THE BIOLOGY OF Coilia dussumieri {CUV. AND VAL. ).

By Madhav Gadgil ne a ci We af

FALCONRY. By S. M. Osman .. ais sh aie ste

ADDITIONS TO THE FLORA OF MussooriE HILis. By M. B. Raizada and

H. O. Saxena .. Bi 4 Ai sft a

A NEw SPECIES OF FRESHWATER FISH OF THE GENUS Hemiramphus Cuv.

® FROM GORAKHPUR, UTTAR PRADESH, INDIA. By G. J. Srivastava sit

STUDIES ON THE VEGETATION OF PONDS, SWAMPS AND RIVER BANKS IN RAIPUR,

MADHYA PRADESH. By K. Sankaran Unni Ue be

REVIEWS | He bia aah bit i ae

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ne en it ui a

ip)

= - Slemeepeerae Senfmemenetayt pict icteric

~ = ~ - 2 re a te eae a mans at ase

- = a= Ss ER aS EE ET > SS 2225S

= = aks =~ = => Raecrten om

a ES tae

ee eee

Se a

2 Journal of the

Bombay Natural History Society

Vol. 64, No. 2

Editors

__-H, SANTAPAU, s.5.,

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

AUGUST 1967

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VOLUME 64, NO. 2—AUGUST 1967

Date of publication : 18-10-1967

CONTENTS

THe BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS, WITH NOTES ON SOME ANDAMAN

BIRDS. By Humayun Abdulali. (With a plate)

CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF NORTH-EAST RAJASTHAN. By L.N. Vyas.

(With a map)

MIDDLE FAst LEPIDOPTERA—XXIV: Beihania, A NEW Noctuip GENUS

FROM SOUTHERN ARABIA WITH TWO NEW SPECIES FROM ARABIA AND

SOMALILAND. By E. P. Wiltshire. (With six text-figures)

GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF COMMON Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) IN

INDIA—V. By K. V. Ramakrishna and K. H. Alikunhi

A POPULATION SURVEY OF THE BONNET MONKEY Macaca radiata (Geoffroy)

IN BANGALORE, SOUTH INDIA. By MHafeezur Rahaman and M. D.

Parthasarathy. (With a map)

INSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP IN THE SURAT DANGS,

GUJARAT STATE. By E. M. Shull and N. T. Nadkerny

LITTORAL AND PARASITIC ISOPODS FROM KERALA: FAMILIES EURYDICIDAE,

CORALLANIDAE AND AEGIDAE—2. By Krishna Pillai. (With two plates

and seven text-figures)

NoTes ON THE NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, Circus melanoleucos

(PENNANT), IN AMURLAND, U.S.S.R. By I. A. Neufeldt. (With four plates)

THE NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE VESPOID POTTER WASP Eumenes campaniformis

esuriens (FABR.) COMPARED WITH THE ECOLOGICALLY SIMILAR SPHECOID

Sceliphron madraspatanum (FaBR.) (HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar

and H. Spurway. (With eight figures)

COMPOSITAE OF RAIPUR AND ITS SURROUNDINGS (M.P.). By K. Sankaran Unni

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS.

Part V. By E. P. Gee

OBITUARY ah ee

REVIEWS :

1. World ben ath the Oceans. (T.S.S.R.)

How we got our flowers. (D.E.R.)

Sporting journeys. (E.P.G.)

Africa: A Natural History. (Hugh Allen) ..

The Great Barrier Reef. (D.E.R.)

Australian Wildlife. (D.E.R.)

Animal behaviour. (D.N.M.)

2 Aw pwn

139

191

232

238

251

256

267

284

307

333

339

342

343

344

345

346

348

349

350

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES:

i. A note on the occurrence of the Malayan Sun Bear Helarctos malayanus

(Raffles) within Indian limits. (With a plate) By E. P. Gee (p. 352). 2. Notes

on the taxonomy and distribution of the Pachmarhi Hare, Lepus nigricollis

mahadeva Wroughton & Ryley (Mammalia : Lagomorpha: Leporidae). By

R. K. Ghose (p. 355). 3. A note on Capra hircus blythi (Hume 1875). By T. J.

Roberts (p.358). 4. Reoccurrence of the Whitefronted Shearwater (Procellaria

leucomelaena Temminck) in Indo-Ceylonese waters. By W. W. A. Phillips

(p. 365). 5. On the occurrence of the Great Whitebellied Heron Ardea insignis

Hume in Bihar. By P. V. George (p. 366). 6. On the occurrence of the

Blacknecked Stork [Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham)] in the Bombay Konkan.

By Humayun Abdulali. (p. 367). 7. Occurrence of the Wryneck Jynx

torquilla Linnaeus in Kerala State, South India. By M.C. A. Jackson

(p. 367). 8. Hill Myna Gracula religiosa Linnaeus breeding in artificial nests

in Garo Hills, Assam. (With a plate). By Brian Bertram (p. 369).

9. Recovery of ringed birds. By Editors. (p. 371). 10. Occurrence of

Draco blanfordi Boulenger (Sauria : Agamidae) in Assam, India. (With a plate)

By S. Biswas (p. 374). 11. On the occurrence and breeding of Catla catla

(Hamilton) in Tapti River. (With a map). By S. J. Karamchandani and

M. D. Pisolkar (p. 375). 12. Kachal, a tackle for File-fish (Family Balistidae :

Pisces). (With a text-figure). By P. Sam Bennet (p. 377). 13. The Rusty

Plum Aphid, MAysteroneura setariae (Thomas) in southern India. By S.

Kanakaraj David, S. G. Rajasingh and K. Narayanan. (p. 380). 14. Lakatt

and Pambu: Lepcha Explorers. By Lt. Col. C. F. Cowan. (p. 381). 15. A

contribution to the Rotatorian Fauna of south India. (With two plates).

By K. Vanamala Naidu (p. 384). 16. A new combination in Tournefortia

Linn. (Boraginaceae). By S.P. Banerjee. (p.389). 17. Limnocharis H.B.K..:

A genus new to India. By R. V. Kammathy and K. Subramanyam (p. 389).

18. Oldenlandia maheshwarii Sant. & Merch.; A new record for Anna-

malainagar, Madras State. (With a plate). By K. Rangaswami Ayyangar,

S. Ramarethinam and V. Dhanamjayamoorthy (p. 390). 19. Myriophyllum

tuberculatum Roxb.: New record from Kerala State, S. India. (With a plate).

By R. Vasudevan and K. Kesavan Nair (p. 391). 20. Fruit of Jatropha

tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja. (With a text-figure). By J. L. Ellis (p. 394).

21. A note on Micholitzia obcordata N. E. Brown: Asclepiadaceae. By

S. L. Kapoor. (p. 395). 22. Cyanophyceae of Ahmedabad. By N. D.

Kamat (p. 397).

GLEANINGS e: be, ok

NoTES AND NEws

401

403

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

FISTORY.: SOCIETY

1967 AUGUST Vol. 64 No. 2

The Birds of the Nicobar Islands,

with Notes on some Andaman Birds

HUMAYUN ABDULALI

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

In 1964, I made a short visit to the Andaman Islands and the

ornithological results (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61 (3) : 483-571) indi-

cated that the Nicobars, continuing 250 miles southwards towards

Sumatra, would repay similar attention.

The 19 islands comprising the Nicobars are more scattered than the

204 in the Andamans, and it was evident that without a chartered vessel

it would not be possible to visit many of them within the relatively short

period of a few weeks. In 1965, illness in the family prevented me from

taking advantage of an offer by the Ministry of Education (Science),

Government of India, to finance such a project. By the next year, the

several Surveys (Zoological, Botanical, Geological, Anthropological,

and Meteorological) had decided on a joint trip and it was suggested

that I join them. As it would obviously be impossible for a large party

with such varying interests to function to everybody’s satisfaction, I

decided to work independently though with reduced financial assistance.

The Ministry of Education (Science) first sponsored my trip and later

agreed to pay half my costs.

With P. B. Shekar and Robert Grubh of the Bombay Natural History

Society to assist with the collecting and skinning, I left Calcutta for Port

Blair by M. V. Andamans on 19 February 1966, intending there to plan

my further activities. The Survey parties, having finally decided to

restrict their activities to Great Nicobar, sailed by the same vessel.

The morning of the 20th found us anchored in the mouth of the

Hooghly. Pariah Kites (Milvus migrans govinda), Pond Herons (Ardeola

140 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

grayii), Little Egrets (Egretta garzetta), Curlew (Numenius arquata), and

Common Sandpipers (Tringa hypoleucos) were seen on the shore, while a

flight of duck streamed across the horizon far away. A little after sun-

rise, several Blackheaded Gulls (Larus ridibundus) approached the ship,

followed half-an-hour later by Brownheaded Gulls (L. brunnicephalus).

A larger yellow-billed Herring Gull (LZ. argentatus?) flew about in the

distance, while a pair of Brown-winged Terns (Sterna anaethetus) sat

quietly on an adjacent buoy. Porpoises turned over not far from the

ship. :

By 4 p.m., land was almost out of sight, but some gulls including

Brown-headeds and argentatus still flew around and with the boat.

While they attended to the rubbish thrown overboard, it seemed at times

that they were more interested in the wake of the ship, from which they

picked up reddish morsels of shrimps or fish (?). Does the propeller

kill and throw them into the wake? The Black- and Brown-headed

Gulls often mobbed the larger gulls carrying food.

The next (21st) morning we were far out at sea, and long hours on

deck (the cabins were not very comfortable!) twice revealed a Tropic-

bird (Phaethon sp.) in the far distance. On the 22nd, when I was tem-

porarily without my binoculars, a Tropic-bird flew low over the ship

showing an all-white ribbon-like tail reminiscent of that of a Paradise

Flycatcher, which I assume was the Longtailed Tropic-bird (Phaethon

l. lepturus). Dragonflies were seen alongside the boat, no doubt ‘ carried

down ’ from Calcutta. The sea was calm but showed occasional patches

or broad ribbons of quite unruffled and paler-coloured water.

Dr. A. A. Rama Sastry, the meteorologist of the larger party, informed

us that these were ‘ slicks ’ and were produced by the oil exuded by large

numbers of dead diatoms. I understand there are other explanations

for this phenomenon.

On the 23rd we reached Port Blair and were soon among old friends,

human and ornithological. The Jungle Crows (Corvus macrorhynchos)

and House Sparrows (Passer domesticus), the racial identity of which had

caused trouble (loc. cit.) again appeared different from those seen around

Bombay. Though birds were numerous—I put up 30-40 snipe in a

small bit of drying marsh—the variety was very limited. During the

day I saw only 15 species, including four migrants and two introductions,

the Myna and the House Sparrow.

There is no regular transport available southwards to the Nicobars.

The Survey parties were transhipping to the Yerewa which was to take

them to their first camp at Campbell Bay in Great Nicobar, and I went

south with them intending to get off at Car Nicobar and spend a week |

there. We left on the 24th and touched at Little Andaman at about |

4.30 p.m. the same afternoon. Some of us went ashore and met a party

of 8/10 Onges,who like the Jerwas of the Andamans, are short in stature

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS nT

and of negroid origin. Most of them were dressed in a piece of string

holding up a small rag ; the women were similarly clad, the rag being

replaced by what appeared to be a tuft of grass and was later found to

be the sliced-off top of a Pandanus fruit.

B. C. Roy of the Anthropological Survey, who was with us and who

had spent some time in Little Andaman earlier, was very cordially

received. After a preliminary hugging they squatted on the sand,

sitting alternately in each other’s laps. The Chief Commissioner of

Scheduled Tribes, who was on an inspection tour on the same vessel,

met and examined them very much in the manner in which most people

would look at a strange and rare animal. I must confess that I am

unable to understand some of these efforts. If what is left of these tribes

is not absorbed into and developed into the normal Indian citizen, one

would only appear to be treating them as a rare animal, outside a cage,

with the certainty that the changes in the environment in which they have

evolved, coupled with disease, will see them extinct within another

generation.

Wild pigs are said to constitute the main food of the Onges who kill

3 or 4every week. In the Journal (1962, 59 : 281), I have referred to the

identity of these pigs ; I hope that some zoologist competent in this res-

pect will study the series of skulls which is available at the Museum of the

Anthropological Survey at Port Blair, and which it would no doubt be

possible to borrow.

Morning saw us at Car Nicobar, a large flat island mostly under

coconut, with occasional patches of Pandanus and cultivated sopari

(betel-nut). Opinion was unanimous that I would be unable to move

southwards in less than a fortnight, so I decided to continue. Major

Sawhney, a very keen shikari to whom I was introduced on arrival there,

took me round in a jeep. We shot a Swallow-Plover (Glareola p.

maldivarum), the only one seen on the trip, at the aerodrome and listed a

few birds. The Nicobar Green Pigeon (Ducula aenea nicobarica) with its

long tail and often crow-like flight was frequently seen, as also the

Emerald Dove (Chalcophaps indica). Twice we glimpsed the White-

breasted Waterhen which I (1964) have separated as white-headed

(leucocephalus) on the strength of a single specimen—one of them

certainly had an all-white head.

The glare off the sand was intense and I had left my goggles on the

boat. By lunch-time I had developed a violent headache and was feeling

feverish. The doctor accompanying the party prescribed some pills

which were inaccessible, being packed somewhere among the 1700

packages, but some were found with another member of the party.

I woke up much better next morning but did not dare land at Katchal,

not far from Camorta, where I intended to have my first camp in the

Central. Nicobars. Grubh went ashore and brought in a few birds.

142 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Being informed that another boat, following two days behind with

luggage for the larger party, would be available to bring me back, I

grasped the opportunity to see Great Nicobar, which I would otherwise

have missed, and went on. Later in the day at Nancowry I attended

a series of functions in honour of the Chief Commissioner of Scheduled

Tribes, which included, in two hours, a formal reception including several

speeches, a children’s dance, a public meeting for complaints, followed

by a children’s song, a tea party, a boat race, and a tribal dance !

Several items were terminated halfway through, but the participants all

seemed satisfied.

On 27 February we reached Campbell Bay on the east coast of Great

Nicobar, where there was a small police wireless post established in a

tiny clearing along the shore, surrounded on three sides by high trees.

Two of the ‘ friendly ’ Nicobarese who had danced at Nancowry were

exhibited, presumably as members of the Shom-Pen tribe which lives in

the interior and is still unfriendly. The Survey parties, 40 people sup-

ported by a labour force one and half times as many, now set about to

establish territories and pitch their many tents. This required the felling

of trees and the clearing of much undergrowth and there was considerable

confusion for some time. I landed by the first boat and, leaving Grubh

and Shekar to look after the luggage, went up one of the two paths that

led away from camp. The Imperial Green Pigeon (Ducula aenea) was

occasionally heard ghooming and I got glimpses of a parakeet. Several

voices, including that of the Koel (Eudynamys scolopacea), were heard,

but I saw only 13 species of birds during the whole day. In places

the forest floor was pocked with crab-holes, occupied by a large

red-clawed hermit crab (Coenobita cavipes) which lived in the hard

shells of gastropod molluscs. Within a mile this path petered out

and there was no means of proceeding further without the risk of

going astray, nor was anybody in camp capable of acting as a guide—

as I was to discover in due course. In the evening I walked inland along

the shore of the bay. Here a stream said to be of fresh water entered the

sea. It was closely lined with cane on both banks and a muddy bottom

prevented one from proceeding very far inland. I had a much-needed

bath but the water was salty to the point of bitterness.

Though several hundred yards of mud and coral foreshore were

exposed. at low tide, the high tide reached the Barringtonia along the

beach, making it impossible to walk along the shore with dry feet. The

Barringtonia and the forest beyond were impenetrable.

At night many noises were heard. A slow deep truk truk truk

changing into a rapid tuk tuk tuk, with many variations, was traced to

the large gecko (Gecko smithii), which I had met in Middle Andaman.

At daylight (5 a.m.) they were calling again, together with others which it

took some time to identify. The second path led to the beach on the other

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 143

side, and with movements restricted in all directions it was soon evident

that it would not be possible to do much collecting. Very few birds

existed in that area and a whole day would pass with nothing new being

seen. Also, I had not quite recovered from the ‘ stroke ’ at Car Nicobar

and was not perhaps as active as I might have been.

Working as hard as conditions permitted, we got some 60 birds of 20

species, including a pitta and the Olive Flycatcher which are peculiar

to this area, and saw another 8 species including 4 migrant waders which

we could not secure.

Several Tree Shrews (Tupaia nicobarica) were seen every morning,

very squirrel (Funambulus)-like in their movements but not particularly

active, all under 30 feet up in heavy forest. One of their calls was a very

audible tréé-oo. They were seen to jump across a gap of 18 inches or so

between the trees. Though they were not uncommon, we could not help

wondering if the account in the relevant chapter in the report on the

Galathea Deepsea Expedition 1950-1952 (1956) was quite correct. It

Says: ° . on looking up saw between 20 and 30 small squirrel-like

tree shrews’.

Dr. K. Thothathri of the Botanical Survey picked up half of a

crocodile’s lower jaw along the opposite shore, probably of C. porosus

Schneider, which has been reported from the area.

We obtained a few bats. They were sent to Mr. J. E. Hill of the

British Museum, whose report on the specimens is included in a compre-

hensive note on the bats of the Andaman and Nicobar Islands published

in the last number of this Journal (pp. 1-12).

The Crab-eating Macaque (Macaca irus umbrosa Miller) has been

recorded from the Great Nicobar, Little Nicobar, and Katchal Islands.

Monkey footprints were seen on the shore on several occasions ; some

members of the party, including Grubh, saw monkeys several times

and they were probably this species.

In the forest I was twice shown ‘ beds’ of drying vegetable litter (twigs

and leaves) roughly 4 feet 4 feet and 10 inches high, more or less re-

miniscent of material stacked in fields near Bombay for burning. They

were said to be ‘ maternity beds ’ used by wild pigs. One evening while

out with Grubh, an all-black pig ran across our path. It appeared

not as large as an Indian pig, and not as tiny as the one from the

Andamans which is only 1/4 to 1/5 as large. It could not have been a

domestic one run wild, for there is no human habitation near by. Grubh

emptied a barrel of sixes in its direction and accelerated its movements.

Megapodes were seen by several people but they were by no means

common. A ‘nest’ which I was taken to see on the opposite shore

consisted of a mound about 3 feet high and 8-10 feet in diameter. It

had largish excavations at the top, but the whole was crossed and re-

144. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

crossed by roots upto 4 inch in diameter and was overgrown with small

plants ! _ Another party claimed to have found a nest and produced the

eggs which they had dug out from it. The chalky and rubbery nature

of the shell and the small size and tubular shape left little doubt that they

were lizard eggs, though they appeared small for a Varanus salvator. -

At long last the boat came in and we left Campbell Bay on 8th March

with few regrets. We sailed round the south end of Great Nicobar, past

Galathea Bay which forms the mouth of the Galathea River, and then

up the west coast on to Pulu Bhabi to drop the Anthropological party—

they had not yet met the subject of their study !

Pulu Bhabi was a small village consisting of 5 or 6 round or

rectangular huts raised on piles in a coconut grove and occupied by the

Nicobarese. Pigs, dogs, chickens, and children wandered about, around,

and under the houses. Upon our arrival, a young man ‘ walked’ up a

coconut tree and threw down a number of coconuts. These were

chopped off as expertly as one sees done on the Juhu shore near Bombay.

After drinking the milk, the nut was handed back to the chopper who

cleft it in two and then struck into the outside of one half, leaving a

green sliver about an inch wide and two inches long, hanging on to the

side. JI first thought it was some form of fetish but discovered that this

sliver when pulled off, served excellently as a spoon to work the kernel !

There was usually too much to eat and, as one threw it away, the pigs

and dogs finished it off. The large Pied Imperial Pigeon which I had

seen far out of gunshot at Campbell Bay was common, and perched on

the coconut palms over our heads.

The following evening (9th) we got to Camorta in the Central

Nicobars, where we had hoped to do the bulk of our collecting. The

Dy. Commissioner, who was also on the boat, warned me about the large

number of snakes on the island and said it was impossible to go out in

the dark. I was looked at askance when I replied that it was perhaps a

good opportunity to collect some. I had understood that some accom-

modation had been arranged for us at Camorta, and was surprised to

learn that this had still to be done !_ I was naturally anxious to make an

immediate landing so as to start work the next day and the D.C. (who took

off in the first canoe) promised to send up a boat to enable us to land.

An hour passed and it got darker but there was no trace of the boat, and

I went ashore in a canoe to find the D.C. comfortably lodged at home.

On my pressing for my lodging I was told that the P.W.D. Bungalow on

the shore was partly occupied by a military officer and the remaining

room was too small to hold 3 beds, and the Forest Bungalow further up

the hill was also partly occupied and it was not known what accom-

modation would be available.

After much argument I was put on my way to the latter, with a torch

and- a guide and yet another warning about snakes. Sure enough, just

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THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 145

outside the D.C’s garden the guide pointed to a largish green viper’ in

the middle of the path. I took the torch, put my foot on its neck, and

attempted to seize it behind the head. There was some miscalculation

somewhere and, before I realised what was happening, I had two long

gashes along the middle of my right forefinger which bled profusely.

Killing the snake with a stick, we took it to the D.C’s house, to be told

that its bite was fatal and I must rush to the hospital. A quarter of an

hour had elapsed and, in the absence of any local swelling or irritation, I

was confident that there was no poison to worry about. However, I

was not averse to seeing the doctor who in due course lanced the bites

and bandaged my finger. When we finally reached the Forest Bungalow,

we found it quite empty! We then returned to the pier and, looking in

at the P.W.D. Bungalow on the shore, found the vacant room quite

sufficient to hold our party, with a verandah wide enough to permit

- skinning and other operations therein. Some of our luggage had already

arrived at the pier and I occupied the P.W.D. Bungalow and slept ashore.

There were certainly more birds here than on Great Nicobar and we

started off well. Fortunately we got in touch with Benjamin, who lives

across the harbour on Nancowry, a keen shikari with a good knowledge

of the local birds and a phenomenal capacity for finding birds dropped

in grass and jungle. After I left he helped Grubh and Shekar with their

collecting and secured many interesting specimens.

The two islands of Nancowry and Camorta lie only a mile apart,

with their main villages of the same names on opposite shores. They

were occupied by the Japanese during the last war. Heavy forest covers

most of Camorta, but the undulating plateau about a mile from the pier

is covered with grass and bracken with Japanese anti-aircraft guns still

pointed skywards. Trenches and pits were dug all over the area and it

was difficult to move freely, at least while looking at birds in the air.

There were patches of evergreen forest with occasional tree-ferns and

large mangrove forests along the shore.

One day we went across the few miles to Trinkut Island in a small

canoe propelled by Benjamin and two small boys. Here were much

larger areas of rolling hills covered with grass, which we beat up and down

for the Blue-breasted Quail (Coturnix chinensis trinkutensis) described

from one specimen obtained here by Abbott & Kloss (Richmond,

1903). Where the grass was more than knee-deep it was extremely

difficult to walk through. Benjamin and another boy worked hard, but

I was in poor condition and every half a mile or so had to sit down and

rest. In short grass along a ridge we did put up a pair very blackish in

colour, both of which flew in the same direction. I dropped one

in higher grass but out of sight of Benjamin who was on the wrong side.

1 Trimeresurus cantori.

146 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

In spite of a long search, we failed to find it. Just as we were re-entering

the forest, we flushed and collected a pair of Yellow-legged Button Quail

(Turnix tanki) which were also on the wanted list. We moved on to a

pond which was supposed to hold Whistling Teal (?) but the water was

low and we got only a single Pintail Snipe. Other birds were flitting

round the edges and I lay down to watch and rest while Benjamin went

away to get some pigeons. When he returned after an hour orso, I sat

up and was about to stand when a boy shouted ‘ Pytho pytho ’ (Snake

snake) and pointed to a small green viper between my legs. This was

captured without difficulty and found to be Trimeresurus cantori. In

a drying swamp lay a dead domestic pig, untouched by bird or animal,

and drawing attention to the absence of crows, vultures, and other

scavengers. A few yards away, in a mass of drying Polygonum sp., were

a large number of small frogs (Rana erythraea) with discs on their toes

and distinctive dorso-lateral lines of pale orange.

About this time the lower rib of the Society’s 12-bore shotgun came

loose, together with a portion of the lock. In the absence of any alter-

native, we stuck these parts together with Araldite (a product of CIBA’s)

and continued our work.

I had expected to be able to work around Camorta for at least a week,

but now learnt that, if I did not leave by a naval boat on the morning of

the 15th, I would not get another opportunity for a fortnight, with the

additional risk of not being able to secure a reservation on the next

weekly flight to Calcutta, for which I had a booking on the 2lst. I

was still feeling very shaky and, considering that a routine camp was now

in operation, decided to leave.

My naval transport stopped a few hours at Car Nicobar, and I

glassed many starlings (Aplonis panayensis) to find that they all had brown

irises like those from the Andamans and not white as in Great and Central

Nicobars. The latter have now been named albiris. I saw a raptor

with almost white underparts which looked like a koel, flying slowly

on quickly flapping and fluttering wings. Its call was softer and quite

different from that of the Indian shikra, and it was presumably Hors-

field’s Goshawk (Accipiter soloensis) from Java which Abbott & Kloss

found common on the southern Nicobars.

At the Guest House at Port Blair (16th), I returned to food and to

comfort which I had not experienced for almost a month, and after a

day’s sleep I felt much better. Norman Young, with whom I left a jar

in 1964, had pickled some geckos and other small fry. He also hada

Whitebellied Sea-Eagle (Haliaeetus leucogaster) in immature plumage,

which his son Maxie had skinned. Grubh had been tempted by a similar

large target in easy range at Campbell Bay, and upon return to Bombay

we discovered that the Society’s collection held only one other skin of

this species! The space occupied by large birds makes them non-

THE BIRDS Of THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 147

desiderata on collecting expeditions, and the same difficulty has applied

to storage also. The Society has recently received a handsome grant

from the Ministry of Education (Science) with which it is hoped that the

storage problem will soon be overcome—the plumages of the larger birds

have been poorly studied owing to lack of specimens, and I have

no doubt that a closer examination will produce many interesting results.

At Port Blair I called on the Regional Naval Officer, Comdr,

I. S. Bhati, to thank him for the lift, and discovered that he was a member

of the Society and a keen bird shot. The few days’ respite had almost

put me on my feet, and we had a couple of pleasant snipe and pigeon

shoots together.

Along the South Andaman Coast also, were remains of Japanese

fortifications and gun-pits, one of the latter being used asa nesting colony

by Whitebreasted Swiftlets (Collocalia esculenta)! On Saturday morning,

19 March, I left by air, reaching home the same night via Rangoon and

Calcutta—a trip which had taken me six days on the way out !

Grubh and Shekar stayed on at Camorta till 30 March and then at

Car Nicobar to 8 April. Here they took a boat to Calcutta, reaching

Bombay by rail on the 19th. They obtained about a hundred additional

specimens including several new to the collection.

The total collection, including a few I picked up at Port Blair, consists

of 280 birds, 36 bats, 4 tree shrews, 29 snakes and lizards, 31 amphibians,

as also a few odds and ends.

General remarks on the affinities and peculiarities of the avifauna of

the Andamans and Nicobars cannot still be offered. I would however

~ take this opportunity of drawing attention to the fact that there is evidence

of the rapid diminution in numbers of several species over the last

hundred years or less. The number of specimens of some species obtained

by Davison and Hume are much more than the total number obtained by

the Zoological Survey and my party in my two trips, though between

us we must have put in almost the same time in the field. The first

figures below indicate the number of specimens obtained by Hume and

the second the total number obtained by the Zoological Survey and me.

Chaetura indica bbl l

Psittacula caniceps Pei 1

Dryocopus javensis hodgei 25 8

Chalcophaps indica wide 339 6

Calaenas nicobarica o 54 3

Megapodius nicobarensis Hag ks 3

We did not visit Battye Malve which is the stronghold of the Nicobar

Pigeon, but this bird was apparently common all over at that time.

Davison (Stray Feathers 2 : 274) also refers to the tameness of this bird

148 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

of which a dozen or more were seen feeding together on the ground 10

yards from where he sat.

It is true that we did not shoot everything in range, for there was some

attempt at discrimination, but I cannot imagine that the number of

specimens collected by Hume’s party could even have been seen by us

certainly not in all species. Conditions at that time appear to have been

similar to those which Darwin found on the Galapagos about the same

time and it would appear that the birds have paid for the trust which they

showed in man. The Forest and other authorities in the Andamans

approached me on several occasions for a list of Indian birds which could

be introduced there—as indicated earlier, the commonest birds at Port

Blair are perhaps the sparrow and the myna, both introduced, and

among the larger mammals the chital, also introduced. We can only

hope that the Administration, instead of making more introductions,

will give the indigenous wild life the protection necessary to enable it to

exist in the changing conditions. )

After I had completed work on the basis of the material available in

Bombay, I attended the XIV International Ornithological Congress held

at Oxford in July 1966. This enabled me to have a quick look at parts

of the gigantic collections at the British Museum (Natural History)

in London, and permitted decisions where unanswered queries would

have remained for an indefinite period. While in London, I received

the happy news that the Zoological Survey of India were willing to place

their collection of birds from Great Nicobar (72 of 29 species) and their

post-war collections of non-Passerine birds from the Andamans and

Nicobars (c. 120 of 34 species) at my disposal for study ; though this

has delayed the completion of this paper, it has also helped in many

ways. In the list which follows, I have detailed the number of specimens

from the Zoological Survey’s collections under each species from Great

Nicobar only. If any of the Andaman notes are based on their

specimens, specific reference is made to them.

While the paper was awaiting publication, I compiled a list of un-

decided items and sent them to the Smithsonian Institution. Dr. Ripley

was away in Bhutan but as he was scheduled to return through Bombay I

thought it would be a good opportunity to secure the specimens available

in Washington and go over them with him in Bombay. Fifty-six speci-

mens of 7 species collected by Dr. Abbott were sent by air but arrived

here a fortnight too late ! They have however helped me clarify some.

points ; the necessary changes have been made in the text.

The limited bibliography for this areais repeated with a few additions.

Four new races have already been described and the references are

included,

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 149

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to the Sir Dorabji Tata Trust and the Ministry of

Education (Science), Government of India, for financial assistance, to

the latter again for sponsoring the trip, to Mr. Cassim Jadwet for the

continuous collaboration and assistance received from members of

his establishment at all ports in the Andamans and Nicobars.

Lt. R. B. Vohra of the Indian Navy shared the P.W.D. Rest House with

us at Camorta and was very helpful, and my assistants remember him

with gratitude for the help he rendered after I left.

I am also grateful to Dr. B. Biswas of the Zoological Survey who,

while at the British Museum in London, was good enough to look up

several points which I had been unable to complete during my visit or

which arose after my return ; to Dr. Dillon Ripley and his Research

Assistant in Ornithology Mr. Gorman M. Bond at the Smithsonian

Institution, who have continually looked up references and specimens

available to them and helped me with specific difficulties; to

Mr. D. E. Reuben for continuously editing my manuscript and helping

to reduce the number of mistakes and slips; and last but not least I must

record my appreciation of the assistance and co-operation received from

P. B. Shekar and B. R. Grubh of the Bombay Natural History Society,

who worked cheerfully under difficult conditions and continued to work

on their own after I left.

SYSTEMATIC LIST

Although this involves some duplication all the birds recorded from

the Nicobars are mentioned, and, from the Andamans, only those re-

garding which some supplementary information is available or some

correction is necessary. Square brackets are used for birds the records

of which appear unsatisfactory and which are to be removed from one

or both of the Andaman and Nicobar lists.

Notes on birds from the Andamans only are marked with an

asterisk.

Round brackets without a number enclosed indicate that it has not

been possible to determine the subspecies or that the species is not

listed in the SYNOPSIS.

The scientific names, except where otherwise stated, are as in Ripley’s

SYNOPSIS and the serial number against each species is from the

same source. Where a new Scientific name or One not accepted by

him is used the letter ‘a’ is placed as an adjunct after the number of

the last subspecies in his list. a

150 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

*[17. Phaethon aethereus indicus Hume (Mekran Coast) Short-tailed

Tropic-bird.

Hume (1874 : 323) thought that a Phaethon with a ‘ white tail over

two feet long’ seen by Davison at Treis (Nicobars) was of this species.

The description is insufficient and misleading, and when describing

P. indicus (1876a: 481) he specifically omitted this species from the

Andamans and Nicobars. Ripley was therefore correct in ignoring in

the syNopsis the earlier record by Hume.]

18. Phaethon rubricauda rubricauda Boddaert (Mauritius) Redtailed

Tropic-bird.

Hume (1874 : 322) stated that the tropic-bird recorded from the

Nicobars as dethereus by Blyth (1846 b : 374) was of this species ; there

is no other record. The species is noted for the Nicobars with a query,

probably correctly, in the SYNOPSIS.

*19. Phaethon lepturus lepturus Daudin (Mauritius) Longtailed Tropic-

bird.

On 22 February 1966, while on M.V. Andamans (the day before we

reached Port Blair from Calcutta), a single all-white bird with a long

ribbon-like tail reminiscent of a Paradise Flycatcher, flew over the ship.

It was quite close and, as it is unlikely that I would have missed the red

bill of P. aethereus or the red tail of P. rubricauda, I assume that it was of

this species. Earlier in the day, a couple were seen in the distance but

the tail and other details were not visible even through binoculars.

37, Ardea purpurea manilensis Meyen (Philippines) Purple Heron.

1 2 Trinkut, Central Nicobars. Wing 363; tarsus 126; bill 125.

The specimen is in immature plumage which cannot be quite matched

among the others in the Bombay collection. It is our only record from

the Nicobars, where it had been seen by Abbott and Kloss (in Richmond,

1903). On my return journey, several were seen in a snipe marsh near

Bambooflats, South Andamans, on 18 March.

( ). Ardea sumatrana sumatrana Raffles (Sumatra) Dusky Grey Heron.

Except for the birds said to have been seen at Trinkut, Katchal, and

Great Nicobar by Abbott and Kloss (who also saw A. purpurea), thére

are no records from the Andamans or the Nicobars.

39. Butorides striatus spodiogaster Sharpe (Andamans and Nicobars)

Little Green Heron.

3 3, 3 22, 1 o? Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars ; 2 9° Car Nicobar :

U.S. Nat. Mus.: 1 @ Little Nicobar.

21 In Ibis 1966 : 628 A. S. Cheke reports seeing one Procellaria Pacifica Gmelin

(synopsis No, 9) at 05° 59’ N., 93° 29’ E, in the Bay of Bengal on 8 August,

THE BIRDS Of THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 151

- Butler (1900 : 153) said that in the Nicobars (Car Nicobar ?) they

were so numerous that at low tide 20 or 30 could be counted at one

time. J saw one at a freshwater pool at Trinkut and another on the

shore at Nancowry. After I left, however, Shekar and Grubh found

them common in patches of mangrove and obtained several more.

Including those at the British Museum (N.H.) the 7 males and 17

females available measured :

Males Females

Wings

Andamans 3 161-168(2) av. 165-6 8 161-171 av. 167°6

Car Nicobar (0) ena, a oN ae eae 2 172-173 av. 172°5

Central Nicobars 3 (1 mltg) av. 180 6 168-181 av. 173°8

erties NICODAE HY cckoiiend harem dA Sees ae 1 184 184

Great Nicobar ; 1 188 USS ae pe eRe cas NE We

Bills

- Andamans 3 56(2)-60 av. 56°6 8 51-60 av. 5575

Car Nicobar Cote he idk Weert Mas 29-57 (2) av... D7.

Central Nicobars 3 56-61 av. 57°6 6 57-63 av. 59°8

WittleyNicobatsey! Ta. sek ceo e daca 1 65 65

Great Nicobar 1 5 65 OG ees oe Se

An increase in size southwards is noticeable but this cannot, except

in the last, be associated with any differences in colour. The specimen

(B.M. No. 13.3.73), the only one from Great Nicobar, in addition to its

larger size is a much paler green above. U.S. National Museum Sp.

No. 178305 obtained by Dr. Abbott at Little Nicobar is in immature

plumage but also larger than the others. More specimens would prob-

ably indicate a separation of the southernmost birds.

42. Ardeola grayii grayii (Sykes) (Dukhun) Pond Heron or Paddy-

bird.

In my earlier paper (1965:501) I had questioned the published

evidence for the occurrence of the Pond Heron from the Nicobars.

The British Museum (N.H.) however holds a specimen marked Camorta,

originally correctly identified but found boxed with A. bacchus. Though

individuals are larger, most grayii have their wings under 200 mm. against

over 220 in bacchus. The latter in non-breeding plumage can be sepa-

rated from grayii by the broader and yellower streaks on a more rufous-

brown head. It would however appear to be rare in the Nicobars.

43. Ardeola bacchus (Bonaparte) (Malay Peninsula) Chinese Pond

Heron.

I had discredited the record of this species from the Andamans, as

it appeared to be based on a single juvenile listed by Sharpe (1898:

212), in which plumage this species was said to be inseparable from

grayii. B.M. Sp. No. 92.2.4.253 (0? wing 216), marked ‘ Andamans’

and boxed with grayii, has rufous feathers scattered round head and

152. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

neck and suggested bacchus. Dr. Biswas who examined the specimen

at my request also thinks that it is this species.

44. Bubulcus ibis coromandus (Boddaert) (Coromandel) Cattle Egret.

Abbott and Kloss (loc. cit. : 313) obtained an adult at Tillangchong,

but there appears to be no other record from the Nicobars. Hume

(1874 : 76) refers to seeing one in Galatea Bay, Great Nicobar, but later

(p. 309) specifically stated that it was not observed in the Nicobars.

As in my earlier paper I have referred to none being seen in breeding

plumage, I must mention that on 18 March 1966 many in a flock of

25-30 birds seen near Port Blair were acquiring it.

*46. LEgretta alba modesta (J. E. Gray) (India) Large Egret.

As already recorded by me (1966a : 554), a specimen obtained on

North Button Island, Ritchie’s Archipelago, Middle Andamans, and

originally noted as Egretta i. intermedia, is of this species and establishes

its occurrence in this area.

[47. Egretta intermedia intermedia (Wagler) (Java) Middle Egret.

My earlier record of this species was erroneous (see above). Butler

(1900 : 151) said it was found in both the Andamans and the Nicobars

but there appears to be no evidence in addition to Hume’s (1874 : 303)

statement that, though he ‘ thought he saw it in the Nicobars, it is

impossible to be certain’. Until further evidence is available it may be

best to. remove this species from the avifauna of both the groups.]

( ). Egretta garzetta subsp. Little Egret.

In 1965 (p.503) I had referred to the possibility of the birds from the

Andamans and Nicobars being of the black-footed form nigripes from

the Sunda Islands. The Zoological Survey’s collection includes a female

from Mannarghat, South Andamans, in which the feet are now con-

colorous with the legs, but similar conditions obtain in specimens from

Peninsular India. This character therefore does not appear to be of

value unless noted in the field.

Sharpe (1898 : 122) refers to one collected at Trinkut, Nicobars.

We did not meet this species.

51. Egretta sacra (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Reef Heron.

3 $$ (including 2 white), 1 9 Car Nicobar; 1 2 Camorta. ZcoL. Survey: 1 3,

1 2 Car Nicobar ; 2 33, 1 2 Great Nicobar.

This heron in its different plumages of white and grey of different

shades and extent is common along the rocky shores of most islands.

~The 10 specimens available (6 males, 4 females) include 2 white

birds (both males) one of which has no plumes on the back and neck as

are present in all the others ; the other is asymmetrically marked with

grey. Another grey bird appears to be moulting to a darker grey.

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 153

The sexes show no apparent differences in measurement which are

slightly smaller than those indicated in the FAUNA (6 : 352) with, perhaps,

a slight tendency to become smaller southwards :

Wing 247-278 (250-293, not 280-293 as printed in the earli.r paper (1965 : 503)] ;

tail 78-94 (93-98), tarsus 6C-68 (72-77) ; culmen 70-85 (70-86).

52. Nycticorax nycticorax nycticorax (Linnaeus) (Southern Europe)

Night Heron.

Davison (Hume 1874 : 315) saw several on the freshwater pools of

Trinkut Island (Nicobars) but there are no subsequent records and

we failed to find it.

54. Gorsachius melanolophus minor Hachisuka (Katchal Is., Nicobars)

Malay or Tiger Bittern.

ZooL. SURVEY : | 3, Great Nicobar. Wing 236 ; bill 42 ; tail 87.

Hume obtained specimens at Tillangchong and Camorta, and

Seymour Sewell saw a pair at Camorta, but we did not meet it.

Boden Kloss (bis 1927: 526-527) had questioned the validity of

this race, but the four specimens from Nicobars, Katchal, and Camorta

(2) in the British Museum are noticeably smaller :

Wings Bills

Nicobars (4) 226-235 41-44

India, Burma, and Malaya (FAUNA) 255-281 43-49

Two of them are in chestnut plumage and have their black crests tipped

with chestnut instead of being all-black as in those from all other places.

The single specimen from Great Nicobar mentioned above is small

(wing 236), but though in a chestnut stage has an all-black crest.

56. Ixobrychus cinnamomeus (Gmelin) (China) Chestnut Bittern.

10? Trinkut, Central Nicobars. Wing 160; bill 53; tarsus 50.

The specimen, obtained at a swampy pool in forest, was the only

one seen. Hume obtained it at Tillangchong and Preparis, and Kloss

at Camorta.

The wings of 17 specimens in the Bombay collection measure 151-

160 av. 155°6, indicating that the figures 138-149 (once 156) in the FAUNA

are in error. Indian birds in immature plumage have a central streak

down the neck with supplementary streaks at the sides. The single

specimen from the Nicobars has only the central streak, a character

shared with two more from the Andamans at the British Museum

examined by Dr. Biswas. With more material, this matter may be

worth further examination.

57. Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin) (China) Yellow Bittern.

1 Q Bambooflats, South Andamans; 2 ¢2 Trinkut, Central Nicobars. Zoot.

SuRVEY : 1 ¢, 1 2 Great Nicobar.

One bird, obtained at Trinkut at midday, was in a hunting posture.

154. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Though the usual measurements of the bird from the South Andamans

are not appreciably smaller than in the others, the bird looked in-

ordinately small when picked up.

Including 7 at the British Museum (re-examined by Dr. Biswas)

eleven skins (1 ¢ and 10 99) from the Andamans and Central Nicobars

are all in sub-adult (?) plumage, while the 2 from Great Nicobar shows

the adult plumage with unmarked olive green sheen above. Though

the number of specimens is small, there does appear to be an indication

of the absence of the adult plumage in the Andaman and Nicobar

(excluding Great Nicobar) birds and also of a preponderance of females.

88. Dendrocygna javanica (Horsfield) (Java) Lesser Whistling Teal.

At Little Andaman (24 February) we were told of ‘ hundreds of

duck ’ at a pool a mile away from the landing and Benjamin took me to

a pond on Trinkut where he expected to find duck, but the water was

low and no duck. Both were presumably references to Whistling Teal,

for Butler said it was abundant on some of the Nicobars and Kloss saw

a peregrine make a dash at a flock at Camorta (Richmond 1903 : 307).

[94. Anas crecca crecca Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Teal.

In my earlier report (1965 : 505) I have given reasons for omitting

the references to this bird in the Andamans and Nicobars in Stuart

Baker’s INDIAN DUCKS AND THEIR ALLIES |

*96. Anas gibberifrons albogularis (Hume) (Andamans) Grey Teal.

Fleming, Proc. Biol. Soc. Washington (1911, 24:215) described a

white-headed race /Jeucoparea from North Reef Island, off North

Andamans, but this has not been accepted by subsequent workers. I

had overlooked 3 old skins from Port Blair, South Andamans, in the

Bombay Collection, which have a varying amount of grey on the chin,

separating them from the 5 from Middle Andamans, obtained on my

earlier trip, all of which have pure white chins.

Dr. Biswas, to whom I referred this matter, said there were only 2

skins of /eucoparea (including a paratype) in the British Museum, but

they looked quite different from those from the South Andamans ; the

white on the head however was variable and did not warrant any firm

opinion, leaving the validity of a northern race still to be determined.

141. Accipiter badius butleri (Gurney) (Car Nicobar) Shikra.

We did not find this species on Car Nicobar. Butler said they kept

almost exclusively to the tops of high trees and had a shrill little double

cry exactly like that of the Indian Shikra.

' THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 155

? 142. Accipiter badius obsoletus (Richmond) (Katchal Is., Nicobars)

| Shikra.

1 g Camorta, Central Nicobars.

In the absence of material for comparison both in Bombay and at

the British Museum, it is not possible to be certain of the identity of

the single specimen obtained. The type specimens obtained by Abbott

had crimson irides, while they were noted as orange-yellow in the present

specimen.

143. Accipiter soloensis (Horsfield) (Java) Horsfield’s Goshawk.

I saw a Single bird in a coconut grove at Car Nicobar on 15th March.

Until it settled, it looked more like an albinoid Koel than a Shikra.

Though I did not see another, it is apparently a common migrant to

the Nicobars, Abbott and Kloss having obtained 12 specimens on

Katchal and Great and Little Nicobars.

152. Accipiter virgatus gularis (Temminck & Schlegel) (Japan) Eastern

Sparrow-Hawk.

1 2 Camorta, Central Nicobars.

This bird was identified by Biswas at the British Museum. There

does not appear to be any earlier record of this bird in the Nicobar

Islands, though it is the form accepted as nesting in South Andamans.

173. Haliaeetus leucogaster (Gmelin) (Prince’s Is., Indonesia) White-

bellied Sea Eagle. Car Nicobarese : Muttayeya'

1 ¢ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar; 1 juv.o? Port Blair (coll. Norman Young).

ZOOL. SURVEY : | g¢ Mannarghat, South Andamans.

This large eagle was seen at all the camps throughout the Nicobars.

As on the last trip to the Andamans, I did not hear the kak-kak-kak

call so distinctive in India. Grubh describes a very different sound.

He also found a nest with one young on a high tree at Car Nicobar in

early April. Hume (1874: 143) saw a nest 80’ up at Nancowry. The

Specimen shot at Campbell Bay had a squid in its stomach, while at

Camorta it was said to attack poultry.

200. Spilornis elgini (Blyth) (South Andaman Island) Dark Andaman

Serpent Eagle. 3

The only record from the Nicobars is a specimen in the British

Museum referred to by Blanford (FAUNA 2: 362). There appears to

be no reference to it in the papers and/or lists of those who have visited

the Nicobars, and it may well be an error in labelling. Biswas examined

the material at the British Museum and confirms my earlier opinion

* This and other local names are from Butler (1899),

156 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

that the dark e/gini and pale davisoni are very different and adds that,

in addition to coarser and larger legs and feet, davisoni has larger and

stouter claws.

The Zoological Survey obtained a gj and a @ of the tock form obi

at Wrafter Creek, South Andamans, on 19 March 1964. Both have

their wings 380 mm., which measurement is identical with the wing of

the female obtained by me at Mannarghat, S.A., a little earlier. Curiously,

2 females of davisoni from South and Middle Andamans obtained on

my earlier trip had their wing, 393 mm. The tail shows some variation,

elgini 221-230, davisoni 238-250.

201. Spilornis cheela minimus Hume (Camorta, Nicobar Islands) Serpent

Eagle.

A small eagle circling high over grassland on Trinkut, with a lot of

white on the underparts, was probably of this species.

202. Spilornis cheela klossi Richmond (Pulo Kunyi, Great Nicobar Is.)

Serpent Eagle.

ZOOL. SURVEY: | 3, 1 0? Great Nicobar. Wings 262, 255; tails 168(2); bills

S10 28:

Twice seen perched on high trees in heavy forest in Great Nicobar.

It was an amusing miniature of the ordinary serpenteagle. Both sat quietly

like an owl, ignoring the ‘22 bullets which went past them. On both

occasions, I dropped the bird but was unable to find it and it is possible

that they were entangled among the climbers and never reached the

ground. None were seen circling or heard, a difference in habit which

may be another good reason for treating this as a separate species as

has been done by Dean Amadon (1964, Taxonomic Notes on Birds of

Prey, Am. Mus. Novit. No. 2166).

(). Pandion haliaetus subsp. Osprey.

Further to my records from the Andamans I saw one at Campbell

Bay, Great Nicobar. The former were noted as of the nominate race,

but I have since noticed that the Australian race P. h. cristatus Vieillot

has been recorded from Malaya and Java and, in the absence of a

specimen, it may be more prudent to leave this racially unnamed.

211. Falco peregrinus peregrinator Sundevall (Indian Ocean, off Nicobar

Islands) Shahin.

In addition to the type, one believed to be of this race was collected

by Abbott at Camorta in February.

225. Megapodius freycinet nicobariensis Blyth (Nicobar Is.) Megapode.

2 $$ Nancowry. Wings 220, 239 ; tarsus 60, 64.

Both birds are greyish below and olive brown above, appearing very

Fee Qo

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 157

different from two old skins marked ‘ Nicobars’ in the Bombay collec-

tion, which are a rich rufous brown both above and below. One was

collected by S. S. Stevens in 1906, and the other bears no date. This

difference in colour has been said to be normal variation within the

race, but it appears exceptional and is possibly due to the excessive foxing

to which this species is said to be subject (Van Bemmel, Treubia 1947 :

19). At the British Museum I could find only one skin of this species

from the Nicobars, collected by W. Davison on 29-1-1873, almost black

above, and (from memory) quite different from those referred to earlier.

The label was further marked ‘ Died in captivity—originally brought

from Nancowry’. It was very similar to those collected by A. R.

Wallace and others further south, and one must assume that the locality

of origin is in error. :

This form is said to occur in all the Nicobar Islands except Car

Nicobar and Chaura, and south of the Sombrero Channel the Little

and Great Nicobars are occupied by the next race, abbotti.

226. Megapodius freycinet abbotti Oberholser (Little Nicobar Island)

Megapode.

At Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, we got glimpses of Megapodes

but failed to secure any. The Zoological Survey obtained one, but this

is not available for examination.

*246. Francolinus pondicerianus pondicerianus (Gmelin) (Pondicherry,

India) Grey Partridge.

In 1965, I had referred to this introduced bird being heard in city

_ limits at Haddo, Port Blair, in 1963 and 1964. When I passed through

again in March 1966, some additional building had been carried out and

more of the scrub removed. No partridge were seen or heard and no-

body could say that he had seen or heard it within the year. I do not

know how far it had spread and if it still exists.

The subspecific identity of the form introduced into the Andamans

can be confirmed as pondicerianus by Zoological Survey specimen

No. 29785, a female collected by R. V. Sherard at Port Blair on 21

March 1952, which has the centre of the throat ochraceous.

254. Coturnix chinensis trinkutensis (Richmond) (Trinkut Is., Nicobar

Group) Bluebreasted Quail. Car Nicobarese : Mul.

I spent a whole day on Trinkut Island where large areas of open

undulating country, over a mile wide, are covered with a thick coarse

grass, in search of this bird. A pair of dark quail was put up and

they both flew in the same direction. Shekar again visited the island

but, though he saw a few, he was unable to secure any. —

158 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

315a. Turnix tanki albiventris Hume (Andaman & Nicobar Is.)

Button Quail.

2 gg, 12 Trinkut & Camorta. Wings g¢ 83, 85; 2 90.

The pair from Trinkut was put up out of short grass at the end of a

long beat for the Bluebreasted Quail, on the border of tall grass and

forest. The male had slightly enlarged testes. On Camorta, it was

obtained in similar grassland on the hill near the Forest Rest House.

A bird from the Andamans was named albiventris by Hume (Stray

Feathers 1: 310) who later (op. cit. 2: 281) thought it was not worth

Separating. Blanford however accepted it both from the Andamans

and Nicobars, but subsequent authors have synonymised. it with the

nominate form (Type locality, Bengal).

The measurements of the three specimens agree with those of Indian

birds, but all three are much darker above with little or no rufous. The

rufous collar of the female is also much darker than in any from India.

While there can be little doubt that these are different from those

from India and Burma, the name albiventris was given to one from the

Andamans and I cannot say if they are identical.

330a. Rallus striatus nicobarensis Abdulali (Nancowry, Central

Nicobars) Bluebreasted Banded Rail.

1 ¢ Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

This was the only specimen met with. It has been separated from

the Andaman birds (Abdulali 1967b:420) but the form occurring in Car

Nicobar is yet undetermined.

345a. Amaurornis phoenicurus leucocephalus Abdulali (Car Nicobar).

4 gg, 12 Car Nicobar. Zoor. Survey: 1 9? Car Nicobar.

This is very common on Car Nicobar. In my Andaman report

(1965 : 514), I had referred to doubt being cast upon the validity of this

race. An examination of the material at the British Museum (N.H.)

revealed that they had no specimen from Car Nicobar. The five birds

obtained on this trip have their heads entirely white (more than in the

type specimen, extending down to the nape in a male and a female).

The Zoological Survey’s specimen No. 29865 from Car Nicobar has

less white on the forehead (15 mm.) and is also more olive-green above

and it would appear that the all-white head (and also the white forehead

of Indian birds) is the adult plumage acquired in the second year or

later, and in Jeucocephalus (which is restricted to Car Nicobar) is linked

with a change from an olive-green to a grey back. In my description

of Jeucocephalus 1 had referred to the difference in the amount of white

in the lower plumage. On an average, the Car Nicobar birds do show

more white, and it is in some insularis restricted to a narrow stripe down

the centre. There is much variation in the specimens from widely

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS — 159

separated parts of India and Burma, and in the absence of series from

any restricted area, it is not possible to compare them in this respect

with the birds from the Andamans and Nicobars, or to confirm that

they are all chinensis as now accepted.

( ). Amaurornis phoenicurus subsp. Whitebreasted Waterhen.

2 34, 2 92 Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars. Zoo. SURVEY : 1 ¢ Great

Nicobar. U.S. NAT. Mus.: 3 ¢¢, 19, 1 0? Trinkut, Katchal and Tillangchong

Central Nicobars ; 1 2 Great Nicobar.

The birds from the Central Nicobars appeared to differ from /euco-

cephalus and this is confirmed by the additional material from the U.S.

National Museum.

The white on the head extends only half-way across the top while

the upper parts are olive-grey as in insularis and not greyish. The speci-

mens available measure :

Andamans Car Nicobar Central Nicobars

~ insularis leucocephalus subsp.

Wings J 170-176 av. 172°5 165-176 av. 168°7 162-180 av. 171°5

oo 2 154-161 av. 158°3 160-162 av. 161 159-164 av. 161:2

Bills eek 40-42 av. 41:3 40-43 av. 41 41-45 av. 42°8

fe) 34-39 av. 37 36-37 av. 36°5 37-45 av. 40

White on 9-12 Head all white 18-28

forehead 2 9-13 in adult plumage 6-18

In the Central Nicobar birds the bills (and also the body) appear

much heavier than is suggested by the measurements.

The ¢ and 2 from Great Nicobar measure :

wings 158, 158; tail 61, 64; bill 34, 36 ; white on forehead 8, 8.

The olive-green upperparts indicate a similarity to imsularis but they

may both be juveniles of the race occurring in the Central Nicobars.

The single bird from Barren Island is included with those from the

Andamans.

In the absence of any material or literature for comparison with the

races described from Java and Timor, I can for the moment only draw

attention to these differences.

Incidentally at the British Museum, I saw some specimens marked

A. p. maldivus from the Maldives separated by Phillips and Sims (1958

Bull. B.O.C. 78 : 53) for more white on the forehead. These birds are

quite different from /eucocephalus, and I got the impression that a large

part of the additional white on the wings was asymmetrical, indicating

albinism.

Grubh’s note, that several were heard calling together in chorus

reminds me of Stockley’s statement (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 29 : 719)

that, in Siam in March, ‘ The report of a gun would set all the white-

breasted waterhens braying for miles along the river ’,

160 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

346. Gallicrex cinerea cinerea (Gmelin) (China) Water Cock or Kora.

1 2 Bambooflats, South Andamans.

A single bird was put up in a small valley of drying grass on Trinkut.

A & collected at Bambooflats, South Andamans, on 18th March has

a 180 mm. wing. A larger and darker bird was seen in the same area.

371. Pluvialis squatarola (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Grey Plover.

A largish plover with black legs and bill seen with a number of sand

plovers on a mud bank at Trinkut, Central Nicobars, was certainly this

species. It has been recorded from the Andamans, but not from the

Nicobars. ,

373. Pluvialis dominica fulva (Gmelin) (Tahiti) Golden Plover.

1 4, 1 @ Car Nicobar ; 1 ¢ Camorta, Central Nicobars. ZOOL. SURVEY: 1 ¢ Great

Nicobar.

Small parties were seen on Great Nicobar, Camorta, and Car Nicobar.

Ferrar (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 35 : 449) said that some summered in

the Andamans every year.

374. Charadrius leschenaultii leschenaultii Lesson (Pondicherry) Large

Sand Plover.

2 3g, 1 Q Camorta (2) and Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

The 3 specimens are grey above, without the brownish tinge in the 15

others from various parts of India in the Society’s collections. The

Nicobar birds also have distinct collars across the breast, those in the

males being more rufous than in the female.

In the FAUNA (6: 175), the wing is said to be 128-140, but there is

nothing under 138 mm. in the specimens examined. Ticehurst (Birds

of Sind, Ibis 1923 : 661) had referred to 139-150 mm. and this would

appear to be more correct.

In the field, when seen together, this bird is distinctly larger chad

Charadrius m. atrifrons and shows paler legs, though those of the latter

are not black.

384. Charadrius mongolus atrifrons Wagler (Bengal) Lesser Sand Plover.

2 99 Katchal Is., 11 March 1966. Zoot. SURVEY : 3 33, 2 22 Great Nicobar.

This species was seen at all the camps. In the hand the smaller

wing is sufficient to separate it from the previous species.

385. Numenius phaeopus phaeopus (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Whimbrel.

1 9 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar; 1 ¢ Camorta, Central Nicobars; 1 9 Car

Nicobar.

Whimbrel were common along the shore at allcamps. The tides run

up to the forests leaving no shore for the waders. At Campbell Bay,

a number were seen perched high up in a bare tree on the seaside at full

tide, and also heard calling from the forested side of the camp at night. -

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 161

- 388. Numenius arquata orientalis C. L. Brehm (East Indies) Curlew.

I did not notice it but, in addition to the specimen from the Nicobars

obtained by Von Pelzeln (Ball 1873 : 85), Seymour Sewell (1922 : 985)

noted them at Trinkut.

394. Tringa totanus eurhinus (Oberholser) (Tso Moriri Lake, Ladakh)

Redshank.

1 2 Car Nicobar.

Not numerous but occasionally seen at Campbell Bay and Pulu

Bhabi, Great.Nicobar, and at Camorta. The British Museum has

specimens collected in the Andamans in May, June, July, and September.

396. Tringa nebularia (Gunnerus) (Norway) Greenshank.

Hume (1874 : 299) did not obtain it but referred to a doubtful record

by Von Pelzeln in the Nicobars. I saw it in the Andamans in November

and. February.

? 398. Tringa glareola Linnaeus (Sweden) Wood Sandpiper.

_ This widespread wader occurs in the Andamans as far south as

Little Andaman (ZOOL. SURVEY specimen No. 29876) and has been ob-

tained at Acheen, North Sumatra. Though not yet noticed, it probably

passes through the Nicobars.

400. Tringa terek (Latham) (Terek River on Caspian Sea) Terek Sand-

piper.

I saw a single bird on the shore at Trinkut Island on 11 March and

this appears to be the first record of this species from the Nicobars.

401. Tringa hypoleucos hypoleucos Linnaeus (Sweden) Common Sand-

piper.

1 2 Katchal Is., Central Nicobars. ZooL. SURVEY : 2 g¢ Great Nicobar.

Though nowhere numerous, the Common Sandpiper was seen at all

the camps. Davison found them present in the Andamans on 12 May

and again on 24 August.

402. Arenaria interpres interpres (Linnaeus) (Sweden) Turnstone.

Hume noted it on many islands in the Andamans and Nicobars, and

Butler found them abundant at Port Blair in May and again in the

Nicobars in September. Isaw some on South Andamans on 17 March,

but did not notice any on the Nicobars.

406. Capella stenura (Bonaparte) (Sunda Islands) Pintail Snipe.

Hume saw it in the Nicobars. I shot one at a freshwater pool at

Trinkut on 11 March, and Seymour Sewell (1922 :981) noted it

at Camorta,

162 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

*411. Scolopax rusticola rusticola Linnaeus (Sweden) Woodcock.

In my earlier paper I had overlooked and omitted a record of this

species from Port Blair (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21 : 1085).

415. Calidris ruficollis (Pallas) (Southern Transbaikalia) Eastern Little

Stint.

In 1965, I referred to the conflicting reports regarding the occurrence

of this stint in the Andamans and Nicobars. Zoological Survey

specimen No. 20880 a female, wing 102, collected on Little Andaman

on 15 February 1961 is marked as of this species. It is greyer above than

most minutus available for examination, but can be matched with one

obtained near Bombay, which has a shorter wing. Stanford and

Ticehurst (Jbis 1935 : 276) when dealing with Burmese birds say that in

long series :

Wing Tarsus

J Q minutus measure oa 2-99 20-21°5 and

J 8 ruficallis .. 98-106 18°5-19°5

Other minutus from India have wings 104 and 105 mm., and there

appears to be no certain method of separating minutus from ruficollis

in the plumage in which they are with us.

It is accepted for the Andamans and Nicobars in SYNOPSIS.

416. Calidris minutus (Leisler) (Germany) Little Stint.

Hume (1874 : 298) named 12 birds from the area from December to

June as minutus and objected to Lord Walden’s identification of a

ruficollis. Later, Butler said both species were common along the

Andaman and Nicobar coasts in winter and he saw them up to May.

We did not notice any stints in the Nicobars.

[418. Calidris subminutus (Middendorff) (Stanovoi Mountains and

mouth of the Uda) Longtoed Stint.

Biswas when commenting on the SyNopsis (1964, J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 60 : 685) refers to a doubtful record from the Nicobars which

- may best be omitted.]

422. Calidris testaceus (Pallas) (Holland) Curlew-Sandpiper.

Davison and Butler both record it from the Andamans and Nicobars.

( ). Limicola falcinellus subsp. Broadbilled Sandpiper.

Asin the last, Davison and Butler both noted it in the Andamans and

Nicobars.

434. Dromas ardeola Paykull (India) Crab Plover.

Butler reported a flock of 60 or 70 birds on Car Nicobar. Abbott

saw them at Katchal and Great Nicobar. We failed to see any.

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 163

443. Glareola pratincola maldivarum J. R. Forster (Open sea in the lati-

tude of Maldive Islands) Collared Pratincole.

1 2 Car Nicobar.

Hume (1874 : 286) said it was found occasionally as a migrant in the

Andamans and Nicobars. Our single specimen was shot on the

aerodrome.

Vaurie in THE BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC FAUNA (p. 454) has treated

maldivarum as a separate species. In addition to the differences shown

in the tail (Abdulali, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 53 : 701), I now find that

the shaft of the first primary in this bird is always brownish or a sullied

white against shining white in the typical pratincola.

468. Sterna sumatrana sumatrana Raffles (Sumatra) Blacknaped Tern.

Blyth (1846b) said it bred abundantly in the Nicobars, but I have

been unable to trace any details.

At Pulu Bhabi, Great Nicobar, I saw in the distance an all-white

tern that may have been of this species but, as in the next two species,

the absence of specimens leaves an unfortunate uncertainty. In my

earlier paper (1965) I overlooked Stuart Baker’s statement in NIDIFI-

CATION (4: 383): ‘In the Andamans, Osmaston, Wickham and

Anderson, found them breeding on Snake Island and other islands in

company with colonies of Rosy Terns. ........ :

( ). Sterna anaethetus subsp. Brownwinged Tern.

At Nancowry, Central Nicobars, I think I saw on 28th February a

Brownwinged Tern, which has occurred as a straggler on the Andamans.

479. Sterna bengalensis bengalensis Lesson (Coasts of India) Lesser

Crested Tern.

This species, which I had obtained in the Andamans, has also been

recorded in the Nicobars (Blyth 1846 and 1863 b).

At Pulu Bhabi on 8 March, I saw a large tern dark grey/brown

above with an orange-red beak. In addition to the size, the fact that it

did not double back and periodically plunge into the water like benga-

lensis suggests bergii which, though not yet recorded, may well occur

in this area.

481. Anous stolidus pileatus (Scopoli) (Philippines) Noddy Tern.

This species has been obtained in the Andamans and Ripley

(SYNOPSIS) states that it nests on small islets in the Nicobars.

164 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

500. Treron pompadora chloroptera Blyth (Nicobars) Fompagour or

Greyfronted Green Pigeon.

1 3 1 Q (wing only) Campbell Bay, Great Nicobars ; 2 2? Katchal (1 wing only) :

3 $$ Camorta ; 1 0? Trinkut; 1 § Nancowry ; 2 $g,19 Car Nicobar. Zoot.

SuRVEY : 1 2 Great Nicobar.

This bird was seen at all camps occasionally in pairs, but usually

high and inaccessible. A female shot at Katchal on 26 February was

breeding.

This series is separable from andamanica Richmond by the lesser

amount of yellow in the wing forming one distinct bar rather than two

across the wing. The outer edge of the outermost primary coverts is

also whitish or white in contrast to yellow in the Andaman birds. A

similar character is visible in the undertail coverts. The Nicobar birds

are also. slightly paler green below, a difference very evident in series.

- Blyth (1846 : 370) said it had only been observed upon the Southern

Islands.

508. Ducula aenea nicobarica (Pelzeln), (Nicobars hereby restricted

to Car Nicobar.) Green Imperial Pigeon. |

1 3, 2 292 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar ; 3 Jf Camorta ; 1 2 Nancowry. Zoou.

, SuRVEY : 2 $3, 1 2 Great Nicobar.

* The Green Imperial Pigeon was perhaps the commonest bird in all

the forested areas and the chief objective of the Jocal shikari. Its call,

audible wherever one goes, permits its being traced and the nature of the

forest allows only a sitting shot. 10-15 may be obtained in a morning

if one’s attention is entirely devoted to it. The flesh is insipid and no

better than a Blue Rock’s. | |

The fruit of Ficus sp. was commonly eaten and one stomach eres

Syzygium sp.

A fledged young, being fed by its parent outside the nest, did not

have the expansible bill so noticeable in the adult.

Zoological Survey No. 29838 obtained at Car Nicobar is a young

bird with wing and tail both not fully grown. The undertail coverts are

dark chestnut as in andamanensis and the upperparts greener than in

adults. Many of those shot and examined had enlarged gonads. One

was (2 March) attempting to break off a dry twig, and another was

sitting on a typical pigeon/dove nest high up in a forest tree, quite out

of reach. D

Including material at the British Museum, I have the following table

of measurement :

Car Nicobar

Wings Tails

*6 Sh 253-265 av. 257 157-169 av. 161°5

3 22 246-250 av. 248 : 152-158 av. 155

* Both wing and tail were not measured in some instances,

a a a ae een

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 165

Central Nicobars

18 So 251-266 av. 258 160-176 av. 167

12 22 250-270 av. 258°4 152-167 av. 160°4

Great Nicobar

5 3g 255-270 av. 265°2 159-180 av. 173°6

5 22 266-274 av. 269°8 164-183 av. 173°6

The species increases in size southwards from the Andamans but

there appear to be no constant differences in the colourin the three groups

in the Nicobars. Insize however it iscurious that the material indicates

that, while the female is smaller than the male in Car Nicobar, she is as

large if not larger in Great Nicobar. While the evidence appears to be

insufficient to justify a new race, I have restricted the type locality of

Pelzeln’s nicobarica to Car Nicobar.

509. Ducula bicolor (Scopoli) (New Guinea) Pied Imperial . Pigeon

Car Nicobarese : Kaluia.

2 33, 12 Pulu Bhabi, Great Nicobar : 1 $ Camorta, Central Nicobars. ZOOL.

SuRVEY : 1 ¢ Great Nicobar (wing 245)

The males have their wings 237-245 (Camorta) against ‘ about 218-

231’ in FAUNA. At the British Museum I measured 6 males from Straits

of Malacca, North Borneo, and other places south of the Nicobars as

222-236 av. 228 while Biswas measured 14 males from the Nicobars as

228-248 av. 235. There appears to be no doubt that Nicobar birds in

series have larger wings than those from Malaya and southwards. All

four show varying degrees of ‘ creaminess ’ on the head and also on other

parts of the body. It had been suggested that this is due to stains from

nutmeg (Myristica sp.) and other fruits but, in the specimens available,

several feathers on the rump show yellow at the base, darkest when in

Sheath. The colour has disappeared at the tips and it is most pronounced

where covered by other feathers. In a separate note (1966b) I have

suggested that the creaminess on the head and other parts is acquired

on the bill and forehead from the yellow feathers on the rump and then

transferred to other places in the course of preening.

I saw a few flighting northwards on several evenings at Campbell

Bay, but far out of range. At Pulu Bhabi, on the west coast, they

were tame and plentiful in twos and threes on the coconuts in the village

of stilted huts. The two males collected had enlarged testes c. 25x 10 mm.,

while the female contained a shelled egg which has been preserved. At

Camorta and Trinkut they were quite common in some places and the

few examined all had enlarged gonads (mid-March). They have the

flapping flight of the Green Imperial, perhaps slightly faster.

In the Andaman paper (loc. cit. : 526), I referred to Osmaston having

found it common and breeding on North Sentinel Island, 17 miles ‘off

166 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

South Andamans. This is in error for South Sentinel. I also notice that

I omitted to draw attention to Ferrar’s (1934 : 214) interesting observa-

tion that on the same island, the pigeons used the roost of the flying

foxes, flying away to South Andamans at daybreak when the bats came in.

It has been referred to as a seasonal migrant also, but there appears to

be little evidence to indicate the nature of its movements.

Butler’s record of a chuckling hu, hu, hu was wrongly reproduced as

ku, ku, ku in my paper (loc. cit : 526).

( ). Columba livia subsp. Blue Rock Pigeon.

Quite a few pigeons, including white and parti-coloured birds, lived

in and around the Nankauri Trading Company’s establishment at

Nancowry. I also saw a flock circling the masjid at Port Blair. Boden

Kloss (1903) referred to their being introduced into Car Nicobar in 1898

and seeing numbers ‘in the vicinity of the bungalow in 1900’. I do not

know if they are still there. .

525a. Columba palumboides nicobarica (Walden) (Nicobars) Wood

Pigeon.

333 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar ; Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

As in the Andamans, this species was found in forest along with

Ducula aenea, though much rarer. The call is a deep whu similar to that

of D. a. nicobarica, but Benjamin could distinguish it as deeper and a

syllable shorter. In appearance and habits it is very similar to the

Imperial Green Pigeon, except that I got the impression that it was faster

on the wing.

A male shot at Campbell Bay had the basal halves of the upper and

lower mandible, a fleshy flap which covered the nostrils and the bare

patch round the eye, bright red. Iris orange-yellow. Tip of bill ivory-

white. Legs and feet magenta. Claws white.

The earlier notes on the races of this species were confusing. Stuart

Baker and Ripley have both dropped Walden’s nicobarica (1874) from

Trinkut and Nancowry, separated on the basis of ‘ the entire head, nape,

cheek and neck dark grey, and wanting the pearly-white or greyish-white

head, throat and nape’. Hume denied the validity of this difference,

an opinion which is confirmed by Salvadori (1893 : 308), where he lists

the types of nicobarica with those from the Andamans.

A colour plate accompanying Walden’s note on Andaman birds

(1873) shows a bird with a dark head, while that in Stuart Baker’s INDIAN

PIGEONS AND DOVES (p. 180) is whitish and very like what I obtained in the

Nicobars, but there is nothing to indicate the origin of the specimen

treated as a model.

Though the material at the British Museum (7 Andamans, 5 Nicabars)

did not definitely indicate that Nicobar birds had whiter heads than those

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS | 167

from the Andamans, the eight birds (four from each group) available

here clearly confirm this, in addition to which the southern birds have

longer wings and tails :

Wings Tails

Andamans 36(4) 242°5-257 av. 249°3 138-145 av. 141°5

Nicobars SS(7) 254-260 av. 256°7 145-165 av. 155°8

Andamans . ¢9(6) 240-254 av. 246°7 122-156 av. 139°8

Nicobars IL) a ear li tina ol 5 bps chase lt adn a Ma ee 162

They also have the middle toe (with claw) 47-48 (5 33 47-49) against

43-43°5 (3 33 429 43-46 av. 43°7). The measurements in parenthesis

relate to the specimens at the British Museum (N.H.) which were very

kindly obtained by Mr.. Derek Goodwin of that institution.

Though the original description is confused, it would appear that the

populations of the two groups of islands are distinct and it would be

correct to resuscitate Walden’s nicobarica.

527. Macropygia rufipennis rufipennis Blyth (Southern Nicobars)

Nicobar Cuckoo-Dove.

2 $3, 19 Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars. Zoot. Survey: 1 3, 19

Great Nicobar.

When I separated (1967: 421) the Andaman birds as andamanica

I assumed that the nominate race (described from ‘ Southern Nicobars ’)

would be found throughout the Nicobars. The large series (32

Andamans, 10 Nicobars) at the British Museum did not include any

from Car or Great Nicobar, but a male and a female collected on the

latter by the Zoological Survey differ from those from Central Nicobars

in the male appearing less rufous on the underparts and the female

appreciably more dusky on the upperparts. Blyth’s description also

stresses the rufous on the primaries, a character indistinct not only in

the two from Great Nicobar but also in a single specimen from Kondal

(which is near Great Nicobar) and in one of the two from Treis examined

at the British Museum.

Though Hume, Blanford, and others state generally that this bird is

common in both the Andamans and the Nicobars, we did not see it on

Car Nicobar; nor have I been able to trace any specimen or record from

this island. |

In the absence of any subsequent notes on its call, I must draw atten-

tion to Blyth’s statement (1846b : 372) that the ‘ call is hoarse, deep and

- subdued, a sort of croaking sound, only audible when very near, and

resembling ‘o-0-0-0-ah’ repeated several times successively ’.

It is curious that the males of this species should be barred on the

underparts while in M. unchall tusalia (Blyth) it is the female that is so

distinguished.

168 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

[539. Streptopelia chinensis tigrina (Temminck) (Java) Spotted Dove.

The only record of this species is a specimen brought in by Capt.

Lewis. As the origin of other specimens brought in by him has been

doubted, this species may be dropped, until SOE QUO ENING evidence is

available. |

*544, Chalcophaps indica maxima Hartert (Golapabung, South

Andamans) Emerald Dove.

Hartert separated the Andaman birds on their larger size indicating

wing measurements of :

333 157-164 192 165

I have measured 12 3 and 6 29 from the Andamans (including mate-

rial at the British Museum and from the Zoological Survey) and they are

very slightly larger than Indian birds :

3d So

Andamans 12 146-155 play 6 142-162 av. 14)°3

India 14 142-157 av. canes 25 8 138-150 av. 143:25

The box containing the Andaman specimens at the British Museum

held a note to the same effect by Derek Goodwin.

No other differences have been accepted, but I think that the Andaman

birds show some inclination towards the sootiness and other colour

characters which are more pronounced in those from the Nicobars. In

the 3 males now available from the Andamans, the two grey bars across

the lower back are less distinct, the lower parts are more uniform in

colour (the upper breast not darker than the lower as in Indian birds)

and the collar round the neck darker with less grey.

In the single female also, the lower belly shows less contrast with the

upper breast, and the two pale bars across the lower back are absent.

There is no grey on the head. The rufous on the upper tail coverts (a

character only seen in females) is more prominent than in any others in

the Bombay collection.

A male from Port Blair (B.M. 1889.2.2.88) has sabia 6 placed

iridescent spots on the under surface.

Gera Chatéopilays indica subsp. —

~ 1 9 (breeding) Camorta, Central Nicobars. U.S. Nat. Mus.: 3 ¢¢ Trinkut,

Tillangchong & Katchal, Central Nicobars; 1 g Great Nicobar.

The four males from the U.S. National Museum confirm Blyth’s

statement (1846b : 371) that the birds which abound in the Central

Nicobars differ from the Indian race ‘in the deeper ash-colour of the

nape, the bluer vinaceous hue of the underparts, while the bands on the

rump, so conspicuous in Indian birds and also in its UME near

ally Ch. chrysochloros, are very indistinct’.

In the single female a sooty wash replaces the rufous on the underparts,

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 169

round the neck, and on the upper tail coverts and makes it appreciably

different from Andaman and Indian birds.

The wings of the males measure 148 (Great Nicobar)—153 (Katchal)

(146-155 av. 151, in Andamans). Their tails, 73 (Tillangchong)—80

($ Trinkut and 2 Camorta) av. 79°7, are noticeably shorter than in

Indian (3 82-98 av. 90°4; @ 78-95 av. 87°3) and Andaman ¢ 84-96

av. 91; 2 84-90 av. 87) birds and it is probable that this character,

eecther with the sootiness and the absence of two bars on the rump,

left the impression of darkness noted in the field.

In colour characters, the Andaman males form a part of a

cline towards India, but the shorter tail, if supported by the colour

differences in a few more females, would warrant the separation of

Nicobar birds.

A male from the Rhio Archipelago (south of Sumatra) (U.S. Nat.

Mus. No. 181197) is very similar to those from the Nicobars.

( ). Calaenas nicobarica (Linnaeus) (Nicobars) Nicobar Meataes

ZooL. SURVEY: 1 3 Great Nicobar. ety SP.

Except for one doubtful sight record at Camorta, I failed to see this

bird.

I have (1965 : 529) referred to older records of thousands breeding on

Battye Malve, halfway between Car Nicobar and Central Nicobars.

This island is now used by the Indian Navy as a target for shelling and

it is possible that this has resulted in the destruction of its main breeding

grounds, and in a great reduction in its numbers. It has of course been

found nesting in other places also, e.g. South Sentinel Island by Osmaston.

It may be worth recalling that Osmaston noted that the egg can be

distinguished from that of Myristicivora (Ducula) bicolor by the colour of

the membrane underlying the shell imparting a delicate purple tinge to

the egg of the former, the other being pure white or faintly yellow.

553. Psittacula caniceps (Blyth) (Nicobars) Blyth’s Nicobar Parakeet.

1 g¢ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Wing 220; tail 347.

This species is restricted to the islands of Montschall, Kondal, and

Great Nicobar. At Campbell Bay, it was not uncommon and its harsh

raucous call—a loud kraan kraan, not unlike a crow’s, was often heard

and separated easily from the screeching of Psittacula longicauda.

It was however difficult to obtain specimens and I got the impression

that this was due to its habit of perching in leafy trees rather than on bare

branches as do other parakeets.

556. Psittacula longicauda nicobarica (Gould) (Nicobar Islands) Red-

cheeked Parakeet.

1 § Car Nicobar; 4 3¢, 3 92 Nancowry, Trinkut, Camorta; 3 gg, 1 2

Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. ZOOL. SURVEY: 4 gd, 3 99, 1 o? Great Nicobar.

This bird was frequently noted at all camps. The loud call is not

170 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

unlike that of Arameri in India, though it was uttered more often when

seated than in flight.

Eleven males from Great (7) and Central (4) Nicobars have wings

larger than indicated in the FAUNA, 192 (one 182)-202 (FAUNA 186-192).

The adult males have red bills, the green of the back broken by a

largish pale patch on the nape and upper back, and larger wings and tails

than the subadults with black bills.

Wings Tails

6 adult 33 195-202 av. 199°5 240 (one 160)-290

5 subadult gg 192 (one 182)-197 192-224

The 7 females are slightly smaller, wings 178-195 av. 189, and the

longest tail is 227 mm. One marked female has a red bill and the pale

nape patch as in the adult male, while another has only a partly red bill.

The other females have black bills.

The single specimen from Car Nicobar, a female taken on the earlier

trip, has one wing 198 mm. (other 191).

(566. Loriculus vernalis vernalis (Sparrman) (Cachar) Indian Lorikeet.

In my Andaman paper I have drawn attention to the absence of

specific evidence for its occurrence in the Nicobars. Abbott & Kloss

said that it was found ‘ everywhere in the Nicobars’, but their non-

mention of its occurrence in the Andamans leaves little doubt that

‘ Nicobars’ is in error for “ Andamans’. Hume’s (1874 : 81) statement

that it was seen on Kondal (between Great and Little Nicobars) loses

value when later on page 186 it transpires that the bird was seen by Wood-

Mason and not by Hume himself.]

*576. Cuculus micropterus micropterus Gould (Himalayas ; restricted

to Simla-Almora Districts, by Stuart Baker in FAUNA) Indian

Cuckoo.

ZOOL. SURVEY : 2 22 South Andamans. Wings 193, 197; tails 140, 145.

The two specimens obtained in March agree with Indian birds in size

and colour.

580. Cuculus saturatus saturatus Blyth (Nepal) Himalayan Cuckoo.

ZOOL. SURVEY : | 3 Great Nicobar. Wing 195.

Hume (1874: 83 and 190) saw and heard it in both the Andamans

and the Nicobars and obtained 2 specimens on Kondal. Butler also

noted it as not uncommon in both groups in the summer months. We

did not meet it.

586. Chalcites maculatus (Gmelin) (Ceylon) Emerald Cuckoo.

1 2 Teressa, Central Nicobars.

The specimen, shot during a 40-minute landing by Grubh and Shekar,

was the only one seen on the trip. The bird ‘ when obtained had a rufous

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 171

head ; the upperparts were green as in an Emerald Dove, but turned

coppery in 3 days’—a male obtained in the Palni Hills (B.N.H.S. Col.

No. 21781) in 1960 is still emerald green above. The bill was yellow,

with the anterior half black, and an orange gape.

587. Chalcites xanthorhynchus xanthorhynchus (Horsfield) (Java) Violet

Cuckoo.

This is included for the Nicobars in the SyNopsis, but I have not

noticed the original record.

[( ). Surniculus lugubris subsp. Drongo-Cuckoo.

Kloss (in Richmond 1903 : 302) refers to one shot and lost on Katchal

Island. It is rightly omitted in subsequent literature but it is also true

that no small drongo is known from the Nicobars.]

592, Eudynamys scolopacea dolosa Ripley (Barren Is., Andamans) Koel.

1 g Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar; 1 g¢ Nancowry, Central Nicobars. ZOoL.

SURVEY : 49° South Andamans. U.S. Nat. Mus.: 2 $d Barren Island and

Great Nicobar ; 2 99 Little Nicobar, 1 0? Car Nicobar.

Though the Koel was obtrusive to the ear at Campbell Bay, and also

frequently heard at the other camps, it was seldom seen and remained a

phantom sound foralongtime. Inthe absence of any crows it is difficult

to imagine their breeding here, though the Grackle and the Imperial

Pigeon have been suggested as possible hosts. In flight it appeared

appreciably larger than Indian birds as is supported by the measurements.

Wing Tail Bill

1 ¢ Barren Island 210 200 29

1 g Nancowry D5 207 6

1 $ Great Nicobar 230 218 34

5 92 South Andamans 196-212 av. 203°'2 181-206 av. 196°6 28:33 av. 31°8

2 92 Little Nicobar 201-211 191-197 (Moulting) 27°31

As indicated in my earlier paper, the wing-tail index in Andaman/

Nicobar birds is not very consistent, ranging between 91 and 99 as com-

pared to 91 to 103 in about 40 specimens from other parts of the country.

The Andaman and Nicobar females however are more consistently

marked with rufous above. The prominent rufous patch on the fore-

head visible in malayana from Assam (1) and Burma (2) is conspicuous

in some.

In addition to their wings and tails, the bills are also appreciably

larger than in Indian birds.

Be ie

*603. Centropus (sinensis) andamanensis Beavan (Andaman Islands)

Crow-Pheasant.

Nine specimens, from South (5) and Little (1) Andamans from the

Zoological Survey together with my earlier specimens (3) from South

Andamans, include only three males.

172 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

) 2

Wing 182-184 av. 183 180-198 av. 188°2

Tail 239-244 av. 241°5 228-261 av. 248°8

Bill 30732) ie av-g 31-34 =av.3 2°5

In my earlier paper, I referred to apparent differences both in size and

colour noticed in the field which were not substantiated by the specimens

obtained. It is now noticeable that the two males now available, which

are smaller than the females, represent the palest (4 March) and the

darkest (28 March) of the whole series, from which they are outstandingly

different. The females do not show an equivalent variation. All the

specimens were collected between 12 February and 28 March.

( ). Centropus sp.

Hume’s party saw a red and black Centropus which appeared larger

than andamanensis, both on Kondal Island in the Southern Nicobars

and on Southern Jolly Boy in MacPherson’s Strait, South Andamans.

Hume suggested that it may have been Centropus eurycercus Hay which

was procured at Acheen, a little further south in Sumatra.

618a. Otus scops nicobaricus (Hume) (Camorta, Central Nicobars)

Nicobar Scops Owl.

$ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Wing 164 mm.

The only one seen was this bird, which flew over a clearing while

I was waiting for bats. I do not remember having seen such hugely

developed testes (26X14 mm.) in any bird. The stomach contained

bits of a spider and a beetle (Apogonia ferruginea F.)

The fifth quill is longest, the first shorter than the eighth, and the

tarsus not fully feathered.

645. Ninox scutulata obscura Hume (Camorta, Nicobars). Brown

Hawk-Owl.

This hawk-owl, named from a single specimen, has been obtained at

Katchal and Car Nicobar (Richmond 1903 : 304) and extends into the

Andamans, where it is common in suitable habitats and where I had

obtained several. We did not see it in the Nicobars, nor hear anything

which we could associate with this bird.

647. Ninox affinis isolata Baker (Car Nicobar) Nicobar Hawk-Owl.

ZOOL. SURVEY : @ Great Nicobar. Wing 195 ; tail 216.

_ Stuart Baker who described this race states that it is found in Car

Nicobar, Trinkut, and Camorta Islands. Great Nicobar is omitted

but, in the absence of specimens for comparison, the specimen obtained

agrees with the description of the race—the wing and tail are longer

than in N. a. affinis. Compared witha 3 from Baratong, South Andamans

(ZOOL. SURVEY Reg. No. 29781) the secondaries and tertiaries are more

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 173

prominently barred with fulvous and the legs and feet much longer and

coarser. The tail tips are paler, almost white.

( ). Strix selaputo Horsfield (=S. orientalis Shaw) Malayan

Wood Owl.

Blyth (1846 : 369) referred to a specimen obtained by Capt. Lewis

in the Nicobars but not preserved, which he (Capt. Lewis) later identified

with a skin from Malaya. Hume (1876 : 283) said the owl which Tytler

saw and Capt. Beavan thought might be S. selaputo was probably a

Barn Owl (Strix De Roepstorffi).

Very few specimens of the different owls occurring in the Andamans

and Nicobars appear to have been collected and additional material is

necessary to clarify matters.

686. Collocalia fuciphaga inexpectata Hume (Andaman Islands) Grey-

rumped Swiftlet.

In the Synopsis this bird is mentioned for the Andamans and Nicobars.

Hume (1874 : 162) specifically referred to its absence from the Nicobars

(except for a yellow nest found on Katchal Island, Central Nicobars)

and Butler, who did not see it himself, said ‘ It occurs more rarely in the

Nicobars’ possibly referring to Jerdon’s statement? that some form of

Collocalia linchi or fuciphaga (presumably building an edible nest) was

found in the Nicobars. Abbott said they were shot at Camorta and

occasionally seen on the other islands. Though we did not see any on

this trip, I noted them as frequent on Car Nicobar on my former visit.

687. Collocalia esculenta affinis Beavan (Port Blair, South Andamans)

White-breasted Swiftlet. Car Nicobarese : Tulikoop

2 gd, 2 nestlings (in formalin) Car Nicobar; 1 g, 2 92, 1 o ? Camorta.

We found this swiftlet well distributed throughout the Andaman

and Nicobar Islands seeing them on Car Nicobar and at Camorta.

Abbott and Kloss obtained six females along the shore of Little Nicobar.

The 2 females from Car Nicobar appear to have greyer upper breasts

than the others, but this may be due to differences in preparation.

At Chiria Tapoo, South Andamans, we saw some going in and out

of an old Japanese concrete gunpit by the side of the road. Entering

it by a side entrance, I found several (5 or 6) groups or bunches of nests.

Each bunch consisted of 2 to 4 nests apparently haphazardly stuck

together. Several nests held C/2 but they were at such angles that it

did not appear possible that more than one nest in each group could

hold eggs, and the cursory examination also left the impression that

each egg-bearing nest was in a different group. I wrote to Lord Medway

whose reply reads in part: ‘ The situation you describe is common in

Collocalia colonies where conditions are such (perhaps dry atmosphere

2 Possibly based on Barbe (1846 : 356).

174. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

or lack of destructive organisms) that old nests do not fall regularly

after use. Especially where the ceiling is more or less horizontal, pen-

dant groups of clustered nests are often found—I have definitely observed

more than one nest in a bunch being used simultaneously, and I do not

think it is safe to infer that it is the successive nests of a single pair that

form such bunches.’

723. Alcedo atthis bengalensis Gmelin (Bengal) Common Kingfisher.

1 ¢ Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar ; 2 92 Camorta; 1g Car Nicobar. ZooL. SURVEY:

2 92 Great Nicobar.

All Alcedo kingfishers collected were of this species—contra 2 menin-

ting in the Andamans.

*726a. Alcedo meninting rufigastra Walden (South Andamans)

Andaman Blue-eared Kingfisher.

Earlier (1965 : 541) I said that col/tarti Stuart Baker from Assam

could be separated from rufigastra Walden from South Andamans, by

the former having more purple on the nape and sides of the head. The

large series at the British Museum showed great variations and no

specific differences were visible. The box contained a note by Mrs. Hall

that coltarti and scintillans (Stuart Baker, Bankaroon, Tenasserim)

are doubtfully separable from rufigastra.

*727, Ceyx erithacus erithacus (Linnaeus) (Benghala)

Breeding visitor (?) to Andamans (see under next form)

728. Ceyx erithacus macrocarus Oberholser (Great Nicobar) Three-

toed Kingfisher.

1 9 Campbell Bay. Zoot. SuRVEY : 2 $9, 1 0? Great Nicobar.

I saw this twice on Great Nicobar, the Zoological Survey obtained

3 specimens, and Abbott and Kloss 10 from Great and Little Nicobar.

At the British Museum, I examined 2 from Kondal (between Great and

Little Nicobar), and one from South Andamans. I have been unable

to separate them from Indian birds but the records appear to indicate

that (1) the species is a relatively rare breeding migrant to South

Andamans, (2) it has not been recorded from Car or Central Nicobars,

(3) it is common further south. Sims (1957) in a detailed study of this

species (Jour. Linnean Soc. of London 44 : 212-221) identifies Andaman

birds as of the nominate form (Type locality : Benghala) and the Nicobar

ones macrocarus.

*731a, Pelargopsis capensis osmastoni (Stuart Baker) Storkbilled ore.

fisher.

I had separated (1964: 414) the Andaman birds as shekarii for,

though it had been referred to as Ramphalcyon capensis osmastoni, no

formal description had been seen, leaving the latter apparently a nomen

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 175

nudem. Confirmation has since been found in a footnote on page 416

of Vol. 3 of Stuart Baker’s NIDIFICATION OF THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN

EMPIRE (1934) and this invalidates my name.

732. Pelargopsis capensis intermedia Hume (Galatea Bay, Nicobar)

1 2 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, Zoot. SuRveY: 1 2 Great Nicobar. Wings

. 152, 153 ; bill 80, damaged ; tail 97, 92.

This kingfisher, which is much brighter blue above than the Indian or

Andaman races, was not uncommon at Campbell Bay, but very elusive.

One seen in forest cackled like a woodpecker and appeared interested

(?) in hollow trees. The Burmese race burmanica has been known to

nest in river banks and in holes in trees. The specimen was obtained

on the seashore. We did not see it in the Central Nicobars. Though

Stuart Baker (FAUNA 4: 204) refers to an egg taken by Davison on Car

Nicobar, Hume (for whom Davison was collecting) quite clearly states

that it was seen only in ‘the southern division of the Nicobars ’ i.e.

excluding Car Nicobar, and this statement is confirmed by Butler.

There does not appear to be sufficient evidence to accept its occurrence

anywhere except on Great Nicobar.

739. Halcyon pileata (Boddaert) (China) Blackcapped Kingfisher.

1 2 Trinkut, Central Nicobars. Wing 129; bill 61. .

I saw one at Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar, and the specimen was

secured after I had left the Central Nicobars, being relatively rare in all

places.

743. Halcyon chloris occipitalis (Blyth) (Nicobars) Whitecollared

Kingfisher. Car Nicobarese : Sukkar.

2 $3, 1 9 Car Nicobar ; 3 gg, 5 92, 1 0? Central Nicobars.

This is one of the commonest birds on Car and Central Nicobars

and often found at inland pools and in forests. The call is a curious

cackle hardly like a kingfisher’s. Hume said it was found on all the

Nicobar Islands, and refers in his general account (1874 : 75) to seeing

it along with other birds at Galatea Bay, Great Nicobar. But we did

not notice it on Great Nicobar and I cannot trace any specific record

of its occurrence there nor is any specimen from Great or Little Nicobar

listed in Sharpe’s CATALOGUE (Sharpe 18 : 265). Itis possible that Hume

has erred as in the case of the Cattle Egret (q.v.).

In all races of this species both sexes are accepted as similar, but

Some individuals have the upper surface of their primaries and tails a

noticeably brighter blue than others. Examination reveals that of the

22 sexed specimens of davisoni and occipitalis from the Andamans

(3-++ ZOoL. SURVEY 5), Car Nicobar (7), and Central Nicobars (7), 8 of

the 9 males are so distinguished against only 2 of the 13 females. The

pale buff or rufous on the lower surface is linked with the blueness. In

176 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

one female the difference is not very pronounced, while the other was

obtained on the same day and place as the differing male which suggests

a possible mix-up in the labels. Blyth (1846a:51) has referred to a

similar difference in this race, and it is possible that a more detailed

examination may establish a difference between the sexes.

I have (1965 : 544) referred to earlier records of nests in ants’ nests

and Grubh found 3 eggs in a live termitarium in a tree 15 feet above

ground.

748. Merops philippinus philippinus Linnaeus (Philippine Islands) Blue-

tailed Bee-Eater.

2 66 Camorta and Trinkut ; 1 ° Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

Single birds and small parties were seen among trees in forest as well

as in open grass-covered plain.

870. Pitta sordida abbotti Richmond (Great Nicobar) Hooded, or

Greenbreasted, Pitta.

2 33, 1 2 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar.

All birds seen were flushed off the ground in heavy forest. They

appeared to fly low and to settle again on the ground, rather than up in

trees as does the Indian Pitta (P. brachyura). Grubh however did see

it perch on a branch a couple of feet from the ground. In flight the

bird appears dark though the white spots on the wing catch the eye.

917. Hirundo rustica gutturalis Scopoli (Philippines) Swallow.

1 0? Port Blair, South Andamans. Wing 112.

Swallows were seen at Car Nicobar (on last trip) and at Trinkut,

Central Nicobars, where a bird was shot (wing 112) but not preserved.

They were common at Port Blair in mid-March, and a specimen was

obtained there.

(920. MHirundo tahitica javanica Sparrman (Java) House Swallow.

Butler (1899 : 557) referred to this species as a common resident in

the Andamans, and said it was not recorded from the Nicobars ‘ but I

believe a swallow which I saw on Car Nicobar in August was_ this

species’. He also referred (1898 : 736) to a ‘ prettily pied’ specimen

which he shot at Port Blair, which note I had omitted in my earlier paper.

There does not appear to be any definite record of this bird from the

Nicobars. ]

*926. Hirundo daurica japonica Temminck and Schlegel (Japan)

Striated Swallow.

Vaurie (1959 : 13) refers to a specimen ‘doubtfully of this race ’

from Port Blair in the Andamans. He informs me (in epist.) that this

bird was obtained by Butler in January 1898, though it is not included |

in his list (Butler 1899, 1900).

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 177

950. Lanius cristatus lucionensis Linnaeus (Luzon) Brown Shrike.

2 dg, 1 2 Camorta, Central Nicobars ; 1 0? (juvenile) Car Nicobar.

This bird does not appear to have been recorded south of Car Nicobar.

In 1965 (pp. 547-8) I had referred to some confusion regarding the occur-

rence of the nominate form in the Andamans. At the British Museum

(N.H.) a large series from this area, collected mostly by Davison and

R. G. Wardlaw Ramsay, has been divided into two groups, one with

a grey head /ucionensis and the other brown cristatus. The bird with

brown head and upperparts which Dr. Ripley (loc. cit.) had identified

as an immature Jucionensis could be matched with one marked cristatus

(B.M. Reg. No. 86.11.1.1278). The other seven so marked (collected

between 27 March and 26 August) are all strongly barred in front, but

none of them has the distinct rufous cap which marks some of the

cristatus from Burma and Malaya.

- Stuart Baker (FAUNA 2 : 302) said that the young of L. c. lucionensis,

could be separated from L. c. cristatus at all stages by the greyer head,

while Chasen (1939, THE BIRDS OF THE MALAY PENINSULA 4: 339)

separates adult /ucionensis by the ‘ pale grey and not reddish-brown’

top of the head, and adds that in young birds ‘the upperparts are dull

brown and lack all reddish tinge’.

Though it has not been possible to examine this with sufficient care,

I am inclined to suggest that only one race occurs in this area. Osmaston

(1906a : 157) said it was a seasonal visitor to the Andamans arriving

in September and leaving in April. Though there is no evidence of its

breeding in this area it will be noticed that they have been collected in

June, July, and August.t

957. Oriolus chinensis macrourus Blyth (Nicobar Islands, Central Group)

Blacknaped Oriole. Car Nicobarese: Macheon.

Car Nicobar 3 gg, 1 2, 2 00?; Central Nicobars: 2 gg Nancowry, 2¢¢ 192

Camorta, 1 ¢, 1 2 Trinkut ; Great Nicobar 1 3. ZooL. SuRvVEY : Great Nicobar

4 3d, 5 99.

Blyth described this bird from the Nicobars without specifying any

island, but later (1846b: 370) said that it was observed only on the

Central Island.

The birds from the 3 groups of islands show no differences in size,

but Blyth in the original description refers to two small characters—a

slight margin of whitish to the longest primaries, and a slight yellow

border to the secondaries—which varies fairly consistently. In Car

Nicobar, the white margin to the primaries is more pronounced while in

Great Nicobar it is only visible in the juveniles and an immature female.

1 My specimens were re-examined by Dr. B. Biswas and Mr. P. K. Das at the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, together with the material available there, and

they agree that there is no satisfactory evidence for the occurrence of the nominate

form in the Andamans and Nicobars.—H. A.

178 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Similarly, the Car Nicobar birds have more yellow on the edges of the

secondaries, and this is absent in the southernmost birds which show a

completely black closed wing. With a larger series it may be possible to

name one or more subspecies.?.

981. Dicrurus paradiseus nicobariensis (Stuart Baker) (Kondal, Nicobars),

Racket-tailed Drongo.

2 33,2 92 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Zoot. SuRVEY:2 gg, 19 Great

Nicobar. |

This bird was quite frequently seen at Campbell Bay and again at

Car Nicobar where unfortunately no specimens were obtained. We have

no specific note of its being seen in the Central Nicobars. A male shot

on 27 February had enlarged gonads. About the same time, attention

was drawn to a bird calling from a nest in a bare tree some 80 feet up.

After we had located the call, the bird left the nest which was almost

immediately occupied by another.

Measurements of Andaman birds (otiosus Richmond) are compared

with those from Great Nicobar :

Andamans Great Nicobar

Wings

4 $3 153-164 av. 160°25 4 3d 150-156 av. 153°5

2 2 155-156 av. 155°5 3 92 147-155 av. 151:3

Bills (from anterior edge of nostril)

dg 24°5-26 24-25

@ 23°5-24 22 (one only, others damaged)

Tails

4 $$ 342-431 av. 382°5 3 $d 294-357 av. 346

2 22 344-351 av. 347°5 3 22 308-322 av. 315

The projections of the bare shaft and racket of the outer feathers

beyond the rest of the tail vary between 55 and 65% of the whole length

and do not show any differences in the two races.

The Great Nicobar birds (including one from Kondal at the British

Museum) are smaller in all respects, the most noticeable factor being the

width of the web of the racket.

Andamans Great Nicobar

Largest web in racket of tail

6 97 x23 89 x 17

O88 7 cx. 23 91 x 19

All Great Nicobar birds have a small but distinct crest, more evident

than in Andaman birds (cf. FAUNA 2 : 376 and 380).

986. Aplonis panayensis tytleri (Hume) (Andamans) Glossy Tree Stare.

Car Nicobarese : Tukkuliyv

4 3g, 1 9, 1 0? Car Nicobar.

2 Oberholser’s (1926) description of eusticrus from Car Nicobar is not available.

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 179

986a. Aplonis panayensis albiris Abdulali (Campbell Bay, Great

Nicobar).

6 gd, 4 22 Central Nicobars ; 6 gg, 3 92 Great Nicobar.

In most camps this was one of the commonest birds, being made more

prominent by its habit of perching on bare trees along the sea-shore—

Hume obtained 66 specimens.

In my earlier paper (1965 : 552), I drew attention to Hume’s general

statement that the irides in adults showed great variation ranging from

white through opalescent white, fleshy white, and pale pink to brown,

deep brown, deep red-brown, and deep orange. Later Abbott & Kloss

(in Richmond, 1903) said that the birds from Car Nicobar had brown

irides, while all from the central group and Great and Little Nicobars had

them white.

Large numbers were seen and quite a few handled on Great Nicobar,

Camorta, Trinkut, and Nancowry and, as they all, both adults and im-

mature (spotted), had white irides while those from Car Nicobar and the

Andamans had them brown, I have separated the southern white-eyed

birds as albiris (Abdulali, 1967a).

At Campbell Bay, a d in immature plumage had one testis 6 x3 mm.,

and the other half this size. In all cases, the males have slightly larger

wings than the females.

991. Sturnus erythropygius erythropygius (Blyth) (Car Nicobar) White-

headed Myna.

3 Sd, 2 22 Car Nicobar (including 3 on last trip).

This bird was quite common at Car Nicobar.

992. Sturnus erythropygius katchalensis (Richmond) (Katchal Is.,

Nicobars) Whiteheaded Myna.

Richmond in 1903 described katchalensis from Katchal in the Central

Nicobars as similar in size and appearance to andamanensis and suggested

that it was a hybrid population between andamanensis (which had been

introduced at Camorta 4 miles east) and erythropygius, which has been

accepted as probable in Ripley’s SYNOPSIS.

We did not see this bird at Camorta, Nancowry, or Trinkut and

there is no evidence that the population introduced at the first place

survived for any time. Nor is there any evidence that erythropygius

or any form of it occurred in Camorta, with which it could have

hybridised.

The U.S. National Museum lent me a male and female collected at

Katchal by Dr. Abbott, and a comparison with the fresh material from

the Andamans and Nicobars calls for the following remarks :

The FAUNA (3: 39/42) suggests that erythropygius is larger than

180 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

andamanensis, but except for slightly heavier bills the following measure-

ments do not confirm this :

Andamans

Wing Tail Bill Wing Tail Bill

2 gg 107 (worn)- 117 76-78 20°5-21 2 22 107-108 72-74 20-21

Car Nicobar

3 g& 110-112 76-78 23-24 2 QF 106-108 65-71 22-23

Katchal

1 ¢ 107. 64.65%, 71% 22° 1°Q 106 64-65* 22

Mr. Bond, very kindly examined the type and two other specimens

of katchalensis available to him ; his measurements are marked with an

asterisk. .

The birds from Katchal, in addition to their shorter tails differ from

andamanensis (as do erythropygius) in having rufous in the tail and the

undertail coverts, the latter being slightly paler than in erythropygius.

In andamanensis the undertail coverts only show a slight tinge of rufous

or none at all. Both the Katchal specimens showed dark-grey feathers

on the forehead and chin, but Mr. Bond informs me that this is a charac-

teristic of all of Abbott’s specimens and may be due to some preservative

that he used on the skins. From the evidence available, it would appear

that katchalensis is a separate form restricted to Katchal which is only a

few miles west of Camorta.

995. Sturnus sturninus (Pallas) (Dauria) Daurian Myna.

Hume (1874 : 251) refers to 2 shot out of a flock of 70-80 at Camorta,

and a third which flew on to the boat between Little Andaman and the

Nicobars. They were all in immature plumage. Hume did not appear

quite sure about their identification, and I wonder if the statement in the

SYNOPSIS that ‘it is probably a regular winter visitor to the Nicobars ’

is justified.

1006. Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus) (Pondicherry) Common Myna.

Abbott & Kloss (Richmond 1903) found them pretty numerous

about the abandoned settlement at Nancowry Harbour, and said it had

been introduced. We did not meet it and it has probably died out.

1018. Gracula religiosa andamanensis (Beavan) (Andamans) Hill Myna.

1 g, 2 22 Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

We did not meet it at Car Nicobar. Blyth (1846b : 369) said that it

was found in the southern Nicobars only.

1018a. Gracula religiosa halibrecta (Oberholser) (Little Nicobar).

2 3h, 2 9P Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Zoot. Survey :3 $2, 10? Great

Nicobar.

The birds from Great and Central Nicobars are in series more glossy

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 181

above than those from the Andamans. They also increase in size south-

wards, as may be seen from the following measurements which include

specimens measured at the British Museum :

Wings

Andamans 6 god 165-175 av. 169°5 2 160-166 av. 162°7

Central Nicobars 3 ¢¢ 172-179 av. 174°6 4 $2 167-170 av. 168:2

Great Nicobar 3 gS 180-182 av. 181 9 29 172-181 av. 177

Tails

Andamans 6 gob 81-86 av. 82°5 4 29 71-82 av. 77°75

Central Nicobars 1 ¢ 89 89 2 22 83-84 av. 83.5

Great Nicobar 2 oo 87-89 av. 88 9 22 83-95 av. 86°5

Bills*

Andamans 3 68 22°5-23 je)

Central Nicobars 1 ¢ 23 2 22 20-23

Great Nicobar 2 bod 20-22 5 22 19-22

* Measured from anterior nostril.

The birds from Great Nicobar can however be separated from all

the others by having the two large naked lappets joined at the back of the

neck at the top end, leaving no feathered portion in between. The gap

varies with the method of preparation of the skin and, though the lappets

are very close together in some from other places, none actually meet as

in the Great Nicobar.

Oberholser’s halibrecta was described from Little Nicobar as ‘ similar

to andamanensis from Andaman but larger. Wing 184°5 ; tail 93’.

Mr. Bond very kindly examined the type and tells me that although

the lappets are distorted ‘ they do indeed appear to be joined ’ and there

can be little doubt that the birds from Great and Little Nicobars are of

the same form.

The Oxford University Museum, which had some skins collected by

Osmaston (presumably in the Andamans and/or Nicobars), included 3

with the lappets touching but the labels bore no locality.

At the British Museum I handled a few skins from Central Nicobars

which were marked andamanensis and, though I noted them as ‘ similar

to intermedia but larger’, I am leaving them under andamanensis until

I have had the opportunity of examining a more representative series.

[1057a. Corvus macrorhynchos andamanensis Tytler (Port Blair,

Andamans) Jungle Crow.

A few were taken from Port Blair and released on Camorta (Hume

1874 : 244) but there is no evidence of their survival. Later, Hume in

* A second list of the Birds of Tenasserim’ (Stray Feathers 3:325) compares

Tenasserim birds with those from the Nicobars, but this is an apparent

slip for the Andamans.]

182 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

[1076. Coracina striata dobsoni (Ball) (Andamans) Barred Cuckoo-Shrike.

In my earlier paper (1965:557), #1 have referred. im error *to

Richmond’s measurements of this species from the Nicobars.

Richmond really referred to Andaman specimens and there is no

record of this species from the Nicobars.]

(). Lalage nigra davisoni Kloss (Nicobar Islands). Pied Cuckoo-

Shrike.

3 3d, 2 292,10? Trinkut & Camorta, Central Nicobars.

Stuart Baker (1924, FAUNA 2 : 341) restricted the type locality of L. n.

nigra (Forster, 1781 ‘ India’) to Camorta, in the Central Nicobars.

Boden Kloss (1926, Jour. Malayan Branch, Royal Asiatic Society 4: 158)

when naming the Nicobar race explained that Forster’s ‘India Orientale’

was not the same as India proper, and agreed to Bangs’ restriction

of the type locality to Singapore (Bull. Mus. Comp. Zool., Harvard,

EXYV 219225180).

I saw very few of these shrikes at Camorta and Trinkut, but Grubh

and Shekar obtained several. This has not been recorded from Car

Nicobar or Little and Great Nicobars, though Davison obtained it at

Acheen in northernmost Sumatra.

The birds were seen in small parties and appeared very like minivets

in their flight and general behaviour.

*1113. Pycnonotus atriceps fuscoflavescens (Hume) (Port Mouat and

Mt. Harriet, South Andamans). Black-headed Bulbul.

In 1965 (p. 558) I omitted to draw attention to the fact that the males

obtained differed from the two females in having a varying amount of

grey on the head, which was olive-green and concolorous with the back in

the females. A breeding male has the darkest, almost black, head, while

its underparts are also a clearer yellow as against various shades

of greenish-yellow in the others.

1122. Pycnonotus jocosus whistleri Deignan (Cinque Is., south of South

| Andamans) Redwhiskered Bulbul.

5 $3, 1 2 Trinkut and Camorta, Central Nicobars.

This was introduced into the Nicobars from Port Blair, and is quite

common at Trinkut and Camorta and, though not specifically noted,

probably at Nancowry too. There is no evidence of its occurrence

anywhere else on the Nicobars. |

1142. Hypsipetes nicobariensis Moore (Nicobars) Nicobar Bulbul.

7 &3, 2 99 Trinkut, Camorta, Nancowry, and Katchal, Central Nicobars.

Hume (1874) has contrary reports regarding its being seen on Great

Nicobar on pages 75 and 223 and may best be completely ignored. The

species appears restricted to the Central Nicobars where it was quite

common,

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 183

1402. Rhinomyias brunneata nicobarica Richmond (Great Nicobar).

Olive Flycatcher.

2 92 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Zoot. Survey: | g, 4 29, 1 0? Great Nicobar.

Several were seen in forestat Campbell Bay, keeping usually to within

10 feet of the ground. The call is very similar to the opening portion of

that of the Spotted Fantail Flycatcher (Rhipidura albogularis), but with-

out the ending ‘ to-tea, to-tea, to-tea.’

This bird is not known to occur north of Little Nicobar.

B.N.H.S. Sp. No. 22569 has an irregular patch of white on the upper

back.

1407. Muscicapa latirostris Raffles (Sumatra). Brown Flycatcher.

2 9° Car Nicobar; 10? Camorta, Central Nicobars.

We had noted it as common in the Andamans, but the present speci-

mens appear to be the only records for the Nicobars.

1464. Terpsiphone paradisi nicobarica Oates (Nicobars) Paradise Fly-

catcher.

2 33, 2 99, 1'0? -Trinkutand Camorta, Central Nicobars. ZOOL. SURVEY : 2 dé

(long-tailed white) Great Nicobar. U.S. Nar. Mus.: 6 $¢ Trinkut, Camorta,

Nancowry, and Katchal, Central Nicobars. .2 g¢ Great Nicobar (long-tailed

white) ; 3 92 Katchal, Central Nicobars.

Oates’s race nicobarica is generally accepted as occurring in both the

Andaman and the Nicobar Islands. Except for ‘ the tail of an adult

male [white ? H.A.] in the possession of Captain Bridge who shot it on

Mount Harriet, South Andaman’ (Davison in Hume 1874: 216) and

Butler’s (1899 : 401) statement that he saw it only twice in eight months,

I cannot trace any records of this species from the Andamans.

Butler said that in the Nicobars, he did not see any white adult male

but young birds were fairly numerous ; he, however, did not visit Great

Nicobar.

The fourteen from the Central Nicobars include 8 males (2 with

gonads in breeding condition) but none of them are white nor do they

have lengthened tails, while the 4 from Great Nicobar are ali white.

In the white phase, the upperparts are not pure white but have fine

streaks of black and the tail feathers, as in Burmese birds, are broadly

edged with black and the shafts of the longer feathers are black almost

along their whole length, with a longer gap of white in the Burmese

specimens available. Richmond (loc. cit.) said they differed from the

corresponding phase of T. affinis only in the central tail feathers, ‘ which

are much broader near the tips’. This character does not appear to be

-very satisfactory and, in the absence of a suitable range of specimens

- 1 [Inquiry at the British Museum (D. Goodwin) reveals that they have one

“all-white longtailed’? male each from South Andamans and Great Nicobar,

and two ‘‘short-tailed chestnut’ birds from Camorta, Central Nicobars.

184 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

from Burma, it is not possible to comment further. The black-chinned

males (6) from Centra] Nicobars have their tails 93-106 mm., while those

with grey chins and the females have them smaller, 82-88.

With the material and literature available, it is not possible to say

whether there are one or more races resident in the Andamans and

Nicobars, nor have we seen any definite evidence suggesting that any of

the migrant forms visit the islands. It appears probable that the birds

in the Andamans are non-breeding migrants while those from the Central

Nicobars are resident and lack a white phase. The white males from

Great Nicobar, either migrant or resident, are different. I have not

examined any from Car Nicobar, where they presumably occur.

1468. Monarcha azurea idiochora (Oberholser) (Car Nicobar) Black-

naped Flycatcher. Car Nicobarese : Kalong Tesa.

2 2° Car Nicobar (collected in 1964). U.S. Nat. Mus.: 1 3, 1 2 Car Nicobar.

They are as large as M. a. tytleri (Beavan) from the Andamans, but

have white on the lower underparts.

1469. Monarcha azurea nicobarica (Bianchi) (Nancowry, Central

Nicobars) Blacknaped Flycatcher.

1 6, 200? Central Nicobars; 4 34, 1 9 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Zoov.

SurRVEY : 2 gg, 3 99 Great Nicobar. U. S. Nat. Mus. : 3 $6, 4 22 Nancowry,

Camorta, Tillangchong, Central Nicobars ; 4 $¢ Great Nicobar.

The Blacknaped Flycatcher was not uncommon in forested areas,

keeping within 15 feet of the ground.

The 33 specimens from the Andamans and Nicobars measure :

Wing Tail Wing Tail

Andamans 3 66 71-75 av.73 70-73 av.71'3) 2 99 72-73 av.72°5 69-72 av.70°5

Car Fears ea Pr by TOME Le Pe ee 72 3 92 72-77 av.74'6 68-70 av.69

Nicobar

Central 5 3g 67-73 av.70°3 69-78 av.72°3 5 9° 65-70 av.67°8 60-67 av.63°6

Nicobars

Great

Nicobar 10 $¢ 63-70 av.66'3 56-67 av.65'1 4 99 66-67 av.63'5 57-62 av.60°7

The birds from the Andamans (tyt/eri) and Car Nicobar (idiochora)

are well separable while those from Central and Great Nicobars have

been accepted as nicobarica. From the material available it would appear

that the decline in size from Car Nicobar to Central Nicobars continues

southwards, to Great Nicobar. In addition to this slightly smaller size,

the Great Nicobar females differ in (a) being browner and less grey above,

(b) the blue of the head which is darker is distinct from the upper back

and does not grade into it. The Great Nicobar males are in colour more

like tytleri, except for the white axillaries, and more white on the under-

parts.

Without access to relevant literature and specimens from east and

south, I cannot now separate them.

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 185

In the syNopsis, Ripley omits Stuart Baker’s race sykesii (Type

locality : Deccan) and has the Chinese race styani extending over the

whole of India. While examining the Nicobar birds I had occasion to

look at Indian and Burmese specimens and found that 14 females from

peninsular India are greyish above as against 10 brownish from Assam

and Burma, only 4 being indeterminate. The males from south India

and Burma are also a deeper blue compared with those from Gujarat,

Berar, Hyderabad, and Kanker. This matter needs to be re-examined

with larger series from more places.

1500a. Cisticola juncidis malaya Lynes (Klang, Selangor, Malay State)

Fantail Warbler.

1 g Car Nicobar (1964) ; 3 gg, 2 29, 2 00? Trinkut and Camorta, Central Nicobars.

This bird was not uncommon in grassy areas. The Car Nicobar bird

was identified as malaya by Dr. Ripley, and the others from the Central

Nicobars appear to be the same. The FAUNA (2: 423) states that the

young are like the adults but with very yellow underparts. Two juveniles

(1 3, 1 2) collected at Camorta show much more yellow around the chin

and breast than in any specimens available from India, and have pro-

minent streaks on the head. Such streaking is present in the juveniles

and a female, but is absent in 3 males and indistinct in the fourth, all

collected at about the same season.

Abbott & Kloss have a sight record of a Cisticola presumably of

this kind, from Great Nicobar.

( ). Locustella certhiola subsp.

Both races centralasiae Sushkin and rubescens Blyth are said to occur

in the Andamans (Ripley 1962 : 462). Abbott & Kloss obtained one at

Camorta, Central Nicobars, but the race is not mentioned.

1544. Locustella lanceolata (Temminck) (Russia) Streaked Grasshopper

Warbler.

1 o? Trinkut, 1 0? Camorta, 1 ¢ Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

This warbler was first met in open grass-land on Trinkut Island, while

looking for the Blue-breasted Quail. When flushed it would fly low over

the grass and drop in without settlingin view. I do not recollect a greater

skulker and one, not rare, but so difficult to secure.

Compared with three from the Andamans at the British Museum

(N.H.) they are slightly larger :

Wings Tails

Andamans 50 (2)-51 32-39

Central Nicobars 54-55 39-42

All were collected between December and April and are slightly

smaller than the measurements in the HANDBOOK OF BRITISH BIRDS (2 :

40) wings 53-59, tails 42-50.

186 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

This species does not appear to have been recorded from the

Nicobars before. Is it a winter visitor ?

Incidentally, I have accepted the type locality as Russia (as in the

HANDBOOK, loc. cit.), because ‘ Mainz?’ as in the FAUNA and the SYNOPSIS,

though mentioned in the original description, was at the same time said

to be erroneous (See Ticehurst, J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31 : 497).

1549. Phragamaticola aedon aedon (Pallas) (Dauria) Thickbilled Warbler.

We did not meet this bird in the Nicobars but Davison and others

noted it as not uncommon in the Andamans (where we had obtained

one) and Davison obtained 18 specimens. They said it was rare in the

Nicobars, obtaining one at Camorta and seeing others on Tillangchong.

It is accepted as a cold weather visitor to this area.

( ). Phylloscopus tenellipes (Swinhoe) (Amoy) Palelegged Leaf Warbler.

I have nothing to add to the single record of a specimen captured on

a boat 10 miles east of Great Nicobar, which is not mentioned in the

SYNOPSIS.

1726. Mbonticola solitaria pandoo (Sykes) (Ghauts, Dukhun) Blue Rock

Thrush.

A young male obtained at Car Nicobar by Von Pelzeln is the only

record. Ripley (SYNOPSIS) states that the race needs confirmation.

1736. Zoothera citrina alboculan (Blyth) (Nicobars) Orangeheaded

Ground Thrush.

3 $3,107? Camorta and Nancowry, Central Nicobars ; 1 0 ? Car Nicobar.

The single bird from Car Nicobar has a slightly paler head than the

others and also less white on the chin. None have the olive green wash

on the upper back as in the Andaman bird (andamanensis), in which the

single specimen available has a rufous chin.

1864. Anthus cervinus (Pallas) (Siberia) Redthroated Pipit.

Hume and Davison (1875 : 242) recorded it from the Andamans and

Nicobars, and stated that in the latter it had only been observed on

Camorta, Central Nicobars.

1875. Mbotacilla flava thunbergi Billberg (Lapland) Greyheaded Yellow

Wagtail. .

1 2 Camorta, Central Nicobars.

21876. Mbotacilla flava beema (Sykes) Blueheaded Yellow Wagtail.

1g,10?. Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

This species was quite frequently seen in the Central Nicobars.

Richmond has referred to 3 specimens from Trinkut as M. flava presu-

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS 187

mably meaning the nominate form. One obtained by me in the

Andamans earlier was identified as thunbergi.as is one of the present three.

The other two (Nos. 22608 and 22609) appear to be beema, but I notice

that Vaurie in THE BIRDS OF THE PALEARCTIC FAUNA has included the

Andamans in the range of M.f. simillima Hartert which, though excluded.

in the SYNOPSIS, is mentioned among the wagtails ringed in Kerala

(Salim Ali 1963 J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60: 412). I am not in a posi-

tion to identify the specimens trinomially.

1884. Mbotacilla caspica caspica (Gmelin) (Caspian Sea) Grey Wagtail.

One was obtained at Car Nicobar on the last trip and the bird was

occasionally seen on Great Nicobar.

*1888. Motacilla alba leucopsis Gould (India) White Wagtail.

Hume (1874 : 237) was unable to determine what race occurred in

the Andamans, but I had overlooked the fact that he later (1876 : 291)

identified a single specimen as of this race (==/uzoniensis Scopoli) which

is accepted in the SYNOPSIS.

1914. Nectarinia jugularis klossi (Richmond) (Great Nicobar).

3 33, 4 92 Nancowry and Trinkut, Central Nicobars (including 2 collected in 1964)

1 3, 1 2 Campbell Bay, Great Nicobar. Zoou. SuRvEY : 1 9 Great Nicobar.

- Boden Kloss [Richmond 1903 : 298 (wrongly printed in my paper as

133)] refers to this bird as common at most camps and also saw nests

suspended from mangroves overhanging creeks. In the original descrip-

tion, birds from Car Nicobar, Trinkut and Tillangchong (Central

Nicobars), and Great and Little Nicobars are said to be of this race.

Including specimens at the British Museum (N.H.), birds from Kondal

and Great Nicobar have their bills 20-21 mm. against 17-18 in birds from

Nancowry, Trinkut, and Camorta but their wings and tails show no

differences in size. It is possible that a well prepared series would permit

the separation of these two groups.

Some of the males from Katchal, Camorta, and Kondal (at British

Museum) have the metallic portion of the forehead followed by brown.

1915. Nectarinia jugularis procelia (Oberholser) (Car Nicobar) Yellow-

breasted, or Olivebacked, Sunbird. Car Nicobarese : Raycha.

6 $d, 1 2 Car Nicobar.

This bird was quite common at Car Nicobar and more easily visible

than further south due to the opener nature of the forest. The bills

15°5-16°5 mm. are noticeably smaller than in any from further south.

1929a. Aethopyga siparaja nicobarica Hume (Kondal) Yellowbacked

Sunbird.

4 $3, 1 2 Great Nicobar. Zoox. SuRvEY : 1 2 Great Nicobar.

On Great Nicobar this species was often seen. It is restricted to the

188 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

southern islands of Kondal, Meree, and Little and Great Nicobars.

The females have slightly smaller wings than the males.

1936. Zosterops palpebrosa nicobarica Blyth (Nicobar Islands)White-eye.

2 33, 2 00? (2 in 1964) ; 2 gg, 1 2, 10? Trinkut and Nancowry, Central Nicobars.

U.S. Nat. Mus. : 446, 192,10? Barren Island; 13,19°,10? South Anda-

mans ; 2 $6, 2 $9, 1 0? Car Nicobar; 1 0? Trinkut, Central Nicobars.

All the specimens are less yellow and greener above than Indian birds,

and also have larger bills and shorter tails. No. 22897 a male collected

at Nancowry on 13 March 1966 has a yellow stripe running down the

middle of the breast, and connecting the yellow chin with the similarly

coloured vent, and which is presumably the character on which Richmond

separated ventralis, now synonymized with nicobarica. Birds from

Southern Burma (Tavoy) have been separated by Hume as auriventer

for this character, which is hardly noticeable in any of the Indian speci-

mens available.

In series, the Andaman and Barren Island birds are paler above and

have yellower rumps and heavier bills than those from Car and Central

Nicobars.

This bird has not been recorded from Great Nicobar and the adjacent

islands.

1970. Lonchura striata semistriata (Hume) (Nicobar Islands), White-

backed Munia.

2°66e 8 Peal Oe?

White-backed Munias were quite frequently seen in suitable country

in Car and Central Nicobars. The pale tipped feathers of the upper

breast are similar to the immature plumage of the Andaman race—

fumigata (Walden).

2046.

Camorta, Central Nicobars.

Emberiza aureola aureola Pallas (Irtysh River, Siberia) Yellow-

breasted Bunting.

Except for Hume’s (1874 : 258) reference to a single bird (out of a

flock of about 20) blown to pieces by Davison, there is no other record.

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———— (1873c): Notes. op. cit.

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196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

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sp. noy. op. cit. 3: 389-391.

Hume, A. O. (1876) : Additional notes

on the Avifauna of the Andaman Islands.

Op. cit. 4: 279-294.

—-—-—-—. (1876a) : The Laccadives and

the West coast. op. cit. 4: 413-483.

(1877): Notes. op. cit.

———— (1879): Notes. op. cit. 8:

496.

Koss, C. BopEN (1903): In the

Andamans and Nicobars. pp. 373. John

Murray, London.

(1927): A note on Gorsa-

chius melanolophus, Ibis, 1927 : 526-527.

MaARIEN, DANIEL (1950) : Notes on some

Asiatic Meropidae (Birds). J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 49: 151-164.

Mouart, F. J. (1863) : Adventures and

Researches among the Andaman

Islanders. Hurst & Blackett, London.

OBERHOLSER, H. C. (1926): Description

of nineteen new East Indian passerine

birds. Journ. Wash. Acad. of Sciences 16:

$15-522.

OsMASTON, B. B. (1905): A visit to

Narcondam. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

16 : 620-622.

—_—_—§— (1906a) : Notes on Andaman

birds with accounts of the nidification of

several species whose nests and eggs have

not been hitherto described. op. cit.

17 : 156-163, 486-491.

—— (1906b): Mangroves and

Paroquets. ;op- scl. 1737240.

(1907): A visit to Sentinel

cit. “18 <7 201-202:

(1908): A visit to Barren

Island, Andaman. op. cit. 18: 357-359.

Island. op.

—— (1933): Some Andaman

birds. op. cit. 35; 891-893:

PoErLoxK,’ Uri-Cou ) Bs W:) (1879) :

Sport in British Burmah, Assam, Cassyah

and Jyntiah Hills. 2 vols. Chapman &

Hall, Londen.

PoRTMAN, M. V. (1899): A history of

our relations with the Andamanese. 2

vols.

’ RICHMOND, CHARLES W. (1903) :

Birds collected by Dr. W. L. Abbott and

Mr. C. B. Kloss in the Andaman and

Nicobar Islands. Proc. U.S. Nat. Mus.

25 : 287-314.

Ripcey, I, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis

of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

Bombay Natural History Society,

Bombay.

ROBINSON, HERBERT C. (1927): The

Birds of the Malay Peninsula. The

Commoner Birds. H. F. & G. Witherby,

London.

ROBINSON, HERBERT, C. (1928): ditto.

The Birds of the Hill Stations. H. F. &

G. Witherby, London.

———— & CHASEN, F. N. (1936): ditto.

Sporting Birds. Birds of the Shore and

Estuaries. H. F. & G.Witherby, London:

SALVADOoRI, T. (1893): Catalogue of

Birds in the Collection of the British

Museum, XXI.

SEWELL, MAJorR R. B. SEYMOUR (1922) :

A survey season in the Nicobar Islands

on the R.I.M.S. ‘ Jnvestigator >, October

1921 to March 1922. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 28: 970-989.

SHARPE, R. BOWDLER (1898): Cata-

logue of Birds in the Collection of the

British Museum, XXVI

St. JOHN, J. H. (1898): Some notes

on Narcondam Hornbilletc. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soe. 12 : 212-214.

STAPYLTON, J. Muces (1933): Early

arrival of Snipe in the Andamans. op.

cit. 36: 507.

——— (1934): Early arrival of

Snipe in the Andamans. op. cit. 37: 224.

(1934): Migration and

decrease of Snipe in the Andamans. op.

cit. 37 : 493-494.

TYTLER, R. C. (1867), see BEAVAN

Capt. R. (1867).

VAuRIE, C. (1959): The Birds of the

Palearctic Fauna. Passeriformes.

Witherby.

— (1965): The Birds of the

Palearctic Fauna. Non-Passeriformes.

WALDEN, ARTHUR VISCOUNT (1866): >

Notes on Birds collected in Tenasserim

and in the Andaman Islands. Proc.

Zool. Soc. London : 537-556.

——— (1873): On a collection of

Ibis

birds from the Andaman Islands.

3 : 296-321.

———— (1874a): Description of

some new species of birds (Geocichla

andamanensis, —lanthaneas _ nicobarica,

Alcedo beavani). Ann. Mag. nat. Hist.

14: 156-158.

———— (1874b): On Megapodius

trinkutensis Sharpe. op. cit. 14: 163-164.

———— (1874c) : On a further collec-

tion of birds made by Lt. R. V. Ramsay,

F.Z.S., in the Andaman Islands (also by

Capt. Wimberley). . /bis 4: 127-149.

WHITEHEAD, J. H. (1912) : Woodcock

(Scolopax — rusticola) in Andamans

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 21: 1085.

WICKHAM, P. F. (1910) : A note on the

nesting of the Besra Sparrow Hawk

(Accipiter virgatus) and the Andaman

Nightjar (Caprimulgus andamanicus) in

the Andamans. op. cit. 19: 992-993.

WILiiaAMS, J. H. (1957): The Spotted

Deer. -Rupert Hart-Davis, London.

——y ee

1 Not seen in original.

Contribution to the Flora of

north-east Rajasthan!’

Be NS. VYAS

Department of Botany, M.B. College, Udaipur, Rajasthan

(With a map)

IN PROD UC Ei_ON

Rajasthan, one of the largest states of the Indian Union, includes

arid and semi-arid areas in the western, north-western, eastern, and north-

eastern regions. Information as to the ecological status of the vegeta-

tion in different parts of Rajasthan is fragmentary. There is no complete

published account of the flora of this region. Therefore, any contri-

bution to the study of the vegetation of this area is of interest and

importance.

A. striking geological feature of Rajasthan is the presence of the

Aravalli Range. This mountain chain divides Rajasthan into two regions,

eastern and western. The eastern half is rich in vegetation, the western

is unproductive and barren. Eastern Rajasthan is important geogra-

phically since it is close to Uttar Pradesh, Delhi and Madhya Pradesh.

So, an investigation into its vegetation is bound to reveal some interest-

ing facts as to the phytogeographical and geological status of Rajasthan,

-an aspect which seems to be unsettled so far (Wadia 1944).

Contributions to the vegetation of north-east Rajasthan have been

made by Mulay & Ratnam 1950 ; Ramachandran 1950 ; Ratnam 1951 ;

Bakshi 1954; Nair 1956; Nair & Nathawat 1956, 1957; Joshi 1958;

Sharma 1958 ; Nair & Kanodia 1959 ; Nair 1961 ; Sarup 1961 ; Mulay &

Mathur 1961 ; Nair, Kanodia, & Thomas 1961 ; and Vyas 1962. These

studies include areas like Pilani, Lohargal, Chirawa, Harshnath, Jaipur,

Ajmer, Ajit Sagar, Jhunjhunu, Bharatpur, Tonk, Khetari, and Jat

Samand—Alwar.

AREA OF STUDY

For the present ecological survey the area selected is Alwar District,

situated in the north-east of Rajasthan between latitudes 27° 5’ and 28°

+ A part ofa thesis approved for the Ph.D; degree by the University of Rajasthan,

192 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

10’ N. and longitudes 76° 10‘ and 77° 15’ E. at a height of 283 m.

above m.s.l. It is bounded by the districts of Gurgaon in the north,

HL) 25.0) Kin

> ©) 4/030 16 miles

V re

bs e

Maps showing general topography of the area surveyed

Gurgaon and Bharatpur in the east, Jaipur in the south, and Jaipur and

Patiala in the west.

The most important topographical feature in Alwar District is the

occurrence of long ridges of hills which run as a rule parallel to each

other from north or north-east to south or south-west. Their height

in some places goes above 760 m. The country is fairly open towards

the north-west and south-east with flat plains which lie between 300

and 400 m. above m.s.l. The chief rivers are the Sabi and the Ruparel.

The spots for the present study were selected so as to include a variety

of ecological habitats, such as hill-tops and slopes, alluvial and sandy

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 193

plains, river beds and water reservoirs and moist banks of such bunds.

The places taken into account are Alwar proper, Vijay Sagar, Jai

Samand, Pratap Bund, Bhura Sidh, Adapara, Hansarovar, Siliserh,

Naldeswar, Kalighati, Pandopol, sandy areas of Behror and Tijara and

the rivers Sabi and Ruparel.

CLIMATE

The climate is in general of the semi-arid type. The general average

annual rainfall is about 667 mm. distributed over 36 rainy days. An

interesting point observed is that the rainfall and the number of rainy

days have been slowly increasing. The average annual rainfall for the

five years 1956-1960, the period of this study, comes to 830 mm. distri-

buted over 42 rainy days. The mean annual temperature is about

32°6° C. The monthly mean maximum temperature varies between

20°3°C. in January and 44° C. in May. The mean minimum tempera-

ture varies from 6° C. in January to 31° C.in June. Loo (hot wind) is

prevalent during the summer, in the greater part of May and June.

GEOLOGY AND SOILS

The hill ranges in Alwar belong to two great systems, the Aravalli

and the Delhi. Both these systems of rocks are of metamorphic nature

consisting of mica schists, quartzites, limestones and sandstones.

The physical and chemical characteristics of the soils are the

following :

1. Gravel soils occur on the hills ; sand, silt, or sandy loam in

the plains ; and loam or clayey loam on the banks of water reservoirs.

2. The gravel and loamy soils are poor in carbonates and

chlorides. They are rich in nitrates and have pH ranging from 6°'5 to 7°5.

3. The sand and sandy loams are comparatively rich in carbonates

and chlorides. These soils are poor in nitrates. The pH value reaches

up to 8°5.

4. The humus content in the soil varies from season to season.

It is maximum in the winter season. Its value decreases with depth.

5. The water content of the soil is low except in the rainy

season.

6. River beds are characterized by soils with poor humus and

porosity.

BIoTIC FACTORS

Excessive grazing, local agricultural practices, white ants, and desert

locusts constitute the most important biotic factors affecting the vegeta-

tion at different phases of its development,

194 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY; Vol. 64 (2)

VEGETATIONAL ASPECT

The forests of Alwar fall under the category of deciduous forests of

the dry Rajputana region. Without being a desert type, the vegetation

is distinctly xerophytic in character. The forest cover is fairly dense

during the monsoon months both in the understorey and the growth of

the tops of the perennial species. There is an abrupt change in the

face of the vegetation as soon as winter sets in, due to low temperature,

soil drought, and increased adverse biotic activities. The hot season

is the best for the flowering of woody species and the worst month is

January. On the other hand, a large number of herbs and shrubs flower

in the cold season.

VEGETATION ON THE HILLS

Although the hill-sides are excessively stony and seem bare of soil, they

support an extraordinarily rich flora in both herbaceous and perennial

species. The typical lithophytic species are arranged in three elevational

zones : upper, middle, and lower. The upper zone is characterized by

tree species like Boswellia serrata (d)', Crataeva nuryala (c), Terminalia

belerica (f), Holoptelea integrifolia (0), Mallotus philippensis (1), -and

Euphorbia neriifolia (c). The middle zone is dominated by Anogeissus

pendula. This species is associated with Commiphora mukul (f), Lannea

coromandelica (r), Butea monosperma (f), Wrightia tinctoria (0), Acacia

catechu (c), etc. In the basal zone are found Tecomella undulata (r),

Dichrostachys cinerea (c), Acacia arabica (f), Gymnosporia spinosa (c), etc.

The common shrubs and undershrubs of such areas are Grewia

flavescens, Rhus mysorensis, Securinega leucopyrus, Randia tetrasperma,

Vitex negundo, Helicteres isora, and Capparis sepiaria.

The ground cover is fairly dense and does not show much effect of

zonation. During the rainy season this type of vegetation includes

species of Tephrosia, Abutilon, Desmodium, Boerhavia, Leucas, Justicia,

Sida, Ruellia, Glossocardia, Lindenbergia, Chloris, Heteropogon,

Eragrostis, etc. The herbaceous vegetation during the winter is com-

paratively poor and is represented by Blainvillea acmella, Vicoa indica,

Elytraria acaulis, Salvia aegyptiaca, Blumea napifolia, Solanum xantho-

carpum, Dichanthium annulatum, Imperata cylindrica, Aristida depressa,

Cynodon dactylon, etc.

VEGETATION OF VALLEYS

The perennial species of open and exposed valleys are Acacia arabica,

Butea monosperma, Balanites aegyptiaca, Opuntia dillenii, Lycium euro-

14=abundant; c=common; d=dominant; f=frequent ; o=occasional ;

t—Tate,

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN £95

paeum, Lantana camara, etc. The cool and shady valleys show a

luxuriant growth of Butea monosperma, Mitragyna parvifolia, Colebrookea

oppositifolia, Dendrocalamus strictus, and Wrightia tomentosa.

The characteristic herbaceous species of the shade are Plumbago

zeylanica, Ecbolium linneanum, Rungia parvifolia, Eranthemum nervosum,

and Elytraria acaulis.

VEGETATION OF THE SANDY PLAINS

‘The plains show a vegetation much poorer than that of the hills. The

perennial species are Prosopis spicigera(a), Capparis decidua(a), Acacia

senegal(c), Acacia leucopiloea(c), Acacia arabica(a), Salvadora oleoides(r),

Balanites aegyptiaca(c), Zizyphus nummularia(a), Calotropis procera(c),

Clerodendrum phlomidis(c), and Gymnosporia spinosa(c).

The rainy season vegetation is characterized by annuals like Tephrosia

purpurea, Boerhavia diffusa, Cleome viscosa, Cleome gynandra, Trian-

thema triquetra, Crotolaria trifoliastrum, Farsetia jacquemontii, Digera

muricata, Leucas mollissima, and grasses like Setaria glauca, Digitaria

sanguinalis, Tetrapogon tenellus, Brachiaria ramosa, and Eragrostis pilosa.

The common climbers and twiners are Cocculus pendulus, Vallaris

solanacea, Cryptostegia grandiflora, Vigna catjang, Ipomoea pes-tigridis,

etc.

The ephemeral vegetation generally does not continue beyond

November. The disappearance of the rainy season annuals is made

good by the winter annuals. The common species of this class are

Argemone mexicana, Fumaria indica, Fagonia cretica, Glinus lotoides,

Echinops echinatus, Chenopodium album, Polygonum plebejum, Carthamus

oxyacantha, Heliotropium eichwaldii, and grasses like Eragrostis ciliaris,

Sprorobolus tremulus and Cymbopogon jwarancusa.

VEGETATION OF RIVERSIDE AND TANK VICINITIES

Loamy plains are present on the banks of lakes and tanks. Water

margins in the rainy season show a luxuriant growth of Coldenia pro-

cumbens, Glinus lotoides, Eclipta prostrata, Borreria hispida, Bergia

ammannioides, Cynodon dactylon, Acrachne racemosa, Scirpus supinus,

Eleocharis geniculata, and Cyperus distans.

As the water level recedes the perennials encroach deeper into

the lake and wet meadow plants begin to grow. Such species are

Gnaphalium pulvinatum, Rumex dentatus, Ammania baccifera, Galium

asperifolium, Fimbristylis squarrosa, Cyperus conglomeratus, Echinochloa

crusgalli, Arthraxon lancifolius, and Eragrostis coarctata,

196 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

During April and May this type of vegetation is dominated by

Argemone mexicana, Xanthium strumarium and Echinops echinatus.

On the slopes of the lakes which are gravelly are found associations

of Saccharum bengalense, Sida grewioides, Zizyphus xylopyrus, Calotropis

procera, and Adhatoda vasica.

VEGETATION OF MARSHES

In such areas there are pure stands of Typha angustata. On the banks

of marshes are commonly found Bacopa monnieri, Ammania baccifera,

Phyla_ nodiflora, Limnophila heterophylla, and Cyperus eleusinoides.

In the puddles grow Potamogeton nodosus, Hygrorhiza aristata, Marsilea

minuta, Paspalum punctatum, and Chara sp.

HYDROPHYTES

The common floating species are Nymphoides indicum, Ipomoea

aquatica, Lemna minor, Potamogeton perfoliatus. The submerged

species are Hydrilla verticillata, Vallisneria spiralis, Utricularia stellaris,

Ceratophyllum demersum, and Potamogeton pectinatus.

WEEDS OF CULTIVATED FIELDS AND IRRIGATED GARDENS

This group includes Cleome viscosa, Cleome gynandra, Physalis

minima, Striga lutea, Digera muricata, Hibiscus lobatus, and Ipomoea

hispida as the weeds of kharif crop fields; Fumaria indica, Melilotus

indica, Solanum nigrum, Chenopodium album, Oligomeris glaucescens,

Saponaria vaccaria, Asphodelus tenuifolius, Spergula pentandra, etc. as

the weeds of rabi crop fields ; and Portulaca quadrifida, Oxalis repens,

Anagallis arvensis, Verbascum thapsus, Withania somnifera, and Rungia

parviflora as the weeds of irrigated gardens.

ROADSIDE PLANTS

During the hot months the plants found along the roadsides are

mostly hardy perennial shrubs and trees, introduced or indigenous to

the area. Such species are Prosopis juliflora, Albizzia lebbeck, Milling-

tonia hortensis, Melia azedarach, Tamarindus indica, Moringa ptery-

gosperma, Emblica officinalis, and several species of Ficus,

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE. RAJASTHAN 197

CRYPTOGAMS

The algal vegetation is fairly rich and is represented by a majority

of Myxophyceae and Chlorophyceae. A number of parasitic fungi

occur on both wild and cultivated plants.

The bryophytic and pteridophytic flora is mostly represented by

Riccia discolor, R. gangetica, R. plana, R. melanospora, R. billardieri,

Cyathodium sp., Plagiochasma sp., Metzeria raddi, Funaria sp., Actino-

pteris dichotoma, Adiantum caudatum, Dryopteris parasitica, Equisetum

debile, and Marsilea minuta.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION OF THE SPECIES

The following list of plants collected from the area has been arranged

according to Bentham & Hooker’s system of classification. Wherever

possible, the vernacular name has been given. Every attempt has been

made to bring the nomenclature up-to-date with the literature at the

author’s disposal. The numbers given after the plants refer to collec-

tions made by the author. Cultivated species have been marked with

a single asterisk while roadside plants bear two asterisks.

ANNONACEAE

Annona squamosa Linn. A small tree. Rare. On hill slopes. Fis.

March-May. (664)

*Polyalthia longifolia Benth. & Hook. f. Ashok.

Miliusa tomentosa (Roxb.) J. Sinclair. A very rare tree at Naldeswar.

On hill-top. (174)

MENISPERMACEAE

Cocculus hirsutus (Linn.) Diels. Vajar Bel. A climbing shrub. Common

in valleys and lower parts of hills. Fils. Feb.-March. (170, 215)

C. cebatha DC. Peelwar. A common climber. Fls. Nov.-Dec. (665)

C. pendulus (Forst.) Diels. A common climber. Fils. April-May.

(28, 307)

Tinospora cordifolia Miers. Neem Gilol. A climbing shrub. Rare; in

valleys. Fis. April-May. (666)

Cissampelos pareira Linn. A tomentose climbing herb of open valleys.

Rare. Fils. July-Oct. (516)

198 JOURNAL, BOMBAY .NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

NYMPHAEACEAE

Nymphaea stellata Willd. A floating aquatic. Common. Fls. white;

Aug.-Oct. (667)

Nelumbo nucifera Gaertn. Floating aquatic. Fils. rosy red. (668)

Euryale ferox Salisb. TYalmakhana. A densely prickly aquatic. Fils.

July-Aug. (651)

PAPAVERACEAE

Argemone mexicana Linn. A robust prickly herb. Very common.

Fls. Jan.-May and Sept.-Oct. (232, 306)

FUMARLACEAE

Fumaria indica Pugsley A common weed of wheat fields. Fls. winter

season. (485)

CRUCIFERAE

Farsetia jacquemontii Hook. Kag pilong. Common herb of sandy

plains. Winter season. (328)

Sisymbrium irio Linn. Common herb of moist places. Winter season.

(669)

Lepidium sativum Linn. A glabrous herb. Rare. On walls. (670)

Coronopus didymus (Linn.) Sm. Annual of most places. Fils. Dec.-

Feb (Gul)

CAPPARIDACEAE

Cleome viscosa Linn. Annual; FI. yellow; July-Nov. in waste

places. (45, 243A)

C. brachycarpa DC. Navi.

(672)

C. papillosa Steud. Herb; rare; at foot of hills. Fls. Aug.-Oct. (673)

Herb; rare; on hills. Fils. Nov.-May.

Bagra. A strong smelling herb. Common in

C. gynandra Linn.

sandy areas. Fls. July-Aug. (674)

Crataeva nurvala Buch.-Ham. Barna, Small tree; on hills, Fs,

March-May. (5, 163)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN poo

Capparis spinosa Lamk. Kabar. A shrub of gravelly situations. Rare.

Fils. May-July. (147, 149)

C. zeylanica Linn. non Hook. f. & Thom. A climbing shrub of valleys.

Common. Fils. April-May. (675)

C. decidua (Forsk.) Pax. Ker. Much branched shrub. Common in

plains. Fls. March-April. (676)

C. sepiaria Linn. Climbing shrub. Common in rocky areas. FIs.

Feb.-April. (73, 115, 405)

Maerua arenaria Hook. f. & Thom. A _ perennial woody climber with

leathery leaves. Rare. Fils. greenish-white ; Feb.-April. (492)

Cadaba farinosa Forsk. Unarmed straggling shrub of waste lands. Rare.

Fis. Jan.-March. (677)

REESE DACEAE

Oligomeris glaucescens Camb. Annual. Common in fields and moist

banks. Fls. greenish-white ; Feb.-April. (652)

EFEACOVURTIDACE AWE

Flacourtia indica (Burm. f.) Merr. A common tree of hills. Fils. March-

April. (454)

POLYGALACEAE

Polygala erioptera DC. Annual. Common on sandy soils. Fils. Dec.-

March. (481)

P. abyssinica Fresen. A common herb of plains. Fils. Oct.-Dec. (177,

184)

CARY OP HY Ist CPA E

Polycarpaea corymbosa Lamk. Silvery panicled herb. Common. Fis.

Aug.-Nov. (21)

Spergula arvensis Linn. Annual with linear subulate leaves in whorls.

Fls. white; Jan.-March. (678)

S. pentandra Linn. Annual with fleshy leaves. Common in fields.

Fls. Jan.-March. (477)

Gypsophila alagines Biell. A herb of winter season. ~Common on moist

banks. (104, 350) )

200 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Polycarpon prostratum (Forsk.) Asch. & Sch. Annual; on moist banks.

Common. Fis. Jan.-March. (367)

Saponaria vaccaria Linn. A tall robust herb. Fils. white; Jan.-March

in fields. (510)

Arenaria_ serpyllifolia Linn. Decumbent herb. Fils. white; Nov.-

Jan. (576)

PORTULACACEAE

Portulaca oleracea Linn. Fleshy annual. Commonin moist situations.

Fis. Sept.-Dec. (679)

P. quadrifida Linn. Prostrate herb with long stipular hairs. Fis. Nov.-

Jan. (680)

TAMARICACEAE

Tamarix aphylla (Linn.) Karst. A shrub or small tree of plains and river-

side. Rare. Fls. pink. (681)

ELATINACEAE

Bergia ammannioides Heyne ex Roth. A common herb of moist banks.

Fis. Oct.-Dec. (682)

MALVACEAE

Sida acuta Burm. f. Undershrub. Common on roadsides and waste

places. Fils. yellow ; Nov.-Jan. (500)

S. rhombifolia Linn. Erect undershrub. Common. Fis. Aug.-Dec.

(556)

S. grewioides Guill. & Perr. Kharenti. An erect grey tomentose under-

shrub. Abundant in plains and bank of lakes. Fls. yellow; Oct.-

Feb. (220, 507)

S. cordifolia Linn. A hairy undershrub. Common on roadsides. Fils.

Aug.-Sept. (205, 461)

Abutilon indicum G. Don. A shrubby perennial up to 1°6m._ height.

Common. Fils. March-Sept. (1, 195)

A. polyandrum Wt. & Arn. Pubescent annual of hill slopes. Fls. Nov.-

Jan. (75)

Pavonia zeylanica Cav. A tall herb. Common at foot of hills. Fils.

pink. (358, 359, 475)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE. RAJASTHAN 201

Malvastrum coromandelianum (Linn.) Garcke. Erect herb. Common

in cultivated and moist places. (60, 123, 555)

Kydia calycina Roxb. Barong. A moderate-sized tree of valleys and hill

slopes. Fils. Sept.-Nov. (683)

Hibiscus lobatus (Murr.) O. Ktze. Erect annual of cultivated fields.

Rare. Fils. Sept.-Nov. (559)

H. ficulneus Linn. A prickly herb. Common in cultivated fields. Fis.

Sept.-Nov. (558)

BOMBACACEAE

Salmalia malabarica Sch. & Endl. A large tree. Common on lower zones

of hills. Fils. Jan.-April. (292)

STERCULIACEAE

Melhania hamiltoniana Wall. A shrub of hill-top. Rare. Fils. Jan.-

March. (362, 363)

M. tomentosa Stocks. A cano-tomentose branched shrub. Rare. Fils.

Nov.-Dec. (16)

Sterculia urens Roxb. A moderate-sized tree of hills. Rare. Fils. Dec.-

Feb. (684)

Helicteres isora Linn. Shrub of hills and valleys. Rare. Fils. Aug.-

Oct. (569)

TILIACEAE

*Grewia oppositifolia Roxb.

G. tenax (Forsk.) Fiori. Gangera. An erect shrub. Common. Fis.

Aug.-Nov. (52, 178, 283)

*G,. asiatica Linn. Phalsa.

G. columnaris Sm. Much branched shrub. Rare on hill slopes. Fils.

April-June. (112)

G. elastica Royle. Dhaman. Tree of valleys and hill-tops. Common.

Fls. April-May. (685)

G. flavescens Juss. Chaprend. A common straggling shrub at hill base.

Fils. July-Oct. (174)

202 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Corchorus tridens Linn. Herb of rainy season. Common in plains. (43)

C. trilocularis Linn. Kagle ki tambakoo. Annual of waste grounds.

Abundant. Fls. rainy season. (77, 78)

C. depressus (Linn.) Stocks. Chamgas. Woody herb of rainy season.

Rare. (310)

Triumfetta cana Blume. Annual of rainy season, frequent in plains,

(364)

T. bartramia Linn. Annual. Fls. yellow; Aug.-Sept. (364A)

ZYGOPHYLLACEAE

Fagonia cretica Linn. A spiny herb or undershrub of winter season.

Common on gravel. (288, 289)

Tribulus terrestris Linn. Gokharu. Annual prostrate hairy herb. Com-

mon in stabilized soils. Fls. yellow; July-Sept. (193)

GERANIACEAE

Oxalis repens Thunb. Perennial herb of moist places. Fls. Oct.-May.

(10)

* Averrhoa carambola Linn.

RUTACEAE

Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle. Deciduous thorny tree. Rare on hills.

Fls. Feb.-April. (686)

«Citrus aurantium Linn. *C. medica var. acida Roxb. *C. medica var.

limetta DC. *Aegle marmelos Correa. *™Murraya paniculata (Linn.)

Jack.

SIMAROUBACEAE

Balanites aegyptiaca (Linn.) Delile. Hingot. A small grey-green tree

or small bush. Common on gravel and rare on hill-tops. Fis.

Oct.-Dec. (403)

*** Ajlanthus excelsa Roxb.

BURSERACEAE

Commiphora mukul (Hook. ex Stocks.) Engl. Gugal. Shrub or dwarf

tree. Common. Fils. Oct.-Dec. (688) :

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE: RAJASTHAN 203

Boswellia serrata Roxb. Deciduous tree. Dominant on upper zone of

hills. Fils. Feb.-April. (689)

MELIACEAE

** Melia azedarach Linn.

**Azadirachta indica Juss.

Cedrela toona Roxb. Deciduous tree of high elevations. Fls. March-

April. (690)

CELASTRACEAE

Gymnosporia spinosa (Forsk.) Fiori. Evergreen shrub or small tree.

Common. Fils. Oct.-Feb. (284, 378, 521)

RHAMNACEAE

Zizyphus nummularia Wt. & Arn. Bushy shrub. Common. Fis.

March-June. (688 A) : Bg IVS

Z. xylopyra Willd. Straggling shrub. Abundant at the foot of hills,

Fls. April-May. (692)

*Z,, mauritiana Lamk.

VITACEAE .

Cayratia carnosa Gagnep. Herbaceous climber frequent in ‘valleys.

Fls. July-Sept. (489)

SAPINDACEAE

| Cardiospermum halicacabum Linn. Herbaceous wiry climber. Frequent

at foot of hills. (179, 213, 357)

Dodonaea viscosa Linn. Common hedge plant. Also as an escape in

rocky areas. Fls. Oct.-Dec. (694)

Sapindus emarginata Vahl. Deciduous tree. Rare; on hills. Fils. Nov.-

Jan. (540) : : ene Ws

ANACARDIACEAE

2S wy in Bw aS ys

Rhus mysorensis Heyne. Dansaria. Spiny shrub. Common in basal

zone: of hills. .Fls. tainy-season. .:(383,-482)..0 0 «2 te

204 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Lannea coromandelica (Houtt.) Merrill. Large tree. Rare; on hill

slopes. Fls. March-May. (410)

*Mangifera indica Linn,

MORINGACEAE

«Moringa oleifera Lamk. Saijana.

LEGUMINOSAE

Crotolaria burhia Ham. Undershrub. Common in plains. Fis.

Winter season. (696)

*C, juncea Linn. Cultivated. Also found as an escape.

C. procumbens Roxb. A diffuse perennial herb of rainy season. (788)

C. trifoliastrum Willd. Erect herb. Common in plains, Fils. rainy

season. (212)

*Trigonella foenum-graceum Linn.

T. occulta Delile. Annual of fields. Fils. Feb.-March. (463 & 654)

Melilotus alba Lamk. A herb of cultivated land. Fls. Jan.-March.

(476)

M. indica All. A common weed of winter season in fields. (65)

Medicago denticulata Willd. Annual of winter season. Pods with

spiny margin. (114, 119, 526)

Indigofera linnaei Ali. Bhuiguli, A much _brariched spreading annual.

Fls, Aug.-Nov. Common in plains and grass lands. (138)

I. cordifolia Heyne. Bechka. Annual of loose soils and rock crevices.

Fils. Sept-Nov. (44, 57)

I. linifolia Retz. Pandarphalli. A prostrate herb. Common in moist

places. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (346)

I. astragalina DC. Annual of rainy season. Common in plains. (785)

I. argentea (non Linn.) Burm. A low diffusely branched undershrub

with yellowish flowers. Common in plains. (285)

*I. tinctoria Linn. Neel. Also found as an escape. Fils. Sept.-Oct.

(139)

I. trita Linn. f. Erect undershrub. Fils. Feb.-March. (655) -

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 205

Tephrosia purpurea. Pers. Sub-erect herb. with several varieties.

Abundant. Fils. Sept.-Jan. (12) ;

T. pauciflora Grah. Annual of plains. Rare. (230)

T. candida DC. A frequent annual of hills. (698)

T. strigosa (Dalz.) Santapau & Maheshwari. A slender caespitose herb

with filiform stem. Fils. pink; Aug.-Oct. (786)

Sesbania sesban var. picta Santapau. Perennial soft-wooded shrub.

Common in wastelands. Fls. Oct.-Dec. (169, 242, 259, 544)

Alhagi camelorum Fisch. Javasa. Erect thorny annual. Abundant at

Hansarovar. Fils. April-June. (140, 141) _

Alysicarpus monilifer DC. A slender, tufted, prostrate herb. Common

in dry places. Fils. Sept.-Oct. (92)

Desmodium gangeticum DC. Undershrub. Common on hill slopes.

Fils. May-July. (20, 269, 387)

D. triflorum DC. Trailing herb of plains. A good sand binder.

Common. Fis. Sept.-Oct. (464)

Vicia sativa Linn. A sub-erect annual with angular stem. Fis. winter

season. (699)

Abrus precatorius Linn. Chirmi. A woody twiner. Common. Fs.

Aug.-Sept. (161) , were

Lathyrus aphaca Linn. A herbaceous climber of. winter season. Rare.

(67)

Mucuna prurita Hook. Kauch. Climber. Common in rocky areas.

- Fis. winter season. (700)

Erythrina variegata var. orientalis (Linn.) Merr. A tall prickly tree of

hills. Fils. March-April. (287 & 653) sia Pag

Butea monosperma (Lamk.) Taub. Deciduous tree. Abundant in

~~~ valleys. Fils. March-April. -(701): | sede mt

*Phaseolus mungo var. radiatus Linn.

P. aconitifolius Jacq.

Vigna cylindrica (Linn.) Skeels. A common twiner of plains. Fils.

rainy season. (47)

206 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Rhynchosia minima DC. A common twiner of open jungles. Fls. Aug:

Oct. (381, 414) '

**Dalbergia sissoo Roxb.

**D. paniculata Wall.

Pongamia pinnata (Linn.) Pierre. Karanj. Small tree along river bed.

Largely planted. Fls. March-April... (451)

*Pisum sativum Linn.

* Cicer arietinum Linn.

Cassia occidentalis Linn. Diffuse undershrub. Common in barren

places and hill-tops. Fils. Jan.-March. (26, 256, 331)

C. tora Linn. Takla. Gregarious annual. Pod subtetragonous. Fis.

Sept.-Oct. (172, 374) ,

*C, siamea Lamk.

C. fistula Linn. A medium-sized tree on hill slopes. Fls. April-June.

#99 AieyS}) ; ei ah AAR

C. auriculata Linn. Aval. A shrub. Common on roadsides. Oc-

~ casional on hills. Fils. Jan.-July. (202)

Parkinsonia aculeata Linn. Introduced.

**Delonix regia (Boj.) Raf.

*Tamarindus indica Linn.

**Bauhinia variegata Linn. Kachnar.

B. racemosa Lamk. Zinza. A small deciduous tree of hills and slopes.

Fls. March-April. (702)

B. malabarica Roxb. Apta. A low bushy tree of hills. Fis. Aug.-

Oct, (703) y

Prosopis spicigera Linn. Shemi. A prickly tree of plains. Fils. Dec.

March, (275)

P. juliflora DC. A small evergreen tree, almost naturalized. (251, 268)

Dichrostachys cinerea (Linn.) Wt. & Arn. A tree common in Jower

~ parts..of “hills-and slopes. The. spikes red and yellow. Fls. most

of the year. (247, 277, 300) (Ve) Goesse yaier

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 207

Mimosa hamata Willd. A_ prickly shrub. Common in low jungles,

Fls. rainy season. (458) :

Acacia catechu Willd. Small deciduous tree. Common on hill slopes,

Fls. May-July. (704)

A. jacquemontii Benth. Boli, Deciduous tree of dry sandy soils. Fils,

Feb.-May. (705)

A. arabica Willd. Common spiny tree. Fls. Aug.-Dec. (259, 348)

A. ferruginea DC. Safed khair. Middle-sized tree. Rare; on hills.

Fls. March-April. (656)

A. senegal Willd. Kumat. Small tree. Spines hooked in_ three.

Abundant; on hills. Fis. Aug.-Nov. (276)

A. leucophloea Willd. Jhira. Tree with long spines and terminal in-

florescence. Abundant in valleys. Common on hill slopes and

plains. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (415)

**Albizzia lebbeck Benth. Siras.

A. odoratissima Benth. Kala siras. Tree without prickles and with

violet pods. Occasional on the hill slopes, Fils. April-June. (271)

Pithecellobium dulce (Roxb.) Benth. Small tree with short straight

stipular thorns. Pods curiously twisted. Fls. Feb.-March. (537)

ROSACEAE

Potentilla supina Linn. Prostrate herb. Common near water, Fils.

Feb.-April. (167, 493)

P. desertorum Bunge. Erect herb. All parts covered with soft spread-

ing hairs. Fils. Sunk amongst the uppermost leaves. (706)

*Rosa indica Linn.

*Prunus communis Linn.

COMBRETACEAE

Anogeissus pendula Edgew. Dhauk. A dominant tree of middle zone.

Fls. Aug.-Oct. (707)

A. latifolia Wall. Dhawara. Tree frequent on hill slopes. Fis, May-

June. (187)

A. sericea Brandis. Tree with silky pubescence. Fils, in globose heads,

(708)

208 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Terminalia belerica Roxb. Small deciduous tree of hills. Rare. Fis.

April-June. (710)

T. arjuna Bedd. Tree. Rare. On hill-top. Fils. April-May. (709)

MYRTACEAE

*Psidium guajava Linn.

*Syzygium cumini (Linn.) Skeels.

*Eucalyptus sp.

LYTHRACEAE

Ammania baccifera Linn. A decumbent winter herb of wet ground.

FS ede 1.200)

A. multiflora Roxb. Annual. Fis. in compound peduncled cymes ; Sept.-

Nov. (787)

*Punica granatum Linn.

*Lagerstroemia flosreginae Retz.

*Lawsonia inermis Linn.

Woodfordia fruticosa (Linn.) Kurz. Chaprend. An evergreen shrub of

hills. Fils. brilliant red; Feb.-April., frequent. (414)

TRAPACEAE

Trapa bispinosa Roxb. Singhara. A floating herb. Cultivated as well as

wild. Fls. Sept.-Oct. (711) |

CARICACEAE

*Carica papaya Linn.

CUCURBITACEAE

Cucumis sativus Linn. A hispidly hairy climber of plains and hills. - Fls.

rainy season. (267) :

C. trigonus Roxb. A procumbent trailing perennial. Fils. May. (578,

579) |

Citrullus colocynthis Schrad. Indrayan: Scabrous herb of winter season,

Common in plains. (712)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 209

Momordica balsamina Linn. A common climber. Fils. Aug.-Jan. (389)

M. dioica Roxb. Climbing herb. Fils. yellow; Sept.-Dec. (301, 486)

Melothria maderaspatena (Linn.) Cogn. Annual herb. Common on

upper zone of hills, Fis. July-Sept. (304)

*Lagenaria sp.

Cephalandra indica Naud. Climbing herb of rainy and winter season,

Common. (342, 343)

Trichosanthes cucumerina Linn. Jangli padvel. Succulent climber. Com-

mon. Fls. white ; Aug.-Nov. (582, 583)

CACTACEAE

Opuntia dillenii Haw. A common shrub on gravel. Fis. Feb.-April. (713)

MOLLUGINACEAE

Trianthema portulacastrum Linn. Procumbent, succulent herb. Fis.

red ; July-Sept. Common. (714)

T. decandra Linn. Annual, carpels two. Fils. white ; Dee.-Jan. (111)

T. triquetra Willd. ex Rottl. A diffuse much branched, common weed,

Fls, Oct.-Nov. (266)

Glinus oppositifolius (Linn.) A. DC. Glabrous herb. Fils, greenish;

Sept.-Oct. Very common. (66)

G. lotoides Linn. A stellate woolly herb of winter season. Abundant in

plains and on banks of lakes. Fis. Feb.-April. (715)

Gisekia pharnaceoides Linn. Diffuse, succulent and glabrous herb of dry

sandy places. Fls. April-Sept. (483)

UMBELLIFERAE

Psamogeton biternatum Edgew. Annual with umbels of silver pink

flowers. Fls. Feb.-March. Rare. (716)

*Foeniculum vulgare Mill. *Coriandrum sativum Linn. *Trachyspermum

ammi (Linn.) Sprague. *Cuminum cyminum Linn, *Daucus carota

Linn,

210 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

ALANGIACEAE

Alangium salvifolium (Linn. f.) Wang. Thorny tree. Prefers well-drained

sides of nullahs, Common. Fils, Feb.-April. (576)

RUBIACEAE

Borreria hispida (Linn.) Schum. A hispid erect herb. ABUGARE near

water. Fils. July-Oct. (185, 231, 474)

B. stricta (Linn. f.) Schum. Annual erect herb. Common near water.

Fls. Oct.-Nov. (11)

Randia tetrasperma Benth. & Hook. f. Deciduous shrub of hills. Com-

mon. Fls. April-June. (657)

Morinda tinctoria var. tomentosa Hook. f. A middle-sized tree. Common

on hill slopes. Fls. white ; Oct.-Jan. (717)

*Anthocephalus cadamba Miq.

Mitragyna parvifolia (Roxb.) Korth. Tree common in lower and middle

zone of hills. Fils. May-June. (406)

Oldenlandia umbellata Linn. A _ diffuse annual near water. Fis.

Sept.-Dec, (545)

O. corymbosa Linn, Annual herb with white flowers. Aug.-Oct. (567A)

Galium asperifolium Wall, A pubescent herb near water. Fils. March-

April, (560)

Adina cordifolia Hook. f. Small tree frequent in open dry jungles.

(729A)

COMPOSITAE

Echinops echinatus Roxb. A much branched spreading rigid annual of

winter season. Common on banks of bunds and in plains. Fls.

April-June. (4, 243)

Eclipta prostrata Linn. Strigose slender herb. Abundant near water.

Fls. white ; throughout the year. (186, 360)

Gnaphalium indicum Linn. Slender woolly herb with small flower heads

in spikes. Common on dried up banks. Fls. Feb.-April. (63, 109)

G. pulvinatum Delile. “Woolly herb on damp ground, Fls. winter season,

(56) |

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE. RAJASTHAN ale

Launaea nudicaulis Hook. f. Glabrous perennial with yellow flowers in

winter season. (311, 536)

Tridax procumbens Linn. Straggling herb. Common. Fils. all the yea

round. (207)

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. Viscidly pubescent herb with orange yellow

flowers ; Nov.-May. (508)

V. vestita Benth. Softly hairy herb with bright yellow heads. (191)

Vernonia cinerea Less. Erect herb of waste grounds. Fls. most of the

year, (48, 297, 534)

V. cinerascens Sch. A pubescent shrub of waste grounds. Fils. Sept.-

Nov. (565)

Xanthium strumarium Linn. Coarse shrub of waste grounds and river

banks, Fils. Sept.-Oct. and Jan.-Feb. (24, 82, 204)

Artemisia scoparia Waldst. & Kitt. Erect tomentose herb. Frequent.

Fls, yellow ; Sept.-Dec. (87)

Blainvillea acmella (Linn. f.) Philipson. Erect coarse herb. Common.

Fils, Sept.-Jan. (371, 385)

Sonchus arvensis Linn. Tall perennial. Common on hills. Fis. Dec.-

Jan. (718)

Blumea laciniata DC. Coarse aromatic erect herb. Common in open

places. Fis, Jan.-Feb. (455)

B. amplectens DC. Annual of waste ground and river banks. Fils.

yellow ; March-April. (564)

Glossocardia bosvallea (Linn. f.) DC. Erect annual. Common on

rocks. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (535)

Carthamus oxyacantha Bieb. Spinose herb of winter season. Common

in plains, Fls. yellow ; March-April. (553)

Grangea maderaspatana Poir. Procumbent weed of fields and wet grounds.

Fls. Dec.-April. (562)

Anaphalis adnata DC. A stout herb with white woolly covering. (563)

Inula grandiflora Willd. A perennial. Rare. Fls. Nov.-Jan. (566)

_ Wedelia urticaefolia DC. A weak erect herb of wet places, Fils,

Aug.-Sept. (719)

212 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Sherff. Glabrous pilose tall herb, Fils,

yellow ; Sept.-Dec. Common in damp places. (569)

Pulicaria crispa Schultz, Stout, shrubby perennial of waste places.

Fls, Feb,-May, (720)

PLUMBAGINACEAE

Vogelia indica Gibs. An erect shrub. Rare. On rocks. Fis. Jan.-

March. (551) eee

Plumbago zeylanica Linn. Subscandent perennial herb of shady places.

Fls, July-Oct. (491, 504)

PRIMULACEAE

Anagallis arvensis Linn. Annual herb of plains. Fls. blue; Feb.-

March. (102, 103)

SAPOTACEAE

Achras sapota Linn. Tree, planted on hill-tops. Rare. Fis. April. (270)

Manilkara hexandra (Roxb.) Dub. Khirni. Small tree on hills, Rare.

Fils. Nov.-Jan. (29)

*Mimusops elengi Linn.

Madhuca indica Gmel. Mahuwa. Deciduous tree. Common in

valleys. Fls. March-April. (721)

EBENACEAE

Diospyros inelanoxylon Roxb. Small tree. Occasional on hill slopes.

Fils. May. (658)

OLEACEAE

*Nyctanthes arbor-tristis Linn. Sihali.

*Jasminum multiflorum (Burm. f.) Andr.

SALVADORACEAE

Salvadora persica Linn. Small tree of plains. Frequent, Fis, Nov,

May. (336, 518) .

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE. RAJASTHAN 213

S. oleoides Decne. Large shrub. Common in plains. Rare on hills,

Fils. March-April, (71)

APOCYNACEAE

*Lochnera rosea (Linn.) Reichb.

L. pusilla (Murr.) Schum. Erect annual with white flowers, Rare.

Fls. rainy season. (723) :

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. Small deciduous tree. Common on hills.

Fls. July-Sept. (79, 498)

W,. tomentosa Roem. Tree frequent in valleys and damp places. Fis,

May-June. (305, 325) iol

*Nerium indicum Mill.

*Tabernaemontana coronaria Br.

Vallaris solanacea (Rth.) O. Kuntze. Rubar A tall evergreen twining

shrub of plains and valleys. Rare. Fils. Jan.-June. (550)

*Thevetia peruviana (Pers.) K. Schum.

Holarrhena antidysenterica Wall. A shrub common in lower parts of

hills, Fis. May-June. (724) iz

Plumeria rubra Linn. Cultivated. A small tree with crooked trunk and

rough bark. Fils. Feb.-April. (494)

Ichnocarpus frutescens R. Br. Large rambling shrub. Common in

moist places. Fils. Dec.-Feb. (502) it

*Carissa congesta Wight.

ASCLEPIADACEAE

ealspapis procera R. Br. Large sirabs Common in plains and open

and waste ground. Rare on the base of hills. Fis. most of the year.

(175)

Pergularia daemia (Forsk.) Chiov. Climber, common in plains and

- rare at the foot of hills.- Fis. Oct.-Feb. (235, 347)

Leptadenia pyrotechnica (Forsk.) Decne. Kheep. Erect nearly leafless

glabrous shrub of sandy plains. Rare, Fls, Oct.-Jan. (166) *~

214. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAE HIST. SOCIETY, Vol.- 64 (2)

Cryptostegia grandiflora R. Br. Woody climber. Common in plains.

Fls. April-Sept. (725) ,

Cryptolepis buchanani R. & Schult. Twining shrub. Fis. pale greenish-

yellow ; April-May. (513)

Sarcostemma acidum (Roxb.) Voigt. Leafless jointed shrub on arid

rocks, Rare, Fils. Sept.-Jan. (245A)

Oxystelma esculentum (Linn. f) R. Br. A slender climbing perennial

near water at Tiara. Fils. Sept.-Nov, (788)

GENTIANACEAE

Nymphoides indicum (Linn.) O. Kuntze. Floating aquatic. Common.

Fls, March-Oct. (511)

Enicostemma yerticillatum (Linn.) Engl. Perennial glabrous herb.

Common near water. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (62, 453) c

BORAGINACEAE

Coldenia procumbens Linn. Annualhairy herb. Common near water.

Fis. Aug.-Oct. (547)

Heliotropium supinum Linn. A villous annual. Common on hill slopes

and banks of bunds. Fls. Feb.-March. (38, 128, 129)

H. strigosum Willd. Procumbent herb of dry pastures. Fils. all the year

round, (459)

H. marifolium Retz. Decumbent herb. Fruits densely strigose. Fils.

Oct.-Jan. (116, 152)

H. eichwaldii Steud. Erect herb. Branching from the base. Spikes

helicoid. (523)

Trichodesma amplexicaule Roxb. Herb. Frequent. Fls. rainy season.

(81)

T. indicum R. Br. Bulbous based hairy, herb with pale blue flowers.

Rare. On rocks. Fils, Sept.-Jan. (726)

Cordia dichotoma Forst. f. Small tree. Common on gravelly soil.

Fls. March-April. (522)

*C, rothii R. & S. Goondi,

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 215

Ehretia laevis Roxb. Small deciduous tree on hill slopes. Fils. white ;

Feb.-April. (408)

CONVOLVULACEAE

Convolvulus arvensis Linn. Pubescent twining annual. Fils. pink ;

Dec.-Feb. (69,499)

C. pluricaulis Chois. Diffuse, densely silky herb. Fils. pale rosy ;

July-Dec. Common in plains. (101, 194)

Cuscuta reflexa Roxb. Parasitic twining herb. Fils. Oct.-Dec. (208)

C. hyalina Roth. A parasitic herb on Tephrosia. (652 A)

Evolvulus alsinoides Linn. Diffuse villous perennial herb. Common.

_.., Fils. white or blue ; July-Dec. (303, 380, 542)

Ipomoea coptica (Linn.) Roth apud R. & S. Prostrate annual herb with

white flowers. Frequent. (121)

I. pes-tigridis Linn. Twining pubescent herb of plains. Fls. pale

pink; rainy season. (206)

I. triquetra R. & S. Pubescent twining herb. Rare; in fields. Fis.

| ‘rainy season. (282) b

*]. cairica (Linn.) Sweet.

I. aquatica Forsk. A floating plant of shallow pools. Common. Fils.

... Feb.-May. (479)

I, hispida (Vahl.) R. & S. Slender very hairy twining herb. Common in

_ fields. Fils. Sept.-Oct. (570)

I. maxima (Linn. f.) Don. Perennial slender twining herb. Frequent.

_. , Fls, Aug.-Sept. (580)

Argyreia speciosa Sweet. Stout handsome climber. Fls. Aug.-Sept.

pat 506). !

Jacquemontia paniculata (Burm. f.) Hall. f. Slender pubescent twiner.

r Common on hills, Fils. March-April. (581)

SOLANACEAE

Datura innoxia Mill, Coarse shrub of waste land. Frequent in plains.

Rare on hills. Fils. :white; rainy and winter season. (196, 200)

216 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Lycium europaeum Linn. Spiny shrub. Common on gravel. Fis.

June-Nov. (233) a0 : i

Solanum xanthocarpum Schrad. & Wendl. Spiny diffuse herb. Common

in plains and waste lands. Rare. On hills. Fils. Dec.-June. (158,

ph 159) | :

S. nigrum Linn. Makoi. A common weed of plains. Rare on hills.

_ Fils. white ; most of the year. (290, 291).

*S. melongena Linn.

Withania somnifera Dunal. A perennial much branched herb or under-

shrub of waste lands. Fils. Oct.-May. (216)

*Nicotiana tabacum Linn.

N. plumbaginifolia Viv. An occasional weed near water. Fils. white ;

., April-May. (513)

*Lycopersicum esculentum Miller.

*Cestrum nocturnum Linn.

*Capsicum frutescens Linn.

Physalis minima Linn. Herbaceous pubescent. annual. Frequent in

fields and near water. Fils. yellow; Nov.-Jan. (382)

mie

SCROPHULARIACEAE

Verbascum thapsus Linn. Stellate tomentose herb. Rare. Fils. pale

-: .. yellow ; April-May. (150, 245)

V. chinense Sant. Annual herb, frequent in moist and shady places.

» Fls. yellow spurred ; March-May. (265, 370, 496)

Striga gesneroides (Willd.) Vatke. Root parasite on Euphorbia nivulia.

~ (728) . i

S. asiatica (Linn.) O. Kuntze. Slender parasitic herb on roots of

_ Pennisetum typhoideum. (729) |

Lindenbergia indica (Linn.) O. Kuntze. Glandular hairy annual. Fre-

quent on crevices, old walls and moist banks. Fils. yellow ; August-

Nov. (388, 472)

Le --machrestachya Benth. Small herb ae fond’ root stock,

+ Beaves-reddish. Fls. rainy season. (176)... ;

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 217

Bacopa monnieri (Linn.) Pennell. Succulent herb preferring swampy

localities. Fls. April-June. (127, 294)

Kickxia ramosissima (Wall.) Janchen. Perennial herb of dry localities.

Rare. Fils. April-June. (730)

Veronica anagallis Linn. Erect succulent herb of swamps. Frequent.

Fls. pale pink ; March-April. (503, 557)

Limnophila heterophylla Benth. Common herb of swamps. Fils. Feb.-

April. (520)

OROBANCHACEAE

Orobanche cernua Loeffl. Parasitic herb. -Fls. winter season. (731)

Cistanche tubulosa Wight. Stout unbranched herb. Parasite on Calo-

tropis. Fls. winter season. (732)

LENTIBULARIACEAE

Utricularia stellaris Linn f. Floating aquatic. Fls. winter season. (733)

U. flexuosa Vahl. A floating herb of winter season. (659)

BIGNONIACEAE

Tecomella undulata (Smith) Seem. Tree. Occasional on gravel. Fis.

- March-April. (404) .

**Millingtonia hortensis Linn.

**Kigelia pinnata DC.

PEDALIACEAE

-*Sesamum indicum DC. Also found as an escape. (734)

Martynia annua Linn. Tall and stout shrub. Common on waste

“© ground. Fls. rose coloured; rainy season. Fruit characteristic.

(4313, 132)

Pedalium murex Linn. Weedy herb of gravel. Fils. Aug.-Oct. (309,

377)

218 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

ACANTHACEAE

Barleria. prionitis Linn. Spiny and bushy undershrub. Frequent on

gravel. Fls. yellow; Oct.-March. (41, 80)

B. acanthoides Vahl. Spiny herb. Common in plains. Fls. winter

season. (734)

Dipteracanthus prostratus (Poir.) Nees. Undershrub. Rare; on old walls

' and moist. shady places. Fls. rainy and winter season. (144, 460,

541)

D. patulus (Jacq.) Nees. Katmora. Small shrub of gravelly soil.

Rare. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (246)

Ruellia tuberosa Linn. A frequent herb in gardens.

June-July. (734)

Rungia pectinata (Linn.) Nees. Small ramous weed of open grassy places.

Fls. bluish-white ; July-Sept. (660)

Ecbolium linneanum Kurz. Undershrub of moist and shady places.

Rare. Fils. bluish-green; Oct.-Jan. (529)

Eranthemum nervosum (Vahl) R. Br. Shrub of shady places. Rare.

Fils. blue; Jan.-March. (517)

Andrographis echioides Nees. Erect symmetrical herb on old walls and

rocks. Rare. Fls. Aug.-Nov. (86, 505)

Lepidagathis hamiltoniana Wall. A spiny undershrub with spherical

heads. Frequent at hill tops, slopes and waste lands. Fils. Dec.-

Feb. (136) |

Rostellularia procumbens (Linn.) Nees. Annual. Abundant on rocks.

Fils. Aug.-Oct. (257) ;

Justicia diffusa Willd. Small herb of plains. Common. Fls. Aug.-

Dec. (302)

Peristrophe bicalyculata Nees.

Sept.-April. (190, 497)

-Adhatoda vasica Nees. Evergreen gregarious shrub. Abundant. at the

foot of hills. Rare at hill top. Fls. most of the year. (239)

Fls. deep blue;

A shrubby weed. Common. Fls. pink ;

Blepharis._ maderaspatensis (Linn.) Heyne ex Roth. Prostrate herb of

shady places and gravel soils. Rare. Fils. Aug.-Jan. (244A)

Elytraria acaulis (Linn. f.) Lindau. A shade loving plant on dried banks

and gravelly soil. Fils. Oct.-Dec. (379)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 219

VERBENACEAE

Clerodendrum phlomidis Linn. f. Large shrub at the foot of hills and

slopes. Fls. Aug.-Feb. (264)

Stachytarpheta indica Vahl. Glabrous herb with blue flowers. Common

at the foot of hills. Fils. Aug.-Nov. (373)

Gmelina arborea Roxb. An unarmed tree of slopes and cool valleys.

Rare. Fils. March-April. (58)

Phyla nodiflora (Linn.) Greene. Prostrate herb with oblong heads.

Abundant in marshy places. Fls. Oct.-Jan. (8, 258)

Lantana camara Linn. var. aculeata Mold. Erect evergreen shrub.

Common on road sides. Rare on hills. Flowers throughout the

year. (133)

Tectona grandis Linn. f. Tree only seen at Naldeswar. Fls. July-Sept.

(17)

Vitex negundo Linn. Large evergreen shrub. Common at the base of

| hills. Fls. most of the year. (255, 409)

LABIATAE

Leucas lanata Benth. Herb common on hill slopes. Fils. Sept.-Dec.

(37) ;

nutans Spreng. Diffuse herb. Fls. Nov.-Jan. (53)

L. cephalotes Spreng. Erect diffusely branched herb. Fls. white in

dense globose heads; Aug.-Nov. Frequent in fields and waste-

lands. (35, 68)

L. aspera Spreng. Annual with white flowers; July-Nov. Common

in plains. (735)

L. mollissima Wall. Weak tomentose herb. Rare. Fils. Aug.-Nov.

(570)

L. montana Spreng. Soft, woolly herb of rocky jungles and waste

grounds. Fls. Nov.-Dec. (604)

*Ocimum sanctum Linn. Tulsi.

*Q. basilicum Linn. Marva.

220 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

O. americanum Linn. Bapchi. Erect slender herb. Common on hill

slopes. Fls. Aug.-March. (54, 467)

Anisomeles indica (Linn.) O. Kuntze. Strong smelling pubescent herb.

Fls. purple and bluish ; Sept.-Nov. (42, 49, 55)

Salvia aegyptiaca Linn. Herb or small undershrub of winter season.

Rare. (88)

Colebrookea oppositifolia Sm. Large woolly shrub of valleys. Rare.

Fls. Dec.-Feb. (407, 531)

Plectranthus rugosus Wall. Shrub of dry places and hill-tops. Fis.

March-Oct. (168)

NYCTAGINACEAE

Boerhavia repens Linn. var. diffusa. Diffuse herb along path and on

rocky grounds. Fils. pink ; rainy season. (6)

B. verticillata Poir. Decumbent sometimes climbing herb. Common

in plains. (736)

*Bougainvillea spectabilis Willd.

AMARANTHACEAE

Celosia argentea Linn. Erect glabrous herb. Common on high ground.

Fls. pink ; Aug.-Dec. (89)

Digera muricata (Linn.) Mart. Slender annual. Common in plains.

Fls. Sept.-Oct. (484)

Amaranthus spinosus Linn. Erect spiny shrub of wastelands. Fis.

_ most of the year. (327)

A. gracilis Desk. Much branched slender herb. Common. Fls. Nov.-

~oFeb,: (738):

A. polygamus Linn. var. angustifolius. Prostrate weed. Common

Fls. Nov.-Feb, (738)

Aerva javanica (Burm. f.) Spreng. Woolly herb. Rare; in plains. (64)

A. sanguinolenta (Linn.) Blume. Straggling herb of rocky jungles.

Frequent. Fils. Jan.-March. (539)

Pupalia lappacea (Linn.) Juss. Shade loving straggling undershrub of

plains. Common. Fils. July-Dec. (15, 160)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 221

Alternanthera sessilis (Linn.) R. Br. Annual in pure stands near water.

Fils. Aug.-March. (23, 25)

Nothosaerva brachiata Wight. Slender annual with glistening white

flowers. July-Sept. (739)

Achyranthes aspera Linn. Erect herb. Common. Fils. in terminal

spike ; Sept.-Dec. (740)

A. bidentata Blume. Rambling herb of hills. Fls. rainy season. (741)

*Gomphrena globosa Linn.

CHENOPODIACEAE

Chenopodium album Linn. Erect herb of winter in fields and wastelands.

Common. Fils. in clusters forming panicled spikes ; Jan.-March.

(340)

C. murale Linn. Foetid herb with flowers in dense cymes in axillary

raceme. Aug.-Sept. (146, 533)

*Beta vulgaris Linn. *Spinacia oleracea Linn.

- POLYGONACEAE

Polygonum plebejum R. Br. Prostrate herb on dried banks. Abundant.

Fls. pink ; Feb.-May. (189)

P. indicum Heyne. Annual with branches spreading all round. Fre-

quent. Fils. Feb.-May. (742)

P. effusum Meissn. Slender herb of wet places. Common. Fils. pedi-

cellate ; Feb.-May. (743)

P. barbatum Linn. Stout herb of marshes. Common. Fls. Oct.-Nov.

(143)

P. glabrum Willd. Erect annual. Common on edges of tanks and water

courses. Fils. pink; Aug.-Nov. (142, 466)

Rumex dentatus Linn. Stout erect annual of damp places. Frequent.

Fls. Feb.-March. (279)

*R. hastatus D. Don. *Antigonon leptopus Hook.

222 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

ARISTOLOCHIACEAE

Aristolochia bracteata Retz. A weak prostrate glabrous herb. Occasional.

Fls. Aug.-Oct. (238)

LAURACEAE

Cassytha filiformis Linn. A filiform leafless twining parasite on Carrisa.

Fls. most of the year. (744)

PROTEACEAE

* Grevillea robusta A. Cunn.

EUPHORBIACEAE

Euphorbia microphylla Heyne ex Roth. Decumbent herb on hill slopes.

Common. Fils. July-Nov. and Jan.-April. (226, 227)

E. hirta Linn. Annual clothed with yellow hair. Fis. throughout the

year. (299)

E. granulata Forsk. Procumbent herb of plains and gravels. Fils.

Sept.-Nov. (122)

E. thymifolia Linn. Small annual often with a pale coppery tinge. Fis.

greater part of the year. (39)

E. clarkeana Hook. f. Prostrate herb. Common in fields. (745)

E. nivulia Buch.-Ham. Large shrub. Branches fleshy and cylindrical

with pairs of sharp spines. Common on arid hills. Fils. Jan.-

April. (746)

E. neriifolia Linn. Large branched shrub, abundant at upper zone of

hills. Fls. Feb.-April. (747)

E. dracunculoides Lamk. Much branched, glabrous herb of plains and

low hills. Fils. Sept.-Jan. (748)

E. hypericifolia Linn. Decumbent annual. Fils. all the year round.

(749) 3

Phyllanthus niruri auct. Linn. Annual herb of cultivated places. Fis.

yellowish ; Aug.-Sept. (750)

P. maderaspatensis Linn. Glabrous herb. Fils. Aug.-Sept. (46)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 223

*Emblica officinalis Gaertn. Cultivated as well as an escape.

Acalypha ciliata Forsk. Stout herb. Common. Fils. July-Oct. (94)

Ricinus communis Linn. An evergreen shrub. Cultivated as well as

wild. Fils. Feb.-March. (751)

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. Evergreen moderate-sized tree on hills.

Frequent. Fils. March-May. (252, 490)

Securinega leucopyrus (Willd.) Muell.-Avg. Woody tortuous bush on

base of hills. Fils. July-Aug. (488)

S. virosa (Roxb. ex Willd.) Pax & Hoffm. Deciduous small shrub of

rocks. Rare. Fls. May-June. (501)

Mallotus philippinensis Muell.-Arg. Small evergreen tree of upper zone

of hills. Rare. Fils. Oct.-Dec. (524)

ULMACEAE

Holoptelea integrifolia Planch. Large spreading deciduous tree. Abun-

dant on high grounds and valleys. Fils. March-April. (752)

MORACEAE

*Morus alba Linn.

URTICACEAE

*Ficus glomerata Roxb. *F. benghalensis Linn. *F. religiosa Linn.

*F, carica Linn. *F. cordifolia Roxb.

*F, tomentosa Roxb. Small tree, on hill slopes. Frequent. Fls. Jan.-

March. (754)

CERATOPHYLLACEAE

Ceratophyllum demersum Linn. A submerged aquatic herb. Common

in still water. (753)

HYDROCHARITACEAE

Hydrilla verticillata (Linn. f.) Royle. Slender aquatic herb in running

or still water. Fls. July-Sept. (755)

Vallisneria spiralis Linn. Submerged stemless herb, common, Fils,

Jan,-May. (756)

224 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

SCITAMINEAE

*Canna indica Linn. *Zingiber officinale Rosc. *Musa sapientum Linn,

AMARYLLIDACEAE

*Crinum asiaticum Linn. *Agave sp.

DIOSCOREACEAE

*Dioscorea bulbifera Linn.

LILIACEAE

Asparagus racemosus Willd. Satawar. Scandent spinous undershrub.

Frequent ; on hills. Fils. Sept.-Dec. (155, 156)

Asphodelus tenuifolius Cav. Annual herb in fields. Common. Fls. Feb.-

May. (757)

Gloriosa superba Linn. Herbaceous climber of low jungles. Frequent

at Pandopol, Naraini and near Sirska along roadsides, Fls. orange

Or crimson ; rainy season. (661)

* Aloe barbadensis Mill.

Scilla indica Baker. Small herb. Bulb ovoid. Rare; in hilly areas. Fls.

greenish purple. July-Aug. (789)

PONTEDERIACEAE

Eichhornia crassipes Solms. Aquatic herb. Common in pools and

puddles. Fils. blue; Feb.-April. (758)

COMMELINACEAE

Commelina benghalensis Linn. Creeping annual of damp and shady

places. Fls. rainy season. (135)

C. obliqua Buch.-Ham. Stout 2-3 ft. tall herb of hills, Rare. (211, 468)

Cyanotis axillaris Schult. Glabrous sub-succulent creeping herb. Fre-

quent, Fls, rainy season. (353 & 354)

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 225

PALMAE

Phoenix sylvestris Roxb. Tall Palm. Common in nullahs. Fils. May-

June. (22)

PANDANACEAE

Pandanus tectorius Soland. ex Parkinson. Bushy shrub in swamps.

Fls. rainy season. (759)

TYPHACEAE

Typha angustata Chaub. & Bory. A gigantic, gregarious, marsh plant.

Abundant. Fils. July-Aug. (760)

ARACEAE

Pistia stratiotes Linn. Floating herb. Rare. (761)

LEMNACEAE

Lemna minor Linn. Floating aquatic. Very common. Fils. Aug.-Oct.

(761A)

L. polyrrhiza Linn. Floating herb. Fronds dark green above, purplish

below. Common. Fils. Sept.-Oct. (752A)

Wolffia arrhiza Wimm. Floating aquatic occurring as a green scum.

Abundant in puddles. (501B)

NAIADACEAE

Potamogeton nodosus Poir. Floating herb. Common in lakes and

puddles. Fls. Aug.-Jan. (519)

P. crispus Linn. Submerged aquatic herb. Fls. Dec.-April. (514)

P. perfoliatus Linn. Aquatic herb of streams. Fls. Jan.-March. Fre-

quent. (556)

P. pectinatus Linn. Submerged aquatic with filiform stem. Abundant

at Hansarovar. Fls. Nov.-Jan. (574)

CYPERACEAE

Scirpus corymbosus Heyne ex Roth (592). S. articulatus Linn. (83, 85).

S. supinus Linn. (595). S. maritimus Linn, (597). S. erectus Poir,

226 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

(596). Fimbristylis schoenoides Vahl (593). F. aestivalis (Retz.)

Vahl. var. squarrosa (Vahl) Koyama (552). F. podocarpa Nees

(662). F.dichotoma Vahl (594). Cyperus arenarius Retz. (760).

C. distans Linn. f. (591). C. eleusinoides Kunth (590). C. haspan

Boeck. (589). C. niveus Retz. (588). C. conglomeratus Rottb. (587).

C. tuberosus Rottb. (586). C. iria Linn. (585). C. kyllinga Endl.

(601, 602). Eleocharis geniculata (Linn.) R. & S. (603). . Bulbostylis

barbata Kunth (599 and 600). B. subspinescens Clarke (598).

GRAMINEAE

Cenchrus ciliaris Linn. (788). C. setigerus Vahl (789). Setaria glauca

Beauv. (398, 399). Panicum psilopodium Trin. (108 and 619).

P. maximum Jacq. (761). Paspalidium punctatum (Burm. f.) A.

Camus (614, 615). Echinochloa crus-galli (Linn.) Beauv. (95, 616).

E. colonum (Linn.) Link (575). Echinochloa sp. (771). Brachiaria

kurzii (Hook. f.) A. Camus (663). 3B. ramosa (Linn.) Stapf. (618).

Digitaria sanguinalis (Linn.) Scop. (96, 106). Eriochloa procera

(Retz.) C. E. Hubb. (392). Paspalum distichum Linn. (614, 615).

Imperata cylindrica (Linn.) Beauv. (419, 622). Saccharum arundi-

naceum Retz. (769). S. spontaneum Linn. (770). S. bengalense Retz.

(768). Apluda mutica Linn. (76, 624). Arthraxon lancifolius (Trin.)

Hochst. (623). Chrysopogon fulvus (Spreng.) Chiov. (74, 396).

Sorghum halepense (Linn.) Pers. (784). Bothriochloa pertusa (Linn.)

A. Camus (417) Dichanthium annulatum (Forsk.) Stapf. (419). Hete-

ropogon contortus (Linn.) Beauv. ex R. & S. (391). Vetiveria sp.

(783). Cymbopogon jwarancusa (Jones) Schult. (781). Aristida

depressa Retz. (776). A. funiculata Trin. ex Rupr. (628). Perotis

indica (Linn.) O. Ktze. (394). Sporobolus maderaspatanus Bor

(762). S. diander Beauv. (84, 620). S. tremulus (Willd.) Kunth.

(621). Polypogon sp. (782) Eragrostis ciliaris (Linn.) R. Br. (766).

E. pilosa Beauv. (610). E. coarctata Stapf (611). E. tenella (Linn.)

Beauv. ex R. & S. (51, 14, 613). Desmostachya bipinnata (Linn.)

Stapf. (416). Melanocenchris jacquemontii Jaub. & Spach. (777).

Cynodon dactylon Pers. (767). ‘Tetrapogon villosus Desf. (107).

T. tenellus (Roxb.) Chiov. (763). Chloris virgata Sw. (400). C. doli-

chostachya Lag. (401, 402). C. barbata Sw. (765). Schoenefeldia

gracilis Kunth. (764). Eleusine indica Gaertn. (775). Dactyloc-

tenium aegyptium (Desf.) Beauv. (125, 395). Acrachne racemosa

(Heyne) Ohwi. (393). Hygrorhiza aristata Nees ex Wt. & Arn.

(773). Dendrocalamus strictus Nees (192).

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 227

STATISTICAL SYNOPSIS

The number and percentage of families, genera, and species in

Dicotyledons and Monocotyledons are as follows :

Dicotyledons Monocotyledons

Total

% of total No. % Of total No.

Families 85 69 15 12 81

Genera 80°54 236 19°46 57 293

Species 78°36 344 21°04 95 439

The largest families having ten or more species are Scrophulariaceae

(10), Capparidaceae (11), Malvaceae (11), Labiatae (11), Convolvulaceae

(13), Amaranthaceae (14), Acanthaceae (16), Euphorbiaceae (17), Cypera-

ceae (21), Compositae (24), Leguminosae (51), and Gramineae (53).

The various genera are poorly represented. The largest genera

having 5 or more species are Polygonum (5), Scirpus (5), Indigofera (6),

Ipomoea (6), Leucas (6), Acacia (6), Euphorbia (9) and Cyperus (9).

Out of 439 species 68 are trees, 89 shrubs and undershrubs, and

282 herbs. Climbing plants are represented by 33 species; Cuscuta

reflexa, Cuscuta hyalina, Striga asiatica, Striga gesneroides, Cassytha

filiformis, Cistanche tubulosa, and Orobanche cernua are parasites.

Utricularia stellaris and Utricularia flexuosa represent carnivorous

plants.

DISCUSSION

In recent years, the problem why plants grow in particular localities

has attracted the attention of several plant ecologists. There are

several contributions on the structure and dynamics of vegetation,

in a process of change and being modified by modern civilization.

It has been suggested by Billings (1952) that the vegetation of a given

area can be used as an indicator of the total environment if the

tolerance of characteristic species is known and if the vegetation is

adequately analysed by statistical and floristic methods.

The arid and semi-arid tracts of Rajasthan support various inte-

grated plant communities as shown by different workers. It is however

felt that the information on the ecological status of the vegetation of

different parts of Rajasthan is fragmentary. The phytogeographical

228 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

and geological status of Rajasthan has been debated in recent years.

The floristic composition of the area and its ecological status may be

useful indices of its past, consequently the present study was designed

to relate the vegetation with the environment and to understand the

phytogeographical status of the area.

The environmental complex of the area from the view point of

climate, soils, and biotic factors has been found to be adverse. The

moisture content of the area is characterized by a considerably long

period of water deficit due to low and irregular rainfall, high evapo-

transpiration rates, and potential evapo-transpiration generally exceed-

ing precipitation. This is further aggravated by adverse temperatures

during the months of water deficit resulting in semi-arid to arid climate,

The corollary that the vegetation is an index of the environment may

well be justified. The presence of sparse ground cover during the

summer and winter months and of abundant ground cover during the

rains the plant communities consisting of a few trees and shrubs and a

large number of ephemerals, the deciduous nature of the forest tree

species and the xerophytic adaptations like development of thorns,

thickening of leaves, development of tomentum, white bark, etc. all

suggest the semi-arid climate of the area.

It is possible to distinguish plant communities as affected by topo-

graphy, soil nature, and available soil moisture, in addition to the adverse

factors of the climate. The vegetation on the top of the hills consists

of a few plant communities which seem to be controlled by the available

soil moisture and exposure. The gentle slopes and the basal zone of

hills support a richer vegetation due to better soil formation and in-

creased water-holding capacity.

The soils on the hills and in the valleys are comparatively richer in

humus and nitrate content which promotes the aggregation of soil

particles and increases water-holding capacity. These soils are either

neutral or slightly acidic and support a better vegetation, consisting of

tree species. On the other hand, the soil of the plains is sandy with a

low percentage of nitrates, and humus, and consequently of low water-

holding capacity and alkaline in nature. It is, therefore, less favourable

for the growth of trees and favours the growth of grasses and other herbs,

The flora is characterized by the complete absence of Guttiferales

and Ericales, poor representation of Ranales, Carryophyllinae, Gerania-

les, Celastrales, Sapindales, Passiflorales, and Rubiales. The orders like

Malvales, Parietales, Rosales, Myrtales, Gentianales, Polemoniales,

Personales, Lamiales are well represented. Among Monochlamydeae,

Amaranthaceae and Euphorbiaceae are very well represented.

The flora of this area has considerable similarity with that of the other

investigated areas of north-eastern Rajasthan. The Table below gives

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN 229

the strength of dominant families and genera in the different investigated

areas of this zone of Rajasthan.

TABLE SHOWING THE NUMBER OF SPECIES BELONGING TO DOMINANT FAMILIES

AND GENERA IN VARIOUS INVESTIGATED AREAS OF NORTH-EAST RAJASTHAN

S.No. Family Alwar Ajit © Chirawa_ Harsh- Lohargal Pilani

or Genus Sagar nath

FAMILY

1. Gramineae 53 22 19 18 i 49

2. Leguminosae 30 29 24 Zt 22 34

3. Compositae 24 13 12 20 10 18

4. Cyperaceae 21 8 3 4 y b)

5. Euphorbiaceae 17 10 6 10 8 12

6. Acanthaceae 16 10 2 8 10 8

7. Amaranthaceae 14 10 8 11 6 8

8. Convolvulaceae 13 8 4 7 3 8

9. Malvaceae 11 10 3 6 6 11

10. Capparidaceae 1 4 5 4 Z 4

11. Labiatae 11 6 3 5 8 6

12. Tiliaceae 8 9 5 5 4 8

13. Boraginaceae 9 9 3 8 4 9

14. Scrophulariaceae 10 qi 1 6 Z 4

15. Solanaceae | 6 6 8 7 6

16. Ficoidaceae 6 8 8 7 3 9

GENUS

1. Euphorbia 9 6 Y 5 3 5

2. Cyperus 9 5 2 y ? 2

3. Indigofera 6 5 3 8 2 5

4. Leucas 6 4 Pa 3 1 3

5. Acacia 6 3 5 4 2 5

6. Ipomoea 6 4 1 3 1 3

7. Scirpus B) nil 1 1 7 1

8. Tephrosia 4 7 1 2 3 5

9. Heliotropium 4 5 3 4 1 6

10. Cassia 4 3 5 Z 5 4

It may be concluded that the flora of the investigated area ap.

proaches that of Mount Abu, the highest peak of the Aravallis. Species

like Flacourtia indica, Helicteres isora, Lannea coromandelica, Wood-

fordia fruticosa, Mitragyna parvifolia, Vogelia indica, Ehretia laevis,

and Mallotus philippensis growing in the present area have not been re-

ported from any part of Rajasthan except Mount Abu.

In the flora of the investigated area three distinct elements, namely

Perso-Arabic, Indo-Malayan, and General, can be distinguished. Of

the three elements, the Perso-Arabic is represented by 164 species and

the Indo-Malayan by 83 species. The Indo-Malayan element is thus

half of the Perso-Arabic element.

In western Rajasthan, according to Blatter and Hallberg (1918-21)

and Biswas and Rao (1953), the Indo-Malayan element is only one-

seventh of the-Perso-Arabic, In the flora of Ajit Sagar Bundh, eastern

230 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Rajasthan, this proportion is a little more than one-third (Nair & Kanodia

1959), and in the flora of Harshnath, eastern Rajasthan (Nair & Natha-

wat 1957) this proportion is a little less than one half.

From the above data it is, therefore, clear that in the flora of Rajas-

than, the Perso-Arabic element predominates over the Indo-Malayan

element. The percentage of Indo-Malayan element increases as one

proceeds from west to east. According to the suggestions of Drude

(1890, 1913) supported by Blatter & Hallberg (1918-1921) and Biswas

& Rao (1953), the line of demarcation between the Indo-Malayan flora

and the Perso-Arabic flora ranges from the gulf of Cambay northwards

along the Aravallis. If Drude’s conclusions were correct, a place

situated on the east of Aravallis should have a predominance of the Indo-

Malayan element. On the contrary, the vegetation of the investigated

area has a larger proportion of the Perso-Arabic element. It may, there-

fore, be suggested that a demarcation line should be sought more towards

the east, even beyond the limits of Rajasthan.

SUMMARY

1. The present work is a contribution to the flora of north-east

Rajasthan. The area of study is Alwar District.

2. The location and physiography of the area have been given.

3. The environmental factors affecting the vegetation have been

discussed.

4. Statistical analysis of the flora indicates that there are 439 in-

digenous species belonging to 293 genera and 81 natural orders.

5. A comparative account reveals that the present area is the most

complex in north-east Rajasthan and approaches that of Mount Abu

the highest peak of the Aravalli range.

6. It is concluded that the vegetation of the investigated area is of

semi-arid type and may be a deterioration product of a climatic climax

vegetation.

7. Phytogeographical affinities lie mainly with the Perso-Arabic

rather than with the Indo-Malayan regions.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am deeply indebted to Dr. B. N. Mulay, Professor and Head of

the Department of Botany, Birla College, Pilani, under whose constant

guidance the present investigation was carried out. My sincere thanks

are due to Dr. B. V. Ratnam, Principal, Lohia College, Churu, and

Shri Shanti Sarup, Principal, Rampuria College, Bikaner, for helpful

suggestions, I am greatly obliged to Dr, M._B, Raizada, Head of the

CONTRIBUTION TO FLORA OF NE, RAJASTHAN

231

Division of Forest Botany, Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, and

Dr. N. C. Nair, Botanical Survey of India, Dehra Dun, for the help in

checking and confirming the identification of the species described in

this paper.

REFERENCES

BAKSHI, T. S. (1954): The vegetation

of Pilani and its neighbourhood. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52 : 484-514.

BILLINGs, W. D. (1952): The en-

vironmental complex in relation to plant

growth and distribution. Quart. Rev. of

Bio. 27 (3) : 251-265.

Biswas, K. & Rao, R. S. (1953):

Rajputana Desert vegetation. Proc. nat.

Inst. Sci. India 19 : 411-21.

BLATTER, E. & HALLBERG, F. 1918-21:

- The flora of the Indian desert. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 26-27 different pages.

DruDE, O. (1890): Handbuch der

Pflanzengeographie. Stutgart.

(1913): Die Oekologie der Pflan-

zen. Brunswick.

Josut, M. C. (1958): A comparative

study of the vegetation of some areas in

Jaipur division. J. Indian Bot. Soc. 36:

279-91.

_ Mutay, B.N. & MATHUR, S.C. (1961):

A preliminary ecological survey of plant

communities in and around Tonk Dis-

trict (Rajasthan). Proc. Rajasthan Acad.

Sci. 8 : 31-42.

———, & RATNAM, B. V. (1950): Vege-

tation found nearabout Pilani. Proc.

Indian Sci. Congress, Poona : 64-65.

Nair, N. C. (1956): Flora of Chirawa.

Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 6 : 49-64.

Nair, N.C. (1961) : Vegetation of Jhun-

- jhunu, Mandrela and _ neighbouring

places. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58:

433-440.

———, & NATHAWAT, G.S. (1956):

Vegetation of Pilani and its neighbour-

hood. op. cit. 54 : 91-106.

(1957) : Vegetation of Harsh-

nath hills. ibid. 54 : 281-301.

———, & KAnopiA, K. C. (1959)3A

study of the vegetation of Ajit Sagar

Bundh, Rajasthan. op. cit. 56 : 524-557.

, & THomas, T. A. (1961) : The

vegetation of Khetri Town and its neigh-

bourhood. Proc. Rajasthan Acad. Sci. 8:

99-110.

RAMCHANDRAN, K. R. (1950) : Com-

mon grasses found round about Pilani.

Proc. Indian Sci. Congr. Poona: 65-66.

RATNAM, B. V. (1951) : The vegetation

of Lohargal. Proc. Rajasthan Acad, Sci.

2 : 26-36.

SaruP, S. (1961): Hydrophytes of

Bharatpur. A preliminary Study. Uni.

Rajasthan Studies 5 : 1-11.

SHARMA, V. S. (1958): The Flora of

Ajmer. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55:

129-141.

Vyas, L. N. (1962): Vegetation of

Jai Samand lake, Alwar. Proc. Rajas-

than Acad. Sci. 9 : 45-63.

Middle East Lepidoptera—XXIV :

Beihania, a new Noctuid Genus from

Southern Arabia with two new Species

from Arabia and Somaliland

E. P. WILTSHIRE, C.B.E., F.R.E.S.

(With six text-figures)

While revising Armada Staudinger, Metoponrhis Staudinger, and

neighbouring genera, I came across a small group of moths occurring

along the north-west shores of the Indian Ocean, one of which had been

described as a Metoponrhis. A closer investigation shewed that this

group has no close affinity with the Armadini and is best dealt with in a

short, separate article, as follows.

Beihania gen. nov.

Type species :—Metoponrhis anartoides Warnecke 1937 (Mitt. Miinch

Enito1Ges: J--21, p. ai; Pl3. tls)

The superficial resemblance of this species to the rare and little known

Metoponrhis marginata Hampson, described from Ceylon, seems the

probable reason why the author included it in this genus. The frons

without prominence, shorter palp, and genitalia of both sexes so different

from those of Metoponrhis and Armada and the oval rather than elon-

gate fore-wing areole shew it to be not at all closely related, though

belonging, like those genera, to the rather ill-defined sub-family

Othreinae (= Noctuinae Hampson and Warren-Seitz,=Erebinae Forbes).

The new genus may be provisionally placed near Lyncestis which

it resembles superficially, but it is somewhat smaller than the type

species, Lyncestis amphix Cramer, and its genitalia shew no affinity

with that species. It is possible however that some other species at

present standing under Lyncestis may prove to belong rather to Beihania.

1 The preceding articles in this taxonomic series, Nos. 21, 22 & 23, dealt with

Afghan Geometridae and are appearing in Zeits.d.Wiener Ent. Ges. 51, beginning

with p. 29 (1966).

MIDDLE EAST LEPIDOPTERA—XXIV 233

Beihania :

Palp, as long as diameter of eye, with very short third segment.

Antenna, of 3, ciliated : of 2, simple.

Frons, without prominence ; vertex, a low, scaled ridge.

Legs, spineless, short as in Armada, but hind-tibia even shorter and

thickened.

Fore-wing, areole, oval ; neuration of both wings in other respects

as in Armada, Metoponrhis, Acrobyla, etc.

Male genitalia: uncus, thickening distally, with hooked tip ;

anus, a prominent sclerotised tube; tegumen, symmetrical, long;

sinuous ; valve, triangular, much shorter than aedeagus, very broad at

base, with elaborate folded costa with two or three dorsal arms or fingers ;

saccus, triangular; aedeagus, long, massive at proximal end, with

caecum thicker than tip.

Female genitalia: very different from those of Metoponrhis,

Armada, etc. ; ovipositor-lobes, complex, with hairs and scales form-

ing a floricomus ; posterior apophyses, quite long, inverted when not

extended ; anterior apophyses, short, not rod-formed but in the form

of udder-like lobes or pockets ; ductus, sclerotised, well-developed ;

bursa, globular, comparatively small, but with a more or less developed

distal appendix.

Beihania anartoides (Warnecke)

Fig 3. male genitalia, with aedeagus detached, { ventral view ;

Fig. 5 female genitalia

234+ JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Beihania anartoides (Warnecke)

Some structural details to amplify the original description and what

has been said above :

Male genitalia (Fig. 3): valve dorsal processes asymmetrical ;

the upper dorsal finger on the right valve is bifurcate while that of the

left is simple; aedeagus with five moderate sized heavily chitined

triangular cornuti and a field of about 20 finer spines.

Female genitalia (Fig. 5): ductus, in two sections, jointed,

both sub-cylindrical, the posterior being wider at the ostium and the

anterior wider at the entry to bursa, where there is a balloon-like den-

sely spinose appendix. The true bursa is oval, not spinose and about

twice as big as the appendix.

The above specific descriptions were made from examples :—

3, (Prep. 1117) S.W. Arabia, Beihan, iii. 52, leg. Popov, in coll. m.

2, (Prep. 1117 L) S.W. Arabia, Asir, Sabya, 10. iii. 45, leg. A. R.

Waterston in coll. m.

Beihania cuculliella sp.nov. (Figs. 1 & 4)

Slightly larger than anartoides, paler grey, with hind-wing margin

fainter-grey. FFore-wing, more elongated, lacking the black linear

reniform stigma characteristic of anartoides ; ante-median and post-

median fasciae, more clearly marked. Nervures, of fore-wing, infus-

cated in the marginal area to form black streaks ; fringe grey, chequered

Beihania cuculliella sp. nov.

MIDDLE EAST LEPIDOPTERA—XXIV 235

with black. Hind-wing nervures similarly but less infuscated, yet visible

as they traverse the narrower, pale grey marginal band ; fringe, white.

Under-side, fore-wing, plain grey, the fringes chequered ; of hind-

wing, aS upper-side.

Beihania cucullieila sp. nov. male genitalia,

with aedeagus detached, ventral view

Span :—23 mm. (cf. anartoides, 16-22 mm.)

Male genitalia (Fig. 4): uncus, shorter, thicker than anar-

toides ; valves, symmetrical, each with two tapering fingers springing

from a fold at some distance from the tapering, finger-like tip of the

valve ; aedeagus, with one large cornutus, and countless minute spines

in two or three parallel series.

Holotype. 3, Prep. B.M. Noct. 3370, ARABIA, Mecca, 8. iv. 32,

leg. H. St. J. Philby, (in British Museum).

Paratypes. 6 other 3, including Prep. WBM. 7, with same data ;

also, 2 dg, ARABIA, Wadi Baish, 7. vii. 36, leg. Philby ; 1 3, ARABIA,

Suq Aiban, 20-21. xii. 36, & 1 3, Jidda, 17.11.36, all leg. Philby ; also

1 3, ARaBiA, Madraga, 1. ii. 48, leg. A. R. Waterston ; all in British

Museum.

Beihania hyatti sp.nov. (Figs. 2 & 6)

Though perhaps no more than a subspecies of cuculliella, described

above, I introduce it provisionally as a distinct new species on account

235 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

of the obvious difference of facies and its different country of origin,

African instead of Asiatic, though not far away. Only males of cucul-

liella have been taken, and of this African form, a single female only.

sad

ae wae

a tele

=o gen nae

CAD we

re e

zie OR

2 8 Malt,

: Lass

. .

ryt te

SD a

of att

Zs ¥e 6 2 Ng ie OD y

= thas HAG Sit WAG 57 Peg eae 25

— RIES AS S2 Res ty? -! Ae iets = 00 .

REE RAEIES - Mk ae

x. 04 AO * bet CI IS aed

SZ A ee 2, LE os Newey euee gry,

Z Lect a8 SQ ey Sai ew a tym n’

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GEG AEE % pass ah, nye

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Zea a "+ 7 =

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oy 5 Ad

Beihania hyatti sp. nov.

Fore-wing, very similar to cuculliella, but lacking costal black marks,

perhaps due to rubbing ; hind-wing, however, with broad, dense, blackish

marginal band covering half the wing. Fringe, white.

Span :—24 mm.

Beihania hyatti sp. nov. female genitalia

MIDDLE EAST LEPIDOPTERA—XXIV | 237

Female genitalia (Fig. 6): anterior apophyses with a second

pair of lobe-like pockets, absent from anartoides ; bursa, with nume-

rous spicules, sparser towards the fundus than distally ; appendix, not

spinose nor spiculated.

Holotype, 9, (Prep. WBM. 6) SOMALILAND, 2200 ft., iv. 1929,

leg. M. Portal Hyatt, in British Museum.

Growth and Propagation of Common

Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) in India—V

Observations on the size of eggs, hatchlings

and fry of parents of various size’

K. V. RAMAKRISHNA

AND

K. H. ALIKUNHI?

Central Inland Fisheries Research Sub-station, Cuttack

INTRODUCTION

A stock of common carp, originally imported from Prussia, was in-

troduced into India in 1939 (Chacko 1945). Left to breed naturally

in the Nilgiri waters, this stock comprises a mixture of mirror carp

(C. carpio var. specularis), scale carp (C. carpio var. communis) and leather

carp (C. carpio var. nudus)—the three commonly recognised varieties of

this cosmopolitan species which has the distinction of being the most

widely cultivated fish in the world. Though subsequently introduced

into other parts of the country this stock has been mostly confined to

the relatively cold, upland waters where all the varieties have been freely

breeding. In the warmer waters of the Indian plains it was not found

to breed freely and its utility as a pond fish for the plains, therefore,

remained relatively unexplored.

A consignment of common carp that breeds freely in the South-East

Asian countries was brought to Cuttack in 1957 with a view to try its

utility for cultivation in the Indian plains (Alikunhi et al—unpublished).

These are pure scalers (C. carpio var. communis) and have been breed-

ing prolifically at Cuttack since March, 1958.

Repeated observations at Cuttack have shown that under normal

pond conditions this fish matures when it is 18-20 cm. long and weighs

about 0:12 kg. Fishes ranging up to 6:0 kg. and over are now used

in experimental as well as commercial breeding at Cuttack. During

7 Paper presented at the 49th Session of the Indian Science Congress at Cuttack,

January 1962 and published with the permission of the Director, C.I.F.R.I., Barrack-

re.

2 Present address : Director, Central Institute of Fisheries Education, Bombay-58.

GROWTH AND FROPAGATION OF COMMON CARP IN INDIA 239

this work differences in the size of eggs, hatchlings and fry of parents

of different size were frequently observed and it was felt necessary to

examine this carefully and ascertain whether such differences, if they

really exist, are of any cultural significance. During the period 1960-63

fifty-two pairs of common carp of selected size were specially bred to

study the eggs, hatchlings and fry and these observations are recorded

in the present paper.

MATERIAL AND METHODS

The length and weight of the female and male breeders were recorded

when fishes were kept in hapas! for breeding. For purposes of this

study single females were mated with single males of comparable size

so that parentage of the entire batch of eggs was definite. Laid eggs

sticking on to weeds kept in the hapas were collected and random samples

measured under the microscope. Samples on weeds were kept in enamel

trays, in tap water and in pond water in the laboratory. When the eggs

started hatching 50 to 100 hatchlings were collected, generally within

4 to 6 hours of hatching and their total length was measured. At the

same time 50 to 100 hatchlings from the hatching hapa fixed in the pond

were also taken and measured for purposes of comparison.

To find out whether fry from parents of markedly different size show

differences in growth when reared under identical conditions, samples

of fry were reared in laboratory aquaria for periods of 20 days. At the

end of the period surviving fry in different aquaria were fixed, measured

and weighed.

OBSERVATIONS AND RESULTS

Eggs: When a representative sample of fertilised eggs from a batch

is examined we find them falling within a particular range of size. Eggs

from large females also appear larger than those from smaller females.

The range of size and frequency of each size of eggs from 52 selected

specimens arranged in 5 size groups at 10 cm. intervals are given in

Table I.

Diameter of the eggs, excluding the vitelline space and egg membrane

was measured under the microscope. The samples were arbitrarily

divided into 4 groups of almost equal range and analysed. It is seen

from the table that in the smaller fish the proportion of the smaller eggs

is predominant and that as the size of the female increases the diameter

of the predominant group of eggs also increases. The first group of

’ Rectangular cloth tanks of various size, supported by bamboo poles at corners,

240 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

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GROWTIT AND PROPAGATION OF COMMON CARP IN INDIA 241

eggs up to 1:18 mm. in diameter progressively becomes scarce (50%

to 2%) as the weight of the parent fish increases to 4-6 kg. Likewise.

the proportion of the larger eggs (group II & III) steadily increases

with the size of the parent. Inthe 15 to 35 cm. length range of females

the largest diameter of eggs encountered was only 1°51 mm. While

the average length of the female breeder increases from 20 to 59 cm., the

average diameter of the laid eggs increases from 1°21 mm. to 1°41 mm.

This actual increase by 0°20 mm. represents 16°5°%% increase in diameter.

In terms of volume of the egg and consequent quantity of stored up

material in the egg the increase averages 58%.

Soon after fertilization the egg swells up by water absorption and a

narrow vitelline space appears between the egg and its surrounding

vitelline membrane. The overall diameter of the fully swollen egg shows

some variations, depending perhaps on the conditions of the medium,

but even here progressive increase in size is evident as the size of the

parent increases (Table IT).

TABLE II

OVERALL DIAMETER OF FULLY SWOLLEN EGGS OF C. carpio IN RELATION TO

SIZE OF THE FEMALE

: Female | hy. Diameter (mm.) of egg

rer oe gM cecal) Average eiehes Excl vil.< || Tactadihe vil

| (cm.) | (kg.) | SOG ae iat, Saco

I 20°34 0-200 1:21 1°51

Ds, 31°12 0°631 1:23 1:65

3. 40°65 1:389 1:32 1:64

4. 50°75 3-016 1:34 1:70

5 59°21 4:769 1:41 1:73

The average increase in diameter of the fully swollen egg is 14°5%

from the first to the fifth group and the corresponding increase in

volume is almost 46% ; both very much similar to the respective increase

in the case of the egg excluding the vitelline space.

Hatchlings : Measurements of hatchlings from parents of different

size also show, as in the case of eggs, a progressive increase in length

(Table III).

Hatchlings obtained by keeping developing epes®n pond water in

trays in the laboratory were used for the above measurements. As

Stated earlier the samples were fixed 4-6 hours after hatching com-

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

242.

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GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF COMMON CARP IN INDIA 243

menced. When the hatching is prolonged the samples are likely to

include a few newly hatched larvae also, irrespective of the size of the

parent. In spite of this the gradually increasing trend is clear and the

percentage of larger hatchlings (group III) increases as the size of the

female parent increases.

Hatchlings just emerging from the eggs were collected and measured

in two batches taken from parents of different sizes and were analysed

(Table IV).

The Table shows that the hatchlings of the larger fish are nearly

éth longer than those of the smaller fish. In thesame batch of hatchlings

the largest one is generally 20 to 24% longer than the smallest one.

Further, smaller hatchlings predominate in the case of the smaller fish

while, in the larger fish the smaller hatchlings are relatively very few, the

larger ones predominating.

Size of Hatchlings in Different Media: \t was noted that when eggs

from the same batch are hatched under different conditions and in

different media the length of the hatchlings varied markedly. When

hatched in cloth hapas fixed in the pond and in pond water and in tap

water in trays in the laboratory, the length of hatchlings varies (Table V),

While the pond water is alkaline in pH and rich in nutrients, tap

water is acidic or neutral in pH and poor in nutrients. Water tem-

perature in the pond was also consistently higher than that in trays

inthe laboratory. Pond water and tap water in trays in the laboratory

had identical temperature though dissolved nutrients, gases and pH

were different. It is possible that under the above conditions of pond

water there is better utilisation of yolk.

Irrespective of the environment in which the eggs were hatched the

average length of the hatchlings increases with the increase in size of the

female parent. This trend is evident even at the end of the second day

after hatching when the stored-up yolk has been fully utilised by the

hatchling. The hatchlings from the pond are about 14% longer than

hatchlings in pond water in trays in the laboratory. When measure-

ments of representative samples of hatchlings from different broods of

eggs are arranged in groups the relative abundance of these groups

indicate the same trend as in the case of eggs (Table VI).

Under laboratory conditions as well as in the pond the length of

hatchlings increases with the increasing size of the parent. The smaller

hatchlings in groups I and II steadily become scarce in broods from

parents of groups 4 and 5. Under laboratory conditions, the average

length of hatchlings being shorter the above trend is not so obviously

brought out as under pond conditions.

Survival and Growth of Hatchlings : As hatchlings from eggs of large

breeders were generally larger than those from smaller breeders, attempts

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

244

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GROWfH AND PROPAGATION OF COMMON CARP IN INDIA 247

were made to determine whether this initial advantage in length is of

any significance in their early growth and survival. Fishes of widely

different weights were artificially spawned under identical conditions

and the eggs were also hatched under identical conditions. Ten litre

capacity glass aquaria with equal quantity of filtered pond water were

set up and at 100 fry per aquarium three random lots from each brood

of fry were kept for rearing. The fry in various aquaria were fed daily

with identical quantities of fresh zoo-plankton. Survival and growth

of fry at the end of 20 days of rearing are given in Table VII.

TABLE VII

C. carpio, SURVIVAL AND GROWTH OF FRY FROM PARENTS OF DIFFERENT SIZE

. Av. size of fry at Av. size attained

Size of 2 Parent stocking in 20 days

i =e ae eS ee ee ee Survival

O. | | 0

| ‘Length | Weight | Length Weight Length | Weight 7

(cm.) | (kg ) (mm. ) (mg.) (mm.) | (mg.)

l. 212 0°243 5°92 0:96 14:25 25% 94

2 29°6 0°643 7:08 1:70 15°95 40°8 87

ae 50°4 3°165 7°45 2°64 16°51 48°3 86

4, a7, 3°748 6°53 1:70 14°89 24:3 99

Specimens 1-4 and 2-3, with similar size males formed the sets of

breeders from which fry were obtained for simultaneous rearing.

Though several more such lots have to be reared in the laboratory and

also in the field before reliable conclusions can be drawn, the preliminary

results indicate that under comparable conditions fry of the larger breeders

grow slightly faster than those of the smaller fish. At commence-

ment of rearing the fry of the two larger fish were about 7:°5%

larger than the fry of the smaller fish. After 20 days of rearing they

remained longer by only 4%. By weight, the fry of the larger fish were

about 55% heavier at commencement of rearing, than those of the

smaller fish. At the end of the rearing period, this difference was appre-

ciably reduced and they were only about 10% heavier than the fry of

the smaller fish. However, when the actual increase in length and

weight is compared with the initial length and weight of fry in each case,

we find, in this particular series, the fry of the smaller parents growing

better, though with a slightly lower survival. Prevezentsev (1964)

studying the size, weight and chemical composition of eggs and larvae

of 4, 7 and 10 year old spawners found best indices for the offspring of

average size spawners and poorest for those of first time spawners.

248 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

DISCUSSION

According to Martyshev (Quoted by Nikolsky, 1963) in the carp>

C. carpio L., the largest broods are those produced by fishes of age

8-- ; the young and older individuals produce less viable young. Depend-

ing on the age of the fish the diameter of eggs and length of hatchlings

also vary as follows (Nikolsky, 1963, p. 173).

| Age of carps in years

| | Wise

ech a loi, Eo

Average diameter of eggs (mm.) 1:26 1:39 7 1°64

Average length of hatchlings (mm.) 4°80 5:05 6°41 6°18

Observations recorded in the present paper show a similar correla-

tion of the length and weight of the fish with the size of eggs and hatch-

lings as follows :

Average size of breeder |

= | Av. diameter of Average length

Length (cm.) | Weight (kg.) | eggs (mm.) of hatchling (mm.)

a Se Ck RAE eee Ce, eee aes era 4

20°0 0°20 1:21 Sa

31:0 0°63 1:23 5°59

41:0 1°39 1°32 eel

51:0 3°02 1°34 5°28

59:0 Bo 1°41 5:70

Careful analysis of the batches of eggs laid by breeders of different

size has shown: (a) an appreciable range in the size of eggs; (b) a

predominance of a particular size correlated with the size of the breeder

and, (c) presence often of a low percentage of relatively large eggs.

This applies in the case of hatchlings as well. |

The occurrence of a limited number of fast growing fry in a batch

hatched from a parent has been repeatedly observed in common carp.

In the case of Indian carps, Catla, Rohu and Mrigal also such fast grow-

ing specimens appear when batches of fry from a brood are reared in

ponds. In Japan such fast growing carps are called ‘ Tobi-Koi’ or

‘ Shoot carps’ (Matsui 1949, Nakamura & Kasahara 1955). Matsui

(1949, 1950) is of the view that these ‘ shoot carps’ can be distinguished

from normal specimens of C. carpio by morphological characteristics

which are of genetic significance and which could, therefore, be fixed

by selective breeding to yield a faster growing strain. Nakamura &

GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF COMMON CARP IN INDIA — 249

Kasahara (1955, 1956, & 1957) have tried to show that competition for

food between individual fry within a batch is an important causative

factor for the occurrence of * shoot carps’ and as such these fast-grow-

ing specimens may not be of genetic significance.

If we concede that the fry of the larger parent (generally of a larger

average size) grow faster than the fry of the smaller parent (generally of

a lower average size) (Nikolsky, 1963) it may be possible to infer that

the relatively small percentage of larger hatchlings in a batch would

grow faster than the rest in the batch. If this could explain the occur-

rence of ‘ shoot carps’ then it might possibly be of some genetic signi-

ficance. Particle size, paucity of food and competition result in extreme

skewness in the batches of fry reared in ponds but it also shows that a

few of the fry in the batch have greater capacity to ingest and assimilate

food than others and it is yet to be ascertained if this capacity could be

fixed.

The observation that eggs of the same batch hatched in different

media under other identical conditions result in hatchlings of different

size would indicate that in ponds with widely differing water conditions,

the hatchlings of carp of a particular size could be of different sizes.

Selective breeding and extensive progency testing (Wohlfarth et al.,

1961) have to be carried out in order to arrive at tangible results out

of trends indicated in this paper.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our grateful thanks are due to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, for his keen

interest in this work and for critically going through the typescript,

We are also thankful to our colleagues Sarvashri K. K. Sukumaran, S.

Parameswaran and B. S. Murthy for help in collection and spawning

of the desired size breeders.

REFERENCES

ALIKUNHI, K. H., & RANGANATHAN,

V., (1946) : Acclimatisation of Cyprinus

carpio to the plains with notes on its

development. Curr. Sci., 15 (8) ; 233.

———_—.,, VIJAYALAKSHMANAN, M. A..,

SUKUMARAN, K. K. & PARAMES WARAN, S.

(Unpublished). Growth and Propaga-

tion of Common carp in India. I.

Growth and Compatibility with Indian

carps.

———-—-, SUKUMARAN, K. K., &

VIJAYALAKSHMANAN, M. A. (unpublished)

Growth and Propagation of common carp

in India: II. Breeding and hatching

techniques.

ALIKUNHI, K. H., ViJAYALAKSHMANAN,

M. A. & PARAMESWARAN, S. (Unpub-

lished). Growth and propagation of

Common carp in India. IV. Survival and

Growth of fry.

CHACKO, P. (1945): Acclimatisation

of mirror carp in Nilgiris. J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc., 45 (2) : 244-247.

Matsul, I. (1949) : Genetical studies

of the carp. II. On the morphological

characteristics of Tobi-Koi (Superior

growing carps group). Jour. Shimonoseki

Coll,, Fish. 1(2): 27-32.

(1950))-- Studies. on! the

growth of pond cultured animals V.

250

On the growth of Tobi-Koi (Superior

growing carps group). ibid., Dec.

1950 : 166-174.

NAKAMURA, N., & KASAHARA, S.

(1955): A study of the phenomenon of

‘ Tobi-Koi’ or Shoot carp. 1. On the

earliest stage at which the shoot carps

appear. Bull. Jap. Soc. Sci. Fish. 21

(2) : 73-76.

——, ———-—-— (1956) :

A study of the phenomenon’ of

‘ Tobi-Koi’ or Shoot carp. If. On the

effect of particle size and quantity of the

food. ibid 21(9) : 1022-1024.

———— (1957): Ditto. II[—On the

result of culturing the model group and

the growth of carp fry reared individually.

op. cit. 22(11) : 674-678.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

NIKOLSKY, G. V. (1963): The Ecology

of Fishes. (Translated by L. Birkett)

Academic Press, London.

PARAMES WARAN, S., SUKUMARAN,

K. K., & ALIKUNHI, K. H.(Unpublished):

Growth and Propagation of Common

carp in India. II. Maturity, fecundity &

breeding.

PREVEZENTSEV, YU, A. O. (1964):

On some qualitative indices of offspring

obtained from carp spawners of various

ages. DOKL Rossiiek Sel’skokhoz

Akad. in K.A. Timirvazeva, 95 : 285-288.

WOHLFARTH, G., Moav, R. &

LAHMAN, M. (1961) : Genetic improve-

ments of carp III. Progency tests for

differences in growth rate—1959-1960.

Bamidgeh 13 (2) : 40-54.

A Population Survey of the Bonnet

Monkey (Macaca radiata Geoffroy) in

Bangalore, South India

HAFEEZUR RAHAMAN, M.SC¢.

Research Scholar (C.S.I.R.)

AND

M. D. PARTHASARATHY, M.Sc., Ph.D., F.Z.S.

Department of Zoology, Central College, Bangalore

(With a map)

This paper presents data on the population of Bonnet Monkeys

(Macaca radiata Geoffroy) in different parts of Bangalore city. In all,

20 sectors or postal zones were surveyed from August 1964 to January

1965. The zones other than those enumerated in the table at page 253

were entirely devoid of monkey population. There is no other species of

monkey in Bangalore, with one exception in the Cubbon Park troop

which has accepted a Rhesus female, probably an escape from captivity.

The objectives of the population survey were to gather data on the

abundance and the distribution of bonnet monkeys, and on group-size

and composition, to ascertain the ecological factors responsible for the

distribution and troop size, and to study food and habitat preferences.

DESCRIPTION OF THE AREA

The city of Bangalore (the capital of Mysore State in south India)

lies between 12°55’ and 13°03’N. and 77°32’ and 77°44’E. and has an

area of nine square miles. The elevation of the highest Bangalore table-

land is approximately 3000 ft. above sea-level.

The dry crops are ragi (Eleusine corocana), cow gram (Dalene:

lablab), jola (Sorghum vulgare), horse gram (Dolichos biflorus), etc., and

a variety of other items of less intensive cultivation. A noteworthy

feature is the occurrence of flowers throughout the year owing to the

salubrious climate.

The climate of Bangalore is dry in January, February, March, and

December, with little or no rain, i.e. O'l to O0°'5 mm. In June and

252 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

November there is slight rain, in May, July, August, and October

moderate rain, about 125 mm. The highest rainfall recorded is in the

month of September going up to 170 mm. -

The average mean temperature and diurnal range at Bangalore are in

January 74 and 16, May 80 and 22, July 74 and 16, November 71 and

17 Fahrenheit. (Imperial Gazetteer of India, Mysore and Coorg; 1927).

The minimum temperature as recorded in the months of November,

December and January is approximately 13°C. to 15°C., and occasionally

goes down to 10°C. The temperature is highest in March, April and

May i.e. 30° to 34°C. During the rest of the period the average tem-

perature is 24°C. The population of Bangalore is about fourteen lakhs.

METHODS

Bangalore with its availability of water, food, and shelter was con-

venient for survey of the monkey population of an urban area. The

roadside shopkeepers on many occasions could give us information

regarding the presence of monkeys in their vicinity, as their exposed

wares attract the animals.

The search of temple localities gave most fruitful results, in some

areas more than one troop being encountered. Duplication of counting

was avoided by identifying individual troop members. Some members

of each troop were discriminated by such characteristics as brow

wounds, scars, freckles, tears in the ears, and so on. After sometime,

we could easily distinguish individual monkeys by their facial character-

istics.

For group composition all members of a troop, males and females,

were classified according to age groups into adults (above 5 years),

juveniles (1-3 years), and infants (below 1 year).

RESULTS

In the five months, during which the population was surveyed, a total

of 14 troops was seen in different localities (Table and Map). In the

Table the different localities are grouped in ecological sectors.

NATURE OF HABITAT AND Foop

Garden Sector

Lal Bagh, the State botanical and horticultural garden, is a very old

garden and one of the best of its kind in the East. It has various types

of economic plants, fruits, arboretum, herbs, and a variety of flora under

cultivation, such as palms, conifers, giant bamboos, orchids, and an

POPULATION SURVEY OF BONNET MONKEY IN BANGALORE 253

assemblage of other plants including coffee, mulberry, baniah cotton,

American upland cotton, medicinal plants like cinchona, chalmogra,

TABLE

GROUP SIZE AND COMPOSITION OF TROOPS

Sl. No.

Locality of Adult $ Adult? Juveniles Infants Total

Troops

Garden Sector:

(Total Population 65).

Lal Bagh (Tank) 1 3 1] 5 3 22

Lal Bagh (Gate) ue 2 3 6 5) 6 20

Cubbon Park ae 3) 4 5 1 i 23

Temple Sector :

(Total Population 84). ~

Malleswaram 4 2 5 5 2 14

Gandhi Bazar 3 8 if 5 7 ps,

Nagartharpet 6 20 o2 4 7 43

Market Sector:

(Total Population 110)

Yeshwanthapur i 3 J) 6 1 17

Ulsoor .. i 8 5 6 5 4 20

Subedar Chatram Rd. 9 7 12 5 4 28

Tharangpet ate 10 10 16 3 Zz St

Chamarajpet 11 5 5 4 14

Extension Sector :

(Total Population 37)

Mekhri Circle Be 12 5 4 1 1 HL

Wilson Garden Xs 13 3 4 1 2 10

Fraser Town ws 14 6 f/ 1 2 16

Total ae 14 84 107 57 48 296

digitalis, aromatic plants like, pachouli, citronella, linaloe, and a variety

of fruit-bearing plants. Cubbon Park also has many plants of botanical

interest. The sector also includes boulevards and green lawns.

The monkeys feed on practically all the plants, especially bamboo-

shoots, mango leaves, and flowers, mulberry, Ficus, grass blades, dis-

carded oats, grasshoppers, flies, and even the pupae found on the under-

surface of leaves.

Temple Sector

The habitat around the temples is not as rich in vegetation as the

garden sector, but there is plenty of food and protection as temple

254 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

environs are in the nature of a sanctuary. All temples have at least a

few large trees that offer shelter. The food consists chiefly of left-overs

of the offerings made by visitors in the form of rice, bananas, coconuts,

and so on. Sometimes visitors feed them with buns, bread, and other

edibles.

Market Sector

This habitat is heavily congested and devoid of vegetation ; instead,

it has tall buildings, and all types of shops, hawkers, and pavement

vendors. The food is mainly discarded fruits, vegetables, rice, and at

times the monkeys do not hesitate to pilfer food from a passer-by, either

stealthily or aggressively, the latter especially from women and children.

Extension Sector

The habitat consists of spaced shops and houses, with a few big

trees that offer shelter. For food the monkeys chiefly depend upon

left-overs, scraps found in garbage heaps, and leaves.

CONCLUSIONS

On a comparative assessment the average troop size of the garden

sector is 21°6, the temple sector 28, the market sector 22, and the exten-

sion sector 12°3.

The market sector harbours more troops than other sectors, probably

due to the habitat advantages and easy availability of food and shelter.

Here even roof tops of tall buildings become sleeping quarters of the

animals during night. The temple sector has the next largest concen-

tration, probably due to the availability of food and shelter. Next

comes the garden sector, where the monkeys have shelter and a variety

of food, but are exposed to a certain amount of harassment. The exten-

sion zone, because of the scarcity of food and shelter, has the least number

of monkeys.

The Bonnet population in Bangalore is not as dense as the Rhesus

population seen in the villages of north India and does not have their

relative troop size (Southwick, Beg, & Siddiqi 1961). Though, some of

the troops may have as many as 47 to 50 members, the average troop

size remains small (21°14).

The sex ratio in troops 3, 5, 8, 11, 12, 13 and 14 was approximately

1:1 in troops, 1, 2, 4, 7, 9 and 10, the number of females was more

than that of males, and in troop 6 the number of males was more than

the females. It seems that the differences in the sex ratio is related to

the sex ratio of the new born. No exclusively male group has

been seen, in contrast to that of langur (Phyllis Jay 1961), and no soli-

tary monkey was seen either.

J. Bombay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2)

Vouty

{

\ \

Map of Bangalore showing the location of the different troops. (Dots)

2. Indian Institute of Science. 3. Mekhri Circle.

1. Yeshwanthapur.

6. Tharagpet.

4. Malleshwaram. 5. Gandhi Nagar.

7. Gandhi Bazar. 8. Lal Bagh. 9. Wilson Garden.

11. Ulsoor. 12. Fraser Town.

10. Cubbon Park.

Ga Ter Se aes PAI ENS gre

‘ : * 3

. .

¥ 2 tae

POPULATION SURVEY OF BONNET MONKEY IN BANGALORE 255

The ecological factors responsible for the distribution of Bonnet

Macaques are chiefly, food, shelter, and safety.

The number of monkeys, in Bangalore, in our opinion is not so large

as to cause any serious damage, though their nuisance value and depra-

dations in fruit and vegetable gardens is not inconsiderable. Attempts

are being made to collect some statistics regarding the extent of damage

done.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We wish to thank the Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

Rafi Marg, New Delhi, for the grant of fellowship to one of us (H.R.),

and Professor B. A. Gulam Ahmad, Head of the Department of Zoology,

Central College, Bangalore, for his kind encouragement throughout this

study.

REFERENCES

PHYLLIS JAY (1961): The Indian survey of Rhesus monkeys in villages,

Langur (Presbytis entellus) Paper pre-

sented at the South-western Anthropo-

logical Association, Santa Barbara,

California.

SouTHwick, C. H., Bec, M. A., &

Sippiai, M. R. (1961) : A population

towns and temples of North India.

Ecology 42 : 538-547.

(1961) : A population

survey of Rhesus monkeys in Northern

India. II Transportation routes and forest

areas. ibid 42: 698-710.

Insects attracted to mercury vapour

lamp in the Surat Dangs, Gujarat State

E. M. SHULL

Ahwa, Surat Dangs*

AND

N. T. NADKERNY

Bombay Natural History Society

In 1964 [J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 61(2) : 281-294] we published a

list of moths that were attracted to light in the Dangs. The observations

were continuous for 3-4 years (1961-64) and insects of all orders that

came to light were caught for identification. The general ecological

conditions were more or less similar for all the years and therefore the

weather data are not repeated as they were given in the last paper. A

large number of moth species which were not found in the previous

season were attracted in the subsequent years and are included in the

list. Those mentioned in the last article have not been repeated. About 17

species of butterfly came to the light and their names have been published

by one of us (EMS) in the Journal of the Lepidopterists’ Society, U.S.A.

Vol. 18(3) : 159-163 (1964). These are mentioned in the present paper

for information. Additionally there are more than 200 species belong-

ing to different orders which are listed below. The total number of

species attracted to light works up to considerably more than 400. Out

of these, the number of moth species is 222 (180 reported in the last

paper and 42 in the present list) making up nearly 50% of the insect

species caught. Coleoptera totalled to 72, Hemiptera 54 and Orthop-

tera 43 species including Mantidae (now considered a separate order,

Order Dictyoptera), not an inconsiderable number, when one takes into

consideration the general impression that it is only the moths which are

attracted to light.

This subject is of general, popular, interest and therefore the tech-

nicalities of systematics have not been strictly observed in its presen-

tation. Instead, the orders, families, species etc. have been arranged

alphabetically so that a layman could easily refer to them when required.

1 Present address : 402 Wayne Street, North Manchester, Indiana, U.S.A.

INSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 257

In recent years this method has become rather common. Secondly,

the localities from which these species were previously collected in India

have been shown. This information is taken generally from the FAUNA

OF BRITISH INDIA volumes. Localities of those species which are not

found in the FAUNA have been taken from the registers of insects in the

collection of the Bombay Natural History Society. Quite possibly

extension in the range of distribution of many of these species have been

already recorded. But as papers in which these have been published

are not easily available, we have restricted ourselves to these two sources

only. Our main object is to show that these insect species are found in

the Dangs area and are attracted to light. Other information is only

incidental. Thirdly, the number of specimens of each species collected

is given to give a rough idea of their abundance during the period, but

this may not give a correct view of the relative abundance of different

families as a large number of smaller insects must have escaped the

collector’s attention.

Most of the insects were identified by one of the authors (NTN).

Those which could not be identified by us or about which there were

doubts had to be sent out for the purpose. Local authorities as well as

some foreign institutions like the Academy of Natural Sciences of

Philadelphia were approached but most of them could not undertake

to do this work either due to want of authoritative identifier or for want

of time. Considerable time, however, was lost in these attempts and the

publication of this part of the paper was consequently delayed. The

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun, however, was of great help to us

in this respect. Weare indebted to them for the identification of alarge

number of our unidentified specimens, specially of the order Orthoptera

(Acrididae and Gryllidae). Indian Agricultural Research Institute, New

Delhi, also identified a few specimens for which we are thankful. A

number of specimens mostly Trichoptera, Plecoptera and a few Hymenop-

tera and Orthoptera (Tettigoniidae) could not be identified and had to

be omitted from this paper. Inclusion of these species would have

increased the list by at least another 25-35 species,

258 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

INSECTS COLLECTED AT LIGHT AT AHWA IN THE DANGS

Serial Family and Species

No.

nb W

ORDER COLEOPTERA

Fam. Anthicidae

Anthicus hirsutus Fr.

Fam. Bostrychidae

Sinoxylon pugnax Les.

Fam. Buprestidae

Demochroa mutabilis Ol.

Sternocera laevigata Ol.

Sphenoptera gossypii Ker.

Fam. Carabidae

Brachynus reyi And.

Carabid sp.

Chlaenius rayotus Bat.

Clivina indica Putz. (=C. mem-

nonia Dej.)

Distrigus sp.

Gnathaphanus punctilabris Mac.

Harpaliscus sp.

Lesticus desgodinsi Teh.

Macrocheilus bensoni Hope

Omphra pilosa K|.

Ophonus indicus Bat.

Orthogonius opacus Sch. & Go.

Oxylobus dispar Andr.

Pheropsophus occipitalis Mac.

Fam. Cerambycidae

Apriona trilineata Fab.

Arlara cylindracea White

Batocera rubra L.

Celosterna scabrator Fab.

Coptops aedificator Fab.

Glenea vexator Pasc.

Neocerambyx paris Wied.

Plocaederus ferrugineus L.

Prionomma atratum Gme.

Sthenias grisator Pasc.

Xylotrechus smei L. & G.

Xystrocera globosa Ol.

No.

collected

m Woh Ne bo N Le

—

- SCCOf

— ps

ha CQ

Distribution previously

recorded

N. Kanara

Punjab

Karwar, Bombay, Khandesh

Central India

All over India

Igatpuri, N. Kanara,

Bombay, Madras

Throughout India

India

Throughout India

Sikkim, Gopaldhara,

Pashok

India

All over India

Himalayan tract, Kashmir

to Bhutan

Garo Hills, Sikkim, Anda-

mans, Maymyo (Burma)

Kanara, Belgaum, Tale-

wadi, Travancore etc.

Throughout India

Mussoorie, Kathmandu, N.

Kanara

Widely distributed in the

oriental region

Widely distributed in India

Bengal, Orissa, U.P., M.P.,

etc.

Belgaum, Bombay etc.

Mysore State, Bombay,

Assam

Trivandrum, N. Kanara,

Khandesh

S. India

Belgaum, N. Kanara, |

Bombay, Palanpur

N. India, Deccan |

Darjeeling, Bombay, |

Madras, Mysore

INSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 259

Serial Family and Species

Fam. Chrysomelidae

Fam. Cicindelidae

Fam. Coccinellidae

Fam. Dytiscidae

Fam. Elateridae

Fam. Gyrinidae

Fam. Hydrophilidae

Fam. Lucanidae

Fam. Meloidae

Sybaris procrastus Koll. & Red.

Fam. Scarabidae

No.

32 Chrysomelid sp.

33. ~=Cicindela cancellata De}.

34 Coccinellid sp.

35 Cybister confusus Shp.

36 Hydraticus luczonicus Aub.

37. Agrypnus sp.

38 Alaus sordidus Westw.

39 =Dineutus indicus Aub.

40 Aydrophilus spinicollis Esch.

41. Sternolophus brachyacanthus

Reg.

42 Sternolophus unicolor Cast.

43 Slethoxus sp.

44 Cladognathus giraffa Ol.

45 = Cantharis ardosia Fairm.

46 C. rouxi Cast.

47 =Epicauta cognata Haag.

48 E. hirtipes Wat.

50 Anomala bengalensis Bl.

51. Anomalachela bicolor Brsk.

52 Aphodius crenatus Hey.

53 Apogonia ferruginea F.

54. Catharsius molossus L.

55. C. pithecius F.

56 Chiloloba acuta Wied.

57 Copris indicus Gill.

Helicopris bucephalus Fab.

No.

collected

ON = Nan

WwW wp NABWIWE ES

Distribution previously

recorded

All over India

Bombay, Karwar

Khandesh

Kandy (Ceylon)

Common all over India

Tharawaddy (Burma), N.

Kanara, Kasara, Pusa,

Brahmaputra

Bihar, Khandesh

Khandesh

Assam, U.P., Bengal, Anda-

mans, Cuddapah (A.P.)

Bombay, Kanara

Kanara, Karachi,

Mt. Abu

N. Kanara

Nepal

Bombay, Bangalore

Nasik,

Common all over India

Nilgiris

Karachi

Bombay, Andamans

All over India

do.

Sikkim, Dehra Dun, Bel-

gaum, Mhow, Malabar etc.

Madras, Mysore, Travan-

core

All over India

260 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Serial Family and Species

No.

Holotrichia pulvinosa Shp.

Onitis virens Laus.

Onthophagus ramosus (Wied).

Oryctes sp.

Rhinyptia indica Burm.

Scarabid sp.

Serica sp.

Xylotrupes gideon L.

Fam. Staphylinidae

Philonthus sp.

Fam. Tenebrionidae

Camaria angulicollis Fair.

Gonocephalum depressum F.

G. oblongum F.

Sleron reitheri Geb.

Strongylium sp.

ORDER DERMAPTERA

Fam. Labiduridae

Forcipula quadrispinosa Doh.

F. trispinosa Doh.

Labidura bengalensis Doh.

L. lividipes Duf.

L. riparia Pall.

Psalis dohrni Kir.

ORDER HEMIPTERA

I. Heteroptera

Fam. Belostomatidae

Sphaerodema rusticum Fab.

Belostoma indicum L.

Fam. Coreidae

Acanthecoris scabrator Fab.

Cletus bipunctatus Westw.

Notobitus dorsalis Westw.

N. meleagris Fab.

Serinetha rufomarginata Fab.

Serinetha sp.

Fam. Lygaeidae

Aphanus orientalis Dist.

Dieuchus uniguttatus Thumb.

Lethaeus indicus Dall.

Oxycarenus laetus Kirb.

Petillia pelulicollis Wik.

No.

collected

mer WOO

N oO NAA won Nr NA

(— Ne)

WNIWRe

Distribution previously

recorded

Bombay

All over India

do.

Belgaum, Bombay, Nagpur,

Madras

All over India

Nilgiris, Coorg, Kanara

Bombay, Belgaum, Berars,

Madurai

Berars

Bombay, Berars

Sikkim, Bhutan, Bengal,

Madras, Travancore

Nepal, Bengal, U.P.

Bengal, Madras

Bengal, Pusa, Madras,

Bombay

Cosmopolitan

Travancore, Northern side

of Western Ghats

Bombay. Widespread

do. do.

Sikkim, Assam, Khasi hills

Bombay, Bengal, Bangalore

Bengal, Bombay

Nilgiris

Bombay, Calcutta

Bombay, Bengal, Bihar,

Mysore

Assam, Bombay, Bangalore

N. Bengal

Cosmopolitan

Sikkim

INSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 261

Serial Family and Species No. Distribution previously

No. collected recorded

Fam. Pentatomidae

92. Chrysocoris stockerus L. 1 Bombay, Bangalore, Trivan-

drum

93 Cydnus indicus Westw. 1 Bombay. -Widely distributed

94 Cyclopelta siceifolia Westw. 3 Cosmopolitan

95 Dalpada affinis Dall. 1 Sikkim, Tenasserim

96 ~—~*2D«. nigricollis Westw. 6 Punjab, Srinagar, Nepal,

Bengal, etc.

97 Degonetus serratus Dist. 1 Bombay

98 Dolycoris indicus Stal. 4 Bombay, Calcutta, Darjee-

ling, Bangalore, etc.

99 = Erthesima fullo Thumb. 5 Bengal, Assam, Trivandrum,

Andamans

100 Eusarcocoris guttiger Th. 22 Assam, Bengal, Bombay

101 = E. ventralis Westw. 3 Bombay, Bengal, Bangalore

102. Eusarcocoris sp. 1 at

103. Halyomorpha picus Fab. 1 Cosmopolitan

104 AHalys dentatus Fab. 1 do.

105 Laprius varicornis Stal. 1 do.

106 Nezara viridula L. 2 do.

107. Plecosternum alces Stal. 1 Bombay

108 P.dama Fab. 1 Assam, Pondicherry, Cochin,

Trivandrum

109 Podops sp. 4 -

110 Tetroda obtusa Dalb. i N. India

Fam. Pyrrhocoridae

111. Dysdercus cingulatus Fab. 1 Cosmopolitan

112 Ectalops sp. i ,

Fam. Reduviidae

113. Acanthaspis sp. 1 oe

114. A. trimaculata Reut. 1 Bombay, N. India

115. = Conorhinus rubrofasciatus de 1 Cosmopolitan

Geer

116 Endoclus sp. 1

117. = Opisthoplatys majusculus Dist. 2

118 Scadra fuscicrus Stal. 3 an

119 Tribelocephala indica Wik. 3 Bengal, Bombay

II. Homoptera

Fam. Fulgoridae

120 Dictyophora sp. 1 1

121. Dictyophora sp. 2 3 RP

122. Dictyopharina viridissima Mots. v Bombay, Nilgiris

123. =Pulastya acutipennis Kirb. 1 a

124 = Pyrilla perpusilla W. 4 Bengal, Pusa, S. India,

Common

125 Udugama splendens G. 1 Bombay

Fam. Jassidae

126 = Athysanus indicus D. 1 Bengal, Pusa

127. Bythoscopus sp. 2) ae

128 AHecalus sp. 2,

262 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL GIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Serial Family and Species No.

No.

129 = Idiocerus niveosparsus Leth. 3

130 Ledra quadricarina Wlk. 1

131 Nephotettix apicalis Mot. 2

132 Peregrinus maidis (Ash.) 1

133 = Tettigoniella spectra Dist. 1

ORDER HYMENOPTERA

Fam. Apidae

134 Apis dorsata Fab. 1

Fam. Ichneumonidae

135 Paniscus testaceus Grav. 2

136 Xanthopimpla pedator Fab. 1

=Pimpla lepcha Cam.

137 Ichneumon sp. 23

138 Ophion sp. 3

Fam. Pompilidae

139 = Salius bipartitus (Lep.) 2.

Fam. Vespidae

140 = Icaria ferruginea Fab. 1

ORDER LEPIDOPTERA

I. Heterocera (Moths)?

Fam. Arctiidae

141 Aemene guttulosana Wik.

142 Creatonotus interruptus Gmel.

143. Miltochrista (Asura) sp.

144 Urtetheisa pulchella L.

Fam. Geometridae

145 HAyperythra lutea Cr.

146 Macaria eleonora Cr. (=M. fasciata

Fab.)

147 Tephrina disputaria Guen. ees

148 Thalassodes flavifuscata Wk. oe

Fam. Hypsidae

149 Argina cribraria Cl. aie

150 Aypsa ficus Fab. es

Fam. Lasiocampidae

151 Trabala vishnu Lef. bee

Fam. Limacodidae

152. Parasa lepida Cr. ate

collected

Distribution previously

recorded

Cosmopolitan

Bengal, S. India

Bengal

Cosmopolitan

Belgaum, Nasik

Bombay

Gudhalli

Karachi, Krohi, Matheran,

Nasik, etc.

Bengal, Nilgiris

Throughout India

do.

Sikkim

Throughout India

do.

Throughout India

+ The exact number collected of each species is not available, They varied from

1 to 3 in most of the cases,

INSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAM? 263

Serial Family and Species

No.

ifS3

154

156

158

(59

160

161

162

163

164

165

166

167

168

169

170

17il

172

173

174

175

176

177

178

179

180

181

182

183

184

Fam. Lymantridae

Dasychira bhana Mo.

Euproctis immaculata Mo.

E. scintillans Wk.

Lymantria mathura Mo.

Porthesia xanthorrhoea Koll.

Thiasidas postica W\k.

Fam. Noctuidae

Agrotis bicornica Koll.

Chariclea bivittata W1k.

C. flavia Hmps.

C. lanceolata

Earias fabia Stoll.

Euplexia sp.

Hermonassa consignata WI\k.

Homaea clathrum Guen.

Fam. Notodontidae

Fentonia tenebrosa W\k.

Gargetta costigera Wk.

Pydna endophaea Hmps.

Fam. Pyralidae (Pyralididae)

Caprinia conchylalis Guen.

Euclasta defamatalis Wk.

Glyphodes bivitralis Guen.

G. indica Saund.

Maruca testulalis Ge}.

Nymphula fluctuosalis Zell.

Sameodes cancellalis Zell.

Sylepta lunalis Guen.

Zinckenia fascialis Cr.

Zinckenia sp.

Fam. Sphingidae

Deilephila_livornica (Esp.) (=

Celerio lineata livornica Roth.

& Jord.).

Rhyncholaba acteus (Cram.).

Fam. Thyrididae

Striglina scitaria Wik.

II. Rhopalocera (Butterflies)

Fam. Hesperiidae

Hasora chromus (Cr.)

Pelopidas conjuncta Hew.

No.

collected

Distribution previously

recorded

Sikkim, Nilgiris

Sikkim, N. Kanara

Throughout India

N.W. Himalayas, Sikkim

Daraenout India

Oo.

All over India

Bombay Presidency

Mhow, Bombay, Deccan,

Madras, Wynaad, etc.

Simla, Mhow, Nilgiris

Throughout India

Kashmir, Dharamshala,

Sikkim

N.W. India

N. Kanara

Mandi, N.W. Himalayas,

Sikkim

N. Kanara

Sikkim, Assam, Bombay,

Nilgiris

Throughout India

Sikkim, Assam, W. & S.

India, Andamans

Very ee distributed

oO.

do.

All over India

Throughout India, Anda-

mans

Widely distributed

Throughout India

Widely distributed

Throughout India

Peninsular India, Dehra

Dun to Assam, Calcutta

SLL EE SE I EE ES)

264

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

No.

185

186

187

188

189

190

191

192

193

194

195

Serial Family and Species No. Distribution previously

} ; collected recorded

Fam. Lycaenidae

Zizeeria lysimon Hubn. 1 India

Fam. Nymphalidae

Ergolis merione merione Cr. 1 India except the arid N. and

N. W. regions

Euthalia garuda (Mo.) 2 India

Precis hierta hierta (Fab.) 1 do.

Vanessa cardui (L.) 1 All over India

Fam. Pieridae

Catopsilia crocale (Cr.) 1 India

Eurema brigitta (Ctr.) 7) do.

E. hecabe (L.) large number’ do.

E. laeta Boisd. do.

Huphina (Cepora) nerissa (Fab.) 1 do.

Fam. Satyridae

Lethe rohria nilgiriensis Guen. 1 S. India to Pachmarhi,

196

197

198

199

200

201

202

203

204

205

206

207

208

209

210

Pag

Melanitis leda (Dr.)

Mycalesis perseus (Fab.)

M. mineus (L.)

Ypthima baldus Fab.

ORDER NEUROPTERA

Fam. Hemerobiidae

Myrmelion sp.

Palperus pardus Rbr.

Stanares probus Wlk.

ORDER ODONATA

Fam. Agriidae

Vestalis smaragdina Sel.

Fam. Libellulidae

Brachythemis contaminata Fab.

Bradinopyga geminata (Ram.)

Orthetrum sp.

Pantala flavescens (Fab.)

ORDER ORTHOPTERA

Fam. Acrididae

Acrida exultata W\k.

A. gigantea Hbtrt.

A. turrita L.

Aelopus affinis Bol.

large number

he fy

me Wm OD

WUN— -

Kashmir to Assam

All over India

S. India to Bengal, Konkan,

Lucknow, Kangra _ to

Assam

Peninsular India. Madhya

Pradesh, Bengal, Kulu to

Assam

All over India

Common

do.

Assam

Plains of India

Peninsular India.

All over India

Nepal

All over India

Madras, Bombay

INSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP 265,

Serial Family and Species No. Distribution previously

No. collected recorded

212 Aelopus sp. 1 Pe

213. Aularches scabiosae Fab. 1 Bombay, Orissa

214 Catantops innotabilis Wik. 4 Assam, Bengal, Bombay

215 C. pinguis Stal. 4 Sikkim, Ceylon etc.

216 Catantops sp. 1 =f |

217 = Euparatettix parvus Hanc. 2 Ceylon

218 Euparatettix scabripes Bol. 5) E. Bengal

219 Euparatettix sp. 1 ane

220 Euprepocnemis shirakii Bol. 1 ae;

221 Gastrimargus transversus Thumb. i) All over India

222 Hedotettix gracilis Haan. 1

223 Hieroglyphus banian Fab. J Bombay Presidency and C.

Provinces (Rice growing

areas in this tract)

224 Heteroacris illustris Wik. 1 South India

225 ~~. insignis Wl1k. ? 2 Bengal, Madras

226 Oxya velox Fabr. 4 Assam, Bombay.

227 ~=©Parella insignis Bol. ? 1 4

228 Parella sp. 1

229 Stauroderus sp. 1

230 = Thisoicetrus adspersus Rdt. 1

231 Thisoicetrus sp. 1

232 ~=Trilophidia annulata Th. 1 Ceylon

233 Xenocatantops humilis Serv. 2 Assam, Bengal, Bombay

Fam. Gryllidae

234 Brachytrypes orientalis Bur. 1,

235 ~Gryllodes sp. 4\

236 = Gryllus flavipes Chap. 1

237. = Gryllulus longipennis S. 3 |

238 = G.. mitratus Burm. 2

239 =Gr. sp. near mitratus Burm. ae ' All crickets common in the

240 = Gryllulus sp. 14 plains

Al = Gryllotalpa africana B. =

242 Lucaropsis sp. 1

243 Pteronemobius fascipes W\k. 1)

244 = Tridactylus thoracicus Guer. 2/

ORDER DICTYOPTERA

(Formerly Fam. Mantidae)

245 Aethalochroa ashmoliana W. 5.

246 — Creobroter gimmatus (Stoll) 7 |

247 Gongylus gongylodes L. De Most are common all over

248 Hierodula tenuidentata Serv. Sr India

249 =H. unimaculata 2 |

250 Humbertiella sp. S)

In addition to the above, a number of winged termites, mostly Termes obesus

Ramb. and winged ants, Dorylus orientalis Westw. used to gather at the light. A

crane fly (Tipulidae) Pselliophora laeta and a bug Dalader acuticosta Am. et. Serv.

Were caught in 1961.

266 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Note added in proof

An additional 20 species have now been named by the

Forest Research Institute, Dehra Dun and these are listed below

N.T.N.

Serial Family and Species No. Distribution previously

, collected recorded

ORDER COLEOPTERA

Fam. Erotylidae

1 Episcapha sp. 1

Fam. Scarabidae

2 = Aserica Staturosa Br. 6 Common in India

3. Lachnosterna serrata F. 2 do.

4 Trichogomphus sp. 2 ;

Fam. Staphylinidae

5 Paederus sp. 1 rats

6 Platystethus indicus C. 3 Dehra Dun

7 Staphylinid sp. 1 s

ORDER DIPTERA

Fam. Calliphoridae

8 Lucilia sp. 4

Fam. Muscidae

9 Musca domestica L. l Universal

Fam. Stratiomyidae

10 Sargus sp. 2

Fam. Tabanidae

11 TYabanus sp. 2 :

Fam. Tachinidae

12 Tachinid sp. 1

Fam. Tipulidae

13. Conosia irrorata Wied. 2

14 Libnotes punctipennis M. 1

15 Tipula sp. 3

Fam. Trypetidae

16 Rioxa dunlopi Wulp. 1 Sylhet, Kharagpur.

ORDER HYMENOPTERA

Fam. Braconidae

17 Braconid sp. 1

Fam. Formicidae

18 | Camponotus compressus Fab. 3 Cosmopolitan

Fam. Ichneumonidae

19 Ambyteles sp. 3

ORDER NEUROPTERA

Fam. Mantispidae

Mantispa sp.

Littoral and Parasitic Isopods from

Kerala: Families Eurydicidae,

Corallanidae and Aegidae—2

N. KRISHNA PILLAI

Marine Biological Laboratory, Trivandrum-7, Kerala State

(With two plates and seven text-figures)

[Continued from Vol, 63 (1): 161]

This is the second part of the series and deals with the families

Eurydicidae (Cirolanidae), Corallanidae and Aegidae. In all, fourteen

Species are described. Though the collection contains no new

species, it is extremely interesting as it throws light on the progressive

evolution of the parasitic habit among the flabelliferan isopods.

Menzies, Barnard and Alverson (1955) dealt at length with the

evolutionary and ecological relationship of the flabelliferan families

and concluded that the primitive flabelliferan must have been more or

less like the present dav cirolanids. This primitive stalk got split

into two groups, one retained the free living mode of life and

developed into the Cirolanidae and the other gave rise to the aegid

stalk. The latter in turn evolved into the Aegidae on the one hand

and into the Cymothoidae on the other. That this conclusion is

substantially correct has been shown by the present study.

The families Cirolanidae (Eurydicidae), Corallanidae, Aegidae

and Cymothoidae are closely related and, with regard to parasitic

propensity, form a very natural series. At present all the known

species of cirolanids are free living but extremely carnivorous.

Corallanids are predominantly free living and like the cirolanids

carnivorous. But a very small number exhibit parasitic tendency.

For instance, A. rhinoceros has been recorded as a parasite. During

the present study a large number of specimens of A. normani, hitherto

Known only as free living, were collected along with A. rhinoceros,

from the nostrils of the perch, Epinepheles chlorostigma. It is also

significant, in this context, : that Bal & Joshi (1959) recorded

A. muraenae as a true parasite.

268 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Aegids are predominantly parasitic and even among the free living

members parasitic tendency is evident. During the present study, two

species, Barybrotes indus and Alitropus typus, were observed to show

parasitic habit. The former was collected in large numbers from the

gill slits and the cloacal aperture of the devil ray, Mobula diabolus.

Two specimens of Alitropus typus were collected from the gill cavity

of Etroplus suratensis. To get further evidence I introduced a single

Polycanthus cupanus into an aquarium tank containing a few

specimens of Alitropus typus. The isopods were seen to get attached

to the fish on and off. Both Barybrotes indus and Alitropus typus

are fully equipped for an active free swimming life but exhibit

unmistakable signs of becoming parasites. A good many of the

present day free living flabelliferans show parasitic tendency and their

progressive evolution along this line is, therefore, natural.

Family EURYDICIDAE

Only two genera, Eurydice Leach and Cirolana Leach are re-

presented in the present collection. In Eurydice the basal peduncular

segment of the first antenna is expanded and the fifth pleon segment

is laterally exposed. In Cirolana the first peduncular segment of

first antenna is not expanded and the fifth pleon segment is overlapped

by the fourth.

Eurydice Leach

Eurydice inermis Hansen (Fig. 1, A-I)

Eurydice inermis Hansen, 1890, p. 366 ; 1906, p. 369, pl. 35, figs. 3a-c.

Remarks. E. inermis has so far been recorded only from

European waters. The specimens in the present collection so exactly

correspond to the description given by Hansen, that there is no doubt

about their identity. This species can be distinguished by the shape

and armature of the telson. The telson is as long as broad, with

the lateral borders serrate at the distal half. The serrations slightly

increase in size towards the apex. The distal border of the telson is

nearly subtruncate and only one-fourth the total width of the telson

and is armed with nine teeth. The extreme lateral teeth and the

median tooth are larger than the others.

Body is white with a greyish mottling due to the presence of

profusely branched chromatophores.

Length 5:0 mm.

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 269

This species occurs in the inshore plankton collections in

moderate numbers.

Fic. 1. A-I, Eurydice inermis Hansen. A. antennule; B. antenna; C. man-

dible; D. maxillule; E. first leg; F. sixth leg; G. seventh leg; H. uropod; I.

telson. J-M. Eurydice pulchra Hansen. J. pleon and telson; K. antennule; L.

antenna ; M. distal border of telson.

Eurydice pulchra Hansen (Plate I, 1; Fig. 1, J-M)

Eurydice pulchra Hansen, 1890, p. 370, pl. 4, figs. 3a-i; G.O. Sars, 1899, p. 73

pl. 30, f.2; Hansen, 1905, p. 365, pl. 34, f.3 and pl. 35, f.1.

Remarks. Like E. inermis, E. pulchra has so far been

recorded only from European waters. The telsonic apex is very

characteristic of this species. Its truncated distal border is one-third

the maximum width and is crenulate. There are two pairs of widely

| separated spines. The dorsal side of the telson has a deep crescentic

| proximal median groove flanked by shallow grooves. E. pulchra

closely resembles F. affmis Hansen. But in the latter species the

distal border of the telson is defined by a pair of conspicuous spines.

Length 4:0 mm.

This species sparingly occurs in the inshore plankton.

270 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Cirolapa Leach

The three species described here belong to the group with the

posterior peraeon segments and the pleon armed with spines. They

can be distinguished by the following key:

1. Dorsal surface of telson without spines ... willeyi

Dorsal surface of telson with spines oe: 2,

2. Telson with a pair of large submedian

basal spines Om bovina

Telson with a pair of submedian rows

of spines hs fluviatilis

Cirolana willeyi Stebbing (Fig. 2, A-B)

Cirolana willeyi Stebbing, 1904, p. 11, pl. 3; Barnard, 1935, p. 312 ; Pillai, 1961

p. 45, fig. 21, 1-2.

Cirolana nigra Chilton, 1924, p. 884, pl. 9, f.3, t. fig. 6.

Remarks. This species can be distinguished by the following

characters. Posterior border of peraeon segments two to seven is

armed with small spines, fifteen on the fifth, eleven on the sixth and

thirteen on the seventh. Pleon segments two to four have five teeth

each and the fifth has three, the odd median tooth on each segment

is larger than the rest. Dorsa! surface of the telson is devoid of

spines. Frontal lamina is narrow and long with straight antero-

lateral sides, its antero-median part forms an acute angle. Appendix

masculina of seventh peraeon segment is a pair of mammiform

papillae.

Length 10-0 mm.

This species is very abundant in Kerala, particularly in brackish

water localities.

Distribution. Ceylon, Chilka Lake and Kerala.

Cirolana fluviatilis Stebbing (Fig. 2, C-D)

Cirolana fluviatilis Stebbing, 1902, p. 52 ; Barnard, 1920, p. 346; 1935, p. 310

f. 19; 1940, p. 395 ; Pillai, 1961, p. 47, figs. 21, 3-4.

Cirolana pleonastica Chilton, 1924, p. 882, pl. 60, f.2 ; 1926, p. 180, f.2.

Cirolana bicarinata Pillai, 1954, p.6.

Remarks. Like C. willeyi this species is very abundant in

the estuarine localities in Kerala. It is more slender than C. willeyi

and is devoid of the black pigmentation which is very characteristic

of C. willeyi. Peraeon segments four to seven are armed with spines,

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 271

the seventh segment has thirteen teeth. Fifth pleon segment has five

teeth, the median tooth is slightly larger than the others. The dorsal

put

KN A ! \

iN \

Fic. 2. A-B, Cirolana willeyi Stebbing. A. pleon and telson; B. first leg. C-D,

Cirolana fluviatilis Stebbing. C. pleon and telson; D. first leg. E-F. Cirolana

bovina Barnard. E. pleon and telson ; F. first leg.

side of the telson has two submedian teeth followed by two parallel

rows of three to four denticles forming a pair of short ridges.

Length 9:0 mm.

Distribution. South Africa, Siam and India.

Cirolana bovina Barnard (Plate I, 2; Fig. 2, E-F)

Cirolana bovina Barnard, 1940, p. 400, figs. 9 c-d ; Pillai, 1961, p. 47, f.22.

Remarks. In the female the body is roughly oblong, but is

longer and nearly parallel sided in the male. Peraeon segments do

not carry distinct spines, but the hind margin is feebly crenulate.

272 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Hind border of pleon segments two to five is denticulate, second to

fourth are armed with twenty teeth and fifth with eleven teeth, three

of the teeth on fourth segment and two on the fifth are larger than

the rest and project beyond the border. Dorsal side of the telson

has a pair of large, submedian conical teeth to which the specific

name alludes. Frontal lamina is pentagonal and slightly longer than

broad. Stylet on second male pleopod is slender and apically bent

outwards, considerably longer than the endopod.

Length 15:0 mm.

This species is very abundant in the Httoral waters of Kerala, and,

unlike the other two species, is exclusively marine.

Distribution. South Africa.

Family CORALLANIDAE

Three genera, Corallana, Lanocira and Argathona are represented

in the present collection. They can be distinguished by the follow-

ing key:

1. First segment of peduncle of first antenna

expanded, second segment of maxilliped

much longer than broad, seventh segment

short on Corallana

First segment of peduncle of first antenna

not expanded, second segment of maxil-

liped only slightly longer than broad ... ; 2

2. First maxilla strongly falcate De. Lanocira

First maxilla moderately falcate = Argathona

Corallana Dana

Corallana nedosa Schi. & Mein. (Plate II, 1; Fig. 3)

Corallana nodosa Schi. & Mein., 1879, p. 294, pl. 5, figs. 8-9; Hansen, 1890,

p. 389 ; Stebbing, 1904, p. 14, pl. 1B ; Pillai, 1961, p. 49, f.23.

Remarks. This well-known species can be easily recognised

by the following characters. In the male the cephalon has a pair

of large horns placed at right angles to the surface of the head, just

in front of the eyes. Peraeon segments five and six carry two pairs

of large posterior submarginal teeth projecting far beyond the hind

border of the respective segments, the outer member of each pair is

Jarger than the inner. The seventh peraeon segment has a single

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 Z13

pair of spines. Pleon segments two to four carry a large spine in the

middle of each half and the distal border of the segment outer to

this spine is crenulate. The apex of the telson forms an independent

triangle. Basal segment of the peduncle of the antennule is vertically

expanded and over-reaches the cephalic horns. Maxilliped is seven-

segmented, second segment is very long and the seventh is very short.

First maxilla has a slender curved unguis and a small inner lobe.

sae

Fic. 3. Corallana nodosa Schi. & Mein. A-G. male; A. cephalon, dorsal view ;

B. same, lateral view; C. antennule; D. maxillule; E. maxilliped; F. first leg ;

G. seventh leg ; H-I. female ; H. cephalon, dorsal view ; I. pleon and telson.

The female differs from the male in the less setose body, the

cephalic horns are very small and the spines on the peraeon and pleon

segments are comparatively very small. The female is uniformly grey

due to the presence of numerous highly branched black chromato-

phores. In the male brick red chromatophores are mixed with the

black ones giving it a brownish tint.

Length of male 10:0 mm., of female 8-0 mm.

In the present locality this species has been collected only from

brackish water.

Distribution. Philippines and Ceylon,

274. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Lanocira Hansen

The three species contained in the present collection can be

distinguished by the following key:

1. Cephalon in the male produced into a

dorsally curved rostrum ee gardineri

ag ai ties not produced into a rostrum ous 2

. Telson broadly rounded, coxal plates large

and projecting , rotundicauda

Telson nearly triangular, coxal plates cnell

and not projecting a zeylanica

Lanocira gardineri Stebbing (Plate I, 3; Fig. 4, A-H)

Lanocira gardineri Stebbing, 1904, p. 706, pl. 51A ; 1905, p. 19; Barnard, 1914,

Dp. 35997 ple STAY

Remarks. This species can be easily distinguished by the

apically curved rostrum and the presence of two low elevations just

inner to the eyes on the cephalon of the male. The surface of the

cephalon between the eyes is concave. L. gardineri shows sexual

dimorphism. The rostrum is absent in the female and the first antenna

is less feathery than in the male.

Length 7:5 mm.

Moderately common in the littoral waters of Kerala.

Distribution. Maldive Islands, Ceylon and South Africa.

Lanocira rotundicauda Stebbing (Plate I, 4; Fig. 4, I-O)

Lanocira rotundicauda Stebbing, 1905, p. 708; Nierstrasz, 1931, p. 169; Pillai

1954, p. 7.

Remarks. Since its creation, this species has never been

redescribed. Stebbing himself suspected that L. rotundicauda might

be the female of LZ. gardineri. The present collection contains both

males and females of L. gardineri and the female is very different

from L. rotundicauda. L. rotundicauda can be easily distinguished

from L. gardineri by the absence of a rostrum, presence of large

projecting coxal plates, the comparatively short and roughly semi-

circular telson, by its broader frontal lamina and by the absence of

an accessory lobe on the mandible. The two species differ also in

size, L. gardineri reaches a Jength of 7:5 mm., while the fully adult

female of L. rotundicauda is only 6-0 mm.

Distribution. Maldive and Laccadive Archipelagos,

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 205

Lanocira zeylanica Stebbing (Plate I, 5; Fig. 4, P-R)

Lanocira zeylanica Stebbing, 1905, p. 20; pl. SB 1910; p.. 219:

Remarks. All the species of Lanccira described here occur

together and resemble cach other to some extent that it is not easy

iit

Fic. 4. A-H. Lanocira gardineri Stebbin

St g. A. cephalon; B. pleon and tel :

me ale : D. antenna ; E. maxilliped ; F. mandible; G. Bee leg ; HL cath

ade oe Lanocira rotundicauda’Stebbing ; I. maxilliped ; J. maxillule ; K. maxilla ;

: ha eg; M. second leg; N. seventh leg ; O. telson and uropod ; P-R. Lanocira

zeylanica Stebbing ; P. frontal lamina; Q. first leg; R. seventh leg.

to distinguish them. JL. gardineri, as stated earlier, has a rostral

prolongation in the male and L, rotundicauda has large projecting

276 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

coxal plates. L. zeylanica differs from both in the presence of a

submarginal groove on the cephalon (not shown in the figure) which

is, however, difficult to observe, by the short coxal plates and the

very short fifth segment of the first peraeopod. There is recognisable

difference in the peraeopods of the three species.

Distribution. Ceylon and Red Sea.

Argathona Stebbing

Argathona rhinoceros (Bleeker) (Fig. 5, G-I)

Argathona rhinoceros Stebbing, 1910, p. 100, pl. 9A; Monod, 1933, p. 175

1934, p. 9. !

Remarks. The large curved rostrum easily distinguishes this

species from all the others. As other distinguishing characters may

be mentioned the smooth body and the pentagonal frontal lamina.

First maxilla has a small tooth at the base of the unguis and the

broad, apically truncate inner lobe carries a small inner spine. The

maxilliped is short but stout and six-segmented.

Length 10:0 mm.

A large number of specimens were collected from the nostrils of

Epinepheles chlorostigma caught on hooks at nearly 50 fathoms off

Quilon.

Distribution. Zanzibar, Aldabra Ceylon, Java and Indo-

china.

Argathona nermani Stebbing (Fig. 5, A-F)

Argathona normani Stebbing, 1905, p. 17, pl. 3A; Barnard, 1936, p. 156.

Remarks. This species can be recognised by the extremely

hirsute body and the presence of tubercles on the dorsal side. The

full complement of tubercles, mentioned by Stebbing, was not

observed but the two lateral pairs on the fourth pleon segment, two

large submedian ones on the fifth pleon segment and two pairs on the

proximal part of the telson are clear. Perhaps, as observed by

Barnard, the others are present but indistinguishable.

In the specimens dissected, the maxilliped showed only five

segments. The second segment is Jong and carries a seta in the

middle of its inner border. This probably represents the position

where two segments might have fused. It should be noted that in

A. rhinoceros the maxilliped is six-segmented. The first maxilla of

A. normani has two spines at the base of the unguis,

Length 7:0 mm.

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 277

Several specimens were collected along with A. rhinoceros.

Distribution. Ceylon and Bay of Bengal.

Fic. 5. A-E. Argathona normani Stebbing. A. frontallamina; B. maxilliped ;

C. maxillule ; D. tip of mandible ; E. first leg ; G-I. Argathona rhinoceros (Bleeker) ;

G. cephalon, lateral view ; H. maxillule ; I. maxilliped.

Family A&GIDAE

The three genera, Barybrotes, Rocinela and Alitropus, contained

in the present collection can be distinguished by the following key:

1. Median point of head separates the bases

of the first antennae, maxilliped six to

seven-segmented ai Barybrotes

Median point of head covering the bases of

the first antennae, maxilliped not more

than two-segmented

278 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2}

2. Sixth segment of anterior peraeopods ex-

panded and with strong spines sed Rocinela

Sixth segment of anterior peraeopods not

expanded, without strong spines ee Alitropus

Genus Barybrotes Schi. & Mein.

Barybrotes indus Schi. & Mein. (Plate II, 2; Fig. 6)

Barybrotes indus Schi. & Mein., 1879, p. 281; Monod, 1934, p. 10, pls. 11-17;

Barnard, 1936, p. 157.

Remarks. This well-known species has been illustrated in

detail by Monod (1934). The more important characters alone are

pointed out here. The cephalon is semicircular, with a small antero- —

median process projecting between the bases of the first antennae.

Fic. 6. Barybrotes indus Schi. & Mein. A. antennule; B. antenna; C. maxil-

lule; D. same, tip enlarged; E. mandible; F. maxilliped ; G. same, inner view 3

H. first leg ; I. seventh leg.

Eyes are large and reniform. Peraeon segments four to six are large.

with a prominent lateral groove running inwards. Telson 1s elongate-

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 279

triangular and dorsally arched, its apex, in fully grown specimens,

is subtruncate and armed with six strong spines. Basal segment of

the peduncle of the first antenna is expanded and visible in the

dorsal view of the animal, flagellum is seven-segmented but the

basal segment appears to be formed by the fusion of at least four

segments. Mouth parts and peraeopods are as illustrated by Monod,

but the setae on the second segment of the posterior peraeopods are

longer than in Monod’s specimens. Frontal lamina is club-shaped.

Inner lobe of the first maxilla has a pair of setae at the base of the

large seta.

Only two species, B. indus Schi. & Mein., and B. agilis Schi. &

Mein., have hitherto been recorded. According to Stebbing these two

are synonymous and the name indus has precedence. The genus is

hence monotypic.

Length 20:0 mm.

The collection includes nearly sixty specimens from the gills of

Mobula diabolus caught at Vizhingam.

The body is white but the gut content is visible as a dark stony

mass.

Distribution. Bay of Bengal, Java, Gasper Strait, South

China, Philippines, Indochina and India.

Genus Rocinela Leach

Rocinela orientalis Schi. & Mein. (Plate giles: Fic... 7). B-F)

Rocinela orientalis Schi. & Mein., 1879, p. 395, pl. 13, figs. 1-2; Stebbing, 1905,

p. 24, pl. 6B; Barnard, 1914, p. 368; Hale, 1925, p. 182, f.27; Barnard,

1936, p. 160.

Remarks, The single specimen in my _ collection closely

resembles the Ceylon specimens described by Stebbing. The ‘fovea’

on the head, observed by Hale, is present (not shown in the figure).

To date four species of Rocinela have been recorded from this region.

As observed by Barnard (1936), R. latis Southwell is the young of

Nerocila, R. mundana Vanchester (1902) is synonymous with R.

simplex Chilton (1926) which is an Alitropus and not a Rocinela

(vide infra). Thus the only species known from India is R. orientalis

Schi. & Mein.

Length 10-9 mm.

Distribution. Philippines, Ceylon, Suez Canal, Zanzibar,

Natal, Torres Strait, Morten Bay, Queensland and India.

280 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Genus Alitropus M. Edwards

Alitropus typus M. Edwards (Plate II, 3-4; Fig. 7, A-D, G)

Alitropus typus M. Edwards, 1840, p. 263; Martens, 1868, p.59; Schi. & Mein

1879, p. 405; Weber, 1892, p. 553; Stebbing, 1911, p. 181; Ingle & Fer-

nando, 1963, p. 106, f.4.

Rocinela mundana Lanchester, 1902, p. 363.

Rocinela orientalis Chilton, 1924, p. 886.

Rocinela simplex Chilton, 1926, p. 182, figs. 4 a-m.

Alitropus dimorphus Pillai, 1954, p. 8.

Male. Body is comparatively slender and elongated, about

three times as long as broad. Head is broadly triangular, with the

SSS

Fic. 7. E-F. Rocinela orientalis Schi. & Mein. E. first leg; F. seventh leg :

A-D and G. Alitropus typus M. Edwards. A. antennule ; B. antenna ; C. mandible ;

D. first leg ; G. seventh leg.

antero-median part slightly produced. Eyes are large. First peraeon

segment is the narrowest, segments one to four successively increase

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2 281

in length. Antero-lateral corners of first segment are slightly pro-

duced forwards and the postero-lateral corners of all the segments

are angular. Peraeon segments five to seven are subequal in size,

abruptly longer than the fourth segment, sixth segment is slightly

longer and broader than all the others. Coxal plates are well

developed and produced but not over-reaching the posterior border of

the respective segments, each has an outer row of setae. All the five

pleon segments are clearly visible, abruptly narrower than the

peraeon and slightly immersed in it, lateral parts of segments one

to four are drawn out into acute processes, fifth segment is the

narrowest. Telson is semicircular, with broadly rounded distal

border, in very large specimens the distal border of the telson tends

to be broadly triangular, with a subtruncate apex.

First antenna is as long as the peduncle of the second, third

peduncular segment is slender and as long as the first two segments

combined, flagellum is six-segmented, sixth segment terminates in a

long seta. Second antenna over-reaches the second peraeon segment,

flagellum is thirteen-segmented.

Second segment of the palp of the mandible is very large, with

a comb of stout pectinate setae, third segment is comparatively small,

with a single apical seta. First maxilla has a short apical tooth

and two long inner spines. Inner lobe of second maxiila has three

Spines, margin of the outer lobe is serrated. Outer border of

maxilliped is hairy, its apex carries three spaced spines. Fifth

segment of first peraeopod is slightly immersed in the fourth, sixth

segment is cylindrical and not flattened as in Rocinela, dactylus is

Short and falcate. Posterior peracopods are slender and long, with

the lower border of the segments prominently spiny, upper distal

angle of segments three to five with a row of stout branched spines

and long setae. Peduncle of the second pleopod has six hooks, stylet

is shorter than the endopod and carries a small apical spine. Exopod

has a series of spots as in Rocinela simplex Chilton. Peduncle of

the uropod is produced and reaches beyond two-thirds of the length

of the endopod, endopod is apically rcunded and armed with seven

spines, exopod is narrow and long, with seven spines.

Length 13:0 mm., breadth 5:0 mm.

Body is dark grey with profusely branched chromatophores.

Female. Body is comparatively broader than that of the

male, twice as long as broad. First peraeon segment is as long as the

head, segments five to six are much shorter than in the male, postero-

lateral corners of the segments are not acute. Coxal plates are

comparatively broad, with rounded apex. Pleon is very short, as

282. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

broad as peraeon, segments one to four are equal in length and

breadth.

Length 15:0 mm., breadth 7-0 mm.

This is a very common species found in fresh water and also in

slightly brackish water.

If introduced into an aquarium tank it shows

a tendency to cling on to the body of fishes.

Distribution.

Remarks.

Siam, Borneo, Sumatra, India and Ceylon.

In the illustrations given by Chilton (1926), figure

4a is described as that of the female and figure 4d as that of an

immature male.

There appears to be a slight confusion.

Figure 4a

is that of an adult male and figure 4d that of an immature male

or female.

dimorphism which this species shows.

Chilton appears to have been unaware of the sexual

Figure 4k is likely to be that

of the second pleopod of the specimen marked 4a and not of 4d.

REFERENCES

BaL, D. V. & Josut, U.N. (1959):

Some new isopod parasites on fishes. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 56 : 563-569.

BARNARD, K. H. (1914): Contribu-

tions to the Crustacean fauna of South

Africa. Ill. Additions to the marine

Isopoda with notes on some previously

incompletely known species. Ann. S.

Afric. Mus. 10: 325a-358a 5; 359-442,

pls. 27-38.

— (1920) : Contributions to the

crustacean fauna of South Africa. VI.

Further additions to the list of marine

Isopoda. Ann. S. Afric. Mus. 17: 319-

438, pls. 15-17.

= (1935) > Repors, (On) athe

Amphipoda, Isopoda and Tanaidacea in

the collections of the Indian Museum.

Rec. Indian. Mus. 37 : 279-319.

(1936) : Isopoda_ collected

by R.I.M.S. Investigator. Rec. Indian

Mus. 38: 147-191.

— (1940): Contributions to

the crustacean fauna of South Africa.

XII. Further additions to the list of

Tanaidacea, Isopoda and Amphipoda

together with keys for the identification of

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species. Ann. S. Afric. Mus. 32: 381-

543.

CHILTON, CH. (1924): Fauna of the

Chilka lake. Tanaidacea and Isopoda.

Mem. Indian. Mus. 5 : 875-895, 1 pl.

— (1926): Zoological results

of a tour in the Far East. The Tanaida-

cea and Isopoda of the Tale Sap (Siam).

Rec. Indian. Mus. 28: 173-185.

HALE, H. M. (1925): Review of the

Australian Tsopods of the cymothoid

group. Part 1.. Trans. .roy. Soc. S.

Australia 49 : 128-185.

HANSEN, H. J. (1890) : Cirolanidae et

familiae nonnullae propinquae Musei

Haunensis. Vid. Selsk. Skr. Kjob.

Raekke naturv mathem. 3 : 239-426.

— (1905): Revision of the

European marine forms of the Cirola-

nidae a subfamily of Crustacea Iso-

poda. J. Linn. Soc. London 29: 337-

373, pls. 33-35.

INGLE, R. W. & FERNANDO, C. H.

(1963): On some fresh and _ brackish

water Crustaceans from Ceylon.

Crustaceana 6: 101-109.

LANCHESTER, W. F. (1902): On the

Crustacea collected during the Skeat

Expedition to the Malay Peninsula.

Proc. zool. Soc. London 2 : 363-379, pls.

34-35.

MARTENS, E. VON, (1868): Ueber

einige ostasiatische | Susswasserthiere.

Arch. f. Naturg. 34: 1-64.

MeEnzigS, R. J., BowMAn, T. E., &

ALVERSON, G. F. (1955) : Studies of the

biology of the fish parasite Livoneca

convexa Richardson (Crustacea, Isopoda,

Cymothoidae). Wasman J. Biol. 13:

277-295.

Monop, Th. (1933): Tanaidaces et

Isopodes en Mission Robert Ph. Dollfus

oe Eee Mem. Inst. Egypte 21 : 161-

— (1934): Isopodes

des compagnes du de Lanessan.

Inst. Oceanogr. Indochine No.

1-25, pls. 1-45.

marine

Note

23:

J. BoMBAy NAT. HIST. Soc. 64 (2) : PLATE I

Pillai: Isopods

i, Eurydice pulchra Hansen ; 2. Cirolana bovina Barnard ; 3. Lano-

cira gardineri Stebbing ; 4. Lanocira rotundicauda Stebbing; 5. Lanocira

zeylanica Stebbing,

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2) PLATE If

Pillai: Isopods

1.. Corallana nodosa Schi. & Mein.; 2. Barybrotes indus Schi. &

Mein.; 3. Alitropus typus M. Edwards. Female; 4. Alitropus typus.

M. Edwards. Male; 5. Rocinela orientalis Schi. & Mein.

ISOPODS FROM KERALA—2

NIERSTRASZ, H. F. (1931): Isopoda

genuina. II. Flabellifera. Die Iso-

poden der Siboga Expedition. Siboga

Exped. Monogr. No. 32c, 123-233, pls.

10-11.

Pittal, N. K. (1954): A preliminary

note on the Tanaidacea and Isopoda of

Travancore. Bull. Res. Inst. Univ.

Travancore 3 : 1-22.

(1961) : Monograph on the

wood boring crustacea of India. Govt.

of India Press, Simla. 1-61.

Sars, G. O. (1899): Crustacea of

Norway. Isopoda. 2: 1-270, pls. 1-104.

SCHIOEDTE, J. C. & MEINERT, FR.

(1879): Synbolae ad Monographiam

Cymothoarum Crustaceorum Isopodum

Familiae. Naturh. Tidsskr. 12: 321-

415, pls. 7-13.

STEBBING, T. R. R. (1902): South

African Crustacea. Part 2. Dept.

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Agric. Mar. Invest. S. Africa No. 12:

1-92.

———— (1904) : Gregarious Crusta-

cea of Ceylon. Spol. Zeylan. 2: 1-26.

———— (1905): Report on the Iso-

poda collected by Prof. Herdmann at

Ceylon in 1902. Ceylon Pearl Oyst.

Fish. Rep., No. 23 : 1-64, pls. 1-12.

— (1910): Report on_ the

Marine Biology of the Sudanese Red

Sea. 14. On the Crustacea Isopoda

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— (1911): Indian Isopods.

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WEBER, M. (1892): Die Susswasser

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Reise Nederlandisch Ostindien 2 : 528-571.

Notes on the Nidification of the

Pied Harrier, Circus melanoleucos

(Pennant), in Amurland, U.S.S.R.

J. A. NEUFELDT

Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences of

the U.S.S.R, Leningrad

(With four plates)

The Pied Harrier, Circus melanoleucos (Pennant), is a rather

common visitor to India. As a breeder, it is now practically confined

to the north-east of the country, to Assam, an area isolated from the

main nesting range. 7

In many of its habits the Pied Harrier resembles other Harriers

wintering in India, and often associates with them. Adult males can

be easily recognised by ithe distinctive black and white plumage,

differing from other species of the genus (Plate I, above). The

breeding biology is still insufficiently known, although the bird is

rather common in the northern parts of its range.

This paper is based mainly on data gathered by the authoress

during her expeditions to Amurland (SE. Siberia, U.S.S.R.) in 1957-

1959 and 1961-1962.

GEOGRAPHICAL DISTRIBUTION

In the Soviet Union the Pied Harrier is a common summer

resident of the plains and wide river valleys in the Primorye Territory

(Ussuriland), Amurland, and Transbaikalia. The breeding range in

the U.S.S.R. is as follows: according to L. Shulpin (1936) and

K. Vorobiev (1954) it is common in the southern parts of the Sikhote-

Alin Range (the valley of Suchan River), but has never been seen on

the eastern slopes of the range. The easternmost point of its range

in the valley of Amur River is village Padali near the city of

Komsomolsk (Kistyakowsky, Loskot & Smogorzhewsky 1962). North

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND _ 285

of the Amur it was found at Bureya River near village Ostrovnoe

(Kistyakowsky & Smogorzhewsky 1963) and at Zeya River near Zeya

town (Collection of the Zoological Institute). The western part of

the north boundary of the breeding range is still unclear. At any rate

the Pied Harrier is known from the town of Skovorodino (the

authoress’s observations), the lower course of Argun River, the towns

of Sretensk and Darasun (Radde 1863; Taczanowski 1872; Gagina

1961). The Pied Harrier occurred casually in some places along the

eastern coast of Lake Baikal (Verkhnya Angara River, Barguzin River,

the delta of Selenga River, and the valleys of Irkut and Dyida rivers)

but breeding there was not proved (Gagina 1954, 1960 a, b;

Izmailov 1958).

Outside the limits of the Soviet Union it inhabits most parts of

NE. China (Manchuria) and the northern parts of Inner Mongolia

(Ingram 1909; Kuroda 1918, 1931: Meise 1934; Yamashina 1939;

Caldwell 1931; Piechocki 1958). From NE. China it probably

penetrates to N. Korea (Austin 1948). According to T. H. Shaw

(1936), the Pied Harrier visiis Hopei province during autumn and

spring migrations only, though two males he mentioned in his book

_ were collected near Peking on 8th May, i.e. they could be breeding

birds. The Pied Harrier was met in the north-eastern parts of the

Mongolian Republic-—along the lower course of Kerulen River and on

the shores of Lake Buir-Nor (Tugarinov 1932). The southernmost

breeding places of the Pied Harrier known are widely separated from

the main range, being located in N. Burma (Myitkyina) and the

adjoining plains of Assam (Cripos 1882; Hume 1888: Baker 1935;

Stanford 1935; Smythies 1953). H. Harington (1903) has observed

these birds in the south of Shan State (Burma) on 10 and 28 July.

He supposed them to be breeding birds.

Evidently the Pied Harrier has two widely divided breeding areas.

Very probably, this disjunction arose within historical times. The

vast plains of central and south China have been cultivated for

thousands of years, and in the process the breeding habitats of the

Pied Harriers were probably destroyed and turned into fields.

Throughout its range the Pied Harrier is a migratory bird. A part

of the southern population may be resident but more probably they

undertake short distance regular seasonal movements. According to

W. Legge (1880) the female collected in March in Ceylon had her

gonads enlarged as if breeding was to commence very soon. This

suggests that the breeding area of birds wintering in Ceylon is not far

from that island, perhaps in Assam or Burma. According to

I. Kalinowski’s observations (Taczanowski 1893), the Pied Harrier

286 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

sometimes winters in small numbers in S. Ussuriland. G. Wilder and

H. Hubbard (La Touche 1932) saw them till December or even

January in N. China during several years. In winter this harrier

can be seen over rice-fields, bogs, and wet meadows in all parts of

India, and it is only in the north-western and central States that. it

was rather seldom seen. The Pied Harrier is known as a winter

visitor to East Pakistan and as a rare vagrant in West Pakistan; it

happens that it stays in Nepal; it is very common and widely

distributed at non-breeding time in the plains of S. Burma, in the

grass marshes and rice fields of Thailand and in similar habitats

throughout Indo-China and Malacca; in §. China it was recorded in

winter in Yunnan, Kwangsi, Kwangtung, Fohkien, etc.; it is seen

irregularly in swampy plains with small bushes and trees on the

NW. coast of Ceylon; the southernmost points are Borneo and

Philippines (Jerdon 1862; Bingham 1880; Legge 1880; Davison 1883;

Oates 1883; Hume 1888; Donald 1905; Baker 1928; Caldwell 1931;

Hachisuka 1934; Stanford 1935; Whistler & Kinnear 1936; Deignan

1945; Delacour & Mayr 1946; Delacour 1947; Ali 1953; Smythies

1953; Worth 1953; Eaton 1957; Ripley 1961). In Burma and

Thailand, according to some authors. the Pied Harrier is the

commonest wintering species of the genus Circus.

HABiTAT

Within the limits of the breeding range mentioned above, the

Pied Harrier is confined toc flat treeless and usually boggy country.

In Ussuriland for instance they haunt meadow land, river valleys,

and mossy bogs with thinly growing bushes; in search of food they

visit agricultural land and well drained hill slopes covered with grass,

thickets of filbert, and dwarf Mongclian oak (Dulkeit 1928; Shulpin

1936; Spangenberg 1940; Vorobiev 1954). In similar habitats these

harriers breed in the northern provinces of China. In Assam and N.

Burma at the breeding period they also frequent high grass meadows

covering wide boggy flood-plains or depressions among hills (Hume

1888; Harington 1903; Baker 1935; Stanford 1935). In the steppes

of Transbaikalia and FE. Mongolia they keep to places with luxuriant

grassy vegetation mainly along river valleys and lake shores, but they

were also met far from water (Radde 1863; Taczanowski 1893;

Stegmann 1929; Tugarinov 1932; Nasimovich 1949).

In the South of Amurland the Pied Harrier is a very characteristic

inseparable component of bioccenosis of flood-plains and hummocky

bogs (Stegmann 1930; authoress’s observations). In the Svobodnyi

District its favoured breeding places are willow and dwarf birch

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 287

thickets growing in very humid areas. Such boggy thickets grow on

the bottom of shallow hollows which serve as a drainage for thawed

snow and rainwater (Plate JI, below). In wide valleys this plant

association usually alternates with grasslands and birch groves.

The brush cover is formed by dwarf birch (Betula fruticosa)

and willows (Salix brachypoda and S. myrtilloides). These plants

sometimes spread out on waste territories and form entire impassable

thickets, 1-1:5 metres high. The herbage consist mainly of sedges

(Carex schmidtii and C. minuta) forming hummocks up to 30 cm. high.

In the monsoon, rainwater between the hummocks favours the growth

of mosses (Sphagnum and Aulocomnium palustrae). Here on the

hummocks settles meoisture-loving herbage (Sanguisorba parviflora,

Saussurea amurensis, Trollius ledebouri, Angelica maximowiczi,

Ligularia sibirica, Iris setosa, I. laevigata, Hemerocallis minor, Caltha

palustris, etc.). Among these plants the globe flowers, irises, and

yellow day lilies are especially numerous; with their bright flowers

they decorate in summer the monotonous green background of sedges

and shrubs. Here and there develop patches of the rough blue joint

reed-grass (Calamagrostis langsdorffii) and above the trimmed looking

thickets rise stunted solitary Asian white birches (Betula platyphylla) .

and Dahurian larches (Larix dahurica). At the edge of the forest

the variety of the trees increases and includes dwarf Dahurian birches

(Betula dahurica) and aspens (Populus tremula). People and

domestic animals visit these thickets rather seldom since they are

useless both for haymaking and grazing—a thick layer of dried grass

of the previous year prevent growth of fresh grass till the middle of

June; moreover, countless hummocks and bushes hinder mowing.

Therefore the Pied Harriers find good shelter for their nests well

protected from disturbance even when the thickets are close to villages.

Some pairs of Pied Harriers I was able to observe nested on

hummocky meadows in the flood-plains of creeks and_ streams.

Numerous mushroom-shaped hummocks (about 50 cm. high) formed

by sedges and reed-grasses were surrounded by stagnant water.

Herbage was represented mainly by different irises (J. orientalis, I.

setosa, I. laevigata) and globe flowers (Trollius ledebouri). Solitary

dwarf birches and willow shrubs or small groups of them were

scattered on the flocd-plain; some Spiraea shrubs were growing in

water filled depressions. After heavy rains the rapid streams

inundated these meadows for a short time and carried away all the

birds’ nests (including the harrier nests) built on the ground or just

above the ground level, |

288 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

The nest sites mentioned above were at the same time the

principal hunting territories of this harrier. In search of prey the

birds visited also dry meadows, cultivated fields, layer field edges,

drainage pipes overgrown with vegetation, and open shores of water

bodies. Along the valleys they penetrated even into dense forests.

In several years of observation in the Shimanovsk and Svobodnyi

districts of Amurland I saw the Pied Harrier willingly occupy nest

sites in very narrow (100-150 metres in length) as well as in wide

creek valleys stretching for many kilometres. The presence of open

plains near the nesting territory was necessary. They avoided the birch

willow thickets growing in birch woods or mixed oak and _ larch

forests covering the plateau and its gentle slopes.

The individual range occupied by a single pair of Pied Harrier

is usually limited: beside the nesting territory (no more than 2:5

hectares) defended by birds, it includes a hunting territory. The size

and outlines of the latter were very variable. Where the nests were

built in vast meadows cr thickets rich with food the birds hunted

near their nests and no farther than 1:5 km. If food was inadequate

in territories adjoining the nest site or the nesting territories were

separated from the hunting territories by a forest belt, the birds either

undertook long distance (up to five km.) flights, or enlarged their

search routes by quartering all neighbouring small branches of valleys,

clearings, and edges of forests. Pied Harriers are very much attached

to their haunts and return every year to the same place notwithstand-

ing deterioration of the habitat. In this connection the observations

made upon one pair which nested in 1961 in a marshy thicket near

Klimautzy village are of interest. In the following spring a forest

fire destroyed in this territory (about 70 or 80 hectares) all the bushes

and dried grass. Nevertheless, the Pied Harriers nested at the very

edge of the forest on a small dwarf birch thicket-(28X10 metres)

which escaped the fire. Since the fire had devastated their former

hunting territory, they were forced to hunt in places they had not

visited before.

In 1958-1962 the number of the Pied Harriers in the Svobodnyi

district was rather high and one wide creek valley (2:5 km. in radius)

held three pairs. The nesting territories of two of them were close

to each other, and nearly in all cases their hunting ranges overlapped;

nevertheless the relations between birds belonging to different pairs

were very peaceful, and I have never seen them fighting over their

territories. According to E. Spangenberg (1940), at the lower course

of the Iman River (Ussuriland), the distance between separate nests

of this bird was no less than one kilometre.

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND 289

In Amurland in the vicinity of the Pied Harrier nests, and very

often in the same habitat, bred the Yellow-breasted Bunting

(Emberiza aureola), the Lanceolated Warbler (Locustella lanceolata),

the Siberian Ruddy Crake (Porzana paykullii), and the Stonechat

(Saxicola torquata), and sometimes the Pallas’s Grasshopper Warbler

(Locustella certhiola), the Spotted Bush Warbler (Tribura taczanowskia).

and Quail (Coturnix japonica).

THE SPRING ARRIVAL

Usually the Pied Harrier leaves its winter quarters later than

other species of harriers. Single birds have been noted in S. India

(Travancore) till the beginning of April (Ferguson & Bourdillon 1904);

in Manipur they stay till the middle of April, and some birds, which

probably bred som2where near by, were recorded even at the end of

May (Hume 1888). The Pied Harriers left their winter quarters in

northern Thailand not earlier than the middle of April (Deignan 1945).

In China and S. Yunnan, they remain till April (La Touche 1924);

at the same time they were migrating in Kiangsi province (Caldwell

1931); up to 11th April they were recorded in the western part of

Kwangsi (Eaton 1957). Northwards, in Hopei, the migration of these

birds takes place in April and May (Shaw 1936; Wilder & Hubbard

1938).

At the breeding grounds in the vicinity of Harbin (Manchuria) Pied

Harriers were shot at the beginning of May (Meise 1934), and in

Korea (Kyonggi Do) the earliest birds were collected at the end of April

(Austin 1948). According to G. Duikeit’s (1928) observations over

several years in the southern parts of Ussuriland (U.S.S.R.) the first

solitary males arrive at the end of March or the beginning of April.

A marked increase of their numbers was recorded by the same author

in. April. Some other ornithologists list later dates of spring arrival

for that territory, namely 10-29 April and even 4-11 May (Bolau

1881; Dorries 1888: Shulpin 1936; Spangenberg 1940; Omelko 1956).

Unfortunately I got no chance to observe the exact time of the

spring arrival in Amurland of the Pied Harriers from their winter

quarters. There are in the collection of the Zoological Institute two

males which were collected early in spring in this region; one by

B. Stegmann on 5th May on Zeya River (60 km. up the river from

Blagoveshchensk), and the second cne by V. Dorogostaiski on 9th

May on the same river near Pikan. No doubt the Pied Harriers

arrive a little earlier, since in 1958 when going by train to the study

area I saw on 21 and 22 April. males in search of prey flying above

vast hummocky bogs between Ushumun and Shimanovsk, as well as

290 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

in suitable habitats near the towns of Svobodny and Belogorsk. At

that time the bogs were still covered with snow here and there.

The next day Pied Harriers were rather common in_ the

wide marshes, with numerous isolated lakes, in the flood plain of the

lower Zeya River. In 1959 the beginning of May, I regularly met

males and females in the southern portion of the Amur-Zeya interfluve.

The birds, back from their winter places, Jeisurely fly (sometimes in

the company of Hen Harriers) low over the ground, hunting for

prey in the dead grass and bushes. At that time the weather in

Amurland is usually cold and windy. Snowfalls and snowstorms

happen rather often, and the night temperature is no more than -4° C.

Only after 13 or 14 May does the spring influence become more and

more evident. Sun thaws the remaining snow, and the soil gradually

thaws out eagerly absorbing the water filling depressions among the hills.

Though night frosts as a rule takes place till the end of May, on the

southern, well-insulated slopes and on the plateau the first plants

(sedges, willows, pasqueflower, and rhododendron) begin to blossom.

The insects wake up, the numbers of amphibians increase, and rodents

become more active, and the Pied Harrier’s hunt becomes easier and

more productive.

DISPLAYS, COURTSHIP

Just after returning from winter quarters the Pied Harriers occupy

their territories and stay there during all the breeding period until

young birds are able to fly. Only natural calamities such as forest

fires and monsoon floods destroying nests and worsening foraging

conditions force the harriers to change the boundaries of their range.

Similarly, late ploughing and haymaking restrict the hunting terri-

tories of Pied Harriers. Pair formation probably takes place in April,

but till 10 or 12 May, males and females more often hunt separately,

and sometimes at a long distance from each other.

After May 15 the Pied Harriers begin their displays. It is a

very peculiar display flight, performed usually by the male but

sometimes by the female or by both birds together. At the height

of the display period (17-22 May), if the weather is fine and windless,

the birds begin their display at sunrise and continue their remarkable

evolutions in the air by day. At the beginning the male soars rather

high over the nest territory, then suddenly plunges down with closed

or partly closed wings and, after a headlong dive, rises nearly

vertically with a loud call ke-ke-kee, a toneless cackle. As he rises

the male somersaults several times. The steep ascent is followed by

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 291

a new and sudden spectacular dive, and then an easy rise with breath-

taking aerobatics, accompanied always by the characteristic display

note. After each dive the harrier gradually loses height. Approaching

the ground he rolls one or more times on his long axis, not only at

ascents but at descents also. The black and white bird displaying

early in the morning is a delectable sight against a background of

bright blue cloudless sky. At the beginning of the breeding season

several males belonging to pairs living side by side display

simultaneously before one female as if competing in adroitness. The

female during her evolutions in the air also rolls and somersaults.

Being pursued by the cock she usually stops her aerobatics, turns

momentarily on the back to ward off the male. The call uttered by

the female in this flight is a similar nasal cheep. When the male is

displaying alone he, from time to time sinks into the tall growth of

the previous year’s grass, near his sitting mate or in the vicinity.

Sometimes he takes to wing with a small twig in his beak; and

transferring it to his claws starts to glide over his mate resting on the

ground. The twig being dropped the male sinks to the grass and

calls the female, who answers his low cluck with a shrill whistle.

After a short interval the male again gains height and repeats his

display manoeuvres, and so on.

Such displays continue during nest-building and even when the

first egg is laid, though the male alone is busy with his aerobatics.

The last displaying males were recorded by me on the Amur-Zeya

plateau on 25 May 1961 and 28 May 1962.

On May 20, in the vicinity of Klimautzy village I happened

to observe the first copulating Pied Harriers. Soon after a display

flight, the male landed at the nest site (70-80 metres from the clearing

where the harriers two days later began to build their nest) and his

mate approached him. She drove away the male and occupying his

place on the top of the hummock delivered a drawling whistle, ruffled

her plumage, and shook her wings; at the same time she attentively

watched her partner circling over her. After some circles were made

the male suddenly stopped his flight and raising his wings high up

alighted on the hen’s back. Immediately after completing copulation

he flew away, leaving her alone for some time on the ground.

Subsequent coitions took place at the nest.

About a week before the nesting period the females nearly stop

hunting. From the end of May onward they live solely on the food

provided by males and Pied Harrier hens flying in search of food

over the dwarf birch and willow thickets are very seldom to be seen.

More often the female sat with ruffled feathers on a hummock, a

292. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

low stub, or a low branch of the squat larch or of a dead fallen

tree somewhere in the creek valley in the vicinity of her future nest.

The moment the female saw the male she swiftly flew out to meet

him, and begged for food. If the male was returning without prey,

or if he ate it surreptitiously the female passed from begging for food

to an active attack. She struck him on the wings with her beak and

feet, and pursued him with a shrill whistle till he left the territory. If

the female did not notice the male immediately on his return, he

descended into the thickets and uttered a very peculiar bi-syllabled

quacking chatter. As a rule this gave no results, and he then flew up

with the prey in his talons where she could see him. If the female

was flying below the male she took the food from him from below

with striking dexterity and swiftness. In several cases the prey was

passed in mid air from foot to foot or from the male to his mate on

the ground.

Both mates spent the night on hummocks among grass and shrubs,

separately, and at several metres from each other. ‘The roosting

place of the male was more or less constant throughout the summer

season. From the beginning of egg laying the female passed her nights

in the nest. On frosty May nights it was always particularly cold

in damp hollows; and after sun rise the area remained for a long time

in the shadow of hills and surrounding forest. This is probably why the

Pied Harriers rose from the ground early in the morning and perched on

the tops of sun-lit trees at the very edge of the valley. At first the

birds basked motionless in the sun, then began preening. Soon the

male flew away to hunt while the female continued basking till it

becomes warmer and grass and thickets become dry on the surface.

It is of interest that, contrary to other harriers, the Pied Harriers

readily perched on trees—males occupied in general high bare-topped

pines and larches, females preferred small trees.

BREEDING

The nest and nest building:

The male played a dominant role in selecting a place for the nest

and in the collection of materials. Some days before nest building

began he could be seen flying with twigs or blades of grass in his

claws, and haphazardly leaving the material on the hummocks.

Meanwhile the female flew near by showing little interest. In Amur-

Jand the majority of the Pied Harriers started nest building 2Ist-

23rd May, and some solitary pairs 7-10 days later.

In all cases known to me nests were built on hummocks covered

with dry sedge and were well disguised among thick grass and shrubs

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64(2) PLATE J

Neufeldt : Pied Harrier

Above : Pied Harrier male in flight ; Below : Habitat of Pied Harrier in Amurland,

May 1958.

(Photos : I. Neufeldt)

J. BomMBAy NAT. Hist. Soc. 64(2) PEATE Tf

Neufeldt : Pied Harrier

Above : Nest and eggs of Pied Harrier ; Below : Pied Harrier chicks in first down.

(Photos : I. Neufeldt)

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 293

(Plate I, above). Flooded meadows, where during heavy summer rains

the nests were easily destroyed by water, were usually avoided;

the birds settled there rather unwillingly and chose the highest

hummocks. On the contrary in the valleys even small hummocks

were not flooded by rain-water and served for this reason as a rather

reliable ground for the primitive constructions of these birds.

Building materials were usually collected near by. The male was

repeatedly observed by us walking about in the previous year’s grass

or near old haystacks and picking up straws and thin twigs. When

flying up a male usually shifts its burden from the beak to the feet

and only then brings it to the nest. The hen was usually waiting

below among shrubs of dwarf birches. She arranged the material

and did practically all the building work, but did not carry building

material. Each appearance of the male was met by her with a loud

shrill whistle (similar to the ‘food-call’). The male either dropped

twigs and blades of grass in the nest or raising his wings above the

back settled in the thickets and himself arranged the material. Small

larch or birch twigs were used for the bottom and outer borders of

the nest; straw of wild cereals e.g., Calamagrostis langsdorffii—for the

walls; fine leaves of sedge and soft parts of other plants for lining the

cup. Usually nest building took from 3 to 4 days.

When ready the nest is a thin (not more than 30 mm.) and at first

rather loose in construction. The measurements of eight newly-built

nests in Amurland were as follows: external diameter 230-270 mm.,

internal diameter 140-160 mm. and depth of the nest cup 45-60 mm.

Later, during incubation and when there are nestlings in the nest

the walls gradually thicken reaching sometimes 120-130 and even

150 mm. The fact is that during the whole breeding period the hen

(very seldom the cock) renews the construction. No case is known

when the frightened female returned back to the nest without bring-

ing a bunch of dry grass or twigs.’ This behaviour can hardly be

attributed to her wanting to keep the nest clean because she begins

to add material in the nest long before hatching. I think that the

building up of the nest aims at protecting the eggs and then the

nestlings against the moisture soaking into the nest from below from

the ground during rainy season. Apparently such superstructured,

more solid nests were erroneously taken by G. Dulkeit (1928) for old

ones, used in previous years. Later his opinion found its way into

a number of ornithological reviews (Dementiev 1951: Portenko 1951).

In fact, every year the Pied Harriers return to their former breed-

* The exceptions are flights with food for chicks,

294 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

ing place and build a new nest in the vicinity or at a rather long

distance from the old one.

When the nest is built the hen often sits in it though egg-laying

starts only 4-5 days later. Now she rarely leaves her nesting area

keeping close to the region of the nest, and gives her alarm-call

while chasing crows, kites, and other large birds which encroach

upon her territory, and shows alarm at the appearance of man.

Breeding season:

In the different parts of their rather limited and separated breeding

range, Pied Harriers start breeding at different times. In north-

eastern India and in the north of Burma nests containing one egg

were found on 13-20 April (Hume 1888; Stanford 1935). A month

later the first eggs were laid in Manchuria and Ussuriland (Dulkeit

1928; Yamashina 1939; Spangenberg 1940). Near the northern

border of their range (Amur-Zeya Plateau) the laying began only at

the end of May. Thus, in the nests found in 1961 and 1962 in the

vicinity of Klimautzy village the first fresh eggs were recorded on

TABLE

EGG MEASUREMENTS

: Absolute size (in mm.) Average size of

Serial No. Egg number eggs from one

of nest Length Breadth clutch (in mm.)

1 I 42°5 35°0 42°4x35°0

II 42°0 35°0

TI 42-0 350

IV 43-0 35°0

2 I 44:0 36°0 44°9 x 35°9

II 44°5 35°0

III 45:0 35°0

IV 45-0 36°5

V 46-0 37°0..-

3 I 45:0 34°5 AS5‘5 <35°7

II 45°0 36°5

TIT 46:0 35°0

IV 46°1 36°8

4 I 47°6 35°0 48°8 x 35°7

II 49:0 36°3

Il 49:3 35:3

iv 49-4 36-0

5 I 43°0 35°0 43°7 x 34:8

I 43°0 35°0

IT 43:4 34-0

IV 45-7 35-0

6 I 42°5 38°0 44:3 x 37:2

II 43°0 37°0

TIT 44°0 37°0

IV 46°0 36°0

V 46'0 38°0

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 295

26, 28, 29 May and on I, 2. 8 June. In the first half of June over

the investigated territory nests had fuli clutches and only a few

individuals were laying as late as the middle of the month.

Clutch size, eggs:

Eggs were usually laid in the morning, as a rule at intervals of

48 hours. Once a hen laid the last (her third) egg, three days

after the second. The normal full clutch of the Pied Harrier

consists of 4 to 5 eggs. 50% of nests found in Amurland contained

4 eggs, the others 5 eggs (Plate II, above). All clutches found in

southern Ussuriland, described by G. Dulkeit and E. Spangenberg,

consisted of 5 eggs. For Transbaikalia nests are known with 4 and

even 3 eggs (Taczanowski 1893); the latter are supposed to be

incomplete. .

The eggs are roundish. Only in one of the nests (No. 4 in the

Table) the eggs happened to be somewhat elongated, and their length

exceeding their width by 13 mm. In other instances this difference

was less (7:0-9:0 mm.). The table presents the main measurements

of eggs from 6 nests examined near Klimautzy village. As one may

see from this table the size of eggs varies insignificantly not only

within one clutch but also between nests belonging to different

individuals.

No difference was seen on comparison of these measurements

with those from Transbaikalia, Ussuriland and Manchuria.

The egg is usually pure white. occasionally bluish-white, without

gloss. As the female’s feet were constantly stained with blood from

its prey, after several days of incubation the eggs had definite red-

brown streaks and spots; these are erroneously taken by some

ornithologists for natural pigmentation of the egg-shell.

Incubation:

During the breeding period the duties of the parents were sharply

differentiated. I never saw the male brooding the eggs. L. Shulpin

(1936) writes that he never found brood patches in Pied Harrier cocks.

These were not found in specimens from the collection of Zoological

Institute of the Academy of Sciences as well as in males shot in

Amurland in 1957 and J959. Eggs are incubated by the hen only,

and this is not an exception among the harriers. However males

have been twice reported as flushed from nests containing eggs, with

females alive (Dulkeit 1928; Spangenberg 1940). Though in both

cases the reason of male’s stay in the nest was not clarified, these

observations led to other authors writing of the participation of the

295 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

male in incubation. It seems more probable that the male was

flushed from the nest, when he delayed there after feeding his mate

or after laying in the nest additional building material.

The incubation begins with the first egg. During the first two

days a female does not stay in the nest all the time. In the morning

she flies out to warm herself for a while in the sun, and during the

day when she feels very hungry. With each addition to the clutch

she sits more closely. The full clutch is usually left by the hen, only

for accepting food. Within the period of egg-incubation the behaviour

of females differed a great deal. Some took wing on the appearance

of a man at 5-6 m. distance from the nest, but the majority allowed

a very close approach and flew out calling almost from one’s leg.

Such difference in their behaviour depends apparently not only on the

individual peculiarities of temperament but also on the radius of the

field of vision, which is different in birds sitting in the dwarfish sparse

thickets or in the thick impassable shrubs of dwarf birches and high

grass. In contrast to dendropbylous birds of prey, which from their

nests high above the ground easily notice a stranger intruding into

their territory, harriers living in grass and shrubs may see an enemy

only at a short distance from the nest!. The Pied Harrier hen sitting

on eggs (or chicks) is always alert to noises in the vicinity. At the

slightest rustle she raises the feathers of the facial disc and turns

the head in the direction of the source of sound (Pilate III, below).

Under the peculiar ecological condition of nesting the wonderfully

developed acoustic sensitivity of this bird fixes the direction of

approaching danger earlier than the eve does. However, only on seeing

the enemy does the female fly up.

Within the whole breeding period the male’s duty consists mainly

of feeding his mate and then the chicks. Having returned after the

hunt with prey in the talons the male usually calls his mate out of

the nest and passes food to her in flight. Sometimes the transmission

of food takes place in the nest; nevertheless the hen always eats the

prey somewhere away from but in the immediate vicinity of the nest.

If the male is not occupied in hunting he perches in a tree or on a

stump not far from the nest. He notices an approaching man right

away, raises an alarm, and flies out to meet the enemy. In this

moment the female gets alert and flies from the nest to join the male

and they begin circling above the intruder uttering characteristic alarm

notes. At the end of incubation when chicks have hatched both

parents defend their nest more actively and may become brave

enough to dive at a great speed trying to strike the intruder’s head.

1 This refers to birds in the nest only.

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 297

E. Spangenberg (1940) reports that in case the female dies the male

is capable of taking her place on the eggs.

It is known that the period of incubation depends on the duration

of the embryonal development of the nestlings. For Pied Harriers

(on the Amur-Zeya Plateau) the duration of incubation was observed

to vary under natural conditions. Even in the same nest it varies

from 30 to 32 days for each egg. In the first egg the embryo takes

one or sometimes two days longer than in other eggs, apparently due

to irregular brooding by hen during the first days of incubation. The

period from the laying of the first egg till the hatching of the last

nestling lasts (depending on the size of the clutch) 37-39 days.

In the majority of nests examined the hatching of chicks took

place in the first ten days of July and only in delayed clutches lasted

up to the end of the month. The hatching process of the nestling

takes on an average about a day. In one instance it took more than

two days. The number of unfertilized eggs is small. Out of 31 eggs

only one (in the clutch with 5 eggs) was addled.

The nestlings’ growth:

Newly hatched chick is covered with short but rather thick (except

on: the belly) down (Plate Hl, below) which on the greater part of

the body is of a pale colour; on the forehead, nape, chin,

external edge of the wing, tibia, and abdomen it is white. There is

a stripe formed by very short darker down, passing from the bill

through the lores to the eye, and a brownish-black down ring around

the eye. The eyes of the newly-hatched chick are half-open; upper

mandible, the top of the lower mandible and the skin of the edges

of eyelids black; the cere, mouth wrinkles, and the base of the lower

mandible yellowish-pink; the skin of the body pink; legs and claws

of wax colour. The male nestiings at this age weighed 18-18°7 gm.

the females 22:6-22°8 gm. Since the hen incubates from the first

egg the young hatch out at different times. At the hatching of the

last chick the first one is already 3-5 days old. For individuals

belonging to one and the same sex this means a difference of

23-25 gm. On the fourth day the young Pied Harriers can move

about the nest, leaning upon the tarsus and balancing with their

wings. They are capable also of crawling away, into dense grass

and thickets. On the first day of hatching the excrement of the

chicks remains in the nest or is eaten by the hen, later the nestlings

before each defecation move backwards to the edge of the nest and

defecate a great distance away from its edge. The 6-day old chick

develops the feather-tubes of the future remiges and their coverts

298 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

which, as well as rectrices, force out the first down; the sheaths of

the second down begin to unfold.

The second down plumage develops on the pterylae and apteria of

the previous juvenile plumage. In the first instance a part of second

down grows in addition to the previous (first down) plumage. In the

second instance the whoie down plumage is of primary origin.

When the nestling is about two weeks old the growth of the secondary

down plumage is completed. New down evenly covers the body of

the nestling. Only some parts along the neck, on the lower throat,

under wings, and on the abdomen remain bare. The second down

differs from the first in having more of barbs and barbules. The

colour is darker, ochre or pale-ochre. Only on the nape, on both

sides of the head, and on the forehead the down is white. On the

l4th-15th day young males weigh 140-142 gm., ie. reach nearly

half the weight of adult individuals of the same sex. The weight of

adult birds shot in Amurland: co o‘-—283-4 and 302 gm., 9-—600 gm.

The movements of two-week old nestlings are rather uncertain but they

already lean upon the toes. The hen broods its growing young since they

need warmth, especially at night and in rainy weather. When it is

hot chicks often leave the nest, which is not protected from the sun’s

rays, and hide themselves in the shade of grass and thickets. On

hearing the female’s feeding call they return to the nest. On the

approach of the observer the chicks move backwards in fright and

then strike a defensive attitude, characteristic of all young diurnal

predators: lying on their back, feet with sharp claws up.

17-18-day-old nestlings stand firmly on their feet and in case of

danger try to hide themselves in dense thickets. Little by little they

tread out visible paths between hummocks on which they may

quickly and without difficulty move for some metres from the nest.

Sometimes 19-20-day-old birds leave their nests and settle in another

place. The female (and sometimes the male) thereupon brings twigs

and straws and soon in the crushed sedge there appears a new nest

similar to the old. The young remain in or near this nest for about

one month. In the second half of August, the 35-45-days-young take

to the wing, but are not fully fledged.

Though a normal clutch of Pied Harrier consists of 4-5 eggs, the

brood usually has no more than 3 young. The mortality of chicks

especially in the early stages of post-embryonal development is very

high. Out of 30 chicks from nests known to me only 20 (67%) lived

as long as two weeks. First of all dies the youngest (the fourth or

fifth) nestling in the brocd. It hatches 3-5 days later than the others,

and is very weak. Being jostled away by its older brothers during

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 299

feeding it seldom receives its share of food. With age its weight does

not increase, on the contrary, it decreases. On the 3rd-4th day such

chicks cease asking for food and lie nearly motionless in the nest and

soon die. Grown up 7-12-days-old chicks, which are in the habit of

leaving the nest, sometimes become so wet in rainy season that they

perish from cold. due to the imperfection of their heat regulating

abilities. Sometimes, dispersed in different directions, young birds

become an easy prey of predatory mammals. In July of 1962 one

brood was entirely destroyed by forest fire which spread to the territory

occupied by the Pied Harriers.

When in the nest the young birds can be infested by different

arthropods: ticks, mosquitoes, black flies, etc. The main injury is

done by parasitic larvae of flies of the genus Protocalliphora, which

penetrate external ear openings and acoustic ducts, nasal ducts, quills

of growing feathers or simply settle on parts of the body stained with

blood by the hen’s feet. A very strong infestation by these larvae

blocks nostrils of chicks; breaking through the ear-drum_ they

penetrate the middle ear and sometimes injure large feathers to such

an extent that some of them break off.

Behaviour of the parents:

With young in the nest the duties of the parents are again strictly

differentiated. The male provides food for the family, the female

broods and feeds the chicks. But as was observed in 1961 when

the hen was shot after hatching all the nestlings, its mate successfully

fulfilled all her duties. |

Pied Harriers are born coldblooded (poikilothermal). Within the

first two weeks until thermoregulation of the nestlings is established

the female seldom leaves the nest (Plate III. below). She broods the

chicks almost constantly raising herself sometimes to get annoying

insects from the nest bottom or to take out carefully larvae of

Protocalliphora from the ear openings of sinall nestlings. During the

hot hours of the day the hen stands with extended wings above the

nestlings protecting them from the direct sun rays (Plate II] above).

Before leaving the nest the adult bird slowly raises herself a little,

ruffles her feathers on the belly, carefully tucks up and puts her wings

together making herself clear of the chicks or eggs. On rapid and

sudden upward flight the female sometimes throws about the contents

of the nest. On returning she puts back in their place only immovable

objects, i.e. eggs or newly hatched nestlings. In my field journal there

is the following record: ‘July 7, 1961. With an imprudent gesture

I frightened away a female which brooded four chicks and one egg

300 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

with punctured (cracked) shell. When flighting the hen scattered two

young and the egg some 30-40 cm. distance from the nest-cup and the

egg broke. Soon the female returned and started brooding the

nestlings left in the nest. ‘Without paying attention to the other

chicks she examined intently the newly-born nestling and debris of

the egg-shell. Then she suddenly raised herself, took the shell by the

beak and put it accurately in the nest between the chicks. In some

seconds she raised again, took out from under herself the egg-shell

which apparently was mistaken by her for the egg and began to eat

the blood stained shell membranes. Then leaving the shell the bird

‘again started looking at the white ball lying down motionlessly

near by, came to it, and carried back in her beak the newly-hatched

chick to the nest. The older nestlings got to the nest as soon as they

heard the feeding call of the female.’

While the nestlings are very small the female spends nearly all

her time in the nest and is fed by her mate as well as during egg-

incubation. The cock usually flies several times above the nest

calling his mate. The hen answers with a plaintive, thin, whistling

note and rises into the air. When flying alongside the male the female

sharply brakes and with quick side movement of the foot catches the

food and returns to the nest. During the hatching period or in rainy

weather sometimes the male with prey clutched in his talons flies

lower and lower and drops it in the nest. Systematic observation

upon two families of Pied Harriers has shown that within first 10-12

days of the nestling’s life the male never visits the nest. 19-20-days-old

young are brooded by the female only at night or in rainy weather

and during a sudden fall in the temperature. Thereafter the chicks

remain alone in the nest for longer and longer periods, the female and

her mate being engaged in hunting. When the hen is absent the male

feeds young by tearing the food to bits.

MOULT

Adult Pied Harriers have one complete moult in a year. Soon

after incubation begins the old worn out feathers of the females start to

fall and are replaced by new ones; the moult of the males, who

provide food for the family, occurs when the young are airborne.

In Amurland on June 6-9 there were birds that had lost the 10th and

9th primaries. By 145th-16th of June these feathers were half grown

and the next ones (8th and 7th) fell out. At the same time the

corresponding coverts and small plumage of the breast, sides and back

moulted. The female shot in Transbaikalia on June 13 (preserved in

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64(2) - “SPUATE, Vil

Neufeldt : Pied Harrier

Above : Pied Harrier (female) protecting nestlings from the direct rays of the

sun ; Below: Pied Harrier female brooding partly grown young.

(Photos : I. Neufeldt)

J. BomBAy NAT. HIsT. Soc. 64

Neufeldt : Pied Harrier

Above and Below:

_—~

Pied Harrier female feeding young.

(Photos : I. Neufeldt)

PLATE:

~~ NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND © 301

collection of the Zoological Institute of the Academy of Sciences)

iS approximately in the same state of moult: 10th and 9th primaries

in sheaths, 8th absent. On June 21-26 in the majority of individuals

from Amurland the 10th primary flight feathers had reached normal

length, and the 9th and &th were 4% of normal length. On June 28

in one female the 10th primaries had moulted, the 9th were yy and

8th and 7th 3 of normal length. in southern Ussuriland the moult

takes place at the same time. Thus in the female shot on [5th June

the 10th and 9th primaries were $, and the 8th 4 of normal length,

and the central rectrices had begun to unfold; in another female shot

on June 27 the new 10th, 9th, and 8th primaries had reached normal

length, the 7th were still in sheaths (Materials of Zool. Inst. Acad.

Sci., U.S.S.R.). In the specimens from Upper Amurland in the first

days of July, ie. by the time of chicks hatching, the female’s 10-8th

primaries and their coverts had finished their growth. Some

individuals exceptionally begin moulting only in July. All adult

females shot on September 8-16 in Manchuria were (according to

Meise 1934) in the moulting state. H. Deignan (1945) on 27th

December found in birds wintering in northern Thailand central

rectrices, which had not reached the normal length.

Male Pied Harriers start moulting later than the females and not

so simultaneously. In the collection of the Zoological Institute in

Leningrad there are the following moulting specimens: June 18—the

10th primaries $ of normal length, 9th appearing from the sheaths, one

central rectrix half grown; on June 19---10th primaries in horny sheaths,

9th remiges and one middle tail feather absent; on June 28—10th

primaries of normal length, 9th } of normal length. On the 27-28 June

in the region of the Upper Amur the majority of the males had lost

the 8th and even the 7th primaries though specimens occurred without

‘any signs of moult. To the number of late-moulting birds may be

referred a male taken on July 25 from the nest with grown-up chicks:

his 10th primaries hardly reached 4 and one central rectrix 4 of

normal length. It should be noted that in females the change of tail

feathers usually started when some temiges had already moulted;

males lost the central rectrices nearly at the same time with the last

(10th), sometimes the last but one (9th) primaries. Before leaving

the breeding range males, as a rule, have time to change not less than

_ 6 primaries, half the rectrices, and the majority of the small feathers

on the head, neck, lower throat, back and belly (a specimen from

_ Ussuriland housed in Zool. Inst. Acad. Sc., U.S.S.R.). Beginning

| with the nest building the moult continues during migration and is

| completed in the winter-quarters. The shortage of material at my

302. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

disposal does not enable me to describe the whole process of the Pied

Harrier’s moult.

AUTUMN MIGRATION

There are rather scanty data in the literature concerning the time

of autumn migration of Pied Harriers. Thus, they were observed to

migrate gradually from Ussuriland from the end of September till the

middle of October; only solitary birds stayed as long as November 13

(Dulkeit 1928; Shulpin 1936; Vorobievy 1954; Belopolsky 1955). In

autumn the birds sometimes stray beyond the limits of the range.

Thus according to A. Gizenko (1955), one female was shot on October

24, 1946 on Sakhalin (near the town of Novo-Aleksandrovsk). In the

middle of September Pied Harriers occur rather often in Manchuria

and Korea (Ingram 1909; Kuroda 1931; Yamashina 1932; Meise 1934;

Austin 1948). In China, in Hopei province, groups or solitary birds

migrate southwards from the end of August till the end of October,

sometimes till November 9 (lia Touche 1932; Shaw 1936; Wilder &

Hubbard 1938). The migration routes cross China and sometimes

Mongolia. G. Dementiev (1962) recorded the Pied Harrier on passage

in autumn of 1958-1960 in Mongolian Gobi Desert. In Burma the

earliest appeared on September 6, the latest in November (Bingham —

1880; Smythies 1953). In western Kwangsi (China) they were recorded

from October 30 (Eaton 1957) and in northern Thailand from October

4 (Deignan 1945). | |

Foop, HUNTING, AND FEEDING OF YOUNG

The analysis of the contents of stomachs and pellets as well as

direct observations upon hunting and feeding Pied Harriers have ~

shown that the major part of their diet in the south of the Amur-

Zeya plateau was constituted by rodents (85%)!. The most common

were Ungur Voles (Microtus ungurensis) inhabiting hummocky boggy —

swales and willow and dwarf birch thickets. Siberian and Redbacked _

Voles (Clethrionomys rutilus) confined to well drained parts of forests,

fields, and gardens make only 23% of their diet. Other species of |

rodents (Apodemus agrarius, Micromys minutus, Clethrionomys

rufocanus, and Eutamias sibiricus) were equally represented in the — |

food ration of these diurnal predators (5-3%). Eighteen per cent of

the prey of Pied Harriers was formed of the remains of small

* passerine birds. In May, adult Yellow-breasted- Buntings (Emberiza

aureola) sometimes became the prey of these harriers; at the end of

1 The bone remains of the mammalswere kindly identified by M. Erbaeva.

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND — 303

June, and in July they took exclusively the young of these buntings

and sometimes fledglings of Indian Tree Pipits (Anthus hodgsoni). In

spring and sometimes in summer they hunted for frogs (Rana

chensinensis) 5-8%. As a very rare food which is of little importance

the Common Shrew (Sorex sp.) and insects (Grasshoppers, bugs, large

nocturnal moths and beetles) may be mentioned.

Pied Harriers hunt in poor light, most actively in the morning and

in the evening. I repeatedly saw males on warm May evenings in

clear windless weather, when it was almost dark, inspecting bogs

swarming with frogs. In searching for food under such conditions

their keen sense of hearing is apparently of no small importance.

They fly very low over the ground (at 1:5-1:(0 m.) systematically

quartering the ground, foliowing the roughness of the terrain and

manoeuvring among the trees and bushes. Very thoroughly they

inspect the neighbouring willow and dwarf birch thickets, damp

meadows, and old sod fields. At the end of summer they like to

visit the parts of the fields bordering the forest on which they catch in

general Large-toothed Redbacked Voles and young Chipmunks.

They search for food in gardens and pastures situated along the

outskirts of settlements. The flight is graceful and buoyant with

several wing beats and then a glide. They take the prey from the

ground, grass and even from water. The way of catching mammals,

fledgling of ground-nesting birds, amphibians, and insects is the same

in general. On discovering the prey the Pied Harrier stops for a

moment as if hanging poised in mid air and then with widely

stretched wings and long legs showing sinks quickly down into dense

grass or shrubs. At this moment the Harrier usually has time to

snatch its prey. If it misses its mark the bird sometimes lands

under its own momentum, but more often it easily picks up altitude

and continues its hunting flight. Sometimes Pied Harriers resort to

other (less advantageous) means of hunting, for instance they search

for small animals walking on the ground in the standing crop which

due to the insignificant thickness is easily seen through, or wait for

them perching on any small eminence (lump of soil, stone, etc.).

_ When it sees the prey the harrier impetuously attacks it trying to take

it unawares, or pursues it with agility on the ground. Sometimes

Pied Harriers try to seize smail birds on the wing; such hunting is

seldom successful. Ball-tike nests of the Harvest Mouse, which are

-sO numerous on the thickets or in dense grass in open valleys, are

plucked by the harrier in flight. Then with the mouse-nest in its

claws it comes down, tears the nest open with its bill and gets the

helpless young mice,

304. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

As mentioned earlier, beginning with the breeding period,

for two months the female practically does not hunt. All the food

is provided by the male and the hen remains at nest till called off:

On capturing the prey the male immediately kills it in its taloned

feet. He is nearly always hungry, that is why the male dresses the

food, ripping the head of the prey and swallowing it as well as the

greater part of the skin. The body of the animal the cock passes to

his mate in flight. The kind of food given to the young corresponds

in general to the summer diet of parents themselves. The difference

is that the female gives to the nestlings the most soft and delicious

pieces of the meat and only on 10th-12th day begins to feed them

with the bones, viscera, and skin of rodents, birds and frogs. Such

nestlings begin to eject pellets. The frequency of feeding the

nestlings depends first of all on the success of the male’s hunting.

In favourable weather the male brings food approximately each

45-50 minutes, carrying not more than one animal. By day in hot

weather intermissicns may be longer: one and a half to two hours.

The female brings food in her talons and feeds it in torn bits to

small nestlings (Plate IV). She contents herself with the remains of

the food—the viscera and the half-cleaned skeleton. When the chicks

are older they tear up the prey themselves. When on the wing the

young harriers continue to beg for food. Now they are fed. by

parents by dropping prey in the air (the way that was described above

for the brooding female).

According to the data of H. Bolau (1881), F. Dorries (1888),

G. Dulkeit (1928), L. Shulpin (1936), E. Spangenberg (1940), and

K. Vorobiev (1954) in the stomachs of Pied Harriers shot in Ussuriland

rodents were found in general; shrews, passerines, frogs and insects

were represented by solitary specimens. In the U.S.S.R. the species

in question is an obligate miophag. It destroys a great number of

pests of agricultural crops and vectors of dangerous transmittable

diseases of man and domestic animals. As such it is of great benefit

and deserves protection.

As to the food of Pied Harriers in the other parts of its range

the literature dealing with the question is very scanty. It is known,

for instance, that rodents are their main food in north-eastern

provinces of China and reptiles, frogs, small birds, and insects are

of secondary significance (La Touche 1932: Shaw. 1936; Wilder &

Hubbard 1938). In India, Pied Harriers, apart from mice, feed

sometimes upon insects, sometimes upon frogs and snakes (Cripps

1882; Hume 1888; Baker 1928). When breeding and wintering in

Burma they get, in general, frogs and large insects; it happens

NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, IN AMURLAND

sometimes that they attack birds and catch crabs (Oates

305

1883;

Stanford 1935). Frogs are the main prey of Pied Harriers wintering

in northern Thailand.

The lizards,

small snakes and birds were

represented in the stomachs by solitary specimens (Deignan 1945).

‘/ ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am indebted to Dr. Salim Ali, of the Bombay Natural History

Society, for assistance in the preparation of this manuscript and its

publication. I wish to express my appreciation also to Professor

A. I. Ivanov, Curator of Birds of the Zoological Institute of the

Academy of Sciences of the U.S.S.R., Leningrad, for helpful comments

and suggestions.

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RipLey, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis of

the Birds of India and Pakistan together

with those of Nepal, Sikkim, Bhutan and

Ceylon : 60. Bombay.

SHAW TSEN-H wANG (1936) : The birds

of Hopei Province. Zoologica Sinica,

Ser. ‘B’ 15 (1): 224-225.

SHULPIN, L. M. (1936); The game-

birds and birds of prey of Primorie ;

241-247. Wladivostok (In Russian).

SmyTHIES, B. E. (1953) ; The birds of

Burma : 404-405. Edinburgh.

SPANGENBERG, E. P. (1940) : Obser-

vations on distribution and biology of

birds at the lower course of the Iman

river. Proceed. of Moscow Zoo 1:

97-98 (In Russian),

STANFORD, J. K. (1935) ; Notes on the

birds of the Sittang-Irrawaddy Plain,

Lower Burma. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Soc. 37 : 880.

STEGMANN, B. (1929) ; Die Vogel Sud-

Ost Transbaikaliens. Ann. Mus, Zool,

Acad. Sci. USSR, 29 : 135.

— (1930): Die Vogel des

dauro-mandschurischen Uebergangsge-

bietes. Journ. f. Ornith. 78 (4) : 431-432.

TACZANOWSKI, L. (1872, 1873):

Bericht tiber die ornithologischen Unter-

suchungen des Dr. Dybowski in Ost-

Sibirien. Journ. f. Ornith. 118 : 349,

422 = 117;

— (1893): Faune_ ornitho-

logique de la Sibérie Orientale. Mém.

a d. Sci. St. Pet. 7 Serie, 39 ; 120-

W27--

TUGARINOV, A. (1932): Birds of East

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mission 1:17 (In Russian).

VorosBiEv, K. A. (1954): The birds

of Ussuriland: 80-81 Moskow (In

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WHISTLER, H. & KINNEAR, N. B.

(1936): The Vernay scientific survey of

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38 : 430-431.

WILDER, G. D. & HUBBARD, H. W.

(1938) ; Birds of Northeastern China.

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WortH, C. B. (1953): Ecological

notes on a colony of Small Swallow-

plovers in Mysore State. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 51: 612.

YAMASHINA, Y. (1932): On _ the

specimens of Korean birds collected by

Mr. Hyojiro Orii. Tori. 7 (33-34) : 244.

— (1939) : Note on the speci-

mens of Manchurian birds chiefly made

by Mr. H. Orii in 1935. op. cit. 10

(49) : 517, .

The nesting activities of the vespoid

potter wasp Eumenes campaniformis

esuriens (Fabr.) compared with the

ecologically similar sphecoid Sceliphron

madraspatanum (Fabr.) (Hymenoptera)

S. D. JAYAKAR AND H. SPURWAY

Genetics and Biometry Laboratory, Government of Orissa,

Bhubaneswar-3, Orissa, India

(With eight figures)

INTRODUCTION

Bhubaneswar (20° 15’ N., 85° 50’ E., height 45 m.) is in part an

administrative capital built since 1948 on recently cleared thinly covered

lateritic rock. The mean monthly rainfalls in mm. beginning with

January are: 14-5, 23°6, 16°0, 23:4, 67°3, 216°7, 336°8, 320-0, 248°8,

158-0, 53°3, and 4°8.

Since arriving here, we have kept records of wasps. This paper

describes the observations made on the commonest species of vespoid

potter. According to Bingham (1897) this species is Eumenes esuriens

Fabr. We learn from Iwata (1964) that this form is now considered

to be E. campaniformis esuriens (Fabr.). We have large series collec-

ted during the course of this work, some of which have already been

sent to a taxonomist.

In its habits esuriens shows much convergence with the sphecoid

potter Sceliphron madraspatanum (Fabr.) with which we have worked

in Calcutta (22° 34’ N., 88° 24’ E., sea-level). We therefore consider

for comparison both our previous observations on the latter species and

those we have made at Bhubaneswar, designating as ml the Calcutta

animal previously described (Spurway, Dronamraju & Jayakar 1964).

We (Jayakar et al. 1964) have also published a note on an individual

esuriens here called e10.

MATERIALS AND LOCATION

Table 1 lists all wasps of these species seen associated with nests

between 23-8-62 and 9-10-64. All nests were built on human artifacts

and all were sheltered by roofs,

[1]

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

308

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———-

319 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Considering the wasps observed at the single-storied house Unit 5,

Type VIII, No. 2, New Capital, Bhubaneswar, el - e8, e12 - e14, e18 -

e21, and e24 and m2 and m5 were on a roofed verandah, 15°7 x 2°5 sq.m,

x 2°9 m. high, facing 20° west of south.

Both the garden parapet and house wall of this verandah are simple

and symmetrical so that they are convenient for mapping and describ-

ing in code. The house wall contains four wholly wooden double doors

and four windows each with double shutters of similar wood containing

small panes of glass in their upper halves. Though the windows are of

two sizes, and their frames are somewhat narrower than those of the

doors, to human beings all eight structures consist of homologous parts.

These structures were numbered (1) - (8) from west to east ; (1) and (8)

were small windows, (3) and (6) were large windows and (2), (4), (5)

and (7) doors. Two of the nests (m2 and e5) were built on (3). The

cement parapet of the verandah is 51°5 cm. high on the house side and

90 cm. high on the garden side and has a bench-like top 7:5 cm. high and

34cm. wide. Its wallis of plastered cement and perforated with a simple

pattern of square (7'5 x 7'5sq. cm.) holes and of eight-pointed ‘stars’

made up of two squares each with sides 15 cm. long superimposed at an

angle of 45° to each other. Eight of our nests of esuriens (el, e2, e4, e6,

e7, e8, e12, e14) were built in this parapet in the square holes of the wall.

By sticking pieces of transparent cloth over the two openings, these

holes were sometimes converted into cages to capture the offspring when

they emerged. Some other nests were also covered with cloth but less

elegantly. The plastered pillars which interrupt this parapet and support

the verandah roof also provided attractive nesting sites. They are

ribbed with horizontal grooves 2 cm. high and 0°3 cm. deep. These

grooves simulate the layer of mortar between blocks of stone. They

also provide a ‘ floor ’ 0°3 cm. wide, and a ‘ wall’ 2 cm. high sufficient for

two rows of cells, the upper one touching a ‘ ceiling ’ 0°3 cm. wide. On

the face of the car porch which extends from the central portion of the

verandah, the ‘ ceilings’ of these grooves gradually increase in width

relative to the ‘ floors’ from the ground upwards. The ‘ floors’ finally

disappear so producing a spurious corbelling to form the canopy. Four

esuriens nests (e13, e18, e20, e21) exploited these features. Nests e9,

e16, el7, e22, e23, and m4 were on the opposite or north side of the

house facing into a yard, and the remainder scattered about, e25 being

on a separate building. Nests e10, e16, e17, e23, and m5 were on articles

of furniture. These were not moved after work was discovered. The

others were built on permanent fixtures.

Nests el, e2, e5, e8 and m2 were watched continuously from discovery

during the hours of daylight, and the arrivals and departures of the

mothers and various intruders noted to the nearest second, as were their

actions on the nest. Not all these data will be used in this paper, but

[4]

NESTING OF. £. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 311

special emphasis will inevitably be laid on these five individuals. The

other nests were inspected at irregular intervals, but usually several

times a day.

Five wasps, e6, e14, e22, e23, and e24, were painted for identification,

the latter three while etherised ; e23 succeeded in removing her first

paint put on her abdomen on 8/6 and was re-painted on her thorax on

10/6. She was subsequently captured again on 14/6 and etherised by

mistake. All except el4 reacted by ceasing to work for a long period,

e6, e22, e24, and e23 on the second occasion not working again that

day. On the first occasion, e23 was not seen for 5:3 hours after her

recovery from the anesthetic, and then had not added any loads to the

walls of cell III during the building of which she was interrupted. None

deserted immediately, but we will later compare the subsequent behaviour

of e6 and e14, who were not under ether when painted, with the behaviour

provoked by parasitisation.

SITE SELECTION

Five animals e2, e3, e5, el7, and m2 were observed before any load

had been brought. They were feeling the area with their antennae.

E. esuriens, like other vespoids, only touch the substrate with the tip of

the geniculate antennae to scan it. We have described previously the

‘sweeping’ with a large area of the antennae performed by madras-

_ patanum.

On 7-10-62 at 14°01 it was prophesied from the behaviour of an

esuriens that a nest would be built in a certain angle of masonry. No

mud was brought that day. The first cell was found open on 8/10 at

11:02. This was nest e3. The site of el17 was recognised by similar

behaviour at 11°25 on 22-3-64. Her choice was on a flat surface of an

unvarnished wooden stool. Ten minutes later the wasp had already

brought at least two loads. :

Wasp e2 was observed for 13 minutes hovering and settling on two

of the ‘ star’ holes and one of the square holes near the place where she

subsequently built, which was in another square hole. She left for just

Over six minutes and returned with her first load.

The wasps m2 and e5 were both observed for considerably longer

periods, and both of them made movements that revealed that they

appreciated homology in human artifacts.

At 11°10 on 26-9-62, m2 was observed to land on window (3) and

sweep with the whole length of the antennae (the scanning movement)

between a door stop and a hinge 30 cm. below it on the west (observers?

left) side of the shutters of (3). During 17 minutes she gradually narrowed

her range of exploration to just below the stop. During the next 150

minutes she visited this and four other shutters 17 times, in each case

[5]

312. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

either hovering over the region below the west door stop, sweeping on

it, or landing elsewhere on the door and walking to it before sweeping.

The periods of sweeping were frequently interrupted by the wasp taking

off, and either landing immediately, or hovering within 15 cm. of the

place. On two occasions she also touched two different chairs each

twice in rapid succession for a few seconds each time. Thirty-eight

minutes after she last left, there was just over twenty minutes rain, and

light was poor for the rest of the day.

- Next day, 27-9-62, m2 arrived at 08°36, going straight to her usual

place on (3) sweeping and hovering for 112 seconds. She flew up and

down the verandah before leaving for the garden. At 10-07 she deposited

her first load of mud under the shutter stop of (3). During the inter-

vening period she had made four loadless visits of 150, 17, 32, and 11

seconds respectively, all to the same place and all involving hovering,

and associated with flying round the verandah and even touching objects.

We think this long exploratory period to be exceptional. It had not

been made by m1 and, whereas m1 built a normal nest, m2 deserted

almost immediately ; perhaps m2 was never completely satisfied with

this site, or perhaps she was not highly motivated. However, there is

no doubt that she appreciated certain homologous features of the doors

and shutters that a human also does. |

On 9-10-62, an esuriens was flying around the porch, verandah, and

parapet from about 09°40 to 10°39, settling many times. We think that

there was only one wasp. At 11:04, e5 entered, and from 11°07 concen-

trated on the lower surface of a wicker work chair (Chair 1). This was

one of two similar chairs placed close together side by side facing south.

The observers were sitting in them checking that e2 had left her nest

finally. By 11:14 at least, e5 was concentrating on a particular. place

among the struts under Chair 1 on its right side. She left at 11-20 after

flying round Chair 1 and the adjacent parapet. Chair 1, which was to

the west, was laid on its right side facing south and the other chair, 2,

was turned through 90° so it was facing west and the under side of the

first chair. An observer sat in Chair 2. At 11:20, e5 returned with-

out a load. For 29 minutes she flew round Chair 1 leaving for the

garden repeatedly for a few seconds at a time. She settled on the floor

under Chair 1, but did not find her previously preferred place nor any

substitute for it. She then flew under Chair 2 walking on the struts.

She found the place homologous to her site on Chair 1 among the struts

on the right side of Chair 2 in about 71 seconds. She investigated

adjacent places but returned to her first choice on Chair 2 and made it

her definitive choice, as was shown by her bringing mud to it on her next

visit. If this homologous choice was significant, the chairs provided all

the environment that determined it. She did not select a point which

had a comparable position with regard to the garden, or the parapet or —

[6] |

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH §S. madraspatanum 313

other features of the verandah. She came from below Chair 2 at. 12:00,

and flew round and under Chair 2 and_its occupant cheba before

leaving 4 minutes later...

Chair 2 was then bid on its left side so that the sce ite was facie

west and also the under side of Chair 1. Both chairs were now facing

south. After 6 minutes, at 12°10, e5 returned with a ball of mud. . Until

12°18 she flew round this region of the verandah and in and out of the

garden repeatedly.. She flew low over the parapet on which many objects

were standing, apparently checking the presence of things to which she

had orientated. At 12°15, she dropped her mud. She touched one of

the observers thrice and once landed on the now vertical under side of

Chair 2.

She (presumably the same wasp) returned at 12°24 without a load

and continued flying round the chairs and both observers. At 12°28

she landed on a small table and at 12°29 flew to window (3) previously

used by m2. In exactly a minute of hovering she had landed three times,

the last on the west bottom corner where she later built her nest partly

on the concrete horizontal sill, the concrete vertical wall, and the wooden

frame (Figs. 2-5, and 7 and 8). She never settled on any other region

but hovered over this, settled, and walked round it repeatedly. She

continued thus while the sill was emptied of various pieces of household

and laboratory equipment. At 12°42 she returned to Chair 2 for 12

seconds. She continued her survey and nibbled at material in the corner

of window (3). At 12°54 she left the immediate area of the west bottom

corner of window (3) and made a fresh orientation flight flying round

the window and verandah and over the parapet in gradually widening

circles. She left at 12°56, and returned with mud at 12°59. Therefore e5

took 140 (or 14) minutes to select her first site, 16 minutes for the second,

28 minutes for the third.

We saw ell bring her first load and put it where ae Mealy built.

However, 2 hours later, and before she had. completed the ring of her

first cell, three other loads had been put down elsewhere, two worked

together 7 cm. above cell I and a single one about 24 cm. above cell I;

all three sites being in a straight line, ‘one above the other. Such

depositions have the form of the brackets with which cell walls are begun

and we consider them abortive brackets.

At 14°55 on 31-5-64, there were 4 parallel brackets and the stain of

a ring made of several loads which seemed. to have been. removed on the

west edge of a pillar supporting a verandah roof (Fig. 1). A wasp was

present constructing a bracket 7 mm. from the east edge of the same pillar

at 60° to the west brackets. No further work was done that day. On

1-6-64 at 13°45, e22 was working on a ring about 4 complete 10 cm. above

the bracket seen laid down on the previous day. On the east side, there

was also ‘one one-load bracket and a partial ring which we did not see

EZ]

314. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

put down. By 13°47 she was adding mud to this latter on which she

put down all subsequent loads so it therefore became the definitive nest.

At 14:07 however, she landed on the abortive bracket on which she was

[6 + 13.47 ONWARDS

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14.55 31/5

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Fig. 1. e22. 1-6-64 13°47. Nine separate beginnings of cell con-

struction, and the times these were laid down in as much detail as is

known.

After 13°47 all loads were used to construct the 7-celled nest here indicated by

a dotted outline, the remaining eight depositions remaining abortive.

first seen working on 1/6 but walked up to the definitive site before putting ©

down the mud. It is of course not critical but we assume that the

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Fig. 2. e5. 9-10-62, 13.56.30. Cell I newly built and open. The layer of mud

to the observer’s right is filling the chinks between the wooden shutter and the

masonry sill and jamb.

Fig. 3. e5. 15-10-62, 15.23.55. Cell VI newly built and open. Cell V on sill

and shutter in front of I is sealed but not daubed. Four earlier cells united by

daubing so that individual structure obliterated (the small horizontal line accompany-

ing each figure represent 1 cm.).

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 315

abortive brackets found on 31/5 were put down by e22. She certainly

worked at two sites on 1/6.

Two deserted brackets orientated to one another and thus forming

the beginning of a cell were found 7 cm. to the south of cell I of e21

with a parallel alignment in the horizontal grooves on the verandah

pillars described above.

FOUNDATIONS

As previously described, madraspdatanum begins each cell by spread-

ing mud over any part of the substrate that will form any part of the floor

of the next cell, which will have the form of a vault about 24 mm. long

and 9 mm. high. There is no sign of such activity in esuriens, the floor

of whose cells consists of the naked substrate. However, e5 often

smeared a little mud outwards from some of the loads with which she

built her walls. These smears filled in gaps between the wooden shutter

frame and the concrete sill and jamb, which gaps were relatively large

compared with the diameter of esuriens cells (Fig. 2).

It seems that madraspatanum usually builds on wood and on a ver-

tical surface immediately under and touching a projecting surface, here

called a ceiling. E. esuriens wasps built more frequently on masonry

and more frequently upon a horizontal surface, here called a floor, and

touching a vertical surface. Both species sometimes build on a single

completely flat surface. Two individuals, el0 and e23, built on more

recently developed human artifacts ; e10 on the hem of glass-net curtains

and e23 on the wire, 5-6 mm. in diameter, which forms the skeleton of a

bicycle seat. We have seen cells presumably constructed by esuriens

on the spokes of a bicycle wheel. We did not see the complete pots

el0 I, and e23 J being built, and the position of nest e23 made the con-

struction of later cells difficult to see. In this nest five cells I, II, HI, VI,

and VIII all had complete floors, but except I, all were built overlapping

a previous cell, and so were at best # pots. When nest e23 was removed,

a groove was present in the outer surface of its solid floor as the pots had

been built partially enclosing the wire. The inner surface of these cells

must have passed through a saucer stage comparable to that pictured

by Olberg (1959, p. 122) for E£. pedunculatus and mud was added to the

rims of these saucers in the same way as it was added to the walls of the

pots (see below). From fragmentary observations it seems that the

saucers were begun as a pair of brackets one on either side of the wire,

the first loads being put down touching one another, as we have seen the

similar saucer stage constructed by EF. emarginatus conoideus (Jayakar

& Spurway, 1965) and these two brackets were separately added to.

We saw no movements suggesting that the wasps worked continuously

12 | | [9]

316 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

round the edge as wasps do when the circumference is again small when

the shoulders and neck of the pot are formed.

CELL WALLS AND BUILDING BEHAVIOUR

The round half pots built by esuriens are constructed from two or

three foci. A load of mud is brought and gradually laid down first to

one side and then to the other until a crescent-shaped bracket is formed

which is then pressed between the mandibles and the front legs and

smoothed by these organs both on the inside and the outside. Unlike

mddraspatanum wasps, who straddle the working edge of their vaults

with the appendages of one side of the body inside and the other outside,

a Eumenes wasp’s body and legs are always outside the bracket and both

antennae and both mandibles inside it. The long axis of the sphecoid

Species is parallel to her line of work, and the mud is rolled out in her

Sagittal plane. The long axis of the Eumenes is at right angles to her line

of work, and the mud is extended in the transverse plane of her body.

These positions for work are not taxonomic criteria characteristic of the

Vespoidea and Sphecoidea respectively, for the vespoid Polistes olivaceus

also straddles its cells while laying down paper. However, Polistes

and Eumenes individuals were completely silent while laying down

material, whereas individuals of madraspatanum keep up a continuous

buzzing while working their mud, both when collecting it and when

working it on the construct. This noise was the most critical stimulus

by which to time when a load was put down after a preliminary period

of feeling. It is also performed by the closely related Chalybion benga-

lense, and the much less closely related 7rypoxylon pileatum.

The esuriens wasp holds her mud between her mouth and her fore-

legs, laying it down a little at a time. Therefore she can cease work in

a place, lift her ball, and transfer it neatly to another place without

trailing strings of sticky mud after her. In this again they differ from

madraspatanum, who immediately put down their loads, roll them out

roughly in their permanent position, and then work backwards and |

forwards over them, exactly as pastry is rolled repeatedly. The mud

working of esuriens can similarly be compared to the construction of

ribbons of sugar icing by thrusting this through a funnel so that the rest

of the load can be separated from the part already put down, and be

picked up and distributed to several separate parts of the construct.

As will be described, esuriens does sometimes construct ribbons of mud

very similar to those made with sugar icing by this method.

The first loads brought by e2 and e5 were smaller than subsequent

loads and the following figures show, for each wasp, how many times she

used only a part of a load to start a new cell (excluding the first cell) :

[10]

NESTING OF E.c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanuin 317

el lout of., 3,

e2 0 out of 4,

es 6 out of 12,

e8 8 out of 9.

Of the 31 complete cells we watched being built by esuriens, 20 were

constructed from 3 foci and 11 from only 2. Before the laying down of

these first brackets the tips of the antennae can be seen feeling the sub-

strate, also in an arc. Loads need not be placed on brackets alter-

nately. A load is usually worked on one single bracket which is raised

and extended in length either symmetrically or asymmetrically. Gradually

the brackets are joined to form a continuous ring. Only during the

joining up process are loads put down between Pues, Antennal

feeling of the.construct is continuous.

On four occasions el, e2, and e5 daubed the previous construct

while a cell was stiil unfinished, whereas e8 did it very often and once

daubed six successive loads on her earlier cells in the middle of building

a new one. Daubing was the activity that preceded wall-building, but

it is possible that these daubs played some functional part in the cells

the walls of which were being raised. S. madraspatanum occasionally

lays down a.daub between adding loads to a wall.

On three occasions e2, and on four occasions e8, killed an ant running

over the cells by putting a lump of mud on top of it, and partly smoothing

this out but leaving the ant buried alive as a rough knob on the wall

of the pot. We have found no previous description of this capacity.

The manner in which the ant was chased and ‘swatted’ leaves no doubt

that this method of killing is deliberate, and not a fortuitous accident

- due to the ant being in the way of the work.

The joining of all the brackets of one cell was completed with the

seventh load and once with the eighth, but it usually requires between

9 and 15 loads as part of the wall may be built up while the remainder is

still unconnected. When all brackets had been joined, the walls were

usually about 3-4 mm. high but, especially when pots were built on

others, and thus on an uneven surface, this was very variable. The

diameters of the completed rings were between 15 and 20 mm. At this

stage the five complete pots of e23 were little bowls of similar diameter.

Their later history resembled that of the half pots, further loads being

put on the rings which were worked for increasingly greater arcs of their

circumferences as the diameters were gradually narrowed with each load.

With the first load that was worked completely round the circum-

ference, the hole of both a half and a whole pot was reduced to

about 4 mm. diameter, and usually the neck was begun by pulling up part

of the mud to form a little tube. The next load was added to this tube

lengthening it. The tubes were then pressed at right angles to the length

of the tube to form a flat Jip to the pot. Occasionally the neck was left

ald

318 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

incomplete, being formed in one part of the rim only, and another load

was fetched to complete it.

On seven occasions, the neck and the lip were made from three loads

of mud, on seventeen from two loads, and five times both were completed

out of one load of mud. On the remaining occasion e8 had worked on

the neck and lip of cell IV with one load, but when she brought her next,

she was disturbed by an ant. She dropped the mud, spent 371 seconds

on the nest without doing anything obviously constructive, then left.

She did not return that day, but the next morning she oviposited in that

cell without putting any mud onit and then continued as usual from

there. In the completed pot, the neck is very short and perhaps should

be considered as a temporary stage in lip formation. The lipped

mouths always faced at an angle of about 45° from the vertical and were

inclined towards the direction in which the cell received maximum illu-

mination. After a pot had been finished, the egg was laid, food was

provided, and the cell sealed and very frequently daubed. These activi-

ties will be considered in the following sections. The mother usually

then began another cell. We have assumed that wasp e10 began, 30 cm.

from her first construct, another isolated pot which she did not complete ;

but in all nests that we saw constructed, the esuriens mothers built their

later pots overlapping one or more previously constructed. Whether

or not these previous pots had been daubed, the first 2 or 3 brackets of

the later ones were always orientated to them so that one or more rows

of overlapping pots were formed (Figs. 2, 3, 4 and 5).

This overlapping construction results in the wall area of all later pots

being less than the first and those built on two or more may be little more

geometrically than a third of a sphere. The orientation of the mouth in

later pots is again at about 45° from the vertical and as they are orientated

to the source of light or the approach route of the mother they are usually

roughly parallel.

This was not true in nest e23, and it may perhaps be relevant that the

mother flew under the bicycle saddle from several directions. In this

nest, cells IV, V, VII, and IX formed a typical second row, of typical half

pots, their floors being formed of the walls of the pots on which they

rested.

Individuals of madraspatanum also build their cells touching previous

cells but they do not overlap so as to certainly economise on material.

As has been noted, these later cells are not so regularly built as the earlier

ones on a flat substrate.

Table 2 shows the numbers of loads put to different uses in pot build-

ing and the numbers up to various stages of the cells. The differences

between nests within this species are clear-from the table, the four means

being 19°5, 17°40-£0°51, 15°85--0°53, and 15°00-L0°54, and the variances

of e2, e5, and e8 being 1°30, 3°64, and 2°89 respectively. It is possible

[12]

*¢ ‘SI

(Jed]I9AO 96S “Puss 10,4)

(‘1qe4) suatinsa simsofiuvdups sauauny JO sisoN

——

"p ‘SL

Fig. 4. e5. 16-10-62, 14.20.03. Cell VII newly built and open. Cell VI, now

joined to earlier cells by daubing.

Fig. 5. e5. 19-10-62, 12.57.21. Cell IX newly built and open. Cell VIII now

sealed and daubed is immediately below [X and was built on both VI and VII.

Cells X, XI, XII and XIII were later built in a column above IX (the small horizontal

line accompanying each figure represents 1 cm.).

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 319

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320 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

that these differences are entirely due to external factors (site of nest,

weather, etc.). The mean number of loads for all cells is 16°23+'041,

with a coefficient of variation of 13°8°%, compared with 11% for m1.

A cell of madraspatanum is a little vault, not ‘a cylinder puckered at

both ends’ as stated by Iwata (1942). These are built from one focus,

formed by the first two loads laid down in the same way as the later

loads, unlike the cells of the North American species described -by the

Peckhams (1905). A cell is completed by the gradual narrowing of the

floor under the vault and the joining of the wall to form the circular

mouth. This is not characterised by a special series of movements as

in esuriens. m1 used 24 to 31 loads, mean 26°3, for a cell.

Eumenes wasps never enter their pots while building them. In this

again they differ from madraspatanum, who enters her vault after laying

down each load. SS. madraspatanum feels her construct for much longer

periods than esuriens, and in all her construction it seems probable that

this examination frequently determines where the next load will be placed

before this load is collected.

Though the period of working the mud is not the whole period bet-

ween landing with a load and taking off for another, the much greater

variation in the technique of wall-building of esuriens compared with

madraspatanum shows itself in the greater variation of the actual working

periods. Some features of the distributions of times spent on the nest

during visits when the wasps worked on the walls are compared for the

different wasps of both species in Table 3. Those statistics which were

TABLE 3

TIMES SPENT 0” NEST WHILE BUILDING WALLS

| mi | el | e2 | e5 | eg

no. of cells timed she 10 2+ 5 13 10

no. of timed visits <6 263 37, 83 190 125

shortest visit mes 20 36 38 Dy 29

longest visit .. — 246 134 313 187 e201

mean Pe 44°56 63°03 65°40 84°62 73°34

s.e. of mean ety E13 3°26 4:40 2°15 23S

median ce 41:60 59.75 59°38 79°33 69°00

s.e. (1) of median ie 1-01 2°74 1:29 1°92 21S

s.e. (2) of median Sas 0-85 4°11 1:87 2°93 2°00

Re, es 45 31 55 35

median

CON 41:0 31°5 61:3 35°0 36°3

calculated for ml are here compared with those for the various individual

esuriens. The two estimates of the standard error of the median in this

and several other Tables in this paper are discussed by Spurway et al,

(1964).

[14]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 321

During the building of each cell, the length of time taken to add a

joad gradually increases, as the proportion of the circumference worked

increases, The mean length of the periods on the cell are graphed in

| oh oe

; el » Be pty

® | Oo om

| ce

= ® aE 9

@ | mat Tis

@ = i

e | =e

® a )

& im ~n

& ® Gs

@ | ~ SC

] | ;,, 2

® ys

a oe

a @®n~- »

| » co ne

e as

o 2 gna

Fig. 6. Graphs showing increase in time taken to add a load of mud as cell

building progresses—see text.

Fig. 6. The periods during which the neck and lip were constructed are

omitted. These are even longer and involve movements not used

in earlier wall-making. The data are graphed twice. In the graph

indicated by circles, the first visits to the thirty cells entirely spent on

wall-building are averaged, then the second similarly, and so on. In

the graph indicated by squares, the highest value in the top right hand

corner is the average of the 30 times during which the last load before

neck building was worked. The square with the abscissa of 17 is the

average of the last load but one and so on. This second graph is the

more smooth, and theoretically this is to be expected. The later part of

a pot is a taxonomic character of the species, and the movements with

[15]

322. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

which it is made would be expected to be almost pure erbkoordinazionen

and extremely standardised in all individuals. Therefore when we

average, for example, the time taken over the last load before the neck,

We are averaging something precisely defined which is a taxonomic

character of the species. On the contrary, the first loads of a pot attach

it to its substrate and therefore, to function at all, must differ for every

single pot. They must be determined in important respects by the

special features of the environment on which this particular pot is con-

structed, and the movements of building the early part of a pot must have

a large taxis komponent which will decrease as the walls grow and their

form becomes independent of the immediate substrate. Therefore these

early movements are not to be expected to be equivalent from one cell to

another, and it is satisfying that averaging the times expended on them

provides as smooth a graph as it does.

OVIPOSITION

Oviposition differs in the two species, and these differences have

important consequences in their economies.

Immediately after completing the lip of the pot, which has been a

period of great activity during which the tips of both antennae were

inside it, the esuriens wasps removed these and inserted the tip of their

abdomen. They remained in this position for some time (Table 4).

The abdomen was then removed, and after another few seconds of

antennal feeling they flew away, usually for the best part of an hour or

more and on occasions for the night. The egg was usually visible, cylin-

drical and pearly, hanging from the zenith of the pot, i.e., quite near the

opening. Thus an esuriens cell is never left empty and this is typical of

the genus and related genera. However, on 3 occasions (i.e. cells IV,

VI, and VIII), e8 did not oviposit immediately but did so on a subsequent

visit, in IV not until the next day (Table 4). We consider this behaviour

abnormal, the reason for which in the case of cell IV and cell VI was

probably disturbance by ants, but for cell VIII is not clear. e6 seems to

have delayed Jaying in her cell II.

S. madraspatanum wasps, as is typical of their genus, oviposited only

after they had captured and brought prey to the cell. They entered the

cell abdomen first and disappeared completely for many seconds during

which time an egg was laid attached to the prey.

The evolutionary significance of whether or not a period of hunting

has to intervene before an egg is laid is considered by Roubaud (1916),

Wheeler (1923), and Iwata (1942). The latter condition is considered the

more advanced and to be an essential stage in the evolution of the social

forms. However, madraspatanum is like esuriens and at least one

European Sceliphron species (Fabre 1924), and unlike North American

[ 16]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 323

S. cementarium (Peckham & Peckham 1905, Shafer 1949), in laying her

cegs at the beginning of the provisioning period.

TABLE 4

INTERVAL (IN SECS.) BETWEEN INSERTION OF THE ABDOMEN AND ITS REMOVAL

FOR ALL OVIPOSITIONS OF esuriens TIMED

SIE So I ST ELT LOPES ECE ES EEE I EGIL E IIE LIAL EDAD TE AAA

Wasp | Cell | First egg Second egg | Third egg

el II 66

Til 60

e2 I 63 Ta

II 63

Til 64

IV 55

V 54

oa Vill 66

»4 75

e5 I 66

p II 70 89

III (eos .

IV 74 111

V 85

VI i

VII 84 98

VIII 84*

Ix 95

xX 87

XI 127 188

XII 100 63 87

XIII 13* 73

e8 II 54

TIT 64

IV (66)

V a5);

VI (59)

VII 59

VHI (60)*

Ix a)

xX 54

XI 70

ell Tl 281

IV 51

el4 Il a

IV 60

VI 97

e21 II ae

e22 I 65

e22 VII 64

Note: Brackets indicate that the first egg was not laid on the journey on which

the cell was completed.

An asterisk indicates that this was the second egg of a day.

In both esuriens and madraspatanum nests, sealed cells are occasionally

found in which no wasp larva can be found and only paralysed or

mummified prey. The egg may have died—if of genetic causes, this

[17]

324 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

would explain why there are frequently more than one in a nest, e.g.

m3. Species with haploid males would be expected to be particularly

vulnerable to death due to the segregation of recessive lethals. No

evidence on this point can be c btained from the sex ratio as the method of

sex determination prevents there being any a priori expectation of this.

These cells with uneaten provisions seem commoner in madras-

patanum. Iwata (1964) explains this by the preference of this species for

mud which contains organisms that cause the paralysed prey to deterio-

rate. However, the observation that the extremely similar

S. cementarium lays its eggs on a later spider may provide another expla-

nation. Just as esuriens (e10 and e23) occasionally, by building com-

plete pot cells, behaves in a manner which is more frequent in related

species, SO madraspatanum may occasionally behave like another species

and not lay as she inserts the first spider into an empty cell. However,

to compensate for this, she must perform another unusual act several

hours later, i.e., lay on a spider when her cell is almost or quite full.

Unusual behaviour on two occasions rapidly following one another and

co-ordinated is too much to expect, so no egg is put in the cell. Eumenids

also occasionally seal cells without either laying or provisioning. We

have seen this in E. emarginatus conoideus and our local form of Antody-

nerus flavescens. Roubaud (1916) gives examples in E. tinctor. ‘

Normally, only one oviposition takes place in a cell, and we have

never seen two larvae reared in any. We have previously described the

repeated layings of m1 which deliberately compensated for the accidental

removal of the relevant spiders which she knew to have occurred.

Considering the 30 cells of esuriens we watched continuously, five

were laid in twice, and 1 three times (Table 4) ! Wasps emerged from

all six cells. All but one of these extra ovipositions were made by eS.

All extra ovipositions were made on the first visit of a morning or at

least before any loads were brought!, and after prolonged feeling with

the antennae inside the cell. Two abortive attempts, one of 150 seconds

and one of 76 seconds, were made in laying nest 5 cell XII egg 2 before

it was produced by the third effort lasting 66 seconds. We at first

believed that the extra ovipositions were made because the first egg had

deteriorated by being left in an unsealed cell too long due to delays in

provisioning. These delays were not due to difficulty in finding prey,

but because the mother was unable to work during rain. The discovery

of e9 and e16, the latter during the dry season, made this interpretation

less likely. Both were single cells deserted unsealed, and both were not

dissected until the larvae had spun their cocoons thus providing with

their silk the first closure of their cells. The larvae pupated and developed

1 However e22, who had completed cell II by 09°46 on 4-6-64 was ovipositing

in it, presumably for a second time, on 5/6 just before 17°48, again after a long

inspection. ;

[18]

(JespIOAO 99S ‘PudseT JO.7)

(‘1qeJ) sualinsa siudofiuvdutps sauauing JO SISoON

L ‘3tq

Fig. 7. e5. 31-10-62, 15.17.41. Cell XIII newly builtand open. All previous

cells daubed.

Fig. 8. e5. 3-11-62, 10.09.42. Completed crépissage confined to later cells, the

daubing on the earlier cells being left uncovered. The hole and lid made by ¢

emerging from cell II are present.

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 325

their imaginal coloration. ¢@9 I emerged, e16 I died before emergence.

Given the humidity in October 1962 it is most unlikely that the eggs laid

by e2 and e5 had dried up, which would imply that the chorion in this

species is quite unlike that of its relatives, solitary or social, who habi-

tually practice progressive provisioning. The first egg, whenever we

could see it,.was however wrinkled, flattened, and shrunken when the

second was laid. It had perhaps hatched, and the female failing to receive

the stimuli she expected from it, re-oviposited.

Roubaud (1916) compares extra eggs laid by E. tinctor Christ with

other units of abnormal behaviour which are obviously dysgenic, and

which we have not seen in esuriens. He considers these abnormalities

to be characteristic of the end of the breeding season in the region con-

cerned. At this time, the mother is often unable to collect sufficient

material to complete one phase of the rearing cycle efficiently before

internal physiological changes project her into the next phase of the

instinctive sequence. From Roubaud’s description, much of the

abnormal behaviour of E. tinctor seems to us to consist of displacement

activities, which would be expected to be stimulated by frustration due

to the depauperate environment which he describes. The extra ovi-

positions of e2 and e5 however were ordered responses to stimuli which

they had obtained during a period of appetitive behaviour which was

normal in their daily cycle of behaviour, i.e. the prolonged early morning

examination of the construct and the contents of an open cell. Sucha

response to such stimuli, if it exists as :we have suggested, must be lost

during the evolution of the capacity for progressive provisioning.

Roubaud considers that when more than one egg is laid within a cell,

the wasp that emerges has developed from the first laid, and has eaten

its younger siblings together with the prey provided by the mother.

Table 5 lists the data on the relevant families and the only other

animal comparably timed at that season of the year. The times of ovi-

position were known. The maximum length of imaginal life is calculated

on the assumption that the animal had emerged the moment it was re-

corded in the cages made by closing the holes in the parapet walls with

gauze. As the animals emerged during the morning when they were

quickly noticed the error introduced is known to be irrelevant to the

argument. On two occasions we watched the emergence. Considering

the sex of the individual and the temperatures during pre-imaginal life

it will be seen that for four animals (2 I, 5 H, 51V and 5 VII) the length of

the period in the cell supports the theory that it arose from the first egg

_ laid in the cell. In 5 IX, though the length of pre-imaginal life calcu-

lated on the assumption that the second egg produced the wasp is

numerically closer to that observed in wasps developing at comparable

temperatures, it would be shorter than any unequivocal time observed.

Finally, on the numerical data, the middle egg laid in 5 XII would seem

[197

326 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

to be the one that produced the wasp. This is not impossible. How-

ever, when we later consider the length of pre-imaginal life, we will

TABLE 5 (SEE TEXT)

| Temperature during | Max. pre-imaginal

pre-imaginal life | life ;

Cell Egg | Sex

| max. min.

(ave.) lave.) dig. devi yh? d. h.

Fal 1 30°7 Ze | 2 21 04

2 30°6 22:0 20 08

II 30°3 22°0 Q 21 20

lil 29°6 21°9 Ss 22''22

IV 29°7 21°9 Q 22 22

V 29°4 21°8 Q 24 23

5 If 1 29°1 21°4 Q 23 18

2 29°0 21°3 22 Ol

III 29°2 22 3b 23 19

IV 1 29:2 20°8 3 24 18

y 29:1 20°'8 23-i-22

VII 1 29°0 19:9 2 25 20

2 29°1 19°7 24 03

VIII 29:2 19°3 Q 25,22

IX 29:1 19°2 Q 258 2

x 29°1 19:0 Q 25 19

XI 1 29°1 18°8 Q 26 19

2 29°1 18-7 25 Ol

XII 1 29:2 18°1 Q 30 06

y) 29°6 17°6 , 27 08

3 29°9 16°7 23 10

6 II 2 29°9 16°8 db 20 23

d.=—days h.=hours

accept Roubaud’s hypothesis that the wasp emerging from a cell develop-

ed from the first egg laid.

PROVISIONING

It has already been stated that members of S. madraspatanum, like

other members of the genus, fill their cells with spiders to feed their young,

and m1 unexpectedly also brought three flies about the size of house-

flies.

E. esuriens provision with insect larvae that have a diffuse nervous

system (Roubaud 1916). The wasps did not seem to find aggregates of

prey from which they could collect a series of individuals in rapid succes-

sion. Considering the commonness of their prey only a few metres from

the nest, the length of the periods away before bringing prey were sur-

prising (Table 6). This species seems to have a wider range of prey than

is usual for the genus (Iwata 1942). Though we have not yet identified

[20]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 327

any larvae from the nests we watched being built, among these we have

seen : campodeiform coleopteran larvae of the wire-worm facies ; geo-

metrid, semi-looper noctuid, lycaenid, and pierid (almost certainly

TABLE 6

TIME SPENT away FROM NEST IMMEDIATELY BEFORE BRINGING PREY

ml mi mi el e2 | <eS | ‘€

doubt-

ful |certain | ovipo-

prey prey sition

prey |

no. of timed

absences we 18 55 12 11 28 73 61

shortest period .. 120 165 262 407 127 278 125

longest period .. 3863 3576 6106 6940 5066 9928 4901

mean .. 10441 1122°9} 241370 22180 1509°6 2565.9 14578

median i. 797°5 1015°0} 22180 1638°0 1080°0 2181:°0 1043°0

s.e. (1) of median. 99°5 Th e5 441°0 408°2 394°9 97°0 231°1

Q- oy 434 511 1133 1334 386 974 758

Q+. 1580 1400 3182 2801 2355 3318 2186

pols 2 9A eae 144 88 92 90 182 108 137

median

Q— =lower quartile ; Q-++ =upper quartile.

Catopsilia pyranthe) larvae among the lepidoptera ; an apodous and at

least two eruciform larvae about which we cannot say more. Such an

eclectic choice of prey is characteristic of species that have become

human commensals. We have previously noted it for ml. However,

it may be significant that most prey brought during September and

October 1962 were of one species (the presumed Catopsilia pyranthe)

whereas almost all brought during April 1963 were those of a semi-looper

noctuid species.

Neither species stings its prey on the nest or in its vicinity, and we

have not seen this performed.

Though the ratio of the sizes of such a larva to an esuriens wasp iS

_ much greater than that of a spider to a madraspatanum wasp, members

of the former species introduced their prey much more deftly than

members of the latter (Table 7). The larvae were carried by all six tarsi

folded in the frontal plane so that both its head and anus were under the

wasp’s thorax. On landing on or near the cells (and the same wasp may

do both on different occasions), the wasp stood on its mid and hind pairs

of legs so that the abdomen of the prey was dropped and the head and

thorax were carried to the lip of the pot and held there by the tarsi of the

fore legs. The larva was then fed into the pot by the mandibles. There

‘was no doubt that the lip of the pot had a function, contrary

to the opinion of Fabre (1924). It was used as a landing stage on which

[21]

328. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

to rest the larva while pushing it into the funnel-shaped mouth of the

cell. The first few larvae were inserted in under 10 seconds but as the

TABLE 7

TIME SPENT O# NEST WHEN PREY WAS BROUGHT

mi mi. | ver e2 e5* e8*

doubt- | certain —

ful prey | prey

no. of timed visits ae 19 55 10 28 73 58

shortest period fs 10 j1 Ll 5 6 5

longest period ‘te 82 315 90 791 432 107

mean + 35°05 55725 33°50 66°14 40°97 19°14

s.e. of mean a 4°38 7°74 28°63 28°91 734 2°69

median | fe 3h0 40°25 19°5 21:4 19:75 10°75

IQR ,

nedidn yA a 74 64 193 180 117 117

C.0.V.% de 57°9 104°4 270°2 231°3 157°3 107:0

*longest visit of 531 secs. was an abnormal visit and is excluded for el ; two

Po ak visits of 422 and 633 secs. omitted for e5 ; four abnormal visits omitted

or e8

pot filled up the time spent increased until for the last larva several

minutes were sometimes spent pushing it in (this is shown up by the

coefficients of variation in Table 7). The wasp left immediately she had

finished inserting a larva, without the long feeling inside the pot of

madraspatanum, let alone the entry that suggested that the latter species

may rearrange their prey. Eumenes wasps, as has been noted, do not,

and cannot, enter their complete pots. In both species, it is while

victualling their cells that the greatest number of loadless visits are

made. ‘This will be discussed later.

The variation in the quantity of prey put into different cells by different

individuals of esuriens is shown in Table 8. The maximum range shown

by any individual was from 3 to 8. A mean of between 5 and 6 ina

cell would seem characteristic of the species, though several different

species of prey are used, and the coefficient of variation of 31 cells built

by 4 mothers is only 20%. If this is compared with Table 3 of Spurway

et al. (1964), considering the 10 cells of m1 in which the coefficient of

variation was at least 32% and the number of prey ranged from 3 to 12

or from 5 to 13 according to how doubtful visits are interpreted, this one

individual varied more between individual cells in one nest than did

five individuals of esuriens working during different seasons.

Table 9 shows the condition of the construct when the wasp left it

for the night, excluding the night of desertion. The records of nests

e3, e7, e9, e10, e15, e16, and el9 provide no evidence; ell and m5 are

omitted because on several days they were not inspected in the even-

[22]

NESTING OF E. ¢. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 329

ings. We have included the 6 occasions when a wasp had been painted

because, though this usually interrupted the wasp’s work for the day,

TABLE 8

QUANTITY OF PREY STOCKED BY E. esuriens

el | e2 | e5 | (as)

; |

| no. of no. of | no. of no. of

| cell | larvae cell larvae | cell larvae cell larvae

II 3) EL 5) I 6 I 6*

Il 6 Il 5 II 5 I 4

ll 4 Til 6 III 6

IV 7 IV 3 IV 5

Vv 7 Vv 5 Vv 6)

VI D) Wal 8

Vil 6 Vi 7

VILE ~-- 7 Vill 5

1X 8 IX 6

x 6 Xx 6

XI 6 XI Ge

XII a

XII )

Mean Si) 5:6 5°8 5°8

a2 1°5 14

C.ONAY, 22 PA |

Mean ~~ 57

Combined o? ic

C.ON.7% 20 *

"incomplete; ** incomplete (1 larva missed by observers).

it did not invariably do so. This table shows that out of about 64%

(21/33) of the nights that a madraspatanum construct was observed, a cell

was left completely built but not completely provisioned, whereas the

comparable percentage for esuriens was about 70% (76/109). Two further

points must be noted, firstly only once has an esuriens in our sample

left a complete cell (e8 IV) overnight without an egg, and secondly the

egg is present before any provisions are brought. Therefore a cell of

esuriens almost always has something to offer predators and parasi-

toids, whereas an unprovisioned cell of madraspatanum is an empty

cavity containing no animal matter. Therefore it is more meaningful

to compare the number of occasions when an unfinished cell was left

containing an egg. For the two species this figure is 17/33 and 75/109

or 52% and 69% respectively.

[23]

330 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

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[24]

NESTING OF E. c. esuriens COMPARED WITH S. madraspatanum 331

However, despite the evidence provided by these figures that it is

more frequent for esuriens to fail to complete provisioning the day the.

TABLE 10

TIME SPENT Of NEST WHILE WORKING ON LID

ml Lang’ e2 | e5 e8

per- |: tem-

manent | porary

lid lid

a ;

no. of timed visits oe 9 2 5) 13 10

shortest visit #126 46 44 85 182 50

longest visit .. 169 244 99 200 427 228

mean ce 3 94° 126°56 Ties 142°6 273°9 M5

s.e. of mean a 6°65 24°08 17°3 15°4

median st OO 126 164 261 104°5

s.e. (1) median Nee 6°65 24°08 16°4 14°1

s.e. (2) median re 4°73 40°26 19°7 14°9

IQR

_———. Se 192 108 29 49

median :

COV. wel OSe Ty 57:0 22°8 43°8

«working times for two part loads of one lid combined as one observation.

egg is laid than it is for madraspatanum, this former species (and genus)

has evolved no equivalent of the concave temporary lid, or curtain

(Shafer 1949), with which Sceliphron wasps seal their pots. Some-

times approaching nightfall, or rain, can be seen to provide a stimulus

for this temporary sealing, but sometimes no stimulus can be hypothesised.

We have seen no temporary lid removed the same day that it was con-

structed, though we have seen one produce considerable conflict reaction

when ml was present exceptionally late in the evening. It is possible

that a wasp has no drive to remove this lid except on her first visit of a

morning or at least before she has brought a load?. Ifa madraspatanum

leaves an egg in an unsealed cell overnight, one knows that the nest is

deserted. The egg may hatch and develop.

SEALING

The sealing of esuriens cells was, as were the other activities, more

economical of loads than the previously described actions of madras-

patanum. Usually, and as we have recorded for ml mud was brought

1 Wasp m4 was seen to pick up from the floor a temporary lid removed from the

construct hours before and move it 1°5 cm. while feeling the construct and the floor

and wall around it after sealing one cell and prospecting for her next.

13 [25 ]

332 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

immediately after the last prey was inserted, one of the three exceptions

was due to interruption by rain and another may have been due to

gathering clouds. This was worked onto the hole also working round

the edges inwards, then the lip was bitten round the fragments re-worked

into the wet mud already laid down. Kirkpatrick (1957, p. 251) reports

that E. canaliculatus does not bring mud but only water and the cell is

sealed entirely with the material of the lips. Though the next few loads

brought by the four esuriens watched continuously were daubs, and the

first usually was put down on or near the lid region, the attempt to extra-

polate from madraspatanum and distinguish between lid daubs and cell

or-construct daubs would be unjustified.

As esuriens, unlike madraspatanum, does not make temporary lids,

she has no behaviour pattern for removing them.

Table 10 compares times taken by wasps on the nest during a sealing

Visit.

(to be continued)

[26]

Compositae of Raipur

and its Surroundings (M. P.)

K. SANKARAN UNNI

Department of Botany, College of Science, Raipur

A detailed survey of the plants belonging to the family Compositae

was carried out during the period 1963 to 1965. Asmany as 35 species

belonging to 28 genera have been collected. Of these 13 species appear

to be new records for this area. Field notes, local Chhattisgarhi names

where available and economic uses if any are given for each taxon.

INTRODUCTION

The Compositae are distinguished from other families by their

characteristic capitulum. Since Raipur is the centre for the Ravishankar

University and a number of other Colleges, a detailed survey of the Com-

positae of Raipur and its neighbourhood was undertaken so that they

could be easily identified.

An artificial key has been given by Santapau (1946) based on the

floral characters and colour. Venkatesh (1948) published a key to the

Compositae of Bangalore, and Govindu (1948) has described the

economic importance of Compositae.of Bangalore. Ladwa and Patil

(1961) studied in detail the Compositae of Dharwar and its vicinity and

have given an artificial key based on the ‘more obvious and reliable

characters ’.

LOCATION AND CLIMATE

Raipur city (21° 14’ N. and 81° 39’ E.) is situated at 260 m.

above sea level in the Gondwana basin and is the centre of Chhattisgarh.

The climate is dry and salubrious. The cold weather begins in

November and ends in February. The mean annual rainfalJ of Raipur

is 100 cm., and the rainy season extends from June to October. The

absolute maximum and minimum temperatures recorded are 47°C

and 4°C. respectively. The Indo-gangetic and peninsular elements

exhibit a heterogenous combination in the flora of Raipur.

334 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

METHODS

An area of about 16 sq. km. was selected for detailed study. From

December 1963 to March 1965 periodical collections were made from

the following localities: Shokra nala, Labhandi farm, Budha tal,

Doodhadhari tank, Rawanbhata, Ramkund, Dumar tal, Science College

surroundings, Sarona and Kharoon river. Plants were studied in detail,

identified and later confirmed at the Central National Herbarium,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta. The herbarium sheets were

deposited in the Herbarium of the Botany Department, Govt. College of

Science, Raipur. Cultivated and garden plants are not included.

For each species the habitat, locality, flower colour, period of flower-

ing, local name wherever available, economic uses if any and collection

number are given.

ENUMERATION OF SPECIES

Ageratum conyzoides Linn.

Very common near margins of tanks and in wet places ; corolla white

or slightly blue. Flowers all the year round. 56.

Artemisia nilagirica (Clarke) Pamp. A. vulgaris auct. non Linn.

A tall aromatic herb ; flowers yellow. Flowering during rainy season.

191.

Bidens biternata (Lour.) Merr. & Scherff. B. pilosa auct. non Linn.

Only a few plants were observed near Doodhadhari tank ; flowers

yellow. Flowering : September-December. 169.

Blainvillea acmella (Linn.) Philip.

Very rare, observed near Doodhadhari tank ; flowers yellowish white.

Flowering : August-November. 47.

Blumea lacera DC.

A common widespread weed during the dry season, growing along

road sides, open grounds and rice fields. 45.

Blumea laciniata DC.

Near tank edges and wet places. The plant is silky pubescent with

leaves deeply lobed. Flowering: December-April. Local name:

Kukurmutha. 41.

Blumea mollis (Don) Merr. B. wightiana DC.

_ A weed in wastelands. Heads pale purple. Flowering : February-

April. 40.

COMPOSITAE OF RAIPUR, MP: 335

Blumea oxyodonta DC.

- A common weed growing in rice fields and gardens. Involucre pale

brown. Flowering: January-May. 44.

Blumea virens DC. B. membranacea DC.

rn Growing only at Shokra nala; flowers yellowish white. Flower-

ing: January-May. 185.

Caesulia axillaris Roxb.

Common in paddy fields, margins of ponds and tanks; flowers

purple. Flowering: August-April ; Local name: Bilonda, 36.

*Centratherum anthelminticum (Willd.) O. Ktze.

A herb generally found under shade near Doodhadhari tank ; flowers

purple. Flowering : September-December. 50.

Cyathocline purpurea (Don) O. Ktze. C. lyrata Cass.

Seen growing only at Shokra nala; flowers rose purple. Flower-

ing: December-April. 42.

Echinops echinatus Roxb.

A spiny thistle-like herb in open dry places in Sarona, Shanti nagar,

Science College surroundings and Shokra nala. Flowering : Decem-

ber-May. Local name: Utkutal. 54.

Eclipta prostrata Linn. £. alba Hassk.

A tall herb along margins of ponds and wet places. Some plants

reach a height of 90 cm. with peduncles up to 5 cm. long, thus differing

from the report by Haines. Flowers all the year round. Local name :

Bhingra. 153.

Elephantopus scaber Linn.

Not so common, generally found under shade in Dumar tal area,

Sarona and Shokra nala; corolla purple. Flowering: August-

November. 49.

Emilia sonchifolia (Linn.) DC.

_ A common weed in gardens and cultivated lands ; flowers pink.

Flowering : July-April. 48. ;

Enhydra fluctuans Lour.

Only found growing along the margin of Doodhadhari tank, culti-

vated on a large scale and used as a vegetable. Flowering : February-

April. Local name: Jogni. 46.

336 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

*Glossocardia linearifolia Cass.

A small herb with pinnatisect leaves ; heads yellow. Flowering :

September-November. Harirachara, 187.

Glossogyne pinnatifida DC.

A perennial glabrous herb with radical leaves seen in the Science

College surroundings. Flowering : February-November. 58.

Gnaphalium indicum Linn.

Abundant along margins of tanks, ponds and ditches ; flowers silky

white. Flowering : December-April. Local name: Chitavar, Rui. 38.

Gnaphalium luteo-album Linn.

A woolly herb. Heads corymbose, brown, whitish or golden yellow,

common near river banks and wet places. Flowering : February-April.

188.

Goniocaulon glabrum Cass.

An erect annual. Heads purplish rose. The leaves used as a vege-

table. Collected from Durg Road, Sarona and Sambalpur Road.

Flowering : January-April. Local name: Barra bhaji. 59.

Grangea maderaspatana Linn. Poir.

A common weed of open grounds and rice fields. Heads pale brown

when young later becoming yellow. Flowering: December-April. 33.

*Lagascea mollis Cav.

A weed of open wastelands ; flowers white. Flowering throughout

the.vyear.., 167.

Launea nudicaulis Hook. f.

_ Seen only in the Science College Campus. Flowers yellow. Flower-

Ing: January-April. 60.

Pulicaria angustifolia DC.

A common weed of open dry lands on red gravelly soil ; flowers |

yellow. Flowering: September-May. 35.

*Pulicaria foliolosa DC.

Not so common but occurs in wet places and near ponds at Sarona

and Durg Road. Flowering: February-April. 155.

Sphaeranthus indicus Linn.

Abundant in rice fields and along margins of tanks ; flowers reddish

purple. Flowering : November-May. Local name: Gudariya.

COMPOSITAE OF RAIPUR, M.P. | 337

Sonchus brachyotus DC. S. arvensis auct. non Linn.

A common weed in waste lands and cultivated fields ; flowers yellow.

Flowering : August-April. Local name: Ut Kutar. 55.

* Sonchus oleraceus Linn.

Seen as a weed only in the botanical garden, Science College ; flowers

yellow. Flowering: February-April. 53.

Tridax procumbens Linn.

Common herb of waste lands, open places ; buds brown, flowers

yellow. Flowering throughout the year. 43.

Vernonia cinerea Less.

A common weed inhabiting newly exposed soil ; heads 0°6 cm. long

purple or white. Flowering throughout the year. 51.

Vicoa indica (Willd.) DC. V. auriculata Cass.

Common near Science College. Heads yellow in panicles. Flower-

ing: November-May. 34.

Volutarella divaricata Benth.

A spreading spinous herb grows luxuriantly after the harvest in paddy

fields. Flowering : January-April. Local name: Gukuru. 57,

Xanthium strumarium Linn.

Found on river banks along Kharoon River and Shokra nala.

Flowering : December-January. Local name: Kothwa, Latkana, 37.

DISCUSSION

Haines (1925) reports 22 species of Compositae belonging to 19

genera in Chota Nagpur while Duthie (1903) mentions only 6 species.

In the present account 13 species are new records for this region. Haines

has not recorded species of Bidens, Caesulia, Cyathocline, Goniocaulon,

Lagascea, Launea, Pulicaria and Volutarella from Chota Nagpur which

includes a part of Chhattisgarh.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author is grateful to Professor R. C. Agnihotri and Dr. V. B.

Sharma for encouragement, Dr. R. P. Mathur for facilities and Dr. K.

Subramanyam for kindly going through the manuscript.

* Reported for the first time from this region.

338

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

REFERENCES

Dutnig, J. F. (1903): Flora of the

Upper Gangetic Plain. Vol. 1. Reprinted

edition. 1960 B.S.I.

GOVINDU, H. C. (1948) : Some Com-

positae of Bangalore and their economic

importance. J. Mysore Univ. B 8:

19-32.

Haines, H. H. (1925): The Botany of

Bihar and Orissa. London.

Lapwa, H. R. & Pati, R. M.

(1961) : Compositae of Dharwar and_its

vicinity. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc.

58 : 68-80.

SANTAPAU, H. (1946): Artificial key

to the Compositae of chee Presi-

dency. Indian Ecol. 1.

VENKATESH, C. S. (1948) : Key to the

Compositae of Bangalore J. Mysore

Univ. B 8: 1-8.

The Management of India’s Wild Life

Sanctuaries and National Parks

E, P. GEE, M.A., C.M.Z.S.

PART V

[ Continued from Vol. 59(2) : 485]

APPENDIX

The following resolutions on wild life sanctuaries and national parks

have been passed by the Indian Board for Wild Life and its Executive or

Standing Committee between 1963 and 1965, and are a continuation of

those published by me between pages 458-463 in Part IV of this paper

[ J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 59 (2), (1962)].

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR

WILD LIFE ON WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES

‘The Board reiterated the necessity of using the correct terminology

in respect of wild life preservation, and recommended that all sanc-

tuaries should be referred to as ‘‘ wild life sanctuaries ’’ and not as “‘ game

sanctuaries ”’.

‘The Board stressed that in view of the shrinking habitat of wild life

due to various inroads into the forest areas, a larger number of sanc-

tuaries and national parks should be established.

‘The Board recommended that as far as possible grazing of domestic

animals in sanctuaries should be prohibited.

‘The Board strongly expressed itself against the violation of the

sanctity of national parks and sanctuaries by permitting shooting therein

by foreign dignitaries and V.I.Ps. The Board recommended that the

_ prohibition of shooting in national parks and sanctuaries and the pro-

hibition of shooting protected species should apply equally and without

distinction to all, including foreign dignitaries and V.I.Ps.

‘The Board gave careful consideration to the note forwarded....

suggesting that the tourists’ facilities inside national parks and sanc-

tuaries should be under the control of the Department of Tourism.

While recognising the position of national parks and sanctuaries as places

340 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

of special tourist attraction, the Board pointed out that their primary

function was to ensure the undisturbed existence of the wild life in them.

To eusure proper co-ordination in the provision of necessary facilities

to the tourists desirous of visiting national parks and sanctuaries, the

Board recommended that it was necessary to place the control of tourists’

facilities also in the hands of the Forest Departments which were the

authorities in charge of the sanctuaries. The Board also observed that

the main interest of the tourists was to see wild life in their natural

habitat, and the best facilities for this purpose could be given by the

sanctuary authorities themselves rather than by any outside agency.

The Board, therefore, did not favour dual control on tourist facilities in

national parks and sanctuaries.’

[Sixth Session, Dhikala tees National Park) 1965]

‘This meeting endorses the various resolutions and recommen-

dations made at the First World Conference on National Parks held at

Seattle, Washington, from June 30th to July 7th, 1962, in so far as they

apply to India, and draws attention in particular to Recommendation

No. 3 which says inter alia that “‘ there is an urgent need to constitute ona

world scale a systematic collection of type habitats as varied and rep-

resentative as possible which could be permanently protected and to

serve as standards for the future, and... . that the appropriate status for

these type habitats where possible should be that of strict nature reserves’.

‘This meeting endorses the recommendations made at the Project

Mar Conference which took place from 12th to 17th November, 1962,

in France, which was sponsored by the I.U.C.N., the I.C.B.P. and the

I.W.F.R.B., in so far as they apply to India, and draws attention parti-

cularly to Recommendation II which says inter alia ‘‘ Whereas wetlands

by their natural biological productivity and by their educational, scien-

tific, cultural, economic and recreational values constitute habitats of the

greatest importance and interest to humanity and WHEREAS as a

result of drainage, industrialization and other changes in land-use these

regions are becoming scarcer.... the Mar Conference RECOMMENDS

that Governments make provision for wetland reserves in all national

and regional development plans ”’.’

(Special Meeting of Standing Committee held with J.U.C.N. Dele-

gation, New Delhi, 1965)

RECOMMENDATIONS OF THE INDIAN BOARD FOR

WILD LIFE ON NATIONAL PARKS

‘The National Parks Policy and the Standards of National Parks in

India submitted for the approval of the Board were generally approved

and adopted,

INDIA'S WILD LIFE SANCTUARIES AND NATIONAL PARKS 341

‘ The following national parks already in existence have the approval

of the Indian Board for Wild Life to remain as such :

(1) Corbett National Park in Uttar Pradesh

(2) Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh

(3) Shivpuri National Park in Madhya Pradesh

(4) Hazaribagh National Park in Bihar

‘The Board approved that the following wild life sanctuaries may

now be upgraded into national parks by legislation to be enacted in

the various States :

(1) Manas Assam

(2) Kaziranga e

(3) Jaldapara West Bengal

(4) Periyar Kerala

(5)? Bharatpur Rajasthan

(6) Jaisamand

(7) Sariska

(8)? Taroba Maharashtra

(9) Bandipur Mysore

(10) Mudumalai Madras

(11)$Gir Gujarat (not yet declared a sanctuary)

‘Other areas which may have been called national parks of State

significance may be appropriately re-named in order that the standards

of national parks may be maintained.’

(Fifth Session, Mysore, 1963)

1 Tt was later considered whether Bharatpur should be omitted from this list,

because of the shooting rights belonging to the Maharaja there.

2 It was later found that Taroba is already being called a national park.

3 The Gir Forest was constituted as a national park in 1966.

Obituary

G. V. R. FREND

It is with deep regret that the death of Mr. G. V. R. Frend

is recorded. He died at Chikmagalur on the 27th September 1966

at the age of 68.

He came to India in 1915 and was one of the pioneers of coffee

planting. A keen naturalist and sportsman, he was a good shot,

mainly interested in small and feather game. He was also a keen

fisherman. Mr. Frend often contributed articles for the Society’s

Journal and was always very helpful for any information and

assistance on matters of Natural History. He joined the Society in,

1923 and was a life member. Retiring from active planting life in

1959, he settled at Chikmagalur. He kept his interest in Nature study

alive to the end in spite of his failing health.

Mr. Frend will be missed by ali who knew him. He was an

extremely generous person and was always willing to help anyone

who asked him for aid.

On behalf of the Society our deepest sympathy goes out to his

two sisters and other relatives in England.

Reviews

1. WORLD BENEATH THE OCEANS. By T. F. Gaskell.

pp. 154 (2719-5 cm.). With numerous colour drawings, photographs

and maps. London, 1964. Aldus Books Limited. Price 32s. 6d.

One of the four books in the Modern Knowledge Series of the

publishers, this book provides simple and authentic reading on aspects

of the Oceans not only for the general public, but also to the students

of secondary and middle schools.

The colour drawings and photographs illustrating the fascinating

aspects of the wonderful and varied world beneath the sea are

excellent. Within its 150 pages are included almost all aspects of the

sea, its movements such as tides and currents, the shape of the sea

floor, the sediments and their origin, the rocks beneath the sediments,

minerals of the sea, the great chain of life in the sea and finally how

the science of Oceanography is helping to shape the future exploitation

of marine resources of food, oi! deposits and other minerals.

At the end of the book there is an exciting chapter on the future

of Oceanography and its impact on mankind. Some of the projects

such as the Allantropa Project proposed by the German Architect

Herman Sorgel in 1928 would, if compieted, convert the Mediterranean

Sea into a vast lake by damming the Straits of Gibraltar and the

Dardenelles. As a result of these dams there would be a drop of

33 feet every ten years in the sea’s water level due to evaporation

providing steep gradients and a source of abundant hydroelectric

power at the mouths of rivers flowing into the Mediterranean. Besides

the exposed coastal areas would extend the limits of some of the

bordering countries, thus providing more land for human use.

Similar proposals, to dam the Bering Straits and thus cut off the

Arctic Ocean from the Pacific, would create warmer conditions in the

arctic and open the frigid coasts of Northern Canada and Siberia for

shipping traffic.

Both the publishers and the author deserve commendation for

bringing out a fine book which could well be translated into our

Indian languages for wider circulation tu keep pace with the growing

demand in the country for information.

ES..S> RAG

344. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

2. HOW WE GOT OUR FLOWERS. By A. W. Anderson.

pp. 283 (21:5X14 cm.). Illustrated by Alex Jardine and E. Sears.

New York, 1966. Dover Publications Inc. Paperbound. Price $1-75.

A. W. Anderson’s HOW WE GOT OUR FLOWERS, originally published

by Williams and Norgate Ltd. in 1950 under the title THE COMING OF

FLOWERS, reappears, with the text unchanged, in the form of a stout

paperback evidently designed to stand frequent handling for purposes

of reference—a form of use that is now facilitated by the addition of

an index. )

In this smal! book the author talks in general terms about a large

number of plants, saying something perhaps about the plant itself,

or the country of its origin, or an interesting fact connected with the

plant or with its introduction to cultivation. Many of the plants will

be strange to the ordinary reader in this country, but he will find

much to interest him nevertheless.

The hunt for new plants in strange lands is a hazardous occupa-

tion; several collectors lost their lives but there does not seem to

have been any difficulty in finding new candidates. Jeanne Baret,

accompanying Louis de Bougainville after whom the genus

Bougainvillea is named, tan an unusual risk. Tempted by the

adventure she joined the expedition disguised as a man and narrowly

escaped from being kidnapped by a Tahitian chief, who was the first

person to penetrate her disguise. Unusual. also, was the fate of

Taukata who brought the Sweet Potato, Inomoea batatas, to New

Zealand and paid for it with his lite as the Maoris decided that only

his blood could prevent the life-principle of this valuable plant from

returning to its warm Pacific home. One must draw the line however

at Benedict Roezl, said to have been robbed no fewer than seventeen

times and to have had his life spared on one occasion because the

leading robber was afraid of offending the Gods since a plant-hunter

must necessarily be mad and therefcre under their special protection!

In line with these adventures is his account of an experience at

Colombo, when a jaguar (sic) entered his tent while he was working

at his notes, calmly explored the tent, and ended up by rubbing itself

against his table purring like a domestic tabby the while!

The lure of gain or fame sometimes led to mean acts. For

instance, a collector taking Cypripedium spicerianum from Assam

exterminated the orchid in the locality where it was found so as to

send up the price in his intended market in Europe. But on the

other side there were acts of generosity, as when Sir Joseph Banks,

presented with Labillardiere’s collection from Australia and Tasmania

REVIEWS 345

taken as prize of war, refused to ‘deprive the man who, at the risk

of his life, had gone forth to win them, of a single botanical idea’,

and saw that the collection was returned to Labillardiére. And

during a war between Britain and France, when Empress Josephine

was stocking her garden at Malmaison with plants from England, the

British Admiralty instructed its officers of the fleet to forward to the

Empress seeds and plants addressed to her and seized as enemy

prize.

It is interesting to note the different values that once attached to

some plants now prized for their flowers. Dr. Andreas Dahl thought

of the tubers of his namesake the Dahlia as a possible substitute for

the potato, lilies were first grown for their real or supposed medicinal

value, and cannas were sent home from the New World by the sean

missionaries to provide rosary beads!

Among the historic trees mentioned is a Weeping Willow slated

by the poet Alexander Pope in his garden at Twickenham. A twig

from this tree taken to America is believed to be the ancestor of

most of the Weeping Willows growing in the United States, and another

twig planted on St. Helena is associated with Napoleon during his

years of exile on that island. According te some people Pope’s tree

was finally destroyed by a subsequent owner, who resented having to

show it to visitors—a story also related about a Black Mulberry tree

at Stratford-on-Avon the planting of which is attributed to

Shakespeare.

This is a book well worth reading, but it must be remembered

that it does not pretend tc be an encyclopaedia.

DI E-R.

3. SPORTING JOURNEYS. By Philip K. Crowe. pp. x1i+183

(22:8 X 15-4 cm.). With 16 monochrome plates. Barre, Massachusetts,

1966. Barre Publishers. Price $ 7-50.

While he was America’s Ambassador to Ceylon from 1953 to

1956 and to the Union of South Africa from 1959 to 1961, the author

had many opportunities of visiting the countryside and indulging in

his favourite pastimes of fishing and shooting. With an obvious flair

for grasping the salient facts about places and for vividly describing

them, he takes us on fishing and shooting expeditions in Ceylon,

south India, the old princely State of Indore, and Kashmir before

travelling round South Africa.

346 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Although this kind of shikar book may be considered’ by many

to be now out of date, one cannot fail to be struck by the fact that

only limited bags and warrantable heads are obtained in the best

traditions of bona fide sportsmanship. As the author remarks, his

‘interest was also in conservation and none of the animals killed were

on the danger list of vanishing species. Legitimate hunting under

license is, in fact, to the great advantage of conservation, for without

the revenues derived from hunting parties, there would be virtually

no funds available for game wardens. Legal shooting is one of the

least important reasons for the decline in the world’s wildlife.’

In the portion of the book dealing with India, the narrative

(apart from a few misspelt names of persons) is interestingly and

accurately done-—making the book a most readable one. A keen

appreciation of the beauties of nature is always evident: in fact it is

as a conservationist that the author will eventually be remembered,

for after retiring from his official diplomatic career he has become

a roving ambassador for wild life conservation and has visited the

Near East, Africa, South America, Australia, and Asia including

India, on behalf of the World Wildlife Fund—of which he is a

Director.

The reviewer had the opportunity of accompanying the author to

Kaziranga and Manas Sanctuaries in Assam, and to Sikkim, in

March 1966, and eagerly awaits future books on the regions of the

world traversed by this able writer with the certain knowledge that

the cause of wild life conservation will be furthered.

BopoG

4. AFRICA: A NATURAL HISTORY. By Leslie Brown.

pp. 299 (3225 cm.). With 249 illustrations including 103 in colour.

London 1965. Harish Hamnulton Ltd. Price 5 ens. net.

In any company, this is one of those books which cry out to be

picked up and looked at. Nor does it disappoint, for with a wealth

of information and some really magnificent photographs in both

monochrome and colour, it lives right up to its first inviting promise.

To collect the material for AFRICA took its author Leslie Brown

some 25 years, a period during which he was serving as an agricultural

officer first in Nigeria and then in Kenya. He has also travelled

very widely across the length and breadth of Africa and is not only

an ecologist but a highly trained and observant zoologist as well.

REVIEWS 347

That any single book on a continent as vast as Africa can ever

be ‘little better than a vignette’ is a fairly obvious truth, but just how

profound this truth actually is only really emerges when some facts

and figures come to light. A land-mass 11,699,000 square miles in

extent. A complexity of climate and terrain which varies from the

biting cold of snow-clad mountain peaks to the furnace of El Azizia

in the Sahara, the hottest place on earth and where an incredible

170° F. on the surface and 136:4° in the shade have been recorded.

In between, literally everything else. Temperate and sunny highlands,

glorious sweeps of fertile plains and great swamps, and a maze of

mighty rivers and mountain ranges. Unique is the Great Rift Valley.

There are too, vast savannas and woodlands, the semi-arid zones of

the Sudan, and the equatorial forests of the Congo, tangled and

steamy and the haunt of much fantastic and contrasting wildlife

from the tiny Duiker antelope no bigger than a hare to the hulking

great gorilla.

There is certainly nothing ‘dark’ about this continent here, all this

unfolds in a blaze of brilliant photographs, and, except perhaps for

a few unfortunates either blind or too preoccupied to be interested

in a single aspect of nature’s wonders, there must surely be something

in this book for everyone, be it birds or reptiles or animals or some

of the absorbing and curious information. Much of it is indeed

curious and with not a few facts that would have delighted Believe-

It-or-Not Ripley. Do birds migrating from Europe fly straight across

the Sahara? According to Leslie Brown, who is also a well known

ornithologist, only a few come down at the scattered oases to feed

and rest while all the rest, hundreds of millions annuaily, make the

flight in a single hop and at heights up to ten thousand feet. For

the tiny willow warbler, this means that it must fly non-stop for some

sixty hours across a thousand miles of burning sand without a drop

of water which must surely be a feat of endurance hardly if ever

rivalled by any other living thing.

The photographs of animals are truly splendid. Elephants, the

rhino and the hippo, giraffes and the buffalo, the rare mountain nyala

and that improbable-looking creature the aadvark. Nearly every

African animal must be here, both large and small, and, with

authority and a remarkable simplicity, the author describes them all,

their habits and their peculiarities.

There is, though, ‘one rather glaring omission. There is not a

single picture anywhere in the book of the most dangerous and by

far the most destructive animal of all. That there may in fact be

a reason for this omission does not at once strike home, but from

348 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

what at times peeps through Leslie Brown’s admirable restraint when

describing the activities past and present of the animal he calls “Man

the Destroyer’, the absence in a beautiful book like this of any

pictorial reminder of the culprit himself or of any of his works

becomes not only an omission to be loudly applauded but one that

may well be both calculated and deliberate.

To many it will perhaps seem hardly possible that the vast herds

of game which roam this continent could ever really be reduced to

any dangerous level by mere man alone. Aren’t there game laws and

people to enforce them? There are indeed. but there are too “meat-

hungry Africans’ and, with little doubt, there will also be a healthy

proportion of their ‘other’ counterparts as well. Could this be another

sadly familiar story? The one about official indifference and of

officials and others shooting illegally and with complete impunity

whenever they wish? Leslie Brown does not say so, but he obviously

is very far from happy about the future of African game.

HuGH. ALLEN

5. THE GREAT BARRIER REEF. By Eric Worrell. pp. 128

(28 X22 cm.). Numerous photographs, monochrome and in colour.

Sydney/London/Melbourne, 1966. Angus and Robertson. Price

45s./$ 4:50.

THE GREAT BARRIER REEF is addressed to the numerous holiday

makers and tourists resorting to the north-eastern coast of Queensland,

drawn there by its equable climate, its many beaches, and the

attractions of the Great Barrier Reef opposite. The well illustrated

text is primarily intended to provide visitors with a superior kind of

guide book but, one of the major attractions being the local fauna,

we get several pictures and notes of natural history interest. There

are good pictures of corals. fish, and other underwater fauna, many of

them in colour; and some pictures which give a good idea of the

vegetation. |

In a short chapter towards the end on ‘Life in the Jungle’ the

author mentions an interesting observation about the Scrub Python

(Liasis amethystinus). At the edge of the rain forest in North

Queensland, he says, the Scrub Pythons crawl into the branches of

the fig trees and gorge themselves on roosting flying foxes, the other

flying foxes meanwhile carrying on with their preening or suckling

of their young, apparently unmoved by the fate of their companions.

REVIEWS 349

One picture shows a number of starfish with numerous arms lying

on the beach—a close-up of a single one shows that the name,

Crown of Thorns, is well deserved. The caption informs us briefly:

‘The Crown of Thorns (Acanthaster planci) are brought up from the

reef by skin-divers and, when dead, thrown back into the sea’. The

cruel and seemingly meaningless behaviour is explained in the text.

The Crown of Thorns is proving a menace to the coral reef. It has

increased in numbers, and has been sucking the live polyps off the

hard coral skeletons. Extensive areas of the reef have been destroyed,

and the authorities are busily studying its biology in search of an

effective means of control. In the meantime, skin-divers are paid a

bounty per Crown of Thorns destroyed.

D/E. R.

6. AUSTRALIAN WILDLIFE. By Eric Worrell. pp. 128

(28x22 cm.). - Numerous photographs, monochrome and in colour.

Sydney/London/Melbourne, 1966. Angus and Robertson. Price

45s./$ 4:50.

AUSTRALIAN WILDLIFE tells its tale by means of annotated

photographs, most of them monochrome, a few in colour. In a

little over 200 illustrations it gives a rapid survey of the

birds, mammals, reptiles, and plants of Australia and New Guinea.

With the wide variety of animal and vegetable forms available

to the author, many of them peculiar to this region, such a

collection cannot fail to be interesting; particularly so is the section

on reptiles with its series of lizards, including the 15-foot Salvador’s

Monitor (Varanus salvadori) from Papua, and 27 coloured pictures

of frogs. Tucked in among the pictures of snakes is a photograph

of George Cann, snake-charming wizard, sitting comfortably with a

newly captured bunch of deadly tiger-snakes (Notechis scutatus)

before him which he apparently handles unaided and keeps together

with his bare hands, exploding the mvth that it is only Indian snake-

charmers who can do such things. A picture of the well known

Kookaburra (Dacelo gigas) hides on the last page of the index, and

an intriguing picture of a young Whip Bird (Psophodes olivaceus),

about which we are told nothing, appears rather wastefully on the

dust jacket. At times the captions to the pictures are tantalizingly

Short. We would like to know, for instance, how ‘native’ women

were used to attract Tasmanian Fur Seals (Gypsophoca tasmanica).

350 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

And the Mallee Fowl (Leipoa ocellata). cockbird deserves some

description of the great skill and labour with which he maintains the

correct temperature in the nesting mound throughout the 5 to 6

months and more occupied by the laying of the eggs and the hatching

out of the young. So, also, we would expect some mention of the

amazing instinct which guides the young Mutton Birds (Puffinus

tenuirostris), deserted by their parents when they are about three

months old, from the Bass Strait breeding grounds, south of Australia,

to the wintering area in the Bering Sea, far north of Japan.

DEAR:

7. ANIMAL BEHAVIOUR. By J. D. Carthy. pp. 156 (27x

19-5 cm.) 30 coloured and 105 black and white plates. 28 Illustrations.

London 1965. Aldus Books Pvt. Ltd. Price 32s. 6d. net.

As a lecturer of Zoology as well as a person carrying out

advanced research in Animal Behavicur Dr. Carthy is one of the

most competent authors among present-day biologists for writing a

popular book on behaviour. His latest book on the subject helps to

bridge the tremendous gap which exists between popular concepts

and recent advances in objective studies of behaviour.

The author defines behaviour as the response of an organism to

its environment, i.e., response to physical chemical or emotional

stimuli. The effective stimulus varies from one animal to another

and also in the same animal depending on its physiologic factors,

such as circulating hormones, amount of sugar in blood, etc. The

causes that make one pattern of behaviour switch off and another

set of responses come into play are not yet known.

Instinctive patterns of behaviour are those which are not learned

and are not dependent on or modified by experience. Instinct works

in 3 phases: (1) Motivational factors like hunger provide the urge

and the animal behaves appetitively. (2) In this second phase it

searches for the right conditions in which to satisfy the drive.

(3) When it reaches the right stimulus (or a particular releaser) the

instinctive act is released. A specific stimulus (or a group of

stimuli) that elicits instinctive behaviour is a releaser. Animals can

be tricked to respond to supernormal stimuli as were the Herring

Gulls which tried to ‘retrieve’ the larger imitation eggs. Each

animal is born with a capacity to respond to a particular type of

releaser, but the precision of response varies between individuals and

can be modified as during a critical stage in early infancy.

REVIEWS 351

If the drive for a particular instinctive behaviour crosses a

threshold before the releaser is available the instinctive act may be

performed in vacuo. If the releaser is available and still the animal

is not somehow able to complete the correct behaviour pattern the

energy may be displaced to an altogether different activity. Behaviour

of an adult animal thus shows derived as well as displaced elements

which arise as a side effect of physiologic events taking place within

its body.

Not all animal behaviour can be triggered off by external

releasers; the animal can anticipate the signal of the physical environ-

ment. These cyclic activities are timed by ‘physiological clocks’.

Many of these cyclic events in animal life, like activity and rest are

regulated solely by the regular alteration of daylight and darkness, or

have a 24 hour periodicity. Such physiologic clocks can be detected

by suitable experiments on laboratory animals. Rhythms geared to

the length of the year bring birds into reproductive conditions.

Successful completion of avian breeding cycle depends on a number

of internal and environmental factors. Other aspects like ‘home-

ground’, bringing up of young, intelligence, learning etc. are also

discussed.

This very satisfying book thus covers nearly all aspects of animal

behaviour indicating both the methods of study and limitations of

knowledge in clear non-technical language. The basic physiology of

some of the sense organs is explained with suitable illustrations.

Mention could have been made of the critique of the instinct

theory Lehrman (1953). For instance the theory involves preconceived

and rigid ideas of innateness and which obscures the necessity of

investigating the underlying mechanism. ‘The definition of habituation

as learning not to behave is rather confusing. No nature-lover who

takes behaviour study seriously should miss this book. This is

particularly valuable for Indian Biology students who do not study

Behaviour as a subject at the Graduate level.

D.N.M.

Miscellaneous Notes

1. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE MALAYAN

SUN BEAR HELARCTOS MALAY ANUS (RAFFLES)

WITHIN INDIAN LIMITS

(With a plate)

The Malayan Sun Bear Helarctos malayanus (Raffles) 1822, is

well known to those who have resided or worked for a number of

years in north-east India as occurring in the hills south of

the Brahmaputra and up to the Burma border. Sterndale (1929)

describes its habitat as ‘Garo Hills east and south to the Malay

Peninsula, Sumatra, and Borneo’. The Garo Hills are, of course,

the westernmost hill district of Assam, and ‘east and south’ from

there would include the Khasi and Jaintia Hills, Mikir and North

Cachar Hills, Nagaland, Manipur and Mizo (formerly Lushai) Hills.

Lydekker (1924) states that ‘the range of this bear extends from

the islands of Java, Sumatra . . . and the Garo Hills’. He also

mentions that ‘a mounted specimen in the British Museum is from

Assam; it stands 24 inches in height at the shoulder, and measures

52 inches in length (head and body)’.

fate Regan includes the Malayan Sun Bear in his book NATURAL

HISTORY, Of which the mammalia section was apparently done by

R. I. Pocock. In this book this bear ‘ranges from Assam, through

the Malay countries to Borneo’.

Higgins (1932) recorded one of these bears shot by a sepoy in

Manipur State, about longitude 93-25’ and latitude 25-7’. A _ photo-

graph of this Malayan Bear was published in the Society’s Journal of

that year [Vol. 35 (3): 673]. Higgins goes on to say that ‘this bear

is distributed throughout the hills of the (Manipur) State, but is not

common... During the three years I was in Nowgong (Assam), which

is slightly further west than the Manipur State, I only came across

one Malay Bear. Some Mikirs brought in what they claimed to be

a “black tiger”, for the reward. This proved to be a full-grown

Malay Bear’. Nowgong, of course, is situated at the foot of the

Mikir Hills, which are part of the range of this bear.

Again Higgins (1934) in a monograph entitled ‘Game Birds and

Animals of Manipur’ published in the Society’s Journal states that the

Bruan or Malay Bear (Manipuri name s@awom) occurs in the hills

but is rare.

J. BomBAYy NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2)

Gee: Malayan Bear

Malayan Sun Bear from Mizo Hills in Gauhati Zoo, November, 1966

(Photo : Brian Bertram)

bad

" a9 We rs ae

a) ;

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 353

Now for my own perscnal experiences of the Malayan Sun Bear

in Assam. In the year 1937, while I was manager of Bonn Tea

Estate, a friend who lived and worked at Methoni Tea Estate

situated between Kaziranga Sanctuary and the Mikir Hills, brought

me a young sun bear which he had been given by the local villagers.

A few days later I heard that another baby sun bear had been

brought to another planter friend on Behora T.E.—which is also

situated at the foot cf the Mikir Hills, a few miles to the east of

Kaziranga. I made enquiries and acquired this bear also, so that

I now had two—in fact a pair because they were of different sexes.

I have found an old faded photograph, which might be possible to

reproduce with this Note, of the two youngsters being fed. They

were chocolate brown with a golden yellow U on their chests.

They were very tame, but as they grew up they became somewhat

of a handful, so I offered them as a gift to the Alipore Zoological

Garden, Calcutta. The then Honorary Secretary, Mr. H. A. Fooks,

gratefuliy accepted them. The following year, 1938, as I passed

through Calcutta en route to Britain on home leave I called in at

the Zoo, and I remember Mr. Fooks purchasing a tin of golden syrup

and we enjoyed watching (and hearing) the two bears gulping it down.

Recently in 1966 I was strolling round the Gauhati Zoo and

instantly recognised a Malayan Sun Bear in one of the enclosures. It

was a female. I was then accompanied by Mr. Brian Bertram, the

Cambridge University Zoology Research Scholar, and as I had to

return to Shillong I asked him to find out the details of this bear

and where it came from. Apparently Mr. K. K. Gogoi, Director of

Inland Water Transport in Gauhati, collected the bear from the

Mizo Hills, from the village of Kangphui, forty miles north of Aijal;

and the local people teld him that the mother and two other cubs

had escaped, and that this kind of bear is guite common there, more

so than the Himalayan Black Bear. They also said that it is more

easily domesticated and makes quite a good pet, and that it is more

arboreal and produces its cubs in a hole in a tree.

Mr. Gogoi quoted another instance of the Malayan Sun Bear

being found in the Mizo Hills: a member of the Defence Services

shot a mother Sun Bear when she charged him. There were cubs.

Shortly afterwards I heard that there was a Malayan Sun Bear

in the Trivandrum Zoo, and that it had come from north-east India.

So I wrote to the Director, Mr. K. P. Pillai. His reply dated 5-12-1966

‘confirmed that the bear is indeed a Malayan Sun Bear and that

‘this animal was presented to the Zoo, sometime during 1964 by the

Officers of the Madras Regiment who had picked up from within

354 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Indian territory, near North-Eastern borders’. He is still trying to

obtain more information. It is possible that this is one of the cubs

of the mother bear reported in the previous paragraph to have been

shot in the Mizo Hills by Defence Personnel.

A planter friend of mine with a lot of experience in Cachar

District, Mr. Oliver Caruthers, informs me that the Malayan Sun

Bear has been observed by many planters on tea estates of that

district where it borders near the foothills of the Mizo Hilis. He has

seen at least two personally, one in the wild and one kept in captivity

by a neighbouring planter.

When Mr. Juan Spillett was working at Kaziranga in March and

June 1966, he says he heard several reports of the Malayan Sun Bear

being found in the vicinity, and so included it among the species to

be found there. I also informed him that it was from that same

locality that I had successfully reared two young ones in 1937.

Surprisingly enough there is no mention of this interesting bear

in Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS; and in Ellerman and Morrison-

Scott’s CHECKLIST OF PALAFARCTIC AND INDIAN MAMMALS it is not

recorded as occurring in India.

But from the foregoing it is abundantly clear that the range within

Indian limits of the Malayan Sun Bear should be given as ‘Hills

south of the Brahmapuira River in Assam. extending southwards to

Manipur and the Mizo Hills’; or simply as ‘Hills of north-east India

south of the Brahmaputra River’.

EVERGREEN COTTAGE,

UPPER SHILLONG 5,

ASSAM,

April 1, 1967.

FE... P. GEE

REFERENCES

-Hicains, J. C. (1932): The Malay LYDEKKER, R. (1924): The Game

bear (With a photo). J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 35 (3) : 673-674.

———— (1934): The Game Birds

and Animals of the Manipur State with

notes of their numbers, migration and

habits Part V. op. cit.37 (2): 309.

Animals of India, Burma, Malaya and

Tibet : 386-388. London.

REGAN, C. T.: Natural History: 811.

London and Melbourne.

STERNDALE, R. E. (1929—revised by

F. Finn): Mammalia of India:

58-59. Calcutta.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 355!

2. NOTES ON THE TAXONOMY AND DISTRIBUTION OF

THE PACHMARHI HARE, LEPUS NIGRICOLLIS MAHADEVA

WROUGHTON & RYLEY [MAMMALIA : LAGOMORPHA §-:

LEPORIDAE]

The Pachmarhi Hare, Lepus nigricollis mahadeva Wroughton

& Ryley is said to be an aberrant form with a restricted distribution,

occurring only in Mahadeo Hills, Hoshangabad and Balaghat districts,

Madhya Pradesh (Wroughton & Ryiey 1913 a: 15; 1913 b: 57).

Two other subspecies of the species, namely simcoxi Wroughton and

ruficaudatus Geoffroy also occur in Madhya Pradesh; the former in

‘Nimar, Berar and Central Provinces’ (Ellerman & Morrison-Scott

1951: 438), in south Madhya Pradesh, and the latter in “Gwalior,

. Central India’ (Ellerman & Moorrison-Scott, loc. cit.: 438),

in the north of the State.

A small collection of mammals made in Shahdol District, Madhya

Pradesh, by Shri H. Khajuria of this Department, in May 1962, and

recently received here, includes two specimens of mahadeva taken

at Amarkantak, a place much outside the known range of this

subspecies. Furthermore, an earlier collection of mammals from

Balaghat District made by Dr. B. Biswas in August-September 1957,

also includes four examples of mahadeva. Since, neither the des-

cription of the external characters of this form, nor its distribution

fully correspond to the earlier works on the subject (Wroughton &

Ryley 1913 a: 15), it has been thought worthwhile to record my

findings in the following pages. Opportunity has also been taken to

redefine the ranges of these three subspecies occurring in Madhya

Pradesh, and to provide a working key for their identification on the

basis of external characters.

Measurements: A\l measurements are in millimetres and of adult

specimens. The external measurements were taken by the collector

in the field. The cranial measurements are after Ellerman (1947)

except for the greatest length which was taken from the anterior tip

of premaxilla to the hindermest point of occiput.

Lepus nigricollis mahadeva Wroughton & Ryley

Lepus mahadeva Wroughton & Ryley, 1913. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 22 : 15.

MATERIAL

2 ooh (1 juv.), 12; Muki (c. 549-686 m. alt.), Banjar Valley, Balaghat District,

Madhya Pradesh, 2, 17 and 21 September, 1957, 1 3; Supkhar (¢. 555 m, alt.,)

356 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Banjar Valley, Balaghat District, Madhya Pradesh, 26 September, 1957 ; Collector:

B. Biswas. 2 unsexed; Amarkantak (c. 1065 m. alt.), Shahdol District, Madhya

Pradesh, 15 and 19 May, 1962 ; Collector ; H. Khajuria.

MEASUREMENTS

External : 233 19

Head and body s& (467,407 650

Tail ied TOL CO7 95

Hind foot 21 105,106 105

Ear A> 1A9Al9S 99

Skull : 233 19 2 unsexed.

Greatest length 2.) 96; 97 94°7 86°5, 95

Condylobasal length ee Oooo ue 83:1 171 83-3

Occipitonasal length aN os as 87°5, 93°9

Zygomatic width at 83, Soul 40:2 40°7, ..

Nasal length wt SADA 41 36°7, 39°3

Palatal foramen wd pO eee, 24°5 20°8, 23°8

Upper tooth row Sh S917: 16°5 15°2, 16°6

Diastema sift} 2426 26°5 24. 25:3

Coloration: General coloration of the body agrees well with the

description of Wroughton & Ryley (1913). However, except the

female example from Muki, the nape in the other specimens have, in

addition to grey, a little buffy suffusion, particularly on the middle

of the nape along the vertebral column, due to intermixture of some

buff-tipped hairs. This is more pronounced in the specimens from

Amarkantak. Also, these specimens differ a little from those of Muki

and Supkhar in having lesser amount of black on the basal parts of

the tail hairs dorsally. The female example from Muki possesses an

unusual patch of white hairs on the back close to the tail.

Distribution: Lepus n. mahadeva is a poorly known form, and

the only previous record is based on six specimens of the type-series

from Mahadeo Hills (five examples from Khapa, Dhiam and Pachmarhi,

in Hoshangabad District, and one from QOuda in Balaghat District).

The specimens from Amarkantak under report, however, extends its

distribution farther eastwards.

Systematic position: ‘The coloration of the nape has been generally

given importance for the subspecific classitication of Lepus nigricollis.

Wroughton & Ryley (1913, p. 15) report that the nape in the type-

series of L. n. mahadeva is grey, that is, similar to that of L. n.

simcoxi. In the specimens under report, however, the grey nape is

suffused with buff. The amount of buffy suffusion appears to be

due to locality and increases gradually from west to east, the

easternmost population tending towards ruficaudatus. It would

appear that mahadeva is somewhat intermediate between simcoxi and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Bf)

ruficaudatus, rather than representative of simcoxi in the

altered condition of hilly country, . . . (Wroughton & Ryley,

1913, p. 16).

General Remarks: By possessing large tracts of bush and jungle

interspersed with cultivated patches, Madhya Pradesh forms a very

suitable area for hares. Due to varying physiographic and climatic

conditions within this State, at least three subspecies of hares are

known to occur there. These three subspecies can be separated with

the help of the following key:

1. Nape rufous or ochraceous; general body

colour dull or darker, but the face, head

and body not strongly washed with black;

tail rufous brown a: ruficaudatus

Nape smoke grey, grey or grey with buff

suffusion : 2

2. Nape smoke grey; general body colour lighter

than mahadeva and ruficaudatus; tail above

blue black; grey patch on the rump ah SIMCOXE

Nape grey or grey with buffy suffusion;

general body colour richer and brighter

than ruficaudatus; face, head and _ body

strongly washed with black; tail above

dingy rufous—the individual hairs black

with buffy tips; absence of grey patch on

the rump ee mahadeva

As mentioned earlier the ranges of the three subspecies of Lepus

nigricollis found in Madhya Pradesh have not been clearly defined

so far. On the basis of the specimens present in the Zoological

Survey of India and such information as are available in literature, it

would appear that: (1) L. n. ruficaudatus occupies the northern

slopes of the Mahadeo and Maikal ranges and the northern plains of

Madhya Pradesh; (2) L. n. mahadeva occurs on the higher parts

(c. 549-1065 m.) of Mahadeo and Maikal ranges of Madhya

Pradesh in Hoshangabad, Balaghat and Shahdol Districts; and (3) L.

n. simcoxi is distributed on the southern slopes of Mahadeo and

Maikal ranges and the adjacent plains of Madhya Pradesh and

Maharashtra from Khandesh as far east as Bhandara District.

It also occurs in the south-western slopes and adjacent plains of

Mahadeo Hills.

Two of the Mamma! Survey specimens (now in the Zoological

Survey of India) from Sleemanabad, Jabalpur District, and Mundra,

353 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Saugor District, that were originally identified as simcoxi, appear on

closer examination to agree with ruficaudatus. Wroughton & Ryley

(1913, p. 57) also suggested that specimens from Mundra (Saugor

District), Damoh and Narsingarh (Damoh District) perhaps go better with

ruficaudatus.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks are due to the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, for giving me facilities for the work. I am indebted to:

Dr. B. Biswas for his constructive criticisms, many valuable suggestions

and patient correction of the manuscript; to Dr. K. K. Tiwari, for

his interest in the work.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA,

September 6, 1966.

R. K. GHOSE

REFERENCES

new Indian Rodents. J. Bombay nat.

BLANFORD, W. T. (1888-1891) : The

fauna of British India including Ceylon

and Burma. Taylor & Francis, London.

ELLERMAN, J. R. (1947) : A key to the

Rodentia inhabiting India, Ceylon and

Burma based on collections in the British

Museum. J. Mammal. 28: 150.

, & Morrison-Scort,

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearctic

and Indian Mammals. British Museum

(Nat. Hist.), London.

PRATER, S. H. (1965): The book of

Indian Animals. Bombay.

WROUGHTON, R. C. (1912): Some

Hist. Soc. 21 : 238-342.

——, & RYLEY, K. V.

(1913a): Scientific

results from the

Mammal Survey. op.cit. 22: 13-21.

(19135): The Bombay Natural History

Society’s Mammal Survey of India.

Report No. 7. op.cit. 22 : 45-58.

——— ————— (1921): Summary

of the result from the Indian Mammal

Survey of the Bombay Natural History

Society—part. VI. op. cit. 27 : 66-69.

3. A NOTE ON CAPRA HIRCUS BLYTHI HUME, 1875

Whilst writing this note as a sequel to an earlier one on Ovis

orientalis, I feel it desirable to explain my purpose. My knowledge

of this species is still meagre and I hope to increase it by further:

field trips. But by summarising information gleaned up-to-date, I

hope to stimulate similar observations from other amateur naturalists

like myself, as well as to reveal observations about this wild goat

which are either at variance with, or hitherto not recorded in the

published accounts, which I have been able to see.

Most modern Zoological works recognise five species of true goats

or caprinae (Walker 1964). West Pakistan is fortunate in being

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 359

within the range of three of these species and all are most impressive

and handsome beasts. They inciude the Siberian race of the Ibex,

several races of the Markhor, and the Persian Wild Goat or Sind

Ibex, about which this note is written.

Capra hircus is considered by some authorities to be the ancestor

of all domestic goats, and its range extends from the Greek Islands

of the Mediterranean, through the Caucasus, Asia Minor, and Iran to

the south-western portion of West Pakistan (Ellerman & Morrison-

Scott 1951). The race C. h. blythi which inhabits parts of southern

Baluchistan and the Sind border, is apparently distinguished mainly by

its smaller size (Prater 1965). A specimen of C. h. aegagrus, which

I have seen from the Island of Crete, appears identical with the

Sind Ibex, except for having a much thicker, denser, coat. Specimens

from northern Kalat in Baluchistan also have a very woolly coat.

At one time (Lyddeker’s GOATS AND SHEEP OF THE WORLD) it was

believed. that the two races could be distinguished by the number

and prominence of the knobs or irregularities which occur on the

front keel of the horns. Those of C. h. aegagrus being considered

more prominent than C. h. blythi. However, such an authority as

Col. C. H. Stockley could not distinguish any marked difference

between specimens from Taurus Range of southern Turkey and from

the Kirthar Hills—places at opposite poles of its range (Stockley 1928).

I feel, therefore, that it still remains for future workers to clarify as

to what distinguishes these two races of C. hircus and even to

determine whether C. h. blythi should be separated as a valid race.

Appearance. ‘The magnificent appearance of old bucks with their

silver-grey livery and dark spinal stripe set off by sweeping scimitar-

shaped horns, has been well described bv other writers. Though it

would be misleading to imply that the three species C. hircus, C.

falconeri and C. ibex are not easily recognisable in the field by their

different coloration, yet there are a number of striking affinities in their

external appearance. Except for the fact that C. hircus has short

coarse hair, with no under wool at all seasons it shares with C.

falconeri the same crest of longer coarser hairs extending in a ridge

down the centre of the hind neck and between the shoulders. These

two species also have white hair on the belly and inside their legs,

whilst C. ibex has brownish yellow hair on its belly. However, C.

hircus shares with C. ibex the same characteristic pattern of dark

hair down the front of the forelegs, though only the former has white

wrist patches. Both have a line of dark hair running down the spine

and darker hair in the region of the lower chest though this is very

369 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

distinct and sharply defined in C. hircus and much less so in C. ibex

due to the woolly nature of its pelage.

In C. hircus the dark line which extends down the spine, does not

actually start trom the nape as stated by Prater (loc. cit. page 255).

The hind neck is pure greyish white and the dark stripe starts from

the shoulder. It is dark brown and only the tail and the rather scant

beard are truly black. The dark brown spinal stripe extends on

either side in a diagonal line in front of the shoulders, merging into

a generally dark area on the chest. Even in young bucks, the dark

brown of the chest is conspicuous and the plate in, Prater (loc. cit.

Plate 60) is misleading in this respect. With the exception of the

black beard, the hair of the throat and between the jaws is white and

there is a noticeable whitish fawn streak extending from above the

eye down either side of the nose which is a characteristic pattern in

the faces of the females and immature animals as well as the older

males. Another noticeable feature of both young and old bucks,

not clearly shown in Prater’s illustration, is the dark band of hair

along the front edge of the upper hind legs, which extends in a

continuous line from the hock through the stifle (knee) and along the

flank of the lower belly. This dark line which separates the white

hair of the belly from the greyish brown of the flanks usually becomes

indistinct in the middle of the body but becomes more apparent again

in the pectoral region. Younger males and does have similar darker

brown faces but the rest of their body is a brownish yellow which

becomes paler in summer, bleaching almost to a buff colour. This is

in contrast to the reddish tones of the Urial which live in the same

area or the red colour of the Suleiinan Markhor whose range meets

that of C. hircus. So this paler sandy coloration cannot be attributed

to a protective adaptation to their environment. It is only the older

bucks—probably from their fourth year onwards, that show increasing

amounts of white hairs mixed with the brown. These white hairs

are more dense on the nape and along the top of the back, gradually

becoming more sparse on the lower shoulder and almost absent from

the lower hind quarters even in aged bucks.

From captive or freshly killed specimens which I have seen,

C. hircus has a golden brown or tawny iris as does C. falconeri whilst

C. ibex has a slightly darker brown iris. The Urial has a grevish

yellow iris. The pupil contracts to a horizontal slot characteristic of

both sheep and goats. Its tongue is bluish black and the roof of

its upper palate is ridged. The incisors in the lower jaws are

surprisingly small and close packed so that the muzzle is quite

narrow. The female of C. hircus has no trace of a beard whereas

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 361

the female of both C. falconeri and C. ibex have quite substantial

beards. There is no trace of any scent gland below the eye and out

of four males which I have been able to examine, [I could not find

any pedal glands (external orifice) in the pastern of the front or hind

feet.

Though much bigger than any domestic goat from this region,

C. hircus is still a relatively slim bodied animal with a slender neck

as compared with C. ibex. In contrast, therefore, its horns look

particularly massive and an old buck’s horns, sweep right back till

the tips are over its pelvis. Even the females may carry horns up to

14” in length. They probatly live normally up to 10 or 12 years

and a mature animal of say % years of age may carry horns 41” to

46” length. Anything over this is exceptional and the actual length

as well as the circumference of the horn depends considerably upon

whether the animal was born one of twins or even triplets, or was a

singleton. I have measured two males, one with horns of 403” and

the other of 36”, both of which bore seven clear annular rings, and

therefore, might be presumed to be of similar age.

The very young kids are a silky-grey colour in sharp contrast to

the yellowish brown colour of their dams. Their ears also appear

comparatively longer. C. hircus Jike all the caprinae, frequently

elevates its tail and this is a characteristic carriage which is never

observed in wild sheep; a point worth mentioning since the differences

between these two genera are so slight.

Distribution. At the present tinie in Pakistan, C. h. blythi is

confined to the remoter hill ranges of Las Bela, south-eastern Kalat

and the coastal hills of Mekran. Its easternmost limit is the Kirthar

Range on the borders of Sind. It still occurs on the peninsula of

Ormara and other areas right on the sea coast. Its stronghold is

perhaps in the hills which border the Hingol River in Mekran and

there is a reserve at Hinglaj. It also occurs in the Khudi Range and

the Pub Hills of Las Bela and in the Shah Nurani Hills on the Kalat

border. Most of these places are very inaccessible but I would guess

that its status in these areas is still reasonably secure, since these

hill-ranges offer refuge in the shape of precipitous cliffs, where even

domestic goats, let alone hunters, cannot penetrate. However, it is

nowhere numerous and it is much persecuted for its meat except

within the area of the Hinglaj and Kirthar reserves. The latter extends

for about 12 miles north and south and is roughly 2 to 3 miles in

width and I estimate that about 800 to 1000 head still survive in

the Kirthar. According to the Chief Game Warden, about 20 to 25

362 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

bucks are shot there annuaily by Licence holders. No doubt some

poaching also occurs and leopards are always active in the area.

Habits. It would be a fair generalisation to state that in West

Pakistan the Markhor inhabits mountain areas from 7000 feet and

upwards whilst the Himalayan lbex will rarely be found below

10,000 feet. But C. hircus is not restricted to higher elevations by

any means and is tolerant of exceedingly high temperatures as well

as very arid conditions. However, it must have precipitous rock

faces for refuge, and shelter which provides shade from the direct

rays of the sun; not an easy condition to fulfil in this treeless region.

Fortunately both shade and refuge is generally provided in these

lower Baluchistan ranges which consist of limestone rock that

contain many wind fretted hollows, ledges and caves. The Kirthar

Range with which I am familiar, for example, is only 3200 feet at its

highest point, but it consists of a series of escarpments rising from

the surrounding plains by sheer chff wails which bound both its

east and west feces. Some of these cliffs quite literally ascend for

almost 2000 feet in an unbroken vertical face. Yet it is in the

narrow eroded gulleys and crevices cf these cliffs that C. hircus finds

its ultimate refuge. Many writers have commented on their extreme

agility and it remains for future researchers to analyse with the help

of high powered telescopic lenses and slow motion cine film, the

means by which they often seem abie to defy gravity. Were it not

for the testimony of one’s own eyes, I would often have found it

difficult afterwards to believe that an animal could have traversed

certain areas upon closer examination. Yet I have seen Ibex of

all ages descending quite unhurriedly, completely vertical rock

faces, and traversing diagonally, other rock faces which looked

completely smooth and appeared to slope at an angle of over

80 degrees of arc. Conversely, they are capable of quite prodigious

leaps and can carom off a vertical rock face to reach a ledge higher

up, which in itself offers no more than a toe-hold.

In descending very steep rock they splay out their forefeet which

are rigidly extended and not bent and at the same time they place

the whole of their metatarsus on the ground. I have noticed that

their fourth and fifth rudimentary phalanges are equipped with very

large rounded and flexible horns or nails which are also roughened

and undoubtedly assist in breaking their downward descent. I have

also noticed that when crossing a steep rock face they can lean their

body inwards and cross both fore and hind legs as they move forward

and still keep the whole of the foot surface on the rock. It is also

interesting to note that the lower part of their wrists (forelegs) and

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 363

their sternum bear thick roughened callosities which no doubt give

protection on the hard sharp rocks on which they constantly have to

lie when resting. Except on camels I have not noticed similar

callosities. The sole of their hooves also seem unique, in that they

are slightly soft and rubbery; quite unlike the hard horn of domestic

goats or even wild sheep. ‘I have not examined this feature properly

as yet, but presume the provision gives the feet greater shock

absorbing qualities as well as friction on hard smooth surfaces. The

rut or breeding season coincides with the onset of the monsoon

which, in southern Baluchistan starts in late July and sometimes

persists till mid September. The older bucks fight amongst them-

selves during this season and collect harems of does which keep

together and feed constantly in the vicinity of the buck. The young

are mostly born in the latter part of January and twins are quite

common in a year when monsoon rains have been adequate. It

would appear that the gestation period is 5 months or possibly

54 months. Certainly it seems shorter than that of the Urial (Ovis

orientalis). In contrast to what Prater has written (loc. cit. page 256),

I have seen very young kids, only from mid January to early February,

though there must be exceptions since Blanford saw a very young

one caught on March | 1th (Sterndale 1929). In the first two weeks after

birth the kid(s) mostly remains concealed in some rock crevice where

the dam periodically comes to suckle it (them), after feeding only in

the immediate vicinity. At this time the does with young do not

venture out on to the more open escarpments where grazing is much

better. Provided one is a good climber, the new born kids are not

too difficult to capture at this stage as are the newly born young of

Markhor and Ibex. However, the Sind Ibex invariably dies soon

after capture, possibly from shock and I have never seen any in

captivity in Pakistan whereas many Ibex and Markhor have been

successfully reared when captured in this way. As mentioned earlier,

breeding depends largely upon the extent of the monsoon and triplets

may be observed after a year of plentiful rain whereas in a drought

year, hardly any females conceive at all. This year for example, I

have seen only single young in the Kirthar and no twins and it is

noteworthy that the monsoon rains were considered less than usual.

C. hircus appears to be entirely independent of water in the winter

and early spring months and to be able to obtain enough moisture

from dew on the herbage from late July until early October. However,

it has been observed to drink when water is freely available despite

what other authorities have written (Stockley 1936: 125) and in the

months of April, May and June it will go to great lengths to assuage

364. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

its thirst. I have been told of an actual instance where a Baluch

shepherd surprised 5 Sind Ibex at the bottom of a 14 feet vertical

well. Three animals leapt out despite his efforts to surprise and kill

the lot. The others, according to the shepherd, got their hooves wet

and so were unable to ascend the walls but slipped backwards

and he was able to kill them.

It has already been noted by other writers that the old males tend

to separate by themselves or to congregate into small herds after the

rut is over. I have seen such herds often comprising eight or nine

old bucks, their horns looking almost like a forest of trees in the

dawning rays of the sun. But it is not uncommon to see mixed herds

even in late January with old and young bucks as well as ewes and

yearlings feeding together. Such congregations probably depend on the

amount of disturbances which the animals suffer and also the extent

of their feeding range. Markhor by comparison are nearly always more

dispersed by the very nature of the ground on which they live and

feed. Sind Ibex congregate in bands of from 4 or 5 individuals

up to 15 or 20. Their food consists of grasses, leaves of various

thorny bushes, as well as various xerophytic herbs and shrubs which

they masticate, in typical ruminant fashion, during the long hours of

day light when they are lying up and resting. They normally feed in

the very early hours of morning and late evening at least in the winter

months but I believe that in the height of summer they feed

throughout most of the night relying upon their sentries to protect

those who are feeding from any marauding leopard. Their sense of

sight and smell appears to be very acute.

Though they will rest on the crown of some commanding ridge in

comparatively open country, the older bucks invariably retreat to the

most inaccessible cliffs and actually sleep inside caves or within

rock crevices, where they are so well concealed that even the near

approach of man or four legged predators, will not cause them to

budge though the younger bucks and females may all have fled in

panic. In this respect they seem to have learned the greater safety

which lies in concealment rather than flight, in the manner of the

Goral, though even young and females of this latter species will

allow very close approach when lying concealed.

They are normaliy not very vocal but I have heard young kids

bleating when trying to catch up with their mothers and their cries

sounded identical to that of domestic kids. When alarmed a

member of the herd gives a warning snort which is very hard to

describe verbally. But it is an explosive sound quite unlike the bird-

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 365

like chirrup of Himalayan Ibex or the sneeze of Markhor when

alarmed.

ROBERTS COTTON ASSOCIATES LTD.,

KHANEWAL, T. J. ROBERTS

WEST PAKISTAN,

February 20, 1967.

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. & MorRISON- STOCKLEY, C. H. (1928): Big game

Scorr, I. €. S: RESNE Checklist of shooting in the Indian Empire. London.

Palaearctic and Indian Mammals. London. (1936) : Stalking in the

PRATER, S. H. Coote The Book of Eumalayas ang Northern India. London.

Indian Animals. Bomba WALKER, P. (1964): Mammals of

STERNDALE, R. E. (1929-—revised by the World at Il. Baltimore.

F. FINN) : Mammalia of India. Calcutta.

4. REOCCURRENCE OF THE WHITEFRONTED

SHEARWATER (PROCELLARIA LEUCOMELAENA

TEMMINCK) IN INDO-CEYLONESE WATERS

While working upon a new checklist of Ceylon Birds, I have

noticed that Dr. Dillon S. Ripley, tn his excellent SYNOPSIS OF THE

BIRDS OF INDIA AND PAKISTAN mentions only a single record of the

occurrence of the Whitefronted Shearwater (Procellaria leucomelaena

Temminck) in the Indian Ocean.—viz.. a bird obtained off Ceylon in

1884. It seems advisable, therefore, to place on record a more recent

occurrence of the species in Indo-Ceylonese waters.

Early in 1957, when I returned to Ceylon from the Maldive

Islands, I met Mr. Grisenthwaite, who had already collected a number

of interesting birds at sea off the western coasts of Ceylon. From

him, I received a large Shearwater which proved to be Procellaria

leucomelaena Temminck. I brought the specimen to England with

me and donated it to the National Collection, at the South Kensington

Museum where it now carries the number 957.16.98.

The data labels, written from information supplied by Mr.

Grisenthwaite, show that this bird was taken, about dawn, on

6th December 1956, by Mr. G. N. Grisenthwaite aboard the Trawler

‘Braconglen’ when the ship was approximately 22 miles W. SW. of

Muttum Light on the south Indian coast, or approximately 22 miles

N.W. of Cape Comorin. The bird was a male in sub-adult plumage.

The prevailing weather conditions, at the time of capture, were:

366 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Wind moderate, easterly; bright sun later. Bird was flying east and

appeared to be tired as it dropped exhausted on the ship.

This Shearwater appears to be an extremely rare vagrant to the

Indian Ocean, its normal range being in the northern Pacific.

‘STORTH,’

MANOR Way,

ALDWICK Bay, W. W. A. PHILLIPS

BoGnor Reais, U. K.,

January 25, 1967.

5. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE GREAT WHITEBELLIED

HERON ARDEA INSIGNIS HUME IN BIHAR

On | March 1964 at 5 p.m. I saw five Great Whitebellied Herons

Ardea insignis Hume near Jamalpur, Darbhanga District, feeding in

a water-logged, harvested rice field. They did not heed my close

approach to about 30 ft. After taking notes I tried to get still nearer

when two of them rose silently only to settle a little farther ahead.

They were rather confiding. Another bird was seen on 5 March,

soaring at a height of about 200 ft. over a channel of the Kosi River

at Nirmali, Saharsa District. On 10 March two more birds were

observed sitting on a leafless tree near Beluva, 6 miles north-east

of Birpur, close to the India-Nepal border. The identification is

based on the field notes, which were later checked with the specimens

in the Society’s Research collections. This grand heron can easily

be identified in the field by its great size (bigger than the Painted

Stork), long ashy-grey nuchal crest, and the grey upper parts con-

trasting with the white under parts. In flight the white axillaries are

confirmatory.

Ripley (1961) gives the range of Ardea insignis (=Ardea

imperialis) thus: ‘From the Nepal and Sikkim terai_ east

along the Himalayan foothills through north-east Assam, south to

East Pakistan and Arakan and east to northern Burma’. Biswas

(1960) did not come across this bird in Nepal.

BomsBay NATuRAL HIstTory SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, P. V. GEORGE’

Bompay, 1-BR.,

June 10, 1965.

1 Present address : Curator of Birds, Iraq Natural History Museum, Waziriya,

Baghdad, Iraq.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES } 367

REFERENCES

Bis was, B. (1960) : The birds of Nepal. and Pakistan. op. cit.: 60 (3) : 679-687.

J Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 57 (2): 278- RipLry, S. D. (1961): A Synopsis

308. of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

(1963) : Comments on Bombay Natural History Society.

Ripley’s A Synopsis of the Birds of India

6. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE BLACKNECKED

STORK [XENORHYNCHUS ASIATICUS (LATHAM)]

IN THE BOMBAY KONKAN

On 26 February 1967, S. Chaudhuri and I stopped at the Wada

Tank, Bhiwandi Taluka, Thana District, Maharashtra, to look at

birds. A huge bird in a silted and reedy patch on the far side

puzzled us in the distance. Upon closer approach it proved to be

a Blacknecked Stork [Xenorhynchus asiaticus (Latham)] which, though

generally said to be found all over India, does not appear to have

been recorded in the Konkan, nor for that matter anywhere in the

adjacent Deccan. :

The nearest records are Dabka (Baroda) and Gwalior in the north

and Borgampad on the Godavari, far to the east in Andhra Pradesh. In

E. xo. Aitkens’s copy of Barnes’s BIRDS OF BOMBAY however, there

is a handwritten note referring to cne seen at Dasgam on the Bankot

River in Ratnagiri District, south of Bombay, on 4 April 1897—

just 70 years ago!

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREET,

BomMBayY 3, HUMAYUN ABDULALI

March 23, 1967.

7. OCCURRENCE OF THE WRYNECK JYNX TORQUILLA

LINNAEUS IN KERALA STATE, SOUTH INDIA

On 10 March 1967 in a fuel clearing of Red Gums on Granby

Estate, Vandiperiyar P.O., Kerala State, my attention was attracted by

a bird which suddenly flew out of long grass at ground level at the

side of a foot-path on which I was walking.

My first impression was that it was an immature Brown Shrike,

but after it had alighted in a Red Gum tree (Eucalyptus robusta) T

was able to look at it through binoculars. Its conical pointed beak,

a dark band reaching from the crown to the upper back, and another

368 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

dark band through the eye together with the vermiculated brown

plumage gave me a clue to the identity of the bird.

When it flew to another tree close by and ran up the stem for about

three feet before sitting along a branch instead of across it, I was

pretty certain I was looking at a Wryneck, although the last member of

this species that I had seen-was in Oxfordshire about 35 years ago.

I was able to observe the bird for about 10 minutes until it flew

some distance away. Its flight was undulating with rather rapid wing

beats.

During the time I had it under observation it was completely

silent.

The description in the FAUNA confirmed my identification, but I

was puzzled by the lack of any reference to the dark bands across

the tail which I had noted. I therefore turned to Jerdon whose

description is much fuller and here I confirmed that the tail has three

darker broad bands and a fourth subterminal one.

Generally the bird seemed to be in rather dishevelled condition;

so much so that at times the feathers on the crown appeared to form

a Chest.

Apparently no specimen of the species has been procured farther

south than Mysore (Salim Ali on 17-12-1939)! although Jerdon stated

he obtained it in Nellore and Madras many years ago.

Curiously enough a friend of mine who has just been visiting the

Nilgiri-Wynaad in Madras State has told me that he saw a Wryneck

on Cherambadi Estate, Cherambadi P.O. in the middle of March.

He observed this bird in scrub jungle through binoculars and he

thinks there may have been another with it but he was unable to get

a clear view of the second bird.

I should be interested to know if the species has been observed

in Kerala or in Madras in recent times.

PANDAVARMEDU,

VANDIPERIYAR P.O., M. Cc. A. JACKSON

March 16, 1967.

[E. G. Nichols (1944): ‘Occurrence of Birds in Madura District’

Vol. 44 p. 575 of this Journal, reports seeing Wryneck near

Batlagundu at the base of the Palni Hills in December, and also

another sight record by a friend at Kodaikanal in November.—EDs.]

1S§atimM At (1943): The Birds of Mysore. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 43: 594,

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. SOC. 64 (2)

Bertram : Hill Myna

Bamboo framework of nest

(Photo: Brian Bertram)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 369

8. HILL MYNA GRACULA RELIGIOSA LINNAEUS

BREEDING IN ARTIFICIAL NESTS IN GARO

HILLS, ASSAM

(With a _ plate)

The Indian Hill Myna or Grackle (Gracula religiosa) is a wary

arboreal bird in the wild state in its evergreen-forest habitats in south-

west and north-east India. It is widely known for its prowess as a

talking bird when in captivity, for it surpasses even the parrots in

the accuracy of its imitations. A Hill Myna will learn to talk well

only if it has been taken from the nest while young, and since Hill

Mynas are wary birds and nest usually in inaccessible holes in trees,

the taking of their young is often a difficult problem. ‘The difficulty

is reduced in the Garo Hills District of Assam where the Hill Mynas

are persuaded to breed in artificial nests. Such a nest consists of

a framework of split bamboo about 5 feet long and 1 foot wide at

the middle, tapering towards each end (Plate); this is _ thickly

covered on the outside with thatching straw tightly tied down onto

the framework. A hole is cut about two-thirds of the way from the

slightly thicker lower end of the nest, which is then attached to the

branches of a tree at an angle of about 45 degrees, with the hole at

the higher end and pointing downwards. The trees chosen are

usually tall, and are situated in, or at the edge of. clearings in the

forest, or at the edge of a small village; the nests are at or near the

tops of the trees. A Garo may have 4 or 5 of these nests, in different

trees, and by observation he can tell when there are young birds in

the nest. Usually he does not want to run the risk of their fledging

and escaping, and so he takes the young from the nest earlier than

is desirable, feeds them on a not-very-adequate diet of gram-powder

made into large plugs and pushed down the gaping throat, and then

sells them at the weekly market or ‘hat’ at prices usually between

Rs. 10 and Rs. 20. Dealers then take them on via Goalpara to

Calcutta.

The practice of putting up these artificial nests in the Garo Hills

is an old one, certainly much older than the recent huge demand for

young mynas for export. It is not done in other parts of India for

the catching of Hill Mynas; possibly it arose as a simple way of

370 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

catching birds, indiscriminately of species, in order to eat them. As

with the hill people of Orissa and Nepal, the Garos also catch the

young of Hill Mynas which nest naturally in holes in trees, but the

majority of young mynas leaving Assam for a life in captivity have

probably been hatched in these artificial basket nests. The advantages

to the Garo are obvious: he has a good source of revenue, collected

with little difficulty since the nests are obviously accessible; he can

observe the nests easily and can take the young before they fledge:;

and having the nests often near his house he can prevent the young

birds from being taken by his neighbour—it is obvious to whom

they belong. But what makes the mynas, which usually nest only

in tree holes, make use of bamboo-and-grass baskets is very difficult

to understand, although there are a great many possible reasons to be

examined. But since mynas which nest in these baskets rarely

succeed in rearing any young, there must be very strong selection

pressure against the habit; perhaps in a couple of decades they will

scarcely do so any more. A few thousand young mynas are taken

out of Assam each year, largely for export. This represents quite a

large drain, but is less serious than it would appear for two reasons:

first, that if the young birds are taken from the nest, the parents

usually nest again, and second, that the taking of young mynas from

Assam is at present largely confined to the Garo Hills District only.

Control measures would be easy to apply, but are probably not yet

necessary; they may well become necessary if the trade in young

mynas continues to expand.

BomMBAyY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HornsBiL~L House, BRIAN BERTRAM

APOLLO STREET,

BomBay-1,

January 30, 1967.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

9. RECOVERY

Ring No.

Date and place of

and species

ringing

A-25904 Passer

domesticus Rajasthan (c. 27°

parkini °. IBN 190 232 B.)

India

AB-8245 1.10.1965. do.

Philomachus

pugnax &

AB-8926 17.10.1965. do.

Philomachus

pugnax &

AB-8614 11.10.1965. do.

Philomachus

pugnax &°

B-731 Strep- 13.9.1961. Victoria

topelia Park, Bhavanagar

tranquebarica | c. (21°45’ N., 72°15’

E.) India

C-165 Anas 18.2.1964. Manjhaul,

crecca & Monghyr Dist.,

Bihar:(¢. 25,237 Ns,

86°30’ E.)

C-327 Anas 6.2.1964. do.

crecca 0?

C-315 Anas 4.2.1964. do.

crecea ©

C-439 Anas 28.11.1964. do.

crecca ¢

C-450 Anas 29.11.1964. do.

crecca °

37]

OF RINGED BIRDS

Date and place of

recovery Remarks

28.3.1963. Bharatpur, |-+0.9.1966. Tadjik, Reported by Bird

S.S.R. near Kulyab|

(7527 NS 769.00)

E.)

Ringing Centre,

Moscow, U.S.S.R.

23.11.1966. Kolhi Reported by

Garib Village, ' Mohammed

Gonda, U.P. (c. | Siddiqui

27°10’ N., 81°50’ E.);

+18.12.1966. Laheria [Reported by Dr.

Sarai, DarbhangaDt. B. N. Sinha,

India (c. 26°10’ N.,| Darbhanga Medi-

85° 54’ E.) | cal College, Bihar.

4,9.1966 Omsk Region, ‘Reported by Bird

Manjanovka Dis-' Ringing Centre,

trict, Piketnoe Lake.. Moscow,U.S.S.R.

(5° 00% N.;, 72515% 1

E.) |

27.3.1967. Fateh

Mohammed Vil-

lage, 18 miles from

Karachi, W.

Pakistan. (c. 24°37’

N., 67°05’ E.)

17.3.1967. Near

Lucknow, U.P.,

‘Reported by Mr.

Gulam Haider of

Karachi

Reported by M.

Sardar Khan

india (c. 26.517 N.;

81° E.)

+0.9.1966. Irkutsk {Reported by Bird

Region, near Kuitun

(54°22’ N., 101°30’

E.) |

Ringing Centre,

Moscow, U.S.S.R.

'10.9.1966. Chita

Region, near Borzya,

(50°245 Nv.) 16°32/

E.)

do.

4.9.1966. Novosi-

_ birsk Regior, Chany

Lake (55°00’ N., 78°

00’ E.)

do.

+18.8.1966. Krasno-

jarsk Region, Parti-:

zanskii District, near

Rytbnoe (55°18’ N.,

do.

97°20’ E.)

372. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS (contd.)

Date and place of

recovery

Date and place of

Ring No.

ringing

and Species Remarks

C-1013 Anas, lo8.9.1965. Bharatpur Autumn 1966, No-|Reported by Bird

querquedula 0? vosibirsk Region,| Ringing Centre,

Chany Lake, near} Moscow,U.S.S.R.

Kupino (54°22’ N.,

77°18’ E.)

C-1225 Anas 8.10.1965. do. +2.1.1967 Jammu B. S. Jamwal of

crecca 3 Tawi, Jammu, India Jammu Tawi

(c.432°307 Ni; 75°

E.)

C-1257 Anas 14.10.1965. do. 10.10.1966. Omsk Reported by Bird

querquedula 3 Region, near Nizh-| Ringing Centre,

nyaya Omska (55°| Moscow, U.S.S.R.

30’ N., 74°55’ E.)

C-1291 Anas |17.10.1965. do. |+18.9.1966. Alma | do.

querquedula ° Ata Region, Alakol

Lake (44°52’ N., 74°

12’ E.)

C-1397 Anas 9.10.1966. © do. {+7.3.1967. Tadjik do.

crecca O? S.S.R. near Dangara

(38°06’ N.,69°25’E.)

C-1420 Anas 8.10.1966. do. j|+8.3.1967. Kazakh do.

crecca 3 S.S.R., near Kurdai

(43°20’ N., 75°00’ E.)

Dzhanbul Region

C-1431 Anas 9.10.1966. do. +10.3.1967. Alma do.

crecca 3 Ata Region, near

Turgen (43°21’ N.,

77°36’ E.)

C-1558 Anas 11.10.1966. do. /2.12.1966. Sialkot, _|Reported by Muktar

crecca 3 W. Pakistan (c. 32°! Ali Khan

30’ N., 74°32’ E.)

C-1625 Anas |11.10.1966. do. +=—|+4.3.1967. Uzbek Reported by Bird

crecca & S.S.R., nearChardar| Ringing Centre,

(41°17 N., 67°58’E.)|_ Moscow,U.S.S.R.

C-1635 Anas 12.10.1966. do. +23.1.1967. Nahar, |Reported by Mr.

crecca & Multan District, W.| Atta Mohammed

Pakistan (c. 30°10’

N., 71° 30’ E:)

C-1638 Anas 12.10.1966. do. -+8.1.1967. Siddipet | Reported by the

querquedula 3 Village (18°6’ N.,| Nazir of the Ist

79°1’ EB.) Andhra Class Magistrate,

Pradesh, India Siddipet

C-1720 Anas 4.12.1964. Manjhaul |19.2.1967. Moka- Reported by Rajen-

crecca 6 Bihar maghat, Patna Dist.,| dra Prasad Singh

Bihar (25°25’ N.,,

| 85°53’ E.)

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES

373

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS (contd.)

Ring No.

and species

C-1744 Anas

crecca &

C-1853 Anas

crecca 2

C-1909 Anas

crecca 6

C-2621 Anas

crecca 3

C-2652 Anas

crecca 3

C-2661 Anas

crecca 6

C-2685 Anas

crecca &

C-2851 Anas

crecca 0?

F-1146 Anas

acuta 3

F-1189 Anas

acuta 2

F-1505 Anas

clypeata 3

Date and place of

ringing

Date and place of

recovery

Remarks

5.12.1964. do.

30.12.1964. Bakhri

Monghyr

Dt., Bihar

3.1.1965. do.

19.10.1966. Bharatpur

19.10.1966. = do.

19.10.1966. do.

20.10.1966. = do.

23.10.1966. do.

19105 1965.. - do,

6.10.1966. do.

Z21.10.1966.;. do:

+ 16.10. 1966. Alma

Ata Region, near

_ Andreevka (45°49’

N., 80°38’ E.)

l4.5.1966. Selenga

River, near Baikal

Lake (52°21’ N.,

106° 31’ E.)

+25.10.1966. Uzbek

S.S.R., near Fergana

(40°22’ N., 71°47’ E.)

+8.3.1967. Uzbek

S.S.R., near Samar-

kand. (39°47’ N.,

Reported by Bird

Ringing _Centre,

Moscow, U.S.S.R.

do.

66°56’ E.)

+10.3.1967. Fergana

Region, near Kirovo.

(40°27’ N., 70° 36’E.)

+9.3.1967. Tadjik

S.S.R. Leninobad

District, near Pro-

letarsk. (40°11’ N.,

do.

69°29’ E.)

5.12.1966. Kushtia Reported by Mr.

Town (23° 55’ N., S. G. Meerza

89°9" FE.) E:;

Pakistan

11.3.1967. Numberdar {Reported by Mr.

Rajoya Saddat Chi-

niot, Dist. Jhang, W.

Pakistan (c. 31°40’

N., 73°: E.)

+14.9.1966. Kok-

chetav Region, near

Syed Mohammed

Afzal

Reported by Bird

Ringing Centre,

Kokchetav (53°17’ Moscow, U.S.S.R.

N., 69°25’ E.)

+19.3.1967. Alma do.

Ata Region, near Tur-

gen (43°21’N., 77°36’

E.)

23.1.1967. Nabi

Shah Jheel, Bhalwal

20 miles north of

Sargodha (c. 32°.

Mr. G. Q. Dean

Mann of Sar-

godha

20°) Ni, 727507, .E.))

W. Pakistan

374. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

RECOVERY OF RINGED BIRDS (contd.)

Ring No. Date and place of Date and place of

and species ringing recovery Remarks

F-1542 Anas 24.10.1966. Bharatpur eae dated Dr. Paul Singh

clypeata 3 26.12.1966. Samana,| Bhullar of

Patiala, India Samana, Patiala

(30°9’ N., 76°15’ E.)

F-3033 Anas 15.2.1966. Chabua, 12/5.10.1966.nearKupino, | Reported by Bird

acuta 2 miles north of Dib-| Novosibirsk Region| Ringing Centre,

brugarh, Assam (c.| (54°22’N., 77° 18’E.) | Moscow,U.S.S.R.

27°41’ N., 94°41’ E.)

India

Note. + = Shot or killed by man.

BomMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

Hornsi_L House, EDITORS

Bomsay 1-BR,

May 10, 1967.

10. OCCURRENCE OF DRACG BLANFORDI BOULENGER

(SAURIA : AGAMIDAE) IN ASSAM, INDIA

(With a_ plate)

Among the unidentified lizards from Assam in the Zoological

Survey of India, one specimen of Draco (Regd. No. 21698, Z.S.1.)

collected on 16 February 1936, from Kambiron, c. 95 km. (59 miles)

west of Imphal on Silchar Road in Assam, on examination proved

to be Draco blanfordi Boulenger, a species commonly occurring in

parts of Burma, Western Thailand and Malay Peninsula but hitherto

unrecorded from India.

Though the colour of the specimen has faded due to long pre-

servation in alcohol, the pattern is more or less visible, and consists

of small dots arranged in pairs along the back, those on the neck

and shoulder being clear. The wing has four transverse bands with

spots at regular intervals, and fine longitudinal lines.

Smith (1935: 142)' gives the distribution of D. blanfordi as

‘Western Siam; Southern Burma: the Malay Peninsula. I have seen

1 Smith, M. A. (1935): The Fauna of British India (Rept. & Amphi.), Vol. IT,

Sauria,

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2)

Biswas: Draco blanfordi

é]

SO4 4

ies

Ase.

Con ome S|

oN oa ase

] RYAN SER EST TGA

Pay’ MMS SYS

OER repr

eee,

SEN

reel

Draco blanfordi Boulenger

a. Dorsal view; 6b. Lateral view of head and neck.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2)

SKETCH MAP oF

TAPT!I AND MINDHOLA RIVERS

IN GUJARAT STATE

savan RS

x /

al/

x 1\

zi}

mS p Ley

3 Jz

= a

‘

sah,

z= \

[ee

i 4

BoDHAN

PIPRIA

HOR (,

KAT

AM port

VYARA Px

AY,

“20.4 RIVER

i 4:2) rs S “e

os ' i "iy ‘ Raa =

hay i eee TSS > fa)

CO Wh Ga:

TY had RTI) ae

a eet ay UN,

STEHT UT ANG

aan tly y Le

cal oe =

went ' in iy nn = Ss

yey uta 11 ante re

yt Het spare

is’

ARABIAN

yt,

10 MILES

Ry)

21°

is’

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 375

a specimen from the Chieng Rai district in Siam, lat. 20° N., and

it probably occurs in Burma in the same latitude; at present it is only

known in Tenasserim as far as Dawna Hills’. This record of the

Species near Imphal further extends tts northern distribution limit to

lat. 25° N. and the western limit from Burma to Assam.

So far only two species, D. norvilli and D. maculatus have been

recorded from north-east India. The former from Nagaland Hills

and Goalpara (Assam) and the latter from north-east India to the

whole of Indo-Chinese Peninsula and Hainan, extending south to

lat. 8° N. in Thailand. It may be mentioned in passing that the

occurrence of a species D. dussumieri Dum. & Bib. only in south-

west India, provides an interesting case of discontinuous distribution

of this eastern and predominantly Malayan genus in peninsular India,

separated from its allies in Assam by a wide gap.

Measurements (mm.)

Snout to vent -. 96°00

Tail .. 169°00

Head (snout to lower angle of jaw) ss, | LORS

Snout me 6°20

Breadth of head (near tympanum) 2ST OrSO

Orbit Le 7°40

J am very grateful to Dr. K. K. Tiwari for his kind help in the

preparation of this paper.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA, S. BISWAS

February 2, 1967.

11. ON THE OCCURRENCE AND BREEDING OF CATLA

CATLA (HAMILTON) IN TAPTI RIVER

(With a map)

According to Jones & Sarojini (1952), the natural distribution of

Catla catla (Hamilton) is from Sind and Punjab in the north along

upper India to Krishna River in the south and as far as Burma in

the east. Among peninsular rivers, Catla is known to occur in

Narbada River (Rajan & Kaushik 1958) and Tapti River may therefore

be considered within the range of the natural distribution of Catla.

376 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

But enquiries (during the fishery survey of 1959-60) from fishermen

of Tapti River and at fish markets in Madhya Pradesh, Maharashtra

and Gujarat States where fish from Tapti is sold indicated that Catla

does not occur in Tapti River. Since the Tapti becomes extremely

Shallow in certain stretches during summer months, it cannot be

considered a natural and favourable habitat for a large and deep

bodied fish like Catla (maximum length, at least 6 ft.; Day 1878)

which is known to thrive in large and deep rivers. In rare instances,

Catla occurs in deep pools of small and shallow rivers, which serve

as its temporary abode in summer (Setna & Kulkarni 1946). While

exploring new fish seed resources in Tapti River during south-west

monsoon season from June to September 1961, evidence of occurrence

and breeding of Catla in a certain section of the Tapti was noticed

and are reported in the present note.

Several samples of fish seed collected from a section of Tapti

River near Bodhan (Surat District, Gujarat State) from 16-7-1961 to

15-9-1961 were reared in two local seasonal tanks, to ascertain their

quality. Examination of fish samples from one of these tanks, after

three weeks rearing, revealed the presence of 26 fingerlings (2-3 inches)

of Catla, which made up 1:1% of the samples. As this seasonal

tank was stocked exclusively with Tapti fish seed, these observations

showed that the latter included some Catla seed and that Catla has

not only established itself in certain stretches of the Tapti but also

successfully breeds upstream of Bodhan during monsoon floods.

This evidence is particularly significant in view of the earlier observa-

tions regarding non-availability of Catla in Tapti River.

The occurrence of Catla in the Tapti River reported above

appears to be accidental, caused by escape of major carps from the

overflooded Vyara Tank into the Mindhola River and thence, during

monsoon inundations into the Tapti, the lower reaches of which are

reported to get connected with Mindhola (Map). Grown up

specimens of Catla and Rohu have been reported caught from Gaviar

Tank which has no history of stocking with these species. These must

be escapes from Vyara Tank trapped during their migration into

Tapti through Mindhola. This is thus another instance of Catla

adapting itself to deep pools in small shallow rivers. If the stock

in such situations like the deep pools at the base of Kakarapar Weir

is conserved, potential fish seed collection centres could develop along

the course of the river.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Smt

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are greatly indebted to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, Director

and Dr. V. G. Jhingran, Research Officer, Central Inland Fisheries

Research Institute for their valuable suggestions and constant

encouragement and to Shri D. L. Dholakia, Assistant Director of

Fisheries, Gujarat Fisheries Department for supplying necessary

information.

NARBADA-T APTI UNIT,

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES S. J. KARAMCHANDANI

RESEARCH INSTITUTE’, M. D. PISOLKAR

HOSHANGABAD (M.P.),

December 11, 1965.

REFERENCES

Day, F. (1878): Fishes of India, RAJAN, S. J. & KAUSHIK, D. K. (1958) :

London. Indian Farming, March 1958.

Jones, S. & SAROJINI, K. K. (1952): SETNA, B. S. & KULKARNI, C. V.

History of transplantation and introduc- (1946): The fresh water fish and fisheries

tion of fishes in India. J. Bombay nat. of Ahmedabad. J. Bombay nat. Hist.

Hist. Soc. 50: 594-609. Soc. 46: 126-132.

12. KACHAL, A TACKLE FOR FILE-FISH (FAMILY

BALISTIDAE: PISCES)

(With a text-figure)

To suit local exigencies and conditions several indigenous types of

gear have been developed by fishermen from ancient times which

though primitive and crude in appearance are efficient in their own

way. One such gear is the Kachal, used to capture the file-fish

(Balistidae) along the south-west coast of India between Muttum and

Vizhingam. Since good results are obtained at little cost, the gear is

used extensively by fishermen. No information is available about

this in any of the published records. Enquiries show that kachal has

been in use for over 75 years.

The kachal consists of a circular frame about 25 cm. in diameter

made of coconut leaf stalk and a bag-like net. Three or four finely

twisted cotton strings about 50 cm. in length are tied to the frame at

equal intervals (Text-figure). The strings are tied together and to a

1 Presently C/o. The Deputy Director of Fisheries, Rewa & Jabalpur Division,

Madhya Pradesh, Rewa (M.P.).

378 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

strong coir rope about ICO metres long. A stone sinker weighing

about a kilogram is tied where the coir rope joins with the cotton

strings. The main part of the gear is a bag of cotton netting about

60 cm. long, consisting of two or three pieces of net (mal) joined

together. The net is hand-made, the mesh size, when stretched, being

XK RIV OK KY

SK CoS

0,9, Vena AK

RAN Ky]

ee “KK Y XK

WOU NNNeS

AY Y

Sosse

. Ga

DX) mM Od, 9G , \ () 4 |

an BO

AK XXX! A OES

ee vy) y KK) 44 Sis

(xX) yy xO Ay (\ X

g /

A. lead rope; B. sinker; C. connecting strings; D. bait;

E. frame; F. net.

20 mm. throughout. The bag-like net is tied around the circular frame,

the mouth portion of the net, which is attached to the frame, being

of one piece or mal. To the distal end of this is attached the main

bag which is considerably wider.

The kachal.is operated from a catamaran or a small canoe. One

person can operate two units at a time. After selecting a suitable

MISCELLANEOUS, NOTES . ean ie?

site for operation, advantage is taken of the habit of the file-fish

of cutting its food into small bits, to locate file-fish in the area. A

hand line with one or two kooks baited with cuttle fish meat is

Jowered. If the bait is eaten up completely without the fish being

caught by the hooks it indicates that the bait has been taken by

file-fish.

To start the operation of kachal, cuttle fish meat is tied to a

string across the mouth of the circular frame. The net is lowered

and the mouth of the kachal goes down with the bag portion

following, because of the weight of the sinker. File-fish attacking the

bait, and in line with the mouth enter inside the spread net. When

the desired depth is reached the operator stops lowering the rope

and the mouth of the kachal turns up with file-fish feeding. on the

bait from within and outside the mouth of the net. The size of the

school is felt by the operator through the jerks he gets from the rope.

In pulling up the net, the first pull is in the form of a jerk so that

all the fish at the mouth will go inside the net. After this, the net

is pulled up very quickly aliowing little time for the fish to escape.

Subsequent operations are made by using skinned file-fish head as

bait and more file-fish are caught by using skinned file-fish head

than any other bait. It is estimated that during a good season each

haul brings on an average of 75 to 10U fish.

~ The fishing villages between Vizhingam and Muttum in the

south-west coast extensively use this gear. The fishing season is

approximately four months from December to March. During this

period file-fish form a major fishery owing to the paucity of other

fishes in the landings. The operating radius for the kachal is from

seven to ten miles from shore, usually at 60 to 80 metres depth.

However, the fishing grounds shift according to the movements of

the shoals. Fishing is conducted mainly during day _ time.

Venkataraman & George (1964) recorded concentrations of file-fishes

of the species Odonus niger and Sufflamen cupistratus at 50-60 metre

depths in the west coast. Among the species of file-fish taken by

_kachal at Vizhingam during 1960 to 1963 the black balistid, Odonus

niger was the most common followed by Pseudobalistes fuscus and

Sufflamen capistraius. The percentage proportion of file-fish landed

at Vizhingam in comparison with those of other ESiloe is given by

Nayar (1958).

CENTRAL MARINE FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, P. SAM BENNET

CALICUT-5, |

March 29, 1967.

380 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Voi. 64 (2)

REFERENCES

Nayar, S. G. (1958): A Preliminary (1964): On the occurrence of large con«

account of the fisheries of Vizhingam. centrations of file-fish off the Kerala

Indian J. Fish. 5 (1) : 32-55. Coast, India. J. Mar. biol. Ass. India,

VENKATARAMAN, G: & GEORGE, K: CC; 6 (2): 321-323.

i3. THE RUSTY PLUM APHID, HYSTERONEURA

SETARIAE (THOMAS) IN SOUTHERN INDIA

The Rusty Plum Aphid, Hysteroneura setariae (Thomas) has béen

known for nearly a century from north and south America where it

lives on plum trees during autumn as its primary host and on cereals

and grasses during summer. During the last decade, Eastop (1954)

noted it in north-eastern Africa and Tao (1962) in Hong Kong. It

has now been collected in southern India for the first time. Evidently

it has been distributed in recent years from the western hemisphere

to other parts of the world along with the shipments of grains and

other commodities. Some of the important features of the insect ate

given here.

Diagnostic features. A small, brown aphid with dark cornicles

and pale cauda with two pairs of hairs; legs and antennae brown

with intermittent white portions; terminal process of the last antennal

segment very long. In the winged forms, the hind wing has only one

oblique vein instead of the usual two.

Feeding habits. In south India the aphid has been sania te

feed on the following plants: Oryza sativa (rice), Sorghum vulgare

(sorghum), Zea mays (maize), Eleusine coracana (Italian millet or

ragi), Bothriochloa insculpta, Cenchrus setigerus, Chloris barbata,

Cynodon dactylon, Dacteloctenium aegyptium, Digitaria longiflora,

Eragrostis major, Panicum antidotale, Panicum flavidum, Panicum

montanum, Pennisetum sp., Saccharum spontaneum, Setaria sphacelata

and Cyperus sp.

The aphid usually sucks the sap of the plant from the base of

the spikelets. On rare occasions it feeds on the stalks of the panicle.

It occurs in small colonies on the rachis of the spikelets. Occasionally

the black ant, Camponotus compressus, is seen to attend on the

aphid singly.

It occurs all through the year whenever the grasses put forth

earheads, but is scarce in the early part of June on the plains due to

the summer heat.

Distribution. The aphid has been noted from Madurai in the

south to Anantapur in the north, on the plains as well as on the hills

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES — 381

up to Coonoor (5500 feet above mean sea level) on the Nilgiris. The

localities in which it has been recorded are Madras, Tambaram,

Tindivanam, Coimbatore, Madurai, Bangalore, Anantapur and

Coonoor.

It is clear that the aphid has established itself quite well here

since it is able to survive during most part of the summer also on

the plains. It can cause appreciable damage to cereal crops if it is

found in large numbers.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Professor K. R. Venkatasubban, Professor of

Botany, Madras Christian College, for kindly identifying some of the

grasses. This research has been financed in part by a grant made by

the United States Department of Agriculture under PL 480. |

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY, S. KANAKARAJ DAVID

MADRAS CHRISTIAN COLLEGE, S. G. RAJASINGH

TAMBARAM, Mapras 59, K. NARAYANAN

February 16, 1967.

REFERENCES

Eastop, V. F. (1954): Notes on East Tsao, CHARLES CHIA-CHU- (1962):

frican aphids; 1V. Cereals and grass Revision of Chinese Aphidinae. Plant

root feeding species. East Afric. J. Protection Bull. (Taiwan) 4 (3): 1-16.

ZY :'(2)2 129-132.

14. LAKATT AND PAMBU: LEPCHA EXPLORERS

“The Oberthiir collection (now mostly in the British Museum) contained a large

number of butterflies taken by Lakatt and Pamboo in Penang and Perak in 1895

....it is evident that Lakatt and Pamboo were discriminating collectors.

Nothing is known about them, but it is believed that they may have been sakai.’

Corbet 1956 : 67.

Through the kindness of the Trustees and Mr. J. P. Doncaster,

C.B.E., Keeper of Entomology, the British Museum (Natural History),

I have had the opportunity for extensive reading in their Libraries,

and the luck to identify these two collectors. From scattered sentences

by different authors it is clear that, far from being natives of Malaya,

382 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Lakatt and Pambu came from Sikkim. They were members of the

famous tribe of Lepchas, the original inhabitants of that country and

born naturalists.

The specimen labels are all printed by Oberthtr himself and bear

the two Lepchas’ names, either Penang or Perak, and the date June-

August 1895. Corbet (1948: 93, 1956: 479 notes 68, 71) gave good

reasons for the belief that, by ‘Perak’, Oberthiir implied Tavoy in

peninsular Burma. He may well, as a Frenchman, have used the

term loosely for the west coast of the peninsula, in the same way as

‘Malacca’ was formerly used for all southern Malaya.

The date 1895 suggested a link with William Doherty. This great

American traveller and entomologist started butterfly collecting in

1882 when visiting India, and in the course of the next eleven years

he toured the whole of the archipelago now embraced by Malaysia

and Indonesia. After two years at home he made a second tour of

the same area, lasting from December 1895 to 1899. Doherty used

to make periodic visits to Calcutta to replenish supplies, and ‘to

leave with Lionel de Nicéville at the Indian Museum his articles for

the Journals of the Bombay Natural History Society and the Royal

Asiatic Society of Bengal, before hurrying off again. Sometimes he

would go up to Darjeeling to recruit Lepcha collectors and Indian

assistants; sometimes they would rendezvous at Calcutta.

Doherty’s last journey ended after only nine months. This time

he went to Africa (again via Darjeeling). While camped in Wa

Kikuyu territory he became fatally ill, and his Lepchas carried him

to the hospital in Nairobi. So W. A. Doherty (15 May 1857-25 May

1901) died within a year of, and even younger than, his friend and

colleague C. L. A. de Nicéville (1852-3 December 1901).

In 1889 Doherty collected in Assam and Burma, and Elwes (1891)

quoted passages from his letters. He wroie (p. 249) ‘I had to go to

Darjeeling for my Lepchas and got two fairly good men; I have also

two other men . . . and hope to keep them permanently.’ He only

mentions two of the four by name. Writing from Thandaung where

there are four hilltops, he says; (p. 255) ‘Each of my men used to

take a peak and stay there all day, and Pambu actually made a

_ platform of boughs on the top of a tree and stood on it all day.’ Later

(p. 258) he mentioned Longchung, who fell ill. |

Another of Doherty’s friends was Ernst Hartert, the famous

omithologist. They met accidentally in Malaya, corresponded, and

Hartert (1901) wrote an informative obituary which included a digest

of Doherty’s diary. The entries for 1891-93 are televant :—

1891 (called at Calcutta, then sailed) for Java with four men. .

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 3&3

. . My Lepchas . . Chedi has cholera . . Tungkyitbo in hospital

a his death at sea. *. (Pambu: has* Ds P"™..

1892 Amboina . Batchian . Obi . Talaut . Sangir . earthquake .

Chedi injured by fall . Timor . Wetter . Kisser . Letti . Dam .

Tenimber . Babar . Amboina . Ternate . Halmaheira . Humboldt

Bay . Yutafa . Anaphir . Lake Sentani . Pambu gets losi,

brought back . Tana Mera Bay . Terfia . Biak . Korrido . Jobi .

Yaur . Wandesi . Dorey . Andai . Ron . Jobi.

1893 Jobi . Ternate . Amboina . Macassar . Surabaya . Singapore

- Penang . Calcutta . Ceylon . Europe-. New York GUuly).

We thus have accounted for Pambu from 1889 to 1893, and

placed Longchung in 1889, and Chedi and the ill-fated Tungkyitbo

from 1891 to 1893. We have still not located Lakatt.

Oberthiir’s writings were voluminous, haphazard in sequence, and

seldom indexed. But one vital sentence is found. Telling of a pale

straw-coloured variety of Appias nero Fab., Oberthtir (1896: 6) says

it was taken in ‘Perak, par les chasseurs Lepchas, Lakat et Pamboo,

au cours de leur expédition de juillet et aoit 1895.’ While Doherty

was at home in America, Lakatt and Pambu seem to have been

free-lancing on their own!

de Nicéville and Martin (1896: 361) give a possible clue as to

how our Lepchas reached Penang. In prefacing their exhaustive list

of Sumatran butterflies they say that in 1893-4 de Nicéville ‘induced

three amateur collectors in British India to send down to Sumatra

some of the well-known Lepcha collectors from Darjiling to Dr.

Martin’s care’. These may well have included Lakatt, and Doherty’s

unemployed Pambu. Then, in 1895, on their way home, perhaps the

much-travelled Pambu took Lakatt on their independent journey via

Penang and Burma, reaching Calcutta in good time to meet Doherty

before he left in December 1895.

Thus Doherty quoted by Elwes and by Hartert, Oberthiir,

de Nicéville and Martin, and Corbet, each contribute isolated remarks

from which the identity and some account of the achievements of

Lakatt and Pambu can be deduced. The last to be found provides a

sad epitaph. Rothschild and Hartert (i901: 59) wrote;

‘On Jobi (i.e. Japen Is., Geelvink Bay, West Irian; in 1898)

Mr. Doherty had the great misfortune to lose Pambu, a Lepcha,

whom he calls his right-hand man, who was with him since 1889

and of whom he speaks in the highest terms. Poor Pambu was

murdered by savages.’

So passed Pambu, working some 5,000 miles from home. We can

384 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

picture him a dedicated and enterprising naturalist, a faithful and

cheerful companion and a staunch and steady friend.

Lakatt’s name has been commemorated in butterfly nomenclature

by the Lycaenid Jamides zebra lakatti Corbet,

2). It is hoped shortly to give Pambu similar

Soc. Lond. (B) 9:

recognition.

LITTLE GADDESDEN HOUuSE,

BERKHAMSTED, HERTS,

ENGLAND,

March 13, 1967.

1940 (Proc. R. ent.

Lt. Col, C.F -COWAN

REFERENCES

CorBET, A. S. (1948): Revisional

Notes on oriental Lycaenidae (1). Proc.

R. ent. Soc. Lond. (B) 17: 93-97.

— (1956): (in CorBeT, A.S. &.

PENDLEBURY, H. M.) The Butterflies of

the Malay Peninsula. edn. 2. 11+-537 pp.,

159 figs.; 55 pls. Edinburgh.

Douerty, W. [A.] (in litt.): see

ELWES, HARTERT, & ROTHSCHILD.

Exwes, H. J. (1891): On Butterflies

collected by Mr. W. Doherty in the Naga

and Karen Hills and in Perak (1). Proc.

zool. Soc. Lond. 1891 : 249-289, pl. 27.

Hartert, E. [J. O.] (1901): William

Doherty. Obituary. Novit. Zool. 8:

494-506.

NICEVILLE, [C.] Li > [Ac Des 18

MarTIN, L. (1896) : A List of the Butter-

flies of Sumatra, &c. J. Asiat. Soc.

Bengal 64 (2) (3) (1895) : 357-555.

OBERTHUR, CC. (1896) : Etudes

d’Entomologie [20] Mai 1896: 20+74

pp., [4+] 23 pls. Rennes.

ROTHSCHILD, Hon. W. L., & HARTERT,

E. (1901): Notes on Papuan Birds.

Novit. Zool. 8: 55-88, pls. 2, 3.

15. A CONTRIBUTION TO THE ROTATORIAN FAUNA

OF SOUTH INDIA

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

Present knowledge of the Rotatorian fauna of the Indian sub-con-

tinent is very scanty. Work on stray collections of Rotatoria by

Anderson (1899), Murray (1906), Apstein (1907), Stewart (1908),

Edmundson & Hutchinson (1934), Hauer (1936, 1937), Donner (1949,

1953), Brehm (1951) and Pasha (1961) have brought to light 161 species

of Rotatoria from the Indian sub-continent and Tibet. Till now no

one has undertaken a serious and intensive work on this group in India.

Consequently several cosmopolitan species are not yet known from the

sub-continent. An intensive study on the group is bound to be ex.

tremely rewarding.

The present paper lists 12 species, of which 8 are new records for

the Indian sub-continent,

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 385

MATERIAL AND METHODS

All the species recorded here were collected by the author from two

fresh-water wells at Cuddapah and Chittoor and from temporary rain

water puddles at Vijayawada. Samples of water were centrifuged to

concentrate the rotifers. All the species treated here were studied in

living condition and sketches of non-loricate species were drawn from

live specimens. The sketches of loricate species were drawn after killing

them in formaldehyde.

SYSTEMATIC ENUMERATION

Class MONOGONOTA

| Order PLOIMA

Family BRACHIONIDAE

Sub-Family BRACHIONINAE

BRACHIONUS Pallas

Brachionus calyciflorus Pallas, 1776. (Plate I, Fig. 1)

Yamamoto, 1960, p. 389, fig. 8 ; Sudzuki, 1964, p. 100, pl. 6, fig. 1.

Material examined: Single specimen from rain water puddle at —

Vijayawada on 26-5-63.

Dimensions : Lorica 210 x 150.

Remarks : Recorded from Punjab and Kashmir from north India ;

new record for south India.

Brachionus quadridentatus Hermann, 1873. (Plate I, Fig. 2)

Yamamoto, 1960, p. 371, fig. 9: Sudzuki, 1964, p. 103, pl. 9, fig. 9, 10.

Material examined : One specimen from ditch water at Vijayawada

on 28-5-63.

Dimensions : Lorica 185 x 1504.

Remarks : New record for the Indian sub-continent.

Brachionus urceolaris var. urawensis Sudzuki, 1964. (Plate I, Fig. 3).

Material examined: Three specimens from a temporary rain water

puddle at Vijayawada on 16-5-63.

Dimensions : Lorica 210-241 x 150-180.

Remarks : New to the Indian sub-continent. Known only froma

Japan till now (Sudzuki, 1964).

Brachionus sp. (Plate I, Fig. 4)

Material examined : Two specimens from ditch water at Vijayawada

on 26-5-63, |

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Dimensions : Lorica 165-175 x 140-145 ,.

Remarks : This form does not agree with known species of Brac-

hionus. Possibly a new species but more specimens of this form will

have to be studied before assigning to it the status of a new species.

MACROCHIAETUS Perty

Macrochaetus subquadratus (Perty, 1850), (Plate II, Fig. 5)

Gillard, 1952, p. 329, fig. 3; Edmundson, 1959, p. 450, figs. 18-25 (a).

Material examined: Several specimens among filamentous algae

of fresh-water at Cuddapah on 6-12-58.

Dimensions: Lorica 74 x 81/4.

Remarks ; New record for the Indian eatcomiinene

_ Sub-Family COLURINAE

LAPADELLA Bory de St. Vincent.

Lapadella dactyliseta (Stenroos) (Plate IT, Fig. 6)

Hauer, 1935, pp. 87-88, fig. 19.

Material examined: Several specimens among algae of an old well

at Chittoor in August 1964.

Dimensions : Lorica 83-90 x 55-60.

Remarks : New record for the Indian sub-continent.

Lapadella similis Lucks. (Plate II, Fig. 7)

Hauer, 1935, p. 144, pl. I, fig. :5.

Material examined: Several specimens among filamentous algae

of an unused well at Cuddapah on 9-9-61.

Dimensions: Lorica 96-100" x 65-67,.

Remarks ; New record for the Indian sub-continent.

Family LECANIDAE

LECANE Nitzsch.

Lecane papuana (Murray). (Plate IT, Fig. 8)

Pasha, 1961, p. 50-51, fig. 1, 2.

Material examined: Several specimens among filamentous algae

from a well at Cuddapah on 22-1-61. |

_ Dimensions: Lorica 138-150 x 108-113.

Remarks : Recorded from Madras (S. India) ; Punjab (N. India)

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2) PLATE J

Naidu: Rotatorian Fauna

Fig. 1. Brachionus calyciflorus x ¢. 338; Fig. 2. B. quadridentatus x c. 414 ; Fig. 3. B. urceolaris

var. urawensis X c. 326; Fig. 4. Brachionus sp. X c. 720.

J. BOMBAY NAT. HisT Soc. 64 (2) | PLATE IE.

Naidu: Rotatorian Fauna

par ris d dada adiag,

Com} ~_—_

—- )) =

we ea

rye yeery rh

TTT]

AUTTS

cil

Fig. 5. Macrochaetus subquadratus x c. 400; Fig: 6. Lapadella dactyliseta x c. 426; | |

Fig. 7. L. similisxc.306; Fig. 8. Lecane papuana X c.296; Fig. 9. Monostyla |

lunaris X c.289; Fig. 10. Polyarthra longiremis x c.355; Fig. 11. Testudinella i

patina X c. 355; Fig. 12. T. patina X c.222; Fig. 13. Ptygura sp. X c. 231. }

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 387

monostyia Ehrenberg.

Monostyla lunaris Ehrenberg. (Plate II, Fig. 9)

Edmundson & Hutchinson, 1934, p. 160; Hauer, 1935, p. 95.

Material examined: Several specimens among filamentous algae

collected from an old well at Cuddapah during June 1961.

Dimensions: Lorica 132-136 x 97-100u. J

Remarks :

Reported from Kashmir and Ladakh. New record for

south India.

Family SYNCHAETIDAE

POLYARTHRA Ehrenberg.

Polyarthra longiremis Carlin, 1943. (Plate II, Fig. 10)

Bartos, 1951, pp. 86-87, fig. 6.

Material examined: Three specimens from ditch water at Vijaya-

wada on 18-5-63.

Dimensions :

135-1404 x 90-92 ,.

Remarks :

New record for the Indian sub-continent.

Order FLOSCULARIACEAE

Family TESTUDINELLIDAE

_ TESTUDINELLA Bory de St. Vincent.

Testudinella patina (Hermann, 1783). (Plate II, Figs. 11-12)

Edmundson, & Hutchinson, 1934, p. 161; Gillard, 1947, pp. 154-155, fig. 2:

Edmundson 1959, p. 473, figs. 18-90 (a).

Material examined: Several specimens among filamentous algae

at Cuddapah in 1961 and at Chittoor in August 1964 and February 1965.

Dimensions ; Lorica 116-122p « 119-124 py.

Remarks : Recorded from Calcutta, Punjab and Kashmir. New

record for south India.

Family FLOSCULARIIDAE

pryGura Ehrenberg.

Ptygura sp. (Plate IT, Fig. 13)

Material examined: Single specimen attached to filamentous alga

from an old well at Cuddapah on 12-8-61.

16A

388. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Dimensions :

Foot 175 long, 19” x 10 wide at apex and base res-

pectively ; body 1604 x 46p ; corona 66 ; tube 1954 x 604. Peduncle

very short.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT sd

The author is extremely thankful to Sri S. M. Kamal Pasha of Presi-

dency College, Madras, for making available the literature on the Rota-

toria, which enabled the preparation of this paper.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

Govt. ARTS AND SCIENCE COLLEGE,

CHITOOR, A. P.,

May 8, 1965.

K. VANAMALA NAIDU

REFERENCES

ANDERSON, H. H. (1899) : Notes on

Indian Rotifers. J. Asiat. Soc. Beng.

58 : 345.

APSTEIN, C. (1907): Das plankton im

Colombo-see auf Ceylon. Zool. Jahrb.

Abt. Syst. 25 : 201.

Bartos, E. (1951): The key to the

determination of Rotifera from Genus

Polyarthra Ebrbg., Cas. nar. Musea,

prirod, Oddil. 118: 82-91.

BreHM, V. (1951): Ein neur Brachio-

nus aus Indien (Brachionus donneri).

Zool. Anz. 146: 54-55.

Donner, J. (1949): Horaella brehmi

nov. gen. spec. ein neues Radertier aus

Indien. Aydrobiologia 2 : 134-140.

(1953) : Trichocerca (Diurel-

la) ruttneri nov. spec., ein Radertier aus

Insulinde, Indien und dem Neusiedler

see. Osterr. zool. Z. 4: 19-22.

EDMUNDSON, W. T. (1959): Rotifera ;

In WarD & WHIPPLE’S Fresh water

Biology. Wiley.

& HUTCHINSON, (1934):

Yale North Indian Expedition: Article

IX ; Report on Rotatoria. Mem. Conn.

Acad. 10 : 133-180, 7 figs.

GILLARD, A. (1947): Het Geslacht

Testudinella Bory de St. Vincent. (Rotat).

i , eee Natuuewet. Tijdschr. 29:

(1952): Bijdrage tot de

studie der Raderdierfauna von Belgie.

Overdrukuit Mededelingen Van De Land-

bouwhogeschool en De opzoekingsstations

Van de Staat te Gent, XVII (2) : 326-332.

HAvER, VON J. (1935) ;2Ein Beitrag

Zur Kenntnis der Rotatorienfauna der

Schwarzwaldhochmoore. Sonderdruck

aus den Verhandlungen des Naturwissen-

chaftlichen Vereins, 29, 1929/1935:

47-130, 29 figs.

——— (1936-37) : Neu Rotatorien

arten aus Indien. I, II & III. Zool.

Anz. 116 (3/4) : 77-80, 2 figs. ; 119 (11/

ee 284-288, 2 figs. ; 120 (1/2): 17-19,

1 fig.

Murray, J. (1906): Some Rotatoria

of the Sikkim Himalayas. J. R. Micr.

Soc. London (Ser. 2) 9: 259.

PasHa, S. M. K. (1961) : On a collec-

tion of fresh water Rotifers from Madras.

J. zool. Soc. India, Calcutta, 13 (1):

50-55, 12 figs. F

STEWART, F. H. (1908): Rotifers an

Gastrotricha from Tibet. Rec. Indian

Mus YD 316:

Supzuk1, M. (1964): New Syste-

matical approach to the Japanese plank-

tonic Rotatoria. Hydrobiologia 23 : (1-2):

1-124, 30 pls.

YAMAMOTO, K. (1960): Planktonic

Rotatoria in Japanese Inland waters.

op. cit. 16 (4) : 364-411, 12 figs.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 389

16. A NEW COMBINATION IN TOURNEFORTIA LINN.

(BORAGINACEAE)

In this paper the author has made a new _ combination,

Tournefortia subtropica (Clarke) Ban. comb, et stat. nov. This taxon

is restricted to the Eastern Himalayas.

It is similar to T. hookeri Clarke in vegetative characters but

the size of the corolla is much larger, usually more than thrice the

length of the calyx, and the corolla unlike that of JT. hookeri is

pentagonal with 5 hairy lines outside. So I am raising the status of

the taxon to a species. The synonymy is given below:

Tournefortia subtropica (Clarke) Ban. comb. et stat. nov.

T. hookeri Clarke var. subtropica Clarke in Hook. f. Fl. Brit. Ind.

4: 147 (1883).

I wish to express my gratitude to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee, Keeper,

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, for his

valuable suggestions.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S. P. BANERJEE

CALCUTTA,

October 17, 1966

17. LIMNOCHARIS H.B.K. : A GENUS NEW TO INDIA

During a recent visit to Kerala by one of us (R. V. K.), an

interesting water plant was collected at Ambalapuzha. It was identified

at CAL as Limnocharis flava (L..) Buchenau (Butomaceae). Previous

literature showed that this genus has not been reported so far from

India.

LimnocuaRis H.B.K. Pl. Aequin. 1: 116, 1807.

Limnocharis flava (L.) Buchenau in Abh. Naturw. Ver. Bremen

2: 2, 1868 & in Pflanzenreich 16: 9, f. 4, 1903, incl. var. indica

Buchenau; Biswas & Calder, Handb. Water & Marsh Pl. Ind. Burm.

80, 1937; Senaratna in Trop. Agric. 94: 362, 1940 & in Ceylon J. Sc.

(A. Bot.) 12: 164, 1945: van Steenis in Fl. Males. I, 5: 120, 1954.

Alisma flava L. Sp. Pl. 343, 1753.

For a detailed description of the species see van Steenis loc. cit.

390 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

‘This species may be mistaken for Limnophyton obtusifolium 1)

Mig. at first sight, but can be easily distinguished from the latter as

follows :

Leaves broadly sagittate. Flowers white;

peduncles and pedicels slender; stamens 6.

Fruit an aggregate of obovate achenes;

seeds smooth Limnophyton

obtusifolium

Leaves ovate to broadly elliptic or sub-

orbicular. Flowers pale’ yellow; peduncles

and pedicels stout; stamens many, the

outer often sterile. Fruit an aggregate of

semicircular follicles; seeds with fimbriate

transverse ridges Limnocharis flava

Specimens examined. Kerala. Alleppey Dt.: Alleppey, 30-10-1961,

Ramachandran s.n. (CAL); Ambalapuzha, 5-2-1967, Kammathy 64

(CAL).

Distribution. Probably monotypic. Native of tropical and

subtropical America, introduced to south-east Asia (Siam, Burma and

Ceylon) and Malaysia; it has probably entered S. India from

Ceylon. .

Habitat. Grows occasionally along the margins of canals, rooted

in mud amidst Colocasia, Monochoria, and other floating aquatics

especially Salvinia.

Vegetative reproduction takes place by the formation of small plants

on older peduncles; later these plants develop roots and get detached.

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA-14, R. V. KAMMATHY

March 7, 1967. K. SUBRAMANYAM

18. OLDENLANDIA MAHESHWARII SANT. & MERCH. :

A NEW RECORD FOR ANNAMALAINAGAR, MADRAS STATE

(With a plate)

The authors collected during the rainy season a species of

Oldenlandia which differs from all the species described by Gamble.

The general characters of this species agree with the description given

for Oldenlandia maheshwarii Sant. & Merch. but show some minor

differences,

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (2)

Ayyangar: Oldenlandia maheshwarii

Oldenlandia maheshwarii Sant. & Merch.

Fig. 1. Entire plant; Fig. 2. Aleaf; Figs. 3&4. Fruit with 6 calyx lobes ;

Figs. 5 &6. Fruit with 4 calyx lobes; Figs.7&8. Fruit with 5 calyx lobes ;

Fig. 9. Longitudinal section of the ovary showing the axile placentation with

numerous ovules.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 391

The plant is an erect herb, usuaily 9-12 cm. tall. Leaves are

sessile to subsessile with a cuneate base, linear, elliptic, sometimes

oblong with an acute apex and tipped with a fine bristle (Figs. 1 & 2).

Stipules are membraneous with a broad base and with a few fine

filiform bristles (Fig. 1). Flowers are pedicellate, solitary, axillary

(Fig. 1), the pedicels are 1-3 cm. long, slender and scabrid. Calyx

lobes 4-6 in number (Plate, Figs. 3 to 8), ovate to oblong, entire with

pubescent hairs on both sides. Corolla white with 4-6 lobes. Stamens

are aS many as the corolla lobes and are inserted at the throat of the

corolla tube. Capsules 1-3 mm. broad, compressed and are crowned

with the calyx teeth. Ovules are numerous and are attached to fleshy

axile placentae (Fig. 9).

As far as the authors are aware, Oldenlandia maheshwarii Sant.

& Merch. is reported for the first time from Madras State.

One of us (S.R.) is thankful to the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research for awarding him a Senior Research Fellowship.

TAXONOMY LABORATORY,

BOTANY DEPARTMENT, K. RANGASWAMI AYYANGAR

ANNAMALAI UNIVERSITY, S. RAMARETHINAM

ANNAMALAINAGAR, V. DHANAMJAYAMOORTHY

December 20, 1966.

19. MYRIOPHYLLUM TUBERCULATUM ROXB: NEW

RECORD FROM KERALA STATE, S. INDIA

(With a plate)

Myriophyllum tuberculatum Roxb. common in Bengal has been

recorded from Assam, Orissa, and Mysore but, as far as we know,

not from Kerala.

Two good specimens of this species were first collected from a

freshwater pond at Alwaye, Kerala, in August 1963, growing in

association with species of Nymphaea, Nymphoides, Eriocaulon and

the rare Hydrolithrun. Again in February 1965, these plants were

found in another freshwater pond, a few miles to the west of Alwaye

and in similar association. Specimens from both localities were studied

in fresh condition. Detailed sketches and description based on fresh

specimens are given below, mentioning variations observed.

392, JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

Myriophyllum tuberculaitum Roxb. (Plate, Figs. 1-22)

Submerged, glabrous, heterophyllous annual, 10-60 cm. tall, with

base creeping and rooted at nodes and vertical branches having apex

above water (Fig. 20). When pond dries up in summer, exposed

plants become procumbent, with little or no heterophylly. Stem

cylindrical, 10-60 cm. tall, 3-5 mm. thick, glabrous, pinkish, freely

branching. Leaves of two types, in whorls of 3-6, or opposite or sub-

opposite towards base and apex of branches or even alternate, as on

reduced branches of exposed plants. Submerged leaves green,

triangular, pectinate-pinnatifid, c. 3 cm. long, with filiform, opposite

lobes, basal and longest of which are c. 2 cm. long, progressively

shorter, arranged 2-3 mm. apart on a narrow, ventrally grooved median

part continuing down as indistinct petiole (Fig. 2). Aerial leaves less

than 2°5 cm. long, 2-3 mm. broad, linear-spathulate, sessile, distal

margins minutely dentate, apex acute; apex and teeth ending in

minute, dark points (Fig. 3). Flowers solitary, axillary, sub-sessile,

bracteolate, pink, 2°5-3 mm. long, tetramerous, hermaphrodite,

epigynous (Fig. 4). Bracteoles two, lateral, 1-1-5 mm. long, white,

boatlike. acuminate, margins toothed (Fig. 5). Calyx polysepalous, of

4 very small, ovate, acute, erect, valvate sepals with minutely toothed

margins (Fig. 6). Corolla polypetalous, of 4 obovate, concave, pink

petals c. 1:5 mm. long, with rounded apex and twisted aestivation

(Fig. 7). Androecium of 4 free, erect stamens c. 1:5 mm. long;

filaments very short, slender; anthers pink, elongated, two-lobed,

four-celled, acute, shortly conical at base, introrse (Fig. 8). Pollen

white, minute, spherical, smooth, thin-walled, with three circular,

convex germ-pores (Fig. 9). Cvary inferior, four-angled, four-celled;

angles keeled; ovule single, anatropous, with dorsal raphe, pendulous

from axile placenta, at the top in each cell (Fig. 11). Styles 4, free,

short, thick, fleshy with bulbous base, pinkish, ending in fimbriated

pink stigma (Fig. 10). Fruit stellately 4-keeled, sub-sessile drupe,

3 mm. long, nearly equally broad, with minute warty projections on

the keels and sides, pinkish, drying into pale brown; often with dry

bracteoles persisting at base (Fig. 12). Fruits when seen against light,

show spiny projections of endocarp ending inside the warty projections

on surface (Fig. 13). Mature fruit splitting into 4, one-seeded

pyrenes, by irregular rupture and decay of fleshy epicarp (Fig. 19).

Pyrene elliptic, convex, with sharp spinules radiating from outer

margins; pale brown (Fig. 16). Seed ovate-lenticular, dull-coloured,

1:51 mm., with very short, stump-like funicle, and dorsal raphe as

thin purplish line (Fig. 17). Testa transparent, membraneous

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc 64 (2)

Vasudevan: Myriophyllum tuberculatum Roxb.

Myriophyllum tuberculatum Roxb.

1. Plant ; 2. Submerged leaf; 3. Aerial leaf; 4. Flower; 5. Bracteole ; 6. Sepal;

7. Petal; 8.Stamen; 9. Pollen; 10. Pistil; 11. Vertical section of flower ; 12. Fruit:

A. side view, B. top view ; 13. Fruit sec.. against light ; 14. Vertical section of fruit;

15. Cross section of fruit ; 16. Pyrene; i7. Seeds; 18. Embryo; 19. Fruit, splitting ;

20. Habit (diagrammatic) ; 21. Druses; 22. Floral diagram.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 393

endosperm white; embryo straight; cotyledons two, fleshy, short, with

rounded apex; radicle obtuse (Fig. 18).

A striking anatomical character is the presence of plenty of druses,

carried by specialised cells. From all around the wall of the air canals

in the stem project large conical cells, each with a druse embedded

in the wall at the top (Fig. 21).

Another peculiar character, not mentioned by C. B. Clarke in

Hooker’s FLORA OF BRITISH INDIA or by other authors in India, is the

invariable presence of two small, subulate, purple, stipule-like lateral

outgrowths at the base of leaves and bracteoles. It is difficult to

ascertain their morphological nature from position alone, because

similar but extremely minute outgrowths are seen in the notch of the

teeth on the leaf-margins. Moreover, similar but less conspicuous

outgrowths present at the leaf base of other aquatic plants, e.g. species

of Rotala, Ammania, etc., are not treated as stipules.

COMMENTS

In two important characters, the plants differed from the short

account in FLORA OF BRITISH iNDIA (Vol. 2: p. 432) wherein the

plants are stated to be polygamous. But all the plants we examined

had only hermaphrodite flowers. Stamens were invariably four in

number.

First spot of collection was a large, shallow pond, on a low hill.

Soil was of reddish clayey type common in Malabar coast. Plants

were in about 2 feet of water, in a crowd of other aquatics.

Second spot of collection was almost at sea-level. Soil was greyish,

sandy-loam with preponderance of clay. Though restricted to one

spot, plants were more abundant; probably because of more open

nature of the association, which consisted of same species at both

places.

The plants appeared only after the heavy rains of SW. monsoon.

At the second spot, pond being shallow. margins were exposed after

the rainy season; and, in February, plants were found procumbent

on wet soil with plenty of flowers and fruit.

Normal growth-season of this plant appears to be from August to

February.

394 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

We are very thankful to the Keeper, Central National Herbarium,

Calcutta, for confirming our identification of the species.

Govt. VICTORIA COLLEGE, R. VASUDEVAN

PALGHAT, KERALA, K. KESAVAN NAIR

September 25, 1965.

20. FRUIT OF JATROPHA TANJORENSIS ELLIS ET SAROJA

(With a text-figure)

In an earlier note entitled, “A new species of Jatropha from south

India’ (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 58: 834-836; 1961), the description

of the fruit of this new species could not be given, for the plant was

not collected in fruit. Since then the plant has been collected from

various localities, viz. Ramnad Dt., Tiruchirapalli Dt., South Arcot

Dt., of Madras State, and a report of its occurrence in West Bengal

in Howrah Dt., has recently been given by 8. S. R. Bennet (J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 329, 1965).

A live plant collected from one of these localities in south India

and planted in the compound of the office of the Southern Circle,

& §

Ds g

rv)

1@) .e) Q

Jatropha tanjorensis Ellis et Saroja

i i i i d: 3. A dried fruit

ture fruit; 2. Section of a fruit showing the developed seed; 5.

Le rignoouiedl dehiscence, E—endocarp; 4. Seed—a. back’ view. b. front

view (M—micropyle).

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 395

Botanical Survey of India, Coimbatore, has set fruit, the description

of which is given below.

Fruit + 201-5 cm., a peduncled, loculicidal, obovoid-oblong,

trilocular capsule, with only one ovule of the single locule developing

into a seed; the other two abortive. Mature seed oblong-ovoid, pale

green with a few deep pink spots all over; dark brown when dry.

Caruncle striated, conspicuous. Calyx lobes slightly accrescent as the

fruit ripens. Pedicel and peduncle pubescent (Text-figure).

Herbarium specimens examined: Ellis 13850, (18-1-1962):

Ellis 24386, (12-11-1966).

SOUTHERN CIRCLE,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, J. L. ELLIS

COIMBATORE-2 |

November 24, 1966.

21. A NOTE ON MICHOLITZIA OBCORDATA N. E. BROWN:

| ASCLEPIADACEAE

The monotypic genus Micholitzia with M. obcordata was described

by Brown (1909) from a living plant cultivated in the Royal Botanic

Gardens, Glasnevin, Dublin. The piant was obtained from Messrs.

Sander & Sons of St. Albans, who are stated to have received it from

Micholitz when he was collecting in India and Burma. The exact

locality of Micholitz’s specimen remained a matter of speculation. A

year later Craib (1910) discovered another specimen collected by

Meebold from Laimatak, Manipur, at an altitude of 1200 m. and

suggested that Micholitz’s plant probably came from India. The

plant was subsequently illustrated in Hooker’s ICONES PLANTARUM (1913).

After a gap of about 40 years Deb (1955) collected this species as an

epiphyte on Ficus glomerata Roxb. from Litan, in Manipur region,

at an altitude of 915 m. ard also saw a specimen collected from

Umsaw, Assam. He mistook these specimens for a new species and

described it as Hoya manipurensis. later discovering the mistake, he

cited this species under its correct name reducing the binomial

Hoya manipurensis to its synonymy (Deb, 1961). This, nevertheless,

confirmed the occurrence of this species in the region of Assam and

Manipur.

Although the genus with its single species has been described

in detail, the fruit and seed characters have remained unknown, The

396 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2) —

writer recently found mature fruits and seeds in specimens collected

from Manipur by a botanical party of this Institute. These are

described. Our specimens have been matched with Meebold’s sheet

lodged in Calcutta Herbarium.

Micholitzia N. E. Brown in Kew Bull. 1909: 358-59, 1909.

Micholitzia obcordata N. F. Brown in Kew Bull. 1999: 358-59,

1909; Craib, ibid. 1910: 201, 1916: Brown in Hooker’s Ic. Pl. IV

Ser. 4, 10: ¢ 2980, 1913; Deb in Buil. bot. Surv. India. 3: 309, 1961,

Hoya manipurensis Deb ir. J. Indian bot. Soc. 34: 50-52, 1955.

Fruit of two follicles; peduncle 3-3-5 mm. long, striate, villously

hairy; calyx persistent; follicles widely divergent, straight or slightly

curved, linear, cylindrical, gradually tapering from near the middle to

a blunt point, 40-65 mm. X 2-3 mm. (width taken in the region below

the middle), striate, sparsely pubescent, somewhat everted after

dehiscence exposing shining, glabrous inner surface. Seeds oblong.

slightly beaked, pointed at the base. 4-451 mm., compressed,

glabrous, dark brown, crowned with a thick coma, hairs of the coma

c. 25 mm. long, silky white.

Sheets examined: Laimatak, Manipur, 1219 m., Nov. 1907, fi.

Meebold 6732, sheet no. 292613 (CAL); Kangchup Forest, 16 km.

from Imphal, Manipur. 19-4-1962, fr., J. G. Srivastava & Party 81665, °

sheet nos. 55939 & 55940 (LWG).

The writer is indebted to the Director, National Botanic Garden

Lucknow, for providing the facilities and to Dr. J. K. Maheshwari for

going through the manuscript. He is grateful to the Director,

Botanical Survey of India, for allowing him to consult the Central

National Herbarium, Sibpore.

NATIONAL BOTANIC GARDENS,

LUCKNOW, S. L. KAPOOR

January 6, 1967.

REFERENCES

Brown, N. E. (1909) : Decades Des, D. B. (1955): A new species of

Kewenses. Decas LIV. Kew Bull. Hoya from Manipur. J. Indian bot.

1909 : 358-359. Soc. 34 : 50-52.

———— (1913): In Hooker’s Icones- — (1961) : Dicotyledonous

Plantarum, Ser. 4, 10 t. 2980. plants of Manipur Territory. Bull. bot.

Cras, W. G. (1910): Miscellaneous Sut India. 3 : 309.

Notes. Kew Bull. 1910 : 201.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 397

22. CYANOPHYCEAE OF AHMEDABAD

In this note, forty-four taxa belonging to the Cyanophyceae have

been recorded for the first time from Ahmedabad and near-by places,

such-as Sarkhej, Bareja, Vatva, Sanand, and Barejadi. The collections

were made during the period June 1955 to May 1956.

1. Microcystis aeruginosa Kuetz.

. Planktonic in Kankaria tank, Ahmedabad ; in a tank at Sarkhej

(throughout the year).

2;. MI: flos-aquae (Witt.) Kirch.

Along with M. aeruginosa in Kankaria tank, Ahmedabad (Septem-

ber-November).

3. M. viridis (A. Braun) Lemm.

Planktonic in a tank, Sarkhej (10-2-56).

4. Aphanocapsa koordersi Strom.

Planktonic in a small cement tank, Sarkhej (28-8-55).

5. A. muscicola (Men.) Wille.

Dark green mass on the bark of Salvadora sp., Sarkhej (28-8-55).

6. A. pulchra (Kuetz.) Rab.

In a pond near Chandola Lake, Ahmedabad (22-2-56).

7. <A. roseana de Bary e

In a paddy field, Sarkhej (9-10-55). Floating in a puddle near

Chandola Lake, Ahmedabad (20-11-55).

8. Aphanothece castagnei (Breb.) Rab.

_ Submerged under water in a cement tank, Ahmedabad (28-8-55).

9, A. microscopica Naeg.

Floating in a small cement tank, Ahmedabad (2-7-55). In Chandola

Lake, Ahmedabad (11-10-55). In a pond, Bareja (28-1-56). On iron

pipe, Ahmedabad (28-3-56).

10. A. naegelii Wartm.

On moist soil, Ahmedabad (20-11-55).

11. A. pallida (Kuetz.) Rab.

Common. On moist soils, tree trunks, in puddles, pools, and ponds

(July to October).

12. A. stagnina (Spreng.) A. Braun

Floating in a pond near Chandola Lake, Ahmedabad (20-11- 55)

On moist soil under a bridge, Bareja (15-4-56).

398 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

13. Gloeothece palea (Kuetz.) Rab,

{n a small tank, Ahmedabad (10-8-55).

14. Chroococcus minutus (Kuetz.) Naeg.

In a puddle near a streamlet, Vatva (23-10-55).

15. C. turicensis (Naeg.) Hansg.

Floating along with other algae in a cement reservoir, Victoria Garden,

Ahmedabad (19-6-55).

16. Méerismopedia punctata Meyen

Common. In puddles, ponds, lakes (August-May).

17. Gomphosphaeria aponina Kuetz.

In cement tank, Victoria Garden, Ahmedabad (19-6-55).

18. Stichosiphon sansibaricus (Hieron.) Drouet et Daily

Epiphytic on floating algae in a puddle, Bareja (15-4-56).

19. Miicrochaete uberrima Cart.

In a tank, Sarkhej (14-12-55),

20. Aulosira fertilissima Ghose v. tenuis C. B. Rao

Common. Floating in paddy fields, puddles, ponds (October-

December).

21. Calothrix fusca Born. et Flah.

Epiphytic on aquatic plants floating or submerged in a pond, Sarkhej

(4-12-55).

22. C. karmatakensis v. major Gonz. et Kam.

In mucilaginous mass of G/loeotrichia sp. floating in a pond, Ahmeda-

bad (20-11-55).

23. CC. wemberensis Hieron. et Schmidle

Epiphytic on Rhizoclonium sp. floating in a pool, Bareja (15-4-56).

24. Gloeotrichia raciborskii Wol. v. lilienfeldiana Geitler

In ponds, Sarkhej (9-10-55), Barejadi (20-10-55).

25. Tolypothrix byssoidea (Hass.) Kirch.

On the bark of Salvadora sp., Vatva (10-8-55). On the bark of

Tamarindus sp., Feronia sp., Ahmedabad (15-8-55).

26. Scytonema ocellatum Lyng.

On the bark of Tamarindus sp., Ahmedabad (10-8-55). On wet

soil, Vatva (18-9-55). On the walls of a masjid, Ahmedabad (20-9-55),

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 399

27. Cylindrospermum catenatum Ralfs.

Submerged under water in a drying puddle, near Chandola Lake

Ahmedabad (20-11-55).

28. C. licheniforme Kuetz. ex Born. et Flah.

In a puddle, Sarkhej (10-10-55).

29. C. muscicola Kuetz. ex Born. et Flah.

On moist soil, Gujarat College Garden, Ahmedabad (23-8-55).

30. Nodularia harveyana Thuret v. sphaerocarpa (Born. et Flah.) Elenkin.

Floating in a small puddle, Bareja (15-4-55).

31. Anabaenopsis circularis (G. S. West) Wolosz. et Miller

In a tank near palace, Sarkhej (10-10-55).

32. A. raciborskii Wolosz.

Planktonic in a pond, Sanand (28-12-55).

33. Nostoc carneum Agardh ex Born. et Flah.

In puddles, Gujarat College Garden, Ahmedabad (23-8-55). On

moist soil, Ahmedabad (28-8-55). In puddles, Ahmedabad (10-10-55).

34. N. ellipsosporum (Desm.) Rab. ex Born. et Flah.

On moist soil near a puddle, Sarkhej (9-10-55).

35. N. minutum Desm. ex Born. et Flah.

On moist soil, Ahmedabad (29-8-55).

36. N. piscinale Kuetz. ex Born. et Flah.

In a puddle, Ahmedabad (23-10-55).

37. Wollea bharadwajae R. N. Singh

Attached to submerged soil in a puddle, Barejadi (20-10-55).

38. Anabaena ambigua C. B. Rao

In a puddle, Sarkhej (9-10-55). Floating in a puddle near Chandola

Lake, Ahmedabad (22-2-56).

39. A. bolochonzewii C. Meyer

Along with Microcystis sp. in a tank, Sarkhej (10-2-56).

40. A. fertilissima C. B. Rao

In a puddle, Sarkhej (9-10-55).

41. A.laxa A.Braun -

In a puddle, Bareja (15-12-55). Submerged under water in puddles,

_ Sanand (28-12-55).

400 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

42. A. mediocris Gardner

In a puddle, Sarkhej (9-10-55). Floating in a puddle, Barejadi

(20-10-55).

43. A. orientalis Dixit

In a puddle, Sarkhej (9-10-55).

44. A, volzii Lemmermann

In a shaded puddle, Barejadi (20-10-55). Along with Chara sp.

submerged under water in a puddle, Vatva (28-10-55). 3

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The author takes this opportunity to thank Dr. T. A. Rao, Ecologist,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for encouragement.

BOTANY DEPARTMENT,

COLLEGE OF SCIENCE, |

NAGPUR lI, N. D. KAMAT

July 5, 1966. |

Gleanings

Synchronous Flashing of Fireflies. Sir John and Elisabeth Buck,

Who have recently been observing synchronous flashing by fireflies in

Thailand and Bornéo (a phenomenon also reported from_ tropical

India), make tentative suggestions regarding the build-up and purpose

of their massive and long-lasting assemblies, which have been thus

described by an earlier observer:

‘.... a tenth of a mile of river front with an unbroken line of

Sonneratia trees with fireflies on every leaf and all the fireflies flashing

in unison, the insects in the trees at the ends of the line acting in

perfect unison with those between’. the fiashing occurring ‘hour after

hour, night after night, for weeks or even months... The flashing

is by the male insects.

Numerous insects have been found during the day on trees on

which flashing was observed at night. The longevity of the

individual insects is a few days at the most and reproduction seems

to occur, throughout the year. The flashing assemblies are generally

confined to particular trees, although other trees apparently as

suitable for the purpose occur in the near neighbourhood. Further,

it has been observed with free fiving fireflies in a dark room that there

is a period, before the males alight and synchronous flashing begins

to build up, when the insects are definitely attracted to each other.

This suggests that the large assemblies are built up by positive

phototaxis and, having once been established, are kept going by the

resident population attracting other fireflies from the neighbourhood.

The females of the species studied are not apterous and have been

found in large numbers on the trees observed and, as they do not

take part in the flashing, are probably there for another purpose. In

Jamaica large numbers of mating pairs were found in non-synchronous

flashing trees under observation and the authors, who unfortunately

did not investigate this particular point, found a mating pair on the

gunwale of their canoe after beating the foliage in making a mass

collection. It is therefore suggested that the flashing aggregations have

a sexual significance. It is known that in most species of fireflies the

sexes are brought together by photic signals between the individual

Insects. This is usually in open ground where the signals are easily

Observed. In the mangrove-nypa palm (Nypa fruticans) swamps of

402 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (2)

south-east Asia, where this mass flashing has been principally

observed, the terrain does not lend itself to this sort of signalling.

This, it is suggested, is the reason why the mass signalling method

has evolved.

The authors, in conclusion, add that it would be optimistic to

regard the problem raised as settled by observations over a few

evenings; further investigation is called for. |

Dr. John Buck & Elisabeth Buck: Biolcgy of, synchronous flashing

of fireflies. Nature, Vol. 211, No. 5049, pp. 562f, 6 August 1966.

Notes and News

Award of the Union Medal of the B. O. U. to Dr. Salim Ali

Dr. Salim Ali has been promoted to an Honorary Membership of the

British Ornithologists’ Union, a status accorded in the Rules of the

Union to ‘ ornithologists resident outside the United Kingdom, elected

on grounds of high distinction in the subject or in services contributing

to its advancement, and shall not exceed fifteen in number at any time.’

He has also been awarded—for the first time to a non-Britisher—the

coveted Union Medal of the B.O.U. in recognition of his contributions

to Indian ornithology over the past 40 years.

‘ Sterile-male ’ Technique of Insect Control

Volume 57 of the Journal at page 175 catried a Gleaning regarding

the use of the sterile-male technique for the eradication of the Screw- -

worm Fly in Florida. Science News of 11th March, 1967 (Volume 91,

No. 10) reports that the fight continues and that a sterile-male barrier is

maintained along the Texas border to exclude invasion from uncleared

Mexico. The use of the technique is extending. It has been applied

against the Melon Fly in Rota and Guam, and a Press Trust of India

message in The Times of India, of 2nd May, 1967, reports its use against

the Mediterranean Fruit Fly in the Island of Capri.

Mullet fry from captive fish

News from Israel of 1st July 1967 (published by the Consulate of

Israel, Bombay) reports that scientists of the Dror Fish Culture

Research Station and the Hebrew University of Jerusalem have, after

several years of experiment, succeeded in obtaining mullet (/ugil capito)

fry from captive fish treated with suitable hormones and kept in changes

of water of successively increasing salinity. The process appears to be

still in the laboratory stage. Further progress will be watched with

interest.

ite a =F

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-CONTENTS

THE BIRDS OF THE NICOBAR ISLANDS, ‘WITH Norzs ON SOME ANDAMAN BIEDS-

By Humayun Abdulali .. cs adie we

CONTRIBUTION TO THE FLORA OF NORTH-EAST Rasen By L.N. Vyas . :

MIDDLE East LEPIDOPTERA—XXIV: "Beihania, A NEW NocTUID GENUS FROM

SOUTHERN ARABIA WITH TWO NEW SPECIES FROM ARABIA AND SOMALILAND. =

By E. P.. Wiltshire a, ee

GROWTH AND PROPAGATION OF COMMON Carp (Cyprinus carpio L.) In INDIA—V.

By. K. V. Ramakrishna and K. H. Alikunhi * ot

A POPULATION SURVEY OF THE BONNET MONKEY, Macaca radiata (GEOFFROY)

IN BANGALORE, SOUTH INDIA. By Hafeezur Rahaman and M. D.

Parthasarathy ae he ais Bis a

ANSECTS ATTRACTED TO MERCURY VAPOUR LAMP IN THE SURAT DANGS,

GUJARAT STATE. By E. M. Shull and N. T. Nadkerny

SLirroRAL AND Parasitic Isopops FROM KERALA: FAMILIES EURYDICIDAE,

CORALLANIDAE AND AEGIDAE—2. By Krishna Pillai $n ee

NOTES ON THE NIDIFICATION OF THE PIED HARRIER, Circus melanoleucos

(PENNANT), IN AMURLAND, U.S.S.R. By I. A. Neufeldt:

232

238

251

256

267

284

THE NESTING ACTIVITIES OF THE VESPOID POTTER WASP Eumenes campaniformis -

esuriens (FABR.) COMPARED WITH THE ECOLOGICALLY SIMILAR SPHECOID

Sceliphron madraspatanum (FAsBR.) (HYMENOPTERA). By S. D. Jayakar. -

and H. Spurway ae ae ae : -e

COMPOSITAE OF RAIPUR AND ITS SURROUNDINGS (M. P.), wid K. Sankaran

_ Unni : as

THE MANAGEMENT OF INDIA’S ewan Lire Pe ee AND Mine PARKS.

Part V. By E. P. Gee Seri 5a A fo y4)

OBITUARY fe, - | he : | ms

REVIEWS ee oe 44 oi ae sie

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES ee i Ae.

GLEANINGS ae ae eis sf

Notes AND NEws .. AiR i eae Pi We

307

333

339

342

343

352

401

403

Journal of the

Bombay sees History Society

Vol. 64, No. 3

Editors

H. SANTAPAJU, 5.3.,

ZAFAR FUTEHALLY, & J. C. DANIEL

DECEMBER 1967

Rs. 18 (Inland), Sh. 30 (Foreign)

NOTICE TO CONTRIBUTORS

Contributors of scientific articles are requested to assist the

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or Dimeria blatteri.

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J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 55 (2): 243-268.

Prater, S. H. (1948): The Book of Indian Animals. Bombay.

Titles of papers should not be underlined.

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EDITORS,

Hornbill House, Journal of the Bombay Natural

Opp. Lion Gate, : History Society.

Apollo Street, Fort,

Bombay 1-BR.

VOLUME 64, NO. 3—DECEMBER 1967

Date of publication : 22-1-1968

CONTENTS

EXAMPLES OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT ForMS OF LIFE IN TROPICAL

AFRICA. By A. Brosset. (With three plates) Me

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF INDIAN BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DE Lut. By

Julian P. Donahue. (With three text-figures) a :

A New ANNONACEA FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS. By K. Thothathri and

Debika Das. (With a plate) Rt ws

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF Artemia salina L. (CRUSTACEA : ANOSTRACA). By

Inder Chand Baid. (With a plate)

A NoTE ON NAGALAND. By P. D. Stracey oe

OBSERVATIONS ON THE Lire HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF Oligotoma ceylonica

ceylonica ENDERLEIN (OLIGOTOMIDAE, EMBIOPTERA), COMMENSAL IN THE

NEST OF THE SOCIAL SPIDER Stegodyphus sarasinorum KarscH. By

Bhushan Lal Bradoo. (With two plates) ;

A SPECIAL FISHING METHOD FOR Mystus (Osteobagrus) teens oe AND

Mystus (Osteobagrus) aor (HAMILTON) AND CERTAIN OTHER INTERESTING

FISHING METHODS IN RIVER NARBADA. By S. J. Karamchandani and

P.K. Pandit. (With three plates) a :

THE GENUS Caryota IN INDIA. By T. S. Mahabale and Nandini Shirke.

(With two plates, seventy-five text-figures and a map)

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INsEcTs. By R. K.

Varshney and T.P.S. Teotia

THe Pomnr CALIMERE SANCTUARY, NABHaS STATE—May 1967. By J. C.

Daniel. (With a map) “f Le 2 ,

Two NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONES (ACTINIARIA) FROM asnsiin By

Arun Parulekar. (With four text-figures)

REVIEWS :

1. The Deer and the Tiger. (E.P.G.)

2. Social communication among Primates. (G.B.S.)

3. The African Elephant and The African Lion. (D.J.P.)

4. A Bird overhead. (H.A.)

5. The World of Reptiles. (B.R.G.)

6. The Life of Insects. (D.E.R.) .

7. An introduction to the behaviour of Ants. (N.T.N.)

8. That we may live. (Z.F.)

9. Dawn Dusk and Deer. (D.J.P.)

10. Illustrations to the Flora of Delhi. (P.V.B.) .

11. Grasses and grasslands. (P.M.D. & K.A.S.)

12. The Oxford book of flowerless plants. (P.V.B.)

13. The Rose in India. (A.J.A.)

14. Poisonous plants of India. (S.R.A.)

Methods of animal experimentation. (A.N.D.N.)

bod

405

410

430

432

440

447

455

462

488

524

530

532

535

536

537

538

539

540

54i

542

543

544

546

548

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES :

1. Dobson’s Long-tongued Fruit Bat, Eonycteris spelaea (Dobson), from

Kumaon Hills, U.P.: an addition to the Chiropteran Fauna of India. By

H. R. Bhat (p. 550). 2. Occurrence of the Brown Bear, Ursus arctos

Linnaeus, in Bhutan. By E. P. Gee (p. 551). 3. Occurrence of the Desert

Cat, Felis libyca ornata Gray, near Poona. By B. S. Lamba (p. 552). 4.

Occurrence of the Snow Leopard, Panthera uncia (Schreber), in Bhutan. By

E. P. Gee (p. 552). 5. Occurrence of the Nayan or Great Tibetan Sheep,

Ovis ammon hodgsoni Blyth, in Bhutan. By E. P. Gee (p. 553). 6. Acase

of albinism in Rattus blanfordi (Thomas), 1881 (Rodentia : Murinae). By

P. K. Rajagopalan (p. 554). 7. Rednecked Grebe Podiceps griseigena

(Boddaert) sighted in West Pakistan. (With a plate). By J.R.S. Holmes, T. J.

Roberts, and C. D. W. Savage (p. 555). 8. Unusual method of fishing by Little

Egret Egretta garzetta (Linnaeus). By Humayun Abdulali (p. 557). 9. The

Whistling Teal [Deudrocygna javanica (Horsfield)] in the Calcutta environs.

By B. Basu (p. 558). 10. On the occurrence of the Fulvousbreasted Wood-

pecker Dendrocopos macei (Vieillot) in Sikkim. By P. V. George (p. 559).

11. The Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos Wagler, a determinate layer.

By B. S. Lamba (p. 560). 12. The Brown Dipper (Cinclus pallassi) as a host.

of a cuckoo (Cuculus sp.). By Rauf Ali (p. 561). 13. Notes on the agamid

lizard Pryctolaemus gularis (Peters) from Khasi Hills, Assam. (With a photo-

graph). By S. Biswas (p. 561). 14. Mating and other observations on sea

snakes in captivity. (With a plate). By B. F. Chhapgar and H. G. Kewal-

ramani (p. 563). 15. The status of the Ceylon Frog Rhacophorus nasutus

(Gunther). (With a map). By F. R. Senanayake (p. 565). 16. Ona record of

the Blennid Fish Crunatus dealmeida (Smith) from Indian Waters. (With a

photograph). By K. V. Rama Rao (p. 570). 17. Mullets on rod and line in

Chilka Lake. By A. V. Natarajan and B. K. Banerji (p. 572). 18. The

Coconut Crab Birgus latro (L.) (Crustacea : Paguridae) in the Great Nicobar

Island. (With a photograph and four text-figures). By A. Daniel and V. K.

Prem-Kumar (p. 574). 19. Genitalia of Butterflies of the Hesperiid Genus

Caltoris as figured by Evans. By Keith Cantlie (p. 580). 20. A note on the

occurrence of Proteromonas chameleoni Krishnamurthy, 1963 (Protozoa :

Mastigophora). By R. Krishnamurthy (p. 582). 21. Some plant records for

Orissa State. By T. Ananda Rao and L. K. Banerjee (p. 583). 22. The

occurrence of the Small Snapdragon Antirrhinum orontium Linn. in Maha-

rashtra State. (With a plate). By V. D. Vartak (p. 584). 23. Some interesting

plants from the Saurashtra Coast. By T. Ananda Rao and B. C. Korlahalli

(p. 585). 24. Note on Argyreia involucrata Clarke (Convolvulaceae). (With a

plate). By S. P. Banerjee and R. N. Banerjee (p. 586). 25. New plant records

for Bombay. By G. L. Shah and M. B. Deshpande (p. 587). 26. Pseudostel-

laria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax F. nepalensis Majumdar : A new addition to the

Himalayan Flora. (With a plate). By N. C. Majumdar (p. 589). 27. On the

occurrence of a new variety of /séetes coromandelina L. in Raipur M. P, (With

a text-figure). By K. Sankaran Unni (p. 590).

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL History SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1966-67

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HIsToRY SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING aes ae ah

593

600

611

JOURNAL

OF THE

BOMBAY NATURAL

HISTORY SOCIETY

1967 DECEMBER Vol. 64 No. 3

Examples of Relationship between

different forms of life in

Tropical Africa

A. BROSSET

(With three plates)

INTRODUCTION

Every form of life necessarily involves some relationship with

other forms of life, and the problem' posed by the Bombay Natural

History Society has to be clearly detined. It appears to me that the

point of the inquiry is a review of cases where a species which is not

really a parasite habituates itself to use the activities of another species

for its own benefit, for its security, or for food, or for shelter.

Relationships of this sort are certainly much more numerous than

we know of, especially in the tropics where animal communities are

more intricate and have been less intensively studied. In comparison

with other tropical countries, India has a tradition of interest and

efficiency in the study of natural history. Hence, several cases of such

relationships were first established in that country. Nevertheless, such

relationships may be observed anywhere and I propose, in the present

1 This article was written in response to a letter from the Honorary Secretary

to members of the Society asking them to record their observations on animal

associations.

406 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

paper, to record briefly sorne observations on vals subject recently

made by me in trepical Africa.

ASSOCIATION OF THE BAT KER/IVOULA HARRISSONI WITH

THE SOCIAL SPIDER AGELENA CONSOCIATA

When I was staying at the French ‘Mission biologique au Gabon’

I was told by a fellow member, a specialist in spiders, that he had

rather frequently observed some creature, either a small bat or a large

moth, well inside the webs made by colonies of the social spider

Agelena consociata—not being particularly interested he was not sure

of the identity cf the intruder. I verified the information and readily

identified the intruder as the bat Kerivoula harrissoni, a small forest

species. Later, I collected several specimens of the bat from other

such webs and, further, I never saw the species in another type of

diurnal roost.

Kerivoula harrissoni is neither solitary nor colonial in its ‘habits.

It seems to lead a family life, something that is rare among the

numerous species of bats. Regularly we saw pairs in the webs, and

sometimes a young one as well. The bats do not attach themselves to

the webs, but they hang by their hind limbs from the twigs which

support the webs. My friend Gerard Dubost, who was with me in

Gabon, noticed that where the bats were hanging the bark of the

twigs had been worn by their claws, a fact which suggests very

sedentary habits on the part of the bats. :

We observed no direct interference between the two species, the

bats and the spiders, in their day to day life. It seems probable that

the webs provide the bats with protection against predators and against

the sun, particularly by reason of the dry leaves that the webs support.

That dry leaves are an important factor of the diurnal biotope is sug-

gested by the fact that the Indian Painted Bat of the same genus,

Kerivoula picta, has been observed hanging during the day in bunches

of dried leaves. .

Generally speaking, bats of the genus Kerivoula are known to

occupy rather unusual diurnal shelters. For instance, the African

species K. lanosa and K. nidicola shelter in the nésts of birds such

as weavers and sunbirds. But this is the first record of a bat having

its diurnal roost in a spider’s web.

J. Bompay nat. Hist. Soc. 64(3) Prats |

Brosset : Animal Associations

Kingfisher Aleyon badia feeding its young at nest in nest of arboreal termite

Nasutitermes.

(Courtesy :

Devez)

Mission biologique au Gabon—Director, Professor P. P. Grasse, Photo: A. R,

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64(3) Pate If

Brosset : Animal Associations

Hive of bees Tvigona nebulata made in woodpecker incubation chamber in nest

of arboreal termite Nasutitermes (outside view).

Arrow shows entrance of bees, made by narrowing exit hole of the birds.

(Courtesy : Mission biologique au Gabon—Director, Professov P, P. Grasse. Photo: A. R.

Devez)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT FORMS OF LIFE 407

_ A SUCCESSION OF PARASITIC INTRUDERS IN THE NEST OF

THE ARBOREAL TERMITE NASUTITERMES

While studying termites, the head of the Mission, Professor P. P.

Grassé, discovered in a nest of the arboreal termite Nasutitermes a

clutch of eggs of birds which we identified as of a kingfisher (genus

Alcyon). Several members of the Mission became interested as various

vertebrates and invertebrates seemed to be associated with the

Nasutitermes nests. The phenomenon was specially studied by Roger

Darchen and me and we were able to establish a curious succession

of parasitic intruders in the termite nests, which were very often

occupied first by birds, then by honey bees, and finally by ants.

Occupation by birds

After the original discovery by Professor Grassé, we found several

other birds’ nests made inside the arboreal nests of the Nasutitermes.

Three were made by the same species of kingfisher Alcyon badia,

one by another kingfisher A/cyon malimbica. another by the wood-

pecker Campethera permista, two others by the woodpecker Campethera

nivosa. We also found several empty nests in Nasutitermes nests,

probably made by the same species of birds.

Birds of the woodpecker family are well-sinkers, whereas kingfishers

are borers of tunnels. Each species of birds followed its family

technique in the termite nests; the woodpecker worked from the top

sinking a vertical excavation, while the kingfisher bored a round

incubation chamber with the exit hole on the side.

Two eggs are the normal clutch of the birds nesting in the termite

nests. In two cases of woodpeckers and in one of kingfishers only

one young one was reared. In three cases, in spite of the apparently

secure situation of the nest, the clutch was destroyed by predators.

The most exciting problem is still met within India and concerns

the nest of the Rufous Woodpecker Micropternus brachyurus made in

the nest of the ferocious Crematogaster ants: How can this small

bird hatch its eggs and rear its young in the middle of a crowded

colony of these aggressive insects, in a situation which a large mammal

would not be able to endure for more than a few seconds?

For the Indian woodpecker it seems that the problem remains

unsolved. For the Gabonese species careful consideration makes the

solution clear. In the nests of the African woodpeckers C. nivosa

and C. permista the cells of the termite nest remain open and communi-

cation between the birds and the termites is possible through the

408 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Separating wall. Nevertheless, very few termites were seen in the

incubation chamber-—even none, if the termite nest was a small one.

As woodpeckers are probably termite eaters, we may presume that the

bird systematically eats any termites it sees when boring its nest and

when hatching its eggs, so that very few of the termites remain when

the young birds become fledglings.

Rather different is the case of the kingfisher. These birds do not

eat termites, and these insects being very numerous around the nest

the bird probably does not destroy them. The five nests we saw

with clutch and young were in the middle of crowded colonies of

termites but were completely insulated from them by a wall of mud.

This wall was made of the same raw materials as the body of the

termite nest, and so we presume that this insulating wall was made

by the termites themselves and not by the birds. But we inay also

presume that there is something special in the behaviour of the bird

that induces the termites to make this dividing wall. In fact, holes —

and cracks made by man in the body of the nest are immediately

repaired by the termites and the ball shape of the nest is restored. It

would be interesting to know what it is that leads to the construction

of this dividing wall. Pa

Occupation by honey bees

The termites continue to lead their day to day life in their portion

of the nest, while the birds hatch their eggs and rear their young in

the portion taken possession of by them. The worries of the termites

do not end when the birds leave for, more often than not, the honey

bee Trigona nebulata, a very common species in that part of Africa,

comes immediately to fill the incubation chamber with its hive. Roger

Darchen, a specialist in bees and a fellow member of the French

‘Mission biologique au Gabon’, collected many such hives constructed

in living colonies of Nasutitermes nests previously occupied by wood-

peckers or kingfishers. A few such nests, situated in the garden of

the Mission, were studied for a period of two years and the relation-

ship of these animal communities is rather well known today.

At first the bees build inside the nest a thick insulating wall

made by casting resin in the crevices of the incubation chamber of:

the birds. Then, with the same raw material, the exit is narrowed

down till it forms a tube 20-30 mm. in diameter. This tube widens

outwards at the surface of the nest to make the run-way for the

landing of the bees. Inside the hive, we may observe stores of honey

and pollen and the nest of the bees, surrounded by several sheaths.

J. Bompay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64(3) PLATE III

Brosset : Animal Associations

Hive of bees Tvigona nebulata made in woodpecker incubation chamber

of arboreal termite Nasutitermes (interior view, after opening the hive).

(Courtesy : Mission biologique au Gabon—Divrector, Professoy P. P. Grasse. Photo: A. R.

Devez)

RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT FORMS OF LIFE 409

Occupation by ants

In most of the cases kerved by us the hives degenerated and,

little by little, ants of the species Cataulacus angolensis took the place

of the bees. It seems that these ants not only supplant the bees,

but they also eat the honey and the pollen and, perhaps, the larvae

of the bees.

Finally, the ants themselves may disappear, and the termites still

living in the undisturbed part of their nest may recover the whole of

their original home.

Readers interested in knowing more details on the subject are

invited to refer to the journal Biologia Gabonica Ii-—1966.

Notes on a Collection of Indian Birds,

mostly from Delhi

JULIAN P. DONAHUE

Department of Entomology, Michigan State University,

East Lansing, Michigan, U.S.A.

(With three text-figures)

Complete data are presented for 119 specimens of birds collected

in 1961-1962 from Delhi, Punjab, Rajasthan, and Andhra Pradesh.

Eighty-two species are represented, including eight new to the Delhi

list : Dupetor f. flavicollis, Amaurornis fuscus bakeri, A. akool akool,

Caprimulgus i. indicus, C. macrurus albonotatus, Riparia riparia,

Locustella lanceolata, and Chaetornis striatus.

Despite the forbidding, semi-arid nature of its 574 square miles, the

State of Delhi is a birdwatcher’s paradise—especially in the winter, when

so many Palaearctic species are present, and in the spring during the

northward migration. Delhi has been fortunate in that many people

assigned to work there, in governmental, military, or commercial capaci-

ties, have brought with them a keen interest in birds. And wherever

birdwatchers go, a local list is soon to follow.

The first such list, based largely on specimens he collected, was

published by Basil-Edwardes (1926). After a lapse of 21 years Frome

(1947) published a second list, which generated a small flurry of correc-

tions and additions (Alexander 1949 ; Benthall 1949; Frome 1948), cul-

minating in yet another list (Alexander 1950). Sometime in the early

1950s a 12-page, indexed field check list was printed (anonymous, un-

dated), listing 356 species then known to occur in Delhi. In 1953

(anonymous) a three-page list of corrections and additions to Alexander’s

1950 list was published. In 1954 the Delhi Bird Watching Society —

published Hutson’s THE BIRDS ABOUT DELHI, a fact-filled book contain- ©

ing data on 370 species. In 1962 I had the privilege of collaborating

with Usha Ganguli. and Harold Williams on a revised check list (anony-

mous, 1963), of 388 species, which updated the breeding and migratory

status of many birds and incorporated the records contained in the

present paper.

In addition to providing more detailed information on the eight

species new to Delhi—Black Bittern (Dupetor f. flavicollis), Ruddy Crake

(Amaurornis fuscus bakeri), Brown Crake (Amaurornis a. akool), Jungle

Nightjar (Caprimulgus i. indicus), Longtailed Nightjar (Caprimulgus

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 411

macrurus albonotatus), Collared Sand Martin (Riparia riparia), Streaked

Grasshopper Warbler (Locustella lanceolata), and Bristled Grass Warbler

(Chaetornis striatus)—indicated with a dagger (f) in the text, this paper

presents brief data on my entire collection of Indian birds, consisting

of 119 identified specimens representing 82 species. Most of the speci-

mens are from Delhi, but small collections from Andhra Pradesh,

Punjab, and Rajasthan are also included, and are marked with an asterisk

(*). Unless otherwise noted, all specimens are deposited in the Museum,

Michigan State University (MSU).

The major collecting sites were the Nursery, near the New Delhi

residential area of Sundar Nagar, and in the vicinity of several large

jheels (shallow lakes) south-west of Delhi. For a detailed discussion of

the ecology, habitats, and climate of Delhi, with maps, see Donahue

(1967).

Continued selective collecting in Delhi, concentrating on groups

that are elusive or hard to identify in the field, such as warblers, nightjars,

and rails, will add greatly to our knowledge of the Delhi avifauna. The

cattail (Typha) marshes south of Okhla along the Agra Canal Road have

been especially productive, and should be carefully observed for more

records.

METHOD OF STUDY

The species are arranged, numbered, and named (with alternate names

in parentheses) according to Ripley (1961). Subspecies were determined

by comparison with specimens in the University of Michigan Museum of

Zoology (UMMZ), where part of the huge Walter N. Koelz collection

is housed, or at the American Museum of Natural History (AMNH),

or by using published descriptions when the subspecific differences were

obvious enough to prevent confusion. Credit is given when persons other

than myself identified a particular specimen. In the several instances,

where it was not possible to identify the subspecific population to which

an individual belonged, this has been stated, and a multiple index number

has been used.

The sex is given only when this has been ascertained by dissection,

even in sexually dichromic species. The condition of the gonads, ab-

breviated as given below, serves as an indication of the sexual activity

of the bird. Among the passerines the degree of ossification of the skull,

given whenever this character was examined, indicates the age of the

bird—an ossified skull signifying an adult bird.

All measurements, given only for the eight species new to Delhi, are

in millimetres, and were taken according to the standards given by

Baldwin et al. (1931).

412. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

The presence of external or internal parasites is noted where appli-

cable. These nematodes and feather lice have been identified, and will

be discussed in a later paper.

ABBREVIATIONS

Gonad Condition

3S ee

t.n.e.=testes not enlarged 0.n.e. = ovary not enlarged

t.s.e. = ,, somewhat enlarged 0.S.e.= ,, somewhat enlarged

te. = ,, ‘emlarsed 0.6. ==." 3) eMlarees

t.g.e.= ,, greatly enlarged 0.g.c.= ,, greatly enlarged

Ossification of the Skull

s.n.o. =skull not ossified

8.8.0. = ,, somewhat ossified

$,0,.. ==) “ossified t

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

For assistance in the identification or verification of specimens I am —

indebted to the following persons: Salim Ali of Bombay, Robert L.

Fleming Jr., of Mussoorie, Charles Vaurie of the American Museum of

Natural History, New York, and Humayun Abdulali, who also kindly

allowed me to examine the Bombay Natural History Society collection.

For their hospitality and generosity in allowing me to examine specimens

in their care I am grateful to Dean Amadon, Chairman of the Depart-

ment of Ornithology, American Museum of Natural History, and

Harrison B. Tordoff, Curator of Birds, University of Michigan Museum

of Zoology. |

Appreciation is also extended to Dwight C. Finfrock, formerly of —

New Delhi, for his aid in securing some of the specimens ; Irving J.

Cantrall of the University of Michigan Museum of Zoology, who identi-

fied the locust eaten by a nightjar ; and to Usha Ganguli of Delhi, who

served as a stimulating and knowledgeable companion during our many

hours in pursuit of Delhi birds. My thanks also are due to George J,

Wallace, who reviewed the manuscript.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 413

ACCOUNT OF SPECIES

ARDEIDAE

57. Ixobrychus sinensis (Gmelin), Yellow Bittern.

1g, 3% miles S. of Okhla, Delhi, 2 June 1962. t.s.e. (left about twice size of

right), MSU No. 4037.

Collected at 8 a.m., while it perched about 3 ft. off ground in cattails,

58. +Dupetor flavicollis flavicollis (Latham), Black Bittern.

ealen 32 miles S. of Okhla, Delhi, 11 May 1962. o0.g.e., MSU No. 4038.

Collected at dusk by D. C. Finfrock, as it flew over dense bed of

cattails, accompanied by a second bird. Stomach: 3 small fish. This

species also seen in same locality on 1 June. Probably a resident species

‘in the marsh. Tail with 11 feathers, instead of the usual 10. Measure-

ments : wing 190, tail 72, culmen 83, tarsus 69, middle toe with claw 72.

A widespread species, but new to the Delhi list. - Field Marks: a very

dark bird, with a large buff-and-white cheek patch and light streaks on

the throat.

ACCIPITRIDAE

124. *Elanus caeruleus vociferus (Latham), Blackwinged Kite.

13, Pali, Rajasthan, 4 Oct. 1961. t.s.e., MSU No. 4039.

Solitary, perched on treetops in thorn scrub and cultivated land.

157. Butastur teesa (Franklin), White-eyed Buzzard.

12, 8. miles SW. of New Delhi, 19 Nov. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4040; 13,1 mile

S. of Alwar, Rajasthan, 2 Oct. 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4041; 13, 26 miles NE.

of Ajmer, Rajasthan, 2 Oct. 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4042.

MSU No. 4040. Sitting on haystack in centre of ploughed field,

semi-arid land. Stomach: 1 or 2 molecrickets (Gryllotalpidae), and other

insect matter. Mallophaga preserved. Adult.

MSU No. 4041. Perched on road signin open country. Stomach: 1

large grasshopper, plus other insect remains. Adult.

MSU No. 4042. Feeding on ploughed ground near large shallow

lake. Stomach: over 30 grasshoppers and a beetle. Juvenile.

169. Aquila nipalensis nipalensis (Hodgson), Steppe Eagle.

13, (2), 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 27 Dec. 1961. MSU No. 4043.

On edge of large jheel with other eagles, feeding on dead si cia

Stomach : mostly feathers, Five species of Mallophaga preserved.

414 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

191. *Circus pygargus (Linnaeus), Montagu’s Harrier.

12, (2, in male plumage), 26 miles NE. of Ajmer, Rajasthan, 8 Oct. 1961. MSU

No. 4044.

Feeding on open ploughed ground. Stomach: full of grasshoppers.

FALCONIDAE

222-224. Falco tinnunculus Linnaeus ssp., Kestrel.

1, ? sex, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 27 Dec. 1961. MSU No. 4045.

In open cultivated land, perching in trees and alighting on ground.

Large amount of fat on body. Mallophaga preserved.

RALLIDAE

339, +Amaurornis fuscus bakeri (Hartert), Ruddy Crake.

13, 34 miles S. of Okhla, Delhi, 1 June 1962. t.g.e., MSU No. 4046; 19 (juve-

nile), same locality, 1 July 1962. o.n.e., MSU No. 4047; 1¢ (juvenile), same

locality, 1 July 1962, t.n.e., MSU No. 4048.

MSU No. 4046. On soggy ground near puddles in cattail marsh.

Several others seen. Stomach: 18 vermiform insect larvae, 1 spider,

several water-strider-like insects (Gerridae), 1 or 2 small snails, much

unidentified insect matter, several pieces of gravel. Legs bright red-

dish pink. Subspecies confirmed at AMNH. The first record of this

species from Delhi, and perhaps the southwestern-most record of this

subspecies in India (see notes below).

MSU No. 4047. Same habitat. Stomach: small beetles, insect

larvae, white gravel. Legs brown.

MSU No. 4048. Same habitat. Stomach: small beetles, insect

larvae, much unidentified insect matter, small white gravel. Legs brown.

TABLE

MEASUREMENTS OF THE RUDDY CRAKES, IN MILLIMETRES

Specimen wing tail culmen tarsus middle toe with claw

4046, adult 98 49 e.: 19 37 44

4047, juv.2 100 51 19 38 42

4048, juv.d 100 52 19°5 36 42

1 tip of bill broken off.

The Ruddy Crakes feed in the early morning (about sunrise) on the

small open mud flats surrounded by cattails. They are very active

feeders, and overturn and toss about bits of debris in their search for

food. The birds jerk their tails constantly, in rhythm with their steps,

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 415

They are not overly shy, and a fairly close approach is possible. A

sudden movement or alarm sends the birds running, with wings flutter-

ing, into the cattails. Only rarely did I see them fly.

The only call definitely attributable to this species was uttered by an

adult bird on 7 June 1962, as it fed : a short chuck that is lower in pitch

or softer, or both, at the end.

This subspecies ranges from the Afghan border in West Pakistan to

Kashmir and in suitable areas to Assam, south to Bengal, East Pakistan,

and Burma (Ripley 1961). <A./f. zeylonicus Baker ranges from north-

western Mysore south to Ceylon (Ripley 1961). Humayun Abdulali

(personal communication) informs me that there are two specimens

from Bombay (outside the recorded range of either subspecies) in the

Bombay Natural History Society collection. One was identified by

Hugh Whistler as A. fuscus fuscus, while the second was marked as

A. fuscus bakeri by Ripley who, however, omits mention of these birds

in his SYNOPSIS (1961).

342. + Amaurornis akool akool (Sykes), Brown Crake.

13, 34 miles S. of Okhla, Delhi, 2 June 1962. t.e., MSU No. 4049; 13, same

data. t.s.e. (left over twice size of right), MSU No. 4050.

MSU No. 4049. Feeding in early morning on small, wet mud clearing

in a cattail bed, with A. fuscus bakeri, Porphyrio porphyrio, and Vanellus

indicus. Stomach: many small, black, unidentified insects, with small

pieces of gravel. Measurements : wing 118, tail 57, culmen 32, tarsus 49,

middle toe with claw 57.5. The first record of this species in Delhi,

although it occurs south to central India.

MSU No. 4050. Stomach: one large (15 mm. long) hemipteran, a

small snail, highly sclerotized arthropod pieces, and over 10 pieces of white

gravel. Measurements : wing 122, tail 58, culmen 32, tarsus 50, middle

toe with claw 57°5.

CHARADRIIDAE

Subfamily Scolopacinae

397. *Tringa ochropus Linnaeus, Green Sandpiper.

1g, Pali, Rajasthan, 4 Oct. 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4051.

At a small puddle in thorn scrub and cultivated land.

BURHINIDAE

436. 3 *Burhinus oedicnemus indicus (Salvadori), Stone Curlew.

12, 20 miles NW. of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 12 Aug. 1961. o.n.e.,

MSU No. 4052.

In teak (Tectona grandis) jungle. Nocturnal. Stomach: adult

Coleoptera and a large millipede (Diplopoda).

416 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

GLAREOLIDAE

443. Glareola pratincola maldivarum J. R. Forster, Collared Pratincole.

12,20 miles SW. of Delhi (Najafgarh Jheel), 16 June 1962. 0.e., MSU No. 4084.

One of a large flock (over 300) resting on ground at edge of jheel.

Hawked insects at sunrise like a nightjar, but gregarious and sedentary

after 6 a.m. Call: a rising chik, and a tern-like chrrrik, both uttered in

flight.

PTEROCLIDIDAE

492. *Pterocles indicus indicus (Gmelin), Painted Sandgrouse.

13, Badkhal Bund, Gurgaon District, Punjab (16 miles SSE. of New Delhi), 7

June 1962. t.s.e., in Zoology teaching collection of G. J. Wallace, MSU ;

13, same data, t.n.e., MSU No. 4053.

This species was coming to water at dusk in groups of 2 or 3, or

singly, in low rocky hills. Crop: full of a variety of dry seeds.

MSU No. 4053. Crop and Stomach : full of a variety of dry seeds,

stomach with a few grains of quartz.

COLUMBIDAE

516-517. Columba livia Gmelin ssp., Blue Rock Pigeon.

12, New Delhi, 6 Sept. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4054.

On old ruins in Nursery, in loose flocks that may be wild.

535. Streptopelia tranquebarica tranquebarica (Hermann), Red Turtle

Dove. F

12, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 22 March 1962. 0o.g.e., MSU No. 4055.

In tree in open cultivated land. ,

541. Streptopelia senegalensis cambayensis (Gmelin), Little Brown

Dove. |

13, New Delhi, 23 September 1961. t.g.e., MSU No. 4056.

Crop : full, almost entirely of two kinds of seeds.

PSITTACIDAE

549, Psittacula krameri borealis (Neumann), Roseringed Parakeet.

13, New Delhi, 28 June 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4057; 19, same data. o.ne.,

MSU No. 4058. Sts

One of the most common Delhi birds. Every evening large flocks of

them fly into the city to roost, then fly into the surrounding countryside

every morning to feed on crops. The abdomens of these specimens are

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 417

lighter (more yellowish-green) than in most north Indian specimens

examined. :

CUCULIDAE

570. Clamator jacobinus serratus (Sparrman), Pied Crested Cuckoo.

12, New Delhi, 28 June 1961. o.g.e. (largest egg about 12x13 mm.), MSU

No. 4059; 13, same data. t.s.e., MSU No. 4060.

In well-watered nursery and fruit grove.

MSU No. 4060. Large amount of fat on body. Stomach: over

50% of contents was large Hemiptera (‘ stink bugs ’).

590. Eudynamys scolopacea scolopacea (Linnaeus), Koel.

12, New Delhi, 22 June 1961. 0.e., MSU No. 4061; 19, same data. o.g.e.,

MSU No. 4062. One translucent egg about 16 mm. in diameter.

In well-watered shady grove.

596-598. Taccocua leschenaultii Lesson ssp., prob. sirkee (J. E. Gray),

_ Sirkeer Cuckoo.

12, New Delhi, 26 June 1961. 0.e., MSU No. 4063.

One of a pair in thorn scrub adjacent to fruit grove.

600-603. Centropus sinensis (Stephens) ssp., prob. sinensis, Crow-

Pheasant.

12, New Delhi, 13 Nov. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 40645; 1, ? sex, 23 miles S-

of Okhla, Delhi, 23 July 1962.

MSU No. 4064. Collected along a brushy fence row. Okhla speci-

men collected on ground near canal, and donated to Bombay Natural

History- Society.

STRIGIDAE a

627. *Bubo bubo bengalensis (Franklin), Great Horned Owl.

1g, 15 miles NW. of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 4 Aug. 1961. t.e., MSU

No. 4065.

At dusk, on top of boulder in rolling, rocky scrub area near a lake.

Stomach : empty.

650. Athene brama indica (Franklin), Spotted Owlet.

19, New Delhi, 20 July 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4066.

On power line at dusk, in residential area. Stomach : unidentified

insects, one spider with egg case.

418 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

CAPRIMULGIDAE

671. + Caprimulgus indicus indicus Latham, Indian Jungle Nightjar.

12, New Delhi, 27 July 1962. o.n.e., MSU No. 3821.

Collected at dusk as it flew through a dense locust swarm in the

Nursery. Determined by Humayun Abdulali. Measurements : wing

181 (left), 182 (right) ; tail 136 ; culmen 14 ; tarsus 18 ; middle toe with

claw 22. Stomach: one large locust (Schistocerca gregaria Forskal),

det. I. J. Cantrall. This subspecies is lighter than the Himalayan hazarae

Whistler & Kinnear. Although this species occurs throughout India,

this is the first record from Delhi.

675. ‘+ Caprimulgus macrurus albonotatus Tickell, Longtailed Nightjar.

12, New Delhi, 31 Aug. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4067.

Collected in late afternoon under dense canopy of Citrus in the

Nursery. Identity confirmed by Humayun Abdulali. Stomach: a few

hard insect parts, but no fresh material. Measurements: wing 197

(right), 196 (left) ; tail 150 ; culmen 11 ; tarsus 19 ; middle toe with claw

26. Both wings measured to tip of third primary ; the second primaries,

which are supposed to be the longest, are 52 mm. and 53 mm. shorter

than the third piimaries of the right and left wings, respectively. This

subspecies is larger than atripennis Jerdon, and the bars on the under-

side are wider apart and more distinct. The first Delhi record for this

widespread species.

680. *Caprimulgus asiaticus asiaticus Latham, Indian Nightjar.

1g, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 8 Aug. 1961. t.s.e., MSU No. 4068 ; 12, same

data. o.e., MSU No. 4069.

MSU No. 4068. Invery rocky, rolling hills. Stomach : almost en-

tirely beetles 8-9 mm. long, including one elaterid ; also one piece of

gravel 3 mm. in diameter. Wing 146 mm.

MSU No. 4069. Stomach: largely Coleoptera, including at least

two elateridae, one large grasshopper, and possibly some crickets.

An inordinately small specimen (wing 134 mm.).

682. Caprimulgus affinis monticolus Franklin, Franklin’s Nightjar.

13, New Delhi, 23 July 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4070; 12, New Delhi, 17 Aug.

1962. o.n.e., MSU No. 3822.

MSU No. 4070. Collected at dusk, sitting on ground in semi-arid

land. Identity confirmed by Humayun Abdulali. Stomach: nearly

empty, but portions of elaterid and lucanid beetles were identified.

MSU No. 3822. Collected in evening from dense tangle of thorn

bushes, emitting a chuck-chuck call as it rose. Tail and, to slight extent,

wings in moult. Juvenile.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 419

APODIDAE

707. *Cypsiurus parvus batasiensis (J. E. Gray), Palm Swift.

1g¢,12 miles N. of Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 3 Aug. 1961.t.s.e., MSU No. 4073;

12, same data. o.s.e., MSU No. 4074.

MSU No. 4073. One of a loose flock over cultivated land. Mallo-

phaga preserved.

MSU No. 4074. In flock, with some swallows, over cultivated land.

ALCEDINIDAE

735-738. Halcyon smyrnensis (Linnaeus) ssp., Whitebreasted King-

fisher.

12, New Delhi, 19 June 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4078; 13, New Delhi, 16

July 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4079.

MEROPIDAE

747. Merops superciliosus persicus Pallas, Bluecheeked (Large Green),

Bee-eater.

1g, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 27 May 1962. t.e., MSU No. 4076; 12, 20 miles

SW. of New Delhi, 25 July 1962. o.n.e., MSU No. 4077.

MSU No. 4076. One of a group of 10 or so making sallies after flying

insects from a tree near a large jheel.

MSU No. 4077. One of several juveniles, capable of flight, being

fed by adults on tree near large lake. Stomach: insect matter, includ-

ing Odonata (dragonflies). Considerable amount of fat on skin of lower

back. Call (Fig. 1): a trilled, musical

Fig.1 © tree—ew

repeated in rapid sequence, differing from call of adults.

750. Merops orientalis orientalis Latham, Common Green Bee-eater.

12, New Delhi, 13 Nov. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4075.

CORACIIDAE

755-757. Coracias benghalensis canes) ssp., prob. benghalensis

Indian Roller.

1g, New Delhi, 18 May 1961. t.s.e., MSU No. 4080.

420 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

UPUPIDAE

763-766. Upupa epops Linnaeus ssp., Hoopoe.

13, New Delhi, 26 July 1961. t.n.e., MSU No. 4081; 1¢, New Delhi, 23

Sept. 1961. t.e., MSU No. 4082.

MSU No. 4081. On ground in Nursery. Stomach: Hemiptera,

Coleoptera, and other arthropod remains.

MSU No. 4082. A partial albino specimen, described and illustrated

in Donahue (1963). Collected at dusk from tree.

CAPITONIDAE

780. Megalaima zeylanica caniceps (Franklin), Green Barbet.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 22 June 1961. MSU No. 4083. :

In fruit grove in Nursery.

PICIDAE:

796. Jynx torquila torquila Linnaeus, Wryneck (or possibly ssp. chinen-

sis Hesse).

12, New Delhi, 24 Dec. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4086.

Solitary and shy, in the Nursery. Stomach : black insects, possibly

ants: Det.'C. Vaurie, 1963.

818-819. Dinopium benghalense deureholense (Linnaeus) = dilutum

(Blyth), Lesser Goldenbacked Woodpecker.

12, New Delhi, 15 Nov. 1961. o.n.e., MSU No. 4085.

An intergrade ; the darker back and ear coverts make it appear closer

to benghalense (compared with specimens in AMNH). Stomach:

almost entirely ants (Formicidae). as

ALAUDIDAE

875-877. Mirafra erythroptera Blyth ssp., Redwinged Bush Lark.

‘1g, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 25 March 1962. s.o0., t.e., MSU No. 4090.

On roadside near cultivation, occasionally flying to utility wire to

sing.

878. Eremopterix grisea (Scopoli), Ashycrowned (Blackbellied) Finck

_ Lark.

12, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 27 Dec. 1961. s.0., o.n.e., MSU No. 4088.

Part of a small flock feeding on ground in open, dry cultivated land. |

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 421

*1g, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 3 Aug. 1961. t.e., (right almost spherical, left

normal), MSU No. 4089.

In very rocky area. Stomach : vegetable matter, mostly seeds.

898-900. Galerida cristata (Linnaeus) ssp., Crested Lark.

13, New Delhi, 22 May 1961, s.o., t.e., MSU No. 4091; 13, same data, s.o.,

t.e., MSU No. 4092; 12, New Delhi, 5 Nov. 1961, s.o.,0.n.e., MSU No. 4093.

MSU Nos. 4091 & 4092, On roadside. Det. by C. Vaurie.

MSU No. 4093. On ploughed ground surrounded by sugar-cane

fields. Stomach : small seeds. Det. by C. Vaurie.

904-909. Alauda gulgula Franklin ssp., Eastern (Little) Skylark.

1g, New Delhi, 5 Nov. 1961. s.0., t.e., MSU No. 4087.

On ploughed ground surrounded by sugar-cane. Stomach: small

seeds.

HIRUNDINIDAE

910-911. + Riparia riparia (Linnaeus) ssp., prob. diluta (Sharpe & Wyatt)

Collared Sand Martin.

1g, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 22 March 1962. t.n.e., MSU No. 4072.

One of one or two individuals of this species with a flock of Common

Swallows (Hirundo rustica) on power lines near a wheat field. Measure-

ments : wing 93, tail 43, culmen 5°5, tarsus 9°5, middle toe with claw 13.

I first saw this species in Delhi on 28 Dec. 1961. H. G. Alexander

(unpublished notes) first saw it on 10 Feb. 1960, and again on 27 March.

It may breed in Delhi, but is more probably a winter visitor. This is the

first definite record of this species in Delhi, and possibly the south-

western-most record in India.

912. Riparia paludicola chinensis (J. E. Gray), Plain (Indian) Sand

Martin. |

12, New Delhi, 27 March 1962. s.n.o., o.n.e., MSU No. 4071.

Sitting on utility wire with others of same species, in Nursery, over

open waste land with bank where they probably nest.

916-918. Hirundo rustica Linnaeus ssp., (Common) Swallow.

1g, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 19 Nov. 1961. s.o., t.n.e., MSU No. 4094; 12, 15

miles SW. of New Delhi, 17 July 1962. s.s.0., o.n.e., MSU No. 4095; 14, 15

miles SW. of New Delhi, 25 July 1962. s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4096.

MSU No. 4094. Gregarious, perched on utility line near water.

Stomach : small insects, including Coleoptera. Many endoparasitic

nematodes preserved.

422 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

MSU No. 4095. On utility wire in open country, associated with Cliff

Swallows (H. fluvicola). Stomach: Coleoptera and other small insects.

Under wing coverts in light moult. Three nematodes preserved.

MSU No. 4096. Sitting on utility wire over water, in mixed floc

with H. fluvicola. :

Although this species does not breed in Delhi, it is almost never

entirely absent. The lowest population occurs in June.

LANIIDAE

933. Lanius excubitor lahtora (Sykes), Grey Shrike.

12, 10 miles SW. of Delhi, 27 Dec. 1961. s.0., o.n.e., MSU No. 4119.

In open cultivated land, flying to ground from perch on small thorn

trees. Mallophaga preserved.

DICRURIDAE

962-964. Dicrurus adsimilis (Bechstein) ssp., Black Drongo.

1g, New Delhi, 5 Nov. 1961. s.s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4097.

One of several catching insects disturbed in grain field by Bank Mynas

(Acridotheres ginginianus). Stomach: large grasshoppers and other

insects. According to Ripley (1961), ssp. albirictus (Hodgson) has been

recorded from Delhi.

STURNIDAE

994. Sturnus pagodarum (Gmelin), Blackheaded (Brahminy) Myna.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 15 July 1961. s.s.o.. MSU-No. 4120.

Stomach : 8 vermiform insect larvae (probably Diptera), and small

seeds.

1006. Acridotheres tristis tristis (Linnaeus), Common Myna.

12, New Delhi, 21 June 1961. 0.e., MSU No. 4148.

1008. Acridotheres ginginianus (Latham), Bank Myna.

19, New Delhi, 18 May 1961. s.0., 0.e., in Zoology teaching collection of G. J.

Wallace ; 13, same data. s.o., t.e., MSU No. 4121; 13, same data. s.o., t.e.

(left larger than right), MSU No. 4122; 1d, same data. s.o., t.e. (left larger

than right), MSU No. 4123.

Part of a large colony nesting in bank near roadside.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 423

CORVIDAE

1031-1034. Dendrocitta vagabunda (Latham) ssp., Indian Tree Pie.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 2 Sept. 1961. s.o., MSU No. 4099; 13, New Delhi, 18 July

1962. s.s.o., t.n.e., MSU No. 4100.

MSU No. 4099. In tree in residential area.

MSU No. 4100. In Nursery. Stomach : 2 neem seeds (Azadirachta

indica), and a scarabaeid beetle. Under wing coverts and thighs in

light moult.

1059. *Corvus corax subcorax Severtzov, Raven.

12, 26 miles NE. of Ajmer, Rajasthan, 2 Oct. 1961. s.0., o.n.e., MSU No. 4098.

One of a pair feeding on cattle dung in open scrub-land.

CAMPEPHAGIDAE

1069. Tephrodornis pondicerianus pallidus Ticehurst, Common Wood

Shrike.

1g, New Delhi, 25 Sept. 1961. s.s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4117.

-JRENIDAE

1100. * Aegithina tiphia deignani Hall, Common Iora.

13, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 8 Aug. 1961. s.o., t.e., MSU No. 4116.

Singing in garden.

PYCNONOTIDAE

1126-1132. Pycnonotus cafer (Linnaeus) ssp., Redvented Bulbul.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 21 June 1961. s.o., MSU No. 4105.

In young mango and lime grove. Probably ssp. humayuni Deignan,

recorded from Delhi in Ripley (1961).

MUSCICAPIDAE

Subfamily Timaliinae

1254. Turdoides caudatus caudatus (Dumont), Common Babbler.

12, New Delhi, 22 June 1961. s.s.0., 0.n.e., MSU No. 4101.

1255-1256. Turdoides earlei earlei (Blyth) = sonivia (Koelz), Striated

Babbler.

12, 10 miles S. of New Delhi, 7 May 1962. s.0., 0.s.e., MSU No. 4102 ; 12, 34

miles S. of Okhla, Delhi, 1 July 1962. s.0., o.g.e., MSU No. 4103.

MSU No. 4102. One of a party of 3 or more, in small trees at edge

of cattail marsh. The Delhi population appears to be an intergrade

424 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

between the western sonivia and the eastern earlei: Delhi specimens appear

almost identical to a specimen of sonivia from Lahore, West Pakistan, in

the AMNH, but are generally lighter in coloration than specimens of

earlei from Uttar Pradesh eastwards (e.g., the breast and underside are

lighter, and the streaks on the head and back are narrower).

~ MSU No. 4103. One mallophaga preserved.

The call of this species is a rather slow

~~ NMN

Fig. 2 cheer, cheer, cheer

1261-1266. Turdoides striatus (Dumont) ssp., Jungle Babbler.

12, New Delhi, 16 July 1961. s.s.o., o.n.e., MSU No. 4104.

One of a small party in Nursery. Stomach: unidentified insect

remains. Probably ssp. sindianus (Ticehurst), recorded from Delhi in

Ripley (1961).

Subfamily Sylviinae

1498. Cisticola juncidis cursitans (Franklin), Streaked Fantail Warbler.

12, 10 miles S. of New Delhi, 5 May 1962. s.n.0., 0.n.e., MSU No. 4125.

On edge of and in bed of cattails near cultivation. Flies like a Prinia.

1503. Prinia hodgsonii hodgsonii Blyth, Franklin’s Longtail (Wren-)

Warbler.

1,2 sex, New Delhi, 9 May 1962. MSU No. 4126.

Singly or in pairs in thorn forest on. Ridge. Moulting on head,

primaries, and tail.

1506. Prinia buchanani Blyth, Rufousfronted Longtail (Wren-) Warbler.

13, Tughlakabad Fort, 10 miles S. of New Delhi, 5 March 1962. s.0., t.e., MSU

No. 4130.

In wheat field, flying to scattered low thornsscrub when disturbed.

White tips of tail feathers visible only when bird is landing.

1508. Prinia gracilis lepida Blyth, Streaked Longtail (Wren-) Warbler.

13, New Delhi, 15 Nov. 1961, s.s.o., t.n.e., MSU No. 4129.

One of a small, loose group in brush and on ground in and near wild

cane (damp area). Determined with R. L. Fleming, Jr., compared with

Koelz specimens at UMMZ.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 425

1510. Prinia subflava terricolor (Hume), Plain Longtail (Wren-) Warbler.

13 (2), New Delhi, 29 Aug. 1961. s.n.o.. MSU No. 4131; 12, New Delhi,

19 Nov. 1961. s.o., o.n.e., MSU No. 4136.

MSU No. 4131. In pairs, in semi-arid thorn scrub. Common.

MSU No. 4136. In wild cane, in damp situation.

1515. Prinia socialis stewarti Blyth, Ashy Longtail (Wren-) Warbler.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 6 Sept. 1961. s.s.o., MSU No. 4127; 1d, New Delhi,

5 Nov. 1961. s.s.o., t.n.e., MSU No. 4128.

MSU No. 4127. In thorn scrub bordering Nursery. Tail feathers

being replaced.

MSU No. 4128. In tall grass and scrub. Stomach : small insects.

1517. *Prinia socialis socialis Sykes, Ashy Longtail (Wren-) Warbler.

13, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 17 Aug. 1961. s.0., t.e., in zoology teaching

collection of G. J. Wallace.

Singing; in rocky scrub. Makes clicking sound as it flies. 10 tail

feathers.

1544. + Locustella lanceolata (Temminck), Streaked Grasshopper

Warbler.

13, New Delhi, 17 Aug. 1962. s.s.o0., t.n.e., MSU No. 3823.

Measurements : wing 56, tail 47, culmen 10°5, gape 14, tarsus 19°5,

middle toe with claw 16°9. Silent, in thick bushes adjacent to unseaso-

nally dry damp area of tall wild grass, in Nursery. Field marks: heavily

streaked above, necklace on upper breast, short rounded tail, very faint

supercilium. A newrecord for Delhi, and the southwestern-most record

in India. Identity confirmed by Salim Ali. There is a specimen in the

Bombay Natural History Society collection from Kutch, Gujarat, which

has not been reported in the literature and represents an even farther

range extension.

1547. + Chaetornis striatus (Jerdon), Bristled Grass Warbler.

13, 2 miles S. of Okhla, Delhi, 23 July 1962. s.o0., t.e. (right testis spherical, about

3 size of normal left testis), MSU No. 4124.

Singing at 6 a.m., solitary, in tall marsh grass beside Agra Canal

Road (milepost 2). Soft parts : mouth black ; iris light brown ; upper

mandible greenish-black, lower bluish-grey, darker at base and on edges ;

legs flesh-pink, toes light brown, pads flesh-white, claws dark brown.

Measurements : wing 92, tail 90, culmen 12°5, gape 18, tarsus 30, middle

toe with claw 29°5. Field marks : like Acrocephalus stentoreus but much

darker, with a streaked back, short heavy bill, and no conspicuous super-

cillum. A rather widespread species endemic to the Indian subregion,

but apparently local and rare. New to the Delhi list.

' This specimen has a ‘ necklace’ formed by the dark shafts of the

breast feathers, a character not previously mentioned in published

426 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

descriptions. This character is variable : although all specimens I have

examined have stiffened breast feathers, only a few of the birds have the

darkened shafts. The AMNH has only 3 specimens of this bird, one of

which has the necklace, while a second bird has a few darkened shafts.

Humayun Abdulali informs me that the necklace is visible in only one of

the three specimens in the Bombay Natural History Society collection

(all males), although the stiff shafts may be felt in all three specimens.

The call (Fig. 3), which I believe has never been described, is a plea-

sant, musical

Fig. 3 chwee chew

uttered from an exposed position on tall marsh grass or a bush.

1556. Acrocephalus dumetorum Blyth, Blyth’s Reed Warbler. |

1g, 5 miles S. of New Delhi, 4 May 1962. s.o., t.n.e., MSU No. 4134.

Apparently many, migrating. Active in thorn trees, catching insects.

Determined with aid of R. L. Fleming Jr., compared with Koelz collec-

tion at UMMZ, and confirmed by Charles Vaurie.

1562. Hippolais caligata caligata (Lichtenstein), Booted Warbler.

1g, 15 miles SW. of New Delhi, 6 Aug. 1962. s.s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4132.

One of two birds in clumps of grass and small, isolated scrub brush in

dry cultivated land. Determined with aid of R. L. Fleming Jr., com-

pared with specimens at UMMZ, and confirmed by Charles Vaurie.

1567-1568. *Sylvia curruca (Linnaeus) ssp., Lesser Whitethroat.

1, ? sex, Pali, Rajasthan, 4 Oct. 1961. s.s.o., MSU No. 4133.

In thorn scrub cropland. Identity confirmed by C. Vaurie.

1574-1576. Phylloscopus collybita (Vieillot) ssp., Brown Leaf Warbler

(Chiffchaff).

12, New Delhi, 13 Nov. 1961. MSU No. 4137.

Active in low bushes in Nursery.

Subfamily Turdinae

1644-1646. Erithacus svecicus (Linnaeus) ssp., Bluethroat.

13, New Delhi, 5 Nov. 1961, s.s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4113.

In tall grass and border of ploughed field, feeding on serous”

Stomach : ants and other insects.

ON A COLLECTION. OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI 427

1692. Cercomela fusca (Blyth), Brown Rock Chat.

12, Tughlakabad Fort, 10 miles S. of New Delhi, 5 March 1962. s.o., o.n.e.,

MSU No. 4110.

Common about ruins of fort, on rocks and on ground. Stomach :

insects, including parts of at least one grasshopper.

1700. Saxicola caprata bicolor (Sykes), Pied Bush Chat.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 22 May 1961. s.n.o., MSU No. 4114; 13, same data.

s.0., t.e., MSU No. 4115. "

1710. Oenanthe deserti deserti (Temminck), Desert Wheatear.

13, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 19 Nov. 1961. s.s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4111.

12 same data. s.s.0.,0.n.e., MSU No. 4112.

Together on freshly-ploughed ground. Stomach: both had small

insects. This subspecies is smaller than oreophila (Oberholser), and

has less white in the wing.

13 (?), same locality, 27 Dec. 1961. s.s.o., in Zoology teaching collection of

G. J. Wallace, MSU.

On cultivated ground, perching on low bushes.

1717-1721. Saxicoloides fulicata (Linnaeus) ssp., Indian Robin.

13, New Delhi, 28 June 1961. s.n.o., t.n.e. MSU No. 4108; 1, ? sex (in

male plumage), New Delhi, 13 Nov. 1961. s.s.o., MSU No. 4109.

MSU No. 4108. In rocky, open scrub land. Probably subspecies

cambaiensis (Latham), reported from Delhi by Ripley (1961).

1726. Monticola solitarius pandoo (Sykes), Blue Rock Thrush.

13, New Delhi, 12 Nov. 1961. s.s.0., t.n.e., MSU No. 4107.

Feeding on ground, perching on brick ruins in Nursery. Photo-

graphed in life, in colour. Stomach: small seeds and insect matter.

This subspecies is darker than /ongirostris (Blyth).

1763. Turdus ruficollis atrogularis Jarocki, Redthroated Thrush.

13, New Delhi, 27 March 1962. s.o.,t.n.e., MSU No. 4106.

In waterlogged area with canopy of thorny legume trees, in Nursery;

where this species was present throughout the previous winter.

MOTACILLIDAE

1875. Mbotacilla flava thunbergi Billberg, Yellow (Greyheaded) Wagtail.

13, 10 miles SW. of New Delhi, 19 Nov. 1961. s.0.,t.n.e., MSU No, 4118,

On edge of roadside mud puddle,

428 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

NECTARINIIDAE

1907. *Nectarinia zeylonica sola (Vieillot), Purplerumped Sunbird.

1, ? sex, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 10 Aug. 1961. s.o., MSU No. 4140;

’ 13, same locality, 17 Aug. 1961. s.0., t.e., MSU No. 4141.

Both in a garden.

1917. Nectarinia asiatica asiatica (Latham), Purple Sunbird.

1, ? sex, New Delhi, 28 June 1961. MSU No. 4138.

In Nursery.

*13, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 17 Aug. 1961. s.0., t-n.e., MSU No. 4139.

In garden.

ZOSTEROPIDAE

1933. Zosterops palpebrosa palpebrosa (Temminck), White-eye.

12, New Delhi, 15 Nov. 1961. s.0., o.n.e., MSU No. 4142; 1¢, same data.

s.o.,t.n.e., MSU No. 4143.

Both from a flock in large tree in the Nursery.

PLOCEIDAE

1938. Passer domesticus indicus Jardine & Selby, House Sparrow.

13, New Delhi, 6 Sept. 1961. s.0., t.g.e., MSU No. 4144.

1966. *Lonchura malabarica malabarica (Linnaeus), Whitethroated

Munia.

12, Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 17 Aug. 1961. s.o0., o.g.e., MSU No. 4145 ;

13, same data. s.0o., t.e. (left about twice as large as right), MSU No. 4146.

Both in a garden.

1974. *Lonchura punctulata punctulata (Linnaeus), Spotted Munia.

12 (?), Hyderabad, Andhra Pradesh, 10 Aug. 1961. s.o., MSU No. 4147.

Nest of grass, globular, about 5 ft. off ground in dense cedar bush.

ON A COLLECTION OF BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM DELHI

429

REFERENCES

- ALEXANDER, H. G. (1949): The birds

of Delhi and district. J. Bombay nat.

Hist. Soc. 48 : 370-372.

———— (1950): The birds of Delhi

and district. [Notseen in the original. j

ANONYMOUS (undated=early 1950s ?) :

The birds of Delhi and surrounding dis-

trict. 12 pp., indexed.

ANONymMous (1953): The birds of

Delhi and district; Reference List.

Additions & Corrections to 1950 list. .

3 pp., privately printed.

ANONYMOUS (=Williams, Harold,

Usha Ganguli, Julian P. Donahue)

(undated=1963): Birds of Delhi &

District—Field Check List. 8 pp., no

index.

BALDWIN, S. PRENTISS, HARRY C.

OBERHOLSER, & LEONARD G. WORLEY

(1931) : Measurements of birds. Scient.

Publ. Cleveland Mus. Nat. Hist. 2: ix+

165 pp., 151 figs. Cleveland, Ohio.

BASIL-EDWARDES, S. (1926): A con-

tribution to the ornithology of Delhi.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 261-272 ;

567-578.

BENTHALL, E. C. (1949): The birds

of Delhi and district. op. cit, 48:

368-370.

DONAHUE, JULIAN P. (1963): A par-

tial albino hoopoe (Upupa epops) (Cora-

ciiformes : Upupidae) from Delhi. J.

Bengal nat. Hist. Soc. 1 [=vol. 32] :

34-36, 2 figs.

————(1967): An annotated list of

the butterflies of Delhi, India. J.

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 63 : 235-269.

Frome, N. F. (1947): The birds of

Delhi and district. op. cit. 47 : 277-300.

——_——— (1948) : ‘ The birds of Delhi

and district.” op. cit. 47 : 751-753.

Hutson, H. P. W. (1954): The Birds

about Delhi, compiled by H. Williams.

210 pp. The Delhi Bird Watching

Society, Delhi.

RIPLEY, SIDNEY DILLon, II (1961):

A Synopsis of the Birds of India and

Pakistan. pp. xxxvi+702, 2 maps,

overlays. Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay.

A New Annonacea from the

Andaman Islands

K. THOTHATHRI AND DEBIKA DAS

Central National Herbarium, Botanical Survey of India, Howrah

(With a plate)

Mitrephora andamanica Thoth. et. Das, sp. nov.—tribe Mitrephoreae,

sub-family Annonoideae, family Annonaceae is described from the

Andaman Islands.

Mitrephora andamapica sp. nov.

Accedit proxime ad M. lanotan (Blanco) Merr. a qua tamen differt

habitu, foliorum pagina inferiore puberula, sepalis et petalis minoribus,

petalis interioribus utrinque pubescentibus, et numero ovulorum.

Frutex 1-15 m. altus, ramulis nigris, sulcatis, puberulis. Folia

alterna, exstipulata, ovato-elliptica vel oblonga, 8-5-13X3-5-5:5 cm.,

coriacea, supra glabra, infra puberula praesertim ad nervos, integra,

acuta ad apicem, angusta ad basin, nervorum lateralium 6-7 paribus

ascendentium; petiolo 3-6 mm. longo, supra canaliculato, puberulo.

Inflorescentia cymosa, extra-axillaris, oppositifolia, 1-2-flora. Flores

hermaphroditi, 3-3:5X4-5 mm., cremei; pedicelli 1-2 mm. longi,

pubescentes; bractea ovata, acuta, extus pubescens, bracteola ad

medium pedicelli, extus pubescens. Senala 3, triangularia, libera,

1-5 1-5-2 mm., extus pubescentia. Petala 3+3, in alabastro valvata;

exteriora late ovata, 3-4xX3-4 mm., acuta ad basin concava, extus

pubescentia, ciliata; interiora distincte unguiculata, exterioribus paulo

breviora, 3X2-3 mm., (lamina cordata), supra cucullata in pileum

mitriformem, pubescentia in utraque facie. Stamina plura, uvarioidea,

0-75-1 mm. longa, antherarum cellulis amplis, connectivo dorsali

complanato ad apicem. Torus planus, pilis albis insignitus. Carpella

3 apocarpia oblonga et angulosa, 0-75-1 mm. longa, stylodiis nullis;

stigma sessile, discoideum; ovulis 2-3. Fructus ignotus.

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Thothathri: Mitrephora andamanica sp. nov.

OAD ys

Wy Ny) Ne

1 | 7

ij , 7 a

nn 7

Mitrephora andamanica Thoth. et Das, sp. nov.

1. Branch with flowers; 2. Flower; 3. Sepal; 4. Outer Petal; 5. Inner

Petai; 6. Stamens (Back and front views); 7. Carpel.

A NEW ANNONACEA FROM THE ANDAMAN ISLANDS 431

Typus lectus in insula Baratang, in Andaman meridionali die 30

aprilis 1964 a K. Thothathri; holotypus et isotypi (Thothathri 10840

A et 10840 B-F respective) positi in CAL.

_Mitrephora andamanica Thoth. et Das, sp. nov. is closely allied

to M. lanotan (Bianco) Merr. but differs from the latter in habit, lower

surface of the leaves being puberulous. sepals and petals being stnaller,

inner petals being pubescent on both sides and in the number of ovules.

A shrub, 1-15 m. high; branchlets black, furrowed, puberulous.

Leaves alternate, exstipulate, ovate-elliptic to oblong, 8-5-13 x 3-5-5-5 cm.,

coriaceous, glabrous above, puberulous especially on midrib and

nerves below, entire, acute at apex, narrow at base, lateral nerves

6-7 pairs, ascending; petiole short, 3-6 mm. long, grooved above,

puberulous. Jnflorescence extra-axillary, leaf-opposed, 1-2-flowered

cyme. Flowers hermaphrodite, 3-3-5 4-5 mm., creamy yellow; pedicels

short, 1-2 mm. long, pubescent; bract ovate, acute, pubescent externally,

bracteole at the middle of the pedicel, pubescent externally. Sepals 3,

triangular, free, 1:5 1-5-2 mm., pubescent externally. Petals 6 in 2

whorls of 3 each, valvate in bud; outer broadly ovate, 3-4 3-4 mm.,

acute, concave at base, pubescent externally, ciliate; inner distinctly

clawed, slightly shorter than outer, 3X2-3 mm., blade cordate, vaulted

above into a mitriform cap, pubescent on both sides. Stamens numerous

uvarioid, 0°75-1 mm. long, anther cells large, dorsal connectives flat

at top. Torus flat, studded with white hairs. Carpels 3, apocarpous,

oblong and angled, 0-75-1 mm. long, stylodia absent; stigma sessile,

discoid; ovules 2-3. Fruit not known.

The type collected from Baratang Island, South Andaman on 30th

April 1964 by K. Thothathri (Holotype Thothathri 10840 A; Isotypes

Thothathri 10840 B-F) have been deposited in the Central National

Herbarium, Calcutta (CAL).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Our grateful thanks are due to Dr. H. Santapau, Director,

Botanical Survey of India, Calcutta, for the latin diagnosis and to

Dr. S. K. Mukherjee, Keeper, Central National Herbarium, for encour-

agement.

On the Development of Artemia salina L.

(Crustacea: Anostraca)’

INDER CHAND BaID

Department of Zoology, University of Mosul, Faculty of

Science, Mosul (Iraq)

(With a plate)

INTRODUCTION

Previous work on the development of Anostracans, apart from early

observations reported by Claus (1885) comprise Cannon’s (1924) brief

account of the development of the fairy shrimp, Chirocephalus diaphanus

and Heath’s (1924) extensive account of the development of Anostra-

cans. Weisz (1946), who was primarily interested in segment formation

in relation to size and shape, described growth rate in A. salina. Hall |

(1959a, 1959b) published brief accounts of the development of the eggs

of Chirocephalus in relation to depth of water and low temperature.

Pai (1958) described the post-embryonic stages of the phyllopod crust-

aceans, TJriops (Apus), Streptocephalus, and Estheria. Recently

Prophet (1963) studied the influence of temperature, drying, dilution of _

the culture medium, egg age, etc. on the hatching of Anostracan eggs.

This paper is an account of the development of Artemia salina.

METHODS

Artemia eggs were collected from Sambhar Salt Lake, Rajasthan.

The eggs were kept in the laboratory in lake water of different

salinities to study the relation between hatching time and salinity.

Yeast pellets were given as food to the developing nauplii. The larvae

were fixed in Bouin’s fluid at intervals and stained with borax carmine.

The observations recorded in this paper are from whole mounts as

well as from living specimens from the aquaria.

—

+ This work was carried out in the Department of Zoology, University of

Rajasthan, Jaipur (India).

DEVELOPMENT OF ARTEMIA SALINA L. 433

OBSERVATIONS

The eggs are spherical, hard-shelled, brown-coloured, often floating

on the surface in long interlocking filaments. Each egg measures

0:25-0:30 mm. in diameter (Plate, 1). Drying was not necessary for

hatching; eggs kept at 60° C. for 48 hours hatched quickly.

Stage 1: hatching to 18 hours; (Plate, 2-4).

The larva at this stage is a nauplius. Initially, it is 0-2 mm. long

with broad head, three pairs of cephalic appendages (antennules,

antennae, and mandibles), and an unsegmented trunk. The head is

distinguished from the trunk region by a constriction visible from the

ventral side, and also by the nuchal organ on the dorsal side. As in

other branchiopods, the antennules are uniramous and unsegmented,

and bear only two terminal setae. The antennae comprise a sympod

of two segments and an unsegmented simple exopod and endopod. The

first segment bears at its distal end a stout bifid curved spine which

is frequently referred to as a masticatory process. The bifid point of

this spine lies just behind the mouth, between the long labrum and

the ventral side of the body. The second segment bears a single

posterior seta at its distal end. The seta is long and its distal half

has no setule as reporied by Heath (1924). The exopod bears two

long terminal setae and a row of seven long ventral setae with no

setules but with a distinct hinge at about their midpoint. The endopod,

sharply separated from the exopod, is quite short, only one-third of

the length of the exopod, and bears four long terminal setae of the

same form and about as long as the ventral setae of the exopod.

The mandibles are uniramous and about as long as the sympod of the

antenna. Its segmentation is not clearly marked but it appears to

comprise a large basal plate (sympod) and a short terminal joint

(endopod). There are six setae in all, a terminal group of three rather

short smooth setae and three stout setulase spines on the inner side

of the sympod. As the two mandibles work more or less in a plane

parallel to the ventral surface of the body, the inner spines of each

approximately oppose those of the other. The labrum is very large

lying against the ventral surface. It overlaps the mandibles completely.

The median eye (ocellus) is a tiny pigmented spot in between the two

compound eyes, which are not pigmented. The dorsal or nuchal

organ, highly swollen up with yolky material, is found below the eyes.

In the later changes the trunk grows more slender. The rudiments

of the maxilla, maxillulae. and the first four swimming appendages

are visible through the delicate cuticle. The larvae at this stage are

0-4 mm. long and have commenced to feed.

434. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Stage 2: 18+ to 42 hours; (Plate, 5).

The larva at this stage measures 0:49-0:69 mm. (average of 34.

specimens 0°61 mm.). The three pairs of cephalic appendages are as

in stage 1 but the cilia are long and tapering. The posterior end of

the trunk shows a rudiment of the caudal cerci. The maxillae and

maxillulae have essentially the same form that they have in later stages.

Each maxilla consists of a basal portion, the protopodite, to which a

slender appendage is attached latero-posteriorly. Each maxillula

is little more than a low conical elevation rising immediately

behind the maxilla and is usually inclined towards the mid-line. The

free end of the maxillary palp carries two delicate setae. The median

eye becomes more pigmented and is very conspicuous at this stage.

Each compound eye becomes enlarged and migrates away from the

median eye. The dorsal organ occupies a larger portion of the cephalic

region and does not show any change in shape. Ventrally the labrum

covers the mouth. All the appendages seem to rise from the mid-

ventral line of the body. The trunk region shows as many as five

segments.

The later changes involve an increase in the length of the maxillary

region, and of the antennae and mandibles. The compound eyes are

aS prominent as the median eye.

Stage 3: 42+ to 66 hours; (Plate, 6). 7

The larva is now 1:2 mm. long. The antennule is short, straight,

unsegmented, with two bristles. The antennae and mandibles have

increased in length. The endcpodite of the antenna is thumb-like and

is supplied with long setae. The maxillary region is much larger

since the maxillary gland develops in the larval stages. In the trunk

region nine buds of appendages having flagella protrude, the first six

showing more or less clearly defined endites. Posterior to this the

buds become less conspicuous and finally there is an unsegmented

part. The alimentary canal is seen with two digestive pouches below

the transparent exoskeleton and the food is visible in the form of

suspended particles.

Stage 4: 66+ to 96 hours; (Plate, 7).

The larva is c 2-6 mm. jong. The compound eyes are elevated

above the cephalic region and are berne on stalks. ‘The antennae

and mandibles become more ventral in position. ‘The mandibles are

now in the form of a pouch. ‘The maxillary glands are well

developed below the mandibles. Eleven pairs of thoracic appendages

are seen, the first four with endites and the other seven in the form

J. BOMBAY NAT. HIST. Soc. 64 (3)

Baid: Artemia salina

Stages in the development of Artemia salina L.

Fig. 1. Egg; Figs. 2-8. Larva at different stages (in hours from

hatching) ; Figs. 2-4. hatching to 18 hrs.; Fig. 5. 18-+ to 42 hrs. ; Fig. 6.

42 to 66 hrs.; Fig. 7. 66+ to 96 hrs. ; Fig. 8. 96+ to 144 hrs.

Ad. Abdomen; An. Anus; An.pl. Anal plate; I Ant. Antennule; II Ant.

Antenna; Ce.th. Cephalothorax ; C.S. Caudal setae; E. Eye; End. Endopodite ;

Exo. Exopodite ; L. Leg; Md. Mandible ; Max. Maxilla; O. Median eye ; Res.br.

Respiratory bract ; S. Shell ; Th.f. Thoracic fold.

DEVELOPMENT OF ARTEMIA SALINA L. 435

of protuberances. The bracts of the first four limbs are clearly formed.

The flabella are also distinctly. formed and show clear demarcation

from the last endite at one end to the bract at the other. The

thoracic and abdominal regions are more clearly marked than in the

previous stages. The abdominal region has no appendage.

Stage 5: 96 + to 144 hours; (Plate, 8).

The larva is 4:5 mm. long. The appendages of the thoracic region

are very well developed and are followed by seven abdominal segments

without appendages. The first nine appendages of the thorax have

well marked endites, flabella, and bracts. The first limb appears distinctly

smaller than the second limb. The antenna at this stage is completely

rotated on the ventral side and is very much reduced, thereby indi-

cating the female sex. In the female, a thickening in the form of a

rounded elevation is developed around the posterior region of 11th

thoracic segment and first and second abdominal segments which form

the egg pouch. The caudal furcae are elongated and have nine setae.

The frontal organs have become plumose and sensory. The larva is

almost an adult now. In the later stages the larva grows in size.

DISCUSSION

The newly hatched larva is a true nauplius without any segment-

ation in the trunk region but possesses a median eye in the anterior part of

the head and three pairs of cephalic appendages. The larvae show

phototropic movements and are found at the surface feeding on the scum

deposited on the sides of the aquarium. Their number is more on

sides which are towards light. This observation is true when the

depth of water in the container is more than 6 cm. otherwise they

are equally distributed. The time taken for hatching in different

salinities is shown in the text-figure below. It shows that 45%

salinity with a hatching tirne of 12 hours is the most suitable con-

centration. The hatching time for mud containing eggs is about 24-48 |

hours after immersion. Most workers (Heath 1924, Pai 1958) have

obtained nauplius larvae in 24-48 hours. The larvae also hatch out

more quickly in summer than in winter. In winter hatching is delayed

by 12 hours.

The larva of Artemia is easily differentiated from other branchiopod

nauplii immediately at hatching. It has no carapace, no segmentation

in the post-mandibular region, lacks two anal setae but has three

436 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

pairs of cephalic appendages, and has a prominent sessile median eye

in the notch in the anterior part of the head.

1 2 3 & 3) 6 7 8 9 10

CONCENTRATION OF THE BRINE ‘%

Text-figure. Relationship between hatching time of Artemia salina

eggs and the salinity of the medium.

Segmentation and appendages

External appearance of segmentation is noticeable 22 hours after

hatching when, along with trunk segments, 4-5 buds of appendages of

the trunk are seen to protrude. The first thoracic appendage with its

endites is seen in the larvae of 40-48 hours after hatching, and the

distal endite of this appendage develops. into a respiratory bract.

Lankester (1881) stated that the epipodites are richly supplied with

blood and he called them ‘branchiae’. In the present study on

Artemia, it is found that the number of segments has no relation with

the number of appendages and further the number of segments is

more than the number of appendages of the adult. Linder (1952)

elucidated the relationship between the number of segments, the

number of appendages, and the number of posterior apodous segments,

while working on the Nerth American Notostraca. According to him

there is no correlation between the number of appendages and the

segments bearing them.

DEVELOPMENT OF ARTEMIA SALINA L. 437

The three cephalic appendages, viz. antennules, antennae, and

mandibles, show interesting variation in the phyllopods. In Artemia,

the antennules are uniramous and unsegmented, and have two bristles

at the free end. The antennae and mandibles are strong and biramous,

and carry long setae. Setules as found in the larvae of other Ano-

stracans (Heath 1924, Pai 1958) are absent. Later, these appendages

undergo reduction. The antennae are small in the female. This

observation could not be made in the male, since the eggs are

parthenogenetic. The mandible loses its biramous character and

develops into a cup-shaped structure with spines. The first trunk

appendage by this time is fully developed and is provided with endites.

It functions as a swimming appendage.

Development of appendage

Each swimming appendage appears in the form of a low ridge

(Plate, 6) when viewed posteriorly and totally lacks the characteristic

divisions of the fully developed organ. This is the typical condition

of the seventh body segment in stage 3. The appendages anterior to

it show four sub-divisions. Along the dorsal border in contact with

the body proper are branchial lobes (Linder 1952, called them prae-

epipodite and epipodite). The branchial section is separated by a

distinct notch from the slightly differentiated flabellum (Linder 1952,

called it exopodite) whose limit more ventrally is indicated by a cleft

adjacent to the region of the future endites. The endites comprising

somewhat the larger portion of the appendage bear one small notch

which marks the outer limit of the gnathobase. The two branchial

lobes are clearly defined and are sharply separated by a comparatively

deep cleft from the flabellum. Each of the six endites is formed on

the inner side of the appendage. The early appearance of the

flabellum, its position with reference to the principal axis of the

appendage, and the fact that it bears ore to two small setae corres-

ponding to those on 6 endites, suggest that the flabellum is an

exopodial structure and the endites endopodial as Huxley and others

suggested long ago.

Eye and Maxillary gland

The median pigmented nauplius eye is visible in the early larval

stage (stage 1) in a notch in the anterior part of the head. It persists

up to 48 hours. In stage 2 both the median eyes and paired sessile

eyes are seen but, faintly, in larvae of 96 hours the paired eyes are

borne on stalks. The maxillary gland is found below the second

maxilla and appears in a 30-hour old larva. It becomes conspicuous

in 66 hours. 7

438 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Rate of growth

Martin & Wilbur (1921), Heath (1924), Bond (1933), and Warren

(1938) reported that the adult size of Artemia varies inversely with

the salinity of the medium and animals bred in the laboratory attain

sexual maturity three to four weeks after hatching. According to

Jenson (1918) Artemia from the Great Salt Lake mature sexually 18

to 21 days after hatching in brine of unspecific salinity. Barigozzi

(1939) measured the average time of development from hatching to

sexual maturity in three populations of brine shrimp at 18-20°C. in

artificial sea-water. According to Weisz (1946) the rate of development

of Artemia from hatching to sexual maturity is directly related to the

salinity of the external medium. Animals reared in dilute brine

(salinity 3:0%) are sexually mature in about 32 days after hatching

while those in more concentrated brine (salinity 11:5%) are sexually

mature in about 22 days. Gilchrist (1969) reported that the rate of

growth varies with size, sex, and stock of animals. According to

Baid (1963) Artemia reared in 12°5°% salinity have a higher rate of

growth than those reared in 65% salinity. In early stages the

size or growth-rate is directly related to the salinity of the medium

but the size of the adult brine shrimp varies inversely with me salinity

of the medium (Baid 1963).

SUMMARY

Eggs are brown, spherical, and hard shelled, and hatch in 12 hours

in 45% salinity. The various stages in development of A. salina are

described, from newly hatched nauplius te near adult. Three pairs

of cephalic appendages show maximum growth in length within 30-48

hours after hatching; after 72 hours progressive reduction occurs till

antennae become almost vestigial and mandible changes into a cup-shaped

structure with spine on it; the antennule, however, persists. Segment-

ation of trunk region increases progressively, leaving a posterior

unsegmented region. Buds of appendages on trunk segments increase

in regular antero-posterior order. The two branchial lobes are clearly

defined and are sharply separated by a comparatively deep cleft from

the flabellum or exopodite. Median sessile eye degenerates and the

two compound eyes on either side become stalked.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author wishes to thank Dr. L. S. Ramaswami for suggestions,

and Dr. D. K. Mathur for help and guidance.

DEVELOPMENT OF ARTEMIA SALINA L.

439

REFERENCES

Baip, I.C. (1963): The effect of

salinity on growth and form of A. salina.

J. Exp. Zool. 153 (3): 279-283.

BarIGozzlI, C. (1939) : La biologia di

Artemia salina Leach studiata un aquario

Atti soc. ital. sci. nat. 78 : 137-160.

Bonp, R. M. (1933): Observations on

Artemia franciscana Kellogg especially

on the relation of environment and to

morphology. Jnt. Rev. d. ges. Hydro-

biol. u. Hydrogr. 28 : 117-125.

CANNON, H.T. (1924): On the deve-

lopment of an Estherid crustacean. Phil.

Trans. Roy. Soc. Lond., 212B: 395-430.

Craus, C. (1885) : Neue Beitrage zur

Morphologie Der crustacean. Arbeiton

des zoology Inst. zu. wien. 6 (3) : 1-108.

GILCHRIST, B. M. (1960) : Growth

and form of the brine shrimp Artemia

een. Proc. zool. Soc. London 134 : 221-

35,

HALL, R. E. (1959a): The develop-

ment of eggs of Chirocephalus diaphanus

Prevost at a low temperature. Hydrobio-

logica 13 : 156-159.

———— (1959b): The development

of eggs of Chirocephalus diaphanus

Prevost in relation to depth of water.

Hydrobiologica 14 : 79-84.

HEATH, H. (1924): The _ external

development of certain Phyllopod. Jour.

Morph. 38 (4) : 445-483.

JENSON, A.C. (1918): Some _ obser-

vations on Artemia gracilis, the -brine

shrimp of Great Salt Lake. Biol. Bull.

24 : 18-25.

LANKESTER, E. R. (1881): The obser-

vation and reflections on the appendages

and on the nervous system of Apus

cancriformis. Quart. J. Micro. Sci. 21:

343-376.

LINDER, F. (1952): Contributions to

the Morphology and Taxonomy of the

Branchipoda with special reference to

North American species. Proc. U.S.

Nat. Mus. 102: 1-69.

MartTIN, E. G., & WILBUR, B. C.(1921):

Salt antagonism in Artemia. Amer. J.

Physiol, 55 : 290-291.

Par, P. G. (1958): On post-embryonic

stages of Phyllopod crustaceans. Triops

(Apus), Streptocephalus and Estheria.

Proc. Indian Acad. Sci. 48 : 229-250.

PROPHET, C. W. (1963): Some factors

influencing the hatching of Anostracan

eggs. Trans. Kansas Academy of Science

66 : 150-159.

WARREN, H.S. (1938): The segmental

excretory glands and Artemia salina Linn.

var. principalis Simon. (The Brine Shrimp).

J. Morph. Philadelpia 62 : 263-297.

WEISZ, P. B. (1946): The space time

pattern of segment formation in A, salina.

Biol. Bull. 91(2) : 119-140.

A Note on Nagaland

P. D. STRACEY LFS. (Retd.)

Nagaland has an area of some six thousand square miles with a

population of about four lakhs. It is almost entirely a hilly area with

only small patches of flat land, in the plains bordering Assam. The

country has an axis approximating to north-east south-west, but the

hills themselves have a general north-south grain, with drainage both

into the Assam valley and the Chindwin valley of Burma, and to

some extent into the Manipur basin. The elevation of the hills

increases towards the east and the highest range is found on the

border of Burma, Mt. Saramati, almost twelve thousand feet high.

In the centre of Naga Hills there is a concentration of high peaks

in the Barail Range, overlooking the main Dimapur-Kohima-Imphal road

and drained by the Barak River. The Barak flows south into Manipur,

whence, after a sharp 180 degrees turn into the Cachar District of Assam,

where it is known as the Surma, it flows into East Pakistan to join

the Brahmaputra river system. The northern face of the Barail Range

gives rise to a number of small and shorter streams which flow into

the main Assam valley of the Brahmaputra.

Climatologically the Naga Hills are a monsoon belt with one pro- |

nounced ‘rain shadow’ area to the north, at the point where these hills

join the main Cachar-Khasi-Mikir hills massif. In this rain shadow area,

which embraces the foothills and plains around Dimapur (or Manipur

Road of wartime fame) and through which the railway line to Upper

Assam runs, the rainfall is as low as 60 in., whereas on the Burma

border and on the slopes of the Barail Range the rainfall is much

heavier and goes up to 120 in.

From the vegetational aspect the Naga Hills are more interesting

than the Khasi Hills, because of the change in forest types which takes

place as one proceeds up the valley of the Brahmaputra. The forests

on the neck of the hill range dividing the Brahmaputra and Surma

valleys, consist first of a ‘dry’ evergreen belt containing the locally

noted Bonsum (a species of Phoebe), and further eastward a ‘moist’

type characterised by the giant Dipterocarp Hollong, sister to the

Gurjan of the Andamans so well known to the timber trade of

A NOTE ON NAGALAND 441

Calcutta. This Hollong forests extends along the foothills of the Naga

country up to the tip of the valley, near the point where the Burma-

China-India triangle begins. The main associate of Hollong, Makai

(Shorea assamica), extends to elevations around 3000 ft. On the

other side of the dividing mountains, in Burma, teak commences.

Teak is not found within Nagaland proper, although it occurs in

adjoining Manipur on the slopes going down into the Chindwin

drainage. The strip of country between 2000 ft. and 5000 ft. generally is

the main habitated and cultivated portion of Nagaland. In the

interior of the Naga Hills at elevations above 3000 ft., the Dipterocarps

give way to a peculiar type of evergreen forest which deserves the name

‘temperate’ evergreens, as they are found on the higher and cooler

elevations. This forest type consists of a number of interesting species

belonging to families such as Micheliaceae, Magnoliaceae, and Laur-

aceae and also a species of Phoebe. In addition, the genera Elaeocarpus,

Castanopsis and Quercus are represented, the first named at higher

elevations, the second in the moister localities and valleys, and the

last favouring the more open and drier slopes adjoining cultivation.

Cane is generally absent at the higher sites, as also the characteristic

palm, Pinanga gracilis, of the lower evergreens.

Generally speaking the forests of Nagaland may be classified as

‘relict’ forests, since they are survivors of what was originally a great

forested area which has been subjected to jhuming or shifting culti-

vation for hundreds of years. This feature is not exclusive to these

hills, but is common to ail the hill ranges on the southern bank of

the Brahmaputra which have been the home of tribal races whose way

of life is connected with jhuming from time immemorial. The remnants

of the forests are to be found mainly on the tops of the hills and in

the bottom of the deep, ravine-like valleys of the strearms which drain

from them. Everywhere else the vegetation has been changed by the

axe and fire. Only where it is not possible to grow rice or millets

because of increasing elevation, has the forest been left alone. These

forested caps of the mountains are clearly visible when flying over

Nagaland and constitute a unique feature of an otherwise rather monoton-

ous expanse of secondary jungle. But the scene is not as monotonous

as the one presented by the Lushai, or Mizo Hills as they are now

known, where the secondary vegetation consists entirely of bamboo.

The Reserved Forests of Nagaland comprise 127 square miles and

the Protected Forests some 200 square miles only.

The jhum cycle in these eastern hills has been gradually tightening,

until it is down to three to five years in the worst places while it is

about eight to ten years in the best. The average length of the jhum

442 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

cycle in the Naga Hills is ten years. This shortening of the jhum

cycle has been brought about by a combination of factors, of which

the most important are the decreasing soil fertility, as the result of pro-

gressive loss of top soil with each felling and burning and the consequent

decline in crop productivity on the one hand, and the steadily

increasing population, as the result of improved health and sanitation

resulting in decreased mortality and greater longevity, on the other.

To those who have not seen a jhum plot in its various stages in the

hills of north-eastern India it is impossible to visualise the drastic

erosion of soil which takes place each time the land is cut over, burned

and exposed. The coincidence of the jhuming season—February to

April—with the onset of the early showers of rain which characterise

the pre-monsoon period in the Assam region, results in the

soil being freshly exposed to the erosive action of the rain before

the crop that is sown or other vegetation can cover it. The result is

rivulets of reddish or brownish soil flowing down the steep slopes and

taking away at one stroke the valuable top soil, which in this case

has had only a few years to build up. The only compensation is

the ash produced from the burning of the trees and vegetation, which

is the sole reason for any crop being possible at all. No fertiliser is

applied, nor is any attempt made to hold up the soil except in rough

and ready attempts at bunding by laying the unburnt trees and branches

across the slope. This, however, is a feature in certain parts of Naga-

land only. Elsewhere the tribal has been content to wrest what he

can from his land while watching heiplessly the removal of its most

valuable component, the top soil.

In the period intervening between two successive cultivations, grasses

first come up, and in some areas an impoverished form of bamboo.

Where the period is long enough, as is the case in NEFA and Naga-

land, trees begin to invade and take over the grass-covered land.

Such species as have seed dispersal by wind colonise the place

en masse. But before the process has had time to result in even a

partial restoration of the tree growth, the jhum cultivator comes round

with his dao and cuts and burns the vegetation for his next crop! And

so the process of destruction goes on, until all that can survive on the

meagre soil and after repeated cuttings and burnings is an undergrowth

of fire-hardy species of reeds and grasses, such as Imperata (thatch)

and Saccharum species in the lower elevations, Neuradia (ekra) and

Thysanoleurum (broom) in the higher elevations and straggling weeds,

a common plant being Eupaterium odoratum, with a few trees resuit-

ing from coppice shoots and pollarded stems, and here and there a

young tree of seedling origin,

A NOTE ON NAGALAND 443

In this ‘desert’ of vegetation, figuratively speaking, hardly any

animal life can be found. A few ground animals such as lizards,

porcupines and mongooses, minor predators and where the vege-

tation is more favourable deer and pig, with an occasional tiger or

leopard. Elephants, though greatly reduced, are found in the valleys

of the foothills. Birds are to be found, some rare and interesting, in

the forested areas although over large stretches of the country the song

of birds is not to be heard. The Naga is an avid eater of meat and

kills and eats anything he can find. He has practically exterminated

the fauna in certain valleys, and although he does not indulge in the

ritual hunts of the central Indian tribal people, he is continuously on

the look-out for an opportunity to secure meat. Strangely enough he

has no use for the tiger, of which he wants neither the meat nor the

skin. A couple of years ago a family of five tigers which were un-

lucky enough to stray to the vicinity of Mokokchung, were eliminated

in a well organised hunt but their carcasses were stretched out on

bamboo frames and allowed to rot at the entrance of the village of

Ungma, the parent village of the Ao Nagas.

The primitive form of land-use in India known as shifting culti-

vation, which extends into Burma and the mountain country farther

east on the one side, and into the central Indian plateau on the other,

has been carried on over a long period of time with very little being

done to remedy this state of affairs. All authorities who have come

in touch with the problem agree that it represents a future that is dark

and full of despair for the people of the hills. ‘Eliminate jhuming’

has been the cry, but no answer is given to the practical question of

how to replace it. “Terrace cultivation’ is little more than a slogan to

a people who have not got the time and the energy to convert the

mountain slopes to terraces for permanent cultivation. Jhuming is one

of the most arduous forms of cultivation imaginable and the jhum

cultivator has to work for nearly 365 days in the year and 12 hours a

day to eke out a bare pittance from his land. The never ending cycle

of cultivating a current jhum and with it preparing for the next year’s

jhum is interspersed only by labour on building and repairing houses,

fetching firewood for the family etc. An occasional hunting trip or

festival, when drinking and sports take over, brighten the otherwise

monotonous life of the jhum cultivator. Where is the time and the

energy for the laborious carving out of terraces from the hill-sides?

Even if the government were to subsidise such form of cultivation the

expenditure would be prohibitive, while the manpower requirements

would be such as could not be met. The use of bulldozers to cut

terraces out of the hill-side has only limited application, and only where

444. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

the slope is not excessive. In many cases perennial irrigation is not

available and the terraces have to depend on rain water. The grow-

ing of cash crops, which has been recommended as a ‘cure all’ has

also certain limitations. In the Mize Hills vast quantities of oranges

are produced but have no value because there is no market. The

theory of exchange between the plains and the hills, the farmer sending

his surplus rice up and the latter sending down his cash crops, is no

doubt one of the answers to the problem, but it would necessitate a

complete change of outlook on the part of the conservaiive hillman

and involve a network of roads which would be beyond the reach

of even a modern welfare State.

Improved methods of jhuming are part of the programme of the

agricultural authorities in these eastern hills, but so far it has been

more a theory than anything else. In fact, the whole problem appears

to be incapable of solution particularly if the individual villagers’

predilection for the ancestral site is considered. In Orissa, Mooney,

an officer of the Indian Forest Service, succeeded in bringing down

certain groups of hill dwellers who were practising shifting cultivation

to the foot of the hills, where ready made townships, complete with

all facilities such as medical aid and hygiene, sanitation, water etc.

and prepared permanent cultivation Jands were ready for them. This

uniquely successful experiment resulted in the abandoned jhuming

land being given over to forest. But in the case of tribal peoples

whose preference is for the mountain top---and in the case of Naga

the tip of the top —this is a difficult solution to envisage even if there

was sufficient flat land anywhere for permanent cultivation and con-

solidated settlements.

But there can be a new approach to this problem in view of the

threat of diminishing wood supplies in India. While we hear a lot

about fast growing plantations to produce industrial material for paper

‘and pulp, hardboards, chipboards etc., and while every State is going

in for afforestation with fast growing species like Eucalyptus, in many

cases abandoning the growing of large sized trees on long rotations

for small sized trees suitable for the production of industrial pulping

material, the hills surrounding the Brahmaputra valley are producing

in numerous plots, scattered over the whole length of the hills

enormous quantities of cellulosic raw materials suitable for this type

of industrialisation. Instead of trying to find land for these afforest-

ation programmes in reserved forests which are already heavily burdened

with demands for timber, firewood etc., we could utilise the material

growing in these hills. By harvesting a part of the material which is

burned—for not all the vegetation is reduced to ash nor is the whole

A NOTE ON NAGALAND 445

of the tree needed for production of this type of natural fertiliser—

this vast and readily available self-renewing, raw material resource can

be tapped. In the middle of the jhum cycle say in the 5th year of

the 10 year period (including the two years of cultivation), the coppicing

erasses, reeds and fast growing species that have come up can be

harvested once without any great diminution of the cellulosic material

available for burning. After paying the cultivator a fair price for

what is removed from his land the material can be taken to factories

producing hardboards, chipboards and pulp situated in the plains

within reasonable distance, say 20 to 25 miles, from railhead. In

Nagaland where nearly one-third of the land area of 6000 square

miles is under shifting cultivation, the possibilities for this are enormous.

Even allowing for eventual ‘stabilisation’ of some of the jhum lands by

terracing, growing of cash crops and afforestation, we can safely count

on some 150 square miles (96,906 acres, say 100,000 acres) of such

lands within easy reach of the railway-—a strip of land 150 miles in

length and 10 miles in depth—for production of cellulosic pulping

materials. Allowing for one-tenth of this area being under cropping

i.e., cutting and burning each year on a 10 year cycle, and on the basis

of as low a figure as 5 tons of material per acre, we may expect 50,000

tons of such material per annum, sufficient for a hardboard plant of 100

ton capacity.

Application of this principle to other hill areas would mean

that in a strip of hills surrounding the main Assam valley, the

vegetation that comes up on the jum plots can contribute to the

establishment of a vast wood-products industry which can feed India

with all the chipboard, hardboard and pulp and paper that it needs.

It would mean the establishment of such industries in areas which are

very poorly developed, while the tribal cultivator will earn money from

his land and will be enabled thereby to improve his economic standard

and way of life. He may even be able to finance the conversion of a

portion of his land into terraces for permanent cultivation, thereby en-

suring his future. Where the jhum cycle is long enough—say 10 to

12 years—the tribal cultivator could be induced, by a system of sub-.

sidies if necessary, to grow fast growing, coppicing species at suitable

spacement (15’ to 20’) along with his cereal crops tc supplement the

vegetation which comes up in the inter-crop period, thereby establishing

a self-renewing crop of wood for industrial utilisation. This is nothing

but an adaptation of the taungya system of growing plantations with

the aid_of field crops, so well known to the forester in India.

This new solution for a chronic problem will serve three require-

ments: first, the need for amelioration of the system of jhuming by

446 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

bringing about an increased return from the land, (as indicated in the

last mentioned suggestion) because growing of trees instead of bamboos,

grasses and reeds, will have a long term effect on the cycle through

the provision of more ash from a wood burn as such; next, improving

the economic status of the tribal cultivator, who has nothing to look

forward to except poor crops won from the land by hard effort; and

finally producing industrial material for India’s needs. Such a solution

is offered as a challenge, both to the hide-bound administrator and

the conservative tribesman. Will it be taken up?

Observations on the Life History and

Bionomics of Oligotoma ceylonica

ceylonica Enderlein

(Oligotomidae, Embioptera), commensal

in the Nest of the Social Spider

Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch.

- BY

BHUSHAN Lat. BRADOO

U.G.C. Research Scholar, University Department of Zoology,

Calicut-8

(With two plates)

INTRODUCTION

None of the previous workers on social spiders has reported the

commensalistic association between these spiders and the Embioptera

living in their nests. Marshall (1898) discovered the presence of certain

microlepidopteran nest mates of South African social spiders and

Pocock (1903) reported commensalism between the social spiders and

a moth Bathrachedra stegodyphobius. The association of the social

spiders and Embioptera is a new record of commensalism. Since the

literature shows that the life history and bionomics of even the free

living Embiids have not been completely worked out and because all

the developmental stages of Oligotoma ceylonica ceylonica are met

with in the Stegodyphus nests, it was thought worthwhile to study the

life history and bionomics of this Embiid as completely as possible.

METHODS OF STUDY

Social spider nests were collected from different areas in Feroke

(Kerala State) near paddy fields at different periods of the year (Sep.

— 1964-Sep. 1965), and were dissected and analysed in the laboratory.

448 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Live oligotomids were collected from these spider nests and some of

them were reared in captivity in 2 in. petri dishes placed separately in

beakers in a glass trough to which a little water was added to keep

away ants, cockroaches, etc. The beakers were covered with a net .

to keep out any flying insects or arachnids.

The oligotomids in the petri dishes were provided with a little

Stegodyphus nest material and dry twigs obtained from the interior of

the nest. A little wheat flour was supplied to them now and then. The

dry twigs were slightly moistened daily to maintain proper humidity.

Daily observations were made on eggs, immature stages (nymphs), and

adults under a stereomicroscope. Observations on the bionomics of

Oligotoma ceylonica ceylenica were also made in the field on live

nests of Stegodyphus late in the evenings, at a time when the spiders

themselves are active.

LIFE HISTORY

Egg.-—Oviposition takes place inside silken tunnels constructed by the

mother. The total number of eggs laid by a single individual in its

life. time varies from 41 to 74 as calculated from the number of eggs

laid by individual females in ten cultures in the laboratory, although

under natural conditions the number appears to be much higher. The

number of eggs laid per day varies from 1 to 3 although in one of the

breeding cultures a female laid a total of 4 eggs per day several times.

But usually only a single egg is deposited per day. The number of

eges which individual females are capable of laying is much higher in

captivity than that recorded by Ananthasubramanian & Ananthakrishnan

(1960) who believe that ‘the number of eggs laid in captivity is always

very limited’ (6-15 in O. minuscula, 15-24 in O. humbertiana). Ling

(1934) stated that ‘each female of O. saundersii probably does not

produce more than ten eggs’.

The eggs are deposited in a linear row, their opercular ends always

directed anteriorly facing the roof of the tunnel, sometimes slightly

overlapping each other (Plate I, fig. 1). If frequently disturbed they —

may lay without any such symmetry and arrangement, and deposit

haphazardly on the inner surface of the silken tunnels. In Stegodyphus

nests the eggs are laid in dry regions in the interior, where dark, humid,

and favourable environmental conditions prevail. . In captivity the

egg-laying period varies from one to two-and-a-half months. The eggs

are not laid continuously every day, as once or twice in a fortnight

no eggs were deposited,

OLIGOTOMA CEYLONICA CEYLONICA ENDERLEIN 449

Each egg (Plate I, fig. 2) is more or less elongate, creamy white

in colour, with a glistening surface when laid. The pear-shaped

operculum is marked off from the rest of the egg by a thick whitish

fold all along its margin. The average size of the egg is 0°89 mm. in

length and 0-41 mm. in diameter.

Incubation period. 19 to 22 days, depending upon the period of the

year. During development, the egg shows a slight change from white

to opaque dull colour (due to the developing embryo inside) and later

two rounded eye spots are visible through the chorion on either side

of the opercular end, representing the eyes of the embryo inside.

First Instar Nymph (Plate I, fig. 3). The newly hatched nymph is

pale-coloured and almost transparent. It can feed by itself, moves about

actively, spins small tunnels and avoids daylight. It measures 1-4 to

1:5 mm. in length. The head is much wider than any other part of

the body and measures 0:45 0-39 mm.; the thorax and abdomen are

subequal in length. The eyes are blackish and the tips of the dentate

mandibles are reddish brown. The head, shaped as in the figure,

bears 9-segmented antennae which are nearly as long as the head. The

first and second segments of the antennae are short and wide, 3rd

segment long and rest of the segments as shown in the figure. The

pro-, meso-, and metanota are subequal; the abdomen is 10-segmented,

but the 10th segment is not clearly marked from the rest of the abdomen.

The fore tarsi of the nymph ate swollen and contain spinning

glands. The last pair of legs has a single metatarsal sole, bladder-like

as in the adult. Cerci two-segmented, symmetrical, Ist segment smaller

in length than the second segment. The body is wholly covered with

pale-coloured setae, which are shorter on the antennae and longer on

the cerci. The first instar moults into the second instar after 9-12 days.

Just prior to moulting it measures c. 2-5 mm. in length.

Second Instar Nymph. Paie-yellowish in colour measuring 2:8-

3°6 mm. in length, with head 0:°56X0-45 mm., thorax 1:18-1:41 mm.,

and abdomen 1:24-1:54 mm. This nymph differs from the first instar

nymph in having a 12-segmented antenna, which is distinctly longer

than its own head. It has 10 distinct segments in the abdomen; pro-

thorax is narrower; 10th sternum divided into two parts by a median

groove. Antennae, maxillary and labial palps, and legs are still pale-

coloured. No sexual dimorphism is noticed in this stage. The second

instar nymph moults into the third instar after 10-12 days. Just prior

to moulting it measures c. 3:5 mm. in length.

Third Instar Nymph. The third antennal segment of the second instar

nymph divides into two segments, and thus the third instar possesses

450 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

a 13-segmented antenna. The antenna in this instar is about twice as

long as its own head. The fourth and sixth segments of the antenna

are the smallest in length. The male nymphs have small wing buds

(Plate I, fig. 4) which are absent in the female nymphs. Only the

tips of the wing buds are clearly visible. The wing buds in O. ceylonica

ceylonica appearing in the third instar nymph thus develop at a very

early stage in the life history as compared with the other species of

Oligotoma studied. The nymphal stage with wing pads has been

reported to be the Sth instar, both in the case of O. humbertiana

(Ananthasubramanian 1956) and of O. minuscula (Ananthasubramanian

& Ananthakrishnan 1960). The nymph is slightly pigmented and

measures 4°18-5-50 mm. in total length. Its thorax is 1:5-2 mm. in

length and the abdomen 1:9-29 mm. After about 10-13 days the

third instar moults into the 4th instar nymph.

Fourth Instar Nymph. 5:5-5-8 mm. in length and about twice as

long as the second instar. The head is 0:°84X0-67 mm.; thorax 2°1-

22 mm., and abdomen 2:6-2:7 mm. The cerci are symmetrical.

Antennae 1:35 mm. long and 15-segmented as a result of the division

of the 3rd antennal joint of the previous nymph into 3 segments, prior

to moulting. Basal part of each antennai segment exhibits accumul-

aticn of light-brownish pigments in the form of a ring. Wing pads

(Plate I, fig. 5) have grown in size and are completely visible measuring

0:56 mm. in length. They are dirty-white and are covered with loosely

arranged setae. The 8th sternum of the female nymph shows a round

unpigmented area where the female genital opening appears in the

next instar. After 13-15 days the 4th instar moults into the 5th instar.

Fifth Instar Nymph. Pale-brown in colour: length varies from 5-15

to 6:66 mm. ‘The male nymphs are usually smaller than the females

and have more slender body. The male head measures 0-84 x 0-67 mm.

and female head 0:96*0:84 mm. In the male nymph the wing pads

have grown considerably in size and have become membranous. They

bear linear rows of setae which demarcate the future veins. The

anterior pair of wing pads extend up to the anterior margin of the

first abdominal segment and the posterior pair to the anterior margin

of the 3rd abdominal segment (Plate I, fig. 6). Each wing pad

measures 1:2-1:-4X0:39 mm. Two marginal pigment lines very near

to each other run along the outer margin of each wing pad. - Similar

marginal lines have also been found in the wing pads of the male

nymph of O. texana (Mills 1932). He believes these pigrnent lines

to be the forerunners of the brown lines which are found on each side

of the R, vein in the fully developed wing.

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3) PLATz [

Bradoo: Oligotoma ceylonica ceylonica

Oligotoma ceylonica ceylonica Enderlein

Fig. 1. Alignment of 4 eggs as seen from above; Fig. 2. Sideview of an egg with

operculum at the anteriorend ; Fig. 3. The newly hatched nymph; Fig. 4. Thorax

and first abdominal segment to show early stage in the development of wing (in 3rd

instar nymph); Fig.5. Same at a later stage (in 4th instar nymph): Fig. 6. Same in

the 3rd stage of development (as seen in 5th instar nymph) ; Fig. 7. Distal end of the

abdomen ofa grown up Sth instar male nymph; Fig. 8. Fourth stage in the develop-

ment of wing (as seen in a later stage nymph);

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OLIGOTOMA CEYLONICA CEYLONICA ENDERLEIN 451

Antennae in both sexes 16-or-17-segmented, measuring 1:7-1-°9 mm.

in length. In the female nymph the genital opening is visible on the

8th sternum. In a grown-up male nymph the 10th tergum which is

asymmetrical, shows a median depression and its tip bears two pro-

jections (Plate I, fig. 7) representing the two developing processes of the

right and the left 10th hemitergites. These features, however, are

transitory and after 10-13 days striking changes are noticed in ant-

ennae, head shape, mandibles, cerci, size and pigmentation of the

whole body, 10th tergum and wing pads. The wing pads become

thick and plate-like with distinct rows of setae, and the marginal

pigment lines (already mentioned above) are seen wide apart from

each other, running irregularly towards the tip of each wing-pad (Plate I,

fig. 8). On the other hand the female nymphs attain maturity and grow

larger in size without undergoing any of the changes mentioned above in

the case of the male, except in the antennae and the general pigmentation

of the body.

The nymphs make thick-walled tunnels and move very little now.

Prior to the final moult which takes place within 3-5 davs the male

and female nymphs measure 5:4-6°7 mm. The total duration from the

beginning of the fifth instar nymph to the final moult lasts 13-20 days.

Adult. The number of segments in each antenna of both sexes varies

from 19 to 20. The measurements are as follows: MALE (Plate II,

fig. 10) total length 6:2-6:°31 mm., head 0:°9*0-7 mm., anterior wing

4:5-4-6 mm., posterior wing 3:6-3-°8 mm.; FEMALE total length 7-4-

79 mm., head 0:96-1X0°8 mm. The female O. ceylonica ceylonica

(Plate II, fig. 9) is larger in size and has much darker-brown coloration

and a broad ovai head. Its antennal segments are shorter in length.

According to Davis (1940) ‘adult male O. ceylonica ceylonica is re-

cognisable by the first segnient of the left cercus being less excavate

in the basal three quarters and by the absence of the outcurved spine

on the left cercus-basipodite’. The terminalia of the adult male of

O. ceylonica ceylonica is shown in Plate II, fig. 11.

BIONOMICS

Habits. Oligotoma ceylonica ceylonica is nocturnal in habits like its

spider host. It lives in sub-societies inside silken tunnels, which are

constructed in the interior of the spider nest. These tunnels traverse

the nest in the form of a network along the intercommunicating tunnels

of the spiders. These silken tunnels of oligotomids communicate with

the external environment through short branches spun on the surface

452 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

of the nest and are provided with several small exit holes. The outer

tunnels present on the surface serve as exits, especially for the adult

males who fly away soon after copulation. They also lead to the

green algal growths (on the exterior of the spider nest) serving as

food for the nymphs. Sometimes, from the interior of the spider nest

these silken tunnels penetrate into hollows of the wooden supports on

which Stegodyphus sarasinorum construct their nests.

Sex ratio. Twenty-eight Siegodyphus nests analysed in different

periods of the year yielded in ali 203 oligotomids, consisting of 7

adult males, 28 adult females, 44 male nymphs, and 124 female nymphs

(including many Ist and 2nd instar nymphs). Besides, a large number

of eggs were also collected. All these nests were taken from Feroke

(Kerala State) from the fencing around paddy fields. The maximum

number of individuals collected from a single nest was 39. The adult

males are very rarely found in the nest because, as stated above,

they fly away soon after copulation. A correct assessment of the sex-

ratio, therefore, can be made only from a count of the sexes taken

in the nymphal stages soon after sex differentiation has taken place.

Copulation. The females become mature in the 5th instar even

before the final moult, thus protogyny is the rule in O. ceylonica

ceylonica. Copulation takes place inside the silken tunnels and has

been briefly described by Melander (1903) in Embia texana. My

observations confirm his studies. A day after copulation the female

started oviposition. The fertilized female chases away approaching

adult males from near her eggs. An unfertilized female was seen to

extend its silken tunnels and to make many exit holes. This female

survived for seventy-two days and did not lay any eggs.

As the eggs and immature stages of O. ceylonica ceylonica were

available throughout the year, there is sufficient reason to believe that

this species breeds all through the year. Ananthasubramanian &

Ananthakrishnan (1960) reported a similar observation on breeding in

O. minuscula. Since the life cycle is completed within 55-72 days in

O. ceylonica ceylonica, it may be concluded that there may be 4 to 6

generations in one year. In O. humbertiana life history is completed

within 111 to 158 days and in O. minuscula within 72 to 101 days

(Ananthasubramanian & Ananthakrishnan 1960). The number of

generations of these two species, when calculated, will be about 2 and 4

generations respectively. For O. texana, Mills (1932) reports only

one generation a year. The breeding of O. ceylonica ceylonica

throughout the year and the existence of 4 to 6 generations in the year

may be ascribed to the abundance of food and other favourable

OLIGOTOMA CEYLONICA CEYLONICA ENDERLEIN - 452

conditions which are available to it in the nest of the social spider

S. sarasinorum.

Maternal Care. The care and solicitude that the mother gives to her

eggs and brood is well known. The eggs of O. ceylonica ceylonica are

protected and concealed by a thin silken covering woven over them

by the mother, over which she places bits of dry wood particles cut by

means of her mandibles. In addition, black waste material from the

spider nest and her own black ball-shaped faeces are placed over them,

so that the eggs are practically concealed. Throughout the incubation

period, the mother keeps guard over the eggs, very often touching them

with her antennae. If the eggs are artificially exposed, she rushes to the

eggs and hides them underneath her own body, standing over them. She

then collects waste material and deposits them over the eggs, and later

a silken webbing is swiftly added over the layer of waste material.

This habit of concealment of eggs may help to prevent fungal

growth on their surface and at the same time may serve to conceal

them from the eyes of the other individuals (of the same sub-society).

Further, if the eggs are artificially placed outside on the silken tunnel,

- they are taken back inside and cencealed once again. The newly

hatched nymph, as well as other immature stages (mostly second and

third instar nymphs) of the brood follow the mother throughout the

tunnel, as in the case of a female with its brood of 26 individuals

{consisting of three different instars), which I had maintained in my

rearings. It was further observed that the newly hatched nymph

followed the mother more closely than the older nymphs.

Egg parasites. The eges of O. ceylonica ceylonica are parasitized

by a minute wasp of the family Scelionidae (Hymenoptera). One

parasite develops inside each parasitized egg. A similar wasp

parasite has been reported by Imms (1913) from the eggs of Embia

major. The parasite was observed by me to oviposit on fresh

oligotomid eggs soon after it came out of the egg, and was seen to

move freely inside the silken tunnels.

Dispersal. It has regularly been observed by me that the third,

fourth and fifth nymphal instars of both the sexes actively go on

extending the tunnels from their home nest to neighbouring nests of

Stegodyphus sarasinorum, where they establish new sub-societies.

During this extension these nymphal stages work inside silken tunnels

which protect them from Stegodyphus. The adult females and males

have not been found to be in any way responsible for dispersal. It

seems that only the 3rd, 4th and Sth nymphal instars of both sexes

are alone the founders of new sub-societies.

454. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

SUMMARY

Although the life histories and bionomics of a few oligotomids

have been studied by some authors, detailed observations are lacking.

The commensalistic association of Embioptera with social spiders is

recorded here for the first time. There are 5 nymphal instars in the

life history of O. ceylonica ceylonica, and sex-dimorphism appears

first in 3rd nymphal stage. The life cycle is completed within 55 to 72

days and from this the number of generations per year is calculated

as from 4 to 6. It is observed that the duration of the life history is

shorter and the number of generations more in this oligotomid than

in other species of the genus studied by previous authors. This is

accountable only in the light of the benefits derived through the

commensalistic association with the social spider Stegodyphus sara-

sinorum. Observations on bionomics of this oligotomid have been

made. ;

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

My sincere thanks are due to Dr. K. J. Joseph, Reader in Zoology,

University Centre, Calicut, for encouragement and for valuable guid-

ance in the preparation of this paper. I am grateful to the University

Grants Commission for financial help and to Prof. K. K. Nayar, Head

of the Department of Zoology, University of Kerala, for giving me

research facilities in the Department of Zoology at Calicut Centre.

REFERENCES

ANANTHASUBRAMANIAN, K. S. (1956):

Biology of Oligotoma humbertiana

(Saussure) (Oligotomidae, Embioptera).

Indian. J. Ent. 18 (3) : 226-232.

—————_—— & ANANTHAKRISHNAN,

T. N. (1960): Biology of Oligotoma

minuscula Enderlein (Oligotomidae,

Embioptera). Bull. Ent. 1: 18-21.

Davis, C. (1940): Taxonomic notes

on the order Embioptera. XVIII. Proc.

Linn. Soc. N.S.W. 65 : 362-387.

Tus, A. D., (1913) : On Embia major,

sp. nov. from the Himalayas. Trans.

Linn. Soc. Zool. 11 : 167-195.

' JAMBUNATHAN, N.S. (1905): The habits

and life history of a social spider

(Stegodyphus sarasinorum Karsch).

Smiths. Misc. Coll. 47 : 365-372.

Linc, S. W. (1934): Notes on the

biology and morphology of Oligotoma

saundersii Westwood. Peking Nat. Hist.

Bull. 9 (4): 261-272.

MARSHALL, G.A.K. (1898): Notes on

South African Social spiders. The

Zoologist No. 688. 2 : 417-422.

MELANDER, A. L. (1903) : Notes on

the structure and development of Embia

texana. Biol. Bull. TV (3): 99-118.

Mitts, H. B. (1932): The Life

history and thoracic development of

Oligotoma texana (Mel.) Embiidia.

Ann. ent. Soc, America 25 : 648-652.

Pocock, R. I. (1903) : Notes on Com-

mensalism subsisting between a gregari-

ous spider Stegodyphus sp. and the

moth Bathrachedra stegodyphobius W\sm.

Ent. Month. Mag. 24 (2): 167-170.

-A special fishing method for Mystus

(Osteobagrus) seenghala (Sykes) and

Mystus (Osteobagrus) aor (Hamilton)

and certain other interesting fishing

methods in River Narbada

S. J. KARAMCHANDANI! AND P. K. PANDIT*

Narbada-Tapti Unit, Central Inland Fisheries Research

Institute, Hoshangabad, M.P.

(With three plates)

INTRODUCTION

While engaged in fishery survey of River Narbada, an indigenous

fishing method, locally known as ‘Chir’, was observed to be prevalent

in the vicinity of Hoshangabad. It is an ingenious and specialised

fishing device, for catching two commercially important species of

catfishes Mystus (Osteobagrus) seenghala (Sykes) and Mystus (Osteo-

bagrus) aor (Hamilton), locally called ‘Digar’? or ‘Seenghar’ and

‘Kohora’ respectively. This fishing method reportedly in use in River

Narbada from time immemorial is now prevalent in certain fishing

villages along the entire course of the river, but its practice is restricted

to a few fishermen families. Near Hoshangabad, only two families

are skilled in catching ‘Digar’ and ‘Kohora’ by this fishing method.

As ‘Chir’ fishing has not been hitherto described from any part

of India, the fishing implements and the method of this type of fishing

are described in detail. Other fishing methods employing scare line

are also described.

‘CHIR’ FISHING

(a) Fishing gear: ‘Tne equipment and the accessories required for

‘Chir’ fishing are a scare line, three wooden poles, two small boats

and a fishing hook.

1Small Reservoirs Unit, Central Inland Fisheries Research Institute, Rewa, M.P.

2 Present address: Central Fisheries, Kakdwip P.O., Dist. 24 Parganas, West

- Bengal.

456 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

(i) Scare line (Local name: ‘Dor’) consists of about 500 yards of

rope, generally made from Shunn-hemp (Crotalaria juncea) and

sometimes from ‘Kans’ (Saccharum spontaneum); several bunches of

long and narrow leaves of a grass (Local name: ‘Orai’), each about

10 inches long; several small pieces of stone; and about four floats,

generally of “‘tumbe’.

The bunches of ‘Orai’ are inserted in between the strands of the

rope at regular intervals of 6 to 8 inches and small pieces of stone

are tied close to the rope with ordinary thread (usually ‘Sutli’) at

regular intervals of about 20 inches i.e. after every third bunch of

‘Orai’. The four floats are tied to the rope at intervals of about

100 yards. This line is- dragged through the water to scare the fish

into the enclosure formed by it. During the course of dragging, the

bunches of ‘Orai’ hanging from the rope form a flimsy wall through which

‘Digar’ and ‘Kohora’ do not escape but congregate in the middle of

the enclosure. The small stones tied to the rope act as sinkers. The

floats help to keep the scare line in position and from sinking to the

bottom and also help in tracing the submerged scare line.

(ii) Wooden poles (Local name: ‘Khootte’): Three straight poles

generally of ‘Sal’ wood (Sharea rebusta), each measuring 8 to 10 feet

in length, are required for this type of fishing. They are fixed in the

sandy river bed in the form of a triangle. The scare line finaily rests

against these poles, forming a triangular enclosure.

(iii) Small boats (Local name: ‘Donga’): The small boats

ordinarily used for cther types of fishing in the river are also

employed in ‘Chir’ fishing. They are small-sized, plank-built and

with flat bottom, about 20 feet in length and about 3 feet in width.

Two such boats are generally used, one for feeding the scare line

into the water and encircling the fishing area and the other to prevent

the scare line from entangling in submerged weeds, rocks or boulders,

while it is being dropped in or dragged through the water.

(iv) Fishing-hook (Local name: ‘Gaal’): The hook employed is

similar in shape to an ordinary fishing hook, but is larger in size

and has a long shaft suitable for a firm grip. It is made from a } inch

diameter iron rod. The shaft measures 16 to 20 inches in length

and has an eyelet at one end and the barb at the other. A thin and

short piece of rope is passed through the eyelet and tied in a closed

loop. The hand is slipped through the loop before gripping the shaft

of the hook, to ensure that it does not slip off at the time of fishing.

(b) Number of fishermen required: Usually six fishermen are

required, but sometimes even four or five fishermen manage the

whole fishing operation. They operate in two parties, each of two

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FISHING METHODS IN RIVER NARBADA 457

to three fishermen in one small boat. One boat feeds out the scare

line and the other beat tends it. One fisherman of each party mani-

pulates the boat, one feeds out the scare line and another, the skilled

fisherman, hooks the fish but he also helps in feeding out the scare line

if it becomes necessary. The two fishermen of the second boat tend

the scare line as it is being dropped in water and dragged.

area, the three wooden poles are fixed in the sandy river bed where

the depth of water varies from 4 to 5 feet. The three poles are fixed

in a triangle at a distance of 30 to 4C feet from each other. One end

of the scare line is tied, about a foot below the water surface, to

the pole near the river bank and rest of the scare line is loaded on

the boat, which moves away from the river bank, dropping the scare

line outside the two other poles and enclosing as much area as

the length of the scare line permits. The free end of the scare line

is then brought to the river bank and dragged very close to the pole

to which the scare line is tied completing the enclosure. As the scare

line is dragged and the enclosed area narrows, the frightened fish move

and gradually congregate in the hind portion of the enclosure. One

boat with three fishermen guided by the floats moves towards the

line and ensures that the line is not entangled by submerged obstacles,

till the line finally rests against the poles. The fisherman armed with

the hook then gets inside the enclosure holding the fish and dives

in search of them (Plate IT). When a fish is located, he strikes with

the hook keeping himself at arm’s length and pulls the fish towards

him carefully so that the fish does not injure him during the course

of its struggle.

(d) Time and season of fishing: For successful fishing by ‘Chir’,

good visibility inside the water is essential to enable the fisherman to

locate the fish and hook it successfully. The fishing is, therefore,

practised generally from mid-October to mid-June, when river water

is clear, and vast stretches of the river become shallow and suitable

for this type of fishing. ‘Chir’ fishing is done usually from 10.00 a.m.

to 4.00 p.m. but the best time for fishing is from 11.00 a.m. to

2.00 p.m., when the sun is directly overhead and there is maximum

visibility inside the water. Moreover, during midday the danger of

fish being frightened by the shadow of the fisherman is lessened. While

fishing before 31.00 a.m. and after 2.00 p.m., the fisherman ensures

that his shadow does not fall on the fish at the time of hooking by

approaching the fish from the west during morning hours and

from the east in the afternoon,

458: JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

(e) Selective fishing: ‘The fishing area through which the scare

line is dragged contains all types of fishes, but during the dragging

of the scare line all other fishes escape through the flimsy ‘Orai’

barrier or jump over it. “Digar’ and ‘Kohora’ remain in the enclosure

evidently because they are not capable of jumping over the scare line.

the barrier probably because the bunches of ‘Orai’ touching their

body, gives the impression of an insuperable barrier and keep on

retreating as the scare line approaches them. On some occasions,

however, when the fisherman fails to hook one of the catfishes and it

breaks through the scare line, the remaining fish in the enclosure

follow. 7

(f) Fishery and size composition: ‘The two species of catfish are

also encountered in the catches by other gears, like cast net, gill net and

long line, along with other species of fish. The general observations on

the catches of ‘Digar’ and ‘Kohora’ from ‘Chir’ fishing and other

gears have, however, indicated some disparity in the proportions of

the two species and in their size compositions. In order to get an

exact idea of the relative abundance of these two species of catfishes

and their size compositions in the catches of ‘Chir’ fishing and by

other gears, the relevant data were collected separately for different

fishing operations from November 1963 to April 1964. The data

thus collected have been compiled and presented in the Table.

TABLE —

SIZE COMPOSITION OF ‘ DIGAR’ AND ‘ KOHORA’ IN ‘ CHIR” FISHING AND

BY OTHER GEARS FOR THE PERIOD NOVEMBER 1963 To APRIL 1964.

Other gears (cast net, gill net

* Chir’ fishing and long line)

Size Range fe

(mm.)

* Digar ’” * Kohora * * Digar ’ * Kohora ’

No. (%) No. (%) No: =. (%) Now 36,

101-200 — = = = — — 16 4°6

201- 300 16 ( 6°4) — —~ 12 (5:4) 103 (29°3)

301- 400 9 ( 3:6) 2 (12°5) 52] (12:1) 67 (19:1)

401- 500 45 (18°1) 4 (25:0) 32 (14:3) 76 (21°7)

501- 600 62 (24:9) 6 (37°5) 35 (15°6) 38 (10°8)

601- 700 51 (20°5) 2 (12°5) 52 (23°2) 21 ( 6:0)

701- 800 31 (12°5) 2 (12°5) 39 (17:4) 25 ( 7°1)

801- 900 16 ( 6°4) — — 14 ( 6:2) 3 ( 0°8)

901-1000 7 ( 2°8) — — 6 (C257) 2 ( 0°6)

- 1001-1100 11 ( 4:4) — — 6 ( 2:7) — —

1101-1200 1 ( 0°4) — = 1 ( 0°4) — —

Total 249 16 224 351

FISHING METHODS IN RIVER NARBADA 459

The Table shows that “Digar’ outnumbers “Kohora’ in the catches

of ‘Chir’ fishing and the reverse is the case with the pooled catches

with other gears. The haulwise observations on the catches of ‘Chir’

fishing have revealed that while most of the hauls yield only “Digar’,

a few specimens of ‘Kohora’ are also encountered in some hauls and

when the pooled catches from all hauls of ‘Chir’ fishing during a

period are considered, the two species are fished in the ratio of about

15:1 indicating that ‘Chir’ fishing is especially effective for catching

‘Digar’, whereas ‘Kohora’ is captured only casually by this method.

The length frequency data of the two species of catfishes taken

by other gears indicate (Table) that the maximum size of “Digar’ (size

range: 1101-1200 mm.) is larger than that of ‘Kohora’ (size range:

901-1000 mm.) in the Narbada, at least near Hoshangabad. Com-

parison of various size groups of “Digar’ in the catches of ‘Chir’ and

those of the other gears shows that ‘Chir’ fishing does not exhibit any

size selectivity and the various sizes of this species captured by ‘Chir’

are almost in the same proportion as in the catches of other gears.

The sizes of ‘Kohora’ which are encountered in smaller numbers in

the catches of ‘Chir’ represent the dominant size groups of the catches

of the other gears.

(g) Primitive origin: ‘Chir’ fishing involving the use of scare line

and hook is undoubtedly of primitive origin, based on the knowledge

of the habits and the behaviour of fishes in nature and makes use of

the timid nature and sluggish habits of “Digar’ and ‘Kohora’ cat-

fishes for catching them. The professional skill required in ‘Chir’

fishing has been passed on from generation to generation but fishing

by this method, like any other primitive fishing method, has dwindled

considerably with passage of time and is not now practised on a large

scale.

(h) Superstitions associated with ‘Chir’ fishing: Certain super-

Stitions are reported to be associated with ‘Chir’ fishing:

(i) Religious rites are performed by the fishermen before starting

‘Chir’ fishing in each season commencing from mid-October. All the

fishing implements particularly the fishing-hook and the scare line are

worshipped by reciting ‘mantras’. A chicken is also sacrificed in front

of the fishing implements. The sacrificed chicken is eaten by the

fishermen and their friends as ‘Prasadam’. It is a deep rooted but un-

founded belief among the fishermen that by worshipping the scare line,

‘Digar’ and Kohora’ do not break through it.

(ii) Before disposing of fish caught by ‘Chir’ fishing, their adipose

fin is severed and viscera are removed. Under no circumstances, are

they taken from the fishing ground without the observance of these

460 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64. (3)

ceremonial functions. The adipose fin and the viscera are either

thrown into the water or cooked on the river bank and eaten. It is

believed by fishermen that if intact fish or their adipose fin and viscera

are allowed to leave the fishing ground, the ‘mantras’ will become

ineffective, resulting in poor catches iater. |

Gii) It is believed by fishermen that the man who _ takes

an active part in ‘Chir’ fishing and hooks the fish usually suffers from

defect in one foot in his old age. This belief is based on actual

happenings of such incidents.

OTHER FISHING METHODS EMPLOYING SCARE LINE

Gopinath (1953) has described a fishing method in the backwaters

of Travancore, in which a rope fitted with coconut palm leaves is

employed as scare line and the fish (Eutroplus suratensis and Gerres

sp.) are grabbed by hand. In Narbada River, the use of scare line is

also known in two more fishing inethods which are described below. ,

The gear employed in these fishing methods are nets which are used

as traps. |

(i) At Hoshangabad and other places on the river the fingerlings

of large-sized fish like Tor tor, Ter putitora, Labeo fimbriatus and

Labeo dyocheilus and the small-sized fish namely Labeo bata, Cirrhina

reba, Barbus sarana, Barilius bendelisis, Chela clupeoides and Danio

spp. are trapped in a composite net made of two cast nets, by dragging

the scare line in shallow regions of the river (Plate III). In this type

of fishing which is locally called ‘sheer’ or ‘chheer’ the scare line is

comparatively shorter in length varying from 100 to 200 yards and

instead of “‘Orai’ leaves the date palm leaves are used in the prepar-

ation of scare line. The method of this type of fishing is more

complicated and quite different from that of ‘Chir’ fishing. In this

method, two cast nets are sewn together along their circumference for

some length and reinforced with a short piece of bamboo, so that ihe

mouth of the composite net does not collapse during fishing operation.

One ‘tumbe’ float is tied to the upper end of the bamboo piece in

order to keep the mouth portion of the net floating. Two fishermen,

one on either side of the composite net, hold the lower margin of

the mouth of the net with the toes of one foot and the upper margin with

both hands. One end of the scare line is tied to the free leg of one

of the two fishermen holding the net, and rest of the scare line is

laid in the water in semi-circular fashion and dragged towards the

river bank by three fishermen. One end of another ordinary rope —

is, in turn, tied to the free leg of the other fisherman holding the net

“ 4g <r

5 : :

eee =e

FISHING METHODS IN RIVER NARBADA 461

and the other end of it is held by another fisherman. During fishing

operation while the scare line is being dragged, the two fishermen

holding the net move forward and at the same time the fisherman

holding the ordinary rope beats the water surface violently by moving

the rope sideways. Sometimes, in slight variation of this method,

the composite net is kept stationary whereas the scare line is dragged

and the ordinary rope is moved sideways in the water as described

above. The fish frightened by the scare line try to escape across the

ordinary rope, but due to the sound and vibrations created in the

water by the beating of the rope the fish are diverted into the net and

are trapped by closing the mouth of the net.

(ii) Another fishing method which is a modification of ‘sheer’

fishing is employed to catch the fry (1 to 14 inches) of two species of

Mahseer, viz.. Tor tor and Tor putitora and small-sized fish like

Barilius bendelisis, Barilius barila, BRarilius evezardi and Chela

clupeoides. This method is particularly employed in River Narbada at

Hoshangabad and other places in Madhya Pradesh from November

to March to catch Mahseer fry for stocking purposes. In this method,

one drag net is operated in conjunction with the scare line. The drag

net is made of an ordinary mosquito netting cloth and is of varying

sizes, generally measuring 15 feet in length and 7 feet in width. The

scare line is made of coir rope, fitted with date palm leaves and

measures about 100 yards in length. After locating the shoals of fry,

the scare line is laid in a semi-circle surrounding the shoals and

dragged towards the river bank. The drag net held by two or more

fishermen is then moved towards the approaching scare line and is

lifted to trap the fry which enter the fold of the net. The Mahseer

fry are also caught with drag net and scare line in a slightly different

manner. The drag net is kept stretched in shallow water near the

river bank and the scare line is then dragged towards the bank

where the net is kept in readiness. When the shoals come over the

drag net, the four corners of the net are lifted out of water trapping

the fry.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

We are grateful to Dr. B. S. Bhimachar, Director, and Dr. V. G.

Jhingran, Senior Research Officer, of this Institute, for kindly going

through the manuscript and offering valuable suggestions.

i REFERENCE

GopINaTH, K. (1953): Some interes- waters of Travancore. J. Bombay nat.

ting methods of fishing in the Back- Hist. Soc, 51 : 466-471,

The Genus Caryota in India

T. S. MAHABALE AND NANDINI SHIRKE

Department of Botany, University of Poona, Poona 7.

(With tivo plates, seventy-five text-figures and a map)

INTRODUCTION

The present paper is the 8th contribution to studies on palms

undertaken by the senior author (T. S. M.) and his associates!. It

deals with the genus Caryota in India. ‘This genus is mainly

concentrated in Indo-Malayan region having about 17 species of which

7 occur in India, 4 wild and 3 cultivated. The taxonomy of the

genus is rather confusing due to the scarcity of authentic material and

hybridization in cultivated plants.

Previous workers on it have been Linnaeus (1737), Griffith (1850),

Seeman (1856), Bentham & Hooker (1883), Nicholson (1885), Drude

(1887), J. D. Hooker (1892), Cooke (1908), Gatin (1912), Bailey (1914),

Brandis (1921), Blatter (1926), McCurrach (1960), Tomlinson (1960 a,

1960 b, 1961, 1962) and Moore (1960, 1960 a). Moore (1960) has

proposed a new taxon for the sub-family Caryotoideae in the classifi-

cation of the Palmae.

DIAGNOSTIC FEATURES OF THE GENUS Caryota

The plants grow singly or in clumps, their stem being distinctly

annulated. A jacket of adventitious roots surrounds the stem a little

above the ground. The leaves are large and bipinnate, so uncommon

in palms, the pinnae being borne on secondary axes of the leaf. Their

vernation is induplicate. A single pinna is multicostate. divergent and

strongly pulvinated. Stomata lie on both surfaces of the leaf and are

characterised by ridges or teeth on the guard cells. In some species

multi-cellular hairs are also present on the lower epidermis of leaf.

1 For earlier contributions see T. S. Mahabale, & M, V, Parthasarathy, (1963) ;

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc, 60 (2) : 371,

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 463

The peduncles are very large and massive. They have a stout

primary axis from which hang several horsetail-like secondary

branches, forming a bunch of pendulous spikes. The inflorescences

develop basipetally, i.e., from the apex down towards the base of the

tree, and this is a unique habit of Caryotoid palms.

Each inflorescence is a spadix (Plate II, figs. 7, 8) encircled by 8-9

spathes enclosing about 40 secondary branches each bearing male

and female flowers together. Generally they are in groups of three,

the central flower being female and the laterals male. The male

flowers develop and ripen earlier than the female. They drop off

after pollination and fruits set in on the secondary branches in spikes.

At maturity no male flowers are seen on them. The flowers have

perianth with trimerous parts. In female flowers there are 1 or 2

hemi-anatropous or anatropous ovules and 3 staminodes. In male

flowers the number of stamens ranges from 17-100. So far no

pistillodes were observed in the male flowers.

Fruit is a 1- 2-seeded, non-fibrous drupe. The seed is ruminated,

its surface being much corrugated. The conical embryo is lateral,

and germination of the seed is “Remotive’. The first eophyll is simple,

multicostate and convergent (Plate IJ, fig. 12).

DESCRIPTION OF SPECIES

A. Wild Species

1. Caryeta urens L.

(Plate J, fig. 1)

This handsome species commonly known as Bherli Mad throughout

Deccan or Kitul or ‘Fishtail palm’, attains a height of 12-22 m. in

rain forests. It yields sago from its pith and commercial bristle fibre

from the base of the leafstalk. The fibre being highly resistant to

sea water is widely used for making fishing nets. Its outer bark is

greyish brown in old trees and gets peeled off as periderm.

The crown of leaves is made up of 6-10 large bipinnately compound

leaves measuring 4-45 m. The triangular leafbase is covered with

fibres. Pinnae are borne on secondary axes. There is an odd terminal

leaflet which provides a_ specific character. Each pinna has a

pulvinus at the junction of the secondary axis of a leaf. The leaf

being very large is often bent in the middle. There are 18-25

464 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

secondary rachises, each bearing 36 pairs of leaflets or pinnae in the

basal part, 14 in the middle part and 5 in the apical part. They are

arranged in a pyramidal manner.

Each leaflet or pinna is multicostate and divergent. There is no

definite midrib but only 5-6 large costae.

A T.S. of the leaf at the point of attachment of pinna to rachis

is ‘V’-shaped. The vernation of entire leaf in Caryota is induplicate

as in the Sabaleae. A developing leaf appears as a_ sword-like

structure, its pinnae being closely folded together upon the secondary

axis. Margins of the pinnae are connected to each other by thread-

like ash-grey reins, held together by means of a pointed hook at the

apex of leaf as in Phoenix. As the pinnae get separated from the

apex, reins break off and hang downwards.

A single pinna is 30.4 cm., ashy green in colour and has shining

surface. It is triangular in shape and thick in texture. There is a

waxy coating on the abaxial face of the leaf.

The primary rachis ends in a bifid leaflet. Just below the terminal

leaflet there are side piunae below which lie two small pinnae, which

are called here as the ‘associated pinnae’ to differentiate them from

the side pinnae. The terminal leaflet is 228 cm., side pinnae 22x6

cm., and the associate pinnae 15X5 cm. There is also a terminal

leaflet on the secondary axis, 23X40 cm. It also has side pinnae,

17 2:5 em.

The inflorescence in this species is about 75 cm. long, completely

enclosed within large boat-shaped spathes. The adult fruiting axis

when out of spathe is 300-360 cm. in length, having a thick cylindri-

cal primary axis with 40-42 secondary branches, the fruitiferous spikes

(Text-fig. 53). They hang down in a thick cluster and hence the

popular name, ‘Horsetail palm’. The male flowers are 1:5 cm. long

and sessile. They have two rudimentary bracts and 3 sepals each.

The latter are imbricate, round and coriaceous and have frilled edges

(Text-figs. 39-40). Petals 3, larger than sepals, pinkish, valvate.

Stamens 40, acuminate, with short filaments. Anthers long and basi-

fixed. Pollen grains are monocolpate, reticulate and 2413-2

in diameter.

Female flowers, situated between two male flowers all along a spike

have 2 scaly bracts and 3 ovate, concave and closely imbricate sepals

(Text-fig. 41). Petals 3, round, ciliate and valvate, forming a per-

sistent tube. Ovary superior, subtrigonal and has two anatropous

ovules. Stigma sessile. There is a basal nectary. Fruit is a 2-seeded

drupe, 1:3-1:-4 cm. in diameter. The seeds have corrugated surface.

Multicellular hairs are present on the seed coat.

TEN

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 465

Endosperm is ruminated. Its cells are porous. Epicarp is single-

layered. A row of sclereides lies below the epicarp. The mesocarp

is spongy and full of raphide sacs. Air cavities and tannin containing

cells occur in it. The endocarp is generally few-layered. Seed coat

is many-layered and full of tannin.

Germination of the seed is of the “Remotive’ type. The first

eophyll is simple, multicostate and convergent.

Habitat. Deciduous forests of Deccan, Konkan, Madras, Coim-

batore, Central India, Orissa, evergreen forests of North Kanara,

Malabar, Nilgiris, Sub-Himalayan regions, up to 2051 m. in Nepal.

It is largely cultivated in gardens all over India, Middle East and

elsewhere, often from unknown sources, for its beauty.

2. Caryota rumphiana Mart.

(Plate: Ty fies 2)

This elegant palm 24-25 m. high is the tallest species of Caryota

among those studied. Its single stem is distinctly annulate, with bark

cracked into longitudinal slits. The towering crown of leaves is made

up of 6-14 leaves, each measuring 5-6 m. The texture of pinnae is

very thick and leathery compared to that in other species. The

terminal leaflet of the primary axis of rachis is bifid. It measures

35X10 cm. The side pinnae are 325 cm. long. The terminal leaflet

on the secondary rachis is 20*7 cm. and is without a tapering apex.

The side pinnae are {77 cm.

The spadix is 12-14 cm. long and arises at right angles to the

main axis of the tree, bearing about 45 pendulous spikes (Text-fig. 52).

It is similar to that in C. wrens, but the fruiting secondary axes are

huge, 360-420 cm. long and are the largest among the inflorescences of

species studied.

The male and female inflorescences are similar to those in C. urens

and have long but thin perianth. The number of stamens in male

flowers is 24. The fruit 1-6 cm. m diameter, is larger than that in

C. urens. The epicarp consists of compactly arranged cells and 2-3 rows

of sclereides. The mesocarp is multi-layered and has raphide sacs and

tannin cells. The endocarp is papery and single-layered. The seed

coat is filled with tannin. Surface of the seed is corrugated. The

endosperm is ruminated, ruminations being heavily impregnated with

tannin. Embryo is conical and lateral. Germination is of the

‘Remotive’ type as in C. urens. Eophyll is simple, multi-costate and

convergent.

466 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

A variety of this species grows in the Empress Gardens, Poona,

which has 30 stamens instead of 24 in the male flowers and has highly

ruminated seeds.

Habitat. This grows wild in Dandeli forests of North Kanara. It

is cultivated in gardens, e.g., in J. J. School of Arts, Bombay, Empress

Botanical Gardens, Poona, etc. It is found wild in Malay Archi-

pelago, New Guinea, Borneo and North Australia.

3. Caryota obtusa Griff.

This palm has the same habit and stature as C. urens, but it

can be recognised from it by the rounded, crenate apex of its leaflets.

The male flowers are short and unexpanded. The number of stamens

in male flowers is indefinite. It is a palm of high altitude.

Habitat. Wild in Upper Assam and Mishmi Hills, and is some-

times cultivated in gardens.

4. Caryota sobolifera Wall.

(Plate I, figs. 4, 5)

This is an ornamental species. It has one or two young shoots

sprouting from below the base of the tree trunk, almost at ground

level. Stem annulate. Adult plants attain a height of 105 m. The

leaves are bipinnate, their crown being made up of 6-16 leaves. Each

leaf is 2:1-2-4 m. long. The secondary axes bearing pinnae on a

primary rachis of leaf are 14-25.

The number of pinnae is 5 in the apical region, 14 in the middle,

and 36 in the basal region. A single pinna measures 10X2-:5 cm.

with 5 main costa ending in teeth.

The terminal leaflet of the primary axis of a leaf measures 18:0

14:0 cm. and has a deep incision. The side pinnae and the associated

pinnae have central projection. Side pinnae are 18:0X6-0 cm. and

the associated pinnae 9X3 cm. The terminal leaflet of the secondary

axis is not tapering and is 17-0*18-0 cm. The associated pinnae

measure 13-0 3-0 cm. ) 7

The inflorescences arise basipetally as in other species (Text-fig. 54),

but the arrangement, of flowers is quite different in this species. They

lie in groups of two, one male by the side of one female flower at

each juncture (Text-fig. 50). The male flowers are much curved in

bud and have 2-3 staminodes each. Some hermaphrodite flowers are

J. BoMBay NAT. Hist. SOc. 64 (3) PLATE E

Mahabale: Genus Caryota

Caryota species in India

1. C.urens L. (growing in Municipal Garden, Hyderabad), 2. C. rumphiana Matt.

{growing in J. J. School of Arts, Bombay); 3. C.plumosa Hort. (growing in Royal Botanical

Gardens, Peradeniya, Ceylon); 4&5. C. sobolifera Wall. (growing in B. Sahni Institute,

Lucknow); 6. C. mitis Lour. (growing in Empress Botanical Gardens, Poona).

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3) PLaTE II

Mahabale: Genus Caryota

Morphology of leaf, inflorescence, fruit and seeds in Caryota

(For figure captions see page opposite)

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA | 467

also found in this species. The number of stamens per male flower

is 17-21. The ovary is superior and bicarpellate.

Habitat. Upper Assam, Malaya; also cultivated in gardens, e.g., at

the Birbal Sahni Institute of Palecbotany, Lucknow; Poona University

Botanical Gardens, Poona etc.

B. Introduced Species

5. Caryota mitis Lour.

(Plate I, fig. 6)

This species is commonly grown in gardens for. its bushy habit.

New shoots arise from the axillary buds very close to earth from

the base of the tree, or even from the portion a little below the

ground. It attains a height of 7-5 m. The leaves are bipinnate, each

pinna being without any long apical projection. Length of the leaf

is 0-9-1-2 m. The leafbase is triangular. A pinna measures 17:0 X 5-0 cm.

The terminal leaflet of the primary axis is 13°0X12:0 cm. with

two side pinnae. The number of pairs of pinnae on the secondary axes

of leaf is 5 in the apical region, 4 in the middle region and 6 in the

basal region. The terminal leaflet of a secondary axis is 20:0X8°5 cm.

and has tapering apex. The associated pinnae are 115 cm.

The inflorescences are intrafoliar and arise basipetally. They arise

even at the lowest node of the tree trunk at the ground level. The

spadix has a beak-shaped apex and 8 spathes. It bears about 30

spikes (Text-fig. 51). The arrangement of male and female flowers

here is the same as in C. urens.

Morphology of leaf, inflorescence, fruit and seeds in Caryota.

7,8. Spadix in C. mitis and C. urens respectively. 9. C. sobolifera. Terminal

leaflet of the primary axis of leaf. 10. C. mitis Adult leaf. Note the leaf base-/d.

11. C. plumosa. Terminal leafiet of the primary axis of leaf. 12. C. urens. Simple

eophyll x c.%. 13. C. urens. A bifid eophyll x c. $. 14. C. urens. Arrangement of

flowers on a secondary axis of inflorescence showing 3 and @ flowers x c.4. 15.C,

urens. Secondary axis of inflorescence showing crowded fruits. 16. C. urens. A

stoma on the lower epidermis x c. 340: Note the cuticular bands-cb on the guard

cells. 17. C. mitis. A stoma on the lower epidermis x c. 340: Note wavy walls of

cells and cuticular bands on the guard cells. 18-23 Fruits in C. maxima, C. rum-

Phiana, C. obtusa, C. urens, C. cumingii, C. plumosa x c.4.24-25.C. mitis xc. 4. 26. C,

urens L.S.of a fruit showing seed—sd, ruminations—rn and lateral position of

embryo—em x c. 3. 27-28. C. urens. Seeds : Note the corrugated surface in 27 and

lobed structure in 28. 29. C. plumosa. Seed x c.4. 30.C. mitis. Seed x c.4: Note

the ruminations.

468 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Male flowers have two scaly rudimentary bracts and 3 sepals with

ciliated margin (Text-fig. 42). Petals 3, reddish and conical. Stamens

17. Anthers as long as the petals, basitixed. Female flowers develop

after the male flowers. They have 3 filamentous staminodes as in

C. urens (Text-fig. 49). The fruit is a one-seeded drupe 0:5 cm. in

diameter. The seed coat is much corrugated.

Ectocarp layer of the fruit is limited by a row of sclereides. The

mesocarp is similar to that in C. wrens. Endocarp is single-layered,

unlike the many-layered endocarp of Hyphaene, Cocos, etc. The

ruminations extend to the interior of the endosperm. They have thick

lamellae full of hemicellulose. The embryo is conical and _ lateral.

The seeds do not readily germinate. New plants are easily obtained

from suckers as in C. sobolifera. The eophyll is simple and_ has

convergent venation.

Habitat. Burma, from Arakan southwards, Martaban. Malay

peninsula, Penang. Andaman Islands. Often cultivated in gardens

in India.

6. Caryota plumosa Hort.

(Plate I, fig. 3)

The tree attains a height of 7 m. Its plumose leaves are highly

characteristic. The feathery nature of leaves is due to close insertion

of very thin pinnae on the rachis, opposite to each other. The stem

is distinctly annulate and woody.

The crown of leaves has about 20 bipinnate leaves, each measuring

I m. There are 2-18 secondary axes on each leaf, 5 pairs in the

apical part, 4 in the middle and 8 in the basal. At each node there

are two pinnae, one small and the other large, 5:0X1:0 cm. and

10:0X 2:6 cm. respectively.

The terminal leaflet of. the primary axis of the leaf, 208-5 cm.,

is tapering. The side pinnae are 11X5 cm.

The inflorescence has a few pendulous spikes, 20-30 per fruiting

' axis. The arrangement of flowers is similar to that in C. mitis.

There are 17 stamens in a male flower. The fruit is one-seeded drupe,

seed coat wrinkled and endosperm filled almost completely by rumin-

ations. This character of the seed of this species is so distinct and

different, that it forms a diagnostic feature of this species.

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 469

The percentage of germination of seeds in this species is very low.

New plants arise mostly by suckers. The first eophyll is simple, multi-

costate and convergent.

Habitat. This species is originally from Brazil and has been

introduced in India and Ceylon. It grows well in Peradeniya Gardens,

- Ceylon.

7. Caryota cumingii Lood.

The single-stemmed tree reaches a height of 13-5 m. The spathes

and peduncles are massive. The rings on the tree trunk are very deep

and resemble steps. The fruit is a drupe, 1-4 cm. in length. Seeds

take about a year to germinate.

Habitat. A native of Philippine Islands. Sometimes introduced

in gardens elsewhere, e.g., in the Fairchild Tropical. Garden,

Florida, U.S.A. It is the rarest species grown in India.

GENERAL CONSIDERATIONS

A. Morphological

(1) Stem: The stem in palms though generally single and

soboliferous, shows several types. Van Moh! (1845) has proposed a

classification of palms on the basis of stem characters: (a) Geenoma-

like, (b) Calamus-like, (c) Mauritea-like, (d) Cocos-like and (e) the so-

called stemless palms like Nipa. A considerable amount of food

material accumulaies in the trunk and it takes different shapes.

The stem of Caryota is Cocos-like. It is cylindrical, woody and

distinctly annulate, the number of annuli varying from 15-25, and

internodes from 13-45 cm. The young stem is covered with woolly

tomentum in C. plumosa and C. mitis.

The growth habit of Caryota stem is of two kinds: single and

soboliferous as in C. urens, and clumpy with several reedy stems as

in C. mitis. In C. sobolifera one or two shoots arise from the main

soboliferous trunk near its base, but not many as in C. mitis. One

can easily recognise different species with the help of stem characters : —

I. Plants growing singly, stem annulate, internodes long, surface of the tree

trunk rough and with vertical cracks :

Trees 12 m. high, the length ofan internode 40 cm....... C. urens (Text-fig. 1).

Tree 24 m. high, internodes more than 40 cm. long, bark very hard........

SERA AOR Re Oe fee ohetrk ERR co arr aa a Eh Sr C. rumphiana (Text-fig. 2).

Trees 13°4 m. high, with deep nodal depressions............. .C. cumingii.

470 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

II. Plants growing in clumps, internodes small, bark smooth but clothed with

woolly tomentum when young. Scars of fallen leaf-bases and peduncles

at nodes prominent :

Trees 7 m. high, internodes 18 cm. long, nodes very conspicuous, bark woody

sal Wigte'e.¢ beste’ § "ollie « Stee Oke SOAs RPOURRRE EAR On 1 Aegean C. plumosa (Text-fig. 5).

Trees 10-11 m. high, stem soboliferous with one or two basal shoots, inter-

nodes#25: cm. lone Cea ee Cee C. sobolifera (Text-fig. 3).

Trees 6-7 m. high, length of an internode 13 cm., stem clothed with woolly

tomentum. when soOune... 2. re). yee ee ee C. mitis (Text-fig. 4).

od ns i) ub a ne

" Pes) got nye Oot ny ‘ oi aN

ayes 08 9° isla BOR th aay ve °

Gcms

Figs. 1-5. Stem in Caryota

Fig. 1. C. urens ; Fig. 2. C. rumphiana ; Fig. 3. C. sobolifera; Fig. 4. C. mitis ;

Fig. 5. C. plumosa

(2) Roots and Rooting Region: The basal portion of the

tree trunk a little above and below the ground gives rise to many

adventitious roots, which cover one or two nodes above the ground.

They are relatively few and thick, often not fully developed, swollen

and twisted. They dry up and die and are not absorbing. In C.

rumphiana and C. urens they occupy 2-4 annuli above the ground and

2-3 below it. Those below the ground growing laterally function as

stilt roots. The other underground ones are extensive and form a

bowl-shaped root-bearing base from which the roots radiate in all

directions over a long distance. For example, in C. rumphiana they

extend to 8 m. from base.

(3) Leaf: The leaf in Caryota is quite different from that in

other palms because (1) of its bipinnate nature, (ii) induplicate ver-

nation of leaflets, (i411) absence of mid-vein, (iv) swollen pulvini at

the base of the leafiets on the secondary axes, (v) fan-shaped lamina

with multicostate divergent veins, and (vi) the presence of odd _

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 471

terminal leaflet at the apex of the primary and secondary rachises.

The odd terminal leaflet forms a diagnostic character of species. It

has two side pinnae just below the terminal leaflet and two small

triangular associated pinnae in some species e.g. in C. wrens,

C. sobolifera and C. mitis. The associated pinnae are just below

the side pinnae in C. wrens and C. initis or in between the terminal

pinnae and the side pinnae in C. sobolifera.

The leafbase is long, ligulate and more or less tubular. In related

palms such as Areca it is not tubular. The leaf sheath splits ventrally

and is connected to the main trunk by persistent fibres highly

resistant to decay.

It.may be noted here that multicostate divergent venation of leaflets

as in Caryota is also found in other members of the Caryotoideae

such as Wallichia, Arenga and Didymosperma and in some CocoOineae

like Martinezia. But the leaflets of Martinezia have a distinct mid-

rib which is wanting in Caryota. Induplicate vernation also is seen

in tribes Coryphoideae, Phoenicoideae, Borassoideae, but in Cory-

phoideae the pinnae have no midrib.

All these leaf characters are useful in identification of species

(see Table p. 472):—

I. Terminal leaflet of the primary rachis with a deep incision :

Terminal leaflet with a pair of side pinnae and two associated pinnae below

HC RES IGE SAMI Ae estas See dante coh vue. chat u sees: C. urens (Text-fig. 6).

Terminal leaflet 17 x 7 cm., with a deep incision, four associated pinnae lying

Detweenwthe MehiMInals ANG SIGe PINNAC w+. veyed.) okt so Soe ons ees

Ft Bc eer a Pe eer Oe Ee C. sobolifera (Plate I, fig. 9 and Text-fig. 10).

Terminal leaflet 13 x 12 cm., associated pinnae two, side pinnae with central

PEOICCUONT ale i0s'n ae. oe Rees C. mitis (Plate II, fig. 10 and Text-fig. 9),

If. Terminal leaflet of the primary rachis without a deep incision :

' Terminal leaflet thick and leathery, 35:6 x10 cm., associated pinnae absent,

side pinnae present below the terminal leaflet. ...C. rumphiana (Text-fig. 7).

Terminal leaflet thin and papery, without a deep incision, 17 <7 cm., side

pinnae generally one, and without any associated pinnae................

Betis yo ence a eee eee C. plumosa (Plate II, fig. 11 and Text-fig. 8).

(4) Stomata: The stomata in the Caryotoideae have a unique

character namely, teeth on the guard cells, which forms an important

character of the Caryotoid palms. However, it has been reported

in Bactris not belonging to Caryotoid palms eeoueen 1961), and

in Equisetum unrelated to palms.

urens,

C. rumphiana (Plate II, fig. 16: Text-fig. 22), or wavy as in C

. mitis

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

472

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THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA

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TABLE LS

MorPHOLOGY OF STEM, LEAF, STOMATA, INFLORESCENCE, FLOWERS, FRUIT AND SEED IN Caryota S

C. urens C. rumphiana C. plumosa C. sobolifera C. mitis 2

1 2 3 4 5 5

Nene = S

i 12-19 m. with Single 24-38 m. In clumps 7 m. with Generally 2, 10.5m. More than 5, each >

er aah anal with 20 annuli less than 15 an- with less than 7 m. with less 5

nuli 15 annuli than 20 annuli SS

LEAVES : 3°9-4'5 m. long. 51-6°0 m. 1°0-1°5 m. 2°1-2°4m. 0°9-1:2 m. =

Pinnae 30*4 cm. 354 cm. 10 2°5 cm. 16x4 cm. 17x5 cm. a

a 6 . »

Texture Leathery with waxy Very leathery Very thin Not thick Very thin =

coating =

Terminal leaflet of the pri- 228 cm., bifid, 35-0 10'0 cm., 17-0*7 cm., inci- 18x14 cm., incision in- 5

GaarEchig uv with a long cen- bifid sion deep deep cision deep Ss

tral projection ah

3° “ 17x5 SS

Associated pinnae-length 15%5 cm. 325 cm. 24% 3°5 cm, 186 cm. x5 cm. 8

and breadth 4 et

I a

Number of secondary axes 18-25 20-25 10-20 14-25 12-18 ;

on the primary petiole Ss

or rachis >

Number of pinnae per 14 14 4 4-6 4 2

secondary axis a

i «» With 207 cm.,withend 123 cm., with 178 cm., with 20%8.5 cm., with

momninal’ leaflet gerne 2 8 end porated: not ain teal end not pointed end not taper- one end tapering

ing

1 2 3 4 5

Associated side pinnae 17X2°5 cm. 187 cm. 15 x3 cm. 13*3 cm. 115 cm.

EPIDERMIS AND STOMATA :

Epidermal cells Straight-walled Straight-walled Wavy-walled, hairs Wavy-walled Wavy-walled, — epi-

present on lower dermal hairs on

epidermis lower surface

Stomata on the guardcells 4020 ,with 14-16 51x21 #, with 16- 2213 #, with 14- 15x8 #, with 14-16 2213 “, with 8-9

cuticular bands 18 cuticular bands 16 cuticular bands cuticular bands cuticular bands 2

INFLORESCENCE : 300-360 cm., spikes 360-420 cm., spikes 40cm., spikes 25-30 37 cm., spikes 35 30 cm., spikes 30 by

40 per spadix 40-46 a

A spike on secondary axis 150 cm., long 150 cm. 30 cm. 30 cm. 30 cm. S

FLOWERS : . Q

Stigma in 2 flowers Sessile, 2-3-fid, oyu- Sessile, 2-3-fid, ovu- Sessile, 2-3-fid, ovu- Sessile, 2-fid, ovule Sessile 1, ovule 1, >

les 2 anatropous les 2 anatropous les 2 anatropous 1, hemi-anatro- hemi-anatropous vs]

pous 3

Staminodes in ¢ flowers 0 0 1-3 0 0 3

Pollen grains 24:0 13:2 w 216674 we 13-2116 w 13-6116 # 13-1X115 # 5

FRUIT : 5

Diameter 1-4 cm. 1-6 cm. — 0'7 cm. 0°5 cm. S

a =

SEEDS: 2, 1:2 cm. in 2, 14cm. in — 1, 04 cm. in 1, O'S cm. in

diameter diameter diameter diameter

SS eS eS EEE eee

€Ly

474. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

(Plate Il, fig. 17). The distribution of stomata is more on the lower

epidermis than on the upper. Persistent multicellular bases of hairs

are seen on the lower epidermis of leaf in C. mitis and C. plumosa.

6 cms

Figs. 6-10. Terminal leaflets

Fig. 6. C. urens; Fig. 7. C.rumphiana ; Fig. 8. C. plumosa; Fig. 9. C. mitis 2

Note the side pinnae—sp, and the associated pinnae—ap. Fig. 10. C. sobolifera

Similar hair bases are present in the intercostal region of the leaves |

in Wallichia disticha and Arenga saccharifera (Text-figs. 13, 11). |

(5) Leaf form: These are shown in Plate II figs. 9-133

Brown (1956) reported some leaves of palms from the Middle and

Upper Triassic of Colorado under the name Sanmieuelia. This is an

important discovery though controversial, as it extended the ancestry

of angiosperms far too back. Angiosperms are generally believed to

have arisen mainly in the Cretaceous period. Assuming Sanmiguelia

to be a palm and not an outsized Ginkeo or Cordaites, or a

large Schizoneura as has been thought, it certainly helps us |

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 475

[SU WU

muy: o

Figs. 11-13 & 21. Bases of hairs on the lower epidermis in Arenga saccharifera,

C. plumosa, Wallichia disticha, and C. mitis respectively. Fig. 22. C. rumphiana.

Stoma on the lower epidermis. Note the cuticular bands on the guard cells cb,

the apical cells (pole cells)—ap.

4 {5 | i, 8

IS 20

Figs. 14-20. Pinna

Fig. 14. C. urens; Fig. 15. C. rumphiana; Fig. 16. C. mitis; Fig. 17. C. soboli-

fera ; Figs, 18,19. C. plumosa; Fig. 20. C. plumasa. Attachment of pinna

476 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

in tracing the origin of the pinnate versus palmate habit of leaves

in palms, as the leaves in Caryota are intermediate in form, and have

multicostate convergent or divergent veins as in Sanmiguelia.

The leaves in Caryota are bipinnate, a condition so rarely found

in palms. The pinnae are cuneate, multicostate and divergent, neither

pinnate as in Cocos or Phoenix, nor palmate as in Borassus. ‘The

question, therefore, arises as to how these two dominant forms of

leaves in palms have arisen? |

Ontogeny of leaf in palm throws some light on this question.

Both these dominant types of leaves can be derived from a common

source such as multicostate simple leaf in young Caryota.

Eophylls in Cocos nucifera, Hyphaene indica, Phoenix acaulis, Livistona

chinensis, and the transitional leaf forms in other palms have entire

lamina with multicostate convergent venation (Tomlinson 1960 a).

Figs. 23-25. Cocos nucifera. Seedling leaves

In palmately cut leaves of Livistona also the eophylls are entire,

but they get split later at the apex repeatedly above the ligule, so

that veins seem to arise from a single ligule on the petiole. Thus

the initially convergent veins of an eophyll become divergent, the

a4 27

Fig. 26. Cocos nucifera. An adult leaf (diagrammatic)

Fig. 27. Phoenix acaulis. An adult leaf (diagrammatic)

Figs. 28, 30. Phoenix acaulis. Early eophylls. Fig. 29. Hyphaene indica. Eophyll

Fig. 31. Livistona chinensis. Aneophyll. Fig. 32. L. chinensis. A trifid eophyll

478 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

veins being inserted on the ligule divergently and not one above the

other as in the pinnatisect leaves (cf. Text-figs. 28, 30, 31 & 32).

In pinnate type of leaf as in Phoenix, the first eophyll is simple

with convergent veins but the basa! pinnae get separated first. the

pinnae above unfolding acropetally and not simultaneously.

The early eophylls in Caryote are entire, multicostate and con-

vergent (Plate Il, fig. 12). As the pinnation starts, the eophyll

becomes bifid. With further pinnation of the first order, divergence

of the costa increases and a fan-shaped leaf is formed. After a couple

of pinnae are formed,-secondary rachises arise on the primary rachis

of leaf and pairs of pinnae begin to appear on the secondary rachises.

Ultimately a bipinnate leaf results, with a terminal odd leaflet. In

adult leaf young pinnae on secondary rachises are held together by

thin reins before unfolding. The splitting of the pinnae starts as in

palmate palms and the reins hang down from the margin as in several

palms (Eames 1953).

At maturity each pinna in Caryota shows multicostate divergent

venation like that in an adult leaf of a palmate palm, but the arrange-

ment of pinnae .and the entire leaf are more like those in a pinnate

leaf. It, therefore, seems to represent an intermediate type of leaf

Fig. 33. Livistona chinensis. An adult palmate leaf (diagrammatic). Note the

ligule—1 at which the cut pinnae remain united without getting separated from each

other; Fig. 34. Sanmiguelia lewisi. A simple leaf showing convergent costa

(after Brown 1956); Fig. 35. Sanmiguelia lewisi. A multicostate-leaf

(possibly, divergent) (after Brown 1956)

between the two well known patterns of palm leaves, both of which

can be derived from a common simple multicostate, ribbed convergent

leaf like the eophylls of Caryota.

al i lai

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 479

The leaf in Sanmiguelia, if it be a real palm, which we believe

it is, assumes greater significance in this context, as it shows how

Caryota leaves could have been derived. Sanmiguelia has simple, multi-

costate, convergent or divergent leat as in Caryota. Its shape is similar

to that in the eophylls of palms, which later on gives rise to pinnate

or palmate leaves (see diagram p. 480). Should this be really so, the

shape of adult leaf in Caryota seems to represent a very ancient type

of palm leaf, similar to that in Sanmiguelia, and suggests that palm

leaf may have been evolved as shown below :—

LAMINA MULTICOSTATE DIVERGENT-ASIN CARYOTA

OR CONVERGENT AS IN SANMIGUELIA.

LAMINA CUT UP

ACROPETALLY INTO

PINNULES AS IN Se

COCOS ECT-PINNATE LEAVED

PALMS

MQ =

LAMINA CUT UP Sim LTANOUS -

-LY INTO PINNULES FROM A POINT

AS IN PALMATE-LEAVED PALMS. -

BORASSUS, LIVISTONA £CT.

SIMPLE MULTICOSTATE LEAF AS IN EOPHYLLS OF PALMS

Diagram illustrating the phylogeny of palm leaves

(6) Inflorescence and flowers: (Plate Il, figs. 7, 8, 14:

Text-figs. 39-54)

The inflorescences in Caryota are highly characteristic because’

they arise basipetally. In extreme cases as in C. mitis they arise even

at the ground level and then the plant dies. But new suckers pro-

pagate the species vegetatively.

The flowers in Caryota are unisexual. In male flowers in C.

sobolifera, there are 1-3 large staminodes. A few hermaphrodite

flowers are also seen in this species. The number of stamens forms

a distinguishing character fer specific identification. In the female

flower the ovary is subtrigonal, mono- or bicarpellary. The stigma

is sessile and bi- or trifid. Three filamentous staminodes are present

in female flowers, but there are no pistillodes in male flowers (Text-

figs. 43-46 and 48, 49),

480 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

(7) Fruit and Seeds: (Plate II, figs. 15, 18-30; Text-figs. 36-

38, 55-60)

The fruit in Caryota is 1-2 seeded drupe, two-seeded in C. urens

and C. sobolifera and one-seeded in C. mitis and C. plumosa. The

largest fruit is that of C. maxima which is 1:4 cm. in diameter as

against 1:2 cm. of C. urens or 0-4 cm. in C. mitis.

The seed in Caryota is endospermous and highly wrinkled outside

with grooves and furrows. The endosperm is ruminated and forms

another diagnostic feature of the genus. The extent of rumination

Y i or

“ ti BVA OS

ro BO En ANNE

BES a

' = Gm StS

VPLS PT

§ :

PR As Bas

LV FY oe

eR ies Sees

2 aD,

e ODasCUs oS. ea eS

t ie

DAH Yd

)

Figs. 36-54. Inflorescence, flower, fruit and seeds in Caryota

Figs. 36, 37. C. urens, C. mitis, T.S. of fruit showing epicarp—ep, mesocarp—mc,

vascular trace—vs, endocarp—en, ruminations—rn, Fig. 38. C. urens. A seed hair.

Fig. 39. C. urens. Male Flower. Fig. 40. C. urens. Sepal of a male flower. Fig. 41.

C. urens. A sepal of a female flower showing frilled edge. Fig. 42. C. mitis.

Sepal of a male flower. Figs. 43, 44, 45, 46. C. sobolifera. Staminodes in a male

flower. Fig. 47. C. urens. Arrangement of flowers showing one female between

two male flowers. Figs. 48, 49. C. wrens and C. mitis. A female flower showing

ovary and filamentous staminodes. Fig. 50. C. sobolifera. One male and one

female flower side by side. Fig. 51. C. mitis. Fig. 52. C. rumphiana. Fig. 53.

C. urens. Fig. 54. C. sobolifera. Secondary axis of inflorescence

“THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA | 481

differs in different species. In C. plumosa the ruminations are many,

extending up to the central part of the seed, but in C. urens they

are not so extensive.

The seed coat is multi-layered. In germination multicellular hairs

develop on its surface. Other details regarding the seed are given in the

Table (pp. 472-73). The endosperm cells are 15936» in C. urens,

ZAG XO 1: in C. rumpinand, 20425 win C., mitis and. 75X22 » ‘in

C. plumosa. |

(8) Germination: (Text-figs. 61-75)

The seeds of C. urens and C. rumphiana germinate in about 100

days in well prepared soil. C. cumingii takes about 317 days. Stray

55 rn

écme

Figs. 55-60. Fruits and seeds of Caryota

Fig. 55. C. urens. Fig. 56. C. mitis. T.S. of fruit-ep, epicarp : mc, mesocarp ;

en-endocarp ; sc-seed coat; rn-ruminations. Fig. 57. C. urens: T. S. of seed

showing ruminations and endosperm-en (diagrammatic). Fig. 58. C. mitis:

T.S. of seed (diagrammatic). Fig. 59.C. urens. Fruit. Fig. 60. C. maxima. Fruit

references to the germination of Carycta seeds have been made by

Gatin (1912) and Saakov (1954) in C. urens and C. sobolifera. As

no detailed account of it, however, was available, it is given below

in C. urens and C. rumphiana.

The first plumular leaf appears as a sheathing scaly leaf in C. urens

and C. rumphiana. In both the species, a small protuberance is formed

early, through which a cotyledonary tube comes out and forms a

frilled collar-like structure around it (Text-figs. 61-62). Its function

seems to be absorption. The tube so formed grows vertically down-

wards and gets swollen in the middle. The swelling enlarges and

the plumular initial emerges from it. The radicle goes down and the

adventitious roots come out.

The plumular sheath gets split and eophylls begin to unfold. Scaly

sheathing leaves appear next. A single simple eophyll emerges and

gets split into a bilobed structure. The single eophyll stage is of

482 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

65 66 ( \ 67

Figs. 61-69. Germination of seeds in Caryota

Figs. 61-64. C. urens. Early stages in germination. Note the Collar-cl in Fig. 62.

Fig. 65. A cotyledonary tube emerging through the Collar. Fig. 66-69. Further stages

in germination. Note the swelling of the tube in 67, the emergence of plumular

initials in 66 and sheathing leaves and the radicle—rd in Fig. 68. Fig. 69. A seed

ling with simple eophyll

; ae

7 :

i 72 73 74 at

7 ou

Figs. 70-75. Germination of seeds in Caryota

wr >

hi a oT

Figs. 70-74. C. rumphiana. Germination of seed. (Note the typical remotive

type pecan in Fig, 73). Fig. 75. C. mitis. A bifid seedling (after Tomlin-

son 0)

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 483

very short duration and easily escapes attention. When the seedling

establishes itself firmly, the seed gets detached from the region of

the collar. Early stages of germination in C. urens and C. rumphiana

are similar (cf. Text-figs. 61-64, 70-74). According to Saakov (1954)

germination in palms is of two types: (1) the Admotive type in which

the middle piece of coleorrhiza or the germ-tube is very small or

absent as in Cocos and (2) Remotive type in which the middle piece

of germ-tube is very long as in Phoenix or Caryota described here.

In most palms, germination is of the Remctive type.

B. Habitat and. Distribution

The genus Caryota appears to be of Indo-Malayan origin. Four

Species are native to India. Besides India, other centres of distribution

are Andamans and Nicobar Islands, Indonesia and Philippines (Map).

The genus is conspicuously absent in the New World. The number

of valid species of Caryota is about a dozen according to Blatter (1926)

and 13 according to Moore (1960 a).

The Map shows the distribution of palms. and of all the valid species

of Caryota. They lie within 20° N. and 20° S.C. urens has by

far the widest geographical distribution. C. rumphiana is confined to

India and northern Australia and C. mitis mainly to Andamans. The

remaining species are confined to Malaysia and Philippines where

many of them are concentrated.

C. Past History of the Genus

Most of the present day species seem to be of recent origin. The

only authentic record of it in the past is by Reid & Chandler (1933)

who found its seeds in the London Clay Flora, belonging to the

Tertiary period. They have described these under the name Caryoti-

spermum cantiense which had three seeds, 0-9 cm. in diameter, instead

of two as in C. urens, or one as in C. mitis. Apparently this Tertiary

_ species was three-seeded, though in point of size and shape of its

seeds, it agrees with those in C. urens. The genus thus seem to have

undergone evolutionary changes as shown below :—-

3-seeded Tertiary species—Caryotispermum cantiense.

2-seeded living species—C. urens, C. maxima.

1-seeded living species—-C. mitis.

D. Systematic Position of the Caryotoideae

Systematic position of the Caryotoid palms, Caryota, Wallichia.,

Arenga, and Didymosperma has been controversial. Martius (1850)

484. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

had included this group as ‘Caryotinae’ in the subfamily Arecineae.

Bentham & Hooker (1883) had put it as a subtribe ‘Caryotideae’ in the

subfamily Areceae, but had included the genera Orania and Sclero-

sperma also in this subtribe. Drude (1887) considered that the

Caryoteae forms a tribe of the subfamily Ceroxylineae. He also

included the genus Orania in the Caryoteae. Blatter (1926) following

Drude’s classification put it under the tribe Ceroxylineae under the

subtribe Arecineae. Pichi-Serimolli (1956) in a posthumous paper

with Beccari placed this group under the subfamily Arecoideae, but

excluded the genus Orania irom it. Moore (1960) who revised the

classification of Palmae has put it in the section ‘A’ of the Palmae

in which the leaf vernation is induplicate or ‘V’-shaped in T. S.,

as against Section ‘B’ in which it is reduplicate. He seems justified

in doing this as in the genus Caryora, the leaf though it lacks mid-

rib has induplicate vernation of pinnae. Tomlinson (1960 b) has kept

them separate as a subfamily of the Palmae excluding (Qrania.

Moore’s (1960 a) raising this group therefore, to the status of a sub-

family, Caryotoideae, separating it from the Arecoid palms seems

more logical, equivalent in status to that of the subfamily Arecoideae.

According to Moore (i969 a) striking differences between the Caryotoid

and other palms are in (1) the manner of flowering from top to bottom

in a basipetal sequence, (2) several inflorescences at a node growing

centripetally, the inner ones developing first, (3) the pistillate flowers

with valvate petals united below the middle or above, a feature that

is seen only in Roystonea among the Arecoid palms, (4) pinnae with-

out midrib and with divergent veins ending in teeth, (5) eophylls

simple and convergent, (6) presence of cuticular teeth on the guard

cells.

To this Sharma & Sarkar (1956: Genetica 28: 361-488) have added

one more point. According to them the shape and size of chro-

mosomes in the Caryotoid palms is different from that of the Arecoid

palms. They are, therefore, provably ancestral to the latter. Accord-

ing to Moore (1960 a) however, they are a highly specialised group

which deviated quite early from a pro-Arecoid stock. With this our

findings broadly agree.

Caryotoid palms also show superficial resemblance with other

palms such as Borassus or Phoenix in which the pinnae have in-

duplicate vernation. Some of their characters, such as aggregate

inflorescences at a node, trilocular ovary, urent mesocarp, several

bracts on the inflorescences, are also found in species of Arenga and

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THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA 485

in the genus Chamaedorea of the New World and its allies. But the bi- or

monocarpic habit and structure of both staminate and pistillate flowers

in CaryOta are quite unlike those in Chamaedorea. However the

basic arrangement of flowers in Caryotoid palms in triads is similar

to that in the advanced members of the Arecoideae like Prtychosperma.

The pollen tube in Caryota is short and sterility percentage high as

in Arecoid palms.

Moore (1960a) further suggests that within the Caryotoideae,

Arenga appears to be the most primitive genus, because of its simple

imparipinnate or undivided leaves, male and female inflorescences

often aggregated, distinct sepals and petals in staminate flowers,

numerous stamens, trilocular ovary with 2-3 fertile locules, and

homogeneous endosperm.

Caryota is more advanced than Arenga as it has bipinnate leaves

(although its juvenile foliage is imparipinnate). Its solitary inflore-

scences, reduction of fertile locules to | or 2, pistillate flowers with

less united petals than those of Arenga and ruminated endosperm

support such a conclusion.

‘Wallichia is still more advanced than Caryota as the staminate

and pistillate inflorescences in it are separate. There is union of

perianth parts in the staminate flowers, and the number of stamens

is reduced to 6 in some of its species,

However, in the light of the present investigation the genus Caryota

does not seem to occupy an intermediate position. For example, it

has hermaphrodite flowers in C. sobolifera, 3 staminodes in male

flowers, bipinnate leaf and ruminated endosperm. These characters

rather suggest that the genus Caryota is more advanced than Wallichia

and Arenga. We, therefore, think that the evolutionary sequence of

these genera could be Arenga, Didymosperma, Wallichia and Caryota.

In the genus Caryofa itself, C. urens seems to represent the central

stock, and C. mitis its extremely specialized form within the genus,

species having been evolved by decrease in the number of stamens

and fertile loculi, and by increase in the number of clumpy stems.

SUMMARY

The paper gives an account of the taxonomy of the genus Curyota

in India. It describes four wild and three cultivated species. Signi-

ficant features of the genus Caryota are bipinnately compound leaf

with multicostate divergent venation of the pinnae, their induplicate

486 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

vernation and stomata with cuticular bands on the guard cells.

Basipetal arrangement of the inflorescences, ruminated endosperm and

Remotive type of germination are other diagnostic features useful in

the taxonomy of its species. Systematic position of the Caryotoideae

has been discussed and it broadly supports Moore’s view (1960a).

Moore (1960) removes Caryotoid palms from the Arecineae or

Ceroxylineae and puts them into a separate subfamily ‘Caryotoideae’

equivalent to the subfamily Arecineae. Within Caryotoid palms the

genus Caryota seems to occupy the highest position.

Past history of the genus Caryota has been traced which suggests

that the present day two-seeded or one-seeded species like C. urens

or C. mitis have been evolved from a three-seeded Tertiary species

like Caryotispermum cantiense Reid & Chandler (1933) found in the

London Clay Flora.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The junior author (N.S.) wishes to thank the authorities of the

Ministry of Education, Government of India, for a Research Training

Scholarship to study this genus in India. She also wishes to thank

the authorities of the University Grants Commission, Delhi, for a

Senior Research Fellowship which enabled her to extend her studies

to other members of the Caryotoideae now under investigation.

Thanks are also due to Mr. A. P. Vadgaokar, Artist, at the Museum,

Department of Botany, University of Poona, for his help in photo- |

graphy.

THE GENUS CARYOTA IN INDIA

457

REFERENCES

BamLey, I. H. (1914): The Standard

Encyclopaedia of Horticulture, 2 : 679.

BENTHAM, G. & Hooker, J.D. (1862-

1883): Genera Plantarum. 3:918.

L. Reeve and Co., London.

BLATTER, E. (1926): The palms of

British India and Ceylon. Oxford Uni-

versity Press, Oxford.

BRANDIS, O. (1921): Indian Trees,

p. 654. Constable and Company Ltd.,

London.

Brown, R. W. (1956): Palm-like

leaves from the Dolores formation

(Triassic), S.W. Colorado, U.S. Geol.

Surv. Prof. Paper 274 H : 205-209.

CooKE, T. (1908): The Flora of the

Presidency of Bombay. 3: 315-316.

DrupDE, O. (1887): ‘Palmaceae’ in

Engler and Prantl—Die nattirlichen

Pflanzen-familien, 1 (2) Avt. 3: 1-93.

Leipzig.

Eames, E. J. (1953) : Neglected mor-

phology of the palm leaf. Phytomorph.

3-: 172-189.

GATIN, C. L. (1912): Les Palmiers.

Historie’ Naturelle et Horticale des

different Generes. Octave Doin et

Fils. Paris.

GRIFFITH, W. (1850): Palms of British

East India. Calcutta.

Hooker, J. D. (1892): The Flora of

British India. 6 : 422-423. L. Reeve and

Co., London.

LINNAEUS, C. (1737): Genera Plan-

tarum.

Martius, C. F. P. (1829-1850) : His-

toria Naturalis Palmarum. 3: Munich.

McCurracHu, J. C. (1960): Palms of

the world. Harper and Bros., New York.

MOHL, H. von. (1845): ‘Uber den

Bau des Palmenstammes.’ Vermischte

Schriften botanischen Inhalts, 129-185.

Tubingen.

Moore, H. F. (1960): Botany and

classification of palms. Amer. Hort.

Mag. 40 : 17-26.

— (1960a): A subfamily of

alms. The Caryotoideae. Principes

4(3) : 102-117.

NICHOLSON, G. (1885) : Encyclopaedia

of Horticulture. 1 (A-G) : 274-275.

PICHI-SERMOLLI, R.E.G. & BECCARI,

O. (1956): Subfamiliae Arecoidearum

Palmae gerontogeae. Webbia 11: 1-88.

Reip, E. M. & CHANDLER, M.E. J.

(1933) : London Clay Flora. Brit. Mus.

(Nat. Hist.), London.

SAAKOV, S. R. (1954): The Palms

and their culture in U.S.S.R., Academy

of Sciences, U.S.S.R., Leningrad, Moscow

(in Russian).

SEEMAN, B. (1856): Popular History

of Palms and their Allies. Lovell

Reeve and Company, London.

TOMLINSON, P. B. (1960a): Seedling

leaves of palms and their morphological

significance. Jour. Arnold Arb. 41:

414-428.

— (1960b) : Anatomy of Caryo-

toideae. Principes 4 (3): 118-119.

———— (1961): Essay on the mor-

phology of palms VI. The palm stem.

op. cit. 5 : 117-124.

(1962): The leaf base in

palms, its morphology and mechanical

biology. Jour. Arnold Arb. 63(I):

23-50.

A Supplementary list of the

-Host-Plants of lac Insects —

R. K. VARSHNEY! AND T. P. S. TEOTIA?

Division of Entomology, Indian Lac Research Institute,

Namkum, Ranchi

IN@LRO DU GLLON

Lac insects, specially of the Genus Laccifer? because of their great

economic importance, have attracted naturalists from time to time to

collect information about their host-plants, both by field surveys or

experiment and from scattered literature. Attempts in this direction

were first made in 1901 by Sir George Watt, who listed 56 such plants.

Roonwal et al. (1958) listed 14 common, 14 occasional, and 85 rare

(total 113) host-plants of the lac insect, Laccifer lacca (Kerr) and its

closest allies in the Indian Region, comprising India, Pakistan, and

Burma. Roonwal & Singh (1958) added a ‘ supplementary list’ by

listing 79 more names of host-plants, without going through their present

nomenclative position.

Since then, many workers including those of the Entomology Division,

Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi, have reported a number of new

lac host-plants. A thorough review of the literature on lac and lac

insects has also revealed several lac-hosts occurring all over the world.

The junior author during his visit to Thailand in July 1963, also collected

information on lac-hosts in that country through the courtesy of the

Royal Forest Department and Department of Agriculture, Thailand.

The present list gives an account of ali such host-plants together with

names which have not been mentioned by Roonwal ef al. (1958) and

Roonwal & Singh (1958).

As the identity of some species of lac insects is still doubtful, the

names of the lac insect species have been mentioned in the accompanying

list as per source. Nomenclature of the host-plants, their author’s name

1 Present address: Zoologist, Zoological Survey of India, Eastern Regional

Station, Kench’s Trace, Shillong.

2 Present address: Professor of Zoology & Entomology, Government Agri-

cultural College, Kanpur.

°A recent study (Indian J. Ent. 28: 116-118. 1966) by the senior author of this

work has revealed that the generic name, Laccifer Oken, 1815, is invalid and should

be substituted by generic name Kerria Targ., 1884. The International Commission

on Zoological Nomenclature has looked into the case and confirmed this change.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 489

and family, though mostly based on original description, have been

brought up-to-date by consulting INDEX KEWENSIS and its supplements,

WEALTH OF INDIA, SIAMESE PLANT NAMES, Willis’s DICTIONARY OF

FLOWERING PLANTS AND FERNS, Bailey’s MANUAL OF CULTIVATED

PLANTS, and Raizada (1958). Some plant names, whose scientific posi-

tion could not be determined from these references, were sent for veri-

fication to the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey. The report sent

by the Director has been given in full, with the lac-hosts concerned, in the

list. The classification of the host-plants in different categories accord-

ing to their importance in lac cultivation forms a subject matter for further

study. The present list is intended to assemble in one place the much

scattered information about the lac-hosts already recorded in different

parts of the world, for ready reference by research workers engaged in

the task of selecting potentially useful lac-hosts for their regions.

ALPHABETICALLY ARRANGED LIST OF LAC-HostTs

The available information in respect of each host-plant has been

presented in the following order:

Serial No.; scientific name of the plant and author of

the plant species as given originally ; present nomenclative position

of the host-plant if it has changed; family or natural order of

plant; synonyms of the plant ; notes on availability of lac; species of

the lac insect and country where it has been observed ; sources of the

information with year and page number of the references.

Sharapov & Prokopenko (1960) have given a list of host-plants

under the title ‘ List of plants growing lac insects, distributed in India,

Burma, Ceylon, China and Thailand.’ For convenience these countries

have been substituted by ‘ Oriental region’ in the present list.

1. Acacia sp. (Leguminosae). Laccifer lacca (Kerr) feeds on sap (Bhasin

& Roonwal 1954, p. 27).

2. A. cavenia Bertol. ex Bull. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of Laccifer

mysorensis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 22).

3. A. chundra (Roxb.) Willd. (Leguminosae). Syn. A. sundra DC,

Laccifer lacca and L. mysorensis have been observed on this

plant in Indian region (Kapur 1958, pp. 20 & 22).

4. A. confusa Merrill (Leguminosae). Food plant of the lac insect in

Siam and Formosa (Takahashi 1949, p. 25).

5. A. dealbata Link (Leguminosae). Laccifer lacca and L. sindica are

reported on it from the Oriental region and Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, pp. 18 & 30),

490 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

6. <A. decurrens Willd. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of ZL. chinensis

in Thailand (based on information provided to junior author

by the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

7. A. donaldii Haines (Leguminosae). Regional host tried for lac

cultivation at Damoh, India (I.L.R.I. Ann. Rep. for 1962-63,

p. 17).

8. A. intsia Willd. (=A. caesia Willd.) (Leguminosae). Possible

important host for lac utilization in south Madras and wherever

gregarious in India (Negi 1956, p. 47). Lac is commonly seen

on it at Travancore, India (Barker 1921).

9. A. rugata Buch.-Ham. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L. Jacca

(Kapur 1958, p. 20, mentioned it as synonym of A. concinna

DC.).

10. A. torta (Roxb.) Craib (Leguminosae). Unsatisfactory host of

lac (Thakur 1932, p. 3). Host-plant of L. communis reported

from India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

11. Acer laevigatum Wall. (Aceraceae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

12. Ailanthus fauveliana Pierre (Simaroubaceae). Host-plant of L.

chinensis in Thailand (based on information provided to junior

author by the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

13. Albizzia sp. (Leguminosae). Food plant of the lac insect in

Formosa. On the stem of a young tree at Taihoku, Formosa,

mortality of the lac insect larvae was more on the lower part

than on the upper part (Takahashi 1949, pp. 23, 31). L. lacca

(Kerr) and L. albizziae (Green) feed on its sap (Bhasin &

Roonwal 1954, pp. 54-55).

14. A. julibrissin Durazz. (Leguminosae). Lac-host in Georgia,

U.S.S.R. Experiments of lac culture are also running on this

plant in Russia, since 1958 (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 30 and Fig. 22). |

15. A. kalkora (Roxb.) Prain (Leguminosae). JL. lacca and L. sindica

are reported on it from the Oriental region (Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, p. 18).

16. A. marginata Buch.-Ham. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L.

lacca (Kapur 1958, p. 20 mentioned it as synonym of A.

stipulata Boivin).

Vhs

18.

ede

20.

ZAC

23.

24.

ZS.

26.

ZT.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 491

A. richardiana King & Prain (Leguminosae). Good encrustation of

Rangeeni strain of L. lacca was observed on this plant at

Calcutta, India, during 1961-62 (Srivastava, Rao & Varshney

1964, pp. 104-105). Also in 1962 at Indian Botanic Gardens,

Calcutta (Mukhopadhyay 1962, p. 329 ; Bhattacharya & Prasad

1964, pp. 702-703).

Aleurites fordii Hemsl. (Euphorbiaceae). Classified as bad host

of lac on the basis of its pH value range (Thakur 1932, p. 3).

A. triloba Forst. (Euphorbiaceae). Syn. A. moluccana Willd.

Lac-host recorded from Punjab, India (Watt 1901, p. 210;

Roonwal & Singh 1958, p. 134; Malhotra 1964, p. 368,

synonymy given).

Amherstia nobilis Wall. (Leguminosae). Host of 7. albizziae in

Ceylon (Green 1922, p. 413 ; Chamberlin 1923, p. 166; Bhasin

& Roonwal 1954, p.65 ; Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18 ;

Gupta 1962, p. 114). Also of ZL. communis in India (Kapur

1958, p. 14). It carried excellent Rangeeni strain of L. lacca

at Calcutta, India (Mukhopadhyay 1962, p. 329; Bhat-

tacharya & Prasad 1964, pp. 702, 703).

Annona cherimolia Mill. (Annonaceae). Host-plant of L. com-

munis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

A. muricata Linn. (Annonaceae). Host-plant of LZ. communis in

India (Kapur 1958, p. 16) and of L. /acca in Oriental region

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

A. palustris Linn. (Annonaceae). Host of 7. conchiferata in Ceylon

(Green 1922, p. 408 ; Chamberlin 1923, p. 172; Gupta 1962,

p. 114). Also host of L. /acca in Oriental region (Sharapov &

Prokopenko 1960, p. 19). Host of L. communis in India

(Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Aralia cordata Thunb. (Araliaceae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

A. vitchii T. Moore (=Dizygotheca veitchii N. Taylor) (Araliaceae).

Host-plant of L. communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Averrhoa carambola Linn. (Oxalidaceae). Host of Laccifer sp.

and L. greeni in Formosa (Takahashi 1928a, p. 347; 1928b,

p. 261 ; 1929, pp. 7 & 69).

Bischofia trifoliata (Roxb.) Hook. (=Bischofia javanica Bl.)

(Euphorbiaceae). Host of ZL. lacca in the Oriental region

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 20),

492

28.

29.

30;

Sle

a2.

33:

34.

35:

36.

aon

Spf

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Bombax malabaricum DC. (= Bombax ceiba Linn., (Bombacaceae).

A minor lac-host in Punjab, India (Anand 1936, p.9; Mal-

hotra 1964, pp. 367-368).

Buchanania lanzan Spreng. (Anacardiaceae). Syn. B. latifolia

Roxb. Host-plant of L. /acca in Oriental region (Sharapov &

Prokopenko 1960, p. 19). Lac infection was observed at

Taimara, Ranchi Forest Division, India (Purkayastha &

Krishnaswami 1961, p. 152; Mukhopadhyay 1962, p. 328).

B. lucida Blume (Anacardiaceae). Host-plant of L. chinensis in

Thailand (based on information provided to the junior author

by the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

Caesalpinia sp. (Leguminosae). L. /acca feeds on the sap of this

host in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, —

p. 18 ; Bhasin, Roonwal & Singh 1958, p. 51).

C. digyna Rottl. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L. chinensis in

Thailand (based on information provided to junior author by

the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

C. sappan Linn. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of ZL. communis

reported from India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Calliandra haematocephala Hassk. (Leguminosae). Host of

Laccifer sp. and L. greeni in Formosa (Takahashi 1928a,

p. 347 ; 1928b, p. 261 ; 1929, pp. 9 & 69).

Carissa opaca Stapf. (Apocynaceae). Lac-host recorded exclu-

sively from Punjab, India. (Malhotra 1964, p. 369, synonymy

given). However, this is not given as food plant of lac insect

by Stebbing (1910), as has been shown by Malhotra (loc. cit.).

Carya olivaeformis Nuit. (=C. illinoensis Koch) (Juglandaceae).

Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 30). |

Cassia sp. (Leguminosae). JL. lacca feeds on its sap (Bhasin,

Roonwal & Singh 1958, p. 90).

C. surattensis Burm. f. (Leguminosae). Syn. C. glauca Lam.

Host of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov &

Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

Castanopsis sp. (Fagaceae). Laccifer lacca observed on it in

Indian region (Kapur 1958, p. 20).

40.

41.

42.

44,

45.

46.

47.

48.

49.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 493

Casuarina equisetifolia Forst. (Casuarinaceae). Host-plant of L.

communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16). Host on which lac

insect cannot maintain itself due to insufficient bio-chemical

factors (Sreenivasaya 1924, pp. 120, 124 & 125). Besides this,

Sreenivasaya (1924) has classified two more hosts on which

lac insect cannot maintain itself. They are Dodonaea viscosa

(Linn.) Jacq. (Sapindaceae) and Lantana camara Linn.

(Verbenaceae).

Catha edulis Forsk. (Celastraceae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Celtis cinnamomea Lindl. (Uimaceae). Syn. C. roxburghii Bedd.

Lac-host recorded from Punjab, India. [Watt 1901, p. 211:

Malhotra 1964, p. 369, synonymy given. Bhasin, Roonwal &

Singh (1958) and WEALTH OF INDIA treat C. roxburghii Planch

as synonym of C. tetrandra Roxb.|.

Charoetengia sp. Lac grown on it at Assam, India (Stebbing 1910,

p. 76). Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, states that this

plant name couid not be identified.

Citrus sp. (Rutaceae). Host of Laccifer sp.in Formosa (Takahashi

1928a, p. 347:;1929, pp. 11. & 70).

C. maxima (Burm.) Merrill (Rutaceae). Bugs of L. Jacca Kerr are

pests and suck fruits of this plant (Mathur, Singh & Lal

1958, pp. 28 & 98, mention C. grandis Osbeck. and C. decumana

Linn. as synonyms).

Codiaeum variegatum Blume (Euphorbiaceae). JL. albizziae feeds

on its sap (Mathur & Singh 1960a, p. 12).

Cola acuminata Schott et Endl. (Sterculiaceae). Host of L. lacca

in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

pai20);

Combretum quadrangulare Kurz. (Combretaceae). Lac-host in

Thailand (Samapuddhi 1957, p. 30; also according to infor-

mation provided to junior author by the Royal Forest Depart-

ment, Thailand). One of the chief lac-hosts of Siam (Gupta

1962, p. 127). f

C. quadrangulare Kurz. var. lanceolatum (Combretaceae). Host of

L, chinensis, reported from India, Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur

1958, p: 15),

494

50.

Sip

eye

S8)h

54.

59:

56.

SH:

58.

Se)

60.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Commiphora caudatum W. & A. (=Commophora caudata Engl.)

(Burseraceae). Host-plant of L. communis in India [Kapur

1958, p. 16, written as ‘ Commiphora (Protium) caudatum W. &

Aw].

Connarus paniculatus Roxb. (Connaraceae). Lac-host in Burma

(Gupta 1962, “p. 135):

Corylus sp. (Betulaceae). Prof. E. V. Borkhsenius reported it as

host-plant of lac in U.S.S.R., while giving a talk at Indian Lac

Research Institute, Ranchi, on 17-2-1964 on ‘ Works carried

out on lac insect in the Soviet Union’.

C. maxima Mill. (Betulaceae). Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

Croton sp. (Euphorbiaceae). Host-plant of L. chinensis in Thailand

(based on information provided to junior author by the Royal

Forest Department, Thailand).

C. argyratus Blume (Euphorbiaceae). Reported as lac-host from

Thailand (Samapuddhi 1957, p. 30).

C. caudatus Geisel. (Euphorbiaceae). Host of T. albizziae in India

(Green 1922, p. 413 ; Kapur 1958, p. 14; Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, p. 20; Mathur & Singh 1960a, p. 34).

C. lacciferus Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). Host of T. conchiferata and

T. albizziae in Ceylon (Green 1922, pp. 408 & 413; Kapur

1958, p. 14, mentions it as synonym of C. aromaticus Linn. ;

Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p.20; Gupta 1962, p. 114).

Cynometra polyandra Roxb. (Leguminosae). Excellent Rangeeni —

lac crop was observed on it at Calcutta, India (Mukhopadhyay

1962, p. 329 ; Bhattacharya & Prasad 1964, pp. 702-703).

Daemonorops draco Blume (Palmaceae). A climbing jungle palm.

Dragon’s blood (mistaken for lac) is taken from it in China

(Mahdihassan 1954, p. 319). In our view this is a doubtful

record of a lac-host.

Dalbergia sp. (Leguminosae). A creeper and rare lac-host in

Burma; common in Shan Plateau and near Inle Lake (Watt

1901, p. 90 ; Norris 1931, pp. 13 & 18). Roonwal ez al.

(1958) have reported many species of Dalbergia as lac-host, but

have given their habit as moderate-sized to large deciduous

trees,

61.

62.

65:

64,

65.

66.

67.

68.

69.

70.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 495

. arborea Willd. (Leguminosae). Host of L. /accain the Oriental

region [Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18, mentioned it as

synonym of Pongamia glabra Vent. (= Pongamia pinnata

Pierre)].

. cochinchinensis Pierre (Leguminosae). Lac-host in Thailand

(Samapuddhi 1957, p. 30; also according to information pro-

vided to junior author by the Royal Forest Department,

Thailand). Host of L. chinensis in India, Indo-China, and

Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 15).

. eupeaux var. laccifera Eberhardt & Dubard (Leguminosae),

Host-plant of Coccus lacca in Indo-China. One of the hosts

found by Crevost, and reported as ‘Co-Khet’ (Hautefeuille

1924, p. 15). Regarding this plant’s name the Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, writes : “ This name, nor anything like

it, traced in Dalbergia’.

. hupeana Hance (Leguminosae). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental

region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

. hupeana var. laccifera Eberhardt & Dubard (Leguminosae),

Host of L. chinensis in India, Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur

1958; p: 15).

. kerrii Craib (Leguminosae). Host of L. chinensis reported from

India, Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 15).

. nigrescens Kurz. (Leguminosae). Host of L. chinensis reported

from India, Indo-China, and Thailand (Kapur 1958, p. 15:

also according to information provided to junior author by the

Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

. szemaoensis Prain (Leguminosae). Host of lac insect in Yunnan,

China. (Chung-lo 1957, p. 86; Gupta 1962, p. 120; and

Roonwal 1962, p. 36). Host of L. /acca in Oriental region

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18). Director, Royal

Botanic Gardens, Kew, has checked the identity of this plant

species.

. tamarindifolia Roxb. [=D. pinnata (Lour.) Prain] (Legumi-

nosae). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental region (Sharapov &

Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

. yunanensis Franch. (Leguminosae). Host of L. /acca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

496

Tol.

J2.

74,

TD:

dt.

thst

80.

81.

82.

83.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Delonix regia (Boj.) Raffin. (Leguminosae). Syn. Poinciana regia

Bojer ex Hook. Host-plant of L. communis in India (Kapur

1958, p. 16). Host on which the lac insect maintains itself but

does not grow (Sreenivasaya 1924, pp. 120, 124 & 125).

Derris robusta Benth. (Leguminosae). Lac host in Burma (Gupta

1962, 9. 135).

Desmodium sp. (Leguminosae). Food plant of the lac insect in

Siam (Takahashi 1949, p. 23).

D. gyrans DC. [=D. motorium (Houtt.) Merrill] (Leguminosae).

Host-plant of Z. mysorensis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 22),

D. oldhami Oliver (Leguminosae). Host of L. acca in the Oriental

region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

D. purpureum Fawc. et Rendle. (Leguminosae). Host of L. lacca

in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960 p. 18).

D. triflorum (Linn.) DC. (Leguminosae). Host of L. lacca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 18).

Dillenia pentagyna Roxb. (Dilleniaceae). Lac encrustation was

found on it at Taimara, Ranchi Forest Division, India (Pur-

kayastha & Krishnaswami 1961, p. 152; Mukhopadhyay

1962, 9.329):

Diospyros sp. (Ebenaceae). Host-plant of L. chinensis in Thailand

(based on information provided to junior author by the Royal

Forest Department, Thailand).

D. kaki Linn. f. (Ebenaceae). Host of L. lacca in the Oriental

region and Georgia, U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Prokopenko

1960, pp. 20 & 30).

D. lotus Linn. (Ebenaceae). Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R. (Shara-

pov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

D. melanoxylon Roxb. (Ebenaceae). Syn. D. twpru Buch.-Ham.

Host-plant of L. mysorensis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 22) and

of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko

1960, p. 20). Small colonies of lac insects with good develop-

ment were met on ‘ D. tupra’ at Dursanipalya, India (Mahdi-

hassan 1923, p. 64).

D. tomentosus Roxb. (=D. exsculpta Buch.-Ham.) (Ebenaceae).

Rangeeni lac was observed to reach maturity on this plant in

84.

‘SE

86.

87.

88.

89.

90.

eo.

92.

93.

94.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 497

both crops of 1962 at Kundri Forest, Bihar, India (Malhotra &

Kulkarni 1964, p. 119).

Dipterocarpus sp. (Dipterocarpaceae). L. /acca feeds on its sap

_ (Mathur & Singh 1960b, p. 53).

D. alatus Roxb. (Dipterocarpaceae). Host of ZL. /acca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

Dolichandrone spathacea K. Schum. (Bignoniaceae). L. lacca has

been reported on it in the Indian region (Kapur 1958. p. 19).

Engelhardtia chrysolepis Hance (Juglandaceae). Host of L. lacca

in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960. p. 19).

E. colebrookiana Lindl. (Juglandaceae). Lac-host of secondary

importance in Yunnan, China (Chung-lo 1957, p. 87; Gupta

1962, p. 120; and Roonwal 1962, p. 37). Host of L. lacca

in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

palo):

Eriolaena malvacea (Leveille) Hand.-Mazz. (Sterculiaceae). Second

favoured host of Jac insect in Yunnan, China. Importance

assumed by this plant species as a lac-host in Yunnan is in

striking contrast with the Indian list of host-plants (Chung-lo

1957p. ons) Gupta 1962, “pp. 120°; Roonwal: 1962, p.’37).

Host of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, p. 20, mentioned F. szemaoensis Hu. as

synonym).

E. spectabilis Planch. (Sterculiaceae). Lac-host in Burma (Gupta

ISGZ py 135):

Erythrina variegata Linn. [var. orientalis (Linn.) Merrill: present

authors] (Leguminosae). Syn. E. indica Lam. Lac-host recorded

‘from Punjab, India (Watt 1901, p. 211; Malhotra 1964,

p. 369, synonymy given).

Eugenia sp. (Myrtaceae). Lac insect has been found on this plant,

locally called as ‘ Thabyegyi’, in Burma, in between Kalat and

Saitepha Hills (Watt 1901, p. 89).

E. dalbergioides Duth. (Myrtaceae). Host of JL. /acca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 20).

EK. jambolana Lam. (=Syzygium cumini Skeels) (Myrtaceae). Host

of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko

1960, p. 20).

A98

OS:

96.

OT.

98.

ve)

100.

101.

102.

103.

104.

Rss,

IOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

E, jambos Linn, [=Syzygium jambos (Linn.) Alston] (Myrtaceae).

Host of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, p. 20).

E. michelii Lam. (Myrtaceae). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental

region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 20).

Euphoria longan Steud. (Sapindaceae). Syns. E. Jongana Lam. and

Nephelium longana Cambess. Host of L. greeni in Formosa

(Takahashi 1928b, p. 261; 1929, pp. 14 & 69). Food plant

of lac insect in Siam (Takahashi 1949, p. 24). Suitable lac-

host in Taiwan, Formosa Islands, China (Chung-lo 1957,

p: 873. Gupta" 1962; pio 118 >’ Roonwall 719623 p-) 37):

Sharapov & Prokopenko (1960) record N. lJongana as host of

L. lacca in the Oriental region.

Excoecaria agallocha Linn. (Euphorbiaceae). Host of T. conchi-

ferata in Ceylon (Green 1922, p. 408; Chamberlin 1923, p. 172;

Mathur & Singh 1960b, p. 115; Gupta 1962, p. 114). Also

host of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko

1960, p. 20).

Feijoa sellowiana Berg. (Myrtaceae). Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

Ficus sp. (Moraceae). Type host of Laccifer javanus. Locality—

Buitenzorg: Java (Chamberlin 1925, p. 34; Takahashi 1949,

p. 24; and Kapur 1958, p. 18). L. fici and L. lacca feed on the

sap of its twigs, shoots, and branches (Mathur & Singh 1960b,

p. 150).

F. albipila King (Moraceae). Host of Laccifer chinensis in

Thailand (based on information provided to junior author by

the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

F. alternans Wall. (Moraceae). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental

region (Kapur 1955, p. 158; Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 17).

F. drupacea Thunb. (Moraceae). Host-plant of L. chinensis in

Thailand (based on information provided to junior author by

the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

F. erecta Thunb. (Moraceae). A probable food plant of lac insect

in Formosa (Takahashi 1949, p. 70).

F, geniculata Kurz. (Moraceae). Excellent Rangeeni lac crop was

found on it at Calcutta, India (Mukhopadhyay, 1962, p. 329;

Bhattacharya & Prasad 1964, pp. 702-703).

106... 3.

LOT. ET.

HOS. 2K.

109. ok.

iG; F.

lel 2B.

2. UE.

Fis. oe

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 499

gibbosa Blume (Moraceae). Host-plant of lac insect in Yunnan,

China (Chung-lo 1957, p. 86; Gupta 1962, p.120; and

Roonwal 1962, p. 37). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental region

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 17).

krishnae C.DC. (Moraceae). Host-plant of L. communis in

India (Kapur 1958, p. 17). Mahdihassan (1936) artificially

inoculated L. mysorensis on F. benghalensis var. krishnae at

Bangalore, India (Kapur 1955, p. 160).

mysorensis Heyne ex Roth [=F. drupacea Thunb. var pubescens

(Roth)] (Moraceae). Host of L. communis at Mysore, India

(Mahdihassan 1923, p. 98; 1948, p. 162; and Kapur 1958,

p. 17 as synonym of F. cotoneaefolia). Host which promotes

the maintenance and growth of the lac insect, but does not

induce secretion of appreciable quantities of resin (Sreenivasaya

1924, pp. 120, 124 & 125). Host of L. lacca in the Oriental

region (Mathur & Singh 1960b, p. 132; Sharapov & Pro-

kopenko 1960, p. 17).

pilosa Reinw. (Moraceae). Host of Laccifer chinensis in India,

Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

polysyce Ridl. (Moraceae). L. javanus was discovered on this

plant in Malaya. Attempts to propagate lac on it were also

made (Miller 1933, pp. 1, 15 & 16 : Gupta 1962, p. 115).

rubiginosa Desf. (Moraceae). Host of L. communis and L.

lacca in the Oriental region ; also lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, pp. 17 & 30).

ulmifolia Lam. (Moraceae). Type host of 7. greeni and re-

ported from Philippine Islands (Chamberlin 1923, De 168":

Kapur 1958, p. 18).

. Wightiana Wall. (Moraceae). Host of Laccifer spp. in Formosa.

L. greeni specimens from this plant were compared with the

Type Specimen by Dr. Chamberlin (Takahashi 1928a, Deeo47 :

1928b, p. 261 ; 1929, pp. 15 & 69 ; 1949, p. 23). Successfully

inoculated with lac insect in Taiwan, China (Chung-lo 1957,

p. 87 ; Gupta 1962, p. 118 ; and Roonwal 1962, p. a1) etl Ost-or

L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 17, mentioned F. infectoria Roxb. and F. lucescens Blume as

synonyms). Rangeeni lac was observed on it at Calcutta, India

(Mukhopadhyay 1962, p. 329; Bhattacharya & Prasad 1964,

pp. 702-703).

500

114.

118.

119.

122.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST, SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Filicium decipiens Thw. (Sapindaceae). Host of T. albizziae in

Ceylon (Green 1922,° p. 413;°. Chamberlin 1923; p. 106;

Kapur 1958, p. 14; Mathur & Singh 1960b, p. 151 ; Sharapov &

Prokopenko 1960, p. 18; Gupta 1962, p. 114). Mukho-

padhyay (1962) reports that this plant was recorded earlier as

lac-host by Macmillan in 1914 and by Benthall in 1946, as quoted

in WEALTH OF INDIA, Vol. 4 (F-G), 1956, pp. 40-41.

Gardenia (Gordonia) floribunda Wall. (Rubiaceae). Host of L.

chinensis in India, Indo-China. and Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Glycine javanica Linn. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Gossypium barbadense Linn. (Malvaceae). Host of L. /acca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

G. insulare Pulle. (Malvaceae). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental

region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

Grevillea robusta A. Cunn. (Proteaceae). Host which promotes

the maintenance and growth of the lac insect but does not induce

secretion of appreciable quantities of resin (Sreenivasaya, 1924,

pp. 120, 124 & 125). Recent record of Rangeeni lac on it at

Ranchi, India (Prasad & Mehra 1967).

Grewia acuminata Juss, (Tiliaceae). Host of L. /acca in the Oriental

region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

G. celtidifolia Juss. (Tiliaceae). Favoured lac-host species of

genus Grewia in Yunnan, China (Chung-lo 1957, p. 87; Gupta

1962, p. 120; Roonwal 1962, p. 37). Host of L. lacca in the

Orienta! region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

G. disperma Rottl (=G. glabra Bl.) (Tiliaceae). Host of L.

chinensis 1 India, Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 16,

mentioned it as synonym of G. Jaevigata Vahi.). Roonwal &

Singh (1958) have listed ‘ Grewia didyma or laevigata’ and

Hautefeuille (1924) has mentioned ‘ G. didgma’.

Guazuma tomentosa H.B. & Kunth. (=G. ulmifolia Lam.)

(Sterculiaceac). Lac insect has been found on it. Partheno-

genetic cells were also collected from it. Best tree for pseudo-

lac insects. L. mysorensis grows well (Mahdihassan 1923,

pp. 47, 58, 60 and 66). Lakshadia communis is said to thrive

sufficiently well on this plant (Chamberlin 1925, p. 38).

ie -$- clei

124.

125.

126.

127.

128.

129.

130,

Pl.

132,

133.

134,

39.

136.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 501

Haematoxylon campechianum Linn. (Leguminosae). Host-

plant of L. communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Harpullia arborea (Blanco) Radlk. (Sapindaceae). Host-plant of

Laccifer albizziae (Kapur 1958, p. 14).

H. cupanioides Roxb. (Sapindaceae). Host of 7. albizziae in

Ceylon. Yellow colony was also observed (Green 1922, p. 413 ;

Chamberlin 1923, p. 166; Mathur & Singh 1960c, p. 36;

and Gupta 1962, pp. 114-115); also of LZ. /acca in the Oriental

region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

Helianthus annuus Linn. (Compositae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Hemicyclia sp. (=Drypetes sp.) (Euphorbiaceae). According to

the material received from Kelawawa, Ceylon, this plant is host

of L. albizziae (Chamberlin 1923, p. 166).

H. sepiaria Wight & Arn. [=Drypetes sepiaria (W. & A.) Pax &

Hoffm.] (Euphorbiaceae). Host of T. albizziae in Ceylon

(Green 1922, p. 413 ; Chamberlin 1923, p. 166; Kapur 1958,

p. 14; Mathur & Singh 1960c, p. 32 ; Gupta 1962, p. 114).

Heritiera littoralis (Dryand.) (Sterculiaceae). Host of L. greeni

in Formosa (Takahashi 1928b, p. 261 ; 1929, pp. 17 & 69).

Hevea _ brasiliensis (H.B.K.) Muell.-Arg. (Euphorbiaceae).

Attempts were made to propagate L. javanus and L. lacca on it

at Malaya (Miller 1933, pp.4 & 21; 1937, pp. 19 & 24; Gupta

1962, p. 115).

Hibiscus mutabilis Linn. (Malvaceae). Host of L. lacca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

H. rosa-sinensis Linn. (Malvaceae). Host of L. /acca in ‘the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

H. syriacus Linn. (Malvaceae). Host-plant of ZL. communis in

India (Kapur 1958, p. 17).

Hovenia dulcis Thunb. (Rhamnaceae). Host of L. /acca in the

Oriental region and Georgia, U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, pp. 18 & 30).

Hymenaea courbaril Linn. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L.

communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

138.

32:

140.

141.

142.

143,

144.

145.

146.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Jacaranda acutifolia Humb. & Bonpl. (Bignoniaceaé), Syn.

J. mimosifolia D. Don and J. ovalifolia R. Br. Host-plant of L.

communis and L. lacca in Indian region (Kapur 1954, pp. 646-

647 ; 1958, pp. 16 & 19-20; Roonwal & Singh 1958, p. 138 ;

Mathur & Singh 1960c, p. 75).

Juglans regia Linn. (Juglandaceae). Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30). Prof. E. V. Borkh-

senius also reported it as host-plant of lac insect in the U.S.S.R.,

while giving a talk on 17-2-1964 at the Indian Lac Research

Institute, Ranchi, on ‘* Works carried out on lac insect in

Soviet Union’.

Juniperus excelsa Bieb. (Cupressaceae). Host-plant of Laccifer

lacca in Indian region (Kapur 1958, p. 20, mentioned it as

synonym of J. macropoda Boiss. which is recorded as host of

lac insect also by Roonwal & Singh 1958, p. 138; Mathur &

Singh 1960c, p. 82).

Justicia carnea Nichols. (Acanthaceae). Host-plant of L. com-

munis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Kydia sp. (Malvaceae). JL. lacca feeds on it in India (Green 1922,

p. 410; Chamberlin 1923, p. 171, misspelt as ‘ Kejdia’ ;

Mathur & Singh 1960c, p. 87).

Landolphia sp. (Apocynaceae). Host of T. albizziae in Ceylon —

(Green 1922, p. 413; Kapur 1958, p. 14; Gupta 1962,

p. 114).

L. kirikii Dyer (Apocynaceae). JL. albizziae feeds on sap of stems

and leaves (Mathur & Singh 1960d, p. 11).

Lawsonia inermis Linn. (Lythraceae). Syn. L. alba Lam. Host

of L. lacca in the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko

1960, p. 20).

Leea aspera Wall. non Edg. (Vitaceae). One of the major lac-hosts

of Assam, India (Krishnaswami & Saikia 1959, p. 297;

Krishnaswami, 1960 p. 14).

Leucaena glauca (Linn.) Benth. [=L. leucocephala (Lam.) de

Wit.] (Leguminosae). Syn. Mimosa glauca L. One of the

two hosts proposed by Oken as host of his genus Laccifer

(Cockerell 1924, p. 47 ; Chamberlin 1925, p. 33). Host of L.

lacca in India (Kapur 1958, p. 20).

147,

148.

149.

150.

Pt.

bS2:

153:

154.

E55.

156.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 503

Limonia acidissima Linn. [=Feronia limonia (Linn.) Swingle]

(Rutaceae). Syn. Feronia elephantum Correa. Host of L.

chinensis in India, Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Lac-host recorded from Punjab, India (Watt 1901, p. 211;

Roonwal & Singh 1958, p. 136; Malhotra 1964, p. 369,

synonymy given).

Liquidambar formosana Hance (Hamamelidaceae). Host of L.

greeni in Formosa (Takahashi 1929, pp. 18 & 69).

Macaranga megalophylla Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Fairly

extensive lac incrustations of L. javanus were found and attempts

were made to propagate lac on it in Malaya. Its brood was

inoculated on other plants (Miller 1933, pp. 5, 15, 18, & 19;

1937, pp. 1 & 10 ; Gupta 1962, p. 115).

M. populifolia Muell. Arg. (Euphorbiaceae). Attempts were

made to propagate L. javanus on it in Malaya (Miller 1933,

p: 18; Gupta 1962, p. 115).

Machilus sp. (—Persea sp.) (Lauraceae). Host of L. greeni and

Laccifer sp. in Formosa (Takahashi 1928a, p. 347; 1928b,

p. 261 ; 1929, pp. 18 & 69).

Madhuca Iatifolia (Roxb.) Macb. (=M. indica Gmel.) (Sapo-

taceae). Syn. Bassia latifolia (Roxb.). Host of L. Jacca in

the Oriental region. (Sharapov. & Prokopenko 1960, p. 20).

Major lac-host in the Punjab, India (Anand 1936, p. 9;

Malhotra 1964, pp. 367-368).

Mallotus cochinchinensis Lour. (Euphorbiaceae). Attempts were

made to propagate L. javanus on it in Malaya (Miller 1933,

po: 4.13, 190 & 21: Gupta 1962, p, 11S):

Michelia champaca Linn. (Magnoliaceae). Host-plant of L.

communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 17).

Millettia auriculata Baker ex Brandis (=M. extensa Benth. ex

Baker) (Leguminosae). Lac encrustation was found on the leaf

of this plant at Taimara, Ranchi Forest Division, India

(Purkayastha & Krishnaswami 1961, p. 153 ; Mukhopadhyay

1962, p. 329).

Mimosa sp. (Leguminosae). Host of FT. conchiferata in Ceylon

(Green 1922, p. 408 ; Gupta 1962, p. 114). Also host-plant of

L. chinensis in Maejo, Chiengmai, in Thailand (based on in-

formation provided to junior author by the Department of

Agriculture, Thailand). -

504

137,

158.

160.

161.

162.

163.

164.

lao.

166.

167.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

M. himalayana Gamble (Leguminosae). Regional host tried for

lac cultivation at Mirzapur, India (I.L.R.I. Ann. Rep., 1962-

63, p. 18).

Moghania chappar (Ham. & Bth.) O. Kuntze (Leguminosae).

Syn. Flemingia chappar Buch.-Ham. Capable of sustaining

both Rangeeni and Kusmi strains of the lac insect (Purkayastha &

Prasad 1962, pp. 541-542; Mukhopadhyay 1962, p. 329).

Morus alba Linn. (Moraceae). Lac insect is reported on it in the

Oriental region and in Georgia, U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, pp. 17 & 30).

M. macassariensis? (Moraceae). Lac has been reared on it at

District Rangpur, India (Buchanan-Hamilton 1825, p. 50;

Watt 1901, p. 218). Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

states about the plant species: ‘ This epithet not traced in

Morus. There is, however, an Ampalis madagascariensis Bo}.

(Syn. Morus nitida Willem.) (family Moraceae), which might

have been meant ’.

M. nigra Linn. (Moraceae). Lac insect is reported on it in the

Oriental region and from Georgia, U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Proko-

penko 1960, pp. 17 & 30).

Nephelium lappaceum Linn. (Sapindaceae). Food plant of the

lac insect in Siam and Formosa (Takahashi 1949, p. 25).

Ougeinia oojeinensis (Roxb.) Hochreut (Leguminosae). This is

the changed name for Dalbergia oojeinensis Roxb. and O.

dalbergioides Benth. (Raizada 1958, p. 501; Prasad 1965,

p. 298) and is a successful host of lac insect in India (Roonwal

et al. 1958, pp. 27, & 76-77 ; Mathur & Singh 1960d, p. 140).

Palaquium formosanum Hayata (Sapotaceae). Host of L. greeni

in Formosa (Takahashi 1928b, p. 261 ; 1929, pp. 22 & 69).

Paliurus ramosissimus Poir. (Rhamnaceae). Food plant of the lac

insect in Siam and Formosa (Takahashi 1949, pp. 24 & 26).

P. spina-christi Mill. (Rhamnaceae). Lac-host in Georgia,

U.S.S.R. Experiments of lac culture are running since 1959

on this plant in Russia (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 30).

Parkia biglandulosa W. & A. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L.

communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

168.

169.

170.

bles

172.

1B:

174.

LD:

176.

LTT.

178.

179.

ary i ene). ish

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 505

Peltophorum inerme (Roxb.) Naves [= P. pterocarpum (DC.)

Backer ex K. Heyne] (Leguminosae). Syn. P. ferrugineum

Benth. Host-plant of L. communis in India (Kapur 1958,

pp. 16-17). Host-plant of LZ. /acca (Kapur 1954, p. 646;

Mathur & Singh 1960e, p. 10; Srivastava, Rao, &

Varshney 1964, p. 104).

Pentace burmanica Kurz. (Tiliaceae). Host-plant of L. chinensis

in Thailand (based on information provided to junior author

by the Royal Forest Department, Thailand).

Persea gratissima Gaertn. (Lauraceae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Phyllanthus emblica Linn. (=Emblica officinalis Gaertn.). (Euphor-

biaceae). Syn. Ph. mairei Levielle. Host of L. lacca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 20).

-Pithecellobium sp. (Leguminosae). L. /acca feeds on sap of twigs,

branches, and stem (Mathur & Singh 1960e, p. 41).

Platanus orientalis Linn. (Platanaceae). Host of ZL. greeni in

Formosa (Takahashi 1929, pp. 23 & 70).

Polymnia grandis Hort. (Compositae). Host-plant of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16, mentioned it as synonym of

Montanoa_ bipinnatifida C. Koch).

Premna tomentosa Willd. (Verbenaceae). Tree observed with lac

“ain India (De 1933, p. 293 ; Tschirch & Stock 1936, p. 1451,

Fig. 435).

Prosopis juliflora DC. (Leguminosae). Host of Sind lac insect,

L. sindica, in W. Pakistan; a Brazilian plant (Mahdihassan

1957) pril4).

Pterocarpus draco Linn. (Leguminosae). Chinese drug (mistaken

for lac) is furnished by it. (Mahdihassan 1954, p. 319). We

- think it is a doubtful record of lac-host.

P. indicus Willd. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of ZL. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 17). |

Pterogaria ? sp. (Juglandaceae ?). Host-plant of Coccus lacca

in Indo-China; reported by Crevost as ‘Co-Xom’. (Haute-

feuille 1924, p. 15). Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

informs that it is probably Prerocarya Kunth (family Juglanda-

506

180,

181.

182.

183.

184,

185.

186.

187.

188.

189,

190.

19].

192.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

_Pterospermum acerifolium Willd. (Sterculiaceae). L. albizzide

feeds on sap of twigs, branches. and stems (Mathur & Singh

1960e, p. 83).

P. diversifolium Blume (Sterculiaceae). Host of L. lacca in

the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

Putranjiva roxburghii Wall. (Euphorbiaceae). Host-plant of L.

communis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16). L. lacca feeds on it

(Mathur & Singh 1960e, p. 86). Also reported as host of L.

chinensis by the Royal Forest Department,- Thailand to junior

author. |

Pyrus malus Linn. (Rosaceae). Host on which it is reported that

lac insect continues for three generations (Sreenivasaya 1924,

pp. 120, 124, & 125).

Quisqualis sp. (Combretaceae). Type host of Laccifer rangoonen-

sis, reported from-Burma (Chamberlin 1925, p. 35; Kapur

1958, p: 23).

Rhamnus alaternus Linn. (Rhamnaceae). Lac-host in Georgia,

U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

Rhodomyrtus tomentosa Wight (Myrtaceae). Host of L. greeni

in Formosa. (Takahashi 1929, pp. 24 & 70).

Rhynchosia cana DC. (Leguminosae). Three inches encrustation

was observed on this herb-like plant (Mahdihassan 1923, p. 64).

Host-plant of L. mysorensis in India (Kapur 1958, p. 22).

R. rufescens DC. (Leguminosae). Host-plant of L. mysorensis

reported from India (Kapur 1958, p. 22).

Robinia pseudoacacia Linn. (Leguminosae)... Lac-host in Georgia,

U.S.S.R. (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

Salix sp. (Salicaceae). The senior author at Indian Lac Research

Institute, Ranchi, inoculated it with lac insects, Katki 1965

life-cycle. Fine settlement of larvae and early development

were observed. This is the first record of rearing lac insect

on it or on any member of the Salicaceae.

Schleichera sp. (Sapindaceae). L. lacca (Kerr) feeds on sap of twigs,

branches, and stems (Mathur & Singh 1961a, p. 31).

Semecarpus anacardium Linn. f. (Anacardiaceae). Lac infection

was observed on this plant at Taimara, Ranchi Forest Division,

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS 507

India (Purkayastha & Krishnaswami 1961, p. 152; Mukho-

padhyay 1962, p. 328).

193. Shorea sp. (Dipterocarpaceae). L. lacca (Kerr) feeds on sap of

twigs, branches, and stems (Mathur & Singh 196la, p. 54).

194. S. cochinchinensis Pierre (Dipterocarpaceae). Host of L.

chinensis and L. lacca in the Oriental region (Kapur 1958,

p. 15 ; Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19, respectively).

195. Spatholobus roxburghii Benth. (Leguminosae). Lac-host in Burma

{Gupta 1962, p. 135, written as * Spatholobus (Butea) roxburghii

(Butea superba) or (creeper palas)’, burmese name of plant

mentioned as *‘ Pauk-nwe’]. Roonwal et a/. (1958) reported it

as synonym of Butea parviflora Roxb., a rare lac-host at

Travancore, India. Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew,

provides the following nomenclative position: ‘ Spatholobus

roxburghii Benth. (Syns. Buteu parviflora Roxb. and B. seri-

cophylla Wall.)—family Leguminosae ’.

196. Sterculia pexa Pierre (Sterculiaceae). Host of L. lacca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 20).

197. Tamarindus sp. (Leguminosae). L. lacca feeds on it (Mathur &

Singhml96iliby p. 5).

198. Tanarius major ? (=Macaranga sp.) (Euphorbiaceae). Lakka

wood of China. Source of the red dye-stuff, namely stick-lac

(Mahdihassan 1954, p. 321). Present authors think it a doubt-

ful record of a lac-host. Regarding this plant’s name Director,

Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, states: ‘ This epithet not traced

in Tanarius, or Macaranga, under which Tanarius is included.

(family Euphorbiaceae) ’.

199, Terminalia sp. (Combretaceae). Food-plant of the lac insect in

7 Siam and Formosa (Takahashi 1949, p. 24).

200. T. catappa Linn. (Combretaceae). Host of L. greeni in Formosa

(Takahashi 1930, p.41).

201. Theobroma cacao Linn. (Sterculiaceae). Host of 7. albizziae

in Ceylon etc. (Green 1922, p. 413; Kapur 1958, p. 14;

Mathur & Singh 1961b, p. 48 ; Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 20 ; Gupta 1962, p. 114). |

202. Tilia sp. (Tiliaceae). Prof. E. V. Borkhsenius reported it as host-

Be plant of lac in U.S.S.R., while giving a talk on 17-2-1964 at

.°.. .. the Indian Lac Research Institute, Ranchi, on ‘ Works carried

out on lac insect inthe Soviet Union ’, i |

508

203.

204.

205.

206.

207.

208.

209.

ra ls

213.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

T. caucasica Rupr. (Tiliaceae). Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

T. tomentosa Moench. (Tiliaceae). Lac-host in Georgia, U.S.S.R.

(Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 30).

Varinga latifolia ? (Moraceae). Lac has been reared on it in

District Rangpur, India: plant colloquially known as ‘ Dhop’

(Buchanan-Hamilton 1825, p.50; Watt 1901, p. 218, suspects

it as a species of Ficus, probably F. cunia). Regarding the name

of this plant, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, states :

‘ Varinga had only one species published in it—V. repens Raf.

This is a synonym of Ficus pumila L. (family Moraceae). There

is, however, a Vangueria latifolia Sond. (family Rubiaceae)

which might have been meant.’

Vatica chinensis Linn. (= Shorea roxburghii G. Don. (Diptero-

carpaceae). Lac insect feeds on it in south India (Buchanan-

Hamilton 1800, p. 238 ; Watt 1901, p. 265).

Vitis vinifera Linn. (Vitaceae). Host of Laccifer communis in

India (Mahdihassan 1936; Kapur 1958, p. 16). Also of

Laccifer lacca, found at Ranchi, India (Mehra 1955, p. 264 ;

Mukhopadhyay 1962, p. 328).

Wrightia tinctoria R. Br. (Apocynaceae). Host of L. communis

in India (Kapur 1958, p. 16).

Xylia sp. (Leguminosae). L. lacca feeds on sap of twigs and

branches (Mathur & Singh 1961b, p. 99).

X. kerrii Craib & Hutch. (Leguminosae). Lac-host in Thailand

(Samapuddhi 1957, p. 30). Host of L. chinensis in India,

Indo-China, and Siam (Kapur 1958, p. 15).

Zizyphus sp. (Rhamnaceae). L. /acca feeds on sap of twigs and

branches (Mathur & Singh 1961b, p. 111).

Z. lotus Lam. (Rhamnaceae). Lac and gum of this plant are.

alike to Arabs (Mahdihassan 1954, p. 322, cited Abu Mansur).

In our view it is doubtful whether this plant is a lac-host.

Zizyphus mauratiana Lam. (Rhamnaceae). This is the changed

specific name for Z. jujuba Lam. non Mill. (Vide Raizada

1958, p. 515), which is one of the most important and com-

mon host of lac insect (Watt 1901, p. 213; Glover 1937,

~ “p. 137; Srinivasan 1956, p. 180; Roonwal et al. 1958,

pp. 17, 19,27 & 65). But Raizada (1966) uses Z. mauritiana

again while referring to var. fruticosa.

HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS

214.

509

Z. nigra ? (Rhamnaceae). Host-plant of T. /acca at Cambodia.

One of the hosts tried with success there (de Flacourt 1927,

p. 125; Gupta: 1962, p. 125).

Regarding the name of this

plant, Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, writes: ‘ this

epithet not traced in Ziziphus (family Rhamnaceae) ’.

215

Z. nudinervis Rehd. (Rhamnaceae).

Host of L. /acca in the

Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960, p. 19).

216

Z. spini-christi Willd. (Rhamnaceae).

Host of L. lacca recorded

from the Oriental region (Sharapov & Prokopenko 1960,

p. 19).

21d,

Z. vulgaris Lam. (=Z. jujuba Mill.) (Rhamnaceae). Important

lac-host at Ellichpur Division and rare host at Wun Division

in Berar Circle, India (Stebbing 1910, p. 73).

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors wish to record their sincere thanks to the Royal Forest

Department and the Department of Agriculture, Thailand, for pro-

viding information about the lac-hosts in Thailand. They are also

grateful to the Director, Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, Surrey, U. K.,

for the verification of the nomenclative position of certain doubtful plant

species included in the paper.

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of Thailand and Forestry Programme.

Project 10. Development of lac culti-

vation. Royal Forest Department, Thai-

land, Bangkok. No. R20.

SHARAPOV, N. E. & PROKOPENKO, A. E.

(1960): Experiments in U.S.S.R. in

obtaining natural shellac. (in Russian).

Publishing House of Academy of Sciences,

U.S.S.R., Moscow-Leningrad.

SREENIVASAYA, M. (1924) : Compara-

tive chemistry of the host-plants of Lac.

Part IV in the ‘ Contributions to the

Scientific study of the Lac Industry’.

J. Indian Inst. Sci. 7 (7).

SRINIVASAN, M. M. (1956) : Lac. Chap-

ter IV, Host-plant of the lac insect. Indian

Forester 82 (4).

SRIVASTAVA, G. K., Rao, K. R. &

VARSHNEY, R. K. (1964): On a new

host of lac. Allahabad Fmr. 38 (3).

STEBBING, E. P. (1910): A note on the

lac insect (Tachardia lacca)-—Its _ life-

history, propagation and_ collection.

Indian For. Mem. 1 (3).

TAKAHASHI, R. (1928a) : Coccidae of

Formosa. Philippine JI. Sci. 36 (3).

(1928b) : Coccidae of For-

mosa. (2). Trans. Nat. Hist. Soc., For-

mosa 18 (97). - ;

——— (1929) : Observations on the

Coccidae of Formosa. Part I. Deptt.

Agr., Govt. Res. Instt. Formosa, Japan.

Taihoku, Japan, Report No. 40.

—————— (1930): Food plant Cata-

logue of the Formosan Coccidae (supple-

ment). Observations on the Coccidae

of Formosa, Part IT. Deptt. Agric., Govt.

ae ae ‘Formosa, Japan. Report

Yo. 43.

(1949): The lac insect (in

Japanese). Japan Shellac Industries Ltd.,

Osaka.

THAKUR, A. K. (1932) : Comparative

study of lac-hosts with special reference

to Acacia catechu and Cassia florida.

Bull. .L.R.1., Namkum, Ranchi 8.

* TsCHIRCH, A. & STOCK, ERICH. (1936):

Die Harze, Chapter V: Stocklac (in

German). Gebrii der Borntraeger, Berlin.

Watt, G. (1901): Tachardia (Car-

teria) lacca Kerr (Syn. Coccus lacca).

Lac (Lakh) and the lac industries. Agri-

cultural Ledger (Ent. Ser.) No. 9.

Wius, J. C. (1957): A Dictionary

of the Flowering Plants and Ferns.

Cambridge University Press, London.

The Point Calimere Sanctuary,

Madras State—May 1967

J. C. DANIEL

Curator,

Bombay Natural History Society

(With a map)

INTRODUCTION

The Blackbuck [Antilope cervicapra (Linn.)] is unique in several

respects. It is an exclusively Indian animal, the only representative of

its genus in India, one of the fastest animals in the world, and one of

the very few truly plains-dwelling animals of the Indian fauna. The

latter habit is apparently the main cause of the alarming and continuing

decline in its population, as there is now hardly any open land in the

country which is not under some type of cultivation. The large herds

which were found in the Gangetic plain and in some parts of the Deccan

at the turn of the century have dwindled to a few hundreds in isolated

pockets. A recent assessment of their population based on available

information (Schaller 1967) leaves no room for doubt that within the

next few years the blackbuck will cease to exist except in well-maintained

sanctuaries. It is, therefore, very necessary that precise information

on the status of this species in different parts of the country be collected

as early as possible. It was in this context that a census of the blackbuck

in the Point Calimere area was considered. This area is believed to

hold the largest number of blackbuck in the south of India. The State

Wild Life Officer, Mr. M. A. Badshah, on being approached, offered

all facilities and I spent five days in May in the sanctuary observing and

censusing blackbuck.

Point Calimere (10° 18’ N., 79° 51’ E.), the Calligicum of Ptolemy, is

a low promontory on the Coramandel coast, in the Tirutturaipundi

Taluk of Thanjavur Dt., Madras State. The only human habitations

in the area are Kodikkarai village on the seashore and Kodiakkadu

village, further inland. Extensive salt swamps, the winter resort of

countless migratory waterfowl, lie to the west of the villages. About

three miles east of Kodikkarai village and approximately at the head

J. BoMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Of BENECAL

v id f RESERVE FOREST

; Es

KoDIKKARD!

Fe LIGHT HOUSE

D FOREST BUNGALOW

@ RAILWAY STATION.

@ VILLAGE

Map of Point Calimere Sanctuary

POLNT CALIMERE SANCTUARY Nig 513

of the promontory, a lighthouse has been in existence since 1902. A

branch line of the Southern Railway from Tirutturaipundi terminates

at the station of Point Calimere about a quarter mile from the shore

and between the villages of Kodikkarai and Kodiakkadu. This line

was laid in 1936, apparently to foster trade with Ceylon, a mere forty

miles away across the Palk Strait, but now appears to cater mainly to

pilgrims who come to pray at the temple at Kodiakkadu and to bathe

in the sea. :

We reached Calimere on 22 May and were met by Mr. V. Subbiah,

the Range Officer in charge of the sanctuary. The Forest Bungalow

situated on the SW. corner of the sanctuary, about 200 yards from the

Railway Station, offers an excellent view of the sea and parts of the

sanctuary. The sanctuary when fully constituted will have an area of

c. 6,000 acres or 10 sq. miles of dry thorn scrub jungle and open sea

coast, consisting of Kodiakkadu Reserve Forest, the Village Forest

and Coastal Strip bounded on the east and south by the sea, on the

north by a creek connecting the salt swamps on the west to the sea on

the east, and on the west by the road running to the interior from the

villages. A tongue of land connects the sanctuary to the salt swamps

(Map).

HABITAT

Kodiakkadu Reserve Forest

The Reserve forms the major part of the sanctuary, approximately

4,250 acres of scrub jungle with thorn and other xerophytic vegetation

predominating. The forest is not continuous but is intersected by nume-

rous tidal inlets and creeks of varying length and width which were

bone-dry in May. Dense thorn-scrub forest of an average 10 to 12

feet height covers the raised land in between the creeks. Dominant

trees and shrubs are Dichrostachys cinerea Wt. & Ar., Manilkara hex-

andra (Roxb.) Dub., Memecylon umbellatum Burm., Carissa carandas

L.; Excoecaria agallocha L. and other species of Euphorbiaceae ;

Cassia fistula (L.), Cassia auriculata L.; Vitis quadrangularis Wall.,

Capparis zeylanica (L.) and other creepers are found in profusion and

in some parts of the forest, smothering the shrubs and trees and, in

May when most of the creepers are dry giving a hoary appearance to

parts of the forest. Except in some glades, the result of clear-felling of

earlier Casuarina plantations, there was no grass within the forest.

Village Forest

This is contiguous with the Reserve and has an area of approxi-

mately 547 acres. Unlike the Reserve, which is not worked by the

Forest Department, there is considerable felling, accelerated I believe

514. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

by the imminent handing over of the forest to the Forest Deane

Secondary growth is very evident and thick in some areas.

Coastal Strip

The sea-coast on the south and east of the Reserve is approximately

half-a-mile in width and has an area of 812 acres on the south and 370

acres on the east. The southern strip owned by the temple at Kodiak-

kadu village is being taken over by the Forest Department. The coastal

strip is a more or less flat plain with occasional isolated clumps of

pandanus and thorn scrub. In the vicinity of the lighthouse there are

small elevated areas covered with larger shrubs and a small stand of

Casuarina forms a windbreak to the west of the lighthouse. Most of

the sea-coast is under grass, and grass-like plants. The predominating

species are: Aeluropus lagopoides (L.) Trin. (local name Uppukorai) a

perennial grass of coastal sands very variable in habit and foliage and

the sedge Cyperus arenarius Retz., a species of the sea-coast from Sind

to Ceylon. In shallow, moist depressions the glaucous green, fleshy-

leaved, Suaeda maritima Dum. occurred in pure stands; and appeared

untouched by any animal. Nearer to the sea are to be seen occasional

clumps of Spinifax sp. Both A. lagopoides and C. arenarius were very

close-cropped and appeared overgrazed.

Potable water in the sanctuary was available only at a water hole

dug by the Forest Department in the Reserve Forest. I was informed

that chital, when hard pressed, drink at night from the temple tank,

Climate

Temperature data for Calimere are not available. The nearest town

Nagapattinam, 35 miles to the north along the coast, has an annual

mean temperature of 80°F. and, Calimere probably has a similar climate,

the temperature rarely falling below 65°F. and rising above 105°F.

The area gets most of its rain from the north-east monsoon, but is

also within the range of the south-west monsoon and the district in some

years receives more rain from it than from the former. However, most

of the rainfall is between the months of October and December. The

town of Nagapattinam receives 54 in. though the average for the dis-

trict is 44 in. Cyclonic storms of high intensity often occur during

the north-east monscon and in 1952 and 1955 caused extensive damage

along the coast.

CENSUS

Most of the blackbuck were said to live on the coastal strip of the

sanctuary and only a few within the Reserve. Walks through the major

part of the sanctuary confirmed this fact and I felt that fairly accurate

. POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY. >- 0 818

estimates could be obtained in the open coastal plains as well as within

phe forest. ai, (hess | he

On 25 May, with the assistance of Mr. V.. Subbiah, I censused the

blackbuck living outside the Reserve and Village forests on the coastal

strips of the sanctuary. The distance between the sea and the edge of

the forest being nowhere over half-a-mile we were able to cover the

whole width of the strip walking abreast at the centre of the strip and

when necessary varying the distance between us in relation to the width

of the strip. While Mr. Subbiah counted the animals towards the sea,

I concentrated on those towards the forest. The animals in between

us moved into one or the other counting area'as we moved forward.

We each had a forest guard with us to inform us if any animal or a herd

moved from one counting area into the other. There was no movement

from the depth of one counting sector forward into the next, mainly

due to the smallness of our party, the slowness of our approach, and

the fact that the animals showed little fear of man. Commencing our

count from the north-west corner of the sanctuary we walked east along

the side of the creek, glassing the inlets: from the creek into the sanc-

tuary till we reached the strip of shore on the east of the sanctuary.

We then turned south and walked towards the lighthouse, turning west

at the lighthouse for the bungalow. The creek shore had no buck and

adjoining inlets very few. The east strip had a fairly good number,

and the number increased as we approached the lighthouse. The area

in the vicinity of the lighthouse and to its west near the casuarina and

pandanus held the largest number, which gradually fell off as. we

approached the bungalow. No blackbuck were seen within about 300

yards of the bungalow. _

The next day we walked through most of the forested area visiting

areas known to hold blackbuck or likely to have them. The majority

of the tidal inlets, creeks, and other open areas within the forest were

visited. The blackbuck were more in areas towards the sea than within

the forest. We did not see any inside the forests except for a herd near

the waterhole in the north-west portion of the Reserve. There were also

none in the small area of the sanctuary abutting the great salt swamp

in the west. We covered over 85% of the sanctuary during the two

days of censusing and the estimates we obtained can be considered as

reasonably accurate for the foreshore area which is apparently the pre-

ferred habitat. The estimate for the forested area may also express the

true position, though the chances of herds or single animals being missed

are more in this area. |

516 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Results

The actual counts as well as my estimates of the total in the two

areas of the sanctuary are given in the Table below.

TABLE

No. of Sub- Sub- Fawn Un- Total Estimated

herds adult adult sexed Total

Foreshore - 4] 128 24 219 30 23°. 125. 549 600

Forest 6 25 4 66 9 2 4 110 150

Total 47 153 28 285 39 D5 429 1699 750

I do not think the number of blackbuck in the sanctuary exceeds

800. Age composition data of the animals was also gathered. While

it was not difficult to distinguish young males with budding or very small

horns, the females were a problem. As in some peripheral herds and

others partially screened by vegetation or the lie of the land the young

males with budding or small horns could not be satisfactorily separated

from the females, all fawn-coloured animals whose sex organs were not

visible were noted as not sexed.

Among the 659 animals that were counted 154 (including 25 fawns)

or 23% were not sexed. One hundred and eighty-one or 36% of the

sexed animals were males, and 153 or 30% were adult. One out of every

Six was a sub-adult male. Stracey (1960) states that when he visited the

Sanctuary in 1959 ‘the darker-coloured males are extraordinarily few and

most of the males, which must have constituted about half the numbers,

were young buck.’ However, I have included among adults, in addi-

tion to black, dark brown animals with full-grown horns and three

years plus in age, and it is not clear whether ‘young buck’ of Stracey

includes these. Three hundred and twenty-four or 64% were females

and 285 or 56% were adults. One out of every 7 female was a sub-adult.

The sub-adult animals form 13% of the sexed population and 17% when

the unsexed fawns are included in the total. One out of 11 adult females

was accompanied by afawn. But it must be noted that my remarks on

the number of sub-adults in relation to adults refer only to the sexed

population and the unsexed animals being mainly sub-adults, their

number in the population may not be so low as the percentages

indicate. |

The sex ratio is 54 males for 100 adult females, approximately 1 :2

and 71 sub-adult males for 100 sub-adult females, approximately 1 : 1°5.

One of the causes for the reduction in the number of adult males is

perhaps poaching.

POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY S17.

It is evident from the figures that the majority of the blackbuck live

in the foreshore area of the sanctuary. During my visit most of the

animals were in herds ranging in size from 3 to 47 but mainly of about a

dozen animals. Herds with a single adult male predominated but the

largest herd had seven. The foreshore appeared to have been territorially

divided among the several herds living in them. In the periphery of the

most favoured areas numerous unattached males were seen. Marker

defecation sites were common and consisted of pits about a foot in dia-

meter and nearly six inches in depth formed by the pawing of the animal.

Dung pellets lay inside and around the pit. Blackbuck in north and

central India have two definite peaks in the rutting season, one in April

and another from mid-August to mid-October (Schaller 1967), when

males establish territories and harems. The habits in south India appear

similar. During May the animals were still in breeding herds. No

copulation was seen but does were being chased. Herd territories ap-

peared stabilised. My notes record only one fight, on 23 May: ‘the

herd master-buck and challenger walk parallel to each other ; herd buck

walking stiff legged, with tail raised ; both stop and herd buck presents

side to challenger which turns ; animals facing in opposite directions ;

turn and face each other, muzzles nearly touch ; challenger lowers head,

threatens ; herd buck backs ; challenger presents side ; both bring up

head, muzzles nearly touch, lower head, engage ; herd buck backing ;

disengage ; raise head, muzzles nearly touch; re-engage’. I was un-

fortunately seen by the animals at this time and they broke off the fight,

the herd buck returning to its harem of 4 females and a sub-adult and the

challenger running back the way it had come. I was informed by Forest

Department personnel that from November onwards, during the rains,

the animals gather in large mixed herds in the coastal area and almost all

the animals in the sanctuary are then in that area. This agrees with the

formation of large mixed herds during the non-breeding season in north

India. The movement of the animals, which normally live within the

forested areas, to the coastal strip is probably due to the creeks and inlets

filling up with water.

The herds I watched spent the day in feeding and desultory movement

in a limited area. Feeding was not restricted to a particular period of

the day but was more evident in the morning and the evening. During

the hottest part of the day they more oftenstood quietly or lay down in the

hot sun. Cover was not usually used even when available, but I twice

saw animals standing in the shade of thorn scrub. The food appeared to

be mainly the grass Aeluropus lagopoides and the sedge Cyperus arenarius.

I did not see them browsing. There is no potable water in the coastal

area and no movement was seen towards the water hole in the Reserve.

Unless they drink sea-water the animals must be spending considerable

periods without water. No sign of sickness was seen and most of the

§18 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

animals were in good condition in spite of the forage being sparse. The

only evidence of injury we saw was of a buck with a single horn and

another limping with its left foreleg.

There are no large predators at Calimere, the jackal being the largest.

Jackals and wild pigs are however said to kill and eat a number of newly-

born fawns. Jackals are certainly capable of killing adults if so inclined,

as indicated by the recorded instance of a pair of jackals killing blackbuck

in the Punjab (Hamber 1924). The only other natural control is said to

be ‘ the periodical cyclones and floods which are stated to levy a heavy

toll when they do occur ’, (Stracey 1960). No sign of dead animals, bones,

or horns were seen and the Forest Department personnel also have no

records of these.

OTHER ANIMALS

Chital

Chital (Axis axis) are said to be plentiful. I saw only five, a female

at the edge of the forest at the coastal strip, a magnificent stag in the

Kodiakkadu Reserve to the north of the village forest, and a stag and two

hinds in the village forest close to the road on the west of the sanctuary.

[ twice heard the breeding call early in the morning. Both the stags I

saw were in hard horn, dark in body colour, and had swollen necks.

We also saw a bush in the reserve which had been ‘thrashed’. Chital

are said to favour the village forest, behaviour that causes concern to the

forest officials as the deer can be easily poached inthis area. I believe

the preference for the village forest is due to the large amount of browse

available from the fairly thick secondary growth and the nearness of the

two water sources in the sanctuary, the temple tank and the water hole

in the reserve. I was concentrating mainly on the blackbuck, and the

habitat difference of the two species at Calimere and the density of the

scrub suggest that I may have missed most of the chital in the area. [

was, however, able to cover a major portion of the forested area and did

not see signs that chital occurred in appreciable numbers. I do not

believe that there are more than fifty to a hundred chital in the sanctuary.

Wild Pig

Wild pigs are said to be very numerous and local villagers complain

that they are unable to plant any root crop or vegetable without having

them destroyed by pigs.- I saw a sounder of five pigs, inside the Reserve

and a solitary animal at the edge of a tidal inlet in the forest. During —

the census another came out of the forest at a steady trot, the blackbuck

moving out of its way, and receiving our wind as it neared the sea, did a U-

turn and returned to the forest at the same steady trot. I was struck by

the small size of the animals in comparison with the wild boar seen else-

7 POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY 519

where in the country, and am uncertain whether the pigs in Calimere are

wild or feral. The grasslands of the sanctuary are disfigured by patches

ploughed up by pigs in search of the rhizome of Cyperus arenarius.

Iam unable to express an opinion on the number of pigs in the sanctuary.

Miscellaneous

On two days we saw a pair.of jackals, possibly the same pair, near

grazing herds of blackbuck. The antelope did not appear to be unduly

concerned about their presence though they kept a distance between

them. Jackals apparently move around during the day contrary to their

behaviour elsewhere. Stracey (op. cit.) also mentions seeing two jackals

during his visit. A mongoose was seen in the forest near the foreshore,

and I understand that the Hare (Lepus nigricollis) is not uncommon. A

few small troops of Bonnet Monkeys [Macaca radiata (Geoffroy)] occur

in the reserve, all, I am told, expatriates from nearby villages and towns.

Birds

Point Calimere, particularly the vast Vedaranyam Salt Swamp to the

south-west, 30 miles in length and 4 to 5 miles in width, harbours large

numbers of migratory waders and also flamingos in thousands during

the winter months (Salim Ali 1963). At the time of my visit a few Turn-

stones (Arenaria interpres) in breeding plumage were stillin the area. I

also saw a small flock of about twenty flamingos feeding in the creek to

the north of the Sanctuary. The Grey Partridge (Francolinus pondi-

cerianus (Gmelin)| was quite common, a pair or two being usually seen

in the vicinity of the bungalow. The call was heard frequently.

CONSERVATION PROBLEMS

Domestic Livestock

_ During the year 1966-67 the Forest Department issued grazing permits

for 836 cattle, 57 buffaloes, 20 horses, and 405 sheep, a total permitted

domestic stock of 1318 animals. The sanctuary had in May very few

cattle, sheep and buffaloes which are perhaps grazed only during the

period of optimum conditions in the rainy season. Small herds (5 to 6

animals) of semi-wild ponies wandered around the grasslands. These

are captured only when required by the owners and at other times allowed

to roam freely and breed in the sanctuary. In the east foreshore I saw

the dry carcase of a cow and domestic stock remains a constant source of

danger through disease to the wild animals. :

Poaching and other Illegal Activities

Poaching apparently is being brought under control. Paachinee as

elsewhere in the country, seems to be largely by officials with weapons. ,

Recent cases were against a village official’s son and a police constable for

520 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

shooting blackbuck. Most of the cases filed appear to be against women

firewood-gatherers who go into the forest to collect windfalls and also cut

the vegetation when opportunities occur.

Administration

Madras is one of the few States in the country with a separate wild life

unit in the Forest Department. The Wild Life Preservation Officer has

a staff deputed from the regular forest roster for wild life duty. The

Point Calimere Sanctuary is managed by a Range Officer, assisted by a

Forester and a Forest Guard. I think the staff is inadequate. Like

others of the wild life unit I had met elsewhere in the State, I

found Mr. Subbiah keen and enthusiastic and, with some more specia-

lised training, he should benefit the sanctuary considerably.

COMMENTS ON THE POTENTIALS OF THE SANCTUARY

Blackbuck

The large number of blackbuck in the sanctuary, unusual in the

present-day status of the species in India, will continue to increase in

importance as conditions deteriorate elsewhere. It is therefore neces-

sary that a continuous effort be made to acquire information on the

animals in the sanctuary. The absence of a natural check in the form of

large predators suggests that the population may reach a stage when lack

of food and diseases resulting from debilitation would either result in

their number being drastically reduced or the species being wiped out.

Evidence has to be obtained whether the present population has exceeded

the carrying capacity of the sanctuary and whether the loss of young

through jackals and pigs is sufficient to keep the population within

carrying capacity. By periodical accurate estimation of age composition

of the population through census, the annual recruitment to the popu-

lation could be determined. The grazing lands of the sanctuary,

excluding the forest, are approximately 3,000 acres in area and sustain

a population of approximately 2,500, or very nearly an animal to an acre,

of herbivores of varying intake capacity. Admittedly, this large popula-

tion uses the grazing lands only at optimum conditions but the total effect

is definitely not tothe advantage of the antelope, the deer, and the

sanctuary. The effect of wild pigs is also largely destructive as they

feed on the rhizome of C. arenarius. Range management problems

like these require extended periods of field study for answers to the several

questions that arise.

Birds

The migrant waders and the enormous flocks of flamingos that are to

be seen in the sanctuary are not only an outstanding attraction to

POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY 521

visitors, particularly ornithologists, but also offer excellent opportunities

for the study of bird migration. A trial ringing in 1962 resulted in the

ringing of 111 birds of 9 species. Among the 57 Marsh Sandpipers

(Tringa stagnatilis) ringed, two were recovered in Russia. It is hoped

that the Government of Madras will agree to the Society’s proposal to

have a bird-ringing station in the sanctuary.

VISITOR FACILITIES

The forest bungalow at the sanctuary has two suites, accommodation

that is quite inadequate if the potential of the sanctuary as a tourist

attraction is to be realised. There is no catering and provisions have to

be brought in from the town of Vedaranyam six miles to the north.

It is necessary that first class hotel accommodation be constructed for

foreign as well as Indian tourists.

The Transport facilities are also equally inadequate but can be im-

proved if the Railways are persuaded to attach first class accommodation

to their trains during the season from October to March. The nearest

airport, is Tiruchirapalli, nearly 100 miles away. However, if a route

of the excellent Express Bus service of the State Transport is arranged

between Tiruchirapalli airport and Calimere, co-ordinated with the flight

timings of the airlines, the sanctuary would benefit.

If these facilities can be arranged and properly publicised the sanctuary

should become popular as a tourist attraction.

THE SANCTUARY IN THE HUMAN ECONOMICS OF THE AREA

One of the main reasons for the failure of sanctuaries in India to

attain expected standards in the protection of species in them is the

hostility of the human population in their surroundings who are denied,

at least officially, the economic benefits of the forest produce. The

income derived from the sanctuary is also siphoned off into the general

revenues and does not benefit the local people. It is time to have a re-

thinking on sanctuary management so that the local people are offered

a Stake in the benefits derived from a well-managed sanctuary. Several

sanctuaries in Africa have greatly benefited by having the local popu-

lation interested in their management.

Of the two villages at Point Calimere, Kodikkarai subsists mainly on

fishing and Kodiakkadu probably on grazing and employment elsewhere.

Apart from the grazing, collection of firewood appears to be the main

benefit from the forest to the villagers, situated as they are in an area

where fuel for domestic use is not available except in the sanctuary.

From the number of cases of illegal firewood collection, most of the

conflict with the authorities appears to arise from this source,

522 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

_ [ suggest that the Forest Department, retaining full control of the

management of the forest and its wild animals, organise for the manage-

ment of visitor facilities and other ancillary functions a co-operative

society, with the major share being held by Government in the Forest

Department and the rest by the village panchayats in the area and provid-

ing that the profits be used for the general benefit and uplift of the

villages.

Employment should be offered as far as possible to people from the

villages in the surrounding areas, without however ignoring competence.

I am certain that, ifsuch an organization linking the welfare of the people

with the sanctuary were to be constituted, there need not be any concern

over the existence of the sanctuary and its animals.

MISCELLANEOUS

While visiting various parts of the sanctuary, I was struck by its close

resemblance to the pictures I had seen of the habitat of the Wild Ass in

the Little Rann of Kutch. The sanctuary may perhaps'serve as an alter-

native home for the Wild Ass, if the need should arise as Stracey (op. cit.)

suggests. I agree with this suggestion but with much hesitation, con-

cerning as it does introduction of an animal into an area where it has never

existed before. I have not examined the Vedaranyam swamp a large

part of which may have to be kept as it is, if a large animal such as the

Wild Ass is to be kept along with the blackbuck, the main species deser-

ving attention at Point Calimere.

RECOMMENDATIONS

1. The blackbuck, and chital be periodically censused to assess

the increase or decrease in their number and if possible the causes.

2. A record of all deaths in the sanctuary be kept and causes noted

when available.

3. The carrying capacity of the sanctuary grasslands be investigated

-on a long term basis by trained personnel.

4, Efforts be made to find alternative grazing areas for domestic stock.

5. Visitor facilities be considerably enhanced on the lines suggested

earlier in this report.

6. The sanctuary be given publicity but only after the visitor LOCUMES

have been improved.

7. A forest co-operative society linking the villages in the surround-

ing area with the management of the sanctuary be organised.

-- 8. Efforts be made to keep inviolate the Vedaranyam Swamp as far

_as possible, since the presence of migratory birds is linked with the swamp

and in their absence the sanctuary would lose one of its main attractions,

POINT CALIMERE SANCTUARY a0

9, Some parts of the sanctuary appear to have an excessive growth

of creepers, whether these are detrimental to other vegetation should be

examined.

10. The sanctuary may fick an alternative home for the Indian Wild

Ass, but only after all points concerning such an introduction have been

thoroughly studied.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful : to the Dorabji Tata Trust Field Grant Sub-committee

for financial assistance ; to Mr. M. A. Badshah, 1.F.s., State Wild Life

Preservation Officer, Madras State, and Mr. V. Subbiah, Range Officer,

Point Calimere Sanctuary, for the generous assistance given by them ;

to Mr. J. Paulraj who accompanied us and was helpful in many ways ;

to Prof. P. V. Bole for identification of plants ; to Mr. D. E. Reuben who

was kind enough to read through the draft manuscript and offer sugges-

tions ; to Dr. G. B. Schaller who read a draft copy and offered comments ;

and, finally, to my wife whose presence at the camp relieved me of the

irksome duties of camp management.

REFERENCES

Aut, SALIM. (1963): Point Calimere SCHALLER, G. B. (1967): The Deer

as a refuge for wintering shore birds. J. and the Tiger. Chicago University

Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 60 : 458-460. Press.

Hamper, L. G. W. (1924): Blackbuck StrRAcEY, P. D. (1960): The Black-

and Jackal. op. cit. 29: 1050. buck of Point Calimere. Cheetal 3: 67-69.

Two new species of Sea Anemones

(Actiniaria) from Maharashtra

> BY:

ARUN PARULEKAR

Senior Research Fellow, C.S.I.R., Bombay Natural History

Society, Bombay-1.

(With four text-figures)

Two new species of sea anemones, namely Anemonia indicus and Acontio-

phorum bombayensis, from Maharashtra have been described. The description

of each species is based on size-range, coloration, internal anatomical features

and size and distribution of nematocysts.

The paper describes two new actinians from a collection of sea

anemones made along the coast of Maharashtra, during 1966-67. The

specimens were collected from the intertidal region and the observations

on nematocysts were made on living material. The anatomical features

were studied by dissections and serial sectioning.

Carlgren’s (1949) classification is followed and the description of

nematocyst types is based on Cutress (1955).

Anemonia indicus sp. nov.

(Text-figs. 1 & 2)

Material. Holotype (Reg. No. P. 1835/1) in the collections of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, collected at Malvan, Ratnagiri Dis-

trict, Maharashtra in March 1966. Paratypes : Fifteen specimens collec-

ted from Bombay, Ratnagiri, Vengurla and Redi along the coast of

Maharashtra. These will be deposited in the collections of the Zoological

Survey of India, Calcutta and the Bombay Natural History Society.

Diagnosis. Actiniidae with wide pedal disc and smooth body, pro-

vided with marginal spherules, which are, sometimes absent in the smaller

individuals. Sphincter weak, circumscribed or rather well-developed,

diffuse. Tentacles usually long, as a rule not covered by the upper part

of the column, their longitudinal muscles ectodermal. Siphonoglyph

variable in number, not always connected with directives. Numerous

perfect mesenteries, Diffuse retractors, More mesenteries at the base

NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONES 525

than at the margin. Cnidom: Spirocysts, atrichs, basitrichs, micro-

basic p-mastigophores (and possibly sometimes, holotrichs).

Description

General features. Anemonia indicus, is a medium-sized, soft-bodied

actinian. In life, the column is pillar-or hour-glass-like in form. The

anemone is most frequently found attached to oyster shells and occa-

sionally to the tube of the polychaete, Onuphis sp., shells of the bivalve

Coecella sp. as well as to submerged concrete structures. Solitary to

gregarious in habit. Algae present in the endoderm.

Size. The species has the following size-range: Length of the

column 15-75 mm., diameter of column 10-15 mm., diameter of oral

disc 20-60 mm., diameter of basal disc 20-60 mm.

Colour. Column green with brown longitudinal stripes. Oral disc

and tentacles light-green with radial and transverse brown stripes. Basal

disc dirty-white in preserved anemone. Some specimens have darker

shades of green and brown.

Basal Disc. Strongly adherent, well-developed and generally cir-

cular in outline, the diameter equal to that of the oral disc but always

more than that of the column. Basal disc translucent in the living

anemone.

Column. Not divisible into scapus and capitulum, pillar-like when

extended, sometimes hour-glass-like. A deep fosse present. Column

smooth, semi-transparent and without cinclides. Longitudinal lines of

mesenterial insertions are clearly visible through the body-wall.

Oral Disc. Large, flat to concave, wider than the diameter of the

column. Regular in outline with a beautiful design formed by the

radial dark green or brownish stripes. Lips ribbed, sometimes raised

to form a cone above the surface of the disc. Two siphonoglyphs

present. Mouth of moderate size and non-protuberant. Radial

muscles of the disc, ectodermal.

Tentacles. Up to 192 in a full grown anemone. Long, thin and

tapering to a point. Tentacular arrangement is regularly hexamerous.

Six cycles of 6, 6, 12, 24, 48, 96 tentacles in a full grown specimen.

Marginal spherules (acrosphere) present, but in young specimens they

may be less developed or absent. In some, the spherules are lobed.

Inner tentacles longer than the outer ones. V-shaped green or brownish

marks, on the surface alternating with white patches on the wall facing

the oral region. Longitudinal muscles ectodermal.

Mesenteries. Many, perfect mesenteries not divisible into macro-

and microcnemes. Retractors fairly strong and diffuse. Well-developed

parietal muscles. Sphincter well-developed and diffuse. In section

the sphincter is broadest at margin and gradually tapers to a tail. Mesen-

teries developing from the base. Sexes separate.

526 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Oral disc. |

———Lines of Mesenterial |

Column. Insertions. “4 B

(i)

Tentacles

2 (iw)

oe ie yey eS J

"Bo dy -wall Acrosphere Septal Filaments

Text-fig. 1. Anemonia indicus sp. nov., a well developed sp2cimen.

Text-fig. 2. Cnidom of Anemonia indicus sp. nov. (i) Tentacles: (A) Spirocysts

(B) Basitrichs ; (ii) Body-wall: (C) Atrichs (D) Basitrichs (E) Basitrichs ; (ili) Acros-

phere: (F) Atrichs (G) Spirocysts (H) Basitrichs (I) Basitrichs; (iv) Septal Fila-

Denise (J) Microbasic p-mastigophores (K) Microbasic p- mastigophores (L) Basitrichs.

Cnidom. The distribution and size (in /) of nematocysts are as follows:

Tentacles :

Spirocysts (A) BS ag re 9°8 - 196 x 1:4 -2°8

Basitrichs (B) te Ie * 18°2)) x2 Dela 238

Body-wall :

Atrichs (C) ee es Be Se szl 2. x lane

Basitrichs (D) Cx 2 Re 14 =" 18°26 S221 28

Basitrichs (E) ee ef a PDA 232 3°81 a ae

Acrosphere :

Atrichs (F) Ap. Ae 1“ 29°4-- 49 x. 2°38 = 4-2

Spirocysts (G) er Ne Bt, fda 15245 96, 25h, 258

Basitrichs (H) a a vr LAT Peal ae eae a

Basitrichs (1) nf a S 9°8-- 11'2-x -1°4

Septal filaments :

Microbasic P-mastigophores (J) - Toe 2241 ES

. Basitrichs (L) 824 OB ses leat

~1 Reference to text- -figures.

Remarks. Amongst the 8 species of the genus Anaeanie satectied

so far, only Anemonia natalensis Carlgren (1938) bears some resemb-

lance to this species but the distribution, size, and form of nematocysts

are clearly different from A, natalensis,

| NEW. SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONES ByAy |

Acontiophorum bombayensis sp. nov.

| (Text-figs. 3 & 4)

Material. Holotype (Reg. No. P. 1834/1) in the collections of the

Zoological Survey of India, Calcutta, collected at Madh Island, Bombay

City, Maharashtra, in October 1966. Paratypes: Five full grown

specimens from the same locality which will be deposited in the

collections of the Zoological Survey of India and the Bombay Natural

History Society.

Diagnosis. Acontiophoridae with well-developed base. Column

smooth, cinclides present. No sphincter. Tentacles of ordinary length,

hexamerously arranged. Longitudinal muscles of tentacles and radial

muscles of oral disc, ectodermal. Two siphonoglyphs. Mesenteries

divisible into macro- and microcnemes, more numerous proximally than

distally. Two pairs of directives. Macrocnemes, including the directives,

fertile, with very strong retractors. Parietobasilar muscles very weak.

Basilar muscles distinct. Cnidom: spirocysts, basitrichs, microbasic

p-mastigophores and probably microbasic amastigophores.

Description

General features. A very small sized anemone. When alive, the

extended column is cylindrical. The anemone usually lives in association

with the wood boring mollusc, Martesia sp. but also occurs on the sheil

Beaty,

;

ay J

Septal aments

‘Pentactes

Text-fig. 3. Acontiophorum bombayensis sp. nov., a etl developed specimen.

Text-fig. 4. Cnidom of Acontiophorum bombayensis sp. nov. (i) Tentacles : (A) Spiro-

cysts (B) Basitrichs (ii) Body-wall: (C) Microbasic p-mastigophores (D)_Basitrichs

(E) Microbasic p-mastigophores (F) Microbasic p-mastigophores (G) Microbasic

p-mastigophores (iii) Acontia: (H) Microbasic p-mastigophores (I) Basi-

trichs (iv) Septal Filaments: (J) Basitrichs (K) Basitrichs (L) Microbasic p-mastigo-

phores (M) Microbasic p-mastigophores,

528 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

of the barnacle, Balanus tintinnabulum. Gregarious due to asexual

reproduction by pedal lacerations. Algae present inthe endoderm. An

uncommon to rare species.

Size. The largest, well-extended specimen has the following dimen-

sions. Length of the column 18 mm., diameter of column and basal

disc 10 mm., diameter of oral disc 15 mm.

Colour. Column and oral disc green. Capitulum translucent to

light-green. Cinclides on the column, dark green, but at times, yellowish

or even light-red. Tentacles light-pink. Basal disc dirty-white.

Basal Disc. Moderately adherent, well-developed and almost cir-

cular in outline. Diameter equal to that of the column but sometimes

smaller.

Column. Short, columnar when fully expanded. Divisible into

scapus and capitulum. Column studded with longitudinal rows of

coloured cinclides. Capitulum without cinclides. Acontia not readily

discharged.

Oral Disc. Flat, broader than column when expanded. Radial

muscles of disc and longitudinal muscles of tentacles, in the ectoderm.

Two siphonoglyphs. Mouth protuberant. Tentacles cover more than

peripheral one-third of the disc.

Tentacles. 3-4 cycles, arranged hexamerously. Short, smooth with

rounded tips. All tentacles of more or less equal size. Longitudinal

muscle layer of tentacle, when contracted, thrown into prominent folds.

Mesenteries. Two cycles of perfect mesenteries, with well-developed

diffuse to circumscribed retractors in the distal region. Parieto-basilar

muscles well-developed. Mesenteries developing from base upwards.

Algae (zooxanthellae) present in the whole column and mesenteries.

Sphincter absent. Acontia short, thick and light-pink in colour, ellip-

tical in transverse section and without fin. Acontia more than twice as

thick as filaments and containing few nematocysts and numerous gland

cells. Nematocysts of acontia are distinctly larger than those of fila-

ments. Asexual reproduction by pedal lacerations.

Cnidom. The distribution and size (in /) of nematocysts are as follows :

Tentacles :

Spirocysts (A)? a i ne S40 Di x ee eed

Basitrichs (B) - se e 15°4 - 48:2 xed = 2-8

Body-wall :

Microbasic P-mastigophores (C) os 16°83 - 196 x 2°8 - 4:9

Basitrichs (D) Rakes: a Me A ao Saar Pr saa 1 |

Microbasic P-mastigophores (E) oe 19°6 - 23°8 x 4:2 - 4:9

Microbasic P-mastigophores (F) .. ae 28° ix 4-2

Microbasic P-mastigophores (G) Bs 16°8 - 19°6 x 2°8 - 3°5

locer eeatermeet ee tt

» Reference to text-figures,

NEW SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONES 529

Acontia:

Microbasic rere OPD CIS (CD a 33°6 - 42 x 56-7°7

Basitrichs (1) a ie 16°8 x 1:4 - 2:1

Septal filaments :

Basitrichs (J) he ve 7 5c4 se l8e2)* x0 2-8. = 3°5

Basitrichs (K) bie AR 5 Gn=" a? xo 4

Microbasic P-mastigophores Cis. a. 28 - 33°76 x 3°5 - 5'6

Microbasic P-mastigophores (M) = Te BAe x [4

Remarks. The genus Acontiophorum, has so far been represented

by a single species, Acontiophorum mortenseni Carlgren, reported from

South Africa (Carlgren 1938). From the distribution and shape of

nematocysts, there is no doubt that the new species, belongs to the genus

Acontiophorum. The distribution and size of the nematocysts of A.

bombayensis are different from those of A. mortenseni.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

Thanks are due to Shri J. C. Daniel, Curator, Bombay Natural History

Society, for providing facilities and taking interest in this work and

to Dr. Ch. E. Cutress, Puerto Rico University for assistance in the

identification of the material. The author is indebted to the Council of

Scientific and Industrial Research, for the award of a Senior Research

Fellowship.

REFERENCES

CARLGREN, O. (1938): South Afri- Actiniaria. op. cit. Fjarde Ser. 1: 1-121.

can Actiniaria and Zoantharia, K. CuTrREss, CH. E. (1955): An _ interpre-

Svenska Vet. Akad. Handl 3, 17 Nr. 3. _ tation of the structure and distribution of

Stockholm. Cnidae in Anthoza. Syst. Zool. 4:

— (1949): A Survey of the 120-137.

Ptychodactiaria, Corallimorpharia and

Reviews

1. THE DEER AND THE TIGER. By George B. Schaller.

pp. 370 (16X24 cm.). With 30 photographs, 17 figures and 58 tables.

Chicago and London, 1967. The University of Chicago Press.

Price $10-00 or 72s. San

Until recently Dunbar Brander was indisputably the greatest

authority on the natural history of the larger mammals of central

India, and this forest officer deserves considerable credit for having

produced as early as 1923 (in the era in which big game hunting was

in vogue and when the sciences of ecology and animal behaviour had

hardly been discovered) a book which could last as long as it has

done. His observations, however, were not sustained over a long and

continuous period nor conducted in any particular selected area; and

moreover most of his information was obtained while actually

engaged either in forest duties or on shikar.

The recent advent on the Indian scene of Dr. George Schaller has

changed all this. For the first time in this subcontinent, a dedicated

scientist has remained almost continually for 14 months in what is

probably the finest remaining naturai habitat for wild life anywhere

in Asia, for the centre of Kanha National Park in Madhya Pradesh

holds the largest concentration of hoofed animals and feline predators.

And although the place is cut off in the monsoon by swollen rivers

thus proving an unpopular posting for subordinate forest staff (as the

reviewer was told by the staff themselves), the author of this book.

under review stayed there throughout the ‘unpopular’ season with his

wife and two young children, armed with nothing more lethal than

binoculars, note-book and camera, in order to conduct the studies

which have produced this remarkable book.

Not only are the description and geographical and ecological

distribution given in detail of each species, but also its population

dynamics, general behaviour and social behaviour; and the book

contains a wealth of factual data which almost bewilder the reader

in the revelation of the amount of time and hard work involved. It

was the reviewer himself who recommended Kanha as a study area

in preference to Corbett National Park, and on a visit there to meet

the author he was amazed at the amount of detailed observation that

could be made and noted down in note-book at the sight of a small

REVIEWS 53

~ herd of chital moving across the maidan, or a herd of gaur peacefully

grazing at the edge of the sal forest.

Perhaps the most important conclusion reached by the author is

the one concerning swamp deer (what a pity he uses the local name

barasingha and not the all-India and all-world one!). He found that

although predation by tigers was a contributory (and of course natural)

cause of the decline in the population of this splendid deer, two other

reasons were poaching and a decreasing birth rate probably due to a

disease such as brucellosis, whereby the young are aborted. Considering

all the factors, he suggests that the present level in the numbers of

tigers is about right for Kanha, but that human predation is reducing,

the deer population and must be stopped, as well as any possible

diseases of the swamp deer be prevented or cured.

The author has conclusively settled the controversy as to whether

the time of antler-growing and rutting of chital is seasonal or non-

seasonal. He found at Kanha that although chital shed antlers and

were in hard horn (and therefore rutting) at all times of the year,

there was a definite peak period; and that this peak period varies

slightly in Rajasthan and Uttar Pradesh where he also collected some

information.

In the past there has been too much erroneous and often anthro-

pomorphic over-simplification of the intraspecific interactions of

various species of wild animals. For instance even Brander stated

that ‘the stags fight for hinds’, whereas in fact fighting and other

such interactions are primarily related to dominance, with the result,

of course, that a high-ranking stag has priority over receptive hinds.

Regarding gaur many writers (including Brander) in the past have

described how gaur master bulls are ousted from the herd by younger

and stronger rivals and are often doomed to lead a solitary life.

Schaller did not find this, and says ‘Rather than on strength, bulls

base their rank primarily on size. ‘The relative position of the bulls in

the hierarchy changes constantly and requires frequent readjustment

as some join and others leave of their own volition’.

The book is superbly illustrated oy a number of black-and-white

photographs taken by the author: in nearly all of these the animals

are doing something interesting that is also illustrative of their

behaviour such as head-up display, sparring, lateral ghey: leading

and following, spraying scent (of tigers) and so on.

The author made his name with his first scientific book THE

MOUNTAIN GORILLA (1963), which was followed by a ‘popular’ edition

THE YEAR OF THE GORILLA. His present THE DEER AND THE TIGER is

a book which should be in every college and school library, and

532. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

also in the homes of everybody concerned with natural history, con-

servation, forestry and sport. Unfortunately it is rather costly as far

as India is concerned, and it is to be hoped that a cheaper edition

can somehow be produced.

In the opinion of the reviewer this superb book should be a text-

book in every forest and zoology college: in fact it is tempting to

refer to the dictum of a former Inspector-General of Forests in India

who used to emphasise that “No forest officer is fit to take charge of

a forest division until he has shot a tiger’. It is certain that, with

the present decline in the numbers of tigers in this country, this distin-

guished retired cfficer (who is also one of our leading wild life

conservationists) would be the first now to recommend that THE

DEER AND THE TIGER be read and studied by every forest officer—both

before and after taking charge of a division.

We are indebted to the School cf Hygiene and Public Health of |

the Johns Hopkins University in the United States of America for

financing and sponsoring the author’s research work in India. Need-

less to say, the sponsors and the author have no motive other than

to provide ‘a solid body of facts’ so that ‘conservation and manage-

ment practices satisfactory tc man, his livestock, and the wildlife’

can be ‘initiated in time to save the last from complete extermination’.

This is shown in the concluding paragraph of the book, where the

author states “The evidence presented in this report . . . indicates that

poaching and not tiger predation has been the general cause of the

decline of the wildlife in the park. The most effective means of

managing the tiger is obviously to manage the prey, which in turn

means (1) curtailing the activity of poachers, and (2) limiting and

gradually eliminating all livestock from within the boundaries of the

park .... Kanha Park is part of India’s cultural heritage, a heritage

in many ways more important than the Taj Mahal and the temples

of Khajuraho, because, unlike these structures formed by the hands

of man, once destroyed it can never be replaced’.

E: PEG:

2. SOCIAL COMMUNICATION AMONG PRIMATES. Edited

by Stuart A. Altmann. pp. xiv+392 (24X16 cm.). With 49 black and

white plates and 81 figures and many tables. London, 1967. The Uni-

versity of Chicago Press. Price 5 gns. net.

During the past 10 years no order of mammals has been more

intensively studied in the laboratory and in the field than the Pri-

mates. This interest is reflected in the large number of symposia on

REVIEWS 533

primate behaviour, and, at present, the spate of books on the topic. The

present volume consists of 17 papers given in December, 1964, at a

symposium entitled “Communication and social interaction in Primates.’

The papers are more or less arbitrarily arranged into 5 parts under

the headings reproductive behaviour, agonistic behaviour, causal

mechanisms, social dynamics, and communication processes. As is the

case with most symposia treating a broad subject, the papers vary

so in outlook and treatment that it is not easy to arrange them logi-

cally into a well-integrated volume. Although the editor has made a

good attempt to tie the material together with a general introduction

and conclusion and discussions—-some useful, some not—at the end

of each part, the overall effect of the volume is still that of a series

of miscellaneous papers under one cover.

The value of the individual papers varies tremendously, ranging

from seeming progress reports and summaries of work published else-

where to detailed results of major projects. Several of the papers

are based on studies of primates in their natural environment. Petter

presents a few notes on the rare aye-aye of Madagascar, and Jolly

discusses the synchronous breeding of Lemus catta. Sugiyama describes

group composition, home range size, and social organization of the

common langur at Dharwar, Mysore State, the only study of an

Indian monkey in its natural habitat in this book. Several male

leaders of the langur groups studied by Sugiyama were replaced by

more aggressive intruders, and in all but one instance the new male

killed all the infants less than one year old, a unique and puzzling

behaviour. Ripley presents details of the largely aggressive interactions

between Ceylon grey langur groups at or near their home range

boundaries. Struhsaker catalogues the 36 more or less distinct vocaliza-

tions of the African vervet monkey, using spectrographic analyses, in

the most thorough study of its type to date. Tsumori summarizes,

among other data, some of the fascinating research carried on by

the Japan Monkey Center on the acquisition of new food habits by

free-living but tame Japanese macaques. For example, when the

monkeys were given sweet potatoes to eat, they began to wash these

in water. ‘In 1953 a female first tried potato washing, and by 1962,

this behaviour had been picked up by ali the troop members except

newly born infants, l-year-old infants, and adults more than 12 years

old.” The newly-acquired behaviour is now being handed down

from generation to generation.

Two studies treat the introduced but free-ranging macaques on

Santiago Island near Puerto Rico. One. by Kaufmann, presents

detailed quantitative data on social relations between males in a group,

534. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

particularly their linear dominance hierarchy and the effect of status

of the frequency of agonistic and grooming interactions. The other,

by Sade, investigates the factors determining dominance in a group

and comes to the conclusion that an offspring’s rank is partly

determined by the rank of its mother.

Of the studies based on both captive and wild monkeys there is

one, by Rowell, discussing the correlation between the large perineal

swelling in adult female baboons and the amount of sexual behaviour;

a second, by Kummer, describing social interactions evolving three

Hamadryas baboons simultaneously; and a third, by Hall, noting the

kinds of interactions between the male and the females in a group

of African patas monkeys.

Several projects were done solely in the laboratory. Rosenblum

and Kaufmann give a brief account of mother-infant relations in pig-

tail and bonnet macaques; Jensen ef al. describe the loosening of the

social bond between pigtail macaque females and their offspring; and

Ploog analyses primarily the genital dispiay of the South American

squirrel monkey, a species in which the erect penis of the male is

in certain situations a social sign stimulus rather than an indication

of sexual behaviour. Miller studied the capacity of one rhesus

macaque to respond to the nonvocal cues of another one by

means of instrumental conditioning to avoidance and reward stimuli.

Robinson inserted electrodes into various parts of the brain of the

rhesus macaque to study the localization of electrically evoked vocali-

zations.

In the final paper, Altmann ‘attempted to clarify the basic nature

of social communication, discuss structural properties of social

communication systems and review relevant data on the structure of

primate behaviour, discuss criteria for:establishing natural classifications

of behaviour, and present an outline of a mathematical model of

metacommunication’. The volume would have benefited from more

broad and theoretical papers of this type.

This, in brief, gives an indication of the topics treated in the

volume. The papers not only represent a good cross-section of the

type of research being done on primates by anthropologists, zoologists,

and psychologists, but they also illustrate well the highly quantitative

way in which animal behaviour problems are currently being appro-

ached. In these respects, the volume is a useful reference work. It

is also convenient to have the papers under one cover, rather than

scattered in various journals, but the price of convenience as always

is high—15 dollars in this instance.

G. B. S.

REVIEWS 535

3. THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT. By Rennie Bere. pp. 96

(20:5 21:5 cm.). With 57 black and white photographs and 16 pages

in colour. London, 1966. Arthur Barker Limited. Price 21s. net.

THE AFRICAN LION. By Mervyn Cowie. pp. 96 (20°5X21°5

cm.). With 58 black and white photographs and 16 pages in colour.

London, 1966. Arthur Barker Limited. Price 21s. net.

Two very interesting books of a popular series THE WORLD OF

ANIMALS of just under 100 pages each with more illustrations than

text. The selection of photographs both in colour and black and

white from various sources could hardly be bettered. They are of

excellent quality and beautifully composed, portraying the animals

in the appropriate setting and pose to illustrate a particular character-

istic. The unusua! format of the books is well adapted to give

adequate dimension to the many full-spread photographs, without

losing detail.

Both authors are knowledgeable game officials who could have

treated their subjects at much greater length. But they are restricted

by the purpose of the books—that of introducing the animals con-

cisely to the intelligent lay reader and a few short chapters about

the history of the animals, their family and social life, their popul-

ation and food problems and their relation with their environment

including other animals and man. The happy result is ‘that only the

essential and more interesting aspects of these two very interesting

animals are presented.

THE AFRICAN ELEPHANT. The study of the animal’s yet little

known behaviour is as fascinating as its nose, whose most versatile

utility as a prehensile iimb of immense power we usually take for

granted. The fussy mother uses it to steer her young by its tail or

lash it into squealing obedience when recalcitrant. It can suck up

two gallons of water, either for a drink or a shower bath and then

act as a dust gun to powder the animal’s vast expanse. Compared

with this country, the elephant population of Africa is still immense

and with the shrinking habitat, embarrassingly concentrated. The

author records seeing some years ago in Uganda ‘a big herd of six

or seven hundred strong ..... acres and acres, of elephants... .

and the whole time the interminable thunderous rumbles of their

bellies’. Actually this sound is emitted fram the throat and trunk

when elephants are feeding and can be heard a mile away.

THE AFRICAN LION. A no less interesting a beast, its amazing

intelligence and adaptability especially of the females who do most

536 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

of the killing, is displayed in their planned and co-operative hunting

techniques and in the care of their young.

The male of the species, to us a symbol of power and majesty

from time immemorial, is very appropriately termed the ‘Lord of

Beasts’. The nobility of his features is set off and enhanced by the

mane, a magnificent though sometimes vermin infested adornment.

His thunderous voice which can carry for five miles and proclaim

his supremacy in a ten mile territory is ‘the most thrilling of sounds

InjAfRicg: ait scite. every plant and pebble seems to be electrified by

its resounding echo’. Then he loves to relax and ‘is one of the few

wild animals that really goes to sleep. . . . sometimes turning on his

back with all four feet in the air’. Of course he is polygamous.

His lionesses, in addition to their other family chores, usually supply

the master with his meals, and it goes without saying ‘he insists he

must be served first’. Verily every inch a Lord.

A chapter on lions and witch craft reveals widespread superstition

about Magical relations between lions and men. Many gruesome!

practices are connected therewith and it is likely that a number of

ritual murders are attributed to imaginary man-eaters. Witch-doctors

claim with some evidence that they can control lions and make them

attack a chosen victim or his livestock. While dismissing telepathy,

the author thinks that lions may be led to a desired spot by laying a

scent trail or even by conditioning them to respond to a sound signal

in a particular way. ;

D. S.aP:

4. A BIRD OVERHEAD. By Clive Simson. Illustrated with

plates and drawing by R. B. Talbot-Kelly. pp. 174 (14x22 cm.).

London, 1966. H. F. & G. Witherby Ltd. Price 30s.

This is a collection of essays, mostly relating to personal experiences

with birds in Britain, Iceland, and other places in western Europe.

Though primarily an oologist, the author is at the same time a care-

ful observer and many of his notes are of considerable natural history

interest. In the three chapters on the cuckoo, he examines the

evidence for and discards the oft-repeated statement that the egg is

carried to and put into the nest, as accepted by Stuart Baker for Indian

cuckoos in CUCKOO PROBIEMS. It is possible that different races have

different habits; but the reviewer cannot help drawing attention to

a recent note in the Bulletin of the British Ornithologists Club in

which the eggs recorded as of the Rail (Rallina fasciata) in Stuart

REVIEWS Dag,

Baker’s NIDIFICATION OF THE BIRDS OF THE INDIAN EMPIRE are now Said.

to be of a Crow-Pheasant—a fact which stresses the rieed for a critical

re-examination of many Indian notes and records.

The chapters on Wild Duck Farming in Iceland and The Collared

Dove (the Ring Dove which has reached England in its very recent

western invasion) are of particular interest.

The book is an excellent example of the extent and nature of

interest in birds, prevailing in England—it is doubtful if one could

find a publisher, or a writer, on these lines in India.

Hs A.

5. THE WORLD GF REPTILES. By Angus Bellairs and

Richard Carrington. pp. 153 (1421-5 cm.). With 31 black and white

photographs and one coloured; 26 text-figures. London, 1966. Chatto

and Windus Ltd. Price 25s. net.

This book is an attempt to give the layman and the amateur natura-

list an idea of reptiles in general and the various forms with examples

from each. The opening chapter deals with the main characteristics

of reptiles, the features which distinguish them from certain morpho-

logically similar fish, amphibians and mammals, their physiology,

embryonic development, anatomical features and evolutionary back-

ground. In the succeeding chapters each major group of the Class

Reptilia is described in detail and an amount of valuable information

is furnished in a very attractive manner. The combination of factors

which determines the different types of reptiles is clearly described.

Examples are provided for each group, and the typical ones are

elaborately described. All the living Orders including Rhynchoce-

phalia containing the celebrated ‘living fossil’ Tuatara are treated in

sufficient detail to conform to the scope of this work.

The plates are superb and certainly augment the value of the book.

A useful guide to the beginner. is an appendix giving a short intro-

duction to the modern system of naming and classifying animals and

brief classification of the present day reptiles, down to the family.

The book adequately fulfils the authors’ intention to create interest

in the world of reptiles among their readers and to encourage some

of them to take up the study of the reptiles, at least as a hobby.

A good bibliography is given to benefit those who would like to know

more about the reptiles or do a systematic study of them.

ihe, (eh

538 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

6. THE LIFE OF INSECTS. By Vincent B. Wigglesworth. pp.

xii+360 (24X16 cm.). Numerous photographic plates, monochrome

and in colour, and line drawings. London, 1964. Weidenfeld and

Nicolson. The Weidenfeld and Nicolson Natural History. Price

55s. net.

THE LIFE OF INSECTS by Prof. V. B. Wigglesworth is fascinating

reading and deservedly reached its second impression within two

years of publication. The price is somewhat high for the average

Indian pocket, but the book is good value for the money and ought

to find a place in every high school and college library and in our

public libraries. It works systematically through the life of the insect,

from insects as inhabitants of earth, air and water, through dietary,

mating, reproduction and growth, luminosity, colours, defence and

offence, vision, hearing, smell and other senses, behaviour, organisation

of insect societies, and populations, speciation and migration, to the

relationships of insects with flowers and man, and is rounded off by

a catalogue with brief notes on the 28 Orders of insects, a chapter-by-

chapter bibliography, and a glossary of technical terms. The book is

packed with interesting facts illustrating whatever theme is under dis-

cussion. Confident of plenty of material to choose from, the author

does not waste his words; he is brief and to the point. without any

sacrifice of clarity. Except for a few technical portions there is

nothing that an intelligent person reading with interest will find

difficulty in understanding. The photographs and line drawings add

materially to the clarity and attractiveness of the book.

D. E. R.

7. AN INTRODUCTION TO THE BEHAVIOUR OF ANTS.

By John H. Sudd. pp. viii+200 (22:5X15 cm.). London, 1967.

Edward Arnold Ltd. Price 40s. net.

The author brings together in this book the various observations

and interpretations on ant behaviour expressed by innumerable writers

on the subject. The task is very laborious indeed considering the

vast literature on the subject-—-more than 450 books and papers have

‘been referred to—and variety of ant species, each having its own

peculiarities. He has discussed the sense organs, various methods of

making nests and their types, procurement of food and feeding habits,

organisation and maintenance of colonies chapter-by-chapter, quoting

authorities for each and has ended with a chapter on the evolution |

KEVIEWS 539

of their social behaviour. The reader will find in this handy book

almost everything on ant behaviour and the detailed references given

at the end will help him to get more literature, if one wants to go

into greater details. The figures and line drawings given in the text

| prove an excellent asset in clearly understanding the text.

No DN.

8. THAT WE MAY LIVE. By Jamie L. Whitten. pp. vii+251

(23-5 X 15-5 cm.). New Jersey, 1966. DO. Van Nostrand Company, Inc.

Price $ 4.50.

This book is an attempt to show that the dangers of pesticides

and insecticides have been grossly overstated by the school of

ecologists who plead the necessity of maintaining the balance of

nature, and the author appears to feel that as the Captain of Creation

it is man’s function to maintain the artificial balance, and tilt it in

his own favour as best as he can. ‘Ours is the only nation’ he says

‘where the cost of food averages only 18°. of our disposable income’

as against 36% in West Germany and 50% in the USSR. Between

1940 to 1964 the production of corn, wheat and beef increased by

60% despite a reduction in farm acreage, and despite the fact that

less than 8% of people are engaged in agriculture. If pesticides

alone cannot take credit for this increased productivity, they neverthe-

less, contribute significantly to this increase. A report of the

National Academy of Sciences says ‘that without the use of chemical

pesticides, most fruits and vegetables would be scarce in the market

andthe price <6. si. would be prohibitive’. Since America now

feeds, at least marginally, a great part of the developing world, these

facts must be treated with the respect they deserve. Again, medical

science is largely sustained by entomologists and other scientists who

supported their work by isolating the causes and by developing

techniques of controlling by synthetic means fleas, rats, flies, mosquitoes

and other carriers of deadly diseases.

The author, Congressman Jamie L. Whitten, was chairman of the

House Appropriations Sub-Committe on Agriculture, and for the

preparation of this report over 185 outstanding scientists and 23

physicians were interviewed, apart from several belonging to every

discipline including Biochemists, Zoologists, Geneticists, Pathologists.

Curiously, in spite of the impressive list of reports and documents

cited to. prove his point, the effort is unconvincing, and one reason

for this is perhaps that in the midst of erudition one finds naive

540 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

statements like this for example: ‘Man today stands on the brink

of controlling the air above us and the elements about us. The man

who developed the atomic submarine recently told me that in future

wars the nation which controlled the bottom of the sea might well

emerge the victor’. Well, it may be questioned whether life would

be worth living if to survive on the surface of the globe where man

is meant to live it should be necessary for him to conquer the bottom

of the sea as well.

A whole chapter has been devoted to SILENT SPRING, and to pro-

ving that Rachel Carson’s book though necessary as a warning to the

indiscriminate use of pesticides, yet drew unscientific conclusions from

many unrelated facts and that she has put forward an entirely one-

sided case. The author quotes from an Editorial of the Washington

Evening Star, but appears to have missed the Central message of the

quotation: “At seemstigiza? V1. . . . that Miss Carson’s detractors

have missed the point of her book. What she wanted to do—and

did do—was to jolt Americans out of their apathy towards the dangers

of the indiscriminate use of pesticides ........ her book warned

human beings of the dangers of becoming victims if not directly, then

indirectly of their own ingenuity’. The author has marshalled an

enormous number of facts which do not help to invalidate the basic

philosophy of SILENT SPRING.

Z... F,

9. DAWN DUSK AND DEER. By Arthur Cadman. pp. 138

(24X16 cm.). London, 1966. Country Life Limited. Price 36s. net

Though the central theme of this book is Deer in Britain, it ranges

discoursively over other associated wild life and their habitat. Written

feelingly in simple unsophisticated style it makes very informative yet

pleasant and easy reading.

The author, a Deputy Surveyor of the New Forest, and an official

of Britain’s Forestry Commission, both by profession and inclination

an outdoor shooting man and naturalist deeply moved by the beauty

of the wilds and its creatures. The type though universal is, to the

non-shooting nature lover, an incomprehensible paradox, to under-

stand which it is worth digressing.

Consider the modern approach to anthropology where it is

thought essential that a student should not remain a patronising out-

sider, but as far as possible be a part of the primitive community

REVIEWS 541

~ he is studying, and share its life and ways. Similarly, the sportsman-

naturalist is or has been a part of wild life. albeit as a predator, a

role that is integral to nature’s economy. His feeling of oneness with

nature is real and intimate. He develops an intense attachment to

that environment where he feels he belongs and reacts violently to

the threat of its destruction. This is the reason, I think, why so

many sportsmen turn out to be such single-minded conservationists

and keenly perceptive naturalists with an eye that sees more than

the apparent.

I hope I do not create the impression that the book is only about

shooting deer. As the author savs it is “a book about their habits

and paths and the many incidents which may be expected while

watching them’ mostly at dusk and dawn, the most likely time for

meetings between man and beast.

The author has learnt much by following the diction ‘sit still,

look long, and hold yourself quiet’ conditions he advises as essential

to produce the rare and unexpected experience—a magnificent buck

with a robin perched on his antler, or an ill-fated poacher sauntering

unknowingly into.a Forestry Official.

Except for a few chapters which give us facts about deer, no

particular aspect of Britain’s natural history is developed systemati-

cally. Instead the author, with the keen perception of a professional

Forester and the sensitivity cf a nature lover recounts anecdotes of

particular experience ranging over many years and many places, from

stalking stag on the Highlands to taking a deer census in the

New Forest.

In spite of extensive shooting, deer in Britain are on the increase

and rapidly extending their range to a degree where they have to be

controlled to restrict numbers and maintain healthy stock. Which

shows what sensible and well enforced game laws can do even in

a small and highly industrialised country.

Incidentally our Barking Deer originally introduced by the Duke

of Bedford at Woburn has established itself in the country and is

found in places far removed from Woburn.

Diy P.

10. ILLUSTRATIONS TO THE FLORA OF DELHI. By

J. K. Maheshwari. pp. xx+282 (24x16 cm.). With 278 figures.

New Delhi, 1966. Council of Scientific and Industrial Research,

Price Rs. 28 or 56s. or $ 8.00.

542 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

This forms the companion volume to the FLORA OF DELHI by the

same author and publisher (1963). Full page illustrations of 278

Species out of a total of about 980 species treated in the FLORA OF

DELHI form the bulk of this volume. It aiso contains 17 corrected

plant names besides 37 reports of new records to the Delhi flora.

There is a great dearth of illustrated floras in India and it is

indeed gratifying to see the issue of this pro parte illustrated Flora

of Delhi. The illustrations of plants prepared by Shri D. M. Sonak

during the preparation of the author’s Flora of Delhi are published

in this volume. The illustrations are prepared according to scales

and are original. In most cases even the underground parts are drawn.

Each plate bears reference to the page of the parent work and

explanations to the figures. Although the illustrations cannot be said

to be of high artistic merit, there is no doubt that they are very

useful for confirming the identification of the species which are

illustrated here, both for students and laymen. ,

It is to be hoped that either the Council of Scientific and

Industrial Research or the Botanical Survey of India will issue

further illustrations of Indian plants in volumes of 100 each so

that all the regional floras can be illustrated. Considerable material

may be found in Wight’s and [cones published from time to time

for reproductions. Already the Botanical Survey of India has rendered

valuable service by republishing the major regional floras and it would

be in fitness of things if they could also publish simple line drawing

illustrations of Indian plants in suitable form. Such drawings can

be often more reliable than lengthy descriptions or even photographs—

particularly for depicting the structure of flowers and fruits.

It is necessary that many-more regional and district floras should

be available in order that the vegetation of most of our country

may become better known to us.

P. V.B.

11. GRASSES AND GRASSLANDS. Edited by C. Barnard.

pp. vitit+269 (255X155 cm.). With 9 plates and many figures.

London, 1964. Macmillan and Company Limited. Price 50s. or

Rs. 40.

Australia is one of the leading countries in pasture research where

the knowledge gained on temperate grasses and ,erassland is systemati-

cally applied for the development and-management of. subtropical and

REVIEWS 543

tropical grassland. A book which attempts to bring together accu-

mulated knowledge on the subject as developed in Australia, would

provide to research workers in the tropical countries an insight into

the approach of Australian workers in solving grassland problems in

subtropical and tropical environment. GRASSES AND GRASSLANDS

edited by C. Barnard attempts to provide this accumulated knowledge

and experience as developed by Division of Plant Industry of the

CSIRO over the past thirty years, for the benefit of students and

teachers and indeed for persons interested in the utilisation of pastures

and their improvement. The various chapters have been contributed

by eminent scientists,

The first chapter presents a picture of the historic development of

grasses and grasslands in relation to the animals,. which feed upon

them. In chapter 2 the botanical classification and relationship of

grasses are discussed whilst chapter 3 deals with their distribution,

and chapter 4 their morphology and anatomy. Chapter 5 is con-

cerned with the biology of the pkenomenon of germination. ‘This is

followed by an essay on the quantitative analysis of growth in grasses

and review in chapter 7, of knowledge on the relationships between

' their growth and environmental conditions. A comprehensive review

of the nature of their reproductive mechanisms in chapter 8 leads to

a discussion of their cytogenetics in chapter 9 in selection methods

for species improvement in chapter 10.

Chapters 11-14 deai with the plant communities of grasses or grass-

lands, their evolution and distribution, nutrition and utilization in

grazing and soil conservation.

A useful reference book for Indian workers engaged in research on

grasses and grasslands.

P. M. D.

K. A. S.

12. THE OXFORD BOOK OF FLOWERLESS PLANTS. By

F. H. Brightman and B. E. Nicholson. pp. viiit208 (25x18 cm.).

With 688 colour illustrations. London, 1966. Oxford University Press.

Price 45s. :

_ This is a companion book to the OXFORP BOOK OF WILD FLOWERS

and OXFORD BOOK OF GARDEN FLOWERS both illustrated by B. E. Nichol-

son. It amply fulfils its main purpose to enable the user to identify

544. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

the common sea weeds, fungi, mosses, lichens and ferns found in

British countryside.

The book contains 688 exquisite illustrations of these flowerless

plants on 96 pages in full colour with relevant text on the opposite

page. This makes the examination of the illustration very convenient.

The irritation of turning pages is completely obviated. The text as

well as the illustration indicate the habitat and habit of the plant

quite clearly.

The flowerless plants are arranged under sea-shore, grasslands, up-

lands, wet places and woodlands. This is followed by the classification

of the main groups of flowerless plants giving important character-

istics of each group. In the contents, we also find the page numbers

of these different groups of plants in various habitats. This again

makes for a very easy reference, if necessary,

The last two topics are of much interest: —one gives the association

between different flowerless plants in their natural habitat and the

other gives a list of extra reading for those who may get further

interested.

This book is one of the best examples of educative material for

nature studies both for young and old. The production is superb and

the illustrations are shown at their best. ‘This publication, even though

it pertains to Britain, is of such excellence that it deserves a place

of pride in all good libraries and institutions teaching biology.

Publications of similar excellence are badly needed in India to in-

culcate ideas of nature study and conservation.

P.V.B.

13. THE ROSE IN INDIA. By Dr. B. P. Pal. pp. xviiit+265

(24-5X16 cm.). 44 coloured and 36 black and white plates and 18

figures. New Delhi, 1966. Indian Council for Agricultural Research.

Price Rs. 36.50.

Dr. B. P. Pal, till recently the Director of the Indian Institute of

Agricultural Research, is one of the most famous rose growers in

India, and his garden in Delhi must have delighted many rose lovers

for years. A book by him on roses in India was naturally eagerly

awaited by all who grow roses or take an interest in flowers. While

books on roses in Europe and America are numerous, and new ones

are added as regularly as the new varieties produced by the famous

breeders, there has been no important book about roses in India

REVIEWS 545

for many years. Meanwhile breeders have produced hundreds of new

varieties, some with strikingly different colours, others with disease

resistance, hardiness and freedom of flowering not known before. New

methods for controlling pests or dealing with problem soils are also

being discovered. The rose grower in India is eager to know which

varieties are suitable for our conditions, and what pesticides can be

used,

It must be stated here that Dr. Pal writes chiefly about rose

growing in Delhi and in the north Indian plains. This undoubtedly

is the best part of the country for roses, but there are other rose

growing areas too, in fact they are grown all over the country. It

seems a pity that while he does mention other rose growing centres

like Bangalore and Poona (which has such an active and excellent

Rose Society) he does not deal with their problems at all. Apart

from this the subject is very completely covered including such matters

as Roses in Legend, Art and Poetry, the making of rose products such

as rose water and gulkand and flower arrangement. ‘These subjects

are only slightly touched upon, the main object of the book being

to deal with the cultivation of roses, specially the two main types of

bush roses, the Hybrid Teas and the Floribundas.

The other chapter heads in the beok are: Classification; Planning

the Rose Garden; How to select Varieties; How to plant and grow

Roses; The feeding of Roses; Pruning; Propagation; Pests; Diseases;

Rose breeding; Roses in pots; The Miniature Roses; Ramblers and

climbers; The Shrub Garden; The standard Roses; How to exhibit;

and finally a Select List of Varieties, and a glossary of technical terms

which many will find very useful.

The chapter on classification includes short descriptions of wild

roses native to India, which are not found in English and American

books. The chapters on propagation, pests and diseases, and Rose

breeding seem to me the best of all. Dr. Pal being a specialist in

plant breeding has written an excellent chapter on that subject, and

the two charts dealing with pests and diseases and their control will

be found extremely useful by all growers.

There have been so many books on rose growing that it is almost

impossible to add anything significantly new on matters such as feeding,

propagation and pruning. Dr. Pal gives the manuring formula which

has been worked out for Delhi and similar areas, and the Bangalore

area. However rose growers in other parts of the country have been

using other manures and fertilisers like Sterameal and fish etc. It

would have been interesting to have Dr. Pal’s comments on

these methods. It is also unfortunate that even Dr. Pal is not able

546. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

to give us any information about the various rootstocks in use in

India. We seem to know very little about them. I find it again

unfortunate that a rose grower of such eminence should have given

almost no place and importance to his personal experience and obser-

vations in this book,

The book is profusely illustrated, and the black and white photo-

graphs all seem to me excellent, but several of the coloured

photographs are rather disappointing. This is probably due to defective

printing, but whatever the reason the colours are often far off the

mark. Super Star for -instance could be mistaken for Mojave and

Montezuma looks like one of the old pink varieties with all the ex-

citing orange coral shading gone out of it. Many will also regret the

fact that a few photographs of the famous rose gardens of the world

have not been included in the book. Dr. Pal has mentioned these,

and photographs that appear in the Annuals of the Royal National

Rose Society give an excellent idea of how roses are planted to best

advantage. A whole chapter on the subject could not give one such

a clear picture as a few photographs of these gardens.

If I mention a few shortcomings it must still be said that the

rose grower and the rose lover in India will find this book excellent

and full of scientific information.

A. JuA.

14. POISONOUS PLANTS OF INDIA. By R. N. Chopra, R. L..

Badhwar and S. Ghosh. In 2 volumes (19X25 cm.). Vol. I revised

and enlarged. pp. 632. 158 ilfustrations. Vol. II pp. 633-972.

99 illustrations. New Delhi, 1965. Indian Council of Agricultural

Research. Price Vol. I Rs. 32:00, Vol II Rs. 20-50.

It is after a lapse of 16 years, since this book was first published

in 1949 as an ICAR monograph, that this version, enlarged and

revised, appears in two volumes. This is appropriate and timely for

there has been of late a surge of world-wide interest in the study of

plants as a potential source of drugs and chemical compounds of new

constitution.

Both volumes are devoted to a detailed account of the plants which

are reputed to produce poisoning in man and animals. A list of

illustrations has been included in Volume I. This has been omitted

in Volume II though the reviewer counted 99 illustrations in it.

REVIEWS 547

The illustrations which are taken from numerous sources are well

reproduced and easy to study even by one not specially trained in

Botany (like the reviewer). Regarding botanical nomenclature, the

recent accepted names of each of the plants described is given along

with its English name and that in different Indian languages. The

inclusion of older botanical names also is rather convenient for those

who are more familiar with them. The etymology of the generic

and specific names is explained in most of the instances—an interesting

and educative sidelight.

The introduction is elaborate and incorporates a mass of hetero-

geneous information of a general nature, such as, the geographical

distribution of poisonous plants, their constituents, diverse factors

affecting their toxicity, their botanical classification and economic and

therapeutic utility. The symptoms of poisoning with plants, their

diagnosis and treatment have all been adequately dealt with. A

particular attribute which the reviewer finds commendable is_ the

tabulation of plants according to whether they produce dermatitis, or

are poisonous to man and livestock, or possess insect-repellant pro-

perties or are toxic to fish. This could mean that a re-investigation

of these plants or their related genera for active principles hitherto un-

discovered or overlooked might be worthwhile.

Next the authors proceed to a description of individual plants

arranged family-wise. Plants from ninety-three families are described

each plant being discussed under four heads—botanical characters,

distribution, uses and properties, and constituents. Considering the

extensive coverage in both volumes and, therefore, the immense mass

of literature the authors had to sift, it is not surprising that some

omissions have occurred in places.

For instance, Aquilegia vulgaris is stated by the authors to be

devoid of alkaloids. A recent paper by Winek et al. (Journal of

Pharmaceutical Sciences, 1964, 53: 734) has apparently been missed.

The paper reports one alkaloid in Aquilegia vulgaris—-a fact that may

be accounted to better detection techniques or differences in soil, climate

or other factors known to affect the alkaioidal content of plants.

In the reference to the family Magnoliaceae (p. 120) mention

might have been made of alkaloids like magnoflorine and magno-

curarine along with the other constituents,

Two of the most important alkaloids present in Lochnera rosea

(p. 550) have unfortunately been overlooked. These are vinblastine

and vincristine which have both been employed in the treatment of

certain types of cancer in man—the former in Chorion Epithelioma and

the latter in Acute Leukaemia in children. Among the constituents

548. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

of Lantana aculeata (p. 699) lancamarone, a cardio-active steroid

might have been also mentioned. Again, both Girardinia heterophylla

and Mucuna prurieus which cause itching, redness and smarting of

the skin are known to contain 5-Hydroxytryptamine (Serotonin)

which is responsible for this effect. This fact has not been reported

by the authors.

A distinct error has been committed in describing the pharmaco-

logicai action of Atropine. The statements that the action of Atropine

is due to ‘a paralysis of all cholinergic (vagal) fibres’ (p. 635) and

that ‘the pupil dilates because the endings of the oculomotor nerve

in the sphincter of the iris are paralysed’ (p. 636) are both wrong.

According to the currently accepted view Atropine has no action

on the nerve endings but combines reversibly with receptors on —

effector cells and prevents the molecules of Acetylcholive from

exerting their normal action.

In conclusion, however, the usefulness of this publication as a

valuable reference source outweighs the few shortcomings pointed out.

The general get-up of both volumes is good and the price is moderate.

Its addition to all libraries in research-oriented departments is strongly

recommended.

Sivtcr ean

15. METHODS OF ANIMAL EXPERIMENTATION. Vol. I.

Edited by William I. Gay. pp. xv+382 (23X15 cm.). New York,

1965. Academic Press Inc. Price $ 13-50.

This volume covers a number of general topics including methods

of collecting body fluids, anaesthetic techniques, radiography, dis-

posal of animals, care of germ free animals etc., and goes on to

techniques of aerosol challenge, drug administration etc. The con-

tents of volume II, which are listed show that it is intended to cover

more complex procedures like ionizing radiation, tumour and organ

transplants, parabiosis and also chapters on care and maintenance,

exercise etc. of animals undergoing various types of experimentation.

In spite of what is implied in the preface, and the fact that some

basic techniques are carefully described and illustrated, this is not a

beginners’ book. The information given is not comprehensive. The

discussion of methods, the drawbacks or pitfalls which may arise, and

the selection of topics are addressed to the experienced worker and

may be more useful for the design and planning of experiments which

aye

REVIEWS 549

require the use of advanced techniques rather than as a guide for

the information of the technician in the laboratory. Hence some of

the information given appears to be rather too elementary for such a

work. The information given on special techniques is most useful

since much of it would be unavailable without reference to numerous

sources. Individual chapters are authoritatively written by persons

who obviously have ample experience of the techniques they describe.

The book as a whole is a useful guide to the special methods and

techniques discussed. It is not an instruction manual for the beginner.

The printing and presentation. and the illustrations conform to the

high standards which one associates with the Academic Press.

ASIN SD? IN:

Miscellaneous Notes

1. DOBSON’S LONG-TONGUED FRUIT BAT, EONYCTERIS

SPELAEA (DOBSON), FROM KUMAON HILLS, U-P.:

AN ADDITION TO THE CHIROPTERAN FAUNA

~ OF INDIA

Dobson’s long-tongued fruit bat, Eonycteris speiaea is the only

species of the genus Eonycteris Dobson, 1873 recorded from Oriental

region. It was first recorded from Farm Caves at Moulmein, Burma

by Dobson (1871) (cited by Blanford 191). The distribution range

of the species includes Burma, Thailand, Laos, Vietnam, Cambodia,

Malaysia, Indonesia and Philippines (Blanford 1891; Ellerman &

Morrison-Scott 1951). It has not so far been recorded from India

and the records cited below are new for the country.

During a recent tour of the Kumaon Hills, U.P. in connection

with a survey of haematophagous arthropods, 4 males and 3 femaies

of a bat species identified as FEonycreris spelaea were trapped in

Japanese mist nets. Skins of 3 males and 1 female and skulls of

2 males and | female were preserved for confirmation of the identifi-

cation. The identification was confirmed at the Bombay Natural

History Society, by comparing with the authentically identified material

of the species. Dr. G. Topal of the Hungarian Natural History

Museum, visiting scientist at the Bombay Natural History Society,

Kindly helped in confirming the identity of the species. Many thanks

are due to him.

All the specimens were trapped in mist nets set up near banana —

plantations. Detailed collection data are as follows: 2 males from

Dugada, Naini Tal District, on 25 February 1967, skins of both

and skull of one specimen preserved: 1 male and | female from

Dharchula, Pithoragarh District, on 17 and 18 March 1967 res-

pectively, skin of the male preserved; | male, | juvenile female from

Kotera, near Dharchula, Pithoragarh District. on 19 March 1967.

skull of the male preserved; and 1 pregnant female from Aatkhet

near Thal, Pithoragarh District, on 30 March 1967, skin and skull

preserved.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 551

Average measurements in millimetres, taken from preserved skin

and skulls mentioned above are as follows:

a 2

Head and body va b 126 123

Tail a 8°6 8

Ear from orifice Wee OPS 16

Forearm : Pee OSc0 67

Total length of skull hale Bare 34

Zygomatic breadth eerMeZ Ol 20

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,!

POONA, HR. BHAT

August 17, 1967.

REFERENCES

BLANFORD, W. YT. (1891): The ELLERMAN, J. R. & MoOrRISON-SCOTT,

fauna of British India, including Ceylon T. C. 8S. (1951): Checklist of Palaearc-

and Burma. Mammalia Vol. 2. tic and Indian Mammals, 1758 to 1946,

Taylor & Francis. London. > British Museum (Natural History).

London.

2. OCCURRENCE OF THE BROWN BEAR, URSUS

ARCTOS LINNAEUS, IN BHUTAN

On being asked if the Brown Bear, as opposed to the Himalayan

Black Bear, was found in Bhuian, the King of that country recently

informed me that he himself shot a Brown Bear in northern Bhutan

north of Bumthang in 1945. The skin was not available for

examining or photographing, but I see no reason to disbelieve the

source of my information as there could surely be no confusion by

an experienced sportsman between the Brown Bear and the Himalayan

Black Bear.

The range of the Brown Bear is given by Ellerman & Morrison-

Scott’s CHECKLIST as Kashmir and Punjab (now Himachal Pradesh) so

far as the Indian subcontinent is concerned, and by Prater’s BOOK OF

INDIAN ANIMALS as ‘the north-western and central Himalayas’. It may

* The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of

Medical Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a grant

(3 x 4307) of PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, USPHS, through

the Indian Council of Medical Research.

552 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

now be accepted that the Brown Bear has been recorded from

Bhutan on one occasion.

EVERGREEN COTTAGE,

SHILLONG 5, EB. -P» GEE

ASSAM,

June 4, 1967.

3. OCCURRENCE OF THE DESERT CAT, FELIS

LIBYCA ORNATA GRAY NEAR POONA

While engaged in local (40 kilometre radius around Poona) intensive

survey programme of the Western Regional Station at Poona, during

the year 1966-67, I collected two specimens of the Desert Cat from

Shira, near Kamshet (Bombay-Poona Road), on May 22, 1966 and

February 12, 1967. It is gathered from the existing records

(Ellerman & Morrison-Scott 1951; Prater 1965) that this species is

known to occur only in the drier regions of north-western,

western and central India, approximately 80° E. in the east and to

22°N. in the south. It has never been reported to occur so far

down south as Poona (18° 30’N.).

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION,

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, B. S. LAMBA

1182/2 Fs Cy ROAD:

POONA-S,

August 29, 1967.

REFERENCES

ELLERMAN, J. R. & MORRISON-SCOTT, PRATER, S. H. (1965): The Book of

T. C. S. (1951) : Checklist of Palaearc- Indian Animals. Bombay Natural History

tic and Indian Mammals. British Society, Bombay.

Museum, (Natural History). London.

4. OCCURRENCE OF THE SNOW LEOPARD,

PANTHERA UNCIA (SCHREBER), IN BHUTAN

In Ellerman & Morrison-Scott’s CHECKLIST OF PALAEFARCTIC AND

INDIAN MAMMALS the range of the Snow Leopard is given as only

Kashmir, as tar as the Indian subcontinent is concerned. In Prater’s

BOOK OF INDIAN ANIMALS if is given as ‘In India . . along the whole

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES aya)

Himalayan chain from Kashmir to Sikkim. Northwards ..’ I can

find no mention of Bhutan being given as part of the range of this

creature.

But on two recent visits to Bhutan I have personally. seen no

less than four skins of Snow Leopard, all of which were killed in

Bhutan and were in the possession of the King, who has kindly

pointed out to me on the map the places in Bhutan they were

obtained. Evidently they occur all along the northern part of Bhutan,

and they sometimes descend to quite low elevations—an animal

shot as low as 9,000 feet was very dark and a colour photograph

of this skin was shown to the British Museum of Natural History

who identified it as ‘undoubtedly that of a Snow Leopard’.

The other three skins, were of the normal white background colour.

Books on mammals, therefore, need tc be amended accordingly in

order to include Bhutan in the range of the Snow Leopard.

EVERGREEN COTTAGE,

SHILLONG-5, EP? GEE

ASSAM, |

June 4, 1967.

5. OCCURRENCE OF THE NAYAN OR GREAT

TIBETAN SHEEP, OVIS AMMON HODGSONI BLYTH,

IN BHUTAN

In Ellerman & Morrison-Scott’s CHECKLIST the range of this wild

sheep is given as “Tibet, probably on Nepal frontier’, Himalayan

region’, ‘Nepal’, “Tibet? and ‘Ladak’. In Prater’s BOOK OF INDIAN

ANIMALS it is given as “The plateau of Tibet from northern Ladak

eastwards .. . the extreme north of Sikkim’. No mention of Bhutan

is made in either. of the above two books.

I recently learned from the King of Bhutan that this sheep is in

fact found in Bhutan, in the extreme north of the Ha and Paro valleys

near the Tibetan border. He himseif shot one north of Paro in 1945,

and kindly allowed me to photograph the head as documentary

evidence. Patrols in the area report each year the continued existence

of these sheep, and within the last year similar reports have come in

about their survival. They are strictly protected, I was informed,

554 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

and not allowed to be shot by anyone. Books on mammals need to

be amended accordingly. |

EVERGREEN COTTAGE,

SHILLONG-5, E. P. GEE

ASSAM,

June 4, 1967.

6. A CASE OF ALBINISM IN RATTUS BLANFORDI

(THOMAS), 1881 (RODENTIA : MURINAE)

Since 1961 regular trapping of rodents and shrews formed part

of the work of the Virus Research Centre Field Station at Sagar

(Shimoga District, Mysore State) which was engaged in the studies

on the epidemiology of Kyasanur Forest Disease. Blanford’s Rat,

Rattus blanfordi was consistently obtained in ‘Sherman’ traps through-

out the year. The total number of rats of this species collected since

1961 were as follows:

1961 174

1962 232

1963 284

1964 150

1965 166

1966 207

Total : 1213 rats in 1,14, 184 trap nights.

All the 1213 rats obtained during this period were typical Rattus

blanfordi with the normal coloration as mentioned by Ellerman

(1961)'.

On 17 November 1956, an albino female rat was captured in

an evergreen patch of forest about four miles south of Sagar. This

was provisionally identified as Rattus bianfordi from the type of

noise it made. Unlike norma! blanfordi specimens, the fur was

uniformly dull white in colour with pink eyes. The tail was also

uniformly dull. white in colour, whereas in normal rats, the tail is

dark brown basally and whitish terminally. The measurements of

this albino rat were as follows: head and body 188 mm., tail 203

mm., hind foot 35 mm., and ear 31 mm. The identification has

been confirmed by breeding experiments in the laboratory.

India, Calcutta,

1 Ellerman, J. R. (1961) : Fauna of India, Mammalia 3. Zoological Survey of

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Sa)

This is the first time an albino rat of this species has been

encountered during our studies and there are no published records

of an albino of Rattus blanfordi. In the laboratory, several attempts

were made to breed wild caught Rattus blanfordi and these were

unsuccessful because of the failure of the wild caught female to

accept a male in captivity. No mating could be achieved even after

changing the partners. Since albinism carries with it the trait of

tameness, a normal male was provided in the cage containing the

albino female. Mating was observed in captivity and the albino

female delivered three normal coloured young ones after a gestation

period of 25-26 days. The albino female was again provided with

a normal male after the babies were weaned, and another two normal

coloured young ones were delivered after a gestation period of 26

days. }

The albino female and the young ones are kept alive at Sagar

Field Station for further observation and breeding experiments.

VIRUS RESEARCH CENTRE,!

POONA, P. K. RAJAGOPAL AN

September 4, 1967.

7. REDNECKED GREBE PODICEPS GRISEIGENA

(BODDAERT) SIGHTED IN WEST PAKISTAN

(With a plate)

On January 14, 1967, whilst working on the International Wild-

fowl Census at Lal Suhanra, the writers had a clear view of a bird

which was identified as Podiceps griseigena. Since this species is not

listed by Ripley (1961) or by Stuart Baker (1929) it is believed that

this may constitute a new record for the subcontinent.

Lal Suhanra (29° 31’ N., 71° 55’ E.) situated approximately 16 miles

east of Bahawalpur City in West Pakistan, comprises a _ chain

of tamarisk-studded jheels covering an area of some 10 square miles

where surplus canal water 1s stored in summer. Food supplies for

diving birds were apparently abundant as evidenced by the numbers

' The Virus Research Centre is jointly maintained by the Indian Council of

Medical Research and The Rockefeller Foundation. The Centre also receives a grant

(3 x 4307) of PL 480 Funds from the National Institutes of Health, USPHS, through

the Indian Council of Medical Research,

556 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

of diving duck (including Smew), cormorants and darters wherever

areas of open water occurred.

The bird was sighted at a distance of about 200 yards, and studied

through 20X70 binoculars and telescopes X60 mounted on tripods,

at 1.30 p.m. in bright daylight and with the sun behind. It was

realised at once that it was too small to be a Great Crested Grebe

and at the same time too large and long in the neck to be a Black-

necked Grebe Podiceps caspicus, both species with which we were

watched on an adjacent strip of open water and moreover a nearby

group of about 40 Little Grebes Podiceps ruficollis provided ample

size Comparison. is

When the bird was scrutinised minutely, it was noted that the

crown down to the level of the bill and eye was dark in colour,

whereas the Great Crested Grebe had clearly shown white above the

eye and bill. The sides of the head and cheeks showed white in a

wedge-shaped pattern outlined by the dark grey of the hind neck.

The rest of the neck was grey in colour, which also served to

emphasize the former character.

Peterson (1966) was consulted at the time, from which the writers

were convinced that this bird could only have been a Rednecked

Grebe Podiceps griseigena in winter plumage. It should be added

that one of the writers (T.J.R.) is familiar with this species in

British Colombia.

Having only a 12-bore shotgun and no means of getting closer

to the bird, there was no question of securing it, but in view of the

circumstances it is believed that this sighting is worthy of record.

The recorded distribution of Podiceps griseigena is shown in map

form by Dementiev & Gladkov (1951), and the breeding distribution

also by Voous (1960). It has a discontinuous Holarctic breeding

distribution—being absent in central Siberia—and winters in the

coastal regions of the United States, China, the Mediterranean and

southern Caspian. Of particular interest to the subcontinent are the

breeding grounds of Kazakhastan. Of these Dolgushin (1960) mentions

in particular the Syr Darya delta and the Balkhash basin, but adds

that information on the species has recently greatly improved and it

seems that the ‘species is much more widespread than formerly

supposed. The winter quarters of these Kazakhastan birds are as

yet unrecorded—-there is only one record of the species being found

in Kazakhastan in winter. He mentions however that the species

‘has been found ‘in the mountains’ on spring passage.

J. BompBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Holmes: Rednecked Grebe

dui ail

LT) wij

—

Great Crested Grebe

Rednecked Grebe

Blacknecked Grebe Little Grebe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Dor/

Two forms occur in Kazakhastan, the European ot nominate race

P. g. griseigena and a markedly larger race found in the Balkhash

basin P. g. balchaschensis Korelov (Dolgushin 1960). The latter

appears to be similar in size to the eastern form known as P. g.

holboelli (Reinhardt) (Dementiev & Gladkov 1951). It is noteworthy

that the Balkhash form has wing measurements comparable with the

Great Crested Grebe Pediceps cristatus while its weight is only half

that of this species.

In the circumstances it seems surprising that the Rednecked Grebe

‘has not been recorded earlier in the subcontinent and we hope that

this note may stimulate closer scrutiny of any large grebe seen

in the subcontinent.

WILDFOWL SURVEY,

c/o 11-F GULBERG,

Post BAG 704,

LAHORE,

WEST PAKISTAN,

January 31, 1967.

J. R. S. HOLMES

T. J. ROBERTS

C. D. W. SAVAGE

REFERENCES

DEMENTIEV, G. P. & GLADKov, N. A.

(1951): Birds of the Soviet Union.

Vol. 2, Moscow.

Dotcusuin, I. A. (1960): Birds of

Kazakhastan. Vol. 1. Alma Ata.

GLADKOov, N. A. (1964): Definitive

Birds, USSR. Yaroslavl.

Guide to the Birds of Britain and Europe.

2nd.ed. Jondon.

Ripiey, S. D. II (1961): A Synopsis

of the Birds of India and Pakistan.

Bombay.

STUART BAKER, E. C. (1929): Fauna

of British India—Birds. Vol. VI. 2nd ed.

PETERSON, ROGER, GUY MOUNTFORT & London.

Hottom, P. A. D. (1966): A Field Voous, K. H. (1960): Atlas of

European Birds. London.

8. UNUSUAL METHOD OF FISHING BY LITTLE

EGRET EGRETTA GARZETTA LINNAEUS

On Sunday 4 June 1967, I was at Powai Lake, Salsette, Bombay

(with my wife and children), when far out in the distance we saw

a couple of egrets behaving in a curious manner. They were not

far apart and at first sight it looked as if they were hesitating before

‘landing? on the water— perhaps not being sure how deep it was.

However, they did not settle, and flew towards us close over the water.

As they came near it was apparent that this low flying disturbed large

numbers of small fish (Cheia sp.) which skimmed ahead over the

558 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

water. The egrets, now recognised as the Little Egret (Egretta garzetta)

had their necks extended and the ‘undercarriage’ (legs and feet) half-

way down. We did not actually see them catch a fish but they were

no doubt interested in them. The flight was over 400-500 yards. I

do not remember having seen or read of an egret or heron fishing

in this manner.

The level of the water in the lake was exceptionally low and the

anglers were having a field day. Our boat was preceded by a

continuous stream of 2-3 inch Chela sp., jumping out and skimming

along the surface, while an occasional Rohu (Labeo rohita) jumped high.

A 1-lb Rohu and many Chela jumped into the boat.

A week later (11 June) we were there again and saw six or seven

Little Egrets regularly fishing in the manner described earlier. This

time however, they kept their neck: half-drawn in, enabling them to

jab at and catch the fish. They flew around in wide circies, often

two or three together and appeared to be catching quite a few fish.

Two larger egrets (probably Egretta alba) and a Grey Heron (Ardea

cinerea) stayed on the shore and continued to fish in the normal

heron/egret style.

Faiz & Co.,

75, ABDUL REHMAN STREFT, HUMAYUN ABDULALI ~

BOMBAY,

June 15, 1967.

9. THE WHISTLING TEAL [DENDROCYGNA JAVANICA

(HORSFIELD)] IN THE CALCUTTA ENVIRONS

Recent notes on the Whistling Teal [Dendrocygna javanica

(Horsfield)] around Calcutta remind me of the large numbers that it

was possible to see in every village pond of any size when I was a

student at Shantiniketan and at Calcutta (1914-1924). On the larger

nieces of water, flocks of a couple of hundred birds were not un-

common and [I must admit that we used to shoot them all the year

round. The breeding season must have been about the middle of the

rainy season, for from the end of July onwards I saw young ducklings

through August to November. I never saw a nest on water and

thought that the favourite place was the Screw-Pine or Keora, the

culms of which used to be found along water-courses and nullahs

all over Bengal. The plant is armed with formidable thorns. I

remember a teal flying out of the bush of a Screw-Pine which I

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Spe]

was trying to climb for the flowers. The teal flew in a laboured

manner for a short distance and then flopped down in a paddy field

about 50 feet from me, where it remained flapping its wings. I thought

it was an injured bird and the prospect of teal curry prompted me

towards it. When I got within a few feet, it rose in laboured flight

and flying a short distance flopped down again. I tried to catch

it again and it behaved similarly taking me further and further away

from the Screw-Pine. It was after a considerable time that it dawned

upon me that the teal was drawing me away and the nest was

probably in the bush. However by now we had moved far away and

it was time to go back to Shantiniketan.

On another occasion | saw from the bank of a small pond a

Whistling Teal settle on the open water. From its back 5 or 6

ducklings tumbled into the water after the parent settled.

The birds from the zoo pass over where I stay and large flights

may be seen atid heard during the cold weather. From early April

their numbers uwppear to diminish, and only small flights of 5 or 10

are seen. Except for the first record of one pair nesting in the

rhinoceros paddock (H. A. Fooks; J. Bombay. nat. Hist. Soc. 1966, 63:

200) these birds do not nest in the Zoo Gardens, and their dispersal

during the breeding season is no doubt responsible for the change

in numbers. |

10, PARK MANSION,

CALCUTTA-6, | B. BASU

June 1, 1967.

10. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF THE FULVOUSBREASTED

WOODPECKER DENDROCOPOS MACEI (VIEILLOT)

IN SIKKIM

Dr. Salim Ali in THE BIRDS OF SIKKIM says (p. 97) “The Fulvous-

breasted Woodpecker Dendrocopos macei macei (Vieillot), was not

met with in Sikkim by the Survey, and apparently neither by

Schafer. According to Stevens it occurs in the Rungbong Valley up

to c. 3500 ft., and has been obtained in the Teesta Valley at c. 2400 ft.’

This note is to record that there is a female Dendrocopos macei

(Vieillot) collected by Dr. B. Biswas near Pechreck, 6 km. east of

Dentam, Kalet Valley, Sikkim (c. 140@ m.), on 1 Jan. 1953 in the

Zoological Survey of India Reserve Collection (Coll. No. BSM. 116).

560 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Measurements of the specimen are as follows:

Wing 112 mm., Tail 62 mm., Bill (from skull joint) 25-5 mm.

BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY,

HORNBILL HOUSE, P. V. GEORGE!

Bombay, 1-BR,

May 11, 1965.

REFERENCE

Aut, SALIM. (1962): The Birds of

Sikkim. Oxford University Press.

11. THE JUNGLE CROW, CORVUS MACRORHYNCHOS

WAGLER, A DETERMINATE LAYER

During the past couple of years, I have conducted a number of

experiments at Poona, in order to ascertain whether or not Corvus

macrorhynchos Wagler is a determinate layer.

In five nests I added 4 eggs (5 being ihe largest normal number) each

after the first egg was laid. In three of these nests, 3 eggs were laid

at intervals of twenty-four hours in spite of the addition; in one 2

eggs, and. in the fifth nest 4.

In seven nests the first two eggs laid were removed. In four of

these nests 2 more eggs were laid, in two 1 more, and in the last

nest 3 more (2 to 5 being the normal clutch).

A clutch of four artificial eggs when placed in a freshly

completed empty nest was accepted by the apparently surprised

female, who, however, started sitting on it and added to the dummy

clutch its own full clutch of four eggs, commencing from the next day.

These experiments conclusively prove that the Jungle Crow neither

lays additional eggs to complete a clutch if a part of it is removed

nor stops laying if more eggs are added to the incomplete clutch.

It is therefore a determinate layer contrary to my previous assumption

(Lamba, 1965 : 428).

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

WESTERN REGIONAL STATION, B. S. LAMBA

1182/2, F. C. Roap, | |

POONA-5,

July 11, 1967.

1 Present Address : Curator of Birds, Iraq Natural History Museum, Waziriya,

Baghdad, Iraq.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 561

REFERENCE

LAMBA, B. S. (1965): Nidification of Wagler. J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 62:

some Common Indian birds—2. The 425-433.

Jungle Crow, Corvus macrorhynchos

12. THE BROWN DIPPER (CINCLUS PALLASSI)

AS A HOST OF A CUCKOO (CUC ULUS SP.)

On 16 May at Kokernag Springs in the Bringhi Valley, Kashmir,

I saw a Brown Dipper (Cinclus pallassi) in flight being followed by

a cuckoo (Cuculus sp.). They both then alighted on a rock, and the

dipper was seen diving, coming up and feeding the cuckoo. The

identity of the cuckoo could not be definitely determined, due to

the fact that it was juvenile, but a yellow bill was noted.

The only previous record I could trace of a dipper fostering a

cuckoo was that of Stuart Baker (1942, CUCKOO PROBLEMS: 186), who

had taken an egg of the Khasia Hills Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus bakeri)

from the nest of a Brown Dipper of a different race to that found

in Kashmir.

A record of another bird of the torrents being parasitized by a

cuckoo is that of Mr. W. T. Loke (J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 50:

658) who recorded and published a photograph of the Plumbeous

Redstart (Rhyacornis {. fuliginosus) feeding a Cuckoo (Cuculus canorus)

at Sonamarg, Kashmir.

33; Pant HiLr,

BANDRA, RAUF ALI

BomsBay 50-AS,

May 24, 1967.

13. NOTES ON THE AGAMID LIZARD PTYCTOLAEMUS

GULARIS (PETERS) FROM KHASI HILLS, ASSAM

(With a photograph)

As stated by Wall (1907) Ptyctolaemus gularis is not uncommon

in the Shillong area. An olive-brown lizard it is easily distinguished

by the three longitudinal folds on each side of the middle of the

throat, which curve and converge backwards, forming a U-shaped

figure, deep blue in life and blackish in preserved specimens. There

562 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

are five broad transverse bands on the body and a number of them

on the head and on the tail. In life there is a green dorso-lateral

band in the anterior portion of the body (Photo). The lateral surface

of the anterior half of the body below the green band is marked

with a net work of dark brown, enclosing oval or elliptical green patches.

a age

Fae sa : :

emus gularis (Peters)

Ptyctola

These are arboreal lizards living in urban areas as well as in the

forest. The coloration is cryptic, particularly when on pine trunks.

They are diurnal and are often seen basking in the sun. When

approached they usually try to hide, seldom running away but often

jump from the tree remaining motionless thereafter, and thus are

easily caught. ;

When excited they distend their gular pouch which is expanded

vertically. In the normal condition the pouch is folded back when

the skin gives rise to the three longitudinal lines on each side of the

throat, characteristic of the species. This species is available in

Shillong and its adjacent areas from the end of March to the

beginning of November when it hibernates for the cold season. In

December 1964, I obtained one specimen under earth in a forest on

the bank of the Myntru River while working out a dead tree trunk >

for arthropods and molluscs.

Food and feeding habits. The lizard feeds on insects, spiders and

other soil arthropods for which they often come down to the ground.

Examination of faecal matter and stomach contents revealed examples

of different insect orders including Lepidoptera, Diptera, Orthoptera

and a few Hemiptera. When the lizard was fed in the laboratory

with butterflies, (Pieris sp.) a large number of undigested scales were

en Sen oe

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 563

observed; chitinous remains of head, legs, mouth parts, and wings

were also noticed. The faecal matter, consists exclusively of chitinous

remnants of insects, spiders and other arthropods.

Breeding season. From the middle of May they are seen in pairs.

This is an Oviparous species and lays 14 to 15 eggs. From a gravid

female fifteen eggs at different developmental stages were collected;

five of these eggs were well developed and almost equal in size,

the rest were successively smaller. They are whitish in colour and

elongated and measure 12°50 mm, in iength and 7:00 mm. in width.

Very young specimens are seen from the end of August.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

I am grateful to Dr. B. K. Tikader, Officer-in-Charge, Eastern

Regional Station, Zoological Survey of India, for constant encourage-

ment and facilities for work.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

EASTERN REGIONAL STATION, S. BISWAS

SHILLONG-4, ASSAM,

June 12, 1967.

REFERENCE

WALL, F. A. (1907) : Remarks on the

Agamid lizard Ptyctolaemus — gularis.

J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 18 : 505.

14. MATING AND OTHER OBSERVATIONS ON

SEA SNAKES IN CAPTIVITY

(With a plate)

Death posture of a sea snake has, so far, not been recorded;

probably the non-availability of a specimen at death, either from the

natural environment or in captivity has precluded such an observation.

At the Taraporevala Aquarium, Bombay, sea snakes (mainly Hydrophis

cyanocinctus) have been kept on display for over 15 years. In nature,

they are known to feed on marine eels (Sodonophis boro) and

Trypauchen vagina, this having been ascertained by examining the

stomach contents. In captivity. however, they rarely accept food, and

564. JOURNAL, BOMRAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY: Vol. 64 -(3)

starvation leads to their death within a few months of their capture.

Lying dead in their tank, they are invariably found curled up on

the bottom like a watchspring, with the head near the centre of the

coils (plate, c). 3

Whether the same posture is assumed in nature is not known,

since their behaviour in captivity may not be the same as that in

nature. Thus, it has been observed that sea snakes, when basking

on the sea surface, float with their whole body horizontal. In the

display tanks, however, two positions are normally seen. In one, the

anterior half of the body is on the floor, and the posterior half

remains rigidly vertical, with the tail looped in the shape of a she-

pherd’s crook (plate, a). Or the head and some part of the body

may skim the surface, and the rest of the body hang limply down

(plate, b).

Copulation in sea snakes has been reported only once, to our

knowledge (1926: Poyntz, A. R., J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 31: 1038-

1039), where too, the species has not been mentioned. On the 19th

November, 1966, we had the opportunity to see a pair of sea snakes,

Enhydrina_ schistosa, copulating in one of the display tanks at the

Aquarium. The male had twisted the hind portion of its body

tightly around that of the female, making two and a half turns of

its body in tight coils around the female. The tails as well as the

anterior portion of the body were quite separate. The region around

the vent in the female had become quite turgid, and fishes (Caranm

sp.) kept in the tank frequently nibbled at the skin in this region.

This, however, did not disturb the snakes in the least, which lay on

the bottom of the tank in the position indicated in the sketch

(plate, d). From time to time both the snakes simultaneously rose

slowly up to the surface of the water for a breath of air. Copulation

was first observed at 12.50 p.m., and the snakes were seen to have

separated by 7.30 p.m. the same day.

TARAPOREVALA MARINE BIOLOGICAL B. F. CHHAPGAR

STATION, H,. G. KEWALRAMANI

BOMBAY,

July 6, 1967.

J. BomBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Chhapgar: Sea snakes

Resting and other habits of sea snakes

(a) Position of sea snake resting on bottom of display tank ; the tail is normally

looped over more than in the photograph, being shaped like an interrogation mark ;

(b) Position of sea snake resting at the water surface of display tank ; (c) Position of

sea snake on death ; (d) Position of mating sea snakes.

2 Z ‘

a ‘e s iD < .

= 2 : + ‘i » i <= a : f = . “s

; 2 ; ; : E =

~ mo a . >

5 : ‘ :

. i = 4

‘ N : ; .

r ;

: : = =

5 i u i *:

- ~~ gs 2 . :

2 : aS \

, 2 Sa ee ; : = .

2 > { = 3 e ‘ .

= ves ie :

~ a = Bs = ra

an B =

: a =

> ~ 4 Ln }

: : é :

. xf 3 =

; H ; 2

3 Z = .

= ae

z. &

\ .

= n =" NY

rs )

% ; F

% { i:

i : :

“ = : ; :

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 565

15. THE STATUS OF THE CEYLON FROG

RHACOPHORUS NASUTUS (GUNTHER)

(With a map)

The description of Rhacophorus nasutus was based on a single,

adult female specimen whose origin was stated as south Ceylon. In

1871 a second specimen, also an adult female without precise locality

data was discovered. Both these specimens were deposited in the

collection of the British Museum. From 1868, until Wolf (1936)

undertook his revision of the genus Rhacophorus, R. nasutlis was

considered a valid species. Wolf, without any conclusive reasons

regarded R. nasutus as a variant of R. eques Gunther, and tentatively

placed it within the synonymy of the latter. De Silva (1955) apparently

accepted Wolf’s demotion of R. nasutus, as he makes no mention of

the species in his paper. In 1957 Kirtisinghe reduced eques to sub-

specific rank and included nasutus in the synonymy of his R. cruciger

eques. Although the type and one other example of nasutus were

available to Kirtisinghe he apparently believed that the points of

difference between nasutus and egues were too insignificant to justify

nasutus as a distinct form. As he probably had no evidence of the

ecology nor of the geographical distribution of nasutus, it is perhaps

understandable that he hesitated to resurrect nasutus. His description

of eques, however, takes no account of the features or coloration

of nasutus.

Recently (1964, 1965, 1967) the author and Mr, V. Athukorale

obtained eight adult males from the lower Matale area and from

the Kanneliya forest area, both localities within an _ ecological

zone different to that within which eques is known to occur. A

comparison with the British Museum material of nasutus and eques

leaves no doubt as to the distinctiveness of R. nasutus which can be

readily distinguished from egues on colour pattern, proportions and

snout shape.

Both species seem to inhabit the wet zone of Ceyion which was

defined by Cooray (1948) as having an effective rainfall through all

months of the year and over 90 inches annually.

The zone of R. c. eques is confined to the Central Hills at an

elevation of over 2,500 feet, and all records, i.e., Elkaduwa, Watte-

gama, Lindulla, De Silva (1955); Nuwara Eliya, Uda Pusellava,

Diyatalawa, Haggalla, and Nau Oya, Kirtisinghe (1957); are at

elevations of over 3,000 feet. Haley (1891) records it from Kandy,

566 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

RHACOPHORUS. NASUTUS @

RHACOPHORUS. C.EQUES &

R.C.EQUES HALEY i898} Aa

HILL ZONE 1900 ~ 3000 Fr, ae

HILL ZONE 3000 - 8°00 Fy, ces

BOUNDARY OF WET ZONE maa

Map showing the recorded distribution of RK. nasutus and K.-c. eques

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 567

though Kandy does lie within the Central Hills and possibility of a

straggler from the surrounding hills does exist, the low elevation of

‘this area 1000 feet, above m.s.l. leaves this record open to doubt.

The specimens examined indicate that R. nasutus lives at a lower

level than R. c. eques, its range seems to be in the western and

southern part of the low wet hills of the second/third peneplin which

surround the central hill zone and has so far been recorded from

elevations below 1,500 feet.

Rhacophorus nasutus (Gunther)

Polypedates nasutus Gunther 1868, p. 486, p. 39, fig. 2.

Rhacophorus nasutus Boulenger 1882, p. 85 and 1890, p. 476.

Material examined: Adult 9° Holotype, 68°5-13:16; 1947-2:8-61 from

the south of Ceylon; Adult @ B. M. 71-12:1437 from the south of

Ceylon; Eight adult oo from Lower Matale and Kanneliya Forests.

Ceylon.

Diagnosis

Small to medium sized frogs similar to R. eques both in size

and habits, but differing from this species by possessing a more

elongate snout terminating in a pointed dermal flap. The ratio of

snout to inter-orbital distance ranging from 1-84 to 1:90 while it is

1:18 to 1:24 in R. eques. The pigmentation under the throat in

both males and females of R. nasutus form a regular pattern which

is absent in eques.

Description

Habit slender, snout long and narrow, terminating in a very sharp

point formed by a dermal flap similar to the ‘spurs’ on its heels.

Nares open laterally, their distance from the tip of the snout about

half their distance from the anterior border of the eye. Canthus

rostralis curved, loreal region oblique, the snout in profile projects

well beyond the lower jaw. The distance from the tip of the snout

to the anterior border of the eye is about twice the width of the

eyelid. The tympanum is half the distance from the nares to

anterior border of the eye. Choanae elliptical, vomerine teeth never

projecting beyond the level of the posterior border of choanae.

Tibio-tarsal articulation of the adpressed hind iimb reaches the tip

of the snout or between nostril and snout tip.

Fingers not webbed, disks of the fingers are large, diameter of

disks of the 3rd finger equal to distance from tip of snout to nares.

568 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

The toes are about half webbed. The free phalanges on each toe

being as follows :—

1st 2nd 3rd 4th 5th

Int Ext Int Ext Int Ext

1; 2 Eee 13 De ae 13

The heel bears a dermal flap which is pink to red in life, a

small inner metatarsal tubercle is present and is equal in size to the

subarticular tubercle under the first toe.

Skin smooth above with a narrow glandular fold which runs from

behind the eye, above the tympanum to the shoulder. Ventrally the

skin is smooth on the throat but finely granular on the belly. The

lower sides of the thighs bear large whitish tubercles, those below

the anus, usually a series of four or five, being the largest.

The ground colour in life varies from an olive-green to grey

above broken by a band of brown sometimes edged with pink which

passes from the tip of the snout, bifurcates over the snout, above

the eyes passes over each eyelid ico run parallel to each other along

the body. A fine, dark, median line is usually present between these

bands. A chocolate black band bordered above by the dorso-lateral

fold runs from tympanum to the flanks, below this dark band there

is a prominent white band which runs from below the eye to the

groin; occasionally a longitudinal row of small dark spots is present

above the dorso-lateral fold. Lower parts a uniform yellow; throat

pattern comprising of median streak or twin lines which usually

extend from the edge of the lip to the thoracic region; on each side

of this dark streak a long series of ocelli or streaks. Lower lips

dark. On ventral surface close to the axillae a dark ova! blotch or

dark streak.

Secondary Sex Characters

All males possess a nuptiai pad at the base of the first finger

which is finely pigmented, and an internal vocal sac which opens

into the floor of the mouth by a pair of openings at the angles of

the jaws. The body size of the males vary from 41-47 mm., while

the female specimens are 57-60 mm. This may indicate a sex

difference in body size. But more female specimens would be needed

to confirm this.

Comparison

In addition to the material of Rhacophorus cruciger eques in the

British Museum of Natural History, private collections of the author

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 569

and of Mr. V. Athukorale were examined to ascertain the difference

between eques and nasutus. In all the specimens of eques the inter-

orbital distance was more than half the length of the snout and the

dermal flap at the end of the snout was lacking. The ratio of

the length of the snout to snout-vent distance in all specimens of

R. nasutus was 41 to 45 while in R. c. eques it was 5:4 to 6:0.

The choanae in eques is rounded with the vomerine teeth usually

projecting beyond the level of the posterior borders of choanae while

in nasutus the choanae are elliptical and the vomerine teeth never

project beyond the level of the posterior borders of the choanae.

The pigmentation on the throat of masutus which runs into a constant

pattern is never present in eques. In eques if pigment is present at

all it is in the form of a fine speckling on the throat or as a dark

thoracic streak below the corocid humeral region. Another salient

feature is the markings on the back which are remarkably constant in

both species, R. c. eques possessing a dark hour-glass shaped marking

which commences at the level of the eyes to terminate at the sacral

region, in contrast to the parallel lines of nasutus. The tibio-tarsal

articulation of the adpressed hind limb which reaches to the naris

or between the nares in nasutus reaches to the eye or only barely

between the eye and the nares in egues.

Habits and Habitat

All the specimens of R. nasutus were collected on bamboo,

Ochlandra stindula, which is the characteristic vegetation of this zone,

Leiter (1948). They favour dark forests with thick undergrowth and

are found at a height of about eight to ten feet from the ground.

All the male specimens collected were silent and no call has been

recorded yet.

ACKNOWL EDGEMENTS

I am deeply grateful to Miss A. G. C. Grandison of the British

Museum for her helpful suggestions and constructive criticism of this

paper and to Mr. V. Athukorale for his assistance in the field and

for the loan of his collection.

18, DON CAROLTS ROAD,

JAWATTE, F. R. SENANAYAKE

COLOMBO-5,

CEYLON,

June 29, 1967.

570

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

REFERENCES

Cooray, P. G. (1948) : Effective rain-

fall and moisture zones in Ceylon. Bull.

Ceylon. Geog. Soc. 3: 39-42.

De Sitva, P. H. D. H. (1955): A list

of the Amphibia recorded from Ceylon

with a report on the amphibia in the

Colombo Museum. Spolia Zeylanica

929 FSD kk Daye

GUNTHER, A. (1868): First account

of tailless Batrachia added to the collec-

tion of the British Museum. Proc. Zool.

Soc. London pp. 478-490.

Ha.ey, A. (1891): First report on the

collection of Batrachia in the Colombo

Museum, Colombo. |

KIRTISINGHE. P. (1957): The Amphi-

bia of Ceylon Colombo, Ceylon.

LeirerR, N. (1948); Geographical

studies of the Nitre cave district. Bull.

Ceylon. Geog. Soc. 3: 138-142.

WOLF, S. (1936): Revision der Unter-

gattung Rhacophorus. Bull. Raffles

Museum 12 : 137-217.

16. ON A RECORD OF THE BLENNIID FISH CRUNATUS

DEALMFIDA (SMITH) FROM INDIAN WATERS

(With a photograph)

Five male and three female specimens of Crunatus dealmeida

(Smith) were noted in a collection of fish from the east coast of India

made by Mr. N. V. Subba Rao of the Zoological Survey of India

between November-December 1964. The species was collected at

Upputeru, a backwater canal near Nizampatnam (15° 54’ N., 80° 43’ E.),

3 km. from the coast. This is the first record of C. dealmeida

from the Indian seas; the species being known so far only from

South Africa.

Sexual dimorphism is evident. The female can be distinguished

by the greater length of the caudal and the pelvic fins in relation to

standard length and the greater width of the body. A dark mark on

the last three dorsal rays further distinguishes the males. Detailed

descriptions of the male and the female are given below.

Crunatus dealmeida (Smith)

1949. Omobranchus dealmeida Smith, Ann. Mag. Nat. Hist. (12), 2, p. 104

(Type locality : from a rock-pool, Ponte Maone, Delagoa Bay).

1959. Crunatus dealmeida Smith, Ichthyol. Bull. Rhodes Univ. 14, p. 234, pl.

19, A. aM,

1965. Omobranchus dealmeida Smith, The Sea fishes of S. Africa, Sth ed., p. 507

pl. 76, p. 344.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 571

Male -

Material: 5 of of; 34:0-56:0 mm. in total length; 14-12-1964.

Upputeru Canal, Nizampatnam. Coll. : N. V. Subba Rao.

a“

Fig. 1. Crunatus dealmeida (Smith) male 53 mm. in total length.

Fig. 2. Crunatus dealmeida (Smith) female 51 mm. in total! length.

Description. DXi 225. A. 1-22-23, °P.. 13, Vf 2:..C. 16.

Height of body 7:2 (6:0-7-8) in total length, 6-1 (5-4-6-7) in standard

length. Head length 4-8 (4-5-5:3) in total length, 4-1 (4-0-4-3) in

standard length. Eye 1-3 (1:2-1:3) in snout, 1-9 (1-5-2-0) in post-

orbital part, 3:5 (3-3-3-8) in head length. Snout sloping, 2:9 (2°5-

3-0) in head length. Interorbital space concave, 4-6 (4:2-5-0) in head

length. The width of the body 1-9 (1-5-2:2) in height of the body,

11-0 (8-0-13-1) in standard length. Mouth small and inferior. Lips

with flaps. 18 teeth in each jaw, lower canines 2 times upper.

Gill membranes broadly united with isthmus. Lower edge of gill

Opening opposite to the upper edge of pectoral base. Branchiostegals

eight. Gill rakers 9-10 in the lower arch. Dorsal and anal free from

caudal, last dorsal and anal rays joined to the caudal penduncle.

Dorsal originates slightly in advance of gill opening. Dorsal spines

flexible, lower than soft rays. Anal lower than dorsal. Pectoral

rounded, subequal, 1:2 (1:0-1-4) to pelvics, 1-3 (1-2-1-4) in head length.

572 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Pelvics equal to head, 4:4 (42-46) in standard length; two rays

joined at the basal part, the inner ray longer reaching the vent.

Caudal truncate, upper and lower rays produced, 44 (4:1-4-6) in

standard length. Lateral line consists of 3 tubes in front.

Colour in alcohol: Fins hyaline. Body uniform reddish-

brown. An oval dark patch on the last three dorsal rays.

Female

Material: 3 299; 460-510 mm. in total length; 14-12-1964,

Upputeru Canal, Nizampatnam. Coll.: N. V. Subba Rao.

Description: 1)... XUVF-R2- A. Wa 22 PP. 133 NO 1: ei:

Height of the body 6:7 (6:4-7-2) in total length, 5-8 (5-5-6-2) in standard

length. Head length 4-8 (4-6-4-9) in total length, 4:2 (4-0-4-4) in standard

length. The body width 1-6 (1:4-1-7) in height of the body, 9-2 (8-8-

9-8) in standard length. Eye 1:3 (1:2-1:3) in snout, 1-9 (1:8-2-0) in

postorbital part, 3-4 (3-3-3-5) in head length. Snout sloping, 2:5 (2-5-

2°6) in head length. Interorbital space concave, 44 (4-0-5-0) in head

length. Pectoral rounded nearly equal 1-0 (1-:0-1-1) to pelvics, 1-3 (1:3-

1-4) in head length. Pelvics shorter than head, the inner ray not

reaching the vent, 5:0 (4:9-5-2) in standard length. Caudal truncate,

upper and lower rays not produced, 5:0 (4:9-5-1) in standard length.

Lateral line consists of 2-3 tubes in front. Colour in alcohol as

in male without an oval dark patch on the last three dorsal rays.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am grateful to Dr. A. G. K. Menon for going through the

manuscript and to Dr. M. Babu Rao of the Zoological Survey of India,

for offering valuable suggestions during the preparation of this paper.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA,

CALCUTTA, K. V. RAMA RAO

April 13, 1967.

17. MULLETS ON ROD AND LINE IN CHILKA LAKE

Rod and line fishing is becoming popular in Chilka Lake in

recent years. Anglers, other than professional fishermen, take to this

in autumn and winter months. The angling is not sport-motivated,

but a means to add to their rations in addition to getting some hard

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 573

cash. A number of boats with men comfortably seated with rod

and line take position in a line along the western shores of the lake

between Borodi and Jattia and also dot the lake and the outer channel.

Grey ‘mullets are notoriously warty and infinitely cautious and

have a reputation of nosing one’s ‘rag’ or other bait and yet going

unhooked. But in Chilka Lake this is not true of Liza macrolepis

known locally as Dangla. The angler uses a thin bamboo rod of

3-5 metres, a line (of nylon gut) of 5 metres, a float, a light sinker

and round bent hook of numbers 14/15 and 18/19. His bait is

green algae, chiefly of Spirceyra. In addition he liberally mixes

this algae with mud and splashes it in an arc. Rod and line fishing

for mullet is similar to that described for Crenidens crenidens'. 'The algal

bait appears to be very attractive for Dangla and they are caught in large

numbers. As soon as the fish is hooked. the angler deftly drags

it towards the boat and keeping the fish just under water hauls it

out with a hand net. During our observations in 1964 we found

Dangla in the size range 308-482 mm. occurring in rod and line

catches in September and Ociober (Table). Sizes in the range 360-

439 mm. predominate in caiches. Weights range from 263-923 gm,

TABLE

Sizes OF L. macrolepis OCCURRING IN ROD AND LINE CATCHES

Average Wt. (calculated) of fish

Length (mm.) Frequency (nos.) under each length (gm.)

300-319 2) 263

320-339 4 312

340-359 9 367

360-379 21 427

380-399 14 494

400-419 iz 566

420-439 23 646

440-459 11 WD

460-479 i 824

480-499 1 923

Observations made in Chilka Lake indicate that L. macrolepis

' favours algae and this item takes a predominant place in its natural

diet unlike Mugil cephalus which prefers decaying organic matter.

This perhaps explains why L.. macrojepis is attracted to algal bait

+ Natarajan, A. V. & Shah, K. L. (1963): Anewelement in the commercial

fishery of Chilka Lake. Sci. and Cult. 29; 513-514.

574. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL AIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

while M. cephalus shuns it though both of them abound in the lake in

autumn/winter months when they form a good fishery.

CENTRAL INLAND FISHERIES

RESEARCH INSTITUTE, A. V. NATARAJAN

BARRACKPORE, | B. K. BANERJI

April 3, 1967.

18. THE COCONUT CRAB BIRGUS LATRO (L.)

(CRUSTACEA: PAGURIDAE) IN THE GREAT

NICOBAR ISLAND

(With a photograph and four text-figures)

During the expedition to Great Nicobar Island in February-May

1966, one of us (A.D.) had the opportunity to collect, and observe

the habits of the well-known Coconut or Robber Crab [Birgus

latro (L.)], which appeared to be common at Galathea Bay in this

island. A number of berried females were also obtained and attempts

to hatch the eggs in the camp laboratory were partially successful.

The present note is based on the observations on, and collection of,

Bireus latro from the Great Nicobar Island.

MATERIAL

In addition to the specimens dissected in the camp laboratory,

the following preserved specimens were brought back to Calcutta for

confirming the identification. Measurements are given in millimetres.

1. One female with eggs from Stn. No. 6, Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar Island.

Collection No. 469. Date 20-3-1966.

Carapace (Cephalothorax) length—115 (Cephalic region 62, Thoracic region

53).

Carapace breadth—124.

2. One female from Stn. No. 7, on way to Pygmalion Point from Galathea

Bay, Great Nicobar Island. Collection No. 531. Date 22-3-1966.

Carapace (Cephalothorax) length—138 (Cephalic region 71, Thoracic region

67).

Carapace breadth—144.

3. One female with eggs from Stn. No. 6, Galathea Bay, Great Nicobar Island.

Collection No. 628. Date 25-3-1966.

Carapace (Cephalothorax) length—99.5 (Cephalic region 53.5, Thoracic

region 46.0). “3

Carapace breadth—110.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES BYR)

Although the Zoological Survey of India party made extensive

survey of the coastal areas of the island and made numerous

traverses in the interior, the coconut crabs were found only at

Galathea Bay. In the opinion of the coastal Niccbarese this crab

occurs at Galathea Bay only.

DISTRIBUTION

The general distribution of B. latre has been discussed in detail

by Reyne (1939). Its distribution in New Guinea has been given by

Holthuis (1959, 1963} and in Dutch Fast Indies by Reyne (1938). In

the Indian Ocean north of the equator, it is represented only on the

South Sentinel Island, Andamans (Alcock 1905) and on the Nicobar

Islands (Hume 1874; Alcock 1992, 1905; Man 1932).

HABITAT

B. latro is mainly nocturnal in habit and very shy. They were

never seen during the day. In Galathea Bay, they were observed

under fallen trees and between roots of trees at night, clinging to

the roots of Pandanus and Barrinetonia trees, arecanut and coconut

palms and also in burrows and holes among coral rocks well above

high tide mark where the forest extended up to the supralittoral

fringe region.

HABITS

According to coastal Nicobarese of Galathea Bay region, the crabs

are crepuscular and nocturnal hiding during the day except on very

cloudy and rainy days. They are said to stay in their burrows even

in moonlit nights and seem to be active only in total darkness. All

the specimens collected by the Z.S.1. party were obtained after 7 p.m.

Food habits. The food habits of Rirgus were studied by (i)

direct observation, (ii) examination of stomach contents of newly

caught animals, (ili) examination of food remains in places where

the crab lives, and (iv) feeding experiments.

(i) Direct observation: Direct observation on the food habits is very

difficult because of the nocturnal habits and shy nature of these

animals. As indicated by Reyne (1939), very few observations have

been made by naturalists under these conditions. These giant crabs

were seen on several occasions clinging to partially eaten Pandanus,

576 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Barringtonia and arecanut fruits and on two occasions actually eating

the fruits. In one instance a female crab was eating dead Ocypodid

crabs which occur abundantly on the island. Although there are

many previous records of this giant pagurid opening coconuts and

eating them, attempts on the presenti occasion to confirm this habit

were not successful. ‘The coastal Nicobarese do not think that these

crabs eat coconuts at all. In their opinion the damage to the coco-

nuts has been wrongly attributed to these crabs, while the actual

culprits are rats.

(iit) Examination of stomach contents: Stomachs of newly caught

animals contained Burrinetonia, Pandanus and arecanut fruits which

appear to form a major source of food for tne crabs. In one instance

partially digested remains of a crab were also noticed.

(iii) Examination of food remains: ‘The fibres of arecanut husk,

partially eaten fruits of Barringtonia and Pandanus stacked at the

entrance of numerous holes where these crabs live appear to indicate

that these crabs eat Barringtonia and Pandanus fruits and arecanuts.

In one instance the fibres of coconut husk also was observed at the

entrance of a crab hole.

(iv) Feeding experiments: In captivity the crabs accepted cooked

rice, chapathis, bananas and also coconut kernel. As pointed out

by Reyne (1939) this, however, is no certain proof that coconut is

also eaten under natural conditions.

Climbing habits. The ability of coconut crabs to climb coco-

nut palms was determined as follows :—

A specimen obtained on March 19, 1966 at 10:30 p.m. was tied

to a string and left at the base of a coconut palm. It backed up

the palm when the lights were put off. In climbing the crab

supported its body with the fourth pair of walking legs clinging to

the trunk by means of its long and sharply pointed second and

third pair of walking legs. It had reached the top by 2 a.m. and

by 3 a.m. had nipped off the string by which it was tied. The

crab stayed on the top of the palm throughout the next day without much

apparent activity. At 7 p.m. on 20th, it let itself fall down to the

ground, and hurried to the sea-shore where it hid itself underneath

a boulder in the supralittoral fringe region. Examination of the

crown of the palm where the crab had stayed revealed that it had

cut away the tender shoots and had probably eaten them. None of

the coconuts were damaged,

—

MISCELLA Ve US NOTES 317

On 22 March 1966, a coconut crab was obtained at 7.30 p.m.

It was raining and had become very dark by this time. The crab

was tied to a string and was left at the base of another coconut

palm at 8 p.m. It stayed at the base for nearly an hour and then

started climbing upwards and by 8.30 p.m. had climbed 4 metres.

Seeing an obstacie (kept there previously), it moved laterally to

avoid it and resumed its climb reaching the top by i1.45 p.m. and

by 3 a.m. it had cut away the string by which it was tied. At

8 am. on 23rd it jumped down apparently without injury. As this

coconut palm was at the high tide mark with its trunk bending towards

the sea the crab jumped down into water in the inshore region, swam

and then hid itself in the crevices of corals.

Two specimens of Birgus (a male and a female) were tied and

left at the base of a coconut palm on 23 March at 8 p.m. Both

crabs climbed the palm (photograph) and reached its top by 10 p.m.

By 11 p.m. one crab had snapped the string and by midnight the

Birgus latro climbing palm

other one had also freed itself. These crabs stayed on top of the

palm till 1 p.m. the next day. ‘The berried female specimen jumped

from the palm into the inshore area and was caught and kept on

a meshed tray over a bowl filled with sea-water. After sometime

it was observed that numerous zoeae were released into the water.

The male crab remained on top of the palm and was retrieved the

following day.

In none of the observations made did the crabs attempt to break

open coconuts and eat them and only the tender shoots of coconut

palm were damaged.

578 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Other observations :

In several experiments where specimens of Birgus and coconuts

were together in dark chambers the crabs did not touch the coconuts.

However when they were offered the kernel of coconut they readily

ate them.

On March 23, 1966 a female Birgus caught hold of the nose of

a pig which was being reared by the coastal Nicobarese. The

squealing of the pig attracted our attention and the crab was caught.

It is quite probable that the pig had attempted to eat the robber

crab and that the crab had caught hold of its nose in self protection.

It is not out of place to mention here Holthuis’s remark (Holthuis

1959) based on the information of Mr. Rappard on Birgus of Podena

and Kumamta Islands, that “Birgus had disappeared from that island

presumably as the result of the installation of a pig farm there; the

robber crabs, which had been plentiful before, had disappeared

entirely after the introduction of the pigs’.

BREEDING HaBIrs

Eges and hatching-stage larvae:

As pointed out earlier a berried female specimen was kept on a

meshed tray over a bowl filled with sea-water. The eggs are borne

in grape-like bunches (Fig. 1) between the biramous limbs of second

third and fourth abdominal segments. The details of this attachment

to the long hairs of the biramous limbs have been described in detail

by Borradaile (1900). These eggs are ellipsoidal in shape (Fig. 2)

and measure 1-5 mm. in length and 0:92 mm. in breadth in live

condition. :

The female releases the eggs just before hatching and zoea larvae

emerge within a few minutes. The zoea larva (Figs. 3 & 4) has a

total length of 4:1 mm. and resembles the pagurine zoea as described

by Borradaile (1900) and Harms (1932). Further developmental

stages could not be studied.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The authors are grateful to: the Director, Zoological Survey of

India, for facilities to undertake this work; to Dr. K. K. Tiwari and

Shri A. S. Rajagopal of the Zoological Survey of India, who were

kind enough to read through the manuscript and offer helpful

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 579

suggestions; to Shri C. Karunakaran, Superintending Geologist, Geo-

logical Survey of India, leader of the Expedition, for helpful suggestions

Fig. 1. Bunch of eggs of Birgus latro (L.) showing (A) empty cases after the

larvae have emerged out and (B) eggs just before hatching ; Fig. 2. Lateral view of

egg just before hatching; Fig. 3. Zoea larva—lateral view ; Fig. 4. Zoea larva—

dorsal view.

and advice in the field which are gratefully acknowledged. Thanks

are also due to the various members of ZSI party for helping in

the collections and observations.

ZOOLOGICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, A. DANIEL

CALCUTTA, V. K. PREM-KUMAR

July 18, 1967.

580

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

REFERENCES

Aucock, A. (1902): A naturalist in

Indian Seas. London.

(1905): Catalogue of the

Indian Decapod Crustacea (Pt. 2, Fasc.

1), Calcutta : 148-151.

BoRRADAILE, L. A. (1899): A noteon

the hatching-stage of the pagurine land

crabs. Proc. Zool. Soc. London : 937-938.

— (1900) : On the young of the

robber crab. In: A. Willy, Zoological

results, based on Material from New

Britain, New Guinea, Loyalty Islands

and elsewhere, Pt. 5: 585-590.

Harms, J. W. (1932): Birgus latro (L.)

also Landkrebs and seine Bezeihungen

zu den Coenobiten. Zeitschr. f. wiss.

Zoologie 140 : 167-290.

HottuHuls, L. B. (1959): Contribu-

tions to New Guinea Carcinology. III.

Decapoda, Paguridea). Nova Guinea,

new ser. 10(2) : 303-310.

(1963): Contributions to

New Guinea Carcinology. IV. Further

data on the occurrence of Birgus latro (L.)

in West New Guinea (Crustacea, Deca-

poda, Paguridea). Nova Guinea Zool.

18 : 355-359.

Hume, A. (1874): The Islands of the

Bay of Bengal. Stray Feathers 2: 91.

Man, E. H. (1932): The Nicobar

Islands. Guildford : 109.

REYNE, A. (1938) : On the distribution

of Birgus latro (L.) inthe Dutch East

Indies. Arch. Neerl. Zool. 3, Suppl.:

239-247.

— (1939): On the food habits

of the Coconut Crab [Birgus latro (L)].

with notes on its distribution. ibid.

3 : 283-320.

The occurrence of Birgus latro (L.) in

Netherlands New Guinea (Crustacea,

19. GENITALIA OF BUTTERFLIES OF THE

HESPERIID GENUS CALTORIS AS FIGURED

BY EVANS

The usual method of identifying an unknown Hesperiid is to

dissect and search among the excellent genitalia plates in Evans’

CATALOGUE OF THE HESPERIIDAE OF EUROPE, ASIA AND AUSTRALIA (1949).

The figures for Caltoris present speciai difficulties. ‘This is unfortunate

as many species can be certainly determined only by dissection.

The clasps are well drawn though the distal end of the valva

of tenuis is broader than is shown. Yet the clasps are so alike

sometimes that distinguishing is not easy. Differences in the aedeagus

are clearly shown. The gnathcs and uncus cause the trouble. They

are fused and cannot be adequately drawn. On the dorsum is a

pair of spurs (wings) of. which Evans shows the left one in his side

view. Only one side view, that of confusa, is faulty: the distal end

should resemble that of bromus but the spur (covered with hairs) has

both a short base and a conspicuous projection rather like cahira.

The gnathos presents two thin edges in the ventral view, which

become thicker half way up and usually end in expanded tips. Tips

are not expanded in cahira nor in tenuis (the two small circles in

Evans are accidents of drawing) nor in Kumara kumara (the circles

in Evans’ figure contradict his key and his dissections). In kumara

moorei (not figured in Evans) the tips of the gnathos and also those

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 581

of the spurs are long, erect and needle-like, resembling the ears of

a hare. When the gnathos presents its edges at right angles to the

bedy of the viewer, the thickening of the upper half can be figured,

as in those of cahira and tenuis, but in others Evans shows the edges

merely by a line. This is often due to the membranes lying at a

slant to the viewer and so causing him to prefer a mere line. In-

dividuals of the same species present their gnathos edges at different

angles when stuck on a card after dissection. Also these edges may

be near or far apart in individuals. The conclusion is that unless

there are special characters such as have been mentioned above—

and to these I wouid add the broad gnathos tips of bromus—the

ventral figures are not of much use for identification. Shirozu in his

BUTTERFLIES OF FORMOSA (1960) has large scale figures of some Caltoris

but instead of the ventral gives the dorsal aspect which is not of

much help. The tips seen at the back are in all cases the tips of

the spurs; in brunnea, aurociliata, cormasa, philippina they are the

terminal tips as the side view figures show, while in others they

are the tip of the base from which the spur springs and are close

to the gnathos tips. .

One problem remains, that of the figures of sirius and cahira. In

my naming of that part of the Tytler collection still in tins in the

British Museum (Natural History)—a voluntary work-—and in dis-

sections of my own collection I was never able to find anything like

them. The problem was solved when I noticed the figures of Evans

in cards in the Museum cabinets. For sirius he first drew only the

gnathos because at eye level nothing else was visible. He then drew

separately two ovals with tiny points and at the base of the ovals

two small circles. He got this by holding the structure far below

eye level and so seeing the lower part of the dorsal spurs expanding

in this way. The small circles are the tips of the top parts of the

spurs lying close behind the gnathos tips. He then joined the two

drawings together, evidently in order to give a complete diagrammatic

figure. He did this for cahira also but for no other species.

The object of this paper is to save any collector of Hesperiidae

from the perplexities experienced by myself in trying to match dis-

sections exactly with the ventral figures in Evans. Except for some

species of Pelopidas I do not remember having difficulty in other

genera, so that I made a mistaken approach to Caltoris.

5, UPPER WIMPOLE STREET,

Lonpbon, W 1, U.K., ; ons KEITH CANTLIE

May 19, 1967. | :

582. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

20. A NOTE ON THE OCCURRENCE OF PROTEROMONAS

CHAMELEONI KRISHNAMORTHY, 1963

(PROTOZOA : MASTIGOPHORA)

Proteromonas chameleoni was reported by the author' in 1963

from the large intestine and caecum of Chameleon zeylanicus in

Hyderabad. In the course of a survey of the flagellate fauna of

amphibians and reptiles of the Hyderabad region during the years

1960-63, this parasite was found to occur only in the chameleons

and was not encountered in any of the other lizards and snakes

examined. However, during the present survey of the flagellate

fauna of reptiles of the Marathwada region of Maharashtra State,

almost identical parasites were found in the rectum of the garden

lizard, Calotes versicolor. Four of these lizards, out of the dozen

examined from Nanded District and two of the numerous lizards

examined from around Aurangabad city showed the presence of this

flagellate in their rectal contents.

It is interesting to record that while this species seems to be

confined to the chameleons in the Hyderabad region, it is restricted

to the garden lizards in the Marathwada region. Neither the five

chameleons nor the numerous other species of lizards and snakes

from this region showed the presence of this organism.

The organism found in the garden lizards agrees in all essential

respects with the forms described originally from the chameleons.

The body dimensions, however, show some slight variation, as shown

in the following table:

‘Strain from Strain from

Chameleon Calotes

Length of the body .. 10°00-15.50 10°28-20°05 ju

(12°53) (14°70)

Maximum breadth of the body hgh 4:00-10.00 # 4°11-9.25 pu

. (6°73) (5°83)

Length of the nucleus At 1:00-3.00 # 1°54-2.57 wu

AOD) a (1°99)

Breadth of the nucleus = 1°50-3.50 1°54-3.09

| (2°40) (2°20)

Length of the short flagellum beta 19-00-36°50 fu 16°97-35°99 jo

| (27:99) (28°69)

Length of the long flagellum ais 26°50-54°50 fu 32:90-47°81 ju

(42°33) (39°10)

oe Krishnamurthy, R. (1963): On a new species of Proteromonas from the

Chameleon. J. Biol. Sci. Bombay 6 (1): 14-18.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES e 583.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The work was carried out under the guidance of Dr. S. S. Qadri,

Reader in Zoology, Osmania University, Hyderabad, to whom the

author is indebted for his encouragement and advice. The author

is grateful to Dr. S. Mehdi Ali, Professor of Zoology, Marathwada

University, Aurangabad for providing the laboratory and library

facilities.

DEPARTMENT OF ZOOLOGY,

MARATHWADA UNIVERSITY, R. KRISHNAMURTHY

AURANGABAD,

June 24, 1967.

21. SOME PLANT RECORDS FOR ORISSA STATE

During studies on the ecology of Indian sea-shore plants, a few

plants collected near Chandipur shore, Konarak and Puri coasts,

Orissa State on identification were found to be new records for this

State. A brief account on them is presented here.

Ophioglossum polyphyllum A. Br. in Webbia 9: 628, 1954.

This was collected along saline slacks in between sand dunes at

Puri shore. The plant is characterised by a stoloniferous rhizome

bearing caudate-acuminate, brownish-black persistent — scale-like

sheaths; sporangiferous portion is 1-1-5 cm. long.

Puri shore, T. A. Rao 5930, 3-12-1965.

Rotala verticillaris Linn. Mant. 175, 177i; Koehne in Engl. Pfreich.

ne 30) 1903.

An annual semi-erect small herb with verticillate linear leaves.

found growing in the rice fields near Konarak. In India it is

reported from Deccan peninsula (Clarke /.c.) and east coast from Nellore

southwards to Tranquebar (Gamble /.c.).

Konarak coast, L. K. Banerjee 598/, 16-12-1965.

Rothia indica ae Druce in Rep. Bot. as Club Brit. Isles 3:

423, 1914. 5

An annual herb with spreading habit. This was outta on onde

bars along Chandipur shore of: Orissa coast. Its . distribution is

584. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

mentioned in many of the local floras except Bengal and Orissa.

Recently it has been reported along Digha shore in West Bengal.

Chandipur shore, T. A. Rao 5636, 29-11-1965.

Utricularia minutissima Vahl, Enum. 1: 204, 1804; Nair in J. Bombay

nat. Hist. Soc. 62: 180, 1965. |

It was found growing in association with Utricularia stricicaulis

Stapf., Drosera indica L., and Eriocaulon sieboldianum Sieb. & Zucc.

along the sandy slack ponds at Puri shore. A slender erect plant with

brownish purple scape bearing pinkish flowers.

Puri coast, T. A. Rao 5697 (a), 4-12-1965.

We wish to thank Dr. K. Subramanyam, Joint Director, Botanical

Survey of India for going through this note critically.

ECOLOGY SECTION, |

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. ANANDA RAO

76, ACHARYA JAGADISH BOSE RoaD, L. K. BANERJEE

CALCUTTA-14,

November 30, 1966.

22 oT HE OCCURRENCE OF THE SMALL SNAPDRAGON

ANTIRRHINUM ORONTIUM LINN. IN

MAHARASHTRA STATE

(With a plate)

The Small Snapdragon (Aantirrhinum orontium Linn.) is fairly

common as a weed in corn and wheat fields in temperate regions of

Europe and America. - It is also found frequently in Himalayan

foothills, Delhi region and higher elevations of Nilgiri Hills.

This species has been recently observed growing in the experi-

mental farm of the Wheat Rust Research Station near Mahabaleshwar.

After observing agressive competition of this weed with the main

wheat crop, the authorities of the Station sent a few dried samples to

the author for identification. The samples were tentatively identified

as above and later the author visited the area, collected a large

number of fresh specimens and confirmed the identification.

Obviously seeds of this weed must have come with the wheat

brought from north India for testing. This seems to be the first

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Vartak: Antirrhiniim orontium

Antirrhinum orontium Linn.

1. Entire plant; Partofstem. 2. Flower; 3. Corolla opened out; 4. Ovary,

style and stigma ; 5. Capsule; 6. Seed : Front view ; View from the rear.

eth

aye

Keim oe

Tah ghee

ele

pate | oe)

Bee hen 194

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 585

report of the occurrence of the weed in Maharashtra State; care

should be taken to control its spread. Its botanical description is

given below.

Antirrhinum orontium Linn. Sp. Pl. 617.

An erect annual or biennial herb, usually branched from the base,

glabrous below and glandular above. Stem 15-45 cm. slender. Leaves

simple, tall, exstipulate, lower opposite, upper alternate, 25-50 x 2-3

mm., linear, narrow, rarely oblong-lanceolate, entire. Flowers pale

pink, streaked with purple, about 13 mm. long, solitary and nearly

sessile in the axil of the upper leaves. Calyx 5-parted, segments

linear, glandular pubescent, spreading, over-topping the corolla.

Corolla 2-lipped, personate; tube slightly bulging at the base; upper

lip erect, 2-lobed lower spreading, 2-lobed; base dilated, narrowed

at throat. Stamens 4, didynamous, included. Ovary _ superior,

glandular pubescent, bi-carpellate, syncarpous, bilocular; placentation

axile with numerous ovules; style slightly lateral, stigma 2-lobed.

Capsule pubescent, obliquely ovoid, about 105 mm., opening by

2-3 pores at the top. Seeds about 10-3 mm., more or less rhom-

boidal, compressed, and with a narrow keel on the back and a

marginal rim, scooped out and lobulate inside, the lobules warted.

Flowering and fruiting—December to May.

MAHARASHTRA ASSOCIATION FOR THE

CULTIVATION OF SCIENCE, V. D. VARTAK

Poona-4,

May 25, 1967.

23. SOME INTERESTING PLANTS FROM

THE SAURASHTRA COAST

During ecological studies on the Saurashtra coast two interesting

plants, Cymbopogon gidarba (Ham. ex Hook. f.) Haines and

Trianthema hydaspica Edgw., were collected: of these the occurrence

of C. gidarba is a new record for western India.

Cymbopogon gidarba (Ham. ex Hook. f.) Haines, Bot. Bihar and

Orissa 1048, 1924; Bor, in J. Bombay nat. Hist. Soc. 52: 163, f. 13,

1954 and Grass. Ind. Burma, Ceyl. and Pakistan 128, 1960; Andropogon

gidarba Ham, ex. Hook. f. in Fl. Brit. Ind. 7; 208, 1896,

386 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Small, tufted perennial grass with hard, woody rhizomes; culms

up to 25 cm. long, weak, glabrous, polished; leaves narrow, linear,

acuminate, crowded at the base with membranous ligules. Panicles

3 cm. long with sessile or pedunculate branches arranged racemosely.

Spikelets sessile and pedicelled; lower glume of sessile spikelet 3-8

mm. long, linear, acute with a basal coriaceous boss, above concavely

grooved, 2-keeled, scabrid along keels otherwise elebrous: meprctes

in between keels 2-toothed at the tip.

Bor mentions 2 varieties under this species; our plants agree with

the typical variety. Bor writes: ‘This species is readily separated

from all other species by the boss at the base of the slotted lower

‘ glume of the hermaphrodite spikelets, and has been eno from

E. Himalaya, Bihar, Orissa and Madras State’.

Dwarka sandy shore slacks, T. A. Rao 351, 12-10-1961. .

Trianthema hydaspica Edew. in J. Linn. Soc. 6: 203, 1862: Clarke

in Fl. Brit. Ind._2: 661, 1879; Cooke, Fl. Bombay 1:7°591; 175s

(Repr. ed.); Santapau, Fl. Saurashtra 17, 1953.

Prostrate, succulent herb; branches dichotomous. Leaves fleshy,

elliptic-oblong, obtuse, revolute; petioles dilated, membranous at base.

Flowers axillary, solitary, sessile; calyx: tube obconic, . 4-5-ribbed:

lobes 5, purplish within, almost as long as tube, triangular, acuminate.

Capsules conical at top, membranous, 10-12-seeded; seeds black,

rugose.

This is a rare plant confined to che Sind region (now in Pakistan)

and no precise locality is mentioned for this plant in Saurashtra.

Okha sandy areas, T. 4. Rao 468, 17-10-1961.

EcoLoGy SECTION,

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, T. ANANDA RAO

76, ACHARYA J. C. BOSE RoaD, B. C. KORLAHALLI

CaLcuTTa-14,

July 11, 1967.

24, NOTE ON ARGYREIA INVOLUCRATA CLARKE

(CONVOLVULACEAE)

(With a plate)

- During our floristic studies of Champaran ‘District, North ‘Bihar

we collected a species of Argyreia Lour. which on examination was

identified as Argyreia involucrata Clarke. Ai :

J. BOMBAY NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Bannerjee: Areyreia involucrata

. Nid s ‘

A. Flowering branch; B. Upper part of a peduncle with corolla removed to

show the unequal sepals and bracts below ; the style is shown arising in between the

inner two sepals; Bl. quincuncial sepals (diag.); C. Corolla split open; D1.

Stamen (normal) ; D2. Stamen with a prolonged connective ; E. L.S. of Fruit.

Argyreia involucrata Clarke

- MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 587

From literature and materials available to the authors in Herb.

CAL., it appears that the plant has not been recorded previously from

Bihar and was considered endemic to west Deccan peninsula. Its

occurrence in Bihar is thus an extension of distribution for the

species (Madanpur, Naurangia, Bhainsalatan, Champaran District,

North Bihar, Banerjee & Banerjee 376, 455, & 632 in Herb. Cal.)

Since the identity of this species is often confused in spite of Cooke’s

more or less detailed description of the species, and as no illustration

exists in published literature, a plate to facilitate its identification is

presented here. |

BOTANICAL SURVEY OF INDIA, S. F. BANERJEE

CALCUTTA, R. N. BANERJEE

October 10, 1956.

25. NEW PLANT RECORDS FOR BOMBAY

Najas kurziana Rendle, Trans. Linn. Soc. II, Bot. 5: 413, t. 41, f.

116-121, 1899; Rantzien, Kew Bull. 37. 1952; de Wilde, Fl. Males.

Ser. I, 6(2): 165, 1962; Prain, Bengal Pl. 847, 1963 (reprinted).

Submerged herb, rooting at lower nodes; stem terete, smooth, di-

chotomously branched; internodes 6-30 mm. long. Leaves

10-25 X0-5-1 mm., sessile, whorled, flat, subacute or rounded at apex;

margins spinous toothed; sheath 1-3 1-1-5 mm., auricled; auricles +

1X05 mm., triangular. Flowers axillary, in fascicles of 2-4, male

spathaceous, female espathaceous. Cvary subglobose or ovoid.

Seed 0°8-2 mm. long, brown; areoles as long as broad.

Rare, noted on but one occasion, mixed with Najas minor All.

in fresh water pond along railway line near Tuva Station, Panch-

mahal District, eastern Gujarat (Deshpande 1691, 1728).

Fiowers and fruits: September. |

Distribution: de Wilde cites India (North Bengal between Kishen-

ganj and Oolabena, KURZ s.m. in CAL. & BM., once found) and

Malaysia (Timor) as the localities for the distribution. of this plant.

To these we add Gujarat, India.

_ Critical notes: This species differs from N. minor All. as follows

(adapted from de Wilde):

Flowers solitary; seeds 2-5-3 mm. Jong; areoles on

testa much broader than long: leaves on either

side with (5-) 7-15 (-17) spiny teeth ee minor

588 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Flowers aggregated; seeds up to 2 mm. long; areoles

on testa about isodiametrical; leaves on either

side with 30-60 spiny teeth AS kurziana

Wolffia microscopica (Griff.) Kurz., Journ. Linn. Soc. 9: 265, 1867;

Hooker f., Fl. Brit. India 6:558, 1893; Prain, Bengal Pl. 1117, 1903;

Duthie, Fl. Upper Gang. Plain 2:369, 1960 (reprinted). Grantia

microscopica Griff. Notul. 3:226, 1845.

Floating herb; fronds ovate or obovate, glabrous, entire, flat

above, conical or subcylindrical beneath. Male and female flowers

solitary. inserted in the groove on upper surface. Stfamen solitary.

Ovary sessile, globose or ovoid.

Common in temporary ponds and ditches near Vaganpur Station,

Panchmahal District, eastern Gujarat, mixed with Wolffia arrhiza

Wimm. (Deshpande 1727).

Flowers: September-October.

Distribution: Yn India so far known from Punjab, Bengal and

Gujarat.

Critical notes: According to Duthie, the two species differ as

follows :

Fronds subglobose beneath ae arrhiza

Fronds conical or subcylindrical beneath ... Microscopica

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The authors wish to acknowledge their deep gratitude to Dr. van

Steenis, Director, Rijksherbarium, Leiden, for the identification of plants.

DEPARTMENT OF BOTANY,

SARDAR PATEL UNIVERSITY, G. L. SHAH

VALLABH VIDYANAGAR, M. B. DESHPANDE

GUJARAT, INDIA,

March 17, 1967.

i he my eee “se

i iilsapoess edd

J. BomBay NAT. Hist. Soc. 64 (3)

Majumdar: Pseudostellaria heterophylla {. nepalensis

o Balin © 2 3

mm.

Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax. f. nepalensis Majumdar

A. Habit of the plant showing the napiform root and the chasmogamic flower; B. A

flower with part of pedicel; C. A sepal; D.A petal; E. Two stamens showing

the thick-walled anthers; F. The pistil showing the ovary and three styles.

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES 589

26. PSEUDOSTELLARIA HETEROPHYLLA (MIQ.)

PAX F. NEPALENSIS MAJUMDAR: A NEW

ADDITION TO THE HIMALAYAN FLORA

(With a plate)

The species Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) Pax. has so far been

known to occur in China and Japan. It is characterised by the upper

leaves which are apparently whorled and different in shape and size

from the lower smaller pairs of opposite ieaves; and the petals which

are obovate and broad, distinguishing it from the allied species

P. palibiniana (Takeda) Ohwi. As it was not known to the Himalayan

flora, a recent record of a form of this species from the Nepal Himalayas

is interesting to note. The author has ‘identified a collection of

Dr. Banerjee and Mr. P. R. Shakva from the Namche-Tyanboche

locality, at an elevation of 3450 metres in EF. Nepal on shady moist

slopes, as of this taxon.

The genus Pseudostellaria Pax, formerly known as Krascheni-

nnikowia Turez., was studied by Schaeftlein (1957)!, who named a

plant occurring in the western Himalayas as Pseudostellaria cashmiriana

Schaeftlein. Another species occurring in the eastern Himalayas,

China and Japan is P. heterantha (Maxim.) Pax. Mizushima (1966)

in his studies on the Japanese species of the genus has described in

detail, with a good classification five species occurring in Japan. Until

recently, the studies on the Himalayan species of the genus by the

author indicated that the above two species were the only represent-

atives of the genus in the Himalayas and this taxon becomes the third

of the genus in this region.

Pseudostellaria heterophylla (Miq.) f. nepalensis Majumdar f. nov.

Pedicelli bracteis suffulcientibus longiores. Folia inferiora superio-

ribus minora in unum vel duplex par disposita. Petala integra,

obovata. Holotypus: Banerjee et Shakya 5655 e Namche-Tyanboche

in Nepal, alt. 3450 m. positus in CAL.

Pedicels longer than the subtending bracts. Lower leaves smaller,

only one or two pairs. Petals entire obovate. Cleistogamous flowers

not seen.

1 Schaeftlein, H. (1957): (Die Systematische Stellung von Stellaria bulbosa

Wulfen. Phyton (Ann. Rei.-Bot.) 7; 186-198, ,

590 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Holotype: Banerjee & Shakya 5655, from Namche-Tyanboche

in Nepal, alt. 11500 ft. (3450 m.), preserved in the Calcutta Herbarium

(CAL).

Distribution: Nepal Himalayas.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

The author expresses his sincere thanks to Dr. S. K. Mukerjee,

Keeper, Central National Herbarium, Howrah, for his kind help and

suggestions, and to Rev. Father L. Cramer of St. Aloysius College,

Ceylon, for kindly rendering the diagnosis into Latin.

CENTRAL NATIONAL HERBARIUM,

BOTANICAL GARDEN P.O., | N. C. MAJUMDAR

CALCUTTA, | yee:

March 17, 1967.

27. ON THE OCCURRENCE OF A NEW VARIETY OF

ISOETES COROMANDELINA L. IN RAIPUR M. P.

(With a text-figure)

During the course of intensive floristic studies of Raipur and its

surroundings a new variety of J/s0étes coremandelina L. was collected.

in 1964 but enough material was not available. This year again a

search was made, and a large number were collected. It is a weed

found in rice fields during rains. ee: Be

Isoétes coromandelina L. var. raipurensis Unni var. nov.

Plants up to 35 cm. long (see fig. A), base expanded, stomata

present only towards the upperside. Air chambers four, peripheral

strands and accessory strands present. Ligule cordate. Welum absent.

Megasporangia 5-7 mm. long 3-4 ram. broad, elongated. No sterile

cells found. Microsporangia not found. is

Number of megaspores 200-750, distinguishable into two. sizes,

large 384 to 512 ,, and small 213 10 355 , in diameter. Triradiate

ridges of the der tnaics straight and usually not branched.

‘Joined large and small megaspores were observed and also. a few

abnormally small sterile spores. In some large megaspores the outer

c) be -. MISCELLANEOUS NOTES aes 591

spore wall is thin and ill-developed (see fig. B. 1 to 7). All these:

types of spores occur inside the same spoeeeuune Bil)

Locality : Dumar Tal, Raipur, Madhya Pradesh, collected in 1964

and 1966 from July to November. The isotypes have been deposited

in the Royal Botanic Gardens, Kew, No. H521-66, and the holotype

in the Botany Dept., alliage: of ENS Raipur, M.P.

Isoétes coromandelina L, var. raipurensis Unni

{

;

‘

A. Complete plant; B. Megaspores enlarged; Bl. Two normal megaspores;

B2. Two megaspores joined together; B3. Two normal megaspores joined by

tube ; B4. Two megaspores joined completely by the sides; B5. Exospore

incompletely developed; B6. Small immature spores joined together; B7. A

small spore and a normal spore joined together.

Isoetes coromandelina L. var. raipurensis Unni var. nov.

Rhizoma vulge 3-lobum vel 4-lobum. Folia 8-20, ad 35 cm.

longa, basi expansa. Stomata adsunt in partibus superioribus.

Vacuola aerea 4, fasciculis peripheralibus atque accesoriis praesentibus.

Ligula cordata, velum nullum. Megasporangia 5-7 mm. longa, 3-4

mm. lata, elongata. Cellulae steriles nullae visae. Microsporangia

ignota. Megasporae in duas varietates distinguendae, maiores 384-

512 # et minores 213-355 pw diam. Juga triradiata recta vulgo non

furcata. Megasporae 200-750 numero.

592. JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Varietas haec accedit ad J. coromandelinam, sed diflert magnitudine

minori et foliis paucioribus, megasporis minoribus et paucioribus

tuberculis acutis ornatis.

Locus : Dumar Tal, Raipur, M.P., India. Ab iulio ad octobrem;

typus positus in herbario College of Science, Raipur et isotypus ad

Kew in Anglia, No. H521-66.

The plant is allied to /seétes coromandelina L. and Isoétes indica

Pant et Shrivastava, but differs in its smaller size, lesser number of

spores, simple pointed tubercles of even size, absence of sterile cells

and undivided triradiata ridges.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENTS

I am thankful to Prof. P. N. Mehra and Dr. G. K. Shrivastava

for helping me in the identification and to Fr. H. Santapau for kindly

translating the description of the new variety into Latin.

BoTANY DEPT., GOVT. COLLEGE OF SCIENCE,

Raipur, M.P., K. SANKARAN UNNI

February 15, 1967.

i HANNS REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY

SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR 1966-67

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s. (Retd. )

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Rey. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni, M.sc., Ph.p.

Mr. S. Majeedullah, 1.P.s.

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ex officio

594 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol, 64 (3)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mire Ee GoAckanya, an saan, Pe eee .. Ahmedabad

Mrs:damalAray ser: i ag Baie .. Ranchi

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, O.B.E. .. .. New Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., 1.c.S. (Retd.).. New Delhi

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S. = .. Shillong

Mr. M. Krishnan i .. Madras

Dr. N. K. Panikkar, M.A., D.Sc., F.N.I. .. .. New Delhi

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.sc., F.N. | os .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, LF.S. .. 7 .. New Delhi

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, c.B. , C.B.E., M.LLC.E., M.LE. . . New Delhi

HONORARY SECRETARY’S REPORT FOR THE YEAR 1966

MEMBERSHIP

The total number of members on our register as on 31st December,

1966, was 1,464, including 254 life members, 2 honorary members

and 75 forest department nominees and 2 student members, who

receive the Journal at a concessional rate of Rs. 20. During the year,

91 ordinary and 8 life members joined and 43 ordinary members

and 3 life members resigned or died. Among the 1,133 ordinary

members, 746 have paid the subscription for the year and we have to

receive subscription for 1966 from 387 members. In accordance with

rule 14 of the rules and regulations, members in arrears for over

two years have been sent a letter requesting them to continue their

membership, and if it was not possible to inform us accordingly.

Attention is drawn to the fact that the number of ordinary members

in good standing has remained static at about 750 for the last several

years. This is a very unsatisfactory state of affairs. We appeal to you

for help to enrol interested persons, for unless more members are en-

rolled it would be difficult for the Society to continue with its activities.

It may be noted that corporate members pay the same amount as in-

dividuals. Business firms and other institutions interested may be

approached to become members of the Society. The membership fee

which remained unchanged since 1948 has been raised only by Rs. 6 from

January, 1967, to meet the all round increase in costs.

THE SOCIETY’S JOURNAL

Only two numbers of the Journal were printed, Vol. 62(3) and Vol.

63(1). The 468-pages include 8 papers on botany, 4 on.wild life con-

_A.G.M. 1966-67—-PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 595

servation, 3 on reptiles, 2 each on birds, fishes, insects and crustacea

and one on mammals. The delay in the publication of the Journal was

largely due to circumstances beyond our control as the press was

unable to keep to its printing schedule, owing to labour trouble. We

hope to bring our publication schedules up-to-date during 1967.

GENERAL

BNHS/WHO Bird Migration Study Project. One camp was held

at Bharatpur between 5th and 26th October, when 3747 birds (1694

waders, 1222 ducks, 821 sparrows and 10 other birds) were ringed.

Blood samples collected during the camp were sent to Kievskae Shosse

Institute of Poliomyelitis and Virus Encephalitis, Omsk, U.S.S.R.

Assistance from the WHO for this study ended with this camp but

we are hopeful that in association with the Smithsonian Institution,

U.S.A., we will be able to continue the work.

During the year we received reports of the recovery of 42 birds (five

species of ducks and two of waders) bearing our rings. The largest

number of recoveries (17) was of the Common Teal (Anas crecca).

Conferences. The XIV International Ornithological Congress at

Oxford was attended by Dr. Salim Ali and Mr. Humayun Abdulali.

Mr. Zafar Futehally attended the IX General Assembly and. 8th

Technical Conference of the IUCN at Switzerland. Mr. Fuiehally has

been elected a member of the Executive Board of the IUCN.

Additions to the Collections. During the year 1434 additions were

made to our collections :

Mammals a #3 Bete OA

Birds ag: OOD

Reptiles and Amphibians i ai .» 250

Insects & other Invertebrates | SS 45)

Among the insects, 300 specimens of wasps were donated by Fr. F. L.

Wain of Poona. We are grateful to Fr. Wain for the donation.

Interesting additions to the collections are :

Mammals

Nicobar Tree-Shrew (Tupaia nicobarica)

Pouch-bearing Bat (Taphozous saccolaimus crassus)

Large Nicobar Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros diadema nicobarensis)

Nicobar Bicoloured Leaf-nosed Bat (Hipposideros ater nicobarulae)

Nicobar Pipistrelle (Pipistrellus javanicus camortae)

596 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Birds

Ward’s Trogon (Harpactes wardi)

Reptiles

Pouch-clawed Skink (Ristella rurkii)

Tree Gecko (Cnemaspis littoralis)

Wild Life Preservation. It must be noted with regret that-in spite

of the meeting called by the Planning Commission in April, 1965, and

in spite of the recommendation subsequently made at the Indian Board

for Wild Life no steps have yet been taken by the Government either

to institute a wild life department in the Ministry of Food & Agriculture

in the Centre or establish wild life circles in the States.

Taking the present picture into account the Society formulated a wild

life policy based on the past recommendations to the Planning Com-

mission and the Ministry of Food & Agriculture. The Society will

make every effort to have this policy implemented.

During the year the Society carried out correspondence with almost

all Divisional Forest Officers in the country with a view to stimulate

them to take a greater interest in wild life matters, and also to get an

assessment from them of the wild life in their districts. The response

has been discouraging in most cases, but some Divisional Forest Officers

have sent in useful reports. The Society also proposed to the Chief

Conservator of Forests, Maharashtra, that a short seminar be held at

Bombay in which forest officers would be guided about the identification

of wild life and in management techniques. The idea has been accepted

in principle, and will be followed up.

An important event from the point of view of conservation was the

survey of the Wild Life Sanctuaries in Northern India and Nepal by

Mr. Juan Spillett of Johns Hopkins University, and his report is being

published in the December 1966 issue of our Journal. The report

points out the unsatisfactory position with regard to the administration

of sanctuaries, preservation of habitats and prevention of poaching,

and it is hoped that these will help to some extent in drawing attention

to what needs to be done. During the year we continued to receive

distressing reports of the destruction of wild life including the Great

Indian Bustard, killing of elephants by poisoning and destruction of

habitats of rare species like the Manipur Deer by construction of a

dam at Logtak Lake. All these instances indicate the need for creat-

ing a strong public opinion in favour of conservation, and in this our

members can play a valuable part.

The Maharashtra Forest Department arranged for the distribution

among school children of 1,000 booklets on mammals in our Glimpses

A.G.M. 1966-67—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 507

of Nature Series during the Wild Life Week. We hope that publicity

of this kind will be continued in future years.

PUBLICATIONS

The sale of our publications continues to be satisfactory and we are

now considering bringing out the 8th edition of the BOOK OF INDIAN

BIRDS. It is also necessary to bring out fresh editions of SOME BEAUTIFUL

INDIAN TREES and SOME BEAUTIFUL INDIAN CLIMBERS AND SHRUBS, and a

source of funds for publishing these books is being investigated.

DONATIONS

Sélim Ali/Loke Ornithological Research Fund. During the year we

received a donation of $100 (Rs. 747.06) from Mrs. Laprelle Edens

and Rs. 1,000 from Dr. SaJim Ali towards the fund. We thank them

for the generous assistance and look forward to receiving donations

from other members for building up the fund.

Furniture. On an appeal to members of the Society for assistance

to purchase chairs for the auditorium, the following members very

generously sent us donations :—

Dr. Salim Ali (Rs. 128) ; Mr. S. Moolgaonkar (Rs. 320) ; Mr. G. S.

Ranganathan (Rs. 320); Mr. D. W. Parrack (Rs. 64); Mr. G. V. R.

Frend (Rs. 500); Mr. Sudyam Cutting (Rs. 744.27); Mrs. Spurway

(Rs. 64); Mr. Jayakar (Rs. 64) ; Maharaja of Kotah (Rs. 320) ; Maha-

rawal Sahib Bahadur of Dungapur (Rs. 64) ; Mr. J. Gupta (Rs. 70) ;

Sir Evelyn Howell (Rs. 64); Mr. R. E. Hawkins (Rs. 128); Mrs. M.

Divers (Rs. 47.12) ; Dr. Henry Field (Rs. 66.51) ; Mr. Hari Narayan

Acharya (Rs. 125); Mr. M. E. Wilkinson (Rs. 10); Mr. F. D. Wadia

(Rs. 100) ; Sir Reginald Maxwell (Rs. 419.64).

With this assistance we were able to purchase 50 chairs and we would

welcome further donations to buy an additional 50 chairs.

The Government of India, through the Ministry of Education gave

us a grant of Rs. 31,500 for purchasing steel cabinets for large mammals

and bird specimens kept in wooden and tin boxes. We are very grateful

to the Ministry of Education for the assistance.

RESEARCH STUDIES

Bhutan Bird Survey. In February/March, 1966, Dr. Salim Ali

accompanied by Assistants from the Society surveyed the bird fauna of

Bhutan. A representative collection .of birds totalling 511 specimens

including the rare Ward’s Trogon (Harpactes wardi) was made. The

598 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

collection will be reported on in a later issue of the Journal. The assist-

ance rendered by Mr. J. D. Panday is gratefully acknowledged.

Nicobar Bird Survey. From 19th February to April 19th, 1966,

Mr. Humayun Abdulali accompanied by Assistants from the Society

surveyed the fauna of the Nicobar group of Islands. The collection of

280 birds includes 3 new races which have been described in Vol. 63(2)

of the Journal. The complete report on the bird collection is being

published in the August, 1967 issue of the Journal, Vol. 64(2). The

bats collected during this trip as well as bats obtained during the earlier

survey of the Andaman Islands are being reported on by Mr. J. E. Hill

of the British Museum in the April, 1967 issue of the Journal, Vol.

64(1).

Dorabji Tata Trust Field Grant Fund. With assistance from the

fund, the Curator and Mr. P. Kannan surveyed the status of the Nilgiri

Langur (Presbytis johni) and the Lion-tailed Macaque (Macaca silenus)

in their habitats in Kerala and Madras States. The position of these

animals is not satisfactory as the evergreen forests which they inhabit

are being replaced with eucalyptus plantations.

Herpetological Survey. Collections were made from various localities

in the Western Ghats and some very interesting material was obtained.

University Department. Mr. P. Kannan was awarded the M.Sc.

degree in Field Ornithology for his work on ‘ Ornithophily’ or the

pollination of flowers by birds. We have two other students doing

research on Field Ornithology problems. The Society is now recog-

nised for the M.Sc. and Ph.D. degrees of the Bombay University with

Dr. Salim Ali and the Curator as research guides.

Birds and Agriculture. We have submitted to the Council of

Scientific and Industrial Research a comprehensive research project for

the assessment of birds in relation to Agriculture. We hope we will

receive the necessary financial assistance to commence work.

NATURE EDUCATION SCHEME

The scheme is now in its 19th year and its activities have been ex-

tended to the Bombay environs as well as to Poona. A competition

was held during the year for the best nature study exhibits and

the trophy presented by the Society was won by the J. J. Girls’ High

School, Bombay. In addition to the usual activities of lectures at the

Natural History Section of the Prince of Wales Museum and at schools,

children and teachers were taken on various field trips.

‘We are glad to report that the Seth Purushotamdas Titans and

Divaliba Charitable Trust has very generously donated a sum of

A.G.M. 1966-67—PROCEEDINGS AND ACCOUNTS 599

Rs. 11,000 towards the publication of booklets on Natural History in

Marathi and Gujarati for free distribution among school children in

selected districts in Maharashtra and Gujarat. We have started work

on the booklets.

LIBRARY

During the year 147 books were added to the Library. Among

these 77 were donated by the Trustees of the late Mr. Hamid Ali. Other

donations were 24, and 6 books were purchased and 40 received for

review. Our thanks are due to the donors and to the publishers who

have sent us review copies.

EXHIBITION

An exhibition of ‘ Birds on Stamps’ from the collections of

Mr. D. R. Mistry was held at the Society’s auditorium for a week in

December, 1966.

TALKS

Dr. William Macnae of the University of Witwatersrand, Johannes-

berg, spoke to members on ‘ General Ecology of Southern Africa’ on

30th November, and Dr. P. R. Pisharoty gave a talk on ‘ Tropical

Meteorology ’ on 5th December.

REVENUE ACCOUNT

The audited statement of accounts for the year follow this report.

While the Society is not immediately in difficulties it does not have the

resources to reprint its books without financial aid from other sources.

In view of the increase in printing costs it would also be necessary to

reduce the size of the Journal.

STAFF

The Committee wishes to record its appreciation of the willing

co-operation of the entire staff in the activities of the Society.

ACKNOWLEDGEMENT

The Committee’s thanks are due to Mr. J. L. Bernard who con-

tinues to look after the Society’s interests in the United Kingdom.

JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

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ALHIOOS AYO.LSIA TVWUNLVN AVANOF

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING OF THE

HORNBILL HOUSE, APOLLO STREET, BOMBAY 1, ON >

FRIDAY, 11TH AUGUST 1967, AT 6.30 P.M., WITH

DR. SALIM ALI, p.sc., F.N.1., IN THE CHAIR

(1) The Honorary Secretary’s report for the year ending 3lst

December 1966 having been previously circulated to members was taken

as read and was adopted.

(2) The Balance Sheet and Statement of Accounts presented by the

Honorary Treasurer were approved. :

(3) The following were elected as members of the Executive and

Advisory Committees for the year 1967-68.

EXECUTIVE COMMITTEE

President

Dr. P. V. Cherian, Governor of Maharashtra

Vice-Presidents

Major-General Sir Sahib Singh Sokhey, 1.M.s. (Retd.)

Dr. Salim Ali, D.Sc., F.N.1.

Rev. Fr. H. Santapau, s.J.

Hon. Secretary | ex officio

Mr. Zafar Futehally

Hon. Treasurer

Mr. J. D. Kapadia, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Member

Secretary, Ministry of Education, Govt. of India

612 JOURNAL, BOMBAY NATURAL HIST. SOCIETY, Vol. 64 (3)

Elected Members

Mr. Humayun Abdulali

Mr. G. V. Bedekar, I.c.s. (Retd.)

Prof. P. V. Bole

Mr. R. E. Hawkins

Dr. C. V. Kulkarni

Mr. Duleep Matthai

Dr. A. N. D. Nanavati, M.D.

Mr. D. J. Panday

Dr. T. Ramachandra Rao, D.Sc., F.N.I.

Mr. D. E. Reuben, I.c.s. (Retd.)

ADVISORY COMMITTEE

Mr. H. G. Acharya Ne = .. Ahmedabad

Mrs. Jamal Ara .. S09 .. Ranchi

Mr. F. C. Badhwar, 0.B.E. .. .. New Delhi

Sir Chintaman Deshmukh, Kt., C.1.E., I.C.S. s. (Retd. ) .. New Delhi

Mr. E. P. Gee, M.A., C.M.Z.S.. Me .. Shillong

Mr. M. Krishnan ot .. Madras

Dr. N..K. Panikkar, M.A., D.Sc., FN... .. New Delhi

Dr. Baini Prashad, D.sc. Sais a .. Dehra Dun

Mr. P. D. Stracey, I.F.s. - .. New Delhi

Lt.-Gen. Sir H. Williams, C.B., C.B.E., M.I.C.E., M.LE... New Delhi

(4) Films received from the Canadian High Commission at New

Delhi and United States Information Service, Bombay, were shown.

(5) The meeting terminated with a vote of thanks to the Canadian

High Commission, the United States Information Service for the films

and to the Chairman of the meeting.

os sip) sie RE A eS ea Oe es

PRINTED AND PUBLISHED BY C. E KOSHY AT THE DIOCESAN PRESS

10 CHURCH ROAD, VEFERY, MADRAS—22-1-1968. (C7435

EDITORS: H. SANTAPAU, ZAFAR FUTEHALLY & J. C. DANIEL

THE SOCIETY’S PUBLICATIONS

Mammals

The Book of Indian Animals, by S. H. Prater. 2nd (revised) edition. 28 plates in

colour by Paul Barruel and many other illustrations. Rs. 30

(Price to members Rs. 25)

Birds

The Book of Indian Birds, by Salim Ali. 7th (revised) edition. 64 coloured and

many monochrome plates. Rs, 25

(Price to members Rs. 20)

Snakes

Identification of Poisonous Snakes. Wall chart in English, Gujarati, and Marathi.

Rs. 10

(Price to members Rs. 8)

| Miscellaneous

Butterflies of the Indian Region, by M. A. Wynter-Blyth. With 27 coloured and 45

monochrome plates. Rs. 28

(Price to members Rs. 22.50)

Indian Molluscs, by James Hornell. With a coloured and many monochrome plates,

and text-figures. Rs. 6

: (Price to members Rs. 4.50)

Picture Postcards of 12 representative Indian Birds (In colour) per set Rs. 2°50

Glimpses of Nature Series Booklets :

1. OvrR Birps I (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Marathi. Rs. 0°80

Kannada Rs. 0°62

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3. OUR BEAUTIFUL TREES (with 8 coloured plates) in Hindi, and Ne

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CONTENTS

EXAMPLES OF RELATIONSHIP BETWEEN DIFFERENT ForMS OF LIFE IN TROPICAL

AFRICA. By A. Brosset

NOTES ON A COLLECTION OF INDIAN BIRDS, MOSTLY FROM Deut. By Julian

P. Donahue ;

A New ANNONACEA FROM THE ANDAMAN IsLanps. By K. Thothathri and

Debika Das om, oa : :

ON THE DEVELOPMENT OF Artemia salina L. (CRUSTACEA: ANOSTRACA). By

Inder Chand Baid

A NOTE ON NAGALAND. By P. D. Stracey

OBSERVATIONS ON THE LIFE HISTORY AND BIONOMICS OF Oligotoma ceylonica

ceylonica ENDERLEIN (OLIGOTOMIDAE, EMBIOPTERA), COMMENSAL IN THE

NEST OF THE SOCIAL SPIDER Stegodyphus sarasinorum KarscH. By

Bhushan Lal Bradoo

A SPECIAL FISHING METHOD FOR Mystus (Osteobagrus) seenghala (SYKEs)

AND Mystus (Osteobagrus) aor (HAMILTON) AND CERTAIN OTHER INTER-

ESTING FISHING METHODS IN RIVER NARBADA. By S. J. Karamchandani

and P. K. Pandit

THE GENUS Caryota IN INDIA. By T.S. Mahabale and Nandini Shirke

A SUPPLEMENTARY LIST OF THE HOST-PLANTS OF LAC INSECTS. By R. K.

Varshney and T. P. S. Teotia

THE PomntT CALIMERE SANCTUARY, Mapras STATE—May 1967. By J. C.

Daniel

Two NEw SPECIES OF SEA ANEMONES (ACTINIARIA) FROM MAHARASHTRA. By

Arun Parulekar

REVIEWS ee ee ee ee ee ee

MISCELLANEOUS NOTES Bis

ANNUAL REPORT OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HisTorRy SOCIETY FOR THE YEAR

1966-67 ae ie as

STATEMENT OF ACCOUNTS OF THE BOMBAY NATURAL HISTORY SOCIETY

MINUTES OF THE ANNUAL GENERAL MEETING

405

410

432

447

455

462

488

512

524

530

550

593

600

611

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